bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fire‐resistant coatings for roof/ceiling deck timbers
Authors: Richardson L. R. , Cornelissen A. A. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractLaboratory tests demonstrated that the intumescence resulting from application of some proprietary flame‐retardant paint and coating systems to timber planks could reduce char formation in the planks by as much as 70% during the first 30 min of exposure to ASTM E–19 fire conditions. Applications of these coating systems to the exposed surfaces of planks used in construction of heavy timber building assemblies should increase the fire resistance of these components by at least 30 min. This would represent a significant increase in the fire resistance of heavy timber roof systems and could extend the use of this type of construction system to many of the non‐residential buildings for which building code authorities presently require fire resistance ratings greater than 1 h.
Fire‐Resistant joints in gypsum wallboard
Authors: Richardson L. R. , Venasse R. G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractIn situations where joint failure in the protective gypsum membrane is critical to the fire resistance of the system, wallboard manufacturers recommend application of two layers of wallboard with joints in the face layer staggered with joints in the backerboard. Unfortunately, the additional weight load that a second layer of wallboard imposes on the building assembly renders the technique impractical in some situations. Two examples are wallboard ceilings attached directly to wood joist or wood truss floor systems or suspended by hanger wire to steel furring channels below these floor systems. Small‐scale laboratory tests demonstrated that the installation of steel ‘Tee’ strips in the finished joint between adjacent gypsum wallboard panels significantly increased the resistance of the joint to passage of fire and hot gases. Use of these strips in the construction of gypsum wallboard protected building systems should provide a significant increase in the fire resistance of the entire assembly without greatly increasing the weight load imposed upon the assembly.
Classification of reaction‐to‐fire of decorative high‐pressure laminates (HPL)
Authors: Probsthain K. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractDecorative high‐pressure laminates (HPL) are used in many applications where their reaction‐to‐fire is of particular interest. They form finishes of walls and ceilings in buildings, ships and vehicles. Due to the different specifications and regulations in these fields, different grades of this largely standardized material have been tested worldwide with similar results. As a consequence, German and French building regulations state decorative high‐pressure laminates to be generally admissible on a minimum level without individual testing. This survey indicates their generic suitability in other fields, e.g. to have ‘low flame‐spread characteristics’ according to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.
Toxicity of the combustion and decomposition products of polyurethanes
Authors: Prager F. H. , Kimmerle G. , Maertins T. , Mann M. , Pauluhn J. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe acute toxicity by inhalation of polyurethane combustion and decomposition products was investigated by means of animal experiments. The results demonstrated that previous regulative and normative approaches which are based on the chemical nature of the materials tested and the analytically determined concentration data for major fire gas components are inconsistent with the research findings set out in TR 9122 of ISO TC92 SC3. The animal experiments, which complied with the test and assessment criteria put forward by the experts of ISO TC92 SC3 ‘Toxic Hazards in Fire’, provided convincing evidence that the overall toxic potency of the decomposition products released by polyurethane foam and PU coatings under comparable fire conditions was the same as for wood or wool. It was found that the acute toxic hazard potential of combustion gases is determined by the concentration of toxic components in the fire effluents (which in turn depends on the quantity of material burned in unit time) and by local conditions. This means that all parameters capable of affecting the combustion process are critical.
Effects of metallic coating on the combustion toxicity of engineering plastics
Authors: Larsen James B. , Nelson Gordon L. , Williams Brian K. , Spencer Eric G. , Spencer Lisa M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractExperiments were conducted on 34 plastic materials having a variety of metallic coatings to determine the toxicity of their thermal decomposition products. Mice were exposed for 30 min in a dome exposure chamber to the products obtained by ramp‐heating the samples from 200°C to 800°C. An LC50 value was obtained for each material. Postmortem examinations were conducted on all dead mice, and on survivors after 14 days, to determine the gross pathological effects of exposure; particular attention was devoted to pulmonary pathology. The exposure protocol chosen has been extensively criticized, but it is very useful to study the effects of stress on mice, which was the most important part of this work. Experiments were made involving unrestrained mice in groups of four, restrained mice in groups of four and unrestrained single mice. The LC50 values for single unrestrained mice were greater, by factors of 2–3, than those for four restrained mice, with the differences being shown to be statistically significant. This suggests that stress on the test animals will tend to reduce the LC50 values in bench‐scale smoke toxicity tests. The LC50 values for all of the materials tested were equal to or higher than the value of 8 mg1−1 representative of the contribution of carbon monoxide to post‐flashover fires. Moreover, no ‘supertoxicants’ were found in the smoke of any of the materials tested. Finally, the coatings did not adversely affect the smoke toxicity of the substrate materials by a factor higher than 2–3 in any of the cases investigated. Uncoated polyethylene was the most toxic substrate material tested (LC50 = 16 mgl−1) and uncoated NORYL® resin was the least toxic (LC50 = 91mgl−1). Metallic coatings involving Cu, Ni, graphite, and Zn typically had no statistically significant effect on the smoke toxicity of the substrate materials, although Ni coatings increased the smoke toxicity of ABS I and of white polycarbonate structural foam, by factors of 2–3. Overall smoke toxicities were well correlated with production of carbon monoxide (r=0.84) and carbon dioxide (r=0.82); oxygen levels and chamber temperature did not vary beyond acceptable limits. The materials tested generating the more toxic smokes (including polyethlene, polystyrene, and several polycarbonates) produced severe lung damage at low concentrations. The LC50 of these materials was also typically greater than predicted on the basis of CO production. Other materials (including several coating on NORYL® resin and Lexan® polycarbonate) produced pulmonary damage at higher concentrations amd had LC50 values more closely correlated with CO production. None of the polyurethane materials tested produced severe lung damage at the concentrations employed.
Fire‐hazard assessment of extended‐chain polyethylene and aramid composites by cone calorimetry
Authors: Brown J. R. , Fawell P. D. , Mathys Z. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA cone calorimeter is used to determine the fire performance of polymer composite materials containing combustible reinforcing fibres in addition to combustible matrix resins. Extended‐chain polyethylene and aramid fibre‐reinforced composites containing epoxy, vinylester and phenolic matrix resins are examined at various cone irradiances. Values for time to ignition, rate of heat release, effective heat of combustion, smoke density and evolved carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are reported for the reinforcements, matrix resins and composites. The reinforcements have a significant effect on the fire‐hazard properties of the composite materials. For the epoxy and vinylester composites, times to ignition reflect those of the component of higher ignitability. This was not the case for the aramid‐reinforced phenolic composite, in which the resin surface layer hinders combustion of the fabric reinforcement. Resin and reinforcement contributions to the composite rate of heat release behaviour as a function of time are generally discernible.
Evaluation of residual fire endurance of concrete slabs after fire exposure
Authors: Hsiung Kuang‐Hua , Chang Weilin P. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractOne of the important factors that must be considered in evaluating the integrity of structures for further use after exposure to fire is whether the fire endurance of specific structural elements or a structural assembly has been reduced to a value less than that required by the building code. While a building may appear to remain structurally sound after a fire, its structural members' fire endurance may have been impaired to the extent that occupancy cannot be permitted. Re‐usability of concrete structures after fire is of economic concern to the owner, especially when there is no visible damage to the structural members. The objective of this research is to conduct a small‐scale pilot study and use statistical analysis to investigate the possible cause‐and‐effect relationships of three factors on the residual fire endurance: exposure severity, recovery conditioning method, and recovery conditioning time lapse. This research provides information for predicting fire endurance loss of concrete slabs after exposure to fire and, as a consequence, for making decisions on the re‐usability of the structure. The research results indicate that once the concrete slabs (102 mm thick, no reinforcement and no load) are exposed to a standard fire for more than 30 min their fire endurance will decrease by at least 20%.
Describing product fire performance—manufacturers' versus modelers' needs
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis 
Published: December 2004

AbstractTraditional fire test methods have not required interpretation—pass/fail or a single number was recorded. New methods, such as the Cone Calorimeter or the furniture calorimeter, produce a large array of scientifically based data for each product tested. Thus, the issue of data selection and presentation becomes quite important in being able to adequately utilize such results. The new test methods were first developed and popularized by persons associated with fire‐modeling activities. Not surprisingly, the initial developments of data analysis and presentation techniques were such as to be suitable for fire scientists. The tasks of fire scientists, however, are generally different from those of the producers, specifiers of useres of various products. These latter classes of users are normally not interested in test diagnostics, portability of data, analysis of environmental effects, etc. Instead, they are intersted primarily in questions such as: Is product A better than product B and, if so, by how much? These are entirely proper questions and their answers are essential to correct specification and use of products. In this paper details of variables useful to both classes of individuals are compared and contrasted. Recommendations are made as to certain variables which are essential for the product maker/specifier/user and which could form the basis of standard product specification formats.
Fire performance studies on glass‐reinforced plastic laminates
Authors: Scudamore M. J. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractPolyester, epoxy and phenolic glass‐reinforced laminates were compared in terms of their fire properties in the cone calorimeter. The presence of a gel coat on the polyester and epoxy products had some effect, mainly in the FR grades. The FR polyester with a brominated flame retardant showed a marked decrease in rate of heat release and in rate of smoke production. Aluminium hydroxide (commonly called alumina trihydrate of ATH) caused a significant delay in ignition time for the epoxy product and some reduction in rate of heat release but rate of smoke release was still relatively high. Phenolic laminates showed a long ignition time and relatively low rate of heat release (RHR). The peak RHR was further reduced by the presence of aluminium hydroxide and by changing the type of glass reinforcement. The influence of thickness was explored for a series of phenolic laminates in both cone calorimeter and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) surface flammability test. Ignition delay time was significantly affected and the cone calorimeter results showed that the shape of the RHR curve was also changed as the thickness increased. However, the heat release measurements in the IMO test were not sensitive enough to pick up the differences in this property. The type of substrate under the laminate significantly altered the burning rate but this may have been because they were not glued or mechanically fixed.
Use of zone models on simulating compartmental fires with forced ventilation
Authors: Chow W. K. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractPerformance of three fire zone models BR12, CCFM.VENTS and CFAST in simulating forced ventilation fires with low heat release and high ventilation rates were studied experimentally. A fire chamber of length 4.0 m, width 3.0 m height 2.8 m with adjustable ventilation rates was used. Burning tests were carried out with wood cribs and methanol to study the preflashover stage of a compartmental fire and the effect of ventilation. The mass loss rate of fuel, temperature distribution of the compartment and the air intake rate were measured. The heat release rates of the fuel were calculated from the measured mass loss rate. The smoke temperature was used as the validation parameter. A scoring system is proposed to compare the results predicted by the three models. An empirical expression for calculating the smoke temperature is assessed. Lastly, the Computational Fluid Dynamics technique is also used for comparing the simulated fire environment.
Fire performance of external wall claddings under a performance‐based building code
Authors: Wade Colleen 
Published: December 2004

AbstractNew Zealand Building Code Performance requirements relating to fire performance of external walls are considered and methods of evaluating the potential for vertical fire spread are discussed. Classifying external wall claddings on the basis of performance in the ‘combustibility’ test has proved overly restrictive where some external cladding materials are concerned. Performance criteria based on heat relase or ‘degree of combustibility’ are proposed and they seem to provide a better classification scheme for external wall cladding materials. Heat release test data for ten different external wall cladding materials are presented.
Mechanistic study of the combustion behaviour of polymeric materials in bench‐scale tests. I. Comparison between cone calorimeter and traditional tests
Authors: Costa L. , Caminio G. , Bertelli G. , Borsini G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe behaviour of three typical thermoplastic polymers—polypropylene (PP), polyamide 6 (PA‐6), ABS and PP mixed with inert talc or fire retardant magnesium hydroxide or melamine—was assessed in the Cone Calorimeter and in traditional widely used tests. It is seen that the evaluation of the relative fire hazard of the materials, based on simple parameters, can be very different depending on the test used, particularly in the presence of additives. From this point of view, the Cone Calorimeter introduces an additional evaluation which might be as arbitrary as that obtained with any other test. For example, melamine, which is currently used as a fire retardant in several polymers, may be considered as a fire‐hazardous additive in PP burned in the Cone Calorimeter if only the maximum of rate of heat release is considered. The data discussed here indicate that the use of the Cone Calorimeter for simple evaluation of materials requires further investigation. It is hown that the Cone Calorimeter is a very promising tool for mechanistic studies on combustion and fire retardance, when its potential in terms of quantitative description of the whole combustion is fully used.
The generation of CO in bench‐scale fire tests and the prediction for real‐scale fires
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis 
Published: December 2004

AbstractCarbon monoxide (CO) is the single most important factor associated with deaths in fires; thus, predictions of CO developed in fires is an essential aspect of fire quantification. It is considered crucial to have correct CO prediction methods for post‐flashover fire stages, since, in the United States at least, the majority of fire deaths are associated with fires which have gone to flashover. In this paper it is shown that the yiels of CO observed in real‐scale fires are generally not related to either the chemical nature of the material being burned nor to the yield observed for the same material in bench‐scale testing. Instead, the generation of CO in real‐scale fires is determined largely according to the oxygen available for combustion, with thermal conditions of the fire plume also playing a significant role. This behavior is in sharp contrast to many other material fire properties, including yields of gases such as CO2 and HCI, which can be predicated for real‐scale fires from bench‐scale results. Finally, results from various studies completed thus far indicate how effective prediction of real‐scale CO yields may be accomplished. While bench‐scale measurements are not necessary to predict real‐scale CO, bench‐scale toxic potency measurements can be in error if the CO component in them does not reflect on the real‐scale CO yield. Thus, a method is developed whereby the bench‐scale toxic potency measurements can be computationally corected to better approximate the toxic potencies measured in real‐scale, post‐flashover room fires. These techniques will, undobtedly, be further refined as additional experimental results become available.
Metallurgical analysis of post‐crash fire evidence
Authors: Morin Charles R. , Bouldin Peter C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis paper is based upon an actual post‐crash investigation of a high‐performance single‐eingine aircraft that crashed in mountainous terrain resulting in a post‐crah fire. A detailed metallurgical study of the fuel system separations was undertaken to identify which fittings or fuel lines had suffered mechanical damage during the initial impact sequence and which had been damaged by the post‐crash fire or in subsequent handling of the wreckage. This paper discusses some of the basic metallurgical theories used in failure analyses of aluminum alloy components involved in post‐crash fire studies. Its primary purpose is to discriminate between thermal effects of fire and mechanical overload, specifically for fuel system components. Metallurigical characterisitics cause certain specific signatures of ‘witness marks’ in mechanically induced speartions and different features in post‐crash fire separations. Discussed are frequently observed metallurgical sigantures that may be used to evaluate post‐crash, post‐fire damage. Based on the metallurgical evidence and the principles described in this paper, it was obvious that the root cause of damage to these fuel system components was either thermal exposure during the post‐crash fire or breakage after the fire during handling of the wreckage. Therefore, it was concluded that the fuel system components described herein had not been compromised during the inital impact, but rather had released fuel only after the post‐crash fire. These principles can be utilized in similar investigations but it is important to recognize the chaotic nature of seveeere crashes and the wide range of possible damage features that may result. Each investigation must, of necessaity, be based upon both basic principles and an overall assessment of the quality of the evidence as well as the need to resolve what may appear to be conflicting or questionable features of the available evidence.
The role of flame flux in opposed‐flow flame spread
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Wetterlund Ingrid 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe flame spread process is driven by the net heat flux to the specimen surface, including the flux from the flame itself. This flame flux is important since it comprises a major part of the driving force causing flame fluxes were obtained. The values which are reported do not appear consistent and show more deviation among materials than would be anticipated. The most common fire test used for obtaining engineering data on flame spread (ASTM E 1321) also is not formulated in terms of flame flux as a driving force. This motivated an experimental programme, whereby six materials have been studied using the flame spread geometry of the ASTM E 1321 test, but with additional instrumentation for recording heat fluxes. The flame fluxes obtained experimentally in this study show much less variation among materials than the comparable data from the literature survey.
Finite element simulation of three‐dimensional free‐surface flow problems with dynamic contact lines
Authors: Walkley M. A. , Gaskell P. H. , Jimack P. K. , Kelmanson M. A. , Summers J. L. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractAn arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE) finite element method is described for the solution of three‐dimensional free‐surface flow problems. The focus of this work is on extending the algorithm to include a dynamic contact line model allowing the fluid free surface, in the steady case, to form a prespecified static contact angle with a solid boundary and, in the transient case, to move along the solid boundary. This widens the applicability of the algorithm to important industrial applications such as forced spreading of fluids and gravity‐driven flow on inclined surfaces. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Cholesterol‐derivatized polyurethane: Characterization and endothelial cell adhesion
Authors: Stachelek Stanley J. , Alferiev Ivan , Choi Hoon , Kronsteiner Allyson , Uttayarat Pimporn , Gooch Keith J. , Composto Russell J. , Chen I‐Wei , Hebbel Robert P. , Levy Robert J. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractEndothelialization of synthetic surfaces has been challenging with limited success thus far. We investigated the hypothesis that covalent attachment of cholesterol to polyurethane via the urethane nitrogen groups would create a high‐affinity surface for attachment and adhesion of endothelial cells. Cholesterol was covalently bound to the polyether polyurethane, Tecothane®, by first derivatizing the polyurethane nitrogen groups with bromoalkyl side chains, followed by reacting mercapto‐cholesterol to the bromoalkyl sites. Cholesterol‐modified polyurethane demonstrated a qualitatively smoother surface per atomic force microscopy than nonmodified and increased surface energy (contact angle measurements) compared with unmodified polyurethane. Cell attachment assays showed a significantly greater number of attached bovine arterial endothelial cells (p = 0.0003) after 45 min of seeding on cholesterol‐modified polyurethane versus unmodified polyurethane. Bovine arterial endothelial cells cultivated on cholesterol‐modified Tecothane® showed significantly greater levels of cell retention compared with unmodified Tecothane® when exposed to arterial level shear stress for 2 h (25 dynes/cm2) with 90.0 ± 6.23% cells remaining adherent compared with unmodified polyurethane, 41.4 ± 11.7%, p = 0.0070. Furthermore, ovine endothelial precursors, obtained as blood outgrowth endothelial cells, were seeded on cholesterol‐modified polyurethane and exposed to 25 dynes/cm2 shear conditions for 2 h, with the retention of 90.30 ± 3.25% of seeded cells versus unmodified polyurethane, which retained only 4.56 ± 0.85% (p < 0.001). It is concluded that covalently linking cholesterol to polyurethane results in improved material properties that permit increased endothelial cell retention compared with unmodified polyurethane. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res 72A: 200–212, 2005