bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Work and Retirement, the 1830s to 1930s
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pensions enabled some older people, and forced others, to give up paid work earlier in life than might otherwise have been possible. The development of pensions, and of formalized pension ages have been described by some as aspects of a process of marginalizing and degrading older people in the twentieth century, as they were progressively excluded from paid work and the social status assumed to be associated with it. We have seen that the degraded work into which many old people had been forced over many centuries was hardly status-enhancing. More prosperous older people whose paid work did confer status were generally powerful enough to resist encroachment upon that status by involuntary pensioned retirement.
‘Kinship Does not Stop at the Front Door’: Old People and their Families, the 1830s to 1930s
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How important were families, alongside poor relief, pensions, and paid work in enabling older people to survive in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries? And what role did the generations play in each other’s emotional as well as material lives? The richer variety of sources compared with earlier periods conveys a range of vivid images which merge into a clear if complex picture of family relationships.
A Remarkable Discovery of Secret Need’: Pensioners in the 1940s
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A negative view of the probable social impact of the increasing numbers of older people in Britain was perhaps understandable, in view of the poor health and living conditions of very many older people in the 1930s and 1940s. These conditions were made shockingly evident by the revelations following the introduction of Supplementary Assistance in 1940. The Old Age and Widows’ Pensions Act, 1940, transferred responsibility for the welfare of old people from the local authorities (the successors to the Poor Law Boards) to the former Unemployment Assistance Board. This had been established in 1934 as the first official body empowered to undertake welfare work on a national scale.
The Rage of Party
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The circumstances of William and Mary’s accession could only strengthen the contemporary belief ‘that there have been more shakes and convulsions in the government of England than in that of any other nation’.1 Nor was there much initial reason to think that this latest development would prove more success¬ ful than previous attempts to establish a stable constitutional and political order, in 1660, 1657, 1653, and 1641. Not until after-some would say long after-the defeat of James H’s plans to regain his throne with French assistance, and then the death in 1714 of hisdaughter Anne, the last Stuart monarch, did the permanence and longer-term significance of 1688-9 become clear. Over the intervening quarter-century William and Mary, and Anne, together with the Revolution settlement which they embodied, faced the threat of Jacobite efforts to restore first James II and then his son (‘James III’, otherwise known as the Old Pretender).
Religious Belief and Practice
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The influential French author Voltaire, whose extended London visit in the mid-1720s reflected a growing European interest in things English, depicted political and religious liberty as characteristic of this ‘country of sectarists’, where ‘everyone is permitted to serve God in whatever mode or fashion he thinks proper’.1 In point of fact, the Blasphemy Act of 1698 made denying the doctrine of the Trinity, the truth of Christianity, or the authority of Scripture punishable by up to three years’ imprisonment. Those publishing theologically heterodox opinions also risked prosecution for blasphemous libel. Yet it must immediately be added that these legal provisions were rarely invoked, and attempts in the early 1720s to strengthen them failed to win parliamentary sup¬ port. For all Hobbes’s fears, no heretic had been executed in England since the early seventeenth century (although a 19-year-old theological student was hanged for heresy in Edinburgh in 1698). To that extent, Voltaire’s central point holds good: by George H’s reign religious diversity had come to stay.
Radicals, Reformers, and the French Revolution
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1781 the clergyman economist Dean Josiah Tucker (1712-99) attacked English supporters of the American rebels, claiming that among other ‘gross errors and absurdities’, they must logically uphold the principle that ‘not even women nor children ought to be excluded from the right of voting’. Yet seven years later a London audience characterized as ‘numerous and polite’endorsed the proposition that ‘the extraordinary abilities of the ladies in the present age demand academical honours from the universities’, together with the rights both to vote and stand for Parliament. Few who heard or participated in this public debate would have regarded themselves as radicals or reformers. The former term was not yet in common use, and it seems likely that ‘rational entertainment’, not the promotion of constitutional or social change, was the main purpose of the evening.
Ireland in the Post-War World, 1945-1969
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a controversial passage in his Ireland since the Famine,F. S. L. Lyons wrote that the consequence of neutrality for Ireland was her almost total isolation from the rest of mankind ... It was as if an entire people had been condemned to live in Plato’s cave, with their backs to the fire of life and deriving their only knowledge of what went on outside from the flickering shadows thrown on the wall before their eyes by the men and women who passed to and fro behind them. When after six years they emerged, dazzled, from the cave into the light of day, it was to a new and vastly different world.
Introduction
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the literary landscape of the early nineteenth century, Robert Smith Surtees, creator of Jorrocks and some of the best fox-hunting scenes in the English language, is an isolated figure. That such a man was a novelist at all is an oddity. Squire of Hamsterley Hall in County Durham, landowner, magistrate, member of a family which could trace its ancestry back to the eleventh century, he was typical of the gentry who ruled the countryside but a rare animal among the middle-class intelligentsia who formed the literati of his time. It is significant that while he took little trouble to conceal his authorship, he never allowed his name to be affixed to any of his novels. When one magazine editor disobeyed his express injunction to that effect Surtees at once broke off the connection and (supreme sacrifice for a writer) abandoned the story in midstream. Even more untypical of the literary establishment of the age than the author himself are his novels. They were neither improving, nor compassionate, nor propagandist. Surtees was a satirist but the aim of his satire was not the amendment of manners but the entertainment of his readers. Most men, he once privately noted, take pleasure in satire as long as it is not directed against themselves.
County Society
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On one feature of aristocratic country life—the great house-parties which figure so prominently in Victorian diaries and correspondence—Surtees has little to say. Possibly he never took part in any. There is Jorrocks’ accidental incursion into the company at Onger Castle; but the occasion was the young earl’s twenty-first birthday and the party consisted of ‘people in the neighbourhood, sprinkled with a few idle Honourables, who lend themselves out to garnish country-houses in the dull season’ —and on whom the author is plainly indisposed to linger. Otherwise all we have is a derisive fling at that secondary form of aristocratic hospitality which was exercised in the interests of electoral power. Since, after the recognizable parody of the duke of Donkeyton in Hillingdon Hall, Surtees and his family had been struck off the duke of Northumberland’s guest list, this was perhaps paying off a personal score. In Plain or Ringlets the duke of Tergiversation has a fixed scale of appropriate entertainment, depending on whether the guests are loyal adherents, probable supporters, or possible defectors—dinners for the first category, lunches for the second, and fetes for the third. ‘A person may be brought to the neutral ground of a fete’, observes Surtees, ‘who might shy at the apparent downright committal of a dinner.’ This system of graduated hospitality was capable of further refinement, for the duke on another occasion invites Captain Cambo and Mr Cheadle for a day’s shooting followed by dinner in the hope of getting them to cast both their votes for his party instead of splitting them.
The Decline Of Elegance
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To Surtees one of the great social changes in his lifetime was the increase in comfort at the expense of elegance. To a historian it might seem a natural development in which national prosperity, a wider distribution of wealth, the growth of technology, and the popularity of utilitarian ideas all played a part. Surtees was less inclined to analyse the causes than to criticize the consequences; in particular the vulgarity which permeated much of Victorian culture. It was observable most clearly perhaps in the fine arts: in architecture the collapse of a coherent native tradition, in design the emphasis on decoration rather than form, in painting the vogue for realistic detail and literary subjects. Surtees never showed much interest in those fields, but he was a keen and minute recorder of costume; and it was here that he chiefly noted the decline of style. Take, for example, his reference to the vanished days when Mr Puffington was a young swell in London, a period which can be approximately placed in the 1820s.
Women
Authors: Zweiniger-Bargielowska Ina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discussion of popular attitudes has highlighted gender differences and the purpose of this chapter is to examine the gendered implications of the austerity policy by focusing on women’s experiences and attitudes. Women in their role as housewives and mothers were primarily responsible for implementing the policy on a daily basis. Rationing and shortages of food and miscellaneous consumer goods added to the housewife’s burdens while the introduction of welfare foods contributed towards improving the health of mothers and children. During the 1940s housewifery and motherhood acquired an enhanced sense of national importance since the successful implementation of rationing and other economy measures was vital in maintaining public health and morale. Housewifery was no longer regarded as a private concern but rather as a central component of the war effort and post-war reconstruction. Thus the housewife’s battle on the kitchen front was as critical to victory as that of the soldier or the worker in essential industry. This pivotal female contribution was recognized by the government, resulting in an unprecedented outpouring of propaganda aimed to help women to adapt their housewifery skills and child-rearing techniques to wartime conditions as well as to raise standards generally. For example, a Ministry of Information pamphlet declared that housewives’ ‘part in the war is no mean one.
Familial, Neighbourhood, and Communal Resources for Childbirth
Authors: Marks Lara V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many societies childbirth is an occasion which relies on the help of the family and the local neighbourhood. The use Jewish women made of these resources was different before and after migration. Unable to call on the kinship and communal ties that had existed in Eastern Europe, Jewish women’s experiences of childbirth and infant care in East London were distinct from those of their mothers. Arriving in a new and strange environment, many Jewish women not only faced the difficulties of giving birth separated from their traditional support, but also of being attended by carers who did not always appreciate their customs or speak their language. In this situation childbirth could be a traumatic event, reinforcing the isolation and problems Jewish immigrants experienced when settling in East London.
Local Voluntary Hospitals and Maternity Care
Authors: Marks Lara V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In addition to the alternative schemes set up by Jewish communal organizations, Jewish mothers had particularly good access to maternity care from host institutions. Despite, or possibly because of, its poor social and economic situation, East London was characterized by a large number of charitable maternity services from early on. Such provision was vital to mothers facing the continual strain of bearing infants on a low income. Although the abundant maternity facilities in the area could do little to prevent the economic and social hardships many mothers suffered, they none the less appear to have had an important influence on the rate of maternal mortality. As has been shown, maternal mortality was much lower in East London than the rest of London or England and Wales (see Fig. 2.11).
The Kingdom of Germany
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The kingdom of Germany is taken here to cover all the territory included in the great kingdom, whatever it was called at different times before 1300, that developed out of the eastern part of the Carolingian empire. The chapter will include some material on Lotharingia, but touches on the kingdoms of Burgundy and Provence only in the twelfth century. Some of the material on the former middle kingdom has already been used in the chapters on France: to some extent the untidiness and overlaps reflect an untidy historical situation and overlapping historiographical traditions. My coverage of a huge and varied area is in any case so patchy that overlaps or omissions on the edges seem relatively unimportant. Like every other chapter, this one ignores a mass of regional and local variations. It is not that I believe them to have been insignificant: my hypothesis is, as usual, rather that the traditional interpretation of regional differences has been postulated on a premiss about the nature of political and property relations that needs to be revised before the differences can be .
City-State and Market Economy
Authors: Hocquet Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The city-state was the political creation of a commercial metropolis which, through war, diplomacy or purchase, succeeded in enlarging the territorial framework of the original urban commune and in dominating its hinterland of small and middling towns and villages. The geographical extent of the city-state depended on the size of the metropolis as well as its demographic and economic power; it was clearly also related to the importance of the surrounding towns and territorial principalities. Thus, in the fifteenth century, the commune of Venice, which had emerged from the buffer duchy between the Byzantine empire in the east and the Carolingian empire in the west, conquered an extensive territorial state in Italy at the expense of other urban lordships and continued to expand until it came up against other powerful cities such as Milan and Florence.
The formation of the english legal system, 1150-1400
Authors: Brand Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The process of state-building in England began well before the Norman Conquest of rn66. The tenth-century conquest by the kings of Wessex of those parts of England which had fallen under the control of Scandinavian invaders cre ated a single political unit covering the whole country. The new kings of England possessed a rudimentary central bureaucracy for handling their financial affairs and for giving orders and making grants in their name and also local agents in each county or shire. After the Norman Conquest a French-speaking and largely Nor man feudal aristocracy took the place of the existing English ruling class but the new Anglo-Norman monarchs were largely successful in resisting any dilution in the powers of the English monarchy and were able to insist on the duty ofloyalty which all free men owed to the Crown. By the twelfth century we begin to find evidence of the kind of specialization of function within the royal administration that gives rise to distinctive institutions possessing their own bureaucratic rou tines and creating their own archives.
The Operation of Royal Grace in Castile, 1250-1530, and the Origins of the Council of the Chamber
Authors: Dios Salustiano de 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No student of the history oflate medieval Castile can fail to be struck by the commitment of the rulers of that kingdom to strengthening their power in the field oflegislation as well as in that of the administration of justice and government.1 Yet the theme of royal grace has been largely neglected by schol ars interested in this stretch of Spanish history2-and this despite the fact that the distribution of grace and favour (gracia, merced) provided those rulers with one of the most readily available means of realizing that power and extending its scope in both juridical and political terms. In the operation of royal grace the absolutist tendencies of the age were given their clearest expression, moreover, for, in addition to effecting profound changes throughout a society character ized at every level by juridical privilege and inequality, functioning at first inde pendently of positive law eventually royal grace succeeded in arrogating to itself many of that law’s salient characteristics. In time this was to prove to have been a development of central importance for every department of Castilian society.
The Habsburg Monarchy in the Eighteenth Century: The Birth of the Modern Centralized State
Authors: Ogris Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter, about the Habsburg Monarchy in the eighteenth century, falls towards the end of the volume’s chronological span-and rightly so. For it does not deal with the origins, further development, or final consolidation of the European states in the course of the entire medieval and the early modern periods. Instead, it takes the reader up to the middle and the second half of the eighteenth century, into the ageof(Enlightened) absolutism, Enlightenment, and natural law.
Conclusions: Models, Instruments, Principles
Authors: Padoa-Schioppa Antonio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It will take a long time and a wide range of experts to provide a full evalu ation of what so many scholars of such differing academic backgrounds have established in the great ‘open workshop’ (as Jean-Philippe Genet has called it) of the two big research projects on the origins of the modern European state. This is true also of the question of the relationship between the modern state and the law: a vast field of enquiry in which not only the chapters in this volume, but also much of the work of the other teams, already published or in the course of publication, invalidates old certainties, poses stimulating questions, trains beams of light in new directions, and suggests new possibilities of synthesis.
Introduction
Authors: Reinhard Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the past thousand years, from the high Middle Ages until the present day; the power and the institutions of certain central governments in Europe have been growing continuously at the expense of other autonomous holders of political power and at the expense of the subjects. The final outcome is the modern European power state, defined by a continuous territory with a distinct borderline and by complete external sovereignty, by the monopoly of every kind of legitimate use offorce, and by a homogeneous mass of subjects each of whom has the same rights and duties.
Staying on Top: Socio-Cultural Reproduction of European Power Elites
Authors: Braun Rudolf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to define the fields of observation and scope of research, some general introductory comments are needed. What is to be understood by sociocultural reproduction? The central concern of this study is the intergenerational securing and, if possible, the advancement, of social position; the key questions are: what were the ways and means of getting to the top, of staying on top, and of preventing social decline? Which offensive and defensive strategies were deployed to achieve these aims? Which social networks and alliances were of assistance? What material and non-material costs were incurred in the process?
The Main Areas of Confrontation: Thematic Survey
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Confrontations normally focused on questions of physical survival and cultural identity, but fiscal rebellions could also involve political issues. Indirect taxes on the other hand (for example, excise duties) always provoked widespread discontent. The state had created a series of monopolies, particularly for levies on trade and commerce, and some of them were farmed out. Occasionally, the peasants took violent action and in such cases they could count on the estates’ support. However, as soon as the monarch agreed to a compromise by allowing the estates to collect the taxes themselves, this coalition between lords and peasants broke down as well.
Messages And Responses
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What values inspired acts of resistance? They could be quite varied and contradictory: we have seen that the defence of traditional rights was important, but so was the struggle for autonomy and the desire of various corporate bodies to be represented in the political process. Certain groups, furthermore, fought against abuses of hierarchical privileges, and also, in economic riots, for their basic right of existence. Here, and in the demands for freedom of conscience, we encounter a much wider and more fundamental principle: human rights. The message was therefore ambiguous: a conservative appeal for preservation and tradition, and an innovative desire for individual freedom and human rights.
Legislation ‘from below’
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For Germany, evidence concerning the ability of the subject to influence the legislative process must be pursued through a literature on regional and local history which is both extensive and detailed in its line of questioning. This approach must always be supplemented by specific archival research in order to arrive at even an approximate answer to the questions raised.Two examples will serve as illustration here. These give an impression, on the one hand, of the breadth of the legislative matters to which the subject contributed; and on the other, they permit us to quantify that influence.
Norms and Values of the Peasantry in the Period of State Formation: A Comparative
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The majority of the population in the early modern period consisted of peasants and tenant farmers, servants, day labourers, and craftsmen living in the countryside. Together with the lower classes in the towns, they were the people— ordinary man. They belonged to a culture which Peter Burke calls ‘the little tradition’, in contrast to ‘the great tradition’ which was maintained by educated and articulate élites.