bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Reaction of the Clergy
Authors: Blackbourn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1877 the Catholic writer Joseph Rebbert published a booklet on Marpingen, in which he discussed the position of Catholic priests faced with such events. His emphasis was on their ability to master the situation. The clergy was ‘superior to all other classes in its scholarship’ and fully alive to the dangers of delusion, deception, and diabolical influence; it operated within the clear ground-lines set out by the Catholic Church and could expect the laity to follow its leaders without question.’ Things were a little different in practice. Many priests embraced the apparitions with a passionate conviction that left little room for doubt. Others were more sceptical, expressing alarm at the direction events were taking. But the enthusiasm of the pilgrims, the rash of imitative apparitions, and the political background of the 1870s all made it more difficult to exert control over popular sentiment. The clergy found itself caught between the rules of the church, the pressure of the civil authorities, and the demands of the faithful. Particular problems inevitably arose for any priest whose own parish was the centre of attention. The situation was especially difficult in Marpingen. Jakob Neureuter not only had to cope with the sustained pressure that arose from highly publicized apparitions, but was forced to do so at a time when the Kulturkampfhad robbed the diocese of its bishop and generally disrupted the hierarchical chain of command.
The Catholic Response
Authors: Blackbourn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Catholic commentators rightly mocked the claims of some local officials that events in Marpingen were a frontal challenge to the authority of the state. The Trierische Landeszeitung asked sarcastically whether those who had their homes searched were petroleurs, and insisted that ‘no popular rising has taken place’. A pamphlet writer scorned the view that Marpingen represented a ‘revolutionary movement’. The conspiracy theory presented a broad target. Yet if Marpingen was no insurrectionary affair, the emphasis laid by Catholic writers on peacefully praying women and children was also misleading. The coercive measures of the Prussian authorities did produce acts and threats of violence in response. Some of the most violent incidents occurred on the evening of 13 July 1876, in the hours after the arrival of the army. While most of the infantry company was engaged in requisitioning and billeting, Lieutenant Lent established a sentry-post at the apparition site. Around 9 o’clock, a group of about thirty men gathered on the edge of the woods, some wearing miners’ caps and nearly all carrying sticks or clubs. They mocked and cursed the soldiers, and threats were made (‘You scoundrels, you’ll pay for this’).
The Centre
Authors: Pethybridge Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the crow flies, or rather those rooks in A. K. Savrasov’s famous painting, the distance south-east from Smolensk to Kursk is 480 km., which is a fraction more than the distance due north from Kursk to Moscow, and 80 km. deeper into the provinces than Smolensk from the capital. Like Smolensk, Kursk was a guberniia administrative centre in 1922 and also lay in a river-valley ( the Seim) amongst low hills. However surrounding agricultural conditions were very different. We shall not linger in Kursk itself but wander gently down a side road through this part of the Central Agricultural Region until we reach the Nikol’skaia volost’ (cluster of villages) roughly 40 km. to the south-east (Roslavl’ lay 10km. from Smolensk). Here relationships between the local inhabitants and party members and agents will be examined without reference to Kursk, let alone to Moscow. Then we shall head due south again on the same road, passing into the Ukraine and out of the hills. The first large and industrial city we reach is Kharkov.
The South-East
Authors: Pethybridge Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1922 they were the hub of the maelstrom that was the great famine of 1921-2. The whole of Russia was affected by its repercussions. Many historians maintain that they are concerned, not with human actions of all kinds, but only with those that are reflective, arising from a purpose pursued. They rarely study natural events, and only in so far as they impinge on the human world. In the Soviet context an inordinate amount of attention has been paid to the willed aims of Bolshevik leaders. On the other hand, since nearly 80 per cent of the nation were illiterate in early NEP, consisting of a disorganized and fragmented peasantry, it has often been assumed that the actions of this class have been both unreflective and ineffective. Illiterates leave no written record of their views, but they nevertheless reflect and act accordingly. Peasants caught up in the Tambov and other revolts did just this, although they remained politic ally ineffective for lack of large-scale organization. We have noted how the peasantry of the Black-Earth region was palp ably influenced in its social and political manners by its traditional natural background.
Kazakhstan
Authors: Pethybridge Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the learned members of the Tver pedagogical institute thought they were being adventurous in embarking upon an anthropological expedition to the Upper Mologa river, a mere 300 km. from Moscow, what would they have thought about doing a survey of Kazakhstan in 1926? Its western edges lay approximately 2,300 km. from the capital. Here was isolation indeed, though of a completely different geographical, socio economic, and religious type from the solitudes of European Russia. We have seen how agricultural and other local conditions had important effects on social and political life in Smolensk and above all in the Volga provinces in 1921-2. The area that became known as the Kazakh Autonomous Republic from 1924 onwards contained features which were completely different from any that we have encountered in other regions. These features were bound to have an enormous influence on political conduct. For this reason the geographical and ethnic contours of the area are surveyed first.
The Peoples Executioners
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bismarck might have secured the inclusion of capital punishment in the Criminal Code for the North German Confederation by his intervention in the Reichstag debate of May 1870, but he had in fact achieved less than a total victory. The constitution of the new German Reich, which was effectively the same as that of its predecessor the North German Confederation, simply extended to include the south German states and Alsace-Lorraine, did not contain any statement of human rights-the only modern German constitution not to do so-and so failed to provide any opportunity for the debating of such issues of principle as capital punishment. However, neither did it contain any explicit affirmation of the death penalty or indeed have any bearing on such issues as the sovereign power of clemency. Part of the price that he had paid to the old order for securing its acquiescence in the creation of the German nation-state was a constitution that preserved the fiction that the new German Empire was a federation of sovereign powers.
A New Beginning?
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The overthrow of the Kaiser and the other German monarchs in the Revolution of 1918 did not usher in a period of smooth transition to the new republican order. On the right, radicalized defenders of the old regime mustered themselves, while on the left, revolutionary groups also mobilized in the hope of achieving a thorough transformation of the German social order. In November 1918 and the following months, the prime aim of Friedrich Ebert and the other moderate Social Democrats who led the provisional revolutionary council was to get a grip on the country and manage a smooth transition to a peacetime economy, a stable society, and a parliamentary democracy. The events of the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia, and the ensuing Red Terror in 1918-19, in which thousands were brutally murdered by Lenin’s secret police, the Cheka, were very much present in the minds of Ebert and his colleagues as they embarked upon this process.
Legacies of Terror
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The four countries whose armies occupied the defeated German Reich in 1945 were all firm adherents of the death penalty. Executions for treason, mutiny, and other military offences were commonplace in Britain, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union during the war. Britain still hanged people for murder; France had only stopped guillotining them in public in 1939; the United States made liberal use of the rope, the gas chamber, and the electric chair; while the Soviet Union had been killing its own citizens in staggering numbers ever since the Revolution of 1917. The movement for the abolition of capital punishment had made little political headway in these countries. To be sure, the excessive use of executions by the German judicial system under the Nazis met with the strong disapproval of the occupying powers; but the justice of which they considered this to be a perversion was emphatically a justice that included the death sentence.
Bourgeois Revolution Revivified: 1789 and Social Change
Authors: Jones Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The decision on 16 July 1789 to demolish the Bastille presented a wonderful opportunity to Pierre-Frangois Palloy.1 The 34-year- old building contractor, who—so he said—had helped to storm the Bastille on 14 July, took on the job of demolition. The grim medieval fortress was soon a building site, offering much- needed employment to about 1,000 hungry Parisian labourers and providing a diverting and edifying spectacle for the leisured élite.
The Revolution: Catastrophe or New Dawn for the French Economy?
Authors: Bergeron Louis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The very fact of choosing this topic and of expressing it in the form of this question testifies to the survival of recurrent polemics about the long-term effects of the 1789 Revolution. These polemics continue to mark even the most recent develop ments in French historiography. To be sure, in past but not so very remote times, great French historians belonging to the Jacobin or Marxist traditions argued in oversimplified terms and predicated the opening of a new era of economic progress with 1789, as if it were a kind of ‘natural consequence’ of a political and social revolution which itself appeared as a sort of prerequisite for such progress. According to this logic, the abolition of feudalism in all its aspects was to be followed by the blossoming of individual initiative and the multiplication of wealth. The same historians tended also to glorify the various aspeds of state interventionism which, for a while, were enforced by the revolutionary govern ment and assemblies, and which they depicted as a magic weapon ensuring military success and greater social justice in general.
Protestant Demonology: Sin, Superstition, and Society (c.1520-c.1630)
Authors: Clark Stuart 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN 1584 the Elizabethan sceptic Reginald Scot claimed that only the Catholic Church really took witchcraft seriously. Witch mongers and mass mongers were one and the same thing, whereas the religion of the gospel could stand ‘without such peevish trumperie’. It was, he said, ‘incomprehensible to the wise, learned or faith full; a probable matter to children, fooles, melancholike persons and papists’. All the same, he was obliged to acknowledge the demonologies of leading European Protestant theologians like Lambert Daneau and Niels Hemmingsen, and he deplored the way in which the ordinary English clergy lent credibility to popular witchcraft beliefs by recognizing the existence of healers and conjurors in their parishes and making allegations against local witches.
Satanic Myths and Cultural Reality
Authors: Muchembled Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WITCH-HUNTING is a liturgy of fear. It spreads obsessions that are essentially those of the learned, but which inspire real dread and anxiety among the peasant masses. Holding up to the latter a mirror of Satanism and sorcery, magistrates and demonologists exacerbate the social rifts innate in rural society by conferring on them a cultural, moral, and religious justification. Every villager can recognize his own beliefs and practices, real enough to him, but diabolical in the eyes of his betters; each man must then decide in what fashion to present his own image. The intensity and continuity of persecutions depend on the good pleasure of those in authority, but also on the receptivity of some peasants to the message offered them. It is thus possible to define communities that are ‘open’ or ‘closed’ to persecution, and more generally to propose an overall explanatory model, valid for several European countries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Independence, 1866–1881
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The decade in which Rumania achieved independence began in 1866 with the overthrow of Prince Alexandru Cuza by an unlikely combination of Conservative and radical Liberal politicians. At odds with one another on almost every significant public issue, they none the less found ample reason to join forces in opposing what they claimed were Cuza’s abuses of power and his intention to establish a dictatorship. A reformer who had seen the urgent need to rationalize government administration and increase the productivity of agriculture, Cuza had made the mistake of imposing his Statut and an agrarian reform bill, both in 1864, in such a manner as to alienate old supporters and unify his enemies. Thus isolated politically, he himself encouraged the plotters by intimating that he might abdicate. On 23 February 1866, swiftly and without public disorder or resistance from Cuza, the coalition, led by the radical Liberals Ion C. Bratianu and C. A. Rosetti, both revolutionaries of 1848, forced Cuza to abdicate and go into exile.
The Impact Of Processions And Ceremonial
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Political attitudes can be formed not only by what people read or see or want, but also by events in which they share. It is thus interesting to examine the political connotations of any large-scale group activity that offers scope for the distribution of information, the generation of emotional excitement, and the organization of considerable numbers of people. Such events occurred fairly infrequently in fifteenth-century France but, amongst them, processions and major outdoor rituals were of particular significance. The spectacular ceremonies connected with the monarchy will not be the first priority of this chapter, since the basic symbolism and procedures are now fairly well known. Instead, let us concentrate on the less elaborate, but much more widespread, religious processions in which people were not only spectators but participants. If we wish to study the interaction between political events and society during the period of the Anglo-Burgundian regime, then these occasions, on which people were gathered together by hundreds or even by thousands, are useful fields to explore.2 Accordingly, this chapter aims to do two things in parallel: to determine what these processions were like and to decide what role they played in political life. In the light of conclusions drawn from that study, it is hoped that a fuller understanding of certain royal ceremonies will be possible.
Progress and Poverty
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
BL The only general textbook to examine the social and political implications of the economics of the period British society and the British economy underwent major structural change over the period from 1700 to 1850, as population moved from agriculture and rural life to industry and towns. Unlike previous textbooks on this period, written either from a social and political standpoint, or about economics in the abstract, this book incorporates the work of social and political historians with revisionist work on British economic growth. It stresses the connections between the economy and debates over public policy, and examines the regional variations in agriculture and industry, with particular attention to the differences between England and Scotland. Much revisionist work concerns the operation of assumed national markets; the aim of the book is to show how these markets were formed, and how a national economy was created. Martin Daunton gives a clear and balanced picture of the continuity and change in the early development of the world's first industrial nation.
The Domestic System of Manufactures
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Daniel Defoe, in A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain (1724–6), described his journey across the Pennines to Halifax. He was surprised to find that the hills, despite their steepness, were ‘spread with houses, and that very thick; for the land being divided into small enclosures, that is to say, from two acres to six or seven acres each, seldom more; every three or four pieces of land had a house belonging to it.’ The explanation was not far to seek: outside most houses was a tenter on which was stretched a piece of cloth. The land alone, Defoe estimated, could support only a fifth of the population. When he visited a master manufacturer, Defoe found ‘a house full of lusty fellows, some at the dye-vat, some dressing the cloths, some in the loom, some one thing, some another, all hard at work’. Scattered amongst the houses of the master manufacturers, Defoe found ‘an infinite number of cottages or small dwellings, in which dwell the workmen which are employed, the women and children of whom are always busy carding, spinning, etc so that no hands being unemployed, all can gain their bread, even from the youngest to the ancient; hardly any thing above four years old, but its hands are sufficient to itself.’
Poor Relief and Charity
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sir Francis Brewster’s complaint of 1695 was directed against the poor law legislation of 1598-1601 which came into effect at the end of the ‘Blessed Reign’ of Elizabeth and survived until the creation of the new poor law of 1834. The Elizabethan legislation made it a mandatory responsibility of each parish to maintain the ‘impotent’ and to provide work for the able-bodied under the supervision of the overseers of the poor. Finance was raised by the church¬ wardens, who increasingly relied upon an annual poor rate. England was the only country in Europe with a system of poor relief financed from taxation: Brewster could equally well have drawn a contrast within Britain, for tax-funded poor relief was by no means the norm in Scotland.
Formative Years: I762-I773
Authors: McGrew Roderick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Paul’s formal education was Count Panin’s responsibility. On the whole, he discharged it very well. He created a comfortable environment in which Paul lived, for the most part happily, for thirteen years, while studying a rich and varied curriculum under a surprisingly good group of teachers. Panin’s success with Paul owed to his own broad cultural background, his sympathetic and kindly ways, his personal commitment to Paul’s welfare, and to the educational philosophy on which he built his programme. When chosen oberhofmeister for the heir, Panin knew little or nothing about his future charge. But he was familiar with several European courts, and he was interested in contemporary educational theories. Muscovy’s princes had traditionally received a narrow training based on theology. The cultural climate, however, had changed radically since the seventeenth century, and no one seriously considered a traditional Russian education for Paul. The problem was to choose among contemporary European alternatives.
Merchant Capital And Economic Decolonization
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The United Africa Company (UAC), formed in 1929 by the fusion of the Niger Company and the African and Eastern Corporation, was by far the largest single commercial organization in West and Equatorial Africa, and thus central to modern African economic history. This is the first detailed account to be published and one which fills a serious gap in the literature. It was not commissioned by the company (now reabsorbed into Unilever) but the author had full access to all confidential material in the UAC and Unilever archives and complete freedom in what he wrote. The book is not intended to be primarily a company history but uses the UAC as a focal point for detailed study of how the role of foreign merchant capital changed in response to economic and political developments in Black Africa during this critical half century.
The Company 1960–1987
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are a number of reasons why the structure and character of UAC, remarkably consistent since the early 1930s, should have changed after the 1950s. Some of them were personal, others institutional, involving innovation in the policy-making processes; but the most important were made in response to fundamental changes in the economic and political environment in which the company had to operate overseas. This chapter will start with institutional changes in the European head offices, then examine the restructuring of the business as a whole within Europe, and finally summarize the far more radical changes that took place overseas.
Pools and Cocoa
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dominant characteristic of the West African market economy of the period before 1939, for reasons described in the previous chapter, was that it was a commercial jungle. Perhaps because the economy was uniquely geared to the international and highly speculative international commodity market, which determined the value of both its exports and imports, its domestic market fluctuated far more erratically than that of industrialized countries tied to the international business cycle. Because there were no effective barriers to entrance by firms from any other country, the number of foreign companies competing in both the import and export trades was considerable; in addition, particularly in the British territories, there was an increasing number of locally based African, Levantine, and other traders. Finally no West African government before 1939 attempted seriously to control trading activities beyond the level of quality controls. In short, West African trading conditions resembled Hobbes’s definition of the state of nature; and, as in that state, the life of most firms proved to be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.