bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Qualitative Status of the Onkoi in Asclepiades’ Theory Of Matter
Authors: Leith David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The medical and philosophical system of Asclepiades of Bithynia ( fl. later second century BC) has been the subject of considerable controversy. His physical theory of anarmoi onkoi in particular has seen intense debate, and although many of its broader features appear to be fairly well established, many of its most fundamental details remain obscure. Perhaps somewhat paradoxically, some of the most important work carried out on Asclepiades has been explicitly focused instead on Heraclides of Pontus, the reconstruction of whose physical theory has often proceeded on the assumption that this was largely replicated by Asclepiades some two centuries later.
What causes lung cancer?
Authors: Falk Stephen , Williams Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The major cause of lung cancer is smoking. The chance of getting lung cancer is related to the total number of cigarettes consumed. Cigarette smoking can also result in other diseases often affecting the lungs and heart. On average smokers die 10 years younger than non-smokers. Lung cancer is a disease of the twentieth century. Indeed, in 1912 a well-known US doctor wrote: ‘primary cancers of the lung are among the rarest forms of the disease’. Medical students of that day hardly saw a single case during their training; unfortunately this is far from the case now. Lung cancer is now the most common tumour in the developed world. Any explanation of the cause of lung cancer must, therefore, take into account the huge increase, and latterly decrease, in the incidence of this cancer this century (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). The geographical distributions of the tumour must also be considered. These factors strongly suggest environmental causes and rule out genetic factors, because the genetic make-up of the population could not change so quickly. Lung cancer has been blamed on many factors and, although there are some who continue to believe otherwise, the close match to cigarette smoking trends shown in Figure 2.1 is inescapable.
How lung cancer is diagnosed
Authors: Falk Stephen , Williams Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lung cancer can cause symptoms within the chest such as cough and breathlessness and general non-specific effects such as tiredness and ill-health. Lung cancer can cause symptoms such as pains in the bones if it spreads. A biopsy is taken to confirm that lung cancer is present and also to determine the type of lung cancer so treatment can be planned.
Sidgwick: The Examination of Methods
Authors: Rwin Terence I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sidgwick’s first method of ethics is hedonistic egoism. He rejects hedonism as an account of motives (psychological hedonism), but accepts it as an account of one’s own interest (prudential hedonism). The version of egoism that includes prudential hedonism is a method of ethics in Sidgwick’s view, because it claims that it is ultimately reasonable of me to pursue my own pleasure. Sidgwick disagrees with utilitarians, including Mill, whose prudential hedonist doctrine rests on psychological hedonism (iv 4). He therefore rejects Green’s criticism of utilitarianism, because Green combines attacks on psychological hedonism with attacks on the ethical doctrines that Sidgwick separates from it (see EGSM 104–5).
Logical Empiricism and Emotivism
Authors: Rwin Terence I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Moore believes that his arguments against naturalism support an intuitionist account of our knowledge of moral properties. Ross agrees with him on this point, and tries to develop an intuitionist conception of moral judgment. But we may find it difficult to believe in simple, non-natural properties that are grasped by some (allegedly) mysterious form of intuition. Our other knowledge of objective facts does not seem to require these (allegedly) strange properties and this strange cognitive condition. If, then, we believe that Moore’s argument from non-naturalism and objectivism to intuitionism is valid, but we do not accept his conclusion, we may reasonably re-examine his premisses. If we accept the premisses that support non-naturalism, we may question his acceptance of cognitivism and objectivism.
Hare: A Defence of Non-Cognitivism
Authors: Rwin Terence I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One might regard Hare as a successor to emotivism who offers an improved version of non-cognitivism, in opposition to both naturalism and the non-naturalist cognitivism of Moore and Ross. A critic may ask whether and in what ways Hare’s prescriptivism improves on emotivism, and whether the improvements allow Hare to answer the objections to emotivism without raising further objections. Though this approach to Hare captures part of his position, it does not do justice to his main aims. In particular, it overlooks some differences between his attitude and Stevenson’s attitude to the task of the moral philosopher.
Revivals of Non-Cognitivism
Authors: Rwin Terence I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have now examined the main statements of non-cognitivism. This chapter mentions some re-statements and defences that try to answer objections to Stevenson’s and Hare’s arguments. After a period of declining interest, the study of meta-ethical questions revived in the last quarter of the twentieth century, and a short treatment can hardly do justice to the complex and sophisticated work that has already appeared. Some of the most important work has emerged from fruitful reflexion on meta-ethical questions in relation to contemporary epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of science, and philosophy of language.
Objectivity and its Critics
Authors: Rwin Terence I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-cognitivism has seemed appealing partly because the other options have seemed unappealing. If we agree that Moore has refuted naturalism, and we do not accept the non-naturalist realism of Moore and Ross, non-cognitivism may appear to be the only option. But some reasonable alternatives to non-cognitivism and non-naturalist realism have been defended. In this chapter we will confine ourselves to a survey of some of these positions, and indicate their connexion to earlier debates in meta-ethics.
Lotteries and Miracles
Authors: Sobel Jordan Howard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
George Mavrodes seems to say that, as reasonable persons on reading reports of winners of really big lotteries believe these reports, so must reasonable persons, on hearing or reading testimony for what in their view would be miracles, believe this testimony. That a randomly selected entrant should win a big lottery is immensely improbable, and yet a single report can reverse this improbability. He says this shows “that there is nothing incredible, or even unusual, in the power of a single testimony to reverse an enormous initial improbability” (Mavrodes 2005: 317). Of miracles he says that “almost every afficiondo” (ibid.) of them holds that they are improbable in the same way, and, he seems to say, to the same effect:
Virtue of Character in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
in the Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle presents in considerable detail a conception of the virtues of character, such as justice, courage, and generosity, that I think is extremely attractive. It may well be the case, it seems to me, that he succeeds in articulating, in a fairly specific and detailed way, what at least many of the qualities are in whose possession having an outstandingly good character consists. But it also seems to me that before we are in a position to appreciate Aristotle’s mature theory of character-virtue fully and properly, a certain common, but mistaken, view about it needs to be cleared away. According to that view, the theory identifies the virtues of character with appropriately habituated conditions of the person’s capacities for experiencing feelings such as pleasure, distress, anger, and shame.
Receptor-G-protein complexes in solution
Authors: Poyner David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is now clear evidence that many membrane receptors produce their effects on cellular regulation by coupling to a series of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding proteins known as G-proteins. These can be detected in a number of ways, including the promotion of high-affinity, GTP-sensitive agonist binding, agonist-stimulated GTPase activity, and agonist enhancement of the kinetics of GTP binding, and GDP dissociation (1). In an increasing number of systems it has been shown that it is possible to solubilize intact receptor-G-protein complexes (R-G complexes). The solubilization of receptor-G-protein com plexes is of interest for several reasons. It is of considerable importance to know what specificity is found in receptor-G-protein interactions. One approach to this is to solubilize and purify the complex, and then identify the G-protein(s).
Adherent lyrnphokine-activated killer cells (A-LAK cells): anti-tumour activity in vitro and in vivo
Authors: Hiserodt J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) cells were initially described as cytotoxic lymphocytes capable of lysing fresh autologous solid tumour target cells in shortterm Cr-release assays. Cells exhibiting LAK activity could be generated from blood mononuclear cells obtained from normal individuals or from tumour bearing cancer patients in response to crude or recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2). Based on their efficient, non-MHC restricted cytolytic activity against a broad range of fresh autologous or cultured tumour cells, Rosenberg and others have employed LAK cells and IL-2 in the adoptive immunotherapy of established metastatic tumours in animal models and some cancer patients. To date, the cumulative results of clinical trials have indicated that the adoptive transfer of LAK cells and IL-2 is effective at reducing established metastatic disease for a variety of histological forms of cancer. In particular, renal cell carcinoma, melanoma and non-Hodgkins lymphomas have responded in a significantly high proportion (up to 25 per cent of these tumours are responsive) to warrant further investigations into this form of immunotherapy.
The regulation of protein kinase C in T lymphocytes
Authors: Graves J , Lucas S , Cantrell D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
T lymphocyte activation involves a complex series of cellular responses, including the induction of the expression of cell surface receptors for various lymphokines and the production of lymphokines (e.g. interleukin 2 (IL-2) receptors and IL-2). An important characteristic of the T cell system is that quiescent cells neither produce IL-2 nor express IL-2 receptors. However, following immune activation there is rapid transcription of the genes that result in IL-2 synthesis and IL-2 receptor expression.1−7 The production oflL-2 and its receptor is both transient and are both maintained following removal of the immune stimulus.8 The ultimate ambition in T cell activation studies, therefore, is to determine both the positive and negative signals that regulate the T cell response, since these together ensure the homeostasis of the immune response.
The Synchronization Of Mammalian Cells
Authors: Johnson R T , Downes C S , Meyn R E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once upon a time most cell biologists could synchronize mammalian cells in different stages of the cell cycle, albeit with different degrees of success. However, few molecular probes were then available. Now, with the great resurgence of interest in cell-cycle control and the beginnings of molecular understanding, many workers who have recently entered the field require tightly synchronized cells for their experiments. This chapter presents a selection of protocols which should provide synchronized cells in each cycle phase, and in most instances, cells from different parts of each phase. From the methods commonly used we have selected those which provide excellent synchrony with good reversibility, balanced growth, and high viability. We have also concentrated on methods which (except for centrifugal elutriation) can be carried out without expensive equipment, apart from the standard CO incubators, bench centrifuges, inverted microscopes, Coulter counters, and -70 °C freezers. A 37 °C hot room is a useful resource for synchronization, and a good workshop is needed to build equipment for high-pressure nitrous oxide arrest. A Cytospin cytocentrifuge (Shandon Scientific) for the rapid production of cell monolayers for microscopic inspection is strongly recommended. Details of methods involving high technology-separation of viable cells on the basis of DNA content by fluorescence activated cell sorting, or automated mechanical synchronization systems-can be found in refs 1 and 2, respectively.
Preparation Of Synchronous Cultures Of The Yeasts, Saccharomyces Cerevisiae And Schizosaccharomyces Pombe
Authors: Creanor J , Toyne J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the last 25 years a great deal of information has come from cell-cycle studies of yeast, and one of the essential tools has been the production of synchronous cultures. These cultures have been produced by a variety of techniques and the purpose of this chapter is to describe their use in the most frequently studied yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The choice of method is usually determined by the available apparatus, by the cycle event or cellular component one is investigating, by the degree and duration of synchrony required, and, particularly in S. cerevisiae, by the compatibility of the methods available with particular strains.
Methods For Analysis Of The Fission Yeast Cell Cycle
Authors: Macneill S A , Fantes P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a unicellular ascomycete fungus. Physiological analysis of the cell cycle of S. pombe was initiated by Mitchison (1) who appreciated the advantages of working with cells that were large enough to permit detailed microscopic analysis, but which were as easy to culture as bacteria, which were themselves popular experimental organisms at the time. In particular, Mitchison realized that the growth of S. pombe cells by length extension made the organism ideal for investigating the relationship between cell growth and cell division.
Introduction
Authors: Kipling David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book begins with the central biological problem that telomeres circumvent, that of replicating the very end of a linear DNA molecule (for general reviews on telomeres see Szostak 1983; Blackburn and Szostak 1984; Zakian 1989; Zakian et al. 1990; Blackburn 1991a,b; Greider 1991; Henderson and Larson 1991; Biessmann and Mason 1992). Nature has devised a fascinating selection of mechanisms to do this (below) although much interest centres on a type of DNA polymerase called telomerase, whose biochemistry is detailed in Chapter 4. Many of the phenomena the current molecular approaches are trying to explain concern the behaviour of chromosome ends observed by microscopy (Chapter 2). It was the failure to obtain terminal deletions and inversions in X-irradiated Drosophila which first defined the natural end of a chromosome as having a special structure and function required for chromosome stability, the telomere (Muller 1938, 1940; reviewed by Muller and Herskowitz 1954). Cytological observations of the fate of broken ends in maize led McClintock in the 1940s to suggest that one such function was to protect the natural ends of chromosomes from recombination and fusion with other chromosomes. Telomeres may also be involved in the three-dimensional organization of the interphase nucleus, via interactions with the nuclear envelope, the nuclear matrix, and other telomeres. Organization and compartmentalization of the nucleus in three dimensions has important biological implications for processes such as replication, transcription, and chromosome segregation. An apparent organizational role for telomeres is seen in meiosis, where interactions with the nuclear envelope may play a role in facilitating the alignment and pairing of homologous chromosomes. This in turn has important consequences for how genetic maps are interpreted.
The cytology of the telomere
Authors: Kipling David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept that the natural end of a chromosome has a specialized structure came from a combination of genetic and cytological observations in the 1930s. This chapter reviews these early classical studies as well as cytological observations of interactions between telomeres, and between telomeres and the nuclear envelope. These interactions may have a role in organizing the genome within the interphase nucleus, and in facilitating the pairing of homologous chromosomes in meiosis. The first part of this chapter concentrates on organization in the mitotic nucleus, in which telomeres have at best a tentative role. Subsequently the behaviour of telomeres in meiosis is considered, where there is stronger evidence for telomeres having a functional role.
Telomere structure
Authors: Kipling David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the nuclear telomere sequence organization for a number of eukaryotic species. In most cases tandem repeat arrays of a short (typically fewer than 10 nucleotides) sequence are found at the very end of the chromosome. These show considerable similarity in sequence between species and various lines of evidence implicate them in essential telomere function. In addition a wide range of repetitive sequences has been found in the subterminal regions of many species. These sequences are often species-specific and it has proved difficult to assign any biological role to them. Finally the ability of a number of telomeric sequences to fold into unusual secondary structures in vitro, stabilized by G· G bonds, will be discussed. However, before dealing with any individual species, methods to isolate and study telomeric sequences, and general conclusions regarding their structure, will be reviewed.
Electron microscopy of organelles
Authors: James Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Introduction
The electron microscope has made major contributions to our understanding of tissues, cells, and organelles and how they function. Electron microscopes have become widespread in their use and are a reliable means of examining biological structures. The process of producing sections using a microtome (microtomy) is also reliable provided that the samples are adequately prepared and embedded. Electron microscopy enables these samples to be examined with a high degree of resolution of approx. 1 nm which is much greater than that of optical microscopy which is limited by the intrinsic properties of light. A further fundamental difference between optical and all forms of electron microscopy is that optical microscopical techniques for examining large quantities of potentially living specimens exist whilst the electron microscope is capable of examining only relatively small quantities of exclusively dead and artefactually transformed specimens.
Purification and assay of inositol hexakisphosphate kinase and diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate kinase
Authors: Voglmaier Susan M , Bembenek Michael E , Kaplin Adam I , DormÁn GyÖrgy , Olszewski John D , Prestwich Glenn D , Snyder Solomon H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The identification of diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate (PP-InsP 5) and bisdiphosphoinositol tetrakisphosphate ([PP]2-InsP 4), inositol pyrophosphates with seven and eight phosphates associated with the inositol ring (1-3), indicates that inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP 6)is not the endpoint of myo-inositol metabolism with a slow turnover rate as was once thought.
Phosphoinositide 3-kinase
Authors: Pons Sebastian , Burks Deborah J , White Morris F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plants, yeast and animal cells contain phosphoinositide 3-kinase activities (PI3K), each of which is capable of transferring the terminal phosphate of ATP to the D-3 position of the inositol head groups of one or more of the substrates Ptdins, PtdIns4P, and PtdIns(4,5)P 2 (see Chapter 1 and references therein). PI3K is a downstream effector of several receptor tyrosine kinases and plays a central role in a broad range of biological effects (1). PI3K activation can potentially generate three products: PtdIns3P, PtdIns(3,4)P 2, and PtdIns(3,4,5)P 3 (2), with the last of these regarded as the most important signal generated product (Figure 1).
Synthetic lethal/enhancer screening to identify snRNA:protein and protein:protein interactions in yeast pre-rnRNA splicing
Authors: Stutz Francoise , Tang Jie , Rosbash Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past five years or so, our laboratory has carried out three synthetic lethal screens aimed at identifying novel yeast (S. cerevisiae) genes involved in pre-mRNA splicing. Although many of the results have been published (1-5), we have never assembled an overall summary of what we obtained and how well the screens worked to identify new genes-an informal assessment of the genetic signal-to-noise ratio. Otherwise put, what is the benefit-to-labour ratio in taking this approach to the splicing factor identification problem? As our procedures have also undergone modifications as a function of time and experience. this will serve as a useful venue for discussing the advantages and disadvantages of the approaches we have tried.
Protease Assay Methods
Authors: Sarath Gautam , Zeece Michael G , Penheiter Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Peptidases have continued to receive significant attention in the last decade. Although some novel means to assay these enzymes have been published, many of the older protocols for the assay of proteases are still in use. One obvious change has been brought about by the revolution in recombinant protein expression technology. This ability to engineer proteins has added a new dimension to the study of proteases. Other changes have arisen from an understanding of the complexity of the proteolytic machinery that govern many critical cellular processes (e.g. caspases), and the development of instrumental means to auto mate these analyses. Thus, in addition to several standard protocols, this chapter describes some of these newer assays that can be readily imported into most lab oratories. Other, more complex methods are described briefly. It is expected that the reader will adapt the protocols presented to meet their specific needs. The substrate nomenclature used in this chapter is shown in Table 1.
Purification and cloning of DNA binding transcription factors
Authors: Nicolas R H , Hynes, G , Goodwin G H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If you have just identified a protein binding to a novel regulatory sequence, the next step is to clone the cDNA encoding the protein. Most practitioners in this field would first attempt direct screening of expression libraries with the DNA binding site (see Chapter 5) before embarking on the protein purification/peptide sequence/oligonucleotide screening approach. However, in many cases, direct screening of libraries has not proved successful or has not been possible (for example when the protein is part of a multiprotein complex and more than one protein is required for DNA binding) and protein purification may then have been the only method available. The purification of DNA binding proteins has been remarkably successful with the development of sequence-specific DNA affinity chromatography and the band-shift technique for rapidly analysing chromatography fractions. With the recent advances in protein-sequencing techniques (e.g. sequencing peptides immobilized on blots following electrophoretic separation), the protein purification approach has become less arduous and one can expect to get good sequence results from 50 pmol of protein. Also, mass spectroscopy techniques are being used to mass fingerprint proteins for the identification of protein sequences in databases, and tandem mass spectroscopy is now able to obtain peptide sequences from femtomole amounts of protein.