bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Unpredictable Savanna Environments
Authors: Baker Kathleen M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In spite of being the largest ecological zone in West Africa, savannas have provoked less interest and been researched less than the humid forests. This under emphasis on savannas throughout the world is now being corrected as the abundance of modern literature on the subject reflects. Savannas are now known to be far more productive than was previously thought (Kinyamario and Imbamba, 1992; Jones et al., 1992), and are second only to moist forests in terms of their contribution to terrestrial primary production (Scholes and Walker, 1993). The West African savannas are rich and varied in terms of their flora and fauna though far less so than the savannas of central and southern Africa or elsewhere in the world (Cole, 1986).
The Beginnings of European Legal Science
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rise of legal science in Bologna in the eleventh century was part of a general intellectual trend. The urge to dig ever deeper into the culture of the ancient world1 originated in schoolteaching based on ancient texts and was stimulated by the critical rereading or discovery of basic works such as the Aristotelian canon and the writings of Plato. Likewise, the scientific study of law (studium civile) began when scholars became aware of the classical legal literature preserved in the Digest of Justinian.
The Law of Reason and the Enlightenment
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries experienced both the Law of Rea son and the Enlightenment, but they are not quite one and the same. The Law of Reason consisted of a reformulation of a social philosophy which had been in continuous existence in the West since ancient times, while for all its philosophical underpinning the Enlightenment was a moral, ultimately religious break through to a new attitude to life, which was to produce a vast change in public thought and enormous reforms in public life. The two movements are closely connected, however, both in their origins, for the systematic Law of Reason was rendered possible only by the thinkers of the early Enlightenment such as Galileo and Descartes, and in their effects, since it was on the Law of Reason that enlightened thinkers based their humanitarian demands for the abolition of torture, corporal punishment, and the crime of witchcraft.
The Natural Law Codes
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first wave of modern civil codes broke the conjunction of the Law of Reason and the Enlightenment. They appeared first in the absolute states of central and southern Europe1 and then, after the French Revolution, in western Europe. Though produced in very diverse circumstances, these codes have certain intellectual features in common. Whereas all previous legislation, such as the sixteenth century French Ordonnances and the German Reformations of laws, had sought to consolidate, organize, improve (‘reform’), or develop existing law, the purpose of these codes was to put the entire law into systematic and exhaustive order in pursuance of a comprehensive plan for society. The motive force behind all these efforts was the characteristic Enlightenment conviction that if only government or people acted in a rational and moral manner the result would be a better society. The Law of Reason seemed to show the way by offering blueprints for the good and reasonable polity, and excited the hope that one could discover once and for all the criteria of substantively correct law.
Precursors and Leaders of the Historical School of Law
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early nineteenth century the history of private law in Germany is the his tory of scholars, more clearly than at any time since the Commentators. This is because the prestige of legal science was on the increase. To this stage of history is due the important split, still with us, between ‘Romanists’ and ‘Germanists’, not just among legal historians but also among private lawyers. The Romanists were the real founders and promoters of the renewal of legal scholarship; the Germanists followed them readily enough to begin with but then broke away. The Romanists then took over the system-building of Pandectism while the Germanists either adhered to the Romantic movement and dealt with German law as part of German history (Jacob Grimm belongs here) or turned their scholarly attentions to areas of law neglected by Pandectism, such as land law, commercial law, the law of negotiable instruments, and the theory of associations, corporations, and joint enterprises. This was ‘German private law’. This divi sion of labour certainly enriched German law, but it also engendered prejudices and provoked unnecessary tensions.
From Scholarly Positivism to Textual Positivism
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German legal scholarship in the nineteenth century was dominated by pri vate law. This was because the doctrine of the ius commune had to take the place of the pan-German civil code whose birth had been thwarted by the Restoration and the historical school.’ Even Prussia and, to a lesser extent, Austria, the homelands of the older natural law codes, had been colonized by Pandectism. Eventually, however, the German state and nation would have to have a code. Criminal codes were brought into force by several states in Germany during the century, and as late as 1863 Saxony enacted a civil code, while other states produced drafts. The liberal unification movement continued to work on pan German codification even after its political defeat in 1848. The positivism of enactments began to take the place of the positivism of scholarship. The nation was hardly aware of this signal triumph of government over science, of politics over culture, although it was the first time since the Reception that state legislation throughout Germany proceeded without regard to scholarly development of law. In its place came the idea that statutes were the voice of the ‘people’s will’, though in the constitutional state it was not speaking directly nor, given the restrictive forces of tradition and authority, very freely.
The Swiss Civil Code, and European Legal Famities in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Civil Code of the Swiss Confederacy was the second Pandectist code in central Europe. The history of codification in Switzerland is a rerun of the German struggle for legal unification, miniaturized and compressed, the conflict here being between the federation and the cantons. Unlike Germany, however, the Swiss Confederation had achieved national unity in 1848 under the banner of national sovereignty, so in addition to having scholars and civil servants of high intellectual and technical ability, as Germany did, Switzerland had the further advantage of a stronger sense of citizenship.
The Degeneration of Positivism, and Legal Naturalism
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two main factors in the way law has developed in the twentieth century: the change in people’s conception of the relationship between law and life, and the recognition of the social and moral quality of positive law. The former occurred when people started to see law more naturalistically and ac quired a better understanding of society, the demands it makes, and the responsibilities it imposes. The latter was an attempt to go beyond both positivism and naturalism and find a transcendent justification for law. To trace and appraise these two trends makes a fitting end to a history of private law, for its future depends in both the short and the long terms on the way the debate between them is resolved.
Social Order and Social Relations
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All modern states claim authority over their citizens, and that is one thing which distinguishes them from bands of robbers. But the state’s authority, unlike that of parents over their children, also claims to be supreme: even when it lacks a monopoly of authority in the society, when it shares it with other persons and groups, the state does so on its own terms. It claims to bind many persons, to regulate their most vital interests, and to do so with supremacy over all other mechanisms of social control. Sometimes these grandiose claims are hollow. In a society undergoing upheaval they cannot be made effective and quickly become legal fictions. Even when they are effective they may be unjustified, for legitimacy is not among the existence conditions for a state. However—and here is the real importance of Weber’s celebrated argument—a belief in its legitimacy tends to increase its stability and effectiveness. It is therefore a crucial question in what circumstances, if any, such beliefs are justified.
The Possibility of Political Obligation
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The authority of the state is justified, according to the view defended here, when citizens consent to it. Typically, however, their consent is not to a list of duties, nor even to an explicit procedure for generating such duties, but only to a certain social role which includes obedience as a constitutive element. Consent theory is therefore tempered with a social dimension; consent remains an individual action, although one whose justification may be based on values which are neither instrumental nor wholly individualistic. Contrary to the anarchists’ view, political authority is therefore justifiable. But it will not have escaped notice that conditions under which it is justified are fairly stringent. The state must, of course, be reasonably just; but beyond that a further element is needed, the creation of a kind of social relation absent in conventionalist and contractarian theories.
Order and Violence
Authors: Miller J D B , Vincent R J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hedley Bull, Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at Oxford from 1977 until his death in 1985, was one of the great scholars of his generation. He wrote within a tradition of political thought which he himself traced back to Hobbes and Hume and to Grotius and the natural lawyers. He not only added to the literature in this tradition, but he also showed how it could become a foundation for the study of International Relations. In this book, leading scholars attempt to come to terms with his contribution to the subject by offering essays on each of the major aspects of his thought. The central political question in International Relations is how order might exist amidst anarchy. This was the question which Hedley Bull took as his starting-point for thought, and he returned to it throughout his career, notably in his major work, The Anarchical Society. The exploration of this question is the central theme in the present volume, and each of the authors take it as a point of departure and examine it from a different point of view - such as society, order, the Third World, strategy, and the contemporary system, and of professing the subject of International Relations. The return to fundamentals involved in this enterprise will make this volume an important and valuable work. The contributors are: J. D. B. Miller, Stanley Hoffman, R. J. Vincent, T. B. Millar, Robert Gilpin Jr., James Richardson, and Carsten Holbraad.
Order in International Politics
Authors: Vincent R J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The international anarchy, the coexistence of independent political communities, if not in a state of nature then certainly in the absence of a common government, Hedley Bull took to be the central fact of international life and the starting-point for theorizing about it.1 Then the central theoretical task was to decide how it was that order could obtain in this anarchy: what was order, how was it maintained in international politics; and was order in world politics as a whole best sustained by the socie of sovereign states or by some other political arrangement? It is possible to see in the recurrence of these questions in Hedley Bull’s work the remarkable unity and coherence which Stanley Hoffmann draws our attention to in his chapter, so that matters as diverse as the objectives of arms control, the sophistication of Australian foreign policy, the superpower balance, reform in South Africa, the relaunch of Europe, and the rise of the Third World, can all be interpreted from the standpoint of the maintenance of international order.
Conclusion: Hedley Bull and International Relations
Authors: Holbraad Carsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the authors of this volume have tried to decide where Hedley Bull stood within the study of international relations. Robert Gilpin finds that he was closely identified with political realism, not of the ‘vulgar’ kind, in which power is seen as an end to be pursued by any means, but of the ‘normative’ version, according to which the international conduct of states is somewhat restrained by moral, institutional, and legal bonds. All of his writings, Gilpin notes, present a blend of realism and morality. Stanley Hoffmann admits that Bull at first glance seems close to realism, but lists three important differences between Bull’s approach and that of the realists. Ultimately his work, Hoffmann finds, is a blend of intelligent social science and humanism. The apparent difference between this assessment and Gilpin’s is one of terminology rather than substance. J. D. B. Miller, by analysing and criticizing his ideas from a realist point of view, also brings out the difference between Bull’s position and the realist tradition, at the same time, however, acknowledging his inherent realism. R. J. Vincent, using Martin Wight’s distinctions and terminology, finds that Bull, despite frequent alignment with the realists and much rarer excursions with the revolutionists, stood four-square in the rationalist tradition. Realism and rationalism, Vincent concludes, were yoked together in his nature. None of the authors is able to classify Bull as a rationalist without acknowledging the presence of at least a streak of realism.
On the Character of a Modern European State
Authors: Oakeshott Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I. The somewhat novel associations of human beings which came to be called the states of modern Europe emerged slowly, pre figured in earlier European history, but not without some dramatic passages in their emergence. Each was the outcome of human choices, but none was the product of a design. The manners in which they emerged were as diverse as the local conditions from which they sprang were various. Some established themselves more rapidly than others, their fortunes were uneven, their durability unequal. They were like instruments whose resources awaited the explorations of yet unborn composers.
The German Tradition of Self-Regulation
Authors: Parnell Martin F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the late 1970s, a number of German academics, foremost among them Volker Ronge, began to lay increasing stress on the significance of the concept of a ‘solidaristic self-organization of the economy’. This phenomenon apparently contradicted, or at least substantially modified, accepted notions of increasing government/ state intervention in capitalist economies.
Government Legislation: An Overview
Authors: Drewry Gavin , Brock Jenny 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Legislative business looms very large in the working life of the House of Lords. As the introductory chapter indicates, the House spends more than half its time considering public bills, the overwhelming preponderance of its attention being directed at Government bills. Approximately one-third of this time is spent on measures that originate in the Lords, the remainder on Commons bills. Interviews with peers, carried out for the purposes of this study,1 confirmed that peers themselves regard legislative scrutiny as the most important function of the House of Lords (with scrutiny of European Community business coming a fairly close second).
Conclusion
Authors: Shell Donald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this book has been to examine and evaluate the work of the House of Lords. To that end contributors have looked closely at every aspect of the work of the House in the 1988-9 session (except its judicial activities). In order to provide adequate explanation and context for the analysis of that particular session, contributors have found it desirable to say a little about how the House in general goes about that aspect of its activities which they have analysed, why it follows the procedures it does, and so on. Contributors have also offered their own conclusions about what they have found, and compared these with the findings of others, and to some extent the views and opinions offered elsewhere.
Crossing the Boundary between Public and Private: International Regimes and Non-State Actors
Authors: Haufler Virginia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The premiss of this chapter is simple: the activities of private organizations can be similar to the activities of states in establishing the contours of an international regime. This premiss goes against the prevailing focus in International Relations, in which private sector actors only provide the background against which the actions of states are show-cased. Even in regime analysis, which can trace its origins to the transnationalists of the 1970s, much of the current research slights the role of corporations and non-governmental organizations, and concentrates on the decisions of state policy-makers. By doing so, it misses the important contributions of non-state actors to the creation and maintenance of regimes.
Testing Theories of Regime Formation Findings from a Large Collaborative Research Project
Authors: Young Oran R , Osherenko Gail 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Can international actors agree on a plan to reduce the threat of global climate change? Will they be able to secure and extend the international trade regime? Why do actors in international society reach agreement on some issues, yet fail to achieve consensus on other, seemingly similar, problems? While negotiators working on a convention on biological diversity and another on climate change became enmeshed in a complex effort to find formulas to satisfy both northern industrialized states and developing southern states, we initiated a project to search for the underlying determinants of success or failure in regime formation. We sought to learn from regimes created early in the century that remained stable over decades, as well as from more recent international arrangements to address transboundary air pollution and ozone depletion.
The Internalization of Principles, Norms, and Rules by Governments The Case of Security Regimes
Authors: Müller Harald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘security regime’ debate has suffered from the mistaken assumption that such regimes must cover the entire area of security. This assumption originated in the tendency of researchers to regard the Concert of Europe as a paradigm for security regimes (Jervis 1983, 1978). Yet, just as there is no ‘regime for the global economy’, but instead regimes in trade, finance, etc., it is the narrower sub-areas of security policy where we find co-operative institutions or regimes (Rittberger 1990d). Security regimes are systems of principles, norms, rules, and procedures regulating certain aspects of security relationships between states.
Philip Noel-Baker and Peace Through Law
Authors: Lloyd Lorna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Philip Noel-Baker is renowned for championing the cause of disarmament. Five of his eight single-authored books dealt with disarmament, as did most of his other writing. However, during the inter-war years there was a second string to his bow: peace through law. Disarmament, which sought a ‘reduction of national forces so drastic that no nation will be able to wage aggressive war’, had to be accompanied by ‘the substitution of the rule of law for the arbitrament of force’, and it is this aspect of Noel-Baker’s thinking which will be addressed in this chapter.
The Rational Basis for Belief in the Democratic Myth
Authors: Dunleavy Patrick , Margetts Helen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a rational-choice perspective the problem of explaining why people vote has proved resistant to plausible explanation. While public-choice theorists insist that individual voters cannot objectively influence outcomes, large majorities of the eligible population continue to vote in most liberal democracies, except in the United States. In their responses to surveys, the voters of these countries regularly demonstrate their belief in the ‘democratic myth’, denying that their votes can make no difference, and affirming that the vote gives ordinary people influence over politicians and power over public policy.
The Effects of Employment Precarity and Une1nployment on Social Isolation
Authors: Paugam Serge , Russell Helen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The effect of unemployment on the level of participation in social life has already been the subject of numerous studies. As early as the 1930s Paul Lazarsfeld and his research team analysed the impact of unemployment on social isolation in the Austrian town of Marienthal after the closure of the main factory (Lazarsfeld, Jahoda, and Zeisel 1933). Before the crisis, participation in the life of clubs and associations was very active in this little town, but the study showed a collapse of social links in the unemployed com munity when a great part of the working population was suddenly without employment. Work was the basis of social integration, the main reference for men and women in the every day organization of life.
United in Employment, United in Unemployment? E1nployment and Unemployment of Couples in the European Union in 1994
Authors: Graaf Paul M de , Ultee Wout C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The impact of the high levels of unemployment in the European Union is more severe when unemployment does not only hit younger people, who are still living with their parents, but threatens the employment opportunities of breadwinners as well. The social consequences of high levels of unemployment in a country will be particularly severe if it is associated with the occurrence of double unemployment in couples.
Gender and the Experience of Unemployment
Authors: Russell Helen , Barbieri Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is widely thought that the experience of unemployment will differ for men and women. First, it is argued that women do not have the same financial responsibilities as men and therefore will be protected from the direct financial impact of unemployment, and from the strain that arises from the inability to provide for dependants. Second, it is argued that women do not have the same commitment or attachment to the labour market as men and there fore will be less psychologically and socially affected by job loss.