bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Portugal: A Scrupulous Inquisition
Authors: Bethencourt Francisco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE European witch myth, which we can characterize very briefly by five main elements–pacts with the devil, night flights, participation in collective assemblies (sabbaths), ability to metamorphose, and ability to produce malefice against persons and property –emerged fragmented (and even reinterpreted) in most of the statements by witnesses and accused persons as recorded in the Portuguese Inquisition files. The pact often had no connection with night flights and sabbaths; supernatural flight was not the exclusive province of witches and magicians and could involve others under their influence; the image of the witch was not clearly distinguished from that of the sorcerer; witches’ powers were often considered innate rather than granted by the devil; their action was not viewed as exclusively malefic, for considerable ambiguity can be observed in the moral assessment of their acts.
Scandinavian Witchcraft in Anglo-American Perspective
Authors: Monter E William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ATTEMPTING to assess the significance of Scandinavian witch-trials both through similarities with and direct influences on witch-trials in the English-speaking world requires at least three separate tasks. First, one must try to isolate the most important distinctive features of these trials within the various parts of this large region: what was peculiarly interesting about witch-hunting in Scandinavia? Second, one must search for any common features which may help distinguish witch-trials in northern Europe (scandinavia plus the British Isles) from those on the continent.
The Great Debate
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the period between the two World Wars Rumanian intellectuals of the most diverse ideological commitments engaged in spirited polemics about the course of development their country should follow. With the Great War and the struggle for political unification behind them and with the task of organizing the new Rumania immediately ahead they were compelled to re-examine old values and seek new definitions of national character. The enhanced opportunities for political and cultural integration into Western Europe gave added urgency to their task. The responses they gave to these fundamental questions defied consensus. Yet, however diverse the issues they raised, two broad groupings of intellectuals are discernible which may be designated as Europeanists and traditionalists. The former treated Rumania as a part of Europe and insisted that she had no other choice but to follow the path of economic and social development already taken by the urbanized and industrialized West. The traditionalists, on the other hand, emphasized Rumania’s agrarian character and sought models of development based upon her own unique social and cultural heritage.
Church Courts and English Law
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN 1530 William Tracy’s Lutheran will was a case of heresy, to be considered by the Oxford theologians; by 1532 it had become a constitutional cause celebre, and a case of ecclesiastical excess. The will was discussed in Convocation in 1531, and Tracy’s son Richard, common lawyer and member of the House of Commons, was summoned before the assembled clergy. The document was condemned as heretical. Copies of the will became recommended reading among heretics, and one was found in the possession of Thomas Phillip, a prisoner in the Tower of London. In January 1532 it was reported to Convocation that Thomas Browne of Bristol had made a will like Tracy’s, and an exemplary gesture was then thought necessary. Archbishop Warham instructed the chancellor of Worcester diocese to have Tracy’s body exhumed, since a declared heretic was unworthy to lie in consecrated ground. But the chancellor, Dr Parker, went too far: he burned the body for heresy.
The Making of a Minority, 1530–1553
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ON 19 November 1530, four men did public penance through the city of London. They were led through the streets sitting backwards on horses, wearing paper hats inscribed ‘For crimes against the king’s proclamations’ and with copies of Tyndale’s heretical books pinned to their clothes. At Cheapside Cross they were made to throw the books into a bonfire, and were set in the pillory to be mocked by fellow citizens. Henry VIII’s earlier proclamations against heretics and their books were being enforced, a month after the Hampton Court meeting and Henry’s decision to coerce the clergy by praemunire. Though the king had begun what became a political Reformation, a Protestant Reformation was still contained by the power of the state. But not for long. The four men in the pillory were all friends of Thomas Cromwell, royal councillor and protector of heretics. As the king’s determination to achieve his divorce led him to adopt drastic solutions, Cromwell’s influence increased; so did his ability to advance (and shield) those who shared his evangelical preferences, and those who were useful in his attack on the clergy, their wealth, and the ideas which validated their authority.
Introduction
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘transition’ in this book’s title refers to an old historical dilemma, which goes back to the beginnings of scientific history in the nineteenth century. The post-Roman centuries have usually been divided between the medieval and the modern periods, with a line drawn around the year 1500. Characteristics of modernity include new forms of the state, religious diversity, and the spread of renaissance ideas. Those influenced by Marxist ideas prefer to think of feudalism being superseded by capitalism, which can be dated as late as the eighteenth century, but the decades around 1500, the age of the English enclosures and the voyages of discovery, can be seen as a significant turning point in that process.
The Rise of the Great Estates and the Decline of the Yeoman
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘The distribution oflanded property’, remarked James Caird in 1878, ‘is, by the growing wealth of the country, constantly tending to a reduction in the number of small estates.’1 The increasing concentration of landownership fuelled political controversy in the nineteenth century, and one outcome was the compilation of figures on English landownership in 1873 which defenders of landed society hoped would refute the claim that the countryside was in the grip of a few great magnates. They were disappointed, for the ‘new domesday’ showed a concentrated pattern of ownership (Table 3.1). At the top were great magnates with 10,000 acres and above, such as the dukes of Bedford or Devonshire with their country seats at Woburn and Chatsworth, and their great London mansions. They shaded into the greater gentry and squires, who were more likely to have local influence than a national role. An estate of about 1,000 acres marked the boundary of a gentry life-style, with three or four tenants and a manor house, although some owners of300-1,ooo acres aspired to gentry society, particularly those who had non-agricultural income and had bought a small estate as an investment or a guarantee of social status. The proportion of land held by genuine ‘yeomen’ or owner-occupying farmers was probably about IO per cent in England in 1873.
Capital and Credit: Financing Industrialization
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1935, M. M. Postan asked a fundamental question: was the supply of investible funds adequate for industrialization, or did shortages impose limits? His surmises were largely confirmed by detailed research, and a consensus was firmly established. Britain, he argued, was wealthy beyond the relatively modest requirements of early industrialization. Eighteenth-century Britain was able to find funds for major undertakings. Naval vessels and dockyards were huge enterprises, overshadowing most industrial concerns; great country houses such as Chatsworth or Holkham exceeded the investment in the largest factory; and the pleasure resort of Bath absorbed more money than the entire cotton industry. A country which could afford these expensive investments could meet the needs of industry, for Postan claimed that these were ‘modest’: machinery was relatively simple and often hand-driven; production was labour intensive; buildings could be converted or extended piecemeal. Capital shortages, when they did occur, were localized rather than general. The earl of Leicester was willing to invest in the construction of his Palladian house at Holkham in north Norfolk; his wealth was oflittle use to a cotton-master in Lancashire. Areas with commercial and industrial wealth might be in relative decline, such as the west of England or Kent; industrialization could be located in areas such as south Wales which lacked prosperous commercial and industrial families. The problem was not absolute shortages of capital so much as the provision of effective channels for savings to flow into productive enterprise. In Postan’s words, ‘the insufficiency of capital was local rather than general, and social rather than material’.
Transport
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The growth potential of the economy could be released by a reduction in transaction rather than production costs, which allowed agricultural and industrial goods to be exchanged more cheaply, so reducing market imperfections and encouraging areas to specialize in those goods to which they were best suited. Such a process of specialization could have a greater impact on total costs than changes in production technology, which could well emerge from an ability to concentrate on one commodity and to devise new methods of production and organization. Above all, transport costs could impose severe limits on the creation of an integrated, competitive market, preventing low-cost producers from supplying a wide area and allowing high-cost producers to survive.
Banks and Money
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Britain developed two distinctive banking systems in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, one in Scotland and the other in England and Wales, whose relative merits were debated by contemporaries and are contested by historians. Rondo Cameron, in his comparative analysis of banking and economic development, had no doubt which was the more efficient and conducive to economic growth. Scotland, he claimed, had ‘the strongest, most competitive, most efficient banking system of the times’, in contrast to England where there was a sorry tale of missed opportunities. ‘At almost every point at which banking and monetary policy might have been used constructively to promote economic growth’, he complains, ‘the authorities either made the wrong decision or took no action at all.’ The result, if Cameron is to be believed, was that banks assisted the process of rapid industrialization in Scotland, whereas in England and Wales economic growth took place almost despite the banks.
Births, Marriages, and Deaths
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Malthus, in the 1826 edition of his Essay on Population, attempted to discover ‘the only effectual mode of improving the condition of the poor’. He was certain that any attempt to increase output faster than population growth was bound to fail, for the powers of reproduction could always keep pace with the supply of commodities, and there would be no long-term improvement in the condition of the poor. The alternative was to concentrate on slowing down the growth of the population, so that there was more for everyone and the condition of the poor would improve. There was, he suggested, a race between the tortoise of output and the hare of population, and only one effective means of raising the standard of living: ‘If we can persuade the hare to go to sleep, the tortoise may have some chance of overtaking her.’
Taxation and Public Finance
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Britain in the eighteenth century was a nation at war, locked in a world-wide struggle with the French which ended with the battle of Waterloo in 1815. The clash of empires may be charted through military and naval campaigns; less stirring, though no less important, is the question of finance. Money provided the sinews of war, to provision and pay the army, to finance the fleets which straddled the world, and to operate the massive naval dockyards which built and maintained the ships. The navy was the largest business of the eighteenth century. A first-class naval vessel with a crew of 900 exceeded the work-force of the largest factory; it involved large fixed capital in dockyards; and demanded a massive provisioning system to supply food, munitions, ropes, sails, and myriad pieces of iron, brass, and copper. Britain in the eighteenth century was a ‘fiscal-military state’,1 and governments were dominated by the needs of the army and, above all, the navy for money to wage war. The outcome was an efficient system of tax collection and public finance which allowed Britain to bear a heavier financial burden than France, yet without a political crisis threatening the state.
Mercantilism and Free Trade
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In January 1846 Richard Cobden addressed a great rally at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester, at the heart of the cotton district. The Hall was built by the Anti-Com Law League which, under the leadership of Cobden, protested against protective duties on imported corn; more generally, the ‘Manchester school’ preached the virtues of free competition and unfettered trade. The introduction of free trade, Cobden assured the audience which packed the Free Trade Hall, would lead to peace and prosperity: the physical gain will be the smallest gain to humanity from the success of this principle. I look further; I see in the Free Trade principle that which shall act on the moral world as the principle of gravitation in the universe—drawing men together, thrusting aside the antagonism of race, and creed, and language, and uniting us in the bands of eternal peace. . . . I believe that the desire and the motive for large and mighty empires; for gigantic armies and great navies—for those materials which are used for the destruction of life and the desolation of the rewards of labour—will die away; I believe that such things will cease to be necessary, or to be used, when man becomes one family, and freely exchanges the fruits of his labour with his brother man.
State Control of Produce
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although few suspected it at the time, the Second World War proved to be the beginning of the end of the era of merchant capital in West Africa that dated from the nineteenth century and beyond. War necessarily had many disruptive effects on this and all international trades, but most of these were potentially temporary. For UAC, other European traders, and the West African economies themselves, the decisive effect of the war was that the imposition of state control of both the export and import trades, and the creation of state trading agencies in place of the market, proved to be permanent. During the 1950s state control over imports was largely dismembered, but control of the produce trade survived, embodied in the marketing boards of British West Africa, and these were to become a dominant feature of West African economic life during the following decades of political independence.
UAC and African Nationalism
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There has been much speculation about the attitude of European capitalist firms to the movement towards political independence in Africa during the fifteen or so years after the end of the Second World War. Did the big trading and mining companies fear and oppose such a movement on the ground that independence might destroy the favourable conditions created by colonial rule, or did they welcome it, on the assumption that colonialism had by then so reconstructed African societies that capitalism would not only be safe but potentially more profitable? There have so far been few detailed studies of the attitude of such foreign firms.
Participation and Disinvestment
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Participation’ (or dilution of the equity in a locally registered subsidiary) had two distinct though connected connotations in the context of foreign merchant capital in Africa. It might be voluntary, or it might be imposed. The difference was very important. It has been seen that many of the industrial and other ventures in which UAC and its fellows took part were undertaken in partnership with African states, provinces, or individuals. These partnerships were always entered into by choice, and it was accepted that the result would be a reduction in both the company’s freedom of action and its share of the dividends. Alternatively, UAC might choose to sell shares in a subsidiary because it wished to raise more capital without increasing its own input, or perhaps to strengthen its links with the local society or with distributors of its products. But from the 1960s there was an increasing tendency for African governments to insist on the sale or expropriation of a proportion of the equity of foreign enterprises, either to the state or to indigenous citizens, whether or not the foreign company wished to do this. The subject of this chapter is the process by which voluntary partnerships or sale of part of the equity were increasingly replaced in certain countries by obligatory sale of shares. The main emphasis will be placed on the same four territories or regions as have been made the focus of other chapters, but a preliminary comment is necessary on the evolving general attitude of Unilever and UAC to participation in their overseas ventures.
Reconstruction and Reform, 1266-1294
Authors: Prestwich Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The disturbed and divisive years that had ended with the dejected garrison of Kenilworth trudging out in bitter surrender in 1266 were followed by a period of remarkable achievement lasting until the early 1290s. There was a great programme of legislation. Parliament developed, and became increasingly central to the running of the English State. Royal Enhances were placed on a new and more secure footing. The recovery from the disasters of the civil war was astonishing. This was an outstanding period of positive development.
Times of Trouble, 1311-1330
Authors: Prestwich Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1312, on Blacklow Hill in Warwickshire, Piers Gaveston was brutally killed. One man ran him through with a sword, the other cut on his head. Politics had reached a new low. The succeeding years were to see crisis follow on crisis, with no evident way out. By 1327 the monarchy had reached its apparent nadir, with the deposition of Edward II; but the regime that came next, that of Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer, proved quite as corrupt and incompetent. It is remarkable that a monarchy that had appeared so strong in the hands of Edward I should have collapsed in so dramatic a way.
England and France
Authors: Prestwich Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the 1340s and 1350s England had become the most powerful military force in Europe, as the victories of Crecy and Poitiers conWrmed. There had been intermittent wars between England and France through the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, which escalated in seriousness and scale in the reign of Edward III with the outbreak of the Hundred Years War in 1337. It is only with hindsight that this war is seen as a single entity, somehow divergent in kind from the Anglo-French disputes that had preceded it. Contemporaries did not see the war that started in 1337 in this way. It is certainly true that Anglo-French conXict intensiWed in the fourteenth century, but many if not all the issues between Edward III and Philip VI were the familiar ones from the past.
The Great Lords
Authors: Prestwich Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Great Lords Society in medieval England was highly stratified, but the distinctions between different groups were not always as clear-cut as historians might like. Wealth, lineage, and status might define a man beyond possible doubt, but it was possible for a baron to be wealthier than an earl, while a knight might possess a more distinguished lineage than a baron. Status might not equate with economic power. Terms such as 'gentry’ provide convenient shorthand, but are not always easy to map onto the reality of medieval society. In the following chapters a division is made between the great lords, lay and ecclesiastical, the knights, the peasantry, and the merchants. These distinctions are convenient, but should not be regarded as definitive; social standing was made up of multiple elements, which were not always consistent.1
The Towns
Authors: Prestwich Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1283 Edward I founded what was intended to be an ideal thirteenth-century town at Conwy in north Wales. It had a Went site at the mouth of an estuary, making transport and communication by sea easy. It was defended by a magniWcent castle, and by an equally splendid town wall, which provided a clear line of demarcation between the urban settlement and the surrounding countryside. Within the walls, the town was carefully planned, with its streets laid out on a grid pattern, and the oblong tenements equally spaced in Went geometric order. Conwy received a charter from the king in 1284, in which he conferred full burghal rights on the inhabitants. By 1295, 112 plots of land were occupied; ten years later a survey reveals that there were twelve shops in the marketplace, and two butcher’s stalls.
The Crisis of the Dynastic élite in the Transition from Monarchy to Republic, 1929-1931
Authors: Ben-Ami Shlomo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A leading role played by élites characterizes transitions from traditional politics to a modern political system. Spain’s transition to the Second Republic was preceded by years of social and political change that undermined the position of the traditional élites—bourgeois politicians, landowners, army, and church—as real power elites. Moreover, social and political development brought these traditional élites into conflict with each other over the proper role of government in a changing society. Consequently, they failed to respond in a united and coherent way to the challenge of modernization.