bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pyrethroids
Authors: Pap László 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe insecticidal synthetic pyrethroids are chemical analogs of the natural pyrethrins occurring in the flower of theChrysanthemum cinerariaefoliumplant. They represent an extensively developed insecticide group with 40 established compounds. Of the 40 commercialized active ingredients, 37 are esters.The application rate of the most potent agricultural pyrethroids is very low, ranging between 5 and 20 g/ha, representing an acceptable environmental load. Pyrethroids are also regarded as safe compounds to warm‐blooded animals and generally to the environment; however, they have some adverse effects on mites, beneficial insects, and aquatic organisms. Pyrethroids are contact nerve poisons acting on gating kinetics of sodium channel in nerve membrane. This action is highly stereoselective. Due to this specific action and their extensive use, the risk of resistance development is relatively high in the targeted insect pest populations. Consequently, resistance management strategies are urgently needed to sustain their appropriate field performance. The registered tendencies of pyrethroid usage and the recent trends in R&D both suggest that this particular group of compounds has been playing an integrated part in present pest management as it is described in our comprehensive survey.Natural PyrethrinPyrethrinI as the Lead Structure of the Synthetic PyrethroidsStereochemistryHow to Define PyrethroidsNomenclaturePhysicochemical PropertiesAgricultural UseChemistryBiological Activity, Mode of Action, Metabolism
Remediation
Authors: Klein Kimiko , Underwood Marilyn 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Remediation, as discussed in this article, refers to the cleanup of sites where hazardous materials, such as pesticides, have been released to the environment to the extent that concentrations in soil, water, or air could result in adverse health impacts to human and nonhuman receptors. The cleanup of sites may include removal actions, which take place quickly when there is an imminent threat to public health or the environment, or remedial actions, which take place after the results of extensive investigation indicate that long‐term exposure to the chemicals at the site could result in adverse health effects, such as cancer.
Agrochemicals: Developmental Toxicity/Reproductive Toxicity
Authors: Iyer Poorni , Schardein James L. , Makris Susan 
Published: November 2003

AbstractAgrochemicals have been in use since the early days of modern agriculture. They have been well studied and subject to regulation by various federal and state agencies. There is growing concern about the safety of agrochemicals and how exposure may affect reproductive outcome in humans and other species. This article describes toxicity studies that focus on the developmental and reproductive systems of laboratory animals. The endpoints evaluated include infertility, birth defects (structural defects and functional deficits) and adverse effects on male or female reproductive systems. The classes of agrochemicals discussed include herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, rodenticides as well as fumigants and other miscellaneous chemicals used in agriculture. Data typically submitted to regulatory agencies for the purposes of registration are not readily accessible in the open literature and an attempt has been made to present the findings from such studies. Regulatory issues such as testing requirements and approaches to risk assessment of compounds resulting in adverse reproductive outcome are also outlined. Available epidemiological data on the developmental toxicity of occupational and environmental agrochemical exposure are limited in the sense that while a number of studies have some indications of elevated risk for specific compounds, the epidemiological evidence on the whole is unclear.
Herbicides, Plant Resistance to Herbicides
Authors: Hatzios Kriton 
Published: November 2003

AbstractA growing number of weed species have evolved resistance to certain herbicides around the world, but the total area infested with resistant weed populations is still relatively small. Resistance to some herbicides occurs at a relatively high frequency within many weed populations, and continuous use of these herbicides will select for those variants. Herbicide resistance deriving from target site mutations has occurred rapidly to those herbicides that share most or all of the following characteristics: 1) a single site of action, 2) a high persistence in the environment, 3) a high level of efficacy in causing plant death, 4) a high rate of mutation of the active site, and 5) a less debilitating effect by alteration of this herbicidal site. The development of weed resistance based on other mechanisms of resistance, such as herbicide compartmentation or metabolism, is more difficult to predict, because in many cases the cellular factors involved in herbicide movement or sequestration are less well‐characterized than are those related to the site of action. The development of multiple‐resistance mechanisms is of particular concern, because fewer new herbicides are released and many of the new herbicides have sites of action or mechanisms of metabolism in common with older herbicides, to which resistance has already developed. Combining herbicides with other herbicides either in mixtures or in rotations will greatly extend the usefulness of herbicides for the farmer.
Risk Assessment and Risk Management
Authors: Cochran Roger C. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractRisk is a function of toxicity and exposure. Regulatory agencies assess the risks associated with pesticide usage, and act to mitigate workers' and the public's exposures to acceptable levels. The regulatory actions assume that there is a high degree of certitude associated with the values calculated by the risk assessment process. In truth, the degree of uncertainty may be very great. Sources that contribute to the uncertainty of the numbers vary, and the magnitude of the imprecision varies as well. The ambiguities contained in the risk assessments by two regulatory agencies concerning chlorpyrifos, molinate, thiabendazole, and phosphine are presented to gain insight by example. Despite the detailed uncertainties, risk assessments are still needed by regulatory agencies. Various interest groups and politicians try to use the uncertainties in a risk assessment to justify their positions. The appropriate place to take into account the views of disparate interest groups is in the risk management process. Risk assessments will be disputed from all sides, the logic employed should be carefully layed out, and the assessor should strive for as much accuracy as science permits.
Soil Conditioners: Agricultural Applications
Authors: Valentine Don 
Published: November 2003

AbstractSoil conditioners are materials that measurably improve the physical characteristics of the soil as a plant growth medium. Typical uses include erosion control, prevention of surface sealing, and improvement of water infiltration and drainage. Many natural materials such as peat and gypsum are used alone or in combination with synthetics for soil conditioning. This article is concerned with uses of synthetic soil conditioners, primarily synthetic polyelectrolytes such as polyacrylamides, in agriculture, horticulture, and related applications.
Soil, Movement of Pesticides in
Authors: Lennartz Bernd 
Published: November 2003

AbstractOnce chemicals released into the environment have reached the soil surface, they may be transported primarily horizontally via overland flow or vertically into the soil with the infiltrating rainwater. The horizontal solute transport at the soil surface following the minimal slope of the landscape poses a direct threat to the surface water quality because the soil with its buffer function is bypassed. Hazardous chemicals, such as pesticides, can be transported directly from the point of application to large water bodies via overland flow.
Soil Persistence
Authors: Bromilow Richard 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe major loss process for most agricultural pesticides is degradation in soil. The need to safeguard against any damaging effects of undue persistence of pesticides in the environment has led to many studies to satisfy the registration requirements. This article considers the experimental methods to determine pesticide degradation in soil, including the mechanisms and pathways of degradation, which eventually lead to residues bound into the soil organic matter, together with mineralization to carbon dioxide. Rates of breakdown are determined not only by the intrinsic nature of the pesticide molecule, but also by other factors such as the route of application, the nature of the soil, climate, and the role of microorganisms. Laboratory studies of these factors aid in understanding and predicting the likely behavior in the field. Finally, the role of persistence has to be assessed, including an appraisal of whether a persistent pesticide will have any deleterious effects on following crops or on soil processes.
Standard Evaluation Procedures
Authors: Brooks Matthew W. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The most critical aspect of registering a new pesticide is the presentation of laboratory and field data. What data are required and how they are determined is described by several U.S. Environmental Protection Agency publications. This large article contains a great detail and presents the titles of the required tests, when they are required, and one what type of pesticide. The tests are further defined as those required on the pure active ingredient or on the end‐use product.
Storage Stability
Authors: Khetan Sushil K. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Modern agricultural formulations are usually complex mixtures of different organic and inorganic compounds. Over a period of time, these may undergo chemical or physical changes. The stability of an agrochemical product depends on the intrinsic stability of the active ingredient(s), the formulations, the packaging, and, in particular, the storage conditions. The storage stability or shelf life is defined as the length of time the product can be stored under normal local conditions, with changes in its properties and characteristics varying within predetermined, acceptable limits and remaining in a satisfactory and safe package and still giving the claimed biological activity.
Volatility Of Pesticides
Authors: Taylor Alan W. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Volatilization and chemical degradation are the principal causes of the loss of pesticide residues from target areas after application. Except in very special circumstances, the total seasonal losses in surface runoff and movement in eroding soil rarely exceed 5 or 10% of the total applied and the fraction removed by leaching is much less. Volatilization rates depend upon complex interactions between the chemical properties of the individual compounds, the properties of the soil or plant tissue on which they are adsorbed, and the weather, and—not least—they way in which they are applied and how the crop receiving them is managed.
Methods for Demonstrating Dermal Irritation and Sensitization due to Pesticides
Authors: O'Malley Michael 
Published: November 2003

AbstractTo avoid unnecessary human contact with compounds that are corrosive or severely irritating, chemicals may be screened using a number of different animal assays. Most of the available dermal assays readily predict the effects of the most severe irritants that produce a clear reaction after brief skin contact. The assays vary in ability to predict weak and intermediate irritants that produce reactions only after more prolonged or repeated contact. The gradations between irritant compounds can be best determined from use experience. Nevertheless, it is sometimes difficult to draw definite conclusions from the limited data available for particular compounds.
Industrial Hygiene and Biomonitoring in the Agricultural Workplace
Authors: O'Malley Michael 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
In agricultural hygiene, unique issues develop because of the dispersed work environment, the low prevalence of unionization and medical benefits, and the high prevalence of seasonal employment. Mechanical safety hazards and chemical exposures occur only intermittently and in widely dispersed locations. Therefore, agricultural hygiene often requires measurements of dermal exposure and measurements of environmental residues of pesticide applications. Plasma and RBC cholinesterase measurements are also routinely made on workers exposed to specific classes of pesticides. Biomonitoring can complement hygiene measurements in field investigations. As in industrial hygiene, failure to adequately monitor hazardous airborne contaminants can have catastrophic consequences.
Mycotoxins and Mycotoxicoses
Authors: Shurtleff Malcolm C. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Mycotoxins are compounds (metabolites) formed by fungi and are highly toxic when consumed by animals, including humans. A large number of mycotoxins have been identified and new ones are described periodically. Mycotoxins can accumulate in seeds (kernels) of corn (maize), small grains, rice, sorghum, soybeans, and peanuts, as well as in hay and other feed crops. Commercially processed foods and feeds, including meats, cheeses, and species, and the like, may also contain mycotoxins.
Fumonisins
Authors: Shurtleff Malcolm C. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Fumonisins are a group of toxic metabolites (mycotoxins) produced primarily by the fungi
Fusarium moniliforme
and
F. proliferatum
. Other
Fusarium
species that produce fumonisins include
F. napiforme
and
F. nygamai
. Fumonisin B1, the most common toxin, is generally considered to be produced on moldy corn and silage by certain strains of
F. moniliforme
. Fumisins cause neurotic diseases of horses, donkeys, and mules called “blind staggers.” The Food and Drug Administration has yet to establish action guidelines for fumonisin contamination.
Vomitoxin
Authors: Shurtleff Malcolm 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Vomitoxin or deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the tricothecenes (mycotoxins) which comprise a large group of protein synthesis inhibitors. These mycotoxins are also powerful immunosuppressants which may predispose animals to other disease. Vomitoxin is the most commonly found trichothecene in moldy corn, but a number of other biologically active trichothecenes are produced by the species of the fungus
Fusarium
. The prognosis for recovery from vomitoxin mycotoxicosis is excellent once an animal is removed from the contaminated food source.
Antibiotic Resistance
Authors: Sundin George W. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The antibiotic streptomycin is an important and effective chemical for the management of bacterial diseases of fruit trees, woody ornamentals, and vegetables. Streptomycin was initially discovered in 1944 and was one of the first antibiotics to be utilized in clinical medicine to control human diseases, and is still important as a feed amendment for growth promotion in agricultural animals. The widespread and diverse usage of streptomycin has contributed to the currently observed global streptomycin resistance problem. This problem is especially critical in plant disease management, as there are few alternatives to streptomycin.
Tetracycline
Authors: Sundin George W. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe tetracyclines are a group of compounds with broad‐spectrum antimicrobial activity against a diverse range of gram‐negative and gram‐positive bacteria. Most of the important tetracyclines are bacteriostatic in vitro, inhibiting cell growth by reversibly binding ribosomes and inhibiting protein synthesis. The first tetracycline, aureomycin, was discovered by a plant pathologist, B.M. Duggar, in the late 1940s. The use of oxytetracycline for plant disease control began in the early 1950s with the introduction of Agrimycin.
Preexisting Defense Chemicals
Authors: Hammerschmidt Raymond 
Published: November 2003

AbstractPlant defense against bacterial and fungal pathogens is thought to be based, in part, on the presence of preexisting and postinfection induced antimicrobial compounds. Most plants contain compounds that are toxic to bacterial and fungal pathogens at some concentrations, and in a few cases there is good evidence to support the role of preformed compounds in resistance. Preexisting defensive chemicals are also known as phytoanticipins.
Juglone
Authors: Hammerschmidt Raymond 
Published: November 2003

AbstractJuglone (5‐hydroxynapthoquinone) is found in the leaves and other parts of walnut, hickory, and pecan. It is synthesized from isochorismic acid and 2‐oxo‐glutaric acid. Juglone is probably best known as the allelochemical produced by black walnut. Juglone is also antifungal and attempts to correlate its presence with disease resistance in pecan, black walnut, and hickory to several fungal pathogens have been reported.
Disinfestation
Authors: Maloy Otis C. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Disinfestation destroys or inactivates organisms that are in nonvital associations with host plants such as pathogens on seed surfaces; in plant debris mixed with seed; on senescent plant material; on nonhost surfaces such as soil, machinery, implements, containers, and buildings; and in irrigation water. Disinfestation of plant parts or packing material is often prescribed as a condition for plant quarantines. Disinfestation may be accomplished with chemicals or heat. Disinfestation eliminates pathogens from plant surfaces before infection.
Bacteriocin
Authors: Vidaver Anne K. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractBacteriocins, or “bacteria‐killers,” are nonreplicating substances distinguished principally by their relatively narrow range of specificity against strains of the same or related species. They are thus specialized antibiotics, principally protein in nature. Bacteriocins are secreted by producing bacteria under different conditions, often physical depending on the growth stage of the producer. Detection of bacteriocins is usually done in vitro, with agar‐grown or liquid‐grown potential producers assayed against potential susceptible strains on agar plates.
Agrocin 84
Authors: Kerr Allen , Tate Max E. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Agrocin 84 is an antibiotic produced by the nonpathogenic strain K84 of
Rhizobium rhizogenes
, its derivates, and other closely related bacteria. It inhibits the growth of many pathogenic agrobacteria, and strong evidence indicates that it is the major, but not the only, factor in the commercially successful biological control of crown gall. It has marked specificity and may be considered as the first nonprotein bacteriocin.
Biological Control of Weeds
Authors: Rosskopf Erin N. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractWeeds are one of the most costly and limiting factors in crop production, causing losses in yield by competing with crop plants for light, water, nutrients, heat energy, carbon dioxide, and space. In the United States, chemical herbicides account for 60% of the agricultural pesticides applied. Chemical herbicides, although effective, have problems associated with their use. As a result, avenues have been opened for use of plant pathogens as biological control agents for weeds. This process involves the use of a pathogen to suppress or control a weed population through the intentional creation of a plant disease epidemic.
Genetic Engineering
Authors: Mitra Amitava 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Genetic engineering provides methods for isolating, selectively amplifying, and expressing genes encoding desirable traits. Because the majority of currently used plant‐transformation techniques introduce genes into individual totipotent plant cells, it is important that an established tissue culture system, a working regeneration protocol, and an effective method for introducing genes must exist for successful deployment of plant genetic engineering. Therefore, genetic engineering of plants encompasses plant tissue culture, techniques of plant gene transfer, and plant molecular biology.
Jasmonic Acid
Authors: Staswick Paul 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Jasmonic acid (JA) is an important hormonelike signaling molecule that is apparently distributed throughout the plant kingdom. It functions as an intermediate in defense response pathways against both pathogens and insects. JA was first identified as the methyl ester form (MeJA), which is a volatile fragrance component of jasmine and other flowers and fruits. As a naturally occurring plant chemical, JA might provide as more ecologically acceptable method of controlling microbial growth on plant food products, both before and after their harvest.
Groundwater Monitoring
Authors: Miller Carol J. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Groundwater monitoring is used to analyze the impact of a variety of surface and subsurface activities, including seawater intrusion, application of agricultural products such as herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers, residential septic systems, and industrial waste ponds. Another focus of groundwater monitoring has been contamination associated with waste landfills and ruptured underground petroleum storage tanks. Groundwater monitoring is a necessary component in any investigation of subsurface contamination. A wide variety of information can be gleaned from the data, including groundwater velocity and direction, and contaminant identification and concentration. These data can be combined with other observations to infer various characteristics of the contamination.
Growth Regulators, Animal
Authors: Beermann Donald H. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe growth of animals can be described as an increase in mass of whole body, tissue(s), organ(s), or cell(s) with time. This type of growth can be characterized by morphometric measurements. Growth also includes developmental aspects of function and metabolism of cells and tissues from conception to maturity. Both types of growth are influenced by genotype, nutritional status, and gender of the animal.
Nitrogen Fixation
Authors: Newton William E. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractNitrogen fixation, also called dinitrogen fixation, is a pivotal process in the global cycling of nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation is involved with the atmosphere‐to‐terrestrial direction of the cycling. Nitrification and denitrification convert ammonia to nitrate and then, via nitrogen oxides, to dinitrogen, which is lost to the atmosphere. Leaching and erosion of soils result in the movement of fixed nitrogen between land and sea. The biological world stay just ahead of a nitrogen deficiency because the fixation rate slightly exceeds the denitrification rate.
Phosphine and its Derivatives
Authors: Rickelton William A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractAlthough phosphine was discovered over 200 years ago in 1783 by the French chemist Gingembre, derivatives of this toxic and pyrophoric gas were not manufactured on an industrial scale until the mid‐ to late 1970s. Commercial production was only possible after the development of practical, economic processes for phosphine manufacture, which were patented in 1961 and 1962. This article describes both of these processes briefly, but more focus is given to the preparation of a number of novel phosphine derivatives used in a wide variety of important commercial applications.
Soil Chemistry of Pesticides
Authors: Kearney Philip C. , Shelton Daniel R. , Koskinen William C. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractPesticide residues in foods have been a matter of public interest since the publication of Rachel Carson'sSilent Springin 1962. The detection of trace amounts of organic pesticides in surface and groundwater has been a significant environmental issue since the early 1980s. Public debate about the safety of agricultural chemicals in drinking water has involved nitrates from fertilizers and other sources. The scope of the pesticide issue in water is so large and complex that this article can only address the more important classes of organic pest control chemicals. Soils play a significant role in modifying the amounts and kinds of pesticides ultimately detected in water.