bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Riding High with the Royal Geographical Society Stanley Faces Off with the Geographers
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The friction between Galton and other members of the Royal Geo­ graphical Society and Henry Morton Stanley was, surprisingly enough, precipitated by Stanley’s relief of Livingstone. Galton and others came to regard Stanley as a headline-grabbing reporter with no interest in collecting quantitative geographical facts. In a sense, the whole problem could be traced to the Society’s decision to mount its own relief expedition, only dimly aware of Stanley’s existence not to mention his intentions. The story begins shortly after Murchison’s death when the accomplished Assyriologist and Indian Army veteran, Major General Sir Henry Rawlinson, opened the Society’s 1871-1872 session on November 13, 1871. He reminded the membership “of the irreparable loss” that Murchison’s recent demise was for science and the Society. Livingstone had vanished again and was keeping the Geographers “in a state of painful suspense.” 4 Kirk had reported sending a batch of supplies for Livingstone to Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika and that an “American traveller, Mr. Stanley” had proceeded inland from the coast. But later Kirk wrote that a conflict in the interior had “cut off Ujiji from the coast” and it might be a long time before they knew much of Livingstone’s where­ abouts.5 Stanley had also got caught in the melee and while he had escaped was apparently no closer to rescuing Livingstone. Hence, the Council had decided to mount a relief expedition.
Weather Maps and the Anticyclone
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Francis Galton’s interest in meterological patterns derived directly from his own experience of striking climatic variations in Namibia and indirectly from his service with the Royal Geographical Society. There he would often have been reminded of the effects of the vagaries of the weather on the various far flung expeditions sponsored by the Society. Closer to home he would frequently have been made aware of the disastrous consequences of foul weather on the merchant shipping of the world’s greatest maritime nation. Among the storm-induced ship founderings reported in the press one in particular must have caught his attention.
Probing the Mind
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From 1877 until 1885 composite photography and psychological studies occupied much ofGalton’s time. Both subjects might provide him a direct entree into understanding mental ability. As always, Galtonwanted to apply quantitative techniques where possible and to determine her­ itability. Galton’s adventures in composite photography relate directly to his budding interest in personal identification and ultimately in the use of finger­ printing as a means for distinguishing different individuals.
Evolution by jumps
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Galton genuinely disagreed with Darwin over whether evolution occurred in small incremental steps. In Natural Inheritance he acknowledged that whenever intermediates were sought “between widely divergent varieties ... a long and orderly series can usually be made out, each member of which differs in an almost imperceptible degree from adjacent specimens.” But he discounted these intermediates as “unstable varieties” whose descendants eventually reverted. Instead, he argued that “sports” occurred frequently and were genetically stable, implying that these were the stuff of evolution. For the young British biologist William Bateson (Fig. 20-1), Galton was preaching to the converted. The son of William Henry Bateson, the master of St.John’s College, Cambridge, he attended the Rugby School and matriculated at St. John’s in 1879. By his own admission “mathematics were my difficulty. Being destined for Cambridge I was specially coached, but failed. Coached once more I passed, having wasted, not one, but several hundred hours on that study.” Weldon was Bateson’s closest friend at Cambridge and, like Weldon, he came under Balfour’s influence. Balfour encouraged Bateson to work on a strange marine organism called Balanoglossus that was perceived to be allied to the vertebrates and was abundant in Chesapeake Bay.
Introduction: Hughes in Our Time
Authors: Tracy Steven C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“So what are you going to do the other twelve weeks of the semester?” cracked one of my colleagues ten years ago with hearty laughs all around, in response to my announced intention to teach a fourteen-week course on the works of Langston Hughes. The remark and the response to it revealed not only an ignorance of the extent of Hughes’s work—his output was voluminous— but also something more insidious and troublesome. There is the notion among some literary academics that Hughes is, well, too simple, too obvious, too shallow.
Hughes and Twentieth-Century Genderracial Issues
Authors: Joyce Joyce A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In an essay on Langston Hughes in Blackness and the Adventure of Western Culture, George Kent, I believe, offers useful insight into the timelessness of Hughes’s literary contributions and thus answers the questions not only why Hughes was referred to during his time as the “Shakespeare of Harlem” but also why his poems and fiction continue to stimulate oral and written dialogues at the forefront of African American literature. Although Kent’s comments refer primarily to Hughes’s autobiographies, they also characterize what I refer to as Langston Hughes’s sensibility. Kent writes, “Hughes is consistent with what I have called the is-ness of folk vision and tradition—life is lived from day to day and confronted by plans whose going astray may evoke the face twisted in pain or the mouth open in laughter.
Ancient Fractions
Authors: Benson Donald C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Positive Whole Numbers-the natural numbers -fill the fundamental human need for counting, but, additionally, a civilized society requires fractional numbers for the orderly division of land and goods -artificial numbers that fill in the gaps between the natural numbers. Getting fractions right is the first slippery step in the mathematical education of many schoolchildren, a place where many fall. So it was also in the history of mathematics. The ancient Egyptians took a wrong tum. Only after thousands of years did others find the right path. This detour is now all but forgotten, and there is no danger that we will repeat this mistake. Since fractions were not easy for the Egyptians, we can be more understanding of the difficulties that our schoolchildren experience. Furthermore, Egyptian fractions are a source of curious problems, interesting in their own right.
Algebra Rules
Authors: Benson Donald C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Eloquent Seduction of the above epigraph is difficult to resist. But remember that these are words of an agent of darkness - an adviser with questionable motives. Mephistopheles certainly includes algebra when he speaks of theory. However, it is not he who moves many of our schoolchildren to say, “I hate algebra.” We will not discuss the many and complex sources of the fear and hatred of algebra and mathematics in general; instead, we do hope to show that algebra is a useful and powerful human accomplishment. Algebra, far from being fearsome, is a comfortable place where we can confidently bring our most puzzling quantitative problems-a safe harbor for the mind.
The Origin of Natural Kinds
Authors: Hey Jody 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose that we would like to overcome our categorical bias toward understanding organismal diversity. How should we proceed? We cannot simply give up our category-filled language about organisms. The final chapter lays out some suggestions for how to deal with the species problem, so as to better promote our understanding of biological diversity, but they are not radical. Even if it were desirable, a self-imposed right-think code of speech and thought about species is probably impossible. It is hard to even imagine what such a code would look like. For this reason, and for those outlined in this chapter, I suspect that our mental functions of conceiving and interpreting the world are grounded in very basic mental tasks. But why might this be the case? Is there any Particular reason, either psychological or biological, to suppose that our reliance on categories is old and deep? I think there is. The purpose of this chapter is to show how the representational men tal method, that gives rise to prototype effects and that seems to be be hind the categories of out thoughts and language, could have arisen. It describes the hypothesis that typological categorical thinking arose as a necessary by product of the way adaptation happens in a world of limited recurrence. If roughly true, then our reliance on categories, and our prototype effects may be both ancient and fundamental to the way we organize our thoughts.
Bedtime Stories
Authors: Ferraro Joanne M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
a marriage not consummated, according to canon law, was not valid. Sexual impotence that prevented consummation was legitimate grounds for dissolving the union, and was thus an important component of some annulment cases.1 In the Venetian ecclesiastical investigations the term “impotence” was applied to women as well as men. It signified the incapability to have the sexual relations necessary for reproduction, in a woman’s case because her vaginal opening was too narrow to accommodate the insertion of a penis. Impotent men reputedly suffered from erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation. Because it offered hope of breaking marriage ties, provided the presiding adjudicators could be persuaded by a credible story, impotence, like the discourse on forced unions, was another trope in the ecclesiastical investigations conducted in the Patriarchal Court.
A Diplomatic Revolution
Authors: Connelly Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Algeria sits at the crossroads of the Atlantic, European, Arab and African worlds. Yet, unlike the colonial wars in Korea and Vietnam, the Algerian war for independence has rarely been viewed as a primarily international conflict. Rather, prevailing accounts of the war interpret it as a domestic French crisis that was resolved when Charles de Gaulle granted Algeria independence. Yet, as Matthew Connelly here demonstrates, from the very start of the bloody eight year struggle, the Front de Liberation Nationale pursued self-rule on the world stage. Exploiting Cold War competition and regional rivalries, the spread of mass communications, and international and non-governmental organisations, such as human rights groups, foreign press conferences, and the United Nations, the rebels harnessed international forces to bring pressure to bear on the French government, which became obsessed with the conflict’s impact on its reputation. By winning rights and recognition from the global community, the rebels helped break up the French colonial empire and rewrite the rules of international relations. In narrating the Algerian war for independence, Connelly analyses how the United States and other states influenced the war and were, in turn, influenced by it. He interprets it in a global and comparative context, arguing for a reconceptualisation of diplomatic history as international history. Based on research on three continents and, for the first time, the rebels’ own archives, this study of the Algerian war for independence offers a landmark reevaluation of the conflict forty years after its conclusion and a model for the writing of international history.
Introduction
Authors: Connelly Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At ten o’clock one May morning in 1961, three Swiss Army helicopters skimmed across the waters of Lake Geneva toward the French resort town of Evian. One after the other, each landed by the water’s edge, disgorged three passengers, and then lifted off to make room for the next. Stooped under the swooping blades, the assembled men smoothed their suits before making their way to a group of French officials awaiting them. Just out of sight, anti-aircraft guns were positioned along a defensive perimeter, while armed patrols and road blocks covered the countryside beyond. Even the lake, the only thing that seemed pacific about the place, concealed frogmen swimming beneath the surface.
The Failure of Progress: Algeria and the Crisis of the Colonial World
Authors: Connelly Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1952 the French government of Algeria commissioned a study of local conditions based on a questionnaire given to the heads of every commune—the smallest administrative unit. The responses came back over the following two years and covered a broad array of issues, ranging from Islamic reformism to immigration, from population growth to nationalist parties. As they compiled these answers, the authors of' “Algeria at Mid-Century” were mainly concerned with the perennial question of political reform: whether it was possible to assimilate Muslims as citizens, in this case by abolishing the odd system of' “mixed communes,” which subjected them to military administration. But this report leads one to to question whether any reform could have kept Algeria French. Quire unconsciusly, its authors had cataloged all the main causes of the coming revolt.
Confronting the Empire of Islam
Authors: Connelly Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like George Bernard Shaw’s quip about Anglo Saxons, the French and the Americans were two peoples separated by a common language: they came to share the same discourse concerning the danger of civilizational conflict and the development of “Eurafrica” while differing over the timing, means, and manner of achivving their aims. Thus, like their French counterparts, Eisenhower and Dulles approached decolonization in terms of demographics and pittmed Thud Wotid Peoples a force of nature, but they did not believe this was a force to be fought or even confronteds Thus, in urging Churchill to make decolonization his crowning achievement, Eisenhower wrote that “there is abroad in the world a fierce and growing spirit of nationalisms”.
Form and Function in Cells of the Brain
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the first chapter we focused exclusively on neurons, and particularly on those aspects of neuronal structure that specialize them for intra-and intercellular signaling. We will now consider some features of the structure and function of the various classes of glial cells that comprise by far the majority of cells in the brain. We will then emphasize that neurons share many structural features with other kinds of cells, including the glial cells. Finally, we will conclude with a discussion of the cytoskeleton, and its role in the formation and maintenance of the structure of neurons.
Ion Channels Are Membrane Proteins
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter we described methods of measuring the activity of single ion channels and the macroscopic membrane currents resulting from the activity of populations of ion channels, and discussed some of the key functional properties of channels that can be deduced from such measurements. Let us now consider ion channels as protein molecules, the amino acid sequences of which are known from molecular cloning techniques. The powerful combination of electrophysiological, molecular biological, and direct structural approaches has provided novel insights into ion channel structure and function in recent years.
Synaptic Release of Neurotransmitters
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jn the previous chapter we saw that secretion of proteins occurs through the exocytosis of membranous vesicles. This is a process that has been elaborated throughout evolution in endocrine, exocrine, and neuronal cells. It allows cells to send specific chemical signals that diffuse to, and act on, recipient cells. In many cases, the properties of neurons are very much like those of endocrine cells, whose business is chemical communication. Some neurons release peptides directly into the blood, just as an endocrine cell does. Other neurons release their transmitters locally into the extracellular space, where the transmitter diffuses slowly over some distance and influences many other neurons. Many neurons, however, differ from these other cell types in that they have been under evolutionary pressure to develop very rapid chemical communication with specific target neurons and muscle cells. To this end they have developed long axons that bring the source of the messenger substance right up to the membrane of their target cell. In addition, neurons often use small chemical transmitters that can be synthesized directly at the terminal rather than being transported from the soma, as is the case with peptide transmitters. The characteristics of the release of such transmitters at synaptic terminals differ from those of many other secretory cells. In this chapter we give an account of transmitter release at two thoroughly studied synaptic junctions, the vertebrate neuromuscular junction and the giant synapse of the squid.
Sensory Receptors
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although most neurons receive input from other neurons, the business of the brain is to act on information from the outside world. Specialized cells have evolved for the receipt of such information. These include cells that are responsible for sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell, as well as those that signal to the brain the state of internal organs. Most external and internal stimuli are received by three classes of sensory cells: (1) those that respond to mechanical stimulation, (2) those that are influenced by light, and (3) those that sense changes in their chemical environment. In addition, some cells respond to other signals such as changes in temperature. In all cases, the stimulus alters the activity of ion channels, sometimes through the agency of second messengers. Sensory cells therefore provide clear examples of the principles encountered in previous chapters. We will now discuss briefly a few of the varied transduction mechanisms that have been found in each of the major classes of sensory cells.
Formation, Maintenance, and Plasticity of Chemical Synapses
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Following’ cellular determination and neurite elongation, developing neurons form the specific synaptic connections that are essential for brain function (Fig. 15-1). One particularly striking aspect of the formation of synapses is its extraordinary sensitivity to patterns of electrical activity in the developing pathways. We will now describe synaptogenesis during development and its guidance by the pattern of electrical stimulation to which an immature neuron is exposed. Synaptogenesis is not, however, restricted to the developing nervous system. We have hinted that reorganization of neuronal form and function occurs in the adult nervous system, and in fact mature neurons retain most of the machinery necessary for restructuring their synaptic connections by mechanisms similar to those operating in development. We will therefore provide some examples of synaptic plasticity in adult neurons. Finally, we will describe some of the changes that occur in the properties of cells once synaptic contacts have been established.
Beyond the Dilemma of Development
Authors: Feenberg Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to an ancient tradition of Western political theory, societies cannot achieve both civic virtue and material prosperity. For centuries the rise and fall of the Roman Republic served as a cautionary tale illustrating pessimistic maxims. “Roman liberty,” said Saint-Just, “was drowned in gold and delights” (Saint-Just, 1963: 63). There is a flaw in human nature: released by riches from a common struggle with nature, men grow soft and lose the spirit of self-sacrifice required for life in a free society. This is the dilemma Mandeville mockingly formulated in his famous doggerel (Mandeville, 1970: 76): To make a Great an honest Hive ... Bare Vertue can’t make Nations live In Splendour; they, that would revive A Golden Age, must be as free, For Acorns, as for Honesty.
Aesthetics and Cultural Studies
Authors: Fluck Winfried 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has become one of the starting moves of recent revisionist scholarship in literary and cultural studies to emphasize the historical relativity of all aesthetic judgments and to stress their function not only as cultural but also as political acts. This argument can be traced back to one of the founding texts, if not the founding text, of cultural studies, Raymond Williams’s Culture and Society.
Doing Justice to C.L.R. James’s Mariners, Renegades and Castaways
Authors: Pease Donald E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
William E. Cain contributed an essay to the 1995 volume C. L. R. James: His Intellectual Legacies entitled “The Triumph of the Will and the Failure of Resistance: C. L. R. James’s Readings of Moby-Dick and Othello.
Aesthetics Again? The Pleasures and the Dangers
Authors: Lauter Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I begin with a portrait of beauty by Tsimshian artist Robert Jackson (figure r), and with two recent shows of Native American (and Canadian) art. One, Native Visions: Northwest Coast Art, Eighteenth Century to the Present, was organized by the Seattle Art Museum; it traveled to the New York State Historical Association museum in Cooperstown, New York, the Anchorage (Alaska) Museum of History and Art, and the Eiteljorg Museum in Indianapolis.
Ordinal Measurement
Authors: Falmagne Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These three variations illustrate the so-called yes-no-paradigm, the importance of which is fundamental in psychophysical research—both in view of the considerable amount of data collected, and of the theoretical developments that it inspired. This chapter discusses this paradigm from the viewpoint of theories involving only ordinal constraints on the data. For the subject, the adjective “heavy” (for example) unambigously refers to a category of sensory impressions. He or she may hesitate before answering (1) for some objects a,b. But the subject’s hesitation will be due to the unreliability of his or her nervous system, not to the ambiguity of the question.
Sensitivity Functions—Weber’s Law
Authors: Falmagne Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is the smallest increment on a stimulus continuum, which is just detectable by a subject? In other terms: given a stimulus intensity equal to a, what is the smallest increment ∆(a) such that a + ∆(a) “just noticeably” exceeds a? This was one of the earlier questions raised by psychophysicists. This minimal increment is often referred to as the just noticeable difference, or Jnd for short.1 A variant—or rather, a special case—of this question is: What is the minimum value of a stimulus that is “just detectable” by a subject? This is called the absolute threshold.
Scaling and the Measurement of Sensation
Authors: Falmagne Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter covers a collection of models, procedures, and empirical analyses purporting to provide a representation of some data in terms of one or more numerical scales. Such is also the aim of measurement theory, a field in which (as we have seen in Chapters 1 and 2) axioms systems are given justifying specific methods of scale construction. In the work usually classified under “scaling,” however, acquiring the scales is typically considered as an end in itself, and the theoretical underpinnings are of secondary importance.1