bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Long Winter
Authors: Cordovez Diego 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In politics and diplomacy people often say things that are later systematically misquoted or distorted. John F. Kennedy never said that he was a Berliner, and Harold Macmillan did not say “You’ve never had it so good.” But the fact that such eminent statesmen, whom I greatly admire, had been misrepresented did not diminish my annoyance when I was accused, time and again, of having said that 95 percent of the settlement was ready. What I did say in an interview with my good friend Iftikhar Ali of the Gorbachev gave the armed forces a green light to proceed with a series of ambitious offensives that began in late May with the largest assault ever made against resistance bases in the Kunar valley, a key resistance staging area near the Pakistani border. He also agreed to upgrade the level of Soviet military leadership in Afghanistan. One of the Red Army’s most celebrated heroes, General Mikhail Zaitsev, then serving as commander of Soviet forces in Germany, was transferred to the Afghan front. Significantly, though, while Zaitsev had a free hand to try more aggressive tactics, Gorbachev did not authorize sending more troops, with the exception of several thousand additional spetznaz forces. Moreover, he accompanied the policy of carefully calibrated escalation during 1985 and 1986 with growing diplomatic flexibility designed to test American readiness for a settlement.
“Bleeders,” “Dealers,” And Perestroika
Authors: Harrison Selig S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mikhail Gorbachev was skeptical from the very beginning about Leonid Brezhnev’s Afghan adventure. In 1980, it will be recalled, he objected to stepped-up defense spending for the war at the expense of domestic economic needs. Visiting Canada in 1983, he told his official host, Agriculture Minister Eugene Whelan, that the war was “a mistake.” It was not surprising, therefore, that Gorbachev ordered a secret Politburo reappraisal of Afghan policy in April 1985, only a month after he took power upon the death of Konstantin Chernenko. “The Politburo conducted a hard and impartial analysis of the situation,” he recalled later. “We started even at that time to seek a way out.”Gorbachev carefully prepared the ground for disengagement during 1985 and 1986. As he consolidated his power, his pursuit of a negotiated settlement became progressively more determined. Initially, however, confronted by hard line opponents in the Politburo who still believed in a military victory, Gorbachev coupled his diplomatic initiatives with a policy of limited military escalation. “From the very beginning, he knew he wanted to get out,” said Aleksandr Yakovlev, his principal foreign policy adviser. “But the military-industrial complex pressed him to try this, try that. They were getting many benefits from the war. He let them do some of the things they wanted to do, but it’s not true, as some have said, that he himself wanted to try for a military decision.”
The Slow Thaw
Authors: Cordovez Diego 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On June 20, 1985, we started the fourth round of negotiations at the Palais des Nations. Yaqub was described by the press as “cautiously optimistic” when he left Islamabad airport. I said on my arrival in Geneva that we were entering a new phase in the diplomatic process that would involve essentially the completion of the legal instruments that would make up the settlement. Raymond Sommereyns and I had prepared four draft instruments, an operation that had not proved very difficult because we had already submitted two drafts (on noninterference and on the interrelationships) at the previous round. We “lifted” the two other (on refugees and on guarantees) from the famous “single” text that we had been drafting since the beginning of the Geneva negotiations. I was somewhat concerned that Dost might-rightly-point out that nobody had asked me to prepare four documents. When we met in my office on July 19 he seemed, however, to be in a very good mood. He brought me a box of Cuban cigars and said that in preparing the four documents I had shown to be, “as always,” ahead of all of them.
Models to Mud
Authors: Strier Karen B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early 1980s, primatologists began to get an intellectual grasp on how ecology has shaped primate behavior. Two seminal papers by Richard Wrangham, a well-known primatologist whose major research interest is chimpanzees, pulled the comparative data that had accumulated for primates together with evolutionary and ecological theories. Many of the principles had been identified before for ungulates, birds, and bats,2 but Wrangham was the first to apply them to primates in any cohesive way, developing a model that served as a theoretical blueprint for an entire generation of field research.
Reproductive Strategies of Pteridophytes
Authors: Cousens Michael I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pteridophytes include the Psilotales, (Psilotum and Tmesipteris), Sphenophyllales (Equisetum), Lycopodiales (Lycopodium, Selaginella, and Isoetes), and the fern orders Ophioglossales (Botrychium and Ophioglossum), Marattiales, Filicales, Salviniales, and Marsileales. The cardinal points of the pteridophyte life cycle are the meiotic production of spores by the sporophyte and the mitotic production of gametes by the gametophyte. Meiosis initiates the gametophyte generation and the fusion of mitotically formed gametes initiates the sporophyte.
Prologue Peeling an Apple
Authors: Weber Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am sitting in my kitchen peeling an apple. In my right hand I hold a paring knife and in my left hand the apple. The knife has a blade and a handle. The blade has two working parts, the long sharp edge we slice with and the sharp point. The earliest knifelike form I know of goes back about two million years, to Africa. It is a rounded flat stone with an edge chipped sharp. No point is present; that was a long time in coming. The handle of my paring knife is wood, and it is attached to an extension of the blade. The idea of an explicit knife handle is probably not more than a few hundred-thousand years old; a separate handle other than stone is much newer. My knife’s handle is fastened to the blade with rivets. The fastening idea is a profound one and probably began with lashing or tying things together. Fasteners make possible compound inventions composed of simple parts. The blade of my knife is no longer stone. It is steel, a material that first made its appearance a few thousand years ago. These are just some of the stories held in my right hand.
Novice Invention and a Problein-Based Diary
Authors: Weber Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The curtains in my living room have a safety pin in the center because they do not quite close. To use a safety pin for this purpose is a minor act of invention, and the result becomes a potential ingredient for a larger act of invention. My wife Gloria is sprouting some seeds in a tray next to another window. The sill is not wide enough to hold the tray, so she has moved a step stool to the window and balanced the tray between the stool top and the sill. She then has pulled out the curtain to wrap it around the stool, pinning it closed with a safety pin. In so doing, she has created a miniature greenhouse between the curtain and the window. Notice that this act of invention builds upon the first, using the safety pin to close a curtain. In many ways we invent every day. People are inventive but they do not normally think of themselves in that light. One thing we want to do in this book is to draw out and systematize those inventive tendencies already present in each of us.
Transformational Heuristics
Authors: Weber Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My tool kit is spread out in front of me: awl, knife, chisel, saw, file, rasp, among other rusty tools. History tells me that these tools arose at very different times for undoubtedly quite diverse purposes. None theless, my interest in invention has taught me that different forms often exhibit striking similarities. I’m wondering if that might be true for the devices in my tool kit also? Let’s now engage in some freewheeling mental play in the form of thought experiments that attempt to organize hand tools. The underlying element of organization, the tooth, does its work by acting as a wedge; and as the tooth-wedge is transformed, it gives rise to a family of tools.
The Art of Containment
Authors: Weber Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I’m looking at a tea bag. It contains ground up tea and has a string handle. Not all the secrets of invention are hidden here, but we can abstract more than one important idea. Indeed, a very important class of inventions consists of those forms that contain or hold things. Let’s examine some underlying principles of containment and holding inventions. As we discover and abstract these principles, we will find important generalizations that show surprising relations and linkages among forms of containment. We begin with tea bags, move to a cooking pot and generalizations on it, then to clothing storage and retrieval, and finally to highly sophisticated forms of containment, the cartridge and prefabrication.
A Comparison of Methods for Assessing Genetic Variation in Plant Conservation Biology
Authors: Schaal Barbara A , Leverich Wesley J , Rogstad Steven H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The existing levels of genetic diversity and the maintenance of these levels of diversity are major issues in conservation biology. Genetic diversity became an issue when Frankel (1970) postulated that genetic variation is essential for the long-term survival of endangered species. Genetic variation is a necessary prerequisite for any future adaptive change or evolution; presumably, species that lack adequate genetic variation are at greater risk of extinction. In terms of conservation, maintenance of genetic variation is essential if populations are to be successfully reintroduced in the wild or introduced to new habitats.
Metchnikoff’s Early Embryology
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As Metchnikoff wrote in 1869, apparently not without some patriotic sentiments, “The first scientific basis of embryology, that is, the history of animals’ development was founded by the former St. Petersburg academicians, Pander and von Baer ( l, AC, p. 254). In 1817, Christian Pander described the trilaminar structure of the earliest incubated chick embryo stage (2). According to his description, at the twelfth hour, the embryo consisted of two separate layers: an outer layer that was thin, smooth, and transparent, which he named the serous layer, and the inner layer that was thicker, granular, and opaque, which he named the mucous layer. Between these two layers appeared a third, where blood vessels were formed, which he named the vessel layer.
Metchnikoff’s Embryological Studies after 1872
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After 1872, Metchnikoff radically changed his intellectual goals and methods of his embryological studies. Correspondingly, he altered the range of his scientific objectives. If in the previous period he regarded any problems of phylogenetic reconstruction as, at best, an application that added little in the pursuit of comparative embryology’s proper goals, he now considered metazoan phylogeny (especially the problem of multicellular origin) as the decisive aspect of comparative embryological studies.
The Problem of Evolution in Metchnikoff’s Works
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whenever Metchnikoffreflected on the history of the phagocytosis theory, he always stressed that it had originated in his early studies of invertebrate comparative embryology. That research had focused on the question concerning the phylogenetic fate and ontogenetic role of amoeboid mesodermic cells as well as on a related phenomenon-intracellular digestion. However, there is no self-evident link between the phenomenon of intracellular digestion and the concept of a specialized protective system. In fact, the very idea of a special defensive activity in a host was novel and not easily compatible within the traditional view of ontogeny as the self-revelation of an organism’s “nature” (i.e., the expression of the organism’s underlying plan). In this perspective, the healing forces of an organism were regarded not as the expression of a special protective mechanism, but as the immediate manifestation of the organism’s integrity (its “nature”), whose very essence was thought of as a self-establishing and self-supporting wholeness.
Metchnikoff’s Emerging Concept of Inflammation
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three broad avenues of scientific inquiry merged in Metchnikoff’s phagocytosis theory: (a) the embryological definition of mesodermal origin, structure, and function,(b) an intellectual infrastructure of evolutionary dynamics applied to the organism, and (c) the emerging concepts of parasite-host interactions on a pathological level. We have considered the first two problems; now we must turn to the third problem, specifically the inflammatory reaction to microbial pathogens, whose investigation became Metchnikoff’s primary arena of study (1).
The Phagocytosis Theory and Its Reception
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metchnikoff’s theory of active defense by phagocytes was novel not only in assigning a new function to these cells but also in offering a revolutionary concept of immunity. Competing theories were all passive as labeled by Ernst Sauerbeck in a 1909 summary, The Crisis in Immunity Research (1), in which various other hypotheses of the period were also considered. Pasteur’s depletion theory (2), the retention theories of M. von Nencki (3) and M. A. Chauveau (4) —and their physicochemical variants—as well as lingering forms of mithridatic theory each viewed the pathogen as acting autonomously in the process of immunization. This in contrast to Metchnikoff’s “active” theory of a responive host accounting for the immune state.
Epilogue: From Metaphor to Theory
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metchnikoff’s achievement may be viewed on many levels, but we have focused on what we perceive as the fundamental reorientation he accomplished in our concept of organismic integrity. Specifically, the issue centers on the intellectual horizon of self-protection. In this respect, we view Metchnikoff as the first who shifted the ques-tion of protective forces from a metaphysical formulation to a scientific program, based on a well-prepared theoretical foundation. This theory had a radically altered orientation in its metaphysical construction, for the Metchnikovian concept of organism was a totally new view of integrity. We must now schematically define this metaphysical novelty.
Introduction: The Proper Relation of Morality to Politics
Authors: Perry Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Several years ago I wrote a book about the proper role of the judiciary particularly the federal judiciary, and especially the Supreme Court of the United States-in adjudicating constitutional issues.1 In that book I assumed that there can be right answers-and wrong ones, too-to questions of morality. (I was concerned principally with questions of political morality. I argued that judges should play a relatively large role in the effort to locate the right answers to constitutional questions, understood as an important species of questions of political morality). That assumption was-and remains-controversial, however, and so I decided to put the assumption in question.
A Critique of the Liberal Political-Philosophical Project
Authors: Perry Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I conclude that the relation between morality and politics envisioned by liberal political philosophy is impossible to achieve. I base this conclusion on a critical examination of the political philosophies of three liberal thinkers—John Rawls, Bruce Ackerman, and Ronald Dworkin—whose work has been prominent, among other places, in the academic setting in which I teach: the American law school. (Both Ackerman and Dworkin are academic lawyers. Rawls, of course, is a philosopher). None of these three philosophical liberals has succeeded in portraying a politics that is neutral or impartial among the basic differences—in particular among the competing conceptions of human good—-that constitute the moral dissensus of our pluralistic society. Of course, it is possible that eventually someone will succeed where Rawls, Ackerman, and Dworkin have failed.
Breaking Law: The Problem of Conscientious Disobedience
Authors: Perry Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I want to make a special appeal to soldiers, national guardsmen and policemen: Brothers, each one of you is one of us. We are the same people. The campesinos you kill are your own brothers and sisters When you hear the words of a man telling you to kill, remember instead the word of God, “ Thoushalt not kill.” God’s law must prevail. No soldier is obliged to obey an order contrary to the law of God. It is time for you to come to your senses and obey your consciences rather than follow out a sinful command. As I’ve remarked, in politics, and therefore in law, moral discourse often runs out-for the time being, at least-before agreement is reached, before consensus is achieved, especially in a society as mor ally pluralistic as our own.
Introduction
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For a century, the “neuron doctrine” has been the basis for our concepts of the organization of the nervous system. Formulated in 1891, it finally ended a debate that had lasted for half a century, and demonstrated that the cell theory applies to the cells of the nervous system. Ramón y Cajal was the main architect of the neuron doctrine, but in fact it was the culmination of intensive studies of the nervous system by many European scientists during the nineteenth century. Its introduction stimulated a vigorous debate that fashioned most of the basic terminology of the neuron that we use today. Furthermore, the neuron doctrine became the core around which concepts of the functional organization of the brain have been developed to the present time.
From the Beginnings to the Cell Theory
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The struggle to understand the neuron as a cell began with the earliest microscopical investigations of body tissues. As always in science, the state of knowledge depended on the state of development of the instruments. The first microscope was a mechanical device with a compound lens and an eyepiece, which Robert Hooke of London in 1665 used to observe the outlines of cells in slices of cork.
Kölliker Gives In
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Liddell (1960), in his account of the history of this period, refers to Deiters as the “forgotten histologist.” This might have been true of his person, because of his early death, but it seems not to have applied to his work. Not only did Schultze ensure the publication of the monograph, but Kölliker was there, keeping a watchful eye on the field. During the r85os and 1860s, his Histology went through five editions, charting the development of the new discipline at a rate of better than a new edition every four years.
The Revolutionary Method of Golgi
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The studies described thus far, from Purkinje’s first glimpse of nerve cells to Gerlach’s networks, were largely carried out in central Europe, by academic researchers trained and working in the main university centers. In deed, we can contain most of them within an area bounded by Berlin in the north, Bern in the south, Bonn in the west, and Breslau in the east an area falling within a circle of diameter of no more than 700 kilometers (see map, Fig. 11).
A Neuron Theory Begins to Take Form: His, Forel, Nansen
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the r88os, the debates on the structure of the nerve cell continued in the universities of Europe. Then, in r 886, came definitive pronouncements by two well-known authorities, Wilhelm His of Leipzig and August Forel of Zürich, followed shortly by supporting evidence from an unsuspected quarter, a young anatomist in Norway named Fridtjof Nansen. Each of these moved the subject away from the preoccupation with unseen networks and set it squarely on the path toward the concept of the nerve cell as an independent cellular entity.
The Synapse and the Growth Cone
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although anatomists by the r 8gos could agree that nerve cells are separate units and interact by contacts, it left many unanswered questions. Two questions in particular aroused great interest. One was the nature of the contacts between neurons made by axons and dendrites. Another was proof that the axon and dendrites of a neuron grow out from the cell body during development. It was recognized that these questions were not only important for understanding the nature of the nerve cell as a unit and the way nerve cells interact but also constituted critical tests of the validity of the theory itself.
Audition and the Central Nervous System
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of the anatomy of the ear and the parallel development of theories of hearing were examined in Chapter 8. Although the present chapter also deals with the auditory system, its emphasis is on the role of structures in the central nervous system. These include the auditory pathways, their brainstem nuclei, and the auditory cortex. Figure 9.1 presents a diagram from 1920 showing these structures.
Theories of Emotion from Democritus to William James
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines a number of theories of emotion, beginning almost 2,500 years ago with those of the Ancient Greeks and ending at the close of the nineteenth century with the theories of William James and Carl G. Lange (1834–1900). Among the topics considered are the notions of Frarn;ois-Xavier Bichat, and the revolutionary ideas of Charles Bell and Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne de Boulogne (1806-1870) on the muscles of emotion. Charles Darwin’s highly influential theories about how the emotions evolved and are controlled are also examined in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Luebbert Gregory m. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three political-economic regimes emanated from the transition to rule by popular mandate in Western Europe-liberal democracy, social democracy, and fascism. This book is about their origins. The three regimes came into existence and stood as clear alternatives during the years between the two world wars. They were, above all, responses in politics and in the labor market to the demands of the working classes. Before 1914, workers’ quest for political and economic rights remained circumscribed and the working class challenge remained manageable. In much of Western Europe, it became unmanageable with the collapse of traditional barriers to working-class power in 1919.
Cleavage Structures and the Failure of Liberal Movements in Late Nineteenth-Century Europe
Authors: Luebbert Gregory m. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For such parties, gaining dominance required the establishment of parliamentary sovereignty, where it was not inherited, and the creation of an adequate mass base within the middle classes. The latter was, of course, often the key to the former. Indeed, if a liberal movement could not establish such a base, it would, as in Denmark in the 1860s and in Germany in the 1870s, lose its interest in advancing the authority of the legislature. By examining the specific historical moments at which liberal parties failed to establish parliamentary sovereignty or an adequate electoral base among the middle classes, we will develop a better understanding of the forces that handicapped them.