bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Defining fungal individuals: ecological, biological and genetical aspects; sampling
Authors: Burnett John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
However a population is defined, it is generally assumed that its individual members can be distinguished, except when dealing with clonal organisms. For many purposes the recognition of visible individual structures of a particular taxon is sufficient for ecological analysis and, indeed, fungi have been treated in this way, e.g. counts of taxonomically identical basidiocarps. But, in fact, the identification of a fungal individual by such inspection alone is usually impossible for the following reasons.
Describing and analysing populations: basic genetic and phylogenetic aspects
Authors: Burnett John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mm1mum requirement for describing and comparing populations in both space and time is to be able to identify and distinguish them from each other. Such discrimination is difficult in fungi because of the inherent problem of recognizing distinct individuals (see Chapter 4). By inspection alone, therefore, it is only possible to describe a population in territorial terms as a group of adjacent fungal mycelia or reproductive structures rather than as a group of individuals.
The generation of variation-II The importance and diversity of inbreeding and outbreeding
Authors: Burnett John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recombination in fungi can involve the reassortment of genes, chromosomes, extra-chromosomal elements, or even whole nuclei. The first two occur most frequently at meiosis but mitotic recombination is possible. The reassortment of extra-chromosomal elements and whole nuclei consequential on hyphal anastomoses, leading to heterokaryosis and heteroplasmon formation, is also possible and can be detected. The basic processes concerned in sexual and parasexual recombination have been outlined earlier (see Chapter 1, section 1.4).
Wild birds and science
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One cold, April morning I was perched on a dune, somewhere along the west coast in the very north of England, a student at work, diligently making notes on birds and beasts. In front of me, right across the wind-swept landscape of dunes and beach, tens of thousands of gulls were nesting: the sky was full of them, and their noise competed with that of the sea. There was an endless backdrop of clouds, sand, and waves, miles away from roads or houses.
Sheaves On A Site
Authors: Johnstone Peter T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the last chapter how we may regard many familiar topological properties (of spaces or locales) as properties of sheaf toposes. This in itself would not be a significant gain, were it not for the fact that there are other contexts in mathematics where ‘topological intuition’ seems to be present, and which cannot be adequately described by either spaces or locales – but these contexts do give rise to toposes.
First-order categorical logic
Authors: Johnstone Peter T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall examine the relationship between topos theory and first-order predicate logic. The languages underlying this kind of logic contain formal expressions called terms, which denote individuals, and formal expressions called formulae, which denote predicates that make assertions about the individuals. Compound terms and formulae are built up using various logical operators. The expressions of such a language can be assigned meanings in a category: the terms are interpreted as morphisms and the formulae as subobjects, in a way that respects the logical structure of compound expressions. This categorical semantics requires various kinds of categorical structure to be present in the category, mirroring the logical operations which are allowed in the language, and will be described in the next section. In this section we shall describe the formal syntax of first-order languages.
Higher-Order Logic
Authors: Johnstone Peter T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now turn from first-order logic to higher-order logic: the principal extra feature of this logic, compared with that which we studied in Chapter D1, is that we have variables running over types whose intended interpretation is the set of all subsets of (the set denoted by) some other type, or the set of all functions between two such types – and we can therefore quantify over elements of such ‘higher types’. The extra feature of our formal languages which makes this possible is the presence of type constructors, which build new types from old. In fact, as we remarked after Definition 1.1.1, the first of these type constructors (the product type constructor) was implicitly present already in our account of first-order logic, in that our function symbols and relation symbols had types assigned to them which were finite strings of sorts, and which were formally interpreted as products of those sorts. Now that we need other type constructors, it makes sense to add the product type constructor explicitly to our definition of a signature. We shall find it convenient to maintain the distinction between sorts which are the basic types given to us, along with the primitive function symbols and relation symbols, as part of the specification of our signature, and the types of the signature which may be either sorts or ‘compound types’ built up using type constructors.
The basic dynamical quantities
Authors: Balucani Umberto , Zoppi Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the gross scale of everyday experience, a liquid can be described by a relatively small number of quantities. As in any other physical system, the criteria of choice of these macroscopic variables are established by thermodynamics. For example, the equilibrium state of a one-component fluid* is specified by the volume V of the system, its pressure P, and its absolute temperature T. The actual independence of these equilibrium thermodynamic variables is limited by ‘constitutive relations’ (in the example, the equation of state), whose specific form is taken phenomenologically from some experimental evidence. The well-established ‘principia’ of thermodynamics are subsequently exploited to yield the best possible description of the equilibrium properties of the system from a macroscopic point of view.
Introduction
Authors: Carrington Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thermodynamics deals with the bulk properties of matter and the processes by which these properties are changed. We shall begin by considering briefly the two primary divisions of the subject, statistical mechanics and macro-scopic thermodynamics. In statistical mechanics, quantum theory is used to establish the properties of individual atoms. Large numbers of atoms together have many degrees of freedom and our information about the state of individual atoms is usually incomplete. Hence it is necessary to use statistical methods to determine the properties of a large system from basic quantum principles. For instance, given a quantity of gas in a certain volume we may obtain the allowed values for the energy of the individual atoms from quantum theory. The mean number of atoms in each energy state may then be calculated using statistical arguments. Finally the energy of the gas as a whole, and other properties, may be obtained.
Equations of state
Authors: Carrington Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An equation which links the thermodynamic parameters of a system most accessible to measurement, such as P, v, and T, is normally called an equation of state. For a simple fluid system the equation of state typically has the form, We shall distinguish two uses for the term equation of state. First, it may represent a real equation, like the ideal gas law, Pv = RT. Such an equation is effectively a thermodynamic model for the system. It would not be surprising to find that a particular model equation is reasonable under some conditions but is unacceptable under others. We shall normally assume that model equations of state are well-behaved continuous functions of the independent variables with continuous derivatives, even though the equation may not be physically valid for all states.
Coupling Angular Momentum Vectors and Transformation Theory
Authors: Brink D M , Satchler G R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most important of these operators. is usually the Hamiltonian H of the system or at least the principal part of it, the rest perhaps to be treated as a perturbation later. The other operators then have to be chosen to commute with H. The need for the present chapter arises because there are often two or more ways of choosing our complete set. These sets of course are not independent but have eigenstates which are related by unitary linear transformation.
Graphical Methods in Angular Momentum
Authors: Brink D M , Satchler G R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN any angular momentum coupling problem it is necessary to evaluate expressions containing sums of products of ClebschGordan coefficients or Wigner 3j-coefficients. Such calculations may often be simplified by using the graphical methods of Levinson [85]. These methods have been extended by a number of authors and the results are collected in two books by Yutsis, Levinson, and Vanagas [86] (this reference is denoted by YLV) and by Yutsis and Bandzaitis [87].
Data correction
Authors: Nield Victoria M , Keen David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of data correction is to take the neutron counts received by the instrument detectors and convert them to the appropriate scattering functions which can subsequently be interpreted in terms of the structure of the material. This manipulation can take a number of forms depending on the amount of rigour required and the complexity of data interpretation. For instance, when investigating the Bragg peaks from a single crystal or powdered sample, it is not normally necessary to take great care in subtracting background scattering, unless it is highly structured. Such scattering can readily be removed using simple fitting procedures, which can differentiate between the sharp (strong) Bragg signals and broad (weak) background. However, if the diffuse scattering is also important, such simple methods cannot be employed and more rigorous treatment is necessary. For some methods of data interpretation it is also necessary to produce scattering functions on an absolute scale, and normalisation of the data then becomes important. Equally, different instrumentation may make different approximations in the measurement of the scattering functions and these may need to be accounted for. Several corrections are dependent on the incident neutron wavelength and therefore correction of data from time-of-flight instrumentation is usually more complex than from instruments which use a monochro-matic incident neutron beam.
Superionic conductors
Authors: Nield Victoria M , Keen David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Superionic materials (or ‘fast-ion conductors’ or ‘solid electrolytes’) are ionic solids which possess exceptionally high values of electrical conductivity. Typical conductivites of up to 1 Ω−1cm−1 may be achieved, usually, but not exclusively, at high temperature. These values are comparable with the conductivity of molten ionic materials and are far higher than those of typical ionic solids (e.g. NaCl at room temperature has an ionic conductivity of &lt; 10−12 Ω1cm1). The high conductivity in certain ionic materials has been known about for over a century. Faraday (1839) reported high ionic conductivity in lead fluoride and Kohlrausch (1882) noted that the electrical conductivity of silver iodide was unusually high prior to melting. The conductivity in AgI was subsequently ascribed to a high ionic conductivity arising from an extraordinarily mobile cation (Tubandt and Lorenz, 1914). NemI (1899) observed a high oxygen-ion conductivity in yttria stabilised zirconia and Benrath and Drekopf (1921) measured high lithium-ion conduction in the high temperature phase of lithium sulphate.
Field, Virtual and Image States
Authors: Davison Sydney G , Stęślicka Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far, it has been assumed that the potential outside the crystal is constant, i.e., V(x) = Vo in the vacuum region (the so-called abrupt-potential mode . One should remember, however, that this is only an assumption, which greatly simplifies the direct-matching procedure, and enables surface-state calculations to be performed in a straightforward manner. In reality, an electron outside the crystal can experience different potential fields, depending on the physical conditions to which the crystal surface is exposed. We shall consider two of the most interesting and important cases, viz., when an external electric field is applied to a crystal and when the image potential is taken into account, i.e., the potential generated by the positive image charge created when an electron leaves the crystal.
Psychodynamic Couple Therapy
Authors: Scharff David E , Scharff Jill Savege 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychodynamic couple therapy is an application of psychoanalytic theory. It draws on the psychotherapist’s experience of dealing with relationships in individual, group, and family therapy. Psychodynamic couple therapists relate in depth and get firsthand exposure to couples’ defenses and anxieties, which they interpret to foster change.
Borderline Personality Disorder
Authors: Bateman Anthony W , Karterud Sigmund , Van Den Bosch Louisa M C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inherently ambiguous term ‘borderline’ on the one hand continues to evoke an ambivalent response within the psychotherapeutic and psychiatric community with many authors continuing to complain of its imprecision after two decades of research and predicting its eventual replacement by some more satisfactory formulation (Tyrer, 1999).
Psychotherapy With Adolescents
Authors: Reinecke Mark A , Shirk Stephen R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychotherapy is, in one sense, a simple endeavor. An individual and a clinician meet, and in a trusting and open manner, talk through the patient’s concerns with the goal of bringing about changes in the person’s thoughts, feelings, or behavior. Psychotherapy can be thought of, then, as learning and change brought about through a supportive relationship.
Quantum electrodynamics
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantum electrodynamics (QED) describes the interaction between electrons (or any other charged spin 1/2 particle, like muons) and photons. It is convenient to quantize the photons using the covariant quantization of Section 4.3.2. Actually, it is also useful to generalize slightly the Lagrangian used in Section 4.3.2: instead of eq. (4.102), we describe the free electromagnetic field by with a generic parameter. In Section 4.3.2 we set = 1, but it can be shown that for any ‘ after requiring that 8vanishes between physical states, the spectrum of the theory is given by the two transverse polarization states of the photon.
Applications of estimating function theory to replicates of generalized proportional hazards models
Authors: Chang I-Shou , Hsiung Chao A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Four types of proportional hazards models for counting processes are intro¬ duced according to the assumptions on the baseline functions. Estimation of the relative risk coefficients is considered in the framework of estimating function theory for each of these models. It is argued, when one multivariate counting process is observed, the optima! estimating functions are the same for each of these four models. However, when replicates of the multivariate counting processes are observed, the optimal estimating functions are different for these four models.
The Principles of Statistical Estimation
Authors: Fisher R A , Yates F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
50. The practical importance of using satisfactory methods of statistical estimation, and the widespread use in statistical literature of inefficient statistics, in the sense explained in Section 31 makes it necessary for the research worker, in interpreting his own results, or studying those reported by others, to discriminate between those conclusions which flow from the nature of the observations themselves, and those which are due solely to faulty methods of estimation.
Data examination and display
Authors: Swan Tony , Gilchrist Robert , Bradley Malcolm , Clarke Mike , Green Peter , Reese Allan , Hinde John , Stalewski Andrew , O’brien Carl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are many facilities within GLIM for the examination and display of the contents of data structures. They can be used to explore the characteristics of a dataset before fitting a model, and to inspect the diagnostics of and present the output from a fit. To output data values, use the directives LOOK, PRINT, or TPRINT. The LOOK directive processes only vectors or scalars and displays the output in parallel. The PRINT directive can output the contents of all types of identifier, and displays the output serially. The TPRINT directive will display a vector or an array as a table.
Modelling with Mixtures
Authors: West Mike 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Discrete mixtures of distributions of standard parametric forms commonly arise in statistical modelling and with methods of analysis that exploit mixture structure. This paper discusses general issues of modelling with mixtures that arise in fitting mixtures to data distributions, using mixtures to approximate functional forms, such as posterior distributions in parametric models, and development of mixture pruning methods useful for reducing the number of components of large mixtures. These issues arise in problems of density estimation using mixtures of Dirichlet processes, adaptive importance sampling function design in Monte Carlo integration, and Bayesian discrimination and cluster analysis.
A Single Series from the Gibbs Sampler Provides a False Sense of Security
Authors: Gelman Andrew , Rubin Donald B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Gibbs sampler can be very useful for simulating multivariate distributions, but naive use of it can give misleading—falsely precise—answers. An example with the using lattice model demonstrates that it is generally impossibile to assess convergence of a Gibbs sampler from a single sample series. This conclusion also applies to other iterative simulation methods such as the Metropolis algorithm.
Optimal Portfolios of Forward Currency Contracts
Authors: Quintana José-Mario 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The optimal management of portfolios of financial assets is an excellent challenge to the application of the Bayesian paradigm for the decision making process. The forward currency market, in particular, represents a free environment for constructing and rebalancing portfolios since there are virtually no constraints on the feasible asset allocations. First, the operational characteristics of the forward currency market are described. Second, both the Markowitz and the multi-period myopic utility optimizers are reviewed. In addition, their relationship with variable. and fixed target optimizers with quadratic loss is explored. Third, a passive, an econometric, and a Bayesian forecasting model are cited. Finally, the impact of these statistical and optimization components on the overall performance is assessed by analyzing their results over the last eight years.
How many Iterations in the Gibbs Sampler?
Authors: Raftery Adrian E , Lewis Steven M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the Gibbs sampler is used to estimate posterior distributions (Gelfand and Smith, I990), the question of how many iterations are required is central to its implementation. When interest focuses on quantiles of functionals of the posterior distribution, we describe an easily-implemented method for determining the total number of iterations required, and also the number of initial iterations that should be discarded to allow for “burn-in”. The method uses only the Gibbs iterates themselves, and does not, for example, require external specification of characteristics of the posterior density.
BUGS: a Program to Perform Bayesian Inference using Gibbs Sampling
Authors: Thomas Andrew , Spiegelhalter David J , Gilks Wally R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We describe a preliminary version of a general program for Bayesian inference using Gibbs sampling. A crucial feature of the program is the exploitation of conditional independence assumptions in the original statistical model to allow a smooth transition between model specification in a simple language, internal representation of the model in an object-oriented environment, and automatic derivation of the necessary sampling distributions. A useful starting point is the graphical representation of conditional independence assumptions. The eventual aim is to produce a program that can handle arbitrarily complex problems by decomposing them into modular components which then can be “intelligently” handled by the software.
Genetic Adaptation
Authors: Smith Malcolm T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the achievements of Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was to provide an alternative explanation of adaptation, a mechanistic means by which the appearance of purposive functional design had been achieved without a designer. Our initial apprehension of human adaptation seems to me still to be a reaction to the obvious or supposed functional design aspects of our form and habit. Comparison with our closest ancestors and relatives plays a part here in influencing our judgement. Our large brain, our upright stance and bipedal gait, the functional competence of hand and eye, surely these are adaptations which have led to our success as the most numerous, widespread, socially complex, and cleverest primate of all.
Cultural Adaptation
Authors: Morphy Howard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For much of the twentieth century the concepts of culture and adaptation have been almost equally neglected by British social anthropologists. In both cases the origins of this neglect can be traced to the rejection of the nineteenth century evolutionist paradigm and its replacement by the paradigm of structural functionalist anthropology, which in Britain was associated with the switch from a historically based subject to one that became primarily focused on the study of existing societies through fieldwork. Culture was rejected because it was too closely associated with the rag bag check list of traits that were used in a somewhat mechanistic way to order cultures in hierarchical sequences, reflecting nineteenth century concepts of progress.
Human assortative mating: evidence and genetic implications
Authors: Mascie-taylor C G N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Definition and terms
The term assortative mating refers to a departure from random mating or pan mixia; when like attracts like the mating is called positive assortative mating or homogamy. If opposites marry then negative assortative mating or heterogamy occurs. Some geneticists use the term assortative mating in the broad sense to include all types of departures from random mating. This definition would include the effects of inbreeding resulting from consanguineous matings (Cavali-Sforza and Bodmer 1971; Jacql,lard 1970). However, over the last 10-15 years it has become increasingly common to reserve the term assortative mating for unions involving phenotypically similar individuals who are not relatives.