bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diagnostic procedures
Authors: Mauskop Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Taking a good history is necessary to making any medical diagnosis, but this is particularly true in neurology and even more so in dealing with patients with headaches. The aspects of history that need to be elicited include circumstances surrounding the onset of headaches, duration, frequency, time patterns, possible aggravating and relieving factors, preceding and associated symptoms, quality and distribution of pain, prior treatments attempted, and coexistent medical conditions. Social history can reveal job-related stress, working conditions, occupational triggers, family problems, living conditions, and other factors that need exploration. Information about alcohol and caffeine consumption, smoking, diet, sleep, and exercise is also very relevant. Family history often provides invaluable clues, as does a thorough physical examination. Imaging studies and other tests make the smallest contribution in establishing the diagnosis and are generally overused.
Nonpharmacological/ alternative approaches
Authors: Mauskop Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may seem unnecessary to tell patients to get enough sleep, exercise, eat at regular intervals, and drink enough water, but a significant number of patients will listen to the physician and modify their habits. Many migraine patients do much better if they adhere to a strict routine in regard to their sleep, food intake, and exercise. What about all those “alternative” therapies that many physicians disdain? The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) defines CAM as “a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine.” A more appropriate term, which encompasses the use of these therapies, is integrative medicine. The use of nontraditional therapies in migraine is increasing, with the amount of money spent on such therapies surpassing that spent for inpatient treatment within the United States. Because more and more patients are turning to such therapies, physicians need to be increasingly aware of the types of alternative treatments that their patients may be involved in.
Definition and classification
Authors: Wallace Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multisystem, pleomorphic disease in which in?ammation, antibody production, and complement-fixing immune complex deposition result in tissue damage. Some regard it as a syndrome in that many patients have only a few aspects of the process (e.g., nephritis, thrombocytopenia) and are otherwise healthy and normal. In 1971, the American Rheumatism Association (forerunner of the American College of Rheumatology [ACR]) published preliminary criteria for the classification of SLE for clinical trials and population studies rather than for diagnostic purposes. Updated twice since, and currently undergoing a third revision, this definition has evolved as new insights and autoantibodies have become available. Nevertheless, it appears that SLE is part of a spectrum of lupus-associated disorders. This section will attempt to categorize and define these subsets. The breakdown of different types of lupus is shown in Table 2.1.
Medications used to manage lupus erythematosus
Authors: Wallace Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pharmacologic treatment of lupus revolves around four considerations: Is there organ-threatening disease (cardiopulmonary, hepatic, renal, hematologic, central nervous system) that requires corticosteroids and immunosuppressive therapy? Is there non-organ-threatening disease (constitutional, musculoskeletal, cutaneous, serositis) warranting disease-modifying therapy? Should organ-specific measures (e.g., treatment of a rash) be implemented? Which adjunctive treatments (e.g., bisphosphonates, angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitors) are appropriate for the patient? The principles of drug therapy for lupus state that organ-threatening disease should be managed aggressively with moderate to high doses of corticosteroids, often followed by the institution of steroid-sparing measures in the form of immunosuppressives. Antimalarials are usually introduced as well.
Prognosis
Authors: Wallace Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prior to the availability of corticosteroids and immunosuppressive therapy, which became widely accessible in 1948, half of persons with lupus died within 2 years, and half survived. This generally demarcated organversus non-organ-threatening disease. Table 13.1 shows the gradual improvement in outcome over the past 60 years. Currently, most patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) survive at least 20 years,although their quality of life is not always optimal. Historically, 40% of deaths in lupus patients with serious disease were from in?ammation and occurred within 2 years of diagnosis. Approximately 10% of deaths took place over the following 10 years. The remaining 40% of lupus patients died 12 to 25 years after diagnosis, mostly from infection and complications of chronic steroid therapy and immunosuppression. This “bimodal” curve has been altered in the past 10 years.Death due to lupus during the first 2 years is becoming less common; individuals with serious SLE still have a 10to 30-year shortened life expectancy due to complications of therapy.Figure 13.1 summarizes the principal causes of death in SLE.
Nitrogen and oxygen: atmospheric elements
Authors: Cordes Eugene H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diversity adds spice to life. Think about food. Personally, I grew up with a meat- and-potatoes diet typical of midwestern food back in the 1940s and 1950s. There is nothing wrong in that but it was a bit boring in its sameness. Contrast that with the way my wife and I dine now: the wonderful diversity of regional American cuisines coupled with the foods of China, Japan, Italy, France, Thailand, and Latin America among others, specifically including fusion of regional or national cuisines. The range of aromas, flavors, and textures is amazing. Our lives are better for the diversity.
Proteins An amazing collection of multifunctional properties
Authors: Cordes Eugene H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I grew up in a solidly middle-class family, largely of German descent, in a city of modest size in central Nebraska. Like a lot of such families, our diet was based on meat and potatoes. It was an unwritten but religiously observed law in our home that two meals each day would include both meat and potatoes. The meat was turkey twice a year, ham on occasion, chicken or pork from time to time, but mostly beef. The potatoes were usually boiled or boiled potatoes subsequently sliced and fried. My brother and I also drank a lot of whole milk, at least a quart a day each and frequently more (skim milk was available but no one gave much thought to “reduced fat” or “low fat” milk back in those days). On farms, a lot of people just drank what the cows had on tap. Between the meat, potatoes, and the whole milk, we got a lot of protein and starch in our diet, which is good; we also got a lot of saturated fat in our diet and that is not so good.
Your brain What it does and how it does it
Authors: Cordes Eugene H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The human nervous system is a marvel. Its functional beauty stirs the imagination. Its complexity both creates our intellect and challenges it. Our nervous system permits us to interpret our environment and respond to it. It is essential to the salient feature that makes human beings unique among living organisms: our amazing capacity for language. The human nervous system underlies our learning, memory, emotions, behavior, and consciousness. It is, in a certain sense, what it means to be human.
Your brain Good things and not-good things
Authors: Cordes Eugene H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For certain, one thing is clear: life is not fair. If you have parents who love and care for you, you have an immeasurable advantage in life over those who lack such nuturing. I was fortunate to have such parents but, beyond that, I had two extraordinary grandparents, my paternal grandfather (I get around to him in a later chapter) and my maternal grandmother.
Pithiatism Versus Hysteria*
Authors: Philippon Jacques , Poirier Jacques 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Jean-Martin Charcot selected Babinski as senior resident in 1885, Charcot’s fame, international as well as national, was at its peak, especially in regard to hysteria. 9is became the main topic of his teaching, as shown by the large number of his lessons that are devoted to it.1 9e importance of hysteria in the second half of the nineteenth century, particularly in France, is amazing. Since its description in Antiquity, hysteria had been considered a female illness associated with womb disorders and female sexuality. With a better knowledge of ovarian functions, the role of the womb in hysteria was challenged in the mid-1800s. Hysteria was no longer considered a sexual disorder, though it remained genital in nature and restricted to women. 9e notion that hysteria was a disorder of the nervous system and could occur in men, first suggested by figures such as 9omas Sydenham (1624–1669) and defended by Paul Briquet (1796–1881)2 and then Charcot, would not be commonly accepted before the end of the century.
Brachial Plexus
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every Medical Student memorizes and promptly forgets the brachial plexus. Even the majority of neurology residents only cram it into memory before board exams and then actively forget it afterward. For physicians who use it daily in the electromyography suite, however, it is a grail. The brachial plexus is fundamental to the peripheral nervous system exam. Without it, we are able to memorize the major muscle groups and their innervation patterns but the nuance of the exam escapes us. Let’s learn the brachial plexus well, here, so that even if we forget its details, they will be accessible to us when we need them.
Ulnar Nerve
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The C7–T1 NERVE ROOTS of the medial cord of the brachial plexus supply the ulnar nerve. It provides ulnar (medial)-deviated wrist flexion, thumb adduction, finger spread and closure, and the primary flexor and extensor movements of the fourth and fifth digits. The ulnar nerve provides sensory coverage to the palmar and dorsal aspects of the medial third of the hand, medial half of the ring finger, and little finger. Just proximal to the formation of the ulnar nerve, the medial cord supplies the medial cutaneous nerve of the arm (aka medial brachial cutaneous nerve) and the medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm (aka medial antebrachial cutaneous nerve), which provide sensory coverage to the medial upper arm and forearm, respectively.
Radial Nerve
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Radial Nerve originates from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus and the C5–C8 nerve roots supply it. It provides forearm extension and supination, wrist extension, abduction of the thumb in the plane of the palm, and extension of the digits at their metacarpal–phalangeal joints. Simply put, it is the primary extensor innervator in the upper extremity. From a sensory standpoint, the radial nerve is responsible for coverage of the midline posterior arm and forearm and the dorsal surface of the lateral half of the hand and proximal lateral three and a half digits (remember, in anatomic position, the arm is supinated and the thumb is directed away from the body so the lateral three digits are the thumb, index and middle fingers, and lateral half of the ring finger). The median nerve covers the dorsal tips and ventral surfaces of those digits.
Structure Of The Spinal Cord And Spinal Canal
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Spinal Cord is the gateway between the brain and the periphery; it carries and modulates transmissions between them and generates impulses of its own. The spinal canal protects and supports the spinal cord; therefore, it is important to know the anatomy of the spinal canal as well as that of the spinal cord. In this chapter, we will draw the relevant structures of the spinal canal and discuss their rostro–caudal regional characteristics. Another name for the spinal cord is the medulla spinalis. If you want to understand the origin of this name, read on; otherwise, skip ahead. The brainstem is similar to the spinal cord in appearance and function. The lower one-third of the brainstem is called the medulla, which is short for medulla oblongata. Medulla simply means “marrow,” and both the spinal cord and brainstem share a similar medullar histological appearance. Oblongata refers to the oblong shape of the lower brainstem, and spinalis refers to the location of the spinal cord within the spinal canal. From these origins, we get “medulla oblongata” for the lower one-third of the brainstem and “medulla spinalis” for the spinal cord. The owermost section of the spinal cord is called the “conus medullaris” due to its conical shape. We begin our diagram of the spinal canal with a sagittal section through the spinal cord and brainstem. Draw the cervical segment of the spinal cord angling anteriorly, the thoracic segment angling posteriorly, and the lumbosacral segment angling anteriorly, again.
Pharyngeal Arch Cranial Nerves
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cranial Nerves 5, 7, 9, and 10 all share the same pharyngeal arch embryonic origin, which is described in the “Cranial and Spinal Nerve Overview” chapter. In that chapter, we drew and discussed the nerves as a group; here, we examine their individual anatomy. Multiple cell columns constitute the different pharyngeal arch nerves: special visceral efferent (skeletal motor), general visceral efferent (autonomic motor), special visceral afferent (taste), general visceral afferent (viscerosensory), and general somatic afferent (somatosensory).
Skull Base
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Skull Anatomy (aka cranial bone anatomy) is outside of the strict domain of neuroanatomy but is still important to learn. Neuroanatomy books often provide a cursory review of skull anatomy and related anatomical subjects, such as facial musculature, the oral and nasal cavities, blood vessels of the head and neck, and the ear and vestibular structures. However, if you want a complete review of these topics, look for an anatomy book on the head and neck. In this chapter, we will draw and discuss the aspects of skull anatomy relevant to neurology. We will draw the skull base and label the cranial bones, then draw the cranial fossae, and afterwards the foramina at the base of the skull.
Limbic System
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Limbic System is fascinating but, unfortunately, inconsistencies in its nomenclature make it a frustrating subject to learn. Even the term the “limbic system” has many different accepted definitions. Paul MacLean coined it in the mid-twentieth century to group the limbic lobe with functionally-related areas of the brain but many different iterations of the term have since evolved. In this chapter, we will address the constituents of the limbic lobe and then use the Papez circuit to introduce the functionally-related areas of the limbic system.
When a Dopamine Agonist Is the First and Primary Drug: Early Problems
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With dopamine agonist monotherapy (pramipexole, ropinirole, or rotigotine), the problems that surface often differ from those encountered with carbidopa/levodopa as the initial drug. This chapter focuses on situations that may arise when an agonist is the initial and primary therapy for PD.
Orthostatic Hypotension and Other Causes of Dizziness
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patients use the word “dizziness” to mean one of four distinct medical conditions: Seniors, and especially seniors with PD, frequently experience more than one type of dizziness. In fact, it is common for PD patients to experience all of the first three forms listed above. This makes the history-taking both challenging and crucial; mistaking one form of dizziness for another will translate into inappropriate treatment.
Dementia
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dementia can be a substantial problem in Parkinson’s disease (PD), although many are spared. The prevalence of dementia in clinical series generally ranges from one-quarter to a third of all PD patients. It is age-related, and after age 85, the dementia risk has been estimated at over 65 percent. Even in early PD, subtle evidence of cognitive dysfunction has been documented in about a quarter of patients, affecting memory, executive function, or psychomotor speed.
Dysphagia, Drooling, and Dysarthria
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dysphagia of Parkinson’s disease (PD) is primarily a problem of swallowing initiation, that is, dysfunction of the oropharyngeal motor apparatus. In PD, it is rarely a severe problem and common dysphagic complaints may include relatively minor problems such as difficulty swallowing pills or slowed eating and drinking. Thus, it is the very exceptional PD patient who requires a feeding gastrostomy and even then, only after many years of progressive PD.
The Tree Of Life:Stephen Jay Gould’S Contributions To Systematics
Authors: Yacobucci Margaret M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All of the varied subjects that Steve Gould took up during his career fall into a few coherent and interrelated themes (see fig. 13.1). Steve challenged us to see beyond the conventional view of evolution as gradual, predictable progress in a world governed entirely by selective forces. Instead, he emphasized the roles of constraint and contingency—those unique circumstances and historical moments that shape and limit the evolutionary patterns we observe. Steve advanced his view of evolution as a hierarchy of individuals and agents operating at different taxonomic, spatial, and temporal scales as a way to expand our understanding of the causes of evolution. This chapter illustrates some of the ways in which Steve’s research and writing on systematics reflect these fundamental agendas. I focus on four topics: the iconography of evolutionary trees, Steve’s own systematic work on the Caribbean land snail Cerion, his complex views on the systematic approach of cladistics, and the reality of species as evolutionary entities.
Genetics and Development:Good as Gould
Authors: Dorit Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Steve Gould frequently reminded all of us of just how uninteresting hagiography was as history of science. He would justly rail against “Whig history”—the tendency to look back from our present vantage point and pass judgment on predecessors based on how close they had come to getting it right (right, of course, meaning “as we understand it today”). Steve wouldn’t let us forget that scientists and their work need to be judged in their proper historical and intellectual context. He would also insist that the trajectory of science was influenced more than imagined by factors outside of objective dispassionate inquiry: the warts and blemishes of the profession and its practitioners matter too.
General Appearance, Skin, and Lymph Nodes
Authors: Barness Lewis A , Gilbert-Barness Enid , Fauber Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The General Appearance of a child may reveal much more than subtle physical findings. On first seeing the child, sit down and slowly observe the child. Does the child look well or ill? Does the child appear comfortable or uncomfortable, and if uncomfortable, in what way? Is the breathing easy or difficult? Is the child in any type of physical or emotional distress? Is the child’s appearance alert or lethargic? Is the child clean or dirty? Is the child’s attitude cooperative or belligerent? Does the child have any gross abnormalities or anomalies? Is the child fat or thin or tall or short? Does the child appear to be malnourished? Is the child apprehensive and, if so, is the apprehension due to new surroundings, to the parents, to the examiner, or to the disease? Is the child interested in the new instruments presented by the physician? Does the child obey the parent and the physician or fight them? If the child obeys, is the obedience due to fear? Is the child excited or calm? Does the child twitch and fidget? In essence, is the child similar to peers or different from them, and if different, in what way?
Nutrition
Authors: Barness Lewis A , Gilbert-Barness Enid , Fauber Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Mission OF this text is to describe techniques of the physical examination and the ability of the physical exam to provide accurate diagnoses. The emphasis of this chapter is more to highlight common nutrition-related states. This chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive review of childhood nutrition. This is covered more extensively in the usual pediatric textbooks and publications from the American Academy of Pediatrics (Website www.aap.org). The appendix contains various growth charts. An individual patient’s growth chart in a gross manner may either suggest a healthy nutritional status or a possible nutritional disorder (Table 4.1).
Heart
Authors: Barness Lewis A , Gilbert-Barness Enid , Fauber Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The normal systolic blood pressure of an infant is between 60 and 80 mmHg in both the arm and the leg. The four methods of measuring blood pressure are (1) auscultatory, (2) palpatory, (3) visual (flush), and (4) Doppler. Certain basic information must be part of every examination of the heart: rate, rhythm, size, shape, quality of sounds, murmurs and thrills, femoral pulses, and blood pressure (Table 9.1). In the routine examination of the heart, it is advantageous to evaluate the patient in several different positions if possible.
Infections
Authors: Barness Lewis A , Gilbert-Barness Enid , Fauber Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Botulism Clostridium botulinum causes neurotoxin production (A, B, E, and F). Its spores are ingested from contaminated food products. Infection is acquired from honey (if &lt; 1 year old), canned foods, and corn syrup. Clinical manifestations include weak cry, respiratory failure, constipation, hypotonia, poor feeding, and decreased gag reflex. Laboratory diagnosis is based on stool culture and on toxin detection in stool. Treatment includes botulism immune globulin intravenous and avoidance of antibiotics.
Child Abuse
Authors: Barness Lewis A , Gilbert-Barness Enid , Fauber Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Head injuries are the number one cause of morbidity and mortality from child abuse. Soft tissue injuries include a torn oral frenulum, periorbital ecchymoses, traumatic alopecia, and subgaleal hematoma. Simple linear skull fractures are the most common type of skull fractures but are nonspecific for abuse. On the other hand, comminuted, depressed, stellate, diastatic, multiple, bilateral, or nonparietal skull fractures are more suspicious for abuse. Subdural, subarachnoid, and retinal hemorrhages are intracranial hemorrhages uncommonly seen with accidental injury but commonly seen with inflicted injury. Subdural and retinal hemorrhages require significant force, comparable to that experienced in motor vehicle accidents or falls from a significant height.