bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prototype Theory as a Scientific Paradigm
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN an attempt to highlight the importance of background assumptions in scientific research, Thomas Kuhn (1962) introduced the notion of ‘paradigm’ into the philosophy of science: a paradigm is a set of assumptions, representational mechanisms, values, symbolic formats, and typical problems with exemplary solutions that together determine the research programme in a specific scientific field. In this chapter, I shall consider the questio11_ to what extent the application of prototype theory to diachronic semantics can be considered a paradigm in the Kuhnian sense. The analysis will proceed in two steps. First, it needs to be established that prototype theory does indeed constitute a set of assumptions that influences (if not determines) how the historical linguist sees things, and even what he is prepared to consider a linguistic fact. Second, the exact nature of this paradigm will have to be specified by comparing it with other conceptions of lexical semantics. This second step naturally leads to an investigation of the hermeneutic character of lexical semantics.
Language Choice
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the process oflanguage acquisition, children have to learn to use language appropriately. As their linguistic repertoire expands to the point where it con tains more than one variety or style (for monolinguals) and more than one lan guage (for bilinguals), the child needs to learn under what circumstances to choose one variety or language rather than another. The purpose of this chapter is to investigate how early a developing bilingual can choose between her two languages according to the demands of the context, and what appear to be the factors deter mining choice. Sociolinguistic studies of variation in adult speech (of which Labov 1972 is a classic example) have concentrated on the effect of the situation on an indi vidual’s choice between language varieties, and on how characteristics of the individual (for example, gender, social class) can affect their speech. However, Fishman (1965) had introduced participants (including hearer as well as situ ation) and topic as well as situation, and in more recent sociolinguistic research more attention is again paid to the effect of the interlocutor on an individual’s choice of variety. This attention is reflected, for example, in the work of Bell (1984), through his concept of’audience design’, which means that ‘speakers accommod ate primarily to their addressee’ (Bell 1984: 145). Investigation of the effect of the addressee or interlocutor on speech had in fact been a focus of accommodation theory in social psychology since the 1970s (see e.g. Giles et al. 1977; Giles and Smith 1979; and more recently Giles et al. 1991).
Centering in Italian
Authors: Eugenio Barbara Di 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the correlation between centering and different forms of pronominal reference in Italian. in particular zeros and overt pronouns in subject position. In previous work (Di Eugenio 1990), I pro posed that such alternation could be explained in terms of centering transitions. In this chapter, I verify those hypotheses by means of a small corpus of naturally occurring data. In the process, I extend my previous analysis in several ways. for example by taking possessives into account: I also provide a more detailed analysis of CONTINUE: more specifically, I show that pronouns are used in a markedly different way in CONTINUES preceded by another CONTINUE or by a SHIFT, and in CONTINUES preceded by a RETAIN.
Centering, Global Focus, and Right-Dislocation
Authors: Grosz Barbara J , Ziv Yael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Centering has been proposed to fill the role of modeling the local level of attentional state within Grosz and Sidner’s ( 1986) model of discourse structure. In this chapter, we demonstrate that centering can also aid in explaining a particular syntactic structure, right dislocation. To do so, we propose a modification to the attentional state model that coordinates the global level of attentional state with centering. The chapter includes an analysis of right dislocation constructions in English and Hebrew.
Introduction
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book, a theory of coordination will be suggested in which the two most important components are the structure of the conjunction phrase (CoP) and the way the conjuncts are attached to the conjunction phrase by a generalized transformation (..coordinate-alpha”). Two kinds of coordination not previously discussed to any great extent in the literature win be presented-they strongly support the analysis put forward here. Most theories of coordination can handle the archetypical case where two categories of the same syntactic and semantic kind are coordinated. It is not in such simple cases, however, that we can evaluate different theories. Less straightforward types of coordination include, for example, non-constituentcoordination, gapping, and coordination of unlike syntactic categories. It is with respect to these and other such phenomena that theories differ.
The Conjunction Phrase
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we shall see how the UC and EBC data presented in Chapter 2 can be accounted for if we assume a theory of coordination which provides an internal structure for the conjunction phrase, following directly from X-bar theory. We shall see an outline of the CoP phrase and the important role of spec-head agreement. An account will be given of the correlation between CoP word order and word order in a language generally (Section 4.2). Unbalanced coordination is discussed with respect to coordination of different categories (Section 4.3), and ordinary and extraordinary balanced coordination are discussed-with the suggestion that ordinary balanced coordination is in fact the most complex type (Section 4.4).
Coordinate-Alpha
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having seen the structural representation of conjunction phrases in Chapter 4, we are ready to consider how the conjuncts become attached to the CoP. It will be shown how a generalized transformation, coordinate alpha, takes two fu)]y projected CP structures and attaches them to the two positions in the CoP. Any two categories can in principle be coordinated, but the result-after possible deletion-must not violate the most general principles of X-bar structure (Section 5.2). Since the input components to coordinate-alpha are full CPs, we need a way that can reduce these components to smaller conjuncts such as DPs or Ps. A deletion approach is suggested, and other approaches in the literature are discussed (Section 5.3). Finally, evidence is presented in support of the idea that the coordinate-alpha components must be full CPs rather than smaller conjuncts. Some theories that do not share this assumption are also discussed (Section 5.4). A summary is given in 5.5.
Conclusion
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both phenomena are more common in the languages of the world than has possibly been previously acknowledged: I have found 32 languages (from closely related to unrelated) in which UC occurs regularly. The direction of the unbalancedness correlates with the general direction of head-complement: out of 12 OV languages, 11 have the deviant UC conjunct in the first position; out of 14 VO languages, all have the deviant UC conjunct in the second position. Six languages have a word order which is mixed or unclear, and cannot be made subject to these generalizations.
Performance and Ethnohistory
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As already stated in the Introduction, the broader processes responsible for language shift and their structural outcomes do not give a complete picture of speakers’ competence and the ways in which their use of Arvanítika and Greek enters into their daily interactions. Structures of subordination and linguistic structures are articulated through practice at the local level (Hill 1990). Following Hill we must suspend our structuralist point of view and examine the actual use of bilingual resources by speakers in their discursive practice. The performance frame proves to be a rewarding analytic tool in the context of the present discussion.
Concluding Remarks on Ideology and Shift: Language Ideology as a Discursive and Reconstructible Phenomenon
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D 
Published: November 2023

abstract
Since a major running theme of this book is linguistic praxis with a focus on ideological discourse my concluding remarks in this chapter should be taken as referring also to the basic points of the whole essay. Linguistic anthropologists employing Conversation Analysis and other approaches of microanalytic nature have concentrated on the links between cultural conditions, norms, and processes on the one hand, and the local management of culture as shows up in conversation on the other (Moerman 1988). In a similar spirit, scholars interested in ideology and the political economy of language suggest that we should view ways of speaking as parts of local responses to macrohistorical processes (Gal 1989b: 357). And regardless of how successful the workings of hegemony are — which depends on the specific relations of local communities with superordinate structures—ideology is a central property of discourse and social order. Particularly in Gramsci’s scheme (1971), as against orthodox Marxist readings, ideology figures prominently as a powerful factor in history. Even though the Gramscian theoretical point takes the relation between institutional structures—mainly the coercive and forceful apparatuses-and ideologies as remaining within the context of reciprocal action and dialectic, it inverts the relative priority of these superstructural domains, giving ideology a central role in the historical process contrary to authoritative Marxism (Bobbio 1988: 153-4).
The Metaphorical Use of Modal Verbs
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Image systematicity increases the interpretability of the metaphorical technique. However, there also exist systematic relations which are not motivated by the speaker’s attempt to make things easier for the addressee, for the purpose of ensuring his, the speaker’s, communicative success. Similar problems often lead to similar solutions. Let us consider a simple example. The feeling that chili peppers create on the tongue is called hot in English, scharf in German, and in Spanish, picante (the present participle of picar ‘prick’). Chili is hot and burns, ist scharf und brennt, es picante y pica. Though these three languages use different images, there is one thing they all have in common. All use the concept of physical wounds: burns, cuts and pricks. (Interestingly, German-in contrast to English and Spanish-combines two different sorts of conceptual images: “sharp” things “burn” the tongue, rather than “cutting” it (schneiden).) With burning, cutting and pricking, the external phenomena suitable to be used as associative impulses for the metaphorical denotation of the internal taste sensation in question are, I think, pretty much exhausted.
Eighteenth-Century English: The ‘Cinderella’ of English Historical Linguistics?
Authors: Beal Joan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The scholarly neglect of the Later Modern English (LNE) period has led Charles Jones (1989: 279) to describe the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as ‘the Cinderellas of English historical linguistic study”. A glance at the available textbooks for undergraduate courses alone would appear to confirm Jones’s judgement: Görlach (1988: 211) refers to the study of Early Modern English variation as ‘the Cinderella of English historical linguistics’ and notes ‘the neglect of the Early Modern English period’, but his own (1991) textbook, along with other useful works such as Ronberg (1992), have done much to remedy the situation. Where LNE is concerned, no such general textbook exists: Partridge (1969) pays much more attention to the Tudor than to the Augustan English of his title and, whilst Richard Bailey (1996) has provided a long-needed guide to the English of the nineteenth century, there is, at the time of writing, still not a single textbook suitable for an undergraduate course on eighteenth-century English.
Conclusion
Authors: Beal Joan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We saw in Chapter 2 that if the eighteenth century is one of ‘the Cinderellas of English historical linguistic study’ (Charles Jones 1989: 279), then phonology is the Cinderella of eighteenth-century studies, and Spence is the Cinderella of eighteenth-century phonology. I hope that the detailed study in Chapter 5 of information from Spence’s Grand Repository and other eighteenth-century pronouncing dictionaries has been enough to show that such scholarly neglect is unjustified and, in particular, that Dobson’s dismissive remark about eighteenth-century orthoepists (quoted in §3.2.2) is misconceived. C. Jones (1993: 96) suggests that one explanation for ‘this state of affairs is ‘the still resonant perception of the period as normative and prescriptive, negative characteristics which have somehow come to imply at worst a lack of reliability in the accounts of contemporary observers’. yet we have seen that even the arch-prescriptivist Walker deserves far more credit than he is given by the likes of Sheldon for the acuteness of his observations. Even where Walker condemns a proscribed pronunciation such as ‘h-dropping’, his remarks provide valuable information concerning the sociolinguistic situation in late-eighteenth-century Britam. Instead of ignoring these pronouncing dictionaries because they offend our late-twentieth-century sense of political correctness, we should, like Crowley (1991), pay attention to them, not least for the window they provide onto the socio-political significance of linguistic issues in the eighteenth century.
Corpus-Based Analysis of Evaluative Lexis
Authors: Channell Joanna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents examples of words and phrases (such as fat, par for the course, and right-on) which have connotations of positive or negative evaluation. Channell uses concordance lines from the Bank of English corpus to show how these connotations come about. Concordance lines bring together many instances of a given word from many sources, allowing us to observe the typical contexts of that word, in particular, the other words that it most usually occurs with. Channell demonstrates the importance of this collocational information and uses it to provide evidence for connotations that the reader may not have been aware of previously.
Introduction
Authors: Zampolli A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book was planned as a follow-up to the fifth Pisa International Summer School on Computational Lexicology and Lexicography, organized in 1988 by the group of researchers working in Pisa in the field of computational linguistics (henceforth CL), in the University and in the Institute of Computational Linguistics of the National Research Council (CNR). The 1988 Summer School was sponsored by the European Science Foundation (ESF), a European Association of fifty-nine member research councils and academies in twenty-one countries.
The Lexicographical Workstation and the Scholarly Dictionary
Authors: Weiner Edmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a simpler age, definitions of different kinds of dictionary were not needed. The Victorians who founded what became the Oxford English Dictionary did not set out to compile a scholarly dictionary in contradistinction to a desk, or a concise, or a collegiate dictionary. They merely planned a much more complete record of the English vocabulary than those that then existed, so that English literature of any age might be read and understood by all. But English scholarship grew up, and lexicography grew with it, inevitably parting company with the man and woman in the street. The kind of technical knowledge required to use the OED and its relatives ceased to be the kind of knowledge required and pursued by the average person, even as the size of the dictionary pushed its price beyond what they could afford.
A
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first meaning of accept is ‘to take or receive sth. when offered’. The obj. can be something tangible, a gift, money, etc., a job, a scholarship, a position, help, an invitation, or something intangible like hospitality. Accept and RECENE are interchangeable in some contexts. Applications will be accepted/received until 31 October. The equivalent is entgegennehmen, a partial syn. of annehmen. Entgegennehmen needs an obj. In one use it occurs with ns. such as eine Postsendung or ein Brief which in everyday language are found with annehmen. In such a context the only difference is that entgegennehmen is more formal. It is sometimes met with in official, legal, and commercial language.
D
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Damage means ‘to harm or spoil sth. so that it does not work properly or is not in as good a condition as it originally was’. The car was damaged in the accident .The main equivalent beschadigen is applied only to things in normal use. Only in bureaucratic language does die Kriegsbeschiidigten refer to people who suffered injuries or whose health was impaired by the war; the disabled whose working capacity was diminished by more than half used to be called schwerbeschiidigt, but this has been replaced by schwerbehindert.
L
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
lack, be absent or missing vs. Lack varies in meaning between ‘have too lit¬ tle of or be deficient in’ and ‘be without or not to have at all’. In He is lacking in courage and They lacked the experience necessary for this work, it would normally be understood as implying a deficiency, whereas in Gennan lacks a continuous tense and The soil lacked the necessary nutrients, it suggests complete absence.
M
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
make, get, have vs. Some senses of cause and let vs. Most of this article deals with the equivalents of some closely related E. constructions containing these words. (i) Make + obj. + infin. without to. The sudden noise made me jump. They made me repeat the story. For the equivalents cf. 1. Can you make the fire bum? Cf. 5. John made us laugh. Cf. 8. iii. (ii) Get+ obj. + infin. with to. I got Tom to give me the number. Cf. 3. I can’t get the wheel to move. Cf. 5. (iii) Get+ obj. + past part. I must get my hair cut/my shoes mended. Cf. 2. (iv) Have+ obj.+ past part. I’ve had the car seen to. I’ll have the text translated. Cf. 2. (v) Have+ obj.+ infin. without to. I’ll have the plumber replace the pipe. Cf. 3.
P
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In reference to something which is not a part of the body, such as The wound was painful or It was painful to admit I was wrong, painful has two equivalents schmerzhaft and schmerzlich. The general distinction is that schmerzhaft refers to bodily pain and schmerzlich to mental pain, grief, sadness, anxiety, regret, etc. Thus eine schmerzhafte Wunde, ein schmerzhafter Sonnenbrand, and eine schmerzliche Erinnerung. Sie erlitten einen schmerzlichen Verlust. If followed, this distinction will always produce correct G. However, schmerzhaft is sometimes used for mental pain.
Q
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quality means ‘the degree of goodness or worth’. We check the quality of the products. A further meaning ‘a high degree of goodness, i.e. excellence’ can be expressed by adding high, but quality can have this sense without high being stated. Merchandise of quality. The equivalent, die Qualitat, tends to be neutral, and the different degrees are expressed by adjs. such as die hohe, ausgezeichnete, or minderwertige Qualitiit eines Produktes. It sometimes suggests excellence. Qualitiitserzeugnisse means ‘products of high quality’.
R
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Raise means ‘to move from a low[er] to a high[er] level’. It is used for parts of the body, I raise my handfhead/eyes, and things, S.o. raises a glass/a barrier/a lidfhis hat/a sunken ship/the curtain. Lift means ‘to move to a higher level or position’, usually with the hands and arms, and often from the ground or floor. The crane lifts ten tons. He lifted the child out of a cot. I lifted the bag on to the lorry. Pick up means ‘to lift from the floor or ground’ something that either has its normal position there or has fallen. She picked up the bucket/the coin. Lift expresses the ability or inability to take something up. I can/can’t lift it. It’s very heavy-can you lift it? .
T
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
take v. Take has a wide range of meaning. The OED lists i-vi as the main senses: The oldest is ‘to get hold of or capture’. They took two prisoners. The anny has taken the town. It is applied fig. also to diseases and feelings. She was taken ill. He bought a vase that had taken his fancy. (ii) In its principal sense take denotes the action by which people take something into their hands, He took the money and left, but it has developed uses in which this meaning is hardly apparent, They took the house for six months. A train, bus, road, or course can be the obj. I’ll take a taxi. (iii) It also means ‘to use, use up, or consume’ mostly time, but also material, energy, and space.
W
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Warten denotes a state of waiting. It is used without a prep., Ich habe drei Stunden gewartet, and with auf = ‘for’. Ich warte auf den Bus. Ich warte vor dem Kino auf dich. The in. following auf can denote something of a non-concrete nature.With an obj. abwarten means ‘to wait until sth. happens or arrives’. Ich warte auf eine Antwort auf meinen Brief indicates general waiting and is translated as I am waiting for . . . In Ich warte die Antwort auf meinen Brief ab, bevor ich weitere Schritte untemehme, the second action is made dependent on the first, so that it means I’ll wait for the answer to arrive, before ... or I won’t take further action till the answer arrives. Ich warte auf eine giinstige Gelegenheit, I’m waiting for an opportunity to arise. Ich warte eine giinstige Gelegenheit ab, um es ihm zu erziihlen is very similar but suggests the person will not say anything until a favourable opportunity arises or will wait until one does present itself. Some pedestrian traffic lights carry the notice:
The Loss of Case Marking
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The loss of case-marking distinctions in English has generally been seen as responsible for profound changes in the language. In particular, the changes in grammatical relations which we will look at in the following chapters are frequently assumed to have resulted directly from the syncretism of the cases. Let us briefly review here the changes which are thought to have affected the experiencer verbs and the passives of verbs which governed a dative object in OE. One change which is frequently regarded as important in the loss of the ‘impersonal’ constructions is the syncretism between nominative and dative nominal case. The idea here is that in OE the distinctive dative case marking of pam cyninge in a phrase like pam cyninge ofhreowep made it quite clear that of hreowan was an ‘impersonal’ verb, but once dative case marking had disappeared from the nominal paradigm, it was impossible for language-learners to be certain whether the king was to be analysed as an (indirect) object, as earlier, or as a subject.