bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mapping Policy Preferences
Authors: Budge Ian , Klingemann Hans-Dieter , Volkens Andrea , Bara Judith , Tanenbaum Eric , Fording Richard C , Hearl Derek J , Kim Hee Min , Mcdonald Michael D , Mendes Silvia M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book uniquely enriches and empowers its readers. It enriches them by giving them the most detailed and extensive data available on the policies and preferences of key democratic actors-parties, governments, and electors in 25 democracies over the post-war period. Estimates are provided for every election and most coalitions of the post-war period and derive from the programmes, manifestos, and platforms of parties and governments themselves. Thus, they form a uniquely authoritative source, recognized as such and provided through the labour of a team of international scholars over 25 years. The book empowers readers by providing these estimates on the website http://manifestoproject.wzb.eu/MPP1. The printed text provides documentation and suggested uses for data, along with much other background information. The changing ideologies and concerns of parties trace general social developments over the post-war period, as well as directly affecting economic policy making. Indispensable for any serious discussion of democratic politics, the book provides necessary information for political scientists, policy analysts, comparativists, sociologists, and economists. A must for every social science library-private as well as academic or public.
C
Authors: Bix Brian H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cardozo, Benjamin N. Benjamin Nathan Cardozo (1870-1938), influenced American law both through his thoughtful and well-crafted opinions while a judge and by his writings about the judicial process. While Cardozo served both on the highest court of New York State, the New York Court of Appeals, and on the United States Supreme Court, most of his well-known opinions, paradoxically, are from the New York court. Cardozo ’s most important book is arguably The Nature of the judicial Process (1921), in which he presents the judicial role as a creative part of a process for making law serve social needs. While such views may seem commonplace now, they went against the formalist views prominent at the time, but were consistent with many of the ideas being put forward by the American legal realists.
P
Authors: Bix Brian H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
paradigm It is part of some approaches to the philosophy of language that the meaning of terms is understood or taught on the basis of paradigm cases, central cases in which the application of a term is at its clearest. The question is then what the paradigm cases tell us about the application of the term to borderline cases. Discussions of paradigms in this sense appear in the work of both H. L.A. Hart (1907-92) (his notion of ‘open texture ‘, that judges have discretion in the application of statutes to borderline cases) and Ronald D workin (1931-) (the construction of a theory of law may be founded on paradigmatic applications of ‘law ’, though these paradigmatic cases might themselves, in principle, be subject to challenge in the completed theory).
R
Authors: Bix Brian H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
race In conventional thinking in many countries, people are categorized according to ‘race ’-general groupings based on some combination of skin colour, other physical features, and country of ancestry. These groupings frequently have significant implications for social status and legal treatment. It is a commonplace among biologists, geneticists, and social theorists that racial categories are almost entirely socially constructed, with little or no biological/genetic basis. A focus on the nature and implications of racial and ethnic categories is central to critical race theory and affiliated approaches to law.
W
Authors: Bix Brian H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Waismann, Friedrich Friedrich Waismann (1896-1959) was a philosopher of language, and a member of the Vienna Circle, the group that developed logical positivism (not to be confused with ‘legal positivism ‘). Waismann ’s importance to legal theory is that H. L.A. Hart ’s (1907-92) notion of ‘open texture ‘ derives from Waismann ’s concept of the same name; however, Hart ’s and Waismann ’s notions are at best analogues. Waismann ’s ‘open texture ‘ was introduced to respond to a particular problem of verification theory. If the meaning of terms is equated with certain statements about sense-data, definitions would be unable to respond to situations that were entirely unforeseen (e.g. cats suddenly growing to gigantic sizes).
The Kalahari and the Southern African Interior
Authors: Goudie Andrew S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The western and central portions of southern Africa are drylands (Fig. 7.1). On the western coast there is the Namib, in the south there is the Karoo, and in the middle there is the Kalahari. The last of these was described by a colonial explorer of the old school (Makin, 1929: 16):
So far the Kalahari Desert has been one of the lost lands. A few white men entered it, but not all of them returned. It has been the great mystery desert of Africa, less known than the Sahara, which the French have mapped and explored thoroughly within the past few years. Moreover, it has none of the romantic attributes of the Garden of Allah. It has not been visited by the passionate novelist, nor can it boast of luxurious caravanserai where ice-cream and jazz add to the dangers of the desert. It has been accepted as a wilderness, and left at that.
Print Culture, 1700 –1800
Authors: Barnard Toby 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Print gradually permeated eighteenth-century Ireland. It escaped from the closets of the learned and wealthy into the routines of the middling and lower orders of society. The outlines—if not yet the details—of the greater variety and availability of printed wares are clear. The great majority were in the English language. Titles, copy, and printed sheets were frequently imported from Britain. Outside England, Ireland was the Hanoverians ‘ most populous possession and so potentially a lucrative market. Those active in the book trade served as intermediaries for customers who wished to acquire works published in Britain or Dublin, taking subscriptions or deposits. The heavy reliance on what London offered strengthened the impression that, in the reception of print, Ireland frequently functioned as a cultural province and economic dependency. At the same time, the growing access to and use of books reflected and even aggravated distinctive features of Ireland, such as ethnic and linguistic difference, apparent economic retardation, and endemic poverty. If printing drove wedges between a fortunate few and the many, the Irish situation might vary in chronology and detail but did not differ in essentials from what was happening in provincial England, Wales, Scotland, and colonial North America.
Who Governs a Sustainable World? The Role of International Courts and Tribunals
Authors: Sands Philippe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UN CED), states adopted the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Principle 27 of the Rio Declaration states: ‘States and people shall co operate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership in the fulfilment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and in the further development of international law in the field of sustainable development’ (United Nations 1992). The language of Principle 27 is premissed on the view that even at the time of its adoption there existed a body of ‘inter national law in the field of sustainable development’. However, Principle 2 7 does not indicate the content of that law, in particular whether it is pro cedural or substantive or both, or where its content may be identified.
Political Parties in a Changing Europe
Authors: Luther Kurt Richard , Müller-Rommel Ferdinand 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis of political parties constitutes one of the most important sub fields of comparative political science and dates back at least as far as the contributions of Ostrogorski (1903, 1964) and Michels (1911, 1962). One of the main reasons for this enduring interest in political parties is that they have been widely regarded as playing a central role in both the theory and the practice of modem liberal democracy, constituting a vital link between the sovereign people and the politicians to whom the exercise of the affairs of the state is temporarily entrusted.
The Internal Life of Parties
Authors: Katz Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In most theories of democracy and in the actual practice of nearly all democratic governments, political parties play a crucial role. Given the hostility to parties expressed by some theorists (e.g. Barber 1984), and practitioners (e.g. Charles de Gaulle) of modern democracy, and the non partisan experience of some very small political units (e.g. the Bailiwick of Jersey), it may be an exaggeration to say with Schattschneider (1942: 1) that modem democracy is unthinkable save in terms of the parties’. Yet there are no significant democratic countries, and precious few subdivisions within those countries, in which parties are not, in fact, centrally important actors. As is implicit in the last sentence, parties often are treated as corporate or even unitary actors.
Party Organizational Change: Competing Explanations?
Authors: Harmel Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like other organizations, political parties have reasons-both external and internal-to resist organizational change (see Hall 1991: 184-85; Katz 1978: 770-71; Duverger 1959: 135; Harmel and Janda 1994: 261-62), and yet empirical evidence certainly supports a conclusion that parties do indeed change. Since organizational change has the potential to alter parties’ ultimate effectiveness as well as their internal politics, party change has for some time been a topic of interest for students of political parties. Though a few classics on the topic (Michels 1911; Duverger 1951, 1959) were written many decades ago, a swelling of interest in party organization-and particularly in party organizational change-has occurred more recently, concurrent with an up surge in more general concerns over party relevance and continued viability.
Parties, Ideologies, and Issues Stability and Change in Fifteen European Party Systems 1945-1998
Authors: Volkens Andrea , Klingemann Hans-Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ideologies and issues adopted by political parties are of central importance in representative democracies. Citizens’ preferences do not enter into the political decision-making process directly, but are selected and aggregated by political parties into policy packages, which are then transmitted into parliament and government. The mediating role of parties refers to this process of aggregation and conversion of citizens’ preferences into binding decisions. The two central criteria in democratic theory are thus the responsiveness of parties to citizens’ preferences, and the accountability of parties in government to their pre-electoral pledges (as analysed in Chapter 9 of this volume). However, the functions which democratic theory accords to political parties in respect of ideologies and issues are both more numerous and at times conflicting.
Introduction
Authors: Bridge Helen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The collapse of the GDR has given rise to extensive reflection, amongst literary scholars as well as historians and journalists, on the question of how now to approach the history of the GDR and its literature. Three areas of the discussion arc of particular relevance for the present study. Firstly, attention has been focused on the questions of what constitutes ‘GDR literature’, whether the term corresponds to a definable literary entity, and what value such a category might have for literary historiography. Whereas terms like ‘English literature’ or ‘German literature’ might be defined (although not unproblematic ally) either according to the use of a common language or in relation to an idea of nation based on cultural, if not always political, identity, ‘GDR literature’ is a category defined by a political entity with clear historical and geographical boundaries.
Shades of Green: Euroscepticism in Irish Political Parties
Authors: Gilland Karin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ireland joined the European Union ((EU) or, as it was then, the European Economic Community (EEC)) in 1973, and since then has often been considered something of a ‘model member’ as well as a fine example of how membership can augment economic development. Until the new millennium, European affairs was a peripheral and low-priority issue in Irish politics, but in 2000/1 its salience grew.
Opposing Europe or Problematizing EuropeEuroscepticism and ‘Eurorealism’ in the Polish Party System
Authors: Szczerbiak Aleks 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For much of the 1990s Poland enjoyed both a high level of elite consensus in favour of, and one of the highest levels of popular support for, European Union (EU) accession among the post-communist candidate states. However, the end of the decade saw the emergence of a significant bloc of anti-EU public and elite opinion and parties highly critical of, or openly opposed to, Polish EU membership were relatively successful in the September 2001 parliamentary election.
Excitation of magnetic resonance
Authors: Freeman Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before we consider the instrumental equipment needed for magnetic resonance experiments it is perhaps helpful to take a look at a more familiar subject television. A television transmitter sends out intense radiation at a precise frequency which is picked up by an aerial on the roof of the house. The greater the distance between the transmitter and this antenna, the weaker the signal that is detected. This tiny signal is amplified in a tuned receiver and processed to form a picture. If the house is too far from the television station, or the antenna misaligned, or the receiver poorly tuned, the detected signal is so weak that it is lost in a sea of random noise arising from the electronics. The television screen shows only ‘snow’, a chaotic pattern of bright spots on a dark background, containing no useful information. Magnetic resonance has many features in common with this familiar scenario-there is a powerful transmitter operating at a fixed frequency, but the signals from the nuclear spins, picked up by the receiver, are very weak indeed, so some degree of noise is always present in NMR spectra or MRI scans. This is probably the most serious limitation of the magnetic resonance method.
Sensitivity
Authors: Freeman Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is an unfortunate fact that magnetic resonance is not a sensitive technique, that is to say, we need a relatively large amount of material to produce a detectable signal. We have already had a clue to the reason (§ 2.4 ); most of the nuclear spins in a sample are equally divided between the upper and lower energy levels, with only a tiny excess in the ground state. Because upward and downward transitions are equally probable, one upward jump (absorption of energy) is cancelled by one downward jump (emission), generating no signal in the receiver. Only the small excess population in the lower level (of the order of only 5 nuclei in 100,000) is actually utilized, because this permits net absorption of radiofrequency energy, not matched by equal emission from the upper level. We often loosely refer to this effect as the ‘Boltzmann factor’ since it is the Boltzmann distribution function that determines the spin populations at equilibrium. Almost all of the tiny nuclear magnets aligned along the magnetic field direction are matched by an equal number that are opposed to the field.
Spin-spin coupling
Authors: Freeman Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now come to a second important aspect of high-resolution NMR spectra the fine structure. While the chemical shift is the main factor determining the frequency of the response from a particular chemical site, each response may also exhibit some fine structure representing interactions with neighbouring magnetic nuclei. If we imagine we are ‘sitting’ on a particular nuclear spin, we would know whether a nearby spin is ‘up’ or ‘down’, because this creates a weak additional magnetic field at our location, either positive or negative. When we consider the ensemble of similar nuclear spins in the sample there are essentially equal numbers of ‘up’ and ‘down’ neighbours. Instead of a single response at the chemical shift frequency there are two responses, one slightly above and the other slightly below the chemical shift frequency. The electrons that make up the chemical bonds between two sites serve as a conduit for this magnetic interaction.
The search for new drugs
Authors: Freeman Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origins of pharmaceutical chemistry are lost in the mists of time, but Chinese traditional medicine certainly stands out as an example of impressive progress through a great deal of hard work over thousands of years. This essentially trial and-error method has had its successes and, no doubt, some dangerous failures. The basic problem is that natural substances tend to be found in complex mixtures, and at that epoch there were no sure means to determine the active ingredient and probably no way to isolate it. Even today, we still have only an incomplete understanding of human and microbial biochemistry. Many western drugs have been discovered essentially by accident, probably the best-known example being that of penicillin. Some turn out to be useful, but not at all for the purpose for which they were intended (Viagra).
Political Principles
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because of the complex system of offices we have examined, the Laws is frequently said to be a pioneering work in the theory of the ‘mixed constitution’. The constitution can be termed ‘mixed’ in two different respects. Though Plato does not actually refer to Magnesia as having a ‘mixed’ (meikite or memeigmene) constitution, he does say that it observes a ‘mean’ or ‘intermediary’ position between different constitutional forms, and we examine this. But the work also occupies a significant position in the tradition of what we frequently call the ‘mixed’ constitution, despite Plato’s failure to use the term.
Socratic Politics
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I said in the last chapter that we should pay special attention to the presuppositions about human nature that governed Socrates’ mission. In this chapter, we examine these and draw out their political implications. We pay special attention to Socrates’ intellectualism, a view widely associated with the historical Socrates and espoused in Plato’s early dialogues. According to the Magna Moralia, the historical Socrates’ conception of human nature was deficient in the following way: According . . . to Socrates, all the virtues arise in the reasoning part of the soul, from which it follows that, in making the various virtues branches of knowledge, he ignores the irrational parts of the soul, and thus ignores passion and the moral character. (1182a18–23)
The Tripartite Soul
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to unravel the moral psychology of the Republic, it is necessary briefly to examine the central argument of the work. At least ostensibly, the Republic centres on an attempt to define justice and to prove that it benefits its possessor. By the end of Book I, Socrates has refuted various attempted definitions, when at the beginning of Book II Glaucon and Adeimantus challenge him to define it and to show exactly how it pays. Glaucon presents a classification of goods. Some are (a) beneficial in themselves, others (b) both in themselves and for their consequences, and others (c) beneficial only for their consequences. An example of the first sort is joy, which is immediately beneficial, though it does not have significant consequences. Sight and health are beneficial in both ways. Having them is immediately beneficial and allow one to attain additional important benefits.
Introduction
Authors: Evans Gareth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the core motivating factors behind the creation of the Small Arms Survey in 1999 was the need for a better understanding of the use and impacts of small arms—including in armed conflict. In the first four editions of the annual Small Arms Survey,as well as in numerous other publications, the Survey has pursued this mandate by exploring many facets of small arms, from their production, trade, regulation, and misuse to their particular roles in different states and regions. The fifth edition of the Small Arms Surveyfocuses on the direct and indirect role of small arms in contemporary violent conflicts. As such, this volume develops in depth one important strand of work begun at the project’s inception. It describes the many ways in which small arms and light weapons threaten human life and well-being in collective violence, while also focusing how these weapons are implicated in the origins, exacerbation, and aftermath of violent conflict.
Rounding out the Gun: Ammunition
Authors: Evans Gareth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1996–97, mutinous soldiers from the Central African Republic (CAR) supplemented their arsenal by seizing weapons from members of the armed forces, gendarmerie, and police of Zaire as they crossed the border. Many of the armaments seized, such as Galil and M-16 automatic rifles, proved to be of little value, though, because the corresponding ammunition, 5.56 mm cartridges, was almost impossible to obtain in CAR. Having no use for these otherwise perfectly functioning weapons, the soldiers threw them into the Ubangi River (Berman, 2005).This example underscores the crucial point that, without ammunition, small arms and light weapons are useless. Weapons and ammunition are complementary goods: an increase in the demand for weapons results in an increase in demand for ammunition, and their prices shift accordingly. In many instances, the procurement of ammunition can be more problematic than that of weapons: while weapons are durable goods, which can be used for many years in several areas of conflict, ammunition is quickly depleted and stocks must be replenished.
Behind the Numbers: Small Arms And Conflict Deaths
Authors: Evans Gareth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The steady stream of media reports from the battle zones of Iraq has kept the world regularly informed about at least one aspect of the conflict: the numbers of US and UK servicemen and women being killed. Between March 2003 and April 2005, more than 1,700 had died, and more than 11,000 had been wounded (Iraq Coalition Casualty Count, 2005; Antiwar.com, 2005). One obvious question follows directly from these statistics: how many Iraqis have died in the conflict? In April 2005, the public database Iraqi Body Count, basing its information on media accounts, estimated that there had been between 17,000 and 19,000 Iraqi military and civilian deaths (IBC, 2005).
Everyday Life and Leisure Time
Authors: Tulloch John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The context of risk debate in this book and elsewhere is generally taken to be a shifting away from modernist ‘welfare’ paradigms to those of personal responsibility and ‘justice’ (see Crime and Risk). An equivalent shift is noted from interventionist state policies to those of either risk society or new ‘governmentality’ (see Risk and Social and Public Policy). Yet these contexts—especially when we look at theorizing risk, everyday life, and leisure—need to be explored in the context of wider intellectual debate.