bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The General Treatment Provisions
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first investment protection provisions in U.S. treaty practice were those guaranteeing certain absolute standards of treatment—typically “special protection” or “full and perfect protection”—to property owned by nationals of the other party.1 Relative standards, requiring MFN or national treatment with respect to investment, began to appear in the latter part of the nineteenth century. One early formulation guaranteed national treatment with respect to the right to “engage in all kinds of trade, manufacturers, and mining” and “all the privileges and concessions in these matters,” with the exception of the coasting trade. Thus, the right was not to national treatment with respect to the establishment and operation of investment generally, but to national treatment of investment related to trade, manufacturing, or mining.
The interwar FCNs continued this pattern, but broadened the protections granted. They provided that property be afforded “the most constant protection and security” and added a guarantee of treatment no less than that required by international law. They also entitled nationals of each party to national and MFN treatment with respect to the right to “engage in scientific, religious, philanthropic, manufacturing, and commercial work of every kind” and “generally to do anything incidental to or necessary for the enjoyment of any of the foregoing privileges.”3 The interwar FCNs thus included MFN as well as national treatment and broadened the coverage to include nonprofit as well as commercial activities. The right of MFN and national treatment for investment, however, continued to apply only to the extent that the investment was incidental or necessary to engaging in these activities.
Other Model BIT Provisions
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A consistent goal of U.S. investment agreements has been to obtain the resolution of disputes through consultations whenever possible, reserving other remedies for situations in which consultations fail. Provisions requiring the parties to consult date back to the earliest nineteenth-century FCNs, which generally provided that, in the event of a treaty violation, neither party could authorize an act of reprisal or declare war against the other without first having presented a statement of injury and demanded justice. The modern FCNs obligate the parties to consult with respect to any matter affecting the operation of the treaty, which is language derived from Article XXII of GATT.
The BITs maintain this policy. To emphasize the importance of consultation in all matters relating to the treaty, the model negotiating texts in use prior to 2004 contain a separate consultations provision. The 1983 model provides, at Article VI(1), which appears under the heading “Consultations and exchange of information,” that the parties agree to consult promptly, upon the request of either, to resolve any dispute “in connection with the treaty” or to discuss any matter relating to the interpretation or application of a BIT. The 1983 model does not specify the form that the request must take and thus it may be oral or written. The obligation to consult does not depend upon an allegation that the treaty has been violated.
Special BIT Provisions
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many BITs include provisions that were never part of the model negotiating text, but were inserted into one or more BITs to address special concerns raised by those agreements. This was particularly true of the BITs negotiated with the countries of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, where the transition to a market economy presented concerns peculiar to those countries. Special provisions, however, may be found in other BITs as well. This chapter describes some of the special provisions found in the signed BITs.
Bits Of The Last Decade: A Ticking Bomb For States?
Authors: Joubin-Bret Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the first bilateral investment treaty (BIT) signed in 1959 between the Federal Republic of Germany and Pakistan, BITs have been steadily concluded by home countries of investors to ensure the protection of investments made by their transnational corporations, linking the conclusion of BITs to political risk insurance programs and other bilateral economic cooperation packages. Countries that seek to promote foreign investment have, in turn, used BITs to make themselves more attractive by offering protection to investments.
The “Divine Mission”
Authors: Brewer Susan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the turn of the twentieth century, Americans and Filipinos fought bitterly for control of the Philippine Islands. The United States viewed the Pacific islands as a stepping-stone to the markets and natural resources of Asia. The Philippines, which had belonged to Spain for three hundred years, wanted independence, not another imperial ruler. For the Americans, the acquisition of a colony thousands of miles from its shores required a break with their anti-imperial traditions. To justify such a break, the administration of William McKinley proclaimed that its policies benefited both Americans and Filipinos by advancing freedom, Christian benevolence, and prosperity. Most of the Congress, the press, and the public rallied to the flag, embracing the war as a patriotic adventure and civilizing mission. Dissent, however, flourished among a minority called anti-imperialists. Setting precedents for all wartime presidents who would follow, McKinley enhanced the power of the chief executive to build a public consensus in support of an expansionist foreign policy.
Operation Iraqi Freedom
Authors: Brewer Susan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When he launched operation iraqi freedom in March 2003, President George W. Bush declared that war would make Americans safer and the Iraqis free. Such assertions masked the real purpose: the expansion of U.S. influence in the Middle East. In the months following the terrorist attack by Islamic extremists in September 2001, the president decided to invade Iraq in order to remove dictator Saddam Hussein from power and transform the Persian Gulf nation into a reliable ally. Officials came up with many reasons why Americans must fight, designed to rally support for a war of choice. Their masterful promotion of Operation Iraqi Freedom initially disguised flawed intelligence and inept planning for the occupation. The disastrous results left many Americans wishing for real answers about why they were fighting in Iraq.
North From the Rappahannock
Authors: Desjardin Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Who’s fault is it?” Sam Keene grumbled to his diary. “The fault of government. Poor management, imbecility, etc., etc.” As the captain of Company F of the 20th Maine Regiment, Keene probably felt he had good cause to complain about the state of things in June 1863, and he would have been hard pressed to find a Union soldier who would disagree with him. Marching through the hot summer was wearing patience thin in the army, and the absence of a mail call in Keene’s regiment for more than two weeks was taking a further toll on morale.
Copyright Owners and Moral Panics
Authors: Patry William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transparent obviousness in the use of moral panics and folk devils is so simple to document that one might ask why they continue to be employed. The answer is because they are successful in achieving the goals of those who use them. Much like negative political advertising continues to be used despite polls showing the public disapproves of it, moral panics and folk devils are used because they effectively appeal to our “easy instincts, not our better angels.” Moral panics “reveal a lot about the workings of power, specifically who has the capacity to define a social problem and prescribe appropriate action.”2 Moral panics thus reveal disturbing truths about our political and legal process, in which a false public perception is created “by emphasizing emotional threats … in order to increase support for risky policies.”
Punishing Corporate Crime
Authors: Reilly Jamest. O ‘ , Hanlon James patrick , Hall Ralph F , Jackson Steven L . , Lewis Erin Reilly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Punishing Corporate Crime: Legal Penalties for Criminal and Regulatory Violations provides a practical discussion of criminal punishment trends directed at the corporate entity. Corporate punishment, for the most part, has traditionally occurred either in the form of a fine or, in the extreme, a heavy sanction that terminates the business. This timely book analyzes the historical and statutory bases of corporate punishment and reviews the latest remedies now employed by the government, including receivership and monitoring, disgorgement of profits, restitution, integrity agreements, and disbarment from regulated fields. Punishing Corporate Crime explores the new and evolving area of corporate criminal punishment that has emerged in the post- Enron era. This book offers key advice in addressing the new and evolving punishments that face corporations, as well as a consideration of preventative programs.
A Space of One’s Own
Authors: Baron Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new digital genres rose to prominence as rapidly as they did not because people preferred machines to human contact, but because we couldn’t wait to reinforce existing relationships through writing, to develop new writing practices made possible by the new technologies, and to engage new audi- ences in dialogue. Programmers and hardware engineers may continue to assert their proprietary interest in computers, and it’s true that without the continuing innovations of the technology crowd, we’d still be hacking away at typewriters or reading books made from dead animal skins sewn together or, worse yet, sun-baked mud. But from the earliest days of the PC, it was the writers who took over the keyboard and claimed the computer screen as a space of their own. And it is the drive to put our lives online that underlies the popularity of MySpace and Facebook, which offer one-site-fits-all communication portals where writers are busy creating the latest digital genre for doing just that, a subgenre of social media sites that I call the space page.
From Pencils to Pixels
Authors: Baron Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 2002 Google began a project to scan millions of printed books in libraries around the world. The goal was to make these fully searchable texts available online at no cost to readers, a kind of livres sans frontières, or——with apologies to one large American bookstore chain——books without borders. Two years later, five major libraries—those at Harvard, Oxford, Stanford, and the University of Michigan, together with the New York Public Library—agreed to let Google digitize their collections, and the world’s most massive scanning enterprise began in earnest, with much of the scanning outsourced to China and India. Along with the libraries, which see the project as a way of making their collections more generally available, a number of major book publishers signed on as well, hoping that Google Book Search would keep some of the marginal titles on their backlists in circulation. Some of these same publishers have since gone to court to stop the project for infringing on their copyright. Pending a resolution to the suit, Google has restricted online access to the books that have been scanned to snippets (a few lines) or limited views (several pages). Books are presented in full only if they are out of copyright or if the publisher agrees.
Some Reflections on Migration and Identity
Authors: Benmayor Rina , Skotnes Andor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It’s mid-1993, and as we write this introduction, we wonder about the continuing resonance of the theme—Migration and Identity—which we chose some three years ago. But a cursory look at the daily news confirms that, in fact, the issue looms large everywhere and will continue to do so.
The Apple and the Olive Tree
Authors: Battisti Francesca , Portelli Alessandro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the student movement of 1990, we have participated in an oral history of the students attending foreign-language departments at the Villa Mirafiori campus of the University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’. Departments of foreign languages and literature are, by definition, places where people gather to learn about other languages and cultures; they are, therefore, almost natural places to look for signs of a multicultural imagination. Indeed, a central theme was the students’ desire for ‘otherness’, the myth of travel and cultural and linguistic multiplicity.
On Becoming a Citizen
Authors: Dagnino Evelina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The re-establishment of formal democratic regimes in Brazil and other countries in Latin America in the past decade has brought a new impetus to the discussion about the very nature of democracy. Social movements have been central to this process of democratization, and their role has suggested a new notion of citizenship, one that is being constructed by the disenfranchised and that transcends both liberal bourgeois conceptions and authoritarian practices of the state. Dona Marlene, the protagonist in this essay, has been an active participant in these social movements in Brazil. Her life story, as she tells it, conveys much about the contents, scope, modes, difficulties, and limits of the recent democratization processes-and the emerging conception of new citizenship.
Ethiopian Jews Encounter Israel
Authors: Ben-Ezer Gadi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The migration of black Ethiopian Jews to Israel since 1977 is a small yet dramatic movement, with unique features. It is interesting not only in its own right, but also because it shares, and often highlights, many features which are common to the migratory movements typical throughout the world in the later twentieth century. It is a migration from the South to the North (the Third World to the West), of black people into a predominantly white society; a movement primarily of the young and the fit, inspired by a utopian dream of life fulfilment; a dream sorely tested, if not shattered, by the experience of arrival in the ‘promised land’. The migration dream of Ethiopian Jews has, as we shall see, exceptionally deep roots in their traditional culture, but their heightened expectations make the parallels in experience with migrants inspired by more typical secular dreams of particular interest.
Family and Identity
Authors: Chamberlain Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1955 and 1966, over 27,000 Barbadians migrated to Britain.2 It was the largest mass migration from the island since that to Panama in the first two decades of the twentieth century, when approximately 45,000 Barbadians migrated. The decades in between saw a steady flow of Barbadians to destinations within the Caribbean and beyond, to North and South America. Fear of the consequences of unemployment, and the resulting claims for overpopulation, led the government of Barbados to play an active role in the twentieth century in securing outlets for employment abroad.
Puerto Rican Women
Authors: Crespo Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout this century women have given this advice to their daughters and granddaughters: ‘Estudia por si tu marido te sale un sinvergiienza’ (‘Study in case your husband turns out to be no good’). It has become a popular saying whose origins are in working-class women’s culture and as such it is recognized by Puerto Rican women who usually have a personal story to tell when they hear this adage.
Between Identities
Authors: Bhabha Homi , Thompson Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Homi Bhabha is an Indian academic and cultural critic who has written and taught widely on colonial and post-colonial issues in the arts. He is editor of Nation and Narration (London, 1990) and author of The Location of Culture (London, 1993). He lives in London, where this edited interview was recorded in June 1993. He was asked at the start to recount his own story and the experiences and influences which led him to his present interests and perspectives.
Clubmen and Functionaries: Male Memory in Two Berlin Working class Neighbourhoods from the192ostothe198os
Authors: Brücker Eva 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Georg Bergeraque (1924-89) was born in the Klausener Platz quarter in Berlin’s Charlottenburg district in 1924. His father, a disabled World War I veteran, was a carpenter and a communist trade union official. His mother worked as a housewife and took care of her only and invalid son. After leaving school in 1938, Bergeraque attended a commercial college and found a position in 1940 as a factotum at the EHER Publishing Company, which put out the fascist publications Viilkische Beobachter and Angriff. He was a member of the Hitler Youth despite his disabilities, took pride in his uniform, and felt accepted and integrated in a way he had rarely experienced at school and with his playmates. He was exempted from compulsory labour and military service and joined the communist youth movement in 1945, following an easy denazification procedure. Through the trade union (FDGB--Freier Deutscher Gewirtschaftsbund or Free German Trade Union Federation) he joined the Communist Party.
The War
Authors: Clegg Hugh Armstrong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the declaration of war on 3 September 1939 to the German invasion of France through Holland and Belgium in May 1940, the war was conducted far from Britain. Germany and Russia seized their shares of Poland. Russia took over the Baltic. states and invaded Finland. Germany annexed Denmark and invaded Norway. Britain and France contemplated going to the aid of the Finns, and Britain had, ineffectively, sent troops to assist the Norwegians. The failure of this endeavour had the momentous consequence of replacing Chamberlain by Churchill at the head of a coalition government, for at the end of the two-day debate on the No1Wegian campaign on 7-8 May the adverse votes and abstentions of Members of Parliament who normally supported the government led to Chamberlain’s resignation.
Wartime Politics and Post-war Planning
Authors: Clegg Hugh Armstrong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of the peacetime activity of British political parties was suspended from the beginning of the war by the agreement between the three major parties on an electoral truce, whereby they undertook not to nominate candidates for vacant parliamentary seats against the candidate of the party that had held the seat before lhe vacancy occurred. This agreement did not, of course, prevent minor parties or independent candidates from contesting by-elections, but it did mean that in most by elections there was little chance of the party in possession losing the seat. The incentive to local party activity was thus reduced and it was further limited by the suspension by Act of Parliament of local elections, leaving it to the local parties to replace by nomination councillors who died or retired. The advent of the coalition government further restricted normal party activities in Parliament since there was now no opposition party. Criticism of government actions and proposals was left to individuals or temporary groupings. A further limitation was the suspension of private members’ bills and motions.
Epidemics and the Geography of Disease
Authors: Dobson Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout human history, successive epidemics and devastating pesti lences have punctuated and scarred the populations of the world. Of the four horsemen of the Apocalypse, Pestilence has struck humankind with the sever est blows. The Black Death of the mid-fourteenth century, one of the most dra matic episodes of all times, killed in a few years at least one-quarter or one-third of the population of the known world. During the Great Plague of 1665-6, over 100,000 Londoners died, and, at the height of the epidemic, there were as many as 6,000 deaths per week. Between the fourteenth and the eighteenth centuries, some 50 million Europeans are believed to have died as a direct result of plague, as the epidemic periodically tracked its way across the world from east to west.
Town and Gown: The Relationship of Trinity College and Dublin, 1592-1641
Authors: Boran Elizabethanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Stubbs’s history of Trinity College it is related that for the entire period during which it was being built-well over a year-there was a total absence of rain except at night. Stubbs is in fact quoting from Fuller who, we are told, had heard of the tale from ‘certain persons then resident in Dublin’. The story was designed to show that the foundation of Trinity College Dublin was a divinely inspired plan which had received God’s imprimatur in this rather unlikely fashion. However, the corollary of the incident is of more importance. Mahaffy, quoting the myth, proceeds to suggest that ‘this historically incredible statement is of real value in showing the feelings of the people who were persuaded of it. The great interest and keen hopes of the City in the founding of the College are expressed in this legendary way.’
A Female Educationalist in the Age of the Enlightenment: Princess Dashkova and the University of St Petersburg
Authors: Tishkin G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the very centre of St Petersburg, on Nevsky Prospect, there is a monument to the Empress Catherine II, who stands out among Russian rulers as a remarkable figure. The sculptor’s idea was to illustrate one of Catherine’s many gifts—her ability to find talented and wise associates to rely upon. Their bronze figures are placed round the pedestal, as if supporting the Empress. Among the nine famous diplomats, generals and admirals, there is a woman—Princess Y. R. Dashkova (1743-1810). Placing Dashkova in such close proximity to the Empress was no overestimation of her importance on the part of the sculptor. She was a truly remarkable woman. A poet, her contemporary, wrote that her ambitions were most striking and not typical of the women of that time, and even embraced the desire of ‘becoming a member of the [proposed] Council of State’.
‘A fungoid assemblage of buildings’: Diversity and Adversity in the Development of College Architecture and Scientific Education in Nineteenth-Century South Kensington*
Authors: Forgan Sophie , Gooday Graeme 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
H. G. Wells, an early student at the Royal College of Science in South Kensington, described his Alma Mater in crushing terms: ‘a fungoid assemblage of buildings, without visible centre, guiding purpose or directing brain’. Written long after his days there, when Imperial College could indeed describe itself as the Charlottenburg of London, one has to conclude that Wells could not resist the temptation to pay off old scores. Indeed he was an untypical witness, and his career there came to an unhappy end. Nevertheless his criticisms direct our attention towards the apparently unplanned and incoherent nature of the South Kensington group of buildings, housing a disparate set of institutions (in particular the Royal College of Science and the City and Guilds Central Institution), which were eventually forged together to form Imperial College in 1907.3 There is thus a story to be told about the role of science within an emerging system of higher education which is inextricably entwined with the narrative of how a particular district in London came to be developed as a site for scientific colleges and for museums.