bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Starch
Authors: Whistler Roy L. , Daniel James R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractStarch is the principal food reserve of plants and is commercially derived from grains and tubers. Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides (glucans). The smaller of the two, amylose, is essentially a linear polymer composed of α‐D‐glucopyranosyl units linked (\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${1{\rm{\longrightarrow }}4}$\end{document}). The larger polymer is amylopectin which contains α(\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${1{\rm{\longrightarrow }}4}$\end{document}linkages and α\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${1{\rm{\longrightarrow }}6}$\end{document}) branch points. These polymers occur naturally in small structures known as starch granules. Many of the chemical and physical properties of starch depend on its granular nature.Starch hydrolysis leading to molecular fragments varying from large molecular weights down to small oligosaccharides andD‐glucose may be accomplished by acids, enzymes, or a sequence of the two. Commercially important sweeteners, corn syrup and high fructose corn syrup, are produced by starch hydrolysis and in the case of HFCS its partial isomerization. Less severe acidic treatment produces acid‐modified (thin‐boiling) starch. Other common starch modifications include pregelatinized and oxidized starch.Because of the high number of hydroxyl groups, starches may be chemically derivatized to produce hydroxyalkyl starch ethers, cationic starches, starch phosphates, and starch acetates. Depending on the derivative and the degree of substitution, these starches may have various food and nonfood uses. In foods they are used to thicken, gel, or otherwise control texture, whereas in nonfood uses they are important as sizing and finishing agents in both paper and textiles.
Steam
Authors: Bellows James 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Steam is the most important industrially used vapor and, after water, the most common and important fluid used in chemical technology. It can be generated by evaporation of water at subcritical pressures, by heating water above the critical pressure, and by sublimation of ice. Steam is used in electric power generation; for driving mechanical devices; for distribution of heat; as a reaction medium; as a solvent; as a cleaning, blanketing, or smothering agent; and as a distillation aid. Steam not only has high latent heat, moderate density, and nonpolluting properties, but also provides easy control of temperature in processes and heating application.
Steam is generated from water by boiling, flash evaporation, and throttling from high to low pressure. The phase change occurs along the saturation line with the specific volume of steam larger than that of the boiling water. Thermal energy (heat of evaporation) is absorbed during the process. At the critical and supercritical pressures, the water–steam distinction disappears. The thermodynamic and physical properties of pure steam are well established over the range of pressures and temperatures used. Corrosion of containment materials and purity of water are important to steam production.
Stilbene Dyes
Authors: Smith Roy E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractStilbene dyes of importance are mostly direct yellow dyes for cellulosic fibers, especially paper. There have been several red and blue stilbene‐containing dyes reported but none have been developed to commercial importance. There are brown leather dyes which are stilbene‐based.Most stilbene dyes are derived from 4‐nitrotoluene‐2‐sulfonic acid which is oxidized under alkaline conditions to 4,4′‐dinitro‐2,2′‐stilbenedisulfonic acid, which can be further condensed to yellow dyes or reduced to 4,4′‐diamino‐2,2′‐stilbenedisulfonic acid. The latter can be tetrazotized and coupled to yield dyes of reasonably definitive structure. 4,4′‐Diamino‐2,2′‐stilbenedisulfonic acid is more important as an intermediate for fluorescent brighteners than for dyes. Dyes produced by alkaline condensation of 4‐nitrotoluene‐2‐sulfonic acid or 4,4′‐dinitro‐2,2′‐stilbenedisulfonic acid are listed as a subclass of azo dyes. Those dyes derived from coupling the tetrazo of 4,4′‐diamino‐2,2′‐stilbenedisulfonic acid are listed as regular azo dyes.Since 1980 activity has been reported in all known areas of stilbene dye chemistry, but it is minuscule compared to other dye chemistries. There were reports of using 4,4′‐diaminostilbene‐2,2′‐disulfonic acid as a bridging group in reactive dyes and one report of stilbene participating in the chromophore. Basic dyes reported were made by coupling the tetrazo of 4,4′‐diaminostilbene and quaternizing.The most important stilbene dyes are those known for more than fifty years. The commercial importance of Direct Yellow 11 (1883), Direct Orange 15 (1888), Direct Yellow 4 (1886), and Direct Yellow 106 (1936) attests to the value, properties, and durability of stilbene yellow dyes.
Carbon, Survey
Authors: Long J. C. , Criscione J. M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElemental carbon, atomic number six in the periodic table, at wt 12.011, occurs naturally throughout the world in either its crystalline (more ordered) or amorphous (less ordered) form. Carbonaceous materials such as soot or charcoal are examples of the amorphous form, whereas graphite and diamond are crystalline. Carbon atoms bond with other carbon atoms as well as with other elements, principally hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, to form carbon compounds, which are the subject of organic chemistry. In their many varying manufactured forms, carbon and graphite can exhibit a wide range of electrical, thermal, and chemical properties that are controlled by the selection of raw materials and thermal processing during manufacture. There are two allotropes of carbon: diamond and graphite. A wide variety and range of bulk carbon forms are available within the industry. In general, commercial forms are loosely characterized as carbon or graphite, but they are distinctly different. The termmanufactured carbonrefers to a bonded granular carbon body whose matrix has been subjected to a temperature typically between 900 and 2400°C.Manufactured graphiterefers to a bonded granular carbon body whose matrix has been subjected to a temperature typically in excess of 2400°C. Natural graphite has been known since the Middle Ages, but carbon was first fabricated by H. Davy in his experiments on the electric arc in the early 1800s. The manufacture of artificial graphite came about only at the end of the nineteenth century, preceded by developments in the fabrication of electrodes.A useful form of graphite is a flexible sheet or foil. Carbon–graphite foam is a prime candidate for thermal protection of new, emerging carbon–carbon aerospace reentry vehicles. Pyrolytic graphite produced in massive shapes is used for missile components, rocket nozzles, and aircraft brakes for advanced high performance aircraft. Glassy, or vitreous, carbon is a black, shiny, dense, brittle material with a vitreous or glass‐like appearance. Carbon and graphite paper has outstanding electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and moderately high strength.
Styrene‐Butadiene Rubber
Authors: Lattime Richard R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLattime, Richard R. (The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.). Although produced in the 1990s, emulsion styrene–butadiene rubber (ESBR) only gained its manufacture prominence and acceptance as the substitute for natural rubber as a result of World War II. In the 1950s, the discovery of alkyllithium compound initiators gave stereospecific copolymers of styrene and butadiene. Control of the polymer microstructure of random solution styrene–butadiene rubber (SSBR) gave enhanced tire properties of improved rolling resistance, wet traction, and improved treadwear. SSBR began to displace ESBR in some tire applications in the early 1960s. ESBR and SSBR combine in the mid‐1990s to give the largest‐volume synthetic polymer manufactured, amounting to about 29% of the world consumption of all synthetic rubber.Although both ESBR and SSBR processed somewhat differently from natural rubber, both polymer types were quickly adapted to the common rubber processing machinery. Recipes include the typical vulcanizing agents, accelerators, accelerator activators, pigments, softeners, and antidegradents. Worldwide production of styrene–butadiene rubber increased 7% from 1994 to 1995; projected growth through 1999 is 11%. This increase in a historically flat market is the result of increasing scarcity of natural rubber as plantations continue to be taken out of production. Tires remain the largest market for ESBR and SSBR, accounting for 80% of the total. At the end of 1995, rubber and tire manufacturers were required to comply with a section of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 to report emission information of identified hazardous air pollutants specific to their operation.
Styrene Plastics
Authors: Fumagalli Carlo 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSuccinic acid and succinic anhydride occur frequently in nature. Their chemical behavior is characterized by the reactivity of the two carboxylic functions, ie, hydration/dehydration, esterification, hydrogenation, acylation, and reactions with nitrogen and sulfur compounds, as well as of the two methylene groups, ie, oxidation, halogenation, and condensation with aldehydes and ketones. Succinic anhydride is manufactured by liquid‐phase catalytic hydrogenation of maleic anhydride; succinic acid by hydration of the anhydride. The acid is also obtained as a by‐product in the manufacture of adipic acid. The total consumption of succinic acid and succinic anhydride in 1993 was in the 13,000–15,000 t/yr range; combined installed capacity is about 20,000 t/yr in 1994. Uses include bath preparations, detergents, cosmetics, pigments, fluxes for soldering, and reagents for the synthesis of pharmaceutical products. An important emerging use is the production of inherently degradable polymers. Succinic acid is an approved food additive having FDA generally‐recognized‐as‐safe status. Both the acid and the anhydride are irritating to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes.
Sugar, Sugar Analysis
Authors: Godshall Mary An 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSugar analysis includes the determination of sucrose in raw sugar, along with other quality factors such as moisture, ash, and color, for trading purposes. It also includes the determination of reducing sugars in products of sugar manufacture and the determination of sugars in foods in general. Polarimetry, commonly called polarization in the industry, is the most widely used method for sugar analysis in commerce, and copper reduction methods are still commonly used for reducing sugars. Newer methods, such as chromatography, both gas and liquid, enzymatic technology, and near infrared spectroscopy have many advantages and are being used with greater frequency, especially for food and nutrition labeling and for process control in manufacturing.
Sugar, Sugar Derivatives
Authors: Khan Riaz , Konowicz Paul A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSucrose is an important food commodity. Its potential as a raw material for chemicals has long been recognized, but the actual commercial success has been limited. Significant progress toward the understanding of its chemistry has been made in recent years. This has led to the development of such commercial products as sucralose, a high intensity sweetener; sucrose fatty acid esters as food additives or emulsifiers and surfactants; and Palatinit and Actilite as noncariogenic bulk sweeteners.The application of reactions such as esterification, etherification, sulfonylation, SN2 displacement reactions, halogenation, oxidation, and amination has resulted in a large number of well‐characterized sucrose derivatives. The potential of these derivatives as biologically active materials, polymer intermediates, food additives, as well as other industrial applications, awaits development.
Sugar Alcohols
Authors: Lawson Mary E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe chemical, physical, and biological properties as well as the functional applications of sugar alcohols (polyols) are discussed in this article. Sugar alcohols are derived from sugars by catalytic hydrogenation to reduce an aldehyde or a ketone group of a sugar to a hydroxyl group. The sugar alcohols are classified as monosaccharide and disaccharide alcohols, with further subclassification of the monosaccharide alcohols according to the number of carbons they contain: tetritols, ie, erythritol; pentitols, ie, xylitol; and hexitols, ie, sorbitol and mannitol. The disaccharide alcohols discussed include maltitol, lactitol, and isomalt.Unlike the corresponding sugars from which they are derived, sugar alcohols have the advantages of anticariogenicity (ie, they do not cause tooth decay), insulin‐independent metabolism, and lower caloric values. These properties have led to the use of sugar alcohols in a wide variety of sugar‐free applications, such as chewing gum, hard candy, chocolate coatings, and bakery.
Sulfur Removal and Recovery
Authors: Capone Michael 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe removal and recovery of sulfur species is practiced to limit sulfur emissions to the environment and for larger sulfur capacities, to recover a valuable sulfur product. The most common applications are the removal of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide and subsequent conversion to elemental sulfur. Many processes have been developed for the recovery of each of these sulfur species, typically consisting of one or more of the following steps: adsorption of the hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide on a solid; absorption of the sulfur species into a solvent via chemical reaction or physical gas–liquid solubility; and conversion of hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide to elemental sulfur. Other, nonconventional processes are being developed such as thermal cracking of hydrogen sulfide to produce sulfur and hydrogen.
Sulfolane and Sulfones
Authors: Clark Earl 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfolane is a colorless, polar, water‐soluble, 4‐carbon, cyclic sulfone having exceptional chemical and thermal stability. Applications for sulfolane derive mainly from its polar solvent characteristics. It is used as a solvent or solvent component for aromatics extraction, gas treating, and extractive distillation processes, as well as a solvent for polymerizations and chemical reactions. It is also useful in plasticizer, electronic, and textile‐related specialty applications. Sulfolane is relatively chemically inert and exhibits low toxicity by all modes of administration. The chemical is available commercially in the anhydrous form or containing 3 wt % deionized water as a freezing point depressant. Other sulfones of commercial significance are also discussed. These include sulfolene, dimethyl sulfone, diiodomethylp‐tolylsulfone, 4,4′‐dihydroxydiphenyl sulfone, and bis(p‐chlorophenyl) sulfone.
Sulfurization and Sulfurchlorination
Authors: Duncan Michael P. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The mechanisms for the reaction of sulfur with alkanes and unsaturated compounds are highly speculative, but generally, unsaturated compounds are much more reactive toward sulfur than alkanes. Sulfur reacts with mercaptans in the presence of basic catalysts, forming polysulfides. Sulfur monochloride and sulfur dichloride react with both unsaturated materials and mercaptans. Sulfurized and sulfurchlorinated unsaturated compounds and mercaptans are used as lubricant additives, refinery catalyst regeneration compounds, steel processing aids, and vulcanization catalysts. Manufacturing methods for sulfurization of unsaturated compounds and mercaptans and for sulfurchlorination of unsaturated compounds or mercaptans are given. These products are normally considered nonhazardous.
Sulfur Dyes
Authors: Senior J. , Guest R. A. , Wood W. E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfur dyes are used mainly for dyeing textile cellulosic materials or blends of cellulosic fibers with synthetic fibers such as acrylic fibers, polyamides (nylons), and polyesters. They are also used for silk and paper in limited quantities for specific applications. Solubilized sulfur dyes are used on certain types of leather. From an application point of view, the sulfur dyes are between vat, direct, and fiber‐reactive dyes. They give good to moderate lightfastness and good wetfastness at low cost and rapid processing.The quality of sulfur dyes has greatly improved mainly because well‐defined organic compounds are used as starting materials. Owing to better techniques, sulfur dyes have good storage stability and fastness properties, and are generally easily adaptable to modern dyeing methods. In the 1980s and 1990s, reduction of sulfide levels has been achieved.Properties, classifications, structure, manufacture, applications, economic aspects, health and safety factors, and uses are all discussed.
Sulfur Compounds
Authors: Weil Edward D. , Sandler Stanley R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfur is a component of many compounds. Carbon sulfides, thiophosgenes, trichloromethanesulfenyl chloride, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen polysulfides (sulfanes), sulfur halides and oxyhalides, sulfur nitrides, sulfur oxides, sulfur oxygen acids and their salts, thiocyanic acid and its salts, methanesulfonyl chloride, and methanesulfonic acid are all discussed, along with properties, manufacture, shipment and storage, economic aspects, analytical methods, grades and specifications, health and safety, and uses.
Supercritical Fluids
Authors: Dixon David J. , Johnston Keith P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA supercritical fluid is characterized as a gas that is pressurized and heated to a compressed fluid state, which is above both the critical pressure and temperature of the gas. In this state, density and subsequently solvent strength are highly adjustable by modest changes in temperature and pressure. Complex phase behavior and interactions with materials can occur. This behavior can be examined experimentally and described successfully by molecular thermodynamics. Carbon dioxide and water are two substances used frequently as supercritical fluids. The former, which may be used independently or in the presence of various cosolvents, is predominantly used because of its environmentally benign nature and low cost. The latter is used because of its efficiency in destroying hazardous aqueous pollutants. Numerous supercritical fluid processes have been commercialized, including coffee and tea decaffeination, supercritical water oxidation, supercritical fluid chromatography, and the UNICARB spray coating process. Process research and development involving supercritical fluids are progressing in many diverse areas, including extraction of food, pharmaceuticals, or pollutants; fractionation of oils or polymers; biocatalysis or polymerization reactions; and material reformation or modification.
Surfactants
Authors: Lynn Jesse L. , Bory Barbara H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe term surfactant is a contraction of surface‐active agent. Surfactant has become universally accepted to describe organic substances having certain characteristic features in structure and properties. The term detergent is often used interchangeably with surfactant. As a designation for a substance capable of cleaning, detergent can also encompass inorganic substances when these do in fact perform a cleaning function. More often, detergent refers to a combination of surfactants with other substances, organic or inorganic, formulated to enhance functional performance, specifically cleaning, over that of the surfactant alone. Surfactants are characterized by amphipathic structure, solubility, adsorption at interfaces, orientation at interfaces, micelle formation, and functional properties. Each is discussed, as are uses, production, and economic aspects.
Surface and Interface Analysis
Authors: Pemberton Jeanne E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSurfaces are formed in the transition from one state of matter to another, whether the two phases are chemically distinct or not. Thus, surfaces exist at interphases or interfaces between two phases of either the same or different materials. Many important chemical processes occur at solid–solid, solid–liquid, solid–gas, liquid–liquid, liquid–gas interfaces.The chemical, structural, and electronic characteristics of surfaces and interfaces are usually different from those of the bulk phase(s). Thus, methods to be used for the analysis of surfaces must be selective in response to the surface or interfacial region relative to the bulk. Surfaces and interfaces are most commonly explored using techniques based on the interaction of photons, electrons, or ions with the surface or using a force such as electric field or Van der Waals attraction. These excitations generate a response involving the production of photons, electrons, ions or the alteration of a force that is then sensed in the analysis.A plethora of characteristics of surfaces and interfaces can be analyzed using a staggering variety of techniques.Several methods utilizing photons as the exciting and detected species are commonly employed such as transmission ftir spectroscopy, diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (drift), infrared reflection‐absorption spectroscopy (irras), Raman spectroscopy, surface enhanced Raman scattering (sers), or sum‐frequency generation (sfg).Electrons are used for excitation and detection in the various electron microscopy methods for surface visualization and imaging. Techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (sem), field emission scanning electron microscopy (fe‐sem), transmission electron microscopy (tem), and scanning transmission electron microscopy (stem), the electron diffraction methods for the determination of surface atomic structure [low energy electron diffraction (leed), reflected high energy electron diffraction (rheed)], and the electron energy loss spectroscopies for evaluation of surface electronic and chemical characteristics [electron energy loss spectroscopy (eels), high resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (hreels), and core level electron energy loss spectroscopy (ceels)] are discussed. Ions produced by electron‐stimulated desorption are measured in electron‐stimulated desorption ion angular distribution (esdiad). If neutralization of an incident ion beam is measured by surface electron ejection, the technique of ion neutralization spectroscopy (ins) results.Ions can also be used as both the excitation and detection species in several surface analysis techniques which are also discussed.
Coating Processes, Survey
Authors: Cohen Edward D. , Gutoff Edgar B. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Coating process technology is used to produce a wide variety of products, such as surface coatings to protect houses, bridges, and automobiles; packaging materials to store food; adhesives for use in labels; photographic films; optical and magnetic media for audio and visual use data storage; glossy paper for magazines; and printing plates. The coating machine, which produces the coated web, has several steps. The web is unwound and transported through the coater, then a coating applicator applies the coating which is then solidified, and finally the web is rewound. The coating machine can also contain devices to modify the surface properties, to clean the web, to measure coating weight, and to laminate a second web to the structure.
Many of the commercially available coating applicators are described, including units for simultaneous multilayer application, for discrete coating, and for patch coating. While convection drying is emphasized, brief descriptions of conduction and infrared heating, as well as of uv and electron‐beam curing, are given.