bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ethnomusicology
Authors: Blacking John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A discipline that combines scientific and humanistic methods of research to study human musical communication. The claims of ethnomusicology to be scientific are supported by its use of the phonograph and electrical instruments, enabling people to measure accurately the varieties of musical scales and to listen repeatedly to the subtleties and complexities of aurally trans mitted PERFORMANCE. Its aims and methods are humanistic in that it does not postulate a universal definition of music but rather takes into account the socially shared perceptions and definitions of music makers. Since this includes the perceptions of ethnomusicologists, an observer may treat Qur’anic chant as music for comparative purposes or for the study of tune-text associations, even though orthodox Muslims might not regard it as music. Ethnomusicology arose as part of the response of people in Europe and North America to the impact of other musical systems on their listening habits and their thinking about music. A rationale for a discipline of ethnomusicology was implicitly suggested by British philologist and physicist A. J. Ellis in a paper published in 1885, shortly before Claude Debussy and other musicians were struck by the sounds of Indonesian and African music in Paris.
Insult
Authors: Abrahams Roger D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Originally a figurative jump over someone else; hence, later, a triumph over someone, an attack intended as an affront. Today insult is used somewhat more broadly to refer to a range of rude or insolent expressive acts which, intentionally or not, create animosity. Those who study language in social contexts approach insults as units of ongoing speech that are contrived acts of rudeness or personal challenge intended to intensify a conflict relationship between the insulter and those to whom the insult is directed. In Western speaking systems, which value the appearance of spontaneity, the study of such turns of phrase shows them to be conventional and learned, part of a practiced conversational repertoire, like proverbs and other traditional examples of verbal art (see also Ethnography Of Speaking; Proverb).
Oratory
Authors: Duranti Allessandro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The art of using speech effectively in addressing an audience within political, legal, ceremonial, or religious settings. In the Western tradition of Greek and Roman rhetoric, oratory is strongly associated with public speaking in political and legal settings, and it is defined as the art of getting the audience to take a particular perspective and eventually to accept the speaker’s position or resolution on a particular issue. In the anthropological and linguistic literature, oratory also refers to the skillful Performance of particular speech genres within ceremonial or magico-religious settings, such as curing sessions, initiation rites, weddings, and funerals. In these contexts the orator’s task may include one or more from a variety of functions that range from interpretation of the occasion to creation of a context in which psychological, social, or even physical change can be said to occur. See also Ethnography Of Speaking.
Spectacle
Authors: Manning Frank E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A large-scale, extravagant cultural production that is replete with striking visual imagery and dramatic action and that is watched by a mass audience. The spectacle is especially characteristic of modem societies, socialist and capitalist, but is also found in traditional societies significantly affected by modem influences. It is arguable that spectacle has surpassed religious RITUAL as the principal symbolic context in which contemporary societies enact and communicate their guiding beliefs, values, concerns, and selfunder standings. The repertoire of spectacles is vast, but the most familiar examples come from the field of sports. The greatest of all spectacles is probably the Olympic Games, which attract tens of thousands of participants, live audiences of two to three million persons, and media audiences estimated to number a third of the world’s total population. World Cup soccer matches also draw huge live and television audiences, as do, in the United States, championship and other “classic” games in professional baseball and football, college football, and various other sports ranging from golf through horse and stock car racing. When the magazine Sports Illustrated was started in 1954, it included a photographic section called “Spectacle,” which in its prospec tus stated, “Sport . . . is magic to the eye. It lingers in the life-long treasury of vision.”
Application Preparation
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To enter the competitive fray for obtaining research grant funds, it is necessary for the investigator to transfer research ideas to paper. While there are a number of different application forms, the most common one is the PHS Form 398. Application kits are available at most applicant institutions, usually in the Office of Grants and Contracts or the Office of Sponsored Research. They also can be obtained from the Office of Grants nquiries, DRG. The application forms used by the USPHS granting agencies are as follows: PHS 398; New, Competing Continuation, and Supplemental Research Project Grants, AREA Grants, FIRST Awards, Cooperative Agreements, Program Projects, Centers, RCDA, and National Research Service Institutional Awards PHS 6246-1; SBIR Program, Phase I PHS 6246-2; SBIR, Phase II PHS 416-1; Individual NRSA or Senior International Fellowship Award NIH 1541-1; International Research Fellowship Award PHS 6025; Nonresearch Training Grant PHS 5161-1; Grant to State or Local Government Agency; Health Services Project NIH 2575; Construction Grant NIH 147-1; Biomedical Research Support Grant NIH 1887; Medical Library Resource Improvement Grant In this chapter, emphasis is on the PHS 398 for the Research Project (ROI) Award, the FIRST (R29) Award, and the RCDA (K04); the PHS 416-1 for the Individual (F32) and Senior (F33) NRSA; and the PHS 6246-1 (R43) and -2 (R44) for the SBIR program.
Areas of Special Interest
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Shared responsibility between members of the biomedical research community and NIH staff is an important aspect of the extramural programs and the peer review system. One aspect of this is service by members of the research community on advisory councils and review panels. In addition, many of these individuals are Pis themselves. They and their institutions as applicants share important roles in assur ing the responsible and ethical conduct of research and the training for this, the proper care of human subjects and experimental animals in research protocols, the equitable involvement of minorities and women as subjects in clinical research, and the protection of research personnel and the environment.
Reinsurance
Authors: Sloan Frank A , Bovbjerg Randall R , Githens Penny B 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Reinsurance is a way that insurers themselves share risk with another in urer. One insurer, the ceding company, transfers responsibility for some or all of the liability assumed under the policies it selb to the reinsurer, along with a share of the premium. Reinsurance generally involves a contract between a primary insurer that sells insur¬ ance to the public and a reinsurer; with very few exceptions, the rcinsurer has no contractual obligations to the public. (Hence reinsurers are seldom regulated; see Chapter 3.) The rcinsurcr, in tum, frequently rcinsurcs some of the loss expo urc with other reinsurers. Such transactions arc termed “retrocessions.” Primary insurers typ¬ ically do not cede all of their liability; rather, in insurance terminology, they “retain” part of the liability. Normally, reinsurance i1, sought especially against very large losses.
Risk Classification
Authors: Sloan Frank A , Bovbjerg Randall R , Githens Penny B 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Insurance rates are based on experience. That is, actuaries examine historical daims patterns to predict future rates for particular insured groups or classes of individually rated insureds. Normally, the experience of an entire insured group or a whole class of individuals is used for basic prediction, but the past claims history of an individual may also be used, a practice known as “experience rating.” Experience rating (or ..merit rating”) is common in automobile coverage, for example, where having one or more chargeable accidents in a base period typically affects the premium charged (Mehr and Cammack 1980). Surcharges or discounts based on a driving record, for example, arc thought to improve the accurac) and fairness of the rating system and to provide an incentive to avoid accidents.\
“The Plainest Road”: The Coming of the Cherokee War
Authors: Hatley Tom 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
IN the late 1750s, the Cherokees’ impatience grew toward the colonial allies who had ventured to build new towns within their settlements. The troubled stay of a Presbyterian missionary among the tribe during this period opens a window on Cherokee displeasure with colonial society and the escalation of tension in the villages. Missionary William Richardson had come into the distant Overhill Towns late in 1758, while Little Carpenter and his warriors were still away on the Forbes expedition. During Richardson’s visit Cherokee disillusionment increased with each round of bad news filtering back from Virginia.
Postwar Colonial Society, 1761–1768
Authors: Hatley Tom 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
THE immediate aftermath of the three-year crisis found Carolina wrestling both with the unavoidable reflection on its wartime performance and with recovery. The evidence was far from reassuring on the old, sensitive issue of the colony’s vulnerability. The smallpox epidemic had killed 650 people, 300 white and 350 black, 12 percent of the town’s official population. There was little evidence that the steps taken by the authorities to control the spread of the disease, including inoculation, had been effective. The record also showed an inability to cope with food shortage and the strain of suppressing domestic unrest by blacks and white minorities.
The Cherokee Village World in Crisis and in Recovery
Authors: Hatley Tom 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
THE war left stories of great suffering in the Cherokee towns. Postwar eye-witness accounts by white visitors are scarce; the Cherokees were themselves silent for the most part, with a silence that suggests the outsized scale of suffering in the towns and the inwardness of the struggle for recovery. After the war, when questions were raised in South Carolina about whether the Cherokees had been punished enough, even Henry Laurens was moved to correct those who argued that simply burning village houses and com had no effect on the tribe. Laurens sarcastically asked Christopher Gadsden if he believed “that the Indians were like Tortoises carrying their houses upon their backs,” and added that their “women and children are as susceptible … of injury from inclemency of the weather as ours are.”
From Sycamore Shoals to Chickamauga
Authors: Hatley Tom 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
ACherokee hunter surprised Quaker naturalist William Bartram as he paused near Jore in the summer of 1775, to pull a lunch of “biscut and cheese, and a peace of neat’s tongue” from his wallet. “Upon sight of me he stood, and seemed a little surprised, as I was very much … Speaking in the Cherokee tongue, our conversation was not continued to a great length … I presented him with some Tobacco” and “parted in friendship; he descended the hills, singing as he went.” Bartram quickly set out again too, around him a world of “mountains piled upon mountains,” but felt a chill in the unfolding distance: “an alteration in the air, from warm to cold.”
Introduction: Patriotic Pageantry in America
Authors: Fried Richard M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
“Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp.” So begins the final verse of Emma Lazarus’s “The New Colossus:’ Though less often recited than her paean to the golden door, these words sound a powerful theme of national identity. Americans reject the pomp and pageantry of the tired, monarchical, militaristic, oppressive Old World. They do not “stand on ceremony.” During World War I, President Woodrow Wilson defined the enemy as “Governments clothed with the strange trappings and primitive authority of an age that is altogether alien and hostile to our own:’ Negative political repercussions befall those who forget the egalitarian folklore, from John Adams to Richard M. Nixon, who garbed White House police in uniforms befitting an operetta set in Mitteleuropa.
Introduction
Authors: Bernstein Iver 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The New York City draft riots had deep and troubling significance for mid nineteenth-century Americans. For five days in July 1863, armed mobs interrupted enforcement of the first federal conscription and struggled with authorities for sway over the nation’s manufacturing and commercial capital. What began on the morning of July 13 as a demonstration against the draft soon expanded into a sweeping assault against the local institutions and personnel of President Abraham Lincoln’s Republican Party, as well as a grotesque and bloody race riot. The awesome destruction of property and life stunned a generation of urban Americans well familiar with street violence.
Earnings Frontiers and Labor Market Efficiency
Authors: Hunt-McCool Janet C , Warren Ronald S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The rhetoric of human capital theory borrows heavily from the neoclassical theories of investment and production. Investments in human capital in the form of schooling, on-the-job training, and work experience represent inputs to an earnings production function, which is usually given empirical expression by the semilogarithmic earnings equation popularized by Becker and Chiswick (1966), Mincer (1974), and Heckman and Polachek (1974). With a few very recent exceptions, however, the stochastic specifications of empirical earnings equations have not been faithful to the theoretical concept of a production function as giving “... the maximum scalar output as a function of the inputs ... “ [Varian (1984), p. 10]. In particular, the specification and estimation of human capital earnings functions have not kept pace with developments in the theory and estimation of econometric production frontiers, which envelop the technically efficient combinations of input sets and outputs.
Do Physicians Minimize Cost?
Authors: Eakin B Kelly 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Uwe Reinhardt (1972), in a widely cited article, concludes that physicians under­ employ aides and consequently produce only about 80 percent of the patient visits possible if physicians worked as much but employed twice the number of aides. The policy implication is obvious: the perceived physician shortage (of the time) could be alleviated if physicians would employ assistants in an economically efficient manner. Since Reinhardt ‘s research many changes have occurred. The “physician shortage” has all but disappeared as an issue. Instead, there is often talk (particularly by physicians) of a “physician glut” and intense competition among physicians. Tightening reimbursement policies of third-party payers presumably has reduced physician prof­ its. Also, health care inflation over this period has continued to hover well above the growth rate of the consumer price index. These conditions highlight the need to reinvestigate the issue of efficiency in the production of physician services.
Productivity Growth In Norwegian Ferries
Authors: F¢rsund Finn R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The field of economic index number theory is a veritable graveyard, so full is it of mathematically ingenious indices that are useless because they have no economic significance. Key concepts when studying production over time are productivity, efficiency, and technical change. Productivity is defined as an index of outputs divided by an index of inputs. Efficiency is defined as a production unit ‘s “success in producing as large as possible an output from a given set of inputs” [Farrell (1957, p.254)]. Technical change is the change in the transformation functions between inputs and outputs. When studying productivity change over time these concepts are related, as elaborated upon in Chapter 4. Empirical studies show that a generic feature of production units at the micro level in the same business is that efficiency varies across units. A natural reference for technology is then best practice or the frontier production function. As pointed out in Chapter 4 change in productivity is the net effect of changes in efficiency and shift in the frontier production function.
The International Safety Record
Authors: Oster Clinton V , Strong Johns , Zorn C Kurt 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As international travel has grown, the extent to which citizens of one country fly on airlines of other nations is at an all time high. Any assessment of aviation safety worldwide must go beyond merely comparing safety records of international flag carriers that fly relatively long flights between major airports to examine flights within countries as well. Furthermore, the globalization of the airline industry has led to a growing number of marketing agreements, operational ties, and cross-ownership relations.
Aviation Security
Authors: Oster Clinton V , Strong Johns , Zorn C Kurt 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, on December 21,1988, reminded travelers throughout the world that the risk of a terrorist incident is always present and is not confined to the Middle East and other trouble spots in the world. Acts of aviation sabotage, such as hijacking and bombing, have plagued the industry for many years. However, improved media coverage of these events and closer links between political conflicts and aviation sabotage have heightened public awareness and concern.
The Rush to German Unity
Authors: Jarausch Konrad H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
An historic event of the first magnitude, German unification has transformed the face of Europe. In one stunning year, two separate states with clashing ideologies, hostile armies, competing economies and incompatible social systems merged into one. The speed and extent of the rupture has been so great, that people are still trying to figure out what happened. Initial elation about liberation has given way to deep depression over the consequences of unity. Written by a distinguished German historian who has followed the unification question for nearly thirty years, The Rush to German Unity is the first attempt at an historical reconstruction of the momentous events. Jarausch draws on the rich sources produced by the collapse of East Germany to examine the dramatic experiences of the German people. From the public debate in West Germany, Jarausch explores the decisions of the West German elite which made unification possible. Ideal as a resource for the student of modern Germany, and for the lay reader wanting an informed analysis of the events, The Rush to German Unity's thoughtful reconstruction of the unification process is an invaluable guide to current debates about the new Germany.
Introduction The German Upheaval
Authors: Jarausch Konrad H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The opening of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, was a complete surprise. During an evening press conference, Gunter Schabowski, secretary of the Socialist Unity Party (SED) of Berlin, read the draft of a new travel law: “Applications for private trips abroad may be submitted without further preconditions.... Permission will be granted immediately. “1 Since this news was not meant to be released until the following day, journalists, without prior briefing, were stunned and confused. Only at the last minute had the Central Committee included free personal movement in the bill that intended to liberalize emigration. The SED leaders hardly realized what they had just set in motion. The ruling Marxist party justified the Wall as “antifascist protection” against Western revanchism. In early 1989, Erich Honecker, the East German SED chief, still predicted that it would stand another hundred years, as long as it was required. But most GDR citizens did not feel threatened by the West and resented this curtailment of their freedom to travel. To ease the pressure of protests, the Krenz government gambled that granting the wish for free movement would stabilize its embattled rule. Since many members of the GDR elite had been able to go to the West, they fundamentally underestimated public hunger for lifting the restraints. With its most popular decision, the Communist regime inadvertently paved the way not only for its own demise, but for the collapse of East Germany as a separate state.
Running Away
Authors: Jarausch Konrad H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A hole in the Iron Curtain started the mass exodus. When Hungarian soldiers cut the barbed wire fence on May 2, 1989, desperate East Germans began to cross the Austrian frontier. Those who were turned back or were less daring crowded into West German embassies in Budapest, Prague, and East Berlin. Though the GDR protested against “crude interference in [its] sovereign affairs,” Bonn welcomed the refugees from poverty and repression: “When they come to us, we accept them as Germans. We will not throw them out by force.”1 Sure of a warm reception, more and more East Germans sought to leave without permission, since they had given up any hope for change. In mid-August 661 refugees rushed across .the Austro-Hungarian frontier. When overcrowding closed the embassies, desperate East Germans fled during a peace picnic sponsored by the pan-European Union. Others were stopped and one was shot by a Hungarian border guard. With several thousand thronging around the FRG legation in Budapest, the Red Cross set up tent camps for those unwilling to go back in spite of their government’s frantic efforts to retrieve them. Though leery of accepting too many migrants, Chancellor Helmut Kohl urged Hungarian leaders to open the border. But East German foreign minister Oskar Fischer threatened them with dire consequences. Caught in the diplomatic crossfire, Budapest wanted the Germans to resolve the issue themselves. In the makeshift camps crowded with six thousand refugees, impatience grew. 2 The Hungarian cabinet faced a difficult dilemma. Bloc solidarity and a travel agreement with the GDR mandated the return of all refugees to East Berlin. But assisting in such a “barbaric, antihuman cause” would reduce chances for Western aid. Since the East Germans refused to let their citizens go, Hungarian Foreign Minister Guyla Horn worked out a one-time release of over one hundred with Red Cross documents. When refugee numbers continued to swell, Horn became convinced that a more