bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Agricultural Biotechnology in Africa
Authors: Sasson Albert 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
In Africa, the challenge is not to feed more people, but to do so with less available land, fewer non‐renewable resources and less water. Raising productivity requires the adoption of technologies that increase yields on unfavourable soils, control pre‐harvest pests and decrease post‐harvest losses. The examples given in this chapter show that biotechnologies can benefit farmers and consumers through the increase in farm output, raising the nutritional value of specific crops and livestock, providing employment opportunities and higher income to small holders and landless rural labourers, improving the rural environment by decreasing the use of chemicals and lowering food cost in rural and urban areas.
Crop Biotechnology in India, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines and Malaysia
Authors: Zehr Usha Barwale 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Crop biotechnology is providing unique opportunities to produce plants with desired genetic traits, which have been difficult to achieve using conventional techniques. The Philippines and India have approved genetically modified crops for commercialisation. Many other products are also in the regulatory pipeline in a number of Asian countries. Regulatory/Biosafety guidelines are in place in The Philippines, India, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia, providing a framework for conducting genetic engineering activities in plants. Vietnam is also in the process of developing regulatory guidelines. Biosafety guidelines are primarily implemented and monitored by various ministries, including the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Ministry of Agriculture in most countries that are involved in this process. A number of public and private institutions are working to develop traits including male sterile systems for exploitation of hybrid vigour, tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, improved protein quality, enhanced pro‐vitamin‐A, edible vaccines and others. Genomics research is also being pursued for some indigenous crops with regional value and for which research data at the global level is limited. Investment in the area of biotechnology has increased substantially over recent years, yet greater investment is required for developing and acquiring new technologies for meeting the present and future challenges in agriculture. Enhanced public–private partnerships are also needed. With the current interest in biotechnology within the Asian countries, the region will emerge as a serious participant in biotechnology in the coming years.
Technology Transfer to Developing Countries and Technology Diffusion: The Future Role of Institutions in Capacity Building, Regulations, IPRs and Funding
Authors: Krattiger Anatole F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractContrary to some popular beliefs, technology is not transferred based on needs but is strengthened when scientific and technological capacity exists and when effective regulatory systems are in place (biosafety, intellectual property rights, trade regulations). In the agricultural biotechnology area, a number of institutions facilitate technology transfer through a range of activities and initiatives. Many were created and built when technology transfer was something linear. Today, however, technology development and transfer is highly interactive. These elements are discussed in the context of globalisation and public–private partnerships, among others.It is concluded that many of today's development institutions that were created over the last half century or so are no longer effective in the new world order. The incremental changes taking place today in changing the institutions are certainly desirable but fail to deliver the full potential of these institutions and investments. A fundamental re‐structuring is long overdue and proposes a number of initiatives to that effect including fundamentally re‐structuring international institutions, leveraging the potential of biotechnology companies through new types of public–private institutional arrangements, unleashing private investments, and addressing the constraints imposed by the over‐regulation of biotechnology. Unfortunately, it appears that the prospects for any of the needed changes to take place are not very good. Perhaps the plight of the world's poor has to become even worse to draw the attention of the developed world and motivate it for action.
Ablative Materials
Authors: Favaloro Michael 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAblative materials are used to protect vehicles from atmospheric reentry, to protect rocket nozzles and ship hulls from propellant gas erosion, as protection from laser beams, and to protect land‐based structures from high heat environments. Ablative heatshield materials protect a vehicle from excessive heating, and can also act as a structural component. Thermophysically, ablation involves the elimination of thermal energy by sacrifice of surface material. Some principles of this heat and mass transfer process are melting, conduction and storage of heat in the material substrate, absorption of heat by gases, and exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions. The three groups of ablative materials are subliming or melting ablators, charring ablators, and intumescent ablators. Subliming ablators, eg, Teflon, carbon and composites, act as heat sinks until the surface reaches the sublimation or melting temperature, then removing heat from the insulation material. In the charring ablator, the surface material acts as a heat sink, up to the reaction temperature, where endothermic chemical decomposition into charred material and gaseous products occurs. As the charred surface is eroded, more char forms. Intumescent ablators form a foamlike region on exposure to heat, resulting in improved insulation performance.
Abrasives
Authors: Bange Donna , Gary Roger 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe term “abrasives” applies to articles and processes that are involved in removal or refinement of a workpiece surface. Abrasive articles are used in a plethora of different processes including: metal de‐gating, grinding, shaping, cutting, deburring, finishing, sanding, cleaning, polishing and planarizing. Today abrasive articles are employed in some aspect in most manufactured goods sold. There are four major forms of abrasive articles. Bonded abrasives are three dimensional composite of abrasive grains dispersed in a bond system; one popular form is a grinding wheel. Coated abrasives are described as a plurality of abrasive grains bonded to a backing. Non‐woven abrasives comprise a plurality of abrasive grains bonded into and onto a porous non‐woven substrate. Loose abrasive slurries comprise a plurality of abrasive grains dispersed in a liquid medium (e.g. water) and are employed in polishing applications to achieve a very fine surface finish. These abrasive articles rely on a broad range of technologies including ceramics, inorganic chemistry, paper, textiles, organic chemistry, polymer science, surface chemistry and related process technologies. As these technologies have grown, so has the advancement of abrasive technologies to create abrasive articles with even higher efficiencies.
Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene (ABS) Polymers
Authors: Kulich Donald M. , Gaggar S. K. , Lowry V. , Stepien R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) polymers are composed of elastomer dispersed as a grafted particulate phase in a thermoplastic matrix of styrene and acrylonitrile copolymer (SAN). The presence of SAN grafted onto the elastomeric component, usually polybutadiene or a butadiene copolymer, compatabilizes the rubber with the SAN component. Property advantages provided by this graft terpolymer include excellent toughness, good dimensional stability, good processibility, and chemical resistance. The system is structurally complex. This allows considerable versatility in the tailoring of properties to meet specific product requirements. Consequently, research and development in ABS systems is active. Numerous grades of ABS are available, including new alloys and specialty grades for high heat, flaming‐retardant, or static dissipative product requirements. Good chemical resistance combined with the relatively low water absorptivity\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${(<1\%)}$\end{document}results in high resistance to staining agents. Antioxidants substantially improve oxidative stability. Applications involving extended outdoor exposure require the use of stabilizing additives, pigments, and protective coatings. In manufacturing, grafting is achieved by the free‐radical copolymerization of styrene and acrylonitrile monomers. The commercial processes for manufacturing ABS are discussed. ABS is sold as an unpigmented product for on‐line coloring using color concentrates during molding, or as precolored pellets. ABS can be processed by compression and injection molding, extrusion, calendering, and blow‐molding. Post‐processing operations include cold forming, painting, and adhesive bonding. As a “bridge” polymer between commodity plastics and higher performance engineering thermoplastics, ABS has become the largest selling engineering thermoplastic.
Acetylene from Hydrocarbons
Authors: Gannon Richard E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcetylene, C2H2, is a highly reactive, commercially important hydrocarbon. Its reactivity is related to its triple bond between carbon atoms and, as a consequence, its high positive free energy of formation. Because of its explosive nature, long distance shipping or pressurized storage is not recommended. Thus acetylene is generally used as it is produced without shipping or storage.Commercially, acetylene is used primarily as a raw material for the synthesis of a variety of organic chemicals. In the United States, this accounts for about 80% of acetylene usage, with the balance being used for metal welding and cutting. Worldwide acetylene production peaked in the mid‐1960s, after which it declined dramatically as processes were developed to substitute lower cost olefins and paraffins for the acetylene feedstock. Production levels reached a minimum in the early 1980s and since have been growing at a rate of about 2–4% per year, mainly in response to the growth of 1,4‐butanediol production.Although acetylene production in Japan, China, and Eastern Europe is still based on the calcium carbide process, the large producers in the United States, Western Europe, and Russia now rely principally on the partial oxidation of natural gas. However, much of the incremental growth in production is based on producing acetylene as a coproduct of ethylene in the steam cracking process. As a coproduct, acetylene is much less costly than as produced from partial oxidation or calcium carbide.
Acetylene
Authors: Gannon Richard E. , Manyik Robert M. , Dietz C. M. , Sargent H. B. , Thribolet R. O. , Schaffer R. P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcetylene, C2H2, is a highly reactive, commercially important hydrocarbon. Its reactivity is related to its triple bond between carbon atoms and, as a consequence, its high positive free energy of formation. Because of its explosive nature, long distance shipping or pressurized storage is not recommended. Thus acetylene is generally used as it is produced without shipping or storage.Commercially, acetylene is used primarily as a raw material for the synthesis of a variety of organic chemicals. In the United States, this accounts for ∼90% of acetylene usage, with the balance being used for metal welding and cutting. Worldwide acetylene production peaked in the mid‐1960s, after which it declined dramatically as processes were developed to substitute lower cost olefins and paraffins for the acetylene feedstock. 1,4‐Butanediol production accounts for 90% of the demand for acetylene for chemical production.Although acetylene production in Japan, China, and Eastern Europe is still based on the calcium carbide process, the large producers in the United States, Western Europe, and Russia now rely principally on the partial oxidation of natural gas. However, much of the incremental growth in production is based on producing acetylene as a coproduct of ethylene in the steam cracking process. As a coproduct, acetylene is much less costly than as produced from partial oxidation or calcium carbide.
Acetic Acid
Authors: Wagner Frank S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcetic acid, CH3COOH, is a corrosive organic acid having a sharp odor, burning taste, and pernicious blistering properties. It is found in ocean water, oilfield brines, rain, and at trace concentrations in many plant and animal liquids, and has a place in organic processes comparable to sulfuric acid in the mineral chemical industries. It is central to all biological energy pathways. Fermentation of fruit and vegetable juices yields 2–12% acetic acid solutions, usually called vinegar. Uses include the manufacture of vinyl acetate, acetic anhydride and terephthalic acid. Vinyl acetate is used to make latex emulsion resins for paints and adhesives. Acetic anhydride is used in making cellulose acetate fibers and cellulosic plastics. About one‐half of the world production comes from methanol carbonylation and about one‐third from acetaldehyde oxidation. Glacial acetic acid is dangerous, but its precise toxic dose is not known for humans. Vinegar, on the other hand, which is dilute acetic acid, has been used in foods and beverages since ancient times.
Acetamide
Authors: Wagner Frank S. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Acetamide, C
2
H
5
NO, mol wt 59.07, is a white, odorless, hygroscopic solid derived from acetic acid and ammonia. The melt is a solvent for organic substances; it is used in electrochemistry and organic synthesis. Most commercial routes for the production of acetamide involve dehydration of ammonium acetate. Acetamide has been used experimentally as a source of nonprotein nitrogen for sheep and dairy cattle. It suppresses acid buildup in printing inks, lacquers, and perfumes, is a mild moisturizer, and is used as a softener for leather, textiles, and certain plastics.
Acetyl Chloride
Authors: Wagner Frank S. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Acetyl chloride, C
2
H
3
OCl, mol wt 78.50, is a colorless, corrosive, irritating liquid that fumes in air. It reacts very rapidly with water, readily hydrolyzing to acetic acid and hydrochloric acid. Acetyl chloride is toxic. Its high reactivity leads to modifications that block the action of enzymes needed by living tissue. Acetyl chloride is manufactured by the reaction of sodium acetate or acetic acid and phosphorus trichloride. It is a powerful acetylating agent and is used in the manufacture of aspirin, acetaminophen, acetanilide, and acetophenone, and in liquid crystal compositions.
Acrolein and Derivatives
Authors: Etzkorn W. G. , Pedersen S. E. , Snead T. E. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Acrolein (C
3
H
4
O), (2‐propenal) is the simplest unsaturated aldehyde

\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{(}{\rm{CH}}{_{2}}{\raise1pt\hbox{$\Relbar \kern-4pt{\Relbar}$}}{\rm{CHCHO}}{)}}$\end{document}

. The primary characteristic of acrolein is its high reactivity due to conjugation of the carbonyl group with a vinyl group. More than 80% of the refined acrolein that is produced today goes into the synthesis of methionine. Much larger quantities of crude acrolein are produced as an intermediate in the production of acrylic acid. Acrolein is a highly toxic material with extreme lacrimatory properties. Special care in handling is required because of its flammability, reactivity, and toxicity. Acrolein is highly reactive in a variety of reactions, including oxidation and reduction and in reactions with alcohols. Because of its antimicrobial activity, it has found use as an agent to control the growth of microbes in process feed lines.
Acrylic Acid and Derivatives
Authors: Bauer William 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcrylic acid (propenoic acid) is prepared using acrolein from the catalytic oxidation of propylene. Acrylates are primarily used to prepare emulsion and solution polymers. The emulsion polymerization process provides high yields of polymers in a form suitable for a variety of applications. Acrylic acid is used in the form of esters. A large amount (80–85%) of raw materials is used in the manufacture of superabsorbent poly(acrylic acid) and its salts are also used in detergents, water treatment, and dispersants. Solution polymers of acrylates are employed in the preparation of industrial coatings. The polymeric products share qualities of high resistance to chemical and environmental attack and attractive strength properties. Acrylic acid and its esters react readily with electrophilic, free‐radical, and nucleophilic agents.
Fibers, Acrylic
Authors: Capone Gary J. , Masson James C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcrylic fibers are spun from copolymers in which acrylonitrile is the major component. The fibers are solution‐spun from solvents such as dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, and sodium thiocyanate–water either by wet (extrusion into a nonsolvent) or dry (extrusion into a hot inert gas) technologies. The basic technologies were developed in the 1950s and first commercialized in the United States. Expansion to Europe and Japan soon followed. In the twenty‐first century, the locus has shifted to Asia, with significant down‐sizing in the United States. An extensive table lists producer capacities.Acrylic fibers occupy market niches such as sweaters, half‐hose, upholstery, hand knitting yarns, and carbon fiber precursor. The technology that adapts the basic polymer and fiber for each of these products is described. The physical properties of standard acrylic fiber is compared to that of other synthetic and natural fibers in a table. Stress–strain curves are shown under differing conditions. Chemical properties of the fiber such as resistance to acids and bases and flame retardancy is detailed and compared.Commercial polymer and spinning technologies are explained in detail, including processes for bicomponent and producer‐dyed fiber.
Acrylic Elastomers
Authors: Spelta A. L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcrylic elastomers (ACMs) are specialty rubbers whose structure shows both the presence of a saturated backbone, which is responsible for the high heat, and oxidation resistance, and the ester side groups, which contribute to the marked polarity of this elastomer family. The first commercial ACMs were produced and introduced in the market in the United States in the 1940s.The base monomers of modern acrylic rubbers are ethyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, and 2‐methoxyethyl acrylate. These monomers are polymerized by free‐radical catalysts in aqueous suspension and emulsion polymerization. In order to facilitate vulcanization, proper reactive monomers are copolymerized with alkyl and/or alkoxyalkyl acrylates. A large variety of cure‐site monomers has been proposed, but only a few have achieved commercial significance. Two of the most important classes are labile chlorine‐containing monomers and epoxy/carboxyl‐containing monomers.Acrylic elastomers can be tailor‐made to meet certain performance requirements. The influence of monomer composition on oil resistance and low temperature flexibility has been studied both from the theoretical and experimental point of view. ACMs, as most elastomers, have to be propertly formulated in order to supply valuable performance. Reinforcing filler(s) and other typical rubber ingredients and additives are required. Acrylic elastomers have found commercial applications mainly in automotive non‐tire applications such as: seals, gaskets, valve stem oil deflectors, hose and hose linings, wire and cable jacketing, noise control, and vibration damping.
Actinides and Transactinides
Authors: Seaborg Glenn T. , Hoffman Darleance C. , Lee Diana M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe actinide elements are a group of chemically similar elements with atomic numbers 89 through 103, and include actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, and lawrencium. Each of the elements has a number of isotopes, all radioactive. Thorium, uranium, and plutonium are well known for their role as the basic fuels (or sources of fuel) for the release of nuclear energy. The importance of the remainder of the actinide group lies at present in research. The actinides present a storage‐life problem in nuclear waste disposal. Only the members of the actinide group through Pu have been found to occur in nature. Thorium and uranium occur widely in the earth's crust in combination with other elements, and, in the case of uranium, in significant concentrations in the oceans. With these exceptions, the actinide elements are synthetic in origin for practical purposes, ie, they are products of nuclear reactions. All the actinide elements are radioactive, and, except for thorium and uranium, special equipment and shielded facilities are usually necessary for their manipulation. Special techniques for experimentation with the actinide elements other than Th and U have been devised because of the potential health hazard to the experimenter and the small amounts available. The actinide elements exhibit uniformity in ionic types. Corresponding ionic types are similar in chemical behavior, although the relative stabilities differ from element to element. Of the actinide ions, the small, highly charged\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{M}}{^{4+}}}$\end{document}ions exhibit the greatest degree of hydrolysis and complex ion formation. The actinide metals, like the lanthanide metals, are highly electropositive. They can be prepared by the electrolysis of molten salts or by the reduction of a halide with an electropositive metal, such as calcium or barium. Thousands of compounds of the actinide elements have been prepared. The elements beyond the actinides in the periodic table can be termed the transactinides. These begin with the element having atomic number 104 and extend, in principle, indefinitely. Nine such elements, numbers 104–1112, are now known, and evidence for the observation of elements 114, 116, and 118 was published in 1999. These reports now await confirmation. Thse elements are synthesized by the bombardment of heavy nuclides with heavy ions. Modern high‐speed computers have made possible the calculation of the electronic structure of the atoms, which gives some general guidance about chemical properties. Recently, the even more difficult theoretical problem of predicting the behavior of molecular species under actual experimental conditions has been addressed using relativistic quantum‐chemical calculations combined with fundamental physicochemical considerations.