bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Transfer Of Undertakings
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When an undertaking is transferred by one party to another, the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006, SI 2006/246 (TUPE 2006) operate so as to preserve, to a substantial extent, the employee’s statutory and contractual employment rights which he had before the transfer. TUPE 2006 implement Council Directive 2001/23/EC (the ‘Acquired Rights Directive’). They revoke the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 1981 (TUPE 1981). Although they are similar to TUPE 1981, they take advantage of certain policy options conferred by the Directive. TUPE 2006 applies to any relevant transfer that takes place on or after 6 April 2006. The Government has issued guidance to accompany TUPE 2006: ‘Employment Rights on the Transfer of an Undertaking—A Guide to the 2006 TUPE Regulations for Employees, Employers and Representatives’ (the ‘Government Guidance’). Whilst this is not legally binding, it will no doubt be referred to by the courts and employment tribunals.
Approximate Solutions
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The exact solutions of one-dimensional systems discussed in the previous chapter are particularly simple and mathematically elegant. Unfortunately, they are more an exception than a rule: for higher dimensional lattices, the computation of the partition functions of statistical models usually poses a formidable problem from a mathematical point of view. For that reason, it is of the utmost importance to develop some approximate methods that permit us to analyze the most relevant physical aspects and to extract an estimate of critical exponents or other thermodynamic quantities. In this chapter we will discuss several approximate solutions of the Ising model and its generalizations.
Duality of the Two-dimensional Ising Model
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will begin our study of the Ising model on the two-dimensional lattice. In two dimensions the model has a phase transition, with critical exponents that have different values from those obtained in the mean field approximation. For this reason, it provides an important example of critical phenomena. As we will see in great detail in this chapter and in the next, among all exactly solved models of statistical mechanics, the two-dimensional Ising model is not only the one that has been most studied but it is also the model that has given a series of deep mathematical and physical results. Many solutions of the model stand out for the ingenious methods used, such as the theory of determinants, combinatorial approaches, Grassmann variables, or elliptic functions. Many results have deeply influenced the understanding of critical phenomena and have strongly stimulated new fields of research. Ideas that have matured within the study of the two-dimensional Ising model, such as the duality between its highand low-temperature phases, have been readily generalized to other systems of statistical mechanics and have also found important and fundamental applications in other important areas such as, for instance, quantum field theory. Equally fundamental is the discovery that in the vicinity of the critical point, the dynamics of the model can be described from the relativistic Dirac equation for Majorana fermions.
Renormalization Group
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At a critical point, the correlation length diverges: the statistical influctuations extend on all scales of the system and any attempt to solve the dynamics by taking into account only a finite number of degrees of freedom fails. In the absence of an exact solution of the model under consideration, the computation of the critical exponents is often obtained only by numerical methods and Monte Carlo simulations.
Minimal Conformal Models
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss a particular class of conformal theories, the so-called minimal models. The peculiarity of these models consists in the finite number of their conformal families that close an OPE. The anomalous dimensions of the conformal fields and the central charge of these theories can be computed exactly and, in particular, assume rational values. Furthermore, of the minimal models we can explicitly compute both the correlation functions of the order parameters and the partition function on a torus, i.e on a cylinder with periodic boundary conditions on both directions. Their mathematical elegance is accompanied by an important physical interpretation: as discussed in more detail in Chapter 14, the conformal minimal models describe the scaling limit of an infinite number of statistical models with a discrete symmetry, among which we find the Ising model, the tricritical Ising model, the Potts model, the Yang–Lee edge singularity, etc. In addition, the unitary minimal models can be put in correspondence with the critical Landau–Ginzburg theories with power interaction.
Integrable Quantum Field Theories
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An integrable quantum field theory is characterized by an infinite number of conserved charges. In classical mechanics, the existence of a sufficient number of integrals of motion allows us to pass from the initial coordinates and momenta to the angle-action variables, thus finding the exact solution of the equation of motion by quadrature. Similarly, if in a quantum field theory there are an infinite number of conservation laws, we can derive the exact mass spectrum of its excitations, the S-matrix of the scattering processes, the correlation functions, the thermodynamics, and so on, in short its exact solution. For reasons that will become clearer later, non-trivial integrable quantum field theories can only occur in (1 + 1) dimensions.1 In higher dimensions, in fact, they are either free theories or models with non-local interactions. Hence we focus our attention only on two-dimensional models.
Exact S-Matrices
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we present the exact S-matrix associated to several two-dimensional statistical models away from their critical point. Closing the bootstrap procedure, one is able to find at the same time the set of all amplitudes and the mass spectrum of the theory. A crucial step in the determination of the scattering amplitudes is the knowledge of the spectrum of the spins relative to the conserved currents. In the first sections we address the minimal S-matrix of several officritical statistical systems. Many of these examples are related to the Toda field theories previously discussed. Later we use the minimal S-matrices of the statistical models to determine the exact S-matrices of the lagrangian Toda field theories. The scattering amplitudes of the Toda field theories shows an important symmetry of these models under the weak–strong duality transformation g 8π/g of their coupling constant. At the end of the chapter we discuss the exact S-matrix of the Sine–Gordon model, with a series of comments on its interesting features, and the quantum group reductions which lead to the general S-matrices of integrable deformations of conformal field theories.
Thermodynamical Bethe Ansatz
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The thermodynamics of a quantum field theory in an infinite volume can be determined by its S-matrix. This idea, originally proposed by R. Dashen, S.K. Ma, and H.J. Berstein, has been widely used to study the thermal properties of the integrable field theories in (1 + 1) dimensions. The reason consists of the particularly simple properties of these scattering matrices, as discussed in the previous two chapters, and the possibility to generalize to the relativistic case the thermodynamics Bethe ansatz (TBA) techniques successfully applied to non-relativistic problems by C.N. Yang and C.P. Yang. In the TBA approach, the derivation of the thermodynamics of a purely elastic scattering theory reduces to finding the solution of a set of nonlinear integral equations that rule the energies of the particle excitations and their statistical distribution.
Criminalization and Jurisdiction
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As seen in Chapter 2, the international legal framework contained in the universal instruments includes criminalization requirements which cover most types of terrorist act. This chapter will examine those provisions in some detail, and will also highlight the approaches States have used to incorporate them into national law. If criminalization is the tool for effective prosecutions, then jurisdictional provisions provide the means by which the tool can set to work; accordingly, the later focus of this chapter is jurisdiction. It is the second of the universal instruments, The Hague Convention, which is the first to contain penal provisions; the Tokyo Convention addresses jurisdiction, but not criminalization.
Human Rights in the Context of Counter-Terrorism
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the engagement of human rights law within the law enforcement measures when dealing with acts of terrorism rather than the use of force or military response to such acts. The laws of war or international humanitarian law (IHL) govern the conduct of the latter response and the establishment of the controversial detention facility at Guantanamo Bay which is governed exclusively by the laws of war. It is, however, important to say at the outset that there have been some attempts to merge the two disciplines within the context of counter-terrorism, in particular, on the arguments being raised by defence on the issue of self-defence.
Risk, Documents, and The Exchange-Based Market
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Participants in the derivative markets, whether the exchange-based markets or the OTC markets, are exposed to the same basic counterparty risk, which is the risk that a counterparty fails to perform its obligations, whether to make a payment or to make a delivery. A key difference between the exchange-based market and the OTC market is the manner in which counterparty risk is controlled. The exchange-based market is supported by the clearing and margining system, which is introduced in Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. One aspect of counterparty risk is the risk that the counterparty might become insolvent and thereby become incapable of making a payment or delivery. As Chapter 7 explains, insolvency risk in the OTC market is controlled through the use of collateral, and as this chapter explains, insolvency risk in the exchange-based market that is subject to English law is in part neutralized by the legislative foundation underpinning that market. These legislative provisions have a fairly powerful and wide-reaching effect on the usual and familiar processes of the English law of insolvency, albeit tempered by certain exceptions to preserve the overall balance of relative interests.
Defining the Risk Map
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the themes which resonates through this book is risk. Risk may be considered from two perspectives with respect to derivatives. From one point of view, derivatives have emerged as a means of either neutralizing risk, that is, hedging against the crystallization of risk, or exploiting risk, that is, speculating on risk and the price attached to it. Any consideration of the purpose generally of derivatives, and how they function, must be undertaken with reference to the risks underlying the particular transactions and being transferred under those transactions. Hopefully this book shows how this is achieved. However, derivatives must be used in an appropriate and controlled fashion if the considerable benefits and potential that they offer are to be realized, and the considerable damage that they are capable of inflicting, often accompanied by sensationalistic media headlines, is to be avoided. Therefore derivatives must be used within an appropriate framework which promotes the control of risk, by ensuring that only suitable transactions are entered into which achieve the required economic effect, the performance of those transactions is monitored, and remedial action is taken if necessary. The maintenance of adequate financial resources is an important part of controlling risk, as Chapter 10 explains, more so now that the discipline embraces not only credit risk but also market risk and operational risk. This chapter shows how that overall framework for risk control might be established.
Random variables and random processes
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In statistical physics, we are led to consider the physical quantities characterizing the macroscopic state of a system consisting of a large number of particles as statistical averages of the corresponding microscopic quantities. The macroscopic variables, thus defined as averages, are accompanied by ﬂuctuations due to the thermal agitation of the associated microscopic degrees of freedom. When the system under study is out of equilibrium, the temporal evolutions of the means and of the ﬂuctuations have to be taken into account in the description and the modelization of the phenomena concerning it. Random variables and random processes are thus essential tools of nonequilibrium statistical physics.
Statistical description of out-of-equilibrium systems
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In most problems discussed in this book, the material systems under consideration, be they gaseous, liquid, or solid, are composed of a very large number of particles. When such a system is in equilibrium (or in local equilibrium), its macroscopic state may be parametrized by a limited number of extensive variables (or by their local densities). On the other hand, its microscopic state is not known exactly: the number of microscopic degrees of freedom coming into play is indeed so huge that it is completely impossible to have at one’s disposal a full knowledge of the system at this level.
Transport coeﬃcients
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Solving the kinetic equations is a tricky problem. The main technical diﬃculties of this resolution arise from the complicated form of the collision integral. This is particularly apparent in the case of the Boltzmann equation for dilute classical gases, whose collision integral is quadratic with respect to the distribution function. Even the kinetic equation of the Lorentz gas, in which the collision integral is linear, cannot in general be solved in a simple way.
From the Boltzmann equation to the hydrodynamic equations
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a dilute classical gas of molecules undergoing binary collisions, the Boltzmann equation describes the evolution of the distribution function over a time interval intermediate between the duration of a collision and the relaxation time towards a local equilibrium. This kinetic stage of the evolution is followed by a hydrodynamic one, involving time intervals much longer than the relaxation time. The gas is then close to a local equilibrium state described by a reduced number of relevant variables, namely, the local density, the local mean velocity, and the local temperature. The evolution of these variables is governed by the hydrodynamic equations, which can be deduced from the Boltzmann equation.
Brownian motion: the Langevin model
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1827, the botanist R. Brown discovered under the microscope the incessant and irregular motion of small pollen particles suspended in water. He also remarked that small mineral particles behave exactly in the same way (such an observation is important, since it precludes to attributing this phenomenon to some ‘vital force’ specific to biological objects). In a general way, a particle in suspension in a ﬂuid executes a Brownian motion when its mass is much larger than the mass of one of the ﬂuid’s molecules.
Linear responses and equilibrium correlations
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This constitutes an introduction to linear response theory. As it will be seen in the following , this theory allows us to express the response properties of systems slightly departing from equilibrium in terms of the equilibrium correlation functions of the relevant dynamical variables. Adopting here an introductory approach, we limit ourselves to presenting in a general framework the linear response functions, on the one hand, and the equilibrium correlation functions, on the other hand. We do not aim, at this stage, to establish explicitly the link existing between these two types of quantities.
Quantum theory of electronic transport
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to the semiclassical theories of electrical conduction, in a solid, be it either a metal or a semiconductor, the electrons of a given band obey, between collisions, the semiclassical equations of motion, this fact being counterbalanced by the scattering due to phonons and lattice defects. In this approach, the scattering cross-sections as well as the band structures are computed quantum-mechanically, whereas the balance equations only take into account average occupation probabilities. The scatterers situated at diﬀerent places are assumed to act incoherently.
Thermal transport coeﬃcients
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a ﬂuid, the gradients of density, of mean velocity, or of temperature give rise to ‘thermal forces’ internal to the system under study. Since the corresponding perturbations are not described by a Hamiltonian, it is not a priori possible to obtain the response to these forces or the associated generalized susceptibilities by directly applying the linear response theory, since this formalism was originally developed for the responses to the mechanical perturbations described by a Hamiltonian.
Article 1: Principles
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The four paragraphs of Article 1 cover four different subjects, i.e. a very general description of the conditions for the application of anti-dumping measures (paragraph 1), a definition of the concept of dumping (paragraph 2), the determination of the exporting country of the dumped products (paragraph 3), and the definition of the like product (paragraph 4). Anti-dumping duties are not a penalty for earlier behaviour but a protective and preventive measure against unfair competition resulting from dumping practices. Article 1(1) lays down that ‘[a]n anti-dumping duty may be applied to any dumped product whose release for free circulation in the Community causes injury’. This provision follows paragraphs 1 and 2 of Article VI of the GATT 1947. The latter stipulations condemn injurious dumping and authorize the signatories to the GATT to take action against such imports.
Article 2: Determination of Dumping
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Article 2 contains the rules on how dumping is established. It implements the principles laid down in Article VI of the GATT 1947, as far as dumping is concerned, and in Article 2 of the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement, while the injury requirement is dealt with in Article 3. An exporter cannot reject the allegation of dumping on the ground that the level of prices in the Community forced it to export at below the normal value. Dumping exists where the normal value of the product in question on the exporter’s domestic market exceeds the export price. Dumping is therefore not measured in terms of undercutting of prices charged by Community producers on the Community market. Rather, price undercutting is an element that enters into play only at the subsequent stage of determining whether or not the Community industry is suffering Injury from dumping.
Article 4: Community Industry
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to the chapeau of Article 4(1) the term ‘Community industry’ shall be interpreted as ‘referring to the Community producers as a whole of the like product or to those of them whose collective output of the product constitutes a major proportion, as defined in Article 5(4), of the total Community production of those products . . .’. The term ‘Community industry’ denotes one of the basic concepts of anti-dumping law. It is essentially important in two respects. First, it refers to the locus standi of complainant companies which wish to initiate an anti-dumping proceeding (cf paragraphs 1 and 4 of Article 5). Secondly, it is the section of industry in the Community on which the effects of dumped imports, i.e. injury, have to be measured (cf Article 3).
Article 8: Undertakings
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An exporter that has been found to be dumping can, by giving an undertaking, commit itself to raise its export prices to a level which eliminates the injurious effects of dumping. Imports into the Community froman exporter from which the Commission has accepted an undertaking, and which are in conformity with the undertaking by virtue of Article 9(5), are exempt from the anti-dumping duty imposed. Anti-dumping duties and undertakings are deemed to have equal effect. In recent practice, however, the imposition of anti-dumping duties is more frequent than the acceptance of undertakings.
Article 10: Retroactivity
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Article 10(1) lays down the basic principle that anti-dumping duties cannot be collected retroactively. An exception to this rule is only possible in the circumstances provided for in Articles 10(2), (4), (5), 11(4), 12 (5) and 13(3). The corresponding provisions of the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement can be found in its Article 10. The rules on retroactivity contained in Basic Regulation 2423/88 and the Tokyo Round GATT Anti-dumping Code were difficult to apply in so far as they went beyond the definitive collection of provisional anti-dumping duties. The rules contained in the Uruguay Round WTO Antidumping Agreement did not significantly clarify this issue. The Community’s anti-dumping law therefore set up a system which links the retroactive collection of anti-dumping duties with prior registration of imports pursuant to Article 14(5) unless the collection of provisional anti-dumping duties is concerned.
Article 13: Circumvention
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Article 13 allows the extension of anti-dumping duties to imports from third countries of like products, or parts thereof, when circumvention of the anti-dumping measures is taking place. Provisions on anti-circumvention of anti-dumping measures were first introduced by the Community in 1987 and were aimed at covering assembly operations within the Community for which a very high number of components were used from the country against which anti-dumping measures had been taken. These so-called ‘screw-driver operations’ were characterized by extremely low levels of both employment and transfer of technological know-how. Similar rules, but applying also to assembly operations in third countries, were implemented shortly afterwards by the US. The ever-increasing globalization of economy and rapidly growing possibilities to relocate production facilities from one country to another added a further dimension to the problem of circumvention. Production and assembly of goods can be rapidly shifted from one country to another. The problem is therefore that anti-dumping measures adopted against imports from one country may never be effective, or soon be rendered ineffective, if manufacturers choose to supply their traditional markets from plants located in other parts of the world.