bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A System of Invention
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1939, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Gerhard Domagk, a medical researcher employed by the German fine chemicals company I.G. Farbenindustrie. Domagk was cited for his “recognition of the antibacterial activity of Prontosil,” by that time recognized as the first of a new class of antibacterial agents, the sulfa drugs. Domagk’s first findings related to Prontosil were dated 1932, and the first publication, 1935. In fact, the research program from which Prontosil emerged had been initiated in 1926. And the successful result of that program depended heavily on Domagk’s close collaboration with two of the company’s chemists, Fritz Mietzsch and Joseph Klarer, whose roles the Nobel award passed over in silence.
Pathways of Recognition
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most histories of medicine correctly credit the first sulfa drugs, Prontosil and sulfanilamide, with initiation of a revolution in therapeutics. Some also say or imply that the transformation was sudden and irresistible, that the new medicines were so clearly superior to existing treatments that they immediately marked off the past of medical practice from its future. That such was not the case is indicated by the German experience described in chapters 4 and 5. Even in the land of its birth, Prontosil was not an instant success. Physicians rendered skeptical by failures of earlier chemotherapies for bacterial infections gave Prontosil a positive, but cautious and critical, reception, and sales of the compound did not reach their full potential until three years after its introduction. Outside of Germany, too, in France, Britain, and the United States, Prontosil and sulfanilamide became “miracle drugs” only through a process that extended over more than two years after the introduction of Prontosil. The process involved a complex interaction of laboratory and clinical investigations, physician use, and scientific, medical, and popular representations. Its end points were roughly Gerhard Domagk’s first publication in February 1935, and the Paris International Exposition and American Medical Association Atlantic City meeting in 1937.
Learning One’s First Language
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we say that someone has learned a language, what has happened to that person? What has that individual done and what has been done to him or her? What has been learned and at what point can we say that the process is complete? What part do imitation and practice play in the learning process and what is the contribution of the environment? What is the importance of intelligence in language learning? Is there an age at which it is easier to learn a language and, if so, what is that age? Is there a difference between learning one’s first language and learning a second one? Why does anyone learn a language? Questions such as these are critical for anyone interested in language development. In the first place it is obvious that children do not create language totally anew nor do they learn language like a parrot by memorizing complete utterances, though in the early stages they may do a little of both. More often children’s early utterances bear a clear relationship to utterances in the adult language while differing enough to show that they are not straightforward imitations, as can be seen in the following examples:
The Act of Communicating
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first thing the child has to discover is that it is possible to communicate with other beings. Children usually find this out fairly quickly when their cries produce some kind of response. Mothers and other caregivers also often set up small communicative routines, such as peek-a-boo, in which the child learns to respond to certain cues. Children also soon learn to recognize not only faces but also facial expressions and to associate these expressions with different moods. It has also been suggested that the early routine of feeding sets a pattern of turn-taking long before the infant is capable of any kind of conversational exchange. Mothers are often anxious to encourage any response from the infant that can be interpreted as intentional communication. The following is an exchange between a mother and a three-month-old girl:
Learning About Words and Their Structure
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Learning to perceive and produce the sounds (phonemes) of a language is one of the fundamental tasks in becoming a fluent speaker but it is only a means to an end. The sounds themselves are meaningless. Children have to realize that some of the noises made by adults refer to various aspects of the world in which the children find themselves. They have to notice that certain combinations of sounds occur repeatedly and that the adults seem to attach some significance to these combinations, for example, Daddy, milk, down, no. At first the child probably only has the vaguest glimmerings as to the significance these noises have for adults. It is also difficult for an adult to guess at what significance the child attaches to the utterance. One father was pleased that his daughter seemed to understand the question Where is the baby? by turning and looking at herself in the mirror, but she did exactly the same when he asked Where is daddy? We are back to the problem of the dog and its name.
Still More Syntax
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Syntax is what governs the relationship between the structural units (noun phrases, verb phrases, and so on) in an utterance. Languages differ in the ways in which they signal these relationships. In some languages there are many morphemes which indicate the relationships. In English, which in its modern form has few such morphemes, word order is of vital importance. In the utterance The boy next door loves the girl across the street the subject of the verb loves is the boy next door and the object of the verb is the girl across the street (in this case the beloved object). These relationships are signaled by the order of the words (or rather of the phrases made up by the words). From these relationships we can tell that it is the boy who loves and the girl who is loved. The girl across the street loves the boy next door is a quite different utterance and may, alas, not be true even when the first utterance is. The order subject-verb-object (SVO) is the basic order of these syntactic units in English. Almost half the languages in the world (including European languages such as French, Russian, and Hungarian) share this basic word order. Slightly more of the world’s languages (such as Japanese and Turkish) have the basic order SOV with the verb at the end. A very much smaller number (including Irish, Welsh, and Hebrew) have the verb first, VSO. The other three ordering possibilities are found, but rarely. In every language there are also complex rules for the order of constituents in particular constructions and in some of these the basic word order is changed.
Register
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is easy to underestimate how great an achievement learning to speak a language actually is. As we have seen in earlier chapters, human languages are wondrously complex and delicately balanced systems, and it is remarkable that we succeed so well in this task, literally without knowing what we are doing. It is also easy to overestimate what has been achieved. When traveling in a foreign country, we may ask someone, Do you speak English? What we really want to know is whether that individual will be able to understand what I want and also be able to tell me so that I can also understand the answer. This is very different from “speaking English” if by that we imply knowing the totality of the English language. Strictly speaking, nobody “speaks English” (or any other language). Instead we know and use that part of the language which is necessary and useful for our activities and interests. In addition to using a form of the language (regional and social dialect) that connects us to a particular section of the community, we also learn the kinds of language necessary for our work and play. The term used for the latter kind of language differences is register.
Languages of the World
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is rather frustrating that there is no accepted figure on the number of languages in the world. Partly this is because there is no linguistic way of distinguishing between a language and a dialect. Certainly, there is no direct correlation between language and nation. There are about 170 nation-states and about six thousand languages, but 95 percent of the world’s population makes use of a total of fewer than one hundred languages. It follows from this that some languages have a very small number of speakers. In Papua New Guinea, for example, there are about 850 languages in a population of 3.3 million, which is one reason why Tok Pisin has become widespread as a lingua franca (see chapter 32). In the central northwest Amazon region there are twenty languages in a population that has been estimated at from five thousand to ten thousand. It is not only the number of languages that is surprising; the variety of means they use is also remarkable. At the same time, all human languages have a number of characteristics in common and Chomsky has raised the question of linguistic universals. As was described in chapter 11, he has argued that the ability of any normal child to learn any human language merely by exposure to it leads to two conclusions. One is that children must be born with a special ability to learn language, the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The second point is that all human languages must be similar to the extent that they can be learned by any child. These universal characteristics are what Chomsky has labeled Universal Grammar (UG).
Pidgins and Creoles
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some of the most fascinating questions are probably unanswerable. One is about the origin of human language. With the exception of a small but vocal group, most people in Britain and the United States believe in the notion of evolution, even if the details are far from clear. The emergence of human language as an efficient system of vocal communication, however, presents a challenge to evolutionary theory, since there is a fundamental problem in even imagining how the kinds of calls primates use could have developed into human language. The problem lies in the segmental nature of language and particularly the segments known as phonemes. Since phonemes are meaningless in themselves, it is hard to see how they could have developed out of a system in which individual calls had separate meanings. Another problem in trying to understand the evolution of language is the lack of fossil evidence. Unfortunately, bone structure is not the most important aspect of the vocal tract and the softer parts of the body do not survive as fossils. Attempts have been made to extrapolate the size of the vocal tract from skull fossils in order to determine when human beings first began to use language. Even if successful (and they have been challenged), these efforts would still not provide any explanation of how language evolved.
Envoi: Confessio Amantis
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a short book such as this it is impossible to do more than give a slight idea of the pleasures that looking at language can provide. For most of my life I have enjoyed people using language well. Growing up in Scotland probably helped, though I was not aware of how much at that time. As a rebellious adolescent, resistant to any school pressures, I nevertheless on my own initiative worked my way through War and Peace, Anna Karenina, much of Dickens, and all of Scott’s Waverley novels, in addition to a great deal of rubbish that I have no desire to recall. Reading was then and has remained a source of great pleasure. At school I had attempted to learn French and German (in addition to compulsory Latin) in the hope of one day becoming a foreign correspondent on a national newspaper. My ineptitude (or that of my teachers) led me to abandon this ambition, but at the University of St. Andrews I enjoyed the required exposure to Old English so much that I specialized in English language, mainly Old and Middle English, and even made a feeble endeavor to master Old Norse. Mediocre success at this task left me with limited options when I graduated. On learning about a job teaching English as a foreign language at the British Institute in Lisbon, I decided that this was what I had always wanted to do. I soon found out that my studies at university had in no way fitted me to teach English. What I knew was useless; what I did not know was essential.
The Early and Mid-Renaissance Periods I500-I580
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bewaile with me all ye that have profcst Of musicke tharte by touche of coarde or winde: Laye downe your lutes and let your gitterns rest, Phillips is dead whose like you can not find Of musicke much exceadying all the rest, Muses therfore of force nm, must you wrest. Your pleasant notes into another sound, The stringe is broke, the lute is dispossest, The hand is cold, the bodye in the ground. The lmuing lute lamenteth now therfore, Phillips her frende that can her touche no more.
The Caroline and Commonwealth Periods (1625-1660)
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Here is a fellow who comes into A’nrland with an ill meen and thrcdbarc cloaths, and there presently sets up a Court of Judicature, arraigning both Musick, Instruments, and Musicians, for not being a la mode de France; the twelve ranks of strings oth’ Lute, the double neck, the lessons, the method of playing, and almost the hands too, for not being manry about the ,nists like his: he belies great masters; and teaches hut his mrn imperfections: And if his fingers be so weak they can scarce crawle o’re a Lute, then to play gently and softly is the mode, and douceme11t is the word: and if so gouty and child-blained as he rakes the strings worse than if they grated on by a ragged staff: then first and Galfiard is the word, and strong and lusty is the mode agen; and if you like not his play, he tells ye at least, that he has the only new method of Paris, and that he teaches a rm;ir and 11011 pareille, and for his lessons (which he has rakt out of Gaullier’s dunghill, or collected from the privy-house of Dufant) he keeps them as precious reliques, giving such out for nc,v as ,vere made before the lvignon or the Pope’s coming there
A Quartet of Five (Dave Brubeck)
Authors: Giddins Gary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No postwar jazz musician has cultivated his audience like Dave Brubeck. His success has Pavlovian dimensions. The simultaneous release of Double Live from the USA and UK (Telarc), a lively two-CD set drawn from 1995 and 1998 concerts, and the long-delayed reissue of The Dave Brubeck Quartet at Carnegie Hall (Columbia/Legacy), a two-CD set recorded in 1963, suggests that time, which he has calibrated and deconstructed for five decades, may have stopped for him, his music, and his audience. As soon as he leaps into the clanging 9/4 head of “Blue Rondo a la Turk” or the “Take Five” vamp, he elicits a bellowing roar rarely heard at concerts anymore. The response is less feverish now, the stomps and whistles replaced by falsetto whoos, but these are still true believers. Brubeck has called the audience the fifth member of his quartet. Before intermission at the 1963 concert, he thanks it for “helping us along.” In a time of rampant jazz politesse, the bursts of applause when a solo peaks and elated cries when it finishes are intoxicating.
Boom! (Louis Armstrong)
Authors: Giddins Gary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Amid the crush of CD releases timed to accompany Louis Armstrong’s centennial celebration, a two-year event that acknowledges his avowed birth date in 1900 as well as his true one in 1901, a remarkable curio has glided in under the radar of many fans. It’s an appendage to a collection of 1950s records by Lotte Lenya, the Viennese-born singer and actress whose own centennial in 2000 was strangely neglected. Lotte Lenya Sings Kurt Weill / The American Theater Songs includes her robust duet with Armstrong on “Mack the Knife,” an uncommon but hardly unknown performance. The curio is a funny eight-and-a-half minute rehearsal tape that allows us to be flies on the wall as Armstrong teaches her to syncopate. The excerpt begins with a complete run-through of the song, which is persuasive until the very end, when Lenya is supposed to sing, “Now that Mackie’s [quarter note rest for rhythmic accent] back in town.” She ignores the rest and drags out the last three words for a mile and a half. Armstrong good-naturedly explains to her the jazzy cadence, growling a “boom” to indicate the rest. She laughs and tells him, “That’s easy for you.” Taking charge, Armstrong informs the producer that there is no need to re-record more than a closing insert, and encourages Lenya (“That’s it,” “There you go”) until she gets it almost right. The irony is delicious: Armstrong coolly coaching Lenya, a near-legendary figure in her own right, on a song her late husband had conceived expressly for her—and she displaying not one iota of prima donna resentment as he spots her take after take. Also amusing is the precise and unchanging pitch with which he repeatedly cues the “boom.” The episode reminds us how alien jazz rhythms could be as recently as midcentury. Today, few 10-year-olds would have any difficulty mastering that rest. Thanks largely to Armstrong, we live in a syncopated world.
The Crucial Decision
Authors: Rarick Ethan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the jumping-off point at Independence to the crossing of the Continental Divide, the path for all westward travelers was identical. Everyone needed to reach the easy transit through the Rockies, so everyone traveled up the Platte and the Sweetwater, like ships aiming for a strait before reaching the open ocean. But west of the mountains, no similar geographical narrows constricted the traffic. Depending on their intended destination and their personal preferences, emigrants were now free to follow different routes. It was the first time they made a real decision about their course, and for the Donner Party, no choice would ultimately prove more important nor rest on a shakier foundation.
Alive Yet
Authors: Rarick Ethan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On a cold night, the mountains can be as quiet as a graveyard. Unless the wind kicks up, there is nothing to hear but the voices of your comrades and the crackling of the campfire. Selim Woodworth and his men, however, turned their ears to something else—other voices, farther off. He sent emissaries to investigate and found the little party that had walked away from Starved Camp: James Reed and two of his children, William McCutchan, Hiram Miller, and the others. By chance, the two parties had almost literally stumbled into one another.
The Meaning of Slave Tales
Authors: Levine Lawrence W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the historian interested in slave culture, the use of folk tales parallels that of songs and folk beliefs. Although few black tales were collected until the decades following the Civil War, their distribution was so widespread throughout the South, their content so similar, and their style and function so uniform that it is evident they were not a sudden postemancipation creation. “All over the South the stories of Br’er Rabbit are told,” Octave Thanet reported in 1892. “Everywhere not only ideas and plots are repeated, but the very words often are the same; one gets a new vision of the power of oral tradition.” The variations in patterns of mobility, educational and vocational opportunities, cultural expression, and life styles brought about by emancipation produced inevitable changes in black folklore, and they will be examined in later chapters. Still, throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century-and well into the twentieth- the large body of slave tales remained a vital and central core of Afro American expression.
The Rise of Secular Song
Authors: Levine Lawrence W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If during slavery it was the secular songs that were occasional and the religious songs that represented the ethos of the black folk, in freedom the situation began to reverse itself. Secular song became increasingly important in black folk culture in the decades following freedom. Negroes were thrust into the larger world, and their response to their experience was couched more and more in explicitly worldly terms. The sacred world was not shattered immediately and decisively for all Negroes in the period after the Civil War; it continued, with different degrees of intensity and pervasiveness, to inform the consciousness and world view of large numbers of blacks both North and South. But never again was it to occupy the central position of the antebellum years. The aesthetics and forms of Afro-American slave folk culture remained fundamentally important throughout the years of freedom, but their content was reshaped by the experiences of the new existence and the new imperatives.
Life
Authors: Millington Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the key figures in the history of opera, Wilhelm Richard Wagner was largely responsible for altering its orientation in the 19th century. His programme of artistic reform, though not executed to the last detail, accelerated the trend towards organically conceived, through-composed structures, as well as influencing the development of the orchestra, of a new breed of singer, and of various aspects of theatrical practice. Born in Leipzig on 22 May 1813, he died on 13 February 1883 in Venice.
Tannhäuser
Authors: Millington Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wagner worked out a detailed prose draft (28 June 6 July 1842) at Aussig (now Ústí nad Labem) in the Bohemian mountains, and versified it the following spring. After making a number of preliminary sketches for the musical setting, Wagner made his ‘fragmentary complete draft’ (so called because it survives only in fragmentary form, albeit now largely reconstructed) and a continuous complete draft, the two evolving side by side between the summer or autumn of 1843 and December 1844. The overture was completed on 11 January 1845 and the full score on 13 April. As late as the continuous complete draft, there is evidence of Wagner’s conception in terms of traditional numbers, despite his suppression of such designations in the autograph score. The uncomprehending response of the audience at the first performance on 19 October 1845 was largely due to the inability of Tichatschek, in the leading role, to grasp the principle of melos towards which Wagner was progressing.
Bayreuth
Authors: Millington Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The town of Bayreuth in Bavaria, southern Germany, is internationally famous as the site of Richard Wagner’s Festspielhaus. Dating back to 1231, and in the 17th and 18th centuries the seat of an independent margravate, the town is now the capital of the district of Upper Franconia and since 1975 has had a university. As well as the Festspielhaus it possesses two theatres in which opera is performed, the Markgräfliches Opernhaus and the modern Stadthalle.