bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Course and Pattern of Cingulate Pathology in Schizophrenia
Authors: Benes Francine M , Cunningham Miles G , Berretta Sabina , Gisabella Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder that has attracted the greatest interest by neuroscience. As early as 1919, Emil Kraepelin provided the first systematic descriptions of its symptoms and, in so doing, concluded that schizophrenia probably involves an organic process in the brain. A serious impediment to neuropathological studies of schizophrenic and bipolar disorder that historically has discouraged many investigators from studying this disorder has been the lack of hallmark histopathological features that could serve as a focus of investigation. Patients with schizophrenia characteristically demonstrate a slower deterioration during the first 10 years of illness, but then go on to live a full life with stable deficits. The mechanisms that give rise to schizophrenia likely involve alterations of normal brain circuitry that progress initially and later persist as a stable entity for an indefinite period of time, whereas those for bipolar disorder may show progression later. Taken together with the lack of any obvious brain changes, these clinical observations imply that these disorders may involve rather subtle abnormalities in neural circuitry. As discussed below, the diverse symptoms of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder make it unlikely that only one brain region is involved in the pathophysiology of this disorder. This issue is explored in detail in the discussion that follows by examining various functions that are abnormal in this disorder.
Cingulate Subregional Neuropathology in Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinson’s Disease with Dementia
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Vogt Leslie J , Purohit Dushyant P , Hof Patrick R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Lewy body (LB) is one of the most common markers of cingulate neuropathology; exceeded only by amyloid-β peptides. Disorders in which LBs are encountered in the cingulate gyrus include Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease with dementia (PDD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and aging (Saito et al., 2003). Cases with LBs form 15–25% of all cases of dementia which is second only to that of pure AD (McKeith et al., 1996); however, as LBs are observed in more than half of definite AD cases, they are common in AD (Ditter & Mirra, 1987). The comorbid expression of DLB and AD is still a matter of debate because key markers of both diseases are so frequently observed in the same cases (Perl et al., 1998). Moreover, in addition to ‘pure’ forms of each of these progressive dementing diseases, their conjunction throughout the cingulate gyrus generates a complex neuropathological context in which to consider symptom etiology that still has not been resolved.The Consensus Guidelines for DLB identified progressive mental impairment leading to dementia as the central feature of DLB (McKeith et al., 1996). They also concluded that attentional impairments, visual hallucinations, and spontaneous motor features of Parkinsonism are essential diagnostic features for discriminating DLB from AD and other dementias. Although visual hallucinations may result from alterations in occipital lobe functions and progressive mental impairment results from general cortical damage, some of these symptoms do not result from primary cortical damage and little is known of how impairment of specific cingulate functions contribute to the early and progressive symptoms of DLB. A new generation of functional imaging research provides a more precise framework in which to evaluate structure/function correlates in progressive dementing disorders.
Localizing Cingulate Subregions-of-Interest in Magnetic Resonance Images Guided by Cytological Parcellations
Authors: O’Neill Joseph , Sobel Thomas L , Vogt Brent A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Understanding of the cytoarchitectural and functional subdivisions of cingulate cortex has greatly advanced in recent decades. Yet, use of the original Brodmann areas (BAs) delineated in his 1909 classic remains entrenched in human neuroimaging research. The same is true for his dichotomy of cingulate cortex into anterior and posterior divisions and this is mainly attributable to Talairach and Tournoux (1988). Their celebrated stereotaxic atlas of the human brain provides the Brodmann nomenclature most used to identify activity or structures in a standard space without reference to particular cytoarchitectures. What many investigators using this atlas do not realize is that, among other flaws, the single case in their atlas was never itself histologically analyzed. As no single imaging study has ever activated the entire BA24, the current trend is to apply numerous designations to cingulate regions and subregions, without specific justification, as the findings fail to corroborate Brodmann’s original conceptualizations. This is particularly true of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) as discussed in Chapter 1. Without specific justification from cytology and connections, recent studies have applied numerous designations to the anterior cortex such as rostral/caudal, dorsal/ventral, or superior/inferior. We still do not know the limits of any of these imaging designations because they refer to activation sites rather than to cytoarchitectural entities.
Human Growth In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Heywood Peter F , Norgan Nicholas G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Physical growth, the process of accretion of tissue mass, size, and length before maturity, is, like many human characteristics, the end result of interaction between environment and genes. Because growth can be measured accurately and with relative ease, it has been studied in a human biological context to describe variability and adaptation and the factors involved. More importantly, the measurement of growth is a powerful tool in assessment of differences in health, particularly nutritional health, between groups and populations.
Acute Respiratory Infections
Authors: Riley Ian D , Lehmann Deborah , Alpers Michael P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are the commonest causes of morbidity that people experience. One episode is distinguished from the next by its severity and by the location of inflammation within the respiratory tract. In general terms the two are related, because the deeper the infection within the tract, the more severe the episode. Pneumonia, the most severe of respiratory syndromes, results from inflammation of lung substance. The terms ‘pneumonia’ and ‘life-threatening respiratory infection’ have been used interchangeably by many authors. Other named syndromes are caused by inflammation of the airways at various levels.
Kuru
Authors: Alpers Michael P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The human biological aspects of the fatal neurological disease kuru have been expounded in some detail in the past (Gajdusek 1977; Alpers 1979, 1987, 1988). I am reluctant to go over the same ground since these previous discussions are still valid. However, it would be highly improper to discuss the human biology of Papua New Guinea without including some account of kuru since the puzzle of this disease was solved by adopting an interdisciplinary human biological approach (see Alpers and Attenborough, Chapter 1). Such a striking illustration of the value of human biology should not fail to be given its due emphasis in the context of the Small Cosmos.
Spherical and Cylindrical Shock-Tube Analogues and Flow Simulation
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a sphere containing a gas at higher pressure than the surrounding air is instantly disintegrated, a spherical flow is generated. At small times the resulting wave system is analogous to that produced in a shock tube. A shock wave of rapidly decaying strength races into the surrounding atmosphere, while a rarefaction wave propagates at the local sound speed into the high-pressure gas. A contact surface separating the expanded gas from the compressed gas follows the spherical shock wave at a decelerating speed. Unlike the shock-tube case the flow regions separated by the contact surface are nonuniform. At later times (after the head of the rarefaction wave reaches the centre) the flow becomes quite complex.
Implosion Waves and Applications
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Institute for Aerospace Studies hemispherical implosion chamber [1] is a unique device for producing explosively driven implosions which are stable and well focused at the geometric centre and which provide a small region of extremely high pressures and temperatures. It has been used as a driver for launching hypervelocity projectiles [2] and as a generator of strong shock waves [3]. The implosion chamber consists essentially of two massive mating steel plates (Fig. 12.1). The rear plate contains a 20 cm diameter hemispherical cavity. Into it is fitted an explosive package consisting of a copper liner to which is bonded a shell of superfine pentaerythrital tetranitrate (PETN) secondary explosive about 3–6 mm thick, weighing up to 200 g, and releasing a total energy of 1.2 MJ.
Shock-Tube Construction and Instrumentation
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The shock tube is a unique facility for creating a homogeneous, high-enthalpy, and high-pressure gas, whose parameters can be calculated from the state of the undisturbed gas and the measured shock velocity. The conventional shock tube consisting of one driver and one driven channel is an excellent tool for studying high-temperature gas dynamics and physics. It is one of the most versatile and economical test facilities for universities, government, and commercial institutions alike.
Permanent Magnets
Authors: Basak Amitava 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last few decades, as the energy density of permanent magnets has improved, there has been a large increase in the use of permanent-magnet materials in many nontraditional devices and also in energy-conversion systems such as motors and generators. This chapter contains a historical survey of permanent magnets, and the properties and future uses of the presently available magnets are discussed.
Design and Analysis
Authors: Basak Amitava 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An engineer designs a motor according to the specifications provided by the customers. For linear motors, the main specifications are the sensitivity of the motor (thrust coefficient), the output force, the output power, the efficiency, the velocity-versus-time characteristic, and the power-to-weight ratio. When determining the power-to-weight ratio, it is normal practice to take into account the weight of the whole moving unit, and also the weight of the part of the stationary unit which is enclosed by the moving unit.
Electromagnetism and basic optics
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we revise electromagnetism and a rather minimal amount of optics. Although the material is all elementary, we wish to set up a notation and to have a number of statements on record so that they can be referred to throughout the remainder of the book. The Maxwell equations relate the electric field E and the magnetic field1 B to the density of charge ρ and the density of current J.
Fourier series and Fourier transforms
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A familiarity with Fourier mathematics will be needed on several occasions throughout this book. We take the opportunity in this chapter to set out those mathematical properties that will be needed later. It is assumed that the reader has encountered both Fourier series and Fourier transforms before, but may not be entirely confident with transforms, and may not have a fully developed insight into the meaning of it all. The present chapter therefore introduces afresh the Fourier transform, using the Fourier series as a jumping-off point.
The Fabry–Perot
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines a particular case of multiple-beam interference: where light is bounced repeatedly between two highly reflecting mirrors. It is assumed that the reader has already encountered interference ‘by division of amplitude’ in its two-beam case, as happens when light is reflected from opposite faces of a slab or traces the two paths through a Michelson interferometer. It is further assumed that the following are familiar: The optical path difference is n 2d cos θ when a light beam divides at the surfaces (separation d) of a slab of refractive index n, and travels inside the slab at angle θ to the normal.
Optical cavities
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An optical cavity is an essential component in almost every laser. A pair of mirrors, such as is shown in Fig. 8.1, can enclose a steady distribution of electromagnetic field: an eigenfunction of Maxwell’s equations in the presence of this boundary. The mirrors are said to form a ‘cavity’, a name taken from microwave practice, where a closed metal box acts as a cavity resonator—the high-frequency equivalent of a tuned circuit. A Fabry–Perot is in principle a cavity resonator, but other shapes are usually better for lasers. In a laser, a cavity mode (eigenfunction) is maintained in oscillation, and is the source of the output beam.
Holography
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Holography is perhaps the most dramatic application of diffraction physics. Although it was invented and demonstrated by Gabor well before the invention of the laser, it is the opportunity to use lasers for recording and (usually) replay that has made most of the applications possible. Figure 13.1 shows in outline the processes that are carried out in making a hologram and in replaying it. We illuminate some object with a broad beam of light from a laser.
Optical fibres
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main application of optical fibres (now) is in optical communication. Telephone traffic between exchanges is almost all carried by optical fibre, and in many towns and cities a fibre passes every house entrance.When a signal is to be conveyed, it must be encoded in some way (modulated) onto light or some other wave. There is a range of frequencies, the bandwidth Δν, that is required for transmission of the signal; and that bandwidth is proportional to the rate at which information is to be transmitted. Conversely, the rate at which information may be carried along an optical fibre is determined by the range of frequencies that it is practical to transmit along the fibre, given the properties of the fibre and of the associated light sources and detectors.
Polarization
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss a few selected topics only. Polarization of light, including linear, circular and elliptical polarization, is usually described in elementary courses on optics, and the descriptions need not be given again here. It is assumed that the reader has also encountered double refraction, at least in uniaxial crystals, and seen it accounted for with Huygens wave surfaces. We, therefore, concentrate on describing the relative-permittivity tensor εij, and seeing how it links to the elementary descriptions of double refraction.
Two modern optical devices
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we take the opportunity to give brief descriptions of two optical devices that seem to be under-represented in textbooks in relation to their importance. The CD player is familiar as a household item and as the CD-ROM reader in a computer. Such everyday equipment ought not to remain mysterious. The confocal microscope is a laboratory instrument, but one that has become the instrument of choice for a wide variety of tasks. Each of the two systems represents a sophisticated application of the principles described in earlier chapters.
What is Time?
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
G. J. Whitrow (1912-2000) begins this classic exploration of the nature of time with a story about a Russian poet, visiting London before the First World War. The poet's English was not too good and when he asked a man in the street, 'Please, what is time?' he received the response, 'But that's a philosophical question. Why ask me?'. Starting from this simple anecdote, Professor Whitrow takes us on a good-humoured and wide-ranging tour of the thing that clocks keep (more or less). He discusses how our ideas of time originated; how far they are inborn in plants and animals; how time has been measured, from sundial and hourglass to the caesium clock, and whether time possesses a beginning, a direction, and an end. He coaxes the diffident layman to contemplate with pleasure the differences between cyclic, linear, biological, cosmic, and space-time, and he provides frequent diversions into fascinating topics such as the Mayan calendar, the migration of birds, the dances of bees, precognition, and the short, crowded lives of mu-mesons, particles produced by cosmic-ray showers that exist for just two millionths of a second. This reissue of the classic and authoritative What is Time? includes a new introduction by Dr J. T. Fraser, founder of the International Society for the Study of Time, and a bibliographic essay by Dr Fraser and Professor M. P. Soulsby of the Pennsylvania State University.
The origin of our idea of time
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The story is told of the Russian poet Samuel Marshak that when he was ﬁrst in London, before 1914, and did not know English well he went up to a man in the street and asked, ‘Please, what is time?’ The man looked very surprised and replied, ‘But that’s a philosophical question. Why ask me?’ Many centuries ago a famous Church Father was troubled by the same question and confessed that if no one asked him he knew, but if he tried to explain it to someone then he had to admit that he did not know. Although there are many important ideas that most of us agree we do not understand, only time has this peculiar quality which makes us feel intuitively that we understand it perfectly so long as we are not asked to explain what we mean by it.
Time and ourselves
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The increasing importance attached to the idea of time following the scientiﬁc revolution of the seventeenth century led philosophers to investigate the nature of the concept and its role in our personal awareness of phenomena. A central figure in the study of these questions was the philosopher Immanuel Kant, who came to the conclusion that time is one of the forms of our ‘intuition’. That is to say, it does not characterize external objects but only the subjective mind that is conscious of them. Consequently, Kant believed that the idea of scientific linear time was an automatic consequence of the fact that we are rational creatures.
Time and relativity
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The invention of mechanical clocks which could, if properly regulated, tick away continually for years on end greatly inﬂuenced belief in the uniformity and continuity of time. These characteristics were implicit in the idea of physical time adopted by Galileo in the dynamical part of his famous Discourses on Two New Sciences, published in 1638. Although he was not the ﬁrst to represent time by a geometrical straight line, he became the most inﬂuential pioneer of this idea through his theory of motion expounded in this book.
The origin and arrow of time
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The idea that any event has an intrinsic date leads us to ask how events in the universe can be dated. This is a technical question which has already been considered to some extent in Chapter 4, although the problem of a suitable choice of time zero was not considered. John Locke, in a passage quoted previously, said that ‘duration is but as it were, the length of one straight line extended in inﬁnitum’. A linear view of time does not, however, commit us necessarily to the conclusion that time is inﬁnite.
The signiﬁcance of time
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of time has never ceased to intrigue and puzzle those who think about it. We feel that, whatever happens, time must go on unceasingly and yet, when we come to analyse it, we ﬁnd good reasons for rejecting the idea that time exists in its own right. We regard time as the order in which events happen. Consequently, if there were no succession of events, there could be no time. ‘What did God do before He made Heaven and Earth?’ asked St Augustine, He rejected the facetious answer that God was preparing hell for those who pry into mysteries! St Augustine’s answer was that before God made heaven and earth he did not make anything. Time was made along with the heaven and the earth.
Religion and the Church
Authors: Peterson David S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Renaissance was long relegated to a spiritual ghetto between the Middle Ages and the Reformation. It provided a denouement of waning devotion to a stained-glass vision of the medieval ‘age of faith’ and the backdrop of ecclesiastical corruption against which Protestant and Tridentine reforms were enacted. The revival of classical studies invited the charge that the Renaissance was essentially pagan or, at best, moving toward modern secularism. Jacob Burckhardt celebrated the dissolution of a medieval veil of ‘faith, illusion, and childish prepossession’ that freed its noblest spirits to approach the world objectively and to cultivate their subjective individuality; but he excoriated the ‘decaying Church’ for driving most Italians to unbelief, superstition, and paganism, by which the Swiss Protestant meant not classical culture but priestly sacraments and the veneration of saints and relics1 Catholic historians like Ludwig Pastor sifted artists and humanists of the ‘pagan Renaissance’ from those who served the ‘true Renaissance’ of the popes. Many preferred to locate the period’s vital forces elsewhere entirely (in civic life, statecraft, classical studies, or science) rather than in a Church awaiting reform or lay religious sentiments apparently in decline.
Bodies, disease, and society
Authors: Hughes Diane Owen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The body served as a powerful metaphor for society, one that defies a search for social margins. The concept of social marginality is based upon a textual image: a printed page surrounded by a margin, the contents of which are strictly subordinated to the text itself. It is the kind of page invented by humanists, who in purifying ancient texts also disciplined the page by eliminating or reducing the extensive marginalia that often threatened to invade the texts of medieval manuscripts. But the redrawn boundaries of the humanist text page did not provide a social model. In the Renaissance, it was the body rather than the text that gave shape to society: the well-run republic, claimed the Florentine humanist Matteo Palmieri, was like ‘a healthy, powerful, and well disposed body’. At a more cosmic level, the human body was recognized as a source for understanding God’s creation of which it was deemed a microcosm. Each body was thus a reductive representation of a universe that could be read through its signs. This concept, ancient in origin and well developed in the Middle Ages, attained new mathematical precision through the study of Vitruvius’s treatise on architecture, which presented the proportional symmetry of the human body as a model for architectural, and by extension social, design. On the theory that each member had an exact mathematical correspondence with the whole, Renaissance man could indeed be a measure of a Christian cosmos perfectly designed by God.