bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Breakthrough
Authors: Kelly James 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
The withdrawal in 1766 of papal recognition of the Stuarts’ claim to the throne of Britain and Ireland paved the way for the repeal of the penal laws. Irish Catholics were better organized than their British equivalents in the 1760s, but enduring anti-Catholic sentiment, animated by a combination of historical memory and contemporary events, ensured no progress was made until the early 1770s when the Irish and Westminster parliaments approved measures—an Oath of Allegiance and the Quebec Act most notably—that held out the promise that legislation to repeal the penal laws might soon follow. Military and political calculations, spurred by the exigencies of the American War of Independence provided the context for breakthrough acts in 1778 but the contrasting reactions of public opinion in both jurisdictions determined what was to follow. In Ireland, optimistic hopes that an era of religious toleration and political accommodation beckoned resulted in additional relief measures in 1782, but efforts to extend the franchise to Catholics in 1783–4 aroused atavistic fears for the Protestant constitution that ensured no further relief was forthcoming during the 1780s. In Great Britain, meanwhile, opposition in Scotland to the reliefs agreed at Westminster in 1778 prompted an outbreak of ‘no popery’, peaking in the Gordon Riots in London in June 1780. This underlined the enduring strength of anti-Catholic sentiment there and, by encouraging a much chastened Catholic leadership to rethink its approach, exposed divisions within Catholic ranks.
British and Irish Catholics in the Era of the French Revolution, 1789–1800
Authors: Elliott Marianne 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
The French Revolution seemed to mark the triumph of Enlightenment thinking, in religious as in political life, and a grant of full Catholic emancipation appeared imminent. However, the Revolution’s progressive attack on religion abruptly stopped Catholic relief, with particularly serious consequences in Ireland. Perversely, such developments also accelerated the revival of the Catholic Church as an institution, particularly in Britain, newly nourished by the arrival of French émigrés and increasing numbers of Irish Catholics. The middle-class reformers who had dominated the Catholic committees of the eighteenth century were progressively sidelined by the return of clerical supremacy.
Catholic Literature and Print Culture in English
Authors: Tomko Michael 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
In the long eighteenth century, the years leading up to Catholic emancipation in Britain and Ireland have often been characterized as a ‘silent’ period in Catholic literature and culture. This is reflected in John Henry Newman’s ‘second spring’ sermon as well as in scholarly accounts of the modern Catholic literary revival and early modern recusant writing. A closer formal and historical examination, however, reveals that, in addition to literary achievements by John Dryden and Alexander Pope, Catholic writing in English during this period underwent a much more complex, extensive, and experimental development in two ways. First, beginning with John Gother’s turn to popular books of devotional instruction after the 1688 Revolution, there emerged an important print network of texts that helped disparate Catholics constitute what Joshua King has termed an ‘imagined spiritual community’. Second, despite often eschewing literary genres such as plays and novels, these devotional, apologetic, historiographic, and instructional works experimented with narrative and dramatic techniques to form a proto-literary tradition of imaginative writing. These efforts were marked by a complex ‘two-fold’ consciousness of writing as a religious minority that had been misrepresented and misread in Protestant Britain. This essay tracks these developments from Gother through Bishop Richard Challoner and into the years preceding Catholic emancipation, when Catholic writing not only adapted new print media such as the periodical and gained more literary notoriety but also became increasingly divided over how to represent the Catholic community’s past, present, and future to the nation at large.
Catholic Literature and Literary Culture in Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish
Authors: Muircheartaigh Peadar Ó 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
A range of religious literature—in both manuscript and print—was composed, transmitted, and consumed in Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish in the period between the Battle of Culloden and Catholic emancipation. This chapter is concerned with that religious literature and the broader culture(s) which sustained it. Each of these three languages was marginalized, to varying degrees, within a consolidating and centralizing Anglophone British State, so too does the extent and nature of Catholic literary production vary greatly from language to language. They can, nonetheless, be usefully examined together. Common threads include the important early role of Continental colleges in the education of priests and the cultivation of literature, the popularity of vernacular translations from English Catholic authors, and comparable or overlapping networks of printers and patrons. Of the three languages examined, the most voluminous and varied Catholic literary output is to be found in Irish while the evidence for Welsh is scant is contrast. Notably in this regard, and in contrast with Irish, the volume of printed Catholic literary output in both Scottish Gaelic and Welsh is a very small proportion of the volume of printing in those languages more generally.
This Side of the Alps
Authors: Blanchard Shaun 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter sketches Catholic Enlightenment in Britain and Ireland, with special attention paid to the final quarter of the eighteenth century. The first section introduces Catholic Enlightenment in Britain and Ireland as a pluriform phenomenon while the next three sections consider three distinct yet overlapping ‘streams’ of enlightened Catholicism: the scholarly, the theological/devotional, and the ecclesio-political. The most radical ‘stream’ of enlightened Catholicism was the third, the ecclesio-political, and in Britain and Ireland it manifested in the Cisalpine movement that came into conflict with the vicars apostolic and other conservative forces, including some ex-Jesuits. This chapter argues that a uniting and overriding preoccupation both in Britain and in Ireland was proving to Protestant-dominated societies that Catholicism was not inherently bigoted, superstitious, or treasonous, and that Catholics therefore should be integrated into the political and cultural mainstream. For this reason, Britain and Ireland are particularly fertile terrain for the study of Catholic Enlightenment because Catholics there had such strong vested interests in publicly portraying themselves as rational, useful, and tolerant people worthy of the blessings of the British Constitution. This contrasts strongly with almost every over Catholic Enlightenment milieu; on the Continent, ‘enlightened’ ideas and policies were often promoted or even imposed by Catholic kings, bishops, or governments.
Warriors' Wives
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Warriors’ Wives: Ancient Greek Myth and Modern Experiences compares the representations of soldiers’ wives in ancient Greek epic poetry and tragic drama with the experiences of modern-day military spouses. In examining the figures of Penelope, Clytemnestra, Andromache, and Tecmessa—as represented by Homer and the fifth-century-bce Athenian tragedians—alongside contemporary evidence for the lives of women who are married to service personnel, it sheds fresh light on the effects of war on those who are left behind. It traces significant aspects of the lives of the women who are married to soldiers from the moment of farewell, through periods of separation and the challenges they bring, to the reunion and in some cases the traumatic aftermath of war. In doing so, it considers the ways in which key elements of the experience of the waiting wife are shaped, today just as much as in the ancient world, by expectations about gender roles, and it renders visible the stories of military spouses who have traditionally been given less attention than their serving partners.
Introduction
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter outlines key issues relating to the representation and experiences of ‘military spouses’ in ancient Greek myth and in the modern world. It reflects on the history of scholarly work done so far to compare the human impact of war in ancient and modern contexts, noting that previous scholarship has focused primarily on male combatants, rather than on the women who live alongside them. The chapter sets out the focus and structure of Warriors’ Wives: Ancient Greek Myth and Modern Experience: the book compares the representation of soldiers’ wives in the mythical stories of the Trojan War with the experiences of women who are married to military personnel in the modern world. The ancient texts on which the book will focus are the epic poems of Homer (the Iliad and Odyssey), and Athenian tragedies by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The representations of the mythical characters of Penelope, Andromache, Clytemnestra, and Tecmessa are the focus for the comparisons that will be drawn.
Infidelity
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the issues of spousal fidelity and infidelity among military couples as depicted in Homeric poetry and Athenian tragic drama, as well as in contemporary representations of military marriages. It considers the Odyssey’s representation of the figure of Penelope as the archetypal faithful wife, whose fidelity is threatened by the presence of the predatory suitors in Odysseus’ palace, as well as the character of Clytemnestra (in Homeric poetry as well as in Athenian tragic plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides), who is often represented as Penelope’s immoral opposite. It also considers the existence of gendered double standards, discussing the ways in which male infidelity in military marriages tends to be viewed more leniently than adultery committed by soldiers’ wives.
Aftermath
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers some of the ways in which women—and in particular those whose husbands have been killed in war—are affected by traumatic events in wartime, including physical brutality, sexual violence, displacement, and enslavement. It outlines the realities of wartime violence against women both in ancient Greek society and contemporary conflicts before focusing on three Athenian tragedies which portray the traumatic experiences of Andromache and Tecmessa—both of them survivors of enslavement and rape—in the aftermath of the Trojan War: Euripides’ Trojan Woman, which depicts the women of Troy immediately after the sack of their city; Euripides’ Andromache, which imagines Andromache’s fate as the enslaved captive of Neoptolemus several years after the war; and Sophocles’ Ajax, in which Tecmessa, as Ajax’s forced concubine, witnesses her partner’s mental breakdown and suicide.
The Break with Rome and the Early Reformation
Authors: Marshall Peter 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses changes wrought on Catholicism in England, Wales, and Ireland up to 1553 by Henry VIII’s break with Rome, and the reforming policies pursued by Henry and the government of his son Edward. Contrary to earlier historical assumptions, Catholicism was in a healthy condition in all three nations prior to 1534, with considerable evidence of devotion to the papacy, though the Irish Church was fractured along ethnic and linguistic lines. Henry presented rejection of Rome as a matter of obedience not faith. Initial opposition in England was muted, though the Kildare Rebellion in Ireland adopted papalism as a political ideology. Official campaigns against shrines and pilgrimage were implemented more effectively in England than in Ireland, where ‘Catholicism without the pope’ proved generally palatable. Government patronage helped ensure acceptance of reform among Welsh elites, but less so in Ireland. Majorities in all three nations remained broadly ‘Catholic’ in 1547, split between conformists and smaller groups of dissident Romanists. Potential for the development of a coherent ‘Henrician Catholicism’ was ended by the overtly Protestant policies of Edward VI, which produced rebellion in England and resistance from previously conformist bishops in Ireland. The chapter concludes by noting that the nature of Catholicism was not fixed but in flux throughout these decades.
Mission or Church, 1570–1640?
Authors: McCoog Thomas M. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter asks: was the post-Reformation Catholic Church in the British Isles and Ireland a continuation of the medieval Church? Or was it created as it were ex nihilo out of the ruins of an institution destroyed by the Protestant reformers? The absence of a hierarchy in England meant that the Jesuit superior was the highest-ranking ecclesiastic in England. Attempts to restore bishops encountered strong resistance from the Jesuits who considered England a mission comparable to China and Japan that demanded flexibility and freedom unhindered by episcopal control. The campaign for English bishops emerged victorious as King James I negotiated a marriage between Prince Charles and a Spanish princess. Would the victory become short-lived as the diplomacy failed?
Catholicism and Separatism, Conformity and the State
Authors: Questier Michael 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
After the Elizabethan settlement of religion, those who failed to comply with the law were subject to a range of penalties for not satisfying the conformist standards required by the State in matters concerning public religion. They were referred to as recusants, that is, if they went into stubborn separation from the Church of England; and they were liable to fines and sequestrations, and a number of these people might even find themselves in gaol. But the codification of recusancy was primarily a response to a very specific set of political circumstances and in fact, in the 1580s, moments of political crisis, when the Queen’s government appeared to be on the brink, as it were, faced with the threat from Mary Stuart and from Spain. When those circumstances changed, and especially after the accession of King James in 1603, the enforcement of the law on conformity against Catholic separatists became controversial for new reasons. Eventually, the execution of this branch of the criminal law could even become a coded critique of royal authority, that is, when it appeared royal government / the monarchy seemed no longer to regard separatist Catholics as the threat that they had once been taken to be, and some Protestants still thought that they were.
Material Culture
Authors: Walsham Alexandra 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the evolution of Catholic material culture between 1530 and 1640. It traces the iconoclastic destruction and defacement of objects and physical structures in the wake of the Reformations in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. It explores the afterlives of medieval religious artefacts, investigating how they were concealed and preserved by conservatives and the important role they played in Catholic devotion in a context of proscription and persecution. It also demonstrates that the Counter-Reformation promoted a resurgence of Christian materiality that played a critical part in the missionary movement to reclaim the British Isles from ‘heresy’ and ‘schism’. In the process, relics, sacramentals, and other items increasingly became emblems of confessional allegiance, resistance, and subversion. These developments fostered an intense Protestant hostility towards ‘popish’ objects as sources of superstition, sin, and idolatry that has shaped attitudes towards material culture in centuries since.
English and Irish Women Religious at Home and Abroad, c.1530–c.1640
Authors: Bowden Caroline , McShane Bronagh Ann 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Henry VIII’s legislation of the 1530s dissolving religious houses effectively ended religious life for women in convents in both England and Ireland, with most of the former nuns passing into a secular existence on rather small pensions. A few women stayed together in an attempt to follow a communal religious life in domestic surroundings: others, both English and Irish, moved to the Continent to enter indigenous houses. By the end of the sixteenth century groups of women were forming on the Continent intent on creating new convents specifically for Englishwomen. In addition to the enclosed communities approved by the Council of Trent, such as Benedictines and Augustinians, a new form of religious life for women based on an Ignatian model was established by Mary Ward. The new institutions were successful in attracting members willing to undertake illegal and dangerous journeys to enter religious life. A few Irish women professed in English convents, but the Iberian Peninsula was a more significant destination for them in the seventeenth century, particularly after the opening of the Dominican convent of Bom Sucesso in Lisbon in 1639. These new foundations formed the bedrock of the movement which kept religious life alive for English and Irish women in the exile period: only one of the convents closed before the French Revolution.
Catholic Education in Britain and Ireland
Authors: Parker Stephen G. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys developments in Catholic education in Britain and Ireland across the twentieth century and draws upon remembered experiences of the faith to augment predominantly institutional histories of Catholic education. In bringing together changes to religious education in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, it offers a unique survey of the place of Catholicism in shaping and responding to economic forces, shifting government agendas, and profound social changes. Unpacking the theological triad of home, parish church, and Catholic school in socialization and transmission of the faith, the prominent English clerical catechist Francis Drinkwater offers a case study illustrating the influence of psychology and child development theory on progressive religious education initiatives before (and after) the Second Vatican Council. The impact of growing religious pluralism on policy debates about faith schooling, as well as renewed demands to articulate its distinctiveness, point to an uncertain future for Catholic education across both islands into the twenty-first century.
Ireland’s Missions and Missionaries in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Bateman Fiona 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
The modern missionary movement emerged as an important Catholic project in twentieth-century Ireland. Public support for the ‘foreign missions’ to convert ‘pagans’ was presented as evidence of the strength of Catholic faith in Ireland; the missionaries became popular heroic figures. Saint Columbanus and Ireland’s Golden Age were cited as proof that the Irish had a natural aptitude for missionary work. New Irish missionary organizations led to fundraising campaigns in schools and parishes to support the missions and develop new vocations. Male and female religious travelled to China, India, and various African countries to open schools and hospitals, and save souls, often ill-prepared for the cultural differences they encountered. In later decades, a new missiology emerged with more focus on humanitarianism and social justice, and less emphasis on conversion. However, the older discourse had lasting impact and Africa remains associated with ‘Pennies for Black Babies’ in the Irish imagination.
Introduction
Authors: O’Brien Susan , Mangion Carmen M. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins by taking stock of significant strands in the post-emancipation nineteenth-century Catholic history of Britain and Ireland, using the Crimean or Eastern War (1854–6) to illustrate the interplay between questions of religious and national identity, separation, and integration for the peoples of Britain and Ireland. It then outlines the themes and structures of the volume. Lastly, it addresses the developing historiography of nineteenth-century Catholicism, highlighting national trajectories and shifting preoccupations; referencing major historians and their contributions; and pinpointing the unevenness of research across these two islands and four nations. It identifies the gaps in the scholarship and concludes by positing the need for engagement with new methodological approaches.
Catholic Revivals in Britain and Ireland
Authors: Mangion Carmen M. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This overview chapter emphasizes an era of Catholic revivalism in Britain and Ireland through the interconnections between Catholics in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. The globalizing, transnational forces at work in the Church further augmented and deepened this connectivity. First, the chapter identifies the demographic, geographic, ethnic, and social-class dimensions of Catholicism in each of the four nations, tracing their evolution over the long nineteenth century. Next, the legal and ecclesial structures that frame the Catholic revivals are examined. A third section explores the laity as co-producers and consumers of this revival through associational cultures and the development of a Catholic periodical press. The chapter concludes with the Church-wide theological and ecclesiological characteristics of this era, often summarized as ultramontane Catholicism, and the importance of membership in the Universal Church to Catholic identities across the United Kingdom.
Episcopal Leaders and Leadership
Authors: Doyle Peter 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter explains how episcopal leadership came to be firmly established in Britain and Ireland after 1830 through examining the three hierarchies of Ireland, Scotland, and England and Wales. It explores the means and the culture through which clerical authority more broadly was exercised with increasing vigour, noting at the same time where it was more limited. The role of synods and episcopal meetings in the definition of pastoral leadership is explored while the growing importance of loyalty to the figure of the pope and acceptance of an expanded papal authority was a significant unifying force within a practice of leadership which was varied at both individual and national levels. While challenges and limits of episcopal control continued to be a reality on the ground, the direction of travel was one of increased lay deference and increased control, as is shown, for example, in relation to religious orders and congregations.
Catholics, Politics, and the State in Britain
Authors: McClelland V. Alan 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
After the Relief Act of 1829, Catholics in Scotland, England, and Wales became active in local and national politics in new ways. Those bishops, priests, and individual Catholics who took part in political life did so to improve the place and status of Catholics, to protect Catholic interests, and, at times, as a wider moral and social undertaking. Although Catholic loyalty to the State was questioned, this chapter charts the change brought about in the status and agency of the Church. The parliamentary presence of Catholics, the position taken by different groups of parliamentarians, and the leadership given by individual archbishops is assessed. Particular attention is paid to the political philosophy and activism of Cardinal Henry Manning in relation to Irish Home Rule, labour rights, education legislation, and collaboration with the Established Church along with the establishment of State-supported Catholic schooling as the focus for Catholic engagement in civic life.