bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ethyl Chloride
Authors: Miller Matt C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEthyl chloride (chloroethane), C2H5Cl, is a colorless, mobile liquid with a nonirritating ethereal odor and a pleasant taste. It is flammable, is normally stored as liquefied gas, and burns with a green‐edged flame, producing hydrogen chloride fumes. This article discusses its properties, manufacture, toxicology, and economic aspects. Ethyl chloride has primarily been used in the manufacture of the fuel additive tetraethyllead (TEL). Environmental legislation mandating the use of lead‐free fuels caused a steep decline in production of ethyl chloride. A recent study has shown evidence of carcinogenic activity in female mice exposed to 15,000 ppm. The only other important demand for ethyl chloride is in the production of ethylcellulose.
Ethylene–Propylene Polymers
Authors: Noordermeer Jacobus W. M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEthylene–propylene polymers (also called EPDM or EPM) continue to be one of the most widely used and fastest growing synthetic rubbers. They are particularly known for their excellent resistance to ozone and aging in comparison with natural rubber and common polydiene synthetic rubbers. The technology of producing EP(D)M‐rubber is still very much in development. Latter years have seen major breakthroughs in production‐technologies relative to the more traditional solution‐ and slurry‐processes, based on Ziegler‐Natta catalysis: ie, Gas‐phase technology and technology based on metallocene catalysis. EPDM‐rubber can be extended with fillers and plasticizers to a very high level, leading to an attractive price/performance ratio in comparison with other rubbers. EPM can be vulcanized radically by means of peroxides; a small amount of built‐in nonconjugated diene monomer in EPDM permits conventional vulcanization with rubber. Typical applications of EP(D)M are in automotive weatherstrip profiles and radiator hoses, in building and construction as sealing profiles and roofing foils; in cable and wire as insulating and jacketing material; in blends with general purpose rubbers to improve ozone resistance; as impact modifier for thermoplastics, and as additive to lubricating oils.
Ethylene
Authors: Sundaram K. M. , Shreehan M. M. , Olszewski E. F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIn this comprehensive discussion of the production of and uses for ethylene, the topics covered include the properties of ethylene; industrial production; storage, shipping, handling; and economics. Extensive coverage of the commercial production of ethylene via thermal cracking is provided. The reaction is discussed as well as the methods employed to predict the feedstock conversion. Product distributions are given for a variety of feedstocks. A description of the industrial furnaces available is given, as well as a typical process description and process flow diagram. Information is provided on coke deposition during the cracking process, giving the methods used to inhibit coke production and methods used to remove coke deposited. Improvements in the design of ethylene plants plus possible other routes to produce ethylene are presented. Almost all ethylene is consumed as a feedstock for manufacturing other petrochemicals.
Evaporation
Authors: Standiford Ferris C. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Evaporation is used most often in the chemical industry for concentrating a solution or crystallizing a solid from solution. The high latent heat of the solvent (usually water) generally makes heat transfer the most important element of evaporator design and capital cost. Heat‐transfer surfaces usually are metal tubes and many configurations are available to improve performance, the choice depending primarily on the characteristics of the material being processed and the scale of the operation. The high heat demand of evaporators makes energy consumption the most important element of operating cost. Means available for reducing energy demand include multiple‐effect or multistage flash operation and vapor recompression, where the vapor given off by an evaporator is compressed so that it can serve as part or all of its own heating medium. Other important factors in evaporator selection and design are the separation of vapor from the residual liquid to the degree necessary in each case and the provision of a heat sink for the large amount of energy utilized.
Exhaust Control, Industrial
Authors: Berglund Ronald L. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Exhaust emissions are increasingly legislated. Much of the research and development in the chemical process, petroleum, power generation, and manufacturing industries is driven by the need to control exhausts utilizing post‐process emissions treatment. Oxidative combustion technology is commonly employed for elimination of volatile organic components. This technology may be strictly thermal (incineration) or employ oxidation catalysis. The catalysts, mechanistic models, and design, operation, and selection of industrial catalytic exhaust control systems are discussed, as is catalytic inhibition. Exhaust control technology for criteria air pollutants, such as the nitrogen oxides, is presented. The use of catalytic oxidation techniques for control of specific emissions within particular industries is also discussed.
Metallic Coatings Explosively Clad Metals
Authors: Bergmann Oswald R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Explosion bonding of metals is a mature and reliable manufacturing process for the production of high quality, metallurgically bonded metal combinations that are difficult or impossible to produce by conventional metal bonding techniques. In explosion bonding the actual process of metal bonding occurs over extremely short time periods. Explosives are used, and there is no significant overall heating of the metals being bonded. From a metallurgical standpoint the process may be characterized as a diffusionless, cold‐pressure bonding technique involving localized, extremely short‐time, plastic deformation of the metals near the bond zone. The process is used by several manufacturers throughout the world to produce clad plate and sheet for corrosion‐resistant chemical‐process vessels, for heat‐exchanger tube sheets, electrical and structural weld‐transition joints and several other specialized applications. Process fundamentals and mechanisms are described along with a summary of practical operating parameters. Numerous industrial applications are described.
Fat Replacers
Authors: Morse Roy E. , Singer Norman 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSignificant interest in reducing dietary fat from 40% of dietary calories to below 30% is being driven by two thrusts, ie, health problems and cosmetic weight loss. Fat substitutes under study include starches, gums, other complex carbohydrates, and microparticulate proteins. Replacement of fats requires mixtures rather than single substances.
Ferroelectrics
Authors: Jang Sei‐Joo 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFerroelectric materials are nonlinear dielectrics that can exhibit a spontaneous polarization in the absence of an external electric field. Reorientation of the domain‐state polarization by an external field is the defining characteristic. An important class of ferroelectrics is that of the perovskites. Modified barium titanate and lead zirconate‐lead titanate solid solution‐based ceramics are the most extensively used materials for multilayer capacitors and piezoelectric devices, respectively. Relaxor ferroelectrics arising from the lead‐magnesium niobates are gaining in usage, and ferroelectric thin films are under development. Ferroelectrics are utilized in various polymer‐matrix composite materials in the automotive, imaging, and telecommunications industries.
Recycling, Ferrous Metals
Authors: Makar Harry V. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Makar, Harry V. (Consultant). Ferrous scrap recycling is a principal worldwide activity. Annual consumption and exports in the United States total ∼80 million metric tons. The primary consumers of ferrous scrap are steel mills and iron and steel foundries. These depend on scrap for a large fraction of their iron‐based raw materials. The steel industry consumes about 75% and iron and steel foundries consume most of the rest.
The several sources and types or grades of ferrous scrap are presented including descriptions of supply, demand, exports, and prices. Concerns about residual elements from both environmental and product quality point of view are discussed. Standards and environmental regulations are reported. Recycling of ferrous scrap is dependent on iron and steel industry processes and demands. Low residual scrap is preferred. Vol. 20, pp. 1092–1106, 37 refs. to June 1995.
Fillers
Authors: Tsou Andy H. , Waddell Walter H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFillers are particulate materials added to polymers in order to improve the physical properties and/or to reduce the cost of the composite. They can be classified according to their source, function, composition, and/or morphology. No single classification scheme is entirely adequate due to the overlap and ambiguity of these categories. The chemical composition and its effect on composite physical properties typically classify fillers into three broad categories: nonreinforcing or degrading, semireinforcing or extending, and reinforcing fillers. Use of fillers in many commerical polymers is for the enhancement in stiffness, strength, dimensional stability, toughness, heat distortion temperature, damping, impermeability, and cost reduction, although not all of these desirable features are found in any single filled polymer. Improvements in composite physical properties is directly related to particle size, whereby the smaller particulate fillers impart greater reinforcement. Particle‐size distribution and particle shape also have significant effects on composite reinforcement. Filler structure ranges from precise geometrical forms, such as spheres, hexagonal plates, or short fibers, to irregular masses. A particle with a high aspect ratio has higher reinforcement than a more spherical one. Fillers having a broad particle‐size distribution have better packing in the polymer matrix and provide lower viscosity than that provided by an equal volume of the filler with a narrow particle‐size distribution. The properties of particulate‐filled polymers are determined by the properties of the components, by the shape of the filler phase, by the morphology of the system, and by the polymer‐filler interfacial interactions.
Film and Sheeting Materials
Authors: Mackenzie K. J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPlastic film and sheet products represent a significant use for polymeric resins of all types. Film and sheet products serve a wide range of consumer, commercial, and industrial markets, including packaging, communication materials (magnetic tape, reprographic and photographic products, and stationery), thermal and electrical insulation, optical products (glazing, filters, and light control), agricultural mulching, and construction, as well as for component manufacture in appliances, transportation equipment, and electrical equipment. The principal film and sheet resins are the polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene), polystyrene, the vinyl resins, polyesters, and the cellulosics. Specialty markets, in smaller volume, exist for film and sheet products made from higher cost or high performance polymers.Film properties may vary from strong, stiff materials to soft, pliable, even rubbery films. Sheet may be hard and rigid or soft foams. Properties such as tensile, impact, and tear strength can be obtained over a wide range, dependent on the polymer used, the presence of additives or modifiers, and the process used in their manufacture. Similarly, variations in slip, handleability, sealability, optical properties, electrical properties, and color or transparency can be altered to meet end use requirements.Films and sheet are commonly manufactured by such melt‐extrusion processes as flat die extrusion, blown tube extrusion, and calendering, or by solution casting. Other processes include reactive casting of sheet or the regeneration of cellulose. Auxiliary processes used in film or sheet manufacture include coextrusion of multilayers, coating, laminating, and orientation (monoaxial or biaxial).
Fine Art Examination and Conservation
Authors: van Zelst Lambertus 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChemical and physical methodologies are applied in the study of museum objects for a variety of purposes including the establishment of authenticity, scholarly pursuits in art history and archaeology, and evaluation of the state of preservation. Objects may be composites or formed from relatively pure materials. The technological history for object types and materials and the methodologies most frequently used for their analysis and examination is summarized. Metals, ceramics, stone, and plant and animal materials are commonly encountered. An overview of materials properties is provided. Conservation science as a type of materials science research seeks to understand the processes involved in long‐term materials degradation, and from this understanding to formulate conditions for storage and exhibit most conducive to optimal preservation. Methods for preservation of metals, stone, and wooden objects are discussed.
Textiles, Finishing
Authors: Calamari Timothy A. , Harper Robert J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTextile finishing includes various efforts to improve the properties of textile fabrics, whether for apparel, home, or other end uses. These processes are directed toward modifying either the fiber characteristics or the gross textile end properties. The advent of synthetic fibers possessing improved resiliency and dimensional stability has placed natural fibers, particularly cotton, at an ostensible disadvantage, putting pressure on cotton interests to focus on the perceived deficiencies of natural fibers. This article discusses fabric preparation, different finishing methods and their applications, the mechanism and use of cross‐linking agents, as well as such topics as dyeing modifications and finishing of synthetic fibers.
Flavor Characterization
Authors: Acree Terry E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFlavor is a chemosensory response to chemicals in food, and its characterization involves both chemical characterization of the sensory‐active components in food and a description of the sensory response to food. Even though a complex series of biochemical, physiological, and mental processes take place between the stimulation by flavorants and the behavioral responses to flavorants, the process of flavor characterization only requires a measure of the inputs and outputs, ie, chemicals and sensory responses. Flavors are first characterized with bioassays that quantitatively relate flavor activity with separate components, then the chemicals that cause flavor can be characterized by instrumental procedures such as chromatography and spectroscopy. The complexity and variability of the sensory responses to flavor by individuals or groups of individuals can be measured by a set of formal methods called sensory tests. Sensory tests are often conducted without any chemical information on the flavorants involved. This article outlines some of the general considerations involved in flavor characterization along with several specific examples of the most common techniques.
Flavor Delivery Systems
Authors: Ubbink Job , Schoonman Annemarie 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAn overview is given of flavor delivery systems and technologies for flavor encapsulation. A central conceptual distinction made is between systems aimed at protecting the encapsulated flavor against evaporation and the adverse effects of environmental oxygen in low‐moisture states, and those whose principal aim is to modify the release of the encapsulated flavor during food processing, storage, or consumption. The former class of systems, which are designated as glass‐encapsulation systems since they are invariably based on amorphous carbohydrates in the glassy state, are generally prepared by well‐established technologies like spray drying and melt extrusion. These systems have found widespread commercial application. Accounts are given of the most‐used technologies and of the underlying material science. The latter class of systems, principally aimed at controlling the release rate of the encapsulated flavor, is far more diverse in composition, working principle, and manufacturing technology. Their common feature is that, in the food matrix, they retain a core structure whose role is to control both the rate and the extent of release of the encapsulated flavor. It is argued that application of such systems necessitates a careful tuning of the delivery system to both the specific composition of the flavor, the composition and structure of the food matrix and the conditions during food processing, storage and consumption, because of the comparatively well‐defined release aimed for. Several of the principal technologies are highlighted. Examples are given of successful applications in food matrices. It is conjectured that limitations currently experienced in the application of controlled release systems for flavors and that impede a truly widespread adoption in the food industry can only be eliminated by a concerted approach including encapsulation technology, flavor physico‐chemistry and chemistry, food materials science, and focused product development efforts.
Flow Measurement
Authors: Burgess Thomas H. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Flow measurement is essential to the production, distribution, consumption, and disposal of all liquids and gases including fuels, chemicals, foods, and wastes. Emphasis is placed on the types of measuring equipment and the general selection criteria. Fluid properties of the ambient environment, particular measurement requirements, and economics all influence the choice of flow meters.
The various measurement methods and corresponding hardware are discussed in terms of principles of operation, variations in available forms, advantages and limitations, and commonly used areas of application. Flow meters can be classified according to whether the signal employed is generated by the energy of the flowing fluid or derived from the interaction of the fluid motion with some external stimulus. The first group is composed primarily, but not completely, of mechanical meters whereas the second is electrical in nature.
Fluid Mechanics
Authors: Son J. S. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Fluid mechanics encompasses both the phenomena that occur when fluids flow and how these phenomena may be described. Calculation of the details of the flow is usually secondary to understanding flow phenomena well enough to accomplish a process task; thus emphasis is on qualitative descriptions of characteristic phenomena for a variety of typically encountered configurations: flow in ducts, around obstacles, and in jets, wakes, and plumes. Besides the commonly encountered single‐phase Newtonian fluid, attention is given to non‐Newtonian fluids and two‐phase flows. The issue of flow instability is addressed. Those fluid flow phenomena that significantly affect heat and mass transfer and chemical reactions are presented. Practical calculational procedures are discussed for solving complex flow phenomena for both laminar and turbulent flow regimes. Techniques for flow modeling are also given. Some methods of flow measurement are also included.
Fluorinated Aromatic Compounds
Authors: Boudakian Max M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article covers the preparation, properties, reactions, and applications of three types of fluorinated aromatic compounds: ring‐fluorinated aromatics, side‐chain fluorinated aromatics and arylfluoroalkyl ethers, and fluorinated nitrogen heterocyclics.The special properties conferred by fluorine justify the higher costs required to produce fluoroaromatics. Depending on which substituents are present, fluoroaromatic intermediates can be converted into fluorinated or fluorine‐free commercial end products. Fluorine‐containing aromatics have been incorporated into drugs (hypnotics, tranquilizers, antiinflammatory agents, analgesics, antibacterials) and into crop‐protection chemicals (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides). Liquid crystals, positron emission tomography, and imaging systems represent new areas where fluoroaromatics and fluoroheterocyclics have gained attention.For fluorine‐free end products, the lability of fluorine in fluoronitrobenzenes and other activated molecules permit it to serve as a handle in hair dye manufacturing operations, high performance polymers (eg, PEEK), drugs (eg, diuretics), fiber‐reactive dyes, analytical applications, and biological diagnostic reagents.
Fluorethanols
Authors: Elliott Arthur J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This article concerns ethanol fluorinated at carbon 2. 2‐Fluoroethanol behaves like a typical alcohol in its chemical reactions and is slightly more acidic than ethanol. It is usually prepared by reaction of potassium fluoride with 2‐chloroethanol or by the addition of hydrogen fluoride to ethylene oxide. It is extremely toxic due to its facile oxidation to fluoroacetic acid. 2,2‐Difluoroethanol is also more acidic than ethanol. It is prepared by the hydrolysis of 2‐bromo‐1,1‐difluoroethane. 2,2,2‐Trifluoroethanol is the most acidic fluoroethanol and has the unusual property of dissolving most polyamides (nylons and polypeptides) at room temperature. It behaves like a typical alcohol and the trifluoromethyl group is inert to most reagents. It is prepared by the reduction of trifluoroacetic acid and its derivatives. Because of its excellent combination of physical and thermodynamic properties, it has been used (mixed with water) as a working fluid for recovery of energy from waste heat sources. It is the only fluorinated ethanol available in commercial quantities, and finds use as the starting material for two inhalation anesthetics.
Fluorinated Acetic Acids
Authors: Elliott Arthur J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFluoroacetic acid is a carboxylic acid with slightly higher than average acidity that undergoes reactions typical of acetic acid. It is conveniently prepared by reaction of fluoride ion with chloro‐ or bromoacetic acid esters, followed by ester hydrolysis. It is extremely toxic and its sodium salt is one of the most effective all‐purpose rodenticides known. Difluoroacetic acid also undergoes reactions of a typical carboxylic acid and is a moderately strong acid due to the electron‐withdrawing nature of the fluorine atoms. It is much less toxic than fluoroacetic acid, and is best prepared by reaction of tetrafluoroethylene with ammonia, followed by alkaline hydrolysis of the intermediate triazine. Trifluoroacetic acid is a strong carboxylic acid but poses no unusual toxicity problems except for its acidic nature. It is a good solvent for proteins and polyesters. The trifluoromethyl group is essentially inert to most common reagents, and trifluoroacetic acid is usually prepared by oxidation of compounds containing the trifluoromethyl group. It is the only fluoroacetic acid produced in significant commercial quantities.
Fluorescent Whitening Agents
Authors: McElhone Harold J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe absorption of short‐wavelength light (violet‐to‐blue) results in a yellow cast to fabrics. Fluorescent whitening agents (FWAs) absorb the invisible uv portion of the daylight spectrum and convert this energy into the longer‐wavelength visible portion of the spectrum, ie, into blue to blue‐violet light. This can be used to replace the light lost through absorption, thereby attaining a neutral, complete white.Fluorescent whitening agents in use in the 1990s are aromatic or heterocyclic compounds; many contain condensed ring systems. Almost all of these compounds are derivatives of stilbene or 4,4′‐diaminostilbene; biphenyl; five‐membered heterocycles, eg, triazoles, oxazoles, etc; or six‐membered heterocycles, eg, coumarins, naphthalimide, etc.Fluorescent whitening agents find use in the textile, paper, and synthetic fiber and plastics industries.