bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lead
Authors: Goyer Robert A. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractLead is an important industrial commodity. Historically, it has had more uses than any other metal. The mining of lead‐containing ores began in antiquity as mentioned in the Old Testament. It was used in ancient Egypt in coins, weights, ornaments, utensils, ceramic glazes, and solder. The Romans also found many uses for lead, including conduits for drinking water, which probably contributed to excessive lead exposure for the general population. Although descriptions of the toxic effects of lead appeared very early in history, the association between the use of lead in industry and health effects was very slow to evolve. The descriptions provided by the early observations of physicians such as Tanquerel des Planches and Thomas Oliver are milestones in the recognition of the multiorgan effects of lead. Insights into mechanisms did not appear until the twentieth century in parallel with the broader understanding of human biology and the emergence of the practice of medicine as a science. For example, the review by Aub provides early insights into mechanisms of lead toxicity particularly the role of bone in lead metabolism. Over the next two decades the correlation between pathological and clinical effects of lead on organ systems were better defined, as was the significance of specific ranges of blood lead levels. A concise overview of the status of the toxicology of lead for some 30 years is contained in Ethyl Browning's monograph on the toxicity of industrial metals. Considerably more information is available now. One cannot help but be amazed at the continuing flow of reports in the scientific literature to this day regarding effects of lead at the cellular and molecular levels. This allows for more precise interpretation of relationships between exposure and effect. These few historic references provide perspective and appreciation for the evolution of present‐day concerns and workplace practices regarding lead.The objective of this chapter is to integrate the emerging scientific advances in the toxicology of lead with the occurrence and recognition of clinical effects. A list of current publications regarding health criteria and protective regulatory measures for exposure to lead in the community and workplace is also provided.
Titanium, Zirconium, and Hafnium
Authors: Murthy Leela I. , Dankovic David A. , Murthy Raman C. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractTitanium, zirconium, and hafnium belong to the transition Group IV B elements of the periodic table. A characteristic feature of these transition elements is the ease with which they form stable complex ions. Features that contribute to this ability are favorably high charge‐to‐radius ratios and the availability of unfilleddorbitals. The facility in forming metallic bonds is demonstrated by the existence of a wide variety of alloys among different transition metals. Another feature of these metals is characterized by their high densities, high melting points, and low vapor pressures. Within this group, these properties tend to increase with increasing atomic weight.This chapter discusses the chemical and physical properties followed by the toxicity of each chemical and compound in three sections: Section A provides details on titanium, Section B on zirconium, and Section C on hafnium. Tables present the atomic number, atomic weight, and natural isotopes of titanium, zirconium, and hafnium.
Aliphatic Nitro, Nitrate, And Nitrite Compounds
Authors: Doepker Candace Lippoli 
Published: August 2005

AbstractAlthough aliphatic nitro compounds, aliphatic nitrates, and aliphatic nitrites have several features in common (nitrogen‐oxygen grouping, explosiveness, methemoglobin formation), there are significant differences in their toxic effects. Some of their attributes are summarized. The esters of nitric and nitrous acid, whose nitrogen is linked to carbon through oxygen, are very similar in their pharmacological effects. Both produce methemoglobinemia and vascular dilatation with hypotension and headache. These effects are transient. None of the series has appreciable irritant properties. Pathological changes occur in animals only after high levels of exposure and are generally nonspecific and reversible. The nitric acid esters of the monofunctional and lower polyfunctional alcohols are absorbed through the skin. Information is not available on the skin absorption of alkyl nitrites. Members of both groups are well absorbed from the mucous membranes and lungs. Heinz body formation has been observed with the nitrates but not with the nitrites.Nitro compounds, like nitrates and nitrites, cause methemoglobinemia in animals. Heinz body formation parallels this activity within the series. Although some members are metabolized to nitrate and nitrite, there is no significant effect on blood pressure or respiration. As with the lower nitrates and nitrites, anesthetic symptoms are observed in animals during acute exposures, but these occur late. The prominent effect is irritation of the skin, mucous membranes, and respiratory tract. This is most marked with chlorinated nitroparaffins and nitroolefins. In addition to respiratory tract injury, cellular damage may be observed in the liver and kidneys. Skin absorption is negligible except for the nitroolefins.The nitramines have entirely different activity. RDX is a convulsant for humans and animals. Skin absorption, irritation, vasodilatation, methemoglobin formation, and permanent pathological damage are either insignificant or absent after repeated doses.Transient illness has been associated with the industrial use or manufacture of these materials, but fatalities and chronic intoxication have been uncommon. Some members of each group present extremely high fire and explosion hazards.
Aromatic Amino and Nitro–Amino Compounds and their Halogenated Derivatives
Authors: Woo Yin-Tak , Lai David Y. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractAromatic amines are organic compounds that contain at least one amino group attached directly to an aryl moiety. Aromatic amines represent one of the most important classes of industrial and environmental chemicals. Many aromatic amines have been shown to be potent carcinogens and mutagens and/or hemotoxicants capable of inducing methemoglobinemia. Since the introduction of substituted anilines and naphthylamines as intermediates for the manufacture of azo dyes in the mid‐1800s, aromatic amines have found numerous uses in various industries. Substantial worker exposure to aromatic amines with subsequent induction of bladder cancer occurred before preventive measures were instituted. Beyond occupational exposure, humans may also be exposed to aromatic amines through environmental sources. At least three carcinogenic aromatic amines (4‐aminobiphenyl, 2‐naphthylamine, ando‐toludine) have been detected in cigarette smoke. Many commonly used pharmaceuticals contain or are aromatic amines. Owing to their hazard potential, aromatic amines have been the subject of many biomonitoring studies, making them model compounds in molecular dosimetry and epidemiology studies. Since extensive information is available on the metabolic pathways and, to a lesser extent, the mechanism(s) of action, aromatic amines have also become targets for genetic polymorphism studies with ultimate goals of identifying susceptible subpopulations, and designing of strategies for cancer prevention and intervention. The multifaceted interest in aromatic amines has continued to attract a tremendous amount of scientific studies and attention. Since the publication of the previous edition of Patty's on aromatic amines, many reviews and important research articles on aromatic amines have been published. In this chapter, we present an overview of the aromatic amine class as a whole with emphasis on recent studies, followed by an updated description on individual chemicals grouped into seven subgroups of structurally related compounds.
Aliphatic Carboxylic Acids, Saturated
Authors: Cragg Steven T. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractAliphatic carboxylic acids include a very wide range of chemicals that perform a diverse range of industrial functions. Many occur naturally and serve an important function in nutrition, and many are intermediates in normal biochemical processes. This chapter is limited to a discussion of the saturated aliphatic mono‐ and polycarboxylic acids. Because of the wide range of uses, the differing circumstances of isolation, and frequently the complexity of structure, many organic acids are described by a variety of names. In this chapter the names used in the text are usually the trivial or most common names; alternative names are given for reference. A current systematic or Chemical Abstracts acid name is given in the tables that describe physicochemical properties. The commercial and industrial importance of this class of compounds is indicated by recent production figures: acetic acid has a production volume in the region of 3.3 billion lb/year, acrylic acid in excess of 1 billion lb/year, and propionic acid of the order of 100 million lb/year. Esters and salts of organic acids are also produced in large volume.In general, serious physiological concerns for humans do not arise from the acids discussed in this chapter. Occasionally, concerns have been reported for individual acids, but usually with very high experimental or accidental exposures. The low level of concern associated with most of these acids is attested to by the many members of this class that are used as food additives, flavoring agents, and stabilizers, or as food materials. The primary adverse effect of exposure to aliphatic carboxylic acids is usually acute arising from their primary irritant effects on skin, eyes, and mucous membranes, particularly of the short‐chain acids. As the molecular weight increases and the water solubility decreases, the irritating capacity of a carboxylic acid generally decreases. In addition, skin sensitization is quite rare with the aliphatic carboxylic acids.
Aliphatic Carboxylic Acids, Unsaturated
Authors: Cragg Steven T. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThe alkenoic series of carboxylic acids are obtained from such natural sources as animal tallows and greases, and vegetable, coconut, palm, and marine oils. Several have also been produced synthetically from petroleum sources. They are frequently referred to as fatty acids (C6to C24) and have important commercial applications in plastics, coating materials, fungicides, food preservatives, lubricants, and perfumes. They have been used as softening agents for rubber and as pharmaceuticals in medicine and dentistry. Acids of this type are unstable and polymerize readily, hence offering important chemical and physical properties for use in producing esters, acid halides, acid amides, and acid anhydrides.As a class, the unsaturated carboxylic acids have been subjected to an extensive battery of studies, including acute, short‐term, and chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity tests and reproductive and developmental toxicity and genotoxicity tests. Overall, these acids have a low level of mammalian toxicity, although they are strong skin and eye irritants in animal tests and are irritating to mucosal membranes in humans. For those acids for which adequate studies have been conducted, there is no evidence that they are reproductive or developmental toxicants or carcinogens. Mutagenicity and clastogenicity studies suggest that this group of acids is devoid of genotoxic activity. The biochemistry of many of these acids can be found in general textbooks. Rapid metabolism to other fatty acids may explain their general low degree of toxicity. The physical properties and acute toxicity of saturated monocarboxylic acids are provided.
Glycols
Authors: Cavender Finis L. , Sowinski Edward J. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
The glycols are hydrocarbons that have two hydroxyl groups attached to separate carbons in an aliphatic chain or alicyclic ring. They are used as antifreeze agents, cryoprotectants, solvent carriers, chemical intermediates, and vehicles in a number of chemical formulations. They vary from slightly viscous liquids to waxy solids, are soluble in water, alcohols, and ketones, and are insoluble in hydrocarbons.
They have low vapor pressures; therefore inhalation of vapors and aerosols is of little concern unless they are heated, agitated, or sprayed. They have little or no odor; thus only their irritancy at high concentrations is a warning property.
Because of the irritant properties and the potential for central nervous system (CNS) depression at high concentrations, the threshold limit value (TLV) for glycols is generally set as a ceiling limit. The chemical and physical properties of several of the more common glycols are given.
Polyurethanes, Miscellaneous Organic Polymers, and Silicones
Authors: Cragg Steven T. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThe toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter may be generally attributed to the residual monomers, catalysts, and other additives present rather than the polymerper se. The cured polymer itself may be of high molecular weight and, consequently, more or less toxicologically inert. Carefully manufactured, highly refined polymers contain few residual toxic chemicals. However, some of the polymers discussed in this chapter, at least in some applications, go through an intermediate stage consisting of “prepolymers” (sometimes referred to as “resins”) that react further to achieve their final, cured form. An example is a polyurethane system for making foam cushions. To manufacture polyurethane foam for cushions, workers combine diisocyanate molecules with a polyol prepolymer. Such “systems” inherently have more potential for exposure of workers if not the general public to toxic monomers or other reactive chemicals. The exposure potential of glues, paints, and coatings may extend more broadly to the consumer. Thus, examination of the toxicity of the polymers discussed in this chapter focuses on monomers and prepolymers. This is not always so. Some of polymers in this chapter are used in biomedical devices or in a way that puts them in intimate contact with humans. Here, the issue of biodegradation becomes important because of potential toxicity from breakdown products of the polymer, or rejection may ensue if the polymer is incompatible with the surrounding tissues.
Organophosphorus Compounds
Authors: Storm Jan E. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractOrganophosphate pesticides are a highly diverse group of chemicals to which workers may be exposed during manufacture and formulation and during or after application for their intended uses. They are all characterized by their ability to inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) that deactivates the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh).Compounds in this class are numerous and have been categorized in many ways according to the nature of the substituents. Gallo and Lawryk, for example, categorized them into four main categories (Groups I‐IV) based on the characteristics of the leaving group (X). Group I compounds, phosphorylcholines, have a leaving group that contains a quaternary nitrogen and are among the most potent organophosphates (e.g., Shradan). Group II compounds, fluorophosphates, have a fluoride leaving group and are also generally highly toxic (e.g., diisopropyl fluorophosphate). Group III compounds have leaving groups that contain cyanide or a halogen other than fluoride and are generally less potent than Groups I or II (e.g., Parathion). Group IV contains most of the organophosphates used as insecticides today. These compounds have alkoxy, alkylthio, aryloxy, arylthio or heterocyclic leaving groups and a wide variety of other substituents.Another classification scheme is based on the nature of the atoms that immediately surround the central phosphorus atom and results in 14 different categories. According to this scheme, phosphates are the prototype for the entire class and are those compounds where all four atoms that surround the phosphorus atom are oxygen (e.g., dichlorvos, mevinphos). Sulfur‐containing organophosphate compounds (phosphorothioates; phosphorothiolates; phosphorodithioates; phosphorodithiolates) are far more numerous than phosphates and include well recognized organophosphate insecticides such as parathion, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, etc. Other groups contain nitrogen (phosphoramides and phosphorodiamides), nitrogen and sulfur (phosphoramidothionates and phosphoramidothiolates), carbon (phosphonates and phosphinates), or carbon and sulfur (phosphonothionates, phosphonothionothiolates and phosphinothionates).All aspects of organophosphate chemistry, toxicity, analysis, and exposure potential have been previously reviewed. Additionally information regarding the toxicity of this class of compounds has expanded greatly in recent years as a result of toxicity data supplied by registrants to the U.S. EPA's Office of Pesticides to support reregistration. These data are being made publically available by the U.S. EPA on their internet web site. The following discussion draws heavily from recent reviews but also includes summaries of relevant toxicity data submitted to the U.S. EPA available when this chapter was completed. Due to space limitations detailed data reviews are included here for only 30 organophosphate pesticides. Information on other pesticides registered or undergoing reregistration in the United States can be readily obtained from the previously mentioned website.
Occupational Ergonomics: Principles and Applications
Authors: Bhattacharya Amit , Talbott Nancy , Kincl Laurel 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThis chapter provides the basic principles that underlie the field of ergonomics and their application to some of the current issues of importance in the workplace. Sections 2 to 4 deal with the physiology of muscles; biomechanics; cellular responses to tissue, nerve, and joint injuries as they relate to cumulative trauma disorders; and common types of overuse syndromes. The remaining sections deal with applications of the principles to workplace ergonomic issues and proposed ergonomic regulations.The word “ergonomics” is made up of two Greek words, “ergo” meaning work and “nomas” meaning laws. The field of ergonomics is highly interdisciplinary. It applies principles from engineering, physiology, medicine, and psychology to the understanding of the interaction of humans with their workplace. The interaction of humans with their workplace may consist of identifying the relationship between job physical risk factors and physiological responses. For example, a specific ergonomic problem of paramount importance in the occupational health and safety is the issue of work‐related musculoskeletal disorders (WMD). Some of these issues are discussed further in this chapter. The specific areas of application relevant for the field of ergonomics are defined and briefly explained.Activities that involve repetitive stress have effects that are extremely complicated. Adding internal or external forces to the body can, as described, alter bone, joints, ligaments, tendons, nerves, and muscles. Belief that a repetitive motion will result in an isolated nerve injury without affecting surrounding joints, ligaments, muscles, or tendons is likely to inhibit appropriate care and control of exposed individuals. Additional research is needed to further characterize changes that occur, and current approaches to recognizing, managing and preventing repetitive injuries must address all tissues in the involved area.
Flavorings
Authors: Lippmann Morton 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
In the past several years, chemicals used to flavor foods, flavorings, have been observed to cause varying health effects. A number of these chemicals have already been discussed in sections of other chapters. As a beginning to this chapter, a table is provided which lists the names of the chemicals, their CAS number, synonyms for the chemical and where in previous chapters toxicologic information about them can be found.
Isocytosine as a Hydrogen‐Bonding Partner and as a Ligand in Metal Complexes
Authors: Gupta Deepali , Roitzsch Michael , Lippert Bernhard 
Published: August 2005

AbstractIsocytosine (ICH; 1) exists in solution in an equilibrium of tautomers 1 a and 1 b with the N1 and N3 positions carrying the acidic proton, respectively. In the solid state, both tautomers coexist in a 1:1 ratio. As we show, the N3H tautomer 1 b can selectively be crystallized in the presence of the model nucleobase 1‐methylcytosine (1‐MeC). The complex 1 b⋅(1‐MeC)⋅2 H2O (2) forms pairs through three hydrogen bonds between the components; hydrogen bonds between identical molecules are also formed, leading to an infinite tape structure. On the other hand, the N1H tautomer 1 a co‐crystallizes with protonated ICH to give [1 a⋅ICH2]NO3 (3), again with three hydrogen bonds between the partners, yet the acidic proton is disordered over the two entities. With MII(dien) (M=Pt, Pd; dien=diethylenetriamine) preferential coordination of tautomer 1 a through the N3 position is observed. DFT calculations, which were also extended to PtII(tmeda) linkage isomers (tmeda=N,N,N′,N′‐tetramethylethylenediamine), suggest that intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the ICH tautomers and the co‐ligands at M, while adding to the preference for N3 coordination, is not the major determining factor. Rather it is the inherently stronger PtN3 bond which favors complexation of 1 a. With an excess of MII(dien), dinuclear species [M2(dien)2(IC‐N1,N3)]3+ (M=PdII, 4 and PtII, 5) also form and were isolated as their ClO4− salts and structurally characterized. In strongly acidic medium 5 is converted to [Pt(dien)(ICH‐N1)]2+ (6), that is, to the PtII complex of tautomer 1 b.
Zoledronic acid inhibits primary bone tumor growth in Ewing sarcoma
Authors: Zhou Zhichao , Guan Hui , Duan Xiaoping , Kleinerman Eugenie S. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractBACKGROUNDZoledronic acid has been shown to be effective in the treatment of osteoporosis, hypercalcemia, and metastatic bone tumors. The efficacy of zoledronic acid on primary bone tumors has not been investigated.METHODSA primary bone tumor mouse model was established. Intratibia injection of TC71 cells resulted in an osteolytic bone tumor. Four days after injection the mice were treated with zoledronic acid alone, paclitaxel alone, or zoledronic acid plus paclitaxel. Control mice were treated with phosphate‐buffered saline. Bone tumor growth was assessed using a Faxitron Specimen Radiography System. The gene expression was detected by reverse‐transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR), ELISA, and immunohistochemistry. Osteoclast formation was determined by tartrate‐resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining.RESULTSZoledronic acid induced apoptosis in TC71 human Ewing sarcoma cells and inhibited cell proliferation. Five weeks after injection, 89% of mice in the control group developed osteolytic bone tumors. Paclitaxel had little effect on bone tumor growth, with 78% of mice developing tumors. By contrast, 44% of mice treated with zoledronic acid developed bone tumors. The most effective treatment was zoledronic acid plus paclitaxel. Tumor incidence in the combination therapy group was only 22%. Osteoclasts were quantified using TRAP staining. There was a decrease in TRAP‐positive osteoclasts in tumor tissues from zoledronic acid‐treated animals compared to control animals. RT‐PCR, immunohistochemistry, and ELISA assay demonstrated that zoledronic acid up‐regulated osteoprotegerin expression.CONCLUSIONSThese results suggest that zoledronic acid induces apoptosis and inhibits primary bone tumor growth in Ewing sarcoma through a mechanism involving the up‐regulation of osteoprotegerin. Zoledronic acid may provide a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of patients with Ewing sarcoma. Cancer 2005. © 2005 American Cancer Society.