bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Firms and Industries
Authors: Kay John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This final chapter begins with surveys of two industries – once hugely successful, recently in serious decline – the Lloyd's insurance market and the British horse racing industry. It continues with a discussion of the decline of Saatchi and an examination of the retail financial services industry. It concludes by exploring two generic issues for all firms and all industries; namely what the core businesses are and when there is a need for consolidation.
Entitlements and Obligations
Authors: Schlicht Ekkehart 
Published: October 2003

AbstractMarket interactions are brought about by the interplay of entitlements and obligations. Entitlements are rights, as perceived by the individuals. They are subjectively perceived rights that go along with a motivational disposition to defend them. Obligations are the counterparts of entitlements. They refer to claims of others that are subjectively accepted, and go along with a motivational disposition to respect these claims. Very simple transactions must rely on a system of entitlements and obligations. Simple selfishness would not be sufficient to bring them about or sustain them. This is especially true for non‐enforceable contracts. The relationship of entitlements and obligations to norms is also discussed.
Clarity
Authors: Schlicht Ekkehart 
Published: October 2003

AbstractRigidity refers to constancy over some range of conditions. Such rigidity is not accounted for by the adaptive view expounded in the preceding chapter. In this chapter, rigidity is traced to concept formation and learning. In order to transmit rules of custom, these rules must be perceived and learned. Clarity eases learning, and transmission is biased towards clarity. This restricts the continuum of possible rules to a somewhat discrete spectrum. At the same time, the clarity requirement induces context dependency: Each rule of custom builds on the other rules, and custom must be conceived as a system. Fundamental clarity properties are shared across cultures.
The Texture of Custom
Authors: Schlicht Ekkehart 
Published: October 2003

AbstractReviews the thesis outlined in the book. Concept formation and learning are tied up with clarity requirements. Clarification shapes preferences and underlies the behavioural, motivational, and cognitive tendencies that give rise to property, the law, and the firm as a social institution and account for the way in which the division of labour is organized in society. There is a pervasive mutual interdependency between many features of society that is brought by the tendency towards clarity that underlies the formation and motivational force of custom.
Are Financial Markets Efficient?
Authors: Shleifer Andrei 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAssesses the idea of efficient financial markets. It evaluates the theoretical and empirical foundations of the efficient markets hypothesis, emphasising the cracks that have emerged in them. Special attention is given to the rationality of investors, the randomness of the trades, and the role of arbitrageurs. Then the author suggests that an alternative theory—behavioural finance—could be more successful in explaining the evidence. The chapter concludes with a brief outline of the structure of the book.
Noise Trader Risk in Financial Markets
Authors: Shleifer Andrei 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExamines how noise traders can limit arbitrage even in an environment that is very close to a textbook model. The author constructs an overlapping generation (OLG) model where noise traders generate unpredictable erroneous beliefs and arbitrageurs try to exploit these misperceptions. He shows that noise traders can affect prices and that they could even earn a higher average rate of return. The model also illustrates that even arbitrage of fundamentally identical securities can be risky, so with lack of close substitutes, it might be riskier still.
Positive Feedback Investment Strategies
Authors: Shleifer Andrei 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Expands the idea that rational arbitrage not only may be limited in bringing about market efficiency but may actually generate price bubbles and make markets less efficient. It begins by presenting an alternative view of price patterns observed in the data on security returns—one based on feedback trading. It also describes the interactions of noise traders and arbitrageurs and shows that in cases in which arbitrageurs trade in anticipation of noise trader demand, they move the price away from rather than towards fundamental values.
Separate and Unequal
Authors: King Desmond 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Desmond King argues that the US federal government was inherently unequal in their treatment of Black Americans both in its own ranks as well as through federal programmes, especially before the 1960s; instead of thwarting segregated race relations, he maintains, the federal government participated in their maintenance and diffusion. Using extensive and original archival sources, King documents how Black American employees were segregated in federal government departments, the US Armed Forces, federal penitentiaries, and within housing and service programmes. In addition, King argues that the federal government played a role in sustaining and fostering segregated race relations to an extent little acknowledged by scholars. Finally, he argues and demonstrates that the universality of segregated race relations in the Federal government is often overlooked by a disproportionate emphasis upon their presence in the South. The book concludes with an analysis of the consequences of these trends for understanding the US federal government and race relations as well as data documenting the relative improvements for Black Americans employed by the government.
The Politics of Segregation in Post‐Reconstruction America
Authors: King Desmond 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Examines post‐Reconstruction race relations—focusing mainly from 1856–1964—and outlines the legal and political factors permitting its dissemination. King formulates segregation as an arrangement whereby Black Americans, as a minority, were systematically treated in separate, but constitutionally sanctioned, ways. He examines various laws and policies that condoned segregation ever since the Supreme Court accepted the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine as a justification of segregation in 1896 up until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. King also examines the congressional and presidential politics of race relations under the administrations of Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Harry Truman.
Joining the Government: ‘Because I Dared to Be Black’
Authors: King Desmond 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
King analyses the difficulties facing Black Americans attempting to join the civil service and the inadequacy of the US Civil Service Commission's monitoring of both recruitment and promotion. He reviews the reform of the federal civil service from a patronage‐based to a merit‐based hiring system and then explains how the mechanism deployed by the civil service systematically discriminated against Black American applicants. In his examination, King focuses on specific hiring practices like the ‘rule of three’ as well as institutions including the Civil Service Commission, congressional committees, and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Pluralism and Political Liberalism
Authors: Callan Eamonn 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe cardinal idea in Rawls's political liberalism is that a better conception of liberal justice is available to us once we ground principles of justice in an ‘overlapping consensus’ among the many reasonable doctrines that abound in a free society instead of any of the comprehensive liberal doctrines that liberal philosophers have traditionally championed. Rawls's contrast between the political and comprehensive liberalism is specious, though his political conception of the person and his related conception of ‘reasonable pluralism’ are shown to provide a compelling perspective on the proper scope of diversity and the conduct of political education in a liberal society.
Patriotism and Sentimentality
Authors: Callan Eamonn 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe inculcation of patriotism is often construed as a curb on the development of critical reason, and hence, as repugnant to any conception of political education that valorizes autonomy. This view of patriotic education, recently defended by William Galston, is shown to rest on illiberal premises about the role of emotions in public life. A form of liberal patriotic education, derived from Rawls's account of moral development, that escapes the pitfalls of Galston's account is delineated.
Common Schools, Separate Schools
Authors: Callan Eamonn 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The institutionalization of political education requires thought about the kind of schooling that will realize its ends with due regard for whatever moral constraints limit what the state may do for the sake of those ends. It is argued that the liberal state can permissibly show systematic partiality for ‘common schools’ that children from diverse social groups attend on terms of mutual respect over ‘separate schools’ that cater to students on the basis of selective ethnic or religious criteria or the like. On the other hand, there may be a cogent case for state sponsorship of separate schools during the early years of schooling if these accept the ends of liberal political education.
Conclusion
Authors: Callan Eamonn 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCanvasses some of the ineradicable obstacles to success in liberal democratic civic education. The persistence of unreasonable pluralism in any society is the most obvious obstacle; another is the permanent fact of reasonable pluralism; and finally, the tension between the ‘rational’ and the ‘reasonable’ in the lives of ordinary citizens would be an inevitable source of failure even if these other two could be surmounted.
Estimation
Authors: Duo Qin 
Published: October 2003

AbstractNarrates the process of how estimation was formalized. Estimation can be seen as the genesis of econometrics, since finding estimates for coefficients of economically meaningful relationships has always been the central motive and fulfilment of applied modelling activities. The process therefore became separated out as one of the basic steps along with model construction, identification, and testing. Subsequent research activities in estimation were confined to technical development of new optimal estimators for increasingly complicated model forms. The first section of the chapter describes the early developments in estimation methods centring around the least squares (LS) principle; how this led to the maximum‐likelihood (ML) method in a simultaneous‐equations system is the content of the second section; the third section turns to look at special problems in the context of time‐series analysis; other developments concerning errors‐in‐variables models are summed up in the fourth section; and the final completion of basic estimation theory in orthodox econometrics takes up the final section.
Identification
Authors: Duo Qin 
Published: October 2003

AbstractNarrates the process of how identification was formalized in econometrics. The issue of identification stemmed from the quest to know the attainability of economically meaningful relationships from statistical analysis of economic data in early estimation attempts. It arose out of the ‘correspondence’ problems ‘between economic activity, the data that activity generates, the theoretical economic model and the estimated relationship’ (Morgan, 1990). When identification theory was eventually formalized, its purpose became focused on the conditions under which a certain set of values of structural parameters could be uniquely determined from the data among all the permissible sets embodied in a mathematically complete theoretical model, usually composed of a simultaneous‐equations system. These conditions are most commonly known as the order and rank conditions in the context of linear, simultaneous‐equations models in present‐day econometrics textbooks. The emergence of identification theory played a key role in the formal establishment of the structural approach of orthodox econometrics through its links to model testing and model specification. Traces the formalization of identification theory around two interwoven themes: how the identification problem was perceived and described in connection with the other issues in econometric modelling; and how the problem was formalized and tackled with mathematical and statistical means. The first section outlines the early appearance of the identification problem and some ad hoc solutions for particular cases and model forms before the mid‐1930s; the second centres upon the initial systematic work on the issue around 1940; the third is devoted to the contribution of the Cowles group; and the completion of the theoretical framework and its overlaps with other modelling issues form the subject of the last section.
The History Revisited
Authors: Duo Qin 
Published: October 2003

AbstractMainstream econometric research in the 1960s and the 1970s comprised primarily technical refinements and extensions of the structural modelling procedure. The author, therefore marks an end‐point around 1960 in the historical study of the formation of econometrics, and asks in this concluding chapter of the book what should and can be learnt from this period of history with respect to present and future econometric research. She has seen during the historical investigation presented that the key points of historic significance are the junctures at which economic thinking and mathematical statistics merged to match economics with data information. In the light of this, she tries to draw some more concrete lessons from these junctures, hoping to provide some useful points, particularly with respect to issues pertinent to present econometric developments. The prime impression of the history is that most important econometric advances have resulted from ingenious interfusion of statistical ideas with economic thinking, in regard to applied problems of interest, with the single most significant event of this sort being, perhaps, the acceptance of probability theory.
Introduction: Power and the US–Chinese Relationship
Authors: Foot Rosemary 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This introductory chapter starts by discussing the main objectives of the book (which are to uncover the range of conditions that led to a change in American relations with China – from hostility to rapprochement to normalization in 1979, and to examine the management of that relationship since normalization) and giving an outline of its contents. It points out that each chapter may be read in isolation, although they are also parts of a complex whole. The rest of the chapter discusses the concept of power, the US as hegemon, and power in relation to the American—Chinese relationship.
China as the ‘Wave of the Future’: The Chinese Politico‐Economic Model
Authors: Foot Rosemary 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is the last of four chapters focusing on America’s perceptions of China’s capabilities, and dwelling on the correspondence between those perceptions and the projected consequences. It focuses on US perceptions of the political economy of China from the 1950s to 1978 and its perceived consequences for China’s capabilities both internally and as a political and economic model for other developing countries. Although the decline in Beijing’s hard and soft power resources did not follow a linear trajectory, the apparent overall weaknesses of its economy eased America’s fears about the Third World impact of its politico-economic model, and also reduced concerns that any contact between Washington and Beijing would raise the prestige of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to the point where its path to development would be revived as a serious source of inspiration in large parts of the developing world. The chapter dwells primarily on China’s perceived soft power attributes. The different sections look at domestic order and advancement in China in the 1950s, the Chinese model under stress from 1959 to 1965, the impact of the early Cultural Revolution in the second half of the 1960s, and restabilization and re-emergence in 1969–78.
International Order and US Structural Power: The US Relationship With China Since 1979
Authors: Foot Rosemary 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter charts aspects of the relationship between China and the United States from the normalization of relations in 1979, up to 1994. The emphasis is on China’s closer involvement with the international community, the exercise of US structural power designed to facilitate or retard the pace of that involvement, and China’s responses to the norms and rules of behaviour in an international order that many have seen as having been promoted largely by the United States. The chapter also examines the US attempt to consolidate bilateral ties with China after normalization in pursuit of the particular objectives of its foreign policy, but more especially to encourage China's contribution to international order. The different sections look at normalization and adjustment in 1979–84, the deepening of ties in 1985–89, and reassessments made in the period 1989–94.
The Concept of Rights
Authors: Martin Rex 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Rights are socially established ways of acting or ways of being treated (or, alternatively, such ways as ought to be so established); more specifically, a right so understood is something that is (1) fairly determinate and that (2) can be similarly distributed on an individual basis to each and all of those who are relevantly said to be rightholders. A right is always regarded as (3) a beneficial way of acting or of being treated both for the rightholder and, more generally, for society. Thus, (4) it is or should be something socially accepted – recognized and protected in given societies, and such acceptance would be (5) deemed reasonable, even by outsiders, in that it made explanatory sense. Here the way of acting or of being treated in question could be exhibited, plausibly, as a means to, or as a part of, accomplishing some interest or perceived benefit or other good (or desirable) thing. Accordingly, (6) normative directives could be issued to others, to those who are not rightholders, and (7) further initiatives could be taken as a feature of any such successful claim to rights status. The notion of practical inference (itself a part of the theory of the explanation of action) is used to structure much of this analysis.
Rights thus understood can be ranged under three main headings: they can be liberties of action (for example, the freedom to travel) but also avoidances of injury (such as the injury of bodily harm) or even the receipt of services (including such things as public schooling, retirement benefits, and medical care).
Rights as Valid Claims
Authors: Martin Rex 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
No real consensus has emerged on whether rights, in order to be rights, require social recognition (and beyond that, social maintenance). In considering this issue one school of thought—embracing both classical natural rights theorists and some contemporary advocates of human rights—has tended to emphasize that individuals can have rights independent of organized society, of social institutions, and hence of social recognition and maintenance in any form. The rather common characterization that rights are essentially claims, can be taken as a way of emphasizing that rights hold irrespective of whether they have been acknowledged, either in the society or, more specifically, by that person against whom the claim is made.
Some have said here simply that rights are claims (B. Mayo), others say they are entitlements (H. J. McCloskey), and yet others (most notably Joel Feinberg) say they are valid claims.
The chapter argues that the fatal flaw in the theory of rights as valid claims (in any of its formulations) is the suggestion that practices of governmental recognition and enforcement in law can be dispensed with in the case of legal rights. Indeed, this is the very point at which both Ronald Dworkin and Joseph Raz, who might otherwise be taken to be sympathizers with some form of the valid claims thesis, desert that thesis for one that emphasizes that legal rights are established practices (that they are institutionally established ways of acting/being treated); otherwise they cannot count as legal rights.
Civil Rights
Authors: Martin Rex 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Civil rights are universal rights, rights that hold good for all citizens or all persons in a given society; on the assumption that rights are beneficial to the holder, civil rights are justified by the fact of their general and mutually perceived benefit. Typically, there are many rights in a society devoted to civil rights; the problem then, is that rights can conflict. Even though this problem of conflict of rights can be solved by careful drafting (legislative balancing, as it is called) or by assigning priorities in zones of conflict (through assigning weights to given rights), such devices can’t solve conflicts between different exercises of one and the same right (so‐called ‘internal conflict’). Thus, we need as well on‐site resolution of conflicts by administrators and judges. In sum, we need institutional measures to harmonize rights; only then can we eliminate conflict between rights. Natural rights, which disavow such measures in principle, would inevitably conflict and hence collapse into an incoherent set.
Allegiance and the Place of Civil Disobedience
Authors: Martin Rex 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with political obligation, i.e. with one's obligation to obey the laws of one's own country. Here, it is suggested that such an obligation (or one's ‘allegiance,’ as I prefer to call it) varies from system to system; it is one thing in Plato's republic but something quite different in a democratic system of rights. We are concerned, then, with the allegiance of a typical citizen, when acting in character, within a given system of political principles and institutions.
It is argued that citizens have an obligation, a system‐specific duty, in a democratic system of rights to conform to the civil rights laws there. This institutional duty is then extended to take in one's duties towards some non‐rights laws (e.g. tax laws), but it never embraces literally all laws in that society. In the course of the analysis, the views of both John Simmons and John Rawls are criticized.
Democratic institutions provide an example of an inherently imperfect procedure for making civil rights laws; the connection between such institutions and such laws represents at best only a probabilistic tendency. In the end, then, we find that citizens have no duty to conform to all non‐defective rights laws simply in so far as they are enacted laws; The typical citizen can be civilly disobedient with respect to some civil rights laws (subject to certain constraints, e.g. nonviolence) while still satisfying fully the conditions of allegiance in a democratic system of rights.