bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Probability and many-valuedness
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mathematical probability is a measure of events occurring totally (or partially) beyond human control, that is to say casual events. The probability calculus in its simplest form resembles many-valued logic. Therefore, the question of a connection between probability and many-valuedness emerges quite naturally. A pioneering contribution to the probabilistic approach to logical values was due to MacColl (1897) who reserved the category of ‘variability’ for propositions that are true in some cases and false in others; here propositional functions with one variable are the case. Lukasiewicz (1913) invented a theory of logical probability where undetermined propositions (i.e. propositional functions) are associated with a fraction which is proportional to the number of variable values verifying the proposition and the number of all values of a given finite domain. The differentiating feature of this comprehended probability in comparison to mathematical probability is the fact that the former refers to propositions and not events. The continuators of Lukasiewicz’s conception, Reichenbach and Zawirski among them, exerted much effort to create a many-valued logic within which logical probability could find a satisfactory interpretation (see e.g. Zawirski (1934a), (1934b), Reichenbach (1935)). It was not until the 1970s that Giles worked out an operationalistic conception of subjective probability interpreted unquestionably in denumerable Lukasiewicz logic (see Giles (1974)).
Labelled Deductive Systems
Authors: Gabbay Dov M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This important book provides a new unifying methodology for logic. It replaces the traditional view of logic as manipulating sets of formulas by the notion of structured families of labelled formulas, the labels having algebraic structure. This simple device has far reaching consequences for the methodology of logics and their semantics. The book studies the main features of such systems as well as many applications. The framework of Labelled Deductive Systems is of interest to a large variety of readers. At one extreme there is the pure mathematical logician who likes exact formal definitions and dry theorems, who probably specializes in one logic and methodology. At the other extreme there is the practical consumer of logic, who likes to absorb the intutions and use labelling as needed to advance the cause of applications. The book begins with an intuitive presentation of LDS in the context of traditional current views of monotonic and nonmonotonic logics. It is less orientated towards the pure logician and more towards the practical consumer of logic. The main part of the book presents the formal theory of LDS for the formal logician. The author has tried to avoid the style of definition-lemma-theorem and has put in some explanation.
Equality in Substructural Logics
Authors: Dosen Kosta 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Standard axioms for equality, or standard definitions of equality in secondorder logic or set theory, permit to infer versions limited to equalities of structural rules otherwise banned in substructural logics. In the presence of settheoretic extensionality and a rather natural form of separation, these limited structural rules yield the full structural rules in question. It is suggested that this may be prevented by restricting substitution for individual variables in the principle of replacement of equal terms. These restrictions are parallel to the restrictions for structural rules in substructural logics.
o-Minimal Structures
Authors: van den Dries Lou 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of o-minimal structures is a creation of model theorists, but is also intimately connected to “tame topology”. By tame topology I refer to the emerging idea that spaces of “finite type” deserve special attention: these spaces have aspects that tend to be overlooked when treated only within the general framework of (differential) topology. On the other hand, these aspects become prominent when we view these spaces as definable in model-theoretically “nice” structures. Thus the theory of o-minimal structures realizes to a large extent Grothendieck’s program of ‘topologie moderee’ outlined on pp. 25-42 of the fascinating document [Grothendieck, 1984). In some ways it also goes beyond this program.
The Milne and Eddington Approximations
Authors: Molisch Andreas F , Oehry Bernhard P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the very first treatments of radiation trapping was the theory developed by Milne (1926). He reduced the trapping problem to a differential equation. It is shown below that this is mathematically incorrect and that the Milne theory gives results that actually can be wrong by orders of magnitude for large opacities. However, for small opacities (koL &lt; 30, see Sec. 8.4), the Milne theory gives acceptable accuracy, and the differential equation is much easier to treat than the (Holstein) integral equation. For these reasons, the Milne theory is still in use for the computation of trapping at low opacities (Kibble et al. 1967), (Blickensderfer et al. 1976), (Garver et al. 1982).
Combination of techniques
Authors: Molisch Andreas F , Oehry Bernhard P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are now in possession of a wealth of mathematical techniques. It is time to review them, to point out which technique is specifically suited for what physical situation and to discuss how we can combine techniques to get even more efficient algorithms. This chapter is thus both a synopsis of Parts II and III of this book (trapping theory) and an introduction to part IV (applications). In this chapter, we give some concrete recommendations on which techniques should be used for what situations. These comments are based on our personal experience with various techniques, and also on general mathematical and computational considerations. However, they cannot be considered as the ‘absolute truth’. There are many ways to deal with a problem, and the reader might find that he personally prefers a different procedure for his given problem than the one we recommend.
Quantum electrodynamics
Authors: Bellac Michel Le , Barton G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantum electrodynamics, i.e. the relativistic quantum theory of the interactions between electrons and photons, is the physical theory with incomparably the most precise confirmation from experiment. We quote just one example, the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron. Every particle with charge &and mass &has a magnetic &whose value can be displayed, in terms of the particle spin &in the form where &is the gyromagnetic ratio (‘g-factor’). Classically one has &= 1, a result established simply by calculating the magnetic moment of an arbitrary rotating charge distribution. For the electron the Dirac equation predicts &= 2, in excellent agreement with observation (though it is known that the prediction is not peculiar to the Dirac equation: Galilean wave equations for spin 1/2 likewise lead to &= 2: Levy-Leblond 1967).
Non-Abelian gauge theories
Authors: Bellac Michel Le , Barton G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-Abelian gauge theories are today the basis of the ‘standard model’ in elementary-particle physics. This model has two props: There have been attempts to merge the GSW model and QCD into unified theories embracing the strong as well as the weak and the electromagnetic interactions; these attempts at ‘grand unification’ also work with non-Abelian gauge theories as one of their ingredients. But at the time of writing there is no consensus over such grand unification, because the simplest model (SU(5)) disagrees with experiment over the stability of the proton.
Principles of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Microscopy
Authors: Callaghan Paul T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging is best known for its spectacular use in medical tomography. However, the method has potential applications in biology, materials science, and chemical physics, some of which have begun to be realized as laboratory NMR spectrometers have been adapted to enable small scale imaging. NMR microscopy has available a rich variety of contrast including molecular specificity and sensitivity to molecular dynamics. In NMR imaging the signal is acquired in k-space, a dimension which bears a Fourier relationship with the positions of nuclear spins. A dynamic analogue of k-space imaging is the Pulsed Gradient Spin Echo (PGSE) experiment in which the signal is acquired in q-space, conjugate to the distances moved by the spins over a well-defined time interval. q-space microsocpy provides images of the nuclear self-correlation function with a resolution some two orders of magnitude better than is possible in imaging the nuclear density. As well as revealing the spectrum of molecular motion, PGSE NMR can be used to study morphology in porous systems through the influence of motional boundaries. This book explores principles and common themes underlying these two variants of NMR Microscopy, providing many examples of their use. The methods discussed here are of importance in fundamental biological and physical research, as well as having applications in a wide variety of industries, including those concerned with petrochemicals, polymers, biotechnology, food processing, and natural product processing.
Principles of Imaging
Authors: Callaghan Paul T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until the discovery of X-rays by Roentgen in 1895 our ability to view the spatial organization of matter depended on the use of visible light with our eyes being used as primary detectors. Unaided, the human eye is a remarkable instrument, capable of resolving separations of 0.1 mm on an object placed at the near point of vision and, with bifocal vision, obtaining a depth resolution of around 0.3 mm. However, because of the strong absorption and reflection of light by most solid materials, our vision is restricted to inspecting the appearance of surfaces. ‘X-ray vision’ gave us the capacity, for the first time, to see inside intact biological, mineral, and synthetic materials and observe structural features.
Thermodynamics of Hartmann-Hahn cross-polarization
Authors: Levitt M H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1962, Sven Hartmann and Erwin Hahn reported a new NMR experiment, which they called ‘Double-resonance in the rotating frame’ [1]. The experiments were performed on solid samples containing two different NMR isotopes,IandS.The aim of the experiment was to enhance the detection of the speciesSof small gyromagnetic ratio‘Ysby exploiting its influence on the speciesIof high gyromagnetic ratio‘YI,which provides a much stronger signal. Under normal circumstances, the two species affect each other only slightly, because of the large mismatch in nuclear Larmor frequencies. Hartmann and Hahn showed that the two species can be made to interact strongly when strong resonant r.f. fieldsBIIandB18are applied simultaneously at the two nuclear Larmor frequencies. The species-species contact is maximized when the two nutation frequencies match:
Nuclear orientation via electron spin locking in Si:B
Authors: Henstra A , Wenckebach W Th. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The invention of pulsed NMR techniques allowed Hahn to introduce a powerful method to transfer the polarization of one nuclear spin species to another: the Hartmann-Hahn method. This technique has proven its worth in NMR, where it is used to increase the sensitivity of NMR of rare nuclear spin species. Recently, the introduction of pulsed ESR techniques has allowed the extension of the Hartmann-Hahn method to the transfer of electron spin polarization to nuclear spins. The present contribution describes this very efficient technique for dynamic nuclear polarization, which has been baptized Nuclear Orientation Via Electron spin Locking (NOVEL).
The physicist Erwin Hahn
Authors: Abragam Anatole 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The custom of honouring distinguished members of the scientific profession, upon their retirement, with a jubilee volume (Festschrift or Festband as they are called in the country where they originated) is followed in France mainly by the mathematicians. The presumption that French mathematicians are thought to be much better than their fellow physicists, and perhaps indeed are so, is not easily dismissed. Be that as it may, a long time ago, the French Physical Society decided to honour thus Alfred Kastler, one of our far too few Nobel prize winners. I happened to be at the time the President of our Society and contributed to the volume an article and the preface.
Causality and space-time topology
Authors: Joshi Pankaj S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The condition that no material particle signals can travel faster than the velocity of light fixes the causal structure for Minkowski space-time. In general relativity also, which uses the framework of a general space-time manifold, locally the causality relations are the same as in the Minkowski space-time. However, globally there could be important differences in the causal structure due to a different space-time topology, strong gravitational fields and so on. This causal structure of space-time has been studied in detail, especially in view of the occurrence of space-time singularities in gravitational collapse and cosmology (see for example, Penrose, 1972; Hawking and Ellis, 1973; Geroch, 1970b). The purpose of this chapter is to investigate further this causality structure of space-time and its relationship with the space-time topology. The known results and definitions required for later chapters are also reviewed here and several results are established which are of intrinsic interest for the global aspects of space-times and which emphasize the close interplay between the causal structure and topology.
Penning Trap Confinement
Authors: Ghosh Pradip K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Penning trap is identical to the Paul trap as regards its mechanical configuration; it consists of a three-electrode structure with two end-cap electrodes and a ring electrode, as shown in Fig. 3.1. The crucial difference from the Paul trap is that the Penning trap does not use a radiofrequency field, and in its place uses a uniform magnetic field; the field direction is usually taken along the positive z-axis of the trap. Further, the end-cap electrodes are biased with a positive de voltage (for positive ion confinement) with respect to the ring electrode. Due to the de biasing potential, the ion experiences an electric force in the z-direction towards the centre which is proportional to the displacement of the ion from the origin. This results in harmonic oscillation of the ion along the axial direction. Along the x- and y-directions,
Atomic Frequency Standards Using Ion Traps
Authors: Ghosh Pradip K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a constant need for standards which provide highly accurate and stable time. For example,64191 at present there is such a need in long-base line interferometry in radioastronomy. In this technique, two telescopes are placed at a distance with respect to one another and they observe the same object; the observations are then correlated accurately using a highly stable clock. The system effectively acts as a very large aperture high-resolution radiotelescope yielding a combined angular resolution greater than that of an optical telescope. Highly stable clocks are also necessary for the measurement of pulsar periods, and some millisecond pulsars such as PSR 1937+27 have a stability that challenges the best atomic clocks. Highly stable clocks could be used to measure pulsar periods accurately, and from a knowledge of the change in orbital periods, one could possibly detect the presence of any gravity waves predicted by the general theory of relativity. The global positioning system (GPS)* is another area in which highly accurate clocks are required.
Analytical Mass Spectrometry With The Paul Trap
Authors: Ghosh Pradip K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This final chapter is devoted entirely to analytical mass spectrometry using the Paul trap and the mass spectral scan method introduced by Finnigan MAT in the mid-1980s. Their novel scan routine and the commercial availability of simple and rugged ion trap hardware have resulted in large-scale use of the instrument as a mass spectrometer, and it portends to stay in the field as a serious competitor to a number of conventiontal instruments. It is because of this instrument that most of the chemical applications of the Paul trap have arisen and these have shown that the instrument is capable of reproducing many of the performance characteristics of older instruments at a reduced cost, and that it has all the advantages of the two-dimensional quadrupole mass spectrometer such as electronic control of resolution and sensitivity that are quite distinct from the sector instruments.
Historical Overview
Authors: Kimsey Lynn S , Bohart Richard M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of chrysidid nomenclature parallels that of insects in general. The earliest work began with Linnaeus (1758). Most of the published studies of the following 100 years were purely descriptive, especially at the species level. Towards the end of the nineteenth century occasional efforts were made to bring information together in a revisional form. The quantity of taxonomic work was certainly influenced in a negative way by periods of national conflict. The Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) were one example.
Morphology
Authors: Kimsey Lynn S , Bohart Richard M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To prevent confusion and duplicative terminology we have tried to determine structural homologies among chrysidids and other aculeates and to apply the most appropriate names to these structures. In a few instances the modifications found in the Chrysididae appear to be unique in this family, at least to the extent that they have not been named by anyone previously. We have relied almost exclusively on Bohart and Menke (1976) for the terminology of sculptural features of the mesopleuron, many of which appear to be homologous with those found in Sphecidae.
Subfamily Chrysidinae
Authors: Kimsey Lynn S , Bohart Richard M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In number of species this is the largest subfamily of chrysidids, comprising 80 per cent of the family. These wasps can be recognized by their bright metallic coloration (except in a few rare exceptions), three, or less commonly four, visible gastral terga, and concave or flat abdominal venter. Members of this subfamily are commonly encountered in all zoogeographic regions. They are generally nest parasites of wasps and bees, although Praestochrysis attacks prepupal moth larvae.
Guidelines for re-introductions: procedures and problems
Authors: Chivers David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Re-introductions involve a series of procedures, each of which is complex and problematic, in terms of planning and execution: capture, transport, captive breeding, training for release, site selection and preparation, transport, release, subsequent monitoring. Problems centre on stress, disease risks, site suitability and costs, as well as on acquiring the appropriate expertise and local political support, on fully clarifying the reasons for the,re-introduction and on the thorough follow¬ through of observations after the r lease. These procedures and problems are described and discussed in relation to two main sources of animals-those rescued from doomed habitat and shipped overseas for captive breeding, and those moved directly into protected habitat (translocation). While the former course of action is better developed, the latter offers considerable advantages in terms of much lower costs, greater technical ease and fewer difficulties of local politics. Both approaches merit pursuing vigorously to achieve their very real potentials in the management and conservation of rapidly diminishing wildlife stocks, so long as they contribute to the prime need of protecting habitat.
Cryopreservation of gametes and embryos of aquatic organisms
Authors: Grout1 Brian W W , Morris G John , Mclellan Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cryopreserved gametes and early developmental stages of selected aquatic species can be used for managed production in mollusc, shrimp and fin-fish farming, for genetic conservation and as indicator material in bioassay of polluted water samples. In each case it is necessary to work with large numbers of individuals, often measured in millions, and to secure very high levels of recovery. The empirical work to be done in design of suitable freezing protocols for much of this material is best managed in conventional 0.5 ml straws, but thereafter volumes can be scaled up to 25 ml, using heat-seal foil bags, and a computer program to redesign the cooling protocol so as to ensure that the required thermal conditions for the sample are maintained. The diversity of stages of larval and embryo development available in aquatic species offers a range of material for cryopreservation from unfertilized eggs to free-living larvae, with differentiated and functional solid organs. Current experience indicates that the later, differentiated stages of many species are more amenable to cryopreservation and that the apparently simple, unfertilized eggs and early cleavage stages pose the greatest problems. This is illustrated at an extreme by the requirement for both a high degree of mobility and active feeding of the larval forms of some of the mollusc species before cryopreservation is successful. It is probably important to note that there is relatively little change in overall size of these organisms during post-fertilization development up to hatching or, where appropri¬ ate, formation of motile larval stages.
Introduction-biology lessons from the bats
Authors: Altringham John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bats are one of the most successful mammalian orders, and probably the most diverse. The 966 species (by the more optimistic estimates) provide an unparalleled exhibition of variations on the mammalian theme, and a broad lesson in biology. In the bats we see excellent illustrations of adaptive radiation, optimal foraging, co-evolution, reciprocal altruism, the consequences of continental drift, and the arms race between predator and prey, to name just a few examples. This is a book about bats, but it will also use them as a vehicle to show how these processes shape the natural world. Rodents are the only mammalian order to outnumber bats with, by some estimates, about 1700 species, but they are certainly less diverse in their biology. One quarter of all mammals are bats-surprising, when you think that there are 21 mammalian orders, including animals as varied as primates, carnivores, cetaceans, rodents, insectivores, ungulates, seals, sloths, marsupials, etc.
Aquatic weed problems and management in Europe
Authors: Murphy K J , Robson T O , Arsenovi M , van der Zweerde W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Europe comprises the western part of the Eurasian landmass and associated islands, lying between longitude 30° E and the shores of the Atlantic Ocean (approximately 10° W). It stretches from the northerly parts of Scandinavia (c. 70° N) within the Arctic Circle, to the Mediterranean Sea (c. 35° N) in the south, and shows a wide range of climatic conditions, geomorphology, land use, industrialization, agricultural systems, and population density. Such factors all influence the scale and nature of aquatic weed problems in Europe, and approaches to their management. Description of the attitudes to aquatic weed management in Europe is made more complex by the fact that there are, in total, 26 nations (including the European part of the USSR) within the area covered by this chapter. This account provides an overview of the main aquatic weed problems currently occurring in Europe and illustrates, with selected examples, some of the different approaches to the management of aquatic plants in European waters.