bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Methods for rooting cladistic trees
Authors: Weston Peter H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Outgroup comparison is a special case of the more general use of parsimony in the construction of unrooted trees. The ultimate product of such analyses would be a ‘global’ unrooted tree connecting all species. A direct method for polarizing characters is needed to root such a tree. I argue that Nelson’s restated biogenetic law is one member of a class of direct methods of char acter analysis that share the same logical basis: parsimony-based analysis of hierarchically nested, homologous characters. Nested characters may be sets of ontogenetic homologues, linked by ontogenetic transformation, organogenetic transformation, or biosynthetic pathways; or sets of iterative homologues, such as serial homologues and paralogous genes. These methods can be used to decorate a tree with arrows that point towards its root. Phylogenetic loss may result in character distributions that are ambiguous or misleading, or for which the methods are inapplicable. The only assumption required beyond those inherent in parsimony-based construction of unrooted trees is that every homology represents a synapomorphy at some level. Nelson’s ‘ontogenetic criterion’ does not assume that phylogenetic change occurs exclusively or predominantly through terminal ontogenetic addition.
Estimating evolutionary rates for discrete characters
Authors: Milligan Brook G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Models play two roles in the study of evolutionary history. First, they are either explicitly or implicitly involved in the reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships. Second, they provide the means of testing alternative, biologically motivated evolutionary scenarios. Although there is widespread interest in both applications of evolutionary models, there are relatively few attempts to estimate them in a phylogenetic context. I present a general means of estimating such models specified in terms of the rate of transition between character states, and illustrate it with both molecular and morphological data. While relatively simple molecular models are easily rejected for the chloroplast gene rbcL, no compelling evidence exists for non-independent evolution of sexuality and propagule type among seed plants. These results are significant because they indicate that the models currently being used for phylogenetic reconstruction may be explicity tested and, in addition, specific evolutionary hypotheses may be investigated. This approach unifies phylogenetic inference with the comparative method.
Population dynamic principles
Authors: Lawton John H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The death of an individual, a population, or an entire species can have many causes, even if one ultimately delivers the coup de gráce. Are there, however, general rules and constraints that may help us better understand rarity and extinction? Simberloff (1986), Cracraft (1992), and Caughley (1994) all provide succinct reviews of the literature on extinctions, and seek to draw some general conclusions.
Biological models for monitoring species decline: the construction and use of data bases
Authors: Margules C R , Austin M P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A necessary prerequisite for estimating extinction rates is a database that adequately represents the biota and is comprehensive in its geographical coverage. This is a fundamental and obvious requirement. So obvious, in fact, that it is often taken for granted that such data exist. In reality, only a few small parts of the world with a long history of biological field surveys, such as the British Isles, can lay claim to adequate and comprehensive databases and even these can only be considered adequate for some components of the biota at some scales. Usually, field records are collected in a haphazard or opportunistic manner; the species recorded are the ones of interest to the collector; and the places they are recorded from are the places those species might be expected to be found, or are conveniently accessible. Accordingly, extensive and often detailed collections of field records in museums, herbaria, and various natural resource management agencies throughout the world are flawed, because they are incomplete and often biased, both in geographical coverage and in the sense that they are records of subsets of taxa.
Introduction
Authors: Cartledge Bryan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problem is simply stated. By the end of the twenty-first century- and possibly within the lifetime of some of today’s infants and toddlers - the population of our planet is likely to have doubled, as it has done during the past fifty years. Brian Heap (below, page 48) takes the relatively optimistic view that the world’s population will reach a plateau of about 10 billion by 2100. A contributor to the last series of Linacre Lectures (John Seaman in Health and the Environment, OVP 1994), on the basis of forecasts by the UN Population Fund, predicted a figure of 11 billion by the year 2060. In this series, Geoffrey Harrison cites the illustrative estimate that if recent growth rates were to continue for a thousand years there would be 1700 people to each square yard of the Earth’s surface, land and sea: extrapolation is not predictive but it does help to concentrate the mind.
Mankind: master of this creation but servant of the Creator
Authors: Jukes John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Rt. Revd John Jukes OFM Conv. has been the Roman Catholic Auxiliary Bishop of Southwark and titular Bishop of Strathearn since 1980. After training in Rome, he entered the Franciscan Order and was ordained in 1952. He founded the Order’s seminary in Anglesey and served as its Rector until 1959. He then served as a parish priest, in Manchester and London, for JO years until his appointment to be lecturer in canon law and Vice-Principal at the Franciscan Study Centre in Canterbury. In 1979, Bishop Jukes was elected a Minister Provincial in the English Province and Area Bishop for the Deaneries of Kent. He is Chairman of the World of Work Committee of the Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales.
Introduction
Authors: Ulijaszek Stanley J , Huss-Ashmore Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the past 30 years, human population biology has sought to document and explain processes that have contributed to biological variability in the human species. The central concept in this field has been the idea of human adapt ability, or the ability of populations to adjust, biologically and behaviourally, to environmental conditions. While much of the early research focused on genetic variation and evolutionary change, more recent work has emphasized plasticity, or the ability to alter physiology and morphology within the individual lifetime. This volume attempts to examine the history of the study of human adaptability from its conception in 1962 to the present day, and is based on the Proceedings of the First Parkes Foundation Workshop, held in Oxford on 6-7 January 1994. The earliest human adaptability projects are examined, case-studies of human adaptability in different environments and in different parts of the world are described, and possible future directions in human adaptability research are considered. In short, this is a wide-reaching appraisal of the origins and state of human adaptability research.
Adaptability of African pastoralists
Authors: Little Michael A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Wenner-Gren Foundation symposium, held at Burg Wartcnstcin, Austria in 1964, served to define some of the major problem areas for the Human Adaptability (HA) section of the newly formed International Biological Programme (IBP) (Baker and Weiner 1967). According to guidelines that had been established a few months earlier in Paris, one of the categories of recommended HA research was intensive multidisciplinary regional studie. (Weiner 1967). Within this category, information was to be gathered on: socio-demography of the community, the environment, population genetics of the people, medical and dental status, daily and seasonal activities, physique and growth, and working capacity. The three contributions to the conference on Africa (Hiernaux 1967; Tobias 1967; Wyndham 1967) made little mention of African pastoral populations, principally because research on pastoralists had been dominated by socio-cultural studies at that time, and virtually no work in human population biology had been done.
The evolution of human adaptability: society, funding, and the conduct of science
Authors: Schell Lawrence M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most commentaries on trends in science are related to the commentator’s perspective and intellectual life history. The following commentary is offered from the perspective of one who uses the adaptability paradigm as described by Harrison (1966) and Lasker (1969), but has not conducted an explicit adapt ability study, that is, a more or less holistic study of a population’s adaptability to stressors from extremes in the physical environment. The work I began in 1976 on adaptation to stressors in urban environments focused on develop mental adaptation, but it focused on psychosocial stress, specifically from exposure to extreme noise, and it was conducted in a North American city. Although the project developed directly from the adaptability paradigm, in which developmental adaptation is integrated into a general model of biological adaptation (Harrison 1966; Lasker 1969), the human adaptability approach common in the 1970s did not seem suited to studying people in cities. Psychosocial stress is an anthropogenic stressor rather than part of the physical environment, and the population studied was neither remote nor exotic. Thus, for 20 years my viewpoint has been from the outside looking in toward adaptability research. Since the mid-1970s adaptability research has changed, as virtually every chapter in this volume attests, and my position has been encompassed by the adaptability paradigm in its current fonn.
Dispersal, demography, and the persistence of partnerships in Indigo Buntings
Authors: Payne Robert b. , Payne laural. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In late spring and through the summer, the song of the Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea (see drawing above) is a familiar sound in old fields and the edges of woodlands in eastern North America. The indigo blue males are conspicuous as they sing from the tops of small trees. The brown females nest near the ground in leafy shrubs and herbs. Buntings are long-distance migrants and spend the winter in flocks in Mexico and Central America. Pairs separate after the breeding season until the birds return in the following spring, from early May, the males about 10 days earlier than the females. Males usually settle on their breeding site of the previous year; females often settle on a new territory rather than reuniting with their old mate.
Middle East Water Issues: Action and Political Will
Authors: Kamal Tolba Mostafa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the past ten years, and in particular over the past five years, I have been persistently calling for action rather than talk. I sincerely hope that this meeting is going to set action in motion. We have plenty of recommendations from global, regional and other international conferences, meetings, seminars and the like. We have plans of action at the global, regional and national levels. We know the facts and what needs to be done. But we have yet to see real action.
Health outcomes: the socio-historical context
Authors: Armstrong Dayid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the eighteenth century a system of medicine based on humours was, for a brief time, rivalled by a medicine grounded in astrological prediction (Wright 1979). The former won the struggle for supremacy, to be replaced in its turn a century later by the triumph of a system of medicine based on pathological anatomy. A conventional explanation for the failure of astrological medicine is that it was ineffective: if the role of medicine is to intervene to alter the outcome of illness then astrological medicine could at best only have had a placebo effect. But this explanation of success and failure is to judge astrological medicine from the perspective of the present and not in its own terms. As well as relief from illness, astrological medicine offered predictions about the future course of life, of good fortune, marriages, and achievements. However, these are not the criteria by which it is now judged: past systems of medicine are evaluated by the criteria of the most recent. Thus, the current system of medicine holds certain outcomes as important and proceeds to evaluate rival systems of medicine in terms of success in achieving these particular outcomes; but from the perspectives of these superseded systems of medicine such criteria of success and failure may be less appropriate. From the view of a medicine based on astrological prediction, modern medicine stands condemned in not even attempting life course forecasts, never mind claiming any success in this area.
Valuation as measurement: an economist’s approach to rendering health care outcomes commensurable
Authors: Fenn Paul , Mcguire Alistair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why is it that some things are more difficult to measure than othersã Height and weight do not trouble us too much, nor do pulse rates, respiration, or temperature. These are all fairly simple, unidimensional concepts for which there are agreed standardized units and widely available means of calibration. It is with the more nebulous concepts, such as health, or well-being, that we begin to get problems. This is partly because such concepts are typically described in terms of a number of different dimensions, and partly because there may be no general agreement as to which of those dimensions are more important to our understanding of the concept. This would, of course, be a problem of semantics alone if it were not for the fact that social objectives are frequently expressed in terms of such concepts.
Sequencing methods
Authors: Cotton Richard G H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sequencing of DNA is fundamental to the whole of molecular biology including molecular genetics. To define a mutation precisely, the sequence change must be established and this can only be determined by sequencing. (It can be achieved without sequencing by the CCM method adapted to the ABI sequencer, see below.) This being the case, sequencing is a routine technique in all molecular biology laboratories and thus it is not treated in depth here.
Diagnostic methods
Authors: Cotton Richard G H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diagnostic methods as their name implies are usually used in the diagnostic laboratory. To a certain extent the division of these methods from scanning methods is artificial as scanning methods can be used in the diagnostic context and especially as some of the methods below can be used to investigate all nucleotide positions in a target sequence, effectively scanning the segment for any mutation. However, it is important to point out that the diagnostic methods used to detect known mutations usually identify the mutation unequivocally when one is detected, in keeping with their diagnostic use. This is in contrast to scanning methods where the same or similar signals can be generated from different mutations. For example, a C → A and a C→ t the same position could generate the same signal for the RNAse, CCM and heteroduplex methods.
Strategies for mutation detection
Authors: Cotton Richard G H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Strategies of mutation detection are of most importance in the area of mutation scanning methods. This is because their time consuming nature and their respective disadvantages make it difficult to choose between them to maximize the number of mutations detected by the approaches chosen. Of course, if we now had the ideal method which was quick and cheap this chapter would not have been written. Within-method strategies will generally not be discussed here and have been dealt with in the methods sections.
Introduction
Authors: Clayton Dale H , Moore Janice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Host-parasite evolution is a hot topic. In less than two decades, a ground swell of interest has stimulated intensive research on subjects as diverse as parasite-mediated sexual selection, host-parasite co-speciation, and the evolution of parasite virulence. This book attempts to review many of the recent developments in this field, while also providing an overview of the immense diversity of parasites reported from a single class of hosts: birds.
Gardens of the mind
Authors: Mitchell Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the peak of his scientific career in the 1960s, the late Peter Mitchell spent two years not doing science, but working full time on the restoration of Glynn House, a large and beautiful Regency mansion in Cornwall. Only a year or so earlier, while director of the Clinical Biology Unit at Edinburgh University, he developed a theory which was to lead to him being awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1978. His time as architect and master of works turned out to be only a temporary retirement from active research. But his departure from the formal scientific establishment was permanent. He built a personal laboratory in Glynn House, and set up the Glynn Research Foundation, a registered charity, to promote fundamental biological research for the benefit of humanity. It challenges many of our ideas about science that a distinguished scientist should abandon his research at a critical stage, and then prefer to continue outside the conventional framework, and in apparent isolation.
Daydreaming molecules
Authors: Black James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As recently as the 1960s, looking for new drugs was largely a matter of trawling randomly for compounds that might do something useful. Black took a much more direct approach. He set out to find compounds that would block the action of particular chemical signals. Patients with angina get a searing pain when their heart starts to beat faster. This is because the damaged coronary arteries cannot supply the heart muscle with the extra oxygen it needs. Because an increase in heart rate is a response to adrenaline, the chemical released by the nervous system in response to stress, Black reasoned that the symptoms could be relieved by blocking this reaction. This is precisely what he succeeded in doing. The beta-blocker, propranolol, works by binding to the sites in the heart, the so-called beta-receptors, which would otherwise be stimulated by adrenaline. Cimetidine, the anti-ulcer drug, works on a similar principle.
Ways of seeing
Authors: Simons Elwyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The man to answer these questions is Elwyn Simons. Master fossil hunter, conservationist and widely regarded as the founder of primate palaeontology, he is concerned with all the stages of human ancestry, but particularly with the fossil remains of the small, monkey-like creatures which lived in the Oligocene and Eocene period between 40 and 30 million years ago, in what is now the Fayum desert of Egypt. The most famous of these is Aegyptopithecus, which is probably the first of the line which branched off and eventually led to human beings. Other Eocene primates gave rise to the lorises and lemurs which Simons studies in the forests of Madagascar and at the Primate Center at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.
Directly to the heart
Authors: Douarin Nicole Le 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Louis Pasteur’s dictum that fortune favours the prepared mind is almost a scientific cliche. It is nevertheless undeniable that the events leading up to important discoveries often seem to contain an element of chance, but equally true that chance is transformed into luck largely by the insight of the recipient. Nicole Le Douarin’s early success seems to be no exception to this rule. She was, and still is, concerned with the problems of development. How, from a single cell, the fertilized egg, billions of different cells arise and organize themselves into heads, eyes, arms and legs, and so on. How, for example, early in development, cells belonging to the neural crest in the region corresponding to the back of the head move forwards to form much of the face. Her first major contribution was to realize that there were certain differences between chick and quail cells which could be exploited to track such cell migrations. She grafted the corresponding quail cells into chick embryos, and showed that as the tissues developed, the grafted quail cells acted as visible labels, or markers, whose destiny could easily be followed. This work led to a transformation in our understanding of cell migrations, particularly those involving the head and nervous system.
Protecting plantations from damage by wildlife, pests, and pathogens
Authors: Savill Peter , Evans Julian , Auclair Daniel , Falck Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A plantation represents a considerable investment and so concern for its health is an important part of silviculture, as discussed in Chapter 2. In natural forests seedlings and mature trees are essential links in the ecosystems’ food chain. Many organisms are partly or fully dependent on trees for their existence. Though damage to plantations is often unpredictable, irregular, and very variable in its severity, fortunately most plantation schemes in temperate and boreal regions are successful because serious damage is rare and adequate protection is usually possible, though sometimes expensive.
Introduction
Authors: Sutherland William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Population dynamics and animal behaviour are two subjects that have developed largely in isolation, despite the widespread acceptance that they are related and the frequent acknowledgement of a need to combine them. The major objective of this book is to demonstrate how aspects of the population ecology of vertebrates, such as population size and the response of populations to ecological change, can be related to behaviour. I will concentrate on particular questions which I consider interesting, so this should not be regarded as a comprehensive review of all aspects of these issues.
Depletion
Authors: Sutherland William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Depletion, the removal of resources by consumers, is undoubtedly an important process in determining the distribution and intake of individuals. Depletion will always occur where consumers are feeding but in some cases it may be trivial, and in others interference may be more significant. As an extreme example, Szekely and Bamberger (1992) s.tudied the predation of chironomid larvae in lagoons by flocks of black-tailed godwits Limosa limosa, spotted redshanks Tringa erythropus and ruffs Philomachus pugnax. Exclosure experiments and observations of feeding rates showed that over thirteen days these birds removed 86.6% of the prey stock. As a result of this depletion, the intake rate from this food source declined by 32.7% for the black-tailed godwits, 14.3% for the spotted redshanks and 59. l% for the ruffs during the same period.
Prey populations
Authors: Sutherland William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapters have considered the behaviour and distribution of the consumers. The aim of this chapter is to explore the consequences of the distribution and intake rate of consumers for the prey or resource population. In particular, how does the mortality rate vary with the prey density? In earlier chapters I outlined models that describe the distribution and intake of consumers feeding in a range of patches varying in prey density. This approach can be used to explore the manner in which the spatial variation in prey mortality will vary with the behaviour of the consumers.