bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Zimbabwe
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In relation to a number of key development indicators, Zimbabwe’s record during the 1980s was impressive. The economy grew at an average rate of 3.9 per cent a year, school enrolments rose from 1.3 million in 1980 to 2.9 million in 1989, including an inefold increase in secondary—school places, while small—scale, largely peasant, agriculture flourished, with marketed output from the communal areas expanding twentyfold and rising from 4 to 20 per cent of national marketed output. Clearly, however, all is not well. In 1990 the government announced the inauguration of a structural adjustment programme approved by both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, aimed at raising and sustaining higher medium— and long—term growth and reducing poverty. Comparatively high average per capita income ($570 in 1992), a highly skewed income and wealth distribution, extensive lush and leafy urban suburbs, and a well—functioning transport system all disguise the extent and depth of poverty and malnutrition which also characterize contemporary Zimbabwe. At the start of the 1990s, over 25 per cent of the labour—force was unemployed, while the majority of formal—sector workers were probably in receipt of sub—poverty wages. In the rural areas, containing 70 per cent of the total population of 10 million, it is estimated that at least 55 per cent of households live in poverty: in many years between 25 and 60 per cent of farming families fail to produce sufficient food to cover their own basic requirements. This is the context in which NGOs operate in Zimbabwe today.
Health and Mortality among the Elderly: Issues for Assessment
Authors: Caselli Graziella , Lopez Alan D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In recent years, there has been a substantial literature on every facet of the daily lives of the elderly person. Psychological, social, economic, demographic, health, and even existential issues, have all been dealt with in great detail, seemingly keeping pace with the continual increase in the number of elderly persons and their lengthening life-span.
The Nilotic Prophets and ‘Arum i Mis’: Remembering Leina
Authors: James Wendy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Notions of a distinct divine presence have reached the Uduk as 4foreign’ beliefs. It is likely that long before they encountered Islam (and, much later, Christianity), indeed when they were still settled in the Daga region, they had plenty of opportunity to observe the religious rites and practices of various Nilotic-speaking neighbours. Among these were the Nuer, whose eastward movement from the r82os on was partly responsible for the pressures which led the Uduk and some of the other Koman communities to move north wards, or further towards the Ethiopian foothills.
The Sudan Interior Mission and ‘Arumgimis’: Expecting Christ
Authors: James Wendy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1938 the Sudan Interior Mission secured a foothold at Chali to work among the Uduk. At the time the area had just been trans ferred from the jurisdiction of Kurmuk (then Fung Province) to that of Renk in the Upper Nile Province. This opened the way for the extension of mission education to the Uduk and some of their neighbours like the Komo, as a’ part of ‘Southern’ policy. The Sudan Government from the early years of the century had favoured missions in the South which placed emphasis upon practical edu cation, upon agricultural and industrial teaching and sound basic skills of literacy, rather than missions which concentrated almost exclusive efforts upon religious enlightenment and conversion.
Becoming Ebony Men
Authors: James Wendy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Observers and informants alike agree that there has been an enor mous upsurge in the activity of the Order of Ebony Diviners (JJaril) in the Jast two generations or so. Mary Beam and Betty Cridland put it to me when I met them in 1971 that there had been a great increase in ‘witchcraft’ during their time in Chali.
Britain’s Bill of Rights
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Blackstone did not know the conception of human or fundamental rights. Quoting Montesquieu he spoke, it is true, of England as ‘a land, perhaps the only one in the universe, in which political or civil liberty is the very end and scope of the constitution.’ This liberty meant ‘the power of doing whatever the laws permit; which is only to be effected by a general conformity of all orders and degrees to those equitable rules of action, by which the meanest individual is protected from the insults and oppression of the greatest.’, And later in his Commentaries he dwells on the personal liberty of individuals which ‘the law of England regards, asserts and preserves’ and which, with the right of personal security and the right of property, constitutes ‘in a peculiar and emphatical manner the rights of the people of England.’ All these rights and their incidence to Blackstone were aspects of the law of nature or of natural law which he treats as the source and origin of the common law.
The Theoretical Approach Towards the Law Governing Contracts between States and Private Foreign Persons
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In discussing the theoretical foundations of the law governing State contracts, that is to say, contracts between States (or other international persons) and private persons it is necessary to start from a hypothesis which is both fundamental and elementary. Every contract is necessarily governed by a specific legal order. Or, to put it negatively, an understanding which is not governed by a specific legal system is not a contract. Or, again, it is the law, the legal order or system which confers the quality of a legally binding contract upon the understanding between parties. They may, it is true, agree that their understanding shall be no more than a gentleman’s agreement, but, as we all know, this is unenforceable in law and, therefore, no contract at all. To this day the vinculum juris, the obligatory character of the understanding is the essential prerequisite of a contract.
‘Inviolability’ and Other Problems of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 scheduled to the Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 (and some similar Conventions) makes much use of the term ‘inviolability’. The premises of the missions are ‘inviolable’ (Art. 22). The archives and documents of the mission, wherever they may be, are ‘inviolable’ (Art. 24). The official correspondence of the mission is ‘inviolable’ (Art. 27, paragraph 2). The person of the diplomat is ‘inviolable’ (Art. 29), the same applies to his private residence, his papers, his correspondence and, in principle, his property (Art. 30).
The Effect in England of the Compulsory Acquisition by a Foreign State of the Shares in a Foreign Company
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Williams and Humbert Ltd. v. W. & H. Trade Marks (Jersey) Ltd., Rumasa SA v. Multinvest (UK) Ltd., [1986] A.C. 368, the House of Lords, in a speech delivered by Lord Templeman and concurred in by Lord Scarman, Lord Bridge of Harwich, Lord Brandon of Oakbrook and (probably) Lord Mackay of Clashfern, appear to decide that if Spain ‘compulsorily acquires’ all the shares in a Spanish company there is no legal principle that would prevent the company, represented by its new directors, from recovering its English assets.
Access to the Living Resources of Exclusive Economic Zones for Land-Locked and Geographically Disadvantaged States
Authors: Vasciannie S C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The question of access for LLGDS to living resources in the EEZs of coastal States was a highly controversial one throughout the negotiations at the UNCLOS III. It was also of considerable economic importance, for at the time of the negotiations, over 95 per cent of the world’s marine fish catch was taken within 200 miles of the shore.The purpose of this chapter is to examine the claims and counter-claims of States on this issue and to assess the extent to which the 1982 Convention represents a balanced reconciliation of State interests. In order to place the debate in perspective, however, it is necessary to consider the nature of the international fisheries regime which prevailed in the period before the UNCLOS III.
Land-Locked States and the Question of Access in General International Law
Authors: Vasciannie S C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although the question whether general international law permits land locked States to exercise a right of transit to the sea has stimulated considerable academic debate, it can hardly be regarded as definitively settled. Broadly speaking, opinions range from the position that transit is a natural right for all States without coastlines, to the view that individual land-locked States may only exercise a privilege of passage across neighbouring territory when this is authorized by an existing treaty, a special licence, or on the basis of a local custom. This chapter contains a review of the leading arguments that may be raised on the point and a discussion of the weaknesses inherent in assertions favouring an enforceable right of free passage. It will be suggested that, even at the present time, some doubt must remain as to the status of free transit in general international law.
Bluntness and Bricolage
Authors: Simmonds N E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Whatever their differing views on the respective roles of reason and fiat in law, the classical philosophies of law have generally concurred in attaching importance to the determinate and ascertainable character of positive law. For natural law theories, positive law may be seen as a concretization of the more abstract requirements of reason, reducing for the individual the extent of wisdom and judgement that must bridge the divide between the general demands of reason and the decision of specific instances. For theories of a more Hobbesian cast, law is a pure product of will, creating order out of a moral vacuum. But for all such theories, positive law exhibits a degree of certainty and specificity not to be found in the requirements, of reason apart from law: their differences turn on whether law is seen as creating new requirements on conduct, or as channelling and redirecting pre-existing requirements.
Theories of Justice, Traditions of Virtue
Authors: O’Neill Onora 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Justice was once one of the virtues—a cardinal virtue. European traditions saw the concerns of justice and of (other) virtues as closely linked until at least the eighteenth century, hence both before and through the period of the Enlightenment and the writings of what are taken to be the ancestor texts for modern liberalism. Yet contemporary liberals and their critics view matters quite differently. Today justice and the virtues are more often seen not merely as distinct but as inimical, even as the central figures of incompatible orientations to life, politics, and practice. Theorists of justice now often claim to be neutral about conceptions of the good, or agnostic about the Good for Man. If they have any view about the virtues, it is that these arc concerns of a private sphere, which they value as an arena for pursuit not of virtue but of preference. The friends of the virtues now often depict virtues as specific to and emblematic of particular traditions and ways of life, and claim that abstract universal principles of justice are hostile to lives of virtue.
Liberty and Legal Obligation in Hobbes’s Leviathan
Authors: Skinner Quentin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Thomas Hobbes’s philosophy of law, especially as articulated in Leviathan, presents the reader with a seeming paradox. On the one hand, the liberty of subjects is held to depend in almost every instance on ’the silence of the Law’. But on the other hand, law and liberty are held to be compatible. One of the questions which has always preoccupied Hobbes’s commentators has in consequence been whether Hobbes’s views on liberty and legal obligation are merely confused, or whether there is some way in which his apparently contradictory statements can be reconciled.
Introduction
Authors: Fair Emma Play 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In June 1987, the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza entered its third decade.1 For twenty years, more than a generation, the Occupied Territories and a Palestinian population reaching over one and a half million2 had been under the exclusive and alien rule of Israel. Neither a society nor a land can stand still for twenty years, yet how an occupier permits, prevents or forces change is all important for the fate and identity of those territories and their populations.
T
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Taxation Of Goods (Prohibition Of Discrimination) Rules intended to prevent tax discrimination in relation to movements of goods between Member States. The taxation of goods may not be used as a means of favouring domestic products, either by protecting them against imports or by providing disguised export subsidies. Arts. 90 and 91 EC prohibit such discrimination, and reflect the second paragraph of Art. III of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Art. 92 prohibits Member States from making border tax adjustments in respect of direct taxation unless permitted to do so by the Council.
V
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Value Added Tax (Vat) A common system of tax imposed in each Member State of the EC on the supply of goods and services. The amount of VAT is a fixed percentage, such as 17.5% in the United Kingdom or 20% in Italy, of the consideration given for the supply, which is known as the ‘taxable amount’. The supplies subject to VAT are known as ‘taxable transactions’. VAT is a tax borne by the final consumer in the supply of goods or services; and is an indirect form of taxation that is collected by certain suppliers, which is then paid to the national tax authority of a Member State. A supplier who is required to charge VAT is known as the ‘taxable person’.
W
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Worker One of three categories of persons for whom the original EEC Treaty and Title III of Part Three of the present EC Treaty guarantee freedom of movement within the Community (the other two categories being self-employed persons and persons providing or receiving services). While Art. 39(1) EC expressly secures freedom of movement for ‘workers’, and Art. 1(1) of implementing Reg. 1612/68 (OJ Sp. Edn. 1968 (II), p. 475) refers to the right to take up an activity as an ‘employed person’, these concepts are not defined in primary or secondary Community law (except for the purposes of social security, see Art. 1(a) of Reg. 1408/71, OJ Sp. Edn. 1971 (II), p. 416, as amended; see further under Social security).
The Convention on Genocide and the Protection of Minorities
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1948 is notable as the first of the post World War II general conventions which has any bearing on minority protection. It has been discussed in this context by writers and is listed in the compilation by the United Nations Secretariat of the texts of those international instruments and similar measures of an international character which provide special protective measures for ethnic, religious, or linguistic groups. It is also significant in that it is part of international criminal law and underlines a profound concern of modern international law with at least some aspects of the welfare of minorities. This truth is not affected by the fact that minorities ‘ as such’ are not mentioned in the Convention, because they are clearly comprehended by it as the natural victims of genocidal measures.
Post-War Attitudes and Re-fl,ections on the Significance of the League System in General International Law
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The common opinion is that the Minority Treaties under the League of Nations did not create customary law. In the light of the conclusions of the United Nations Study on the League treaties and declarations, this leads to the conclusion that the post-war world started, as it were, with a tabula rasain the matter of tolerance and encouragement of minorities. States could act as they pleased in relation to their populations if they were not inhibited by a relevant treaty. In some respects, this appears too simplistic (the constraints imposed by the Nuremberg principles must be borne in mind), but there is evidence on the limited scope of the League system of treaties in its practice and intentions.
The Omission of a ‘Minorities Article from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is perhaps the most significant document in the field of human rights. The Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1948, by forty-eight votes to none, with eight abstentions. It contains civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. It does not make any references to ‘minorities’, though it does refer to the principle of non-discrimination or ‘non-distinction’: ‘Everyone is entitled to the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status’ (Article 2). There is also the promise of equality:
History of Article 27
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In General Assembly Resolution 217c(III), entitled ‘Fate of Minorities’,1 it was stated that the United Nations could not remain indifferent to the fate of minorities, but that it was difficult to adopt a uniform solution of this complex and delicate question. The General Assembly requested the Economic and Social Council to ask the Commission on Human Rights and the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities ‘to make a thorough study of the problem of minorities, in order that the United Nations may be able to take effective measures for the protection of racial, national, religious or linguistic minorities’. The Sub Commission discussed the resolution at its third session.2 Draft resolutions were submitted by members of the Sub-Commission containing positive proposals for the protection of minorities.
Enjoyment of Culture
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Contemporary indications from legal instruments as to what cultural rights entail are found in Articles 13 to 15 of the Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. By Article 13 the States parties ‘recognize the right of everyone to education’, which ‘shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms’, as well as, inter alia,promoting ‘tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups’. The States parties also agree to respect the liberty of parents ‘to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions’.
Profession and Practice of Religion
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
These last remarks apply with some force to the question of religion. Some conception of what amounts to a religion was outlined above. No doubt States will continue to deny the status of a religion to certain practices in order to evade obligations. But the major problem is not the definition of practices and creeds as religious or non-religious, but the challenges posed by recognized and organized religions to the fabric of States. The issue is not confined to States committed to a rejection of traditional religions, but finds equal expression in States manifesting an attachment to a particular religion in laws or through State policy.
Article 27 and the Optional Protocol
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The first ‘case’ under the Protocol with Article 27 as its focal point appears in the Human Rights Committee’s report for 1981. Cases such as Lovelacev. Canadacontribute to the interpretation of the Covenant and provide contemporary illustrations of the practical difficulties in implementing any general principle of minority protection. The original ‘communication’ from Sandra Lovelace who was born and registered as a ‘Maliseet Indian’ is dated 29 December 1977. The substance of the complaint was that she lost her status and rights as an Indian in accordance with the Indian Act of Canada by marrying a non-Indian in 1970.
Self-Determination in the Covenants: A Note
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Article 1 of both UN Human Rights Covenants commences with ‘All peoples have the right of self-determination’. The other paragraphs refer to economic self-determination (paragraph 2); and to the duty of States Parties to the Covenants to promote self-determination (paragraph 3): ‘The States Parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the administration of Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories, shall pro mote the realization of the right of self-determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.’
Jurists
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Capotorti, in a passage not entirely free from ambiguity, states, apropos of Article 27, that while this article is not a source of legal obligations for States which have not yet ratified the Covenant, the approval of the Covenant by the General Assembly of the United Nations has conferred upon the articles the value of general principles no less significant than those set forth in solemn United Nations Declarations. From this point of view, the right granted by Article 27 to persons belonging to ... minorities can be considered as forming an integral part of the system of protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms instituted after the Second World War ...
International Law
Authors: Thornberry Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The fact that propositions favoring the idea of Article 27 as generally applicable law derive from reputable jurists makes it expedient to recall that juristic opinion is itself a subsidiary source of international law under Article 38(1)(d), of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. The evidence of law provided through the opinions of writers must be assessed critically as must other ‘sources’. Remarks have been made in the present text on the relative lack of demonstration in the legal propositions. None the less, the argument that Article 27 represents general international law is assisted by the opinions outlined, bearing in mind, however, that this sample of writers is limited.