bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Philosophy and Methodology of Ambassador Dennis Ross as an International Mediator
Authors:   Bebchick
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article explores the mediation efforts of Ambassador Dennis Ross, who served for a decade as a key facilitator in the delicate and difficult peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians. The salient elements of Ross's mediation techniques, as applied in a variety of situations, are described and assessed in this case study. Ross's techniques are divided into nine categories: empathizing, building trust, creating movement, disaggregating issues and symbols, generating creative options, using deadlines effectively, equalizing a power imbalance, establishing confidentiality, and being a fair broker. Ross's uses of these methods provide valuable insights into the conduct of high-stakes intervention in complex international disputes. Both the requisites and limits of such international intervention are explored, and Ross's approach is compared with those advocated by scholars in the field. Finally, the article examines why the American effort failed to capitalize upon a series of interim agreements to achieve a final settlement. While Ross is a self-described intuitive mediator, his methods merit careful study, as most are of general utility and application.
Negotiations and Power Asymmetries: The Cases of Bosnia, Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka
Authors: Jensen  
Published: November 2003

AbstractEthnic conflict, as illustrated by the cases of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Northern Ireland, and Sri Lanka, has been difficult to negotiate due to the power asymmetries involved and the general belief of national governments that such issues should be solved through the political process. Although external, ethnic-linked groups can help address some of the problems of power asymmetry, they can also complicate the process. Changing power structures in an increasingly multicentric world may create an environment in which successful resolution of ethnic violence becomes more likely, but democracy impacts both positively and negatively upon such an outcome.
Trying Again: Power-Sharing in Post-Civil War Lebanon
Authors: Hudson  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe paper situates Lebanon in the context of consociationalist theorizing about politics in deeply divided societies. It suggests that none of the four prevailing models of Middle Eastern political systems (liberalism, patrimonial, nationalist-authoritarian, and corporatist) explicitly addresses vertical solidarist formations. Consociationalism attempts to do so, but Lebanon's experience with it has yielded negative as well as positive results. The paper reviews the contradictions of Lebanon's recent history, examining first ``the golden age'' and then the era of the civil war and the ``militia republic'' (1975–1990). It then analyzes the ``Ta'if Accord'' which provided the basis for a post-civil war reconstruction, and while it notes some institutional improvements (hence the designation of the agreement as ``consociationalism-plus'') it expresses skepticism whether the provisions in Ta'if that call for the gradual elimination of political confessionalism will be implemented. The paper draws attention to the presence of external players on the Lebanese scene, especially Israel and Syria, and discusses the two post-civil war parliamentary elections in 1992 and 1996. It concludes that Lebanon's political recovery has been only partly successful.
Conflict Management and the Oslo Experience: Assessing the Success of Israeli–Palestinian Peacemaking
Authors: Bercovitch  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe Oslo experience and the signing of an agreement between Israel and the PLO is used as an empirical case study to highlight the nature of successful mediation in international conflicts. To provide a structure for the analysis, the concept of intractable conflicts and their management is utilized. Factors affecting the mediation of intractable conflicts are grouped into two clusters: (a) contextual factors and (b) process factors. The paper focuses on the changing balance of contextual factors and how these created a ripe moment for mediation, and on the particular way the mediation process was carried out. Timing, ripeness and secrecy are identified as the crucial variables that produced the breakthrough in Oslo.
Ripeness Theory and the Oslo Talks
Authors: Pruitt  
Published: November 2003

AbstractReadiness theory, an adaptation of ripeness theory, helps to resolve some problems with the latter set of ideas. Readiness theory holds that all kinds of progress toward conflict resolution result from the existence, on both sides, of: motivational ripeness (motivation to achieve de-escalation) and optimism about finding a mutually acceptable agreement. The motivational ripeness that led to the Oslo agreements resulted from the circumstances that obtained in the Middle East just prior to the talks. But optimism mainly developed during the talks themselves, by a circular process that involved: a steady growth in working trust, a perception that the other side was represented by a valid spokesman, and perceived common ground. Given the high level of motivational ripeness on both sides, good offices by a small country – Norway – were exactly what was needed. The critical elements of the Norwegian intervention were: assurance of absolute secrecy, provision of facilities that encouraged intimacy between the delegates, and arranging for meetings over a long enough period of time for the components of optimism to emerge and a possible agreement to be developed. Another source of the Oslo breakthrough was the existence of several critical bridge people prior to the emergence of the motivationally ripe moment.
Much Ado About Nothing? The Refugee Working Group and the Perils of Multilateral Quasi-negotiation
Authors: Brynen  
Published: November 2003

AbstractAmong the various negotiations that comprise the multilateral component of the Middle East peace process, the Refugee Working Group faces perhaps the most intractable and sensitive issue of all: the Palestinian refugee question. The experience of the RWG can best be described as one of ``quasi-negotiation,'' in which discussion among the parties has been hampered by differing views as to the role of the working group, and indeed whether it even represents a forum for negotiation. The implications of RWG's insertion in a broader system of linked negotiations is also explored, as is the impact of domestic constraints on the participants, and various efforts by the Canadian ``gavel-holder'' of the RWG to break the political stalemate within the group. Finally, the article concludes by assessing the potential role of mediation and multi-track diplomacy in addressing this sensitive issue.
Training in Conflict-Habituated Systems: Lessons from Cyprus
Authors: Diamond  
Published: November 2003

AbstractFor several years, a consortium of organizations has been delivering training workshops in conflict resolution to individuals from both communities on Cyprus. The result is a broadly-based, multi-track citizen peacebuilding movement that involves hundreds of Greek and Turkish Cypriots in bi-communal training, dialogue and cooperative activity. This set of workshops is grounded in a theory of practice that holds conflict resolution to be a transformational process engaging peoples' hearts and minds, and addressing the deep-rooted patterns that characterize conflict-habituated systems.The article posits six ways the training operates as a systems' intervention: as a forum for learning, where learning itself becomes a meta-goal; for capacity building, where useful skills become resources for peacebuilding; for dialogue, where participants have a safe space for engaging each other on subjects of critical interest; for community building, where people form alliances and deep bonds as a human infrastructure for peacebuilding; for modeling, where the training staff demonstrates the principles and practices it teaches; and for culture change, where the culture created in the learning community acts as an agent of change within the culture of the conflict-habituated system. This article discusses critical training issues relevant to the Cyprus project, including cultural appropriateness, linkages to Track One initiatives, evaluation, and lasting effects of the program. Lessons are drawn out that can be useful in other conflict-habituated systems.
Conflict Management Training: A Transformative Vehicle for Transitional Democracies
Authors: Shonholtz  
Published: November 2003

AbstractIn the past several years, the profession of conflict and change management has emerged in former communist countries. Three different types of conflict have surfaced: those long suppressed or fostered by the repressive arm of the communist state; those that emerged as part of the transition process from one political and economic order to the present one; and, those that are inherent to democracy and market economies. This article focuses on the management of these conflicts and the incorporation of conflict management methodologies as a factor in building democratic institutions with examples from Partners for Democratic Change's National Center in Hungary.
Using Simulation as a Tool to Teach About International Negotiation
Authors: Kaufman  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article focuses on the use of simulations as a tool to teach students about international negotiations. The basic premise is that simulations can be an effective teaching tool because they engage students and make them active participants in the learning process. The objective of these simulations is not to train students to be professional negotiators, but rather to provide a solid grounding which will enable them to better understand the process of international negotiation. Although there can be problems associated with using simulations, I argue that the benefits far outweigh the drawbacks. In this article, ICONS, a computer-assisted simulation of international negotiation, is compared with different approaches to teaching about international negotiations, including other simulations which do not involve the use of technology.
Conflict Resolution Training in the Middle East: Lessons to be Learned
Authors: Abu-Nimer  
Published: November 2003

AbstractBased on several recent conflict resolution training workshops conducted in the Middle East, the article examines some of the obstacles and challenges which face trainers in terms of: (a) utilization of certain training approaches; and (b) transferability of certain Western conflict resolution concepts and tools, to other contexts. While not claiming to provide comprehensive answers to these challenges, the article presents some guidelines on how to integrate local and traditional experiences of dispute resolution in the training, thereby increasing its effectiveness.
Exchange and Reciprocity in International Negotiations
Authors: Larson  
Published: November 2003

AbstractAlthough international relations often involves a trade of favors or services, political scientists have not often used exchange theory. Social exchange is motivated by the prospect of mutual gain. The exercise of power entails exchange of needed resources for compliance with the influencer's wishes. The timing of repayment and explicitness of obligation are important dimensions of exchange that vary by issue area and relationship. In sequential exchange, the party that moves first risks being exploited and must therefore trust the other. The parties to an exchange may either leave open or specify what the other should do in return. Reciprocity refers to exchanges which are mutual and perceived by the parties as fair. It is difficult to determine whether exchanges are reciprocal without a common measure of value. Norms and customary expectations determine what is considered fair when there is no standardized measure of value. In negotiations, there are several competing principles of justice. Reciprocity requires that concessions be matched; it does not mean that their magnitude must be equal.
Exchange Theory and International Relations
Authors: Baldwin  
Published: November 2003

AbstractDepicting social behavior as a kind of exchange has deep historical roots. Although many social science disciplines have used exchange models, students of international relations have been slow to apply such models to their subject. Many topics of interest to international relations scholars could be usefully treated by way of social exchange theory. Such topics include resource allocation, power, burden-sharing, foreign aid, dependency, institutions, and bargaining. The potential contribution of the exchange perspective to understanding of these topics has yet to be realized.
Reciprocity in Recurring Crises
Authors: Leng  
Published: November 2003

AbstractReciprocal behavior is understood as responses in kind and magnitude to both positive and/or negative actions. Four propositions that attempt to explain the presence of reciprocal behavior in interstate conflict are examined: (1) adherence by states to a norm of reciprocity, (2) Dupréel's theorem that as rivalries mature, states are more and more likely to imitate each other's behavior, (3) locking-in to escalating conflictual actions in a conflict spiral, and (4) the use of Reciprocating influence strategies, based on tit-for-tat, to elicit cooperation. The propositions are examined in 12 recurring militarized crises within the post-World War II rivalries of the United States and Soviet Union, India and Pakistan, and Israel and Egypt. The analysis employs events data from the BCOW data set, along with qualitative analyses of individual crises. The findings provide indirect support for the influence of the reciprocity norm, even within highly contentious situations. No evidence is found to support Dupréel's proposition. The presence of a true conflict spiral appears in only one of the 12 crises. The effectiveness of Reciprocating influence strategies receives support consistent with that found in other studies of influence strategies in militarized crises.
Rethinking the Notion of Reciprocal Exchange in International Negotiation: Sino-American Relations, 1969–1997
Authors: Lepgold  , Shambaugh  
Published: November 2003

AbstractIntuition takes us only so far in understanding the particular obligations that states presume in reciprocity relationships. As a result, we know fairly little about who owes precisely what to whom, and on what schedule. Two polar patterns, specific and diffuse reciprocity, have been identified that answer these questions. Yet in some relationships, the parties do not expect one-for-one exchanges (the pattern that characterizes specific reciprocity) or exchanges very loosely matched in terms of both equivalence and value (the pattern that characterizes diffuse reciprocity). In this article, we develop a general explanation of the causes and consequences of reciprocal exchange. We argue that actors' expectations about time horizons and the degree to which they anticipate a reliable stream of benefits from a relationship drive their assumptions about the value and timing of trades, creating four distinct patterns of reciprocal exchange. This argument helps us understand how actors perceive their obligations, others' obligations, and thus, the content of cooperative and noncooperative behavior. Differentiating these types also allows us to infer what is likely to serve as effective bargaining leverage across situations. We use this argument to interpret the past three decades of Sino-American relations. While there is a large literature on this relationship, our argument illuminates the sources and consequences of various sets of expectations by each party over time.
Social Exchange Theory: Premises and Prospects
Authors: Druckman  
Published: November 2003

AbstractAn exchange perspective places the study of international relations in a framework of negotiation. Central to this perspective are issues of equivalence (fairness) and contingency (responsiveness). The challenge for international actors is to define a precise medium for exchange. The more precise the medium, the less likely actors will misperceive each other's moves. But, the more precise the medium (as in quid-pro-quos) the less likely will actors explore their relationships. The function of exchange processes for regulating relationships is contrasted to problem-solving processes that can lead to changed (and improved) relationships. These issues are discussed in relation to the articles in this issue. Among the themes emphasized by the authors are the idea of calculating actors, the universality of the reciprocity norm, and alternative conceptions of exchange processes. Several conceptual and operational dilemmas for exchange analysis are discussed followed by an agenda of twelve topics for further research.
Negotiations in the European Union: The 1996 Intergovernmental Conference
Authors: Lodge  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe 1996 IGC marked an important stage in the process of creating an ever closer union among the states of Europe. The IGC had a distinctive mandate and objective, but its agenda, it will be argued, was permeable and both affected and was affected by the agenda of the EU's ongoing business. This article puts the 1996 IGC in context, examines its contribution to EU constitution-building, scrutinizes the nature, actors and characteristics of EU and IGC negotiating processes, and examines factors that make for successful negotiated outcomes. It argues that the IGC has a vital constitutional function to perform, and that it has a legitimization function in respect of the deepening of European integration.
Crafting the Common Will: The IGC 1996 from an Austrian Perspective
Authors: Melchior  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe article analyzes the negotiations that took place within the framework of the Intergovernmental Conference (IGC) 1996/97, which led to the modification and amendment of the founding treaties of the European Communities. Taking as an example the Austrian case, the interaction between the various actors at national and international levels is reconstructed. The ``intergovernmental approach'' to the analysis of decision-making mechanisms in the EU is thereby criticized; the negotiations did not follow the logic of state power and multilateral bargaining, but rather a ``logic of mutual adaptation of expectations and positions.'' It is argued that the resulting Amsterdam Treaty represents a ``common will'' rather than a diplomatic bargain between sovereign states.
Adopting a Dual Lens Approach for Examining the Dilemma of Differences in International Business Negotiations
Authors: Kwak  , Curhan  , Tinsley  
Published: November 2003

AbstractInternational business negotiations are characterized by two levels of differences beyond those found in domestic business negotiations: individual level differences (in negotiator priorities, preferences, perspectives, and scripts) and societal level differences (in national endowments, preferences (tastes), legal, economic and political systems, and government involvement). These differences, which may be viewed by adopting a dual lens approach, include both micro/individual and macro/environment level differences. Moreover, these differences are both beneficial and costly to international negotiations, hence resulting in a dilemma of differences. This article examines both sides of the dilemma and concludes by offering negotiators advice on how to manage the differences inherent to international business exchange.
Communicative Conflict in Intercultural Negotiations: The Case of American and Japanese Business Negotiations
Authors: Kumar  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article explores the origins and implications of differences in communicative goals in an intercultural negotiation setting. The basic thesis is that while American and Japanese business people may be united in their ultimate goal of arriving at an agreement, the processes by which they do so are different, and this difference makes it hard to conclude an agreement. Differences in the process of negotiation are reflected in the differences in communication goals that are pursued by both parties. This article attempts to analyze the implications of these differences in the crucial first interactions that take place between American and Japanese business people. A social cognitive model is developed to explore the dynamics of cross-cultural negotiations.
When the Weak Confront the Strong: Justice, Fairness, and Power in the Israel-PLO Interim Talks
Authors: Albin  
Published: November 2003

AbstractMost international negotiations involve asymmetrical parties, and raise issues of justice and fairness at different stages. This article is an empirical analysis of the role played by ethical conceptions and stark power inequalities in the Israel-PLO interim talks from 1993 to 1997. It focuses on the negotiations over water resources and economic relations. Israel's superior bargaining strength ensured that the country's security interests and notions of fairness influenced the process substantially. However, the negotiations cannot be understood merely in terms of the distribution of power between the two sides. The costs of failing to reach an agreement meant that Israeli negotiators had to concede to certain Palestinian demands and conceptions of fairness. The serious charges of injustice and unfairness have emerged in the implementation phase, owing more to developments on the ground than dissatisfaction with the terms of the interim agreements per se.This case challenges two dominant approaches to justice and fairness in negotiation: the idea that parties define negotiated agreements as just irrespective of their power relations and the notion that there can be no role for ethical considerations when the weak must confront the strong. It demonstrates moreover that conceptions of justice and fairness can serve as both external referents which guide the negotiations and be subject to bargaining themselves.
Negotiations in the UN Commission on Sustainable Development: Coalitions, Processes, and Outcomes
Authors: Wagner  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis research examines state coalitions' negotiation processes during four sessions of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD). It asks whether coalition type affects the negotiation process and whether process affects the negotiated outcome. Negotiation analysts expect convergent bargaining behaviors to lead to compromises between negotiators' positions and problem solving behaviors to lead to the integration of these positions, with the latter assumed to be the superior outcome. The CSD negotiations offer an empirical test of these hypotheses, as well as hypotheses regarding expected negotiation processes for different coalition types. The study uses data gathered by the author at CSD sessions in 1994, 1996, 1997, and 1998 and finds support for the process-outcome hypotheses. The examination also provides a basis from which to offer lessons for future CSD sessions. I explore how changes in process timing, third party roles, and issue framing could encourage a problem solving process and integrative decisions at the CSD.