bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Variables that influence the activity of captive orangutans
Authors: Perkins Lorraine A. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractIt is well known that the environment significantly influences the behavior of captive animals. However, the specific nature of the cues that promote speciestypical behavior patterns is not usually known. This study extends an earlier investigation by Wilson (Zoo Biology 1: 201–209, 1982). The objective was to identify and quantify specific environmental components that influence activity levels in orangutans. Six enclosure variables were quantified, and activity levels measured, for 29 orangutans housed in nine zoological parks. Multiple regression analysis indicated that the combination of the number of animals, amount of usable surface area, number of movable objects, and enclosure volume was the best predictor of activity levels, accounting for 58% of the variance in activity levels. It was concluded that the provision of large enclosures, containing large numbers of movable objects and providing social opportunities, would promote higher levels of activity in captive orangutans. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Cage Design and Forms of Play in Red‐Bellied Tamarins, Saguinus labiatus
Authors: Caine Nancy G. , O'Boyle Vincent J. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractWe investigated the role of cage design in the expression of play in a group of red‐bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus). For each of the four play behaviors that were measured in this study (wrestle, pounce, grasp, and chase), significant differences in frequency appeared as a function of substrate. When playing on broad, flat, horizontal substrates, the tamarins primarily wrestled with one another. When playing on branches and vines, the tamarins wrestled less but chased and grasped more. Play sequences were less varied in terms of inclusion and order of play behaviors when they occurred on flat, horizontal substrates. To the extent that zoo or laboratory enclosures are outfitted with substrates, whose size and physical orientation are at odds with a species' natural habitat, the validity of play data and the educational value of an exhibit are compromised. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Evaluation of extenders and cryopreservatives for cooling and cryopreservation of spermatozoa from the western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis)
Authors: Kaplan Joyce B. , Mead Rodney A. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractExperiments were conducted to develop a suitable protocol for cryopreservation of spotted skunk semen. Semen was collected by electroejaculation of captive male skunks (n = 16) from late January through late November. In the first experiment, fresh semen was diluted in either TEST (n = 10), TRIS (n = 9), or BF5F (n = 7) extenders and maintained at 4°C for 16 hr. Sperm motility in these extenders was not significantly different before cooling (P = 0.71), but samples diluted with BF5F exhibited significantly lower sperm motility than the other extenders at all time points after cooling (P < 0.05). In the second experiment, fresh semen was diluted in TEST containing either 3, 5, or 10% DMSO or 3, 5, or 10% glycerol as a cryopreservative. These samples were cooled to 4°C and frozen in 0.25 ml French straws on dry ice. Some samples containing 5% DMSO or 5% glycerol (n = 4), were also frozen on dry ice as pellets. Frozen samples were maintained in liquid nitrogen. Fresh samples had significantly greater sperm motility in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) than in glycerol (P < 0.05), while frozen and thawed samples had the highest motility in 5 or 10% DMSO or 10% glycerol. Samples frozen in French straws had significantly greater sperm motility after freezing and thawing than those frozen by the pellet method (P < 0.05). Optimum cryoprotection was achieved with the TEST extender containing 5 or 10% DMSO, when used in conjunction with French straws. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The influence of food presentation on the behavior of small cats in confined environments
Authors: Shepherdson David J. , Carlstead Kathy , Mellen Jill D. , Seidensticker John 
Published: June 2005

AbstractCaptive small felids frequently pace repetitively and/or spend large amounts of time inactive. Presenting a fishing cat with live‐fish resulted in more activity (60% less sleeping), increased behavioral diversity, including previously unobserved hunting behaviors, and greater enclosure utilization. Effects persisted for at least 48 h after presentation of live fish, and up to 8 days. In a second study, four leopard cats were fed: (1) once per day, (2) four times per day and, (3) four times per day with food hidden in small piles of brush. Multiple feedings of hidden food increased daily exploratory behavior from 5.5% to over 14%, and increased the diversity of behaviors observed. It also reduced the total duration, and bout length of stereotyped pacing. These studies suggest that providing food to small cats in a way that minimizes predictability of food availability, while maximizing the functional consequences of foraging behavior, can be an effective enrichment technique. These results are discussed in relation to two models of behavioral motivation, one that focuses on the issue of behavioral needs, and the other that emphasizes the importance of information acquisition. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
An introduction to the biogeochemical cycling of calcium and substitutive strontium in living coral reef mesocosms
Authors: Lang Gerald T. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractThe coral reef mesocosms designed by the Smithsonian Institution's Dr. Walter Adey, his Marine System Laboratory personnel, and staff members of the Pittsburgh Aqua‐Zoo simulate most of the physical, chemical, and biological parameters found in natural Caribbean coral reefs. After developing the mesocosm in Pittsburgh, an evaluation and comparison between natural reef seawater sources and closed mesocosm seawater conditions indicated that an additional parameter should be investigated. It was hypothesized that, given time, the aragonite‐ and calcite (CaCO3 crystal forms)‐producing organisms in the closed mesocosms could deplete the seawater of available Ca2+ and substitutive Sr2+. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was utilized to determine concentrations in the seawater over time. Results showed a substantial reduction in dissolved Ca and Sr in the mesocosm after approximately two years. Dissolved aragonitic Halimeda algae parts were put into the system for replacive purposes. In terms of the biogeochemical cycling of Ca2+ and Sr2+, the coral reef mesocosm organisms behaved similarly to natural reefs, which have a constant supply of dissolved Ca2+ and Sr2+. Further research utilizing radiolabeled sources of Ca2+, Sr2+, and Mg2+, in conjunction with in vivo scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and growth increment studies, are recommended for determining the exact biogeochemical pathways for these elements in coral reefs, and to quantify growth parameters. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Food intake and mass gain of hand‐reared brown bear cubs
Authors: Huber Djuro , Kulier Ignac , Poljak Andrea , Devčić‐Kuhar Branka 
Published: June 2005

AbstractFive orphaned European brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos) from 3 litters were hand‐reared from the ages of 1–4 months. Body mass initially ranged from 1.7 to 2.8 kg. Growth rates were monitored with reference to diet. Over a period of 3 years, 6 different feed formulas were used. The first 4 formulas were given with bottles until an average age of 133 days. Conversion to mass in the first 10 months ranged from 3.5 to 32.0 g of food per gram of body mass (or 38.1–192.6 kJ of gross energy/gram body mass), and was affected by type of diet. High fat content increased, whereas high carbohydrate content decreased the conversion rates. Formula 3, with 12.0% protein, 23.9% fat, and only 0.2% carbohydrates, simulated values found in bears' milk and produced the best growth rates. Formula 6 (bread, fruits, and meat) was used from ages 7 to 35 months, and over this period, the efficiency of gross energy conversion decreased gradually, by an eventual factor of 3.8. Hand‐reared cubs ranged from 1.3 to 2.7 times heavier than 17 wild cubs measured at matching ages. Wild mass is probably limited by maternal hibernation, and by the largely herbivorous nature of the diet. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The effects of early experience on adult copulatory behavior in zoo‐born chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: King Nancy E. , Mellen Jill D. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractThis paper examines the relationship between the early rearing experience of zoo‐born, zoo‐reared chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and the subsequent occurrence of successful copulation as adults. Developmental histories were acquired for 71 subjects via questionnaires and phone interviews. The following variables related to aspects of chimpanzees' early rearing experience were examined: (1) Rearing conditions, that is, hand reared alone, reared with siblings or peers, or reared by at least one adult conspecific. (2) Age removed from mother. (3) Sex of subject, and/or (4) participation in shows. Each of these variables was then compared to the subjects' sexual competence, defined here as having been observed to exhibit functional copulatory behavior as adults. Seventy‐five percent of the subjects were observed to exhibit functional copulatory behavior on at least one occasion. No single component of rearing was successful in producing sexually competent adults 100% of the time; no rearing condition, as defined in this study, resulted in reproductive failure for all subjects experiencing those conditions. Chimpanzees that were hand reared alone, that is, in the total absence of conspecifics, were least likely to copulate as adults; about half of those chimpanzees that were reared with siblings or peers (and in the absence of adult conspecifics) copulated as adults. Almost 90% of those chimpanzees that were reared with at least one adult conspecific copulated as adults. Chimpanzees removed from their mothers at an early age (less than one year of age) were less likely to reproduce as adults. Male and female chimpanzees were equally likely to reproduce as adults. Participation in shows or demonstrations appeared to have no effect on chimpanzees' ability to copulate as adults. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fecal steroid hormone analysis as an indicator of reproductive function in the cheetah
Authors: Czekala N. M. , Durrant B. S. , Callison L. , Williams M. , Millard S. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractTechniques were developed and validated to measure fecal estrogen and progesterone concentrations of the female cheetah. Fecal samples were collected from seven mature females. Cheetahs were monitored before mating and continued until parturition. Four females had normal pregnancies, one conceived but the pregnancy resulted in spontaneous abortion, one was mated but apparently did not conceive and one was treated with gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to induce follicular growth and ovulation. Vaginal superficial cells increased with increasing estrogen concentrations. Peak estrogen occurred one day postcopulation. Increases in fecal progesterone concentrations, indicative of ovulation, occurred after copulation and hormonally induced ovulation. For the first time reproductive function can be monitored in the cheetah using noninvasive sample collection. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Bioenergetics of the bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, maintained in captivity
Authors: Schmid T. H. , Murru F. L. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractUnderstanding the energy requirements for captive sharks is important for their successful long‐term maintenance. This information is critical in assessing the health of the animals and the suitability of their environment. We studied five bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) for up to 7 years in a 2.5 × 106 liter oceanarium. Individual animal feedings provided information for food intake analysis. During the first 3 years, fork length increase was estimated to have averaged 1.9 cm/month (s.d. = 0.1), or 23.0 cm/year. Biannual measurements, begun in the fourth year, showed that growth rates decreased during the next 4 years to a mean rate of 0.6 cm/month (s.d. = 0.2), or about 7.0 cm/year. Mean food consumption from June 1988 to December 1992 was 3.4% body weight per week. Caloric conversion of weights incorporated into a simple bioenergetics model providing mean metabolic expenditures per animal was 5.7 (s.d. = 0.3) and 4 (s.d. = 0.5) kcal/kg/day for 1991 and 1992, respectively. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Is inbreeding depression more severe in a stressful environment?
Authors: Miller Philip S. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractSuccessful reintroduction of endangered species depends in part on their ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. Population genetics theory suggests that inbred populations lacking genetic variability may be unable to respond effectively to environmental stress. There have been very few studies designed explicitly to investigate the phenomenon of inbreeding depression under environmental stress, particularly in the context of conservation genetics. Three separate experiments using Drosophila melanogaster were designed to explore this issue. No increase in the magnitude of inbreeding depression was detected in laboratory lines subjected to three generations of continuous full‐sib mating under temperature stress (28°C), lead stress (medium contaminated with 400 ppm Pb), or a combination of these stresses. Individual isofemale lines from a different population, however, did show significant increases in inbreeding depression when exposed to temperature stress for one generation of full‐sib mating following three generations of full‐sib inbreeding at 25°C. Further, chromosome‐2 homozygotes showed, on average, a significant increase in inbreeding depression under lead stress when in competition with corresponding chromosome‐2 heterozygotes compared to the same lines in a benign environment. Taken together, these results suggest that inbreeding depression is more severe under conditions of environmental stress and is more likely to be realized in an inter‐ or intraspecific competitive situation as can be experienced in the wild. Therefore, it is likely that reduced genetic variability through inbreeding is a much greater problem for recently reintroduced populations than it is for populations in a relatively benign zoo environment. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Monitoring fecal samples for estrogen excretion across the ovarian cycle in Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii)
Authors: Pryce C. R. , Schwarzenberger F. , Döbeli M. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractIn captive Goeldi's monkeys, estrogen concentration was determined in fecal samples collected from 4 cycling/unmated females and 4 postpartum/mated females in order to ascertain the potential of fecal estrogen monitoring for providing basic information about reproductive status in this endangered Amazonian monkey. Subjects were fed an omnivorous diet and first‐void feces were collected in the home cage at 1–3‐day intervals for 30–50 days from the cycling females, and at 6–14‐day intervals around the estimated time of the postpartum ovulation in each of the 4 mated females. Estimates for the duration of ovarian cycles (22–26 days) and the timing of ovulation were based on cyclic profiles of either blood progesterone or urinary pregnanediol‐3α‐glucuronide. Fecal estrogen values were normalized using these plasma or urinary profiles. HPLC analysis of estrogen from postpartum fecal samples demonstrated the presence of unconjugated estrone and estradiol‐17β (“unconjugated estrogen”). Unconjugated estrogen was extracted and its fecal concentration estimated via EIA. The correlation (r) between plasma estrone conjugates and fecal unconjugated estrogen across nonconception ovarian cycles was 0.65 and measurement of the latter generated cyclic profiles. A range of 4–36‐ng unconjugated estrogen g−1 feces was identified for follicular phases of nonconception cycles. Fecal unconjugated estrogen first exceeded the concentration range of the follicular phase 2–5 days after ovulation; the range was 49–402 ng g−1 feces in samples collected during the remainder of these nonconception luteal phases. Luteal phase concentrations were on average 10‐fold higher than follicular phase concentrations. Each of the 4 mated females conceived at its postpartum ovulation; concentrations of fecal unconjugated estrogen excreted by 3 of these females demonstrated a marked postovulatory increase. This study demonstrates that fecal unconjugated estrogen can be applied to monitor ovarian cyclicity in Goeldi's monkey. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Nursing behavior in dam‐reared Russian saiga (Saiga tatarica tatarica) at the San Diego wild animal park
Authors: Rubin Esther S. , Michelson Karla J. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractThis study was designed to examine the nursing patterns and related behavior of young saiga raised by their dams. Four captive born lambs were observed at weekly intervals during continuous 14 h watches for the first 7 weeks of life. One‐week‐old lambs were found to nurse at an average rate of 1.1 bouts per hour and nursed for an average of 14.6 seconds per bout. This high nursing frequency and the average total daily nursing time of 242 seconds decreased rapidly with age. Saiga lambs sampled solid food as early as 4 days of age and were nearly dependent on solid food by the age of 7 weeks. Communal nursing, in which one or more lambs would nurse from an unrelated adult female while she nursed her own, was common. Grooming of the lamb by the dam was never seen except immediately following birth. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Masturbation in captive Hylobates (gibbons)
Authors: Mootnick Alan R. , Baker Elaine 
Published: June 2005

AbstractMasturbation was observed in 9 of 52 captive adult Hylobates (gibbons) over a period of 17 years at the International Center for Gibbon Studies (ICGS). Four females and 5 males masturbated with varying degrees of regularity. The behavior may be related to a disruption in early rearing experiences of Hylobates. This is the first report on masturbation in these animals and documents that this behavior occurs infrequently in captive Hylobates. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Feed intake and digestion in the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus): Consequences for dietary management
Authors: Barboza Perry S. , Allen Mary E. , Rodden Melissa , Pojeta Kim 
Published: June 2005

AbstractCaptive maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) often consume diets high in prey and meat items even though they are omnivorous in the wild. These soft, high protein diets may exacerbate conditions of gingivitis and cystinuria in this species. Feed intakes were monitored in wolves provided with prey and meat‐based diets (3 periods) and subsequently with extruded dog chows and small amounts of prey (2 periods). Digestibilities of each type of diet were measured with the indigestible marker chromic oxide. Dry matter intakes were similar between diets (374–584 g · 30 kg−1 · d−1), even though dietary protein content was reduced from 44% to 29% of dry matter. Digestibility of dry matter was unaltered by these dietary changes (77% of high prey diet vs. 73% of chow diet), but fecal consistency changed to softer stools at lower intakes of prey. Estimated metabolizable energy intakes of wolves (501–674 kJ · kg−0.75 · d−1) were similar to the maintenance requirement for domestic dogs (525 kJ · kg−0.75 · d−1), suggesting a similar energy requirement for maintenance of the wolves. The metabolizable energy derived from protein in the high prey diets was 37%, whereas that of the chow diets was only 27%. These levels exceed estimates of protein requirements for maintenance (4.3–21.8%) and growth (11.5–20.3%) in domestic dogs and may thus exceed those of the wolves. Dietary management of maned wolves should minimize excess protein intake by limiting prey consumption and acclimating animals to extruded diets for domestic dogs. Further research is required to formulate diets for long‐term management of cystinuria in maned wolves. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Use of positive reinforcement training in the management of species for reproduction
Authors: Desmond Tim , Laule Gail 
Published: June 2005

AbstractPositive reinforcement training holds great potential for enhancing the management of species for reproduction. This paper reviews a wide range of animal training activities and resultant benefits which could have application to captive reproduction programs. Recognized benefits fall into several categories. Basic animal care can be improved through voluntary cooperation by the animals with veterinary procedures and routine husbandry activities. The quality and quantity of physiological data collected for research can be improved through voluntary cooperation by the animal subjects with sample collection. Positive social interaction and reproductive behavior can be increased and aggressive behavior reduced through employment of a specialized training regime called cooperative feeding. Good success has been reported with special training programs to facilitate introduction of new members into primate social groups, while mixed results have been obtained in efforts to use training to enhance maternal skills. Finally, a discussion of both direct and indirect enhancement of psychological well‐being through the use of positive reinforcement training is presented. While positive reinforcement training techniques will not be useful in every situation, information developed to date strongly suggests that these techniques should be given serious consideration when developing comprehensive programs for the management of species for reproduction. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Control of behavioral development in the context of reintroduction programs for birds
Authors: Wallace Michael P. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractOnly over the last few decades has there been a concerted effort to develop and refine release methods for threatened species. With the goal of achieving self‐sustaining wild populations, three main techniques have been employed: parent‐rearing, cross‐fostering, and isolation‐rearing. Although there are many considerations in developing or selecting the most efficient method for any given species, the behavioral aspects of preparing birds for release are important. The concept of different life history strategies may also help in designing a preparation and release methodology. The degree of interspecific and intraspecific sociality also is important in the development of effective behavioral preparation of individuals for release. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Validation of an enzyme immunoassay for measurement of excreted estrogen and testosterone metabolites in the white‐crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha)
Authors: Lee Julian V. , Whaling Carol S. , Lasley Bill L. , Marler Peter 
Published: June 2005

AbstractOver the past few years there has been a growing interest in hormonal analyses, despite the cost and difficulty involved in measuring hormones using radioimmunoassays. Therefore, there is a need for alternate procedures, such as enzyme immunoassays, capable of providing similar data to that provided by radioactive methods. Enzyme immunoassays are a less expensive method of measuring estrone conjugates and testosterone. With further work, the enzyme immunoassay also provides the potential to adapt the enzyme assay for use in the field. The data in this study demonstrate that an enzyme assay can accurately detect both endogenous and exogenous hormonal changes in the droppings of white‐crowned sparrows. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.