bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
New hosts for the molecular recognition and encapsulation of guest compounds
Authors: Ebmeyer Frank , Vogtle Fritz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past decade has witnessed an upsurge of interest in molecular recognition processes. Whereas the syntheses of new host structures initially stood to the fore, more recent studies have concentrated on the selectivity of supramolecular structures, on hydrophobic interactions, base pairing due to hydrogen bridges, hydrogen bridging in the interior of molecular niches, complexation of anions, and highly selective and extremely efficient cation complexation. Whilst simple cation complexation by use of crown compounds, cryptands, and podands is understood quite well at the present time, and is used synthetically, more complex synthetic host structures often exhibit surprising properties. Triply bridged macrobicyclic host structures, constructed according to a modular building concept, have aroused special interest. They allow the construction of tailor-shaped host cavities, which encapsulate the guest almost completely. If intraannular donor functions are present, varying receptor capabilities are obtained. Yet, unfunctionalized molecular niches allowing hydrophobic interactions have also attracted attention.
Recent advances in multidentate anion complexation
Authors: Katz Howard E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Organic chemists in general, and readers of previous chapters of this series in particular, are well aware of the dramatic advances that have been made in host-guest chemistry. Besides the substantial synthetic challenges that have been posed and met, a wide range of applications have been profitably investigated. The fundamental trait of recognition inherent in the interaction between hosts and guests enables selective sensing, separation, and transport. Altered properties of complexed species relative to separated entities include improved solubility in otherwise incompatible media, such as crown ether-salt complexes in relatively nonpolar solvents and lipophilic organic compounds in water; more favourable crystal packing effects leading to facile production of crystals or amenability to X-ray diffraction, such as in cryptate salts of organometallic anions; or extraordinary chemical reactivity, such as the very high basicity and nucleophilicity of crown-separated anions and the susceptibility of cyclophane-bound substrates to hydrolyses. In the limit of high selectivity and reactivity, hosts may even mimic naturally occurring enzymes or act as specialized ‘unnatural’ catalysts.
Clathrate hydrates at high pressures
Authors: Dyadin Yuri A , Bondaryuk Inna V , Zhurko Fridrich V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the parameters of pressure and temperature are equally important from the thermodynamic point of view, the former is much less commonly used in the chemistry of condensed substances because of technical difficulties. Therefore, in spite of the fact that interest in high pressures has recently grown, binary systems studied at high pressures are few in comparison with those studied under normal conditions. Systems displaying clathrate formation are very convenient as models for studying the evolution of phase diagrams at varying pressures, because with volume changes, common for a condensed state, the small heats of reaction make these systems pressure-sensitive.
Treating Disorder and Solvent Molecules in Refinement
Authors: Spek A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Probably the best practical advice that can be given in relation to significantly disordered structures is to avoid them whenever possible. When results of high accuracy are desired such structure determinations are rarely fully satisfactory. Unless one is really committed to a particular structure the study of a related compound is recommended. Either a chemical modification or crystallization from a different solvent or crystallization under different conditions could be attempted. Ordered structures are likely to refine smoothly with good data to parameter ratios and good estimated standard deviations of the refined parameters, suitable for the detailed study of bonding effects for example. In contrast it is in general elaborate and hard work to devise and refine an adequate disorder model. Even when one succeeds in this task there often still remain the associated problems of low data to parameter ratio, high estimated standard deviations on the refined parameters and relatively high final R-values. The latter is often the only reason for the rejection of the associated interesting paper by certain journals. A good reason for such a journal policy could be that it is in such cases usually difficult to distinguish real structural effects from artifacts. In fact the pitfalls with which not only the novice crystallographer is confronted here are many. A few will be discussed briefly in the next section.
Torands
Authors: Bell Thomas W , Tidswell Julia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Torands are a class of macrocyclic ligands having perimeters that are completely formed by smaller, fused rings. This chapter describes the synthesis of the simplest known example of the class, dodecahydrohexaazakekulene 1. This fused-ring analogue of sexipyridine 39 is also the parent system for a series of substituted torands, such as tributyldodecahydrohexaazakekulene 2 (TBDK). Larger ring, ‘expanded’ torands are also known, such as 4. Syntheses of torand 1 and sexipyridine 3 were reported in the original communications, but little is known about their complexation properties. On the other hand, sufficiently large quantities of tributyltorand 2 have been synthesized to permit investigation of the structures and stabilities of alkali metal complexes as well as the spectroscopic effects of complexation. Torand 2 forms extremely stable complexes with metal cations, while expanded torand 4 binds the larger, triangular guanidinium cation.
Introduction
Authors: Gardner Julian W , Bartlett Philip N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For many species of insects and animals a sense of smell determines their day-to-day survival. For mankind the strength of social interactions has been determined for centuries by bodily odours and, as a consequence, perfumed materials—ranging from frankincense and myrrh to Chanel No. 5—have been significant creators of wealth. Today, as national boundaries lose their significance, the development of acceptable smells to meet international markets is a major concern for a wide range of industries, including those involved in the production of foodstuffs and beverages, personal products, and in service industries.
Utilizing autotrophic resources: the grazers
Authors: Little Colin , Williams Gray A , Trowbridge Cynthia D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Algal production is utilized in two ways: herbivores eat the living plants, while detritivores eat the dead remains. The distinction is, however, diffcult to make on rocky shores because most animals have a wide range of food sources. The gastropods that rasp bioIlms off rock surfaces take in microalgae, germlings of macroalgae, fungi, and probably algal detritus. Similarly, sea urchins may ingest both live and dead macroalgae and even some invertebrates. Here, therefore, we consider all these categories under the title ‘grazer’.
Clinical Pathology
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pathology is a key component of any medical or dental undergraduate's course, yet it is a subject that students often struggle with due to the overwhelming amount of information there is to assimilate in a short space of time. Clinical Pathology provides the ideal solution. The text focuses on aspects of pathology relevant to students and junior doctors, avoiding unnecessary (and often intimidating) detail. The reader is carefully guided through the subject, starting with basic pathological principles, followed by explanations of core diseases in a systems based format. Finally the laboratory aspects of pathology relevant to the newly qualified junior doctor are covered, along with numerous case studies that bring the pathology to life and test one's knowledge. The book seamlessly integrates all pathology disciplines in one sensibly sized volume. The style is purposely informal and friendly, with plenty of interesting insights and thoughts. No knowledge is assumed - problematic terminology is explained in special "jargon buster" boxes, and common areas of difficulty are acknowledged and tackled head on rather than ignored. Clinical Pathology is ideal for medical students on pathology courses and as an accompaniment to medical and surgical attachments. It is also of great value to junior doctors brushing up their basic knowledge for postgraduate exams. Online Resource Centre: Lecturer resources: Image bank of line drawings and photographic images from the book (including Electron Micrographs) Collection of scenario based pathological problems to pose Student resources: Self-assessment resources, including a wealth of MCQs (some picture based) 'Ask the author' forum for questions and answers
Nervous, sensory, and neurosecretory systems
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sensory receptors and organs, and neurosecretory system of millipedes are among the better-studied areas of myriapod biology. These topics are covered in detail in this chapter in Sections 6.2 and 6.3. However, apart from anatomical descriptions (e.g. Newport 1843), little is known of the fine structure and function of the nerves of millipedes. Direct recording of nerve impulses has rarely been attempted. In the few cases where the ultrastructure of the nerves has been examined, they have been shown to be structurally similar to those of other terrestrial arthropods (Saita and Candia-Carnevali 1978). More research is required on this topic. Some of the more contentious questions concerning myriapod (and arthropod) phylogeny may be solved at the ultrastructural, rather than the anatomical, level.
Systematics and morphology of the Gasterosteiformes
Authors: Bowne Patricia S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One goal in studying the evolution of sticklebacks, or any other group, is to suggest causes for the evolution of traits. This is commonly done by identifying environmental or other factors correlated with the presence of the trait in question, and hypothesizing that these factors promote evolution of the trait. The mere identification of a correlation between supposed causative factors and a trait’s presence, however, leaves some important questions unanswered. Did the factors actually predate the trait’s appearance? Did organisms exposed to the factors actually evolve the trait more often than those not exposed, or does their joint possession of it reflect a single evolutionary event? Such questions can only be answered if the history of the group is known, or reconstructed through phylogenetic analysis.
The Industrialization of Scientific Information
Authors: Richardson B J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because of the large volume of potential data available, the short time frames set for their integration, and the user-driven nature of modern environmental databases, their development often requires an industrial rather than research orientation. This paper considers some of the issues involved in developing such systems. The establishment of national and international information systems of biological information requires careful planning (systems analysis) if work is not to be wasted. Failure of such systems can be due to unreal expectations, or to unexpected changes in user requirements before the system is established. It is important that any such information system be designed with the needs of the users clearly in mind. A first step therefore may be to decide who the users are.
Survey and Conservation Status of Indian Plants
Authors: Mandal S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conservation of wildlife and the environment is vital if our society is to survive. However, a large number of species are now endangered. Factors such as sustained pressure on forests result in habitat destruction, and diverse human socio-economic problems have contributed considerably to the deteriorating status of our magnificent wildlife. Fortunately, recent trends in some states of India have created a keen awareness among the general public of the need to conserve wild natural habitats and forest wealth, and also to protect endangered wild animals and plants. Investigations into the population status of certain wild plants and animals in different Indian forests have been carried out. The present paper illustrates the survey and conservation status of the natural plant life of India based on a detailed analysis of vegetation types and other sources of published information.
Phylogenetic Diversity: a general Framework for the Prediction of Feature Diversity
Authors: Faith Daniel P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The phylogenetic diversity of a subset of species is defined as the sum of the lengths of those branches from the estimated phylogeny that are spanned by the species subset. This measure of diversity has useful properties. Its cladistic/ phylogenetic basis means that it can be expected to predict underlying feature diversity patterns among taxa. In conservation evaluation, giving priority to that species subset that maximises represented feature diversity is justified as a form of maximizing ‘option value’. Further, because the goal or criterion of this measure is explicit, its performance is vulnerable to testing and evaluation. Phylogenetic diversity provides a framework for conservation evaluation that is applicable over a realistic range of information availability, extending from basic information from existing classifications to well-corroborated phylogenetic patterns among taxa.
A Scientific basis for Establishing Networks of Protected Areas
Authors: Margules* C R , Cresswell† I D , Nicholls* A O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A method is proposed for identifying networks of protected areas to maximize the likelihood that they sample biological diversity. Environmental regionalization is followed by the use of iterative heuristic algorithms to determine where protected areas should be located within regions so that all known species, communities, or environments are represented. While there is no single best solution, iterative procedures incorporate the principle of complementarity and offer the advantages of flexibility, efficiency, and explicitness. The most urgent scientific challenge is to improve the quality of the data bases on which these algorithms operate.
Economic aspects: ‘blooms’, nuisance species, and toxins
Authors: Moestrup ØJvind 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Blooms of haptophytes have been described since the 1800s, the best known bloom-forming species belonging to Emiliania, Phaeocystis, and Prymnesium. More recently Chrysochromulina and Corymbellus were added to the list. Some species produce potent toxins with severe effects on the environment. Toxins have been identified in a few species of Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium as galactolipids, but the toxicity is expressed only under certain conditions, notably when the cells are in the stationary phase of growth. Considering that most species of Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium species remain poorly studied, it is likely that many more species are potentially toxic. Economic losses caused by Phaeocystis blooms (tourism, fishing) and blooms of Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium (mainly fishkills) can be substantial. These genera and most species are distributed worldwide.
Palaeontological perspectives
Authors: Young Jeremy R , Bown Paul R , Burnett Jackie A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Haptophytes are represented in the fossil record by a phenomenal abundance of coccoliths and cryptic nannoliths. The biological information available from this record is outlined here. In particular palaeontological perspectives on coccolith based taxonomy and phylogenetic inferences are described. It is shown that the geological record of coccoliths is selective, but very complete for the selected species. Research on exceptionally preserved fossil coccoliths, the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, palaeoceanography, and Milankovitch cyclicity is outlined.
Adaptive walks
Authors: Rowe Glenn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in Chapter 8 that the process of maturation of the immune response i8 equivalent to evolution on a cellular scale. Once a B cell is triggered by encountering enough antigen, it enters a phase of rapid proliferation, during which the genes coding for the variable region on the antibodies produced by the B cell mutate at an enhanced rate, thus increasing the chances that an antibody with even higher affinity for the antigen will be produced. One theoretical framework which has proven useful in analysing evolving systems is that of the adaptive walk.
What’s it all about?
Authors: Harel David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Computers are amazing. They seem to have it all. They ﬂy air- craft and spaceships, and control power stations and hazardous chemical plants. Companies cannot be run without them, and many medical procedures cannot be performed in their absence. They serve lawyers and judges who seek judicial precedents, and help scientists and engineers to perform immensely involved mathematical computations. They route and control millions of simultaneous telephone calls and man- age the remarkable movement of Internet data in enormous global networks. They execute tasks with great precision – from map-reading and typesetting to image processing, robot- aided manufacturing and integrated circuit design. They help individuals in many boring daily chores and at the same time provide entertainment through computer games or the delight of surﬁng the Web. Moreover, the computers of today are hard at work helping design the even more powerful computers of tomorrow.
The Third Man of the Double Helix
Authors: Wilkins Maurice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Francis Crick and Jim Watson are well known for their discovery of the structure of DNA in Cambridge in 1953. But they shared the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the Double Helix with a third man, Maurice Wilkins, a diffident physicist who did not enjoy the limelight. He and his team at King's College London had painstakingly measured the angles, bonds, and orientations of the DNA structure - data that inspired Crick and Watson's celebrated model - and they then spent many years demonstrating that Crick and Watson were right before the Prize was awarded in 1962. Wilkins's career had already embraced another momentous and highly controversial scientific achievement - he had worked during World War II on the atomic bomb project - and he was to face a new controversy in the 1970s when his co-worker at King's, the late Rosalind Franklin, was proclaimed the unsung heroine of the DNA story, and he was accused of exploiting her work. Now aged 86, Maurice Wilkins marks the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of the Double Helix by telling, for the first time, his own story of the discovery of the DNA structure and his relationship with Rosalind Franklin. He also describes a life and career spanning many continents, from his idyllic early childhood in New Zealand via the Birmingham suburbs to Cambridge, Berkeley, and London, and recalls his encounters with distinguished scientists including Arthur Eddington, Niels Bohr, and J. D. Bernal. He also reflects on the role of scientists in a world still coping with the Bomb and facing the implications of the gene revolution, and considers, in this intimate history, the successes, problems, and politics of nearly a century of science.
Sense-Perception: Hume’s Assessment of the Problem and his Strategy for Eliminating Current Solutions
Authors: Pears David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may seem that he is asking us to take too much for granted at the beginning of a philosophical discussion of perception. However, when he speaks of ‘body5 in this passage, he is not thinking of physical objects as things lying beyond our sense-impressions and causing them. Nor, of course, is he thinking of them as sense-impressions contrasted with external physical objects. He is trying to express the pre-theoretical belief in body as it would be held by non-philosophers, who, he thinks, never ask themselves in which of the two ways they think of body. His idea is that the difference between treating bodies as irreducibly physical and reducing them to a mental basis is one that never even occurs to ‘the vulgar’. They simply take what is given as it comes without making any attempt to categorize it.
The Introduction of Probability into Physics
Authors: Sklar Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is to our great advantage to be able to predict reliably what will hap pen in the future. In certain, very exceptional, cases we can predict that the future will have one and only one outcome, say, when we predict the future position of one of the planets from its present condition and the dynamical laws of motion. In many cases, we have only the vaguest idea of what the future will bring. There is a special set of cases where we cannot tell with assurance which of a number of possible outcomes will occur, but where we can have reliable knowledge of the proportion in which the outcomes will occur in a large number of repeated trials of a similar kind. The craps shooter doesn’t know what the next roll of the dice will bring, but he does know that in a long series of rolls, the total of seven will come up on the dice about one-sixth of the time. The exploration of such situations, beginning with the typical gambling situation, resulted in the development of the theory of probability. The probability of an outcome was taken to be something closely related to the frequency with which that outcome could be expected to occur in a large number of identical repeated trials of some specified kind.
Reflections on the Interdependence of Philosophy and Science
Authors: Sklar Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have now explored quite a variety of topics on which the resources of contemporary physics and those of the philosophy of science can both be brought to bear. The wealth of examples, and the way in which physics and philosophy play an intricately intertwined role in trying to get to the bottom of the issues raised, ought to convince the reader that physics and philosophy are two highly interdependent ways of seeking to understand the world and our place as knowers of it.
The Idea of Necessary Connexion
Authors: Craig Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Section VII of the Enquiry concerning Human Understanding is one of the most frequently read passages in Hume’s entire output; at a guess, only the material of Section IV surpasses it. And since many readers come to it early in their studies one might think that its waters are fairly smooth. But not so: they are full of barely hidden turbulence, for here two streams of Hume’s thought run together-and foam.
Frege’s Logicism and his Response to Russell’s Paradox
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Kant, the basis of our knowledge of geometrical truths is spatial intuition. Frege agreed. But Kant also held that arithmetical knowledge has an inescapably intuitive basis, and here Frege disagreed. Instead, Frege held, arithmetical truths are logical truths and can be known by purely logical means. Frege’s goal was to establish this. In the opening section of his foundational opus Die Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, he stated his task as follows:
In my Grundlagen der Arithmetik [1884], I sought to make it plausible that arithmetic is a branch of logic and need not borrow any ground of proof whatever from either experience or intuition. In the present book this shall now be confirmed, by the derivation of the simplest laws of Numbers by logical means alone.