bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Theoretical Lexicography and its Relation to Dictionary-making
Authors: Atkins B T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Does theoretical lexicography exist? If this forum is to discuss its nature, we must at least grant it the benefit of the doubt, although its counterpart, practical lexicography, has a tautological ring to it. I propose here to interpret the term theoretical lexicography in the very general sense of “a body of theory related to lexicography,” and, drawing inspiration from the title of Landau (1984), to define lexicography as “the art and craft of dictionary-making.” A more traditional definition of this latter term is to be found in the 1990 Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD): “the compiling of dictionaries.” That plural form is very important. Abstract terms like lexicography and generic concepts like the dictionary form a smoke screen between theoretical discussions and the real, hard world of dictionary-making. What I have to say here concerns making dictionaries, not making “the dictionary.” Dictionaries may be considered from the point of view of form or of content, and both are relevant to this discussion. First, form: a dictionary (to quote the COD again) is “a book that lists … and explains the words of a language …” Much is written nowadays in artificial intelligence circles about electronic dictionaries, but almost the whole of dictionary production still consists of books—and I know no publisher who sees an imminent profitable market for custom-built electronic dictionaries. The electronic dictionaries that exist today all started life as books, with the tiny exception of lexicons built expressly for a computer. To my knowledge, apart from the Japanese EDR Electronic Dictionaries, none of these is even as big as a small pocket dictionary. Books are the focus of professional lexicography, and the dictionaries discussed, reviewed, praised, or criticized are books. Theoretical lexicography must be relevant to books.
The Future of Linguistics and Lexicographers: Will there be Lexicographers in the Year 3000?
Authors: Grefenstette Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lexicology has been posed as a science ever since the 18th century. In the article Grammaire from Diderot and D’Alembert’s Encyclopedia, lexicology is described as the explanation of three aspects of knowledge about each of the words from a language: its Material, its Value, and its Etymology. The Material is described as how a given word is put together: the syllables that compose it, how it is pronounced. The Value of a word is divided into three parts: the fundamental sense (proper or figurative), the specific sense (now called the part-of-speech), and the accidental sense (morphological variants of the word). The Etymology concerns the rules by which new words are formed, as well as the historical sources of a word interesting as an aid to understanding the word’s current meaning. Lexicology dealt with words taken in isolation, while syntax concerned words in the context of other words. The section ends: “Tels sont les points de vue fondamentaux auxquels on peut rapporter les principes de la Lexicologie. C’est aux dictionnaires de chaque langue à marquer sur chacun des mots qu’ils renferment, les décisions propres de l’usage, relatives à ces points de vue.” Looking at modern dictionaries, we find that lexicographers in every language have taken these words to heart. The same principles are found in today’s dictionary entries. The Material is presented in a word’s spelling, pronunciation, and syllabification. The Etymology is often covered by a succinct presentation of the word’s origins. Two of the three parts of the word’s Value, the part-of-speech and special morphological variants, are almost invariably included in the entry. The remaining point of view on a word, a description of the fundamental sense, composes the meat of the dictionary entry, and, to mix the culinary metaphor, is the bread-and-butter of the lexicographer.
The Score: is it Written Down?
Authors: Noble Denis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen that the human genome is a vast database of information, 3 billion base pairs, which make up 20–30 000 genes. Each of these is used to encode the amino acid sequence of a particular protein, or set of proteins. The complete sequence and structure of the proteins is sometimes referred to as the proteome. So how is the information in the genome used to create the proteome? This is quite a challenging question.
Newton’s Principia
Authors: Grosholz Emily R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Molecules cannot be perceived directly by human beings, though their appearance is inferred indirectly from traces detected by various laboratory instruments. One important feature they share with macroscopic objects is shape, and, as we saw in Chapter 3, 4, and 5, geometrical shape may thus serve an important role in linking the microscopic and macroscopic, the molecular world and the world of the laboratory, field, and classroom.
Irish counting plurals
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our second case study features a special type of plural nouns in Irish. In this language, nouns governed by a numeral between three and ten must be, or at least can be, singular. The admissibility of the plural in this context varies lexically and dialectally, but no dialect follows the usual lndo-European pattern which mandates plural in this context. The (modern) Irish equivalent of ‘three books’ is thus literally ‘three book’, as a possibility if not always an obligation.
Discovering the Timetree of Life
Authors: Hedges S Blair , Kumar Sudhir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With great delight, we can say that the time has come, and that it is now. Certainly, many important details remain to be worked out, such as deep branching patterns among major taxonomic groups and the interrelationships of many species, but much of the tree of life already has taken shape (2). 7is revolution in evolution has occurred largely through advances in molecular biology over the last half century, building on a foundation laid by paleontology and comparative biology. It would not have been possible without many discoveries, progressively building on previous work, such as the structure of DNA (3), methods to sequence proteins and DNA (4–6), a technique to rapidly amplify DNA (7), and advances in statistical methods of data analysis. Some—perhaps most—of the resulting molecular phylogenies have corroborated trees based on morphology and cell biology, but many Andings were unexpected including the discoveries of archaebacteria (8) and an African clade of mammals (9) to name just two. Our current understanding of the tree of life draws from fossils, morphology, and—especially in the last two decades— many molecular phylogenies.
Animals (Metazoa)
Authors: Blair Jaime E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evolution of large, heterotrophic metazoans (Fig. 1) has undoubtedly had a signiAcant impact on the history of life by increasing the complexity of trophic interactions both in marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Metazoans are most closely related to Fungi as part of Opisthokonta, a eukaryotic supergroup which also includes unicellular choanoPagellates, icthyosporeans, and nucleariids (1, 2). theclosest relatives of metazoans are the choanoPagellates; morphological similarities between the collar cells of sponges and the colonial habits of choanoPagellates were noted over 150 years ago (3). In addition, important molecular characteristics traditionally thought to be unique to metazoans, such as cell signaling and adhesion protein families, have also been found in choanoPagellates (4, 5). Here I review the relationships and divergence times among the metazoan phyla.
Snakes (Serpentes)
Authors: Vidala Nicolas , Ragec Jean-Claude , Coulouxd Arnaud , Hedgesb S Blair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Snakes are among the most successful groups of reptiles, numbering about 3070 extant species (1). 7ey are divided into two main groups. The fossorial scolecophidians (370 sp.) are small snakes with a limited gape size and feed on small prey (mainly ants and termites) on a frequent basis. thealethinophidians, or typical snakes (2700 sp.), are more ecologically diverse and most species feed on relatively large prey, primarily vertebrates, on an infrequent basis (2, 3). According to most morphological studies, a distinctive evolutionary trend within living snakes is the increase of the gape size from fossorial scolecophidians (Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae, and Anomalepididae) and fossorial alethinophidians (Aniliidae, Cylindrophiidae, Uropeltidae, and Anomochilidae) to ecologically diverse macrostomatan alethinophidian snakes such as boas, pythons, and caenophidians (advanced snakes) (2, but see 4). Macrostomatans are able to ingest very large prey, oJen greater in diameter than the snake itself (5), and the monophyly of the macrostomatan condition is supported by several unambiguous shared-derived characters (6). All venomous snakes are found within Caenophidia, which includes the great majority of extant snakes (2500 sp.) (1).
Shorebirds (Charadriiformes)
Authors: Baker Allan J , Pereiraa Sérgio L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shorebirds are a diverse cosmopolitan group that forms the monophyletic Order Charadriiformes. 7ey represent one of the largest clades in birds with 366 species classiAed traditionally in 19 families (1). theorder can be divided into three major clades (2–4): Scolopaci (sandpipers, jacanas, painted snipes, seedsnipes, and Plains-wanderer), Lari (Crab Plover, coursers and pratincoles, gulls, terns, skimmers, and alcids), and Charadrii (plovers, oystercatchers, Ibisbill, stilts, avocets, sheathbills, and Magellanic Plover) (Fig. 1). Here we review the phylogenetic relationships and estimates of divergence times of the families of shorebirds. Relationships among taxa and even which taxa should be included in the Charadriiformes has proved di1cult in the past, due in part to convergent acquisition of traits involved in exploitation of a range of ecological niches (4). Phylogenies derived from an extensive data set of morphological and skeletal characters (5) lack resolution at various nodes, and the topologies change depending on how characters are coded and which ones are excluded from analyses (5–8).
Tenrecs and golden moles (Afrosoricida)
Authors: Poux Céline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mammalian Order Afrosoricida is composed of two families, the tenrecs (Tenrecidae; Fig. 1) and golden moles (Chrysochloridae) (1). thename Afrosoricida, coined by Stanhope et al. (1), has been debated (2), but is now broadly accepted and used in the literature. theorder includes 10 genera and 33 species of tenrecs and nine genera and 21 species of chrysochlorids. Among the tenrecs, the most species-rich genus is Microgale, which accounts for two-thirds of the overall tenrec diversity and for which new species are still being discovered (3). thedistribution of afrosoricids is restricted to subSaharan Africa and Madagascar. All golden moles are blind subterranean species, of which the greatest diversity has been recorded in Southern Africa (2). In contrast, only one of the tenrec subfamilies is present on the African mainland. All other tenrec subfamilies are endemic to Madagascar. Tenrecs display a high level of adaptation to their environment and are remarkable examples of convergent morphological evolution with other insectivores, notably shrews, hedgehogs, and moles (4). 7is makes it di1cult to understand their origin and phylogenetic interrelationships on the basis of morphological characters alone. Here, the molecular and morphological data that form the basis of our current understanding of the relationships and the divergence times of Afrosoricida will be reviewed, with emphasis on the time of divergence of the two families.
Bats (Chiroptera)
Authors: Teeling Emma C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bats are nocturnal mammals that have achieved the ability of true self-powered Pight and are members of the monophyletic Order Chiroptera (meaning “hand-wing”; Fig. 1). 7ey are the second most species-rich mammalian order (&gt;1000 species) and account for 20% of all extant mammalian diversity (1). 7ey are found throughout the globe and are only absent from the extreme polar regions, but some bat lineages show high levels of endemism (1). Bats exploit many environmental niches and can feed on insects, Ash, fruit, pollen, nectar, mammals, birds, and blood. 7ey are important pollinators and play an important role in the tropical ecosystems (2).
Issues in quantification and DP/QP structure in Korean and Japanese*
Authors: Gil Kook-Hee , Tsoulas George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have witnessed in recent years a blossoming of work on quantification and its consequences for the structure and interpretation of the DP. This kind of work, often based on lesser known or less well studied languages, is now taking shape and is becoming a major influence on the current thinking not only on the structure of the DP and QP but also on the proper analysis of the structural and semantic configurations underlying quantification.
Stability and variation in article choice: generic and non-generic contexts
Authors: Farkas Donka f. , wart henriëtte de s 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Farkas and de Swart (2007), we proposed an analysis of the cross-linguistic variation in article choice in plural generics. In this chapter we develop an extended version of the analysis which accounts for cross-linguistic stability in article choice in non-generic contexts and in singular generics in languages with definite and indefinite articles, such as English, Dutch, French, Spanish, Greek, and Hungarian.
The temporal degree adjectives früh(er)/spät(er) ‘early(er)’/’late(r)’ and the semantics of the positive
Authors: Stechow Arnim von 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a rich literature about the temporal conjunctions before/after, but at the time I gave the talk that underlies this chapter I was not aware of any analysis of the temporal comparatives früher/später ‘earlier/later’, which may be used to express similar states of affairs, but are constructed differently.
Phases and Interfaces
Authors: Grohmann Kleanthes K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present volume is a collection of carefully chosen contributions with particular attention paid to thematic coherence as well as broad coverage of topics. The overall goal is to present a unique mix of takes on interface properties within the phase-theoretic approach to the grammar. This collection addresses the fundamental issues in the phase-based approach to the mental computation of language that have arisen from recent developments in the Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1993 et seq.). Leading linguists and promising young scholars from all over the world focus on two themes that are at the centre of current theorizing in syntax—the interaction of the syntactic computation with the interpretive interfaces (commonly dubbed the conceptual-intentional system and the sensorimotor system) and current formulations of Phase Theory (capitalized to identify a particular strand of current minimalist theorizing).
The Argument from the Persistence of Moral Disagreement
Authors: Jackson Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Arthur and Martha disagree about what ought to be done. Arthur favours a course of action we will call Quantity. Martha favours an incompatible course of action we will call Quality. This disagreement occurs against a background of massive agreement on matters that can be expressed in non-moral (and non-normative) terms. They agree, for instance, on who will or would be made happy and to what extent, consequent on deciding between Quantity and Quality, and they agree on everything to do with the attitudes and thoughts of themselves and of others that can be given in non-moral and non-normative terms. There is literally nothing about how things are, specifiable in non-moral terms or a priori deducible from same, on which they differ. Indeed, we can go further and suppose that the explanation of their massive agreement is that they know all there is to know that can be captured in non-moral terms. How then is it that they differ on what ought to be done?
Particularism and Supervenience
Authors: Strandberg Caj 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of our most fundamental notions of morality is that in so far as objects have moral properties, they have non-moral properties that make them have moral properties. Similarly, objects have moral properties in virtue of or because of having non-moral properties, and moral properties depend on non-moral properties. In ethics it has generally been assumed that this relation can be accounted for by the supervenience of moral properties on non-moral properties. However, this assumption is put into doubt by an influential view in contemporary ethics: particularism. Thus, one of particularism’s most important implications is thought to be that supervenience is incapable of accounting for the notion that non-moral properties make objects have moral properties. At least, this is what Jonathan Dancy, the leading proponent of particularism, argues in his recent book Ethics Without Principles, and elsewhere.
Robust Ethical Realism,Non-Naturalism, and Normativity
Authors: FitzPatrick William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ethical realists have labored for the past thirty years now in the shadow of Mackie’s ‘‘argument from queerness.’’¹ The result has been a familiar retreat by many realists from any metaphysical and epistemological commitments not already endorsed by the sciences. For at least some of us who are attracted to ethical realism, however, there is a sense that we have often gone too far in that direction, losing sight of concerns or intuitions that ultimately drew us to the idea of ethical reality in the first place. Ambitions to capture the categoricity of moral requirements, for example, or the irreducibly evaluative or normative nature of ethical facts and properties have often been sidelined or renounced altogether in the rush to find safe metaphysical ground.
Confirming the diagnosiss
Authors: Emery Alan E H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most essential in the diagnosis of muscular dystrophy is a careful clinical examination by an experienced doctor.
In order to confirm a case of dystrophy a blood test (for serum creatine kinase levels and in rare forms resort may have to be made to DNA studies as well), electromyography, and muscle biopsy are important.
On Two Problems of Divine Simplicity
Authors: Pruss Alexander R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The doctrine of divine simplicity claims that there is no ontological composition in God of any sort, whether of matter and form, or of essence and accident, or of this attribute and that attribute considered as ontologically distinct. The doctrine is a traditional part of Christianity and Judaism, and can be argued to be a reasonable development of the monotheistic ideal of seeing a single entity at the root of reality. Thus Maimonedes (1956: Part I, Chapter 50) wrote that h#x2018;[t]hose who believe that God is One, and has many attributes, declare the unity with their lips, and assume plurality in their thoughts’, which he said was as bad as the case of Christians with their doctrine of the Trinity. While I disagree that the doctrine of the Trinity would violate the basic ideals of monotheism, Maimonedes may be right that the denial of the doctrine of simplicity would. However it is not my point here to argue for the doctrine of divine simplicity, but to defend it against two major objections.
Nominalism
Authors: Quine Willard Van Orman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quine ‘s lecture ‘ ‘Nominalism ‘ ‘, transcribed below, was made available by his son, Dr Douglas Boynton Quine. The manuscript was listed as one of a series of lectures in Dr Quine ‘s website dedicated to his father (&lt;&gt;). I happened to peruse the site at some point in 2006 while doing work on Quine ‘s nominalism. The title of the lecture obviously piqued my curiosity and I then got in touch with Dr Quine. Once in possession of a pdf of the original lecture, I quickly convinced myself that the lecture contained the most systematic exposition of Quine ‘s views on nominalism I had ever seen and asked for permission to publish a transcription of the lecture, which Dr Quine generously granted.
Quine ‘s 1946 Lecture on Nominalism
Authors: Inwagen Peter van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quine has endorsed several closely related theses that I have referred to, collectively, as his ‘ ‘meta-ontology ‘ ‘. These are, roughly speaking, those of his theses that pertain to the topic ‘ ‘ontological commitment ‘ ‘ or ‘ ‘ontic commitment ‘ ‘. The locus classicus among Quine ‘s early (that is, prior to the publication of Word and Object) statements of his meta-ontology is his 1948 essay ‘ ‘On What There Is ‘ ‘. Hilary Putnam has said of this essay, ‘ ‘[I was bowled over] when I read it as a first-year graduate student in 1948 – 49, and I think my reaction was not untypical. ‘ ‘ Indeed his reaction was not untypical, at least if I may judge by my own reaction to the essay as a new graduate student twenty years later.
Shaftesbury
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shaftesbury is the first to use the terms ‘moral sense’ and ‘moral realist’. Since later believers in a moral sense, Hume and Hutcheson, reject moral realism, we may be surprised that Shaftesbury uses both terms to describe his own position. His philosophical allegiances also seem to lead him in different directions. On many points he agrees with Locke, but he also draws extensively on Platonic and Stoic sources. We may wonder whether he combines these different influences into a consistent position. These different strands in Shaftesbury have led to different views about where he stands, and about which of his moral doctrines are the most significant or fundamental. Some later critics treat him as the first sentimentalist.
Balguy: A Defence Of Rationalism
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hutcheson’s Inquiry provoked intelligent criticisms from rationalists who agreed with Clarke. An exchange of letters between Hutcheson and Gilbert Burnet in 1725 encouraged Hutcheson to write the Illustrations (published in 1728). Balguy published his criticism of the Inquiry in his Foundation of Moral Goodness, in 1728. His further thoughts appear in Part II of the Foundations (1729). Balguy not only criticizes Hutcheson, but also tries to defend Clarke’s rationalism against criticisms. Hutcheson argues for his sentimentalism partly by presenting it as the only plausible alternative to Clarke’s rationalism, and by claiming that the rationalist can give only false or uninformative answers to the main questions that concern the moralist.
Butler: Implications Of Naturalism
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now that we have examined Butler’s claims about nature and morality, we can consider their implications for the moral controversies that form the background for the Sermons. Butler intends his naturalism as a normative and as a meta-ethical doctrine. We saw earlier that he does not align himself with sentimentalists or rationalists, but claims to defend a naturalist position that is not exposed to the criticisms that, in his view, undermine a sentimentalist version of naturalism. How far does he describe and defend this version of naturalism? Different critics have taken surprisingly different views of Butler’s eventual position and of its relations to other views.