bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Army Careers
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the French wars anyone who aspired to become an army medical officer had first to demonstrate orally his knowledge of surgery before one of the royal colleges and then, from 1798, his abilities as a physician before the Army Medical Board. Even those with a medical degree had to take the army surgical diploma: only those who were already members of one of the colleges of surgery by dint of their having taken its general licence were exempt.1 Candidates could choose to be examined for a simple assistant’s diploma at a cost of 1 guinea or a regimental surgeon’s qualification at 3 guineas, rising to 2 and 5 respectively in 1810.2 Obviously, those who took the former had to appear for a second time before one of the college boards of examiners if they wanted to progress in the medical corps.
Enquiring Minds
Authors: Ackroyd Marcus , Brockliss Laurence , Moss Michael , Retford Kate , Stevenson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1793 Edward Walsh, an alumnus of Edinburgh University and of Trinity College Dublin, and a future physician to the forces, published his Bagatelles, or Poetical Sketches, a compendium of verse, epigrams, and translations. By the author’s own concession, the pieces—among them his rendition of the Marseillaise—were of ‘unequal merit’,1 a barely visible feature of the contemporary literary landscape in the year of Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason and William Blake’s Visions of the Daughters of Albion. Yet Walsh’s mere Bagatelles, published four years before he joined the service, are indicative of the reach and scope of a significant proportion of our cohort’s interests beyond their professional careers in medical practice, including Walsh’s own much more substantial reflections resulting from his experience of the Dutch campaign of 1799.2
Presuppositions, Truth Values, and Expressing Propositions
Authors: Glanzberg Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Philosophers like to talk about propositions. There are many reasons for this. Perhaps the most common is that philosophers are sometimes more interested in the content of a thought or utterance than in the particular sentence or utterance that might express it on some occasion. Propositions are offered as these contents. Like many philosophical notions, this one has been the subject of extensive debate. For instance, it has been challenged on the basis of Quinean queasiness about intensional objects, and Chomskian qualms about the explanatory value of truth-conditional semantics. These are foundational worries about the notion of proposition. But there is another kind of worry about propositions, which leads to the topic of this chapter.
Contested Images of Gender
Authors: Hohnen Pernille 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Gariūnai market as a non-Lithuanian space may be connected with several antagonistic ethnic discourses inside and outside the market as well as with changes in the principles for constructing national and ethnic differences after Lithuania’s independence. However, the ‘disorder’ of the market can also be examined from another angle: images of gender, gender roles, and gender identities.
Work versus Trading
Authors: Hohnen Pernille 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conceptualization of Gariū nai as bardakas may be further illuminated by turning to a third and final theme, the changes of practice and discourses of ‘work’ in Soviet society and in the recently established Lithuanian State. Although I have placed it last, the changing perceptions of work and related ideas of the workplace and unemployment that are being revealed in the market appear in many ways to be fundamental to the previous two themes as well.
Creative Plagiarism: Agostino Nifo’s De regnandi peritia
Authors: Anglo Sydney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1521 Agostino Nifo, Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pisa, published a treatise on the behaviour of the best princes, which he dedicated to the insignificant rulers of the insignificant town of Sessa. It dealt with the necessity of prudence, justice, modesty, clemency, piety, honesty, magniflcence, liberality, fortitude, and temperance; the desirability of such skills as painting, music, athletics, and a knowledge of history; and with the worldly glory and eternal beatitude to be enjoyed by the ruler possessing these virtues and accomplishments.
In the Wake of Gentillet: The Evolution of the ‘Machiavel’ Stereotype in France and England
Authors: Anglo Sydney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first edition of Gentillet’s masterpiece had been published anonymously in Geneva; and the earliest response came, appropriately, from the Italian community there. Not only had their Florentine compatriot Machiavelli been attacked (which probably did not bother them unduly) but their whole nation had been scorned and reviled. Gentillet had generously acknowledged the possibility that there were, among the Italians, some virtuous people: ‘for there is not so bad a ground, which amongst diverse and sundrie evill plants, bringeth not out some good’. Indeed, he continued, a virtuous Italian was to be especially praised ‘because they are rare, and for that it is no triviall and common thing in Italie to be a vertuous and good man’.
Systematic Immorality: The Courtier’s Art
Authors: Anglo Sydney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Machiavellisme: subtill policie, cunning roguerie’. This is how Randle Cotgrave defined the word ‘Machiavellisme’ in his great Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues.1 By the beginning of the seventeenth century, Machiavelli’s name had been transformed from a proper to a common, and thoroughly improper, noun; and, as we have seen, his reputation had become so malodorous that, in Donne’s Ignatius his Conclave, published in the same year as Cotgrave’s Dictionarie, Loyola uses it to destroy Machiavel’s case for entry into Lucifer’s inner sanctum. It is not so much that Machiavel had not caused harmful innovations, but rather that everybody recognized him as a thoroughly bad lot and, as Cotgrave makes clear, his name had become synonymous not merely with political duplicity but rather with ‘cunning roguery’ in general. Indeed, by far the greater number of references to his name are of this kind. He came to personify the worldly-wise man who aims to succeed by any means, and this use of his name as a generalized term of opprobrium was so widespread that it is scarcely worth noting examples.
A Computational Model of the Semantics of Tense and Aspect
Authors: Passonneau Rebecca J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The PUNDIT text-processing system extracts temporal information about real-world situations from short message texts. This involves three complementary analyses. First, PUNDIT determines whether a situation has actual time associated with it. A reference to a possible or potential situation, for example, would need a different treatment. Second, it determines the temporal structure of the predicated situation, or the manner in which it evolves through time. Finally, it analyzes the temporal location of the actual situations with respect to the time of text production or to the times of other situations.
A Critical Examination of Allen’s Theory of Action and Time
Authors: Galton Antony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been recognized for some years now that in many areas of artificial intelligence there is a pressing need for efficient ways of representing everyday reasoning about time. Amongst the work that has been most influential in this area is that of Allen (1981, 1983, 1984) and McDermott (1982). McDermott identifies an adequate treatment of continuous change as one of the key requirements for a system to be able to reason about time realistically, and Allen, while not dealing explicitly with continuous change, mentions examples which involve it (e.g. a ball falling onto a table, a block on a rotating table).
Temporal Interpretation, Discourse Relations, and Commonsense Entailment*
Authors: Lascarides Alex , Asher Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An essential part of text interpretation involves calculating the relations between the events described. But sentential syntax and compositional semantics alone don’t provide the basis for doing this. The sentences in (1) and (2) have the same syntax, and so using compositional semantics one would predict that the events stand in similar temporal relations. But in (1) the order in which the events are described matches their temporal order, whereas in (2) descriptive order mismatches temporal order. At least, these are the natural interpretations of (1) and (2) unless the reader has information to the contrary. Similarly, the syntax of the sentences in texts (3) and (4) are similar, but the natural interpretations are different.
Tense as Discourse Anaphor
Authors: Webber Bonnie Lynn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two types of expressions have previously been described in these terms: definite pronouns and certain definite noun phrases (NPs). Researchers in computational linguistics and in artificial intelligence have called these expressions anaphors (cf., Woods 1978, Sidner 1983, Bobrow 1986, Hirst 1981, Webber 1983). Linguists, however, have used this term somewhat differently. Many have restricted its use to expressions (usually pronouns) that can be treated analogously to variables in a logical language (Chomsky 1980).
A Multilingual Approach to Annotating and Extracting Temporal Information*
Authors: Wilson George , Mani Inderjeet , Sundheim Beth , Ferro Lisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The processing of temporal information poses numerous challenges for NLP. Progress on these challenges may be accelerated through the use of corpus-based methods. This paper introduces a set of guidelines for annotating time expressions with a canonicalized representation of the times they refer to, and describes methods for extracting such time expressions from multiple languages. Applications that can benefit include information extraction (e.g., normalizing temporal references for database entry), question answering (answering ‘‘when’’ questions), summarization (temporally ordering information), machine translation (translating and normalizing temporal references), and information visualization (viewing event chronologies).
Assigning Time-Stamps to Event-Clauses
Authors: Filatova Elena , Hovy Eduard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Linguists who have analyzed news stories (Schokkenbroek, 1999; Bell, 1997; Ohtsuka and Brewer, 1992, etc.) noticed that ‘‘narratives are about more than one event and these events are temporally ordered. Though it seems most logical to recapitulate events in the order in which they happened, i.e. in chronological order, the events are often presented in a different sequence’’(Schokkenbroek, 1999). The same paper states that ‘‘it is important to reconstruct the underlying event order for narrative analysis to assign meaning to the sequence in which the events are narrated at the level of discourse structure.
From Temporal Expressions to Temporal Information: Semantic Tagging of News Messages
Authors: Schilder Frank , Habel Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper describes a semantic tagging system that extracts temporal information from news messages. Temporal expressions are defined for this system as chunks of text that express some sort of direct or inferred temporal information. The set of these expressions investigated in the present paper includes dates (e.g. 08.04.2001), prepositional phrases (PPs) containing some time expression (e.g. on Friday), and verbs referring to a situation (e.g. opened ). Related work by Mani and Wilson (2000) focuses only on the core temporal expressions neglecting the temporal information conveyed by prepositions (e.g. Friday vs. by Friday).
The Specification Language TimeML
Authors: Pustejovsky James , Ingria Robert , Sauri´ Roser , O Jos E´ Castan˜ , Littman Jessica , Gaizauskas Rob , Setzer Andrea , Katz, Graham , Mani Inderjeet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The automatic recognition of temporal and event expressions in natural language text has recently become an active area of research in computational linguistics and semantics. In this paper, we report on TimeML, a specification language for events and temporal expressions, which was developed in the context of a six-month workshop, TERQAS, funded under the auspices of the AQUAINT program. The ARDA-funded program AQUAINT is a multiproject effort to improve the performance of question answering systems over free text, such as that encountered on the Web.
Abortions, Witches, and Catholics: Reproduction and Revolution
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1679 and 1680, the English followed news about ‘The Affair of Poisons’, a murderous scandal in Louis XIV’s court that implicated scores of French aristocrats and their servants. At the heart of this tale of arsenic-laced gloves and powdered-toad tea was a ‘Midwife Enchantress’ who had claimed not only to arrange the death of several unwanted aristocratic husbands through magic but also to have performed 2,500 abortions and burned most of the foetuses in an oven in her Paris bedroom. Catherine Montvoisin, or ‘La Voisin’ as she was known, captured an English audience’s worst fears not only about midwives’ secret powers over life and death, but also about the machinations of Catholics and the French. La Voisin was not the only midwife who embodied these specific fears in this period.
‘Is not your Lordship with Child too?’:Pregnant Fathers and Fathers of Science
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Charles IT, unlike the rest of the audience, apparently found the play amusing. The diarist Samuel Pepys, for one, remarked that he found it ‘so poor a thing as I ever saw almost’.2 We do not know if Pepys and others recoiled from the plot of male pregnancy or whether they simply found the play silly, as most critics have since concluded about The Wild Gallant.
Breeding Scottish Obstetrics in Dr Smellie’s London
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the wake of the Mary Toft debacle, men-midwives developed new strategies to assert their authority over the reproductive body and to win a regular clientele. Though St Andre’s use of a seemingly objective scientific method failed miserably, male practitioners continued to emphasize the importance of observation and experimentation. They advertised to their students and the public that the combination of vast clinical experience, dissections of normal and abnormal reproductive anatomy, and the experimental development of obstetrical tools allowed them an authority that neither their predecessors nor typical female midwives could attain. More than this, and generally overlooked by historians, Georgian men-midwives additionally emphasized their subjective abilities to be charitable, tender, solicitous, and patient.
Revolutionary Bodies in the Britain of George III
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The year 1766 was explosive, and the possibility for revolution could be found in almost every imaginable realm. The Seven Years War had ended, but the Peace of Paris in 1763 had brought no end to problems for George Ill, his ministers, and Parliament. The public, including the outspoken oppositional journalist and Member of Parliament John Wilkes, had lambasted the Treaty as giving too much away to the French, whereas, in fact, it won too much territory for the British government, which was now saddled with enormous North American and Indian empires that needed to be governed and guarded. The cost of shouldering these burdens fell to the American colonists, who baulked at taxes on sugar, coffee, silk, iron, wine, cider, playing cards, and newspapers, and at the billeting of troops with the Quartering Act. George III repealed the Stamp Act by the beginning of 1766 after Benjamin Franklin warned Parliament that the imposition could lead to revolution, but Parliament responded by imposing the Declaratory Act in March 1766 giving itself absolute legislative control over the colonies.
Sex, Science, and Race
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Late Georgians became more acutely aware of identity and difference in the wake of the American and French Revolutions. While the independent Americans shook Britons’ perhaps over-easy assumptions that their colonial cousins were entirely kindred and shared the same political values, the French revolutionaries helped to reinforce the traditional view of fundamental Gallic otherness. Both events, however, did more than simply continue a long British discussion about the differences and similarities between nations and cultures. Both the American and French revolutionaries, as well as such home-grown radicals as John Wilkes and the Quaker abolitionists, raised new debates about the definitions of citizenship and human rights. Domestic events including Scottish Lord Mansfield’s 1772 statement in the Somerset case proposing that perhaps no man could be a slave on British soil, the recognition that the American colonists’ revolutionary rhetoric of slavery and freedom did not translate after independence into the actual freeing of African-American slaves, and such watersheds as the liberation of French colonial slaves in 1794, not to mention of the passage of the 1773 and 1784 India Acts that established British imperial authority over Indian subjects, led Georgians to ask fresh questions about identities.
The State Takes Charge: Conceived, Consummated, Counted
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the turn of the nineteenth century, men-midwives and other men of science had established a cultural authority over sex and birth. Their apparent accomplishments and the ramifications of their knowledge deeply impressed the public, including Members of Parliament, who began to pass legislation on reproductive matters. As this occurred, many long-held assumptions about the sanctity of maternal life, the inherent authority of women over their own bodies, and the positive value of population growth were overturned. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, the national government began to take a more active role in reproductive matters that had once been handled by midwives and in local parish courts, and while they did so, Britons began to view population, birth, and sex more negatively, as in need of expert management.
An Abuse of Context in Semantics: The Case of Incomplete Definite Descriptions
Authors: Lepore Ernie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Russell (1905, 1919), any sentence of the form dThe F is Ge is true just in case there is exactly one F and it is G. And so ‘The president of the United States of America in 2000 is happy’ is true just in case there is a unique US president in 2000, and he is happy. So understood, this sentence expresses a perfectly general proposition and not a singular one about Bill Clinton. Critics and champions alike have fussed and fretted for well over half a century about whether Russell’s treatment is compatible with acceptable uses of incomplete definite descriptions,1 where a description dthe Fe is incomplete just in case more than one object satisfies its nominal F, as in (1).
Predicate Structure: General
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The predicate is the most complex part of Jarawara grammar. It will be dealt with in this and the next five chapters. The first section of this chapter provides a complete list of components of the predicate. Chapter 5 then discusses the miscellaneous suffixes, chapter 6 the tense-modal suffixes, and chapter 7 the secondary verbs, the mood suffixes, and the negative suffix. Valency-increasing derivational prefixes-applicative and causative-are the subject of chapter 8. There is a full discussion of verbal reduplication in chapter 9.
Predicate Structure: The Tense-Modal System
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Corresponding to slot G of predicate structure there is a system of eleven tense-modal suffixes (six of them also including information about evidentiality). Like all other suffixes, this is an optional system. There is great variation in the extent of use of tense-modal suffixes according to genre, style, and, no doubt, the whim of the speaker. One short (two-minute) text about a speaker ‘s future plans had a tense-modal suffix in every main clause (these were: intention, future, and immediate past eyewitness). A short (minute and a half) autobiographical narrative had no tense-modal specification in any of its predicates. Most conversation and narrative falls between these two extremes. The number of clauses showing tense-modal in four text samples each of 1OO main clauses varied from 32 per cent to 51 per cent with an overall average of 44 per cent. Tense-modal suffixes are slightly less common in dependent clauses, occurring in about 3O per cent of them. There is no tense-modal marking in com- plement clauses or in nominalized clauses.
The languages of East and Southeast Asia: a first look
Authors: Goddard Cliff 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is all about the similarities and differences among the languages and “language cultures” of East and Southeast Asia. Moving from south to north, the countries we will cover can be grouped as follows: (a) Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and the Philippines, (b) Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, (c) China, (d) Korea and Japan.
How many languages are there in this broad area? Many people would probably answer: about a dozen or so, to match the number of countries involved.
Appeals to Intuition and the Ambitions of Epistemologr
Authors: Kornblith Hilary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a common feature of epistemology, and philosophy generally, that appeals to intuition play a prominent role. Thus, Laurence BonJour (2002: 48) remarks:’... our commonsense intuitions about cases of knowledge ... are ... our main and indispensable basis for deciding what the concept of knowledge really amounts to.’ On BonJour’s view, and that of many others as well, it is the job of epistemology to provide us with an account of the content of our epistemic concepts, and our intuitions provide us with the data upon which epistemological theories may be built.
On the Gettier Problem problem
Authors: Lycan William G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It took about ten years for people to get the idea that there was something wrong with the Gettier Problem. By the early 1970s, a number of analyses had been offered to accommodate Gettier’s (1963) counter examples to the traditional ‘JTB’ view: Michael Clark’s (1963) simple no-false-lemmas proposal, various ‘indefeasibility’ analyses beginning with Lehrer (1965) and Lehrer and Paxson (1969), and Goldman’s (1967) original causal theory, among others. Those analyses had run into further counterexamples; revision after revision had been offered, only to meet further and more elaborate counterexamples. Not only was there no end in sight; there was not even a sense of beginning to converge.