bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Development Validation and Analysis of Salmonella Mutagenicity Test Methods
Authors: Mukherji Suparna 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Ames Assay is widely used for estimating mutagenicity in water samples that are extracted using columns packed with XAD resin. The test is conducted on plates using genetically engineered strains of
Salmonella typhimurium
, such as TA 98 and TA 100, where each is designed to indicate a specific mutation. Activation with rat liver microsomal fractions (S9‐mix) is required for detecting the indirect acting mutagens. Mutagenicity is reflected by revertant count on test plates exceeding the spontaneous mutation frequency. These revertant counts are characterized by large variances often exceeding the mean. The two‐fold rule commonly used for interpreting mutagenicity may yield a false interpretation depending on the strain‐specific spontaneous reversion frequency. A dose response relationship may be established based on the initial linear region; however, parameter estimation is best performed using software specifically developed for this test. The slope is representative of the combined effect of mutagenicity and toxicity.
UnderstandingEscherichia coliO157:H7 and the Need for Rapid Detection in Water
Authors: Bukhari Zia , Weihe Janice , Lechevallier Mark 
Published: July 2005

AbstractEscherichia coliis a facultative anaerobe that commonly inhabits the gastrointestinal tracts of humans within hours of birth. This gram‐negative bacillus of the family Enterobactericeae is normally a harmless commensal that helps the host by suppressing pathogenic bacteria (due to competition) and by producing vitamin K and vitamin B complex (1). Individuals who suffer severe immunosuppression (both acquired and due to chemotherapy) or a breached gastrointestinal barrier can experience infection by nonpathogenicE. coli. More likely, however, are instances of infection by pathogenicE. colithat can include urinary tract infections, sepsis/meningitis, or diarrhea. Within the pathogenicE. coliresponsible for diarrheagenic disease, differentiation of the strains has led to development of five classes (virotypes): enteropathogenicE. coli(EPEC), enterohemorrhagicE. coli(EHEC), enterotoxigenicE. coli(ETEC), enteroinvasiveE. coli(EIEC), and enteroaggregativeE. coli(EAEC) (2). Differentiation of pathogenic strains ofE. coliis based on the organism's surface antigen profiles of O (somatic), H (flagellar), and K (capsular). This serological classification was originally proposed by Kauffman in 1944 and a modified form is still in use today. Although this serotyping ofE. coliis a reproducible mechanism for identifyingE. coliassociated with particular clinical disease, the serotypes themselves are not responsible for virulence but are only identifiable chromosomal markers for virulence factors (2).This article focuses onE. coliO157:H7, a member of the EHEC class of diarrheagenicE. coli, and specifically discusses transmission routes, particularly focused on the waterborne route and the methods that may be employed for detecting contamination.
Acid Mine Drainage—Extent and Character
Authors: Rose Arthur W. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Acid mine drainage (AMD), also known as acid rock drainage (ARD), is an extensive environmental problem in areas of coal and metal mining. For example, the Appalachian Regional Commission estimated that 5700 miles of streams in eight Appalachian states were seriously polluted by AMD. AMD is also serious near major metal mining districts such as Iron Mountain, CA and Summitville, CO. In streams affected by AMD, fish and stream biota are severely impacted and the waters are not usable for drinking or for many industrial purposes. In addition to deleterious effects of dissolved constituents (H
+
, Fe, Al) on stream life, Fe and Al precipitates can cover the stream bed and inhibit stream life, and suspended precipitates can make the water unusable. In metal mining areas, heavy metals can add toxicity. General references on chemistry of AMD are Rose and Cravotta and Nordstrom and Alpers.
Microbiological Quality Control in Distribution Systems
Authors: Lehtola Markku J. , Miettinen Ilkka T. , Martikainen Pertti J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractMicrobial growth in drinking water has many undesirable effects on water quality. Microbial growth may cause esthetic and technical problems and in some cases be a health risk for consumers. Growth of microbes in drinking water is affected by various factors like disinfection, residence time in the distribution network, temperature, and microbial nutrients like organic carbon and phosphorus. Most of the bacteria in drinking water originate from biofilms in pipelines, so that also the pipe material and hydraulics can affect the microbial growth. Chlorination is one effective and widely used method for preventing microbial growth in drinking water. However, chlorine reacts with organic matter, which can lead to formation of harmful disinfection byproducts. Other widely used ways to disinfect drinking water are ozonation and UV‐radiation, but these methods have no residual effects in the distribution system. In the lack of the disinfection residuals, microbial growth is limited by the nutrients. Usually the limiting nutrient in drinking waters is organic carbon, but in some cases, water contains such high amounts of organic carbon that microbial growth is limited by the availability of phosphorus.
Regulatory and Security Requirements for Potable Water
Authors: Du Vall Knorr Suzanne 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Potable water is drinking water that meets the requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) or stricter state requirements. Water suppliers must provide an annual water quality report to their customers or a consumer confidence report as required in California. Primary drinking water standards require corrective action and public notification when exceeded. The water system must also notify customers when a secondary drinking water standard is exceeded, although corrective action is optional.

A
Cryptosporidium
outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, led to regulations requiring filtration to remove cysts. Between 1999 and 2000, 28 of 39 waterborne disease outbreaks were from groundwater sources. The federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed disinfection of groundwater. Recent focus on chemical contaminants involves methyl‐
t
‐butyl ether (MTBE) and perchlorate found in drinking water sources. EPA classified MTBE as an unregulated contaminant. The California Department of Health Services (CDHS) established primary and secondary maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for MTBE. EPA and CDHS have established advisory levels only for perchlorate.

Focus on intentional contamination led to two federal laws affecting water systems: the Homeland Security Act and the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act (Bioterrorism Act). The Homeland Security Act requires reporting potential threats to the Department of Homeland Security. The Bioterrorism Act requires that water systems serving more than 3300 people submit a vulnerability assessment to EPA, prepare an emergency response plan, and implement needed security upgrades.
Drinking water requirements change as science and technology advances and as agencies learn more about the health affects of waterborne contaminants. Ensuring a safe potable water supply requires vigilance. The goal of regulatory agencies and water purveyors is to ensure a safe and reliable drinking water supply.
Activated Carbon—Powdered
Authors: Kazmi Absar A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The most commonly used adsorbent in water and wastewater treatment is activated carbon. Activated carbon is manufactured from carbonaceous material such as wood, coal, or petroleum residues. A char is made by burning the material in the absence of air. The char is oxidized at higher temperatures to create a very porous structure. The “activation” steps provide irregular channels and pores in the solid mass, resulting in a very large surface‐area‐per‐mass ratio. Surface areas ranging from 500 to 1500 m
2
/g have been reported, and all but a small surface area is in the pores. Once formed, activated carbon is pulverized to a very fine powder (Fig. 1). The size is predominantly less than 0.075 mm (200 sieve). Dissolved organic material adsorbs to both exterior and interior surfaces of the carbon.
Water Sampling and Laboratory Safety
Authors: Ryan Timothy J. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water sampling is done for a wide variety of reasons; some of which may place the individual in perilous environments. Because sample collection represents a significant allocation of resources, safeguards for personnel and samples alike are important.
Actual hazards of sampling and analysis depend on the sampling location and type of analysis to be conducted. The field log book is perhaps the important sampling tool, and all information pertinent to the sampling trip is to be recorded in it. The physical security and integrity of water samples is essential to ensuring the accuracy and legal defensibility of results, and precautions to protect samples from contamination and deterioration are therefore essential. Precautions must also be taken in the laboratory. Laboratories must comply with safety regulations, as analysis can involve exposure to corrosive, reactive, and toxic reagents, and personal protective equipment should be used.
Source Water Quality Management
Authors: Phoenix Laurel 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water utilities serving water authorities or municipalities can have many levels of control over the quality of their source waters. The more control they have over protecting the water quality of their sources, the less money they have to spend on water treatment, and the lower their risk when dealing with unforeseen emergencies. When they have no control of changing water quantities from drought, flood, or industrial pollution, they must spend more money to access backup supplies. Examples of water utilities with high or low control are described. For high control, the types of land use regulations mandated to prevent water degradation are described and the option some cities have for extraterritorial control. For the more common situation of low or no power, four common problems are when (1) source water is degraded, (2) supply is uncertain, (3) drinking water regulations are tightened, or (4) emergency situations arise. Strategies that water utilities use are securing numerous sources to draw upon in case of drought or a pollution event, instituting conservation to “create” new water, or crafting cooperative interlocal agreements to protect, manage, and provide public water more efficiently and sustainably.
Water Quality Management
Authors: Jain Chakresh K. , Sharma K. D. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water quality problems stem from two factors, the natural hydrology of a river basin and the development and use of land and water resources by human beings. Depending on the interrelation of these two factors, a wide variety of quality problems can result. Each river basin, therefore, is unique, and it must be subjected to individual and intensive water quality assessment to provide a proper basis for judicious management of land and water.

The following points should be considered for proper planning of a water quality monitoring program:

What are the objectives of the program?

From where are samples to be taken?

Which determinants are of interest?

When and how often are samples to be taken?

What is to be done with the results?

These questions will provide a framework for defining measurement programs. The results obtained from such a program should be regularly reviewed to decide if any changes (e.g., determinants or sampling frequency) in the monitoring program are necessary.
Sustainable Management of Natural Resources
Authors: Reijnders Lucas 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSustainable is defined here in terms of an economy that maintains an equilibrium relation between human activities and the physical environment. Four types of natural resources are distinguished that differ in requirements for sustainable use. Freshwater usage should not exceed addition to stock and the quality of fresh water stocks should be maintained. Improved water efficiency, water conservation, source reduction of pollutants, and water pricing reflecting full cost can contribute to attaining sustainability.Fishery catches should not exceed addition to stock and population structure should be maintained. To attain this goal, a variety of approaches has been tried, some on a voluntary basis such as the Marine Stewardship Council, and others based on government intervention. Governmental efforts aimed at sustainable management of fish stocks have met with varying success.Sustainable management of ecosystems should focus on maintaining the area allocated to nature, maintaining proper abiotic conditions, and conserving species diversity. A major problem in this respect is that many ecosystem services do not have a price.
Flood of Portals on Water
Authors: Jong Dick De , Bryce Marta 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
A flood of gateways and portals is emerging in recent years. This is contributing to confusion rather than helping Internet users who search the web on water issues. Part of this confusion is the result of definition problems of what makes a “portal” and what not. Here, we give some recent examples, try to create more clarity by providing definitions and types, discuss key lessons learned, and raise key issues for further discussion and research. This is based on various Internet searches and an annotated selection of various gateways/portals by IRC.
For each of them a short description of content, topic, date of establishment, and page views are provided. The majority of the gateways/portals described here focus on the broadest possible water topic: water resources and management.
The huge difference in the percentage of the population of Internet users in the North and the South needs to be addressed. Global access in 2002 was around 9%. In The Netherlands and Denmark it was around 61%. In Colombia it was about 2.8%, in Bolivia 0.9%, in India 0.7%, in Nepal 0.23%, in Mozambique and Bangladesh 0.1%, and in Ethiopia 0.03%.
A good example from the reality of the developing world will be described as well: the Virtual Library on Environmental Health (VLEH) of the Pan American Information Network on Environmental Health, REPIDISCA, which has been operating since 1982 in 21 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean with 370 Cooperating Centres. The Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences, CEPIS/PAHO, of the Pan American Health Organization, PAHO/WHO, is in charge of the regional coordination.
Fuzzy Criteria for Water Resources Systems Performance Evaluation
Authors: Simonovic Slobodan P. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractOne of the main goals of engineering design is to ensure that a system performs satisfactorily under a wide range of possible future conditions. This premise is particularly true of large and complex water resources systems. Water resources systems usually include conveyance facilities such as pipes and pumps, treatment facilities such as sedimentation tanks and filters, and storage facilities such as reservoirs and tanks. These elements are interconnected in complicated networks serving broad geographical regions. Each element is vulnerable to temporary disruption in service due to natural hazards or human error whether unintentional, as in the case of operational errors and mistakes, or due to intentional causes such as a terrorist act. Most of the hazards cannot be controlled or predicted with an acceptable degree of accuracy. Uncontrollable external factors also affect the capacity and the performance of water resource systems. The determination of the load pattern presents unique challenges. Ang and Tang (1) point out that there is uncertainty in all engineering‐based systems because these systems rely on the modeling of physical phenomena that are either inherently random or difficult to model with a high degree of accuracy.
Photocatalytic Membrane Reactors in Water Purification
Authors: Molinari Raffaele , Palmisano L. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Potable water, industrial water, and wastewater are often polluted by toxic organic species. New methods, such as those involving heterogeneous photocatalytic reactions, allow in many cases a complete degradation of organic pollutants to small and non‐noxious species, without using chemicals, avoiding sludge production and its disposal. When combined with membrane separation processes, photocatalytic membrane reactors (PMRs) are obtained. These have some advantages compared to conventional photoreactors. Indeed, confining of the photocatalyst in the reaction environment as a result of the presence of the membrane (separation at molecular level) enables operation with high amounts of catalyst, control of the residence time of the molecules in the reactor, and realization of a continuous process with simultaneous product(s) separation from the reaction environment.
The influence of various operating parameters on the photodegradation rate of various pollutants present in aqueous effluents by means of discontinuous and continuous photocatalytic processes are described. The hybrid continuous photoreactor, where a nanofiltration membrane is used, can give a simplification of clean‐up or purification of various types of waters (for industrial, municipal/domestic, and agricultural uses) and no sludge production as well as a saving in chemicals usage. It is expected that these hybrid processes will be considered when plant upgrade is planned and, especially, if sunlight energy can be used for irradiation.
Problems Encountered During Pipe Repair and Renewal
Authors: Gokhale Sanjiv 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The major problem encountered during sliplining of an existing sewer is improper preparation of the interior of the sewer prior to inserting the sliplining pipe.

Obstructions such as roots, large joint offsets, extended laterals, rocks, or other debris that would prevent the passage of or the damage to the liner pipe sections must be removed or repaired prior to the installation of the new liner pipe.
Odor Abatement in Wastewater Treatment Plants
Authors: Philp Jim , Polley Christopher , McLeod Sue 
Published: July 2005

AbstractOdorous emissions from sewer systems and wastewater treatment plants are produced generally by hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and volatile or semi‐volatile organic compounds at very low concentrations; they are present in the liquid phase and are emitted into ambient air at the liquid‐gaseous interface (Frechen & Köster, 1998). These odours cause serious complaint in the vicinity of wastewater treatment plants. As a result odour control has become a key issue facing wastewater treatment plant management (Stuetz et al., 1999). Developments are under way to improve techniques for the assessment of odour and in the production of new technologies for destroying odour.Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are often amenable to biological treatment through a variety of reactor formats. However, several other technologies exist that could be used in their treatment for the abatement of odour. The eventual choice of a technology largely depends on the efficiency of treatment and the capital and operating costs. The advent of the “triple bottom line” now considers sustainability of the technique also, although this philosophy is in its infancy. Biological treatment undoubtedly represent a sustainable green option, but it must also be proven to be economically viable and efficient.
C
hechen Separatists
Authors: Mitchell Jennifer 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The Chechen rebels have been one of the most aggressive groups in their attempts to procure or produce a biological agent. The rebels have carried out many attacks, proving that given a biological weapon they would not be afraid to use it. And there are many indications that they have tried to make their own biological agents, including manuals found in rebel safe houses describing how to make biological agents and discoveries of traces of ricin. If current trends continue it may be a short time before the Chechen rebels produce a biological agent
Cost‐Effectiveness of Biological Weapons
Authors: Siegrist David W. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe cost of conventional and various types of unconventional weapons ranges significantly. These weapons also serve different operational objectives. Conventional, chemical, biological, and nuclear and radiological weapons are compared. While biological weapons have a comparatively low production cost versus other unconventional weapons, the success of their development depends on the expertise of the developer. However, as advances in biotechnology continue, more people are becoming familiar with advanced biological techniques that can be used for either good or ill, increasing the pool of potential perpetrators of biological attack.
Dual‐Use Equipment and Technology
Authors: Miller Erica 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Biological dual‐use equipment and technology consists of items and information that have both legitimate, civilian applications and potential illicit or weapons applications. Export control, for example, by regimes such as the Australia Group, is the primary system currently in place to monitor and manage the spread of dual‐use equipment and technology. A second governance mechanism in place is domestic regulation, for example, the required registration and prohibition of misuse of facilities, pathogen collections, and personnel working with certain agents, equipment, and technologies. The dual‐use dilemma and mechanisms in place to address it are discussed.
E
dgewood
C
hemical
B
iological
C
enter (Formerly
E
dgewood
A
rsenal),
A
berdeen
P
roving
G
round
Authors: Savidge Charlotte 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The article provides an overview of the history, current efforts, and future plans of the Edgewood Chemical Biological Center (ECBC) at Aberdeen Proving Ground. It covers ECBC's history from wartime defense and chemical weapons research to its current biodefense‐related activities. The article describes how ECBC supports military and federal defense efforts and highlights new biological detection products. Biodefense products in development are also discussed.
Food and Drug Administration
Authors: Baker Michelle 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is accountable for the safety and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, much of the U.S. food supply, devices that emit radiation, cosmetics, and medical devices. Title III of the Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002 specifically designates the FDA as being responsible for the safety and integrity of the nation's food and drug supply, and recognizes FDA's oversight of 80 per cent of the entire U.S. food supply. The FDA must provide for the security of both finished food products within United States and the facilities involved in domestic and imported food manufacture and processing. Further, on May 30, 2002, the FDA announced a new regulation aiming to expedite approval of drugs and other products developed to reduce or mitigate the effects of biological, chemical, or radiological terrorism agents. The FDA's responsibilities in food security and counterterrorism are reviewed.