bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cosmic Water
Authors: Marrin D. L. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water is present throughout the cosmos in solid and vapor phases; occurrence in the liquid phase appears to be more limited. The origins of water may be traced back to hydrogen atoms that were created following the Big Bang and oxygen atoms that continue to be created in the interior of dying stars. Water resides on everything from interstellar dust and gas clouds to the surface of planets and stars, where it performs a myriad of roles in creating and sustaining the physical universe. Moreover, cosmic water molecules themselves are continuously created, destroyed, and transported in the vast interstellar realms. Easily recognized by the wavelengths of light that it adsorbs and emits, cosmic water also exists as a flowing icy phase that may have been instrumental in combining the simple organic molecules that are required for biological life. Even the much sought‐after liquid water is more common on planetoids within our galaxy than astronomers originally suspected.
Sublimation
Authors: Adelaide Boss Edinara 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSublimation occurs when the matter passes directly from the solid phase to the vapor phase. Examples include dry ice, how a frost‐free refrigerator works, and naphthalene. Sublimation is an endothermic process:urn:x-wiley:9780471478447:media:me391:xm1The heat required to change the phase of a pure substance is given byurn:x-wiley:9780471478447:media:me391:xm2where m is the mass of the pure substance and L is the latent heat.The water latent heat for sublimation is 2.83 × 106 J/Kg.
Tornado
Authors: Meaden Terence 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The strong naturally‐formed vortices in the atmosphere known as tornadoes are of great research importance for the risk they pose to life and property. They are made visible by the condensation of water vapor in the outer sheath of spinning funnels that develop at the time of severe storms, usually over land but occasionally over expanses of water, more especially near coastal shores when they have the appearance of strong waterspouts.
Vapor Pressure
Authors: Persaud Naraine 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Vapor pressure is the partial pressure exerted by the vapor of a substance in the gaseous phase of a closed heterogeneous system at equilibrium with condensed phases (i.e., solid or liquid) of the substance present in the system. It is the macroscopic measure of the tendency of the molecules of a given species in the condensed phases of the system to escape into the gaseous phase. A heterogeneous system means a mixture of two or more distinct, physically or chemically homogeneous phases. Mixture implies the phases are mechanically separable; distinct implies presence of unequivocally defined physical boundaries (interfaces) between phases; and homogeneous implies each phase is uniform throughout chemically and physically. The simplest possible conceptualization for a heterogeneous system is any closed two‐phase system consisting of the solid or liquid of a pure substance in equilibrium with its vapor at a given temperature. In more complex heterogeneous systems, the condensed phases may be completely miscible or immiscible liquids, aqueous solutions, discontinuous liquid aerosols, or solid/liquid emulsions, and the vapors may be mixed with other vapors and gases present in the gaseous phase. Although the entire system is closed (permitting only energy transfer) with respect to its surroundings, the subsystems (phases) are open, permitting both energy and mass transfer between phases.
Condensation
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Condensation is the physical process by which a vapor changes to its liquid state. Condensation happens when the temperature of the vapor decreases below the so‐called dew point. In physics, this sort of process is called a phase change because the matter involved changes its state (i.e., from gaseous to liquid, in this case). Water condensation is evident in our atmosphere; it produces fog, mist, dew, clouds, and rain, depending on the conditions. It can be seen on a cold sheet of glass, where condensed water forms a maze of droplets.
Dew
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Dew forms when water condenses on objects on the surface near the ground and forms a thin layer or many droplets. Dew forms normally during the night when the air temperature decreases and approaches the dew point. Objects on the surface cool down, too, by radiative cooling, facilitating the condensation of small droplets of water. Dew formation is helped by the high humidity of the bottom layer of air, close to the surface. This layer can supply the needed water and prevent the evaporation of the dew already deposited. Strong winds can inhibit the formation of dew. Turbulence mixes a larger layer of air and creates a more homogeneous distribution of humidity and heat, thus preventing the formation of the right conditions near the ground. Dew forms more easily on surfaces that cool efficiently, like metals, which is the reason that cars are often covered with dew in the morning. But dew is often seen on grass or plants because their transpiration creates a thin layer of very humid air.
Dew Point
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure until it reaches saturation and the water, or any other vapor, begins condensing. The result is the formation of fog. When the dew point falls below freezing, it is called the frost point. In this case, water forms ice crystals directly. The dew point is also a good indicator of the amount of water contained in the air. The more humid the air, the higher the dew temperature. The dew point is often reached in the evening, when the air cools down, which is why fog is more common in the evening, or why one normally finds that dew or frost are common in the morning but disappear as soon as the temperature increases.
Flocculation
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The flocculation process aggregates destabilized particles into larger and more easily settleable flocs. The coagulation process destabilizes particles through chemical reactions between the coagulant and the suspended colloids, but flocculation is the transport step that causes the necessary collision between destabilized particles. The purpose of the flocculation process is to promote the interaction of particles and to form aggregates that can be efficiently removed in the subsequent separation processes such as sedimentation, flotation, and coarse bed filtration. In practice, flocculation is accomplished by providing a gentle mixing phase that follows the rapid dispersion of coagulants.
Giardiasis
Authors: Bean Christine L. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Giardia lamblia
is an intestinal flagellated protozoan, which infects the intestinal tract of a wide range of mammals, including humans. Two forms of this protozoan exist, a highly resistant cyst and a motile, feeding trophozoite. Cysts may be found in freshwater surface water supplies as a result of contamination from sewage and animal waste runoff. Trophozoites of this obligate parasite do not typically survive outside the host and are therefore not the major mode of transmission. The cyst form is capable of surviving for long periods of time in cool water supplies and has been responsible for major waterborne outbreaks in the United States.
Granular Activated Carbon
Authors: Mohan Dinesh , Singh Kunwar P. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractActivated carbon is the generic term used to describe a family of carbonaceous adsorbents with a highly crystalline form and extensively developed internal pore structure. Activated carbon is distinguished from elemental carbon by the removal of all noncarbon impurities and the oxidation of the carbon surface. Activated carbon has the highest volume of adsorbing porosity of any substance known to humans (5 grams of activated carbon can have the surface area of a football field). It can be defined as:Activated carbon is a crude form of graphite, with a random or amorphous structure, which is highly porous, over a broad range of pore sizes, from visible cracks and crevices, to cracks and crevices of molecular dimensions.The use of activated carbon is not new. The Egyptians used carbonized wood around 1500B.C.as an adsorbent for medicinal purposes as well as a purifying agent. The ancient Hindus in India used charcoal for filtration of drinking water. However, the basis for industrial production of active carbons was established in 1900–1901 in order to replace bone char in the sugar refining process.Active carbons can be prepared from a wide range of carbonaceous materials, which include coconut shells, wood char, lignin, petroleum coke, bone char, peat, saw dust, carbon black, rice hulls, sugar, peach pits, fish, fertilizer waste, and waste rubber tire. The range of raw materials is diverse and widespread and greatly influenced by the need to produce low‐cost carbon. Among the most commonly used raw materials, precursors for the production of commercially activated carbons are wood (130,000 tons/year), coal (100,000 tons/year), lignite (50,000 tons/year), coconut shell (35,000 tons/year), and peat (35,000 tons/year).
Threat Agents and Water Biosecurity
Authors: Higgins James 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

In the aftermath of the anthrax bioterror outbreak in the eastern United States in the fall of 2001, the security of the potable water distribution network assumed new importance. Both source and finished waters may represent possible targets for the introduction of biological threat agents. These agents may consist of viruses such as smallpox or hemorrhagic fever viruses; bacteria, such as
Bacillus anthracis
and
Francisella tularensis
; and toxins, such as staphylococcal enterotoxin or ricin. Little is known about the stability of threat agents in source and finished waters and the effects of conventional disinfection regimens on pathogen survival and infectivity. Methods currently in use for the recovery of waterborne pathogens such as
Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium
, and enteric viruses, may be readily adapted for use in detecting threat agents in water samples. Newer diagnostic technologies, based on immunologic and molecular biology approaches, may be able to provide the water industry with more sensitive and accurate testing methods for threat agents. Recently, a number of research and development programs dealing with water biosecurity were implemented by federal and industry organizations. These initiatives should assist water resource managers as they confront this new challenge to water quality and public health.
Selective Coagulant Recovery from Water Treatment Plant Residuals Using the Domain Membrane Process
Authors: Prakash Prakhar , SenGupta Arup K. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractLet us consider solutions of aluminum sulfate (feed) and sulfuric acid (recovery) in a Donnan membrane cell divided into two chambers by a cation‐exchange membrane that allows only cations to migrate from one side to the other but rejects any passage of anions according to Donnan's co‐ion exclusion principle (9). At equilibrium, the electrochemical potential of aluminum ion Al3+ion () in the feed solution will be the same as that in the recovery solution for both aluminum and hydrogen ions, which corresponds to the following Donnan equilibrium condition:urn:x-wiley:9780471478447:media:mw1760:xm2If the ratiois 10, it meansis 1000 times greater than. Thus, by maintaining high hydrogen ion concentration in the recovery solution, aluminum ions can be driven from the feed to the recovery side even against a positive concentration gradient, i.e., from a lower concentration region to a higher concentration one.
Disinfection
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Disinfection is an important step in ensuring that water is safe to drink. Water systems add disinfectants to destroy microorganisms that can cause disease in humans. The Surface Water Treatment Rule requires public water systems to disinfect water obtained from surface water supplies or groundwater sources under the influence of surface water.
Primary methods of disinfection are chlorination, chloramines, ozone, and ultraviolet light. Other disinfection methods include chlorine dioxide, potassium permanganate, and nanofiltration. Since certain forms of chlorine react with organic material naturally present in many water sources to form harmful chemical byproducts, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has proposed maximum levels for these contaminants.
Corrosion Control
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Corrosion occurs because metals tend to oxidize when they come in contact with water, resulting in the formation of stable solids. Corrosion in water distribution systems can impact consumers' health, water treatment costs, and the aesthetics of finished water.
Various methods can be used to diagnose, evaluate, and control corrosion problems. Techniques for controlling it include distribution and plumbing system design considerations, water quality modifications, corrosion inhibitors, cathodic protection, and coatings and linings.
Ion Exchange and Demineralization
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Ion exchange and membrane processes are becoming used extensively in water and wastewater treatment. Ion exchange is primarily used for the removal of hardness ions, such as magnesium and calcium, and for water demineralization. Reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis, both membrane processes, remove dissolved solids from water using membranes.
Organic Removal
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Some small drinking water systems face contamination of raw water by natural or synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs). Natural organic materials might be present in water supplies, especially from surface water sources. Dissolved organics may cause taste, odor, or color problems in a community's drinking water, resulting in consumer complaints. Sources of SOCs include leaking underground gasoline/storage tanks, agricultural runoff containing herbicides or pesticides, solid waste or hazardous waste landfills, and improperly disposed chemical waste. The technologies most suitable for organic contaminant removal in drinking water systems are granular activated carbon (GAC) and aeration.
GAC has been designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as the best available technology (BAT) for synthetic organic chemical removal. Various kinds of GAC are available for removing organics from drinking water. The most frequently used carbon in U.S. treatment plants is coal‐based carbon because of its hardness, adsorption capacity, and availability. Some peat and lignite carbons have been used also.
Aeration systems that might be suitable for small drinking water systems include packed column aeration, diffused aeration, and multiple‐tray aeration. Recent technologies that use aeration for organics removal include mechanical aeration, catenary grid, and Higee aeration.
Table 1 presents operational conditions for the organics treatment technologies most suitable for small systems.
Gravity Separation/Sedimentation
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Gravity separation or sedimentation is the step in conventional water treatment systems that follows flocculation and precedes filtration. Its purpose is to enhance the filtration process by removing particulate matter. Sedimentation requires that the water flow through a basin at a slow enough velocity to permit the particulate matter to settle to the bottom of the basin before the water exits the basin. The equipment required for this process includes a settling basin of rectangular, square, or circular configuration. The basin includes provisions for inlet and outlet structures and a sludge collection system. In addition, sedimentation systems are optionally equipped with tube or plate settlers to improve performance.
Water Conservation Measures
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water is a finite resource, and in many areas, future water supplies are uncertain. Individuals are usually aware when there is a drought; however, because water is inexpensive, there are often few incentives to reduce water loss. Water has no viable substitutes, and its depletion bodes profound economic and social impacts. Citizens and utilities need to consider water conservation programs.
This fact sheet considers the role of water conservation as an integral part of long‐term resource planning. It might be more appropriate to use the term “water demand management.” Traditional water supply management seeks to provide all the water the public wants, which, in some sections of the country, translates to a constant search for untapped sources.
Ozone
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
New water treatment goals for disinfection byproducts (DBP) and for microbial inactivation will increase the need to consider new disinfection technologies. Ozone is an attractive alternative. This technology has evolved and improved in recent years, thereby increasing its potential for successful application. It is important to note that ozone, like other technologies, has its own set of advantages and disadvantages that show up in differing degrees from one location to the next.
Radionuclides
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Radionuclide contamination of drinking water is a significant, emerging issue. Until now, manmade radioactivity in drinking water has not been a major problem. Natural sources have been the primary cause of contamination. However, the potential for contamination exists throughout the country as releases from medical facilities or nuclear power plants may wind up in drinking water. Because of their potential health effects and widespread occurrence, natural radionuclides—including radon, radium, and uranium—cause much concern.
Slow Sand Filtration
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
First used in the U.S. in 1872, slow sand filters are the oldest type of municipal water filtration. Today, they remain a promising filtration method for small systems with low turbidity or algae‐containing source waters. Slow sand filtration does not require pretreatment or extensive operator control—which can be important for a small system operator with several responsibilities.
Ultraviolet Disinfection
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Using ultraviolet (UV) light for drinking water disinfection dates back to 1916 in the U.S. Over the years, UV costs have declined as researchers develop and use new UV methods to disinfect water and wastewater. Currently, several states have developed regulations that allow systems to disinfect their drinking water supplies with UV light. Running a UV light system requires a basic level of operator skill and relatively clean source water. On the down side, however, UV offers no residual disinfection within the distribution system.
System Control and Data Acquisition (
SCADA
)
Authors: Lahlou Zacharia Michael 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
As small water systems continue to struggle to become more efficient, technology provides good ways to improve operations. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the application of control and communications systems—namely SCADA [System Control and Data Acquisition]—and their ability to provide system and information management that can help utilities meet regulatory requirements, reduce operating costs, and improve customer service. A water distribution system transports water from the treatment facility to the user. The distribtion system should supply water, without impairing its quality, in adequate quantities and at sufficient pressures to meet system requirements.
Water Hammer
Authors: Lahlou Zacharia Michael 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water hammer refers to fluctuations caused by a sudden increase or decrease in flow velocity. These pressure fluctuations can be severe enough to rupture a water main. Potential water hammer problems should be considered when pipeline design is evaluated, and a thorough surge analysis should be undertaken, in many instances, to avoid costly malfunctions in a distribution system. Every major system design change or operation change—such as the demand for higher flow rates—should include consideration of potential water hammer problems. This phenomenon and its significance to both the design and operation of water systems is not widely understood, as evidenced by the number and frequency of failures caused by water hammer.
Pumps
Authors: Bhardwaj Vipin , Reed Bethany 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
From start to finish, pumps play an important role in all water distribution systems. They are used to transfer raw water to the treatment plant; they supply water to sections of a distribution system where it is not possible to supply it by gravity; they add appropriate chemical doses during treatment; and they transfer sludge from settling chambers for further treatment and disposal. Pumps will provide long‐term efficient service if they are properly operated and maintained.
Assessing the Bactericidal Efficiency of Polydex for the Disinfection of Drinking Water in Rural Areas ofSouthAfrica
Authors: Momba M. N. B. , Makala N. , Okeyo A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractTo evaluate the effectiveness of polydex for the removal of total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), and presumptiveSalmonella(PS), three types of water sources were considered, which included raw water from a river, filtered surface water, and groundwater. The water samples were treated with two different doses of polydex: 3.9 mg/l and 5.4 mg/l. The dose of 3.9 mg/l appeared to be suitable for the disinfection of filtered surface water and groundwater samples with turbidity values ranging between 0.59 and 8.18 NTU. In these water samples, no coliforms were detected 5 h after disinfection, and the copper residuals ranged between 1.01 and 2.96 mg/l 7 h after disinfection. The results revealed that the dose of 3.9 mg/l was not sufficient for the disinfection of highly turbid waters (>9 NTU). A dose of 5.4 mg/l used for the disinfection of these waters completely removed coliform bacteria 7 h after disinfection, and the copper residual in the finished water ranged between 2.52–3.06 mg/l. Although this study has revealed the effectiveness of polydex as a disinfectant, its efficiency may vary with the turbidity of water source. For turbid water, it is recommended that the dose of polydex be higher than the one recommended by the manufacturer.
Chlorine and Chlorine Residuals
Authors: Rajagopal S. , Van Der Velde G. , Venugopalan V. P. , Jenner H. A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Chlorine is a very commonly used biocide, widely employed for drinking water disinfection and cooling water treatment in industries. Being a strong oxidant, it involves itself in several reactions with a number of oxidizable substances present in water. Consequently, chemistry of chlorination in water is very complex and involves many reaction products. This chapter gives a brief account of the various reactions, their products (compounds as well as ionic species), and mentions about the analytical methods used for their measurement.