bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Reworking Of Utilitarianism
Authors: Taylor M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters it has been observed that the Individualists frequently employed the arguments of the Philosophic Radicals, but reinterpreted them to serve a conservative purpose. This was true, for example, of Spencer’s transformation of the associationist psychology or of the conception of sociological laws which lay at the heart of his analogy between society and a biological organism. The contention that the Individualists gave a conservative twist to previously radical arguments is also supported by the subject of the present chapter and the foundation stone of Philosophic Radicalism, the principle of utility.
Backwards to Forwards, I 826-I 828
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How apt that Neville Chamberlain read Harold Temperley’s study of George Canning during the Munich Crisis. Appeasement has gone out of fashion as a style of foreign policy, given a bad name by the British who failed to stand up to the Nazis; although John Charmley suggests that they were wise not to try. By 1938 peace was a necessity for Great Britain: war, in whatever cause, was likely to bring disaster. In the r 820s the British thought the same of the Middle East. They rehearsed the parts Chamberlain and Lord Halifax would play less successfully-though more boldly-in more difficult conditions. First, they tried to bargain directly with Russia, to make sure that Great Britain would not be drawn into a European war arising out of an East European question, of no importance to her, but likely to draw in the other Continental states as they tried to maintain the equilibrium among them. In return for appeasement, for making bargains with Russia at the expense of other people, the British expected a final settlement.
France
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 2 July 1440 Duke Richard sealed indentures as Lieutenant of France. He was to serve for five years, drawing £20,000 per annum from the English exchequer so long as Normandy was in danger, together with suitable ordnance, an adequate provision for his own maintenance, agreed councillors, and provision for shipping and other more detailed eventualities.
The Second Protectorate
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At no time described as a Great Council, the Greenwich meeting was, none the less, well attended. Thirty-three peers assented to the proceedings, an appreciably higher number than that found in the protectorate Great Councils, though, again, the duke of Norfolk was absent. The king clearly intended his declaration of Somerset’s innocence to be final, the last word on an issue which had been exploited for five years to weaken the Beaufort regime. The terms of arbitration between Somerset and York, agreed on the same day, implied that the remaining matters were of a civil rather than a criminal nature, thus persisting with the idea first adopted after Dartford, although now with less hostile arbitrators, only three of the eight, Wiltshire, Beaumont, and Stourton, being seemingly biased. What the populace at large thought is unknown, but, in the context of politics in 1455, was not likely to have been immediately significant. If he was to prosper, the duke of York needed a new political weapon to attack Beaufort, one which, preferably would rouse popular sentiment. There was none immediately to hand, making his political position uncomfortably exposed. Somerset was as well aware as York that he was dependent on the king’s good health for his continuing political well-being. Somerset needed, therefore, to act as quickly as possible. It had taken only eighteen months after Dartford to reduce York to a political shadow, but that might be too long. The process needed to be more energetically pressed, and Somerset started immediately.
Charity and the Poor before the Black Death
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Poor relief throughout late medieval Europe was supplied by a series of interlinking systems from the Church and State to the craft guild, confraternity and hospital to more informal networks of parenti, amici, vicini ('kin, friends, neighbours').1 Underpinning all these systems lay the highest theological virtue, Charity, which provided the moral justification for the preservation of peace and the maintenance of order and the Buon Comune.
Siege Warfare In The Iberian Reconquista
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The siege warfare waged in the twelfth-century phase of the Iberian Reconquista involved factors also important in Latin expansion in the eastern Mediterranean: an extension of Christian authority at Muslim expense in which the capture of large urban centres was essential; a military and economic partnership between land-based rulers and maritime powers; the importance of periodic crusading operations in augmenting Christian manpower. Although the context of siege operations in Spain and Portugal differed militarily and politically, there were important similarities in methods and machinery. Thus an examination of siege techniques in Spain and Portugal not only invites comparisons with the crusader states, but may also contribute to a wider understanding of Latin siege warfare in the twelfth century.
Industrialists and Pressure Groups, 1916-1926
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In examining the business groups pursuing Tariff Reform in the 1920s, our accent is not on high politics, since there are other studies which, at least to an extent, cover this ground, or their lobbying of politicians and the Board of Trade, since here success was limited; but on their broader objectives and strategies in a situation where there was an increasing consensus of manufacturers on at least a measure of Tariff Reform, but a pronounced government reluctance to accommodate it. This approach, undertaken comparatively, provides an indication of what policy measures appealed to the manufacturers of the 1920s. Emphasis will be put on the three most important organizations, the National Union of Manufacturers, the British Commonwealth Union, and the Empire Industries Association, with brief consideration also of the British Empire Producers’ Organization and the Empire Development Union.
Implementing Self.-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within two days of the King’s Speech to the Parliament of Northern Ireland and his call for peace and reconciliation, Lloyd George had invited de Valera and Craig to a conference. The ground appeared to be shifting under the very feet of the new government, Doubts increased as to whether the unionists could sustain self-government and consolidate Northern Ireland in the face of so many dangers. Craig called a meeting of his Cabinet and on 28 June 1921, with all ministers present, it unanimously agreed to accept Lloyd George’s invitation to a conference in London. There was some concern that the British Government might grant Southern Ireland more favourable concessions than those granted to Northern Ireland. Attendance at the conference was seen as a means of protecting Northern Ireland’s interests. De Valera had insisted that no settlement could be reached if it involved the separation of Northern Ireland from the rest of Ireland, and invited Craig to Dublin for talks. Craig refused, but Lord Midleton, the leader of the southern unionists, and the four Unionist MPs elected to the non-functioning Parliament of Southern Ireland, attended a conference with Sinn Fein in Dublin on 4 July. Some English newspapers criticized Craig for his refusal to meet de Valera in Dublin, predicting that it could wreck the prospect of peace between Sinn Fein and the London government. However, others felt that if he had ‘agreed to go to Dublin at Mr De Valera’s bidding, he would have demeaned himself as head of a self-governing community under the British Crown, and would have abandoned the whole position that the North of Ireland has taken up for centuries’.
Anatomy Of A Dictatorship
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Founded on the ruins of Hitler's defeated Third Reich, and lacking any intrinsic legitimacy, the German Democratic Republic nevertheless became the most stable and successful state in the Soviet bloc. Yet in the `gentle revolution' of 1989 it collapsed with startling speed. How can this extraordinary story of political stability followed by sudden implosion be explained? With the opening of the East German archives, it is at last possible to look inside the apparently impregnable dictatorship. Mary Fulbrook provides a compelling interpretation of structures of power and patterns of popular opinion within the GDR. This absorbing study explores the ways in which the tentacles of the all-pervading state captured East German society in the grip of Stasi, party, and mass organizations, and analyses the emergence in the 1980s of oppositional cultures under the ambivalent shelter of a Protestant Church which had come to terms with the communist state. In combining careful archival research with broader theoretical and historical interpretation, Anatomy of a Dictatorship makes a major contribution to debates on recent German history and the character of contemporary Germany.
Structures And Mentalities Of Power
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The GDR was a repressive state. It was a dictatorship. In retrospect, in the moralistic terms of popular debate in united Germany, it has been widely dismissed as an Unrechtsstaat, a state operating beyond the realms of law (in implicit or explicit contrast to the West German Rechtsstaat). In the aftermath of the GDR’s collapse and the opening of the Stasi files, the waves of revelations in the popular press about the extent of Stasi spying on friends and neighbours led to a demonization of all who were in any way involved with the apparatus of power in the GDR. ‘Victims’ were opposed to ‘oppressors’; the world was painted in black-and-white terms, the forces of good pitted against the forces of evil. And in the confused struggle for restitution, rehabilitation, or survival through restructuring, personal bitterness and emotion often served to confuse an already muddy debate.
The creation of a niche society? Conformity and grumbling
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Germans have long had a reputation, whether deserved or otherwise, for political obedience. Allegedly, Germans-more than any other nationtend to be rather conformist and to elevate obedience to authority above the dictates of conscience or civic courage (Zivilcourage). While this generalization about a supposed national character is clearly oversimplistic, certain variants enjoy some currency with respect to East Germany. It is frequently maintained that, among Eastern European states, the population of the GDR was the most docile in character, the least ‘uppity’ (aufmüpfig), a fact supposedly requiring some explanation. One not entirely flattering version, current for quite a while among some West Germans, was that all those with initiative and spirit fled the GDR while it was still possible, prior to 1961.
An Associational World:1760-1800
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the cathedral city of Lincoln, at the height of the political furor over John Wilkes, a grand masquerade was held, the scene crowded with the dedicated and desiccated followers of fashion. One of the participants appeared Janus-like, on one side dressed as ‘Crown Law’, and on the other side ‘Club Law’: a smart reminder of the enthusiastic support which Wlikes enjoyed from club and societies across the country. Under George III, voluntary associations of all sorts became an essential part of the social and cultural language of urban life, praised or satirized in literature and art. By the 1780s like time.,-could comment that ‘we have numbers assemblies, clubs and societies in this kingdom’. Across the Atlantic similar sentiments were voiced, it was not only the accelerating number of voluntary associations which impressed, but their activity and influence. On a tour of England, the Frenchman François de la Rochefoucauld proclaimed that clubs and societies arc ‘one of the most sensible institutions, the best mark of confidence felt in society and in general’. Another, Scottish, visitor stressed their impact: ‘there arc few circumstances wh1ch have contributed more lo the advancement of useful knowledge than the establishment of academics or societies of learned men’.
Regional and Ethnic Societies
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Regional and ethnic associations were one of the earliest types of voluntary society in early modern Britain, and we can identify distinct phases m their development and organization. County feast societies possibly originated before the calling of the Long Parliament, but their first surge of activity, with annual meetings, processions, sermon , and dinners, occurred during the 1650s. After the Restoration there were new clusters of meetings, especially in the later part of Charles II’s reign, and a final burst of activity followed the Glorious Revolution.
Pensions for the Middle Classes: The Growth of Occupational Pensions
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As formal pension schemes gradually became a normal feature of the life courses of most English people, they changed these lives by, for the first time, guaranteeing a right to a secure, if small, income at a feed age. The feed pensionable age itself strengthened and universalized a notion long present in English culture: that old age began somewhere between 60 and 65. It made this definition of old age more rigid, with ambiguous effects. On the one hand, it had the beneficial result of rescuing many old people from a desperate struggle for survival until they could at last prove to the poor relief system their incapacity for self-support. On the other hand, the pension paid at a feed age contributed to the construction of old people as a new and increasingly dominant (though never uncontested) cultural stereotype, the ‘old-age pensioner’, who was represented as a dependent rather than a contributing member of society once pensionable age was reached, in contrast to older assumptions that people aged and became dependent, if at all, at variable ages. Pensions for better-off workers developed in parallel with pensions for the very poor.
Pensions: From Beveridge to the Millennium
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Famously, the old-age pension was overhauled after the Second World War according to principles devised by William Beveridge during the war. The story of pensions policy since Beveridge published his White Paper Social Insurance and Allied Services in 1942 has been told too often to require repetition in detail. However, certain themes still deserve to be explored. First, we need to be clear about what Beveridge recommended concerning old people and the social security system, since it has been much mythologized.
Celtic Saints and Early Medieval Archaeology
Authors: Edwards Nancy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many Celtic saints are not mentioned in the early documentary sources. Those that are remain elusive figures, their deeds re-created, often centuries later, in hagiography, which, though illuminating for the period in which it was written, tells us almost nothing about the saints themselves. Almost all were thought to have lived during the fifth to seventh centuries. They were believed to be responsible for the foundation of particular ecclesiastical sites, or at any rate they came to be identified with one or more of them. These sites may have been religious communities of one form or another, but not necessarily all; they may have begun as such, though their role would clearly have changed and evolved over the centuries. Many, often obscure, Celtic saints were associated with a single site and therefore their cults would have been very localized. Others were regional saints whose cults were centred on one or more sites within a locality often coterminous with a tribal or administrative area. The cults of some Celtic saints, however, became much wider, frequently spanning more than one Celtic country. Ultimately the cults of many univocal saints either acted as an adjunct to the more important cults or were supplanted by them. But, whether local, regional, national, or international, the power of each saint continued to protect his or less often her ecclesiasti-cal community.
Irish Saints’ Cults and Ecclesiastical Families
Authors: Riain Padraig O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
However late its entry into the written record, no detail of the history of an Irish saint can be safely ignored, especially if it concerns the local commemoration of a feast. Where omitted from the quite extensive early martyrological record, feasts have been mainly noted in random lists or in collections of local lore made in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Accordingly, there can often be a considerable passage of time between a saint’s first mention in the non-martyro logical record and the earliest reference to his or her feast. One such case, involving a saint named Ailbe (modern Irish Ailbhe), patron of the church and parish of Shancough (Irish Seanchua), barony of Tirerrill, Co. Sligo, is the subject of the present paper. First mentioned in a mid to late seventh-century collection of materials on St Patrick, Ailbe had to wait over a thousand years for his feast to be recorded, in a letter dated 23 September i836. Yet, as I propose to show here, the date of the saint’s feast may in fact belong to the very earliest chapter of his history as patron of Shancough.
A Saint for Every Minster? Local Cults in Anglo-Saxon England
Authors: Blair John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There [Tavistock] the holy bishop Rumon lies and is venerated, and is endowed with a beautiful shrine, although no written evidence attests to his legend. You will find this not merely there but in many places in England: only the bare names of saints are known, and whatever miracles they may still perform. All evidence for their doings has been obliterated, I believe, by the violence of enemy attacks. On the face of it, William of Malmesbury’s comment seems more appropriate to Celtic regions than to England. The plethora of obscure local cults in Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany is often thought to reflect a type of Christian organization fundamentally different from the more centralized and hierarchical church of the early English. The operations of the typical Welsh saint were small-scale, producing a pattern of very restricted, sometimes unique place-names and dedications which suggest, in How Pryce’s words, ‘intensely localized lay devotion’. In England, by contrast, the spotlight has been on a small number of major figures whose lives, or at least legends, are well recorded and well known: important prelates and abbesses, or politically significant royal martyrs.
Politics, Popularity, And Patriotism
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although not immediately recognized at the time, the failure of the’45 marked a major turning-point in English history. Henceforth the Stuart cause no longer seriously threatened the house of Hanover, the Revolution Settlement, and the Act of Union. As the Jacobite issue accordingly faded from view, and with it much of the significance of the traditional Whig-Tory divide, a rising generation of younger politicians began to address new issues of domestic and foreign policy created by a more diverse and forcefully expressed public opinion, as well as the continued growth of Britain’s maritime power and imperial presence overseas.
Ruling Institutions
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Members of a Middlesex grand jury were informed by the magistrate Sir John Hawkins in 1770 that since Christianity was ‘part of the law of the land’, they had a duty to control ‘that licentious and daring spirit, which leads men to deny... or controvert its precepts, and by consequence to weaken, if not dissolve, the bonds of society’.1 The interdependence of law and religion in upholding the established order of things was an eighteenth-century commonplace. Yet Hawkins and his listeners would also have been well aware of the disruptive potential of religious differences, and the decidedly mixed reputation of the law and its practitioners.
Burdens and Fruits of Empire1763-1788
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The peace which concluded the Seven Years War was ‘a damned bad one’ in the view of a London citizen, recorded by Boswell at Child’s coffee house on 11 December 1762. But although the Treaty of Paris saw Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Goree restored to France, while Spain regained Cuba and the Philippines, it nevertheless brought vast territorial gains, especially in India and North America. These massive acquisitions of lands and people inevitably focused attention on England’s extra-European interests and presence. The phrase ‘British Empire’ began to acquire a new significance, denoting the pos-session of lands and peoples across the seas, in addition to the more familiar assertion of commercial and maritime dominance.
Sense and Sensibility
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
England was ‘the country of philosophers’, according to a cosmopolitan French visitor in 1745 (echo Voltaire). Argument and disputation pervaded every level of society, from peers of the realm debating parliamentary business, to common sailors denigrating both French matelots and their own government. Foreign observers often attributed this contentiousness to the national obsession with political and religious liberty, which encouraged all aspects of individualism, including a questioning and rationalist outlook.
The State and Civil War, 1921-1923
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The nature and extent of independent Ireland were determined by two fundamental factors. The first was the settlement negotiated and signed by British and Irish representatives in December 1921. The second was the political and military conflict over acceptance of that settlement which followed in Ireland over the next two years. The divisions marked by treaty and civil war have haunted Irish politics ever since.
Unresolved Questions: Defence, Security, and Subversion since 1969
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The state’s experience since the late 1960s in the realms of internal security and external defence, while linked so much to the old problems of partition and republicanism, must be seen against the broader backdrop of the modernization and internationalization of the Irish economy, and of the transformation of the country’s relations both with the United Kingdom and with continental Europe.
Robert Surtees and Early Victorian Society
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though for well over a century the novels of R.S. Surtees have maintained a steady readership, his books have been comparatively neglected in the literary and social studies of his period. Norman Gash's stimulating book is both a contribution to Surtees studies and to Victorian social history. It has often been observed that Surtees' fiction furnishes a wealth of material for social historians, and Professor Gash sets out to exploit the opportunities it offers. He places Surtees' novels in their historical context, and uses the novels and other writings to enlarge the historical evidence. Through the views of an unorthodox and sceptical early Victorian novelist, Norman Gash examines a familiar landscape from an unfamiliar angle, illuminating the conservative world of the countryside, small provincial towns, and the seedier side of London. This is a scholarly and entertaining study by an eminent historian of the nineteenth century.