bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Machine-Readable Dictionaries and Education
Authors: Kegl Judy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Currently available machine-readable dictionaries (MRDs) promise to contribute greatly to research on machine translation, information retrieval, parsing, generation, computational lexicography and linguistics. My chapter discusses properties of MRDs and their potential use in education. Originally, this paper was intended as a survey of educational applications using MRDs. As far as I have been able to determine, no such applications currently exist. Since research by Miller and Gildea (1985) and Miller (1985b, 1986a, 1986b) suggests that the educational value of hand-held dictionaries in their current format may be of questionable value, my discussion will not only address possible applications, but will point out where computer implementation of certain pedagogical techniques currently used in our classrooms would be impractical and ineffective.
Lexical Substitutability
Authors: Church Kenneth Ward , Gale William , Hanks Patrick , Hindle Donald , Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In their attempts to describe the contemporary language, lexicographers are both overwhelmed by evidence and at the same time starved of evidence. Everything they ever read or hear or say is evidence for the existence of (or even for an answer to) some lexicographic question, but most of it flashes by so fast that it is impossible to capture. Even in these days of large electronic corpora, it is often not possible for a lexicographer to find precisely the right little bit of evidence that he or she needs at precisely the moment it is needed, to provide the answer to some question of detail. Indeed, we cannot always be sure that we are asking the right questions. A lexicographer is like a person standing underneath Niagara Falls holding a rainwater gauge, while the evidence sweeps by in immeasurable torrents.
Descriptive and Theoretical Syntax in the Lexicon
Authors: Zaenen Annie , Engdahl Elisabet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of the computational natural language systems that are built are to some extent based on linguistic frameworks. This is reasonable because in that way they can profit from the research done in those frameworks but also and more importantly because it is necessary to have some framework to organize the data in a domain as large as that of describing a natural language. It is however seen as a drawback of theory-based approaches that they will necessarily be mutually incompatible since there is not one linguistic framework that different researchers agree upon. Of course approaches that lack a theoretical foundation would not necessarily overcome this problem. One might argue that they allow for even more dangerous forms of incompatibility. Where it is in principle possible to predict some of the differences between theoretically based frameworks on the basis of their principles, there would be no clue to guide a comparison between descriptions that are based on no principles at all (assuming that such could exist).
Duelling Languages
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The goal of this book is to describe and explain intrasentential codeswitching - the production of two or more languages within the same sentence. Most linquists who do not study codeswitching think of it as belonging strictly in the domain of sociolinguistics. Most codeswitching studies do indeed have a social aspect, because they typically use naturally occurring performance data as their base. However, this book is just as much a study in grammatical theory as a study of language in use. The specific research question addressed is this: when speakers alternate between two or more linguistic varieties, how free is this alternation from the structural point of view? Carol Myers-Scotton develops a model of the morphosyntactic constraints on codeswitching; she concludes that the principles governing codeswitching are the same everywhere. Her model supports a lexically based model of language production.
Aspects of Semantic Opposition in English
Authors: Mettinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Antonymy is recongized as an important type of meaning relation in natural languages, yet there are very few detailed empirical studies of the topic. Through an analysis of a corpus of 43 contemporary English-language novels Dr Mettinger isolates ten syntactic frames within which antonyms are regularly found: these serve as a useful heuristic tool for eliciting opposites from texts. He argues that there are two kinds of antonyms: systemic opposites which have meaning relations definable in strictly semantic terms, and non-systemic opposites which require contextual and encyclopaedic knowledge for an interpretation of their relationship. The author analyses systemic opposites within an autonomous semantics framework based on semantic field theory, using semantic features, semantic dimensions, and archisememes as descriptive tools. His analysis of 350 pairs of antonyms taken from Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases yields a typology of meaning-opposition in English based on syntacticosemantic criteria such as gradability and scalarity which stands in contrast to standard logic-based typologies. Among the specific topics covered are ‘negative’ prefixes, the problem of markedness, and the treatment of meaning-opposition from a cognitive point of view.
Modern Syntactic Typology
Authors: Croft William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We take 'modern syntactic typology' to represent the tradition of cross-linguistic analysis of syntactic properties beginning with Greenberg's work on word order (1966a), and continued largely by linguists in the United States, particularly on the West Coast, since that time. Research in this area has expanded considerably, and there has also been a significant philosophical shift in that same period. Much of the contemporary typological research is being pursued in the 'functional-typological' approach, associated with Greenberg, Giv6n, Haiman, and Hopper and Thompson. Since the early 1980s there has also been a dramatic growth of typological analyses that are fundamentally diachronic in character. This chapter, however, will restrict its attention to synchronic typology; for a survey of research in diachronic typology, see Greenberg (this volume).
The Diachronic Typological Approach to Language
Authors: Greenberg Joseph h. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern typology, as distinct from the nineteenth-century morpho logical typology, arose in a structuralist milieu. It is not surprising, therefore, that in its earlier phases (e.g. Trubetzkoy 1939, Greenberg 196 3) it was essentially synchronic in outlook.1 It is also not surprising that the first application of modern typology in historical linguistics was not essentially concerned with change as such, the heart of diachrony, but rather based on the hypothesis that a reconstructed protolanguage should not violate the constraints of synchronic typology as deduced from contemporary languages or those of the past as attested from written records.
Syntactic Change: Theory and Method
Authors: Pintzuk Susan , Tsoulas George , Warner Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
individual’s acquisition of a grammar distinct from the one which underlies the output of the preceding generation. The investigation of changes which can be understood in terms of an abrupt shift at acquisition has proved the most straightforward and fruitful way of relating historical and theoretical syntax, partly because the Principles and Parameters paradigm provides a formal framework in which to interpret differences between successive grammars.
Verb-Object Order in Early Middle English
Authors: Kroch Anthony , Taylor Ann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the standard account (Canale 1978, van Kemenade 1987, Lightfoot 1991), there is a sharp divide in word order between Old and Middle English. Old English is INFL-final and OV while Middle English is INFL-medial and VO. Indeed, Lightfoot gives an account of the transition from Old to Middle English based on a catastrophic reanalysis in the twelfth century (Lightfoot 1991, 1999) and, viewed from a certain distance, this story has considerable plausibility. Thus, up until the entry for II22 CE, the syntax of the Peterborough version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the manuscript which extends furthest into the twelfth century, is that of standard literary Old English. The brief continuations, which end in II54, are hard to interpret but are not revolutionary in their syntax. These are the last documents of Old English. Then in the first quarter of the next century, several prose texts of West Midlands provenance appear, the Ancrene Riwle and the Katherine Group of saints’ lives, whose word order is considerably more modem. INFL-final word order seems absent and surface OV word order be comes a minority pattern. Nevertheless, there is reason to doubt the standard account.
Article 20
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inclusion of article in the Covenant was controversial. Its opponents argued that the prohibition might lead to abuse and would be detrimental to freedom of opinion and expression (article 19 ), might encourage the establishment of governmental censorship, that the expressions used were vague and subjective, that the article did not establish any particular right or freedom, and that such prohibitions would not be effective.
Responses to Crime
Authors: Windlesham Lord 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Policies dealing with crime - or at least being seen to deal with it - are a central features of contemporary British political life. Crime and crime statistics receive wide exposure and evoke strong public outcry, and politicians are often judged as much by the speed and tone of their reactions as by their considered responses. In this timely volume Lord Windlesham examines how criminal justice policy is first formulated and then enacted at Parliamentary and Government level. Drawing upon scholarly material and his experience as a former Home Office Minister, Lord Windlesham identifies the pressures which traditionally and typically influence policy decisions. Emerging from his analysis is an appreciation of how the articulation of policy is often less coherent than it seems. Scholarly and accessible, this thought-provoking book will be of interest to the general reader as well as being required reading for academics and those involved in the administration of criminal justice today.
A Woman and Her Unborn Child: Rights and Responsibilities
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What I am concerned with here are the relative rights, if any, of a pregnant woman and her fetus. I am concerned with the question, what should, or must, a woman do, or refrain from doing, while pregnant? I shall seek to examine the issues involved from the point of view both of ethics and law. The latter enquiry will necessitate an examination of whether there is a need to make public policy, and if there is what form that public policy should take. Curiously, although the nature of the problem only has to be stated to see how significant it is, there has been relatively little scholarly comment in the United Kingdom in contrast to the United States.
The Philosophical Origins of Modern Contract Doctrine
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book traces the influence of philosophical ideas on the development of contract law from the post-Roman period through to the nineteenth century, focusing upon the synthesis of Roman law and the moral philosophy of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas. Although primarily a study of the late scholastics this is a book about the history of ideas, and as such will be of great interest to legal historians and legal philosophers.
Discontinuity in the Natural Law Tradition
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As We have seen, the contract law of the late scholastics depended on a series of Aristotelian ideas. The binding force of contract, and consequently the requirements for contract formation, were explained by Aristotelian virtues of promise-keeping, liberality, and justice. Contractual consent was explained by an Aristotelian theory of choice in which, in order to act qua human being, one had to understand the essence of one’s action. The consequences of a contract were thought to follow from its essence, either because they were included in its definition or because they were means to the end in terms of which the contract was defined.
The Settlement of International Economic Disputes
Authors: Collier John , Lowe Vaughan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The procedures for the settlement of disputes arising under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and now under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) that has replaced it, are remarkable for their departure from the principle that disputes resolved by formal mechanisms should be settled on the basis of what is an essentially retrospective analysis of the rights and duties of the parties at the time that the dispute arose. Rather, the GATT /WTO system proceeds by an analysis of whether benefits (rather than rights) that the parties expected to derive from the substantive rules of the GATT /WTO have been nul­lified or impaired, or the achievement of any objective of the agreement is being impaired, and then to an essentially prospective analysis of what measures might produce a workable solution to the dispute for the future.
The Cult of Toughness
Authors: Roper Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Established manufacturing industries such as motor vehicles, steel, and shipbuilding have generally been recognized as the ‘bastions of culturally “male employment’. The statistical record certainly demonstrates a high concentration of men in these industries. In 1983 women constituted under 15 per cent of the labour force in the motor vehicle, mechanical engineering, oil processing, and metal industries. It has been argued on the basis of this segregation that the sex-typing of jobs as ‘masculine’ reaches its fullest form in such industries. Yet what it is that makes employment in heavy manufacturing industries ‘culturally “male”‘ remains unclear. Moreover, while we might expect the managers working in this sector to be the best advertisement for its masculine ethos, they were decidedly ambivalent. The ‘hard’ men who work in manufacturing rarely feel that they measure up to its exacting standards.
Introduction: Fact, Fiction and Faction
Authors: Itzin Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why make a fuss about pornography? Men seem to like it. It’s a very profitable industry. It offers women employment and some women a ‘glamorous’ career. It’s said to be just a bit of harmless fun: entertainment for men. So what if it does degrade women; aren’t there more important issues to do with women’s equality? After all, it’s only images. Isn’t there a big difference between fantasy and reality? Also, the problems inherent in pornography are small compared with the problem of trying to tackle them.
Maintaining Male Power: Why Heterosexual Men Use Pornography
Authors: Baker Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have probably seen about as much pornography as any other average heterosexual man in the UK. I first stumbled across it when I was nine—a copy of Playboy in a barber’s shop, available on a table with the daily newspapers. I can remember that the pictures I saw left me feeling confused and disturbed, but also curious and a little excited. When I was eleven, a friend gave me a copy of a magazine called Parade which I hid at home in the middle of a pile of children’s educational magazines called, ironically perhaps, Look and Learn. I saw most pornography when I was a student, although I never actually bought it. I did not need to. My Cambridge college junior common room subscribed to Penthouse, one of the most popular UK pornographic magazines. Later, while on a teacher-training course in Nottingham, I lived in a house with two other men who, between them, had literally hundreds of pornographic magazines. I was by now aware that pornography was sexist and wrong—I would even vote against it at student union meetings—but I still looked at it and masturbated with its images in my mind.
Pornography, Homophobia and Male Supremacy
Authors: Stoltenberg John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a widespread belief that sexual freedom is an idea whose time has come. Many people believe that in the last few decades we have had more and more of it – that sexual freedom is something you can carve out against the forces of sexual repression, and that significant gains have been won, gains we dare not give up lest we backslide into the sexual dark ages when there wasn’t sexual freedom, only repression. Indeed, many things seem to have changed. But if you look closely at what is supposed to be sexual freedom, you can become very confused. Let’s say, for instance, you understand that a basic principle of sexual freedom is that people should be free to be sexual and that one way to guarantee that freedom is to make sure that sex be free from imposed restraint.
The Child Pornography Industry: International Trade in Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Tate Tim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Child pornography’ is a misleading term. This is not the tawdry glamour of Playboy centrefolds, nor yet the gory gynaecology of hard-core. In fact it is not pornography in any real sense: simply the evidence – recorded on film or video tape – of serious sexual assaults on young children. Still people choose to confuse it with adult pornography, lending it an air of spurious legitimacy and titillation, an aura of faintly harmless ‘naughtiness’. When in 1988 the British government announced plans to make possession of child pornography an offence, a (woman) columnist in The Times opposed the legislation on the grounds that the problem was not sufficiently serious to warrant such ‘censorship’: ‘One is revolted at the idea of children posing for pornographic pictures, but while the use to which the pictures may be put in someone’s mind is abhorrent, I can’t really see that simply photographing a child exploits him ’.
The Experimental Research Evidence: Effects of Pornography on the ‘Average Individual’
Authors: Einsiedel* Edna F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to draw conclusions about whether exposure to pornography leads to or causes certain effects, one would have to look at the experimental evidence for these causal linkages. The experimental results are presented in terms of effects in the areas of arousal, perceptions, affective states, attitudes, and behaviour. Two categories of pornographic stimuli have generally been used to sort out differential effects in these areas: non-aggressive pornography and aggressive pornography (see Mala-muth and Donnerstcin, 1984; Donnerstcin, 1983b). Some question may be raised about whether in fact these two categories arc sufficiently representative of distinctions the average consumer or the public at large might make or whether these two categories afford reasonable conceptual value. Nevertheless, these categories provide a convenient way to organize the results from the experimental studies.
Configuring the IS Function in Complex Organizations
Authors: Earl Michael J , Edwards, Brian , Feeny David F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How to configure the Information Systems (IS) function in large, complex organizations appears to be an eternal management issue (Dickson et al. 1984; Niederman et al. 1991). This is because it is inherently difficult and because circumstances change. Commonly phrased as a centralization versus decentralization question, it is also often perceived by managers as the issue which most impedes their organization’s ability to get value for money from IT. The two basic arguments are often expressed thus. Centralization of the IS function is necessary to reap economies of scale, ensure the ability to integrate applications or share data, and optimize the use of scarce resources. Conversely, decentralization of the IS function is necessary to ensure that IS responds to real business needs, to encourage managers to get involved with IS, and often to add control of IS resources to the autonomy that local units possess. These arguments may appear to be no different from the normal tensions of the centralization versus decentralization debate at large. However, often there are at least two special characteristics at work. First, information technology does raise important questions of scale, infrastructure planning, risk, and change. Secondly, information systems can often be an emotional issue. Since information is often at the heart of power, arguments about the control of information processing can seem critical in the politics of organizational design. Indeed, nowadays information systems are something everybody has a concern about and thus can be guaranteed to stimulate a debate—at least in complex organizations. By complex organizations we mean large, multi-business unit corporations. The authors studied fourteen such companies in Europe in 1987.
IT Outsourcing and the Changing Shape of the Information Systems Function
Authors: Willcocks Leslie P , Fitzgerald Guy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There has been considerable academic interest in recent years in three debates that come together in this paper.1 The first concerns the causes, attributes, and consequences of emergent forms of organization, for example, Clark and Staunton (1990), Clegg (1990), Drucker (1991), and Whitaker (1992). The second focuses on structuring the information systems function, for example, Feeny et al (1989), George and King (1991), and Hodgkinson (1991). The third relates to the reasons for, and the nature and impact of Information Technology (IT) outsourcing, for example, Buck-Lew (1992), Lacity and Hirschheim (1993), and Loh and Venkatraman (1992a, b, c). Our research programme from which this research paper is derived, in the form of thirty detailed case studies in the UK, has been conducted primarily through the lens of questions raised in the third of these areas. This has produced evidence that links the three debates in certain ways. In particular, we take two examples of the more radical (or ‘total’) forms of IT outsourcing occurring in the context of significant changes in broader organizational structure and strategy as a basis for examining the implications for Information Systems (IS) structures, management processes, and distribution of expertise in newer, emergent forms of organization.
The Jurisprudence of Discretion:Escaping the Legal Paradigm
Authors: Lacey Nicola 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jurisprudence misses many realities about justice because it is much too concerned with judges and legislators and not enough with administrators, executives, police and prosecutors. Further-more, jurisprudence acknowledges the law-discretion dichotomy and then spends itself almost entirely on the law half ...