bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Water Waves
Authors: Darrigol Olivier 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As d’Alembert and Euler admitted, one could well know how to write the basic equations of hydrodynamics without knowing how to apply them to concrete problems. In the case of fluid resistance, this gap could only be filled in the twentieth century. Yet there is one kind of problem that earlier fluid theorists could solve to their satisfaction, namely, the motion of waves on the free surface of water. In 1781, Lagrange wrote the basic equations of water waves, and solved them in the simplest case of small waves on shallow water. His nineteenth-century followers determined the celerity of small, plane, monochromatic waves on water of constant depth, the pattern of waves created by a local action on the water surface, the shape of oscillatory or solitary waves of finite size, and the effect of friction, wind, and a variable bottom on the size and shape of the waves.
Instability
Authors: Darrigol Olivier 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, we encountered a special kind of instability, now called the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability, which occurs when two fluid masses slide on each other, for instance along smoke jets or on a plane water surface under wind. Helmholtz arrived at this instability by reasoning on vortex sheets and used it to explain phenomena that seemed to elude Euler’s equations. He was neither the first nor the last theorist to emphasize the role of instabilities in fluid mechanics. The nineteenth-century interest in this question was for two reasons. Firstly, the discrepancy between actual fluid behavior and known solutions of the hydrodynamic equations suggested the instability of these solutions. Secondly, the British endeavor to reduce all physics to the motion of a perfect liquid presupposed the stability of the forms of motion used to describe matter and ether. Instability in the former case and stability in the latter case needed to be proved.
In nineteenth-century parlance, kinetic instability broadly meant a departure from an expected regularity of motion. In hydrodynamics alone, this notion included unsteadiness of motion, non-uniqueness of the solutions of the fundamental equations under given boundary conditions, sensibility of these solutions to infinitesimal local perturbation, sensibility to infinitesimal harmonic perturbations, sensibility to finite perturbations, and sensibility to infinitely-small viscosity. Although this spectrum of meanings is much wider than a modern treatise on hydrodynamic stability would tolerate, it must be respected in a historical study that does not artificially separate issues that nineteenth- century writers conceived as a whole.
Conclusion
Authors: Darrigol Olivier 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hydrodynamics evolved considerably in the course of its application to various phenomena. So did all major theories of mathematical physics. The myths that make Newton the sole creator of mechanics, Cauchy the father of the theory of elasticity, Clausius the founder of thermodynamics, and Maxwell the unique inventor of modern electrodynamics do not resist historical analysis. These theories have changed so much since the first formulations of their fundamental principles and equations that a modern physicist who reads the mythical founders can barely recognize a kinship with present theories. This estrangement is not limited to notations and styles of presentation, but runs very deeply into the conceptual structure of the theory.
In many cases, these structural changes have occurred during attempts to apply the theory to a specific class of phenomena. For example, William Rowan Hamilton’s attempt to apply mechanics to light rays led to the Hamiltonian formulation of mechanics; Charles-Eugène Delaunay’s application of the same theory to the motion of the Moon yielded a new perturbation theory based on action and angle variables; Saint-Venant’s application of the theory of elasticity to the flexion and torsion of prisms produced the semi-inverse method of approximation; the application of thermodynamics to mixtures and chemical reactions led to the concept of thermodynamic potential; Hendrik Lorentz’s application of Maxwell’s electrodynamics to certain optical phenomena led him to separate ether and matter; the application of quantum mechanics to solid-state physics engendered the theory of bands; and its application to field-mediated interactions prompted Richard Feynman’s path-integral formulation.
Introduction
Authors: Tabeling Patrick , Chen Suelin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years, considerable progress has been made in the field of miniaturization. It is now effectively possible to miniaturize all kinds of systems—e.g. mechanical, fluidic, electromechanical, or thermal—down to sub-micrometric sizes. In the 1980s, these achievements gave rise to a new field known as MEMS (microelectro-mechanical systems). Later, in the 1990s, this domain became considerably diversified, with MEMS devices being fabricated for chemical, biological, and biomedical applications.
The electro hydrodynamics of microsystems
Authors: Tabeling Patrick , Chen Suelin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Introduction We have seen in Chapter 1 that miniaturization easily allows the production of intense electric fields. It is thus not surprising that researchers in the domain of microsystems have tried during these last several years to profit from electrohydro dynamics (that is, the coupling between an electric field and moving particles or fluids) to act on the flow of fluids or the movement of charges in miniaturized systems. Many types of miniaturized electrophoretic separators, dielectrophoretic microcytometers, and electro-osmotic micropumps have thus been created. A few of these systems were successfully commercialized: this was the case, for example, of the electrophoretic separation systems of DNA and proteins produced by Caliper/Agilent.
Micrfluidics and thermal transfers
Authors: Tabeling Patrick , Chen Suelin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Introduction The preceding chapters have discussed the phenomena of thermal exchanges in microsystems. It was shown that miniaturization facilitates thermal exchange: the characteristic thermal diffusion times are shorter in miniaturized systems and the heat flux exchanges at a fixed temperature difference are larger (see Chapter 1). This property is advantageous for controlling exo or endothermic chemical reactions, as well as for the implementation of biological processes requiring thermal cycling (one important example is PCR, for the amplification of DNA). On the other hand, it is difficult to impose a temperature difference in the middle of a microsystem. It is thus hard to conceive of microturbines with a high Carnot efficiency, or the measurement of chemical kinetics using the temperature jump, or T-jump technique.
An introduction to micro fabrication
Authors: Tabeling Patrick , Chen Suelin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Introduction In this chapter we introduce the most common techniques of micro fabrication used in microfluidics today. The chapter is just an introduction, offering a simplified presentation of the implementation of these processes. The reader will note that in this chapter, we devote several pages to silicon technology. There are several reasons for this: first, the range of micro fabrication possibilities available using this method is very large. Also, silicon micro fabrication is often an unavoidable step in many other technologies. Finally, this technology is an immense resource of know-how, and expertise from which all alternative technologies can benefit.
Some microfluidic devices
Authors: Tabeling Patrick , Chen Suelin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When this book was written, many microfluidic devices were in existence. Some of them have already been mentioned briefly in preceding chapters; but it seems instructive to be more precise. The goal of this chapter is to describe in detail some typical microfluidic systems, either available on the market or published in research articles. One can hope, judging from the rate at which this field is progressing, that this chapter will rapidly become obselete.
General Physical Properties of Rubbers
Authors: Treloar L R G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE original material of commerce known as rubber (or more precisely ‘indiarubber’) is obtained in the form of latex from the tree Hevea Braziliensis. The more expressive term ‘caoutchouc’, derived from the Maya Indian words meaning ‘weeping wood’, in reference to the exudation of the latex from a wound in the bark (Le Bras 1965), has been retained by the French, and transliterated into other European languages. The word rubber is derived from the ability of this material to remove marks from paper, to which attention was drawn by the chemist Priestley in 1770 (Memmler 1934, p. 3). In current usage the term rubber is not restricted to the original natural rubber, but is applied indiscriminately to any material having mechanical properties substantially similar to those of natural rubber, regardless of its chemical constitution.
The Elasticity of A Molecular Network
Authors: Treloar L R G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general form of the force-extension curve for a well-vulcanized rubber in simple extension is shown in Fig. 1.1 (p. 2). The abscissae in this diagram represent the extension as a percentage of the unstrained length, and the ordinates the tensile force per unit area of the unstrained cross-section. This representation of the force is used for experimental convenience, but the quantity so defined differs from the true stress, or force per unit area measured in the strained state. In classical elasticity theory, which is limited to small strains, the difference is unimportant since the area does not change significantly on straining, but in rubbers the difference between the force per unit unstrained area (or nominal stress) and the true stress is considerable.
Swelling Phenomena
Authors: Treloar L R G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A NUMBER of references have already been made to the swelling of rubbers by organic liquids and to the effects of such swelling on their mechanical properties. The nature of the swelling process in itself, and the factors which determine the degree of swelling attained in any particular circumstances, have not, however, yet been considered. The property of swelling in suitable low-molecular-weight liquids is one which is possessed by a wide range of high polymers, both natural and synthetic. In many respects this property is akin to solution, and, as in the case of solution, it is markedly dependent on the nature of the swelling liquid.
Cross-Linking and Modulus
Authors: Treloar L R G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN considering the extent to which the statistical theory is capable of representing the properties of a rubber in a quantitative manner attention has so far been concentrated on the form of the stress-strain relations for various types of strain. We have seen (Chapter 5) that to a first approximation the theoretical stress-strain relations, which involve only a single elastic constant G, provide an adequate basis for the interpretation of the properties of an actual rubber (provided that the strains do not approach the limiting extensibility of the network) though significant deviations are also observed, particularly in the case of simple extension.
Thermodynamic Analysis of Gaussian Network
Authors: Treloar L R G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE general significance of the thermodynamic study of the process of elastic deformation in rubberlike materials has already been discussed in Chapter 2, in which it was shown that from experiments on the temperature dependence of the stress in the extended state it is possible to derive the separate contributions due to the changes of internal energy and of entropy associated with the deformation process. The statistical theory in its. elementary form attributes the elastic stress solely to the changes in configurational entropy of the molecular network; on this basis, therefore, the internal energy contribution to the stress should be zero.
Invitation to Discrete Mathematics
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a clear and self-contained introduction to discrete mathematics. Aimed mainly at undergraduate and early graduate students of mathematics and computer science, it is written with the goal of stimulating interest in mathematics and an active, problem-solving approach to the presented material. The reader is led to an understanding of the basic principles and methods of actually doing mathematics (and having fun at that). Being more narrowly focused than many discrete mathematics textbooks and treating selected topics in an unusual depth and from several points of view, the book reflects the conviction of the authors, active and internationally renowned mathematicians, that the most important gain from studying mathematics is the cultivation of clear and logical thinking and habits useful for attacking new problems. More than 400 enclosed exercises with a wide range of difficulty, many of them accompanied by hints for solution, support this approach to teaching. The readers will appreciate the lively and informal style of the text accompanied by more than 200 drawings and diagrams. Specialists in various parts of science with a basic mathematical education wishing to apply discrete mathematics in their field can use the book as a useful source, and even experts in combinatorics may occasionally learn from pointers to research literature or from presentations of recent results. Invitation to Discrete Mathematics should make a delightful reading both for beginners and for mathematical professionals. The main topics include: elementary counting problems, asymptotic estimates, partially ordered sets, basic graph theory and graph algorithms, finite projective planes, elementary probability and the probabilistic method, generating functions, Ramsey's theorem, and combinatorial applications of linear algebra. General mathematical notions going beyond the high-school level are thoroughly explained in the introductory chapter. An appendix summarizes the undergraduate algebra needed in some of the more advanced sections of the book.
Drawing graphs in the plane
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Often it is advantageous to draw graphs. As you can see, most of the graphs in this book are specificed by a picture (instead of a list of vertices and edges, say). But so far we have been studying properties of graphs not related to their drawings, and the role of drawings was purely auxiliary. In this chapter the subject of analysis will be the drawing of graphs itself and we will mainly investigate graphs that can be drawn in the plane without edge crossings. Such graphs are called planar.
Finite projective planes
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mathematicians are often interested in objects that are highly regular in some sense. A good example is the regular Platonic solids we have seen in Section 6.3. They are scarce, beautiful, and also very useful. For instance, symmetry groups related to them play an important role in physics.
Quantum Physics A First Encounter
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantum physics is often perceived as a weird and abstract theory, which physicists must use in order to make correct predictions. But many recent experiments have shown that the weirdness of the theory simply mirrors the weirdness of phenomena: it is Nature itself, and not only our description of it, that behaves in an astonishing way. This book selects those, among these typical quantum phenomena, whose rigorous description requires neither the formalism, nor an important background in physics. The first part of the book deals with the phenomenon of single-particle interference, covering the historical questions of wave-particle duality, objective randomness and the boundary between the quantum and the classical world, but also the recent idea of quantum cryptography. The second part introduces the modern theme of entanglement, by presenting two-particle interference phenomena and discussing Bell’s inequalities. A concise review of the main interpretations of quantum physics is provided.
Let’S Step Back
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Leaving Saint-Michel, I take my leave of Jean-Paul who is going home, and I turn left to walk down the College Steps, a covered lane that descends into the heart of Fribourg. There, in front of the cathedral, three busy roads meet to form a roundabout. I continue my walk along the south side of the cathedral. Cars continue to stream down the road. Now that the roundabout is no longer in view, I cannot know by which route each car has entered it. In order to arrive alongside me, as it does now, this car could have taken three possible paths. I have put myself, in relation to the cars, in a situation of indistinguishability. Well then, why is the road network not a quantum interferometer? The answer is a matter of common sense – the indistinguishability of cars is only apparent, it is due to an ignorance that can easily be overcome. In order to obtain the information about the path by which each car entered the roundabout, it would suffice for me to go back a few paces or to ask the driver – neither of these steps would modify what the destination of the car will be.
Dimensions And Boundaries
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am of the opinion that experimental physics is not given the credit it deserves in our society. Applied physics, ultimately industrial physics, is conveniently praised because it directly affects our lives. As for the high repute of theoretical physics, just stop and list five renowned physicists on the back of an envelope: I predict that the five names you have written down are those of five theoreticians (you can easily verify it on the internet). Experimentalists are those people who work in academic laboratories, confirming theories that they are (wrongly) supposed not to have understood, and making claims on possible applications that seldom attract the interest of industry. Of course, any physicist knows the truth: without the genius and the hard work of the experimentalists, there would simply be no physics at all. The laser is a striking example20: the basic equations had been written down by Einstein himself in 1917, but it required some brilliant experimentalists to make it real – against the scepticism of many colleagues, and without having any particular application in mind. In this and the following chapters, while discussing, as promised, some deeper questions raised by quantum physics, I hope to also provide a convenient description of what a real experiment looks like – still, leaving aside the most thankless tasks: purchase of materials, days and nights spent making adjustments, error calculations
A Nice Idea
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the last chapter devoted to the interference of a particle, we go back a few years in time, to 1984. If until now everything has taken place in the familiar setting of old Europe (Fribourg, Vienna, Grenoble, Constance), this time the change of scene will be much greater – this year, the IEEE International Conference on Computers, Systems and Signal Processing, one of the most important gatherings of computer scientists and communication theoreticians, is taking place in the city of Bangalore, at the heart of the immense triangle that is India. However, all conference rooms look the same. Gilles Brassard, computer scientist from the University of Montreal, is not too dis- oriented when he is preparing himself to present a project done in collaboration with Charles Bennett, trained as a chemist, currently a theoretician at IBM in New York. The title of the lecture arouses the curiosity of those who glance absent-mindedly through the conference programme: Brassard is going to speak on ‘quantum cryptography’.
On The Origin Of Correlations
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2, we saw that indistinguishability deriving from cars in relation to the knowledge of a pedestrian does not lead to any surprising modification in the properties of those cars. Indistinguishability in everyday life is linked to the ignorance of the observer, which can be overcome, while indistinguishability at the particle level cannot be removed without leading to qualitative change of the physical properties. The arguments in Chapter 2, as well as the failure of the ‘Heisenberg mechanism’ discussed in Chapter 4, have taught us that quantum indistinguishability is not a kind of insurmountable ignorance. Quantum indistinguishability is therefore a new idea – to affirm that two paths for a car are indistinguishable is not the same as affirming that two alternatives for a particle are indistinguishable. We are going to see that it is possible to argue in a similar way on the subject of correlations – in the quantum world, the notion of correlations appears in a new, unexpected light.
In My End Is My Beginning
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nature makes innumerable variations on the theme ‘indistinguishability principle’. In certain variations the theme is obvious, in others it is more hidden – exactly as in music. I have presented the phenomena that most directly show the specificity of quantum physics; but to think that this book contains all of quantum physics would be like killing Schubert’s Trout in the first octaves. Think of the historical successes of quantum physics – the comprehension of chemistry, the discovery of the atom first and the world of elementary particles afterwards. Think of the research domains that, apart from increasing our understanding of Nature, have produced important applications – quantum optics with the laser, solid-state physics with semiconductors and superconductors, atomic physics with the atomic clocks required for precise synchronicity (for instance in the GPS system). Think of the most recent but fascinating domains such as mesoscopic physics or the physics of the Bose–Einstein condensates91 produced for the first time in 1995. Think of the frontiers of cosmology, for instance the so-called inﬂation that is supposed to describe the very first instants of our universe. Think of the impetus that the needs of physics have given to certain branches of mathematics. Think of all that, and you will have a more comprehensive summary of what quantum physics is – each of these points deserves many books for itself alone.
Where two fields meet
Authors: Mayhew Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A teacher of mine once simplified his complex family history by saying that he, like all of us, originated from Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania (the ‘cradle of mankind’). Tropical Africa has been a cauldron of diversity not only for our own species. It is, to take one example, surprisingly fishy. The Great Lakes of East Africa (Figure 1.1), and surrounding rivers, contain a whopping 1500 species in just one fish family, the cichlids, familiar to freshwater aquarium enthusiasts. This makes cichlids the most species-rich family of vertebrates, beating such diverse and familiar groups as songbirds and mice. They are so diverse that many still await proper scientific description, and many more are doubtless completely undiscovered. Lakes Victoria and Malawi each contain about 500 species, and about 250 species are found in Lake Tanganyika. Diversity of this sort is what makes our planet such an interesting place, and of course, we have to find out what caused it.