bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Classification of Field Types
Authors: Denevan William M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Agricultural technology and the human management of the natural environment for the cultivation of domesticated plants, involves crops, tools, and the processes and forms of environmental modification. Agricultural fields can be divided into those that are artificial in terms of significant degree of surface modification and those that are not. The latter are usually rainfed or located where water is concentrated; they often have good soils; and they are mostly on gentle slopes. However, for past times our best evidence is the forms of manmade agricultural features (agricultural landforms)1 which have survived, and these are given major attention in this study. They consist of actual fields and/or field features such as canals. In addition, there are aspects of technology that do not survive visually, but may be detected through stratigraphy, chemical analysis of soil, palynology, and other archaeological means, as well as from written accounts and observation of current practices. These include soil management, vegetation control, use of fire, etc.
Fields of the Mojo, Campa, Bora, Shipibo, and Karinya
Authors: Denevan William M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous two chapters, material on indigenous cultivation in Amazonia was taken from many sources. Following are five case studies based on my own field research, plus collaboration with others, and use of historical documents. The reader is referred to our previous publications for more details. These case studies provide examples of different historic and contemporary agricultural systems in Greater Amazonia: the colonial Mojo (relatively intensive swidden) in Bolivia, the Campa (extensive swidden) in Peru, the Bora (managed fallows) in Peru, the Shipibo (floodplain cultivation) in Peru, and the Karinya (multiple biome fields)
Terrace and Irrigation Origins and Abandonment in the Colca Valley
Authors: Denevan William M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the Department of Geography at the University of Wisconsin in the 1960s and 1970s the Latin Americanists were interested in the cultural ecology of shifting cultivation, agroforestry, traditional crops, and raised fields. We assumed that terraces and canals, so often photographed, were well studied; however Donkin’s (1979) terrace survey showed otherwise. Furthermore, the magnitude of terrace abandonment in the Andes was astonishing given current demographic pressures on farmland. We were thus motivated to propose an interdisciplinary project which would examine abandoned terraces and associated irrigation and attempt to determine the cause or causes of abandonment. John Treacy, who had worked with me on raised fields at Samborond6n in Ecuador and on Bora agroforestry on the Rio Ampiyacu in Peru, had lived for eight years in the southern Andes of Peru, and he wanted to return to carry out research for his doctoral dissertation.
Paths and Gardens
Authors: Lewis Gilbert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There was not always something for breakfast. Sometimes they had to be content with plain taro, roasted on the fire and scraped, or a cold piece of cooked taro or yam warmed up from last night. But usually a morning meal was cooked — it took the wife longer because she had to boil the water for t;Jb;Jgan, which is sago jelly made from sago flour mixed with boiling water to make it set. It was called ‘hatwara’ in Tok Pisin. Təbəgan was their staple food. Sago was food in the most basic sense for them. It set the type. Domestic animals ate sago jelly. They were hardly fed anything else. If an animal was to be domesticated, it must be with sago jelly. A puppy, a wild piglet just caught, was fed by its new owner with gobbets of jelly spat out. That was how to make the piglet or the puppy learn who was its new human ‘mother’ or ‘father’. Ruefully they discovered that one cannot domesticate a kitten: it will not eat sago jelly. More bizarre was a young man who tried to feed a desperate wild parrot with sago jelly. He had just caught it; he wanted to tame it and sell it to a missionary! No success.
A Question of Marriage and a Fall
Authors: Lewis Gilbert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the middle of April I went with Dauwaras and Purkiten and Purkiten's sister for a short visit to Laeko. We returned late on Sunday afternoon. There were people waiting with sores which they wanted bandaged. While seeing to them, I heard that just the day before, on Saturday, Silmai's eldest daughter Warao had run away from Wimalu to come to Watalu, to find Tuawei.
The Death of Dauwaras
Authors: Lewis Gilbert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Who could know what pollut ing or dangerous remnant influences you might be going under as you bent and passed under it? From a menstruating woman? A man hot with sorcery materials? A junior? And there were many rules about precedence, order, and well-being that were connected with being stepped over: these rules often constrained placing and physical movement-stepping over someone else’s actual body, their netbag, touching their hair, making your shadow cross over them, overshadowing their possessions and their rights.
The Period of Mourning
Authors: Lewis Gilbert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
They called out for it to be carried through the air high and strongly. It went above Nembugil and over, they said, Yankok (which, of course, cannot be seen from Rauit-it is right down in the valley below the cliff). There it burst into light. The verdict? It pointed at Yankok. They said that Weimbari who was staying at Yankok had seen it (he was there to watch over Wuradil at the ‘Haus Susu’: she had been brought in, on the order of the ‘kiap’, to feed up her underweight baby). They asked me whether I had seen it too, thinking I had stayed that night at Yankok. Since they had put the ghost spell in the hair, they left revenge to that without pursuing Tawo’s suggestion of the gablit revenge.
On Friday, 21 February their fast was ended. All the other hamlets of the village
Aftermath
Authors: Lewis Gilbert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Silpaden had made an offering plat form to placate the spirit of Ta’adu, also on 20 January. It was fixed to the corner of her mother Waldao’s house. He had put an offering of coconut and sago and leaves there for her spirit. They had been hunting a lot without success and he had appealed to her spirit to bring them pigs and game. He said that the offering was because of their lack of hunting success, not Parku’s illness.
Landscapes of Cultivation
Authors: Doolittle William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
That North America was a different place five hundred years ago than it is today should go without saying. However, many of the changes that have taken place during the past five centuries may well be more of nature than degree or kind. As we enter a new millennium, North America holds the distinction of being the breadbasket of the world; more food is produced there than on any other continent. But, this is really nothing new. Although everyone knows that North America has been an agricultural leader since at least the 1870s, few recognize that it may have been a global leader in food production for several centuries, well before people even began to think in global terms.
Plain Fields in Warm Environments
Authors: Doolittle William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Husbandry of non-domesticated plants—be they small and herbaceous or large, and woody—and maintaining gardens are both forms of agriculture, but clearly they are not the types of activities that most people think of immediately in terms of food production. Much more apparent is the cultivation of staple crops, domesticated grains that comprise the greatest part of a peoples’ diet.
The growing of cereals, especially on reasonably large, or at least discrete, tracts of land, is contingent on certain environmental conditions. Of specific importance are ample but not excessive moisture, a sufficiently long frost-free or growing season, naturally fertile soil, and gentle terrain. Foremost among these is moisture, particularly that which occurs in the form of rain. Although the amount of moisture on a field can be regulated artificially by applying more water (see Part IV) or removing some (see Part V), the most basic form of agriculture is that which is dependent solely on precipitation falling directly on fields and which requires no drainage. This form of agriculture, known as ‘rainfed’, is certainly straightforward. It is, however, not without ambiguities.
Ridged Fields in Cool Environments
Authors: Doolittle William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The growing of crops in areas with ample, but not too much, moisture and a sufficiently long growing season was an activity that did not necessarily require the construction of permanent features on the North American landscape in pre-European times. As has just been illustrated, indigenous agriculture over much of the continent, and especially in the East, took this form. Of course, some landscape modifications associated with prehistoric rainfed agriculture do persist on the eastern landscape today, but these—the relict corn hills—were intended to be temporary when they were made; they were not constructed as permanent features. Their location is, nevertheless, curious. Surviving close to the northern limit of cultivation begs the question of an environmental correlate. Although record of their existence has been credited principally to careful observers, it seems highly likely that these particular corn hills might also have helped alleviate problems involving cool conditions and the short growing season. The previously discussed inverse correlation between the number of seeds planted per hole and the length of the growing season is corroborative evidence.
Canal Irrigation
Authors: Doolittle William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There may well be no other form of agriculture that has garnered as much attention as irrigation. In a very basic and literal sense, irrigation is defined as the artificial application and distribution of water to otherwise dry lands in order to facilitate cultivation (Monkhouse 1965: 173; W. Moore 1974: 117). With a definition this broad, irrigation technology can vary in complexity from being as simple as carrying water by hand in containers, a practice that must be very old, to as complex as computerized and motorized sprinkler systems, a practice which is obviously quite new and beyond the nature and scope of this volume. Most frequently, however, irrigation is envisaged as involving canals through which water flows under the force of gravity (Rawitz 1973), and it is usually associated with permanent or perennial rather than seasonal or ephemeral streams (Lawton and Wilke 1979: 4–5; Masse 1980: 198).
The Origins of European Legal Culture
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The legal systems of Europe originated in the impact on the vital Romano German societies in the early Middle Ages of the three great forces of order bequeathed to them by late antiquity: the organizational structure of the Western Roman Empire or what remained of it, the Roman Church, and the school of the late ancient period. These were adopted and finally appropriated by the new peoples and tribes in the territory of the late Empire and in Central Europe. All three elements had a lasting influence on European law and the history of private Iaw,1 for after a long process of maturation, marked by many set-backs, the process of adoption gave birth to the legal science of the High Middle Ages. The first element in the legacy of the Roman Empire to the nascent Occident consisted of the bureaucracy and the fiscal and administrative organization of the absolutist central monarchy which emerged out of the troubles of the third century, and whose remnants survived the downfall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. For the immigrant peoples law was just a matter of the way life was lived; only from Rome did they learn that law could be created by the power of the state and constitute an intellectual heritage.
The Causes and Conditions of the Reception of Secular Law in Germany
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The modem history of private law in Germany starts with the Reception proper, that is, when the law of Justinian effectively ousted the existing private law and came to dominate the way in which private law was taught, made, and applied. At first blush the idea that a nation should abandon its own private law in favour of anyone else’s is so surprising, indeed so shocking and repellent, that one has to realize right away that in legal history receptions are nothing exceptional, least of all the Reception of Roman law in Europe.1 The scholarly methods and doctrines of the Glossators and Commentators were adopted by most countries on the continent; even in Italy, where the movement originated, the prior legal system had experienced a similar transformation.
Legislatio,:i in the Age of the Reception
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fact that local laws were written down during the Reception not only resulted from the diffusion of Roman law but also contributed to it, and the transcription itself testifies not only to a belief that Roman law was already in general force but also to a desire that it should be specifically applied in the future. In terms of their aims, the draftsmen can be seen as standing midway between the Middle Ages when laws were reduced to writing, if at all, in order to confirm and commemorate what had been handed down, and the eighteenth century when the modem legislative state started to codify its law as part of a deliberate innovative plan. Close though the draftsmen were to the pre-reception practice of recording city and local laws, they were engaged, with increasing awareness as time went by, on making new law rather than simply establishing the old. Their intermediate position is clearly expressed in the word ‘Reformation’,1 especially as applied to the renewal of city laws; it was a leading notion as the Middle Ages gave way to modem times.
The Jurists of the Usus Modernus
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German jurists in the seventeenth century busied themselves with the task of making the law practical and useful. That is why there are no great names to match those of France a century earlier or even Holland at that time. In Holland, it is true, there were some professors of repute from Germany (pp. 125 f., 173), but in German universities during this period foreigners seem to predominate. This relative backwardness should not be attributed to any general defect in German culture at the time. Indeed the rapid advance from the end of the seventeenth century shows that German civilization after the Thirty Years War was more receptive and propitious than at any time since the mid-fifteenth century, the catastrophic public events having loosened the stultifying grip of the old class divisions and made room for new intellectual and political forces. These practitioners deserve our respect for the way in which they quietly set about their daily tasks and adjusted themselves in the light of their experiences, but brilliant creative originality was not to be expected, given the religious repression and persecution, the distress of war, and the fact that the territorial units were so small. The contributions made to doctrine by these tireless individuals is not so easy to depict as the master strokes of other ages, but in sum their professional achievement is as praiseworthy as the reconstruction of the physical environment after the War.
The Reception and the Usus modemusa Balance Sheet
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to appraise the Reception and the state of German legal scholarship under the ius commune we must refer back to our chosen conception of the Reception (pp. 91 ff., 95 f.). If the essence of the Reception lay more in the ‘intellectualization’ of law than in the adoption of new and ‘foreign’ legal rules, then its major effects must be sought not in modifications to the legal rules themselves but in the shift in the whole approach to law which occurred when graduate jurists took over the formation and application of law. Scholars in the last century perhaps concentrated unduly on the Reception of substantive law, partly because of the interest which historians of private law and its doctrines naturally have in the history of its rules and institutions,1 but partly also because as positivists they believed that law essentially consists of rules and legal doctrines.
The Foundations
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘The Age of the Law of Reason’ is an appropriate name for the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In these two hundred years legal science, legislation, and the practice of law in most of Europe felt the direct impact of natural law, in the form given to that venerable Western philosophy of law and society early in the Enlightenment. Of course in almost every period distinguished for its law jurists have operated against a background of generally recognized theories of society and ethics-the classical age of Roman law had the philosophy of the Academy, the Peripatetic School, and above all the Stoa; the Glossators, canonists and Commentators had the moral philosophy and social doctrines of the medieval church (pp. 206 ff.); the Pandectists in the nineteenth century had Kant’s philosophy of ethical freedoms and duties (pp. 282, 297 f., 315 f.)-but the Age of Reason is peculiar in that the social philosophy of the day, at the very time it was itself breaking free from moral theology, laid claim to being a legal philosophy as well, without any interposition or interpretation by the legal establishment. Positive law thus had to meet the demands made on it by the later moral theologians and then by secular social philosophers.
The Systematizers of the Law of Reason
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The spirit of the Law of Reason had an invigorating effect on the method and system of positive law. This was not, however, a direct result of Grotius’s work, for while it is true that his innovative international law put paid to many individual tenets of moral theology and scholastic philosophy, he did not offer any method of relating his new ethics to traditional disciplines or of putting the principles of the Law of Reason into a strict and coherent system of premisses and conclusions. These two tasks were performed in the second, systematic or ‘mathematical’ phase of the Law of Reason, when it drew upon the natural scientific and epistemological theories of Galileo and Descartes. It was Samuel Pufendorf who put their discoveries to use in legal theory, but he could only do so because of the work of Hobbes and Spinoza, two of the greatest philosophers of the seventeenth century.
The Origins of the Historical School
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the natural law codes were the triumph of a legal culture which was both practical and moral, they were less effective than they might have been because courts and lawyers were reluctant to go along with the reformist zeal of the small elite which produced them. They suffered too from the way in which absolutist legislators tended to discountenance legal commentary and to subject judicial interpretation to ministerial commissions (Prussia) or the legislature itself (France). The scholarship of the ius commune had never been less vital and effective than it was during the brief period when the Law of Reason dominated legislation.1 The downfall of Enlightenment natural law in Germany was due to a feeling of oppression and disenfranchisement which led people with a burgeoning civic consciousness and a culture reinvigorated by humanism to attack the mechanical lawmaking of the authoritarian state.
Social Law and the Disintegration of Private Law
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In creating a self-sufficient system of private law imbued with a general theory nineteenth century positivist legal science not only incorporated the methodology of the law of reason but also gave scientific expression and intellectual legitimacy to the relevant attitudes of the bourgeois society of the day (pp. 348 f., 365). Pandectist models of private law and legal theory were extended to other areas of law too, notably criminal law and public law.
The Self-Image of the State
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter, we identified some of the special characteristics of authority as a social relation and noticed the way they impose certain constraints on how it might be justified. But our subject is the authority of the state rather than that of the family, school, church, or army. The state shares with these social institutions its character as a de facto authority: like them, it claims and is generally recognized as having the power to alter the commitments of its subjects. Political authority, however, has other special features as well, and these pose further constraints on justification.
The Social Contract
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter, we saw that one account of the role of authority in promoting common interests could not be sustained. But the conventionalist view is not the only way of specifying the general idea that authority relations are needed to serve social co-operation, and the appeal and familiarity of that idea in the history of political thought encourages us to look for some other way of rendering the fundamental intuition. The present chapter investigates another alternative: the notion that authority is something that rational people would agree to in order to solve certain problems of collective action associated with the production of beneficial public goods.
Commitment and Community
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To this point, we have rejected two and given qualified acceptance to one of the popular justifications for political authority. Neither the power of government to create conventions serving the common good, nor its capacity to solve certain problems of collective action warrants citizens taking its directives as binding. These are, indeed, among the important functions of government and they do contribute to its value. But they do not justify its authority. To do that we must find principles which recommend regarding the state as a duty-imposer, as having the power to create binding, content-independent reasons to act. The traditional theory of consent succeeds here. But it is equally true that its scope is limited: not many of us have, in fact, consented. It follows then that the state has legitimate authority only over some of its citizens.