bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sensors
Authors: Hughes Robert C. , Ricco A. J. , Butler M. A. , Martin S. J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSensor technology is being revolutionized by advances in microelectronics and optoelectronics. Thus, modern sensor systems almost always include data acquisition capabilities. Rapid advances in sensor technology have increased the difficulty of the task of finding the best sensor system for a given application. A generic scheme for decision‐making is presented. Sensors, generally far from perfect, are often expected to function in hostile environments and to be immune to interference. A variety of sensor technologies are discussed. The most common is silicon processing technology, in which the sensing elements are micromachined into the same chip as the integrated circuit. Also possible are hybrid chips joined after the integrated circuit is formed. Photodetectors, smart sensors, and chemical sensors may be based on silicon processing technology. Other technologies involve the use of acoustic waves, optical fibers, electrochemical systems, and semiconducting metal oxides.
World's Major Irrigation Areas
Authors: Kijne Jacob W. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractWorldwide, 70% of the water withdrawals is applied to agriculture. Irrigated agriculture is practiced on about 20% of the world's agricultural land, but it produces 40% of the world's food and fiber. Increasingly, the source of irrigation water is pumped groundwater, which leads to widespread mining of aquifers. More and more fields are no longer irrigated through furrows, but by pressurized systems, such as sprinkler and drip irrigation, which provide better control over application and distribution of water.Irrigation objectives have changed over time from prevention of famines and flood control to maximum production per unit land. Because of increased water scarcity and concern about manmade environmental degradation, irrigation performance is now assessed for production per unit water, food security, poverty alleviation, and environmental security.The management of large‐scale irrigation systems in developing countries used to be done by state institutions (e.g., irrigation departments). Now the operation and management, including fee collection, are often turned over to the farmers. Because of severe competition for water in many countries, irrigation management is challenged to produce more crops with less water while minimizing the adverse environmental impacts.
Soil Salinity
Authors: Corwin Dennis L. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSoil salinity is defined as the total salts present in the liquid portion of the soil. The primary significance of soil salinity lies in its effect on crop productivity. Salinity limits plant water uptake because of reduced osmotic potential, making the extraction of water from the soil more difficult. Soil salinity is generally associated with irrigated agricultural soils and soils with shallow depths to groundwater. Worldwide, over 20 million ha of agricultural land are severely affected by salinity. A general discussion of the sources, effects, global impacts, laboratory and field methods of measurement, and plant tolerance of soil salinity is presented. In particular, recent advances in field measurement and mapping of soil salinity are discussed. The concise discussion is designed to provide a basic understanding of soil salinity from an environmental and agricultural perspective.
Occurrence of Organochlorine Pesticides in Vegetables Grown on Untreated Soils from an Agricultural Watershed
Authors: Gonzalez Mariana , Miglioranza Karina S. B. , De Moreno Julia E. Aizpún , Moreno Víctor J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractOrganochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are compounds of particular concern in the environment because of their recalcitrance, global transport, distribution, and toxicity, which lead to include them into the group of persistent organic pollutants. The impact of soil contaminants on human health and accumulation in food crops is relevant because of increased dietary exposure of consumers. Organic agriculture has developed rapidly during the last decade on the assumption that such food is free of synthetic pesticides. Although it is likely that lower pesticide residues are found in organically grown vegetables, it has been demonstrated that these produce can reach similar pesticide levels to those conventionally grown. Topographic position, wind dispersion, and neighboring farms are the main factors affecting organic products. Moreover, the use of pine needles as soil amendments can enhance the OCP levels, because they are known to accumulate highly lipophilic pollutants from the atmosphere. Vegetables grown on untreated soils accumulated OCPs efficiently from both air and soil. The main pesticides found involved, endosulfans currently in use, DDTs and HCHs, which are banned or restricted. All OCP levels were below the maximum residue limits (MRL) considered by the Codex Alimentarius. Therefore, ecosystem factors, such as pesticide runoff, drift from pesticide used by neighboring farming, volatilization, leaching, and wash out, impact on the occurrence of OCPs in vegetables grown on untreated soils.
Water Logging: Topographic and Agricultural Impacts
Authors: Madramootoo Chandra 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water logging occurs on poorly drained soils. Under periods of heavy precipitation or snowmelt, water percolates very slowly, and soils become wet in short periods of time. Some soils have inherently low ability to infiltrate and hydraulic conductivity, especially heavier clay soils. Soil compaction because of heavy farm equipment further reduces bulk density, which in turn reduces the ability to infiltrate soil. The result is that the water table accretes and may eventually rise to the land surface. High‐intensity rainfalls also lead to ponding of water on the soil surface. These conditions of surface ponding, a saturated soil profile, and gradual rise of the water table to the soil surface all lead to water logging.
Screen Filters for Microirrigation
Authors: Haman Dorota Z. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Screen filters are simple and economical filtration devices of various shapes and sizes that are frequently used for the removal of physical contaminants. They can be made of metal, plastic, or synthetic cloth enclosed in a special housing. Screen filters are recommended for the removal of very fine sand or larger sized inorganic debris from irrigation water. It is normally not effective to use screen filters for the removal of heavy loads of algae or other organic material typical in surface water supply, since screens clog rapidly, requiring too frequent cleaning to be practical. Selection of a filter depends on the type and amount of contaminants in the irrigation water, the type of emitters, the size of the irrigation system, and the desired management practices. Screen filters should be a primary choice when water is pumped from a well where the only filtration requirement is to remove mineral particulate matter. They are sufficient in the absence of organic contamination and in addition they are usually inexpensive and easy to maintain.
Large Area Surface Energy Balance Estimation Using Satellite Imagery
Authors: Arasteh Peyman Daneshkar 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
All climatic and hydrologic phenomena in the atmosphere and on the earth's surface are affected by the energy balance at the surface. The energy balance is one of the main subjects in climatology, hydrology, civil and traffic engineering, biology, and health.
Photosynthesis and other metabolic processes in green plants, evaporation from free water and soil surfaces, and atmospheric and oceanic circulation are functions of the surface energy balance.
Due to the nonuniform properties of the earth's surface (albedo, heat capacity, soil cover, etc.), the Earth's surface, phenomena must be monitored on continuous and simultaneous spatial scales. Satellite imagery provides a large view of the earth's surface. Such a spatially continuous, but time discrete, data acquisition system provides a suitable framework for distributed modeling, provided that the phenomenon to be modeled has spectral behavior.
For energy balance processing, visible (VIS), near infrared (NIR), and thermal infrared (TIR) channels are used. Some primary surface parameters such as surface albedo, surface temperature, air temperature, surface roughness, land cover, and land use may be provided by remote sensing.
In this article, inferring energy balance components using remotely sensed data and some common methods in this respect are introduced. Then, the energy components of the Hamoon Wetlands are described as a case study, and some Internet sources of the satellite‐based global energy budget are introduced.
Measuring and Modeling Tree and Stand Level Transpiration
Authors: Vose J. M. , Harvey G. J. , Elliott K. J. , Clinton B. D. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractTranspiration is a key process in the application of phytoremediation to soil or groundwater pollutants. To be successful, vegetation must transpire enough water from the soil or groundwater to control or take up the contaminant. Transpiration is driven by a combination of abiotic (climate, soil water availability, and groundwater depth) and biotic (leaf area, stomatal functions, root amount and distribution, and hydraulic characteristics) that need to be evaluated when considering appropriate site and species combinations. The protocols are not trivial, but transpiration can be measured at a variety of scales using techniques such as direct measurements of sap flow on individual trees, eddy flux gradient analyses, or gauged watersheds. Alternatively, models can be used to estimate transpiration, but these usually require on‐site calibration or parameterization to produce accurate predictions. Case study analyses across a range of site conditions and species indicate a maximum transpiration capacity of approximately 7.5 × 106liters of water per hectare per year (8 × 105gallons of water per acre per year), with a range of 1.5 × 106to 7.5 × 106liters per hectare per year (1.6 × 105to 8 × 105gallons per acre per year). Variation among sites is related to species, tree size, and stocking (i.e., vegetation density) differences. Application of a physiologically based and site‐specific parameterized model suggests reasonable agreement between measured and predicted transpiration estimates for the Air Force Plant 4 site in central Texas.
Plant and Microorganism Selection for Phytoremediation of Hydrocarbons and Metals
Authors: Mcintyre T. C. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractInformation on plants and other organisms that have the potential for phytoremediation of contaminants aids in the planning and establishment of removal and restoration projects for contaminated sites. Environment Canada is compiling databases on plants, bacteria, fungi, and other organisms that remediate petroleum hydrocarbons and accumulate metals and metalloids. The databases PHYTOPET (for PHYTOremediation of PETroleum hydrocarbon contaminants) and PHYTOREM (for PHYTOREmediation of Metals) are user‐friendly, searchable, and summarize all the known literature. Environment Canada has also drafted a Protocol, “Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) Protocol for Metal Contaminants.” The program provides suppliers of specified environmental technologies and services that meet the required criteria, with the right to use the licensed ETV verification mark.
Pesticide Occurrence and Distribution in Relation to Use
Authors: Chu Xuefeng 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Widespread use of a variety of pesticides has led to their occurrence in both surface and groundwaters. The occurrence and distribution of pesticides in the environment are closely related to their use and are determined by a series of pesticide transport and transformation processes. The occurrence and use of pesticides follow extremely complex and dynamic patterns that are affected by numerous factors related to pesticide properties, pesticide use, hydrology, and agricultural activities. The physical, chemical, and biological properties of pesticides affect their occurrence and distribution directly by altering their environmental persistence, mobility, and other fundamental transport processes. The way pesticides are used includes application amount, frequency, timing, and method has significant effects on pesticide occurrence and distribution. The quantity and frequency of application determine the overall exposure level of pesticides released into the environment, and the timing and method of application primarily change their environmental pathways and thus their occurrence as well as spatial and temporal distributions. Clearly, surface and groundwater systems have dissimilar patterns of pesticide use and occurrence due to their distinct hydrologic characteristics. The relationship of pesticide use and occurrence also varies with pesticide‐treated crops and agricultural management practices.
Supplemental Irrigation
Authors: Oweis Theib , Hachum Ahmed 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Supplemental irrigation (SI) is the addition of a limited amount of water to otherwise rainfed crops, when rainfall fails to provide essential moisture for normal plant growth, in order to improve and stabilize productivity. It is widely practiced in arid, semiarid, and sub‐humid regions characterized by low or variable rainfall. The goal of SI is to achieve optimal instead of maximum yields. Maximizing return per unit water instead of yield per unit of land is a better strategy for SI practice in water limited areas. SI allows controlling the sowing date of field crops, resulting in improved growth, increased biomass production, favorable environmental conditions, and may help crops escape drought in rainfed farming. Due to its high flexibility, sprinkler irrigation, if coupled with an on‐demand water delivery system, would provide the best results.
Aquaculture Technology for Producers
Authors: Chen Shulin , Johnson Bill , Johnson Brit , Pan Qiang 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The major limitations to the development of aquaculture in many regions are availability of water resources and environmental impact. Water is critical to aquatic animals, for it both serves as the medium that supplies the required oxygen and creates the physical environment that allows for movement of the animals. As world population has grown and industries have increased their production to meet the demands of the growing population, water has become a scarce resource that has had many conflicting demands placed upon it. Consequently, the major strategy for increasing aquaculture production with this limited water resource is production intensification. As fish biomass density increases, however, the amount of oxygen dissolved naturally in water becomes limited, thus necessitating supplemental aeration and oxygenation. In addition, the increased use of artificial feed as a means to developing a high density culture system leads to water pollution that stems from the facts that aquatic animals cannot completely utilize the feed and that the animals will excrete other metabolic products such as ammonia that are toxic to the aquatic animals at elevated levels. Internally, the waste produced deteriorates the water quality and makes the water unsuitable for fish to live in, while externally, discharge of the polluted water, if not properly managed, may lead to adverse effects on the environment.
Water Quality Management in an Agricultural Landscape
Authors: McHugh Marianne , Clarke Michelle , Duzant Julia 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water quality is important for a wide range of reasons including human health, food production, recreation, and biodiversity. Globally, agriculture exerts big demands and impacts on water supplies. In arid areas where groundwater may be the significant or sole source of water, agriculture can have profound effects on the rate and composition of groundwater recharge (1), while in tropical areas, high annual rainfall levels and the demands of tropical crops mean that water quality concerns are dominated by agrochemicals, untreated wastewater, and eroded sediment (2). In temperate zones, moderate rainfall throughout the year means there are few periods when agricultural activities can take place without some risk to water quality and, consequently, temperate water resources are also at constant risk of contamination from agriculture.
Crop Water Stress Detection Using Remote Sensing
Authors: Moran M. Susan , Zarco‐Tejada Pablo J. , Clarke Thomas R. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Remote sensing in the optical spectrum has potential to detect plant manifestations of both transient and chronic crop water stress. Crop water status and evaporation rate have been directly related to thermal indexes, such as the crop water stress index (CWSI), the water deficit index (WDI), and the thermal kinetic window (TKW) index. Measurements of surface reflectance in narrow visible and near‐infrared wavelengths have potential for monitoring crop photosynthesis and fluorescence. Surface reflectances in wide bands of the visible, near‐IR, and short‐wave IR spectrum have been used to detect plant manifestations of chronic crop water stress, such as phenological adaptations and leaf expansion and loss. To apply these approaches with satellite‐based sensors for farm‐scale irrigation scheduling and crop management, there are still needs for improved sensor design, timely image delivery, and reduced image cost.
Metal Tolerance in Plants: The Roles of Thiol‐Containing Peptides
Authors: Zhang Weihua , Cai Yong 
Published: July 2005

AbstractChelationand compartmentalization are important mechanisms for metal tolerance in plants. Thiol‐containing peptides, i.e.,glutathione(GSH),phytochelatins(PCs), and metallothioneins (MTs), are metal ligands and play important roles inmetal tolerancein plants. This article summarizes the present knowledge about the functions of these thiol‐containingpeptidesin plant heavy metal tolerance, especially for Cd, As, and Cu. GSH participates in the amelioration of metal‐induced oxidative stress. Metal‐GSH complexes are the substrate for PC synthesis. Thus, enhanced GSH synthesis can increase metal tolerance in plants. PCs, a set of thiol‐rich peptides with the general structure (γ‐GluCys)n‐Gly, play an essential role in constitutive Cd and tolerance, whereas PCs are not involved in adaptive Cd tolerance. In contrast, PCs are required for both constitutive and adaptive As tolerance in plants. PCs may play a role in constitutive Cu tolerance in some plants, but they are not involved in Ni or Zn tolerance. MTs may play an important role in constitutive Cu tolerance, and may be involved, to some extent, in Cd tolerance in plants.
Domestic Water Supply—Public–Private Partnership
Authors: Sohail Muhammad 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThis article addresses the question of how water—as a vital yet frequently limited natural resource—can be supplied for domestic use to the millions of people in developing countries who have poor or limited access to water for drinking and sanitation purposes. In particular, it looks at the potential for public–private partnerships (PPPs) to meet shortfalls in infrastructure and other forms of investment in water and sanitation services provision, and how such partnerships might lead to more effective and efficient provision for all, including people on low incomes.Central to the entry are the questions of why and how PPPs can be an important tool in the provision of domestic water. There then follows a discussion on what key characteristics lead to successful and durable partnerships between the public and private sectors (and the community to be served), and what obstacles might be encountered and overcome along the way.The final section looks at some of the challenges and opportunities faced by water services providers in terms of political and social acceptance of private sector involvement, the importance of community involvement and information sharing, appropriate technological and financial options, effective regulation, and creating trust among all stakeholders.
Roof Drainage Hydraulics
Authors: Arthur Scott , Wright Grant 
Published: July 2005

AbstractOver the past decade, urban drainage systems have moved toward what are now commonly known as “sustainable urban drainage systems” (SUDS) or “best management practice” (BMPs). Fundamental to the implementation of these systems is addressing both runoff quantity and quality at a local level in a manner which may also have the potential to offer benefits to stakeholders. This has led to a change in the way new developments now look and interact within catchments. However, despite the availability of such tools to reduce, attenuate, and treat urban runoff, substantial areas of the urban environment are still 100% impermeable and drain rapidly, namely, roof surfaces. Normally, roof drainage systems do not always receive the attention they deserve in design, construction, and maintenance. Although the cost of a system is usually only a small proportion of a building's total cost, it can be far outweighed by the costs of the damage and disruption resulting from a failure of the system to provide the degree of protection required.There are basically two different types of roof drainage system; conventional and siphonic (refer to Fig. 1). Conventional systems operate at atmospheric pressure, and the driving head is thus limited to the gutter flow depths. Consequently, conventional roof drainage systems normally require a considerable number of relatively large diameter vertical downpipes, all of which have to connect to some form of underground collection network before discharging to a surface drain. In contrast, siphonic roof drainage systems are designed to run full bore, resulting in subatmospheric pressures, higher driving heads, and higher flow velocities. Turbulent gutter conditions mean that there will always be a small percentage of entrained air within the system (typically 5%). Hence, siphonic systems normally require far fewer downpipes, and the depressurized conditions also mean that much of the collection pipework can be routed at high level, thus reducing the extent of any underground pipework.
Soil and Groundwater Geochemistry and Microbiology
Authors: Smith Stuart 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Geochemistry
can be defined as the study of the chemical composition of, and of actual or possible chemical changes in, a geological matrix, including
soil
, that complex mixture of minerals, life, and organic material on the surface of the earth.
Groundwater
, of course, is water located in the saturated zone of the earth.
Microbiology
is the study of small forms of life, usually including the bacteria and archaea domains and protists and fungi of the eukaryaceae domain, and naturally also covers numerous subcategories.

The interdisciplinary studies of the interactions among microflora, earth materials, and chemical reactions are often linked under
geomicrobiology
or
biogeochemistry
.
Soil Water
Authors: Rasmussen Todd 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Although water in saturated media is free to drain into openings such as wells, soil water is normally bound to soil surface by attractive forces and only freely drains into openings when the fluid pressure is positive. When soil water pressures are negative, water only partially fills soil pores—the remaining voids are filled with air or soil gasses. The negative water pressure is referred to as the soil tension. Water contents vary from very low values when the soil is dry and the soil tensions are large to saturated values when the soils are wet and the soil tensions are small. The negative pressure, or soil tension, and water contents of soils can be determined with a variety of field techniques, including tensiometers, time‐domain reflectometers, and psychrometers. The relationship between soil tensions and water contents is called the moisture characteristic curve, which is normally determined in a laboratory. Soil water samples can be collected with lysimeters.