bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pollution of Surface Waters
Authors: Priyadarshi Nitish 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Surface water comes in direct contact with the atmosphere, streams, rivulets, and surface drains. So a continuous exchange of dissolved and atmospheric gases occurs and wastes are added through water conveyance.
There are many causes of surface water pollution but two general categories exist: direct and indirect contaminant sources. Direct sources include effluent outfalls from factories, refineries, waste treatment plants, decomposed plant animal matter, and radioactive materials and wastes. Indirect sources include effluent contaminants that enter the surface water supply from surface soils and from the atmosphere via rainwater. Soils contain the residue of human agricultural practices (fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and improperly disposed of industrial wastes. Atmospheric contaminants are also derived from human practices (such as gaseous emissions from automobiles, factories, and even bakeries).
Pond Aquaculture—Modeling and Decision Support Systems
Authors: Szumiec Maria A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Physical environment plays a controlling role in all processes and events that occur in waters. Knowledge of water's dynamic characteristics and model elaboration is basic. Shallow stagnant waters are characterized by the individuality resulting from their small capacity. This is displayed in their receptivity to external factors, such as weather variability, that differentiates them from lakes. In a temperate climate, quick and distinct changes in meteorological events are displayed in variations in the solar radiation that penetrates into shallow waters, thus, in variations in light and thermal conditions. These changes are then transferred directly and/or via chemical processes to different levels of the biological chain. In fishponds, the final link in the chain is the stenothermic organism which is affected by the ambient temperature in a complex way. Penetrating light plays the decisive role in fish survival, limiting the concentration of oxygen dissolved in the water. The thermal conditions inhibit development and growth of the warm water fish, such as carp, throughout the considerable part of the year.
River Basins
Authors: Pagliara Stefano , Dellacasa Francesca 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
A river basin (also called drainage basin, watershed, or catchment) is the area that provides runoff to a given section of a stream and is separated from adjacent basins by a divide. All surface runoff produced by precipitation that falls within the area is discharged through the lowest point in the divide.
Basins are delineated on topographical maps, integrated if necessary with aerial photographs or field survey; a line is drawn that encloses all drainage lines and depressions in the basin and passes through the highest points. It is assumed that the movement of groundwater follows the surface divides, but in areas characterized by a particular geologic structure, it is possible that the phreatic divide does coincide with the topographic divide; large amounts of water could be transported below the surface from one basin to another. In this case, the groundwater divide needs to be determined by hydrogeologic prospection.
Stochastic Simulation of Hydrosystems
Authors: Koutsoyiannis Demetris 
Published: April 2005

AbstractSimulation is defined as a technique for imitating the evolution of a real system by studying a model of the system. The model is an abstraction, a simplified and convenient mathematical representation of the actual system, typically coded and run as a computer program. If the model has a stochastic element, then we havestochastic simulation. The term stochastic simulation sometimes is used synonymously with theMonte‐Carlo method.Stochastic simulation is regarded as mathematical experimentation and is appropriate for complex systems, whose study based on analytical methods is laborious or even impossible. For such systems, stochastic simulation provides an easy means to explore their behavior by answering specific ‘what if’ questions. Moreover, stochastic simulation can be viewed as a numerical method for solving mathematical problems in several fields such as statistical inference, optimization, integration, and even equation solving. Under certain conditions, stochastic simulation is more powerful than other more common numerical methods (e.g., numerical integration of high‐dimensional differential equations).Due to their complexity, hydrosystems, including water resource systems, flood management systems, and hydropower systems, are frequently studied using stochastic simulation. A generalized solution procedure for hydrosystems problems, including systems identification, modeling and forecasting, hydrologic design, water resources management, and flood management, is dicussed. Emphasis is given on the stochastic representation of hydrologic processes, which have a dominant role in hydrosystems. Peculiarities of hydrologic and other geophysical processes (seasonality, long‐term persistence, intermittency, skewness, spatial variability) gave rise to substantial research that resulted in numerous stochastic tools appropriate for applications in hydrosystems. Four examples of such tools are discussed: (1) the multivariate periodic autoregressive model of order 1 [PAR(1)], which reproduces seasonality and skewness but not long‐term persistence; (2) a generalized multivariate stationary model that reproduces all kinds of persistence and simultaneously skewness but not seasonality; (3) a combination of the previous two cases in a multivariate disaggregation framework that can respect almost all peculiarities except intermittency; and (4) the Bartlett‐Lewis process that is appropriate for modeling rainfall and emphasizes its intermittent character on a fine time scale.
Stream Classification
Authors: Erskine Wayne D. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractStream classification is important for characterizing the features of individual rivers or sections of river and also for determining the similarity of different streams. The latter is essential to assess which rivers are suitable for extrapolating of research results from elsewhere. Various schemes have been proposed for specific disciplines and purposes. There is no universally accepted stream classification scheme because they all require modification to apply to rivers different from those used to construct the scheme Therefore, classificatory schemes should be continuously revised and updated.A nested hierarchical scheme based on the channel network which places the stream within a drainage basin or watershed context is the best approach to stream classification.
Ancient Water and Soil Conservation Ecosystems of
S
ri
L
anka
Authors: Mendis Lucius O. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Sri Lanka, an island of approximately 65,000 sq km, in the Indian ocean, lying between 6° and 8° North latitude, at the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, experiences two monsoons, the northeast between October and March and the southwest between April and September, with occasional intermonsoon rains. Northeast monsoon rainfall is spread over much of the island, but the southwest monsoon is largely intercepted by a south‐central hill massif, and a dry southwest wind blows over the north and east.

A famous king Parakrama Bahu I, said
“Let not a drop of rain water flow to the sea without being made useful to man!”
(Mahavamsa, quoted in Reference). Human intervention in nature's hydrologic cycle is seen in the plains of ancient Rajarata and Ruhunurata in the form of river diversion systems and small, medium, and large reservoirs. In wet zone uplands, much later, terraced rice fields saw reuse of irrigation water under gravity, benefiting from forest cover induced fertility. In colonial times, destruction of forests for planting coffee, and later tea, led to adverse impacts (2). Ancient diversion systems include stone anicuts (derived from the Tamil language) or weirs, called
amuna
in Sinhala and
tekkam
in Tamil, channels diverting streams for both irrigated agriculture, and storage in reservoirs.
Water Clocks
Authors: Marks William E. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Egyptian water clocks were among the earliest timekeeping devices that did not depend on the observation of celestial bodies. One of the oldest was found in the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh, Amenhotep I, buried around 1500
B.C.E
.

As explained by the National Institute of Standards and Technology Physics Laboratory, early water clocks were named clepsydras (“water thieves”) by the Greeks. The Greeks began using clepsydras about 325
B.C.E
. Clepsydras were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom. The drip‐drip sound of water dropping from a water clock was an ancient precursor to the ticktock sound emitted by certain mechanical clocks invented in later times. Water clocks were replaced by the invention of mechanical clocks about 700 years ago.
History of Pond Fisheries in
P
oland
Authors: Guziur Janusz 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The origins of carp breeding in Europe and Poland are sunk in the obscurity of bygone times. In Europe, the first historic record of the carp as a cure for ailments is in the writings of St. Hildegard (1098–1170), the prioress of a Benedictine convent. Some time later, carp breeding in ponds was mentioned by the monk, Albertus Magnus (1230–1310), in the archives of the Kladbrubkski monastery in Bohemia (1115), and in an investiture act by King Przemyslaw Otakar II granted in 1227 in Moravia.
Several hypotheses have been suggested concerning the introduction of carp breeding in Poland. It is believed that two routes were taken to bring the carp from its native Black Sea watershed to Poland, but whichever way it traveled, the fish was brought to Poland by the clergy (bishoprics). The oldest monastic order that first engaged in farming and fish breeding was the Order of the Cistercians, which was brought to Poland in twelfth century from the province of Brabant (on the border of Belgium and France).
The domestic mirror carp is known to have been bred in Poland since the mid‐thirteenth century. This breed is not found in the wild in Europe or Asia, unlike the wild river carp (sazan), which has local forms that live free, for example, in the Danube. Because of its inferior body exterior and growth rate, wild sazan differs distinctly from domesticated mirror carp and fine‐scale carp.
G
ordon and
F
ranklin Rivers and the
T
asmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area
Authors: Holst Arthur M. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (TWWHA) is one of the largest temperate wildernesses in the world. Covering more than 8500 square miles, or more than 20% of the island of Tasmania, it contains three state reserves, four national parks, four conservation areas, two protected archaeological sites, and three forest reserves. Mountain ranges, rivers, Australia's deepest caves, waterfalls, and many endangered species are also present, as well as three lakes: Lake Gordon, Lake Peddler, and Lake St. Clair. The TWWHA was adjudged worthy of environmental protection in 1982 by the World Heritage Committee.
Water Resource Organizations
Authors: Black Peter E. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Water management organizations evolved at local, regional, state, and federal levels. They were created, in large part, during the twentieth century, exhibit different degrees of formality and authority, and exist for different purposes, serving different groups consisting of individual qualified members and/or of the public at large. The organizations fill specific missions, roles, and meet demands of members and official segments of society. Knowing their missions and responsibilities makes it easier to seek information or how to influence their responsibilities.
Bioluminescent Biosensors for Toxicity Testing
Authors: Philip Jim , Bell Jennifer , Stainsby Fiona , Dunbar Sandra , Wiles Siouxsie , Whiteley Andrew , Bailey Mark 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis article summarizes recent developments in whole cell bioluminescent biosensors for estimating toxicity at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This started with the use of natural marine bioluminescent bacteria, and there is now at least a 20‐year history of toxicity testing with these organisms. Molecular biology has given rise to many new bioluminescent strains for toxicity testing to overcome some specific limitations ofPhotobacterium (Vibrio) fischeri. Luminescence decay toxicity tests have also been developed in higher organisms, up toCaenorhabditis elegans, to try to improve the relevance of these tests. Custom‐made biosensors for protecting wastewater treatment plants are already in development. These developments coincide with the pattern of environmental legislation in Europe.
CytochromeP450 Monooxygenase as an Indicator ofPCB/Dioxin‐Like Compounds in Fish
Authors: Aoyagi Hannah , Ogunseitan Oladele 
Published: April 2005

AbstractPolychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, and furans are ubiquitous and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These three categories of chemicals are among the 12 priority POPs that have been scheduled for global phase‐out according to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (SCOPOP). SCOPOP was inaugurated in May 2001, and it has been ratified by more than 100 countries under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Program. Despite the stringent regulatory restrictions now placed on the manufacture and distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxin‐like compounds, their recalcitrance in polluted aquatic environments necessitates the continuation of monitoring programs that have been implemented to reduce negative impacts on biotic and abiotic components of vulnerable ecosystems.Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) include 209 congeners consisting of two to ten chlorine atoms attached to a biphenyl structure. PCBs are highly soluble, clear, oily liquids at room temperature. They are chemically inert and thermally stable. These properties make them useful as insulators and coolants for capacitors and transformers in a variety of industries. Monsanto began production of PCBs in 1930, marketing congener mixtures under the brand name Aroclor. PCBs were also sold under the names Clophen (Germany), Kanechlor (Japan), Fenchlor (Italy), and Phenochlor (France). PCB production was banned in the U.S. in 1977 due to potential carcinogenicity.PCBs tend to deposit in sediments and soils where they persist and bioaccumulate, their half‐lives are in the range of months to decades. Due to their high affinity for lipids, PCBs have been detected in the adipose tissues of animals worldwide, including humans. Consumption of contaminated fish is the primary route of exposure for adults, whereas infants can be exposed to high concentrations of PCBs in breast milk.
Arsenic Compounds in Water
Authors: Watt Corinna , Chris Le X. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Arsenic is the twentieth most abundant element in the earth's crust; it occurs naturally in the environment in both inorganic and organic forms. Arsenic is also released to the environment by anthropogenic activities such as pesticide use, wood preservation, mining, and smelting. Human exposure to arsenic by the general population occurs primarily from drinking water and food. In areas of endemic arsenic poisoning such as Bangladesh, India, Inner Mongolia, and Taiwan, the main exposure is through drinking water where inorganic arsenic levels can reach concentrations in the hundreds or thousands of micrograms per liter. The arsenic is released from natural mineral deposits into the groundwater in endemic areas. Groundwater is the primary drinking water source in these areas.
Arsenic is present in a variety of inorganic and organic chemical forms in water. This is a result of chemical and biological transformations in the aquatic environment. The specific arsenic compound present determines its toxicity, biogeochemical behavior, and environmental fate.
Indicator Organisms
Authors: Yakub Gary P. , Stadterman‐Knauer Kathleen 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Indicator bacteria are the most common way of assessing biological water quality. Indicator bacteria are bacteria that can predict the presence of pathogenic organisms. To be a successful indicator, the following criteria must be met:

Indicator bacteria must be easy to cultivate in the laboratory using simple, cost‐effective procedures.

Indicator bacteria must be present in high enough concentrations to be readily detectable in a manageable sample volume.

Indicator bacteria must effectively predict the risk of illness from exposure to the waterborne pathogens present in contaminated water.
Arsenic Health Effects
Authors: Katsoyiannis I. , Zouboulis A. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe toxicity of inorganic arsenic species depends mainly on their valence state (usually −3, +3, or +5) and also on the specific physical and chemical properties of the compounds in which it occurs. Trivalent (arsenite, AsIII) compounds are generally more toxic than pentavalent (arsenate, AsV) compounds, whereas arsenic compounds that are more soluble in water, usually are more toxic and more likely to present systemic effects, in comparison with less soluble compounds, which are more likely to cause chronic pulmonary effects, if inhaled. Among the most toxic inorganic arsenic compounds is arsine gas (AsH3). Additionally, note that laboratory animals (commonly used for toxicity evaluation) are generally less sensitive than humans to the toxic effects of inorganic arsenic compounds.
Microbial Enzyme Assays for Detecting Heavy Metal Toxicity
Authors: Ogunseitan Oladele A. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThroughout the world, industrial development has been associated with increased mining, refining, and use of potentially toxic metals in large‐scale manufacturing processes. Industrialization is also tightly linked to increases in the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum, which produce considerable amounts of toxic metals such as mercury and lead, respectively (1). Inevitably, many industrial activities generate environmental pollution that changes the natural biogeochemical cycling of elements by modifying the size and flux of metal reservoirs. The primary consequence of metal pollution in natural water systems is toxic effects on aquatic organisms, but ultimately human exposure occurs from consumption of contaminated water, seafood, and plant crops that are cultivated in land irrigated with polluted water.The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has established maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for eleven metals that dominate the inorganic contaminants most commonly encountered in drinking water and groundwater sources (Table 1). The symptoms associated with these toxic metals range from skin disease from chromium (MCL = 0.1 mg/L) to more serious conditions such as kidney disease from cadmium (MCL = 0.005 mg/L) and mercury (MCL = 0.002 mg/L). In addition, nonenforceable standards have been established for secondary pollutants such as Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ag, and Zn because they are regarded as nuisance contaminants with the assumption of negligible health consequences at the established concentrations permitted in water (Table 2).
Emerging and Recalcitrant Compounds in Groundwater
Authors: Mohr Tom , Jacobs James A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
During the last two decades, the dominant groundwater contamination issues have focused on petroleum hydrocarbons (including gasoline, diesel, motor oil, lubricants, and jet fuel), chlorinated solvents, metals, and pesticides. Recently, attention has shifted to a variety of newly discovered compounds in groundwater. Some of these compounds were additives to fortify or stabilize the previously mentioned products. As additives, these compounds were present at low ratios, ranging from 10% to less than 1% of the total volume of the product. Though widely used in industry for decades, these emerging compounds were, until recently, not analyzed or regulated. Emerging and recalcitrant compounds include, but are not limited to, methyl tertiary‐butyl ether (MtBE) a gasoline oxygenate additive; perchlorate, the major component of solid rocket motors and a minor ingredient of highway safety flares, and various stabilizers of chlorinated solvents such as 1,4‐dioxane. Many of these recalcitrant compounds are also suspected to be carcinogenic or to cause other adverse health effects. Consequently, advisory drinking water action levels have been adopted for many emerging contaminants; regulatory agencies have added these compounds to their list of Compounds of Interest at remediation sites.
Water Quality
Authors: Mackenthun Kenneth M. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractTo most people, water quality means water whose characteristics represent a high degree of purity for the use to which the water is put. For drinking, this means cool, clear water, free from harmful contaminants and conditions that produce off‐flavors. Other uses require a quality whose characteristics best support the particular use.The Water Quality Act of 1965 first designated broad water uses when requiring the establishment of water quality standards for “public water supplies, propagation of fish and wildlife, recreational purposes, and agricultural, industrial, and other legitimate uses.” The current Clean Water Act maintains those uses in section 303(c)(2)(A), and adds language to take into consideration the use and value for navigation.
Water Related Diseases
Authors: Walker Mark J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Water‐related diseases can be placed into four categories: (1) water‐based disease, (2) waterborne disease (3) water‐vectored disease, and (4) Water‐washed disease. Infectious microbes that cause disease within these categories include bacteria, enteric viruses, parasitic protozoans, helminthes, and algae. The health effects of infection vary considerably, from symptomless to temporary mild illness to prolonged illness to death. Each category represents a distinct pathway and mechanism for infection by a microbial pathogen. Symptoms of infection, such as gastrointestinal upset, may be common across categories. The categories represent differences in strategies that can be applied to control the prevalence of infection.
Transboundary Water Conflicts in the
N
ile Basin
Authors: Li Rongchao 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
As a typical transboundary case, the Nile River Basin is shared by ten countries: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda. Since the early 1970s, water scarcity has become a matter of concern for the downstream states of the Nile. The engagement of the two downstream states (Egypt and the Sudan) in effective development of irrigated agriculture marked the beginning of real scarcity. The 1960s, in particular, marked the beginning when the two countries engaged in constructing large‐scale water projects; by the end of the decade, three dams (Roseires and Khashm Al‐Girba in Sudan and the High Dam in Egypt) were constructed. Large‐scale agricultural schemes have become dependent on these dams.
Valuing Water Resources
Authors: Dupont Diane , Renzetti Steven J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

The starting point for most economic methods for measuring the value of water is an understanding of the structure of household tastes or preferences and firms' productive technologies. This understanding can then be used to develop measures of the benefits of water use and the change in household welfare or firm profits that arise from changes in the price, quantity, or quality of water. These measures, in turn, allow the analyst to determine the maximum willingness to pay (in the case of a change leading to an improvement in welfare) for water. This idea of willingness to pay forms the cornerstone of economic measures of value.
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