bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Disability, Justice, and Health-Systems Performance Assessment
Authors: Bickenbach Jerome E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a bold move, the World Health Organization (WHO) has set out a framework for assessing the overall performance of health systems around the globe (WHO, 2000). The media’s interest in the World Health Report, 2000 (herein Report), was sparked, not so much by the complex assessment framework it uses, as by the fact that the Report ranks 191 countries by their performance, revealing surprises such as the first place position of France and the relatively low ranking of the United States (37th). Ministries of Health around the world either proudly displayed their unexpectedly high ranking, used their relative position as an argument for reform, dismissed the exercise as an invidious “health Olympics,” or else expressed concern about the quality of the data or the methodology. On its release, WHO Director General Gro Harlan Bruntland made it clear that WHO is committed to its assessment framework and plans yearly recalculations based on more valid and reliable country-level data. At the same, when WHO’s Executive Board met in February 2001, it failed to give unalloyed support to the project, and several member countries expressed concern about the methodology employed.
Does Distributive Justice Require Universal Access to Assisted Reproduction?
Authors: Warren Mary Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The growth of reproductive medicine has created new issues about who should have access to medical techniques that can enable infertile individuals or couples to have children. These techniques include artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization (IVF) and its many variants, and contract pregnancy, or surrogate motherhood. Some bioethicists hold that the right to reproductive freedom requires only that the use of these reproductive methods be legal (Robertson, 1994, p. 116). Others argue that distributive justice requires universal access to these medical services, within the limits of the available medical resources and other social needs (Andrews, 1989, pp. 387-88; Burley, 1998). I will argue that the second view is correct, with some important qualifications. I begin with a brief examination of the reasons for regarding reproductive freedom as a basic human right. I argue that the importance which most people place upon having and rearing children supports the claim that a just distribution of medical resources would provide funding for medically assisted reproduction. Next, I consider some frequent objections to this claim: the objection from overpopulation; the objection from adoption; and the feminist concern that the new reproductive technologies are harmful to women. None of these objections are sound. Nevertheless, distributive justice does not require universal access to all reproductive technologies, without regard for the expense. The high cost of IVF and contract pregnancy makes it difficult, especially for poorer nations, to provide access to everyone who might benfit. Moreover, enough uncertainty exists about the long-term consequences of contract pregnancy to recommend a cautious approach to public subsidies, even if cost were not an issue.
The Trading Industry
Authors: Harris Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a brief survey of the trading industry. If you are already familiar with the industry, you can safely skip this chapter. If you are new to trading, the discussions here will provide you with the “big picture” that will allow you to better understand the rest of this book. In particular, you will be better able to discriminate between issues of primary and secondary importance if you know the context in which traders solve their trading problems.
Order-driven Markets
Authors: Harris Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Order-driven markets are quite common. Almost all of the most important exchanges in the world are order-driven markets. Most newly organized trading systems choose an electronic order-driven market structure. Despite the great variation in how order-driven markets operate, their trading rules are quite similar. All order-driven markets use order precedence rules to match buyers to sellers and trade pricing rules to price the resulting trades.
Internalization, Preferencing, and Crossing
Authors: Harris Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dealers internalize orders when they fill their clients’ orders. Brokers preference orders when they route their clients’ marketable orders to dealers in exchange for various monetary or nonpecuniary payments for order flow. Brokers also preference when they route their clients’ limit orders to electronic communications networks (ECNs) that pay them liquidity fees when standing limit orders execute. Brokers cross orders internally when they arrange trades among their clients.
The Dred Scott Case
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 1979, this masterful examination of the most famous example of judicial failure--the case referred to as “the most frequently overturned decision in history.” On March 6, 1857, Chief Justice Roger B. Taney delivered the Supreme Court’s decision against Dred Scott, a slave who maintained he had been emancipated as a result of having lived with his master in the free state of Illinois and in federal territory where slavery was forbidden by the Missouri Compromise. The decision did much more than resolve the fate of an elderly black man and his family; Dred Scott v. Sanford was the first instance in which the Supreme Court invalidated a major piece of federal legislation. The decision declared that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the federal territories, thereby striking a severe blow at the the legitimacy of the emerging Republican party and intensifying the sectional conflict over slavery. This book represents a skillful review of the issues before America on the eve of the Civil War. The first third of the book deals directly with the with the case itself and the Court’s decision, while the remainder puts the legal and judicial question of slavery into the broadest possible American context. Fehrenbacher discusses the legal bases of slavery, the debate over the Constitution, and the dispute over slavery and continental expansion. He also considers the immediate and long-range consequences of the decision.
Race, Slavery, and the Origins of the Republic
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first African Negroes in the British North American colonies were brought ashore at Jamestown from a Dutch ship in 1619. The irony in the date has often been pointed out. During that same year, Virginians organized the first representative assembly on the continent, and thus, in a sense, slavery and self­ government arrived simultaneously. But the agency of Dutch mariners in this initial transaction likewise has symbolic meaning, for it illustrates the international origins of the slave system in the United States.
The Pursuit of Freedom
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A de from the fugitive’s hazardous road to an uncertain future, there were various legal ways for a slave to escape into freedom. The pale southern counterpart of northern emancipation in the aftermath of the Revolution was a substantial increase of individual manumissions. Indeed, it appears that during those early decades of the Republic, more slaves may have been freed in the South than in the North, where universal emancipation was under way. One piece of evidence supporting such an estimate is the fact that the free black population of the South grew at a faster rate than the free black population of the North.
Dred Scott and His Travels
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gateway to the trans-Mississippi West, St. Louis in 1830 was a flourishing river port that attracted many Americans on the move. Among the newcomers that year were Peter Blow and his wife Elizabeth, together with their three daughters, four sons, and six slaves. One of the sons would eventually become a member of Congress, but one of the slaves is far better remembered.
Before the Supreme Court
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For more than a year after it was docketed, the Dred Scott case awaited the attention of the Supreme Court. During that time the revolutionary effects of the Kansas-Nebraska Act became increasingly evident. Kansas itself appeared to be on the verge of civil war. Open hostilities between proslavery and free-state forces in the territory were narrowly averted in December 1855, just as the Court was beginning its new term. Meanwhile, the anti-Nebraska movement, already triumphant in many northern states, was approaching the final phase of transformation into a permanent political party. At a meeting scheduled for February 22 in Pittsburgh, Republican leaders planned to lay the foundation of a national organization. Kansas would obviously be the principal issue in the coming presidential election. Franklin Pierce fortified this expectation and con­ firmed his reputation as a doughface by endorsing the legitimacy of the proslavery legislature. The new thirty-fourth Congress, bogged down for two months in a partisan and sectional struggle over the speakership of the House, would likewise soon find itself preoccupied with the Kansas problem. The newspapers of the nation were already rehearsing every argument on the subject. And the Kansas controversy inevitably produced another round of angry debate on the constitutional power of Congress over slavery in the territories.
Voices in Confusion
Authors: Fehrenbacher Don E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By Christmas 1856, Dred Scott’s name was probably familiar to most Americans who followed the course of national affairs. Major newspapers throughout the country carried summaries of the four-day reargument, though only a few added editorial comment. The “great case,” as Alexander H. Stephens now labeled it, received some attention on the floor of Congress and a good deal more in the private discussions of Washington politicians.
Introduction
Authors: Woodward C Vann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The people of the South should be the last Americans to expect indefinite continuity of their institutions and social arrangements. Other Americans. have less reason to be prepared for sudden change and lost causes. Apart from Southerners, Americans have enjoyed a historical continuity that is unique among modern peoples. The stream of national history, flowing down from seventeenth-century sources, reaches a fairly level plain in the eighteenth century. There it gathered mightily in volume and span from its tributaries, but it continued to flow like the Mississippi over an even bed between relatively level banks.
Capitulation to Racism
Authors: Woodward C Vann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Up to the year 1898 South Carolina had resisted the Jim Crow car movement which had swept the western states of the South completely by that time. In that year, however, after several attempts, the proponents of the Jim Crow law were on the eve of victory. The Charleston News and Courier, the oldest newspaper in the South and a consistent spokesman of conservatism, fired a final broadside against extremists in behalf of the conserva¬tive creed of race policy.
T Cell Development
Authors: Yeung Rae S M , Ohashi Pamela S , Saunders, Mary E , Mak Tak W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to give a broad overview of some of the complexities involved in T cell development. T cells are key regulators of specific immunity, and their function is determined by events that occur during an intricate developmental process in the thymus. An understanding of T cell development is thus fundamental to our understanding of immune responses. While a variety of different receptor–ligand interactions are important during T cell development, none are as crucial as those mediated via the T cell antigen receptor (TCR). Although the exact nature of the TCR was not elucidated until the early 1980s (Hedrick et al., 1984; Yanagi et al., 1984), experiments done in the 1970s led to the finding that T cell specificity is linked to proteins encoded by genes in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) (Shearer, 1974; Zinkernagel and Doherty, 1974). The MHC is known as the H-2 complex in mice and as the HLA (human leukocyte antigen) complex in humans. Unlike B cells, T cells generally do not respond to whole protein or native antigens. Instead, T cells recognize peptide fragments of foreign or self-antigens complexed with MHC molecules. Furthermore, a given T cell recognizes only a particular peptide–MHC complex in a process referred to as MHC restriction (Zinkernagel and Doherty, 1979).
Molecular Mechanisms Guiding B Cell Development
Authors: Rolink Antonius G , Andersson Jan , Grawunder, Ulf , Melchers Fritz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
B lymphocytes develop from hematopoietic stem cells. In the mouse, B cell development takes place at different sites in the body during ontogeny, starting at day 8–8.5 of gestation in yolk sac and fetal aorta (Cumano et al., 1993; Godin et al., 1993, 1995; Cumano and Godin, 2001; Ling and Dzierzak, 2002). When circulation of blood begins at day 9 of gestation, B cell precursors can still be found in the yolk sac and fetal aorta, and later—around days 10–11—in the liver, spleen, and omentum (Ogawa et al., 1988; Rolink and Melchers, 1991; Solvason et al., 1992; Melchers and Rolink, 1999; Cumano and Godin, 2001). From days 15 to 16 of gestation, B cell precursors are also found in the bone marrow. After birth, the bone marrow becomes the major site for B lymphopoiesis (Hardy et al., 1991; Rolink and Melchers, 1991; Rolink et al., 1993, 1994; Osmond et al., 1998; Melchers and Rolink, 1999; Hardy and Hayakawa, 2001). B cell development in mouse and human bone marrow from progenitor (pro) and precursor (pre) B cells to immature and mature sIg-positive B cells is characterized by changes in (1) rearrangement of immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy (H) and light (L) chain genes; (2) the expression of surface-bound and intracellular markers; (3) cell cycle status; (4) in vitro growth properties; and (5) life expectancy in vivo.
Signal Transduction by T and B Lymphocyte Antigen Receptors
Authors: Gupta Neetu , Defranco, Anthony L , Weiss Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Considerable progress has been made during the past several years toward our understanding of the processes by which T and B lymphocytes become activated. Antigen-specific activation of these quiescent cells involves the triggering of antigen receptors to induce signal transduction events that can lead to both the cell cycle progression and differentiation of T and B cells. A remarkable synergy has resulted from a convergence of studies of the most fundamental processes involved in T and B cell activation and those involving clinical and experimental immunodeficiency syndromes. Clinical and experimental immunodeficiency states often result when the functions of T and B cell antigen receptors (TCRs and BCRs) or critical components in the pathways regulated by these receptors are interrupted.
Chronic Granulomatous Disease
Authors: Roos Dirk , Kuijpers Taco W , Curnutte John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is an uncommon congenital immunodeficiency seen in approximately 1 in 250,000 individuals. It is caused by a profound defect in a burst of oxygen consumption that normally accompanies phagocytosis in all myeloid cells (neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, and macrophages). This “respiratory burst” involves the catalytic conversion of molecular oxygen to the oxygen free-radical superoxide (O?), which in turn gives rise to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and hydroxyl radical (COH). These oxygen derivatives play a critical role in the killing of pathogenic bacteria and fungi. As a result of the failure to activate the respiratory burst in their phagocytes, the majority of CGD patients suffer from severe recurrent infections, the most common of which are pneumonia, lymphadenitis, cutaneous and hepatic abscesses, osteomyelitis, and septicemia. These severe infections usually become apparent during the first year of life and are caused predominantly by Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus species, enteric gram-negative bacteria, Serratia marcescens, and Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia.In addition, CGD patients have diffuse granulomas (presumably caused by microbes) that can become sufficiently large to cause obstructive or painful symptoms in the esophagus, stomach, biliary system, ureters, or urinary bladder.
Genetic Aspects of Primary Immunodeficiencies
Authors: Puck Jennifer M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are three reasons why evaluation of an immunological disorder in any patient should include consideration of potential underlying genetic determinants. First, genetic studies can confirm a suspected diagnosis of immunodeficiency; they can also help to pinpoint a specific genetic etiology even when other available data are unusual, incomplete, or inconclusive. Second, new understanding of the immunological basis and pathogenesis of immunodeficiencies can be gleaned as more disease genes are identified through the partnership between researchers in molecular genetics, clinicians, and affected patients. Finally, diagnosing a genetic disorder in an index patient, or proband, has profound implications for the patient’s family members, both affected and unaffected, living and as yet unborn.
Immunodeficiency Information Services
Authors: VÄLiaho Jouni , Samarghitean Crina , PiirilÄ Hilkka , Pusa Marianne , Vihinen Mauno 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs) are a group of over 100 mainly rare disorders (Fischer, 2001; Vihinen et al., 2001) affecting the immune system. Although a lot of information is available on the Internet, it is scattered throughout cyberspace, especially data on rare diseases like immunodeficiencies. Therefore, a navigation starting point and knowledge service are very much needed. We have compiled all major data on immunodeficiencies into a server, the Immunodeficiency Resource (IDR), which contains thousands of useful and interesting links in addition to our own pages (Väliaho et al., 2000, 2002). Fact files for each disease function as the core of the IDR. Over 3700 mutations have been discovered in unrelated families with PIDs (Vihinen et al., 2001) (Table 45.1). During the last few years many genes affected in PIDs have been cloned and analyzed (Chapter 1), and mutations have been identified from a number of patients, giving clues to disease mechanisms. In order to handle the ever-growing amount of information, immunodeficiency mutation databases (IDbases) have been established for a large number of diseases (Lappalainen et al., 1997; Vihinen et al., 2001). These registries make it possible to carry out detailed mutation studies.
Introduction: The “Problem of Judaism” Today-Beyond Assimilation and Nationalism
Authors: Lederhendler Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ahad Ha’am (Asher Ginsberg), who is ranked among the most incisive analysts of the Jewish predicament in the previous fin de siecle, often insisted that the most pressing problem facing Jews was not physical survival, but rather collective cultural survival; or, to use his phrase, not the problems of the Jews, but the problem of Judaism. The Jewish fate, he contended, depended less upon the amelioration of the Jews’ material existence or civil status than upon the resolution of issues related to culture, assimilation, and national identity in the modern world.
Women’s Transformations of Public Judaism: Religiosity, Egalitarianism, and the Symbolic Power of Changing Gender Roles
Authors: Fishman Sylvia Barack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For more than three decades, activists in the United States and Israel, as well as in some small diaspora Jewish communities, have worked toward making the Jewish religion more egalitarian, with the goal of enabling women to play central roles in public Judaism. Although egalitarianism might seem inimical to the fundamental hierarchical nature of halakhic Judaism, the focus of Jewish feminists in the United States (and, to a much lesser extent, in Israel and elsewhere) has been persistently religious since shortly after the beginnings of second wave feminism in the early 1960s.1 This essay explores women’s transformations of public Judaism, concentrating on communal rituals and life-cycle ceremonies, synagogue life, and diverse educational settings, which are arguably the loci most meaningful to westernized, religiously affiliated Jews.
Sand and Iron
Authors: Klieman Aharon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Terminating the “52-year conflict” in the Middle East was the theme of the July 2000 conference in Camp David sponsored by the Clinton administration, whose strategists had declared the dispute ripe for resolution. The outcome of this conference has now become part of the thickening Middle East chronicle of dismissed opportunities. It is worth taking a closer look at the subjective, remarkably constricted and therefore blatantly misleading half-century time frame adopted by various actors in U.S. peace efforts. For there is no more telling indictment of conventional wisdom’s pernicious hold on peacemaking than the repeated reference to the “52-year conflict” in official summit statements and postmortems.
Jews, Intellectuals, and the Dreyfus Affair
Authors: Judaken Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new cultural history that has been on the ascent during the last decade emphasizes not so much what happened and to whom (political history), nor even why and how it happened (social history), but what its meaning was at the time and subsequently. Notwithstanding the vast historiography on the Dreyfus affair, these three books offer new insights-not necessarily through rearguing the facts of the case or reviewing the economic, social, or political dimensions of the era, but rather through an examination of its cultural history. The cultural history undertaken in these volumes discusses different questions than have previously been posed: What defines French identity and how was this contested in the fin de siecle? How did French Jews negotiate their double allegiance to their francite and their judeite? What were the different political, social, and cultural currents that influenced individual intellectual choices, and how did the outcome of the Dreyfus affair shape subsequent movements? What were the epistemological rubrics that forged how intellectuals determined the “truth” of the unfolding saga? How was the Dreyfus affair perceived in national contexts beyond France? What was the larger social discourse within which the events themselves were debated, and to what extent was the same discourse shared by both sides? And finally, was the Dreyfus affair a foil for the French to negotiate their entrance into modernity?
The Equity Risk Premium Essays and Explorations
Authors: Goetzmann William N , Ibbotson Roger G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book aims to create a strong understanding of the empirical basis for the equity risk premium. Through the research and anaylsis of two scholars who are experts in this field, this volume presents the key issues that are paramount to investors, including whether or not to use historical data as a method of equity investing, and can the equity premium reflect changes in fundamental values and cash flows of the market.