bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Regulars, Federates, and Bucellarii
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters repeated mention has been made of federate troops. Federates have been distinguished both explicitly and implicitly from regular soldiers. The difference between these· categories of troops has not, however, been defined. In fact there is no incident for which the evidence is full enough to provide a clear picture of the conditions of service of the various categories of troops involved. In order to get a more complete picture of late Roman federates it is necessary to take evidence from a succession of campaigns even if that involves referring to events which are dealt with in greater detail in later sections of this book.
The Visigoths and Alaric’s Goths
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the ensuing decades a decisive part in the affairs of the Empire was played by the Goths. We have seen that Theodosius made a treaty with them in 383. The details are by no means clear, but it is certain that it provided for the settlement of at least a considerable part of the tribe in Thrace. It was hoped that they would eventually be assimilated to neighbouring citizens of the Empire, and Theodosius tried to further this process by entertaining Gothic nobles, presumably leaders of federate units, at his court. Clearly many Goths were not assimilated. In fact the procession of Alaric’s Goths through the provinces of the Western empire proved that they had very considerable ability to assimilate other Germans, and perhaps even Roman provincials to their own ways, or at least to get them to identify with Visigoths. It has been argued that Valens’ campaign of 367-9 had left them with a feeling of extreme bitterness.
The Rulers of the East and their Military Policy
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the fall of Rufinus government at Constantinople passed into the hands of Easterners–in which it was to remain. Leading men at Constantinople were determined that they should never again be subject to a Western government. To most observers at the time it appeared that after the fall of Rufinus power in the East had been seized by Eutropius, the praepositus sacri cubiculi. Eutropius was a former slave and a eunuch. Although he entered palace service late in life with recommendations from the general Abundantius, he won the confidence of Theodosius, who sent him to Egypt to consult the hermit John as to whether the expedition to suppress Eugenius was likely to be successful. Eutropius was strongly favoured also by the empress Eudoxia. Eutropius’ reputation as the most powerful man at the Eastern court led to his becoming the object of vicious attacks by Claudian in the West. For Stilicho, Claudian’s patron, assumed that it was mainly the influence of Eutropius which was preventing himself from becoming regent for Arcadius in the East as well as for Honorius in the West.
The Age of Eutropius
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eutropius owed his pre-eminence to a mutiny, but he and the leading officials during this period were no more creatures of the soldiers than Rufinus had been. Quite the reverse. Eutropius almost immediately demonstrated his independence by successive trials, disgrace, and exile of two highly distinguished generals, Abundantius (consul 393) and Timasius (consul 389). As far as we know neither was replaced. Gainas may well have expected one of the vacant commands. He did not get it. The affairs are described by Zosimus. It is significant that neither was of barbarian origin. If Eutropius rightly or wrongly thought them dangerous, it was because they were well-known soldiers, not because they were Germans. In charge of the trial were Saturninus,4 an even more senior soldier, who favoured diplomatic means of dealing with the Visigoths,5 and Procopius, a relative by marriage of the late emperor Valens.
The Fall of Eutropius and the Prefecture of Aurelian
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The defeat’ of Leo was the immediate cause of the fall of Eutropius and of his praetorian prefect Eutychianus. According to Zosimus, (iainas sent an ultimatum to the emperor Arcadius to the effect that he would not be able to put an end to Tribigild’s mutiny unless Eutropius was surrendered to him. His motive is said to have been jealousy: Eutropius had achieved rank and recognition which had been withheld from Gainas. As we have seen, Gainas had good reason to feel that his services merited the reward of high rank.2 One might add that Gainas might quite reasonably have feared that he too would eventually share the fate of Timasius and Abundantius. But Gainas had not only his own units, but the army as a whole, behind him. For while Gainas and his troops were in Phrygia,3 it is clear that there was a violent military demonstration in the capital itself.4 One suspects that anger at the condemnation of Timasius and Abundantius, resentment at denied promotion, and economies at the expense of the army, especially of the regular units, had united the army against Eutropius, so that Gainas was avenging not only his own grievances but those of the entire army, federates and regulars alike.
The Fall of Gainas
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the exiling of Aurelian, Saturninus, and John, Gainas was at the height of his power. He had been appointed commander of the infantry and cavalry by the emperor and commanded not only his own federates but all imperial forces within striking range of Constantinople. A federate leader could hardly achieve more. A large part of Gainas’ army was billeted in Constantinople itself. He held at the heart of the Eastern Empire a position very like that which Alaric was holding in Illyricum, and Stilicho in Italy. That Gainas could not maintain this position was a fact of enormous significance for the future of the Eastern Empire.
After Gainas
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Gainas episode clearly demonstrated the danger presented by federates, but it did not prove that the Eastern Empire needed a powerful regular army. After all, it had rid itself of Gainas without winning a major land battle. Gainas had been forced out of imperial territory by starvation and the decisive military victory had been won–not easily and in several battles–by Uldin, an allied king beyond the Danube frontier.
The Arcadian Establishment AD 392-412
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we look at the military and foreign policy of the Eastern Empire from the prefecture of Rufinus (392-5), or even earlier, to the end of that of Anthemius (405-414), or a little longer, a striking feature is its consistency and continuity. These in turn can be seen to be linked to the fundamental stability of what might be called the ‘Arcadian Establishment’. Of course first impressions suggest otherwise: this was a period of violent political conflict. Rufinus was lynched by the rmy, Eutropius executed, Aurelian exiled, Eutychianus charged with treason and acquitted, or eventually exculpated and reinstated, John Chrysostom the archbishop exiled, recalled, and exiled again amidst riots. But these violent events must be seen in perspective. Radical changes of personnel in leading positions were offset by a homogeneity of attitude and outlook. The men who held the most important offices under Arcadius were remarkably similar in social background. Their rivalry, though intense, seems to have been for power and control of patronage, and does not seem to have involved significant differences over policy or ideology. Moreover the period was characterized not only by the overthrow of ministers but also by continuity of careers.
Orthodoxy Imposed at Constantinople
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theodosius I became emperor on 19 January 379 at the height of the Gothic crisis after the disaster of Adrianople. It would be reasonable to assume that Gratian chose him in the first place because of his qualities as a soldier and politician, as the man most likely to lead the Eastern Empire out of its dangerous situation. But it is clear that from the beginning Theodosius considered that his task had an essential component: the restoration of unity in the Church. For already in August 379 an edict was issued jointly by Gratian and Theodosius forbidding all heresies ‘by divine and imperial law’, and annulling an edict of tolerance which Gratian had issued at Sirmium not long before. It is reasonable to suppose that this dramatic reversal of policy was made under the influence not only of Ambrose, the strong minded bishop of Milan,3 but also of Gratian’s new colleague. In spite of the obvious advantage of facing the crisis in unity based on tolerance, Gratian and ·. Theodosius decided, as Constantine had decided before them, that their responsibility to God for the unity of the Church must have priority.
The Election and Preaching of John Chrysostom
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Nectarius died in 397 there were many candidates eager to succeed him. The decisive voice at Constantinople was of course the emperor’s. At this time, however, the emperor was the ineffective Arcadius, and the real ruler was Eutropius, then at the height of his influence. It was he who seems to have decided that the time had come for orthodoxy in the capital to be given a more conspicuous head, and who chose John Chrysostom as the most suitable man. Chrysostom had made a reputation as an exceedingly popular preacher at Antioch. Like Gregory of Nazianzus he was a master of rhetoric, whose sermons could be enjoyed by the most fastidious admirer of classical language. Compared with Gregory he was much less of a poet and theologian, and more of a teacher, in fact a born teacher. He was a publicist, but also a man of action, if perhaps in an unworldly way. Eutropius seems to have first persuaded the clergy and people of Constantinople to elect John. Next he had the election confirmed by the emperor. Only then did he bring John to Constantinople.
Chrysostom in the Gainas Crisis
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chrysostom was a non-political bishop, who was careful to keep completely clear of involvement in secular political controversy. Nevertheless it was inevitable that his influence with important individuals, his popularity with many inhabitants of the capital, and his connections in the provinces, not least with the Goths, should make him a man of power. This appeared very clearly at the time of the fall of Eutropius, and throughout the ensuing Gainas crisis. When Eutropius had lost the favour of emperor and empress he sought asylum in church, and Chrysostom for a time protected him from the soldiers demanding his execution. The fallen favourite cowered under the altar while Chrysostom preached a sermon on moral lessons to be derived from his fall. Considering that Eutropius had made Chrysostom bishop of Constantinople, the sermon shows remarkably little sympathy with the eunuch’s fate.
Enemies and Friends of John Chrysostom: The Problem
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Earlier chapters have shown that Chrysostom was a formidable bishop of Constantinople. He had a mass following in the city. He was extending the authority of the bishop of Constantinople over bishops of the cities of neigh bouring dioceses. In a dangerous crisis he had shown himself to be a serious factor in secular affairs as well. This was something new. The East was not used to having a bishop of Constantinople who could be an independent power in its politics. There was no room for such a figure. He was bound to incur the hostility of all existing established powers, first of all his fellow bishops, but also the secular authorities. This, it will be argued, was the basic cause of the deposition of John Chrysostom.
Theophilus .
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The factor which made Chrysostom’s quarrel with Eudoxia so dangerous for himself was that he was already involved in a dispute with the powerful Theophilus, bishop of Alexandria. We have seen that bishops of Alexandria were chronically worried by the widening influence of the see of Constantinople. Theophilus had tried to prevent the election of Chrysostom and to bring about the election of Isidore, one of his own clergy, instead. He seems to have become reconciled to Chrysostom’s election, for the two bishops combined to send Isidore on a diplomatic mission to Rome to get the pope to recognize Flavian as bishop of Antioch. The initiative succeeded. Theophilus was an exceedingly violent prelate, but in the conflict with Chrysostom he does not seem to have taken the initiative.
Enemies in the Establishment
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Another consideration makes it almost certain that an important group of officials threw its influence on the side of Chrysostom’s opponents. Only so can it be explained that after the bishop’s return from his first exile Chrysostom’s enemies not only resumed their attack after a very short time, but were strong enough to prevent the case for Chrysostom from receiving any formal hearing at all. In consequence of our principal sources being ecclesiastical we are comparatively badly informed about the attitudes of laymen. There is, however, enough evidence to show that important members of what I have called the ‘Arcadian establishment’ were hostile.
Public Property in the City
Authors: Lewis David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The standard books on the Greek city either have no treatment of public property at all or take it for granted in treating public finances. This is an attempt to fill some of the gap. It is concerned mostly with classical Athens and operates with a rather narrow definition, pursuing the key Greek word for ‘public’, demosios.1 It will emerge in the course of the paper that other forms of communal ownership operate functionally in a very similar way, in that the city can exercise control of their administration and revenues.
Nova Nupta and Novus Coniunx
Authors: Treggiari Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Marriage is initiated, in law, by an exchange of consent. The beginning, as an important event, was also often marked by ritual and celebration. The legal, religious, and social features of nuptiae were often almost inextricably intertwined. Such complexity is after all appropriate to an action which makes a transition for both bride and bridegroom, changes the composition of two families, and brings with it the hope of children and new dispositions of property.
Plato’s Penal Code
Authors: Saunders Trevor J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Laws, Plato’s last and longest work, depicts in vivid detail a blueprint for an ideal state called Magnesia, which is to be founded in the South of Crete under guidance from the Academy. ‘Ideal’ does not imply the perfection of the state described in the Republic: Magnesia is simply the best state that Plato considered capable of realization in the circumstances of the Greek world in the middle of the fourth century BC.1 Though in that sense a utopia, it is a realistic and practical one; it must expect to have crimes and criminals. It therefore stands in need of a penology and a penal code. Indeed, to judge from the sheer amount of space Plato devotes to these two topics, he regards them as of central importance to the entire enterprise.
Historical Synthesis: 2. High Noon and Afternoon
Authors: West M L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the last quarter of the fifth century the progressive music of Lasus and Simonides had become classic; but there was a more acute sense than ever of an opposition between old and new styles. Damon’s warning against the dangers of a musical revolution (p. 246) was one influential expression of this feeling. In a fragment of Eupolis some one asks, ‘Okay, do you want to hear the present-day pattern of song, or the old style?’ One of those addressed answers, ‘Give us both, and I’ll listen and take whichever I decide.’ Songs ancient and modern, with elements of exaggeration and parody, must have followed.
Eusebius
Authors: Cameron Averil , Hall Stuart G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eusebius' Life of Constantine is the most important single record of Constantine, the emperor who turned the Roman Empire from prosecuting the Church to supporting it, with huge and lasting consequences for Europe and Christianity. The only English version previously available is based on a seventeenth-century Greek edition, but two new critical editions produced this century make a new English version necessary. The authors of this edition present the results of the recent scholarly debate, as well as their own researches so as to clarify the significance of Eusebius' work and introduce the student to the text and its interpretation, thus opening up the contentious issues. At face value much of what Eusebius wrote is false. This book shows how, once his partisan interpretations and rhetoric are properly understood, both Eusebius' text and the documents it contains give vital historical insights.
Introduction
Authors: Rawson Beryl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume reflects current trends in the study of ‘the family’ in ancient Rome. We hope that it will have a contribution to make not only to other fields of Classics but also to a range of other disciplines and areas of family studies.
Study of ‘the family’ in modern and pre-modern societies continues to engage the interest of historians, demographers, sociolo¬gists, anthropologists, psychologists, and lawyers (amongst others). This is not only a recognition of the central role which the family has played in most societies, but also a response to the complexity and variety of that role and indeed to the challenge of defining ‘the family’.
Pre-modern societies have left us little by way of census data and other systematic statistics, or by way of personal memoirs of women, children, servants, and slaves: we are thus limited in our ability to quantify, to trace developments, and to discuss the more private aspects of family life in these societies.
Divorce Roman Style: How Easy and how Frequent was it?
Authors: Treggiari Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We know much more about Roman divorce, at least in the sphere of law, than we know about Roman marriage. The possibility of divorce existed from the beginning of Roman customary law. A husband could always divorce his wife for serious marital fault, such as adultery. By the time of Cicero, at the beginning of the classical period of Roman law and when our sources become fuller, marriage had evolved from early patriarchalism and divorce could be initiated by either husband or wife. (There must have been residual difficulties if the wife was in her husband’s control, in manu mariti: our earliest evidence for her legal right to compel her husband to divorce her belongs to the time of Gaius, the second century AD.) Divorce was a potential outcome of which lawyers and presumably ordinary people had to take account at the beginning of a marriage. This chapter focuses on this developed legal and social system.
Remarriage and the Structure of the Upper-Class Roman Family
Authors: Bradley K R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In spite of the recent proliferation of interest in the history of the Roman family and the important advances in knowledge that mod¬ern scholars have made, the central problem of how the Roman family is to be defined or characterized has not yet been satisfactorily resolved. This chapter, therefore, attempts to work some way towards clarifying the issue, first by estimating the incidence of remarriage among the Roman elite of the late Republic and then by considering the effects of remarriage, or serial marriage, on the structure of the upper-class family. If the extent of remarriage were found to be high, the character of the family would have to be rather different from that produced in circumstances where a low rate of remarriage prevailed: in the former case a greater number of blended or reconstituted family groupings would be expected than in conditions where married couples remained in stable unions over long periods of time, and in turn a high degree of blending might be expected to lead to a typical family form distinct from that created in situations where reconstitution was of negligible significance. Prom¬inent individuals such as Sulla and Antony are known to have married several times, and a certain dislocation in their families was the inevitable result. But how typical were case-histories such as theirs, and how widespread the consequences?
Corporal Punishment, Authority, and Obedience in the Roman Household
Authors: Saller Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alan Wats o Nin his recent book, Roman Slave Law, remarks that ‘in many regards the legal position of a slave was very similar to that of a son—of whatever age—in paternal power. [Aside from the capacity to enter into a legal marriage] at private law their positions were very similar. Thus, neither could own property of any kind, the fund called peculium given for their use by the father or master operated in law irrespective of whether the holder was slave or free, their contracts benefited and bound the father or. master to exactly the same extent in exactly the same way, the master acquired property or property rights through them in the same way, and the master was liable at private law for their wrongdoing in the same way [notably in the procedure of noxal surrender] ... It goes without saying that in practice sons and slaves would be treated very differently’ (1987: 46 f.).
Watson’s final common-sense qualification does not in fact ‘go without saying’ to some of the most prominent Roman historians of our day. From Paul Veyne’s contribution in A History of Private Life emerges an image of the family very different from our conventional idea of the family today, a unit marked by a ‘natural affection’ between parents and children. For Veyne, the Roman family and household of the Republic and early Principate were units bounded not by affection, but by the limits of the father’s power.
Houses and Households: Sampling Pompeii and Herculaneum
Authors: Wallace-Hadrill Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reconstruction of past families in the late medieval and early modern periods has been made possible by an abundance of documentary material, both percise and extensive. Only by careful statistical analysis of such documents, pioneered by the Cambridge Group for the History of Population and Social Structure (Laslett 1972a etc.), has it been possible to break from Le Play’s simplistic hypothesis of a general historical development from the extended to the nuclear family (Flandrin 1979: 50 ff.).
Central Anatolia at the End of Antiquity The Life of Saint Theodore of Sykeon
Authors: Mitchell Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The historian of central Anatolia has to wait until the final centuries of Antiquity before encountering a written account which even begins to offer something of the full flavour of life in this rural provincial milieu. The importance and value of the Life of St Theodore of Sykeon, completed around the middle of the seventh century, but describing events and conditions between the reigns of Justinian and the accession of Heraclius, has been often noted, and a recent edition, with translation and commentary, which prints many hitherto unpublished chapters of the Life, makes it readily accessible.