bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Birth
Authors: Honan Park 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shakespeare’s life began near the reflecting, gleaming river Avon, which today flows past Stratford’s Church of the Holy Trinity where he lies buried, and past a theatre where his dramas are seen and heard by visitors from all nations. In rare flood times, the river was wild and destructive, sweeping away bridges and much in its path, but normally it was hospitable to truant boys or patient fishermen, and no guttered rocks or congregated sands imperilled any large keel here. The river arises in grassy highland in the east of England near Naseby, and for miles hardly deserves the name Avon, or ‘river’, which has echoes all over Celtic Europe: the Avon or Aven in Brittany, the Avenza in Italy, and the Avona in Spain. This Avon is at first only a runnel and then a willow-bordered stream,
To London—and the Amphitheatre Players
Authors: Honan Park 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Elizabethan London deeply impressed or astonished its visitors —even if they knew beforehand of its long rows of shops and four-storey houses, thronged suburbs and magnificently built-up London Bridge, or of its fine, painted theatres and rich waterfront palaces. For-eigners praised the city, and some apprentices knew it as bewildering or lethal. More people died in London than were born there —but nothing stopped an influx of workers.
The City in September
Authors: Honan Park 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
viewed from the bankside south of the river, London would have seemed tranquil and beautiful in the late summer of 1592. Then as now, some days brought haze over the Thames. In low-lying southern liberties near the amphitheatres, the air could be hot and humid. Here, though the tenements were sealed off from the Thames by rising embankments, the working lives of people within the river’s floodplain were influenced by the river’s commerce and the city to the north. Above a line of public and private houses on the north bank, steeples and towers rose into the September air. Wherries and barges would have moved on the river deliberately as ever—but watermen did not bring play-goers over to Paris Garden and the Clink.
Hamlet’s Questions
Authors: Honan Park 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason, how infinite in faculty, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god—the beauty of the world, the paragon of animals! And yet to me what is this quintessence of dust? Bitter, icy weather and deluges of snow appear to have helped screen the workers who dismantled the Theater, but for actors intensely cold weather had drawbacks. Thick ice had begun to cover English rivers in December and January. Alpine glaciers soon crushed houses near Chamonix, marking the start of colder spells all over Europe, and winters, as a rule, were to be hard for the rest of Shakespeare’s lifetime. There is no sign that he regretted stark winters, but freezing weather brings no cheer and heralds bleak revelations in his new play: ‘‘Tis bitter cold, I And I am sick at heart’, says Francisco, in its first scene, and later Hamlet remarks: ‘The air bites shrewdly, it is very cold.’
The Role of the Sovereign
Authors: Billington Sandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The king was not above the moral law of God but he was usually considered to be outside his own instituted laws. Augustine argued that if a king erred, retribution was to be left to God: the lack of perfect kingship was another example of the fallen state of the world after Adam. In the troubled years of the mid-sixteenth century, after the well-advertised Henrician changes and the consequences of religious divisions, this argument was nevertheless reasserted by Bishop Latimer and by William Tyndale, who wrote that if the people discovered they were ruled by evil men then it was a sign ‘that God is angry with us’. Others, such as Ponet, considered it lawful to depose the rule of Mary Tudor, and ‘some Catholics like Parsons took a similar line against Elizabeth’. Understandably, all monarchs before and after the Reformation propagated the view that they were primarily responsible to God, and that earthly opposition to their divine authority on earth was treason. The divinity that hedged a king had emanated from the Holy Roman Empire. As J. N. Figgis wrote, the Christian empire on earth had ‘Christ as its King and his two Vicegerents [Pope and Emperor] upon earth’. Conflict was inevitable since, to maintain their individual authority, each needed to claim autonomy, supremacy in relation to the other, and the direct approval of God.
Kings, Princes, and Lords in Shakespeare’s Plantagenet Plays
Authors: Billington Sandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One might ask, how versatile and innovative could popular tradition be? Would not dramatists, particularly Shakespeare, find themselves in a strait-jacket which could only result in cliche? Other dramatists did fall into the trap of strict adherence to formula, and possibly Shakespeare did himself in Timon, but a more discriminating use contributed to creative structures for large-scale works, such as the Henry VI trilogy and the two parts of Henry IV. In Henry VI the midsummer game pattern forms a matrix from one play to the next. Throughout the trilogy one mock government is repeatedly superseded by another in a progressive and enveloping mock king context. The process, established formally at the openings of Parts I and 2, increases in momentum from then on.
Tamburlaine and Timon Paradigm and Parable
Authors: Billington Sandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1587 and 1588, at the same time that political anxieties found expression in The Misfortunes of Arthur and The Troublesome Raigne of King John, the youthful Marlowe turned his back on national issues to create instead a political situation of his own. On leaving Cambridge, he invaded the theatre with the first part of Tamburlaine the Great and, as Harry Levin put it, the confidence of ‘the conqueror whose conquests he [had] chosen to dramatise’. Instead of looking at mythical and historical princes through a reductive, critical lens, Marlowe magnified his hero unashamedly and, for the two-part play to work in its entirety, audiences must retain interest in Tamburlaine’s persistent, soaring ambition which repeatedly defies ‘the accumulated wisdom of the ages’. With consistent boldness Marlowe not only freed English verse from classical inhibition and jigging rhymes but, as I shall argue, he also stretched the mock king tradition into a highly affirmative statement. Tamburlaine was one of the most popular plays in Henslowe’s repertory, despite the unusually simple plot, and was still being played at the Red Bull in the 163os.
Comedy
Authors: Billington Sandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Comedy springs from the festive celebration of disorder, and there are two alternative comic attitudes one might take towards it. Inversion of order might be seen to be morally dangerous and, though entertaining, be finally expelled with a sense of relief, or, as John Stow first suggested regarding midsummer shows, it might be seen as a temporary, necessary relaxation of laws to enable social regeneration. However, perhaps comic disorder is most telling when a mixture of the two. Although, in Shakespeare’s most saturnalian play, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the hidebound, legalistic attitude of Hermia’s father is finally overruled by Theseus, and the lovers’ confusion in the forest is a necessary part of their maturation, yet the betrayals and quarrels of the night-time flight are not in themselves the stuff of social improvement. They are only the means of obtaining self-knowledge upon which to build that improvement. The lovers’ own sense of relief on waking in Act rv is palpable, and though it is stressed that the fairies can appear in daylight, and so are not evil, yet the dangerous possibilities of the night-time world they govern give a stronger quality to the eventual comic resolution. Whereas, in The Shoemakers’ Holiday, the actions of the misrule lord, Simon Eyre, are divested of any danger, and it is necessary for him to be elevated into a position of authority in order to intervene and bring about a harmonious ending for the lovers.
Political Dissent and Drama
Authors: Billington Sandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sixteenth-century drama is redolent with the unease characteristic of Tudor courts, and this was perhaps first translated by John Skelton into the Morality play Vice as an evil alter rex of cosmic proportions. Debate continues as to whether Magnyfycence was intended to represent Wolsey misled by his own material nature, or Henry beguiled by Wolsey. But, as W. G. Glassco says, ‘one cannot escape the impression that the play is an indictment of all the Cardinal represents’. lt might be thought surprising that Wolsey’s sensitivity about such matters, which caused John Roo’s imprisonment after his similar play in Gray’s Inn, at Christmas 1526-7, did not react immediately against Skelton, for it was only at the end of his life that the poet was in real danger from the prelate. In the upheavals of the Reformation, a decade later, further dramatic satires on affairs of state can be detected, through the authorities’ reaction to them. In r 5 37, it was alleged that seditious comment was added to the Suffolk May games, when the mock king was found to be advising how to rule a realm, and, in performance, the actor who played Husbandry ‘said many things against gentlemen more than was in the book of the play’.
Claudian
Authors: Wills W G , Herman Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest toga drama to attract widespread public interest and to stimulate the divided critical response which attended many toga pieces is Claudian (1883), the product of a collaboration among four men: Henry Herman, who devised the play’s structure and narrative, the poet-dramatist W. G. Wills, who provided the dialogue, E. W. Godwin, who again provided ‘the archaeology of costumes &c.’, and the actor-manager Wilson Barrett,35.
Ben-Hur
Authors: Young William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The novel’s author, General Lew Wallace, had left military service (he fought, first in the Mexican War of 1847 and again in the Amer ican Civil War) to serve briefly as emissary to Bolivia and then as Governor of the territory of New Mexico. New Mexico, annexed after the Mexican War, had a mixed population of native Americans, Mexicans, and Anglo-Whites nearing 120,000 in the late r87os. By comparison to life in more settled parts of the nation, creature com forts were minimal; a railroad did not reach the largest settlement, Albuquerque, until I 880.
The Barbarian Ingomar
Authors: Griffith Directed hy D W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When, in 1908, the American director D. W. Griffith made The Barbarian Ingomar, he was both extending the life and altering the nature of an early toga play. The Barbarian Ingomar95 is taken from a drama with a long and irregular history, first as a play supporting German culture in the face of French condescension, and later as a parable warning from Griffith about foreign immigration into America. The source for Griffith’s film is Ingomar, the Barbarian, a play first seen in London at Drury Lane and Sadler’s Wells in 1851.
Kate Smith and Manley Hopkins
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Haslemere, Surrey: December 1918. Into the hands of a bedridden lady of nearly ninety-eight, twenty years a widow, was placed one of the first copies of a small edition of poems written by her eldest son, who had been dead for twenty-nine years. The book was delicately produced, considering the austerity of the war years: the white wove leaves unevenly trimmed, and bound in light-blue paper boards, with a cream label on its spine. One of the poems in the book, elegantly penned and illuminated on parchment, had hung in the house since she had first lived there over thirty years before.
Stratford
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shortly before the marriage Manley had taken possession of 87 The Grove, Stratford, the village just outside London’s eastern boundary. Almost opposite his father’s old house, it was the left-hand tenement of a pair which had been one mansion; Manley leased it from Mrs Ann Rawes. With three stories and a basement it was a solid, ugly, eighteenth-century brick house, its large front windows emphasized by surrounds of darker bricks. In going back to Stratford and The Grove, ten years after the family had given up living there, Manley was announcing a new start. To emphasize the continuity, his mother, his sister Ann, and his brother Charles came to live with Manley and his wife. Of the other two brothers, Edward was abroad with the Hudson’s Bay Company, and Marsland, aged nineteen, had started as a pensioner at Peterhouse, Cambridge. It may be surprising that Manley could afford to send his younger brother to college and set up a new home before he became self-employed, but the Smith alliance was probably proving useful.
Vital Truths of Nature: Hopkins and Ruskin
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hopkins spent the first week of the long vacation at Oak Hill, reading the Georgics with Edward Bond, whom he managed to bring round to his views on Virgil. Then the family and a cousin went to the Isle of Wight. His parents considered that Gerard was not yet sufficiently established at Oxford to join a reading party, but he was able to break away at times from family amusements.
Studies
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Responsions (or ‘Smalls’), the elementary test for all Oxford undergraduates, which Hopkins had passed in June 1863, was merely the qualification for entry to two sets of examinations which he had to sit in his four-year university career. The emphasis on examinations as a framework for Oxford studies was symptomatic of a general stiffening of education in the second half of the nineteenth century. Competitive examinations, borrowed from the Chinese, provided objective evaluations of a student’s progress for parents and employers. The growth of the modern State demanded competent administrators in vast numbers, which the old upper classes were unable to supply. The system of careful grading fostered the fashionable competitive spirit; the appearance of the class-lists was the climax of each year at Oxford, and success or failure branded a man.
Religion
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Hopkins travelled from Torquay to Oak Hill on Monday 28 August, there were six weeks before the Michaelmas term. For the first ten days of this period his diary is split between terse notes on reprehensible actions and fragments of soliloquy, song, and dialogue from Castara Victrix: Neither his heart nor mind were in this writing, filled with faint echoes of verses from another mind and time, without personality or urgency. Characters are indistinguishable, situations not thought out, rhythms dull.
Novitiate: Roehampton:, 1868-1870
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the fortnight before Hopkins entered the novitiate1 he said goodbye to friends and relations. Bridges came over to Oak Hill one day,2 and Hopkins presented him with the Aldine edition of the Earl of Surrey’s poems, which his father and mother had given him the previous Christmas. He would not be allowed personal books in the novitiate. It was later said, however, that he ‘expressed surprise at not being allowed to keep by him Swinburne’s Poems and Ballads’ while he was a novice. On the evening of 7 September, a ‘dim, fine, and very hot’ day, he said goodbye at home and set off to Manresa House, arriving late at the Georgian mansion, with its fine Doric-pillared portico.
St Beuno’s
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before returning to Roehampton on 21 August, Hopkins spent two days at Bristol, and a further few days at Beaumont. He still had a day or two to spare, in which to indulge for the last time in delights only London could provide. He had arranged to dine with the Jesuit Fathers at Westminster on Tuesday evening, and earlier that day visited Westminster Abbey. He went round the pre-Reformation cloisters, taking in ‘the beautiful paired triforium-arcade with cinqfoiled wheels riding the arches’, and discovering ‘a simplicity of instress in the cinqfoil’. At the National Gallery, he hurried at first from painting to painting, having lost the habit of looking at pictures; then the words ‘studious to eat but not to taste’ occurred to him, and he relaxed, and started making notes.
‘In my salad days, in my Welsh days’
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In April 1877 the architect William Butterfield had sent, in reply to a request from Hopkins, a complete list of his buildings, and in a letter of thanks Hopkins expressed his affinity with Butterfield’s work, though he disliked some of its oddnesses:
... yr beautiful and original style. I do not think this generation will ever much admire it. They do not understand how to look at a Pointed building as a whole having a single form governing it throughout, which they would perhaps see in a Greek temple: they like it to be a sort of farmyard and medley of ricks and roofs and dovecots. And very few people seem to care for pure beauty of line, at least till they are taught to. It is tempting to think that by ‘a sort of farmyard and medley of ricks and roofs and dovecots’ Hopkins was referring to the lazily higgledy piggledy groupings of Joseph Hansom’s St Beuno’s buildings, and contrasting them with the secretive, scholarly, centripetal unity of Butterfield’s works, which people found so difficult to understand.
‘Cobweb, soapsud, and frost-feather permanence’: Mount St Mary’s, Stonyhurst, Farm Street., Oxford, 1877-1879
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although its postal address was Chesterfield, in Derbyshire, Mount St Mary’s College’ was nearer to Sheffield in Yorkshire, on the edge of a remote country village, Spinkhill, with coalmines nearby. Mount St Mary’s had been opened as a school in 1842, in buildings adapted from Park Hall, residence of the old Catholic family, the Poles, one of whose ancestors, St Margaret Pole, had been executed by Henry VIII. A Gothic church, designed by Alfred Hansom, who had converted Park Hall, was seventy yards away, perched on the edge of the hill. When Hopkins arrived new college buildings were being put up. The plan for the block included school-rooms, areas for recreation and for private study, and a dormitory at the south side of a quadrangle; the front of the college was to overlook the valley towards Eckington. The new block stood stark in a miry field between the college and the church, with a long covered way of corrugated iron, known as ‘the Tin Gallery’. Hopkins’s room was on the ground floor of a brick block built on to the house in 1859.
‘So fagged, so harried and gallied up and down’: Bedford Leighd Liverpool. Glasgowd 1879-1881
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In October 1879, after ten months in Oxford, Hopkins was appointed to Liverpool. First he had to go on supply to St Joseph’s, Bedford Leigh,1 possibly to take the place of Fr Charles Karslake, brother of his schoolfriend Lewis Karslake. One bad aspect of the posting was its stopgap nature; he did not know what work faced him in Liverpool and came to doubt whether he should ever get there. There was no constancy even about his work in Leigh-he was liable to be sent for the odd day or week to nearby parishes, such as St John’s, Wigan, or the town of St Helens. St Helens he found ‘probably the most repulsive place in Lancashire or out of the Black Country. The stench of sulphuretted hydrogen rolls in the air and films of the same gas form on railing and pavement.’ Leigh itself was not much better, ‘a darksome place, with pits and mills and foundries’ . It was smaller and less dignified than nearby Rochdale, where Bridges’s mother lived: ‘the houses red, mean, and two storied; there are a dozen mills or so, and coalpits also; the air is charged with smoke as well as damp’.
‘Surely one vocation cannot destroy another?’: Roehampton Tertianship and Stonyhurst.,1881-1883
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hopkins came to Manresa House on 8 October. As he explained to Canon Dixon, the tertianship was not a noviceship. At the end of the noviceship proper, before he had left Manresa in 1870, he had taken vows which were perpetually binding, and renewed them every six months after that until he was professed or took the final degree he was to hold in the Society. The tertianship prepared for these last vows, which would be pronounced at its close. At this stage Hopkins considered he still had a chance of making up his lost fourth year of theology and becoming a professed father, the only rank eligible for the major Jesuit offices.
‘Dapple at end’
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lost now lying in hell are Devils without bodies and disembodied souls, they suffer nevertheless a torment as of bodily fire. Though burning and other pains afflict us through our bodies yet it is the soul that they afflict, the mind: if the mind can be deadened, as by chloroform, no pain is felt at all: God can then if he chooses bodily afflict the mind that is out of or never had a body to suffer in. No one in the body can suffer fire for very long, the frame is destroyed and the pain comes to an end; not so, unhappily, the pain that afflicts the indestructible mind.... Let all consider this: we are our own tormentors.
Sanctuaries
Authors: White Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writing to Bridges in September 1885, Hopkins made the connection between his creativity and his need for change:
So with me, if I could but get on, if I could but produce work I should not mind its being buried, silenced, and going no further; but it kills me to be time’s eunuch and never to beget Now because I have had a holiday though not strong I have some buoyancy; soon I am afraid I shall be ground down to a state like this last spring’s and summer’s, when my spirits were so crushed that madness seemed to be making approaches—and nobody was to blame, except myself partly for not managing myself better and contriving a change
‘Practical’ Prose
Authors: Gray Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This period is notable for the richness, variety, and distinction of its prose. This has too often been ignored or has been obscured by a narrow obsession with ‘continuity’ (often a rather loosely defined word), encouraged by a very eloquent essay of R. W. Chambers, who, protesting rightly against the view that there were no connections between English prose of pre-Conquest times and that of the later Middle Ages, found a ‘continuity’ embodied in the tradition of religious, devotional, and mystical prose. This tradition, although it produced much excellent writing, is only one strand among several. Chambers did not allow much scope for the importance of French (or Latin) example.
Religious Prose I: Introduction: Lollards and Answers to Them; Sermons and Books of Religious Instruction
Authors: Gray Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The large surviving body of religious prose contains some of the most brilliant and most attractive writing in English in this period. Religion was still omnipresent in England, but even before the great shock of the Reformation and the ‘stripping of the altars’ it was confronted by a variety of challenges. With many of these the inherited orthodox tradition could cope: indeed, it proved to be enduring and, in spite of persecution, a surprisingly long-lived one. In this period of ferment and strain, the Christian, traditionally seen as an exile and a pilgrim in a sinful world, found much to disturb, distract, or destroy the restless heart that would find no peace until it rested in God.