bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Polymers and other organics
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Organic compounds are sensitive to radiation by virtue of the irreversible chemical processes which take place when covalent bonds, in this case mainly C-C, C-O, O-H and C-H bonds, are excited or ionized by irradiation. Frequently, the bonds are ruptured and the reactive fragments then form new compounds, a process known as radiolysis. We have not met this process in our discussion of electronic devices and optics because the inorganic materials which largely make up such devices do not undergo decomposition in this way. The exceptions are radiolytic hydrogen in some Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor structures and radiolytic halogen in some halide salts. Organics in the form of plastics now play an indispensable role in conventional product engineering, examples being moulded structures, packets, fibre-reinforced boards, insulating sheathing, insulating and hydraulic oils, and so on. In more advanced engineering, organics, again mainly polymeric, are also extremely diverse, examples being photoresists, protective, encapsulating and passivating layers, inert binders for pigments and photographic media, active media for sensing light, force or temperature and in the millennium some active electronic switches and light emitters. Further, there is a huge volume and variety of non-polymeric, often finely-divided organic solid which come into our lives as foods, drugs, papers, dyes, explosives, and myriad natural products. Finally, organic liquids play a part in most of the above fields, including drinks, solvents, synthetic intermediates, lubricants, and insulating oils. An unexpected proportion of this diverse list may be exposed to radiation in industrial processes. For example, plant material may be used as a filler in radiation reprocessing, foods are irradiated as a preservation measure, and a toxic material such as dioxin vapour may be irradiated to destroy it. The diversity of the above list of materials makes it clear that, while all are likely to have some reactions in common (e.g. generation of hydrogen), it is a large task to list and categorize accurately the changes in physical parameters or to develop broad prediction schemes in the same way as for silicon devices.
The interaction of radiation with shielding materials
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The understanding of radiation effects in systems depends in part on a good understanding of the fundamental interactions between particles and photons and the materials in question. These interactions affect both shielding calculations and predictions of local effects in device structures. The local effects have mainly been discussed elsewhere in relation to specific device structures. The interaction of radiation in shields is a broad subject well covered in standard texts such as Price et al. ( 1957), Profio (1979), and Chilton et al. (1984). Other useful discussions of interactions are given in Evans (1955), Hubbell (1969), Knoll (1989), and Delaney (1992). In this chapter we discuss selected aspects of radiation shielding in general and also discuss two portions of interaction theory not widely covered: first, the interactions having a practical impact on the stopping of space radiation in spacecraft, especially applicable to analysing radiation effects in unmanned spacecraft, and second, some interactions important for soft X-rays.
Computer methods for particle transport
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Earlier discussion indicates the complexity involved in estimating radiation effects within a vehicle, usually a spacecraft. Often, the designer will be provided with environment data in the form of orbit-averaged particle flux spectra for the project under consideration. However, these data can themselves be generated using the environment models described in Chapter 2 and their associated computer programmes. The environment is also often specified in terms of the ‘dose-depth’ curve giving the dose as a function of depth of shielding in a simple geometry (slab or sphere). The necessary end-point will be the estimation of the radiation dose likely to be received by a particular device at a particular point within the structure. ‘Manual’ methods were described earlier, but powerful computer codes now serve as tools for the engineer.
Radiation-hardening of semiconductor parts
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Radiation-hardening’ derives from military terminology (see Section 4.1). The term has acquired a wide variety of meanings, depending on the user group and radiation environment concerned. That environment may present a variety of levels of total ionizing dose, transient dose rate, neutrons, or single-event upsets. Each environment may require a different approach to hardening. A spacecraft designer may consider a level of 100 krad ( I kGy) tolerance; to be ‘hard’, a military designer may apply the term ‘hard’ to megarad tolerance only if it also includes tolerance of transient effects. We must be careful, therefore, to qualify the term ‘hardening’ or hardened’ with a definition of the environment involved.
Microcosms of the brain what sensorimotor systems reveal about the mind
Authors: Tweed Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How can we understand a system as intricate as the human brain? Microcosms of the Brain presents a bold new approach to understanding this incredibly complex organ. It argues that the key to understanding brain function lies in the sensorimotor systems-those that gather sensory data such as light and sound, and use them to control action-steering the eyes, head, or limbs. The book shows how these subsystems can provide a microcosm of the brain-small enough to be analysed, but substantial enough to reveal general principles of brain function. By studying these simple subsystems and simulating their behaviour computationally, we can get some answers to the bigger questions about brain function. In ten chapters Tweed explores ten concepts that may help form a basis for the computerized neuroscience of the future: optimization, computation, complexity, learning, dynamics, interfaces, loops, degrees of freedom, information, and inference. He explains these concepts in simple, non-mathematical language, and shows how they can bring some order to our view of the human brain. Written to be accessible to students and researchers in the cognitive sciences, this is a book that could dramatically change the way that we explore the human mind.
Brain of darkness
Authors: Tweed Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Present-day knowledge of the brain resembles in some ways earlier Europeans’ knowledge of Africa. Explorers have mapped the coastline in detail, but the interior is mostly uncharted. We know a lot about the input side of the brain, where our sense organs gather information and transmit it centrally. And we understand almost as much about the output side, where commands emerge from the center to activate our muscles. But everything in between, the whole machinery of sensorimotor transformation that converts our sensations and stored knowledge into purposeful action, is more mysterious. Anatomists have brought back reports about the wiring of nuclei and cortices throughout the brain, but still we know little about what these structures are doing. Until we find out, our functional map of the interior will remain mostly a blank page, enlivened with fanciful images. Penetrating the interior, I believe, will require techniques beyond those that have served us on the peripheries. My aim in this book is to present one promising approach, laying out its logic and describing some of its early successes.
Inference
Authors: Tweed Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hermann von Helmholtz observed that sensory perception is a form of unconscious inference. Given a stream of signals from a variety of sensors, all of them noisy, all of them limited also in other ways, your brain has to infer what is going on in the outside world. Your sense organs routinely deliver incomplete, inaccurate, or contradictory reports. When you creep up the stairs to murder a sleeping houseguest, your eyes may report that there is a dagger floating in the air before you, the handle toward your hand, but your fingers, when you try to clutch it, may say that there isn’t.
The search for intelligent life in the brain
Authors: Tweed Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have argued for a threefold path through the functional interior of the brain: study sensorimotor systems, leave the details to computers, and identify the optimization principles that shaped performance. This approach yields insight and surprising, correct predictions about brain systems that might otherwise defy understanding. It applies equally to reflexive and cognitive functions: self-optimizing networks can learn and remember, they can recognize and create subtle patterns including temporal ones, they can predict the future and plan ahead, they can discern patterns hidden in noise, they can juggle probabilities and infer likely conclusions from data, they can engage in internal monologs about whether the head is really tilted, given that the otolith organs are signaling but the semicircular canals have reported no rotation.
Nonparametric smoothing
Authors: Pawitan Yudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nonparametric smoothing or nonparametric function estimation grew enormously in the 1980s. The word ‘nonparametric ‘ has nothing to do with the classical rank-based methods, such as the Wilcoxon rank test, but it is understood as follows. The simplest relationship between an outcome y and a predictor x is given by a linear model E(y) = β 0 + β 1 x. This linear model is a parametric equation with two parameters β 0 and β 1. A nonparametric model would simply specify E(y) as some function of x E(y) = f (x). The class of all possible f ( ) is ‘nonparametric ‘ or infinite dimensional.
Assessment of distance sampling estimators
Authors: Fewster R M , Buckland S T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we return to conventional line transect sampling, as outlined in Chapter 2, Sections 2.2–2.5. On a number of occasions in the literature, distance sampling methods have been tested by simulation studies. In some cases, the methods are reported to work well (e.g. Cassey and McArdle 1999), while in other cases the performance is criticized (Barry and Welsh 2001; Melville and Welsh 2001).
Collective motion
Authors: Czirók A , Vicsek Tamás 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The collective motion of various organisms like the flocking of birds (Fig. 6.1) [1], the swimming of schools of fish [2], and the motion of herds of quadrupeds, migrating bacteria (§4.1 ), ants [3] or pedestrians (§6.2) is a fascinating phenomenon catching our eyes when we observe our natural environment. In addition to the aesthetic aspects, studies on this collective behaviour can have interesting applications as well, e.g., modelling the motion of a crowd of people can help urban designers. Here we address the question whether there are some global, perhaps universal, features of this type of behaviour when many organisms are involved and parameters like the level of perturbations or the mean distance between the individuals are changed.
Geometric And Kinematic Foundations Of Lagrangian Mechanics
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first step in the construction of a mathematical model for studying the motion of a system consisting of a certain number of points is necessarily the investigation of its geometrical properties. Such properties depend on the possible presence of limitations (constraints) imposed on the position of each single point with respect to a given reference frame. For a one-point system, it is intuitively clear what it means for the system to be constrained to lie on a curve or on a surface, and how this constraint limits the possible motions of the point. The geometric and hence the kinematic description of the system becomes much more complicated when the system contains two or more points, mutually constrained; an example is the case when the distance between each pair of points in the system is fixed. The correct set-up of the framework for studying this problem requires that one first considers some fundamental geometrical properties; the study of these properties is the subject of this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Krause Jens , Ruxton Graeme D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Group-living is a widespread phenomenon in the animal kingdom and has attracted considerable attention in a number of different contexts. A large literature exists explaining the existence of grouping, concerning both its proximate and ultimate causes. Furthermore numerous studies on topics like self-organization, reciprocal altruism, and producer–scrounger relationships have used animal groups as study systems. Given the vast literature on animal groups, we will not attempt to give a comprehensive review of all existing studies, as this would neither be possible nor desirable. Instead our focus will be on the unifying concepts regarding grouping behaviour that have been developed over the last two decades (e.g. the optimal group size concept; co-operative breeding).
Spatial heterogeneity of costs and benefits within groups
Authors: Krause Jens , Ruxton Graeme D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapters 2 and 3, on the benefits and costs of grouping, assumed that the fitness consequences of grouping apply more or less equally to all individuals in a group (and are only a function of group size). This simplification will be challenged in this chapter, in which we explore the importance of spatial positioning within a group for individual fitness. Animal groups vary greatly in their spatial structure (Parrish and Hamner 1997) and there is growing evidence that the costs and benefits of group-living are strongly related to the spatial position of an individual within a group. Fitness is notoriously difficult to measure and so, in this chapter, we will use a number of surrogates to estimate the fitness consequences associated with different spatial positions in groups: these include energy intake (Section 5.4.1) and expenditure (Section 5.4.2), risk of predation (Section 5.5) and parasitism (Section 5.6), and access to mates (Section 5.7).
The Natural History of Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Lopez Oscar L , Becker James T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia in individuals age 65 and older (Jorm and Jolley 1998). The neurofibrillary pathology of AD usually starts in the mesial temporal areas, continuing to the allocortex and neocortex (Braak and Braak 1991; Pearson et al.1985). Clinically, it starts with memory deficits and gradually progresses to a global cognitive impairment (Becker et al.1988). Morever, these cognitive deficits are accompanied by a variety of abnormal behaviors that are also more frequent as the disease progresses. Therefore, the study of the natural history of AD relates to the factors that accelerate or slow down the progression of the cognitive syndrome. Most natural history research focuses on four endpoints that all patients with AD will reach at some time during the course of their disease: severe cognitive and functional stages, institutionalization and death. In this chapter, we examine how comorbid conditions, specific psychiatric phenotypes, psychiatric medication, and the recently developed dementia treatments alter the natural clinical course of AD.
Attentional Functioning in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Parasuraman Raja 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The population of older adults afflicted with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) continues to grow rapidly. New techniques for preventing, slowing the onset of, and treating AD are therefore urgently needed. Such efforts would be boosted if this progressive disease could be detected early in its course, before irreversible brain changes occur. Consequently, many research groups have investigated cognitive changes in the early stages of AD, particularly memory (Albert 1998; Becker 1988; Morris 1996a; Nebes 1992) and attention (Morris 1996b; Parasuraman and Haxby 1993; Perry and Hodges 1999). Changes in these functions may also occur in the preclinical stage, before individuals show symptoms that meet the diagnostic criteria for AD (Bondi et al.1999; Greenwood et al.2000).
Executive Functions in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Collette Fabienne , Van Der Linden Martial 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has long been widely recognized that episodic memory impairment is a hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), present in the first stages and even in the prodromal period. On the other hand, until relatively recently, executive dysfunction was not considered as an important characteristic of AD. For example, Pillon et al.(1986) indicated that executive dysfunction tends to be mild and usually occurs relatively late in the disease. A number of recent studies have nevertheless demonstrated that individuals with AD are impaired on a variety of tasks that are commonly considered as measures of executive control and that these executive deficits are present relatively early in AD (in association with episodic memory disorders). The purpose of this chapter is to review these studies and also to present the researches which have attempted to relate executive impairment in AD patients to neuropathological modifications.
Information Processing Defects in Episodic Memory in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Overman Amy A , Becker James T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the clinical manifestation of a degenerative neuropathological disorder that typically affects older individuals. The primary presenting symptom of the disease, indeed its defining characteristic, is the profound and progressive loss of memory. AD patients lose their knowledge of day-to-day events, and their fund of knowledge and concepts deteriorates. Although clearly a multi-system disease, the neuropathological changes focus in the temporal and parietal lobes, and progress to the rest of the cerebral cortex. Subcortical structures (e.g. thalamus, striatum) are less affected, and typically do not become involved until later in the natural history of the disease.
Language in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Kertesz Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interest in language function in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has increased exponentially in the last two decades. On the other hand, language deficits have been submerged in the general cognitive decline in many clinical and epidemiological studies. Alzheimer’s (1907) original case had impaired comprehension and paraphasic responses later in the course of the illness. Pick (1892) emphasized aphasia in the description of frontotemporal lobar atrophy.
Neurobiological Abnormalities in Alzheimer’s Disease: Structural, Genetic, And Functional Correlates Of Cognitive Dysfunction
Authors: Morris Robin G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The neurobiological changes that result in the cognitive impairment in AD are now much better understood. These span the different levels, including studies that explore gross morphological and histological changes, as well as those to do with abnormalities at the molecular, biochemical, or cellular level. Whilst the neurobiological aspects are covered in much greater depth elsewhere (e.g. Dawnbarn and Allen 2001; Iqbaal et al.1999), this chapter relates some of the neurobiological findings more directly to the neuropsychology of AD. What emerges is a reasonably good correspondence between the two aspects, indicating that AD is a true neuropsychological disorder, with the different features of brain neurodegeneration broadly predicting the pattern of cognitive impairment.
Chaos and Time-Series Analysis
Authors: Sprott Julien Clinton 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This text provides an introduction to the exciting new developments in chaos and related topics in nonlinear dynamics, including the detection and quantification of chaos in experimental data, fractals, and complex systems. Most of the important elementary concepts in nonlinear dynamics are discussed, with emphasis on the physical concepts and useful results rather than mathematical proofs and derivations. While many books on chaos are purely qualitative and many others are highly mathematical, this book fills the middle ground by giving the essential equations, but in the simplest possible form. It assumes only an elementary knowledge of calculus. Complex numbers, differential equations, and vector calculus are used in places, but those tools are described as required. The book is aimed at the student, scientist, or engineer who wants to learn how to use the ideas in a practical setting. It is written at a level suitable for advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students in all fields of science and engineering.
Spatiotemporal chaos and complexity
Authors: Sprott Julien Clinton 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the previous discussion has concerned low-dimensional chaotic systems, governed by simple iterated maps or ordinary differential equations. By contrast, natural systems such as economic, ecological, social, neural, and meteorological, are inherently high-dimensional, involving many interacting variables. Even relatively simple nonlinear interactions between a limited number of variables can lead to complex behavior.
Uniformly Quasiregular Mappings
Authors: Iwaniec Tadeusz , Martin Gaven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The interesting question of which compact Riemannian manifolds admit rational maps has been considered in [218] as a generalization of the Lichnerowitz conjecture. This conjecture states that only the n-sphere admits a non-compact group of homeomorphic conformal mappings and was solved affirmatively by Lelong-Ferrand [200]. The general question is in turn related to the notion of
The Solo Performer’s Identity
Authors: Davidson Jane w. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter explored how self-identity is formed and how young people come to define themselves as musicians. The current chapter moves on from where the previous chapter concluded, accepting the definition of the musician’s identity which emerged. The central topic for consideration here is the notion of ‘being a performer’, in particular the question: ‘what makes a performer?’ The chapter concentrates on the soloist, for it is well documented that soloists typically are more exposed to performance pressures —they do not have co-performers with whom to collaborate. Furthermore, in popular, folk and classical Western traditions, the soloist is often regarded as a person who needs to possess very high-level communicative abilities in order to engage the audience’s attention and foster a sense of participation (see Davidson, 1997, for more discussion of solo versus co-performance). The discussion in this chapter reflects on the environmental circumstances, patterns of behaviour and personality traits that might influence the development of an individual’s performance abilities. In particular, what makes a ‘good’ solo performance is considered.