bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The New Welfare Economics (2): The Economic Welfare Function
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THERE remains for consideration the system of welfare economics favoured by the first school of thought mentioned in the previous Chapter. This system was first worked out by Professor A. Bergson in his article ‘A Reformulation of Certain Aspects of Welfare Economics’.1 On this formulation the ‘optimum’ conditions of production and exchange are derived as necessaryconditions for ‘maximum welfare’. In the last Chapter we developed a sufficientcriterion for a desirable economic change, and no such concept as ‘ maximum welfare’ was used.
The Valuation Of The National Income
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are now going to examine the same conditions when the q’srefer not to quantities purchased by a single individual, but to the total quantities bought by a group of individuals. Where the group is relevant we will use capitals (P’sand Q’s) and where the individual is relevant small letters (p’sand q’s).By a group of individuals we do not mean a collective. A collective can be said to choose, and can therefore be treated as an economic individual, although it may be composed of many actual individuals. By definition, then, a group of individuals cannot be said to choose. The recipients of the national income are assumed to form a group but not a collective, and we shall, in general, assume that the Q’s of the formula refer to the total quantities of different kinds of goods comprising the (real) national income, and that the P’s refer to the market prices of these goods.’
Welfare Theory And Politics
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT might seem that a Chapter on politics is out of place in a theoretical work. This would be the case if welfare theory were pure theory, but this it never is. We have argued that it is a calculus with an ethical interpretation. The putting into practice of its recommendations inevitably requires political changes. Whether one attacks or defends the theory, the reader can draw political inferences from one’s arguments. The author must know this, and also know that the reader realizes that he knows.
Scale-Technology Expansion
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The economist’s consideration of technical progress is often characterized by the idea that the discovery and use of new and ‘better’ technical practices are to be explained by purely economic incentives. Such an approach is apparent in the explanations based on the ‘factor-augmenting’ bias of technical change, which assume that new technical practices are characterized by a higher proportional rate of reduction in labour or capital costs, depending on relative factor shares in total cost.’
Scale and Productive Efficiency
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One reason for making this distinction is that the sequence of changes in technical practice that may come about with a sequence of scale-technology contractions is compulsive, in the sense that no scale increase is possible unless the technical practice is also changed. On the other hand, this is obviously not the case with scalet technology expansion, in which scale increases make ‘better’ technical practices feasible, but the old (‘worse’) practices could still be used. A further reason for the distinction is that technology contraction brings about a (non-trivial) scale-efficiency relation only if the order in which the producer ranks the technical practices is the opposite of the order of the maximum scales at which they are no longer feasible. (If a practice 0 is strictly preferred to a practice 0’, a scale-efficiency relation ‘I’ can be defined only if the scale s at which 0 is no longer feasible is lower than the scale s’ at which 0’ is no longer feasible.) The condition for a (non-trivial) scale-efficiency relation is different in the case of technology expansion. In this case, the producer must rank the technical practices in his preferences in the same order as they are ranked according to the criterion of the minimum feasible scale. (If a technical practice 0 is strictly preferred to a practice 0’, a non-trivial scale-efficiency relation ‘I’ can be defined only if the scales at which 0 becomes feasible is higher than the (lowest) scales’ at which 0’ becomes feasible).
Household Formation and Home-Ownership in France
Authors: Montgomery Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Demographic variables are unquestionably important to the economic behaviour of households. Marital status and parity are among the most important predictors of female labour supply. Migration and employment decisions are inextricably linked. This chapter will consider a third type of linkage: the connection between household formation through marriage and the demand for housing. Separate models of age at marriage and age at first home-ownership are estimated. I shall also specify a joint model of marriage and ownership and will discuss the conceptual and statistical differences that are implied by the joint approach. The data for the study are drawn from a retrospective survey of the French population conducted by the Institut National d’ Études Démographiques (INED) in 1981, and concern first home-ownership for cohorts of men born between 1911 and 1935.
Understanding Third Births in Sweden
Authors: Heckman James J , Walker James R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter estimates the determinants of third births in Sweden. Walker (1986) documents stability in the transition rates to the first and second births for the three most recent cohorts of Swedish women for which comprehensive fertility histories are available (women born in 1936–40, 1941–5, and 1946–50). There has been a secular decline in the transition rate to the third birth, accounting for a substantial portion of the recent decline in Swedish fertility. A woman is at risk for a third birth only if she has already had two births. Several important demographic consequences follow from this truism. First, in order to estimate age-specific third-birth rates and their determinants, it is necessary to account for the effect of the first two births on placing women at risk for a third birth. The effects of socioeconomic variables on age-specific third-birth rates includes the effects of such variables on the timing and spacing of the first two births.
Observation of Event Histories
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the Introduction, we indicated the theoretical objectives of event history analysis. To achieve these objectives, it is necessary to have observations of the event histories in sufficient number to guarantee reliable results. In this case, the ideal sample is an exhaustive observation of the population under study with the aim of providing a detailed event history of each of its members. To this end, an exhaustive census can only put a limited number of questions about the event history. For example, a question about the place of residence on the first of January of the year of the previous census has been asked in France since 1962. This makes it possible to estimate the numbers of intercensal migrants, but does not take account of the date of migration, the multiple migrations during the intercensal period, or the return, resulting in an underestimation of mobility. Moreover, the data do not allow us to relate migrations to occupational or family events, for they are either incomplete or censored. Thus, for example, we know the marriage status of each individual, but we do not know the date of marriage (if married), of divorce (if divorced), etc. These data, therefore, cannot be used in event history analysis, for they concern only a tiny part of the life history.
Study of a Single Event
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of a single event may be made by using a single population or by comparing several. In addition, this particular event may be of several types-migrations according to destination, for instance. We shall therefore consider the study of these different cases one after the other. The distribution of censoring times and of events occurring in the population over time may be subjected to different hypotheses, resulting in various estimations.
Methods of Semi-parametric Analysis
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In event history analysis, semi-parametric methods are preferred to parametric methods by many researchers, not least because they make it possible to relate hazard rates to individual characteristics without imposing a formalization of the duration effect. We shall therefore discuss in detail the contribution of these methods. To analyse the relations between explanatory variables and the occurrence of an event, we have presented many parametric formalizations of the distribution of the event-particularly the exponential, Weibull, or Gompertz distributions, which differ in the way in which time is taken into account, but also other log-normal or gamma distributions, which are more difficult to estimate at a practical level.
Weather, Policy, and Short-Run Instability
Authors: Kueh Y Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter we compared the weather influence on Chinese agriculture between different periods, with each one taken as a whole. The present chapter looks, by contrast, at year-to-year fluctuations in agricultural production in relation to the impact of the weather in each of the periods. Since the periods under study are defined in terms of their basic technological and institutional parameters, our analysis promises to reveal the relative importance of weather and short-run policy factors in influencing agricultural stability in given technological and organizational settings. We now ignore the broad measure of gross value of agricultural output (GVAO) and concentrate exclusively on grain yield per hectare. Note again that being a physical measure, the latter standard eliminates possible price influences. In contrast to the grain output measure, it also allows abstraction from policy-determined changes in the sown area. In short, the grain yield measure seems to be the most appropriate key to gauging the relative impact of weather and policy factors, as they affect peasant efficiency and input incentives.
The 1985-1991 Perspective
Authors: Kueh Y Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main body of this study traces agricultural instability in China up to 1984, the year in which the promulgation of Document No. 1 (on 1 January 1984) effectively sealed the fate of rural collectives. Not only was collective farmland reparcelled to individual households (as had been the case increasingly since 1982), but peasants’ leasehold rights were generally extended from three to fifteen years after 1984.1 Moreover, starting in 1985, the compulsory State monopoly farm-purchase scheme (in force since 1953) was replaced by a system of contractual procurements. Coupled with successive farm-price deregulation measures since the early 1980s, the decollectivization and relaxation of physical and bureaucratic output control returned Chinese rural conditions to those which had emerged from the 1949-52 land reform, and even to a situation which increasingly resembled that of the pre-war era, save for the emergence of large-scale private land ownership.2
Summary and Conclusions
Authors: Mitchell Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present study had a number of objectives. The overall and primary aim was to look at the same organizations in the same countries in Europe and Israel ten years after the first survey, and learn about any changes that might have occurred. More specifically, we wanted to see whether the external and formal influence and power structures and the extent of participative behaviour inside organizations had changed and whether the previous finding of a positive relationship between formal power structures and de facto participation was still true in the 1980s. The most ambitious and most difficult aim was to see whether a longitudinal link between the two cross-sectional studies might give us some insight into possible causal relationships over time. To do justice to this ambitious endeavour, we had to try and select a group of contingencies which could be hypothesized as strengthening or weakening the relationships between our major dimensions and, in addition, assess the impact of selected economic and technological changes (in particular the rate of unemployment) over the intervening period, up to 1987. Not all our aims could be accomplished. The downturn in economic conditions which affected our sample of companies also reduced the availability of research funding and, consequently, we had to be content with a less complete schema than we would have wanted to use.
Work and Leisure: Historical Change in the Conditions of Life
Authors: Gershuny Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
He gets up early in the morning, buys kidneys for his wife’s breakfast at a nearby butcher’s shop, and cooks them. He sets off across Dublin, calling first at his office (he sells advertising space), and then on various of his customers. He attends the funeral of an old friend, has an argument in a pub, makes a hospital visit, takes a walk to the seaside, later in the evening rescues an admired younger acquaintance from a potentially embarrassing situation. Then home and, rather late, to bed; his wife is already there though not asleep (she is thinking).
The History and Future of Time Use: Empirical Evidence
Authors: Gershuny Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Economists collect a great deal of information about what goes on in the realm of work (using the term in its narrowest sense of’paid employment’). We know how many jobs there are, of what sorts, in which industries. We know in great detail which goods and services are produced in the economy, and to whom they are sold. And we know how these characteristics have changed over the recent past.
Introduction
Authors: Hills John , Ditch John , Glennerster Howard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In December 1942 queues formed outside the government stationery office as people waited to buy a densely written three hundred page official report. Its title-Social Insurance and Allied Services: Report by Sir William Beveridge-was not one we would expect to see in the best-sellers’ list today. Its reputation, if not its direct influence, became world-wide. Fifty years later many details of the British social security system continue to reflect the Report’s recommendations. It is still taken as a benchmark against which to measure reform proposals both in Britain and in other countries. This book contains a series of papers looking back from the vantage point of the 1990s to what the report said, how it came about, the social, political, and economic pressures under which it was written, what happened to its recommendations, parallel developments abroad, and its influence on them.
Which System Is Best?
Authors: Charkham Jonathan P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The people who have first-hand experience of the question ‘Which system of corporate governance is best?’ are those who run companies which have incorporated subsidiaries in many countries-the multinationals. Corporate governance laws apply territorially. A company based in the UK, for instance, ls subject to British law, but its subsidiaries In France, Germany, and the United States would be subject to the law prevailing there. As this is so, companies nowadays need to understand not only the laws in the countries in which they have incorporated subsidiaries, but also the background to those laws, and how the system works. To give an example: the managing director of the UK subsidiary of a Japanese company recently raised with me the way in which the Japanese president of the parent company set about appointing a chairman of the UK subsidiary. The process was unfamiliar to the Englishman and appeared threatening. In fact, however, it was just the normal way In which a Japanese president would proceed, totally well intentioned. Misunderstandings may arise because of such differences in culture and behaviour.
The Enterprise Reform Programme in China since 1979
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The events of 4 June 1989 in Tiananmen Square probably marked the end of a ten-year period of economic reform in China, which had affected every aspect of the planned economy built up by the Communist Party since the revolution. In this period agriculture was extensively decollectivized, the complex central planning system effectively dismantled for a wide range of industrial goods, and much greater autonomy given to industrial firms. The purpose of the research reported in this book is to trace the impact of the economic reforms as they affected the larger state-owned industrial enterprises. In particular, the objective is to provide a detailed statement of the external environment of the firm under the reform regime, to model the behaviour of firms in this new environment, and to quantify, as far as possible, the impact of different policy measures.
Productive Efficiency and Costs
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A major objective of the economic reform programme as it affected state-owned enterprises was to improve productive efficiency. The policy measures adopted as a means to this end were described in Part They included a reduction in the role of the plan, giving enterprises greater autonomy in making decisions; an increase in enterprise incentives, especially increased profit retention; and the introduction of incentives for workers, most notably the payment of profit-related bonuses. In this chapter we evaluate the impact of these reforms, by examining the productive efficiency of the sample of state-owned firms, the changes in their efficiency over time, and the impact on costs. The evaluation is conducted largely within the framework of the Cobb-Douglas production function: experimentation with more sophisticated specifications did not give better econometric results, and the Cobb-Douglas form has the particular virtue of giving rise to straightforward interpretations of the parameters of the function.
Profits and Profit Margins
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we trace the relation between efficiency and profits. The focus on profit is taken from the reform programme itself, where retention of profit to pay bonuses, and to invest in welfare and physical capital, has been a major feature of the incentives given to state-owned firms. Profit is defined as the difference between revenue and costs; or, netting out material costs, between value added and production costs which conventionally include labour and identifiable capital costs.
Investment Behaviour
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Investment decisions represent a crucial, some would say overriding element in the behaviour of enterprises. The quantity and quality of new capital installed are the prime determinants of the growth of enterprises and the scope for efficient production in the future. Investment is the main variable through which good performance in one period feeds through to good performance subsequently, but can also be the means through which lack of proper financial disciplines generates inefficiency and resource misallocation. It is therefore important to start by looking at the setting within which investment decisions have been taken during the reform years of the 1980s.
The Soft Budget Constraint
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most important questions in identifying the behaviour and performance of enterprises in any economy is that of what happens when they veer towards financial insolvency. Even if few enterprises actually face this situation and even for enterprises that have never faced it, their views on the consequences of insolvency may act as powerful incentive mechanisms. So far we have said virtually nothing about this, for two reasons. On the empirical side, our basic data-set is not particularly suitable for exploring this issue. On the methodological side, it is important to try to identify and understand the economic behaviour of Chinese state-owned enterprises under what might be termed ‘normal ‘ conditions. This is not just because we need some benchmark against which we may evaluate behaviour in or near insolvency, though that is important. It is also because nearly all our estimation procedures are linear. While this traditional assumption may be acceptable for exploring behaviour under normal conditionson the grounds that the potential gains from using non-linear methods are unlikely to justify the increased complexity and loss of rigour-it is very unlikely to be acceptable for exploring behaviour in or near insolvency, because enterprises in the latter condition may well show quite significant departures from behaviour in non-solvency states. Indeed it would be surprising if it were otherwise. We have therefore preferred to conduct most of our analysis excluding enterprises that are financially very weak and so far without regard to the behaviour of the latter or the problems they pose. It is the purpose of this chapter, in contrast, to look specifically at the issue of financial weakness in Chinese state-owned enterprises and its consequences.
Entry and the Rate of Innovation*
Authors: Geroski Paul A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is often said that competition is a dynamic process, and that it is the dynamics of the process which have a major effect on market performance. Our goal in this chapter is to explore the spirit of this suggestion by examining the association between innovative activity and one observable manifestation of competitive market dynamics, namely entry. There are a number of reasons why entry—and small-firm activity more generally—is worth focusing on in connection with innovative activity. Chief amongst these is the recent policy interest that has been lavished on small firms in the name of rejuvenating industry and stimulating progressiveness. As is usual in these cases, elevating small firms up towards the top of the policy agenda has stimulated both a modest flow of careful research and a veritable flood of hyperbole. Numerous popular discussions have painted alluring pictures of a new industrial renaissance flowering from the seedbed of small-firm activity, and the same five or six anecdotal case-studies are regularly paraded in front of the argument by way of support. More scholarly examinations of the evidence have uncovered systematic evidence that loosely supports the spirit of some of these popular discussions.
Entry, Innovation, and Productivity Growth*
Authors: Geroski Paul A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is widely believed that competition promotes efficiency, that a vigorous competitive process throws up alternatives in the form of new firms and new ideas, and that selection amongst them induces movements to, and movements of, the production frontier. Our goal in this chapter is to explore this presumption empirically, interpreting competition in a broad sense by taking the conceptualization new firms and new ideas literally, and examining the association between competition so defined and total factor productivity growth.