bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Down the Slope
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Described here is the famous experiment of a ball which rolls down an inclined plane, devised to demonstrate that in uniformly accelerated motion distance covered is proportional to the square of the time elapsed. The experiment was intended as support for the hypothesis that speed increases in proportion to time, not to distance covered, as many of Galileo’s contemporaries held—and as did Galileo too, somewhat inexplicably, during the first phase of his studies. Although he was later to change his mind on this, the conceptual mistake he made when attempting to prove the impossibility of the proportionality of distance to time using logic alone, was substantial. Before coming to the inclined plane experiment (but did Galileo actually perform it?) the three friends Salviati, Sagredo, and Simplicio discuss the matter from various viewpoints, touching upon subtle concepts which are the prelude to differential calculus, such as the relationship between infinitesimal, finite and infinite.
Phonons; Coupling to Electrons
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we study the basic properties of ionic vibrations. These vibrations are well described by harmonic oscillators and, therefore, we can employ the results from Section 1.4.1 to achieve the second-quantized form of the corresponding Hamiltonian. The quantized vibrations are denoted phonons, a name pointing to the connection between sound waves and lattice vibrations. Phonons play a fundamental role in our understanding of sound, specific heat, elasticity, and electrical resistivity of solids. More surprising may be the fact that the electron-phonon coupling is the cause of conventional superconductivity. In the following sections we shall study the three types of matter oscillation sketched in Fig. 3.1. The ions will be treated using two models: the jellium model, where the ions are represented by a smeared-out continuous positive background, and the lattice model, where the ions oscillate around their equilibrium positions forming a regular crystal lattice.
Mean-Field Theory
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physics of interacting particles is often very complicated because the motions of the individual particles depend on the position of all the others, or in other words the particles motions become correlated. This is clearly the case for a system of charged particles interacting by Coulomb forces, such as e.g., the electron gas. There we expect the probability to find two electrons in close proximity to be small due to the strong repulsive interaction.
Time Dependence in Quantum Theory
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Using the second quantization procedure, we have so far only treated energy eigenstates with a trivial time dependence e−iωt, instant processes at a single time, and systems where interactions are approximated by time-independent mean-field theory. But how does one then treat the general case of time dependence in second quantization? That question will be addressed in this chapter, where the formal theory of time evolution is discussed using three representations, or “pictures:” the Schrödinger picture, the Heisenberg picture, and the interaction picture.
Transport in Interacting Mesoscopic Systems
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 7 we studied transport of electrons through phase coherent mesoscopic systems. The underlying assumption was that the charge carriers could be viewed as non-interacting particles. This assumption is generally valid for extended systems at low temperatures. In the case of mesoscopic systems or nanostructures, “extended” should be thought of as many channels or at least a few almost open channels that connect the system to the electron reservoirs of the leads. When this is no longer the case, interactions play a dominant role for the transport properties. This is easily understood physically, because if the charge tends to be localized on the nanostructure, the flow of electrons becomes correlated due to the Coulomb interactions. The degree of correlation is controlled by the Coulomb energy cost for adding or removing electrons. This energy can become considerable, of order of mev for small systems such as semiconductor quantum dots, or even as large as ev for molecular devices. Because of this charging effect, it is not permissible to think about the particles as independent entities, and hence a many-body approach is needed. In this chapter, we shall study a few examples that illustrate the importance of many-body physics, and discuss the different theoretical tools available.
Fermi Liquid Theory
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of Fermi liquid theory was developed by Landau in 1957–59 and later refined by others. The basic conclusion is that a gas of interacting particles can be described by a system of almost non-interacting “quasiparticles.” These quasi particles are approximate excitations of the system at sufficiently short time scales. What we mean by “sufficiently short” of course has to be quantified, and this condition will set the limits for the applicability of the theory.
Impurity Scattering and Conductivity
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now return to the problem of calculating the resistance of a metallic conductor due to scattering against impurities. The basic physics of impurity scattering was discussed in Chapter 12, where we saw how the single-particle Green’s function acquired a finite lifetime after averaging over the positions of the impurities. In Chapter 15 the conductivity was calculated within the Boltzmann equation approach. We now rederive the Boltzmann equation result starting from a microscopic quantum approach. The advantage of this microscopic approach, besides giving a first principle justification of the Boltzmann equation, is that it can be extended to include correlation and coherence effects that cannot be described in the semi-classical Boltzmann approach. In order to get familiar with the techniques, we therefore start by deriving the semi classical result. Then we go on to include the quantum mechanical effect known as weak localization, which is due to interference between time reversed paths. Weak localization involves coherent scattering on many impurities, and it can therefore not be explained semi-classically.
Minority Games as market models
Authors: Challet Damien , Marsili Matteo , Zhang Yi-Cheng 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last two chapters, we have introduced the Minority Game as a market model and shown how analytic and numerical tools reveal the richness of the standard Minority Game. But what has this model to do with financial markets? We have been speaking of market efficiency and volatility but where is the price? Where is money? What is the market mechanism? We have presented the Minority Game as a coarse-grained model of a financial markets in which all these details are hidden, the minority rule acting as a generic agent interaction. But is the market really a Minority Game? A generic argument suggesting this conclusion, discussed in (Challet et al. 2000a), is that markets are institutions which allow agents to exchange goods. Through these exchanges, traders can reallocate their resources in order to increase their well-being, selling what they have in excess in order to buy what they prefer or need. As trading per se does not create any wealth, the market must be a zero sum game. Taking out transaction costs and other frictions (such as bid–ask spread) which are needed to reward the market maker for the service he is providing, the game becomes a Minority Game. This is particularly true of speculators, who have no special interest in the assets they trade but only on the possibility to extract profit from trading.
The full field equations; de Sitter space
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have not yet seen the full version of Einstein’s field equations, only the special version that applies in vacuum. For the exterior Schwarzschild problem that was quite sufficient, since symmetry did most of the work for us; and in the case of gravitational waves it was also sufficient, as long as propagation rather than generation was our interest. But if, for example, we want to calculate the spacetime around (and inside) an arbitrary blob of matter, or the gravitational waves emitted by some double star system, then we need to know how matter interacts with spacetime, or in other words, the field equations with source terms.
Climate observations by remote sensing
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Progress with understanding any aspect of the Earth as a physical system, in particular the environmental effects of climate change, depends critically on our ability to design and carry out suitable programmes of measurements. Theory and modelling alone cannot improve our understanding of the physics on which predictions rely, and only relevant data of high quality can test and improve specific models and parameterizations. By developing suitable instruments, we can explore and understand the physical processes in the atmosphere and oceans at the same time as we monitor the climate system for variations and secular change.
Climate sensitivity and change
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The climate on the surface of the Earth is the result of a balance between a large number of factors, all of which can change. If the heat from the Sun increased, for example, we would expect the surface of the Earth to respond by getting hotter. If the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, this also tends to produce an increase in surface temperature. These are examples of external and internal, respectively, climate forcing.108 How sensitive is the climate to different kinds of internal and external forcing? Can we estimate the relative importance of each variable, in terms of its likely effect on the climate?
Epilogue
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Everyone knows that climate is a topic that is attracting a great deal of attention, among powerful politicians and the general public as well as scientists. This is hardly surprising, given the stakes involved if the climate change that occurs in the next 100 yrs is as bad as the current best predictions say. Misunderstandings are rife, however, along with controversy and rash predictions, of both the doom-laden and the overly complacent variety. The student of climate is expected to shed light on the issues and debates that will help progress towards a productive consensus.
The pendulum clock
Authors: Baker Gregory L , Blackburn James A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The spinning Earth is, of course, a timekeeper. The instantaneous position of the sun in the sky during the day, or of particular stars in the night sky, indicates a moment in time. Weather permitting, sundials could mark off daytime intervals as sequences of positions of the shadow cast by a stick or wedge (the gnomon).
While timekeeping with devices of various descriptions (water clocks, burning candles, ﬂowing sand) has a long history, for millennia accuracy was not a high priority. Human affairs were mainly local and exactness was not essential. Ultimately, however, the need for public timekeeping led to a progression of significant advances and inventions.
The epoch of the first large mechanical clocks began around 1335 in Milan. Many towns and cities throughout Europe installed similar clocks in cathedrals and public squares. An example of an early English cathedral clock is the one at Salisbury (c.1275–1284) (Fig. 10.1).
Implementation of plasticity models into flnite element code
Authors: Dunne Fionn , Petrinic Nik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Several commercial flnite element software packages (e.g. ABAQUS, LSDyna, and MARC) provide the facility for users to specify their own material models. In ABAQUS, the user is required to provide a Fortran subroutine called a ‘UMAT’. This chapter is concerned with the implementation of plasticity models into flnite element code, which is carried out, by example, in using ABAQUS. In particular, we start by developing an ABAQUS UMAT for elasticity, and discuss the tests necessary to verify the model implementation into ABAQUS. We go on to consider isotropic hardening plasticity with explicit and implicit integration, with continuum and consistent tangent stiffnesses, large deformation formulations using rotated variables provided by ABAQUS, and from first principles using the deformation gradient. We use the problem of simple shear with elasticity to verify the large deformation implementations. We then present an implicit implementation for elasto-viscoplasticity (and creep). All the Fortran coding, together with the necessary ABAQUS input files, are available through the OUP wepsite.
Europe goes West
Authors: Loadman John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The prehistory of rubber took many years to deduce and resulted from archaeological excavations carried out right through to modern times and which are, indeed, ongoing today. The earliest ‘Western’ references to natural rubber inevitably involve Christopher Columbus, but the honour for the first certain ref erence to rubber in print belongs to Pietro, Martire d’Anghiera, who talked of ‘gummi optima’, and described how it was obtained from certain trees as a white juice which dried to a transparent material, the properties of which were improved by fumigation. For a few years the literature flowed. In 1535 Captain Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo gave a detailed description of the ball games played in the Greater Antilles, whilst Antonio de Herrera Tordesillas described how Cortez had watched such a game at the court of Montezuma.
Slaves to Rubber
Authors: Loadman John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the turn of the twentieth century the rubber plantation industry in Asia was getting off to a slow and shaky start (Ridley claimed that disruptive actions by Sir Frank Swettenham, the first Resident-General of the Federated Malay States, had set it back by at least ten years), whilst the African rubber industry was extremely small. Nevertheless, the industrialised countries, particularly America and Great Britain, were crying out for rubber and had to rely on the Amazonian basin to meet their demands.
Chemicals and Curatives
Authors: Loadman John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a brief and necessarily superficial look at the history of vulcanisation. Its intent is not to educate chemically but to describe in as non-technical a way as possible the changes which have taken place from the first faltering steps of its infancy, guided by Goodyear and Hancock, to its full maturity today. Without this process our rubber would be useless.
Vortices
Authors: Darrigol Olivier 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have been able to solve a few problems of mathematical physics on which the greatest mathematicians since Euler have struggled in vain . . . But the pride I could have felt over the final results . . . was considerably diminished by the fact that I knew well how the solutions had almost always come to me: by gradual generalization of favorable examples, through a succession of felicitous ideas after many false trails. I should compare myself to a mountain climber who, without knowing the way, hikes up slowly and laboriously, often must return because he cannot go further, then, by reflection or by chance, discovers new trails that take him a little further, and who, when he finally reaches his aim, to his shame discovers a royal road on which he could have trodden up if he had been clever enough to find the right beginning. Naturally, in my publications I have not told the reader about the false trails and I have only described the smooth road by which he can now reach the summit without any effort. (Hermann Helmholtz, 1891)
One way of addressing the practical failures of Euler’s fluid mechanics was to introduce viscosity into the fundamental equations. This approach, described in the previous chapter, only helped in cases of laminar flow, such as the loss of head in capillary tubes or the damping of pendulum oscillations. In the 1860s, Hermann Helmholtz invented another approach based on vortex-like solutions of Euler’s equations.
Cyclopean Vision
Authors: Morgan Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The walls of Tyrins, on the edge of the Argolic Gulf, are 7 metres thick. In Greek legend these, and the nearby fortress of Mycenae, were built by the race descended from the Cyclops (hence the architectural term ‘Cyclopean’ for ‘huge or massive’). Like the architects of the 1960s, the builders of Mycenae were louts, but they had good three-dimensional vision. Polyphemus, the most famous of his homicidal and gloomy race, could deal impressively and destructively with moving objects: ‘Neither reply nor pity came from him, but in one stride he clutched at my companions and caught two in his hands like squirming puppies to beat their brains out, spattering the floor.
‘Actual dynamical models of things’
Authors: Morgan Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The brain is a computer made of meat, as the AI guru Marvin Minsky said. However, the real question is: ‘What sort of computer?’ To call the brain a computer is about as useful as saying that a country is a democracy. The old East Germany called itself a democracy, and so does the USA, which wants other countries to be democracies too, so long as they support free-market capitalism and buy McDonald’s hamburgers. Democracy is an abstract political theory claiming to give sovereign power to its people; but the interesting question to the people is how this desirable state of affairs is to be brought about, and by what institutions.
Controlled Hallucination
Authors: Morgan Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Reverend Bayes was born in London, like two other founding fathers of computing, Charles Babbage and Alan Turing. His grave is in London’s Bunhill Fields, off the City Road, where shoemakers ‘popped their weasels’ (pawned their tools) to pay for drinks in The Eagle public house. The Fields were a burial pit for plague victims – hence their name, a corruption of ‘Bone Hill’. Bayes keeps company in Bunhill with William Blake, John Bunyan and Daniel Defoe. Blake’s grave, where he lies with Sophia, is often marked by flowers. Bayes’ grave is undistinguished and unnoticed by visitors. Yet Bayes’ theorem on probability is now a vital tool for understanding the problem that neural networks and the brain itself have in inferring ‘what is out there’ from its sensory input.
The Babel Library of Icons
Authors: Morgan Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his story ‘The Library of Babel’, Jorge Luis Borges (who had been director of the National Library of Argentina) describes a library that contains all possible 410-page books. Most of the books are complete gibberish (worse even than Finnegans Wake), including one in which the letters ‘MCV’ are perversely repeated from the first line to the last. Some contain a few lines of obscure dialect embedded in a typographical word salad. It takes the librarians over 100 years to discover that the language of two lines of text in one of the books is a Samoyed-Lithuanian dialect of Guarani, with classical Arabic inflections.
Internal Energy and Entropy Changes on Deformation
Authors: Treloar L R G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the preceding chapter attention was drawn to the peculiar thermoelastic phenomena encountered with rubber, and the significance of these phenomena in relation to the kinetic theory of rubber elasticity proposed by Meyer and his associates was emphasized. In the present chapter we shall examine in closer detail the underlying thermodynamic relations involved in the study of these thermoelastic phenomena and the way in which they may be applied experimentally to obtain quantitative information bearing on the question of the mechanism of the deformation process.
The General Strain: Phenomenological Theory
Authors: Treloar L R G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN previous chapters attention has been given to the deviations from the Gaussian statistical theory, which in the case of simple extension may be represented to a close approximation by the two-constant formula of Mooney. It has also been noted that in the case of uniaxial compression these deviations are either non-existent or very much less evident. From this it follows that the Mooney equation is not capable of providing a completely satisfactory and self-consistent basis for the representation of the general form of the strain-energy function for all types of strain.
Orderings
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reader will certainly be familiar with the ordering of natural numbers and of other number domains by magnitude (the “usual” ordering of numbers). In mathematics, such an ordering is considered as a special type of a relation, i.e. a set of pairs of numbers. In the case just mentioned, this relation is usually denoted by the symbol “≤” (“less than or equal”). Various orderings can be defined on other sets too, such as the set of all words in a language, and one set can be ordered in many different and perhaps exotic ways.
Probability and probabilistic proofs
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reader will most likely know various problems about determining the probability of some event (several such problems are also scattered in the other chapters). Textbooks often contain such problems taken “from real life”, or at least pretending to be real life problems. They speak about shufiing and drawing cards, tossing coins or even needles, or also about defunct lightbulbs, defunct phone lines, or decaying radioactive atoms—depending on the author’s inclinations and fantasy. In this chapter we want to show a remarkable mathematical application of probability, namely how mathematical statements can be proved using elementary probability theory, although they don’t mention any probability or randomness.
Attempts At Explanation
Authors: Scarani Valerio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the lectures to the students in Fribourg, as with other people foreign to the world of physics, I have stated that my audience was driven to raise the same questions as the physicists: can we accept randomness in physical phenomena? Is interference determined by the mechanisms, and correlations at a distance by an exchange of information? In the presence of non-separability of physical properties, can we still talk about distinct entities? We feel the need to interpret quantum phenomena because we are not at ease with the indistinguishability principle and with some of its consequences. The unease comes from the fact that this principle, which appears to be omnipresent in the microscopic world, is unknown in everyday life and even seems to contradict our normal perceptions – the reader must recall the game with the sets of cars in Chapter 2. Seen from this point of view, the interpretations can be divided into three broad categories: