bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
HEV systems
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When incorporating both of the ICE and electric motor, the vehicle is usually known as the hybrid EV (HEV). This HEV is actually not a new idea. A patent by Pieper in 1905 delineated that a battery-powered electric motor was used to boost the acceleration of an ICEV (Wouk, 1995; Bates, 1995). What exactly is a HEV? The definition available is so general that it anticipates future technologies of energy sources. As proposed by Technical Committee 69 (Electric Road Vehicles) of the International Electrotechnical Commission, a HEV is a vehicle in which propulsion energy is available from two or more kinds or types of energy stores, sources or converters, and at least one of them can deliver electrical energy. Based on this general definition, there are many types of HEVs, such as the petrol ICE & battery, diesel ICE & battery, battery & fuel cell, battery & capacitor, battery & flywheel, and battery & battery hybrids. However, the above definition is not well accepted. Ordinary people have already borne in mind that a HEV is simply a vehicle having both an ICE and electric motor.
Introduction
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The infinite has to be a relative concept. Go any distance: an infinite space means that there is more to explore. The end is never reached. Could the universe be like that?
The notion that the universe could be infinite has excited extreme views. To some, the concept of an infinite universe is horrifying. The chances of creating intelligent life may be infinitesimal, but they are finite. It happened at least once! In an infinite universe replicas of us are inevitable. There would be identical copies of ourselves replicating every action, every word, somewhere. This seems hard to accept. But this is hardly a good scientific reason for abandoning an infinite universe. Indeed, modern astronomy tells us that the infinite universe may be more than just a metaphysical concept. Physics may even require the universe to be infinite. And if it were actually infinite, would we ever know? I shall argue that there are means of exploring both a very large but finite and conceivably even an infinite universe. If the universe is topologically small – that is, very large but finite in volume – there may be clues to be unlocked in such observables as the fossil radiation left over from the Big Bang. In contrast, exploration and verification of an infinite universe is not far from the voyages of science fiction, but arguably lies in the realm of physics.
Space Is Nearly Flat
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our understanding of cosmology appears to be converging towards the idea that the universe is infinite. The geometry of the universe is close to Euclidean. Space is three-dimensional. In Euclidean space, parallel lines always stay parallel and continue to infinity. This means that in a two-dimensional analogy, the universe is as flat as a sheet. But a sheet, mathematically, is infinite. As goes the plane, so goes the universe.
In fact, we can never prove that space is precisely Euclidean or flat. The best we can hope for is to demonstrate that space approximates flatness. The universe may be very, very large, but we could never prove that it is infinite. Rather than try to measure its size, we can measure its geometry. This is a local measurement and one might imagine that it could be easier to implement, at least in principle, than a global measurement of space curvature.
The Panacea of Cold Dark Matter
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the matter in the universe is dark. In contrast to dark energy, we can ‘see’ dark matter because it clumps as structure forms. Dark matter is detectable. And it amounts to about a third of the total massenergy density of the universe.
The cosmic mass budget is best expressed with respect to the critical density for a universe that is spatially flat, the Einstein–de Sitter model. This density only depends on Hubble’s constant, which is now known to reasonable precision. The critical density is 200 billion solar masses per cubic megaparsec. It is useful to compare this number with the density of starlight. We can express this in units of the luminosity of the sun, and it amounts to a hundred million solar luminosities per cubic megaparsec. If the universe were at the critical density, the ratio of mass to luminosity would be 1000 solar masses per solar luminosity. This gives a clear prediction for the closure of the universe.
The Seeds of Structure
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The primeval universe was a fireball of radiation, with the odd particle occasionally interspersed. There was no structure, and no boundary, no preferred location or direction.
How did galaxies arise out of this cosmic fireball? The connection with the present-day universe can be understood by studying the structure of the universe on the largest scales. All the matter we see today was once within a sphere of radius 1 centimetre at a mere 10-43 of a second after the Big Bang. But how did it get so big? And why is it so uniform? Inflation, introduced in the previous chapter, provides the key.
Inflation, you will remember, is the name coined by cosmologists for a brief instant during the very early universe when the volume of space underwent an exponential increase. Inflation is the panacea for all, or almost all, of the puzzles that have plagued modern cosmology since the time of Georges Lemaître, the first physical cosmologist.
Introduction and overview
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Soft condensed matter (or soft matter, for brevity) is a convenient term for materials in states of matter that are neither simple liquids nor crystalline solids of the type studied in other branches of solid state physics. Many such materials are familiar from everyday life-glues, paints, and soaps, for example-while others are important in industrial processes, such as the polymer melts that are moulded and extruded to form plastics. Much of the food we eat can be classed as soft matter, and indeed the stuff of life itself shares the qualities of mutability and responsiveness to its surroundings that are characteristic of soft matter. We are ourselves soft machines, in William Burroughs’ apt phrase, and the material we are made of is soft matter. In more precise terms, the materials we are discussing include colloidal dispersions, where submicrometre particles of solid or liquid are dispersed in another liquid, polymer melts or solutions in which the size and connectivity of the molecules lead to striking new properties, such as viscoelasticity, which are very different to those of a simple liquid, and liquid crystals, where an anisotropic molecular shape leads to states with a degree of ordering intermediate between a crystalline solid and a liquid.
Polymers
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Polymers and polymer solutions and mixtures form a large and important class of soft condensed matter. Polymers may be synthetic in origin; plastics such as polystyrene and polyethylene are polymers, as are the components of many glues, fibres, and resins. Many materials of biological origin are also composed of polymers; examples of biologically important polymers include proteins, nucleic acids such as DNA, and polysaccharides like starch. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are often major components in complex composite materials, both natural and artificial, such as glass-reinforced plastic, wood, and tissue. Despite the very wide variety of different properties of polymers that arise from the different chemistry that makes them up, many of their physical properties have universal characteristics: these characteristics are a result of generic properties of long, string-like, molecules. An example of such a generic property is the fact that two molecules cannot cross one another; this leads to the effect of entanglement, which produces dramatic viscoelastic effects in polymer melts and solutions. Surprisingly, it proves possible to construct remarkably simple and general theories to account
Soft matter in nature
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until quite recently almost all the examples of soft matter that were of economic or practical importance were derived from living things. Foodstuffs, for example, are typically systems of colloidal or polymeric character, whose transformations by cooking processes are often best understood in terms of concepts such as those discussed in this book. Materials such as glues and paints were derived from natural products by simple processing techniques carried out on a craft scale; later industrial-scale processes, some still used, extensively modify natural polymers to produce products with less obvious relation to their natural origins. Examples include the modification of cellulose from tree pulp to produce cellophane sheets and rayon fibres, and the use of animal bones and skin to produce gelatin, which apart from its food use is still the main vehicle for photographic emulsions. In the early days of colloid science and polymer science many of the objects of study were essentially biological in origin. The second half of the twentieth century saw an increasing divergence between polymer and colloid science, on the one hand, and biology on the other. The invention of synthetic polymers and the massive growth of the plastics industry were accompanied by a parallel growth of polymer physics as a subject focused on synthetic rather than natural polymers, while the discovery of the genetic code and the development of protein crystallography led to a new discipline of molecular biology, whose research prograrnrne, pursued with spectacular success and intellectual confidence, concerned itself with rather different issues.
Renormalization
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei , Li Ling-Fong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This gives the result that at the one-loop level (L = 1) the degree of divergence D = 4, independent of the external lines. It implies that the number of derivatives in the counterterms should be four or less. The term with two derivatives is just the term in the original Lagrangian.
Quantum gauge theories
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei , Li Ling-Fong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This means that the zero norm states in ℋ2
will not contribute to physical matrix elements and all important physics are contained in the space ℋ3. The presence of ℋ1
and ℋ2
is to maintain the Lorentz and gauge invariance. This is exactly analogous to the Gupta-Bleuer quantization formalism of QED.
Introduction
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) is a spectroscopic method for determining the structure and dynamics and the spatial distribution of paramagnetic species. Such species with at least one unpaired electron are often chemically reactive. Compounds with transition metal ions feature prominently as catalysts in different branches of chemistry, and free radical intermediates are observed in many organic reactions and in one-electron transfer processes. In nature, transition metal catalysis is realized by a number of metalloproteins and free radical intermediates play a central role in photosynthesis Paramagnetic defects and impurities in crystals and glasses can influence the electrical and optical properties of a material even at low concentrations. They can also be used as spin probes, for example, to obtain insight into solid-state dynamics and phase transitions. Finally, stable free radicals such
Classical description
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce the magnetization vector picture for the description of pulse EPR experiments. The motion of magnetization vectors under the influence of static and oscillatory magnetic fields is described by the classical Bloch equations, which also consider relaxation in a phenomenological way. The behaviour of the macroscopic electron spin magnetization during and after resonant and off-resonant m.w. pulses is examined. This provides the basis for a discussion of the free induction decay FID after a single m.w. pulse.
Nuclear modulation effect II: advanced methods
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic nuclear modulation experiments described in Chapter 10 are easy to implement and the interpretation of the results is supported by a vast body of both general and system-specific data analysis procedures. Nevertheless, due to inherent lineshape distortions and sensitivity problems or a lack in resolution, they may not yield optimum nuclear frequency spectra for many paramagnetic species. In this chapter we introduce a number of advanced methods which were designed to eliminate these shortcomings. We start with methods that provide more faithful ESEEM lineshapes, in particular for disordered systems, by avoiding deadtime and blind-spot artifacts(§ 11.1). Sensitivity problems are addressed by experiments which can enhance modulation depths across the whole spectrum, for peaks related to a certain nuclear species, or for peaks close to the frequency of weak r.f. irradiation (§11.2). Soft ESEEM experiments based on two-frequency or field-step ELDOR approaches overcome excitation bandwidth limitations in the detection of large nuclear frequencies and may also lead to considerable modulation depth enhancements(§11.3). We then describe three ID reductions of the HYSCORE experiment which provide improved lineshapes for disordered systems or access to combination peaks with a higher resolution than two-pulse ESEEM (§11.4).
Multi-frequency EPR
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both EPR and nuclear frequency spectra are most easily interpreted in the high-field limit where the electron or nuclear Zeeman interaction are the dominating interactions in the relevant spin Hamiltonian. On the other hand some pulse EPR experiments such as nuclear modulation techniques can only be applied if field-independent interactions have the same order of magnitude as the nuclear or electron Zeeman interaction. Due to the broad range of frequencies covered by the zero-field splittings and the hyperfine and nuclear quadrupole interactions in paramagnetic species, such situations of strong mixing between different interactions are quite common in EPR. The extent of mixing varies with the external field and for this reason the spectra obtained by pulse EPR experiments depend strongly and in a non-trivial way on the choice of the m.w. frequency. Furthermore, the m.w. frequency also determines the time scale of the dynamic processes which manifest in a change of the EPR lineshape or influence relaxation times.
Genetic approaches to the estimation of dispersal rates
Authors: Rousset Frarn;ois 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter reviews current methods for the estimation of dispersal rates from genetic data, based on models of neutral and selected markers. The causes of their inferred failures are discussed, with a more detailed investigation of difficulties raised by long-distance dispersal. It is emphasized that studies at a local geographical scale are more likely to yield valuable estimates. It should be possible to define more efficient and reliable methods, particularly when it is possible to sample from most subpopulations connected by dispersal at a local scale.
Inbreeding, kinship, and the evolution of natal dispersal
Authors: Perrin Nicolas , Goudet Jérôme 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Using analytical tools from game theory, we investigate the relevance of a series of hypotheses concerning natal dispersal, focusing in particular on the interaction between inbreeding and kin competition, as well as on the components of mating and social systems that are likely to interfere with these phenomena. A null model of pure kin competition avoidance predicts a balanced equilibrium in which both sexes disperse equally. Inbreeding costs have the potential to destabilize this equilibrium, resulting in strongly sex-biased dispersal.
Habitat selection by dispersers: integrating proximate and ultimate approaches
Authors: Stamps Judy A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Behavioural research is shedding new light on the complex relationships between the proximate mechanisms involved in habitat selection and the selective pressures that may have contributed to the evolution of those mechanisms. Habitat selection by dispersers can be divided into three stages (search, settlement, and residency); recent studies suggest that the adaptive significance of behaviour at each of these stages may differ from the assumptions of traditional habitat selection theory.
Perspectives on the study of dispersal evolution
Authors: Rance Ophelie , Olivieri Isabelle , Clobert Jean , Danchin Etienne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we stress the gaps in our knowledge about dispersal evolution and suggest several promising research directions. (i) Both empirical and theoretical studies illustrate how different causes may result in the evolution of dispersal behaviour. Integrative approaches that study the interactions between these causes are, however, rare. Theoretical expectations must be clarified by a careful comparison of existing models and their specific assumptions.
Dispersal in theory and practice: consequences for conservation biology
Authors: Macdonald David W , Johnson Dominic D P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dispersal is a fundamental parameter of population processes. In small and isolated populations, linked only when individuals are able to disperse between them, it becomes a particularly critical one which ultimately determines whether a species will become extinct. Predictions for these populations are limited because estimates of dispersal variables from the field are difficult to obtain and therefore scarce.
The Bedrock Problem: Why We Need Renormaliz Ation Methods
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have pointed out in the Preface, the term renormalization comes from quantum field theory and is usually thought of as being the prerogative of that discipline. As a result, renormalization is seen by many as probably being difficult, esoteric, and highly mathematical. Yet, the basic concept is older than quantum theory of any kind and was first developed in classical physics.
Strong Imagination
Authors: Nettle Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Madness is the central mystery of the human psyche. Our minds evolved to give us a faithful understanding of reality, to allow us to integrate into our communities, and to help us adapt our behaviour to our environment. Yet in serious mental illness, the mind does exactly the opposite of these things. The sufferer builds castles of imaginative delusion, fails to adapt, and becomes a stranger among his own people. Yet mental illness is no marginal phenomenon: it is found in all societies and all historical epochs, and the genes that underlie it are quite common. Furthermore, the traits that identify the madman are found in attenuated form in normal thinking and feeling. The persistence of madness, then, is a terrible puzzle from both an evolutionary and a human point of view. In A Midsummer Night's Dream, Shakespeare suggested a link between madness and artistic creativity: 'The lunatic, the lover, and the poet', he wrote, 'Are of imagination all compact'. Recent studies have shown that there is indeed a connection. Rates of mental illness are hugely elevated in the families of poets, writers and artists, suggesting that the same genes, the same temperaments, and the same imaginative capacities are at work in insanity and in creative ability. Thus the reason madness continues to exist is that the traits behind it have psychological benefits as well as psychological costs. In Strong Imagination, Daniel Nettle explores the nature of mental illness, the biological mechanisms that underlie it, and its link to creative genius. He goes on to consider the place of both madness and creative imagination in the evolution of our species.
Quantum Transport, Anderson Localization
Authors: Imry Yoseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Bloch–Boltzmann quasiclassical theory of electronic transport in lightly disordered conductors has been quite successful in describing the impurity and temperature dependences of the conductivity in ordinary relatively pure conductors. Further transport properties such as magnetoconductivity, Hall effect, thermal conductivity, and thermopower can also be handled, often with success. However, when the amount of disorder (or impurity concentration) becomes very large, novel phenomena occur which are unexplainable within the weak-scattering theory. In particular, the temperature dependence of the resistivity, ρ,becomes much weaker and eventually changes direction for high enough disorder (Wiesmann et al.1977). The Mathiessen rule, according to which the contributions to ρdue to disorder and temperature are additive, thus breaks down. An extremely interesting correlation was found by Mooij (1973), namely, that dp/dTbecomes negative when ρbecomes larger than a value ranging around 80–180 ¼ Ω cm in something like a hundred disordered dirty systems. This almost “universal” trend must have an explanation which is only weakly dependent on material properties, and we remember that dp/dT &gt; 0 alwaysin weak-scattering theory.
Mesoscopic Effects in Equilibrium and Static Properties
Authors: Imry Yoseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will be devoted to mesoscopic effects which are not necessarily related to nonequilibrium or transport phenomena. Most of our discussion in the rest of this chapter will be concerned with electronic effects, often with fluctuations from sample to sample. We shall start here, however, by briefly reviewing more general finite-size effects due to ordinary thermodynamic fluctuations.
Such fluctuations are usually negligible in the “thermodynamic limit,” as far as their contributions to, for example, intensive properties, or to the O(N)part of extensive ones are concerned. However, thermodynamic fluctuations may play an important role in special situations where large length scales exist in the system. We mention here two of these: the elimination of certain types of long-range order (and, therefore, phase transitions) in low-dimensional systems and the effects of finite sample sizes on regular phase transitions. There are several varieties of the former effects.
Mesoscopics With Superconductivity
Authors: Imry Yoseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of what we have considered in mesoscopics has had to do with phase-coherent effects of normal electrons. Each electron retains phase coherence over the length Lϕand different electrons in the energy band of a width kB Taround the Fermi energy display a similar interference pattern over the length LT.The superconducting state is characterized by having a macroscopic wavefunction, retaining its coherence ideally over arbitrarily largelengths. It is of great interest to enquire how these two (normal and super) coherence effects couple with each other. This is not an obvious issue, since in the normal conductor the active charge carrier is a single electron or a hole, while in the superconductor the coherence is of the wavefunction of the condensed Cooper pairs. It is known, however, that superconductivity can penetrate into a normal metal over a length scale of LT(which has been referred to in this context as “the normal metal coherence length, ξN”l.2). This is the well-known proximity effect (e.g., Deutscher and de Gennes 1969). Two superconductors can quite generally be correlated with each other and exchange a supercurrent through a normal metal barrier which can be LT(or Lϕ,see section 5) long. This is called “a superconducting weak link” (e.g., Likharev 1979). It is akin to (but not exactly the same as) the usual Josephson effect, which occurs via tunneling through a thin insulating barrier.