bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hutcheson: For And Against Utilitarianism
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After arguing that we approve moral goodness in its own right, and not as a means to our own advantage, Hutcheson asks what sorts of actions and characters we approve of from the moral point of view. The answer will tell us what moral goodness consists in. In the Inquiry he begins from the claims of Cumberland and Shaftesbury about the general good and the common good. He argues that moral principles are impartial: they are not concerned differentially with the good of some people rather than others, but with the good of all those affected. He takes a teleological view of morality, as both Cumberland and Shaftesbury do. Following Cumberland, but not Shaftesbury, he holds an instrumental version of a teleological view; moral rules and principles are to be observed not for their own sake, but for their causal consequences.
Butler: Naturalism And Morality
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have seen how Butler applies his naturalist doctrine to moral psychology, to answer the sentimentalist analysis of reasons and motives, and so to undermine some misguided views about the conflict between self-love and benevolence. He might be right about all this, however, and still be wrong in his main claim that virtue is living in accord with nature. To defend his main claim, he needs to show that his conception of nature also provides a plausible account of morality. Even if we agree that the superior principle of self-love prescribes natural actions, we still need to be convinced that some superior principle both prescribes moral virtue, and thereby prescribes natural actions.
Hume: Nature
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hume’s Treatise is ‘an attempt to introduce the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects’ (title page). Hume recognizes that moral philosophy cannot always make the deliberate experiments that advance other inquiries. We cannot always create the situation in which we can observe the effect that we are interested in. In this area we must find a substitute for deliberate experiments by acquiring ‘experiments’ in Hume’s wider sense — a broader acquaintance, based on observation and reading, with human behaviour and reactions in different situations. Moral philosophy, therefore, should rest on the study of human nature, which Hume calls the ‘science of man’ (T, Introd. 4).
Hume: Passion And Reason
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To attack views that connect nature, reason, and morality, Hume relies on his account of passion, practical reason, and their relation. He sets out his account of the passions in Book ii of the Treatise, before the chapter ‘Of the Influencing Motives of the Will’ (ii 3.3), which describes the roles of passion and practical reason. This account of the passions influences his discussion both of practical reason and of moral judgment. A comparison with Aquinas’ account of the passions, on the one hand, and with Hobbes’s account, on the other, highlights Hume’s distinctive claims about the passions.
Hume: The Moral Sense
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After rejecting cognitivist and objectivist views, Hume maintains that moral distinctions are not derived from reason, but from a moral sense. We must turn our reflexion into our own breast (iii 1.1.26), to our sentiments of approval and disapproval. This reference to our approval and disapproval introduces a moral sense. This conclusion rests in different ways on Hume’s practical and his metaphysical argument. Only the practical argument shows that the moral sense itself makes the moral judgment, because there is nothing to the moral judgment beyond the feeling of approval that belongs to the moral sense. This is Hume’s position, if he sees the connexion between internalism and non-cognitivism.
Hume: The Virtues
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If we accept Hume’s account of the moral sense, what account of morality do we commit ourselves to? Hume answers this question by listing the virtues and showing that they are objects of the sentiment that he ascribes to the moral sense. Before we consider his general account of the virtues and of their relation to the moral sense, it is useful to consider some of the specific virtues. He divides the virtues into natural and artificial, on the basis of his general claim that we value virtuous actions only insofar as they express a virtuous character (T iii 2.1.2; iii 3.1.4). If we commend a particular action, it must be because we approve the state of character that it proceeds from, and this state of character must immediately appeal to our sympathetic feelings (those that belong to the principle of humanity) (iii 2.1.6).
Reid: Knowledge And Morality
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reid agrees with Price in affirming the intuitive character of moral knowledge, the rejection of psychological hedonism, the irreducibility of conscience to self-love, and the rejection of utilitarianism. But he adds some important arguments to the rationalist position. In arguing that moral beliefs rest on intuitive first principles that are evident to common sense, Reid relies on his general view that we have no rational alternative to trusting common sense. He does not rely as heavily as Price does on a parallel between moral principles and geometrical principles (though he accepts the parallel). Instead, he takes moral knowledge to be analogous to ordinary perceptual knowledge, believing that the same sort of defence is appropriate in each case.
Formal Linguistics and Real Speech
Authors: Rischel Jørgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contemporary linguistics has a higher level of ambition than ever before in history. For many linguists the ambition is not just to account for the design of language as a system. Some are most interested in relating that system to a more or less innate language faculty of human beings; others (possibly the same persons) are interested in universal constraints on the production and perception of language, and the relevance of such putative universals for the patterns found in languages and the tendencies observed in linguistic change. And then some are interested in the variational aspect of linguistic data, or in setting up socio-pragmatic parameters to account for the ways in which language is put to use in different situations. This spectrum of interests and fundamental assumptions creates an incomparably more complex situation than in the earlier history of linguistics.
On Functional Load in Phonemics
Authors: Rischel Jørgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If a linguistic text is looked upon as a unilinear sequence of phonemes, it is a rather simple procedure to measure the relative frequency of each phoneme. One sets up an overall inventory of phonemes and postulates that it is meaningful to characterize the use of the different phonemes as ‘drawn from a hat’. The overall frequencies are computed, and the probability of occurrence of each phoneme is expressed by its relative overall frequency. One can also focus on ‘items in context’ and compute the probabilities of the different phonemes occuring in a specific context or in a specific class of contexts. And finally, one can look upon the text as a ‘linear Markoff-process’ and interpret the probability of a specific sequence as the product of the subsequent transition probabilities. This in itself is a quite trivial procedure.
Nicomachean Ethics 7.3 on Akratic Ignorance
Authors: Pickavé Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
NE 7. 3 ( = EE 6. 3) is generally agreed to be the foundational chapter in Aristotle’s account of akrasia.1 It is also agreed to involve extreme difficulties, not only about how to interpret particular lines but even about what lines to read. Some difficulties are so great that commentators have proposed radical emendations without manuscript support, such as Ramsauer’s proposal to read ‘particular’ for ‘universal’ in 1147a4. Others raise questions about the structure of the whole: there is enough at least apparent repetition for some commentators to hypothesize that 7. 3 is a patchwork containing redundant bits of what were originally two separate treatments. Cook Wilson, for example, takes the four central sections and treats the second and fourth more or less as alternative versions of the first and third.2 But we believe that each section introduces an important ingredient in Aristotle’s eventual account, which is presented in stages: each seems to resolve an issue left unresolved in the earlier sections.
“Overall complexity”: a wild goose chase?
Authors: Deutscher Guy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The statement that “All Languages are Equally Complex” (ALEC) is often portrayed as one of the fundamental tenets of modern linguistics.1 It is repeated in introductory courses, enshrined in all manner of textbooks, and occasionally invoked as an axiom in theoretical arguments (for instance, about the admissibility or otherwise of particular reconstructions of protolanguages). ALEC is sometimes presented as a “finding”: “a central finding of linguistics has been that all languages, both ancient and modern, spoken by both ‘primitive’ and ‘advanced’ societies, are equally complex in their structure’’ (Forston 2004: 4). However, references to where the “finding” was made are never supplied. The intellectual pedigree of ALEC is often claimed to go back to Edward Sapir, but Sapir does not seem to have made such a statement in print. Some of the statements he did make, in fact, make it clear he did not subscribe to ALEC. In the following passage, for instance, Sapir is at pains to stress the lack of correlation between complexity of culture and of language, but he strongly implies that languages can diver in their complexity:
Shared decision-making: The implications for health care teams and practice
Authors: Légaré France , Stacey Dawn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the increased emphasis on engagement of patients as partners in their care, there is a need to determine effective ways to involve them in the process by which health care decisions are made. As clinical options multiply and health-related decisions become more challenging, it is expected that patients will require more guidance to make informed decisions. At the same time, in response to the growing needs of their population and the shortage in the health care labour force, in many industrialized countries, there is also an expectation that interprofessional health care team approaches will be encouraged and developed. Consequently, the process by which patients are engaged to share their preferences and become involved in decisions with their practitioners will have to change to accommodate this new interprofessional health care environment (Coulter, 1999).
Making information available to patients and the general public: The example of ‘Informed Health Online’ from Germany
Authors: Bastian Hilda , Knelangen, Marco , Zschorlich Beate 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Informing the public about the latest evidence and strengthening patients’ autonomy in decision-making, these goals were set by legislators for Germany’s national evidence assessment agency, the Institute of Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG) (German Parliament, 2003). This remit for patients and the general public encompasses both an evidence monitoring role and a communication one (Bastian, 2008). It raises several central questions.
The role of decision aids in promoting evidence-based patient choice
Authors: O’Connor Annette M , Edwards Adrian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Health care decisions are often difficult to make. This may be because there is insufficient scientific evidence about benefits and harms or because the options have known benefits and harms that patients value differently. Among the 2500 health care interventions evaluated by the Clinical Evidence group (Clinical Evidence, 2005), 13% were classified as ‘beneficial’, 23% as ‘probably beneficial’, 8% as ‘need to weigh benefits versus risks’, 6% as ‘probably non-beneficial’, 4% as ‘probably useless or dangerous’, and 46%, the largest number, as having insufficient evidence of usefulness. Patient decision aids have been developed to supplement existing communication between professionals and patients (O’Connor et al., 2003b).
The role of internet-delivered interventions in self-care
Authors: Murray Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People with long-term conditions need a great deal of support, including access to high quality, timely information, emotional support, social support, help with making and implementing decisions, and help with adopting healthier behaviours. Self-care is an essential part of good management of long-term conditions, but poses considerable challenges for patients. In this chapter, I discuss how Internet-delivered Interventions can meet user needs and hence promote self-care.
Decision aids for preventing cardiovascular disease
Authors: Montgomery Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cardiovascular disease accounts for around 40% of all deaths in Europe and the USA, is a major cause of disability, and impacts economically through health care costs, productivity losses, and informal care of people with cardiovascular disease (Allender et al., 2008; American Heart Association 2008). Individuals at increased risk of suffering a cardiovascular event (mainly myocardial infarction or stroke) can be identified using one of several risk scoring equations derived from large cohort studies (Anderson et al., 1990; Hippisley-Cox et al., 2007). Once identified, these individuals may be offered one or more treatments known to be effective in reducing their risk of a cardiovascular event (Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration 2003; Law et al., 2003). Guidelines for assessment of cardiovascular risk and treatment strategies are available to physicians (British Cardiac Society et al., 2005; National High Blood Pressure Education Program, 2003), but such guidelines contain no explicit instructions for how individual patient preferences might be included in decisions about treatment. For asymptomatic patients in particular, for example with raised blood pressure or cholesterol, individualized estimation of the risk and availability of effective treatments can generate a difficult choice. Do they begin lifelong treatment, reducing the chances of an event that may or may not happen but with the possibility of side-effects? Or do they opt for no treatment or only lifestyle changes with more modest effects, knowing that their risk of a cardiovascular event remains higher than could otherwise be the case? And for patients with known cardiovascular disease such as atrial fibrillation, a further choice exists between treatment types, with differing effects on risks of stroke and major side-effects such as bleeding complications.
Promoting critical reflection in breast cancer decision-making
Authors: Belkora Jeff 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Breast cancer occurs when cells in the ducts or lobules of the breast begin to proliferate out of control and spread through the lymph system or bloodstream to other parts of the body, where they can interfere with vital functions, leading to death. No one knows for sure what causes breast cancer; and although survival is increasing overall and the 5-year survival rate exceeds 90% for localized disease, there is no definite cure (American Cancer Society, 2007). Breast cancer treatments are invasive and life altering. Treatment options include surgery, radiation, hormone therapy, chemotherapy, and biologic therapy. Patients and health care professionals face many other decisions about breast cancer.
A devil’s advocate: Do patients really want shared decision-making?
Authors: Price Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I inwardly groan, this is one of those Shared Decision-Making (SDM) sessions. I have five minutes before I leave for work and I have to negotiate dinner options with my wife. The other problem is that I have never had either before and I am expected to decide on something that will happen in the future with no guarantee of a successful outcome.
Information therapy: Tomorrow’s promise is happening today – an example from the commercial sector
Authors: Kemper Donald W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Information is important. And it is always been available with health care. Until now, though, health education has generally meant giving patients information ‘about’ their care. Today’s information therapy model changes the role of information in a subtle, yet defining, way. Instead of information being ‘about’ one’s care, information can be a significant ‘part’ of one’s care. Information is care. Information is therapy. Once the subtle shift is fully understood, the exceptional promise of information therapy is revealed.
Just Research in an Unjust World: Can Harm Reduction Be an Acceptable Tool for Public Health Prevention Research?
Authors: Kass Nancy E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years, two research endeavors, one international, one domestic, have been the focus of considerable ethics debate. The first was a series of HIV perinatal transmission studies conducted in the mid-1990s in resource-poor countries. The second was a lead abatement trial initiated in the early 1990s in low-income housing units in Baltimore.
Witness To Extinction
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The tragic recognition of the extinction of the Yangtze River Dolphin or baiji in 2007 became a major news story and sent shockwaves around the world. It made a romantic story, for the baiji was a unique and beautiful creature that features in many Chinese legends and folk tales. The Goddess of the Yangtze, as it was known, was also the lone representative of an entire and ancient branch of the Tree of Life. But perhaps the greater tragedy is that its status as one of the world's most threatened mammals had been widely recognized, yet despite wide publicity virtually no international funds became available. Samuel Turvey here tells the story of the plight of the Yangtze River Dolphin from his unique perspective as a conservation biologist deeply involved in the struggle to save the dolphin. This is both a celebration of a beautiful and remarkable animal that once graced one of China's greatest rivers, its natural history and its role as a cultural symbol; and also a personal, eyewitness account of the failures of policy and the struggle to get funds that led to its tragic demise. It is a true cautionary tale that we must learn from, for there are countless other threatened species that will suffer from the same human mistakes, and whose loss we shall not know until it is too late.
The Rarest Animal In The World
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Give me a child until he is 7 and I will show you the man, the Jesuits said. I must have been about 7 when I saw my first aquatic mammal. Although I grew up in Bristol, the gateway to England’s West Country, having parents of different nationalities meant that I ended up spending most of my holidays in Finland, staying at my uncle’s farm close to the Russian border in the calm summer countryside south of Savonlinna. My childhood memories are full of bright sunlight and water, the smell of the pines, and the sanctity of the forest. The nearest farm was a mile away, and the vitality of nature could be felt peering in from around the corners of the fields and whispering in the hush of the dusk.
End Game
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On New Year’s Eve 2005, Leigh drove round to see me. We had yet another major baiji funding application with an imminent deadline to work on, after all, which would take us into the coffee-fuelled small hours as usual; but we both had a good feeling about the coming year. The emergency implementation meeting in San Diego had been a success: we finally had a robust working budget, methodology, and timeframe for the project, which would allow us to push forward in making sure that things got organized out in China at last. Finally, after all the powerplay, bickering, apathy, and seemingly interminable delays, it looked like something was actually going to happen.
The Golden Channel
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whales and dolphins have not really benefited from sharing a planet with humans for the past few millennia. It seems that almost as soon as prehistoric people were able to construct craft that allowed them to take to the water, they made a point of persecuting aquatic mammals, after learning of the desirable properties of whale oil and meat from salvaged carcasses that washed up from time to time along the coast. Even before recent centuries, aboriginal hunters in many different parts of the world had become adept at killing whales that came close to land, using harpoons and hand lances deployed from kayaks, dugouts, or skin boats.
What have we learnt? Collected Fictions
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So everything’s over. The baiji is gone, and with it we have lost 20 million years of unique evolution, an entire mammal family, the top predator of the Yangtze ecosystem, the reincarnation of a drowned princess—and one of the most enigmatic and beautiful creatures on earth. This is a tragedy, but it is also more than that: it is a travesty. It is simply not true that this extinction happened so quickly that it caught us unawares.
Proteins: From Skin and Bone to Enzymes
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We will not be concerned here with biochemistry—with what proteins do in the metabolism—but rather with their structure. In the days of Mulder and Liebig the prevailing wisdom was that the proteins of the body, such as albumin and haemoglobin, were ingested, whether from steak or from spinach, ready made, requiring at most a little touching up before being put to use. This is the opposite of the truth, for proteins in our food, the principal suppliers of the body’s nitrogen, are broken down by a series of metabolic reactions. The products of this degradation are then used to make new protein and other molecules of life. But animal and plant proteins are constructed along the same lines from the same twenty L-amino acids.
Present and Future: Where will it end?
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have arrived now at the almost limitless ways in which polymers, natural and synthetic, enter, often unseen, into the fabric of modern life, and of what they may do for us in the future. Many of the most enterprising developments come from the scrutiny of the materials and processes of life, for why should we not look for inspiration from the products of aeons of evolutionary trial and error? Biology-inspired chemistry and physics has been given the name biomimetics, and we will encounter many examples of its successes, and indications of its widening promise.
Seven Concepts of Creation
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first thesis is this. It is important for Plato, Broadie maintains, that the Demiurge should work on pre-existent matter. Otherwise there would not be a sufficient distinction in creation between the cause and the product. In the biblical account of creation there is a sharp distinction between the creator and the created because the creator is divine and the creature is not. But for Plato ‘the empirical cosmos, even though a made thing and a perceptible one, is literally itself a god, an appellation it shares with the god who made it from matter ‘. Pre-existent matter is therefore an essential part of the narrative if creation is not to collapse into some kind of pantheism, in which ‘either the cause-entity has evolved into what we were calling the product ... or the cause-entity constitutes the product ‘.