bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fundamentals
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Susanne Corpus consists of sixty-four data files corresponding to the sixty-four Brown texts on which it is based (and having three-character names corresponding to the names of the respective Brown text files, from “A01” to “N1 8”), together with a documentation file (giving a skeleton outline of the analytic scheme described in this book) named “SUSANNE.doc”. Each data file is about 83 kilobytes in size: 5.3 megabytes for the Corpus in total, excluding the documentation file.
Surface Grammar
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rules for drawing trees and labelling their nodes which comprise the following chapters are designed, first, to yield analyses that are consistent and as uncontroversial as possible from a linguistic point of view; as a secondary matter, within the range of alternatives allowable (given the differences of opinion that exist among English linguists), the scheme chooses analyses that do not cause unnecessary difficulties for the kinds of corpus-based natural language processing techniques with which the scheme’s creators have also been involved.
Regulating Two at Once, II: Congruence in ML + EL Constituents and EL Islands
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter has several goals. First, it will continue the discussion from Chapter 4 of ML+ EL constituents by introducing a new constraint on ML+ EL constituents, a blocking filter. A Blocking Hypothesis proposes that a filter blocks not only EL system morphemes prohibited under the System Morpheme Principle presented in Chapter 4 but also EL content morphemes which do not show certain specified congruences with ML content morphemes. Second, in a related discussion, this chapter characterizes EL islands; obligatory EL islands are the result of certain noncongruences also involving the Blocking Hypothesis. The System Morpheme Principle discussed in Chapter 4 makes the prediction that syntactically relevant EL system morphemes will not appear in ML+ EL constituents; only syntactically relevant ML system morphemes are allowed. This prediction is supported by all available data; examples in addition to those already discussed will be presented later in this chapter. Clearly, this principle limits the occurrence of EL morphemes in these constituents. However, I now propose the Blocking Hypothesis as a corollary to the SM principle to limit further EL participation by blocking certain EL content morphemes as well.
Relating Lexical Borrowing and Codeswitching
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the relationship between lexical borrowing and codeswitching (CS), concentrating on the two as processes but also considering their outcomes. The general argument is that singly occurring forms originating with the EL, whether CS or borrowed forms (hereafter B forms), are part of the same developmental continuum, not unrelated phenomena, as some have argued. Evidence is that they undergo largely the same morphosyntactic procedures (of the Matrix Language, or ML) during language production. Therefore, it turns out, the motivation for distinguishing them in order to assess models of morphosyntactic constraints on CS seems to evaporate, at least for content morphemes. However, even though they are subject to the same production procedures, the lexical entries of CS and B forms must be different, since B forms become part of the mental lexicon of the ML, while CS forms do not. I follow Levelt (1989: 6) in his definition of the mental lexicon as ‘the store of information about the words in one’s language’.
Dravidian Personal Pronouns
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The etymologies for the pronouns of the first person singular and plural given in A Dravidian Etymological Dictionary by Burrow and Emeneau under the entries 4234, 4231, and 3019 fall into five phonological groups of alternating stems in the nominative and oblique as follows.
On Diachronic and Synchronic Rules in Phonology: A Case from Parji
Authors: KRISHNAMURTI BHADRIRAJU , EMENEAU MURRAY B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parji is a Central Dravidian language spoken by a small tribal people numbering about 25,000 in the forests and hills south of Jagdalpur in the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh, bordering on Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
Unchanged Cognates as a Criterion in Linguistic Subgrouping
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If a sound change has lexically diffused without completing its course, one finds that among the lexical items qualified for the change, some have already changed (c), others have remained unchanged (u), and still others show variant forms (u/c).
The Emergence of the Syllable Types of Stems (C)VCC(V) and (C)YC(V) in Indo-Aryan and Dravidian:
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Other traits have been suggested as belonging to the Indian linguistic area but have not been investigated, usually because data and analysis are not yet under control. Examples are the phonological development of syllabic structure and phoneme distributions that is seen in proceeding from OIA to MIA, with an end result that is suspiciously close to the structure of PD, as represented fairly closely by old or literary Tamil.
Landmarks in Comparative Dravidian Studies in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Introduction:
The Dravidian languages (around 25) are spoken by 191 million in India (Census 1991; for details see Appendix I) mainly in India; immigrant speakers of the major Dravidian languages in other countries such as Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc. would be at least 10 million.
The Emergence of the Innate: Evolving Optimality
Authors: Mcmahon April 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the orthodox Optimality Theory view, phonological Universal Grammar consists of the function Gen, plus a list of innate, universal and violable constraints. The question to be explored in this chapter is whether a richly structured Universal Grammar of this kind could reasonably have evolved in our species by the mechanisms usually thought to be responsible for the development of complex systems. If the alleged development of such a system cannot be reconciled with the normal forces of evolution, then good arguments will have to be provided for seeing it as the product of some other, special processes. If no convincing arguments are available, we have a further, more general reason for seeing this picture of phonology as inadequate. The justification of innateness in evolutionary terms has not been much of an issue in linguistics up to now, probably for two main reasons. First, we shall see below that Chomsky quite clearly sees the evolution of language as out of the ordinary, and beyond the scope of the neo-Darwinian model considered in the last chapter. Secondly, there has been a lengthy period, since the topic of the origin of language was banned by the Linguistic Society of Paris in 1866, during which the evolution of language has not been part of mainstream linguistics.
Prologue
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the publisher invited me half a decade ago to collect a number of my articles for the present volume-and I would like to express here at the outset my gratitude to the editors for deeming some of my work worthy of publication in this format-my first thoughts inclined to a series of papers on matters of English surface grammar that have been ignored or analysed incompletely or incorrectly in the better-known grammars. But it was concluded that what should be assembled here was rather a collection of articles on the time-based or developmental structuring of languages-how the patterning of development and its results in an existing grammar are invisible without comparing isolects (not those supposititious, non-comparable entities called ‘idiolects’)-together with a few additional articles on the cause of linguistic change and the origin of new languages.
Reversals in Marked Categories and Contexts, with the Pragmatic Principle of Reading between the Lines in the Presence of Marked Usages
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I In English, prepositions precede their objects in those ordinary clauses in which the object of the verb follows the verb; e.g. She bought a book for them. But in those-relative and interrogative-clauses in English in which a relativized or queried object of an adposition is moved to the beginning of the clause so as to precede the verb, we normally (see Bailey 1986d for descriptive rules; cf. Bailey 1992a: 113–14) strand the adposition after the verb as a postposition; e.g. the person she gave it to; What did they do it for? In exhibiting this patterning, English conforms to an implicational principle of general linguistics (J. H. Greenberg 1966b: 78–9): whereas vx-order (where X is the object or some other N” complement of the verb) implicates prepositions, xv-order implicates postpositions.
Language Structure: The System Created by the Constraints
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The methods of 3.1-2.4 yield a base set of sentences from which the other sentences of the language arc derived. The dependence of 3.1, together with the linearization of 3.4.1-2,4, characterizes the set of possible sentences; it eliminates what cannot occur in the language. The likelihood gradation of creates not-well-defined sets of normal’ and marginal sentences, on which the reductions of 3.3 operate. Separating out the different constraints that contribute to the departures from equiprobability in the word-sequences of all sentences distinguishes the base subset of sentences, in which reductions have not taken place. This subset is structurally recognizable, because the operator-argument relation in it has not been obscured by zeroing, reduction to affix, length permutation, and other transformations. It is also purely syntactic, without having morphology carry part of the syntactic functions, since all affixes that can he derived from free words have been separated off, leaving the vocabulary to consist of syntactically indivisible word.
Information
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Language is clearly and above all a bearer of meaning. Not, however, of all meaning. Many human activities and states have meaning for us, and only some of this can be expressed in language: feelings and vague sensings can be referred to only indirectly (10.7); non-public information, such as proprioceptive sensations, can be named only with difficulty; certain kinds of non-language information can be translated directly into language (e.g. graphs and charts); but other kinds (e.g. photographs) can be represented in language only loosely and selectively. Meaning itself is a concept of no clear definition, and the parts of it that can be expressed in language arc not an otherwise characterized subset of meaning. Indeed, since language-borne meaning cannot be organized or structured except in respect to words and sentences of language (2.4), we cannot correlate the structure and meanings of language with any independently known catalogue or structure of meaning. In each language, we do not know a priori which specific aspects of meaning will be referred to by words, and how much will be included in the meaning of a single word. Even when the meanings are well-defined, it is not always possible for words of a language to mirror in their structural relations the relation among the referents.
Contrast
Authors: Mettinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oppositeness of meaning, as has been shown in the previous chapter, has often been regarded as an important principle structuring the vocabulary of a natural language. In a way, however, the phenomenon as such has always been treated as simply existing, with hardly any consideration as to the actualization and textual function of semantic opposition on the level of language-use (parole).1 It is not difficult to see the reason for avoiding such an enterprise; establishing opposites on the expression plane presupposes knowing that the meaning of lexeme A and the meaning of lexeme B can/do enter a relation of oppositeness on the content plane, and meaning-relations on the content plane arc accessible only via generalizations on the expression plane—which means that the investigator is trapped in a vicious circle. Nevertheless, with a certain amount of “pretheoretical” know ledge it is possible to ‘identify units by virtue of their potentiality of occurrence in certain syntagms’ (Lyons 1977, 241), i.e. it can be shown that opposites show a tendency to appear more often and more regularly in some syntagmas than they do in other.;.
Grammatical sketch
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter outlines some of the main points of English syntax which are necessary for an understanding of later chapters (it does not go into exhaustive detail on any issue).
On a fair number of analytical issues there is currently disagreement between grammarians; only some of these disagreements are mentioned here. In a book of this size it would be impracticable to discuss all alternative proposals. What I have tried to do is provide a single, internally consistent view of the syntax of English.
Noun, adjective and verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lexical words of a language can be grouped into a number of semantic types, each of which has a common meaning component, and a typical set of grammatical properties. One of the grammatical properties of a type is its association with a grammatical Word Class, or Part of Speech. (See §I .2.)
Chapters 4–6 contain brief sketches of the semantic and syntactic characters of those semantic types which are in English associated with the Verb class. Following chapters discuss the occurrence restrictions on specific syntactic constructions, providing explanations for these that link the meanings of the constructions with the meanings of semantic types. In this chapter I provide a brief summary of the semantic types associated with the Noun and Adjective classes in English and introduce the division into Primary and Secondary verb types.
Primary-B verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Primary-B verbs can, like Primary-A, be the only verb in a sentence, with all their roles filled by NPs (e.g. John saw Mary). But they can also, unlike Primary-A, have a complement clause as alternative to an NP in one syntactic relation (e.g. John saw that Mary had won). Whereas most Primary-A verbs, when used in a literal sense, take CONCRETE NPs, many Primary-B verbs may take any type of NP in O relation, e.g. an ACTIVITY noun as in John witnessed the incident.
The sections below outline the variety of complement clauses that the various types and subtypes of Primary-B verbs take. We return to this topic in Chapter 7, there providing semantic explanation for the occurrences.
I know that it seems that he’ll make me want to describe her starting to say that she knows that it seems that.
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are, as outlined in §2.7, seven kinds of complement clause, which can fill the object or subject (or, sometimes, a post-object) slot in a main clause. All Secondary and Primary-B verbs take complement clauses—but each one allows only some of the full range of complement clause possibilities. Which complement clauses a given verb may accept is determined by the meaning of the verb and the meanings of the complement clause constructions.
In §7.2 we outline the meanings of the different kinds of complement clause. §§7.3—4 then deal with Secondary and Primary-B types, one at a time, looking at the overall meaning of each type and the specific meanings of individual verbs within the type, thus providing a semantic explanation for the complement clauses that occur. §7. I deals briefly with ‘parentheticals’, which are related to THAT complement constructions.
Correlating Social Parameters and Linguistic Variables
Authors: Kerswill Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we shall be attempting an analysis of the relationship between the social parameters described in Chapter 3 and the linguistic variables. We will be using a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches. Quantitative methods are capable of uncovering aspects of the structure of a speech community as a whole—that is, the distribution of linguistic forms across a defined population. (hialitative methods, which will here take the form of studies of particular speakers, complement quantitative ones in that they can take account of the complex social and social-psychological make-up of an individual.
Language Contact since 1865
Authors: Crowley Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first acquisition of land by Europeans from ni-Vanuatu for plantation purposes was on Tanna in 1867, when Henry Ross Lewin purchased 324 hectares to establish a cotton plantation. This was a good time to grow cotton as the American Civil War of the 1860s had caused cotton shortages and driven up the world price. Not only did Lewin set himself up as a cotton planter, but he had also been involved in the earlier recruitment of Tannese labourers to other islands, presumably to cut sandalwood and later to work on other plantations (Scarr 196T 16). He employed 120 Efate labourers on his plantation on Tanna in 1873. A number of other Europeans acquired land on Tanna, generally employing labourers from Efate. Relations between the Tannese and European planters on the island were evidently not good, in part probably because the Tannese and the Europeans had very different ideas about land ‘ownership’ and the rights that this entailed (Van Trease 1987: 19). By 1874 Lewin had been killed and European attempts to develop plantations on Tanna came to a temporary halt.
Justice and the Sources of Socialist Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose that law docs not ‘wither away’ in a socialist or Communist utopia. Instead, legal institutions of some sort continue to mediate social relations in the absence of either bourgeois egoism or class conflict. A challenge to the withering away thesis throws into relief the nature of a valid legal system; it raises the question of how law is to be defined. If we arc to countenance law under socialism, we must know what kind of practices count as legal practices. We need to develop a theory of how we arc to identify law. Such a theory would have to determine the weight that should be assigned to the institutional foundation of societal rules, and the moral value of the rules themselves, in ascertaining what is to count as law. The question of what makes a certain system of rules or practices a legal system is the problem of the source of law.
Freedom and the Rule of Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At their most basic, the terms ‘rule of law’, ‘justice as regularity’, ‘legal formality’,2 ‘due process’,-’ ‘procedural rationality’/ ‘procedural justice’,5 can all be used to refer to the idea that it is not men but the law that should rule us. Some of an authoritarian persuasion have mistakenly construed this idea to mean that the law should rule us no matter what content or form it takes. Adherents of the ‘New Right’ current in British conservatism go so far as to use the term ‘the rule of law’ to denote the will of the state and the absolute obligation of citizens to obey it. And in the Soviet Union ‘the rule of law’ refers, not to a standard with which to measure law, but to the law itself, which because it has been enacted by the Soviet state, has automatic legitimacy.
Human Rights and Political Reform
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the heart of the problem of a socialist jurisprudence is the matter of rights. For many liberals, a legal system without rights could not properly be called a system of law. In Ronald D workin’s words, ‘If the government does not take rights seriously, then it does not take law seriously either’. On the other hand, for many Marxists, a socialist legal system that included rights could not properly be called socialist. It is the idea of individuals having rights against each other that many Marxists hold to be the most objectionable aspect of law. The fact that existing socialist societies of Eastern Europe simultaneously codify and abrogate fundamental rights may bear witness to both the ideological force of the Western idea of human rights, and their apparent incompatibility with the collectivist principles of socialism.
Altruism and Rights under Socialist Circumstances of Justice
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All talk of rights under socialism, however coherent in theory, might be irrelevant if the situations in which we need rights did not in fact arise. For Marxists, rights protect egoistic interests fundamental to market relationships. To argue for legal rights under socialism, then, requires a demonstration that rights would still be necessary as a juridical instrument for the defence of individual interests.
Article 4
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and the existence of which is officially proclaimed, the States parties to the present Covenant may take measures derogating from their obligations under the present Covenant to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, provided that such measures are not inconsistent with their other obligations under international law and do not involve discrimination solely on the ground of race, colour, sex, language, religion or social origin.
The Common Law and the Commentaries
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Blackstone sought to devise a course of lectures to give young gentlemen ‘some acquaintance with the laws of the land’, he faced the problem not only of creating an adequate overall map of the hitherto unfathomable and chaotic nature of the law, but also of explaining the underlying principles of law that led to particular judgments in particular cases. For the Vinerian professor, the lawyer trained only in practice, uninstructed in the first principles on which the practice was based, would be bewildered if he encountered any case departing from precedent: ‘ita lex scripta est is the utmost his knowledge will arrive at,’ Blackstone wrote; ‘he must never aspire to form, and seldom expect to comprehend, any arguments drawn a priori, from the spirit of the laws and the natural foundations of justice’.
The Debate over Codification
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The all-important subject of Judicial Reform’, declared the Edinburgh Review in 1830, ‘has, of late years, happily occupied the almost undivided attention of thinking men, in every part of the country. ‘ Law reform was the great cause, and, to many, it seemed that Bentham had initiated it, by exposing the faults of the common law. As Henry Brougham put it, ‘the age of law reform and the age of Jeremy Bentham are the same’.