bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Libya
Authors: Mattes Hanspeter 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Libya follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1971 (data on population size, registered voters, and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (none given or used); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances (no statistical data are available for the parliamentary elections held from 1952 to 1965, and neither presidential nor parliamentary elections have been held since the proclamation of the Libyan Arab Republic); 2.5 Referendum 1971 (details of registered voters and votes cast in the referendum on the foundation of the Federation of Arab Republics between Egypt, Libya, and Syria); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly (none held); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections (see note under 2.4); 2.8 Composition of Parliament (see note under 2.4); 2.9 Presidential Elections (see note under 2.4); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1951–1998.
Sudan
Authors: Fleischhacker Helga , Doebbler Curtis F. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter on elections and electoral systems in Sudan follows the same format as all the other country chapters in the book. The first section is introductory and contains a historical overview, discussion of the evolution of electoral provisions, an account of the current electoral provisions, and a comment on the electoral statistics. The second section consists of ten tables. These are: 2.1 Dates of National Elections, Referendums, and Coups d’Etat; 2.2 Electoral Body 1953–1998 (data on population size, registered voters and votes cast); 2.3 Abbreviations (abbreviations and full names of political parties and alliances used in tables 2.6, 2.7, and 2.9); 2.4 Electoral Participation of Parties and Alliances 1953–1986 (participation of political parties and alliances in chronological order and including the years and number of contested elections); 2.5 Referendum 1998 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.6 Elections for Constitutional Assembly 1965–1986 (details of registered voters and votes cast); 2.7 Parliamentary Elections (no detailed results available); 2.8 Composition of Parliament 1953–1996; 2.9 Presidential Elections 1971–1996 (details of registered voters and votes cast); and 2.10 List of Power Holders 1953–1998.
Policy Evaluations
Authors: Marsh Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractSpillover explanations of the progress of European integration are examined within the context of the attitudes of political elites. In particular, the linkage between perceptions of past success and policy evaluation and parliamentarians’ views on the future of integration is evaluated. This neo‐functionalist theory is found to have little purchasing power on basis of the data analysed, save for a modest but indirect effect in the case of economic policy.
Austria
Authors: Müller Wolfgang C. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter on the national co-ordination of European Union (EU) policy in Austria starts by discussing the challenge of co-ordination, and outlining the policy changes and reforms in the lead-up to membership of the EU. The strategy employed has resulted in high ambitions concerning EU co-ordination, and this co-ordination ambition is supported by a policy-making culture that values co-ordination and integration, and is based on the country’s long tradition of wide consultation, grand coalition government, parliamentary consensus seeking, and corporatism. The remainder of the chapter looks at the various actors involved individually, briefly pointing out in which way membership of the EU constitutes a challenge, mapping out the respective actor’s formal role in the co-ordination process, and evaluating the actor’s impact on Austria’s position- taking in the EU. The five sets of actors examined are: the central players ( the cabinet and the central administration); Parliament; the President; the Länder; and interest groups (corporatism). The conclusion aims at an overall evaluation of the EU co-ordination process from a political power perspective.
Denmark
Authors: Pedersen Thomas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter on the national co-ordination of European Union (EU) policy in Denmark starts by pointing out that the Danish position within the EU is somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, Denmark has acquired the image of a ‘Eurosceptic’ having obtained several opt-outs from the Maastricht Treaty; on the other hand, its day-to-day performance in the EU is widely regarded as positive, since its rate and speed of implementation of EU legislative acts is one of the highest. This performance is partly due to Denmark’s EU co-ordination system, combined with its internal emphasis upon consensus. The Danish EU co-ordination system is centralized but also displays some decentralized features; in addition, compared with the normal domestic procedures for co-ordination, EU co-ordination in the country is very formalized, although it is also achieved informally through consensus. The four main sections of the chapter discuss: the centralization issue; the structure and procedures for EU policy co-ordination; sectorization (a decision-making process in which the decisive influence is located in an alliance between a sectoral ministry and important interest groups in an area); and the role of parliament and the European Committee.
Conclusion
Authors: Kassim Hussein 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This concluding chapter has three main aims: to identify the main findings that emerge from the ten country case studies presented in the book; to present an argument about the factors that shape the strategies and structures of national co-ordination; and to draw attention to a number of wider issues on the basis of what the findings suggest. The first finding is that European integration exerts a powerful need for co-ordination on the part of governments and that European Union (EU) policy-making has become an important locus of domestic co-ordination for governments; however, membership of the Union confronts the member states with very specific challenges, and meeting its complex demands is extremely problematic. Second, national responses to the demands of EU membership have led to a redefinition of the functions traditionally performed by some actors and a recasting or recalibration of interinstitutional relationships. Third, there are important similarities between the way in which the member states co-ordinate their European policies, although diversity persists and institutional convergence is limited in scope and extent. The main part of the conclusion presents a cross-national view of the co-ordination of EU policy, looking at similarities and differences and explaining them; the last part presents concluding remarks on the effectiveness of national co-ordination systems, co-ordination as a process, the systemic implications (impact) of the findings, and theoretical issues.
The Division of Labour and the Theory of Value
Authors: Vivenza Gloria 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDeals with some analogies between Adam Smith's and Plato's thought about the division of labour, and Adam Smith's and Aristotle's formulations concerning economic value. The two parts of the chapter survey the existing literature on the subject, and then illustrate analogies and differences between Adam Smith and the two ancient authors both from an analytical and a historical point of view.
The Concept of “State”
Authors: Basu Kaushik 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter emphasizes the need for a more inclusive conception of government in the social sciences, particularly economics. The view of the state that emerges from the inclusive approach is a bundle of beliefs and expectations in the minds of people. The state, in the end, is nothing more tangible than the ordinary citizen’s belief that if he behaves a certain way, the agent of the state will either punish or reward him. This is coupled with the belief of the agents of the state that if a person behaves a certain way, they ought to punish or reward this person, and, if they do not, other will punish or reward them, and so on. These beliefs must be self-fulfilling since they result in an outcome that is a subgame perfect equilibrium.
Investing Over the Life Cycle
Authors: Campbell John Y. , Viceira Luis M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter uses a life‐cycle model calibrated to microeconomic US data to examine financial asset allocation strategies of working households saving for retirement. For typical US households with relatively safe labour income streams, risky investments should be extremely attractive when they are young, have modest savings and have many years until retirement; but risky assets should be less attractive later in life, as human wealth declines and financial assets accumulate. Households whose income comes from private businesses, which are exposed to many of the same risks as publicly traded companies, should find risky investments in stocks less attractive at all ages. Households with high‐risk aversion should be cautious investors both because of their high‐risk aversion and their tendency to accumulate greater precautionary savings. Impatient households, on the other hand, accumulate relatively little savings; financial risks are relatively unimportant for them compared to income risks, and thus they can afford to invest more aggressively.
Information, Equilibrium, and Efficiency Concepts
Authors: Brunnermeier Markus K. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCh. 1 shows the reader how to model asymmetric information and knowledge in theoretical economics. It also introduces the concept of higher‐order knowledge. For the analysis of bubbles it is important to draw a distinction between mutual knowledge, e.g. all traders know that the price is too high, and common knowledge, i.e. they all know this and that all know and so on. Prices are determined in equilibrium. The two most commonly used equilibrium concepts in market settings with asymmetric information are the competitive Rational Expectations Equilibrium (REE) concept and the strategic Bayesian Nash Equilibrium concept. The chapter compares and contrasts both equilibrium concepts and also highlights their conceptual problems. This chapter also introduces and contrasts the two efficiency concepts: informational efficiency and allocative efficiency.
No‐Trade Theorems, Competitive Asset Pricing, and Bubbles
Authors: Brunnermeier Markus K. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Ch. 2 first exposes the reader to a more tractable notion of common knowledge and the intuition behind proofs of the different no‐trade theorems. The no‐trade theorems state the specific conditions under which differences in information alone do not lead to trade. The next section sketches out a brief introduction of the basics of asset pricing under symmetric information and highlights the complications that can arise under asymmetric information. Information revelation by prices is closely linked to the security structure and market completeness. The chapter also provides definitions of bubbles and investigates the existence of bubbles under common knowledge. It then illustrates the importance of higher‐order uncertainty for the possible existence of bubbles.
Two Methods of Social Ordering
Authors: Barnett Randy E. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Personal and local knowledge can be harnessed by either centralized or decentralized decision‐making processes. Centralized decision‐making works insofar as the decision maker has access to the relevant personal and local knowledge. Since such access is limited, such decision‐making must be limited as well. Decentralizing jurisdiction to individuals and associations who have access to the relevant knowledge permits them to act on the basis of their personal and local knowledge. Requiring that transfers of jurisdiction be consensual, it addresses the ability of individuals and associations to incorporate into their decisions, the personal and local knowledge of others by making possible a meaningful system of resource prices.
Communicating Justice: The Second‐Order Problem of Knowledge
Authors: Barnett Randy E. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The second‐order problem of knowledge is the need to communicate knowledge of justice in a manner that makes the actions it requires accessible to everyone. The need for this message to be conveyed in advance of persons taking action (ex ante) influences the form of the message in at least eight ways: (1) general rules or principles that are (2) publicized, (3) prospective in effect, (4) understandable, (5) compossible, (6) possible to follow, (7) stable, and (8) enforced as publicized. These formal requirements that are needed to communicate the message of justice ex ante are part of what is known as the rule of law. The need for ex ante information about allocation of several property rights also influences the substance of these rights including the prohibition on force and fraud.
The Problem of Enforcement Error
Authors: Barnett Randy E. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe problem of enforcement error arises when using power to achieve compliance with justice and the rule of law increases the costs imposed by erroneous judgements on the innocent. Because the use of power imposes costs on the innocent, and rights legitimate the use of power, we need to limit the number and kind of rights we recognize to those which address pervasive social problems that cannot be dealt with adequately by any other means. So too, the use of force to prevent previous offenders from committing further crimes should be limited to those who have demonstrated by their past criminality or other conduct, their intention to violate rights in the future. This showing should be subjected to a standard of proof beyond a reasonable doubt.
The Problem of Enforcement Abuse
Authors: Barnett Randy E. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe Single Power Principle specifies that there must exist, somewhere in society, a coercive monopoly of power. Adherence to this principle leads to serious risks of enforcement abuse because of problems of selection, corruption capture, and the halo effect. Various institutional features to deal with the problem of enforcement abuse by a coercive monopoly of power have been tried including elections, federalism, and free emigration. Each attempts to combat the ‘top‐down’ or hierarchical relationship between ruler and subject that is inherent to a coercive monopoly of power by establishing a more ‘bottom‐up’ or horizontal relationship. Though these three practices have largely failed in keeping a coercive monopoly of power within the constraints defined by the liberal conception of justice and the rule of law, each reflects a more fundamental principle that needs to be more robustly incorporated into institutional arrangements: reciprocity, checks and balances, and the power of secession.
Beyond Justice and the Rule of Law?
Authors: Barnett Randy E. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter anticipates and responds to various objections to the thesis of the book, including those founded on communitarianism and on considerations of retributive and distributive justice. It considers such issues as neutrality, and the difference between the right or just and the good. It concludes by considering the practicality of using ‘public policy’ analysis in place of the rights identified here and of adding additional rights to those defended as needed, to handle the problems of knowledge, interest, and power.
Varieties of Protectors
Authors: Varese Federico 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Chapters 1 and 2 point to the fact that the demand for protection that accompanies the spread of market transactions is met by the Russian state only in part: a significant sector of the business world does not use state-supplied protection services. A demand for alternative sources of protection is then expected to arise. Some authors, especially economists, have been quick to conclude that, since the state does not provide a service, the market inevitably will. It cannot, however, be argued that demand will inevitably be met; a supply of people trained in the use of violence and easily available weapons must also be present. This chapter focuses on the availability of people trained in the use of violence and of weapons, and the varieties of private protectors available in Russia at the time of the transition to the market, ranging from segments of the state apparatus (privately sold state protection), to private security (protection) firms, the internalized protection systems of major economic conglomerates, and criminal groups (banditskaya krysha: krysha, literally ‘roof’, is Russian slang for protection).
Mafia Ancestors: The Vory‐V‐Zakone, 1920s–1950s
Authors: Varese Federico 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first section of the chapter describes the main features of the original society of the vory-v-zakone – thieves-with-a-code-of-honour – the criminal fraternity that flourished in the Soviet labour camps between the 1920s and the 1950s, and re-emerged in the 1970s. The account given is based on archival data that have not been presented before, and describes the rituals and practices involved, the vory code of behaviour, vory activities outside prison, and punishment in vory courts. The second section addresses the question of the origins of the vory-v-zakone society, namely, whether it was a Soviet or pre-Revolutionary phenomenon. It is concluded that the fraternity most likely evolved from pre-Revolutionary criminal nineteenth-century arteli (guilds) of ordinary thieves.
Revolutionaries in Power, 1917–1923
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party, which constituted the political elite of Soviet Russia, was in Lenin's time, relatively homogeneous and was entirely composed of people who had been members of the underground Bolshevik party. It is, however, possible to make some differentiation between members of this Central Committee elite, and two examples of ‘types’, one from the intelligentsia and one from the working class, are N. N. Krestinskii and A. A. Andreev. Even in this period, the Central Committee was not a policy‐making body, but all its members were important policymakers in other party and state organs.
Stalin's New Elite, 1939–1956
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The purges were followed by a very high turnover of members of the Central Committee and in effect a new generation of leaders appeared, younger and more from the mass of workers and peasants than their predecessors. Members of this ‘second generation’ would dominate Soviet politics until the 1980s. The job‐slot system continued in the form it had reached in 1934, although there was now more stability and personal security. Examples of a new Stalinist generation were N. S. Baibakov and N. K. Patolichev, one a technocrat, the other a party generalist. The Central Committee was also much larger now, but had less real influence in politics, compared to the supreme leader and the Politburo/Presidium.
The Elite Consolidates, 1966–1985
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Brezhnev years were ones of stability for the USSR, and still more so for its political elite. The Central Committee expanded in size, and its composition—based on the job‐slot system—became increasingly predictable. Its typical members were from the ‘second generation’, born in the first two decades of the century: people like Zaporozh’e party first secretary M. N. Vsevolozhskii, or agricultural procurements minister Z. N. Nuriev, or General P. A. Gorchakov. The Central Committee itself met less frequently during these years, and was marginalized as an arena for collective decision‐making.
The New Competitive Advantage
Authors: Best Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe New Competitive Advantage book presents a conceptual framework, the capabilities and innovation perspective, to address the organizational and technological sources of regional growth and decline. The productivity and income level of any region is explained in terms of the implementation and diffusion of universal principles of production and organization amongst its business enterprises. High‐tech regions such as Silicon Valley and Route 128 in Massachusetts have raised performance standards in new product development and innovation by application of the principle of systems integration to product design, production, and business organization. Systems integration emerged in high‐tech regions in response to the product‐led competition emanating from Japan and East Asia in high volume, flexible mass production systems organized according to the principle of multi‐product flow. An older variant of systems integration can be found in middle‐tech (design‐intensive) industrial districts, particularly in European regions such as those in the ‘third Italy’In a region where systems integration predominates, industry is organized into networked groups or clusters of entrepreneurial firms in which design is decentralized within the enterprise and diffused across open‐system enterprise networks. Networked groups of specialist firms can demonstrate a regional capability to innovate and rapidly reinvent products. In the case of high‐tech regions, the regional innovation system is advanced by the integration of basic research, much of which is located in universities, with technological, developmental, and applied research, most of which is located in entrepreneurial firms. The result is the application of the principle of systems integration to both production and the organization of industry and the establishment of an ongoing technology management capability at the enterprise and regional levels.Whereas principles of production are universal, the protean character of technology marks each region with unique technological capabilities. Thus, a region's current generation of business enterprises is an expression of the region's unique technology genealogy, its international position on a ten‐scale production capability spectrum, and the underlying knowledge base in technology‐related disciplines, engineering curricula, and skills. Audits of technology, production capabilities and skills provide the raw material for designing policies to foster industrial transitions, technology diffusion, and productivity growth..
Production Systems
Authors: Best Michael H. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExplores the links between a firm, region, or nation's production capabilities and productivity. Productivity is explained in terms of fundamental principles of production that underlie the organizational design of business enterprises and production systems. Industrial development, and enhanced competitiveness, is about making the transition to more advanced principles of production and associated levels of production capabilities. A ten‐scale production capabilities spectrum is presented to identify both where a firm or a region's firms fit in the world economy and the specific and critical challenges and opportunities to increased industrial productivity. The evolution of production principles and capabilities is illustrated with five examples of enterprises that established industrial leadership by the application of an enduring production principle: the American System of Manufacture and the principle of interchangeability; Ford and the principle of single‐product flow or mass production; Toyota and multi‐product flow or JIT; Canon and multi‐product flow applied to new product development; and Intel and systems integration.