bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Shenoute's Discourse of Monastic Power
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Shenoute's authority came from his position as head of the monastery, an authority he sought to expand to include the female community as it had not been included under his predecessors. Alongside that authority, then, Shenoute had to construct power and he did that through the discourse of his letters. Shenoute modeled himself as a prophet, like those in the Hebrew Bible, a spokesperson for God who had intimate knowledge of God's will and expectations. As such, Shenoute had correct knowledge of what was necessary for salvation, and this knowledge validated his position as a monastic leader and his actions, such as interpretation of Scripture and corporal punishment. A second theme of his discourse, that of suffering, balances the domineering tone of the first by presenting Shenoute as either a suffering servant or a suffering body who experiences the same pains as his followers. The humility of this discourse nevertheless also creates his power because, like knowledge, proper suffering leads to salvation.
Acceptance and Resistance
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca 
Published: October 2003

AbstractWomen's power in the White Monastery lay in their ability to accept, resist, or even manipulate Shenoute's authority. A model of complete acceptance occurs in Shenoute's hagiography, written by his follower and successor, Besa, where Shenoute appears in almost the exact language and imagery he used to present himself. So too there are moments when female monks, who seem to mostly have been those high up in the hierarchy of the female community, accepted and at times manipulated Shenoute's authority over their community, which was exercised either in person or through male envoys sent in Shenoute's place. The nature of the evidence, however, is geared more towards moments of resistance and indeed outright rebellion against Shenoute. The female monks, especially the leaders, could use the space from Shenoute and secrecy among their community to guard their own authority, both of which Shenoute worked actively against. At least one letter attests to both female and male monks joining in rebellion against Shenoute and his excessive leadership.
“They Too Are Our Brethren”
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Shenoute's goal for the monastery, including the female community, was to create one monastic experience for all monks “whether male or female.” His emphasis on uniformity was meant to preclude difference, especially gender difference, even as his language continually reinscribed the categories of “male” and “female.” Three areas – corporal punishment, fasting, and teaching – show evidence of change within the female community as a result of Shenoute's insistence on uniform monastic practices. Yet, Shenoute also, perhaps unwittingly, created an asymmetrical monastic hierarchy where all monks were subordinate to Shenoute, but the female monks were also under the authority of male envoys (with the same monastic rank as the female leaders) who served as proxies for Shenoute. Gender also served as a structural basis of the community: both a physical boundary, evident in the women's seclusion and the prohibition on visits between male and female monks, including relatives, and a cultural boundary, reinforced by Shenoute's alignment of the women with susceptibility to the Devil, separated, and so created difference between the male and female communities.
“According to the Flesh”
Authors: Krawiec Rebecca 
Published: October 2003

AbstractBiological kin, who were defined with precise language as “those according to the flesh,” lived in the monastery alongside those monks who had renounced their families to join the monastery. These monks faced particular challenges since they experienced enforced gender separation from spouses and relatives, witnessed the corporal punishment of relatives, and even saw relatives expelled from the monastery. Overall, the monks with kin were expected to live as though they had also renounced each other so that all monks had the same “kinship” with each other and so shared the same salvation. Despite these expectations, Shenoute found a way to have male and female monks visit each other without violating his own commands: male relatives often served as envoys carrying these very letters from Shenoute to the female community. Finally, the experiences of one female monk, Tachom, shows the intersection of the three patterns that determined a monk's life: power, gender, and family.
The Legal Boundary Between the Garden and the Wilderness
Authors: Cookson Catharine 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Examines the various legal standards, rules, or tests that have been used by the U.S. Supreme Court to resolve free exercise cases, and places these tests within the full factual and legal contexts of the cases. Particular attention is paid to the no‐exception test adopted in 1879 in the Reynolds case, the tests used in the important string of Jehovah's Witnesses cases of the 1940's, the more recent compelling state interest test as used in an Amish case involving compulsory formal education of children up to the age of 16, and finally the neutrality standard of the 1990 Smith case that reinvigorated the no‐exception test of 1879. A careful, detailed review of the particulars of the cases shows that the underlying analytical process used is excruciatingly influential to the ultimate decision: Justices in factually similar cases purportedly using the same abstract legal test reach different conclusions based upon the analytical process they use.
Casuistical Free Exercise Jurisprudence
Authors: Cookson Catharine 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Perceptions of authoritarian injustice or of anarchical laxity are just as harmful to the integrity of the justice system as actual impropriety. Casuistry offers clear, definable paradigmatic limits to the free exercise right, and places the burden of proof on both the state and the religious adherent. This book proposes that a casuistical free exercise analysis, while not perfect, protects the courts’ integrity by offering a fairer and more just process for resolving the conflict of principles that lies at the heart of free exercise cases. To those who would reject casuistry as a new element without precedent, and as an arbitrary choice without any foundation or authority, the book notes that casuistry is quintessentially the process used in common law decision making, and actually has been used in deciding a significant number of major free exercise cases by the U.S. Supreme Court. What casuistry requires of the courts is a searching scrutiny with discernment and a willingness to make, explain, and justify these decisions to a fearful public and to a faithful “people of the wilderness.”
Calvinism Improved
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
At first glance, American Universalism seems to have been one of the clearest manifestations of the rational spirit of the revolutionary era, and with its bold assertion of salvation for all, the Universalist movement was shocking even in an atmosphere charged with challenges to orthodox Calvinist doctrines. In the nineteenth century, Universalists became even more closely identified with rationalistic dissent. Drawing upon eighteenth-century evangelical Calvinism on the one hand and Enlightenment liberalism on the other, Universalism emerged as an attempt to nourish piety through rational conviction. Reason, Universalists argued, dictated that a benevolent God would redeem all of creation; the doctrine of universal salvation was God’s way of influencing human affections and turning naturally self-centred human beings to the love of God and the greater creation. This chapter traces the early development of the movement and the notable figures involved.
The Challenge of Communal Piety
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In the first decades of the nineteenth century, the Universalist movement gained both momentum and attention. Although still a small minority, Universalists stirred up widespread controversy with their improved version of Calvinism. They faced massive opposition, even persecution, with almost all who denounced them united in a single fundamental criticism: their teaching ignored the basic lesson that all people were responsible before God for their actions, that goodness would be rewarded, and evil punished. Universalists responded by trying to show that “the larger hope” of their faith transcended such “carnal”concerns and was conducive to social concord, and for at least a generation after the turn of the century, the Universalist vision represented a genuine challenge to the religious and moral norms that accommodated the needs of a burgeoning capitalist society. However, the movement as a whole did not continue to sustain and develop the sort of spirituality that was reflected in Hosea Ballou’s teaching; the communal piety of early Universalism proved an unsatisfactory foundation, and the movement ultimately moved toward the moralism against which its early adherents had struggled. Ironically, the form of non-moralistic spirituality that gained lasting recognition in American religious history was not the popular preaching of Universalism but the Transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson, which while sharing certain themes with early Universalism, ultimately reflected a profoundly different orientation that was more closely in line with the broader tendencies of nineteenth-century American culture.
Winning the Battle, Losing the War
Authors: Bressler Ann Lee 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
When Hosea Ballou died in 1852, belief in the supernatural rule of God apparently held sway among most American Protestants, but the idea of universal salvation remained highly suspect. Twenty years later, supernatural rule had fallen under serious question, but except among outspoken theologians and conservative evangelicals, few appear to have considered universal salvation a particularly threatening or controversial issue. Such major shifts in outlook naturally had deep and complex cultural roots that resist generalization. Yet one general point seems inescapable: the traditional focus of religious attention on the hope of eternal redemption was becoming culturally irrelevant.
The Standing Order's Corporate Vision 1783–1795
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
During the 1780s and 1790s, Congregationalism predominated on the religious landscape of southern New England. Compared to other denominations, the Congregationalists enjoyed a tax‐supported religious establishment in Massachusetts and Connecticut, large numbers of churches and clergymen, influence with the political and social elite, and ministerial associations that enabled coordinated action. Given their prevailing public position, Congregational clergymen articulated a rich social ideology that centered on the role of divine Providence in communal affairs. The clergy's social discourse borrowed from both covenant theology and classical republicanism, but it constituted a distinct, providential synthesis. This providentialism enabled ministers to explain the successful outcome of the Revolutionary War and optimistically to project a millennial role for the new nation, although they could also use it to warn that sinfulness would invite God's wrath.
Jeffersonian Disillusions and Dreams 1799–1818
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The rise of the first party competition and the electoral successes of Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic‐Republican party shook the standing order's eighteenth‐century social ideology to its foundations during the dozen years between 1800 and 1812. Congregational ministers were a core element of the Federalist party base, and while they initially responded to the era's political contention with a conservative message that emphasized support for established religion and government in response to the Jeffersonians’ alleged infidelity and anarchy, they soon became frustrated with their counterparts in the civil leadership, who acted more from political expediency than from the clergy's prescribed principles of godly magistracy. At the same time, the outbreak of the Unitarian controversy divided Congregationalists in Massachusetts into Unitarian and orthodox wings, which inhibited them in the competition for adherents. On account of Democratic‐Republican gains, standing‐order ministers also experienced disillusionment with the providential role that they had prophesied for the United States, repudiated the Constitution as a godless document, and spiraled into a mood of apocalyptic doom that reached its height during the War of 1812, when the nation implicitly allied itself with Napoleonic France against Britain. The surging numbers of religious dissenters, meanwhile, gained from the Democratic‐Republicans new electoral coalition partners and more mainstream, Jeffersonian rhetoric, both of which they employed to bring down the standing order, finally achieving the Congregationalists’ disestablishment in Connecticut in 1818.
Grassroots Changes and Regional Ideology 1800–1815
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first fifteen years of the nineteenth century constituted a transitional period for orthodox Congregationalists, as they moved from their eighteenth‐century establishmentarianism toward a new, evangelical social ideology. Despite what appeared to them as the baleful state of politics, standing‐order ministers maintained their commitment to engaging society through both their providential interpretations and pronouncements about a righteous social order. The experience of religious revivals during the Second Great Awakening and news of missionary advances fostered renewed optimism and a new conception of the church's impact on society. Congregational ministers of an evangelical bent now portrayed the church as the key institution that would spread godliness and counteract social disorder, and they created new missionary and moral reform societies to put this vision into effect, thereby creatively substituting for their earlier reliance on the religious establishment and civil magistracy. As a microcosm of changes taking place throughout southern New England, the chapter examines events in Worcester County, Massachusetts, where Congregational ministers such as the Rev. Joseph Goffe of the North Parish of Sutton led grassroots religious revivals and founded new local organizations for evangelization and public morality.
Public Christianity's Relevance to Understanding Reform
Authors: Sassi Jonathan D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The public Christianity of the southern New England clergy contributed to reform movements during the 1820s and 1830 in two principal ways. Ministers deployed the language of Providence in order to warn that societal sinfulness would invite divine wrath. They also invoked their ideal of a godly community in order to denounce selfishness and immorality. As a result, ministers were able to critique the excesses of romantic nationalism, the market revolution, and intemperance, and to speak out in favor of Sabbatarianism, antislavery, and African colonization.
Sikhs and Their Scripture
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The historical background to the Sikh religion is outlined, and an account given of the Adi Granth (“original book”) – the primary Sikh scripture, which is considered to be the highest authority within the community, and plays a central role in Sikh devotional and ritual life. It consists of about 3,000 hymns of carefully recorded authorship with over 2,400 hymns written by the 6 Sikh gurus who lived in the Punjab between 1469 and 1675. The text of the Adi Granth is divided into three main parts: the opening section is liturgical and includes three daily prayers; the Japji (meditation) has 38 stanzas and 2 couplets; the Rahiras (supplication) has 9 hymns; and the Sohila (praise) has 5 hymns. Next, there is an account of the early Sikh community, which also discusses the origin and expansion of the scriptural text. The chapter ends with a plan of the book.
Writings on Sikh Scripture
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
A survey is made of the relevant Sikh literature, in order to understand Sikh perceptions of the history of compilation of the Adi Granth (the primary Sikh scripture) and the difference of views among scholars regarding the text's origin and its various stages of expansion. The important issues constituting scholarly debate and popular Sikh discourse on the compilation of the text of the Adi Granth are laid out. The chapter is divided into three main sections covering eighteenth‐century, nineteenth‐century, and twentieth‐century accounts.
Toward the Adi Granth
Authors: Singh Mann Gurinder 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter and the two previous chapters examine in detail the extant Sikh scriptural manuscripts in relation to the compilation of the Adi Granth (the primary Sikh scripture). Here, an analysis is made of the seventeenth‐century manuscripts in order to reconstruct the history of the text up to the compiling of the Adi Granth in the l680s. The existing classification of these manuscripts is examined and a modified picture of their mutual relationships proposed. Next, the Adi Granth itself is addressed, and its production is reconstructed in a way that radically revises the current understanding of the surrounding time and circumstances, as well as the relationship between its contents and those of textural antecedents, such as the Kartarpur Pothi (described in the last chapter) and other seventeenth‐century manuscripts.
Love's Grateful Striving
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractHuman love is hidden, both because its source lies in God's love and because no word or deed necessarily reveals love; any act can be done lovingly or unlovingly. This ethic is anticonsequentialist, since external achievements can be thwarted, yet love must be recognizable by its “fruits,” its activity. Fruits of love are the expression of grateful striving, but are nonmeritorious.
Love's Law—Obligation
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExamines both the scope and the bindingness of the duty imposed by the love commandment – the unconditional obligation is to exclude no one. It examines the role and rationale of proper self‐love, as contrasted with selfish self‐love. Since the need to love and the need to be loved are part of human nature, the commandment guides our love; the relevance of human need distinguishes this ethic from a divine command ethic.
Love's Law—Kinship
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractMoral blindness (or “closed eyes”) is not a call to otherworldliness, but rather indifference to temporal distinctions (e.g, class, financial status). Such moral blindness is the obverse of moral vision of our common kinship as creatures. Both advantaged and disadvantaged are equally obligated and equally able to fulfill the obligation.
Love's Labor—Action
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAs exemplified by the Good Samaritan and implied in the imitation of Christ, Christian love is action (vs inaction) and action that is responsive to the distinctive needs of an individual. God is the “middle term” in all human love, because God is Love and because we are all creatures of God. The Christian view of “hatred” for the sake of God does not mean the absence of love, but rather that we sometimes cannot give to others what they want because of what we see as their good.
Love's Venture
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe three deliberations opening the second series emphasize our “being‐for‐others” – our effort to build them up by presupposing love in them. This means believing in them and hoping for them, which require imagination and courage to take a risk. These exemplify the way in which love does to you as you do to others – a kind of ‘‘like‐for‐like’’ or mutuality.
Love's Forgiveness
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractLove covers up the sins of others – by refusing to look for them, by silence, and by mitigating explanation. In forgiveness one still sees the sin of another, so one does not engage in self‐deception. Love “forgets” the sin of another by refusing to let it hinder the relationship. The end of forgiveness is social reconciliation.
Love's Asymmetry
Authors: Ferreira M. Jamie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractLove of the dead is a heuristic model of the unselfish love that demands no reciprocity. It bears on the love of the living insofar as an acknowledgment of asymmetry is implied (1) in the notion of love as “infinite debt” and (2) in the suggestion that love should not rise and fall with contingent change in the other. The complex relations between asymmetry and equality are explored, with reference to Levinas. Asymmetry does not preclude mutuality and responsiveness in relation.
Intergenerational Public Goods
Authors: Sandler Todd 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
We live in a “brave new world” in which allocative decisions on public goods today can have consequences that cross political and generational boundaries. Although the international aspects of public goods have received much attention in recent years, particularly with respect to environmental activities, intergenerational public goods have received relatively scant attention.
In response, this chapter has five main purposes. First, it presents a taxonomy of public goods with benefits spanning generational or national boundaries. Second, it describes the implications for economic efficiency of a variety of public goods that affect nations or generations. Third, it explores the strategic aspects of intergenerational public goods. Fourth, it offers design principles for institutional arrangements, intended to address concerns about the allocation of transgenerational public goods. Fifth, the analysis is applied to specific cases of intergenerational public goods throughout. A number of policy insights derive from this analysis. At the national level, decision‐makers are unlikely to achieve optimal levels of these public goods. If intergenerational awareness of public goods spillovers is only encouraged within a country, then that country's well‐being may actually deteriorate as others free ride on its enhanced far‐sightedness. Thus, cooperation and increased awareness of spillovers must have both an international and an intergenerational dimension for all nations to gain.
The Political Economy of International Cooperation
Authors: Martin Lisa L. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Over the past 15 years, the field of international relations has produced a great deal of work on international cooperation and international institutions. This work has immediate relevance for conceptualizing a new era and a new approach to international development cooperation. Once we understand development cooperation as a problem of providing global public goods, our attention is immediately drawn to the problems of strategic interaction and opportunistic behavior that confront states as they attempt to cooperate in the pursuit of mutually beneficial goals. Drawing on public goods models and related concerns, the literature on international cooperation identifies strategic problems that states must overcome if they are to cooperate effectively – and how international organizations can facilitate state efforts to cooperate, primarily through the provision of information. This chapter summarizes the central claims of political science about the conditions for international cooperation and the roles of international organizations and nonstate actors in helping states achieve the benefits of cooperation. It concludes that the most useful functions of international organizations involve the provision of information about state preferences and behavior – particularly about standards and causal knowledge.