bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Afterword: From Feminism to Feminisms
Authors: Caine Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The quiet, sometimes imperceptible, ebb and flow of feminist activities which continued more or less from the First World War until the late 1960s was dramatically altered by the advent of the Women’s Liberation movement in the early 1970s. This movement exploded onto the public and media stage in Britain in 1970 with the staging of a demonstration against a Miss World beauty competition in London.1 Just as the beauty contestants were lined up on stage in front of Bob Hope, ‘a posse of ill-kempt women, who contrasted bizarrely with the gloss and glamour of the occasion, burst onto the stage mooing like cows, blasting whistles, whirring football rattles and bearing placards with the titles “Miss-conception”,... “Miss-treated”,... “Miss-placed”,... and “Miss-judged”’.2 They threw flour-, smoke-, and stink-bombs, and leaflets at the stage, from which Bob Hope and the judges immediately fled, followed by a crowd of tearful beauty queens. Order was finally restored by the police who arrested five of the miscreants.
Patriotism Restored, 1757-1770
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The years between the formation of the Pitt Newcastle ministry and the appointment of Lord North as Prime Minister had a shattering effect on the political stability associated with the early Hanoverian reigns. The dominant personalities of these years, Pitt, Bute, and George III, were all in some measure com mitted to the patriot creed evolved by the opponents of the Walpole and Pelham regimes. They did not, in the event, succeed in initiating a new erq of patriotic harmony; they did, however, transform the nature of party pol£tics. Initial y, the public response. to their declared ideals was euphoric. No less striking was the popular enthusiasm for the military successes of the Seven Years War. Thereafter, disillusion and dissent set in. The accession of a new king resulted in the humiliation of the Whig magnates who had dominated government for half a century. It also fed fears of royal favouritism and a sinister influence ‘behind the curtain’. The ensuing years were marked by recurrent political controversy and an almost permanent sense of instability and crisis. In America and in India the legacy of the war and the imperial intervention which it stimulated brought a host of problems. At home the turbulent career of John Wilkes testified to a new spirit of challenge and criticism, threatening to render Englishmen as ungovernable as their colonial compatriots. The aim of the well-intentioned patriots who had created this state of affairs was to restore the ancient liberties and conventions which the corruption of early Hanoverian government had supposedly violated; paradoxically their achievement was to change the language and the substance of politics in directions that were very largely novel, and for most of those involved by no means welcome.
Conclusion: Lineage and Commemoration
Authors: Saul Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If monuments can be said to bring us closer to the commemorated, then the monuments at Cobham, Lingfield, and elsewhere bring us very close to the Cobhams. The surviving tombs and brasses to the family—totalling some two dozen in all—are notable as much for their distinctiveness as for their near-uniformly high quality. The assumption underlying this study is that by attending closely to their witness we can learn something of the hopes and anxieties of those they commemorate.
Virgin Queens: Abbesses and Power in Early Anglo-Saxon England
Authors: Ortenberg Veronica 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Seta Eormenhild virg’; ‘scta Sexburga virg’: thus do Anglo-Saxon calendars, litanies, and various other liturgical, narrative and hagiographical texts describe several women, ex-queens or royal widows who retired to monasteries after divorcing their husbands or after their husbands’ deaths. I have long been struck by the deliberate choice of ‘virgo’, ‘virgines’, to designate women who were clearly anything but virgins, technically speaking. It is true, of course, that ‘virgo’ can just mean ‘(young) woman’; however, there can be little doubt, in view of the context and the way the word is deployed, that the intended sense in these cases was indeed ‘virgin’.
The Strange Affair of the Selsey Bishopric, 953-963
Authors: Wormald Patrick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the middle of the tenth century, just before the eruption of the crisis which has for a millennium been considered (somewhat optimistically) a ‘Tenth Century Reformation’, two curious things happened in the English Church. First, there was an unparalleled outburst of bishops with the name Brihthelm. The best-known was briefly archbishop of Canterbury in 959 before being elbowed out in a shameless putsch by Edgar and Dunstan. There also seem to have been Brihthelms at London (c.951-7), Wells (?956-73/4), and Winchester (958/9-63), while (an)other(s) feature(s) in documents of 956-7, first as ‘bishop elect’ and then with no title. Most important for present purposes, a Brihthelm appears as bishop of Selsey in two charters of 956 and 957, one highly questionable, the other not above suspicion but of great importance: yet he is not in the Selsey episcopal list, which offers no name between a bishop whose last attestation was in 953 and one whose dated debut was 963.
Unity, Order, and Ottonian Kingship in the Thought of Abbo of Fleury
Authors: Peden Alison 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the turn of the year 996-7 the emperor Otto III asked Gerbert of Aurillac, in exile at the imperial court from the archbishopric of Reims, to ‘fan our spirit with the flame of your knowledge’ and to ‘explain to us the book on arithmetic’-the de luxe copy of Boethius, DeArithmetica made for Charles the Bald which Gerbert is thought to have presented to Otto. It is not just the academic interests of the young emperor that are notable, but also their implications for our understanding of the Ottonian vision of political unity and imperial order. Henry Mayr-Harting has demonstrated the fundamental importance of art as an articulation of Ottonian reflection on the regime;3 his new work on the scholarship of Cologne shows that engagement with the liberal arts was considered a vital element of rulership of any kind: lordship over a part of the cosmos requires understanding of its structure, values, and ultimate destiny.
Ranulf Flambard and Christina of Markyate
Authors: Moore R I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This image of action, however, may prove deceptive. Closer readings of the vitae of eleventh-century reformers reveal that while they may have been ‘men of action’ negotiating their way through tumultuous events rather than holy men of contemplation, they were inevitably acted upon by the authors of their Lives. Although this is true of all Christian hagiography where rhetorical and other needs led biographers to claim any number of fictitious deeds, it is important to take into account how the special circumstances of eleventh-century reform may have animated these authors.
The Letter-Writing of Archbishop Becket*
Authors: Matthew D J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historians constructing accounts of Becket's dispute with Henry II make extensive use of the lives written after his martyrdom. Traces of this hagiography inevitably resurface in even the most secular of writers. It may seem impossible now to recover a sense of the affair as it appeared in Becket's lifetime, when no one prominent in the controversy divined his potential for sanctity. His own letters do, however, offer a direct view of him through pre-martyrdom sources, and although they have been used to fill out the details of the exile, they have not hitherto been studied as a group.
Introduction
Authors: Kerr David S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent years have seen a resurgence of interest in the history of political caricature. While cartoons continue to enliven the pages of general histories, where they are too often presented rather uncritically as limpid reflections of popular feeling towards the events or personalities lampooned, specialists in political culture have begun to treat caricature in a much more sophisticated manner. Scholars have analysed the nature of the genre and its place in the political process, focusing less on caricature’s descriptive or illustrative function than on its prescriptive role in the creation of political imagery and the formation of public opinion.’ To be effective, such studies must be grounded upon a firm knowledge of the identity and motivation of both artist and audience. This study is an attempt to lay the foundations for an appreciation of the place of caricature in the political culture of the July Monarchy, by assessing the means by which it was produced and distributed, the manner in which caricaturists responded to current events, the nature and scope of their public, and the relationship between caricature and other forms of contemporary political-cultural discourse.
Domesday and Title to Land
Authors: Roffe David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Executive Processes Come in many different forms, but none is entirely bureaucratic. Some accounts of the workings of royal government in Angevin England give the impression of a smoothly running engine which only rarely missed a stroke and then was quickly adjusted by an omnipresent ministering justice. But the most cursory reading of court procedures reveals a reality of muddle, misunderstanding, and incompetence.
‘What was best of every language’: the early history of the Irish language
Authors: Russell Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ten years after the dispersal of the languages from the Tower of Babel (Nimrod’s Tower), Fénius Farsaid was asked by the school in Egypt to abstract a language from the many languages then in existence. That language was assigned to Góıdel mac Aingin meic Glúinfind meic Láimfind meic Agnumain of the Greeks and was thus called Góıdelc‘Irish’.
The Irish church, 800–c.1050
Authors: Hughes Kathleen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ireland at the beginning of the ninth century was a stable society, and the church was well established. The country had absorbed one major foreign element, Christianity, and integrated it with her own legal structure and to some extent with her own culture. Churches had been set up all over Ireland, living off the land like the raths of secular lords, the major monasteries having churches within their paruchiaemuch as a had his subkings.
Coins and coinage in pre-Norman Ireland
Authors: Kenny Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The third, apart from its starting-point, is considerably less so. The periods and approximate dates are as follows: first, the coinless period, until the end of the ninth century; second, the ‘Anglo-Saxon’ period, from the end of the ninth to the end of the tenth century; and third, the ‘Hiberno-Norse’ period, from the end of the tenth to the middle of the twelfth century. Although the third period has been traditionally referred to as ‘Hiberno-Norse’ in numismatic textbooks, it must be emphasised that this is largely for convenience purposes.
Latin learning and literature in Ireland, 1169–1500
Authors: Scott A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may well be argued that there is nothing to survey; that writings in Latin among the Gaelic Irish had already become infrequent and quite devoid of any literary interest well before the establishment of the Anglo-Norman colony, and that Anglo-Norman society itself produced little that could be called literature. What survives is mostly philosophy and theology, with some canon law, annals, and hagiography. More important, none of this body of writings is united by having any Irish or Celtic characteristics. FitzRalph’s ‘Summa de questionibus Armenorum’ or Thomas of Ireland’s ‘Manipulus florum’ were written by members of the Anglo-Irish colony who had become part of the intellectual world that embraced England and western Europe.
A Rational Degree of Pain
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 16 July 1734 Johann Schmid, accused of theft, was brought to the town hall in Brunswick to be interrogated by the investigating judges. Despite being confronted with the evidence of his crime, he denied all the charges brought against him. On the advice of the Law Faculty at Wittenberg University, the judges therefore decided to put Schmid to the torture.
The Wheel the Sword, and the Axe
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 16 September 1800 the city of Berlin was treated to the unusual spectacle of a woman being broken with the wheel. As was normal in such cases, members of the public were allowed into the ‘poor sinner’s parlour’ during the period between the delivery of the verdict and the day of execution. ‘The crowds’, it was reported, ‘were so great that milita1y assistance was already required the day before the execution to prevent disorder.’
The Third Reich and its Executioners
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the Nazis came to power in 1933, a widespread debate began in judicial circles on which method of execution would be most appropriate in view of the new principles of penal policy being enacted in the Third Reich. At this time traditional methods of execution were still widespread in Germany. The handheld axe was still used in most of Germany, including Prussia, while the guillotine was employed in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Saxony, Thuringia, Bremen, Oldenburg, and Hesse. The axe was frequently condemned abroad as barbaric, and was felt by some influential figures to be something of a propaganda gift to foreign enemies of the Third Reich, even though it had been widely used under the Weimar Republic.
From Execution to Extermination
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A series of decrees gave concrete form to this principle. Many of them involved the application of the death penalty. Up to the outbreak of war in 1939, it has been calculated, the Third Reich had sentenced some 664 people to death and executed about the same number. This was already a huge increase on the performance of previous regimes in modern German history. But now the death penalty was extended even further. The war provided the occasion for its application to a wide variety of new offences. On I September 1939, for instance, the premeditated spreading of ‘news, broadcast by foreign radio, which is designed to undermine the resistance of the German people’ was made punishable by death in especially serious cases. Similarly, anyone convicted of ‘publicly’ attempting to ‘subvert or cripple the will of the German or of an allied people to military selfassertion’ was also made subject to the death penalty. The term ‘publicly’ was soon given an extremely wide interpretation by the courts.
‘1n the Interests of Humanity’
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As far as the administration of the law was concerned, the Soviet zone of occupation was initially established on the same basis as the others, with a Soviet Military Administration controlling Soviet military tribunals which could try German and other civilians, and a revived German judicial system with jurisdiction over Germans alone, run by the five federated states into which the zone was divided. The German population was subject to roughly the same restrictions and regulations as in the West, with the Red Army’s primary concern to prevent any resurgence of Nazism. The Soviet military tribunals held a substantial series of war crimes trials, and also operated severe sanctions, including the death penalty, against any Germans who looked like resisting the military occupation, against anyone committing common murder, and above all against Nazi war criminals. All this was roughly comparable to what went on in the West.
The Heavenly City of the French Revolutionaries
Authors: Hampson Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By way of preface, I should like to emphasize as vigorously as I can that what follows is not intended to suggest that the French Revolution was all about the construction of a heavenly city or a New Jerusalem. Authentic—and radical—revolutionaries like Danton would have ridiculed any such idea. Even the most ideologically inclined were also practical politicians who were concerned about their victory—and personal survival—in a singularly bloody arena. As politicians, they had to deal with concrete problems and to accommodate such pressures as they did not have the resources to resist, which often arose from economic causes. From start to finish the Revolution existed in three dimensions: political, economic, and ideological. In one sense each of these constituted an autonomous force but each reacted upon the other two and was influenced by them, so that the particular form of each was partially shaped by the simultaneous existence of the three.
Finland: The Male Domination*
Authors: Heikkinen Antero , Kervinen Timo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Finland made up the eastern part of the kingdom of Sweden. Its population of about 300,000 to 400,000 persons was concentrated in southern and south-western Finland and along the coast. Farming was the main means of living. In the south and along the coast corn was cultivated in fields, elsewhere slash-and-burn agriculture predominated. With the exception of Turku and Viipuri, Finnish towns remained very small, partly due to strict mercantilist legislation which limited the activities of most towns, especially from the beginning of the seventeenth century. Only a few, such as Turku, were allowed to engage in foreign trade. Other towns had to export their products through them, or through Stock- holm.
Romania 1866–1947
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the mid-nineteenth century until the Second World War, the energies of Rumanian political and intellectual élites were absorbed by the building of their nation. In this comprehensive and scholarly study Keith Hitchins traces these complex processes and explores how Rumania's leaders attempted to transform the ideology of modern nationhood into strong political, economic, and social institutions and to find ways of preserving independence in an international political and economic order dominated by the great powers. As the new Rumania took shape, the threads of historical continuity remained strikingly evident: in government a strong administrative centralization prevailed, despite the maturing of parliamentary institutions and the diversity of political expression; the national economy remained beholden to agriculture, despite the steady growth of industry; and in cultural life traditional values persisted, despite the adoption of modern forms. In foreign relations the most pressing aim was to unite all Rumanians in a single state and to defend its sovereignty within an uncertain international order. In all these endeavours, the measure of achievement was the West. After the Second World War, when the Communist Party came to power, this historical continuity was broken. The experiment in nation-building gave way to a new ideology, and Rumania now turned to the Soviet political and economic model.
Introduction
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE title of this book has been chosen quite deliberately: it is English Reformations. It is not The English Reformations. That would claim that the only English Reformations which ever were took place in the Tudor period, and suggest that they formed a complete and effective process. But the various (and varied) Reformations in sixteenth-century England were haphazard and had only limited success, at least by comparison with Protestant aims: they did not make Church or people emphatically Protestant, and there remained much still to be done. There were to be later energetic attempts at more complete Reformation: in the mid-seventeenth century, when more Protestant forms of Church government and worship were proposed; and in the late eighteenth century, when Methodists and Evangelicals offered a more fervent faith to those whose Protestantism was nominal or minimal. So the book is not a study of the once-and-for-all English Reformations. Rather, it examines some English Reformations, some of the campaigns to change the constitution of the national Church and the beliefs of its people; it asks how they happened, what they achieved, and why they were unable to do more.
Problems and Persecution, 1553–1558
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE first official sermon of Mary’s reign provoked trouble at St Paul’s Cross. It was preached by Gilbert Bourne, one of Mary’s chaplains, on 13 August 1553. Some of the crowd objected to his prayer for souls departed, or to his condemnation of Edward’s government for its imprisonment of Bonner—which, despite the popularity of Bonner’s release, may not have been tactful three days after Edward’s funeral. ‘There was a great uproar and shouting at his sermon, as it were like madpeople, what young people and women as ever was heard, as hurly-burly and casting up of caps’, wrote Henry Machyn in his diary. The Privy Council took the view that Protestant agitators were responsible, and it may have been right: leading Protestant clergy were suspiciously on hand to calm the mob, and the alleged ringleaders were soon arrested. The lord mayor and aldermen were warned to keep better control, and there was a round-up of Protestant preachers. On 20 August Thomas Watson preached on the obedience of subjects and the wickedness of false teachers, with ‘all the crafts of London in their best livery, sitting on forms, every craft by themself, and my lord mayor and the aldermen, and 200 of the guard, to see no disquiet done’.
Legislation and Visitation, 1558–1569
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ON 17July 1558 Thomas Bentham wrote from London to the leaders of the Protestant exiles on the Continent. He was minister of the underground Protestant congregation in the city, still grappling with the problems of living under a Catholic regime. He reported on the continuing persecution, and asked for advice: ‘Whether the professors of the gospel may prosecute their right and cause in any papistical court?’, and whether they might pay tithes to avoid prosecution for refusal. Bentham was planning for the survival of a beleaguered minority, with little realistic hope for a change in its fortunes. There had recently been raging thunderstorms in the Midlands, which he took ‘to be a token of God’s great displeasure for sin’. The suffering of the godly and the signs of divine wrath were clear enough to Bentham. ‘And yet men, for the most part, were never more careless nor maliciously merry than they are now. God amend them!’ There was no sign of Catholic collapse, no suggestion that Mary’s Church might be in terminal decline. He did not know, and he did not expect, that in four months the trials of the Protestants would be over and their political triumph at hand.
Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099-1291
Authors: Tibble Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Using contemporary sources, especially the chronicles of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Steven Tibble studies the relationship between monarchy and nobility in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. He argues that the relative power of the seigneuries has been substantially overstated, and that the monarch exercised far more control over the baronage and feudal structure, particularly in the twelfth century, than has hitherto been recognized.