bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Digital Diplomacy of the Central Asian Countries
Authors: Faizullaev Alisher 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyses the features, trends, and challenges of digital diplomacy (DD) in the Central Asian countries (CAC) and focuses on social media diplomacy (SMD). The coronavirus pandemic has significantly affected the penetration of digital communication technologies into the diplomatic activities of CAC, including their consular work. The number of followers of the social accounts of presidents, foreign ministries, diplomatic missions abroad, and diplomats is constantly growing. But despite certain development of DD in the countries of the region, SMD has not yet become one of the main and proactive instruments of international diplomacy of these states. Using the ideas of game theory, the chapter argues that CAC have begun to develop their SMD and at this stage it takes place mostly through the dissemination of information about ongoing meetings and events, rather than engagement with other state and non-state actors regarding their long-term fundamental objectives and critical international problems. Currently, the SMD of CAC is largely based on reputation-building and image-making public diplomacy. For SMD to be used at a more strategic level, that is, as a pivotal instrument of foreign policy and diplomacy, CAC need to develop comprehensive strategies of dialogical engagement and interaction with other state and non-state stakeholders as well as a more conceptualized SMD with clearly defined strategic goals and measurable objectives.
Chinese Wolf-Warrior Diplomacy
Authors: Cooper Andrew F. , Hai-chi Loo Jeff 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The People’s Republic of China (PRC) has undergone a significant shift in its diplomatic practices, driven by the use of social media and new digital technology. This shift is a departure from the non-resistant, passive, and conservative approach that the PRC has used for the past two decades, and is now characterized as provocative, nationalistic, aggressive, and high profile. The motivations behind this shift are often attributed to the defence of ‘national interest’ and ‘territorial integrity’ from a realist perspective. However, this new form of diplomacy, known as ‘wolf-warrior diplomacy’, also taps into a deep reservoir of emotions, including resentment, frustration, anger, pride, and status deprivation. Before 2019, wolf-warrior diplomacy was present only at the margins of PRC diplomatic practice. However, the shift reflects an awareness of the tools of technology, the use of social media, informational technology, and AI at the PRC’s disposal, as well as a massive echo chamber of netizens (especially the 50 cent army). The shift came about because of a perceived strategical necessity rationale at the apex of power with President Xi Jinping’s belief system that wolf-warrior diplomacy not only helps maintain the privileged position of the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) but also consolidates his personal support.
Diversities and Developments in Asia Pacific Digital Diplomacy
Authors: Spry Damien 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the practices and contexts of digital diplomacy in the Asia Pacific, a vast, diverse region with great disparities in wealth, size, geostrategic heft, demographics, and political systems. The Asia Pacific is shaped by legacies of history, ongoing great power rivalries, the omnipresence of global systems of trade and communication, and by contemporary issues such as climate change and the Covid-19 pandemic. These conditions are the basis for any discussion of digital diplomacy in this dynamic, complex region. The chapter considers diplomacy in practice, and practices that affect and inform diplomacy; digital publics as participants in digital diplomacy and the techno-social and techno-political systems that shape digital diplomacy. It also considers practices that are emergent, such as coercive diplomacy and foreign interference, the increasing role of the system of digital networks that facilitate diplomacy, and the evolving information disorder which problematizes diplomatic practice.
Digital Diplomacy in Latin America
Authors: Aguirre Daniel , Ramos Alejandro 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Referring to general aspects and common features that offer insights on the digitalization of diplomacy in Latin America, the chapter provides a conceptual mosaic that seeks to synthesize diverse approaches by which a number of countries in the region—albeit at different paces—embraced the digital paradigm and consequently adopted digital platforms to achieve their own foreign policy objectives. In addition, the chapter delves deeper into the specific cases of Mexico and Chile, providing details of different aspects of each experience to illustrate how the region has ventured into digital diplomacy during the last decade. The growing consularization of diplomatic practice, particularly following the Latin American countries’ response to the Covid-19 pandemic, is examined and discussed in the final section of the chapter. From the chapter’s recounting and the authors’ perspectives on the practical use of digital tools for diplomatic purposes, the Latin American experiences shed light on how the different countries have recognized the importance of (and the high cost of not ) developing a strong online presence and a digital diplomacy strategy that is in step with the times.
Diplomacy in Times of Crisis in the GCC
Authors: Akdenizli Banu 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the use of social media, specifically Twitter, by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Embassies of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries during two significant periods in recent history: the Blockade (2017–2021) and the Covid-19 pandemic (2019–2021). The GCC is a unique region where countries share similarities while also highlighting their distinct differences. This is evident in their responses to the Blockade and the Covid-19 pandemic, as well as the way these events were framed and interpreted online by both the public and officials. The analysis in this chapter reveals a gap between the public’s concern for pressing issues affecting humanity and the states’ focus on individual power. The GCC’s digital diplomacy is driven by power and competition. Trust in social media platforms and trust in governments continue to be major concerns. The chapter also highlights existing digital restrictions, such as restrictions on VoIP technology, safety and privacy concerns resulting from digital tracking and surveillance, and the weaponization of social media as realities that must be taken into account in the practice of digital diplomacy in the region. Both cases examined show that digital diplomacy is not currently a useful practice for relationship management in the GCC. Despite efforts to maintain a unified identity, mistrust and suspicion continue to plague the region. The chapter argues that digital diplomacy has the potential to rebuild trust, but it is not sufficient on its own.
Soft Power in the Digital Space
Authors: Rawnsley Gary D. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter interrogates the conceptual and practical value of ‘soft power’ as a means of understanding politics and international relations in the digital space. It argues that digital technologies both reflect and communicate soft power capacity and have provided political actors, especially within civil society, tools to communicate and collaborate, mobilize, and protest. However, the chapter also reviews how states have transferred their power online to complement and reinforce their power offline, thus challenging the more normative assessments of digital political cultures that emphasize how digital spaces have grown democratic ideas and practices and expanded the number and range of voices in politics. Rather, the digital space is still shaped and reshaped by political decisions taken elsewhere. The chapter refers to examples from across the democratic and non-democratic world but provides detailed discussion of China, which is now an almost fully digital society. China reveals how states can claim to be ‘soft powers’ and embrace digital technologies for routine services but can also use those same technologies to control society more efficiently and limit levels of political accountability, transparency, and the autonomy of civil society—the markers of soft power.
Researching Influence Operations
Authors: Briant Emma L. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Since 2016’s UK Brexit referendum and US presidential election, concern about influence operations has dominated media coverage, scholarship, and policy debates. Social media platforms enabled a Wild West where disinformation (deliberately false or ‘black’ propaganda) can be distributed with algorithmic precision to influence minds and behaviours. This chapter’s contribution is in defining a ‘digital influence industry’ concept, distinguishing it from similar actors, and analysing its role and its importance for understanding influence operations and, within it, propaganda and ‘disinformation’. The author advocates for renewed focus on studying influence actors and industries to understand more deeply their distinct roles in shaping ideas, emotions, and behaviours for governments, politicians, and other actors. The chapter argues this is essential to understanding and addressing misleading campaigns within a democracy in a way that ensures accountability and protects free speech and citizens’ rights.
Digital Feminist Foreign Policy
Authors: Cassidy Jennifer A. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The power of digital technology to shape the perception of states and their citizens is an increasing and vital area for scholarly investigation. States are now using digital tools to compete for international and national attention, to secure influence, and to gain legitimacy. In a continuous quest to project an image of an attractive, credible, and capable actor on the global stage, diplomats are increasingly utilizing what can now be referred to as online ‘tools of attraction’. Tools of attraction are those strategies and resources which have been, and are, enabling countries to craft their brands online, shape their nation’s image positively, and progressively grow and cement their soft power, both online and off. This chapter examines how two ‘Western’ nations (Sweden and Mexico) have used, and are using, the adoption and promotion of a feminist foreign policy as a digital tool of attraction. Tools of attraction are now a driving force behind reputation and influence on the global stage, with the medium of digital diplomacy playing an essential role.
Sikh Economic Ethics
Authors: Singh Pashaura 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This study explores the relationship between Sikh values and economic morality affecting the evolution of the global Sikh community (Panth) in different historical periods. As the founder of the Sikh tradition, Guru Nanak was a pioneer in developing the notion of spiritual capital alongside material capital. To eradicate the problems of poverty, unemployment, the exploitation of the poor by the rich, and the uneven distribution of wealth, he laid emphasis on the work ethic of earning one’s living through honest labour, adoring the divine Name, and sharing one’s earnings with the needy. During his lifetime, the doctrine and praxis of sevā (‘selfless service’) and the institution of laṅgar (‘free community kitchen’) became the pillars of a moral economy that is just, free, equitable, and conducive to the material and spiritual well-being of society. From the perspective of a Sikh world view, therefore, Sikh economic ethics seeks the welfare of one and all (sarbat dā bhalā).
Native American Spirituality and Economic Ethics
Authors: Gladstone Joseph Scott 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter defines and describes a generalized Native American spirituality and ties this spirituality to economic ethics and morality. Native American oral tradition, literature, and publications reveal a pragmatic Native American spirituality summed as ‘an active awareness of an animate tangible and intangible world beyond oneself, and an extrasensory connectedness with it’ (Gladstone, 2015, p. 23). This spirituality influences a transplanar Native American wisdom (Gladstone, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2021) that recognizes a sense of relatedness among all things animate and inanimate, and a sense of time with no distinct separation across past, future, and present. By recognizing, acknowledging, and respecting animacy in all things, and that all things exist in a broad extended moment, a strong spiritually driven Native American ethos influences pragmatic economic behaviour that considers its effects not only for public benefit, but the well-being for all things animate, inanimate, past, present, and future.
Aztec Religious Economic Ethics
Authors: Blanton Richard E. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses pre-Hispanic Aztec religion and philosophy in relation to economic ethics during the period roughly 500 years before the Spanish conquest of Mexico in 1521 ce. This time period is of interest for the subject matter of this volume given the relative abundance of information about religion and its social outcomes in a pre-Hispanic society. By comparison with other Mesoamerican regions and time periods, in Aztec society religion played an important role in shaping notions of economic ethics and market institutions. Ideas rooted in religion fostered broadly-based cooperation in a diverse society that was undergoing rapid change in scale and social complexity, including in its market system. Cooperation is evident in Aztec egalitarian ideology, in the establishment of good government policies such as a fair judiciary, and in the associated phase of economic growth driven by enhanced possibilities for free and equitable commercial interactions across statuses, genders, wealth differences, and ethnicities.
Religion and Finance
Authors: Kaleem Ahmad , Ahmad Saima 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Interest-based loans are prohibited as taught by the three best known Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). Instead, they offer alternative forms of financing, such as sale-based debts (assets-based transactions), interest-free loans, leasing, charity, and various types of partnerships. Despite the clear prohibition of interest in three of the world’s dominant religions with billions of followers, it is surprising that contemporary financial policies and practices are not reflective of these faith-based methods of financing. International crises like the Global Financial Crises (GFC), COVID-19 pandemic and later on hike in the global interest rates further necessitate the need for research on alternative and, in particular, interest-free methods of financing. These events initially compelled national economies to dispense substantial rescue packages, lowering interest rates and reducing tax rates. Later, the increase in interest rates exacerbates financial difficulties, impeding the ability to recover and invest. Interest-free financing reduces the strain of debt liabilities on the borrowers while enabling borrowers to access funds without the added burden of interest payments.
Religion and Business Ethics
Authors: Newell Edmund 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the development of business ethics as a specialism within moral philosophy in the twentieth century, its influence on business practice, its historic background—particularly the long and enduring influence of religion on ethical thinking—and how a multi-faith approach is essential in today’s globalized business environment. The main determinates of ethical principles in Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism are compared, and are examined against non-religious criteria commonly used in applied ethics, highlighting their differences and similarities within the broad traditions of deontological, consequentialist, and virtue ethics. These comparisons highlight both the practical importance of understanding religiously influenced cultural differences when conducting international business in an increasingly globalized economy, and of value in establishing agreed ethical criteria for guiding decision-making in business. The chapter concludes with a call to build on the 1994 Interfaith Declaration by widening its scope to embrace ethical thinking beyond Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.
Religion and Work
Authors: Parboteeah K. Praveen , Kim Sahrok 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Religion and work are integral to the foundation of society. Therefore, interest in understanding the effects of religion on work, work obligations and related aspects remains strong given recent reviews examining general elements of religion, work, and organizations. Given such importance of religion to work, this chapter will first discuss the general links between religiosity and work aspects. However, to provide a more nuanced view of these links, the chapter also considers four of the world’s main religions, namely Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. A majority of people around the world practise one of these four religions and the chapter will discuss how the religious teachings of these faiths inform the connection between religion and work and related work aspects such as work values. In sum, the chapter will provide a comprehensive understanding of the connections between religion and many work aspects.
Religion and Altruism
Authors: Chilton Bruce 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter deals with altruism in classical Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, beginning with an assessment of what it means to study religions critically. How religions promote care for others can then be investigated on the basis of the motivations set out in literature held to be pivotal within each tradition. That analysis, however, problematizes the very definition of ‘altruism’, requiring consideration of how it has been applied and what methods can be used to detect and measure altruistic behaviour. Although the critical issues involved require continued research and attempts at resolution, this chapter offers a provisional set of findings.
Religion and Consumerism
Authors: Cloutier David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The globalization of consumer culture exists in tension with traditional strictures and lifestyles of many world religions. Those traditional strictures and lifestyles emphasize that excessive material consumption harms both the self and social relations, and are accentuated today by concerns about environmental destruction. By contrast, consumerism increasingly encourages individuals to develop their very identities through their consumer practices. This chapter outlines the fundamental conflict between traditional teachings and consumer culture, focusing on Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. The socio-cultural interaction of religious traditions and consumer society involves a kind of hybridity, rather than a simple confrontation. This raises the question of how to evaluate such hybridity from the perspective of the traditions while also exploring various forms of ‘hybrid’ identities that have emerged in religious communities negotiating these tensions. Also, given the newness of consumer society, the question remains whether such a dual identity is authentic and sustainable.
Buddhist Economic Ethics
Authors: Amore Roy C. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Early Indian Buddhism saw the rise of banking and the business class. The movement of disciples led by Shakyamuni, the Buddha, denounced animal sacrifices and undermined the authority of Brahmins and landowners. The old economic order was called into question. The Asian expansion over two millennia brought the ethic of non-violence and moderation, along with the idealization of monastic life. Buddhism taught that good kings should sponsor places to feed the poor, avoid wars of aggression, and focus on economic uplifting for their subjects. Modern developments include Schumacher’s promotion of ‘Buddhist Economics’, U Nu’s approach to a Buddhist middle path to economic development, and the emergence of a worldwide engaged Buddhism movement led by Thich Nhat Nanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, D.T. Ariyaratne, Dalai Lama and other. The ecodharma goal is to uplift the poor while sustaining the environment and challenging those who exploit others or the planet.
Religion and Socialism
Authors: Rieger Joerg , Stauffer Aaron 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
While religion and socialism are often seen at odds, there are many examples of religion and socialism engaging and supporting each other. This chapter explores the life and work of B.R. Ambedkar (Buddhism), Rev. George Washington Woodbey (Christianity), and Ali Shariati (Islam). Ambedkar was one of the architects of the Indian constitution and Woodbey, an often under appreciated figure in the Black Social Gospel, worked in close solidarity with economically exploited people, and therefore are quite clear about the realities of the class struggle. For Shariati, as a leader of the Iranian Revolution, class was a central topic as well, but his emphasis was less on the economics than on the politics of it. These figures demonstrate how political and religious democracy might be grounded in economic democracy. When religion and socialism are brought together both sides can benefit, often in ways that deepen the understanding of each.
Analytical Synthesis: Religion and Economic Ethics
Authors: Barrera Albino 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This concluding chapter to the Oxford Handbook of Religion and Economic Ethics presents three major findings. First, it traces the convergence of these religions’ teachings and practices on economic life to similarities in their foundational cosmologies and anthropologies. Socio-economic life is embedded within a much larger natural and divine economic order, which can be partly discerned in natural law. Second, it explains how these religious teachings are antithetical to modern market practices, mainstream economic thinking and policy, and even the public’s economic ethos. Third, this chapter also finds that the direction of contributions is not unidirectional, such as religion shaping economic life. Rather, it is a two-way causation with economic life improving religious practice and faith formation. Religious beliefs and practices can indeed lead to a much-improved economic life with strife, competition, and inordinate desire replaced by cooperation, temperance, and mutual solicitude, at least in theory. Economic life, in its own turn, can also lead to the furtherance of religious beliefs and practices by providing the temptations, challenges, adversity, and occasion that can drive believers to a deeper appreciation and appropriation of their faith. Indeed, there is a surprising symbiotic relationship between religion and economic life.