bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Moralistic Retributivism
Authors: Moore Kathleen Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Moralistic retributivism is the patriarch in the retributivist family tree. The oldest form of retributivism and the parent of most new retributivist theories, it is also the most scorned and neglected. This is the sort of theory people usually have in mind when they criticize retributivism for having an excess of enthusiasm for other peoples’ pain, for being an old-fashioned, busybody, vindictive kind of justice. At the same time, it is the theory of justice that probably most closely corresponds to commonsense views of justice, what F. H. Bradley called the “vulgar” view.’
Justified Pardons: Excuses
Authors: Moore Kathleen Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The good reasons for pardoning grouped here as ‘excuses’ are justified by the principles of legalistic retributivism. To see how legalistic retributivism justifies pardons, consider the straight-forward fact description of a crime, provided by this familiar rhyme: The Queen of Hearts, she made some tarts, All on a summer’s day. The Knave of Hearts, he stole those tarts, And quickly ran away.
Justified Pardons: Justifications
Authors: Moore Kathleen Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Seventy-three-year-old Emily Gilbert was so sick with Alzheimer’s disease and osteoporosis that she begged her husband, Roswell Gilbert, to shoot her. He granted her that last wish; he pumped two bullets from a 9-mm Luger into her brain, and then he turned himself in. A jury took only four hours to convict him of first-degree murder; the seventy-five-year-old retired electrical engineer will not be eligible for parole until his hundredth birthday. He was astonished.
Matter & Force
Authors: Vailati Ezio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given the metaphysical and theological ground on which Leibniz had decided to mount his last attack against Newtonianism, physical issues played an ancillary role, and consequently those which the disputants perceived more directly tied to the positions they wanted to press received the earliest and greatest attention. Leibniz kept attacking Newtonian gravitation as miraculous or occult and the view that the quantity of force in matter is decreasing as leading to a debased notion of God. Similarly, Clarke criticized Leibniz’s claim, that the quantity of matter is infinite and its force conserved, as conducive to the effective expulsion of God from the universe.
Positive and Negative Duty in the Liberal Tradition: An Overview
Authors: Smith Patricia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is what Thomas Hobbes thought life would be like without a civil society to bring order and morality into the world: a war of all against all. Anarchy. Almost the worst situation imaginable. Almost. Organized aggression (such as Hitlers death camps) is arguably worse, but if so, anarchy runs a very close second. Anarchy is the antithesis of peace.
The Duty of Charity and the Equivalence Thesis
Authors: Smith Patricia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In two widely discussed and important articles, James Rachels and Peter Singer have formulated powerful arguments to the effect that there is no morally relevant difference between positive and negative duties as such (or at least between killing and letting die), and consequently that our general failure to save the lives of many who now die from starvation and malnutrition is more or less equivalent to negligent homicide.
Conclusion
Authors: Russell Bertrand 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the foregoing pages we have traced, in brief outline, some of the more notable conflicts between the theologians and the men of science during the past four centuries, and we have tried to estimate the bearing of present-day science upon presentday theology. We have seen that, in the period since Copernicus, whenever science and theology have disagreed, science has proved victorious. We have seen also that, where practical issues were involved, as in witchcraft and medicine, science has stood for the diminution of suffering, while theology has encouraged man’s natural savagery. The spread of the scientific outlook, as opposed to the theological, has indisputably made, hitherto, for happiness. The issue is now, however, entering upon a wholly new phase, and this for two reasons : first, that scientific technique is becoming more important in its effects than the scientific temper of mind ; secondly, that newer religions are taking the place of Christianity, and repeating the errors of which Christianity has repented.
Russell’s Logicist Program
Authors: Landini Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is well known that Russell’s original conception of logicism differed from that of Frege. Exactly how they differed is, however, a thorny subject. Frege’s logicism proclaimed that arithmetic is logic. Geometry was excluded, and as Grattan-Guinness points out, it is not even clear how much of analysis he wanted. Russell’s logicism, on the contrary, was that all of “pure mathematics” is logic. Not a few regard Russell’s conception of “pure mathematics” as confused. If so, the whole of Russell’s work is marred by this original sin. It is important, therefore, to understand what Russell meant in speaking of “pure mathematics.” It is no less important to properly grasp Frege and Russell’s conceptions of logic. This is the focus of the present chapter.
The Logic Of The Principles Of Mathematics
Authors: Landini Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In May of 1903, Russell’s The Principles of Mathematics appeared. The book was the crescendo of Russell’s studies on relations, setting forth a detailed explanation of how the logic of relations can encompass (non-applied) mathematics (including rational dynamics and geometry). This chapter focuses on the foundation of that explanation-viz., the characterization of logic in Principles as the science of propositions. Russell’s formal calculus for logic is set forth and its improvements over Peano’s work are noted. Next the ontology of propositions underwriting that logic is discussed. Here we shall find that the old maxim quodlibet ens est unum is the fundamental ontological doctrine of Principles.
The New Theory Of The Variable
Authors: Landini Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Principles offered an analysis of the constituents of propositions which was to ground the use of unrestricted variables in the formal calculus for logic. The ground was an analysis of the use of variables by means of the notion of denotation and the substitution of one entity in a proposition (occurring as term of the proposition) for another. The fundamental notion was that of “occurring as term of a proposition” (or “logical subject”).
The “Na-Classes” Theory
Authors: Landini Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
6.0 In the last chapter we discussed the theory of propositional functions proxied in the substitutional theory by the use of matrices. We now turn to classes. It not at all easy to recover the treatment of class symbols from Russell’s writings and publications. Russell’s published works are sketchy about the details. Many worknotes have been lost and one must piece together the theory of classes from the remaining fragments. There is a brief development of the theory of classes in “On the Substitutional Theory of Classes and Relations.” This continues in the September 1906 “Les paradoxes de la logique.” Nonetheless, in the April-May manuscript “On Substitution” there are hints of another approach which, if we can extrapolate from the scant remarks, offers a new treatment of the extensionality of classes and a correction of flaws in the earlier approach.
The “No-Relations/’ Theory
Authors: Landini Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The substitutional proxy for the language of propositional functions that is, a type-indexed language which allows predicate variables in subject and predicate positions was discussed in Chapter 5. The substitutional treatment for symbols for relations-in-extension (hereafter “relationse “) is a natural continuation of the technique applied to class symbols examined in Chapter 6. In dealing with relationse, one might think it natural to adopt the 1912/4 Wiener-Kuratowski definition of ordered pair. This would be to have: (x, y) = df {{x}, {x, y}}.
Les Paradoxes De La Logique
Authors: Landini Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we saw in Part II, the substitutional theory parallels the so-called “simple theory of types” of attributes (“propositional functions in an ontological sense”). As in the simple theory, cardinal numbers repeat on each type level. But the reduplication of arithmetic within the types--a zero, one, and so on, on each type level---is now wholly unobjectionable. It is an entirely natural consequence of the proxy--that is, the non-assumption that every open wff comprehends an attribute. Indeed, substitution avoids the simple theory’s problem of justifying a hierarchy of attributes. There is no hierarchy of entities at all! Neither is there any need for an axiom of infinity.
Predicting Catastrophe
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Circular No. 5636 of the International Astronomical Union, published on 15 October 1992, stated that the Swift-Tuttle comet (named in 1862) might collide with the Earth on 14 August 2126. The comet is large enough to threaten the continuation of civilized life on this planet. The second sighting of what could be the most important object in human history was by an amateur Japanese astronomer. The announcement triggered a rash of measurements, and a more accurate prediction of the comet’s path showed both that it is the comet that was seen in China in 69 B.C., and that we will be safe in 2126 but may be in danger on 26 August 3044.
From Newton to De Sade: The Partial Triumph of Reason
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Something encouraging happened in seventeenth-century Europe. It became more fashionable to shout, “That’s not reasonable!” than to whisper, “That’s heretical!” Some call the period that culminated in the 1760s the Age of Reason, some speak of the Enlightenment. The French, who were at the heart of the Enlightenment, called it “le siècle des lumières.” It was a time of intense intellectual excitement, a time when men began to feel that they had the ability to understand and control the world and that the means by which to achieve those aims were not revelation and dogma but intelligence, reason, and science.
The Material Trinity: The Atom
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1863, Ernest Solvay, a Belgian industrial chemist, announced a new process for making washing soda. It made him a fortune, which allowed him to engage in philanthropy and to express offbeat opinions, such as his belief in the evil of inherited wealth and the undesirability of money in general. Among the projects to which his own undesirable money went was a series of international meetings, the Solvay Conferences. Einstein attended the first Solvay Conference on Physics, held in Brussels in 1911, and was given the honor of being the final speaker. Madame Curie was also there, but the most significant talks were given by two other participants: Ernest Rutherford, who announced the discovery of the atomic nucleus, and Jean Perrin, who gave the most convincing evidence until that time that atoms actually exist.
Energy
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A man meets a woman on a bitterly cold, windy Chicago street corner. Her hands are freezing, his are warm. He presents her with a bunch of faded flowers and then, humming, “Your tiny hands are frozen,” warms her hands with his. There have been three very different kinds of transfer between them. One was material and tangible: the flowers. The other two were intangible and involved no material transfer: the heat that went from his hands to hers, and the information that went from his mouth and eyes to her brain. There are very many intangible transfers between animate and inanimate objects, transfers that appear at flrst to have nothing in common but in fact are closely linked.
Entropy: Intimations of Mortality
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Open a can of petrol in a closed room. The room is also thermally isolated; heat cannot enter or leave. The smell of petrol will slowly spread through the room. The mechanism is simple: molecules leave the can and meander across the room. Why do they leave the can? Because, in the can, in the space above the liquid petrol, they are moving. Some of them will, purely by chance, find their way out of the neck of the bottle. It is absolutely essential to realize that they do not purposefully make their way to the opening; remember the blind, deaf, radarless, unsmelling flies of Chapter 1? In fact, some of the molecules that have left the can may find their way back, not because of a homing instinct but purely by chance. Molecules have no will. It would be a scary world if they did.
In a Monastery Garden
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) bred pea plants in a monastery in Brno, Austria, because he was interested in inheritance. Mendel concentrated on the inheritance of a very small number of characteristics, and those one at a time. He started off with plants that had been inbred so as to give a uniform population. Thus Mendel took plants with long stems, that had been inbred for at least two generations until all offspring had long stems. Similarly, he bred “pure” short-stem plants.
The Descent of Man
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Copernicus and Galileo moved the Earth from the center of the solar system and invoked the wrath of the Church, because they had removed man from the center of the universe.1 An earlier heliocentric hypothesis, put forward by Aristarchus in the third century B.c., was greeted by a demand that the author be indicted on a charge of impiety. Darwinism was worse; evolution not only denied the literal interpretation of Genesis but also questioned the uniqueness of man.
Life: The Molecular Battle
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last 350 years, the formulation of a small number of unifying concepts has allowed us to rationalize much of what we know of the living world. We have already seen examples, in Darwinian evolution, Mendelian genetics, and the genetic code. Other major concepts include the eighteenth-century system of classification of living forms and the nineteenth-century concepts of the cell and the germ theory of disease.
The Origin of Life? Take Your Choice
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I do not know the origin of life. Those of us who hold, like I do, that life emerged spontaneously from inanimate matter are, we must admit, at a distinctly embarrassing disadvantage: we have not yet come up with a convincing mechanism for abiogenesis. In his presidential address to the 1871 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Lord Kelvin stated, “Dead matter cannot become living without coming under the influence of matter previously alive. This seems to be as sure a teaching of science as the law of gravitation.” If he is right, which I doubt, then life must have been present in the universe for all past time.
The Elementary Particles
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Little girls are made of quarks and leptons. Likewise little boys, and everything else in the universe. The reign of the triumvirate of the proton, neutron, and electron was short-lived. In 1932, the year that Chadwick discovered the neutron, Carl Anderson detected a fourth particle, with the mass of the electron but positively charged. The positron, which Dirac had predicted, is stable if left on its own but has a permanent suicide pact with the electron, both particles vanishing and leaving two y-rays. The positron was discovered by observing the particles generated by the collision of cosmic rays with matter.
The Tree of Death
Authors: Silver Brian L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ironically--considering that it was Miller who wrote these sentences-sin, disease, and death are today more associated with sex than with Miller’s target, science. But he is far from alone; antagonism to science is widespread, and at the end of our journey it is worth pausing to see why the search for knowledge is not universally applauded. I came up against the opposition early on.
How Much Common Belief is Necessary for a Convention?
Authors: Hyun Song Shin , Williamson Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Coordination problems come in many forms. A case of particular interest to students of norms and conventions is that in which the payoff function of the coordination game depends on the state of nature. In such an environment, the possibility of conditioning one’s actions on some signal of the state of nature adds an extra dimension to the coordination problem, and makes it a more accurate representation of the problem of day-to-day interaction in which individuals face a variety of coordination problems determined by the state of nature. In such an environment, the problem becomes one of coordinating on the most advantageous set of rules of action, where each player’s rule of action maps a possible realization of his signal to an action.
DNA and the Language of Genes
Authors: Clark William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When E. B. Wilson suggested in 1895 that heredity might have a chemical basis, he was thinking specifically of the nucleic acid component. But this was no more than an inspired guess on his part and, indeed, of the two major components of chromatin, nucleic acid seemed to many the less likely candidate. The problem was in the perceived possibilities for information content: DNA is composed of only four basic nucleotides. The hereditary material-genes-must contain the blue¬ print for the construction of an entire organism. How can only four nucleotides be used to spell out the enormous complexity of a complete animal or plant? Proteins, on the other hand, are polymers of amino acids, of which there are twenty different kinds. This is close to the number ofletters in most alphabets. Thus, even for scientists convinced of the chemical basis of heredity, proteins seemed intuitively to be a more likely candidate for the transmission of information from one generation to the next.
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease
Authors: Clark William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCIO) is truly as bad as it sounds. As with cystic fibrosis, SCIO is an inherited disease involving mutations of a single gene in an afflicted child. But unlike CF, where there is only one gene in the entire human population responsible for the disease, SCIO can be caused by mutations in any one of a number of different genes affecting largely the T cell arm of the immune response. In CF, defects in the single gene responsible, the chloride ion transporter (CFTR), affect a wide range of cells and tissues in the body, resulting in a spectrum of seemingly unrelated disorders. In SCIO, defects in several quite distinct genes can cripple a single type of white blood cell (the T lymphocyte or T cell), causing a single, highly focussed medical problem: susceptibility to infectious disease. When untreated, SCIO is uniformly lethal within the first year or two oflife. Fortunately, SCIO is a relatively rare genetic disorder; only about forty “SCIO kids” are born each year in the U.S. Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to treat, and the majority of affected children still die of the disease.
The journey Begins The Clinical Trials for ADA-SCID
Authors: Clark William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The possibilities for applying the emerging techniques of molecular biology to human gene therapy were appreciated by a handful of people as early as the late 1960s, although at that time no one had the slightest idea of how human genes might be isolated. The first human gene would not even be cloned for another dozen or so years. But there were tantalizing clues of what might lie ahead. In the 1960s, a physician-scientist named Stanfield Rogers at the Oak Ridge National Laboratories made an extraordinary observation with the common wart-causing Shope papilloma virus. One of the genes carried by this virus encodes an enzyme called arginase, which degrades excess amounts of the amino acid arginine. In addition to its role as a building block of protein, arginine also plays a role of its own as an intermediate in the processing of nitrogenous wastes in the body. Rogers noted that in rabbits infected with the Shope virus, the levels of arginine in the blood were unusually low. This did not particularly bother the rabbits; in fact high levels of arginine can be toxic.
The Ethics of Molecular Medicine
Authors: Clark William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the implications of molecular biology for human medicine first began to dawn on those working in the field, even the molecular biologists were nervous. It was the scientists themselves, remember, who called for the Asilomar meeting in 1974, not a watchful press or wary politicians; not perennial naysayers or doomsday prophets of science. It was molecular biologists, who knew better than anyone else at the time what the stakes might be, who blew the whistle and asked for time out to sort through the implications of what they were getting themselves into. It was the scientists, and those first few physicians who understood the clinical implications of experiments still confined to bacteria and viruses, who called upon the government to take an active hand in helping regulate what they were about to do.
Why the Santiago of I8I4 to I822 can’t hold a candle to the Santiago of I86o
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What sort of place was Santiago in r814? What, back then, was this city that has grown so big for its age and that along with its more or less justified claims to metropolitan status still harbors the petty ways of a village? Apart from the wonderful Chilean sky and the impressive view of the Andes, the Santiago of 1814, the delight of its happy citizens, was, for the newly arrived foreigner, a remote and dismal town, whose low and crudely fashioned buildings, though neatly lined up along straight streets, lacked any architectural distinction. The value of this jewel of the so-called Kingdom of Chile was further reduced by the filth in which it was set, for though it rose on the fertile plain of the Mapocho River, it was bordered by the Mapocho dump on the north, the Canada dump on the south, the Santa Lucia dump on the east, and the San Miguel-San Pablo dump on the west.
Marcd’s tribulations. —Chacabuco. —A great soirie in honor if the conquering army. —The coat of arms of Chile. — The defeat at Cancha Rayada. —Second emigration to Mendoza. —The death if Luis and]uan]osi Carrera.
Authors: Rosales Vicente Pérez 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By this time Don Mariano Osorio was no longer in charge. He had been succeeded by another proconsul, named Casimiro l’v1arc6 del Pont, less competent than his predecessor, though no less cruel. The prisoners on Juan Fernandez, from whom we received only infrequent news, were still subject to the whims of their jailers on that New World Ceuta,8 lacking all hope, while in the hearts of their relatives and other patriots in the so-called Kingdom of Chile, helplessly crushed by the abuses of arbitrary power, a store of affronts was building whose explosion, once it came, was bound to sweep Spanish rule from our soil forever.