bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Background modelling in Rietveld analysis
Authors: Richardson James W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Rietveld Method was devised as a complete powder-diffraction-pattern fitting technique, which necessitates modelling the total scattering from crystalline samples. Typical scattering patterns from purely crystalline materials without defects can be reliably modelled simply by convoluting the calculated Bragg intensities with the resolution function of the diffraction instrumentation and adding a background contribution accounting for incoherent scattering, air scattering, and Thermal Diffuse Scattering. (See Chapters 7 and 8 for accounts of crystalline size and microstrain effects on the observed reflection profiles.) Many diffraction experiments, however, involve the analysis of scattering patterns containing additional non-crystalline scattering components which are not accounted for by conventional background functions. These com-ponents are observed in Rietveld analyses as broad oscillations superimposed on the sharp Bragg pattern. One example of this is thermal diffuse scattering (TDS) for which the corrections are well known (Chapter 9; Cooper and Rouse 1968; Windsor 1981 ). Other examples include scattering from: ( 1) amorphous containers, (2) incompletely crystallized samples, and (3) separate amorphous phases. These scattering phenomena can be characterized as interference functions developed from short-range interactions between atoms in the sample. Successful refinement of the crystalline structure requires precise modelling of these additional non-crystalline contributions. This can be accomplished through the use of empirical functions such as higher-order polynomials.
Electron Diffraction Effects due to Modulated Structures
Authors: Amelinckx S , Dyck D Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The diffraction pattern of a modulated structure is often characterized by the appearance of weak reflections derived from and often close to the reflections of the basic structure. These so-called satellites often form linear sequences or 2D or 3D arrays associated with the basic reflections. When arrays of satellites belonging to different basic spots meet, they do not necessarily match, i.e. they do not belong to a common reciprocal lattice. In the simplest case of linear arrays a “spacing” anomaly or an “orientation” anomaly or a combination of both may occur (Figure 4.1). In this case we call the diffraction pattern “incommensurate”. In some systems the positions of the satellites may change continuously upon varying one parameter such as temperature.
Kinetic Theory of Plasma Waves
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The book deals with the propagation and absorption of high frequency waves in plasmas (hot, fully ionized gases). Research in this field is very active in controlled fusion research, i.e. the quest for energy from nuclear reactions similar to those going on within the sun, and in astrophysics, i.e. the study of space plasmas in the earth ionosphere, stars, and galaxies. The text collects in a structured and self-contained way the basic knowledge on the broad and varied behaviour of plasma waves, adopting the microscopic kinetic description of the plasma as unifying principle. The internal coherence of the theory is explicity stressed, and very interesting physical phenomena peculiar to plasmas, such as collisionless damping of waves, the development of stochasticity in the interactions of charged particles with electromagnetic waves, and nonlinear interactions between waves, are discussed in detail. The most common and useful approximations used in solving practical problems are derived as special cases from the more general kinetic approach, thereby clarifying their meaning and domain of applicability. This exposition should be useful to plasma physicists both as an introduction and a reference to this field of research. Because of its multi-disciplinary aspects it might also be of interest to people specializing in kinetic theory, classical electromagnetism, or classical mechanics, as a nontrivial example of application of the methods of these fields to the unconventional plasma medium.
Molecular Gas Dynamics And The Direct Simulation Of Gas Flows
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The direct simulation Monte Carlo (or DSMC) method has, in recent years, become widely used in engineering and scientific studies of gas flows that involve low densities or very small physical dimensions. This method is a direct physical simulation of the motion of representative molecules, rather than a numerical solution of the equations that provide a mathematical model of the flow. These computations are no longer expensive and the period since the 1976 publication of the original Molecular Gas Dynamics has seen enormous improvements in the molecular models, the procedures, and the implementation strategies for the DSMC method. The molecular theory of gas flows is developed from first principles and is extended to cover the new models and procedures. Note: The disk that originally came with this book is no longer available.
Dsmc Procedures Ina Homogeneous Gas
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The DSMC procedures for the simulation of a representative set of intermolecular collisions are best derived and demonstrated in the context of a homogeneous or ‘zero-dimensional’ gas. However, in order to make the procedures directly useful as subroutines in the later programs, the homogeneous gas is divided into a one-dimensional structure of cells and sub-cells. This also permits the testing of the procedures for any effects due to the number of molecules per cell or sub-cell. The procedures for the establishment of the correct collision rate are based on the cells, while individual collision pairs are chosen from the sub-cells.
One-Dimensional Steady Flows
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All calculations in this chapter are made with either the ‘general onedimensional’ program DSMC1. FOR, or with several variants of this program that have special adaptions for the study of shock waves. The term ‘one-dimensional’ is taken here to mean that there can be macroscopic flow gradients in only one direction. There can be finite flow velocity components in more than one direction and, in addition to the plane flow geometry, the program can be applied to flows with cylindrical or spherical symmetry. The geometry is specified by setting the parameter IFX to 0 for plane flows, to 1 for cylindrical flows, or to 2 for spherical flows. All DSMC calculations are unsteady but, since this chapter deals only with steady flows, the sampling is concerned primarily with the steady flow that is established at large times. The gas is a simple gas or a gas mixture of monatomic or diatomic gases, and the DSMC collision procedures follow those of program DSMC0R.FOR.
Two-Dimensional Flows
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic simulation procedures that were developed in Chapter 11 for homogeneous gases, and were applied in Chapter 12 to one-dimensional flows, are applicable also to two- and three-dimensional flows. It is the requirement for efficient schemes for the generation and utilization of grid systems that represents the new challenge when the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method is applied to multi-dimensional problems. The ideal DSMC grid would: have variable cell sizes related to the local gradients in the flow properties and to the mean free path;
Introduction
Authors: Sugawara M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Up until the late 1960s, chemical etching, also called wet solvent etching, was the key technology to integrated circuit manufacturing. Indeed, from the standpoint of manufacturing, wet etching provides low cost and often infinite selectivity. But, inherent limitations in wet etching preclude the use of this technique for micron and submicron pattern sizes. The most serious limitation is that of isotropic etching, which results in undercutting of the mask material and hence limits the minimum size of the pattern. To obtain high-density packing of microelectronic circuits, anisotropic etching is essential. By the early 1970s, CF /02 dry etching was widely adopted for patterning. It was widely recognized that dry etching offered the possibility of a vertical etch rate that greatly exceeded the horizontal etch rate (namely anisotropic etching). As a result, these dry etching techniques, which can generate anisotropic etch profiles, came into prominence. Dry etching soon began to appear in IC fabrication. However, these dry etching technologies, like wet processes, had their resolution limited by undercutting, and other, even more anisotropic etching techniques appeared. Among these were reactive ion etching (RIE). The RIE technique which has been widely adopted for IC fabrication until now provides moderate selectivity, etch rate and high anisotropy. In the mid-to-late 1970s, research began on a dry etch technique which would combine the positive features of RIE with directional bombardment of the surface by ions accelerated through electrostatic sheaths. Figure 1.1 shows how integrated circuits have evolved and how the number of individual components per circuit has increased with time. It is seen in the figure that the component density of IC circuits has doubled every year and this yearly doubling rate has been maintained from the first IC in 1960 until recently. At the same time, the design feature size has shrunk from 6 μm to 0.8 μm in the last 15 years, and the smallest dimensions are expected to decrease to 0.1 μmin the near future.
Plasma particles and potentials
Authors: Stansfield Barry L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plasma processing has proven to be an indispensable tool for the production of large-scale integrated circuits. The trend in modern plasma processing is towards the manipulation and treatment of larger and larger wafers, with the resulting necessity of controlling the uniformity of the etching or deposition across the entire wafer diameter. This has resulted in significant effort being spent to develop new uniform plasma sources, as well as on the techniques to measure the plasma parameters and to confirm their uniformity in these devices.
Future prospects of plasma etching
Authors: Tsukamoto T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dry etching using a reactive plasma has spread widely throughout the VLSI processing field today because of its ability to fabricate fine-line semiconductor devices. Presently, conventional reactive ion etching (RIE) is most popular especialy in VLSI production, because the etch performance of RIE conforms to the design rule of VLSI. Also, the RIE equipment has good reliability over 24-hour machine operation. Maintenance people know how to maintain the machines very well. The cost of RIE equipment is now reasonable.
Heat And Mass Transfer In Convective Flow Systems
Authors: Guthrie R I L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapter we were exclusively concerned with metallurgical examples of systems in which there was no bulk motion of the substance through which or across which heat or mass was being transferred. There are, however, a wide variety of systems in which heat or mass transfer occurs as a result of both convection and diffusion processes, as briefly explained in Chapter I.
Current Regulation in Power Converters
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The power converter in a high performance ac drive essentially functions as a power amplifier, reproducing the low power level control signals generated in the field orientation controller at power levels appropriate for the driven machine. Typically the input power to the converter is three phase, fixed frequency, fixed voltage power from the utility power grid. The output must be variable frequency, variable voltage power with the frequency and voltage range appropriate to the intended operating range of the drive.
The Physics and Applications of Photorefractive Materials
Authors: Solymar L , Webb D J , Grunnet-Jepsen A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Photorefractive materials combine photoconductive and electro-optic properties: light affects their electrical conductivity; their optical properties (refractive index, etc.) are affected by applied electric fields. The aim of this book is to cover the vast range of phenomena occurring in Photorefractive Materials. For Physicists it is part of the fashionable subject of Nonlinear Optics. Engineers tend to place it as part of optoelectronics promising a variety of new devices. This book summarizes the results of 28 years of research in a manner that would appeal both to the beginner (a graduate student who has just entered the field) and to the expert (who might have done research on some aspect of the subject for a decade or more). It is in three parts. Part I serves as an introduction with emphasis on physical principles and simple mathematical models. Part II is a comprehensive account of all the major advances. Its main merit is the organization of the material accompanied by a detailed list of references. Part III is concerned with the enormous range of potential applications.
Introduction
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As developers and users of the finite element method in electrical engineering and advocates of the value of the method in design and development work, we have become aware of the difficulties experienced by new users when introduced to the subject. The difficulties appear to arise in two areas, viz., (i) an inadequate understanding of relevant electromagnetics and (ii) an inability to appreciate the tricks and traps of modelling. Whilst there are excellent books which deal with electromagnetics, numerical computation and some aspects of modelling, we believe there is no single comprehensive volume which gives the new user or the interested inquirer the foundation needed. This book is therefore aimed at aiding this group: it is not intended to help the reader write finite element software.
Fundamentals of Optics of Broadband Harmonic Pulses
Authors: Shyartsburg A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to time-dependent phenomena in interactions of short pulses of quasi-monochromatic electromagnetic radiation, containing only a few oscillations of wave fields, with dispersive and lossy media. These phenomena are now discovered in a multitude of pulse reflection, scattering and absorption processes. The traditional steady-state values of frequency-dependent parameters characterizing these processes-the refletion coefficients, scattering cross sections and absorption decrements-are determined by the properties of materials irradiated by harmonic CW radiation. In contrast, the relevant characteristics of nonstationary processes may depend on the duration and shape of incident waveform, the material and the geometry of the experiment being the same.
Object Recognition through Invariant Indexing
Authors: Rothwell Charles A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Computer (robot) vision is a very challenging area of research. The problem of object recognition is central to computer vision in many applications such as the automatic sorting , selection, orientation, and inspection of manufactured items. It is also very important in navigation problems in mobile robots. In invarient indexing one computes measures from a scene that index into a base with a minimal search, so producing hypotheses of the identities of objects present in the scene. This book investigates how these measures are incorporated into a recognition system and also develops a range of projective indexes that can be used. The benefit of using projective measures is that they are unchanged by the imaging process.
Topology Based Modelling Of Very Large Systems
Authors: Parmantier Jean Philippe , Degauque Pierre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory relies on decomposition of the geometry of the problem in different volumes included within each other (see Fig. 1). This breakdown is made possible thanks to the “Good Shielding Approximation” principle, which supposes that inner volumes cannot interact with external volumes [Baum, 1989]. In practise, such a breakdown is not realistic. Indeed, wi1es are inevitably present in systems, and make the volumes “electromagnetically” dependent.
Principles of Dielectrics
Authors: Scaife B K P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is an attempt to provide a detailed introduction to the basic principles of the theory of dielectrics. The approach is entirely classical and no use is made of quantum mechanics. As the emphasis is on the fundamentals of the subject, considerable space is devoted to relevant topics in electrostatics. A thorough knowledge and understanding of electrostatics is essential if one is to make progress in the study of dielectrics.I have pitched the level to suit students of the physical sciences in their final undergraduate year.
The role of nutrition and physical activity in the obesity epidemic
Authors: Harnack Lisa J , Schmitz Kathryn H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to develop effective public health strategies for the prevention of obesity it is critical to understand both the proximal and distal factors contributing to the rising rates of obesity. Proximally, body fatness is a function of the balance of energy intake and energy expenditure. If energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, the excess energy is stored as body fat. If energy expenditure is lower than energy intake the unexpended energy is stored as adipose tissue. Consequently, the proximal cause of the rising prevalence of obesity is a growing imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure that may be attributable to an increase in total energy intake and/or a downward shift in total energy expenditure. Distal causes of the obesity epidemic include changes in behavioral and environmental factors that may spur energy intake or depress energy expenditure.
The role of socio-cultural factors in the obesity epidemic
Authors: Ball Kylie , Crawford David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Obesity is socio-culturally distributed; that is the prevalence of obesity is known to vary according to socio-cultural factors, including socio-economic position, social roles and circumstance, and cultural factors. Further, these socio-cultural patterns are complex and specific to sex, age, and sometimes racial groups, as well as type of society, with patterns of relationships observed in developed countries sometimes reversed in developing countries. As described in Chapter 4, there is little doubt of the importance of the changing physical environment to the increases in obesity observed over the past several decades. However, far less attention has been paid to investigating the potential contribution of socio-cultural factors and to changes in the socio-cultural environment over time to the current obesity pandemic. The mechanisms through which socio-cultural factors may influence body weight and risk for obesity are also not well understood.
Many–Body Quantum Theory in Condensed Matter Physics
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is an introduction to the techniques of many-body quantum theory with a large number of applications to condensed matter physics. The basic idea of the book is to provide a self-contained formulation of the theoretical framework without losing mathematical rigor, while at the same time providing physical motivation and examples. The examples are taken from applications in electron systems and transport theory. On the formal side, the book covers an introduction to second quantization, many-body Green's function, finite temperature Feynman diagrams and bosonization. The applications include traditional transport theory in bulk as well as mesoscopic systems, where both the Landau-Büttiker formalism and recent developments in correlated transport phenomena in mesoscopic systems and nano-structures are covered. Other topics include interacting electron gases, plasmons, electron-phonon interactions, superconductivity and a final chapter on one-dimensional systems where a detailed treatment of Luttinger liquid theory and bosonization techniques is given. Having grown out of a set of lecture notes, and containing many pedagogical exercises, this book is designed as a textbook for an advanced undergraduate or graduate course, and is also well suited for self-study.
Resonant light–atom interactions
Authors: Fox Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall study the processes that occur when an atom is irradiated with a light beam that is resonant with one of its natural frequencies. We shall start by making a few general observations, and then give a detailed analysis of the process based on the time-dependent Schr¨odinger equation. This will lead us to the concept of Rabi oscillations, from which we shall be able to obtain a deeper understanding of how absorption transitions work.
What is Clinical Psychology?
Authors: Hall John , Llewelyn Sue 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although almost everyone is familiar with the term ‘psychology ‘, and we all more or less know that it refers to ‘what makes people tick ‘, the exact meaning remains complex and is still evolving. Psychology as a term originally derived from the Greek psyche meaning ‘mind ‘ or ‘spirit ‘, and logos , meaning ‘study ‘. Early approaches to studying what we now think of as psychology were not distinguished from philosophy, when thinkers such as Descartes, Berkeley, Locke, and Hume, tried to understand how mental processes worked through philosophical discourse and analysis. More recently thinkers such as Freud and William James made use of forms of self-analysis and observation to develop theories about the mind. Over the years a more scientific approach began to dominate, and modern psychology became primarily concerned with trying to understand behaviour and mental function through empirical analysis and experimentation.
Working With People Who Have Severe Mental Health Problems
Authors: McGovern John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is an exciting time to work in this field of clinical psychology practice, since there have been many important research and treatment developments in the past 20 years for individuals with serious mental health problems. The issues are broad ranging. Conditions attracting the psychiatric diagnoses of schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, and manic depression do not affect just an individual. These problems also impact on families, and families can therefore play an important rehabilitative role in delaying relapse, apart from having their own needs. They too may require appropriate care and interventions to cope with the exceptional circumstances they face. Many individuals experiencing severe and enduring mental health problems are affected not only by distressing symptoms, but may also experience stigma, restrictions in their social functioning, and difficulty in accessing employment. Surveys of the views of both service users and relatives show that these quality of life issues take priority over the management of symptoms.