bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Nuclear Reaction Brought About by Machine (1932)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Episode 47, we mentioned that Lawrence and Livingston failed to be the first to observe nuclear reactions by artificially accelerated particles although they had built an excellent accelerator. Instead, the discovery was made [1] in the Cavendish Laboratory, which was the centre of nuclear physics. Since 1919 the laboratory was directed by Rutherford who had reaped great successes by bombarding nuclei with radiation, particularly α particles from radioactive decays. But, like others, he saw that the limited energy (a few MeV) and also the limited intensity made further progress difficult. At a meeting of the Royal Society in November 1927, addressing the Society as its president, Rutherford spoke about the importance to produce high electric and magnetic fields. He pointed out the advances in the production of high voltages, which had been developed to transport electric energy over large distances [2]. He reported that so far a vacuum tube suitable for the acceleration of particles withstood voltages only up to 300 000 V, i.e., 300 kV. That was only about one-twentieth of the voltage needed to reach the energy provided by natural radioactivity. Still, Rutherford stressed the importance of trying to obtain particles with energies beyond those provided by radioactivity: ‘This would open up an extraordinarily interesting field of investigation which could not fail to give us information of great value, not only on the constitution and stability of atomic nuclei but in many other directions.’
Fermi Produces Radioactivity with Neutrons (1934)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Episode 53, we described the origins of Fermi’s group in Rome. After the completion of quantum mechanics it had become more and more clear that research had to be redirected from the atomic shell to the nucleus. Accordingly, a cloud chamber and also Geiger–Müller counters were built by the group and put in use.
Prediction of the Meson (1934) – Discovery of the Muon (1937)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Soon after the discovery of the neutron and its recognition as constituent of the nucleus Heisenberg (Episode 51) in 1932 and Fermi (Episode 53) in 1933 presented the first quantum theories of nuclear binding and of nuclear β decay, respectively. The next important step towards a theory of the nucleus was done in 1934 by Yukawa, then an unknown young scientist in Japan. His work would go unnoticed until, more than two years later, a particle that his theory predicted was apparently found.
Landau Explains Superfluidity (1941)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Episode 58 we saw how Kapitza, under circumstances forced upon him, late in 1937 discovered superfluidity. In April 1939, he declared in a letter to Molotov that he needed help from a theoretician, namely, Landau, to go on with his work. Landau at the time was in one of Stalin’s prisons and in this way Kapitza succeeded to save his life. It lies in the nature of science that results, generally, cannot be produced to order. But Landau, defying this rule, within two years created the theory of superfluidity.
The Synchrotron: Phase Stability (1945) and Strong Focussing (1952)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many, if not most, fundamental discoveries in nuclear physics were possible by simply using the projectiles made available by natural radioactivity. But even though, it was felt desirable to have well-controlled sources of particles of higher energies; and thus the first particle accelerators, the Cockkroft–Walton generator (Episode 50) and the cyclotron (Episode 47) were built. Part of the rapid increase in detailed knowledge on isotopes and nuclear reactions in the 1930s and 1940s was possible because of these machines. Concerning elementary particle physics, we have the reverse situation. Although some important particles were observed in a natural source, namely, the cosmic radiation, most were produced in the laboratory using artificially accelerated projectiles of ever increasing energy and intensity. All modern accelerators are based on the principle of phase stability invented in 1944/45. The vast majority are syn- chrotrons. Since the invention of strong focussing in 1952 every synchrotron design includes this feature. Let us now see how these two inventions were made, interestingly enough, each of them twice.
Magnetic Resonance (1945)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We already met Bloch as student in Zurich, witnessing Schrödinger’s first public presentation of his wave equation, and in Leipzig as Heisenberg’s first doctoral student, writing his thesis which laid the foundation of the quantum theory of conductors and semiconductors (Episode 44). He worked in Zurich, Utrecht, and Leiden before returning to Leipzig as Heisenberg’s assistant. There he became Privatdozent with a thesis on ferromagnetism. When Hitler came to power, Bloch left Germany, spent a few months in Zurich, and then went to Rome to work in Fermi’s group. Fermi, who excelled as no other physicist in both theory and experiment, advised him to do some experimental physics, because ‘it was fun’. As the present episode will show, Bloch made good use of this advice.
The Transistor (1947)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Late in 1874 Braun , then a young science teacher at a gymnasium in Leipzig, published a paper entitled On the Conduction of Current through Sulphuric Metals [1]. In this paper, now often regarded to mark the beginning of semiconductor physics, he reports that in some crystals he found a pronounced deviation from Ohm’s law. In several cases the magnitude, not only the direction, of the current through a crystal changed if the voltage was reversed. He speaks of unipolar conductivity. In modern language, a circuit with such a behaviour is a rectifier since current flows more easily in one direction than in the other; in an ideal rectifier it flows in one direction only. Braun even described a case in which this effect depended on the places where the metallic leads were connected to the crystal. Three years later Braun obtained his first professorship, in Marburg; others followed. Today he is best known for Braun’s tube, until recently the basis of oscilloscopes and TV sets, but he was awarded the Noble Prize for an essential improvement of wireless transmitters and receivers by the introduction of resonant oscillator circuits. In wireless transmission of Morse code or voice, the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave is modulated with the signal itself. In the receiver the signal is retrieved by rectification of the high-frequency current caused by the carrier. In the early days of wireless a crystal detector, designed by Braun, was usually used as rectifier in receivers. Essential for the rectifying property was the point contact between a suitable crystal and the sharp tip of a metal conductor.
Quantum Electrodynamics and Feynman Diagrams (1949)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantum electrodynamics or, as it is often simply called, QED, is the theory in which the electron (and other charged leptons) as well as the electromagnetic field are consistently described in the framework of relativistic quantum mechanics or, as to use a more appropriate name, of a relativistic quantum field theory. It took nearly a quarter of a century to complete it [1], about the same time it took from the first appearance of the quantum idea in 1900 to the creation of quantum mechanics by Heisenberg, Dirac, and Schrödinger in 1925/26. Once completed, QED became the model quantum field theory. Such theories now successfully describe not only the electromagnetic but also the weak and the strong interaction between particles. In all of them Feyn- man diagrams, also called Feynman graphs, play a central role in visualization and computation. Feynman and his diagrams will also be in the centre of this episode.
The Maser (1954)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In one of his very influential papers [1] Einstein identified three fundamental types of interaction between matter and light, absorption, spontaneous emis- sion, and stimulated emission: By absorbing a light quantum a molecule (or atom) performs a transition to a state of higher energy; it can spontaneously, i.e., without being prompted to do so, return to a state of lower energy by emitting a quantum; finally, it can also emit a quantum and transit to a lower energy, if stimulated by another light quantum. In the latter case the stimulating and the emitted quantum have the same wavelength and also the same phase. It is this quality which made the maser and, later, the laser (Episode 82) instruments of outstanding qualities.
The Neutrino Finally Observed (1956)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Episode 46 we told how, in 1930, Pauli postulated the existence of the neu- trino in order to save the conservation laws of energy, momentum, and angular momentum in β decay. Fermi, in the successful theory of weak interactions he developed in 1933 (Episode 53), made use of the creation as a pair of an electron and a neutrino. With the advent of the positron as antiparticle of the electron it became clear that the neutrino which was pair-created with a positron, for instance, in the β decay of an artificially produced isotope which emits positrons, is the antiparticle of the original Pauli neutrino. By convention the original neutrino was called an antineutrino, , in order to describe the pair of particles created in β decay as one particle, the electron, and one antiparticle, the antineutrino.
Weak Interaction Better Understood – The V − A Theory (1957)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fermi’s ‘theory of β rays’ (Episode 53) or, as it came to be called, the theory of weak interaction, was decisively advanced by two experimental discoveries. The first was the realization that the muon observed in cosmic rays (Episode 57) was not the meson proposed by Yukawa. Studies of its decay led to the notion of universal Fermi interaction. The second discovery was that of parity non-conservation (Episode 77). Still in 1957 it led to a formulation of the theory of weak interaction much more precise than the one originally proposed by Fermi in 1933.
There are Just Three Generations (1989)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Episode 96, we mentioned that CERN was already planning a large electron– positron collider, named LEP , to study electroweak interactions and, in particular, the properties of the W ± and Z bosons, when a shortcut was proposed by which these bosons were discovered years earlier. Nevertheless, the LEP project was continued because it did offer the possibility of precision measurements which allowed thorough testing of the standard model of particle physics and the determination of its basic parameters.
Particle Astrophysics
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last years have seen a symbiosis of the fields of elementary particle physics and the astrophysics of the early universe. This text presents the background of the subjects and the latest developments at a level suitable for final year undergraduates and beginning graduate students. The first chapters cover the properties and interactions of elementary particles followed by discussion of the early universe, including inflation, dark matter and dark energy, and the growth of the galactic structure. The final chapters discuss cosmic rays and particle physics in the stars. The close relation between particle interactions and large scale development of the cosmos is a constant theme in the text, with emphasis on the interplay between experiment and theory. This book is an enlarged and updated version of the first edition published five years ago. In a rapidly evolving field, emphasis has of course been placed on the most recent developments. However, the opportunity has also been taken to re-arrange the material and present it in more detail and at somewhat greater length.
Data Protection And Privacy Issues
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Data Protection Act 1998 (the DPA) was introduced by the Government to implement the EC Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of Personal Data and on the free movement of such data. It replaced the Data Protection Act 1984, which had provided limited protection for individuals in relation to computer records.
The DPA came into force on 1 March 2000 but because of a transitional period most of the obligations relating to manual record-keeping only came into effect on 24 October 2001. Although the DPA covers all aspects of the use of Personal Data, this book deals solely with its impact on employers and employees (including workers), and these terms will be used rather than the data protection specific terms.
Combinatorial Solutions of the Ising Model
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are many methods to solve exactly the two-dimensional Ising model at zero magnetic field. Some of these methods have proved to be quite general and they have been employed in the solution of other important models of statistical mechanics. This is the case, for instance, for the method of commuting transfer matrices, based on the solution of the Yang–Baxter equations, which will be discussed in the next chapter. On the contrary, other methods prove to be applicable only to the Ising model, such as the two combinatorial approaches that we are going to discuss in this chapter. Both methods are quite ingenious and original and this alone justifies their detailed analysis. The first method, which starts from the high-temperature series expansion of the Ising model, finally reduces the free energy computation to a problem of a random walk on a lattice. The second method, which also starts from the high-temperature series, transforms the problem of computing the free energy of the Ising model into a counting problem of dimer configurations on a lattice.
Fermionic Formulation of the Ising Model
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will study the continuum limit formulation of the two-dimensional Ising model, starting from the hamiltonian limit of its transfer matrix. We will first derive the quantum hamiltonian of the model and then we will study its most important properties, such as the duality transformation. This symmetry involves the order and disorder operators and we will clarify their physical interpretation. Afterwards, we will see how to diagonalize the quantum hamiltonian by means of particular fermionic fields. The operator mapping between the order/disorder operators and the fermionic fields is realized by the so-called Wigner–Jordan transformation: this brings the original hamiltonian to a quadratic form in the creation and annihilation operators of the fermions. The determination of the spectrum is then obtained by a Bogoliubov transformation, a technique extremely useful also in other contexts, such as superconductivity phenomena. In the limit in which the lattice spacing goes to zero, the Ising model becomes a theory of free Majorana fermions. They satisfy a relativistic dispersion relation and their mass is a direct measurement of the displacement of the temperature from the critical value.
The Arena of Conformal Models
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will study some significant minimal conformal models. As shown in Chapter 11, these models provide explicit examples of exactly solved quantum field theories: of these theories we know the operator content, the fusion rules of their fields, the corresponding structure constants, the correlation functions of the order parameters and, finally, their modular invariant partition function on a torus. Despite this large amount of knowledge, there is still an important open problem, namely the identification of the classes of universality they are describing. Is there a way to associate these exactly solved critical theories to the continuum limit of lattice statistical models? Unfortunately there is no direct method to answer this question: the identification of the various classes of universality can be achieved only by comparison of the critical exponents predicted by conformal field theory with the values obtained by the exact solution of the models defined on a lattice, further supporting this identification on the basis of the symmetry of the order parameters. This has been the approach followed, for instance, by Huse who identified a particular critical regime of the lattice RSOS models solved by Andrew, Baxter, and Forrester with the unitarity minimal models of conformal field theory. In this chapter, rather than going into a technical analysis of this identification, we prefer to analyze in detail the first minimal models (in the following denoted, in general cases, by p,qand qfor the unitary cases), in particular those corresponding to the Ising model, the tricritical Ising model and the Yang–Lee model. We will also discuss the three-state Potts model as an example of a statistical model associated to a partition function of the type (A, D), according to the notation introduced in Chapter 11. Finally, we will study the statistical models of geometric type (as, for instance, those that describe self-avoiding walks) and their formulation in terms of conformal minimal models.
In the Vicinity of the Critical Points
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters we have dedicated ample space to the study of two-dimensional statistical systems at criticality, providing their exact solutions in terms of conformal field theories. In this chapter we start investigating the deformations of conformal field theories that move the statistical systems away from criticality. As pointed out in Chapter 8, in the renormalization group approach the characterization of the universality classes must include, in addition to the conformal theory of the fixed points, also the description of the scaling region nearby.
Products
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the more common derivative products: this group of the more common products comprises the forward contract, the futures contract, the option contract, the warrant, the forward rate agreement, the swap, and cap, floor, and collar contracts. A basic explanation is provided of how each product works and how it is used in terms of the cash flows that it creates. In addition, some history and background is provided to place each product in its proper context. Swaps are given some prominence in this chapter, because they are conceptually the most difficult to analyse. In particular, although the idea of the swap is almost beguilingly easy, the actual operation of a swap must be carefully considered, as this operation requires very particular documentation, and gives rise to a number of interesting economic and legal issues. This chapter next considers the constant proportion portfolio insurance (CPPI) structure, which both creates an exposure to the underlying, which increases if the underlying performs in an advantageous manner, and also provides protection of the amount invested.
Legal Issues
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A number of diverse legal issues arise in respect of either or both the exchange-based and the OTC derivative markets. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce these issues, and to illustrate how the broad concepts underpinning derivatives as financial products, as laid out in Chapter 4, the legal and regulatory foundation of the derivative markets, as identified in Chapter 5, and the contractual basis on which the derivative markets operate, as explained in Chapters 6 and 7, can be seen to form a cohesive whole. The general observation is made that OTC derivative contracts give rise to more challenging legal questions than listed derivative contracts that are traded on exchanges. Accordingly, aside from part 8.2 of this chapter, which discusses the regulatory perimeter against the background of business in listed sugar futures dealt on-exchange, the focus of this chapter remains firmly on the OTC market.
Article 5: Initiation of Anti-Dumping Proceedings
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Article 5 contains the procedural provisions governing the initiation of an anti-dumping proceeding. The initiation of an anti-dumping proceeding falls under the exclusive competence of the Commission. The necessary impetus to the initiation of an anti-dumping proceeding can come from two different sources. First, the Community industry concerned can submit a complaint whose merits will then be examined by the Commission (cf paras. 5.03 to 5.31 below). Secondly, the Commission can initiate an anti-dumping proceeding on its own initiative, i.e. without any complaint submitted by or on behalf of the Community industry (cf paragraph. 5.32 below).
Article 11: Duration, Review and Refunds
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anti-dumping measures normally have a duration of five years. It is obvious that the circumstances underlying the measures imposed can change during this period and that there must be mechanisms which allow for these changes to be taken into consideration. There can also be circumstances which require the extension of the validity of anti-dumping measures beyond the initial five-year period. Article 11(1) sets out the principle that ‘[a]n anti-dumping measure shall remain in force only as long as, and to the extent that, it is necessary to counteract the dumping which is causing injury’.This principle is not, however, directly.
Article 18: Non-Co-Operation
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The provisions contained in Article 18 are of considerable practical importance because they ensure that anti-dumping proceedings are carried out efficiently even if a party concerned does not co-operate. They define the acts and omissions which amount to non-co-operation, the consequences of such non-co-operation and the applicable procedural rules. The raison d’être of Article 18 is that both as regards parties within the Community and those in third countries, the Commission can only seek the disclosure of information on a voluntary basis— Basic Regulation 384/96 does not contain any provisions corresponding to those found in Regulation (EEC) 17/62which confer powers of inspection on the Commission in carrying out its duties in the enforcement of competition rules. Article 18 is a powerful tool which to some extent overcomes the lack of any powers of inspection.