bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The New Monetary Law Of The European Union
Authors: Louil’ jean-Victor 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Maastricht Treaty laid down the programme for the progressive establish-7.01 ment of economic and monetary union (EMU). According to Article 4(2) (ex Article 3a), EMU includes ‘the irrevocable fixing of exchange rates leading to the introduction of a single currency, the ECU, and the definition and conduct of a single monetary policy and exchange-rate policy’.
The Community made the irrevocable transition to the third stage on 7.02 1 January 1999, as envisaged in the EC Treaty (Article 121(4)-ex Article 109j(4)) and the Protocol on the transition to the third stage of economic and monetary union).
The Exchange Rate Regime Between ‘Euroland’ And Other European Countries (With A Postscript On Norway)
Authors: Christiansen Per 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The nominal1 exchange rate of a currency may be defined as the amount of a cur-12.01 rency which is needed to buy a unit of another currency, ie the price of a currency expressed in another currency. The mechanism within which the nominal exchange rates are determined is called an ‘exchange rate regime’. The word ‘between’ indicates that an exchange rate regime can be seen from two sides, in this case either from Euroland’s point of view or from that of
Core Legal Principles Across Major Large-Value Credit Transfer Systems
Authors: Baxter Thomas C , Stephanie Heller 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the past decade a number of countries inside as well as outside the Group 18.01 of Ten have introduced real-time gross settlement systems for large-value credit transfers. In 1997, the Bank for International Settlement’s Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems of the central banks of the Group of Ten countries issued a report on the design of real-time gross settlement systems in the light of ‘the growing awareness of the need for sound risk management in large-value funds transfer systems’ and of the fact that real-time gross settlement systems offer ‘a powerful mechanism for limiting settlement and systemic risks in the interbank settlement process... ‘. On the eve of the end of the century, real-time gross settlement systems have become an international standard.
Who wins Nobel Prizes?
Authors: Hargittai István 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
I once made a frivolous comparison in an after-dinner talk between winning the Nobel Prize and becoming Miss America. I had read about a company in Texas that specialized in preparing young ladies for winning the Miss America title. There were many specific features of their preparation, like plastic surgery, that are not relevant for our comparison. However, the company carefully studied the prevailing public opinion, then adjusted the candidate’s characteristics to best approximate it. If they found it necessary, they would even launch a campaign to sway public preferences towards the characteristics of their leading candidate. Although it would be outrageous to suggest anything similar in the quest for the Nobel Prize, the Swedish judges cannot ignore public opinion and the expectations of the scientific community, whether consciously or unconsciously. In spite of the independence of the Nobel institution, the judges care deeply about the approval of the international scientific community. Conversely, public relations may promote a discovery and maymake the scientist and his work better known; it also helps if the scientistis a good performer.
Family Values
Authors: Millard Kenneth 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the United States the family is the principal means by which the individual is socialized. The family is the agency through which children are brought up in the knowledge of the values of their parents and of American society. The nuclear family is widely regarded as the sacred cornerstone of the American social project and it is perceived as fundamental to the happiness and success of the individual, the nation, and corporate life. An American myth of the family is still generally subscribed to and commonly recognized as a natural ambition and primary means of personal fulfilment. Furthermore, the nation family of the United States is a governing narrative for those who purport to speak on behalf of society and is integral to their ideas of American citizenship.
Religious Divisions In Early Moderneurope
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One faith, one law, one kingߣ.1 The French adage had been taken for granted in the Middle Ages, but its first constituent at least ceased to be universally applicable in the sixteenth century. Before the Reformation, Catholicism had been regarded as the ߢtrueߣ faith, the certainty of which would be reinforced by further philosophical enquiry. The Reformation dashed these earlier assumptions. Most contemporaries considered that ߢinnovation in religionߣ was a cause of sedition in states and that diversity of religious belief was objectionable in theory and unworkable in practice. In twentieth-century secular society it is difficult to comprehend a Europe in which men and women were prepared to die for specific religious beliefs, or to understand that issues such as the capacity for sin and the certainty of salvation were, if not the only, certainly the chief, preoccupations of informed men and women. Few literate and articulate people in early modern Europe were agnostics or sceptics. The rise of sceptical thought was closely linked to knowledge of ancient Greek philosophy; the key texts of this tradition were printed in translation only after 1562. Even then, scepticism was used in religious argument only to demonstrate the greater validity of one religious creed over others. Before 1655 no one attempted to argue that the Scriptures were anything other than an objective and accurate historical account, or to suggest that they needed to be subjected to the same analysis and scrutiny as other historical documents. The entire Reformation debate took place in the context of the totally literal acceptance of the Scriptures.
Society before the Revolt
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Abroad tendency developed, from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries onwards, throughout the Low Countries towards freeing the peasantry from feudal ties and obligations. Land reclamation, and colonization of new areas, in Flanders and Brabant, as well as north of the rivers, together with the high level of urbanization, led the nobility and Church to offer attractive terms, and free status, in order to coax peasant farmers to work newly cultivated areas (and others to remain on older land) as well as counter the attraction of migration to newly colonized regions of Germany.’ Thus, at a faster rate than in France or England, it became usual, in the greater part of the Netherlands, north and south, to lease lands out to peasant farmers, free from seigneurial control, for plain money rents.
The Republic Becomes a Great Power, 1590-1609
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
By the late 1580s, the Republic resembled a compressed spring taut with pent-up impetus. After the loss of Zutphen and Deventer virtually the whole eastern side of the north Netherlands, from Nijmegen to the Ems estuary, was again under Spanish control, the States General’s troops retreating west of the IJssel. During 1589, the Spaniards took Geertruidenberg and Rheinberg, and besieged Heusden, squeezing the Dutch also along the rivers, to the south. But within this contracting territory, besieged by Spanish armies to the south, east, and north-east, a restructuring of institutions, military organization, and the economy was in progress which, as events were to prove, immeasurably enhanced the prospects of the surviving core of the rebel state.
The Commencement of Dutch World Trade Primacy
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The 1590s, the years of transition from the harsh circumstances of the Revolt to the onset of the Golden Age, witnessed a dramatic transformation of Dutch urban society and the economy. At the heart of this process, one of the most crucial shifts in Dutch history, was the rise of the ‘rich trades’ and the processing industries which accompanied them. This economic ‘miracle’ of the 1590s resulted from the convergence of many factors: the internal stabilization of the Republic after 1588, improvement in the strategic situation, the reopening of the rivers and waterways linking Holland and Germany, influx of capital and skills from Antwerp after 1585, the lifting of Philip II’s embargo on Dutch ships and cargoes in the Iberian peninsula in 1590 (whilst retaining his embargo on England), and the Republic’s tightening grip on the Scheidt and Ems estuaries and naval blockade of the Flemish coast.
Protestantization, Catholicization, Confessionalization
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
On the outbreak of the great Revolt, in 1572, the States of Holland had made no attempt to curb Protestantism but, initially, did try to ensure that both the old Church, and the Reformed, would be tolerated Among the regent, and noble, elites, a substantial grouping wished to defend the king’s faith and its clergy. However, the mood of the militias and populace was strongly anti-Catholic and official efforts to protect Catholic worship, clergy, and images had little chance of succeeding. Just two weeks after Leiden went over to the Revolt, the several hundred clergy in the city were expelled and Catholic services suppressed. The story was the same in Dordrecht, Rotterdam, Delft, and Gouda. Everywhere, principal churches were seized, the mass forbidden, and Catholic clergy driven out, generally without any demonstration, hardly a protest, from the Catholic side. So weak was the Catholic position that even Orange could do nothing to prevent this. Anxious not to alienate opinion in the south, the Prince made a determined attempt to oppose the suppression and even reintroduced the mass at Delft in December 1572, in one of the city’s two main churches. But this brief revival of Catholic practice lasted less than three months. Renewed anti-Catholic rioting erupted in February, and again in March 1573, and the Prince was forced to acquiesce in the total suppression of Catholic worship.
Crisis within the Dutch Body Politic,1607-1616
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The armistice of 1607 and Spain’s entering into peace talks with the Dutch, and then the concluding of the Truce in 1609, were regarded throughout Europe as sensational successes for Oldenbamevelt and the Holland regents. The Truce confirmed the separation of north and south indefinitely and the survival, at least north of the rivers, of the Revolt. Furthermore, the Truce was an unquestioned triumph not only for Oldenbamevelt and the Holland regents but for the Republic, government by a consultative, decision-making process without an ‘eminent head’ or monarchical element. Yet, at this very moment there were already worrying signs of rising tensions within the infant Republic which many believed could soon undo all that had been achieved. The young Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) was just one of many who predicted, in 1607, that the truce with Spain would release a rising tide of faction, discord, and popular pressure.
Intellectual Life, 1572-1650
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Revolt opened a chasm separating north from south, creating two mutually alien and antagonistic cultures where, previously, there had been one. The result was a dichotomy rooted in the religious divide which permeated all aspects of education and cultural life, a separation in the intellectual sphere which paralleled the separateness in economic life and politics reaching back over centuries. After 1585, the civilization of the south Netherlands, both French and Dutch-speaking provinces, was exclusively Catholic, with a confessional grip on education, thought, and book censorship so strong as to render culture largely free of major internal stresses, aside only from the Jansenist controversies (see pp. 649-53 below). Also, this south Netherlands culture rapidly became integrated into the broader framework of Counter-Reformation education, art, thought, and censorship, encompassing much of continental Europe, with especially close cultural links with the German ecclesiastical states and Rome. By contrast, the cultural world of the north evolved into an uneasy blend of Protestant Catholic confrontation, humanist-confessional antagonism, and Protestant anti-Calvinist dissent, which fragmented thought and education, creating a new kind of European culture fraught with powerful and insoluble internal stresses. The result was a highly dynamic, if initially unstable, culture, in many ways quite unlike that to be found in neighbouring Protestant as well as Catholic lands.
The Stadholderate of William II, 1647-1650
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The stadholderate of William II was brief but of great signiflcance in the history of the Republic. For it produced the most severe crisis of the Dutch state between 1618 and the fall of the De Witt regime in 1672. It also renewed some of the former ideological intensity of Dutch politics after the calmer era of the 1630s and early 1640s.
Confessionalization, 1647-1702
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Dutch Republic became a freer, more flexible society after 1630, at least as regards religion and thought, if not life-style. Remonstrants, Lutherans, Mennonites, Collegiants, Jews, and Catholics all benefited from this change. At Amsterdam, it first became usual for Catholics to have their children baptized not in the public Church but by Catholic priests in the late 1640s.’ The same shift occurred in Rotterdam slightly earlier, in the 163os,2 and at Leiden, somewhat later, in the 165os. It was indeed during the 1650s that all the large former Counter-Remonstrant towns in Holland-Leiden, Haarlem, Gouda, and Enkhuizen-finally ceased breaking up Catholic conventicles and harassing Catholic priests. The Reformed consistory at Haarlem complained to the burgomasters, in June 1665, about the great change which had taken place in the city over the last ten years, with whole streets and quarters assuming a Catholic character and priests no longer concealing their activity.
Freedom and Order
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Descartes complained, in 1643, that the United Provinces were not as ‘free’ as he had originally supposed. Decades later, Spinoza and Bayle, not to mention Koerbagh and Walten (see pp. 919, 929 below) had still greater reason to lament the limited character of Dutch freedom. During the seventeenth century, and early eighteenth, foreign visitors routinely praised the comparative freedom, both for groups and the individual, prevailing in the Republic. But the more perceptive also noticed that this freedom was a complex phenomenon rooted in a deep preoccupation with order and discipline.
1672: Year of Disaster
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The year 1672 was the most traumatic of the Dutch Golden Age. It was a year of military collapse, of almost complete demoralization, the moment when the overthrow of the Republic, if not in its entirety, then certainly as a major power, seemed at hand. It was the year of the greatest crash on the Amsterdam Exchange of early modern times, paralysing Dutch commerce and finance, the year when public building ceased and the art market withered, with consequences for art, artists, and architecture noticeable for decades to come. It was also a year of sensational domestic political events and feverish ideological conflict. Finally, it was the year when the common populace and militias intervened in the political process, and ideological warfare, more extensively than at any time since the 1580s, with lasting consequences for political and social life.
The Republic of the Regents, 1702-1747
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
William III died at Hampton Court, in England, on 19 March 1702. The news was communicated to the people of the United Provinces by a prolonged tolling of church bells. Six days after his death, Heinsius, Pensionary of Holland, appeared before the States General, announcing that the States of Holland had decided to leave the stadholderate vacant. This was against the expressed wish of the dead monarch, who had already tried, in 1701, to persuade Holland to designate the young Frisian Stadholder, Johan Willem Friso (1687-qu), son of Hendrik Casimir, his successor as Stadholder of Holland. 1 But the Holland regents preferred to do without a Stadholder, and suspend the political functions of the stadholderate, precisely as in 1650. Ever since the death of Hendrik Casimir, in 1696, the childless William III had, in all provinces, been grooming Johan Willem Friso as his successor.2 The Stadholder-king’s last testament, opened in a special ceremony at The Hague, in May 1702, in the presence of the British and Prussian ambassadors, declared Johan Willem Friso William Ill’s sole ‘general heir’.
Society
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Most fundamental changes in Dutch society during the eighteenth century were consequences of the faltering of the Dutch overseas trading system-—and the industries and fisheries tied to it. Throughout the Golden Age, since 1590, the phases of the overseas trading system had been the chief factor shaping population distribution, urbanization, employment, prosperity, poverty, and urban vitality generally, and this was equally true during the latter phases of the Republic’s economic and social development, beginning with the collapse of Dutch world trade primacy, in the decades 1720-40.
The Churches
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the eighteenth century, the Dutch Reformed Church, the public Church, retained the allegiance of the majority of the population throughout the Republic except the Generality Lands, Twenthe, and the southern fringe of Gelderland beneath the Waal. Nevertheless, with the growth of toleration, a marked feature of Dutch life in the eighteenth century, there was a noticeable tendency, virtually throughout the Republic (except Friesland), for the preponderance of the Reformed majority to be reduced.
Colonies and Distant Monarchs 1558-1649
Authors: Lloyd T O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When Elizabeth I came to the throne of England in 1558 she and her government in London ruled less iand than her predecessors had done for hundreds of years. For about four centuries the rulers of England had been trying to conquer and rule France, Scotland, and Ireland, but they had just lost their last foothold in France at Calais, their position in Ireland was as insecure as it had ever been, and the Scottish problem had taken an altogether new turn because Mary the Queen of Scotland could present a good claim to the English throne. By the time of Elizabeth’s death in 1603 Englishmen did not rule any more land outside the British Isles than they had done 45 years earlier but their seafaring position had been transformed.
Monarchs and their Colonies 1649-1714
Authors: Lloyd T O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The new government set out in 1649 to establish its position with a degree of success which must have surprised everyone who knew about its problems and had not realized the great energy that religious faith gave to its leaders. It transformed the way that the English dealt with the world outside Europe; even though Charles’s son came back to the throne as Charles II in 1660, the Republic changed the direction of English imperial policy and set a pattern followed at least until the death in 1714 of the last direct descendant of Charles I to sit on the throne. Queen Anne died a year after the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which had brought to an end a cycle of wars which, while primarily concerned with the balance of power in Europe, had given English governments an opportunity to take colonies away from other European countries and increase their empire by annexation as well as by settlement. Annexation showed that the English government had much more power to take action outside Europe than it had possessed in the first half of the century.
Peace and War 1713-1763
Authors: Lloyd T O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The long wars against France had left the British more confident about their position overseas than before, but not necessarily more interested in activity outside Europe. Between 1713 and 1763 they paid little attention to the colonies in America, and at least for the first half of the period it was hard to see what else could have been done. A framework for governing the colonies across the Atlantic had been set up but the British government of the early eighteenth century was not at all energetic in handling problems inside Britain and was most unlikely to exert itself about things further afield. Some people felt that choosing as Queen Anne’s successor in 1714 a ruler from Germany, who might neglect British interests for the sake of his Electorate of Hanover, was already a warning that the British should be careful about any overseas entanglements. For twenty-five years Britain took little interest in the outside world and even managed to remain at peace with France. After 1739 this all came to an end, and Britain spent the next quarter-century at war with France, directly or by proxy in the colonies, with only a year or two of armed truce.
War and Survival, 1763-1791
Authors: Lloyd T O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the Seven Years war came to its triumphant but controversy-stained end, the government was left to reckon its gains and count the cost. After forcing a slightly reluctant Parliament to accept the peace terms, Lord Bute retired, partly because he thought the London mob would lynch him. The danger to him was not just that the peace terms were unpopular in London but also that Scotsmen, of whom he was obviously the most conspicuous, were hated. This sentiment was focused and encouraged by John Wilkes, a politician who realized that people were growing more ready to respond to a call for liberty on several issues connected with the freedom of the press and the responsibility of MPs to their constituents. In an ill-formulated way he appealed to the emerging feeling in Britain and in America that the state ought to avoid making life difficult for its subjects and that subjects ought to be free to express their opinion about government policy and even to have some effect on what governments did. Wilkes was too disreputable to become a political leader, but he said a good many things for which there was a growing audience; in the early 1760s he struggled against the government’s wide-ranging police powers, in the late 1760s he defended the right of constituencies to choose MPs whom the House of Commons found obnoxious, in the early 1770s he asserted the right of the press to report parliamentary debates, and later on he warned the British government that it was treating its American subjects most unwisely.