bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
| Transposable elements as selfish DNA
Authors: Brookfield J F Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Biologists seek functional explanations for the attributes of organisms. Such explanations show the advantage that the attribute gives to the organism. Any attribute, including components of the genome, can potentially be explained in this way. The belief that such functional explanations are appropriate rests on the tenet of the Neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory that states that the only systematic mechanism by which genes or other DNA sequences can spread through populations is through differences in the fitnesses of their carriers. Transposable elements, however, increase in number either directly or indirectly during transposition, and thus could potentially spread without increasing the fitness of their hosts. This non-Darwinian behaviour illegitimizes functional explanations and requires us to seek causal explanations for the presence of transposable elements in genomes, incorporating both their own molecular properties and their effects on their hosts. One class of explanations are those in which the effects of transposable elements on their hosts are negative. In other words, they are ‘selfish DNAs’ (1, 2). In this chapter, I will discuss some of the ideas and experiments indicating the selfishness or otherwise of transposable genetic elements. For details of the structures of various classes of transposable elements and the mechanisms of their transposition, the reader should consult other chapters in this volume. I will concentrate mainly on the elements in sexually reproducing diploid eukaryotes, for which the data sets of the distributions and frequencies of elements are often more complete, and for which the Neo-Darwinian population genetics synthesis provides a framework for considerations of transposable element evolution. I will strive, however, to highlight the ways in which the evolutionary process affecting prokaryotic transposable elements shows important similarities to and differences from the diploid paradigm.
Mutational analysis: known mutations
Authors: Newton Clive R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter attempts to illustrate the various PCR options that are available to detect specific mutations and/or polymorphisms in genomic DNA. In so doing, the relative merits and drawbacks of each technique are addressed in the respective sections. For some methods of PCR-assisted mutation detection covered in this chapter, a protocol has not been included. In these instances the respective method is rarely used and is therefore discussed and the seminal reference cited. Protocols have, as far as possible, been described so that they can be applied in a generic fashion. However, detection of some mutations or polymorphisms may require deviations from the respective protocols as a result of adjacent genomic DNA sequence. This is more likely where detection of the specific DNA variation is dependent on oligonucleotide hybridization as opposed to primer/template annealing.
Isolation of synaptosomes, growth cones, and their subcellular components
Authors: Phelan Pauline , Gordon-weeks Phillip R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neural tissue is composed of neurones and their support cells, the glia. Neurones are notable for their highly elaborate shapes and the possession of long and often branching processes which intermingle extensively with each other and with glial cells. Neurones do not survive homogenization intact; the cell bodies are sheared from their processes which break up into discrete fragments. The plasma membranes of cell fragments may reseal to form osmotically active particles and when such particles contain the organelles of the synapse they are known as synaptosomes (Figure 1). This chapter describes methods for the isolation of synaptosomes and their subcellular components from mammalian brain. Also included are two methods for the isolation of growth cones, the highly motile tips of growing neuronal processes that become, during the development of the nervous system, pre- or postsynaptic elements of the synapse, and subcellular fractions derived from them.
Immunoassays of proteins and anti-peptide antibodies
Authors: Groome Nigel P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of antibodies in the qualitative and quantitative detection of proteins and peptides is well established. In this chapter special emphasis will be placed on the detection of antibodies reacting with peptides, and the application of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies raised using synthetic peptide immunogens to the detection of the parent protein. Examples will be given of cases where anti-peptide antibodies have been successfully applied, and an attempt made to give the reader a balanced view of some of the advantages and disadvantages of this approach.
Elucidation of protein-protein interactions in gels and foams
Authors: Howell Nazlin K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The interactions of globular proteins with other food proteins lead to synergism, phase separation or precipitation thereby affecting food texture. Elucidation of these interactions in unheated and heated mixtures of plasma, egg albumen and whey proteins were studied by chemical modification and chromatography as well as NMR, circular dichroism and Raman spectroscopy. Plasma and egg albumen proteins exhibited synergistic interaction in heat-set gels and compatible gel structures as indicated by immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy. In contrast, mixtures of lysozyme with either a-lactalbumin or lactoglobulin led to precipitation via a soluble complex detected by ion-exchange FPLC. Electrostatic interactions were predominant although changes in the aliphatic and aromatic groups were also shown by spectroscopy. In addition, chemically modified bovine serum albumin also exhibited interactions with native bovine serum albumin through electrostatic interactions, increased hydrophobicity and conformational changes. The mechanism of the above protein interactions have been discussed in relation to gelling and foaming properties together with proposed molecular models of the interacting molecules.
Technologisch optimierte Bierherstellung im Festbettfermenter bei sehr kurzer Produktionszeit
Authors: Dembowski K , Narziß L , Miedaner H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Due to economic reasons the continuous fermentation of beer stays in the view of technological development. A continuous fermentation system is presented by using a filter system. An overall production time of 7 days is proved. The system shows a high flexibility in production.
The molecular interactions of beer foam
Authors: Bamforth C W , Canterranne E , Chandley P , Onishi A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most foam stabilizing polypeptides in beer have high hydrophobic character. Whilst there is a diversity of such species in beer, they must interact with other components for acceptable foam quality to be realized. The interpretation of such interactions is easier if model protein systems are employed in experiments; for example, bovine serum albumin or hydrolyzed liquid egg white. The ability of such defined proteinaceous species to interact with metal ions and iso-a-acids differs substantially. The binding of divalent cations to iso-a-acids leads to enhanced interaction with monovalent cations. Similar mechanisms may account for the interaction of iso-a-acids wit foaming polypeptides.
Characteristics of beer proteins which affect foam stability
Authors: Mohan S B , O’Shaughnessy C , Shuttleworth G , Lyddiatt A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The presence of a stable head of foam is a major factor in assessing beer quality. Characteristics of components which concentrate in the liquid film of foam bubbles, produced by normal beer dispense, were therefore investigated. Three foam components, depicting drainage over 30 min, prepared from bitters, lagers and stouts were further fractionated by gel permeation on Superose 12. Immunoblotting of the isolated components, using an antiserum raised against foam produced from a commercially available lager, showed that similar proteins might be involved in the foam stability of the beers tested. The data obtained for their molecular characteristics and foaming potential are described.
Antibodies as tools for the study of the structure and function of channel proteins
Authors: Anne Stephenson F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The exquisite specificity of antibody molecules combined with the ease with which they can be labelled makes them valuable in the study of the structure and function of proteins. Historically, the generation of an antibody against a defined protein required the purification to homogeneity of high concentrations of the antigen followed by animal immunization and the production of polyclonal antibodies. The specificity of these antibodies was determined by the major antigenic regions of the immunogen. In general, channel proteins are not easily isolated in the amounts required for polyclonal antibody production. However, the advent of monoclonal antibody technology has circumvented the need for a pure antigen. There was a requirement instead for a rapid, selective screening method for the production of antibodies against those proteins expressed at low abundance. The specificity of these antibodies was again dictated, for the most part, by the antigenic regions of the protein of interest. Today, the availability of cDNAs encoding channel polypeptides means that the natural proteins themselves are no longer required for antibody production, since recombinant or synthetic antigens can be employed instead. In many cases, the specificities of the antibodies thus produced are predetermined, which means that they are even more powerful research tools.
Septal neurons
Authors: Svendsen Clive 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interest in the septum stems from numerous studies showing that cholinergic neurons in this, and other regions of the basal forebrain appear to degenerate in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). These express both low and high affinity receptors for nerve growth factor (NGF), and project to allo and neocortical regions which show pathological changes in AD. As in vivo studies have shown that NGF can reduce cholinergic cell death in the septum induced by axotomy of the rat fimbria/fornix (1), the prospect of using this factor to prevent these cells dying in AD has been suggested (2,3) and is now undergoing preliminary clinical trials.
Schwann cell culture
Authors: Morgan Louise 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Schwann cells support neuronal function in the intact nerve by supplying the myelin sheath around larger axons. Schwann cells are likely to also regulate the ionic environment of axons, provide neurotrophic support, and regulate the periaxonal space. During development and after nerve injury, Schwann cells provide increased neurotrophic support for neurons both as a source of soluble neurotrophic factors and by providing a growth promoting substrate for axonal regrowth by synthesis of permissive molecules both on the cell surface and secreted into the extracellular matrix (1).
Cultures of Schwann cells facilitate analysis of both normal Schwann cell function and of disease where the primary effect is on Schwann cell function. Diseases in this category include neurofibromatosis, associated with loss of Schwann cell growth control, the hereditary peripheral neuropathy Charcot Marie-Tooth disease, and the immune-mediated polyneuropathy Guillan Barre syndrome, both of which are demyelinating diseases, and leprosy which is associated with loss of function by both non-myelin and myelin-forming Schwann cells (2).
Integrase
Authors: Craigie R , Hickman A B , Engelman A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The linear DNA copy of the HIV genome made by reverse transcription must be integrated into a chromosome of the infected cell in order to be stably maintained and efficiently transcribed. DNA integration is therefore a necessary step in the viral replication cycle. HIV DNA is inserted into the host genome by a specialized DNA recombination reaction in which the viral integrase protein is the key player. The mechanism of this reaction is similar to that used by many transposable elements to move from one location to another in DNA, but is dissimilar to any reaction known to be involved in the normal functioning of the host cell. The specialized nature of the HIV DNA integration reaction suggests that it may be a good target in the search for specific inhibitors that block viral replication without disrupting normal cellular processes.
HIV envelope glycoprotein/CD4 interactions: studies using recombinant vaccinia virus vectors
Authors: Berger E A , Nussbaum O , Broder Mdc.C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the discovery of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the causative agent of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), the mechanism of HIV entry into target cells has been a major focus of scientific investigation (see ref. 1 for review). It is difficult to overstate the importance of the fortuitous fact that HIV ‘chose’ as its receptor the cell surface marker CD4. This glycoprotein, present on a subset of T cells as well as on monocyte/ macrophages, was already under intense scrutiny for its role in T cell function. The isolation and sequencing of the cDNA encoding human CD4 (2), the availability of a battery of anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies (3), and the molecular cloning of numerous diverse HIV isolates (4) allowed rapid progress to be made in elucidating structural features of the binding interaction between CD4 and gp120, the external envelope glycoprotein (Env) subunit.
Cellular assays for antiviral drugs
Authors: Mahmood N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The detailed understanding of the growth of HIV, reflected by the chapters in this book has enabled chemists to produce compounds targeted at specific sites in the HIV replicative cycle. HIV infects human T lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages, and nerve cells both in AIDS patients and in vitro. Compounds have been shown to exhibit differences in antiviral activity and cytotoxicity depending on the cell type studied. It is therefore necessary to evaluate prospective anti-HIV drugs in multiple cell lines of different origins.
Microbore and packed capillary HPLC
Authors: Oliver Ronald W A , King Brian W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the present time most analysts using HPLC routinely employ columns of support material packed in stainless-steel tubing varying in length from 10 to 25 cm and with a bore between 3.9 and 8.00 mm. The most commonly used columns are the so-called analytical columns which have a bore of 4.6 mm. However, it has been demonstrated by many workers (1-4) that it is possible to achieve similar separations using columns of the same length but reduced bore. Clearly, a reduced-bore column requires a smaller quantity of support material to fill it, and the amount of sample which can be loaded on top of it is also smaller because of its reduced area compared with that of the analytical column. In addition, because the reduced columns are eluted at lower flow rates, smaller volumes of eluent will be consumed. Because of these clearly advantageous effects we believe that many analysts are interested in learning how to convert their analytical HPLC system into a reduced-bore system, and therefore the primary aim of this chapter is to explain how this may be done. In order to achieve this aim, the effect of reducing the size of the column bore on the operating parameters, and hence design of each of the other components of a HPLC system, will be discussed in turn in the following theoretical section. Before doing so, it should be noted in passing that when such column miniaturization was first mooted a number of practical difficulties were encountered, thus it proved difficult to pack stable, chromatographically efficient, reduced-bore columns suitable for routine use. In addition, the necessary low flow-rate pumps, low-volume injectors, and low volume, UV-detector flowthrough cells were not commercially available so that the separation efficiencies of the early "homemade’ systems were often poor. In spite of these difficulties, interest in reduced-bore columns continued primarily because of their ability to effect the analysis of much smaller quantities of sample such as that present in, say, unique historical specimens (5) or lysates of a single cell (6).
Size-exclusion, high-performance liquid chromatography of proteins
Authors: Welling Gjalt W , Welling-Wester Sytske 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the introduction of Sephadex in 1959 (1) size-exclusion chromatography (also termed gel filtration, gel permeation, or molecular sieving) has become exceedingly popular in the field of protein purification. The high-performance mode of this type of chromatography became operational in 1980 after the development of uniform rigid particles where the uniform pores were sufficiently large to be entered by protein molecules.
Separation by size-exclusion (SE)-HPLC depends on differences in the size, more precisely the hydrodynamic volume, of the proteins in a sample. The larger molecules do not enter the pores of the column particles and are excluded. They elute in the void volume of the column ( V0). The pores of a column particle are differentially accessible to smaller particles, depending on their size. This volume of the column is called V;. The total accessible volume (V1) is the sum of the volume outside the particles (V0) and the volume accessible inside the particles: Vt= Vo+ Vi.
HPLC of oligosaccharides and glycopeptides
Authors: Michalski Jean-Claude , Alonso Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Protein glycosylation is a major modification which occurs after translation. Carbohydrate chains (glycans) may be found linked to proteins in different ways with respect to the kind of amino acids that are modified. Commonly, carbohydrate chains may be found 0-linked to serine or threonine residues, or N-linked to proteins at Asn-X-Ser (Thr) sequons (1, 2). Glycans present a great chemical diversity which results in the ability of monosaccharides to combine with each other in a variety of ways differing in sequence, anomery(o: or 13) position of linkages, branching points, and chain length. Additive substitution by sulfate. phosphate, acetyl, or methyl groups of the different monosaccharides considerably increase the structural diversity. There are four major classes of N-linked glycans: oligomannose type (high-mannose type), so-called N-acety1lactosaminic type (complex type), polylactosaminic type and hybrid type (3) (Figure I). O-glycans present a greater diversity and are generally subdivided into different classes according to common cores (4) (Figure 2).
Production of human monoclonal antibodies from B lymphocytes
Authors: Melamed M D , Sutherland J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discovery in 1975 by Kohler and Milstein (1) that murine antibodies of pre-defined specificity could be produced in monoclonal culture unleashed an explosion of activity in almost all fields of biomedical research. However, the transfer of this technology to the production of human monoclonal antibodies has proved to be a slow and difficult process. The essential event in the creation of a monoclonal antibody by the Kohler-Milstein approach is the fusion of a spleen B cell of appropriate specificity from an immunized mouse with a myeloma or plasmacytoma cell adapted for indefinite growth in culture, to create productive hybridomas.
Immunotoxins
Authors: Derbyshire Elaine J , Gottstein, Claudia , Thorpe Philip E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Immunotoxins (ITs) are cell type-specific cytotoxic agents consisting of an antibody linked to a protein toxin. The antibody component is responsible for directing the toxin selectively to the target cell and the toxin component is responsible for killing the cell (for reviews on ITs see refs 1—5). Because of their potency and selectivity, ITs have several clinical applications. First, ITs have been employed ex vivo to kill residual tumour cells in autologous bone marrow grafts, or T cells in allogenic bone marrow grafts for the prevention of graft-versus-host disease (6,7). Secondly, they have been used systematically to treat leukaemias, lymphomas, and solid tumours (8). Thirdly, they have been used to treat solid tumours by intracavity administration (8). They have also been evaluated for the treatment of autoimmune diseases like psoriasis (9).
Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy
Authors: Johnson G D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) has considerably enhanced the study of biological specimens stained by immunofluorescence (IF) which continues to be the preferred method of immunolabelling in a wide range of applications. These include rapid diagnosis of infection, autoantibody screening, and cell surface (FACS) analysis of leukaemic cells, in addition to the applications in the research field where the unique properties of the method are highly valued. The increasing availability of potent alternative fluorochromes having characteristic spectral features (1) enables different structures to be recognized and analysed for co-localization at appropriate excitation/emission wavelengths-a property not available by other methods of immunostaining, e.g. immunoenzyme staining where minor staining may be masked by coincident strong reactivity.
Chemical cross-linking and protein function
Authors: Kluger Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The functional properties of most proteins are a function of their primary structure. which determines their tertiary and quaternary structures (t). Chemical modification of site within the protein will often produce changes in the protein· function. Relating changes in function due to modification was one of the earliest approaches to elucidating the basis of protein function (2). The effective use of chemical reagents to alter proteins required parallel development in organic chemistry and p role in chemistry. Reagents for particular amino acid residues (sec Chapter 10) and affinity labels (see Chapter 6) appeared to combine versatility and specificity (2).
Convergent themes in X chromosome inactivation and autosomal imprinting
Authors: Brockdorff Neil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
X chromosome inactivation (X inactivation) is the genetic silencing of a single X chromosome in XX female mammals, providing the mechanism whereby X-linked gene dosage is equalized relative to XY males (reviewed in ref. 1). X inactivation occurs early in female embryogenesis and there is normally an equal probability that either the maternally-derived (Xm), or paternally-derived (XP) X chromosome will be inactivated. The stochastic nature of X inactivation gives rise to the classical variegated phenotypes observed in females heterozygous for X-linked coat colour mutations, for example the tortoiseshell cat. The pattern of variegation reflects the fact that the initiation of X inactivation occurs in early embryogenesis, and that the inactive state is clonally inherited in subsequent cell divisions. In certain instances X inactivation is non-random. Thus, for example, XP is preferentially inactivated in marsupial species, and also in restricted extra-embryonic lineages in mouse.
Multilocus and single-locus DNA fingerprinting
Authors: Bruford Michael W , hanotte olivier , Brookfield, john F Y , burke Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the last ten years DNA fingerprinting has been and continues to be applied in many diverse areas of biological science, and has now become a standard technique for rapidly screening genetic variation in animals, plants, and other eukaryotes. This chapter outlines the techniques of both multilocus and single-locus DNA fingerprinting using minisatellite sequences and out lines the various uses of these techniques in population genetics, evolutionary studies, and behavioural ecology.