bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ireland, 400–800
Authors: Cróinín Dáibhí Ó 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of them, possibly Cormac mac Cuillenáin, abbot of Cashel and king of Munster (902–8), chided his predecessors for their remissness in this task. In addition, he chastised the Irish people in general for what might nowadays be regarded as an uncharacteristic indifference to their own history: In stating his purpose in this way, however, our author was in fact perpetuating a lie, for the scheme of things that he then goes on to relate represents a view of early Irish history that was of relatively recent date.
The Viking Age
Authors: Byrne F J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
They are quite coldly matter-of-fact. The figures they give are not exaggerated, and so, when an act of particular atrocity is recorded, we may have some confidence in its historicity. Nothing in the contemporary Irish sources equals the ferocity of the Norse literary evidence, some of which, it is too often forgotten, was composed in the Viking period by pre-literate skalds. A healthy scepticism as to the absolute historicity of the Icelandic sagas and other medieval Nordic sources, combined perhaps with the fact that most recent work on the Vikings has been dominated by the archaeological evidence, has led to a neglect of the skaldic evidence and of the runic material which demonstrates the folly of regarding the Scandinavians as totally illiterate.
Ireland and her neighbours, c.1014–c.1072
Authors: Byrne F . J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
His claim to be imperator Scottorum, inscribed by his notary Máel Suthain in the Book of Armagh on his visit there in 1005, may indeed have implied overlordship not merely of Ireland but also of the Gaelic realm in Britain, and such wider authority is implied in the unusually fulsome obitu-ary accorded him by the Armagh annalist. It curiously anticipates Toynbee’s concept of the ‘abortive’ north-western civilisation embracing Saxon, Celt, and Dane that was brought to an end by the Norman conquest of England
Introduction
Authors: Blackbourn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of July 1876, the United States of America stood on the eve of its centenary, the festive preparations only slightly clouded by news of General Custer’s fate on the Little Bighorn the previous month. European eyes were fixed on the Balkan battlefields, where the revolt of Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria against the Ottoman empire had just been joined by Serbia and Montenegro.
The State Climbs Down
Authors: Blackbourn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Was Prussia a state bound by the rule of law? Events in Marpingen caused many to doubt it. After the village schoolteacher Andre had been summarily transferred to Tholey, Father Schneider wrote to a clerical friend in Trier asking for legal advice on the situation. The reply was that an action of this kind was impermissible without formal disciplinary proceedings—’but in Russia everything is possible’. The equating of Prussia and Russia gives an indication of Catholic bitterness over Marpingen. A friend of Neureuter’s from Zwolle wrote in the following terms, in a letter that ironically enough was seized by the authorities, having arrived shortly after the parish priest had been taken into custody: ‘Are you ill or in prison; for anything is possible—silence is golden in Germany, even if elsewhere the problem is lead. Moreover, private letters should not be sniffed at by everyone and in Prussia-Germany only the cabinet of the chancellor is private.’ The actions of the state in Marpingen worried many beyond the ranks of Catholics, from the Frankfurter Zeitung on the left to the Kreuz-Zeitung on the right. For the latter, the dubious role played by Meerscheidt-Htillessem and the treatment of the visionary children were ‘weak points that the government might well find it difficult to defend’. Police measures had been an inappropriate choice of weapon, and the government might regret its methods if ‘absolutely tangible and convincing evidence’ of deliberate deception and criminal actions could not be produced.
Introduction
Authors: Pethybridge Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I HAVE had the notion of trying to examine two separate years of early Soviet history. I fell upon this idea because I think it may have certain methodological advantages (as well as some disadvantages) in the treatment of Soviet politics and history. When I came to look at other historians and other countries and periods I could find very few scholars who had in fact chosen single unimportant years of past time and studied them in any detail. It has been undertaken in studies of 1848 in Western Europe, but of course 1848 was a very significant revolutionary year. In this book I take two apparently insignificant years, 1922 and1926, and examine and compare them. I wish later to explain in some detail why I thought of taking up this approach. Let us look first of all at contemporary observers of the year 1922 and then turn to look at how the period is treated in present-day studies. Inside the Soviet Union around the year 1922, it is true that there were a few historians, some of them professional, who were sympathetic enough to the Bolshevik cause to write about it. Unfortunately, they were so preoccupied with the struggle of living that they had little time to comment on passing events. After 1917 Professor Pokrovsky could only take off half an evening a week for historical research. He devoted most of his energies to the organization of elementary education. In any case, Pokrovsky and others urged that the study of history should be replaced by the study of what they called ‘socio-economic formations’. Russian history was not taught for some years during this period in Russian schools. A very small number of active politicians turned their minds to general surveys.
Bolshevik Controls
Authors: Pethybridge Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT was seen in the previous chapter that there were initial attempts in early NEP to adopt a less centralist approach to the railways and to the press for technical and cultural reasons respectively. Thus Dzerzhinsky on the spot in Siberia discarded faulty theoretical calculations made in Moscow, and in the spring of 1922 railway administration in general was partly decentralized. Yet soon thereafter political fear led to the chairman of each local board becoming a direct representative of the central Commissariat. It was the same with the local press. The Eleventh Party Congress instructed editors to adapt their articles to local needs and educational levels, but by 1923 most peasant correspondents were expected to toe the line on central directives and were discovering how unpopular they were in the countryside as a result. In this chapter some Bolshevik systems of nation-wide control are examined. They depended heavily for the efficient dissemination and harvesting of personnel and information on the more technical communications that have just been considered.
Disjunctions
Authors: Vital David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Few in Jewry anywhere in Europe had anticipated emancipation. All that was certain about it when it was first enacted in France and as the prospect of its enactment elsewhere began to loom, was that it augured unprecedented but also irreversible change in the structure and character of the Jewish people. From this point on, the questions on which virtually everything of importance in the lives of the Jews of Europe would turn was whether, if only as a hypothesis, such change was to be welcomed or rejected; and whether the welcome—or rejection—was to be flat or qualified. Upon these issues Jews in all parts of the continent would now begin to be deeply and, in the course of time, irreparably divided.
Questions from Without and Within
Authors: Vital David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In its modern, secular, and political form the notion that the Jews, collectively, presented a threat to the other European peoples was in the main the invention of men of letters—scholars, philosophers, publicists—and serious political dissidents. So was its corollary: that the role the Jews played in society and in the economy was at once an acutely representative symbol of the times and one of its governing factors. In certain interesting ways the idea had roots in ancient, especially Christian, theses and sentiment. In other ways it constituted a departure from them, reflecting changes in social and political conditions at all levels of European society and the common thinking on public affairs. However, the rapidity and avidity with which it was taken up and propagated cannot be fully accounted for except in the light of the advance of the process of Jewish emancipation and of its twin, the admittedly incomplete, but still noticeable and continuing integration of the Jews in society at large. Such was the case where emancipation had been decreed and embarked upon. Such too was the case where it was contemplated from afar and denied. Some of the early formulations of the conceit dated from just before the collapse of the ancien régime, elements being present in the minds both of those who had decreed measures of emancipation and those who had sought actively to obstruct it, the entire process, as we have seen, being shot through therefore with reservations and internal contradictions.
Crystallization
Authors: Vital David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One cardinal respect in which something of the old world of unemancipated, unacculturated Jewry survived the great social changes undergone in the nineteenth century was the rule of mutual assistance: the fundamental operative principle on which the unity and integrity of Jewry in its entirety relied. It may never have been absolutely and in all circumstances operative. But it spoke, and it continued into the modern era to speak, to all Jews of certain common, rock-bottom interests, responsibilities, and obligations. It lay at the heart of the greater part of Jewish public business. It was the Archimedean point on which all calls for aid and co-operation and all efforts to respond to them turned: thus within particular communities, thus across communal and state boundaries as well. For actual force and effectiveness it depended partly on the sympathy-but perhaps more especially the empathy—which supplicants for assistance normally evoked. It depended equally on it being recognized as the incontestable moral obligation of all collectivities, institutions, and individuals in Jewry—notably, of course, but not exclusively, those perceived as well placed and fortunate—to render whatever aid and protection they could muster to the less fortunate, above all to those in immediate, evident distress.
Sweden: The Mass Burnings (1668-1676)
Authors: Ankarloo Bengt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE oldest recorded Swedish laws were written down in the thirteenth century. A comprehensive national code was enacted around 1350. These early legal sources reflect an agrarian society in transition from primitive to feudal forms of production. In the labour force, slavery (thraldom) was still important, but was gradually giving way to newer forms of exploitation such as servitude and tenancy. The social difference between the landowning warlord elite and the productive majority was relatively advanced already in the Viking era (c.800-1000), but was to some extent mitigated by the existence of a class of free farmers, the size of which varied over time and from region to region.
Society and the Economy
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The second half of the nineteenth century down to the outbreak of the First World War was decisive for the social and economic development of Rumania. In many areas she moved toward modem forms. Population grew steadily and became more urban, industrialization gained momentum, and the infrastructure of an advanced economy began to fill out. The Liberal and Conservative parties encouraged private enterprise, but the role of the state as an entrepreneur and regulator proved indispensable for economic progress.
Society and the Economy 1919–1940
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between the World Wars Rumania presented striking contrasts between entrenched underdevelopment and burgeoning, if un even, industrialization and urbanization. On the one hand, her economic and social structure preserved in broad outline its prewar configuration. Agriculture remained the foundation of the country’s economy. and its organization changed but little, despite an extensive land reform. The great majority of the population continued to live in the countryside and to draw its income primarily from agriculture. In international relations Rumania remained dependent. on the West as a market for her agricultural products and raw materials and as a source of many kinds of manufactured goods and investment capital.
Power And Influence In Paris, 1418-1436
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is about the administration of Paris during the English occupation. It is concerned less with the major strategic decisions of the Lancastrian council than with local justice and government. As a brief consideration of the network of jurisdictions will show, legal institutions were subject to the vagaries of their own inherited structures and of the human agents who worked within the system. What is true of the judicial system is true of every part of the administration. There were many anomalies, skilfully exploited by those who operated the machinery of government. well informed: it was filled by men who came to power in the Burgundian coup of 1418; from 1422 it was headed by the regent, the duke of Bedford, who delegated everyday administration while keeping key political matters in his own hands.
Defence And Security
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anglo-Burgundian Paris was a town at war. One only need tum the pages of the Journal d’un Bourgeois to see how, even when the battles were far away, the war could still be near at hand. This was the dominant consideration of the town’s politicians and an inescapable fact of life for everybody else. Thus merchants bringing cattle for the butchers of Paris came with an armed guard. To understand what it was like to governor to live in-the Paris of the 1420s and 1430s involves knowing how the town responded to the menaces of war, to the occasional serious assaults and raids, and to the constant fear of surprise attacks. Privileged to live behind strong walls, the Parisians had to face the fact that towns, by reason of their military power, were bound to be strategic targets in any long war. The problem was not only one for the citizens: from 1420 the government in Paris was led by an English regent, for whom possession of the French capital gave credibility to claims to the French throne.
Politics and Parliament
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN 1530 the English Church was suddenly confronted with an unexpected and unwonted challenge. In July, the attorney-general filed praemunire indictments in King’s Bench against eight bishops and six other ecclesiastical officials. It was alleged that, by entering into compositions with Wolsey for the exercise of their jurisdiction, they had implicated themselves in an illegal assertion of his legatine powers. By September it was rumoured that another 200 clergy would be indicted, and by 21 October Henry VIII had agreed that the whole clergy of England should be charged. The rule of Wolsey had given the common lawyers a powerful weapon against ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and the king was apparently willing to let them use it. The penalties for praemunire offences were loss of property and life imprisonment. Henry could hardly imprison all the clergy, but they were now at his mercy. It seemed that, in an unexpected fall from power in 1529, Cardinal Wolsey might bring the authority of the English Church crashing down with him.
From Resentment to Recusancy
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN July 1578 the churchwardens of Weaverham in Cheshire compiled their report for the archbishop of York’s visitation. We do not know what they concealed; what they admitted was a catalogue of disobedience and omission. The church did not have the Book of Common Prayer for services, or a Bible, or a copy of the Homilies; there was no cloth for the communion table, and no chest for the parish register. An altar in the church had not been demolished, and crosses still stood in the churchyard. The parishioners would not join the Rogation tide perambulations, or send their children to catechism classes; some went to alehouses instead of church, and were not fined for absence; those who did attend chattered through the services. None would take communion three times a year, or receive ordinary bread, as prescribed in the Prayer Book; communicants insisted on the traditional wafers. On All Hallows’ eve the bells tolled for souls departed, and ‘Jane, an old nun, is an evil woman and teacheth false doctrine’. After almost two decades, the ecclesiastical provisions of 1559 were still comprehensively ignored in this mid-Cheshire parish: the third political Reformation had apparently failed.
Subsistence and Markets
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We must accustom ourselves to the paradox that in a period of recession, and particularly in the fifteenth century, the structures of society and economy were changing in ways that make them appear more ‘modern’, which flies in the face of our customary assumptions about the link between growth and ‘progress’.
The argument presented in this chapter is that while the volume of economic activity contracted, the ingrained habits of marketing and the employment of credit and money continued. This was an age of opportunity and prosperity for many individuals, and various groups carved out a new place for themselves in the social hierarchy. These arguments will be demonstrated with an example of a particularly significant group of entrepreneurs, the farmers.
Introduction: The Possibilities of Growth
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Adam Smith, in book i of The Wealth of Nations (1776), pondered ‘the Causes of Improvement in the Productive Powers of Labour’, and he was clear that he had the answer: ‘The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and judgment with which it is any where directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of labour.’1 He illustrated his argument with the famous example of the pin trade. A single workman could scarcely make one pin a day and certainly no more than twenty; division of tasks between specialized workers, each undertaking a distinct part of the process, permitted ten men to make 4,800 pins each a day, or an increase of at least 240-fold in labour productivity. The division oflabour was clear in the pin trade, for relatively few workers were needed and they were gathered together in a single workshop; trades which employed a large number of workers ‘to supply the great wants of the great body of the people’ were more dispersed, and division was less obvious to the casual observer.
Diversities of Industrialization
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
British society underwent a fundamental transformation in the eighteenth century, as a large proportion of the population was released from the land and absorbed into industry and the towns. This amounted to an industrial revolution in terms of the structure of the economy, but did it also entail an industrial revolution in terms of economic growth? In the 1950s and 1960s, many historians believed that there was a spurt in the rate of growth, the level of capital formation rose, and the economy was able to achieve a take-off into self-sustained growth. The classical economists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were more sceptical, and presented a picture of an economy which was resolutely tied to the ground, unable to escape from the restraints of gravity.
The Coming of the Factory
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Edward Baines in 1835 expressed a cataclysmic view of the impact of the factory system and powered machinery in reshaping work and industry: It is by iron fingers, teeth, and wheels, moving with exhaustless energy and devouring speed, that the cotton is opened, cleaned, spread, carded, drawn, roved, spun, wound, warped, dressed, and woven All are moving at once—the operations chasing each other; and all derive their motion from the mighty engine, which, firmly seated in the lower part of the building, and constantly fed with water and fuel, toils through the day with the strength of perhaps a hundred horses. Men, in the meanwhile, have merely to attend on this wonderful series of mechanisms, to supply it with work, and to check its slight and infrequent irregularities—each workman performing, or rather superintending, as much work as could have been done by two or three hundred men sixty years ago.... When it is remembered that all these inventions have been made within the last seventy years it must be acknowledged that the cotton mill presents the most striking example of the dominion obtained by human science over the powers of nature, of which modern times can boast.
Demand, Supply, and Industrialization
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In England the several ranks of men slide into each other almost imperceptibly, and a spirit of equality runs through every part of their constitution. Hence arises a strong emulation in all the several stations and conditions to vie with each other; and the perpetual restless ambition in each of the inferior ranks to raise themselves to the level of those immediately above them. In such a state as this fashion must have uncontrolled sway. And a fashionable luxury must spread through it like a contagion.
Conclusion
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many commentators in the 1840s were alarmed at the future prospects of Britain. In 1844, Engels confidently predicted the onset of revolution in The Condition of the Working Class in England. In the northern factory towns, argued Engels, the victory of machine work was creating an industrial proletariat which faced a wealthy group of factory owners. The population was ‘reduced to the two opposing elements, workers and capitalists’. The result, claimed Engels, was the deep wrath of the whole working-class, from Glasgow to London, against the rich, by whom they are systematically plundered and mercilessly left to their fate, a wrath which before too long a time goes by, a time almost within the power of man to predict, must break out into a Revolution in comparison with which the French Revolution, and the year 1794, will prove to have been child’s play.