bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Technology Focus: Sand Management (October 2023)
Authors: Mahmoudi Mahdi 
Published: October 2023

As drilling and completion activity resumes post-pandemic, the sand-control market faces several logistical challenges. Inflation and supply-chain interruption concerns are expected to continue into 2024 because of high volatility in raw material pricing amplified by geopolitical tensions in Europe and the South China Sea. As oil price strengthens, consumer preferences shift and more operators investigate newer technology and focus more on performance than price.
Despite these factors, the fundamentals of sand control and sand management remain the same. As more-challenging reservoirs are being developed and new difficulties arise, however, more engineers are questioning the conventional sand-control aperture-sizing wisdom.
Any sand-control effort aims to manage solids production while creating the fewest restrictions to fluid flow. To assure that sand-control efforts meet these goals throughout the life cycle of the wells, engineers must design them in a way that can withstand the forces of nature, doesn’t erode with high and localized flow, doesn’t corrode with the harshness of produced fluid, and doesn’t mechanically deform during installation and life-cycle loads. If you are interested in diving into these design processes, paper IPTC 21158 provides insight.
With the higher adaptation of flow-control devices in recent years to improve flow segmentation and reduce the premature failure of sand control because of highly localized flow, flow-control-device implementation is becoming an integral part of sand-management strategy. More papers every year discuss the design process and field implementation of various kinds of flow-control devices along with sand controls. Paper SPE 210299 provides good insight into some of the field challenges and results of implementing flow-control devices with sand control. As always, monitoring for sand and solid production is key in any sand-management effort to assure the integrity of the system and maintain the containment of the fluids. In the past year, several papers focused on monitoring, including discussions of new technologies and presentations of field case studies. Paper IPTC 22989 is among the interesting papers in this subject.
Recommended additional reading at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org.
IPTC 21223 Lesson Learned From First Application of Openhole Standalone Screen With Autonomous Inflow Control Devices in Oil Field Offshore East Malaysia by Catherine Ye Tang, Petronas, et al.
SPE 210128 Erosion-Resistant Sand Screen: Development and Deployment by Antonio Lazo, Chevron, et al.
SPE 208162 Prediction of Threshold Sand Rates From Acoustic Monitors Using Artificial Intelligence by Ronald E. Vieira, University of Tulsa, et al.
Plasma-Sprayed Coatings Resist Erosion in Wire-Wrapped Screens
Authors: Carpenter Chris 
Published: October 2023

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This article, written by JPT Technology Editor Chris Carpenter, contains highlights of paper IPTC 21158, “Development of Plasma-Sprayed Coatings To Improve the Erosion Resistance of Wire-Wrapped Screens,” by Lukas Ochmann, SPE, and Mohd M. Amro, SPE, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, and Bernd Gronde, Fraunhofer IKTS Hermsdorf, et al. The paper has not been peer reviewed. Copyright 2021 International Petroleum Technology Conference. Reproduced by permission.

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A newly developed coating is put on the outside (i.e., facing the formation) of standard wire-wrapped screens to make the slots erosion-resistant. The coating consists of ceramic or hard metal and is applied by plasma spraying. An extensive development and verification program was conducted to guarantee defined slot widths, corrosion resistance, and mechanical strength of coating and screen. The coating improves resistance against erosion, can withstand corrosive well environments, and features mechanical properties suitable to be safely installed in any well.

Thermal Spraying and Composition of Coatings
The screens are coated using thermal spraying. This process uses a hot plasma jet to melt powdery materials and apply them to a solid surface. The molten particles solidify on the surface and form a hard coating with little porosity. No chemical reaction exists between the base material and the coating.
Several different steps are necessary to coat a wire-wrapped screen. First, the screen is sandblasted in a distinct way to provide a defined surface roughness. After that, a thin bonding layer is applied by thermal spraying. This intermediate layer further improves the adhesion of the functional layer. This erosion-resistant main layer, which consists of hard metal or ceramic, is applied next by thermal spraying. The coating is finished by filling up the pores of the sprayed layers with a liquid sealer.
The coating changes the geometry of the slots, slightly reducing the slot size and creating a less-sharp slot opening. By adjustment of the process parameters of the thermal spraying and choice of the correct initial slot width, defined and constant slot widths can be produced for the final product.

Corrosion Investigation
All samples and future prototypes are based on 1.4404 (316L) stainless steel. Combinations of four bonding layers, six functional layers, and five sealers were investigated. In total, 237 different samples were corroded under different conditions. The samples were submerged halfway into the brine so that the effect of the three-phase interface (brine, gas, and sample) could be investigated over a period of multiple weeks (minimum 3 weeks, maximum 18 weeks) at 60°C. Further experiments were conducted with nitrogen and hydrogen atmospheres for 3 weeks. The first tests were conducted with samples made from wire-wrapped screens. A second batch of tests was performed with coupons for tensile bond tests.
Reduction of NORM Waste in the Oil and Gas Industry with Indirect Heated Vacuum Distillation Technology
Authors: Borbet J. , Veciana J. , Stiels C. , Schmidt R. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One of the most pressing challenges currently in the oil and gas industry is the management of natural occurring radioactive material (NORM) or technologically enhanced NORM (TENORM) containing wastes. The exploration and extraction operations of oil and gas are frequently executed in subsurface formations that contain natural radionuclides such as 226Ra, 228Ra, 222Rn, 210Pb, 40K etc. The natural radioactivity present in the oil and gas extraction sites can be significantly enhanced (&gt;10,000 Bq kg−1) due to technological and human activities creating TENORM waste. TENORM is caused by the concentration and accumulation of natural occurring radionuclides in the internal surfaces of equipment, producing wastes such as scale and sludge formations in pipes. In addition, NORM is concentrated in the produced by-products from oil extraction such as water. Radionuclides present in oily wastes often form complex compounds leading to different forms of sedimentation such as sulfates, silicates, carbonates, and in several cases, mercury is also a major contaminant found. This mixture of contaminants poses challenges for transport, treatment, and safe final disposal. As a result, currently there are limited NORM waste management solutions apart from temporary storage facilities.
In 2022 at the International Conference on Management of NORM in Industry, one of the main challenges in the oil and gas industry was reported as the lack of waste disposal options in several countries. With increasing NORM waste quantities several consequences may arise such as space limitations in disposal sites and increasing operational costs. Volume reduction techniques such as gravitational separation, extraction and enzyme pre-treatment, in-situ flocculation, physical separation, and chemical treatment, etc. have been also applied to NORM to reduce the costs associated with the disposal of the waste. Disposal techniques involving deep well injection such as slurry fracture injection, sub-fracture injection or cavern well injection have been investigated and applied in several countries. However, injection techniques have several limitations such as the requirement of a distinct geological formation, the potential risks associated with leaks or earthquakes, and the difficulty to inject slurries and pasty materials because it can clog the wells.
Multi-Seismic Attribute Interpretation and Machine Learning Based Analysis to Unlock Development of Stratigraphically Complex Secondary Reservoir Potential
Authors: García S. Mata , Carrillat A. , Torres W. , Cisneros P. , Lucas A. , Miller C. , Garrido J. , Rodas J. , Zamora P. , Karelis J. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This case study in the Oriente Basin demonstrates how integrated and weighted seismic post-stack and pre-stack attributes enable identification of upside potential as well as de-risking of well planning and execution in reservoirs with complex stratigraphic architecture within a mature oil field. This approach analyzes the usability of Machine Learning (ML) algorithms to drastically improve the spatial estimation of rock properties related to oil bearing reservoir sandstones. Multiple seismic attributes interpretation by Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is a robust approach to map thin sandstone reservoir layers embedded in contrasting lithologies and allows for improved predictability in new well locations. Multiple attributes are generated, in overlapping windows to address interference associated with the thin sandstone layers, then analyzed, selected, ranked, and combined by ANN. Seismic amplitude interpretation is run in parallel with other processes to reduce subsurface risk, including seismic pre-stack inversion, spectral decomposition, and waveform classification.
In 2021, a new stage of field development was initiated, targeting secondary reservoirs in the Cretaceous Napo Formation with low recovery factors. These reservoirs are characterized by rapid lateral and vertical stratigraphic variations, deposited in a tidal fluvio-estuarine environment. The multi-attribute workflow was implemented to identify sweet spot areas, assess potential and optimize well locations and designs. The execution of this new field development strategy was first deployed in a selected drilling pad, previously identified as the best candidate for secondary reservoir development. This pad includes 4 horizontal and 2 deviated producers, and 5 workovers (WOs). The allocated production in the area and reservoir increased 8 times from the baseline oil production rate due to this recent activity. This marked the first horizontal well targeting T Superior sandstones in the Napo Formation in the entire Oriente Basin. In addition, a waterflooding project and surveillance was implemented to maintain average reservoir pressure, balance patterns to maximize oil production, and minimize the possibility of early breakthrough and high-water cuts in producers. Multi-domain analysis with seismic attributes is used for optimization of well planning and well placement, assessing future opportunities, and understanding reservoir continuity for waterflooding. This workflow established a new standard to enable high-grading secondary reservoirs potential and optimize future development plans.
Prediction and Analysis of Liquid Carrying by Plunger Gas Lift in Wellbore
Authors: Xiong Shuquan , Zhang Binbin , Liu Ping , Zhao Wei , Li Yongfeng , Zhang Jianbo , Sui Xiuan , Fu Weiqi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Plunger gas lift is a good method to drain the accumulated water in the wellbore. In this work, a dynamic model is established to predict the liquid carrying process by plunger. A case study is carried out to investigate the applicability of the proposed model, and the law of liquid carrying by plunger is analyzed. Three stages exist during the movement process of plunger, that is, the accelerated ascent stage, decelerated ascent stage and drainage stage. The decelerated ascent stage has the longest duration, and the velocity increases significantly with time as the liquid level reaches the wellhead during the drainage stage. As the well depth increases, the variation magnitude of the plunger velocity during the accelerated ascent stage and decelerated ascent stage decrease, and the duration during the decelerated ascent stage increases. As the initial height of water column increases, the velocity of the plunger decreases at each stage, and the decrease magnitude becomes less obvious. As the inner diameter of the tubing decreases, the speed of the plunger gradually decreases at each stage. Among the three influencing factors, the height of initial water column has the greatest impact on the efficiency of liquid carrying by plunger.
Bhagyam Field: Peripheral Waterflood to Full Field Polymer Flood. Subsurface, Reservoir Management & Field Development Learnings from 10-Year-Old Field Journey
Authors: Kumar V. , Garg H. , Lodha V. , Biswas N. , Das J. , Mishra S. , Kumar M. S. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Bhagyam field is a moderately viscous onshore oilfield in the Barmer basin located in the western part of Rajasthan state in India. The main producing unit is Fatehgarh comprising of multi storied fluvial sandstones. Fatehgarh is an excellent reservoir with multi-Darcy permeability. The field was discovered in 2004 & has been in production since Jan-2012. A total of 200+ wells have been drilled in this field since the start of field development journey. The field has been on peripheral hot water flood since the start of production. A polymer flood pilot was done in the field in 2016 & based on the success of the pilot, full field polymer injection supported by peripheral water injection was commenced in Oct-2020.
The paper captures the developmental journey of the field; challenges observed in the field during its production life, surprises encountered during waterflood phase & initial few years of polymer flooding phase and subsurface & modeling challenges encountered in the field. During the initial waterflooding phase, water breakthrough & the rise in water cut in the field was faster than expected. The then subsurface models were unable to capture early water breakthrough and fast water cut rise. The reservoir modeling philosophy in the field had to be revamped with updated understanding of the field to better capture field performance. Also, the field has a bio-degraded oil zone with relatively higher oil viscosity where a major part of the in-place volume is present. Commercial exploitation of the bio-degraded zone has posed its own challenges. The journey of polymer flood in the field has been a success story. The field has performed as expected but challenges in terms of injectivity, conformance, surface issues etc. have been observed.
The paper discusses the learnings from the first few years of field production life when field performance deviated from expectations and the reasons for that deviation. The paper also summarizes how subsurface & reservoir management learnings from the initial field life were incorporated while planning polymer flooding in the field. The paper also discusses learnings from subsurface & operational challenges encountered during the initial few years of polymer injection in the field. The paper also summarizes how subsurface modelling has evolved in the field over time to better capture field performance.
The understanding of reservoir characteristics, rock-fluid interaction & fluid movement in Bhagyam field has improved significantly in the last 10 years and this has led to improved reservoir management practices & better development planning of the field resulting in reserves addition & recovery factor improvement. The learnings from this field can be applied to similar reservoirs across the world.
Undiscovered Potential in North Oman's Subtle Natih Truncation Traps
Authors: Butler Emma , Shukaili Bushra Al 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Cretaceous age Natih truncation play in northern Oman is an underexplored play due to the challenges of finding subtle traps. Key elements include two angular unconformities occurring in north Oman that contribute to the complexities of the truncation trap. The Turonian unconformity subcrops the Wasia Group under the overlying Fiqa shale of the Aruma Group. The Base Cenozoic unconformity not only erodes the Aruma, but also the Wasia Group at a higher angle than the Turonian unconformity. Both groups truncate roughly toward the west/southwest, and the area with the most Natih truncation potential is the area in which Natih is overlain by the Cenozoic. As the two unconformities merge, seismic multiples from the younger Hadhramaut Group distort the seismic imaging of the unconformities due to the absent Aruma Group. Lastly, variations in the Natih facies also cause complexity due to differing impedance contrasts between the lower Hadhramaut and the upper Wasia Group. For proper lead identification, the difficulties in the seismic imaging, seismic interpretation, and well top interpretation need to be accounted for and addressed.
The simplest and most cost-effective way to tackle this problem was to use the most current seismic volume to create a variety of filtered volumes and angle stacks. These volumes were used to understand which reflectors could be considered robust and which are influenced by multiples. Depending on the area, the deeper Natih reflectors were determined to be the most representative of the Natih trend. In areas of more truncation, the deeper Shuaiba formation reflector was a more suitable guide. An extensive study of the well tops in areas with dense well penetrations was conducted to understand the thickness variations and ranges between the individual Natih units’ reservoir-seal pairs. These thicknesses were integrated with the seismic data to create the geologic model and quantify the uncertainty. The final model represents a series of high-resolution reservoir-seal pairs and their expected areas of truncation.
The result of this project was a detailed model incorporating well tops, seismic horizon and fault interpretations, and isopach guidance. This model was used to identify where reservoirs are truncating against the top seal, how quickly the reservoir gains thickness away from the truncation, the thickness of the base/lateral seal, and probable juxtapositions across faults. The information gained can then be used to prioritize areas with more truncation potential.
Bypassed Natih pay in previous penetrations can now be attributed to a truncation trap. And more importantly, new prospects can be matured with larger prospective areas and volumes due to the understanding of the stratigraphic trapping mechanism. As of 2023, several new truncation trap fields have been discovered, and many more prospects await testing. This modeling technique can be applied to similar truncation opportunities locally and worldwide.
Reducing Water Saturation Uncertainties in a Low Resistivity Pay Carbonate Reservoir
Authors: Bankole I. O. , Nachiappan R. , Pramudyo Y. B. , Reddy R. , Al Marzouqi K. I. , Alsalami M. , Alzeyoudi M. , Ojha A. , Fathalla M.F , Baslaib M. A. , Amer M. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Water saturation is a key input in the determination of hydrocarbon resource estimations among many other uses. Evaluating water saturation is a huge challenge in heterogenous carbonate because of its diverse pore types. In order to find suitable evaluation techniques, a proper identification of the source and the characterization of these reservoirs is essentially required. There are several known causes of the low resistivity pay phenomenon namely: micro-porosity, fractures, paramagnetic minerals, and deep conductive borehole mud invasion. In Carbonates main cause is the presence of micritic pores or microporosity which strongly suppress or mask resistivity log response making water saturation evaluated from this type of reservoir rock inaccurate or over-estimated using the Archie equation. To compute a more accurate and realistic water saturation from such reservoir requires, an alternative resistivity independent approach is required to reduce the uncertainty in water saturation estimations.
This paper demonstrated a simple alternative and pragmatic approach in evaluation of water saturation in complex carbonate reservoir with varying presence of micro porosity formed from micritization. The approach an integrated workflow based on geological(lithofacies/diagenesis) and petrophysical rock typing with other petrophysical methods to build a realistic saturation model in this challenging environment.
The integration of various subsurface and dynamic data has contributed significantly to identification of the source of LRP, the distribution and the impact on the water saturation in oil and gas zones of the reservoir. Thus, reducing uncertainty, improving the reservoir characterization and HCIIP significantly most especially in the oil zone where LRP effect is more pronounced.
Improved Reservoir Mapping by Integrated Interpretation Approach Using Horizontal Wells
Authors: Mergany M. I. , Narino A. R. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Reservoir maps are essential input data for drilling operations and 3D reservoir modeling. While drilling, these maps and petrophysical data guide the horizontal geo-steering, allowing real-time reservoir structure adjustments. In 3D modelling, they are commonly used to control the reservoir properties extrapolation and lateral extension. This study proposed a best practice approach to improve reservoir maps by using seismic reference interpretation and interpreted geologic control-points linked to horizontal well data. The proposed methodology involves the interpretation of a reference horizon from a 3D seismic volume, followed by a velocity model construction and depth conversion iteratively. The first iteration of the velocity model uses the interpreted seismic horizon along with sequence stratigraphic boundaries, as interpreted from core descriptions. Next, the log signature associated to each sequence boundary in the cored wells, is applied to the log data acquired in the vertical and deviated uncored wells. Finally, the horizontal wells are added to the correlation, to define additional stratigraphic markers, that allow the calculation/interpretation of control points applied to the reference horizon, capturing the relative position of the well within the target layer. The combination of the stratigraphic markers with the interpreted control points, together with the interpreted seismic horizons, results in a structural framework for the entire reservoir including most of the available data, maintaining the velocity model updated in a short-time basis. This data integrated approach, is producing high quality reservoir maps, representing subsurface structures more accurately than conventional mapping methods. The iteration of horizontal drilling and inter-well control points in the velocity model building process reduces the uncertainty in the depth conversion (from 50 ft. to 10 ft.). Regarding that the velocity model algorithm cannot use the inter-well points directly, because they are not associated with actual well markers of the reference horizon. The study adopted a workaround that involves the adjustment of the seismic reference horizon following the spatial distribution of the control points, to iterate the velocity model workflow, updating it with real-time data in the study area. Our method improves reservoir mapping compared to the conventional workflow. It is used to build robust 3D velocity models as well as 3D geological models over stacked reservoirs by using multiple seismic reference horizons, stratigraphic boundaries, well log picks, and vertical seismic profiles (VSP) data. The inter-well points from horizontal wells use the relative position of the well, solving the lack of markers in the area between wells.