bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Shortening of Long (‘Double’) Consonants
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
r. G &lt;J&lt;J, whether original or from apical stop + &lt;J or from *ty, *t’y (per the first palatalization, 196), was simplified after a consonant, a diphthong, or a long vowel, and when final. Between vowels -&lt;J&lt;J- remains in many dialects, but becomes -&lt;J- in Att. and later Ion., Homer having both L long consonants, whether original or the result of assimilation or other changes, shorten after a diphthong or long vowel. This is of particular significance in the case of ss: whether original, from apical stop + s (215), or from apical stop + apical stop (212), ss &gt; s after a consonant, diphthong, or long vowel, and when final. As an example of original -ss-: hausz’I drew out’ from *haussay (perf. to hauriii from *hausiii) in contrast to gessz ‘I did’ from *gessay (gerii from *gesii).
Assimilation and Dissimilation of Non-Contiguous Consonants. Metathesis
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most changes falling under these heads occur only sporadically,or under conditions too complex, obscure, or idiosyncratic to allow generalizations. For the most part these things are ‘slips of the tongue’ (and in writing as ‘slips of the pen’) which rarely become permanent.
Accent
Authors: Sihler Andrew L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many languages particular syllables have special prominence relative to others. This prominence, which is the result of variations of amplitude or pitch of voiced phones (or spans of phones), goes by the name accent. Traditionally one speaks of two species of accent: stress accent and pitch accent (alternatively, musical accent), depending on which element is thought to be the more conspicuous in distinguishing tonic (more prominent) from atonic (less prominent) syllables. But the phonetics of accent are not adequately captured in this scheme. For example, although it is widely taken as obvious that English has a stress accent, in fact the word accent of English is phonetically complex: the two most important marks of tonic syllables are (1) sharply changing pitch (usually but not invariably downward)-thus pitch, more specifically pitch change, is central to this supposed ‘stress accent’; and (2) a notable lengthening of the tonic vowel. Prolongation of tonic vowels is notoriously associated with a corresponding reduction or loss of unaccented (short) vowels. An opinion sanctified by tradition is that stress accent CAUSES such reductions and losses; but Finnish, Hungarian, and Czech, for example, all have a strong stress accent on the first syllable of a word but maintain a full array of vowel contrasts in posttonic syllables, which shows that vowel weakening is not an inevitable concomitant of stress accent. The converse is probably more nearly true, namely that accent defined by pitch changes alone is not likely to result in phonetic differences between atonic and tonic vowels.
Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the discussion that follows, ‘Greek’ must be understood to mean Athenian as described and codified by Alexandrian scholars. From such sources we also have information on Homeric accent. Of the dialects, only for Lesbic do we have reliable information. The habit of generations of Hellenists of inventing accents for dialect forms (which is not followed in this book) cannot be defended in principle, and seems particularly incautious in view of the fact that in Lesbic, the only dialect for which we do have reliable information, the accentual system differs in important ways from the Attic. The G tonic syllable, as indicated above, was distinguished from its atonic neighbors by having a higher pitch. This is clear from its description by G writers, and from the metaphors that underlie the terminology they employ: the whole system of accentuation is 1rpo&lt;Jwioiix, lit. ‘a song sung to music’; the feature of prominence, Tovoc;, is lit. ‘stretching’ esp. tuning the strings of a musical instrument (the term Ta.me; &lt; “t’l}-ti- is synonymous on both counts). Similarly the names for the different kinds of syllables: o E”icx (acute)
M-, I-Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
only s-stem inflection in Hom. (rip&lt;X&lt;X nom.pl., KEp&lt;Xoc; gen.sg.), become Att. rip&lt;Xroc;, KEpiiroc; (the -ii- of the latter from “KEP&lt;X-&lt;Xroc;), like -yov&lt;Xroc;.’ Similarly &lt;/&gt;we; n., &lt;/&gt;wroc; ‘( day)light’ (Hom. &lt;/&gt;&oc;, &lt;/&gt;otEt); and Att. Kpfoc;, Kpiwc; (“KpE&lt;Xoc;) ‘meat’, but later Kpforoc;. There are no productive types of stems ending in m or I. There were however a few nouns (root-formations in point of fact, 275) ending in such consonants. 1. In G, there are disguised reflexes of what originally were three m­ stems; v has replaced the original m by leveling in all three, though with some differences in detail: G XLWV, xiovoc; ‘snow’ and xOwv, -ovoc; ‘earth’. G XLWV ( cf. L hiems, below) continues an ancient root noun with an original paradigm based on three stems, “i,hyom(s) nom.sg., “ghyom-, and “i,him-, parallel to “dyews nom. sg., “dyew-, and “diw- ‘sky/day’ (325-6); to both, likewise, were built thematic adjectives with a different full grade: *i,heym-o-, “deyw-o-. Bits of the original paradigm are seen in Av. zya nom.sg. ‘winter’, zy m acc., zimo gen.sg.
Diphthongal Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
GREEK NOUNS IN -ev&lt;; (informally, the {3aa,X.ev&lt;; type). Prominent in this class are denominative nouns of occupation: i1r1rev&lt;; ‘knight, horse­ man’, (i1r1ror;), &lt;J,ovevr; ‘murderer’ (&lt;J,ovor; ‘murder’), &lt;J,opevr; ‘bearer’ (&lt;J,opo&lt;; ‘tribute, payment’, orig ,a carrying’), ‘YP0t.µµ0t.rev&lt;; ‘secretary (‘Yp&µµa ‘letter’), xa”X.Kev&lt;; ‘smith’ (xaX.Ko&lt;; ‘copper’). Some are instruments rather than human agents, as Toµev&lt;; ‘knife’ ( ...tem- ‘cut’), oxev&lt;; ‘(carrying) strap, bar’ (“wegh- ‘carry, fetch’). The majority of these are derived from o-stem nominaactionis, and that is thought to be the original state of affairs. Nom.sg. L res is necessarily analogical-the PIE nom.sg. “reH1is un­ disturbed would have given Pltal. “reis whence L xris (57)-but the exact history of the L nom.sg. form is uncertain. It might reflect a form “reys, created on the basis of other case-forms in “rey- &lt; “reny-. It might be based on acc. “rem (below), like the creation of dies ‘day’ after “diem acc. (327).
The Latin Fifth Declension
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of the L fifth declension is obscure, and has long been a topic of much discussion. There is nothing similar in the other IE languages. Lith. ie-stems (zeme ‘land’ gen.sg. zemes), which look somewhat similar, have been shown to be largely, if not wholly, rya-stems in origin. Elsewhere there are a few isolated nouns in -e which are probably verb stems used substantively, proper to compounds of the type seen in Ved. fraddh!i- ‘faith’ (a compound of root dha- ‘put’, PIE “dheHr) which inflects as an ordinary a-stem. G XP ‘necessity’ and a.1r6xp’YJ ‘sufficiency; enough’ are 3sg. verb-forms which underwent reinterpretation in such expressions as a.1r6xp’YJ n11i ‘is sufficient for someone’ &gt; ‘enough [for someone]’. In reality, the ‘fifth declension’ is a historical accident-a collection of nouns of heterogeneous ancestry which converged (in a none too orderly fashion) on a type. This explains the difficulty of finding analogues in other languages, including, most particularly, the other Italic languages; and also the variability in morphological detail from noun to noun and from period to period.
Second Declension
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The o- and a-stems of G and L influenced one another and were both influenced by pronoun inflections. The o-stems will be taken up first, as they are more basic: the a-stems were derived from them; were more influenced by the o-stems than conversely; and have certain complexities unlike anything in o-stems. THE SINGULAR CASES OF o-STEMS (see table opposite). r. Nom.sg. PIE “-o-s, G -or;, Pital “-os, OL -os, whence usual -us (71.6). For L puer, vir, ager, see 74+ Regular syncope of the o is seen in Sab., as 0 hurz ‘garden’ (z = [ts]; cf. L hortus), bantins = L banfinus ‘of Bantia’. 2. Voc.sg. PIE -e, not an ending per se but the bare stem in the e­ grade, is seen as such in BS, G -E, and Pital. “-e, whence L -e. But L puer ‘O boy’ (puere in Plaut.), vir ‘O man’ are identical to the nom.sg. This is probably a phonological development, as short vowels seem to be especially prone to drop after r (74.6). -From words in -ius a few early forms in -ie are quotable, as fitie ‘O son’; but the form is regularly filz, Valer
Comparison Of Adjectives
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Adjectives in PIE as discussed in 337-47 are in what is called the positive degree: they express the generic force of the adjective without semantic coloration such as emphasis, attenuation, contrast, pejoration, and so on. There were several adjective stems in PIE, however, which did qualify the force of an adjective. As the daughter languages developed, one or another of these formations evolved into the ‘comparative and superlative degrees’ of adjectives familiar from the principal languages of Europe. One such suffix was ..-yos- (349-51), an INTENSIVE marker signifying ‘very; rather; to a marked degree’. This yields the L comparative, and is one of the ingredients in the G comparative. It is also the basis of the L and G superlative. Another stem, ..-(t)ero- (355-6), was PARTICUIARIZING and by implication ANT0NYMIC: ‘the hot one (not the cold one)’; ‘our (own)’.
Possess1Ve Pronouns
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These have already been mentioned in several places; it will be useful to gather the facts together here. ‘Possessive pronouns’ are ordinary adjectives formed from the stems of the personal pronouns by the addition of thematic inflection (-o-/-eH2-) or with the contrastive suffix “-tero-/-tereH2- (355). The contrastive function of such adjectives is obvious, but the reason for the prominence of the con­ trastive affix in the plural is not.1 1. G i:µ,or;, i:µ,for; have a mixed ancestry, continuing the old gen. ‘meme; the enclitic possessives attested as such in Hitt. (-mi-if nom., -mi-in, -ma-an acc., and so on); and yet other ingredients. See 367.2. L meus is presumably from ‘meyos elaborated from the enclitic gen.dat., but the only unambiguous attestations of such point to ‘moy, not ‘mey: OCS moj[ ‘my’, G µ,oi dat. Contamination from acc. ml with help from possessive adj. ‘tewos, ‘sewos is likelier than a special e-grade etymon.
Eventive Verbs Eventive Verb Categories
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Eventive Verbs Of Pie were subdivided into two form/ function categories (albeit all but unmarked by formal differences), namely they were either punctual or durative. (Other terms are encountered for the same concepts.) The distinction hinges on whether the action or event is conceived of as requiring an elapse of time; the membership of a verb in one category or the other is therefore a matter of the meaning of the verb itself: ‘look for’ or ‘travel’ or ‘carve’ are inherently durative; ‘find’ or ‘arrive’ or ‘stab’ are inherently punctual. However, durative events can be conceived of as POINTS in future or past time (Alice traveled in Europe last year, punctual in contradistinction to the durative Alice was traveling in Europe when she met her husband), and punctual notions readily can be used in transferred (figurative) senses which are durative: I’m finding that Howard is possessive is an ordinary kind of sentence, whereas I’m finding a cat under the bed is so odd as to be unprocessable.1
Punctual (Aorist) Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The only stem-formation which is uniquely aoristic is an athematic stem consisting of an element *-s- directly affixed to the root. Perhaps because of its distinctiveness it enjoyed considerable productivity in the daughter languages. There is little lexical agreement from one IE language to another as to which aorist stems are thus built, suggesting that the period of productivity came late in the history of PIE; and there is no certain trace of the element in Hitt. Evidence for the shape of the root in saorists is conflicting. In Indic the root vowel is in lengthened grade in the active indicative; in the middle, it is zero grade (though some roots ending in *y and *w have full grade instead). The subj. takes full grade. So to hr;- ‘fetch’, ahiirJam rsg.act., ahnata 3sg.subj.; to dif- ‘point out’, ddiita 3sg.midd. (regular from “adikf{a; the -sc of the stem is overt in forms like ddikii ISg.midd.). In G the root is normally in the same grade as the present stem, so 0EiK11vµi, eoEL a; -yp&&lt;/)w, e-ypai/;a; but there are exceptions like ri11w/ri11w ‘pay’, erELua (cf. erfoa). Land OCS evidence bears on only part of the question, as neither language builds middles to the reflexes of the aorist, but as far as it goes their evidence agrees with Indic: L veho, vexf; OCS vezp, vesu, PIE “wei,ho, “wei,h-s- ‘convey’ (cf. Ved. dvii{ 2sg. &lt; “aviifss &lt; “ewekss &lt; “eweghss). Over the years the trend of scholarly
Fourth Conjugation and Tmro Conjugation Verbs in- id
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 4th. conj. comprises primary verbs with presents of thef / class, and denominatives built with the same suffix. But the 4th conj. is not the manifestation of all such stems: as remarked in the preceding discussions, a large number of ye/ o-stem verbs-mainly secondary formations, stem enlargements, and so on-end up in the first three conjugations purely by the agency of sound laws. 3rd. conj.: capio ‘take’, facio ‘do’, iacio ‘throw’, rapio ‘seize’, sapio ‘taste’, fugio ‘flee’, fodio ‘dig’, and (con)spicio ‘see’. Less obviously, iiio (iiiio) ‘say’ &lt; 2. DENOMINATIVES, originally from i-stems and cons.-stems (460-1), but by analogy from other stems too. Thus ftnio ‘limit’ (finis), partior ‘divide’ (pars, parti-); custodio ‘guard’ (custos, custod-); but also servio ‘serve; be subject to’ (servus, an o-stem).
The Durative Eventive Preterite (Imperfect)
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Greek imperfect agrees with Indo-Iranian and Anatolian and reflects the PIE imperfect. This was an anterior tense marking uncompleted, continuous, or iterative action, and was formed from the present stem with generic (‘secondary’) endings (419-20), with or without the augment, which finally became fixed in G as in lndo-Iranian and Armenian. Thus G e&lt;/&gt;Epo11 = Ved. dbharam ‘I was carrying’. In stem-types shared by the present/imperfect and the aorist paradigms, the formation itself is ambiguous. That is, what makes E&lt;/&gt;Epo11 an imperfect and EAL’ll’OP an aorist is the relationship of the formation in question to the other forms in the paradigm- specifically, there is a present &lt;/&gt;Epw, whereas there is no presenItxAfaw.1 A formation built to a present-only stem type, such as Eµ&110cwo11, can of course only be an imperfect to µcxv0&vw.
The Latin Perfect System
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of the L tense known as the perfect followed a course altogether unlike G. The greatest difference was manifested from the outset, namely the L tense is a conflation of the PIE aorist and stative; its function was basically aoristic/ completive. A single set of personal endings evolved, but a souvenir of the mixed ancestry of the category was the variety of stem types, partly stative and partly aorist in origin (sometimes ambiguous as to which). The commonest type, however-the vf-perfect-is a specifically L development of obscure history. OTHER TENSE AND MOOD STEMS OF THE LATIN PERFECT SYSTEM are all based upon a combination of the L perf. stem, whichever that happens to be, with an element *-is-, of wholly obscure origin but most commonly imagined to be related somehow to the s-aorist. (The impossibility of any connection with the Indic -i[- and -Si[- aorist stems is discussed in 530.2.) To this •-is- were added elements which are partly of obscure origin and are partly recognizable as modal markers which function much as they do in the pres./imperf. system
Introduction
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The priest had told the story of 1392 many times and had even written it down in a chronicle, but this time he was entertaining a diverse audience of children and servants who had gathered in his brother’s house in Cheapside on St. Nicholas’s Day to await the visit of the “boy bishop.” “King Richard,” he explained, “was no longer the dear boy-prince he was at his coronation. Those were the good old days, fifteen years ago. Most of you weren’t alive then. He turned into a spoiled tyrant and moved his law courts to York to punish London. But neither he nor London could make a profit from the legal business way up there. And, of course, he could not afford to have a conspiracy arising in London while he was at York. So in a show of contrition, the mayor, aldermen, sheriffs, and all the worthy city dressed out in their ceremonial best and went to meet the king and queen.” Here the chronicler recited the glories of the welcomers’ livery-the colors of bright red and black, the gold and silver ornaments, the hats with their badges, the fine and spirited horses.1 These were not simply merchants going out to welcome their prince; they were nobles by virtue of their wealth, if not their lineage. When these grand men had escorted the king and queen to London Bridge, they showed their magnificence by presenting the king with a milk-white steed saddled and bridled and trapped with white cloth of gold and red parted together, and the queen had a palfrey
The Fragile Years of Childhood
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once baptized, the child had crossed the threshold from a state of limbo, as Dante described the circle of hell in which the unbaptized resided, and moved into the struggle for survival within the network of family and community. Evidence about these first years of life is hard to find in historical records, and most of what we know presents a grim picture overshadowed by high rates of mortality. The chief records for studying childhood in London are the wardship cases that appear in the Letter Books. Thus we know the most about those children who lost at least one parent, usually the father. This sort of source., combined with wills and coroners’ inquests, points toward childhood experiences dominated by the Grim Reaper. Considering the filth of London streets and the marginal cleanliness of even the best houses, survival was not assured. Demographers estimate that infant mortality was 30 to 50 percent in the premodern world. Since we .. do not have parish registers for the Middle Ages, we cannot arrive at an accurate estimate of the number of children who died. But London’s practice of providing mayoral supervision for citizens’ orphans does give some information on the mortality of the better-fed class.
Life on the Threshold of Adolescence
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Western tradition of recognizing the change from childhood to puberty is one with deep roots. In the ancient physicians’ and philosophers’ division of life into four stages, adolescence was conceived of as hot and dry, as are summer and fire, and its humor was red choler. Youths, according to Bede, are “lean (even though they eat heartily), swift-footed, bold, irritable, and active.” Those who divided the life cycle into six stages according to the planets envisioned youth as Venus, which “implants an impulse toward the embrace of love.”1 The folkloric traditions, as well, included good descriptions of the transition period. “The Mirror of the Periods of Man’s Life” is primarily a vehicle for moralizing, but it also divides life into stages according to years and qualities. In the fourteenth year (puberty), “know liche of manhode he wynnes,” and throughout his early twenties the youth is a battleground for the struggle between the seven virtues and the seven sins. Reason dictates an education at Oxford or at the law, but lust has other ideas:
Entering into Apprenticeship
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Apprenticeship marked a decisive break from the status of child. In this formative life stage, which could occupy almost a quarter of their lives,1 young people learned not only a craft but the characteristics of the role they would eventually play as adults. Apprentices moved out of their natal home into that of their master, becoming part of his familial environment. They slept in the shop or the house, shared meals with the family and other apprentices, received their clothing from their master, and endured his discipline. Their lives also changed in that they began to form an identity with their masters’ guilds and with the city of London, of which they would become citizens when they completed apprenticeship. Daily activities also altered radically from the routine of school or household, for apprentices spent most of their day in the shop learning their craft. The gradual learning of a trade or craft was regarded as an initiation into its mysteries, and, indeed, an alternative name for the guild was a “mistery.” Entering apprenticeship at fourteen to eighteen years old, youths spent seven to ten or more years in this stage between childhood and adulthood.
Gnosticism Within the Orthodox Faith
Authors: Lee Philip J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Critics of orthodox Christianity are quick to point out that a great deal of what we have referred to as gnosticism has existed within the Church throughout its history. The world-denying, escapist, elitist themes have had their advocates in every Christian era. Are we not all aware of the Church’s image of promoting otherworldliness, mortification of the flesh and denial of sexual pleasure, not to mention the Marxist taunt, “Pie in the sky by and by when you die”? No one could deny that there is more than ample evidence to support such a critique. The Church has indeed sheltered gnostic individuals; it has, in some generations, been greatly influenced by them. The Church has, to a degree, been gnosticized as, in turn, it has been hellenized, Platonized, stoicized and romanticized. The definitive. question in heresy, however, is precisely this matter of degree. For heresy always involves a truth being carried to an illogical or dangerous degree. Heresy implies a lack of dialectical tension: speaking of good without speaking of evil or speaking of evil without speaking of good. In the case of gnosticism, it involves some of the oversimplifications we have examined: other world without this world, soul without body, self without Church, spirit without matter.