bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Obligations of the Buyer
Authors: Hondius Professor Dr. Ewoud , Heutger Dr. Viola , Jeloschek Dr. Christoph , Sivesand Dr. Hanna , Wiewiorowska Aneta 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This Article lists three obligations of the buyer that are typically found in sales transactions. They correspond to the main obligations of the seller set out in Chapter 2 and, by the same token, serve as an overview of the buyer’s obligations. Thus, the parties are free to regulate the content of their obligations, in accordance with Article 1:203 (Derogation). Therefore the buyer may not be subject to all the obligations set out in this Article. Most obviously, many sales do not involve documents and so the contract will not require the buyer to take delivery of such documents. But even in a non-documentary sale, the buyer may not be under an obligation to take delivery of the goods, as they may already be in his possession or it may have been agreed that they should remain in the seller’s possession (cf. the corresponding issue for the seller’s obligation to deliver in Article 2:001 Comment C). Besides, even where the contract requires the seller to deliver the goods, the buyer may not have to take charge of the goods from the seller upon delivery.
Passing of Risk
Authors: Hondius Professor Dr. Ewoud , Heutger Dr. Viola , Jeloschek Dr. Christoph , Sivesand Dr. Hanna , Wiewiorowska Aneta 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Loss of, or damage to, the goods after the risk has passed to the buyer does not discharge the buyer from the obligation to pay the price, unless the loss or damage is due to an act or omission of the seller. The present Chapter addresses the question of who has to bear the risk of the goods being lost or damaged in a fortuitous event, i. e. due to no fault of either party. This article governs the question of whether the buyer needs to pay the full price for the goods despite their accidental loss or damage (for further aspects of risk, see Comment C). The Sales Principles address only the aspect of risk obliging the buyer to pay the price if the goods are lost or damaged after the risk has passed. This aspect of risk relating to the buyer is called the risk of counter-performance or, more specifically, the risk of payment. In other words, is the buyer obliged to perform while he does not receive the goods at all, or only damaged goods? A buys china from B, a shopkeeper. B hands the china over to A and the parties agree for A to settle the account the next day. The same night the china is smashed due to an earthquake. The next day A returns the shattered pieces of china to B and refuses to pay the price. B rightly claims that A should pay because the risk had passed to A under Article 5:102 when the china was handed over.
Obligations of the lessor
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre , Victorin† Anders , Fötschl Andreas , Konow Berte-Elen R , Meidell Andreas , Tørum Amund Bjøranger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Article 3:101: Availability of the goods The lessor must make the goods available for the lessee’s use at the start of the lease period and at the place determined by III. – 2:101. Notwithstanding the rule in the previous paragraph, the lessor must make the goods available for the lessee’s use at the lessee’s place of business or, as the case may be, at the lessee’s habitual residence if the lessor, on the specifications of the lessee, acquires the goods from a supplier selected by the lessee. The goods must remain available for the lessee’s use throughout the lease period, free from any right or claim of a third party that prevents or is otherwise likely to interfere with the lessee’s use of the goods in accordance with the contract. The lessor’s obligations when the goods are lost or damaged during the lease period are regulated by IV.B – 3:104. Comments General Characteristic obligations In a lease contract, the lessor makes goods available temporarily for the lessee’s use against remuneration. The lessee’s use typically implies physical control of the goods. Further, the goods shall normally be returned to the lessor at the end of the lease period. As the contract is made for a period of time, questions arise concerning maintenance of the goods and repairs during this period. To the extent that the goods are not to deteriorate, the obligation to maintain and repair the goods must be borne by one of the parties or distributed between them. All this means that the lessor typically has obligations concerning 1) the availability of the goods at the start of the lease period, 2) the availability of the goods during the lease period, 3) the conformity of the goods at the start of the lease period, 4) the conformity of the goods during the lease period to the extent that this is not a part of the lessee’s obligations, and 5) the return of the goods at the end of the lease period. In the present Article, availability of the goods at the start of the lease period and during the lease period are dealt with.
The Scope of the Consumer Credit Act 1974
Authors: Hibbert W J , Smith J M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Act was of course directed towards the protection of consumers. But it was also aimed at introducing a ‘new system’ to control the providers of credit and hire and their transactions. The new system was intended to be a uniform but flexible code applicable to all forms of consumer credit and hire products, both existing and future. One of the intended consequences of this reform was to liberate the credit industry from overregulation, an intention that can be overlooked. As the 1973 White Paper, Reform of the Law on Consumer Credit stated: It is important to a proper understanding of the Act to appreciate its historical context. Although the Act was a radical departure from the previous legislation regulating credit, its roots were firmly embedded in the matrix from which it sprang. The previous legislation was central to the reasoning of the Committee under the chairmanship of Lord Crowther, whose 1971 report, Consumer Credit, was to be the basis of the CCA 1974. The CCA 1974, although a major reform,is, together with the subordinate legislation made under it, part of an evolving regime of regulation of the consumer credit and hire industries, and the most recent reforms, including those of the CCA 2006, which amends the CCA 1974, continue that on going process. The background to the legislation is set out in the Introduction.
Total Charge for Credit and Annual Percentage Rate of ChargE
Authors: Sayer P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the whole concept of the total charge for credit will be considered together with the calculation of the annual percentage rate of charge (APR). In most credit arrangements, a charge of some sort is made to the borrower for the provision of credit. This may be interest and/or certain other charges. It is important to ascertain what items enter into the total charge for credit for a number of reasons. First of all, under the terms of the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 1974, section 9(4), any item entering into the total charge for credit cannot be treated as credit. Therefore, in any agreement, where it is necessary to state the correct amount of the credit, the credit amount must not include any item which falls under the total charge for credit. If the amount of the credit is misstated in an agreement, there will be problems with enforceability.1 Further, it is important, when calculating the APR of any agreement, that the figure is accurate and correct. This is important in respect of certain consumer credit advertisements where the APR has to be stated.2 Also, the APR has to be shown correctly in regulated agreements.3 It is also necessary, when deciding whether certain agreements enjoy exemption, to see the amount of the APR.4 In certain cases it is necessary to see what the amount of credit is that is being advanced in order to ascertain whether the agreement falls outside the scope of the Act or not.
Security
Authors: Say B J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At first glance section 105 appears to be of general application, however its scope is curtailed by subsection (6) which limits its application to security instruments provided by a person other than the debtor or hirer; therefore mortgages and pledges and other securities provided by the debtor or hirer are excluded. Any security in relation to a regulated agreement must be expressed in writing. Subsections (2) and (3) empower the Secretary of State to make regulations prescribing the form and content of security instruments. The only regulations that have been made are in respect of the form and content of guarantees and indemnities, therefore the chief focus of this section is on guarantees and indemnities. ‘Guarantee’ and ‘indemnity’ are not defined by the Act.13 The essential element of both a contract of indemnity and of guarantee is a unilateral contract which effectively underwrites another’s performance of a contract; however, there is a distinction in the nature of the two obligations. A guarantor is one whose liability is dependent on that of the principal debtor—his liability does not materialize until the debtor is in default—the liability of an indemnifier is not contingent on the default of the principal debtor. The classic and oft cited example of the distinction between the two is that provided in Birkmyr v Darnell.14 The case gives the following examples: (1) A says to B: ‘Supply goods to C and if he does not pay you I will.’ (2) A says to B: ‘Supply goods to C and I will see that you are paid.’ Example (1) is a contract of guarantee and (2) is one of indemnity. The substance of each contract in reality is much the same, namely that the third party’s liability arises when the principal debtor defaults. In the case of the indemnifier, his liability will arise at the same time as the principal debtor’s and therefore it only becomes significant if the principal debtor defaults.
Do We Need a ‘Morality of War’?
Authors: Shue Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Everyone understands that if wars are fought at all, acts are committed in them that are utterly impermissible in ordinary life. War is constituted by assaults and attacks that are intolerable in, at the very least, any other circumstances. Pacifists have formulated powerful arguments that run, quite plausibly, from the impermissibility, in the context of ordinary life, of many acts characteristic of war to the impermissibility of war itself. How can it be permissible to engage in a practice that unavoidably and perfectly predictably, because characteristically, involves the commission of acts that are impermissible in any other situation?
Summary
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As you can see from all we have written in this section, there is a shortage of real facts about CFS/ME and also about some of the associated conditions. No one is certain exactly what causes these illnesses. There is no diagnostic test for them and there is no medical treatment that has been proved to help everyone. However, we do know quite a lot about barriers to recovery from CFS/ME and how to overcome them. There is a great deal that people who suffer from these illnesses can do to help themselves. We will talk about this in the next section of the book. To sum up what is known about the best way of dealing with CFS/ME:
Introduction
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern firms and organizations can be seen as socio-technical systems that process information, continuously converting their ideas into action and action into ideas. Firms’ actions in their competitive landscape are based on ideas or assumptions on which the whole firm has been built with the purpose of being successful in its competitive landscape. These ideas constitute the firm’s ‘view of their world ‘ or, using Peter Drucker’s expression, its ‘theory of business’ (Drucker 1994).
As firms act in their competitive landscapes according to their theory of business, on the one hand they influence such a landscape, and on the other they obtain new information in the form of, for instance, a certain degree of customer acceptance for the fisrm ‘s products or competitors’ responses to the firm’s competitive initiatives.
Managing Firm Complexity
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 5, we adopted a systemic view of organizations and discussed several classical and contemporary theoretical approaches to the study of organizations and organizing. In Chapter 6, we focus speciWcally on complexity as a central characteristic of organizational dynamics. In doing so, we review and discuss theoretical approaches that put complexity at the centre of their analysis of organizations and organizing. Our goal is to help the reader understand the roots and characteristics of organizational complexity in a way that will help them to manage such complexity effectively.
and Parachutists
Authors: Pedersen Mogens N , Kjær, Ulrik , Eliassen Kjell A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Geography is often considered the primeval dimension of political representation. When representative democracies were established, the “territorial interests constituted a basic element in the concept of representation” (Valen et al. 2000: 107). This is not to say that geographic representation has not been contested. Actually, a most serious attack on the idea that politicians are sent to parliament to represent the interests of their locality was made as early as 1774 by Edmund Burke in his speech to the electors of Bristol.
The Changing Nature and Role of European Conservative Parties in Parliamentary Institutions from 1848 to the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Cromwell Valerie , Verzichelli Luca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present chapter focuses on a party family, that of conservative parties, whose distinctiveness is today particularly hard to define within the European context. Nevertheless, a long-term analysis of European parliamentary elites transformation cannot avoid, for two good reasons, a close look to this party family. First, the criterion of the “persistent relevancy” of such a party family is an important reason.
Introduction
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is easier to think about particular languages than about language in general, so let’s start with one language, English. English consists essentially of a lot of words, tens of thousands of words in fact, some rules for making up new words, and some rules for putting words together into phrases and sentences. Each language is like English in these essentials. When we talk about ‘language’, we mean what is common to all the languages of the world.
Language enables us to describe a situation, including one that happened somewhere else at a previous time.
Meaning of words
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Semantics is the field of linguistics that deals with meaning, the relationship between words, phrases, and sentences on the one hand and entities such as objects, properties, relations, and situations on the other. In this chapter we shall deal with the meaning of words. But first we need to say something about the notion of ‘word’. Book is a word in English and so is books, but you wouldn’t consider them separate words if you were compiling a dictionary. We take them to be two forms of the same word, but here we are using word in a more abstract sense.
Language acquisition
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone who has battled to learn a second language through years of secondary school and university must be impressed by the ability of young children to learn language. Most children begin to talk in their second year and can talk a great deal by the time they are four or five and understand even more than they can express. They acquire language without much in the way of specific instruction. They get some help from people talking to them in motherese or caregiver speech, a special register featuring short utterances spoken slowly and clearly, with exaggerated intonation contours and frequent repetitions.
Language processing: brains and computers
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As everyone knows, the brain is located in the head under the skull. It consists of two halves, the left and right hemisphere, joined by the corpus callosum. A curious fact about the working of the brain is that the left hemisphere controls the movements of the organs on the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls movements of the left side of the body. Language, as we shall see below, is controlled largely from the left hemisphere.
Figure 14.1 shows a scan of the author’s brain obtained by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) in which the two hemispheres can be seen.
The origin of language
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origin of language is obscure and the question has led to a lot of speculation. We will say something about it in this final chapter, but we do not promise anything like a satisfactory answer. Although we will obviously never be in a position to observe the origin of language in humans, we can put ourselves in a position to make informed hypotheses by looking at recurrent historical changes, the development of language in children, and the development of pidgin and creole languages. Child language acquisition was covered in chapter thirteen and the nature of pidgins and creoles is described below.
Introduction
Authors: Morgan Kenneth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Slavery as an institution and as an important phenomenon in the transatlantic world was well established before England began its involvement in slavery and the slave trade. Various forms of slavery flourished in the ancient and medieval worlds. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans all used enslaved labourers in construction work, the armed forces, agriculture, industry, and domestic service. Most captives were recruited through war or kidnapping from outside of the societies where they were placed in bondage.
The Degree Of Mutual Dependence Between Scientists And the Organization Of Scientific Fields
Authors: Whitley Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the previous two chapters I have suggested that scientific fields are a particular kind of work organization which structure and control the production of intellectual novelty through competition for reputations from national and international audience for contributions to collective goals. As such, they deal with relatively high levels of uncertainty, compared to other work organizations, and rely on an extensive formal communication system to co-ordinate and interconnect task outcomes from a geographically dispersed set of work-places. The development of paid employment on a continuous basis for knowledge production in the nineteenth century, and the combination of general education, inculcation of research skills, and employment linked to reputations in many universities, gave the leaders of scientific fields greatly increased power over knowledge production at the same time as separating them into distinct disciplines controlling labour markets in particular skills. By connecting employment status and access to research facilities to national and international standing in a particular intellectual field, these developments organized knowledge production and validation around spe¬ cialized interests and expertises.
The Degree Of Task Uncertainty And The Organization Of Scientific Fields
Authors: Whitley Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The modem sciences are institutionally committed to the production of novelty and only contributions which are recognized as new can lead to high reputations and other rewards in the public sciences. Research activities are therefore quite uncertain compared to other work activities, in the sense that task outcomes are not repetitious and highly predictable. Each result is unique and different from all others in at least one important respect so that work procedures cannot be fully pre-planned and routinized. However, novelty is recognized as such in terms of some background expectations and assumptions. Without some common knowledge and views about what should occur in a given research project it is unclear whether, and to what extent, results are novel and important. The production and recognition of new knowledge depends, then, on the existence and structure of current knowledge and expectations.
The Contexts Of Scientific Fields
Authors: Whitley Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
JUST as particular combinations of degrees of mutual dependence and task uncertainty are associated with different internal structure of scientific fields, so too they occur in different contexts. Changes in these contexts can similarly be expected to be associated with changes in the way research is organized and controlled and so in the particular type of scientific field most representative of a given subject area. For example, the growth in the amount of funds provided for research, and in the variety of institutions providing them, in the biological sciences over the past forty years or so have increased the diversity of audiences for task outcomes and the goals pursued by researchers in many fields so that the degree of strategic dependence between scientists has declined considerably in some of the traditional disciplines, to the extent that they have ceased to function as the dominant reputational organizational in many bio-medical fields.1 In contrast, the development of ‘big science’ around very expensive and complex apparatus in other fields has encouraged the establishment of more formal collaboration and co-ordination structures and restricted the degree of theoretical diversity which might otherwise have developed.
Objectives, Instruments, and Institutions
Authors: Helm* Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The current approach to environmental policy in the UK dates from the 1990 White Paper, This Common Inheritance, which set the prime objective as sustainable development. Though neither the concept nor many of the themes in the paper were new, it marked a significant break with the past, in that it recognized for the first time the pre-eminence of global pollution and, in particular, global warming and biodiversity loss. It also recognized that these ‘new’ problems were of a different scale and importance. From 1990 onwards, governments would take environmental matters much more seriously.
The Economics of Technology-based Environmental Standards
Authors: Pearce* David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All environmental standards, however implemented, impose costs on the regulated party. This is true of emission or ambient quality standards, environmental taxes, tradable emission permits, and standards based on the ‘best available technology’. Not surprisingly, there fore, all environmental regulation is, to a greater or lesser degree, the outcome of some political balancing of costs and benefits. Part, at least, of the initial cost is passed on to final consumers (the extent depends on the price elasticity of demand), which is consistent with the polluter pays principle (OECD, 1975). The costs of regulation are therefore borne by society as a whole.
Agri-environmental Policy: A UK Perspective
Authors: Hodge* Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The changes that have taken place in agriculture and their consequences for the rural environment over the past 50 years are well-known (Bowers and Cheshire, 1983; Skinner et al., 1997). The substitution of machinery for labour, the increasing specialization of farms on a smaller range of enterprises, often involving a shift from mixed farming systems to predominantly arable or livestock, the reliance on artificial fertilizers and pesticides, the increasing scale of operation, and the intensification of land use, especially at the extensive margin, have all had consequences for the environment.