bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Plantations for special purposes
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most plantations are established for the production of wood that can be used for a variety of industrial purposes, though some are grown for a particular specialized use, such as Populus spp. for the match-making and vegetable crate industries, or for energy. These are discussed in Chapter 15. But, as pointed out in Chapter 1, trees are also planted for many other purposes. The economic values of produce other than wood and the environmental benefits of trees and forests can sometimes be more important than timber. Examples of non-wood produce, conventionally called minor forest products, are seed crops from sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), walnut (Juglans regia), and stone pine (Pinus pinea), or exudates such as resins and maple syrup, the bark of Quercus suber for cork, and that of other species for tannins, and a variety of medicinal and industrial compounds. Products of animals which feed on certain trees may have a considerable econ omic value including silk, lac, and honey.
Mechanisms for alleviating chromatin-mediated repression of transcription
Authors: Quinn Janet , Peterson Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is now a wealth of data derived from both biochemical and genetic studies that confirm the importance of chromatin in regulating gene expression (for recent reviews see Felsenfeld 1992; Grunstein 1992; Lewin 1994; Paranjape et al. 1994; Peterson 1994). In all eukaryotes the basic building block of chromatin is the nucleosome, which is comprised of approximately 145 base pairs (bp) of DNA wrapped about twice around an octamer of histone proteins. The histone octamer is organized as a central tetramer of histones H3 and H4 flanked by two heterodimers of histones H2A and H2B. In higher eukaryotes a single molecule of histone HI binds to both the outer surface of DNA that circles the octamer and to the DNA that links neighbouring nucleosomes.
The chicken lysozyme chromatin domain
Authors: Bonifer Constanze , Faust Nicole , Huber Matthias C , Saueressig, Harald , Sippel Albrecht E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The investigation of the molecular mechanisms of differential gene expression will ultimately lead to a detailed understanding of the basis of differentiation decisions within a developing organism. For many years research focused on identifying and characterizing individual cis-regulatory elements responsible for tissue-specific gene expression. This approach led to the discovery and characterization of the molecular anatomy of enhancers, silencers, and promoters. The minimal requirements for tissue--specific gene expression were determined, mostly by transient transfcction assays, and in many cases were assigned to the immediate promoter region of a gene. However, with increasing stringency of assay systems and the need to obtain reproducibly high and stable gene expression (for instance in gene therapy approaches), it became clear that many gene constructs shown to work well in a transient transfection assay do not show any activity when assayed stably integrated in a chromosomal environment (Wilson et al. 1990). Moreover, differences were observed when the same constructs were analysed stably transfected into cultured cells and transgenic organisms (Zimmerman et al. 1990). It was therefore feasible to assume that dynamic changes in chromatin structure of a gene locus play an essential role in the regulation of its transcriptional activation in development. For these reasons we set out to answer the following general questions.
Drosophila heterochromatin: retreats for repeats
Authors: Csink Amy K , Sass, Georgette L , Henikoff Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ultimate goal of the Human Genome Project is to obtain the entire sequences of human and several model genomes, which will greatly facilitate numerous lines of genetic research. The gene-rich regions are most amenable to analysis, however a very large fraction of higher eukaryotic genomes consists of enormous blocks of repeats, often simple oligomers reiterated hundreds of thousands of times. Such a level of repetitiveness must be dismaying to even the most enthusiastic participants in the Project: highly repetitive DNA is difficult to clone and sequence, and non-informational sequence is of questionable relevance to mainstream genetic research. Nevertheless, the finding that many human diseases are associated with simple sequence repeat expansions (Bates and Lehrach 1994) has excited renewed interest in repetitive sequence blocks, which have long been known to lie in heterochromatin.
Polistes in perspective: comparative social biology and evolution in Belonogaster and Stenogastrinae
Authors: Turillazzi Stefano 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapters have considered and analyzed the decisive factors in the success of Polistes as a model organism for the study of social behaviour. But the biology of a group and its scientific importance can be understood completely only if it is studied in an evolutive context and its characteristics are analyzed through homologies and analogies with other groups. Independent-founding polistine species living in the tropical Old World, recently included by Carpenter (1993) in the tribe Ropalidiini (Belonogaster, independent-founding Ropalidia, Parapolybia), have-like Polistes-colonies of small size and nests without envelopes (Gadagkar 1991c). In the neotropics the genus Mischocyttarus is quite similar to Polistes, with which it competes in abundance and number of species (Gadagkar 1991c; Wenzel 1991). These wasps, however, together with species of tropical Polistes, are not 'sympatric' with most of the scientists interested in this kind of research. Until some decades ago this fact greatly limited studies on their biology and social behaviour. At present, only a few species of independent founding Ropalidia (see Gadagkar 1991c, this volume) are actively studied at the level at which Polistes are studied, whereas some species of Mischocyttarus have been the objects of thorough studies by North and South American researchers since the publication of Jeanne's monograph on the social biology of M. drewseni from Brazil (Jeanne 1972; Gadagkar 1991c).
Harriers of the World
Authors: Simmons Robert E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Harriers are a charismatic group of birds of prey with a worldwide distribution that have long fascinated bird watchers and scientists. Here for the first time the biology of the world's harriers is treated within one cover, in readily accessible language. There are detailed comparisons of northern and southern species, descriptions of mating systems and population dynamics life histories, and insights into the selection pressures shaping the birds' life histories. The author addresses such questions as how females choose partners against their apparent self- interest, how they adjust to prevailing circumstances to produce the optimal clutch size, and what underlies variations in size dimorphism and copulation patterns. New information resulting from a DNA examination of the group reveals three new harrier species and allows construction of a new phylogeny of the harriers. The book is brought to life by fine original line drawings of these impressive birds by the author's twin brother. It will be a treat for all raptor biologists, amateur raptophiles, and behavioural ecologists interested in temperate-tropical comparisons.
Parallelism in the origin of the g-type clausilial apparatus (gastropoda, pulmonata, clausiliidae)
Authors: Gittenberger Edmund , Schilthuizen Menno 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is an unusually broad consensus with regard to the monophyletic origin of the speciose pulmonate snail family Clausiliidae. This collective opinion goes back far into the history of molluscan systematics, with the generic name Clausilia introduced already by Drapamaud (1805). Clausiliid snails have slender, usually sinistral, more-or-less fusiform shells, with a clausilium in the last whorl of adult individuals.
The evolutionary history of the bivalvia
Authors: morton Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest classifications of the Bivalvia, following that of Linnaeus (1758), were produced by conchologists, e.g., Cuvier (1800) and Lamarck (1801) and depended upon shell characters. Cox (1960) has reviewed the history of bivalve taxonomy. In the early part of the 20th century, Paul Pelseneer who had worked up the material for the Siboga and Challenger expeditions began a series of studies on the Bivalvia which resulted in the production of a system of classification based on internal anatomy, notably the ctenidia (Pelseneer, 1906). C.M. Yonge was to use the Pelseneerian system with great effect to provide a firm understanding of bivalve anatomy, typically at the superfamily level, that would illustrate their diversity. In this understanding, Yonge was influenced by the meticulous researches of W.G. Ridewood (1903) and D. Atkins (1936-1938) on gill structure and J.L. Kellogg (1915), also on the mechanisms of bivalve feeding. Yonge’s teaching produced a generation of mala- cologists, some of whom, e.g., E.R. Trueman and G. Owen, were, through early work on ligament structure (Owen et al., 1953) and, in the latter case, also on ctenidium structure, to influence his perception of the adaptive radiations of the constituent orders of the class.
The principles of genetics
Authors: Majerus Michael E N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some species of organism have melanic forms, while other morphologically similar and closely related species lack them. Furthermore, within a species, some populations contain no melanics, others are all melanic, and some have a mix of both melanics and non-melanics. If we are to understand the reasons for the pres
ence or absence of melanic forms within a species, or why the frequencies of melanic forms vary in populations in either time or space, we must understand how melanic forms arise, how they increase or decrease temporally or spatially, and why in some species the increase of a melanic form stops before it completely replaces non-melanic forms. This is a long-winded way of saying that we have to understand the evolution of melanism, and to do that we need a knowledge of inheritance. How are traits passed from one generation to the next? Why do progeny have the characteristics of one or other of their parents in some features, appear to be a mix of their parents in other features, and are unlike either of their parents in still others? The study of these questions of inheritance is the field of genetics.
The peppered moth story dissected
Authors: Majerus Michael E N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The importance of industrial melanism in the peppered moth as one of the first, and still most cited examples of evolution in action, places emphasis on the need to be sure that the story is right. In the 40 years since Kettlewell’s pioneering work, many evolutionary biologists, particularly in Britain, but also in other parts of Europe, the United States, and Japan, have studied melanism in this species. The findings of these scientists show that the precised description of the basic peppered moth story is wrong, inaccurate, or incomplete, with respect to most of the story’s component parts.
Cross-species transmission and recombination of ‘AIDS’ viruses
Authors: Sharp Paul M , Robertson David L , Hahn Beatrice H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by two different human immunodeficiency viruses, HIV-1 and HIV-2, which are members of the lentivirus family of retroviruses. Related viruses are found in many species of non-human primates; these have been termed simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV), with a subscript to denote their species of origin. (Here we use the term444 AIDS” viruses’ to mean the entire group of primate lentiviruses; however, many of the SIVs are not known to cause immunodeficiency in what appear to be their natural hosts.) Lentiviruses have also been isolated from artiodactyls, perissodactyls, and carnivores. All retroviruses contain two copies of an RNA genome, approximately 10 kb in length, at each end of which lie long terminal repeats (LTR) encoding regulatory functions. Much of the sequence in between is taken up by the three major structural genes: gag,pol, and env. However, HIVs and SIVs also encode a number (five or six) of shorter accessory genes (see Hahn 1994).
Uses of molecular phylogenies for conservation
Authors: Moritz Craig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Phylogenies of species are producing important insights into taxonomy, the evolution of characters, and the long-term patterns and dynamics of adaptation and divergence (Brooks and McLellan 1991; Harvey and Pagel 1991). Molecular characters provide a rich source of information for analysis of species phylogeny and, within limits, can indicate the approximate timing as well as the sequence of events (Hillis and Moritz 1990). Molecular systematics can also reveal the phylogeny of alleles within species, revealing previously inaccessible details of historical biogeography and population processes (Avise 1989, 1994; Hudson 1990). Whether these new tools and concepts will prove of practical and general use in conservation remains to be demonstrated. In this chapter I consider the use of molecular phylogenies in two areas relevant to wildlife conservation; describing biodiversity and inferring population processes.
Comparative evolution of larval and adult life-history stages and small subunit ribosomal RNA amongst post-Palaeozoic echinoids
Authors: Smith A B , Littlewood D T J , Wray G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the construction of robust phylogenies based on multiple corroborative datasets, comes the opportunity to compare the phylogenetic histories of different subsets of characters. Until recently workers have focused largely on comparing the performance of morphological and molecular data in tree construction, with the aim of showing that one or other is superior. However, where two or more independent datasets give broadly comparable topologies, a comparative approach to evolutionary patterns can be adopted. Subsets of characters that can be considered as independent of one another can be optimized onto the preferred phylogeny and compared to investigate how different aspects of a clade’s biology have evolved over time. This approach is not confined simply to the morphology versus molecular dichotomy, but can be expanded to include comparisons of different kinds of molecular data (for example coding versus non-coding regions; ribosomal loop versus stem regions, etc.) or different stages in the life history of an organism (for example larval versus adult evolution). Although there has been substantial work done on the comparison of different kinds of molecular data, no one has previously attempted to compare the evolution of different life-history stages within a clade.
Culture, Nature, Environment: Steps to an Ecology of Life
Authors: Ingold Tim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Professor Tim Ingold has been Max Gluckman Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Manchester since 1995. He took his first degree, a double First in Natural Sciences and Social Anthropology, at the University of Cambridge and stayed on there to undertake research for his PhD, which he was awarded in 1976. He joined the Department of Social Anthropology at Manchester in 1974 and has served it ever since, as Lecturer, Senior Lecturer, Professor, and Head of Department. He has carried out ethnographic fieldwork among Saami (Lapp) people in northern Finland, and has written extensively on hunter-gatherer and pastoral societies, evolutionary theory, and human ecology. His current research deals with issues of environmental perception and the anthropology of technology. Professor Ingold’s major works include Evolution and Social Life (1986) and The Appropriation of Nature (1986).As a social anthropologist with ethnographic interests in the northern circumpolar regions, I begin with an observation drawn from my own field experience of mustering reindeer in Finnish Lapland. When pursuing reindeer, there often comes a critical point when a particular animal becomes immediately aware of your presence. It then does a strange thing. Instead of running away it stands stock still, turns its head, and stares at you squarely in the face. Biologists have explained this behaviour as an adaptation to predation by wolves. When the reindeer stops, the pursuing wolf stops too, both of them getting their breath back for the final, decisive phase of the episode when the deer turns to flight and the wolf rushes to overtake it. Since it is the deer that takes the initiative in breaking the stalemate, it has a slight head start, and indeed a healthy adult deer can generally outrun a wolf (Mech 1970).
The role of electron density in X-ray crystallography
Authors: Hirshfeldt Fred L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most X-ray crystallographic studies are aimed at structural information and pay little attention, if any, to the details of the electron distribution. But the two are, in practice, inseparably linked. It is only when we are content with a routinely approximate structure that we can afford to disregard the electron density. When better than everyday accuracy is required, the relation between the nuclear and the electronic distributions becomes more symmetric. An accurate set of nuclear coordinates and a detailed map of the electron density can be obtained, via X-ray diffraction, only jointly and simultaneously, never separately or independently.
Light and ionizing radiation: generation of excited states and radicals
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sun and light were associated with life and medicine in the most ancient cultures. The Indian sacred book Atharva Veda and. the Buddhist Bower manuscript described, 34 centuries ago, a phototreatment of leukoderma or vitiligo, a disease characterized by depigmented patches of skin (see Chapter 9). The deleterious effects of sunlight were also known thousands of years ago. This century we have learned what light is, what are the excited states and the radicals formed by the interaction of light with molecules, and what are the other possible sources of excited states and radicals.
Stability of Linear Feedback Control
Authors: Arimoto Suguru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A set of linear PD (proportional and differential) servo-loops installed independently and locally at each joint actuator establishes global asymptotic stability for set point position control, provided that the gravity force is compensated carefully. Without compensation for the gravity term, linear and distributed PIO servo-loops establish an asymptotic stability in a local sense. These control schemes can be extensively applied to robot dynamics with flexible joints, under holonomic tool endpoint constraint, or under coordination control of multiple arms. In order to make the argument simple, we consider a class of anthropoid robot manipulators with all revolute-type joints (see Fig. 2.1).
Circumferential milling on 5C milling machines
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A typical application of SC milling machines is the machining of long twisted surfaces (Fig. 13.1).
Let the cylindrical tool be positioned so as to make a common straight line W(u) as shown in Fig. 13.2. Looking at the tool and the part surface along the line W we observe that such a tool position causes undercutting. We may approximately minimise the depth e(u) of unnecessary machining by aligning the axis of the cylindrical tool symmetrically, where only the surface between the curves Q(u) and R(u) is taken into account, as shown in Fig. 13.2.
The Contact-impact Problem and its General Formulation
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A contact system may contain only one or more than one contact body, and contact-impacts may occur between two bodies or within a single body. As a study model, however, a two-body contact system can be used without losing any generality. A typical two-body contact system is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Contact-impact Problems with Shell and Beam Structures
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In engineering, shell and beam structures are very common and of great importance. In passenger cars and aircraft, for example, the majority of structures can be classified as shells or beams. Shell and beam structures can of course be modelled using the continuum elements described in the preceding chapters. However, they can be modelled more accurately and efficiently using shell and beam elements. A shell element is often represented by a reference surface with a number of nodes on it but still represents the behaviour of the material within a three-dimensional volume. Similarly, a beam element is represented by a reference line with a number of nodes on it but still represents the behaviour of the material within a three-dimensional volume. Great effort has been put into both theoretical and experimental studies of shells and beams. An abundant literature on shell and beam theories is now available, and so are a large number of useful shell and beam elements; see for example, Ahmad et al. (1970), Hughes and Liu (1981), Onate and Zienkiewicz (1983), Owen and Figueiras (1983), Belytschko et al. (1984a), Bergan and Nygard (1985), Owen et al. (1985), Park et al. (1985a,b), Stanley and Felippa (1985), Belytschko and Bachrach (1986), Ginsberg et al. (1986), Hallquit and Benson (1986), Onate and Oliver (1986), Parisch (1986), Park and Stanley (1986), Stanley et al. (1986), Belytschko and Engelman (1988), Chaudhuri (1988), and Noor et al. (1989). In this chapter, contact-impact problems involving shell and beam structures are studied.
Contact-searching Algorithms
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters, the formulation, the finite element discretization, and the solution procedures of contact-impact problems have been discussed. There is, however, an important topic which has not yet been discussed sufficiently. That is how to locate contacting nodes and potential contacting nodes, i.e. to search contacts, reliably and efficiently.
Comparison With Electromagnetic Motors
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters, we have presented the outline, theory, and practical design aspects of the ultrasonic motor. However, this work is not intended as an exhaustive treatise on the subject and there remain areas in need of further research. In our final chapter, we shall take a different approach and compare the ultrasonic motor with electromagnetic motors, which should highlight the properties and future prospects of the former. It is assumed that the reader is familiar with and possesses a basic knowledge of electromagnetic machines. Reference 1 is recommended for those who have yet to learn about conventional motors.
Flow Around Circular Cylinders
Authors: Zdravkovich M M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The book is a unique compilation of experimental data, theoretical models, and computer simulations of flow past circular cylinders. The circular cylinder is the most widely used shape in engineering making appearances in aeronautical, chemical, civil, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, off-shore, and wind engineering. The book will be useful to postgraduates and practising engineers in those fields of study and application.