bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Introductory” (6 December 1837) to Human Culture lecture series
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
EMERSON, IN Nature, promises that the main goal of life is the “upbuilding of a man,” so it is not surprising that his first successful lecture series partakes of his lifelong interest in how we may best and most profitably live our lives (as his last major work, The Conduct of Life [1860], also attests). This lecture helps to explain the individualism that infuses Nature and the great addresses of the late 1830s and early 1840s, as well as many of his essays.
William Henry Channing, “Introduction” to the Present (September 1843)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WILLIAM HENRY CHANNING (1810 — 1884), nephew of the Reverend Channing and cousin of the poet Ellery Channing, was one of the most active social reformers among the Transcendentalists. In his “Ode” inscribed to Channing, Emerson called him the “evil time’s sole patriot.” He was an active supporter of Brook Farm and other communitarian ventures, edited reform journals, and wrote a biography of his uncle. While the Present lasted for fewer than eight months, Channing’s introduction very nicely articulates the high hopes many Transcendentalists had for contemporary reform.
Christopher Pearse Cranch, “Correspondences,” “To the Aurora Borealis,” and “Enosis”
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ALL things in nature are beautiful types to the soul that can read them; Nothing exists upon earth, but for unspeakable ends, Every object that speaks to the senses was meant for the spirit; Nature is but a scroll; God’s handwriting thereon.
Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Hymn: Sung at the Completion of the Concord Monument, April 19, 1836,” “Each and All,” “Uriel,” “Hamatreya,” “Ode, Inscribed to W. H. Charming,” “Blight,” “Threnody,” “Brahma,” “Days,” “Two Rivers,” and “Terminus”
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world. The foe long since in silence slept; Alike the conqueror silent sleeps; And Time the ruined bridge has swept Down the dark stream which seaward creeps.
Margaret Fuller, “To the Same. A Feverish Vision,” “Leila in the Arabian Zone,” “Double Triangle, Serpent and Rags,” “For the Power to whom we bow,” “The Sacred Marriage,” “Flaxman,” “Meditations,” and “Sistrum”
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After a day of wearying, wasting pain, At last my aching eyes I think to close; — Hoping to win some moments of repose, Though I must wake to suffering again.
James Freeman Clarke, from “Cambridge” (1891)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE (1810 – 1888) had a career that ran the full gamut, from being a member of the Transcendental Club, to editing the Western Messenger, to starting his own congregation (The Church of the Disciples) in 1841, to contributing to the Dial, to being general secretary of the American Unitarian Association. He knew most of the Transcendentalists, had an extended correspondence with Margaret Fuller, was involved in many of the Transcendentalists’ activities, and exchanged pulpits with Parker after the latter was shunned following publication of the Discourse on the Transient and Permanent in Christianity, but Clarke nevertheless pursued his reforms within the general structure of the Unitarian establishment. In his “Autobiography,” he looks back on what it was like to be educated as an undergraduate at Harvard (1825 – 1829) and at the Divinity School (1829 – 1832) right before the time when Transcendentalism burst upon the scene. Even a cursory reading of Clarke’s reminiscences will clearly show why Emerson’s “American Scholar” address fell on receptive ears.
Morality
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is morality? This question seems as if it could be answered by any intelligent person until one actually tries to answer it. Then a funny thing happens. If one starts by saying “Morality is ... “ nothing one says afterward seems to be quite right. Of course one can say clever things like “Morality is simply the expression of the demands of the superego.” But this kind of clever remark does not explain what morality is. The superego makes many demands that are not moral demands. Which of its demands are the moral ones? Simply asking this question makes clear that morality cannot be equated with the demands of the superego. And so it goes with any answer that one initially proposes.
Rationalisty And Irrationality
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am concerned with the concept of rationality such that the question “Why be rational?” makes no sense. This is the evaluative or normative sense of “rational” that applies to the actions, beliefs, and decisions of moral agents. It is not the sense of “rational” where rationality is taken to be a capacity for reasoning, which is often regarded as distinguishing human beings from other animals. However, the two senses sometimes get confused, or some fairly obvious naturalistic fallacy is being committed. Some philosophers (from the present time to even farther back than Plato and Aristotle) seem to claim that human beings are essentially rational (reasoning) beings; therefore reasoning is the highest goal or best activity of human beings and they should reason as much as possible. But even if rationality (reasoning) is a unique characteristic of human beings, it does not follow that people should be rational if that means that reasoning is the best activity or that people should reason as much as possible. In some circumstances, a person can understand what it is to engage in reasoning and prefer some other activity. In the sense of “rational” with which I am concerned, no person who understands what “rational” means would ever ask why be rational.
Reasons
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is always irrational to act so as to achieve the object of an irrational desire: death (permanent loss of consciousness), pain, loss of ability, loss of freedom or loss of pleasure, without a reason. If one acts so as to achieve the object of an irrational desire, one needs a reason for acting in that way in order for one’s actions to count as rational. However, people usually have reasons for acting in these ways, and if the reason is adequate the action is no longer irrational. Reasons for acting are conscious rational beliefs that can make some otherwise irrational actions, rationa/.1 The belief that having one’s right arm cut off will save one’s life is a reason for having one’s arm cut off. In the discussion of irrational desires, several of these kinds of beliefs were mentioned. Beliefs that one’s action will decrease one’s own or anyone else’s chances of dying, of suffering pain, or of losing some ability, freedom, or pleasure count as reasons. These beliefs are reasons because they can sometimes make acting to achieve the object of an irrational desire rational. Other reasons are beliefs that one’s action will maintain or increase one’s own or anyone else’s consciousness, abilities, freedom, or pleasure. These beliefs can also make some otherwise irrational actions rational.
Moral Rules
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Talking about moral rules is a convenient way of talking about those general kinds of actions that are morally required and prohibited, for example, keeping promises and killing. These rules can be stated in many different ways, such as “Killing is wrong” or “Do not kill.” I have chosen the formulation “Do not kill,” for it has the advantage that this is a common formulation for precepts that are taken to be moral rules, such as the Ten Commandments. Nothing of philosophical significance turns on the choice of this formulation; the same points can be made using other formulations, or even in talking about the general kinds of actions that are required and prohibited. However, the formulation I have chosen allows the points to be made in a simple and understandable way, without creating philosophical problems.
Impartiality
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Impartiality has been almost universally misdescribed by philosophers. Like simultaneity, impartiality is usually taken to be a simpler concept than it really is. Einstein made the conceptual discovery that it was inadequate to characterize the simultaneity of two events by simply considering those two events. The point of view of the observer must also be considered. Einstein showed that it is incomplete to say merely “A and B occurred simultaneously.” A complete characterization requires saying ‘‘A and B occurred simultaneously to an observer at C.” This point had not been previously recognized because all of the known observers were at C. Thus it seemed sufficient to use the simpler characterization of simultaneity. Once it is clear that observers need not be at C, but can be at D or E, it becomes apparent that A and B can occur simultaneously with regard to one observer, but not occur simultaneously with regard to another. There is no answer to the question “But did A and B really occur simultaneously?” because this question presupposes an account of simultaneity that Einstein has shown to be inadequate.
Justifying Violations
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As pointed out in chapter 5, moral rules have justified exceptions. In the two previous chapters it was shown that the attitude of all impartial rational persons toward the justified moral rules includes an except clause. In this chapter I shall examine this moral attitude in greater detail, making clear what violations may be punished, what is meant by the except clause, and providing an explicit account of the morally relevant features that determine what counts as the same violation. I shall then explain how to determine whether this violation is justified or unjustified and, if justified, whether it is strongly or weakly justified. This account of the two-step procedure is necessary in order to fully understand the moral attitude toward the moral rules. Since a complete understanding of the moral rules requires an understanding of the proper attitude toward them, an account of how violations of the moral rules are justified is essential for a complete understanding of these rules.
Moral Ideals
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Moral ideals seem to embody the nature of morality more than moral rules, for following moral ideals is acting so as to achieve the point of morality, the lessening of evil or harm being suffered. A person can act in accordance with moral rules, that is, not violate any of them, without any contact with other people, but following moral ideals involves helping other people. It never seems out of place to praise someone for justifiably following moral ideals, but it would be odd to praise a hermit for justifiably obeying moral rules. Thus it may seem surprising that the account of morality presented so far has been far more involved with describing and justifying the moral rules than with describing and justifying moral ideals. But even John Stuart Mill, who is the leading representative of the view that the goal of morality is the greatest good, makes the following statements: “The moral rules which forbid mankind to hurt one another (in which we must never forget to include a wrongful interference with each other’s freedom) are more vital to human well-being than any maxims, however important, which only point out the best mode of managing some department of human affairs It is their observance which alone preserves peace among human beings; if obedience to them were not the general rule, and disobedience the exception, everyone would see in everyone else an enemy against whom he must be perpetually guarding himself.
“Why Should I Be Moral?”
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When people ask, “Why should I be moral?” they may be asking why they should act morally on a particular occasion but usually they are asking why they should obey the moral rules in general. They want to know why they should not cause harm to others, why they should not deceive or cheat, and why they should keep their promises, obey the law, and perform their duties. The question “Why should I be moral?” would make no sense if one did not have a fairly clear idea of what morality prohibits, requires, encourages, and allows. The account of morality as an informal public system that every rational person wants others to follow, and knows that others want him to follow, both explains why the question “Why should I be moral?” has a clear sense and provides the foundation for a sensible answer.
Introduction
Authors: Mackenzie Catriona , Stoljar Natalie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the current climate of feminist theory, the notion of individual autonomy may seem an unlikely topic for a collection of feminist essays. Although the ideal of autonomy once seemed to hold out much promise, in providing both a liberatory goal and a moral standpoint from which to criticize sex-based oppression, autonomy is now generally regarded by feminist theorists with suspicion. Crudely stated, the charge is that the concept of autonomy is inherently masculinist, that it is inextricably bound up with masculine character ideals, with assumptions about selfhood and agency that are metaphysically, epistemologically, and ethically problematic from a feminist perspective, and with political traditions that historically have been hostile to women’s interests and freedom. What lies at the heart of these charges is the conviction that the notion of individual autonomy is fundamentally individualistic and rationalistic.
69 A.D.
Authors: Morgan Gwyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Year of Four Emperors, so the ancient sources assure us, was one of the most chaotic, violent and frightening periods in all Roman history: a time of assassinations and civil wars, of armies so out of control that they had no qualms about occupying the city of Rome, and of ambitious men who seized power only to lose it, one after another. In 69 AD, Gwyn Morgan offers a fresh look at this period, based on two considerations to which insufficient attention has been paid in the past. First, that we need to unravel rather than cherry-pick between the conflicting accounts of Tacitus, Plutarch and Suetonius, our three main sources of information. And second, that the role of the armies, as distinct from that of their commanders, has too often been exaggerated. The result is a remarkably accurate and insightful narrative history, filled with colorful portraits of the leading participants and new insights into the nature of the Roman military. Morgan ranges from the suicide of Nero in June 68 to the triumph of Vespasian in December 69. In between, three other emperors hold power. We meet Galba, old, tightfisted and conservative, who was declared emperor in June 68 and assassinated in January 69. Otho, once Nero’s boon companion, who was responsible for murdering Galba, seized power in a coup in Rome in January 69 and, to everybody’s surprise, committed suicide three months later in a vain attempt to end the civil wars. Vitellius, as indolent as he was extravagant, who was put forward by two ambitious lieutenants, recognized by the senate in Rome once they heard of Otho’s death in April, and cut down by Vespasian’s partisans in the last days of December. And then there is Vespasian, the candidate who looked least likely to succeed, but (according to Tacitus) was the first to be improved by becoming emperor. A strikingly vivid history of ancient Rome, 69 AD is an original and compelling account of one of the best known but perhaps least understood periods in all Roman history.
The American Disease
Authors: Musto David F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before 1800, opium was available in America in its crude form as an ingredient of multidrug prescriptions, or in such extracts as laudanum, containing alcohol, or “black drop,” containing no alcohol. Valued for its calming and soporific effects, opium was also a specific against symptoms of gastrointestinal illnesses such as cholera, food poisoning, and parasites. Its relatively mild psychological effect when taken by mouth or as part of a more complex prescription was enhanced by frequent use, and the drug was supplied freely by physicians. In addition, self-dosing with patent medicines and the ministrations of quacks contributed to narcotic intake. The medical profession’s need for something that worked in a world of mysterious mortal diseases and infections cannot be overlooked as a major stimulus for the growth of the opium market. A drug that calmed was especially appealing since physicians could at least treat the patient’s anxiety.
The Antimicrobial Drugs
Authors: Scholar Eric M , Pratt William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a thorough updating of a classic text that has been published in three editions since Pratt’s Chemotherapy of Infection (OUP, 1973). Its treatment of the mechanisms of action, pharmacology and adverse effects of the drugs used to treat bacterial, fungal, parasitic and viral infections has been greatly expanded, and this edition includes two completely new chapters on the fluoroquinolones and the drugs used to treat AIDS.
Antibiotics that Affect Membrane Permeabiliry
Authors: Scholar Eric M , Pratt William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The antibiotics to be considered here interact specifically with membranes, and this interaction alters the function of the cell membrane in a manner incompatible with the survival of the bacterium. There arc two groups of membrane antibiotics employed in the therapy of bacterial infection: Some of the most interesting antibiotics acting on the cell membrane belong to the polyene group. These drugs do not affect bacteria; they are used only in the treatment of fungal infections, and they will be discussed in Chapter 12.
The Fluoroquinolones
Authors: Scholar Eric M , Pratt William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The original quinolone, nalidixic acid, was discovered in the 1960s as a byproduct of the purification of the antimalarial drug, chloroquine.4 Unfortunately, nalidixic acid has a narrow antibacterial spectrum, with activity mainly against gram-negative organ isms. Nalidixic acid penetrates poorly into the tissues; thus it can be used only for the treatment of urinary tract infections. The study of nalidixic acid led, however, to the development of the f1uoroquinolones5 which have several advantages over the parent drug. The fluroroquinolones were introduced into therapy in the mid-1980s as orally administered antibiotics with activity that ranges from the Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas to several gram-positive pathogens.
Intention and Deliberation
Authors: Gauthier David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Successful deliberation about action in the future gives rise to an intention. Michael Bratman expresses the orthodox view about how deliberation, action, and intention are related when he says, “But in deliberation about the future we deliberate about what to do then, not what to intend now, though of course a decision about what to do later leads to an intention now so to act later ... This means that in such deliberation about the future the desire-belief reasons we are to consider are reasons for various ways we might act later” (Bratman 1987, p. 103). I intend to challenge this view, arguing that it rests on an incomplete account of the relations among deliberation, intention, and action. In particular, I want to reject the contrast that Bratman draws between deliberating about what to do in the future, and deliberating about what to intend now. And in rejecting this contrast, I want also to reject his claim that in deliberating about the future we are to consider only the desire-belief reasons that we should expect to have at the time of action. Bratman wants to replace the desire-belief theory of intention in action with what he calls the planning theory. But he does not go far enough; he accepts too much of the desire-belief model to exploit fully the resources that planning offers.
Beliefs and Co-operation
Authors: Huberman Bernardo A , Glance Natalie S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Social dilemmas have long attracted the attention of sociologists, economists and political scientists because they are central to issues that range from securing ongoing co-operation in volunteer organizations, such as unions and environmental groups, to the possibility of having a workable society without a government. Environmental pollution, nuclear arms proliferation, population explosion, conservation of electricity and fuel, and giving to charity are a few more examples of situations where an individual benefits by not contributing to the common cause, but if all individuals shirk, everyone is worse off. Although there are no simple solutions to social dilemmas, studying them sheds light on the nature of interactions among people and the emergence of social compacts. And because such dilemmas involve the interplay between individual actions and global behaviour, they elucidate how the actions of a group of individuals making personal choices gives rise to social phenomena (Glance and Huberman 1994).
Choral Masterworks
Authors: Steinberg Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Michael Steinberg’s highly successful listener’s guides--The Symphony and The Concerto--have been universally praised for their blend of captivating biography, crystal clear musical analysis, and delightful humor. Now Steinberg follows these two greatly admired volumes with Choral Masterworks: A Listener’s Guide, the only such guide available to this most popular of musical forms. Here are more than fifty illuminating essays on the classic choral masterworks, ranging from Handel’s Messiah, Bach’s Mass in B Minor, and Beethoven’s Missa Solemnis, to works by Haydn, Brahms, Mendelssohn, and many others. Steinberg spans the entire history of classical music, from such giants of the Romantic era as Verdi and Berlioz, to leading modern composers such as Elgar, Rachmaninoff, Vaughan Williams, and Stravinsky, to contemporary masters such as John Adams and Charles Wuorinen. For each piece, Steinberg includes a fascinating biographical account of the work’s genesis, often spiced with wonderful asides, such as the true story of Mozart’s Requiem--Salieri had nothing to do with the composition of it, nor did he poison Mozart, who most likely died of rheumatic fever. The author also includes an astute musical analysis of each piece, one that casual music lovers can easily appreciate and that musicians and more serious fans will find invaluable. The book also includes basic information such as the various movements of the work, the organization of the chorus and orchestra, and brief historical notes on early performances. More than twenty million Americans perform regularly in choirs or choruses. Choral Masterworks will appeal not only to concert goers and CD collectors, but also to this vast multitude of choral performers, an especially engaged and active community.
On Re-Doing Man
Authors: Hirschhorn Kurt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Dan Callahan was the editor of Commonweal he organized a symposium in 1967 to address many aspects, cultural and scientific, of the rapid changes going on at the time in human biology and behavior. He asked me to address the genetics aspects, which I did in an article entitled, “On Re- Doing Man,” originally published in Commonweal. This was later re- printed in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. I have been asked to comment on my predictions and concerns in that paper and perhaps look somewhat into the future.