bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Minor Components of Fats and Oils
Authors: Kamal‐Eldin Afaf 
Published: July 2005

AbstractVegetable oils contain a wide range of minor components besides triacylglycerols, the major components of most oils. Sterols, tocopherols, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, chlorophyll, free fatty acids, and other minor derivatives, as well as trace metal ions are the most recognized of these compounds. Minor lipid components are of interest because they affect the technical properties of the oil, possibly provide health benefits, and/or might be used for the authentication of different oils and their mixtures. The tocopherols are interesting, as they are primarily responsible for the stability of the polyunsaturated fatty acids of vegetable oils. Tocopherols and carotenoids are important for human nutrition as they provide Vitamins E and A activities. Phytosterols are currently receiving much interest as cholesterol‐lowering agents derived from inter alias vegetable oil refining. The phenolic compounds in certain oils, e.g., olive and sesame oils, are interesting from oil stability and health points of view. Gas chromatography or gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of the unsaponifiable fractions of vegetable oils can provide a fingerprint for the identity of the oils.
Oil Extraction
Authors: Kemper Timothy G. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe crude oil used as a feedstock for the various oil refining and oil modification processes discussed throughout this book are derived from such oleaginous materials as soybean, rapeseed, sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, corn germ, ground nuts, olives, and palm fruits. This chapter discusses the evolution of the oil extraction process from hand press extraction, to early mechanized extraction, to hydraulic press extraction, to the processes of screw press extraction and solvent extraction commonly used today. Before an oleaginous material is extracted, it must first be carefully prepared for the extraction process. The seed preparation steps include cleaning, drying, size reduction, hull removal, heating/drying, flaking, and extruding. Oil can be extracted from a prepared material by either mechanical extraction or solvent extraction methods. The three types of mechanical extraction methods are palm fruit pressing, full pressing, and prepressing. Solvent extraction is the most common process used to extract oil today. The solvent extraction process includes the unit operations of oil extraction, meal desolventizing, meal drying and cooling, miscella distillation, and solvent recovery.
Rice Bran Oil
Authors: Orthoefer Frank T. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Rice bran is an underused coproduct of rice milling. The value is partially captured through extraction and refining of the rice bran oil. The capital costs have limited the ability of the U.S. rice milling industry to capture this value. However, rice bran oil has performance properties competitive to other widely used oils. An additional advantage of rice bran oil is certainly its nutritional benefits, which include a balance of fatty acids meeting AHA recommendations. Rice oil contains a mixture of antioxidants and promotes cholesterol reduction beyond that of more unsaturated oils. Its taste and performance is complementary to salad, cooking, and frying applications.
This chapter reviews the source and composition of rice bran oil, its nutritional characteristics, production, and refining of the oil and its applications.
Frying Oils
Authors: Gupta Monoj K. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractFried foods have provided culinary delight to people worldwide for centuries. Modern day frying involves sophisticated equipment, techniques, ingredients, and packaging. This is because the industrial fried products require long shelf life for warehousing, distribution, and sale. Oil plays a great role in determining the storage stability quality of the fried product. Frying oil has been available to man in various parts of the world. Most of the time a specific oil has been selected for frying because it is locally available. Man also has moved from the crude expelled oils to refined oils as the oil technology advanced. In addition, the availability of most oils across the world has also increased due to improved transportation and storage systems developed over the years. Consumers have been exposed to the taste of products fried in different types of oil for quite sometime. Production of other than the indigenous oils has also become common where the local climate, soil conditions, and overall agronomy have been favorable to a particular type of oilseed or oil palm trees.
Dietary Lipids and Health
Authors: Watkins Bruce A. , Li Yong , Hennig Bernhard , Toborek Michal 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Lipids are essential components of living organisms and support multiple biological and physiological functions in the human body. They serve as the structural building material of all membranes of cells and organelles. Lipids and their derivatives also serve as signaling molecules that facilitate a variety of physiological functions. In addition, lipids are recognized as important biomarkers of disease and are involved in several pathological conditions. Individual fatty acids can influence biological processes, such as membrane‐associated receptors and signal transduction systems, and ion channels. Recent literature also demonstrates a specific role of fatty acids in gene modulation and protein expression to influence risk of chronic disease. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are the focus of substantial research interest in this area mainly because of their ability to be converted to various bioactive regulatory molecules, such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. Arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n‐6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n‐3) are two major players in the regulation and production of these bioactive molecules. In addition, an absolute requirement of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is necessary for normal neural and retinal development in the infant and young child. Besides the study of these PUFA molecules, numerous animal and human studies also suggest that other dietary lipids, such as cholesterol and saturated fatty acids, increase serum cholesterol as well as LDL‐cholesterol concentrations. In summary, this chapter provides a contemporary understanding of food lipids in nutrition and health, especially the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of the actions of these bioactive dietary lipids.
Gamma Linolenic Acid Oils
Authors: Kapoor Rakesh , Nair Harikumar 
Published: July 2005

AbstractGamma linolenic acid (GLA, cis‐6, cis‐9, cis‐12‐octadecatrienoic acid) is a conditionally essential fatty acid of the n‐6 family. It is produced in the mammalian body from enzymatic desaturation of linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that must be supplied by the diet. It is widely distributed in plant kingdom in trace amounts and is not present in major commercial vegetable seed oils. It is present in seeds of many species belonging to families Aceraceae, Boraginaceae, Cannabinaceae, Liliaceae, Onagraceae, Ranunculaceae, Saxifragaceae, and Scrophulariaceae. A very limited number of plant sources have been commercialized in last 30 years as a source of GLA, mainly in the health food industry and, to a limited extent, in pharmaceutical, pet food, and cosmetic industries. These include oils of borage, black currant, evening primrose, and recently, hemp. The total market for GLA‐containing oils is about $60–$70 million per year.Research on GLA in the last three decades has focused on the physiologic and pharmacologic effects, including its effects on second messenger system in the body. On the production side, the research focus is on identification of new sources and yield optimization. This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge about sources and nutritional and health benefits of GLA and attempts to identify areas for future research that will help develop markets for GLA.
Animal Fats
Authors: Haas Michael J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe depot lipids of land animals have long been used by humans in edible and industrial applications and as ingredients for animal feeds. They differ from the lipids of temperate region plants in that they are solid at room temperature (and are therefore termed fats). This solidity is largely a result of their relatively higher content of saturated fatty acids and reduced content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The fatty acid contents and the arrangement of these constituent fatty acids within the acylglycerols of animal fats confer distinctive properties that lend these lipids to various applications. The major industrial animal fats are tallow, which is obtained from cattle (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries), and lard, which is produced by pigs (Sus scrofa). In some countries, poultry fat, obtained primarily from chickens (Gallus gallus), is also produced in substantial quantities. Finally, greases, which can be a lard product, consist of spent deep fat fryer lipids, or be derived from other types of waste lipids, are another major class of fats with industrial applications. Annual global production of tallow, grease, and lard was estimated at about 15 million metric tons at the turn of the millennium, with an annual rate of increase in production of approximately 1.5%. This constituted about 14% of the global total lipid production of 105 million metric tons. This chapter provides an overview of the structures, properties, types and classes, and industrial processing technologies of animal fats. Contemporary issues relating to and impacting animal fat usage include (1) concerns for their contribution to coronary disease when consumed as a dietary lipid, (2) their use as feedstocks for the production of diesel engine fuels (biodiesel), (3) the recent appearance of bovine spongifiorm encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle and its spread to humans, and (4) the discovery of the beneficial effects of the consumption of conjugated linoleic acid.
Frying of Foods and Snack Food Production
Authors: Gupta Monoj K. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractFrying of food is an old and traditional means to prepare food quickly and enjoy the preparation for culinary delight. The frying technique has improved over the years and has evolved from kitchen frying to large‐scale industrial frying. Coated products, par‐fried products with or without seasoning, have become popular across the world. The fried products are packaged and distributed for sale. Innovation of the packaging technology has enabled the fried food industry to distribute the products that maintain freshness over an extended period.
Butter
Authors: Hettinga David 
Published: July 2005

AbstractButter is one of the oldest forms of preserving fat components of milk. Its manufacture dates back to some of the earliest historical records.The evolution of the art of buttermaking has been associated with the development and use of equipment. The construction of creaming and buttermaking equipment in the eighteenth century led to the appearance of the barrel churn. Creaming was at first done by a method called shallow pan. This was followed by a deep‐setting system. This shortened process time and produced a better quality cream. In 1879, cream separators for fully continuous operation were produced. The Babcock test assisted in the development of the butter industry. This test determines the percentage of fat in milk and cream. Other developments included the use of pasteurization, the use of pure cultures of lactic acid and bacteria, and the use of refrigeration.Multiple butter fat products include butter oils, anhydrous butter fat, butter fat‐vegetable oils, and fractionated butter fats. Preservation of butter fat today involves the processing of butter fat to anhydrous butter oil. Shelf life is improved because the butter oil is hermetically packaged under nitrogen.Recent times have seen a decline in the consumption of butter. This decline contradicts all historical patterns for butter fat consumption. Reasons for decline are noted. This chapter provides data on chemical composition, marketing, technology, processing, quality, legal restrictions, and uses.
Soybean Oil
Authors: Hammond Earl G. , Johnson Lawrence A. , Su Caiping , Wang Tong , White Pamela J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThis chapter includes information on the composition of soybeans, soybean oil, and other soybean lipids, especially as affected by environment, variety, and genetic modification. Other topics discussed are the physical properties of soybean oil, grading of soybeans, oil extraction, and the effect of various extraction techniques on oil quality and the various soy protein ingredients. Basic refining and processing of soybean oil includes degumming, neutralization, bleaching, hydrogenation, and deodorization, but alternative refining methods are also discussed along with soybean refinery coproducts (lecithin, deodorizer distillate, and soapstock). The major uses of soybean oil are itemized and trading rules for crude and refined soybean oil are provided. The major food products produced from soybean oil are cooking and salad oils, frying fats, mayonnaise, margarine, shortening, confectionary and imitation dairy products, and “low‐calorie fat substitutes.” The oxidative quality of soybean oil is reviewed, including flavor reversion, factors affecting oil oxidation, measures of control and measures of finished oil quality, storage and handling, and special processing for off‐quality soybean oil. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the health aspects of soybean oil, including the health effects of cholesterol, unsaturated oils,trans‐isomers, and total fat intake.
Shortenings: Science and Technology
Authors: Metzroth Douglas J. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Shortening is commercially prepared edible fat used in frying, cooking, baking, and as an ingredient in fillings, icings, and confectionary items. It may have been named so because when dough is mixed, water‐soluble fat prevents cohesion of gluten strands, literally shortening them and thus generating tender baked goods. Shortening is typically a 100% fat product formulated with animal and/or vegetable oil. These oils have been processed for functionality (describes how well a product performs in a certain application), and to remove any undesirable flavor and aroma. Overall, shortening improves the texture and palatability of food products. Products with characteristics similar to shortening are discussed in this article, but only when similarities in raw material, usage, production methods, and equipment are similar to those of shortenings.
Formulations include concerns about crystalline nature of the fats, fatty acid distribution, fractionation, hydrogenation, and interesterification. Manufacturing and processing equipment are detailed. The many forms of shortenings, i.e., solid, liquid, high stability, all purpose, pourable, and special formulations, are discussed. Packaging and storage of the final products are presented.
Germ Oils from Different Sources
Authors: Dunford Nurhan Turgut 
Published: July 2005

AbstractPlant germ oils of high nutritional quality can be obtained from cereal grains. Germ oil processing presents a challenge because of the high content of biologically active heat labile components. Physical refining methods improve retention of these compounds in the final product. Currently plant germ oils, except corn germ oil, are produced for specialty markets in the United States. However, increasing consumer demand for healthy food products may change the market trends in the future.Several reviews have been published on wheat corn, and rice bran oils over the years. Therefore, this chapter, with sufficient background information, will emphasize the latest literature on composition, nutritional characteristics, and processing methods of plant germ oils.
Citrus Oils and Essences
Authors: Shahidi Fereidoon , Zhong Ying 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Citrus fruits are among the most popular fruits nowadays and have a very long history of production and use. However, within the past century, industrial technologies began to develop in order to convert citrus fruits into commercial products. Each year, millions of tons of citrus fruits are delivered to factories for processing and juice production. Historically, the oldest citrus product is the oil. In ancient Sicily, where early Italian citrus industry had just been introduced, lemons were primarily grown for production of lemon oil, and juice was treated as a waste product until its later use for citric acid recovery. The early use of lemon and orange oils was mainly in perfumery and pharmaceuticals. With rapid development of science and technology, more areas of use of citrus oils were found, for which more detailed information on chemical composition and properties were required. The modern perfume and flavor industries have benefited from further research on citrus peel oil and essence. Besides, the yield of citrus seed oil has increased since citrus seeds were discovered as a new source of edible oil.
Safflower Oil
Authors: Smith Joseph 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSafflower has a long history of cultivation. Some would class it as the world's oldest crop. Because safflower was introduced to many lands, it is known by a number of different names, for example, false saffron, benihana, safflor, thistle saffron, and so on.Safflower is a plant of desert origin. Flowering takes place during the warmest part of the growing season. Most farming areas of the world receive some summer rains. If rains occur, then the safflower has a chance of surviving. However, the chances also increase for the plant to be attacked by various molds. The history and botanical description of safflower are detailed in this chapter.Safflower seed consists of a tough fibrous hull that protects the kernel. Attempts have been made to produce commercial hybrids of safflower seed by exploiting heterosis to increase seed or oil content. Safflower oil is pale yellow to golden and exhibits the highest level of linoleic fatty acid of any commercial oil. This high level has made safflower oil attractive to consumers. Processing of the safflower to produce the oil is done in various stages: extraction, refining, bleaching, and deodorizing.Marketing of safflower and the quality assessment of the seed and oil are discussed. Unique uses for safflower seeds include bird feed, ornamental plantings, food coloring, dyes, in medicinal products, and in cosmetics.
Margarine Processing Plants and Equipment
Authors: Alexandersen Klaus A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
When designing margarine processing plants and choosing the equipment to be installed, a wide range of considerations have to be made with regard to issues like actual processing, hygiene, sanitation, and efficiency. In margarine production, oils and fats usually are considered to be the most important raw materials used, as oils and fats are significant in relation to the characteristics of the finished margarine. The type of oils or fats used has a considerable influence on the crystallization characteristics during the margarine processing, which has to be considered when choosing the equipment involved in the processing line. The criteria involved in choosing this equipment are to a certain extent based on the knowledge about product characteristics, polymorphism, and crystal structure of the margarine and related products.
In this chapter, crystallization of oil and fat products, margarine processing equipment and packaging methods, processing methods, and specific process flows are discussed. Various oil types exhibiting interesting crystallization habits are reviewed along with certain specialized margarine or fat products. Storage of the finished products as well as production quality control and hygiene are also covered.
Supercritical Technologies for Further Processing of Edible Oils
Authors: Temelli Feral , Güçlü‐Üstündağ Özlem 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Supercritical CO
2
(SCCO
2
) processing of fats and oils has been widely investigated because SCCO
2
offers an environmentally friendly alternative for the processing of fats and oils with added advantages such as moderate operating conditions and solvent‐free extracts and residues. From a processing perspective, a unique advantage of SCCO
2
processing lies in its versatility, which results from the ability to modify solvent properties by changing operating conditions (temperature and pressure) or by the addition of cosolvents. A good understanding of the fundamentals of solubility behavior of lipid components in SCCO
2
as affected by operating conditions and solute properties is required to realize its full potential in fats and oils processing. The operational flexibility offered by supercritical fluid technology enables the processor to fine tune solvent properties and to develop novel processes by the integration of unit operations of extraction, fractionation, and reaction to meet the process objectives. Supercritical fluid extraction, fractionation, and reaction protocols have been effectively used for the extraction and refining of oils, concentration of bioactive components from oils or oil byproducts, modification of physical properties of fats and oils, production of oleochemicals, and analytical applications.
Extrusion Processing of Oilseed Meals for Food and Feed Production
Authors: Riaz Mian N. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThere are several different definitions of extrusion depending on the manufacturer as well as the purpose of the extrusion. For the purpose of this chapter, the best definition of extrusion can be explained as “continuous cooking under pressure, moisture and elevated temperature.” During the process of extrusion, several operations take place, such as grinding, hydration, mixing, shearing, thermal treatment, gelatinization, protein denaturation, destruction of micro‐organisms and some toxic compounds, shaping, expanding, and partial dehydration. The use of extruders has been expanding rapidly in the food, feed, and oilseed industries over the past few years, although basic extruder technology has been around for a long time. It has been used in one form or another in many industries. New designs of extrusion equipment have increased the range of their application in food, feed, and oilseed processing.
Hydrogenation: Processing Technologies
Authors: Farr Walter E. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

There is a continued need for hydrogenation of many products, but the volume of oils hydrogenated is certain to decrease, even with a population increase. All consumers worldwide are going to develop more and more concern for improving their health and longevity. Thus, the consumption of hydrogenated oils, and oils naturally high in saturated fat, must decrease. The first step will be the elimination of
trans
‐fat in food products, because we now have the technology to do that. Removal of
trans
‐fat will allow us time to find ways to reduce saturated fat, and remove hydrogenation from many products.