bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Interplay of Domestic Policy and International Space Security
Authors: Wu Xiaodan 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter reviews how states’ perception of space security in the form of domestic policy is a powerful shaping force for space security. It shows how a range of military, S&T, political and economic interests are intertwined in outer space and national considerations for space security; and these interests can also be influenced and defined by seemingly trivial and irrelevant factors. National policy formulation is supported by an array of governmental and non-governmental actors and all the actors interact within a state’s space governance mechanism. Their roles are largely influenced by the political climate and also determined by a state’s development model of space activities. International space security is sustained by the interplay of domestic policy and achieved at the nexus of competition and cooperation. This is a self-restraining process with uncertain results. The space power competition and the democratization of space are increasing the intensity and complexity of this interplay. There is a renewed need to improve this overlapping organizational structure to foster dialogue and strengthen international cooperation to reduce the uncertain results and the conflict potential.
Gendering Transitional Justice
Authors: Berry Marie , Lake Milli , Ackah-Arthur Jemima 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The past three decades have seen increasing attention to gender in war-to-peace transitions, particularly in the context of access to justice. We review the gains made by activists in this field, focusing on domestic legal systems rather than international and hybrid tribunals. We show how an emphasis on gender-based violence in war serves as an important corrective to past omissions. However, we also direct attention to two forms of structural disempowerment documented by scholars working in this area. The first pertains to a neglect of the expressed needs and diverse lived experiences of women and sexual and gender minorities in the pursuit of justice; and the second to a prioritization of conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) over other (sexual and gendered) harms. Together, these trends have sometimes inadvertently reinforced gendered hierarchies and structures of power.
Foreign Policy and Organized Crime
Authors: Moro Francesco Niccolò , Strazzari Francesco 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Organized crime (OC)’s activities and impact extend well beyond national borders, and policies designed to tackle OC have to transcend the domestic domain too. These policies are now embedded into different foreign policy activities across a very diverse set of domains—from anti-drug to cybercrime policies—and through a plurality of tools. This chapter reconstructs the emergence of OC as a foreign policy problem, looking at the difficulties in categorizing extremely diverse phenomena. It then delves into the main strategies pursued to tackle OC at the international level. Repression is the main common frame, with the military and/or law enforcement as key agents, and a growing debate about outcomes and consequences. The chapter shows how these aspects can be empirically observed in specific criminal domains, and identifies pluralization of agency and hybridization of approaches as emerging trends in policy response.
Burns and Bawdry
Authors: Mackay Pauline 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Burns’s bawdy sensibility forms an essential component of his creativity and lies at the centre of some of his most celebrated poetry and song. This essay traces Burns’s engagement with a broad historical culture of Scottish, British, and European bawdry, from his earliest compositions (‘My Girl She’s Airy’) to his later masterpieces (‘Tam o’ Shanter’) and explains the complex relationship between ‘traditional’ verse, Burns’s ‘reserved oeuvre’, and his ‘official’, more widely accepted canon. A survey of Burns’s bawdy verse privately printed in The Merry Muses of Caledonia (1799), alongside his religious and political satire, illuminates the bard’s creative drive to use sexuality as a lens through which to scrutinize human behaviour.
‘Tam o’ Shanter’
Authors: Irvine Robert P. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter defends the joyful unseriousness of ‘Tam o’ Shanter’ against those who see it as a troubled precursor to later Romantic modes of verse. It describes the origins of the poem in Burns’s collaboration with the antiquarian Francis Grose. It explicates the poem’s deployment of apostrophe as both a reflection of Burns’s experience of addressing socially diverse audiences and the narrator’s way of putting ironic distance between himself and the poem’s ostensible moral judgements. While acknowledging the contexts of oral performance that inform the poem, to which it alludes and in which it is still enjoyed, this chapter argues for understanding ‘Tam o’ Shanter’ in terms of its Augustan literary pedigree, and in particular its use of the hudibrastic verse form, with Thomas Holcroft’s Human Happiness (1783) providing a useful point of comparison.
Burns and the Natural World
Authors: Stafford Fiona 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
On his long expeditions across America, the pioneering nineteenth-century conservationist John Muir was accompanied, spiritually, by Robert Burns. The poems and songs Burns had known from youth offered inspiration to the solitary naturalist because of their evident sympathy for all living things. Muir’s gratitude to Burns offers a way into reading Burns’s poetry and reassessing the significance of ‘Nature’s Bard’ in the twenty-first century, when matters of conservation and the environment are of urgent concern. The title alludes partly to Keith Thomas’s Man and the Natural World, in which Burns appears fleetingly but significantly, as a poet whose attitude to the non-human as ‘fellow-mortals’ was groundbreaking. The chapter considers shifting critical attitudes to Burns as the poet of nature and focuses on key poems such as ‘To a Mouse’, ‘To a Mountain Daisy’, ‘Poor Mailie’s Elegy’, ‘The Humble Petiton of Bruar Water’, and ‘The Twa Herds’. Close readings of Burns’s literary treatment of animals, birds, fish, and plants, considered in the light of contemporary literary and environmental contexts, demonstrate a profound consciousness of the complexity of the relationship between man and the natural world in his work: ‘Nature’s Bard’ is a very different entity from ‘the Simple Bard’. Burns’s deep understanding of the often conflicted relationship between human and non-human life forms may be as illuminating for twenty-first–century readers in an age of environmental crisis as it was to John Muir in nineteenth-century America. Conversely, the acute environmental concerns of today open new approaches to reading Burns.
Robert Burns, Club Society, and Convivial Sociability
Authors: Andrews Corey E. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Robert Burns’s experiences with club life were extensive, ranging from informal provincial groups like the Tarbolton Bachelors to international organizations like the Freemasons. Throughout his life, Burns was eminently clubbable, finding plenty of opportunities for intellectual and convivial fellowship with Scots of all classes. This chapter will discuss Burns’s involvement in a variety of clubs, including the Crochallan Fencibles (an Edinburgh drinking club), the Court of Equity (an impromptu club of local Scots castigated for profligacy by the Kirk), as well as those listed above. A primary goal of the chapter is to explain and elaborate upon how each club society influenced his writing, for each group to which he belonged offered him its own peculiar form of associational experience. In short, each club provided him with a different type of convivial sociability, to which Burns often responded in his writing. The chapter will include an overview of the verse that Burns produced in club settings as well as in his published work, with attention to his changing attitudes about convivial sociability.
The Architectural Monument to Robert Burns in the New Age of Identity Politics and Nationalism
Authors: Rodger Johnny 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
What does it mean to build an architectural monument to a poet in the twenty-first century? The heyday of hero building and architectural monuments to national identity was in the nineteenth century, when monuments to Robert Burns were built across Scotland. In the early twenty-first century, we appear to have entered a new era of populist, nationalistic, and identity politics. Does the latest architectural memorializing of the ‘national’ poet empower users to ‘take back control’? This chapter will use conceptualizations from the art of poetry to analyse and criticize the most recent architectural monument to Robert Burns, built in the twenty-first century. Following an examination of monuments that celebrate national heroes, including some built in other countries, the essay will look at specific architectural monuments to Burns and their connections with his poetry before focussing on the building of the Burns Birthplace Museum and its relation to the land around it, ultimately linking it to commodity capitalism.
‘At the Grave of Burns’
Authors: Deans Alex 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers the posthumous reception of Robert Burns and his work in the years following 1800, in relation to the development of British Romanticism, both as an ideology that privileged the individual poetic voice and a phenomenon that responded to the shifting forms of nation, politics, and class. In particular, it traces how James Currie’s 1800 ‘Life of Burns’ and ‘Remarks on the Character and Condition of the Scottish Peasantry’ established a connection between Burns’s works, personal character, and social background to illustrate the moral and political dangers of excessive sensibility. The chapter explores how William Wordsworth in particular drew on Currie’s account of Burns to construct a mode of poetic identity and purpose that was influenced by Burns even as it sought to distance itself from him. The chapter then considers how debates over Burns’s cultural and political symbolism, again based on Currie, fuelled the heated periodical culture of nineteenth-century Scotland.
Parallel Universes
Authors: Black Ronald 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter presents an objective assessment of the relationship between Robert Burns and the Gaelic language. It was not a direct relationship but an indirect one. Gaelic literature was dynamic in his day, yet to him it was virtually a foreign language, frequently heard without being understood and poorly mediated in print. Burns himself was, however, of Gaelic heritage through his Carrick-born mother, Agnes Broun, whose influence on her son’s work has been underestimated. The last Gaelic speaker in his bloodline will have been his great-grandmother Janet McGren, or McGrean, who died in 1738. The precise nature of Burns’s Gaelic heritage is discussed in the context of current scholarly work on the late survival of Gaelic in Carrick, as well as his personal points of contact with the language and the limited extent of his familiarity with Gaelic verse and song. The chapter ends with consideration of the unlikely proposition that Burns influenced Gaelic verse during his lifetime, and an assessment of the countless Gaelic translations of Burns’s poems that have been published since 1829.
Robert Burns and Twentieth-Century War
Authors: Goldie David 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the reception of Burns’s work in the UK in the First and Second World Wars, and the uses to which Burns was put, as both writer and cultural figure, by those who supported and those who opposed both wars. The chapter suggests that Burns was a highly salient and significant figure in the First World War, visible as a model for emulation and inspiration to poets, political campaigners, and propagandists alike. Such salience was diminished in the Second World War, and the chapter explores the reasons for this lessened influence, among them the effects of the Scottish Literary Renaissance, the rise of visual and aural media, and alterations in the Scottish political climate.
Burns Biography, 1786–1820
Authors: Brown Rhona 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter is the first of three on the development of Robert Burns’s biography, focusing on the poet’s self-fashioning and biographical construction from the publication of Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (1786) to the eighth edition of James Currie’s Life and Works of Burns (1820), which features significant new contributions by Burns’s brother Gilbert. The chapter is structured in three parts. The first analyses Burns’s development of his own poetic persona in the 1786 preface to the Kilmarnock edition of his poems, and explores key early reviews and responses to his work which help to establish Burns’s early biography. The second section focuses on biographical studies by Maria Riddell and Robert Heron, which appeared shortly after the poet’s death. The third considers James Currie’s correspondence with Burns’s acquaintances, undertaken as the biographer prepared the first posthumous Life and Works of Burns (1800), ending with an analysis of Currie’s popular and influential biography.
Burns Biography, 1808–1939
Authors: Baraniuk Carol , Carruthers Gerard 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter, the second of three on the development of Burns biography, focuses on biographical constructions of the poet from the publication of R. H. Cromek’s Reliques of Robert Burns (1808) to J. DeLancey Ferguson’s Pride and Passion (1939). The first part examines how nineteenth-century writers and editor-biographers after James Currie augmented the known facts about the poet’s life, and appraised his character and morals, in a period which also saw significant progress in the textual editing, criticism, and appreciation of his oeuvre, and in the process of Burns memorialization. The second considers works of Burns vindication from the early decades of the twentieth century which to an extent reflect Victorian sensibilities but in some aspects evidence a transition away from sentimental or romanticized versions of the poet. The third section discusses the modernist and empirical investigations of Burns undertaken by Catherine Carswell and by distinguished international scholars in the 1930s—the latter setting a standard against which Burns biographies would be judged in the twentieth century and into the twenty-first.
Further Resources
Authors: Gallagher Kevin Thomas 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides further information and details on various resources—including archives, collections, museums, libraries, historical locations, Burns Clubs, and online scholarship projects—that may be of interest to readers of this book. Links to websites that can provide further information about each resource are included. A non-exhaustive list of important academic texts that focus on Burns is included, as well as a short discography of recorded Burns works. This chapter also offers a timeline of Burns’s life and afterlife, pinpointing significant events and publication dates up to the publication of his first biography by James Currie in 1800.
The Pragmatics of Punctuation in the Letters of Robert Burns
Authors: Smith Jeremy J. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Robert Burns’s letters are currently being re-evaluated as a significant part of his creative activity, but their formal aspects, notably their punctuation, have received comparatively little attention. In this chapter, Burns’s usage is placed within its eighteenth-century context, with reference to contemporary letter-writing manuals and views on language. Examples from Burns’s letters demonstrate his use of a wide range of punctuation marks to replicate speech patterns, in keeping with the then-existing belief that speech took precedence over writing. Burns’s letter-writing style is compared and contrasted with other eighteenth-century writers such as Laurence Stern. It is shown that his letters draw directly on contemporary views on the speech-writing relationship, notably elocutionism.
The Rise of ‘No Religion’
Authors: Turpin Hugh 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines religious disaffiliation on the island of Ireland. It focuses first on ex-Catholics in the Republic, describing how they fit a global pattern of rising non-religion. After this, the distinctive normative stance of Irish ex-Catholicism is explored using qualitative data from fieldwork and interviews carried out in Dublin. These suggest that for these ex-Catholics, disaffiliation means the moralized relinquishment of an increasingly casual, capacious, and amorphous form of ethnically linked collective identification: ‘cultural Catholicism’ for short. The roots of this stance lie in the country’s trajectory of economic growth, social liberalization, attenuated domestic religious socialization, the moral collapse of the church, and its lingering influence in social institutions and laws. In Northern Ireland, in contrast, things are quite different. There, it is Protestants rather than Catholics who primarily choose to opt out of their natal designations.
Catholic Responses to Violence in Northern Ireland
Authors: Scull Margaret M. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter illustrates tensions between Irish Catholic bishops, individual priests, and women religious in their reactions to the Northern Ireland Troubles. The institutional Irish Catholic Church acted as an unofficial mouthpiece for the Catholic community, with the international media regularly questioning Irish bishops on their perceived inability to stop republican violence. While Irish bishops publicly condemned republican paramilitary violence, it was individual priests and women religious ‘on the ground’ who privately acted as intermediaries between the British government and republican paramilitaries to bring about a peaceful solution to the conflict. The Irish Catholic Church regularly faced pressure throughout the conflict, yet this pressure intensified during key events such as the introduction of internment without trial, the 1980–81 hunger strikes, republican funerals and the issue of excommunication, and the peace process. These specific moments during the conflict illustrate the differing opinions and actions of individual church members to institutional pressures.
Paganism
Authors: Butler Jenny 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses contemporary Paganism in Ireland and documents the historical emergence of this new religious movement against the backdrop of historical romanticization of the Celtic world and Celtic spirituality. It examines the traditions of those who self-identify as Pagan today, including Druids and Witches, based on ethnographic research. Presented here is an overview of the cosmology and worldview of contemporary Paganism and the relationship between globalized Paganism and local and national identities. An overview is provided of how, through their ritual practices, Pagans have a unique connection to nature and the landscape, archaeology, and the ancient past. Consideration is given to how modern Pagans engage with folklore and mythological traditions and to how cultural resources, including the Irish language, are drawn upon in the formation and maintenance of Pagan identities.
The Raeti and Other Northeastern Alpine Peoples
Authors: Marzatico Franco 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
With distinctive features in both their material and ideological expressions, the Raeti have been documented over a wide area of the eastern Alps from the mid-sixth century until the Roman conquest in the first century BCE. Strabo describes the peoples living beyond Comum as “predatory and deprived of means”; of course, he and the other historians were justifying the expansionist aims of Rome when they described the Raeti and their neighbors in such harsh terms. Modern scholars must therefore rely on archaeology for information when trying to determine an accurate history for these peoples. This chapter traces the movements and cultural developments of the various inhabitants of the eastern Alps during the first millennium BCE up to the advent of Augustus.
Alphabets, Orthography, and Literacy
Authors: Wallace Rex 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Ancient Italy is a veritable petri dish for the study of the adoption and the adaptation of alphabetic writing systems. Once introduced by Euboean Greeks and adopted by Etruscans, this new technology spread quickly via elite networks to a majority of the peoples of ancient Italy. It is possible to chart the developments in the alphabets and writing systems of ancient Italy, the adjustments that were made to accommodate the spelling of each language’s sounds, and the reforms that writers made to the alphabets once texts began to be written. We observe the expansion of the functions of writing as it moved from the private to the public domain. Finally, we are witness to the loss of alphabets—and languages—under the growing political and economic power of Rome.
The Lucani
Authors: Gualtieri Maurizio 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Against the backdrop of the descriptive traits and behaviors provided by the ancient narratives, the data on the material culture and sociopolitical developments provide a picture of rapid change differentiated in space and through time, including a significant number of communities that functioned both independently and collectively. Historical texts paint a relatively simple picture of complete Romanization achieved through conflict, but this is at odds with the much more fluid and variegated picture that emerges from the archaeological record. This chapter seeks to elucidate the more variegated overall picture of ancient Lucania and the Lucanian communities provided by archaeological research.
Defining Sacred Space in Ancient Italy
Authors: Edlund-Berry Ingrid 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Just as different groups in pre-Roman Italy created settlements for the living and resting places for the dead, they also chose places to worship their deities. The location of such sacred sites (essentially mountains, caves, rivers, and springs) follows a pattern that reveals both local and general practices of incorporating deities into settlements, and of linking them to places in nature. This chapter focuses on the evidence that suggests that the landscape played a vital role in the societies of ancient Italy; although our knowledge is limited, it is important to identify these sacred places and to suggest avenues for further analysis.
Italic Mercenaries in the Pre-Roman Period
Authors: Tagliamonte Gianluca 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The widespread practice of mercenary military service must have contributed to the ancient perception of the pre-Roman Italic peoples as bellicose. For the Campani, the practice represented, at least in part, a relevant economic activity of a dominant class (equites Campani) or even of the male representatives of the minores gentes. For the Samnites, Lucani, and Bruttii, however, it continued to fulfill a fundamental demographic and economic function, along with other forms of mobility or the violent appropriation of goods (war, banditry). For these populations, mercenary practices were a long-standing historical phenomenon, which this chapter reconstructs in broad strokes between the sixth and third centuries BCE.