bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Disordered Spin Models
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous few chapters of this book we have studied a variety of different Monte Carlo algorithms for simulating the using model under various conditions. In Chapter 3 we looked at the Metropolis algorithm, as it applies to the using model, and in Chapter 4 we looked at a number of other algorithms, most of which are designed to simulate the model more efficiently in the critical region, the region near the phase transition between paramagnetism and ferromagnetism. In the last chapter, we looked at a slight variation on the using model theme, the conserved-order-parameter using model, which can be used as a model of a gas, or of atoms diffusing on a surface. As we have seen, for different regimes of temperature or different variations of the model, different algorithms are appropriate. The trick is to tailor the algorithm to the type of problem we wish to tackle. However, all the algorithms we have seen so far eventually boil down to one thing: they generate a series of states, a Markov chain, in which each state is derived from the previous one in the chain, and attempt to contrive that each should appear with a probability proportional to its Boltzmann weight. In this chapter, for the first time, we will come across systems for which an approach of this kind doesn’t work. The problem, as we will see, is that for some systems, the so-called glassy systems, algorithms of this kind tend to get stuck in small regions of the state space from which they cannot escape. The reason for this is two-fold. First, the fact that each state is generated from the previous one in the chain means that there is a sense in which states are “close together”. There are states which it is easy to get to from the present one in a small number of moves, such as states which differ by the flipping of just a few spins for a single-spin-flip algorithm, and there are other states which you can only get to by making a large number of moves.
Lattices and Data Structures
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters of this book we have looked at quite a number of problems and models in statistical physics, and described a variety of different Monte Carlo methods for their study. For many of these Monte Carlo methods we have also given some details about how they can be most efficiently implemented on a typical modern computer. Many details of implementation however are common to a lot of different algorithms, and in the remaining four chapters of this book we examine some of these general implementation issues. For instance, pretty much all of the problems discussed in this book are defined on a lattice, and so we need to know how to represent such a lattice on our computer. Also, most of our algorithms require us to store a certain amount of data regarding, for example, spin clusters or other constructs, and for this we need to know about the efficient implementation of data structures. In this chapter we describe the basic techniques for handling these issues in Monte Carlo programs. If you are an experienced computer programmer, some of this material may already be familiar to you, in which case you will probably want to skip over those parts.
Monte Carlo Simulations on Parallel Computers
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some of the simulations we would like to perform require so much computing power that it is not possible to finish them in a reasonable length of time on any available computer. Under these circumstances we have two choices: either we can wait a few years for a more powerful computer to become available, or we can perform the calculation on several computers. Since waiting a few years for the answer to a problem is not always a practical course of action, the latter approach is becoming increasingly popular and has led to the development of hardware and software for distributed and parallel computing. In this chapter we explore the ways in which these techniques can be applied to Monte Carlo simulation.
Magnetization-Induced Second Harmonic Generation From Surfaces and Ultrathin Films
Authors: Vollmer R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Optical second harmonic generation (SHG) and nonlinear optics in general became a rapidly growing field of research soon after the invention of the laser by Maiman in 1960. In the following years it was concentrated on nonlinear light generation in bulk materials. Starting in the 1980s the potential of second harmonic and sum frequency generation was explored in the investigation of surfaces and adsorbed molecules.
Nuclear clusters
Authors: Ohkubo S , Yamaya T , Hodgson P E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the observation of radioactivity by Becquerel in 1896 [1], and subsequently of α-particles from heavy nuclei by Rutherford in 1903, the α-particle has continued to be of central importance in nuclear physics. The nucleus itself was discovered by Rutherford [2] using α-particles. The α-particle model is the oldest nuclear model, since Gamov showed [3,4] that α-decay in heavy nuclei can be explained by assuming that in the decay process an α-particle leaves the nucleus by tunnelling through a Coulomb barrier. The classical α-particle model, in which the compositeness of the particle, and therefore the Pauli principle, is not taken into account, was useful in understanding the structure of light nuclei [5]. However, after the success of the shell model [6] and the collective model [7], which revealed single-particle and collective (rotational and vibrational) aspects of nuclei, the α-particle model was almost forgotten for some years.
Plasma Dynamics
Authors: Dendy R O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plasma is the physical state in which most of the visible matter in the universe is found. The properties of plasma are so distinctive that it is often referred to as the fourth state of matter. This book explains the fundamental concepts of plasma physics and provides an introduction to plasma particle dynamics, plasma waves, magnetohydrodynamics, plasma kinetic theory, two-fluid theory, and non-linear plasma physics. Emphasis is placed on the underlying physical principles, rather than on mathematical considerations. The most advanced background knowledge required consists of Maxwell's equations, and these are reviewed in the introduction. This book will be useful to undergraduates in physics and postgraduates in astrophysics, nuclear physics, and plasma physics and is short enough to be covered in a single lecture course.
Motion of an electron magnetic field
Authors: Dendy R O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every plasma has a natural tendency to disperse. Unless there is some restraining force, the energetic particles that compose the plasma will travel away from their initial positions at high velocity and the plasma will cease to exist. Furthermore, many plasmas have low densities, and collisions are therefore so infrequent that a particle travelling outwards is unlikely to be deflected by a collision. Nevertheless, both in the laboratory and in space, diffuse collision less plasmas can be sustained. They are prevented from dispersing by magnetic fields, which act on the charged particles through the Lorentz force. The dynamics of charged particles in magnetic fields therefore form an important area of plasma physics, which we shall examine in this chapter. We start by considering the simplest possible example, which consists of an electron moving in a spatially uniform magnetic field B which does not vary in time.
Non-linear plasma physics
Authors: Dendy R O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall now consider the connection between the two major ways of describing plasma that have been used so far. First, we considered the dynamics of a single particle in the plasma, which leads directly to a simple model for the dielectric properties of the plasma. By including the single-particle dynamics of ions as well as of electrons, it is possible to predict the normal modes of the plasma over a wide range of frequencies. There is also the magneto hydrodynamic approach. By treating the plasma as a magnetized conducting fluid, whose inertia is provided by the mass of the ions, we can describe the bulk stability of the plasma and its lower-frequency normal modes-those modes which do not involve the movement of electrons independently of ions.
Large Gain
Authors: Luchini P , Motz H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the radiated field intensity in an FEL is comparable to the input field, that is when gain is not small compared to unity, it is no longer possible to study the electron motion independently of the radiation process. In this chapter we shall address the situation where the gain is not small but the field itself is small, so as to permit the use of linearized equations of motion. The characteristic feature of this operating regime is that the motion of each electron does not take place in an externally imposed electromagnetic field but rather in the field generated by all the other electrons. It is then preferable to abandon the single-particle description of the previous chapters, where the motion of every single electron could be studied independently of the others, and pass to a collective approach in which the position and velocity of the electrons is described by a suitable distribution function in phase space and the linearized Boltzmann equation for this distribution function and the Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field must be solved selfconsistently.
Tapered Undulators
Authors: Luchini P , Motz H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a large-gain free-electron laser the effect of amplitude variations of the laser field upon electron motion cannot be neglected. If, in addition to large gain, there is a substantial power extraction, that is if the laser power is a nonnegligible fraction of the power transported by the electron beam, the effect of power extraction upon electron energy cannot be neglected. Under these conditions the laser power and the energy of the electron beam, i.e. its mean γ, can no longer be considered constant along the undulator. Since variations in γ affect the synchronism condition which is essential for FEL operation, it becomes necessary to allow the undulator parameters (period and/or field amplitude) to vary as well if synchronism is to be maintained. The undulator becomes ‘tapered’.
Physics of Interacting Electrons in Disordered Systems
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The behaviour of electrons in systems without periodicity is one of the most fascinating areas in solid-state physics, and the last 25 years have seen an enormous increase in research in this field. This has given rise to many new ideas for understanding electronic states in disordered systems, especially the study of the degenerate electron gas in which electron-electron interactions are important. This book provides a much needed survey of these advances. In the first part of the book, the authors discuss impurity bands in three dimensions. Attention is focused on the regime in which the electrons are spatially localized rather than free, so that an interesting interplay of localization and interaction arises. In the second part of the book, they look at the outstanding features of the two-dimensional systems, explaining how these make the localization problem special and interesting. The authors have provided a clear outline of the theoretical picture for the chosen materials and description heuristic. Each chapter is self-contained, allowing readers to pursue their special interests.
Dynamical Properties Of Nematics
Authors: Gennes P G De , Prost J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A nematic flows very much like a conventional organic liquid with molecules of similar size. However, the flow regimes are more complex and more difficult to study experimentally than in isotropic liquids for the following reasons. The translational motions are coupled to inner, orientational motions of the molecules; in most cases, the flow disturbs the alignment. Conversely, a change in the alignment (e.g. by application of an external field) will, in many instances, induce a flow in the nematic.
Macroscopic Behaviour Of Smectics And Columnar Phases
Authors: Gennes P G De , Prost J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1, after the description of smectic and columnar phases, we briefly discussed the influence of thermal fluctuations in these systems. To that end we introduced what we called a ‘poor man’s’ elastic theory. This allowed us to introduce the notions of short-, long-, and quasilong-range order. The main ingredient was the number of ‘liquid-like’ directions, but no attention was paid to the number of relevant variables. A closer contact with experiment requires a proper consideration of the symmetries involved. Because of their unique-characteristics, we consider chiral systems separately in Section 7.2.
Electron Scattering Theory for Ordered and Disordered Matter
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problem of the electronic structure of solid matter is addressed in terms of multiple scattering theory, starting from a short review of local density functional theories, the properties of Schrodinger and Dirac Hamiltonians for a central field, and resolvents and Green functions. Throughout this book, both ordered and disordered systems are considered, as well as non-relativistic and relativistic schemes. Also discussed are the direct applications of multiple scattering to important aspects of modern materials science, such as band structure spectroscopy (XES, XPS, ARUPS, AES), to Fermi energy related properties (specific heat, electron-phonon enhancement, nuclear spin lattice relaxation, conductivity), and the present understanding of magnetic systems.
Local Density Functional Theories
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Density functional theory forms the basis of most modern solid-state calculations. What started as a phenomenological suggestion to replace the non-local operators in the Hartree-Fock method by local quantities became a formally rigorous approach to deal with the n electron problem. Density functional theory now covers quite a few new aspects of this problem, such as applications to magnetic systems, relativistic corrections, extensions to finite temperatures. Last, but not least, its own ‘formal language’ moved into the area of ‘traditional’ mathematical physics. Since density functional theory itself is a very active field of research, its discussion in the following few sections has necessarily to be somewhat incomplete and is therefore restricted to a presentation of its main concepts. In order to facilitate easy access to the original literature the notation used follows closely the notation in the literature.
Multiple Scattering Theory For Disordered Systems-The Coherent Potential Approximation
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theoretical methods discussed in the previous chapter are, perhaps with the exception of real space scattering (eqns (6.39) and (6.54)), restricted to ordered matter, i.e. to systems with well defined two- or three-dimensional translational symmetry (eqns (6.59) and (6.100)). Quite frequently, however, one has to deal with the physical properties of disordered solids, in particular with those of substitutional alloys or of solid solutions. A typical binary alloy, for example, does not usually have long-range order, which is characteristic for intermetallic compounds, nor arc the components of the alloy distributed completely at random-even substitutional solid solutions show a certain degree of short-range order.
Applications Of Multiple Scattering I: Band Structure Spectroscopy
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was stated in Chapter 2, on local density functional theories, that strictly speaking the Kohn-Sham eigenvalues do not have the physical meaning of excitation energies. However, in as much as this statement has to be kept in mind, there seems to be no alternative to using local density functional approaches for a ‘realistic’ description and interpretation of valence band spectra. This is particularly the case for all those spectroscopies, such as angle-resolved photocmission, which rely heavily on theoretical interpretations. Nowadays, one major application of band theory for ordered and disordered systems is band structure spectroscopy. In this chapter, therefore, some of the most important spectroscopies will be discussed in terms of the now familiar scattering approach.
Spin Waves In The Ferromagnetic Heavy Rare Earths
Authors: Jensen Jens , Mackintosh Allan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As discussed in Section 1.5, the exchange interaction dominates the magnetic behaviour of the heavy rare earth metals, and the ordered moments at low temperatures are consequently close to the saturation values. The excitations of such a system are spin waves, which may be viewed semi-classically as coupled precessions of the moments about their equilibrium directions, with well-defined frequencies which are determined by the phase relations between the precessing moments on different sites. From the viewpoint of quantum mechanics, these modes are magnons, which are linear combinations of single-ion excitations from the ground state to the first excited molecular-field state, which is to a good approximation | Jz = J − l &gt;, with phase factors between the coefficients for different ions which determine the dispersion relation Eq for the magnon energy. A useful review of the excitations of magnetic systems has been given by Stirling and McEwen (1987).
Instabilities and Chaos in Quantum Optics: Semi-Classical Theory
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theoretical description of radiation − matter interactions in terms of master equations can be approximated by a semi-classical theory when quantum fluctuations are small. This approach, the exact definition of which will emerge later, has been enormously influential in understanding instabilities and chaos in quantum optics. Although much of the theory (and experiment) has been done only in the last few years, there were already indications in the early experiments on ruby lasers of ‘spiky’ behaviour. Instabilities are often due to competition between different modes which are coupled together non-linearly. Consequently we will first describe qualitatively the modes that are important when we deal with optical systems in Fabry-Perot or ring cavities.
Fokker − Planck Equations: Quantum Fluctuations
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter we examined the small-fluctuation limit of the master equation. However, we were not able to be very precise about what we meant by ‘small’. Although it is clear that approximations such as (8.9) would be unacceptable if fluctuations were large, their domain of validity still needs to be understood. Intuitively reasonable approximations are easy to state. A rather different approximation, for example, from the semi-classical approach is to replace the discrete structure of ℱm (cf. Exercise 7.3) by a smooth envelope. This smoothing is equivalent to a finite truncation of the operator is an extensive variable this truncation may seem a very acceptable thing to do. However, the derivative acting on P may bring down a quantity which too has some extensive properties and so we would need to examine P before we could be sure that a certain truncation was reasonable. These concerns have been expressed clearly in some classic work by van Kampen (1981) which suggests a framework for a quantitative study of such questions. One of the major successes of the theory of quantum fluctuations is the understanding of photon statistics. Moreover, we can determine how quantum fluctuations modify the chaos and instabilities found in the last chapter.
Surface Electronic Transport Phenomena Semiconductors
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Layered metal-insulator-semiconductor microstructures have become an important research area in semiconductor microelectronics. New devices utilize phenomena occuring at or near the semiconductor surface directly. This monograph provides a survey of the diverse experimental and theoretical results for electron and hole transport in surface and subsurface regions of semiconductors, with an emphasis on the mechanisms involved and special measurement procedures necessary, for example in Hall current measurements. This English edition has been substantially revised and updated from the original Russian edition.
Energy quantization and electron and hole transport in surface channels
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the thickness of a surface channel is comparable or smaller than the electron (or hole) wavelength, quantum size effects become observable there. Such effects were first studied theoretically by Lifshitz and Kosevitch (1953) and then experimentally by Ogrin et al. (1966) in thin films. Schrieffer (1957) was the first to discuss electron energy quantization in a surface SCR of a semiconductor. The beginning of intensive investigations of quantum effects in surface channels of semiconductors dates to the mid-sixties when Fowler et al. (1966) proved that a two-dimensional gas of charge carriers could be realized near a semiconductor surface.
Osmotic Pressure and Density
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past, the basic experiment used to study the general properties of solutions was the measurement of the vapour pressure lowering of the solvent (Raoult 1890). But this method which is, in general, efficient is not really useful when the vapour pressure reduction is small. In such situations, it has been replaced by another method which is quite similar: it consists in measuring the osmotic pressure of the solution with respect to the solvent.
Feynman diagrams
Authors: Gastmans R , Wu Tai Tsun 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It’s nevertheless an endless mess before one can assess Nature’s inventiveness. A Feynman diagram [l] is a graphical representation of the amplitude for a given process. It is composed of three types of elements: external lines, internal lines and vertices. With everyone of these elements one associates a mathematical expression, and the product of these expressions, in an appropriate order (together with some overall factors), yields the amplitude.The Feynman rules tell us which mathematical expression is to be associated with a given element of the Feynman diagram.
Double Bremsstrahlung
Authors: Gastmans R , Wu Tai Tsun 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Double bremsstrahlung processes in QED, such as e+e- → γ γ γ γ, e+e- → μ+ μ- γ γ ande+e- → e+e- γ γ, are of interest for several reasons. They have all been observed in experiments and provide high energy QED tests of order α4 [28]. The agreement between theory and experiment for the process e+ e-→ μ+ μ- γ γ has been widely used to set lower limits on the mass of the excited muon. This was done both at PEP [29] at GeV and at PETRA [30] at higher energies. It is also not inconceivable that the effects of this process have to be taken into account if the accuracy of the charge asymmetry measurements in e+ e-→ μ+ μ- continues to increase. Finally, the process e+ e-→ μ+ μ- γ γgives an a4 contribution to small angle Bhabha scattering, which is generally used to determine the beam luminosity of e+ecolliders [28].