bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Autonomy And Independence, 129-64 BC
Authors: Grainger John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 130 BC Antiochos VII, having reduced his inheritance to order in Syria and Palestine, set off eastwards to recover that which had been lost. He was defeated and killed in the campaign which followed, and most of his army with him. The Parthian king had released Antiochos’ brother Demetrios II during the war, hoping to provoke trouble in Antiochos’ rear. Demetrios reassumed the kingship, but soon had to face rebellion and usurpation fomented from Egypt. Civil war became endemic in the remaining Seleukid lands for nearly ten years from I 29 BC.
The Provincial On The Provinces
Authors: Griffin Miriam T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a Spaniard and a Stoic, Seneca had two good reasons for being interested in the Empire and subjects of Rome. Spain was the oldest of Rome’s major provinces; Stoicism preached commitment to human society and had boasted among its adherents many champions of just rule over the provinces. Against such a background, the paucity and poverty of Seneca’s thoughts on the subject stand out all too clearly. Worse still, even these thoughts, as will appear, played little part in the foreign policy and provincial administration of his years of influence.
Seneca On Slavery
Authors: Griffin Miriam T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Seneca pleaded a powerful case for the humane treatment of slaves. He was not the first philosopher to discuss in detail the proper relations of master and slave: he himself refers to the standard topic de usu servorum that, among the Stoics, was included, along with advice on the treatment of wives and children, in their casuistical discussions of justice. These discussions are lost, but, as will appear, they probably did not contain suggestions as practical or attitudes as positive as we find in Seneca’s lengthy treatments of the problem. For Seneca does not merely condemn cruelty. He asks that slaves be regarded as individuals with different moral capacities, as potential friends whose relations with the master are based on love or respect rather than fear, generosity on one side being matched by loyalty on the other. The slave should find in the home, not only a master, but a society with responsibilities, honours, and a sense of community.
Rhetoric and Euripides Agones
Authors: Lloyd Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Euripides’ agones evoke the lawcourts not only in their structure but also in their style. The opposing set speeches which are characteristic of the agon are often, although by no means always, composed in a rhetorically sophisticated and self-conscious manner. This serves further to identify the agon as a distinct dramatic form, since this rhetorical style is much more common in the agon than in other parts of the play, and the manner that a character adopts in the agon is sometimes strikingly at variance with his or her manner elsewhere (e.g. Hippolytus in Hippolytus, Hecuba in Troades). Different views have been taken of the influence of rhetoric on Euripides, and some discussion of this topic is necessary if the style and function of his agones is to be understood.
Early Agones: Alcestis, Medea, Hippolytus, Andromache
Authors: Lloyd Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The agon in Euripides has been discussed so far in this book largely in terms of features which the agones in different plays have in common. It is now time to investigate more closely the relationship of the various agones to the individual plays of which they are parts. Four comparatively early agones can conveniently be treated together from this point of view: those in Alcestis, Medea, and Hippolytus, and the agon between Hermione and Andromache in Andromache. These scenes all involve two persons rather than the three usually involved in later agones, and the opponents in all four cases are closely related to each other. In Alcestis, a son prosecutes his father and concludes by rejecting him, while in Hippolytus father prosecutes son and concludes by sending him to his death. In Medea, a wife confronts her faithless husband, while in Andromache a wife attacks her husband’s concubine. There are parallels in the dramatic contexts of the agones in Alcestis and Medea as well as an interesting contrast of style, while there are many points of similarity between the agones of Hippolytus and Andromache as an innocent defendant uses rhetorical expertise in the futile attempt to convince an irratio.
Political Debates: Heraclidae, Supplices, Phoenissae
Authors: Lloyd Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The agones in Heraclidea, Supplices, and Phoenissae form a distinct group, with more features in common with each other than with any of Euripides’ other agones. In the first place, there is no obscurity about the relation of the agon to the action in any of these three plays. Demophon, Theseus, and Eteocles are confronted with strongly worded demands which are backed up by the threat of force; their rejection of these demands leads directly to armed conflict. The failure of debate to achieve reconciliation is itself an important theme in these three plays, since there is still the possibility of agreement when the agones begin. Elsewhere in Euripides, the agon tends to be detached even from the possibility of influencing the action.
Spartan Policy and Strategy in the Archidamian War
Authors: Brunt P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The avowed aim of the Spartans in 431 was to liberate the subjects of Athens (2.8.4; cf. 1.139.2);but, according to Thucydides, their truest motive for making war was the growth of Athenian power and the fear it inspired which forced them to fight (1.23.6), and the Spartans voted for war in 432 ‘not so much persuaded by the speeches of their allies as because they were afraid that the Athenians would acquire greater power, for they saw that the larger part of Greece was already subject to them’ (1.88). Thucydides indeed held that the Spartans were normally reluctant to enter on wars, ‘unless they were forced into them’, a condition that in his view was now fulfilled; they at last resolved to check the Athenians when ‘their power was patently growing and when they were striking at the Spartan confederacy’ (1.118).
Christians and the Holy Places
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origins of Christian holy places in Palestine and the beginnings of Christian pilgrimage to these sites have seemed obscure. From a detailed examination of the literature and archaeology pertaining to specific sites and the region in general, the present author finds no evidence that Christians of any kind venerated 'holy places' before the fourth century. It appears that scholarly Christians had visited certain Biblical sites out of historical and exegetical concerns, but that these sites were not considered holy, or the visitors as 'pilgrims'. Instead, the origins of Christian pilgrimage and holy places rest with the emperor Constantine, who established four basilicas in Palestine c. 325-30 and provided two imperial matrons, Helena and Eutropia, as examples of a new kind of pious pilgrim. Pilgrimage to intrinsically sacred shrines had been a pagan practice, which was grafted on to Christianity. Many Jewish, Samaritan, and pagan sites were thereafter appropriated by the church and turned into Christian holy places. This process helped to destroy the widespread paganism of Palestine and mark the country as a 'holy land'. Very few sites are genuine, the most important being the cave (not Garden) of Gethsemane, in which Jesus was probably arrested.
Jewish-Christians in Palestine?
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN this chapter, we will explore the question of who the Jewish Christians were (and who they were not) and also look at literary and archaeological evidence that might testify to their presence in Palestine and Syria in the Roman and Byzantine periods. If the Bagatti-Testa hypothesis has Jewish-Christians as the conservators of holy places, does the evidence for this hypothetical group stand up to cross-examination? ‘Jewish-Christianity’ and ‘Judaeo-Christianity’ are synonymous terms used in modern scholarship to refer to a supposed religious phenomenon which spans the period from the very beginnings of Christianity to some time in the fifth century, when it is perceived to be extinct. Jewish-Christians are generally understood to have been marginalized, accepted neither by church nor by synagogue, because they intended to be both Jewish and Christian at one and the same time. One of the reasons why it has been possible for the Bagatti-Testa school to develop the hypothesis that early Jewish-Christians preserved and venerated many important Christian holy sites is the climate of uncertainty that has surrounded studies of Jewish Christianity.
Golgotha
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WE will consider here the suggestion by the Bagatti-Testa school that Jewish-Christians employed an artificial cave in the side of the Rock of Calvary and venerated the Tomb of Christ before Hadrian built a temple of Venus on the site. The fundamental question, however, is whether some of the area under the present Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem is to be identified with Golgotha of the New Testament. Christian tradition holds that this is indeed the case, and that the church of Jerusalem handed on the fact, so that when Constantine decided to build a basilica on the site, the bishop of Jerusalem, Macarius, was able to direct the builders to precisely the right spot.
Caves and Tombs
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A DISCUSSION about a particular cave on the Mount of Olives glorified by the emperor Constantine leads on to consideration of the many caves which, according to the titles of one of Testa’s articles upon the subject, are alleged to be ‘grotte die misteri’ belonging to early Jewish-Christians. The Bagatti-Testa school believes that Jewish-Christians utilized ‘mystic grottos’ or ‘caves of light’ in which they enacted sacred mysteries. Constantine’s glorification of three caves was, then, somehow in keeping with the fact that Jewish-Christians had employed these; Eusebius’ language, when speaking of these three ‘mystic caves’ (Laud. Const. ix. 16-17) is indebted to Jewish-Christian terminology. This argument can be countered by looking at the phenomenon of the Byzantine use of caves in general.
Capernaum
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE site of ancient Capernaum is located on the north side of the Sea of Galilee. The western part of the site is owned by the Franciscans. It is here that there is the famous synagogue, the dating of which has been so fiercely debated, and the remains of a Byzantine octagonal church on the alleged site of the house of St Peter. The eastern part of ancient Capernaum is owned by the Greek Orthodox Church. Excavations here have as yet uncovered less sensational structures. In this chapter, the focus will be the Franciscan side of the town (Plate 10), particularly the so-called ‘House of Peter’, and the claims made by the excavators that the octagonal church was built upon a Jewish-Christian house-church. It will also be necessary to consider the limestone synagogue, and what it might tell us about Capernaum in the early Byzantine period.
A History of the Family of Pasion
Authors: Trevett Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this first chapter is to provide a narrative framework for the discussions of particular themes which form the remainder of the book. Although we know a lot more about the family of Pasion than we do about most other fourth-century families, much remains either unknown or open to doubt. Our information about Pasion and Apollodoros derives primarily from law-court speeches, which provide a series of snapshots rather than a continuous and comprehensive account. Moreover, such speeches were written with the sole purpose of persuading a jury, and therefore many of the statements made in them are at best tendentious, at worst untrue. The following account is consequently both fragmentary and speculative. In order to retain some degree of narrative flow, the detailed argumentation of controversial points (of which there are many) has been relegated to a series of end-notes.
The Speeches of Apollodoros III: Education and Intellectual Background
Authors: Trevett Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I shall be examining what the speeches can tell us about Apollodoros as an orator, and in particular about the sort of education and training which he is likely to have received. Scholars who have attempted to determine whether or not he had received rhetorical training have reached widely differing conclusions. Thus F. Blass considered that the speeches show their author to have possessed a certain technical expertise in structure and argumentation, which could not have been acquired except through such an education. He went on to argue from this that Apollodoros could not have written the speeches, since in that case the speaker of Dem. 36 would not have missed the opportunity to rebuke him for misusing his expensive education. L. Gernet argued against this that he could have picked up enough knowledge of oratorical technique to have written the speeches simply by regular attendance at the assembly. L. Pearson chooses to attribute the weaknesses of his speeches to a lack not of education but of experience. This divergence of opinion suggests that the question needs a thorough re-examination.
The Political Career of Apollodoros
Authors: Trevett Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although there is no evidence that Pasion was ever involved in politics, we know that he was a friend of several members of the political élite. Even if these friendships were of an exclusively social nature, they could provide his son with a ready-made entrée into the political arena, and might be expected to determine his early loyalties. The study of the political career of Apollodoros must therefore start with an examination of the men with whom his father associated.
Pasion, Apollodoros, and Athenian Society
Authors: Trevett Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nothing is known of Pasion’s life before he came to Athens. He was probably not a Greek, and the theophoric name which he gave to his first son Apollodoros suggests that he may have been of Semitic extraction; it has indeed been argued that he was originally a Phoenician. We are similarly ill-informed about how and when he came to work as the slave of the bankers Archestratos and Antisthenes, or of the status which he enjoyed as a skilled slave. He was clearly a valued worker, as the speaker of Dem. 36 emphasizes. There is some evidence that Athenian slaves could do quite well for themselves, and that particularly in the commercial world of the Piraeus the usual sharp divide between slave and free became blurred. In addition, slaves who worked independently of their masters (chōris oikountes) were allowed to keep some of the money which they earned. There is, however, no evidence that Pasion was ever in that position: the fact that he worked at the bank meant that he was always closely supervised. Nor should we exaggerate the privileges afforded even to skilled slaves: an opponent of Pasion later showed no compunction in demanding that Kittos, who acted as chief cashier of his bank, be surrendered for interrogation under torture (Isoc. 17. 13).
Megale Hellas
Authors: Taplin Oliver 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The story of the diffusion of interest in drama in the Greek West has to work in places as diverse as Syracuse; Poseidonia (Paestum) in the north-west; and Rubi (Ruvo di Puglia) in the north-east. But the places of most interest are the coastal cities of Lucania and Apulia along the ‘instep’ of South Italy, and the centre is Taras (Taranto). Taras was famous for its festivals and cultural activities, especially theatre; and it was the main centre of production of Apulian vasepainting.
Comic and Tragic Angels
Authors: Taplin Oliver 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘The Choregrii’ (9.1) came onto the market in 1988 and is now in the collection of Lawrence and Barbara Fleischman in New York. The first description and photographs were published by Trendall, ‘FT’, in late summer 1991, and are more fully presented in RVAp supp. ii. He attributes this fine Apulian bell-krater to the same hand as the Milan Cake-Eaters2 ( 12.5) and dubs him ‘The Choregos Painter’, characterized as ‘after the Sisyphus group, near the Painter of the Birth of Dionysos, and contemporary with the earliest work of the Tarporley Painter, probably around 380 sc’.3 This is, then, among the earlier comic vases, not much later than the New York Goose Play.
Metatheatrical Players
Authors: Taplin Oliver 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Greek comedy in the age of Aristophanes was pervasively metatheatrical-it was for ever playing with its own playness.1 The traditional term has been ‘breaking the dramatic illusion’; but that has drawbacks in that it implies that an illusion like that set up by tragedy is also characteristic of comedy, and that at any one time it is either intact or broken. This does not allow for the fluid and variegated self referentiality of Old comedy, which seldom if ever loses sight of its own theatricality, yet seldom if ever completely drops the fantasy it has designed and accumulated. Thus, the actors never go so far (in what we have) as to remove their masks on-stage or to declare their real-life names; nor do they go so far as to bring members of the ‘civilian’ audience on to the stage, although they may point at them, address them, and even throw things at them.
Market Buildings and Equipment
Authors: Frayn Joan M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the macellumwas the most widespread type of market building, we have seen in the case of Rome that it was not the only structure used for the retailing or wholesale disposal of goods. It is likely that in other towns as well as Rome, colonnades were used for this purpose, affording in North Italy shelter from a heavy shower, and in the South shade from the hot sun. The shops in these colonnades, however, were separate tabernaeand were probably interspersed with open-fronted workshops, as they are in many Mediterranean towns today.
Fairs and Festivals
Authors: Frayn Joan M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
FOR the purpose of this chapter we shall distinguish the periodic fairs, which took place usually away from the major cities, from the daily, weekly, or fortnightly markets which arc the subject of most of this book. As far as the Romans were concerned, many of these less frequent occasions of meeting and buying or selling were denoted by the same word, nundinoe,as was used for the eight-day markets.
The Carmina Convivalia
Authors: Zorzetti Nevio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is some evidence pointing to the existence in Archaic Rome of a form of poetry sung at banquets similar to Greek sympotic poetry. What it basically consists of is very little, only two references by Cicero and one in Valerius Maximus. But the descriptions are quite clear. During the banquets held by the aristocratic sodalitates the guests each took it in turns to sing, accompanied by the tibia, and in line with musical principles combined melody with verbal rhythm to produce a cultivated form of lyric expression. This correct interpretation of the evidence about the carmina convivalia is not new: it can be traced back to the philologists who criticized Niebuhr’s ballad theory.2 But its role in the discussion about early Roman culture and the prehistory of Latin poetry has been limited to that of being useful as an argument against Niebuhr’s theory, and it was formulated exclusively in this context.
The Ionian Revolt
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I AM Darius the Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide . . .’ Thus Darius’ boast of power in the inscription at the tombs of Naqš-i-Rustam. Certainly by 500BG Persian power was well advanced in the West. Early in his reign Darius had incorporated Samos in his empire, and by the date of the Scythian Expedition Chios and Lesbos were on a par with the Greek cities of the Asiatic mainland. As the abiding consequence of that expedition, Persian power was established in Thrace, and the islands of Lemnos and Imbros had been occupied (Hdt. 4. 97, 138, 5. 26). Reconnaisance for further expansion had been made on at least one occasion, as the story of the fifteen grandees guided on a grand tour of Greece suggests (Hdt. 3. 134. 6).
The Conquest of Greece
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no real evidence for why the Persians invaded Greece in 480. The pretty debate furnished by Herodotus at the start of book 7 of his History is almost certainly the product of his imagination; it is highly unlikely that he had any evidence about the parts played by Mardonius and Artabanus in the innermost councils of the King. But there is no need to ask why empires expand. Extension of power is the natural consequence of power. No less than Rome, Persia aspired to imperium sine fine and from the moment that the expedition was mounted against Naxos in 499 it was plain that Greece would face invasion.
The War in the East Aegean
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The truth was less dramatic. The power of Persia was confined to Asia, and a handful of Greek cities on the Asiatic seaboard of the Aegean were in revolt. Herodotus (9. 104) concluded his account of the battle of Mycale with the statement that ‘thus for the second time Ionia revolted from the Persians’, and Hellespontine cities did the same (Thuc. 1. 89. 2, 95. 1). Doubtless walls were rebuilt just as they had been in 499 (cf. Hdt. 1. 141), and the help of mainland Greeks was to be expected. Xerxes would not easily restore his authority over the Greeks of Asia even though the rest of his realm was, despite his defeat, untroubled, but the task can hardly have seemed impossible.
Peace with Athens, 449–412 BG
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For nearly four decades following on the death of Cimon and the withdrawal of Athenian forces from Cyprus and Egypt (Thuc. 1. 112. 4) there was no fighting between Royal armies and navies and Athens. The only time, as far as we know, when there was thought to be danger of a Royal intervention in Greek affairs was in 440 BG during the revolt of Samos. The Samians appealed to the Phoenician navy for help; Pericles left the siege of Samos in haste on report that Phoenician ships were on their way to attack the Athenians; but they did not appear and nothing happened (Thuc. 1. 116. 3).
The End of the Achaemenids
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Panhellenists delighted to sneer at Persia and Persians, especially at their military performance. Isocrates above all argued that whether Persia was strong or weak the Greeks should unite in attacking it but that in fact Persia would be easily overcome (cf. 4. 139–57). This was not, he conceded (4. 138, 5. 139), the opinion of all Greeks, but it was orthodox Panhellenism, as we can see in the Anabasis of Xenophon. It is, however, in the postscript to The Education of Cyrus that it is most plainly displayed. Xenophon’s experience of Persian warfare was limited to the battle of 401, the long march back, and minor operations along the Aegean seaboard. He made the most of it.