bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Trinitarian Thought
Authors: Poe Shelli M. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses Friedrich Schleiermacher’s treatment of the doctrine of the Trinity in the Conclusion of his Christian Faith (1830/1831) and his 1822 essay on Sabellianism. The chapter demonstrates that current scholars are no longer satisfied with the claim that Schleiermacher relegates the doctrine of the Trinity to the status of an appendix. While consensus has been reached on the notion that Schleiermacher rejects the doctrine of the immanent Trinity, interpreters are developing various strains of argument regarding the content and value of his trinitarian thought. I offer my own constructive reading of Schleiermacher’s Christian Faith as implicitly containing a “doctrine of the essential Trinity,” which could expand the contemporary discussion both in terms of an evaluation of Schleiermacher’s theology as well as the diversity of thought possible within Christian doctrine. The chapter concludes with directions for further research, including a development of the third article of the Nicene Creed in consultation with Schleiermacher’s theology, and the relation of the doctrine of the Trinity to gender and sexuality.
The Life of Jesus
Authors: Danz Christian 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Between 1819 and 1832, Friedrich Schleiermacher gave five courses of lectures on the life of Jesus at University of Berlin. His lectures presuppose the Enlightenment as well as the historical criticism of the biblical scriptures and the epistemological critique of Immanuel Kant. Against this background, he sketched a picture of the historical Jesus as the founder of the Christian religion. The basis of his biographical interpretation of Jesus of Nazareth is his concept of religion. Starting from his concept of religion, Schleiermacher interpreted Jesus’ work as an expression of his inner consciousness of God and in this way connected history and faith in the work of the Nazarene. But Schleiermacher’s lectures on the life of Jesus are less about a historical foundation of the Christology of his dogmatics, as research has always assumed, than they are about a religious picture of the man from Nazareth. Schleiermacher presented Jesus as the founder of a community of equals, which presentation was supposed to function as an ideal model for his own time as well as for the debates about the national unity of Germany after the Napoleonic Wars.
Early Writings on Ethics
Authors: Brino Omar 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The short Monologen (1800) and the broad Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre (1803) argue for an ethical perspective based on mutually “formative” (bildende) interactions between individuals and communities as well as between peculiarity and universality. Whereas in the Monologen this perspective is presented in an “effusive” and “evocative” style, the Grundlinien develop it at a theoretically deeper level, detailing an impressive systematic confrontation with ancient, modern, and contemporaneous philosophers. The Vertraute Briefe über die Lucinde von Schlegel (1800) also consider conjugal love and the relationship of sexes from a “formative” ethical perspective. There are some differences between these early works and the later writings, both in an attenuation of the more “ideal” and “prophetic” aspects and in an accentuation of the “institutional” and “pragmatic” ones; however, the republications of the Monologen until 1829 and the systematic relationships between the Grundlinien and the late academic papers demonstrate a specific continuity on important basic principles of Schleiermacher’s “formative” ethical thought.
Sermons
Authors: Kelsey Catherine L. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
With its completion in 2018, KGA 3 tripled the number of sermon texts available for study and opened new research paths. This chapter shows how that fresh resource offers insight into the ways Schleiermacher sought to evoke Christ’s God-consciousness in the context of a faith community. It explores the kinds of sermons and sources for sermons now available in German and in English translation, discussing their typical form and use of Scripture. Reception of the sermons by worshippers, readers, and scholars writing in English is also discussed. The chapter argues that the sermons add significantly to the interpretation of Schleiermacher’s dogmatic and ethical writing.
The Christmas Eve Dialogue
Authors: Packman Andrew , Dole Andrew C. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Schleiermacher’s Christmas Eve Dialogue has long been viewed as providing a crucial window into Schleiermacher’s own life and theological commitments. Its vivid depiction of a Prussian family’s Christmas celebration provides insight into his social and historical context, and the characters’ reflections on the nature and meaning of Christmas shed light on Schleiermacher’s early christological views. The dialogical structure of the work has generated interesting puzzles of interpretation, including questions concerning the relationship of this work to the Platonic dialogues, with which Schleiermacher was heavily engaged at the time, and also questions concerning the relationship between Schleiermacher’s own views and those expressed by his characters. This chapter offers an overview of the Dialogue, engages three important trajectories in its reception history, and explores one possible avenue for extracting theological meaning from the work.
Schleiermacher and the Politics of Anglophone Religious Studies
Authors: Dole Andrew C. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Over the past generation a description of Schleiermacher as an “antireductionist,” “protectivist” theorist of “religious experience” has been in circulation within English secondary literature. In this chapter I reconstruct the history of the rise and promulgation of this portrayal. It seems fairly clear that the impetus for its development and circulation was the desire by some North American scholars to claim exclusive legitimacy for a “scientific” approach to the study of religion, and to fix an unbridgeable chasm between this and theological or “crypto-theological” approaches. Although this understanding of Schleiermacher now has few subscribers, I think the episode interesting because it is an example of the difficulties that scholars given to polarized thinking have in grappling with “mediating” positions like his in the historical record.
The Reformed Tradition
Authors: Rohls Jan 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Schleiermacher was born into a Reformed family living in Breslau, and his father was a Reformed army chaplain in Silesia. Despite his support of the union between Lutherans and Reformed in one church in Prussia, he consistently regarded himself as a Reformed theologian. As an ordained minister of the Reformed church he signed the Reformed confessions valid at that time in Prussia. Yet he was also convinced that the main confessions for both the Lutherans and the Reformed did not stand in conflict but expressed a common Protestant spirit. The differences between Lutherans and Reformed in doctrine and ritual were no reason for the separation of the churches. The doctrinal differences concerning the Lord’s Supper, and closely connected with it Christology, played no decisive role for Schleiermacher, but regarding the doctrine of predestination he followed a Reformed line. The manner in which the Prussian king interfered in the order of worship contradicted his conviction that the church is a congregation independent from the state, its best constitution being the government by presbyteries and synods.
Friedrich Schleiermacher and the Postsecular
Authors: Robinson Matthew Ryan 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The secular and the postsecular refer to sociopolitical challenges arising simultaneously due to the functional differentiation of modern societies and the co-presence of different religious groups in a single body politic. Friedrich Schleiermacher conducted groundbreaking empirical research on quite similar challenges in his own day, documented in his lectures on church geography and statistics. Furthermore, in both his early Letters on the Occasion and his mature lectures on a theory of the state, he outlined his views on peoplehood, religion, and the state in relation to social solidarity as well the consequences of this understanding for managing pluralism. If Schleiermacher’s empirical work is markedly innovative, his theory of the state leaves largely unclear how governance might adapt to shifting demographics and religious diversification.
Adverbs
Authors: Hengeveld Kees 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The class of adverbs contains a large number of subcategories, ranging from adverbs of manner and degree to modal and illocutionary adverbs. What all adverbs have in common is that they modify a non-nominal head. This head may be lexical in nature, such as an adjective modified by a degree adverb, or syntactic, such as a full clause modified by an evidential adverb. In this chapter, adverbs are classified in terms of the types of head they modify, which will lead to a systematic classification of adverb classes that have been identified individually in the literature. It is furthermore shown that this classification provides the basis for a series of generalizations concerning the form and behaviour of classes of adverbs. These generalizations are formulated using the theoretical framework of Functional Discourse Grammar.
Word Classes in Mande Languages
Authors: Creissels Denis 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The Mande language family includes about 70 languages which show a high degree of typological homogeneity in most respects. In particular, all Mande languages have extremely rigid word order patterns, which facilitates the use of distributional criteria in the recognition of word classes. By contrast, most of them (but not all) have very reduced inflectional morphology, which may favour the development of lexical polycategoriality, in particular as regards the distinction between nouns and verbs. In some Mande languages, all the lexemes that can be used as verbs can also be used in the same underived form as action nominalizations (but not vice versa: all Mande languages have lexemes that can only be used as nouns in their underived form). Mande languages also provide interesting data about the possible criteria that can be used to delimit classes of adjectives, adverbs, postpositions, or copulas. Finally, in Mande languages, the so-called predicative markers (a kind of auxiliaries) constitute a highly salient class of grammatical words expressing TAM, polarity, sometimes also subject indexation and distinctions related to transitivity and/or information structure.
Word Classes in Australian Languages
Authors: Louagie Dana 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses word classes in Australian languages, covering the large Pama–Nyungan family as well as several smaller families. Australian languages are often described as generally lacking a noun–adjective distinction. This is true for part of the languages: they have a flexible class of nominals that can function both referentially and attributively. Other languages, however, have a distinct adjective class, which in some languages is both morphologically and distributionally defined, and in others only distributionally (e.g. by their position in the NP). Verbs, by contrast, are generally a clearly distinct class on morphosyntactic grounds, with minor morphological overlap with other parts of speech. In fact, several northern languages have two verbal word classes, viz. inflecting verbs and uninflecting verbs, which serve different predicational (and other) functions. Manner adverbs, finally, are also a distinct word class in most languages, although they may show morphological similarities with nominals (e.g. case marking) or verbs (e.g. TAM marking). Only some languages have lexemes that are flexible between adverbial and adjectival functions.
Word Classes in Eskimo–Aleut Languages
Authors: Mithun Marianne 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
It was once claimed that languages of the Eskimo–Aleut family contain just one lexical category: Nouns. The history of this claim is detailed in Sadock (1999) and further discussed in Woodbury (1985) and Mithun (2009, 2017b), among others. In fact, these languages show robust, distinct Noun and Verb categories (in addition to particles) at both the stem and word levels. Here the criteria that distinguish them are presented, then some subtleties reflecting deeper issues of lexical classification are examined, issues emerging from some major diachronic developments. First, the family is described; second, the features distinguishing Nouns and Verbs in the family are enumerated; third, the issue of flexibility is discussed; fourth, lexical subcategories are surveyed; fifth, the extension of nominalization to higher levels of structure is traced. This last step ultimately explains why it might have once been thought that there was just one lexical category.
Introduction
Authors: van Lier Eva 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This introductory chapter presents the aims and scope of this handbook. It also outlines the contents of its constituent parts on fundamental issues, theoretical approaches, specific word classes, word classes across languages families, and across linguistic subdisciplines, respectively. In the process, this chapter identifies a number of overarching themes, which include the connection between language diversity and universals, the relationship between different types of word-class criteria (functional and formal), the nature of the category boundaries they define, and the (diachronic) link between major content word classes and grammatical word classes. A recurrent theme also concerns the methods that can be used to study the behaviour of word classes in and across languages and language users.
Word Classes in Formal Semantics
Authors: Winter Yoad 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the formal semantics of nouns and its theoretical implications for other categories. This chapter introduces uniform semantic types of ‘extrinsic’ function–argument relations between categories in English and Warlpiri. By contrast, categories also have specialized ‘intrinsic’ semantic arguments. Other than exceptional cases like incorporation in Chamorro, only ‘intrinsic’ arguments can be modified in non-nominal categories. Nouns, by contrast, use their extrinsic argument for modification as well. Nouns also restrict quantificational domains, which are illustrated here by analysing unspecified nouns/verbs in Hebrew. The chapter discusses challenges to the idea that nouns are introducers of identity criteria, and review possible solutions. Lastly, the chapter reviews nominal reference to kinds and mass substances. This shows intimate relations between mass terms and property expressions, which affect the choices that languages make when manifesting property meanings as adjectival (most European languages) or nominal (Bisa, Hausa, and Basaá, among other languages).
Verbs
Authors: Letuchiy Alexander 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on verbs; their characteristic and distinguishing properties and phenomena. It shows that on the morphological level, verbs are characterized by paradigms with complex structure (often including several subparadigms with different set of categories and techniques of expression). The differentiation of inflection and derivation is often problematic, because some forms (e.g. infinitives) are necessary paired with elements intermediate between the root and the inflectional suffix. Another property of verbs is their ability to express many predicative categories. This fact is related to the opposition between finite and non-finite forms. Even if predicative categories are present in non-finite and embedded verb forms, they can have a special interpretation, based on their relation to the main (independent and finite) verb. Nonverbal predicates are less canonical than verbal ones, which is manifested in the fact that some predicative categories (such as tense and aspect) are sometimes not obligatory if the predicate is nonverbal. Finally, structures that do not have any explicit predicate (e.g. copula constructions) often behave syntactically in a noncanonical way.
Irish English in Today’s World
Authors: Hickey Raymond 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the twentieth century the conception of Irish English as a distinctive variety of English began to emerge, with scholars dedicated to the subject active in the early decades. In the decades after the Second World War, further studies appeared in which the relationship of the Irish language to forms of English in Ireland loomed large, and most of the specific features of Irish English were traced to the historic language shift from Irish to English. Scholarship in the 1980s moved away from this ‘transfer’ position in favour of ‘retentionist’ views. At the same time, urban varieties formed a new focus, with different levels of language receiving increasing attention—above all pragmatics, a level on which Irish English differs clearly from other varieties. In addition, new corpora have been compiled which have broadened the database for linguistic investigations.
Mid-Ulster English and Ulster Scots
Authors: Maguire Warren 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The northern Irish province of Ulster is home to two distinctive dialects not spoken elsewhere in Ireland: Mid-Ulster English (MUE) and Ulster Scots (USc). This chapter examines their historical origins, their linguistic features, and the relationship between them. Both MUE and USc have their origins in the Plantation of Ulster and associated settlements in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. This period saw immigration of many English and Scottish settlers, which dramatically altered the province’s demographic and linguistic landscape giving rise to intense contact between Irish and dialects of English and Scots in a relatively small geographical area. This chapter explains how MUE and USc emerged through processes of language shift and new dialect formation which resulted from this contact. It furthermore discusses the common features shared by the two sets of varieties and outlines avenues for future research.
Urban English in Northern Ireland
Authors: Hickey Raymond 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines English as spoken in three main urban centres of Northern Ireland—Belfast, Derry, and Coleraine. The description and analysis of Belfast English begins with the nineteenth-century commentaries on vocabulary in the city, before moving forward to the social network studies carried out by James and Lesley Milroy in the 1970s and early 1980s. The insights of these seminal studies are discussed, including what they tell us about English in Northern Ireland as a whole. English in Derry contrasts with Belfast in a number of ways, not least in how it reacts to influence from the larger city and how some small but not insignificant differences in language use align along ethnic lines, correlating with Catholic or Protestant usage. English in Coleraine is also considered as an urban centre in which key linguistic variables, like (t), vary in their gender-specific realizations.
Politeness in Irish English
Authors: Vaughan Elaine 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a concise overview of trends in the study of politeness, in order to contextualize selected key findings from studies that focus on (or at least include) considerations of politeness phenomena in Irish English. It considers how (im)politeness is conceptualized and explored in Irish English contexts, focusing on the ‘Irishness’ of language use in a variety of studies. These range from those situated in highly intimate domains of discourse such as the family to those which harvest language data from interaction amongst virtual strangers in Irish-based computer-mediated communication. The pragmatic turn in the study of Irish English coincided with the compilation of corpora representing the variety, and has resulted in corpus pragmatic research that illuminates the nature of (im)politeness across diverse interactional contexts in Irish English.
Irish Influence on Australian English
Authors: Musgrave Simon , Burridge Kate 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Throughout the nineteenth century, people of Irish origin (including those born in Australia to Irish parents) were the second largest ethnic group in the Australian population, after those of English origin. This suggests that Irish people should have made a substantial contribution to Australian English, but the themes of this chapter will be that the contribution was rather small and very difficult to establish with any certainty. Research to date has uncovered surprisingly few lexical and grammatical items that can definitely be traced to the influence of Irish English; phonology remains an area in which Irish English may have had more of an impact on the emergence of Australian English, but the Irish contribution here has yet to be properly assessed. Here, we draw on a variety of different sources, including early linguistic commentary, to better understand the Irish impact on the formation of Australian English.
From Prototype to Genre
Authors: Schmidt Gabriela 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The trajectory of Thomas More’s Utopia in early modern German showcases the book’s remarkable ability to adapt to very different sets of social and political circumstances. In responding to different aspects of Utopia’s multigeneric literary texture, the early modern German translations explored in this chapter helped to initiate reading traditions that gradually converged with other European responses into distinct generic strands of utopian writing. While the 1524 Basel version inserted the text into ongoing discussions of social, legal, and religious reform among Upper Rhinish urban and academic elites, Gregor Wintermonat’s 1612 translation coupled More’s text in a volume with Joseph Hall’s satirical anti-utopia Mundus Alter et Idem (Leipzig, 1613). Wintermonat’s publication is not only one of the first versions to clearly privilege the fictional aspects of More’s text over its non-fictional ones, it also helped generate a cluster of literary responses that gave later utopian fiction its characteristic satirical verve.
Utopia in Sixteenth-Century Italy
Authors: Shrank Cathy 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines Ortensio Lando’s anonymous translation of Utopia (1548)—the first posthumous translation and the first to include both books—and Francesco Sansovino’s revised translation of Book Two (1561), which appeared as the final part of Sansovino’s influential and much reprinted Del governo. As the chapter traces the role of the Bonvisis, a family of merchant bankers, in the posthumous stories of both Utopia and Thomas More, it highlights the importance of transnational networks and the way in which Reformation and Counter-Reformation shaped the reception of the book and its author. Where Lando’s translation, ushered into print by Anton Francesco Doni, is strongly associated with evangelical circles, Sansovino’s reworking—in a volume dedicated to Cardinal Pier Francesco Ferrero—aligns with religious orthodoxy. Further to that, the chapter explores the impact of seemingly small semantic changes, and the way in which Sansovino’s revisions reflect contemporary debates about the ‘proper’ form of written Italian.