bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The evolution of kinetic control and of organisation
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conclusion from the analysis of the abiological material around us in Chapter 6 is that, in both its physical and chemical conditions, the variance of inanimate Earth became incalculably large due to the prevailing conditions that inhibited the generation of full chemical equilibria, thus giving rise to many components, and to the inability to maintain equilibrium transfer of components between phases. In effect, most systems on Earth broke down into compartments (Section 6.3) in and between which both failures to equilibrate were due to barriers to change produced by the rapid fall in temperature. However, we were able to treat most of these systems locally through the thermal equilibrium considerations described in Chapter 6. Now around us we see millions of living individuals in species, which are reproducible almost identical objects, closely, if not exactly, invariant in chemical composition as well as in physical appearance, even during growth. They can be compared with a set of identical single crystals. Our arguments in the previous chapters led us to conclude that internally individual living systems, organisms, are therefore effectively invariant in components and transfer between their compartments, which is the condition of equilibrium. Clearly, however, they are not at equilibrium since they are developing and expanding flow systems. It must then be to considerations of flow and development, that is, to rate of change of, first, components and, second, of compartments, to which we must turn to understand the nature of this constancy of living reproducible objects. We shall ask the question: is there any true parallel between the growth of living organisms with a fixed pattern and the expansion of phases of inanimate objects (crystals) that can occur on cooling at equilibrium? Throughout this enquiry we are seeking an explanation of the objects around us in terms of the natural selection of the chemical elements, now related to their ability to change at selected rates. We shall not attempt to come to any firm conclusion until Chapter 16.
Early biological chemistry: the uptalce and incorporation of elements in anaerobic organisms
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have described the basic principles of chemical binding at equilibrium in Chapters 2-6 after looking at the history of the development of ideas on the constitution of matter and energy in Chapter 1. This allowed us to consider the manner of the eventual appearance of the chemical elements as structured compounds and co-operative, condensed phases on the Earth. Simultaneously, in this process, energy was lost locally from the planet on cooling, but the pathways of energy loss often led also to a variety of chemical systems trapped out of equilibrium (Chapters 7-9). The processes are not difficult to follow. The facts that the materials in the crust of Earth were often out of equilibrium ( Chapter 8) and that the Earth was far out of equilibrium with the sun then allowed new compounds, often organic, to be formed in solution or in the gas phase by the capture of energy. These compounds entered new (higher) energy traps, and acquired potential for further reactions, and so prebiotic organic chemistry developed (Chapter 9). In order to understand the underlying drive toward equilibrium, that is, toward the most stable state, we discussed in Chapters 3 and 6 the evolving forms of energy in the context of the evolving materials, both at equilibrium and in trapped states. We have also described the basic ideas of dynamic organisation of energised material as opposed to rigid structure in Chapter 1 and again in Chapter 7. It was necessary to clarify the nature of the development of all these aspects of materials, of energy and of kinetic traps and to include feedback controls over flow (organisation including structure) in Chapter 7 before turning to biological chemistry. Biological systems are self-organising, self-reproducing, energised, material traps in feedback flow, while they undergo evolution forced upon them in part by competition but equally by the necessary conditions for long-term survival, requiring protection in a changing environment (see below). In effect, they have become more and more longlasting and sophisticated chemical processes in kinetic traps (see Chapter 12). All biological progression involves a selection of chemical elements for ‘use’ to these ends and it is this fact that we shall follow in our further study of the natural selection of the functional capability of the elements.
The structure and chemistry of organisms after the advent of dioxygen
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 10 we described the selective uptake of the chemical elements in early life to the degree to which this was possible given the poor fossil and geochemical evidence. We depended for our description largely upon present day descendants of primitive life. As well as looking at the uptake of the elements we were concerned with the way in which they were incorporated in organisms since this involved other selection processes. We showed that many elements, between 1 Sand 20, were always essential for this anaerobic life and that those used for any function were chosen to a large degree by abundance, availability and inherent selective chemical properties as observed in isolated atoms or in very small molecules (Chapter 10). These properties were then refined so that the fitness of elements for particular functions was enhanced. There are two obvious parts to such refinement within self-assembly-a physical or compartmental selection and a chemical combination selection. While some of the selective interactions in local volumes could be achieved using the drive to thermodynamic equilibrium as described in Chapters 2-6, it was also necessary for many other processes to utilise energy in uptake and synthesis, as analysed in Chapter 7. Kinetic management was therefore required over many pumps and pathways, that is control systems, and over syntheses leading to the production of all the polymers including DNA, that is by regulation. We found that only through co-operative feedback communication in complicated networks could we see a way in which survival strength could have been achieved and increased in cells in all three features, element uptake and incorporation, metabolic pathways, and polymer production relative to random prebiotic chemistry (as illustrated in Chapter 11).
AB Initio Methods
Authors: Stone A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ’ab initio‘ is used to describe methods that seek to calculate molecular prop-erties from the beginning, that is, by solving Schrodinger’s equation without using any empirical data. Although it is always necessary to make approximations, it is possible to organize them in such a way that the accuracy of the calculation can be systematically improved, up to the limit allowed by available computing resources.
distributed polarizabilities
Authors: Stone A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Polarizabilities, like multipole moments, are commonly ascribed to the molecule as a whole, but they describe movements of charge density within the molecule, and are often associated with particular regions. The polarizabilitiesdescribe changes in the charge distribution arising from external fields, and a single-centre multipole description of these changes is subject to the same convergence problems as the ordinary multipole expansion. A distributed treatment can be expected to give better results here too.
Success
Authors: Merricks Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The years from 1900 to 1904 were to be the most successful of Soddy’s career. His later achievements stemmed from this early period and the colleagues and friends he made at this period were to influence the whole of his life. However, there was no intimation of this during his first days in Canada.After his somewhat precipitate departure from Oxford and an uneventful sea crossing to New York, Soddy boarded the train for Toronto. He took with him the daily paper in which there was a report of speeches given at the farewell dinner for Dr Pike, the retiring Professor of Chemistry in Toronto. In this report, Soddy found words which dashed whatever hopes he had entertained for his application for the chair. In his speech, the Principal of the university had said, ‘Dr. Pike came to us from Oxford, but thank God his chemistry was made in Germany’.
Electronic Noses
Authors: Gardner Julian W , Bartlett Philip N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book aims to discuss the basic principles of an electronic nose, and to provide an account of recent developments in this field, with practical examples of its application. It seeks to review the field together with the many new developments that have occurred since the first meeting was held on electronic noses in Iceland in 1991. It will be essential reading for anyone who is working, researching or simply interested in electronic noses or machine olfaction. A comprehensive appendix is provided at the end of the book.
Convective Boiling and Condensation
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On its original publication in 1973, this book was the first reference for engineers to fully present the science of boiling and condensation. It dealt especially with the problems of estimating heat transfer rates and pressure drops, with particular attention to the occurrence of boiling and condensation in the presence of forced flows within pipes. The new third edition covers recent advances and significantly extends coverage to flows over tube bundles, with extensive new treatment of two-phase heat transfer regarding refrigerants and petrochemicals. Many new problems have been added at the end of each chapter to enhance the book's use as a text in advanced courses on two-phase flow and heat transfer. The book is written primarily for design and development engineers in the chemical process, power generation, and refrigeration industries, and is meant to be an aid in the design of heat exchangers. Instructors using the book as a course text may obtain full solutions to the end-of-chapter problems by writing to: Science Marketing Dept., Oxford University Press, 198 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016 (please include school name and course identification).
Vertical distributions: ‘zonation’ and its causes
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the major features in the distribution of shore organisms is that they all show a marked relationship with vertical height: almost everywhere, plants and animals are found in distinct horizontal bands at particular heights (Fig. 8.1). This is a feature that has engrossed marine biologists for over a century (Benson, 2002). In this chapter we discuss why these bands or ‘zones’ exist. We begin by describing zonation patterns found on a variety of shores, and then we go on to discuss the factors that establish and maintain them.
Very clear patterns of vertical distribution are seen on exposed shores, where mussels, barnacles, and lichens form a series of contrasting colour bands (Lewis, 1964). We start here, and then move on to compare exposed shores with more sheltered ones.
How organisms are gathered together: communities on the shore and the effects of wave exposure
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patterns of vertical zonation exist on most rocky shores, but the communities that make up the different zones differ radically from one shore to another. Much of this variation in community composition seems to be related to the extent of wave exposure, and exposed shores look very different from sheltered shores. But to complicate matters, the differences in relation to exposure are, as we have discussed in Chapter 8, not the same in all parts of the world. Another complication is that the three zones discussed in Chapter 8 show very great variations in vertical extent, and in some places the shore is not readily split into three zones at all. Again, much of this variation relates to exposure.
Human influences on rocky shores
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As in other environments, human inKuence on rocky shores has often been severe—and there is no doubt that it is increasing. Are ‘natural’ shores really natural, or have all shores been affected, either directly or indirectly, by human activities? Are ‘native’ populations genuinely native, or have they been affected by human imports and extinctions? Is it possible to protect shores for the future?
One of the most obvious ways in which humans affect rocky shores is by allowing materials not normally found there to contaminate the marine ecosystem, either accidently or intentionally. For instance, domestic waste with high oxygen demands and industrial eeuents containing heavy metals, pesticides, radioactivity, or heated water are released legally, usually with strict limits. But accidental oil and chemical spills may cause quite unpredictable damage. Broadly speaking, all these forms of contamination are termed ‘pollution’ if they have ‘deleterious’ or undesired effects, but evidently the subjective nature of such a deInition makes it open to much debate.
Migraine With Aura and its Borderlands
Authors: Eriksen M K , Thomsen L L , Olesen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A detailed knowledge of the aura symptoms is crucial when diagnosing migraine with aura because it is a clinical entity with no diagnostic biological markers. Most descriptions of migraine with aura are from studies of modest size or questionnaire studies. Since studies using a validated, semistructured interview done by physicians with experience in headache diagnoses are more likely to increase the under- standing of the symptomatology of migraine with aura, the aim of the present paper was to review the clinical characteristics of migraine with aura as reported in studies using this approach.
Migraine With Aura: IHS-subtypes 1988 Compared To 2004 in Clinical Practice
Authors: Göbel H , Heinze A , Heinze-Kuhn K , Todt U , Kubisch C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the second edition of The International Classification of Headache Disorders, the subtypes of migraine with aura have been completely revised. For example, a subtype migraine with prolonged aura, i.e. with auras lasting more than 60 min is no longer recognized as a separate entity in 2004, whereas the subtypes typical aura with migraine headache and typical aura with non-migraine headache have been newly created (Tables 13.1 and 13.2). One essential feature determining the subtyping of auras is the time course of the focal neurologic symptoms.
Phenotype of Chronic Tension-Type Headache
Authors: Göbel H , Heinze A , Heinze-Kuhn K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
International epidemiological studies have demonstrated that between 40% and 90% of the population suffer from episodic tension-type headache. About 3% of the population describe a chronic tension-type headache with headaches on more than 15 days a month. Tension-type headache is by far the most common headache type and one of the most common of all disorders. This headache type may lead to grave consequences for the patients’ life and is responsible for significant costs.
Discussion Summary, the Primary Headaches: Part II
Authors: Silberstein S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lars Bendtsen highlighted the changes in the new IHS Classification of Headache (ICHD-2). Tension-type headache (TTH) is now subdivided based on frequency and tenderness. New to the classification is the subdivision of episodic TTH into infrequent (i1 day/month) and frequent (/1 and 115 days/month) varieties. The committee felt that the infrequent subtype has very little impact on the individual and did not deserve much attention from the medical profession.
Headache and Spontaneous Cervical Artery Dissections: Time-Course and Follow-Up
Authors: Lucas C , Viallet M , Mackowiak M A , Girot M , Hénon H , Leys D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cervical artery dissection (CAD) account for up to one-fifth of ischemic strokes occurring before 45 years. Headache is the initial symptom of dissection of the cervical artery in 60% patients and occur in 75% of them. Pain is usually defined as ipsilateral throbbing headache or sharp pain located in the neck, jaw, pharynx, or face. Isolated pain may be a misleading symptom: sometimes pain mimics a migraine attack. However, the relationship between CAD and migraine are complex and the course of headache in patients with CAD is not well-known.
ID MigraineTM: Validation and Use of a Three-Item, Self-Administered Questionnaire to Identify Migraine Sufferers in a Primary Care Population
Authors: Lipton R B , Dodick D , Kolodner K , Hettiarachchi J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although migraine is one of the leading reasons for outpatient visits to neurologists in the United States, migraine may not be the primary reason for a visit to a healthcare provider. Recent surveys suggest that fewer than half of current migraineurs have received a medical diagnosis of migraine. The availability of a brief, self-administered migraine screening tool in the primary care setting could help identify migraine sufferers who require further evaluation and possible referral for treatment.
Epidemiology And Determinants Of Susceptibility
Authors: Calvo-Alén Jaime , Alarcón Graciela S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of the distribution of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) among distinct human groups, at different times, and its impact on the individual affected with it fall within the scope of Descriptive Epidemiology. Analyses of individuals at risk for developing RA of variable severity (by virtue of a given attribute or risk factor), on the other hand, fall within the realm of Analytical Epidemiology. The knowledge gained from both descriptive and analytical epidemiology may have direct impact in the management of RA patients and it has, therefore, both theoretical and practical implications. We will limit this chapter to adult RA, with a few exceptions.
Cytokine Networks
Authors: Arend William P , Gabay Cem 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cytokines are important mediators of inflammation and tissue destruction in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) (reviewed in Refs 1–10). These small molecules of cell–cell communication include interferons, interleukins, growth factors, colony-stimulating factors, chemotactic factors, and others. Cytokines seldom function alone but comprise a network of synergistic, complementary, antagonist, and inhibitory factors where the net biological response in a particular tissue depends upon the balance between the multiple factors present. These molecules may act on the same cell that produced them (autocrine effect) and adjacent cells in a tissue or organ (paracrine effect), or, less commonly, travel through the circulation to other organs (endocrine effect). In recent studies, some cytokines have been noted to remain in the synthesizing cell and influence function without ever being released, exhibiting so-called intracrine effects.
Pain Mechanismsin Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Kidd Bruce L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pain is the most prevalent symptom in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and the source of its greatest misery. Whilst some patients have trivial complaints despite intense inflammation others are incapacitated by relatively minor disease. It is apparent that many factors operate to produce symptoms in this disorder. This chapter will show that in the face of persistent disease the normally straightforward relationship between injury and pain is abandoned as the body strives to mount a coordinated and effective response. Hitherto suppressed inputs from both somatic and environmental sources substantially modify pain processing at multiple levels and there is a strong bi-directional interaction between the nervous system and inflammatory/immune responses.
Gold, Antimalarials, Sulfasalazine, And Other Dmards
Authors: Riel Piet L C M van , Kroot Eric-Jan J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pharmacotherapy is still considered as the cornerstone in the management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Due to insights into the pathogenesis of RA and the availability of an increasing number of anti-rheumatic therapies, the strategy of the treatment of RA has changed dramatically in the past decade. Until half a century ago, only a few disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) were available for the treatment of RA: antimalarial, sulfasalazine, d-penicillamine, and injectable gold salts. The management of RA at that time was mainly based on a ‘wait and see’ policy. This was on the assumption that prognosis was benign, the fear of adverse reactions, and on the lack of alternative treatments. It was common to treat the patient with active RA as long as possible with (bed)rest and salicylates; in the meantime the patient was reassured that the disease was not severe enough to ‘dig up the gold’. From 1950 onwards, gradually more first- and second-line agents became available. Almost all the DMARDs were primarily developed for the treatment of other diseases and were found to be useful in the treatment of RA by coincidence.
Combination Therapy With Synthetic Dmards In The Treatment Of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Aliprantis Antonios O , Weinblatt Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) with disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) is the standard of care in rheumatology practices throughout the world. DMARDs include synthetic, low molecular weight compounds such as methotrexate (MTX), sulfasalazine (SSZ), and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), and the more recently developed biologic response modifiers, etanercept, infliximab, adalimumab, and anakinra. Initiation of DMARD therapy early in the disease can profoundly impact functional and radiographic outcomes, strongly supporting an early, aggressive treatment approach .
Occupational Therapy And Assistive Products And Technology
Authors: Nordenskiöld Ulla 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main goal of occupational therapy is to improve individual patient’s health and well-being by adjusting their environment, supplying assistive devices, and by teaching strategies . Promoting activity is a central concept in occupational therapy and includes all aspects of an individual’s physical and mental life. The importance of activity to health is central. The World Health Organization (WHO) is committed to promoting the empowerment of persons with disabilities so that they will not be disentitled or discriminated against .
The Hand
Authors: Sollerman Christer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These properties are listed in order of significance, freedom from pain and tactile sensibility being more important than range of motion and strength. This fact forms the basis for many of the surgical procedures used in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), for example when arthrodesis of a joint improves hand function through transforming a painful and unstable joint into a pain-free and stable fusion. The loss of joint motion after such a procedure is for certain joints, that is, the wrist joint and the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb, of minor importance compared to the improvement due to stability and pain relief.