bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ecology of the threespine stickleback on the breeding grounds
Authors: Whoriskey Frederick G , FitzGerald Gerard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A central theme of the behavioural ecology of reproduction of natural populations is the study of the factors causing variation in individual reproductive success (genetic contribution to future generations) (Clutton-Brock 1988). A knowledge of their relative importance is necessary to formulate predictions about the evolution of an animal’s morphology or behaviour. Pertinent questions include: how widely does breeding success vary among individuals of each sex? How much variance in reproductive success is contributed by different components of reproductive success (survival to breeding age, reproductive life span, fecundity, mating success, and offspring survival)? To what extent does survival change with age? How do environmental, phenotypic, developmental, or genetic factors affect reproductive success in each sex?
Although only some of these questions have been adequately answered for the threespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, this small fish is an excellent subject with which to address many important issues in behavioural ecology.
Evolution of foraging behaviour in the threespine stickleback
Authors: Hart Paul J B , Gill Andrew B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Through foraging behaviour the stickleback matches its needs to the demands of the habitat. The flexibility of the fish is constrained by its morphology and physiology, which reflect the history of selection through which generations of ancestors have passed. In this chapter we consider the threespine stickleback as a decision-making system buffeted by the features of past and present environments. We first describe the structure of the habitats in which the fish live, as this will determine the context in which selection has taken place. Next we consider the morphological attributes of the fish, as these determine the constraints within which decisions must be taken. The principal part of our discussion reviews what is known about behaviours such as deciding when to feed, searching for prey, exploiting patchy resources, and selecting a diet. Development of behaviour is considered where appropriate.
The Thionins: A Protein Family That Includes Purothionins, Viscotoxins And Crambins
Authors: Garcia-Olmedo F , Rodriguez-Palenzuela P , Hernandez-Lucas c. , Ponz* F , Marana. c. , Carmona M J , Lopez-Fando J , Fernandez J A , Carbonero P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The toxic properties of mistletoes, which were responsible for a famous death in Nordic mythology, can be ascribed to different components, including the toxic lectin viscumin (Olsnes et al., 1982) and a mixture of small basic proteins, which were first isolated by Winterfeld and Bijl (1949) and designated “viscotoxin”. The viscotoxins produce hypotension and other effects at sublethal doses (Samuelsson, 1974).
The High Molecular Weight Subunits Of Wheat, Barley And Rye: Genetics, Molecular Biology, Chemistry And Role In Wheat Gluten Structure And Functionality
Authors: Shewry Peter R , Halford Nigel G , Tatham Arthur S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although almost unheard of only a decade ago, the High Molecular Weight subunits of wheat glutenin have since become the most intens¬ ively studied group of wheat proteins. This is in spite of the fact that they account for only about 5% of the total proteins of the mature grain. This sudden interest resulted from the demonstration by Payne and coworkers at the Plant Breeding Institute (Cambridge, UK) that allelic variation in the polypeptide composition of the HMW subunits was closely correlated with the breadmaking quality of European cultivars of wheat, and of the progeny of crosses between them (Payne et al. 1979; 1981a). These observations have since been confirmed and extended in a number of other laboratories and countries and “subunit screening” is now routinely used in many plant breeding program mes.
The Molecular Biology of Glutamine Synthetase in Higher Plants
Authors: Forde Brian G , Cullimore Julie V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Glutamine synthetase (GS), as the first enzyme in the main pathway of ammonia assimilation in higher plants, occupies the same key position in nitrogen metabolism as ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) does in carbon metabolism. The assimilation of am rnonia occurs primarily through the glutamate synthase cycle, in which GS (EC 6.3.1.2) acts in conjunction with glutamate synthase (GOGAT; EC 1.4.7.1 and EC 1.4.1.14) to convert ammonium ions and 2-oxoglutarate to glutamate, via glutarnine, at the expense of ATP and reducing power (Miflin and Lea, 1980). The glutarnine and glutamate produced by the cycle can then be used to synthesize all other nitrogen-containing compounds in the plant. Ammonium can arise from a diversity of sources, both primary (such as nitrate or ammonium ions in the soil or nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules) and secondary (such as photorespiration in green leaves, phenylpropanoid metabolism, or de-arnination of amino acids in germinating seeds).
Demography: Age And Stage Structure
Authors: Stearns Stephen C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Demography, the key to life history theory, allows us to calculate the strength of selection on life history traits for many conditions. This chapter presents the tools needed: age, size, and stage-specific schedules of reproduction and mortality; the Euler—Lotka equation relating life history traits to fitness; the matrix representation of that equation that generalizes it to populations classified by stage and size as well as by age; and the sensitivity and elasticity of fitness to changes in life history traits. The chapter is technical, but the insights it offers are worth the effort: why age at maturity is a pivotal trait, how to weigh the contributions to fitness of early and late fecundity, why selection to lengthen life is generally weak, and why life history theory makes no general predictions.
Quantitative Genetics And Reaction Norms
Authors: Stearns Stephen C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whereas demography analyses the phenotypic sources of variation in fitness that produce natural selection, quantitative genetics and reaction norms are used to analyse the genetic variation that conditions the response to selection-how much there is, how it is maintained, and how it is expressed. This chapter introduces the aspects of quantitative genetics and reaction norms needed to analyse the microevolution of life history traits. Heritability and genetic covariance are defined and methods for measuring them are discussed. The heritabilities of fitness components should be lower than the heritabilities of other traits-and they are-but considerable genetic variation for life history traits is maintained in nature. Five explanations for the maintenance of genetic variation in fitness components are discussed: mutation-selection balance, genotype by environment interactions in heterogeneous environments, negative genetic covariance, gene flow, and flat fitness profiles.
Age And Size At Maturity
Authors: Stearns Stephen C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyses the evolution of age and size at maturity. Maturation divides a life into preparation and fulfilment. Age at maturity is pivotal, for fitness is often more sensitive to changes in this trait than tq changes in any other. With maturation, selection pressures and trade¬ offs change dramatically. The microevolutionary selection pressures and trade-offs are sketched in the introduction. The demographic pressure to mature early must be balanced by trade-offs with other fitness components to explain delayed maturity. The second section documents variation in age and size at maturity among and within vertebrate classes, among and within populations of single species, and between the two sexes. Species that delay maturity tend to be large, long-lived, and, if they are birds or mammals, to have a few, large offspring, or, if they are reptiles, to have many, small offspring. Much of this pattern is associated with higher taxonomic levels; it weakens but does not disappear within populations.
General introduction
Authors: Patterson David J , Larsen Jacob 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the widespread acceptance of the importance of microbial food webs, heterotrophic flagellates have become a focus of attention as principal consumers in many aquatic ecosystems. There is currently no satisfactory account of the diversity or biology of these organisms. Studies on their ecology and taxonomy need to be woven together before we can understand the diversity and nature of the transactions conducted by heterotrophic flagellates within microbial food webs, and in order to address the temporal, geographic, and physiological variations of microbial communities. This volume seeks to review our present understanding of the biology of these organisms.
The diversity of bodonids
Authors: Zhukov B F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bodonids are biflagellated kinetoplastid flagellates, many of which are free-living. They are common and widespread in all kinds of aqueous environments. Species level taxonomy is very uncertain. This account deals with the genera Bodo, Cephalothamnium, Cryptobia, Dimastigella, Pleuromonas, Procryptobia, Parabodo, Rhynclwmonas, and ‘Rhynchobodo’
The Ultrastructural Organization of The Heterotrophic Euglenids and Its Evolutionary Implications
Authors: Triemer Richard E , Farmer Mark A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although commonly thought of as photosynthetic, many euglenids are heterotrophic. Most osmotrophic forms inhabit freshwater while the phagotrophs can be freshwater or marine. This chapter describes the ultrastructural features of heterotrophic marine euglenids in the orders Sphenomonadales and Heteronematales (sensu Leedale). Comparison of the cytoskeleton, feeding apparatus, flagellar apparatus, and mitotic apparatus led us to the view that the euglenid ancestor was a phagotrophic biflagellate with an aplastic pellicle. As the euglenids evolved, the feeding apparatus was supported by an increasing number of microtubules and became capable of ingesting eukaryotic prey. Concomitant with this was the increase in the number of pellicle strips and the development of metaboly. It is argued that it was this form of euglenid with a plastic pellicle and large feeding apparatus which engulfed a photosynthetic cell and through endosymbiosis gave rise to the photosynthetic euglenids.
The structure of the starch polysaccharides and their organisation in the starch granule
Authors: Ring S G , Noel T R , Bull V J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Starch is the main reserve polysaccharide of higher plants, where it occurs as water-insoluble granules. The main structural features of the starch polysaccharides were determined many years ago. Using classical chemical techniques it was found that it was a (1→)-α-D-glucan containing a branch point, which was l→4→6 linked, for every 20 or so straight-chain residues. At about the same time it was found that starch was not a single polysaccharide, but a mixture of two main polysaccharides. One of these, amylose, is essentially linear; the other, amylopectin, highly branched. In this review we consider recent research on the structure of these polysaccharides and how they are organized in the starch granule. One aim of this chapter is to promote consideration of the relationship between the structure of the starch polysaccharides and their crystallization. For more extensive reviews the reader is referred to more detailed texts on the chemistry and physics of starch (Whistler et al. 1984; Banks and Greenwood 1975; Guilbot et al. 1985).
Biological and evolutionary aspects of cereal seed storage proteins
Authors: Shewry Peter R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Seed storage proteins have been the subject of a great deal of research, particularly over the last 10–15 years. The reasons for this are twofold. Firstly, seeds are the major plant organ harvested by humans, and their storage proteins are the main source of protein for human nutrition, livestock feed, and industrial raw material. Secondly, the high level of storage protein synthesis in developing seeds and its strict tissue specificity mean that storage proteins are an attractive system in which to study the control of gene expression.
Triacylglycerol biosynthesis
Authors: Stymne Sten , stobart A Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plant triacylglycerols, commonly known as vegetable oils and fats, have many applications in the food and chemical industry and are a most important commodity in world trade. In the triacylglycerol molecule, one fatty acid residue is esterified to each of the three hydroxy groups of the glycerol backbone. The quality of the oil, and hence its end use, is determined by the fatty acid composition and, to some extent, the positional acyl distribution. All commercial annual oil crops have seed oils largely composed of the five major fatty acids, palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0), oleic (18: lΔ), linoleic (18:2,1Δ12), and a-linolenic (18:3Δ12Δ15). These are the same ‘housekeeping’ fatty acids present in the membrane lipids of all plant cells. The fatty acid composition of membrane lipid in leaves and roots, however, is under strict control and differs little between plant species, whereas the relative abundance of a fatty acid in the storage triacylglycerols can show variations between different oil crops (Table 6.1). Although the natural variation in the fatty acid composition of oil-crop species gives a range of oil quality, there would nevertheless be several advantages if a species could be tailored to produce a ‘designer’ oil to suit a particular purpose.
Synthesis, targeting, and packaging of wheat seed storage proteins
Authors: Galili G , Levanony H , Rubin R , Giorini-silfen S , Rosenberg N , Shani N , Altschuler Y , Shimoni Y , Karchi H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wheat storage proteins are synthesized in the endosperm and accumulate intracellularly in protein bodies (Shotwell and Larkins 1988). The major wheat storage proteins are the alcohol-soluble gliadins and the glutenins. The gliadins are monomeric proteins that migrate between 30 and 60 kDa on SDS-PAGE and are subdivided into a, P, y and co-gliadins on the basis of fractionation on acidic PAGE (Woychik et al. 1961). A new classification of gliadins into sulfur-rich (a, p, y) and sulfur-poor (co) fractions has been suggested (Kreis et al. 1985), based on their amino acid sequence and sulfur content. Glutenins aggregate by disulfide and non-covalent bonds to form large complexes, but reduction and subsequent electrophoresis indicate that these proteins are comprised of two groups of low- and high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (LMW-GS and HMW-GS) (Khan and Bushuk 1979). The LMW-GS are similar in Mr and amino acid sequence to the sulfur-rich gliadins and were recently classified as aggregated gliadins (Kreis et al. 1985).
Cereal starch granule development and composition
Authors: r. Morrison William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to the classical texts (Banks and Greenwood 1975; Whistler et al. 1984; Kainuma 1988) cereal starches are composed of two types of polysaccharide, amylopectin and amylose, and little attention is given to the minor components of the granules such as the integral proteins and lipids. The integral proteins consist of a major polypeptide (58–60 kDa) identified as granule-bound starch synthase, with traces of polypeptides of higher molecular weight (Echt and Schwarz 1981; Sano 1984; Goldner and Boyer 1989). The major integral protein (the so-called waxy protein) is generally determined by a single gene (Wx), and in the waxy mutants of the diploid cereals where the gene (wx) is not expressed there is no detectable waxy protein and typically less than 2 per cent amylose (Villareal and Juliano 1986; Goldner and Boyer I 989). In the triploid endosperm intermediate states between normal (Wx Wx Wx) and waxy (wx wx wx) are possible, and both Wx Wx wx and Wx wx wx genotypes have slightly less waxy protein and amylose than in the normal starches (Nelson 1980).
SNF1-related protein kinase genes in cereals
Authors: Halford Nigel G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Considerable advances have been made in the study of the regulation of plant gene expression in response to stimuli such as light, temperature, the action of pathogens, and developmental signals. However, relatively little is known about the effects of metabolite levels on the activation of genes encoding enzymes, including those involved in the pathways leading to the accumulation of storage products. Evidence is beginning to emerge that complicated signal transduction pathways exist to enable the plant cell to respond to its metabolic status by activating or inactivating gene expression. One such piece of evidence is the isolation in this laboratory of plant homologues of the yeast gene SNF1 (sucrose nonfermenting 1) (Celenza and Carlson 1986), a gene which encodes a protein serine/threonine kinase which has been described as a global regulator of carbon metabolism in yeast. The role of such systems in the regulation of important metabolic processes and their potential effects on the partitioning of carbon within the harvested organs of crop plants make them prime targets for genetic manipulation as well as of fundamental scientific interest.
Pathways to starch and fatty acids in plastids isolated from developing embryos of oilseed rape
Authors: Fan Kang , Rawsthorne Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oilseed embryos import carbon as sucrose, and this is then partitioned between the storage products which are laid down in the developing tissues. In seeds of oilseed rape the main storage products are oil and protein, although starch accumulates transiently during the early phase of oil deposition (P. da Silva and A.M. Smith, unpublished). Fatty acids and starch are synthesized in the plastid, and several cytosolic metabolites could traverse the plastid membrane and enter these biosynthetic pathways (Dennis et al. 1991). Metabolic regulation in the cytosol could determine the availability of these metabolites, and once inside the plastid further regulation could determine which biosynthetic pathways they then enter. We therefore need to understand the metabolic pathways involved in the partitioning of carbon so that potential points of regulation can be identified.
Synthesis and accumulation of human tissue-type plasminogen activator (h-tPA) in transgenic tobacco seeds
Authors: Becker Claudia , Hainong Van , BÄumlein Helmut , Le Thixuan , Farouk Abdel-Azim , Will Horst , Bassuner Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the aims of plant genetic engineering is to employ the plant as a potential host organism for the production of commercially valuable substances. Only few therapeutically valuable proteins have been shown to be expressed in transgenic plant tissues: human interferon (De Zoeten et al. 1989), Leu-enkephalin (Vandekerckhove et al. 1989), mammalian immunoglobulin (Hiatt et al. 1989; During et al. 1990), and human serum albumin (Sijmons et al. 1990).
Opportunities for genetic engineering of oil production
Authors: Safford R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plant oils are of major economic importance, being utilized in a number of food and industrial applications. The fatty acid composition of an oil determines its physical and chemical properties and hence its uses and its value. Because in many cases the fatty acid composition of an oil is less than optimal, there is considerable interest in exploring genetic approaches to upgrading the oil composition of seeds. Hitherto a number of improved oils have been produced either by conventional plant breeding or by mutagenesis and selection approaches. One of the earliest successes from breeding programmes was the production of low-erucic acid rapeseed oil (Stefansson et al. 1961) which was suitable for edible purposes. Mutagenesis programmes have produced, amongst others, high-oleate safflower (Ladd and Knowles 1971) and sunflower (Fick 1989) oils which have superior qualities as cooking oils, high-stearate soybean oil for margarine production, and low-linoleate linseed oil (Green 1986) which can be used for edible purposes. These studies have demonstrated the plasticity of seed oil composition in that significantly large alterations in seed oil fatty acid composition can be made without any detrimental effect on oil yield or growth and development of the plant. Conventional plant breeding and mutation and selection methods are empirical in nature, are limited by the genotype of the species, and are restricted to deletion of gene function. The recent development of facile techniques for the introduction of cloned genes into plants now opens up the possibility of producing improved oils by overexpressing endogenous genes, by the transfer of novel genes from any organism, or by the selective inactivation, via anti-sense technology, of gene function.
Enzyme modification of seed storage compounds for industrial use
Authors: Cowan W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Seed storage compounds provide one of the largest sources of raw materials for the enzyme industry to process. Of a worldwide turnover of some £109 per year, the second largest sector, that of starch processing accounts for around 25 percent of the total enzyme demand. When other industries such as brewing, textiles,and baking are added to this, the total amount is over 30 per cent (Fig. 25.1).
A Possible Method for the Rapid Assessment of Biodiversity
Authors: Oliver L , Beattie A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A method is described for rapid assessment of biodiversity using a wider variety of taxa than the usual inventories of flowering plants and vertebrates. To explore the value of invertebrates and cryptogamic plants as surrogates of biodiversity, estimates of species richness of spiders, ants, polychaetes, and mosses were undertaken by classifying them as Recognisable Taxonomic Units (RTUs), and comparing them with specialist identifications. RTU estimates turned out to be close to formal taxonomic estimates for the invertebrates but were misleading for mosses. It was concluded that trials of all groups deemed to be useful for RTU analysis needed to be evaluated before reliability could be attained. Taxonomic specialists are considered indispensable to train personnel, to undertake the preliminary trials, and to check the results of RTU estimates before wholesale studies were undertaken by ‘biodiversity technicians’.
Global Patterns of Endemism and the Conservation of Biodiversity
Authors: Thirgood S J , Heath M F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The approach to conservation of biodiversity by the International Council for Bird Preservation Biodiversity Project is described. The assumption is made that centres of endemism are priorities for the conservation of biodiversity. Birds were selected as a high priority target group, since most species are known and described, and are present throughout all major ecosystems of the world. Distributions of all species with breeding ranges restricted to 50 000 km2, or less, were chosen as the study group. The analysis revealed that 2 497 species (26 per cent of all birds) were shown to occur in 221 endemic bird areas (EBAs) which cover about 5 per cent of the world’s land area. Two questions were asked of the results: (I) Is there congruence of patterns of endemism between different animal and plant groups? (2) Are endemic birds good indicators for areas of endemism in other plant and animal groups? Through a regional assessment of the 221 EBAs it is shown that there is good congruence between global patterns of endemism in birds and other taxa, although exceptions were noted for the several groups of organisms in the UK and plants in the neotropics. It is argued that the 221 EBAs should be conserved as a first priority, and that the International Council for Bird Preservation Biodiversity Project is justifiable since collection of more sophisticated data will take longer than conservation can wait.