bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Inclusion Compounds
Authors: Weber Edwin 
Published: July 2004

AbstractInclusion compounds may be classified into three main categories: complexes, cavitates, or clathrates. Typical examples for each class of inclusion compounds are the crown complexes, the calix–cavitates, and the hydroquinone clathrates. All of these compounds have in common the ability to incorporate into the cavities of their own molecules, or within their lattices, other molecules of suitable size, spatially to enfold them, that is to hold them, mostly by physical imprisonment.Materials having the attribute of inclusion have given rise to what is called host–guest chemistry, a typical feature of which is accommodation of a complementary guest species into a concave host framework involving a molecular recognition process such as imaged by the complementarity of a lock and a key. Logically, a new broad area of chemistry grew up on this basis starting in the 1970s. It is called supramolecular chemistry and means the chemistry beyond the molecule. This article surveys the various types of inclusion compounds and their applications.
Indium and Indium Compounds
Authors: Chagnon Mark J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Indium, indium alloys, and indium compounds exhibit a wide range of diverse properties. For example, the metal retains plasticity at cryogenic temperatures and many compounds with the metalloids are semiconducting. Applications vary from the use of the metal in the control rods of nuclear reactors, to that of alloys as solders, and of indium trioxide as an electrically conductive film for glass and plastic.
Indium is referred to as a minor metal and is basically a by‐product of the zinc and lead‐zinc industries. Properties are described. Uses and production are discussed. Expanded economic data is given. Indium metal poses little or no environmental risks but some forms may pose dangers to the environment.
Indole
Authors: Sundberg Richard J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Indole is an electron‐rich heteroaromatic nitrogen heterocycle which is isolated from coal‐tar distillate. The chemistry of indole is dominated by electrophilic substitution reactions which occur primarily at the 3‐position. Organometallic derivatives, especially lithium compounds, permit reactions at other ring positions. Substituted indoles are usually prepared from benzene derivatives having a nitrogen substituent. Indole derivatives appear prominently in nature, usually as metabolites of tryptophan. Examples include plant alkaloids and fungal metabolites. Synthetic derivatives of indole have been extensively explored as pharmaceuticals; the nonsteroidal antiflammatory drug indomethacin is the most widely used example.
Industrial Hygiene
Authors: Lynch Jeremiah 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIndustrial hygiene is defined as the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental factors or stresses arising in or from the workplace that may cause sickness, impaired health or well‐being, or significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or among the citizens of the community. The practice of industrial hygiene starts with an awareness of the hazardous nature of chemical, physical, and biological agents, and of the processes which give rise to opportunities for people to be exposed to these agents. The skill of industrial hygienists includes this recognition ability, the skill to make and interpret complex measurements of conditions, and the ability to identify risk reduction measures which may range from changes in work practices to modifications of the physical plant. All of this is performed in continuous interactions with workers, management, regulatory agencies, the public, and other professionals such as physicians and safety professionals. The techniques of industrial hygiene undergo continuous improvement resulting from the work of the practitioners and from research in toxicology, epidemiology, risk assessment, analytical chemistry, engineering, and other disciplines.
Industrial Antimicrobial Agents
Authors: McEntee Thomas 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIndustrial antimicrobial agents are chemicals used to prevent the adverse consequences of microbiological activity in processes and products. They are targeted against bacteria, mold, and fungi. Applications of industrial antimicrobial agents fall into two categories: process uses and preservation uses. They are found in swimming pool sanitizers, cooling water treatments, metalworking, petroleum recovery, pulp and paper processing, paint, caulks and adhesives, laundry sanitizers, textiles, plastics, and cosmetics. The key trend affecting this industry is the regulation of products and their uses by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. These regulations have curtailed the introduction of new ingredients, selectively limited the markets for a number of products, and eliminated products by suspension or cancellation. This article lists and discusses materials used and their statuses, as well as formerly used agents and biocides under development.
Enzyme Applications, Industrial
Authors: Nielsen Peder Holk , Malmos Henrik , Damhus Ture , Diderichsen Boerge , Nielsen Henrik Kim , Simonsen Merete , Schiff Hans Erik , Oestergaard Anders , Olsen Hans Sejr , Eigtved Peter , Nielsen Tage Kjaer 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEnzyme technology has been used in industrial applications since ancient Greece. The era of modern industrial enzyme technology began in 1874 with the extraction of chymosin from dried calves' stomachs. The detergent industry is the largest user of industrial enzymes, utilizing proteases, amylases, lipases, and cellulases to remove soilings, increase softness, and protect fabric. The starch industry, which was the first significant user of enzymes, uses pullanases and a variety of amylases for the liquefication, saccharification, and isomerization of starches. Enzymes also find use in the textile, tannery, pulp and paper production, and animal feed industries. Another important industrial application of enzymes is in the food industry, ie, dairy, bakery, brewing, and protein modification industries. Industrial applications of enzymes are regulated.Production of industrial enzymes involves fermentation, recovery, and purification. A variety of host microorganisms are used to optimize fermentation techniques. Catalytic activity, kinetics, and response to temperature and pH affect the use of enzymes in industrial applications. Genetic engineering of enzymes is used to modify and improve natural enzymes, including increased protein production and increased genetic and product stability.
Furnaces, Electric, Induction Furnaces
Authors: Sommer Richard A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractInduction furnaces utilize the phenomena of electromagnetic induction to produce an electric current in the load or workpiece. This current is a result of a varying magnetic field created by an alternating current in a coil that typically surrounds the workpiece. Power to heat the load results from the passage of the electric current through the resistance of the load. Physical contact between the electric system and the material to be heated is not essential and is usually avoided. Nonconducting materials cannot be heated directly by induction fields.The efficiency of an induction furnace installation is determined by the ratio of the load useful power to the input power drawn from the utility. Losses that must be considered include those in the power converter transmission lines, coil electrical losses, and thermal loss from the furnace. A unique capability of induction heating is apparent in its ability to heat the surface of a part to a high temperature while the interior remains at room temperature. Induction heating is used to heat steel reactor vessels in the chemical process industry. Induction melting applications almost always contain the liquid metal charge within a hearth formed by a suitable refractory material. Coreless furnaces derive their name from the fact that the coil encircles the metal charge but the coil does not encircle a magnetic core. Channel induction furnace is one in which the energy for the process is produced in a channel of molten metal that forms the secondary circuit of an iron core transformer. The primary circuit consists of a copper coil which also encircles the core.
Carbides, Industrial Hard
Authors: Stoll W. M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe four most important hard carbides for the production of cobalt‐cemented (hard metal) carbide compositions are tungsten carbide (WC), and the cubic carbides titanium carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide (TaC), and niobium carbide (NbC). Of these, tungsten carbide is of paramount importance, in most cases forming a foundation‐alloy to which smaller quantities of the cubic carbides are added to affect changes in metalcutting insert and other tool properties. In cemented carbide compositions for machining applications, preformed binary and ternary solid solutions (mixed crystals), made up of the primary carbides and based on the solven powers of the cubic carbides for WC, comprise important portions of the hard phases in cutting‐insert microstructures. WC–TiC and WC–TiC–TaC(NbC) are of great importance among carbide solid solutions. WC, essentially unalloyed, is the paramount hard phase in metal‐cutting tools for short‐chipping materials, forming tools, and in tools used by the mineral, transportation, and construction industries. Auxiliary hard carbides of chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, hafnium, and zirconium are used to achieve secondary property enhancement. In general, the hard carbides are produced by reaction of elementary carbon or hydrocarbons and metals and metal compounds at high temperatures. Methods include carburization by thermal diffusion, by menstruum process, by thermochemical reaction, by reduction of metal halides and, to a minor extent, by fusion. Several categories of refining services support manufacturers of cemented carbides: extraction of tungsten as tungstic acid, WO3, or ammonium paratungstate from tungsten‐mineral concentrates, and extraction of oxides of titanium, tantalum, and niobium from mineral concentrates of those metals. Integrated carbide manufacturers carry out reduction of the metal oxide to metal powder, preparatory to carburization. Equipment and process departures to produce submicron and ultrafine tungsten carbide powders include carburization by gaseous fluid‐bed processes and chemical vapor reaction.
Peroxides and Peroxide Compounds, Inorganic Peroxides
Authors: Steiner Norbert , Eul Wilfried 
Published: July 2004

AbstractInorganic peroxides and peroxo compounds, with the exception of hydrogen peroxide, are described. Ozonides and superoxides are also included. Emphasis is placed on the commercially important main group species such as the sodium peroxoborates, sodium carbonate peroxohydrate, peroxodisulfate salts, calcium peroxide, sodium peroxide, and potassium superoxide. Most of these compounds are made from hydrogen peroxide; some, such as the peroxodisulfates, are made electrochemically. Applications of inorganic peroxides and peroxo compounds include household detergents, polymerization catalysts, effluent treatment, organic synthesis as well as uses in pyrotechnics, dough conditioning, hydrometallurgy and medicine.
Titanium Compounds, Inorganic
Authors: Fisher James , Egerton Terry A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractProperties and applications of technologically important inorganic compounds of titanium are surveyed. The most important compound is titanium dioxide which, because of its high refractive index, is manufactured as a white pigment at a scale of ca\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${4\times 10^{6}{\hskip0.167em}{\hskip0.167em}{\rm{t}}/{\rm{yr}}}$\end{document}. Raw materials and pigment production processes are reviewed. Mixed oxides, eg, barium titanate, are important raw materials for electroceramics.Titanium hydrides provide a convenient method of hydrogen storage. Titanium boride, titanium carbide, and titanium nitride are used as components of hard materials, eg, for cutting tools. They are electrically conducting.The chlorides are the most important halides. Titanium trichloride is the basis of widely used polymerization catalysts. Titanium tetrachloride is an intermediate in the production of both titanium metal and (via the chloride process) titanium dioxide pigment. Titanium dioxide pigment is also made (in the sulfate process) by precipitation from solutions of titanium in sulfuric acid. Titanium sulfides may be used as cathodes in high efficiency batteries. The properties of some titanium compounds with silicon and phosphorus are reviewed. Analytical methods and health and safety aspects are summarized.
Cellulose Esters, Inorganic Esters
Authors: Shelton Michael C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractInorganic esters of cellulose have a valuable place in history, from the birth of the plastics industry to elucidation of the genetic code. It is important not to forget the large number of applications in which these materials have played a role: coatings, explosives, pharmaceuticals, membranes, and synthetic intermediates. Though inorganic esters of cellulose have been around for >100 years, these materials remain important tools for coatings scientists, explosives experts, and biochemists. This report provides a summary of work on inorganic esters of cellulose, including cellulose nitrate, cellulose phosphate, cellulose sulfate and cellulose sulfonates.
Electrochemical Processing, Inorganic
Authors: Grotheer Morris P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectrochemical processes are used to produce an array of reactive inorganic chemicals and metals. The most reactive materials, strongest oxidants, and strongest reductants are produced electrochemically at anodes and cathodes, respectively. Process technology for the production of each electrochemical is unique. Power supplies and electrolytic cells are the distinguishing features of electrochemical processes. Electrolytic cells use direct current and are designed to be process specific. Every cell consists of an anode, a cathode, and container. Cells may be monopolar or bipolar, with or without separators, and equipped to handle aqueous solutions or fused salt electrolytes. Industrial processes described include electrolysis of chloride solutions and production of manganese dioxide, fluorine, permanganate, and hydrogen peroxide. The electrolysis of water and production of heavy water are also described. Processes for electrowinning of metals from aqueous solutions and from fused salts are discussed as are electrochemical processes for hazardous waste treatment systems.
Pigments, Inorganic
Authors: Novotny Mirek , Solc Z. , Trojan M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractInorganic pigments, black, white, or colored, are an integral part of many decorative and protective coatings. These materials are produced and marketed as fine powders which are then dispersed in the desired media. Inorganic pigments are used for the mass coloration of plastics, fibers, paper, rubber, glass, cement, glazes, and porcelain enamels, as well as for colorants in printing inks, cosmetics, and markers such as crayons. Pigment properties including particle size, tinting power, and hiding strength are discussed.Inorganic pigments of largest commercial interest are the white titanium dioxide; the colorful natural and synthetic iron oxides; various zinc compounds; and carbon black. Many transition‐metal and some rare‐earth compounds are used as chromophores in host oxides such as spinel to produce stable and affordable pigments. Environmentally benign, colorfast replacements are being sought for the historically popular, highly colored lead and cadmium compounds which have proven toxic.
Inorganic High Polymers
Authors: Roy Aroop K. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSince the development and commercialization of the polysiloxanes, a number of linear, inorganic‐backbone polymers have been reported. Most prominent among these are the polyphosphazenes and the polysilanes. Some, like poly(sulfur nitride) and the polycarborane–siloxanes, have manufacturing or stability problems. The heterophosphazenes, the alkyl/arylphosphazenes, and the polyoxothiazenes are relatively new and awaiting development and breakthrough in manufacturing technology for a number of potential applications. The polyphosphazenes with PO and PN‐bonded substituents (synthesized by a ring‐opening polymerization–substitution route) are the most mature and have seen limited manufacturing and commercialization in the area of specialized rubber markets. These polymers are extremely versatile in terms of potential applications in the areas of biomedical technology, elastomers, solid‐state batteries (via ionic conduction), catalysis, etc. The poly(alkyl/arylphosphazenes), synthesized by a polycondensation route, possess many of the properties of the PO‐ and PN‐substituted polymers and appear to be suitable for application as wide temperature‐range elastomers, thermoplastic polymers, and biomaterials. The polysilanes, which can be prepared by a number of methods are a unique class of polymers in exhibiting σ‐conjugation along the backbone. The majority of the developing applications for these polymers are based on this phenomenon, which leads to near‐uv photoabsorption, thermo‐ and piezochromism, and photodegradation. For many of the existing and developing inorganic‐backbone polymers with potential for commercial applications, a pivotal aspect for manufacture is relative ease of industrial scale‐up. This translates into readily accessible and relatively inexpensive starting materials, in addition to a process that allows flexibility with equipment and is environmentally friendly.
Insulation, Electric
Authors: Moscovici Armand 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMoscovici, Armand (The Kerite Co.). Insulated wire and cables represent a significant industry of more than $10 billion in 1990. The largest segments of various types and designs are building wires, electronic and data communication wires, power cables, fiber optics, automotive wires, magnet and transformer wires, and specialty wires. Power cables have the most complicated designs. Depending on the voltages used, power cables can contain many layers, each one made of specially developed materials with very specific characteristics and functions.The electrical properties of most concern to insulation are dielectric strength, electrical resistance, dielectric constant, power factor, and corona resistance. In power cables electrical and water treeing characteristics influence lifetimes, especially when the service is under high voltages and wet conditions. In coaxial data communication wires, the electric properties related to the dielectric constant determine the quality of the signal: impedance, capacitance, attenuation, crosstalk, and time delay, and velocity of propagation. Typical materials used in various insulated wires and cables are polyethylene, polypropylene, silicone rubber, ethylene–propylene rubber, fluoroplastics, poly(vinyl chloride), and other plastics to lesser extents. Vol. 14, pp. 627–647, 28 refs. to January 1994.
Insulin and Other Antidiabetic Agents
Authors: Shoelson Steven E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDiabetes mellitus, a metabolic disturbance of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, results from too little insulin production or a failure of insulin to exert its effects. Insulin‐dependent diabetes is always treated with insulin, whereas noninsulin‐dependent diabetes can be treated by diet or with insulin or additional oral hypoglycemic agents. Therapeutic insulins can be prepared either from animal sources or biosynthetically. In addition, insulin can be mixed with other agents to provide therapeutic formulations having altered rates of absorption. Oral antidiabetic agents include sulfonylurea compounds, biguanides, and inhibitors of α‐glycosidase. Various aspects of the pathophysiology and treatment of diabetes, and detailed discussion of the agents used to treat diabetes, are included herein.
Integrated Circuits
Authors: Sawchyn Irene 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIntegrated circuits consist of many devices or components each of which has a specific combination of conducting, semiconducting, and nonconducting layers that performs a single electrical function. Many of these devices are connected (integrated) into a complete integrated circuit or chip, and thousands of chips are formed simultaneously on a wafer. Increased miniaturization of device features, together with an increase in chip size and a concomitant increase in the number of chips per wafer, has led to increasingly sophisticated electronic products. Silicon technology predominates in the semiconductor industry. Thus developments in silicon technology, as well as developments in the manufacture of devices on silicon, drive advances in integrated circuitry. The basics of silicon technology including crystal growth and wafer preparation are described. The fabrication processes that deposit layers such as silicon epitaxy and oxidation, dielectric film formation, and metallization are discussed. Those techniques utilized to modify the electrical properties of the layers using dopants, and those employed for patterning and process integration, are presented as are the instrumental techniques that enable the analysis of the resultant circuits.
Olefin Polymers, Introduction
Authors: Kissin Yury V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPolyethylene (PE) resins are a large family of semicrystalline polymers used mostly as commodity plastics. The resins are essentially linear polymers with ethylene molecules as the main building block, although most PE molecules also contain branches in their chains. Industry produces a large variety of PE resins. They may differ in molecular weight; in their origin and type of branch; in the content of the branches; and in the uniformity of the branching distribution between different polymer chains.Ethylene polymers are manufactured by a number of processes that include polymerization in supercritical ethylene at 150–350°C (with radical initiators, Ziegler catalysts, and metallocene catalysts), as well as catalytic polymerization reactions in solution (at 120–150°C), in a hydrocarbon slurry, or in the gas phase. PE resins are in a large variety of applications, both as commodity resins and, in many cases, as specialty polymers. Their uses include PE film; coatings for paper, 8metal, wire, and glass; household and industrial containers; toys; and different types of pipe and tubing. Because of its versatility, PE has become the largest commercially manufactured polymer product in the world.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Introduction
Authors: Lindahl Charles B. , Mahmood Tariq 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFluorine, the most electronegative element, reacts to form compounds with virtually every other element including xenon, radon, and krypton. Several of its compounds are superacids. The basic fluorine‐containing minerals are fluorite and fluoroapatite, commonly called fluorspar and phosphate rock, respectively. Hydrogen fluoride is the most important industrial fluoride. The principal uses of hydrogen fluoride are to produce aluminum fluoride and synthetic cryolite, fluoropolymers, chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and hydrofluorocarbons. Anhydrous or aqueous hydrogen fluoride, the most common reagent for the production of fluorine compounds, can cause painful and severe burns and even death.A number of elements exhibit their highest oxidation state only as fluorides. Fluorine forms very reactive halogen fluorides. The special properties of fluorides lead to applications such as a flux in steelmaking, as catalysts, and in dentifrice additives and drinking water. In many cases the fluoride is the most volatile compound of an element. Special applications of fluorides arise such as use in uranium isotope enrichment and in applications such as chemical vapor deposition and in ion implantation for semiconductors.