bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quantitative Groundwater Law
Authors: Lawson Marshall 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
From ancient times, the law looked upon surface water and groundwater as separate resources, requiring separate rules for ownership and use. Whereas surface water was considered a public good to be shared among competing users, groundwater was equated with private property to be appropriated by the landowner at will.
The separate classification and treatment of groundwater can be attributed, in part, to a primitive understanding of hydrogeology; a mathematical description of groundwater storage and movement was not formulated until the midnineteenth century and not widely disseminated until the late twentieth century. Without an understanding of aquifer characteristics, legal authorities lacked a basis for developing sophisticated groundwater allocation rules. The occurrence and nature of groundwater was, to them, too “… uncertain …[to] subject it to the regulations of law…”.
Representing Geopolitics of (Hydro) Borders in
S
outh
A
sia
Authors: Saroch Eva 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

In the tradition of political geography, the concept of boundary/border has been of major importance where researchers have understood it mainly as an empirical manifestation of political processes and particularly of the sovereignty of the state. But borders not only represent a ‘fixed line’ in space or time, rather, they need to be understood as being produced and reproduced in the
socio‐spatial consciousness
of society a (broader form of consciousness that reflects the ideological and hegemonic structures). Therefore, it is argued here that boundaries, apart from being located on terra‐firma as a physical line, also exist metaphorically, symbolically in many ways as a manifestation of socio‐spatial consciousness and as ‘plays of power’ that generate and exert various codes, rules and procedures of ‘distinction’ in the process of Othering such as us/them, sacred/profane, inclusive/exclusive, to impose specific understanding through the construction of knowledge in sociocultural practices and discourses in politics, administration, economics, or the organization of ethnic relations on various scales.
Legal Protection for In‐Stream Flow
Authors: Kassen Melinda R. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
In the United States, states, rather than the federal government, have primary authority over water allocation. Those states west of the 100th meridian are, for the most part, arid or semiarid. Since early in their settlement, they have found a need to reconcile disputes between water users; each of these states follows the doctrine of prior appropriation to allocate water among competing users. Each state's system is unique, but their systems share many features. Most importantly, these systems define the value of water in terms of its use, and until late in the twentieth century, this meant use out of the stream. The prior appropriation system did not recognize any value for leaving water in a stream. Because the prior appropriation system functions as a seniority system, where the earliest user of a river retains always the first right of use, the system has created a challenge today for states and others seeking to protect remaining in‐stream values, where water is “unused” except in sustaining the environment or by recreationists in a non‐consumptive manner.
The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
Authors: von Oppenfeld Rolf R. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

All facilities that discharge pollutants from a point source into waters of the United States must obtain a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit from the EPA or an authorized state [42 U.S.C. §§ 1311(a), 1342; 40 C.F.R. § 122.1(b)]. Permits typically allow the permittee to discharge specified pollutants from designated outfalls. See the NPDES program homepage at
http://www.epa.gov/npdes/
. The NPDES program generally imposes technology‐based standards and water‐quality‐based effluent limits on point source discharges of pollutants to surface waters, although less stringent requirements presently apply to stormwater runoff discharges.

Currently, 46 states and territories are authorized (have primacy) under Section §r402(b) of the CWA to administer the NPDES program. The EPA regions are the lead permitting authority in the other states and territories. State NPDES programs must use federal standards as a baseline; however, states may impose stricter requirements.
Biosorption of Toxic Metals
Authors: Loukidou M. X. , Zouboulis A. I. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractGenerally, biosorption is a treatment process that uses inexpensive biomass, usually by‐product, to sequester toxic metals from contaminated effluents. Biosorbents can be prepared from natural abundant biomass sources, such as seaweeds, or from waste biomass of algae, fungi or bacteria.Generally, biosorption is a treatment process that uses inexpensive biomass, usually by‐product, to sequester toxic metals from contaminated effluents. Biosorbents can be prepared from natural abundant biomass sources, such as seaweeds, or from waste biomass of algae, fungi or bacteria.The unique capabilities of certain types of biomass to concentrate and immobilize particularly heavy metal can also offer some degree of selectivity. This property depends on the following parameters:the specific type of biomass,the mixing conditions of the suspension,the type of biomass preparation, andthe specific physicochemical conditions.Broad‐range biosorbents can collect most of the heavy metals from an aqueous solution (wastewater), presenting rather a smaller degree of selectivity among them. A specific metal can be separated either during sorption uptake, by manipulating the properties of a biosorbent, or upon desorption during the regeneration cycle of the biosorbent.
Field Sampling and Monitoring of Contaminants
Authors: Downs Timothy J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Field sampling and monitoring of water/wastewater contaminants are strategically important for more sustainable integrated water resources management (IWRM). One of the vital first steps in IWRM is the collection of an inventory that characterizes existing watershed conditions. Relevant features include geographic and environmental aspects (e.g., land use, topography, wetlands), infrastructure (e.g., supply, sewerage and drainage), municipal data (e.g., numbers of people, growth rate, regulations, by laws), pollution sources/discharges (point and nonpoint sources, e.g., landfills, underground storage tanks), and the characteristics of receiving surface waters and groundwaters (indicators of flow rates and physical, chemical, biological, and microbiological quality).
Water quality problems that require characterization through sampling and monitoring are a combination of the effects of human use and degradation of water in domestic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural activities (and its discharge as wastewater), and the impact of human activities that change land use/land cover on the water quality of runoff.
Overview of Analytical Methods of Water Analyses With Specific Reference to
EPA
Methods for Priority Pollutant Analysis
Authors: Tella Ralph J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
This article is an overview of the analytical chemistry behind the analyses of common environmental contaminants. Specific reference is made to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) “priority pollutants.” The list of priority pollutants was first published in the Federal Register in 1980 as the list of toxic pollutants for which categorically defined industries were required to analyze their effluent streams to obtain wastewater discharge permits under the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).
pH
Authors: Dziewatkoski Michael P. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractSome chemical compounds, when dissolved in water, dissociate to yield hydrogen ions (H+, e.g., protons) and are called acids. Other compounds called bases yield hydroxide ions (OH−), when dissolved in water. The relative strength of an acid or base is related to the degree of dissociation that the compound undergoes. A strong acid is one that dissociates completely to yield a relatively large number of hydrogen ions, whereas the strong base is a compound that yields a relatively large number of hydroxide ions.
The Economics of Water Quality
Authors: Keplinger Keith O. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The role of economics in water quality decision‐making is a topic receiving increasing attention today. A number of factors have spurred this interest. On the policy front, the total maximum daily load program has emerged as a premier water quality program in the United States, engendering fresh opportunities for economic analysis, because the means of attaining ambient targets are not prescribed. The increased relevance of economic analysis in the policy arena has been accompanied by a blossoming of the discipline of environmental economics and greater public and governmental acceptance of pursuing cost‐effective and market‐based solutions to environmental problems.
The theory of environmental economics has been extensively developed, but the utility and form of policy instruments are highly influenced by the institutional landscape. Consequently, this report begins with a brief assessment of water quality policy in the United States, focusing on the landmark legislation that constitutes the lion's share of current water quality policy, the 1972 Clean Water Act (CWA). Next, the meaning of costs and benefits in a water quality context are discussed, and the merits of two commonly used economic instruments in water quality assessments are explored: cost–benefit analysis and cost‐effectiveness analysis. Finally, equity issues and the economic implications of water quality policy alternatives are discussed, with particular emphasis on the historical development and potential for incentive‐based mechanisms.
Toxicity Identification Evaluation
Authors: Markle Philip J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Identification of what is “toxic” in aquatic toxicity tests is most often determined quantitatively through the regulatory process as permit limits or objectives and no definitive standards have been defined or are universally used. Although no universal definitions exist, several measures of toxicity are more commonly employed and seem to have achieved greater acceptance. These include the use of the “no observed effect concentration” (NOEC) or “no observed effect level” (NOEL). The NOEC and NOEL use hypothesis testing to identify statistically significant differences relative to a nontoxic control. The NOEC or NOEL is defined as the highest concentration not significantly different from the control. Another commonly used analysis involves various point estimation techniques. These quantitative analyses use dose–response data to estimate “safe” or “nontoxic” concentrations or effects using metrics such as the LC
50
(lethal concentration causing a 50% effect) or EC/IC
25
(effective or inhibition concentration causing a 25% effect). Due to the large amount of toxicity testing required in the TIE process, reductions in testing replication and exposure volume and duration are often made to save on sample and staffing resources.
Trace Element Contamination in Groundwater of District
H
ardwar,
U
ttaranchal,
I
ndia
Authors: Jain C. K. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The trace element contamination in the groundwater of District Hardwar in the state of Uttaranchal (India) has been assessed to find the suitability of groundwater for drinking purpose. Forty‐eight groundwater samples from shallow and deep aquifers were collected during both pre‐ and postmonsoon seasons in 2002 and analyzed for Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd, and Zn. The presence of trace elements in groundwater was recorded in all samples, but these were not significantly higher. Water quality standards were violated for iron and manganese at certain locations. The concentration of iron varies from 210–7004 µg/L during the premonsoon season and from 163–6555 µg/L during the postmonsoon season against the maximum permissible limit of 1000 µg/L; that of manganese varies from 7.5–839 µg/L during the premonsoon and from 9–859 µg/L during the postmonsoon season against the limit of 300 µg/L. The concentration of copper, chromium, lead, cadmium, and zinc were well within the permissible limits in all samples from District Hardwar.
Waterborne Bacteria
Authors: Rosen Barry H. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Bacteria are so widespread that only the most general statements can be made about their life history and ecology. They are everywhere on the earth, even in the most hostile environments, including extremes of temperature, such as freshwater hot springs. Many live in water; however, they are also an important part of soils and live in and on plants and animals; others are parasites of humans, animals, and plants. Only a handful of waterborne bacteria cause diseases, usually by producing toxins. Most bacteria have a beneficial role in decomposing dead material and releasing nutrients back into the environment.
Water Quality Management and Nonpoint Source Control
Authors: Zhang Harry X. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, unlike pollution from industrial and sewage treatment plants, comes from many diffuse sources. NPS pollution is caused by rainfall or snowmelt moving over and through the ground. As the runoff moves, it picks up and carries away natural and human‐made pollutants, finally depositing them into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even our underground sources of drinking water.
Nonpoint source pollutants include (1) excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; (2) oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production; (3) sediment from improperly managed construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding stream banks; (4) salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage from abandoned mines; (5) bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems; and (6) atmospheric deposition and hydromodification are also sources of nonpoint source pollution. NPS pollution is widespread because it can occur any time activities disturb the land or water. Agriculture, forestry, grazing, septic systems, recreational boating, urban runoff, construction, physical changes to stream channels, and habitat degradation are potential sources of NPS pollution. Careless or uninformed household management also contributes to NPS pollution problems. The most common NPS pollutants are sediment and nutrients. These wash into waterbodies from agricultural land, small and medium‐sized animal feeding operations, construction sites, and other areas of disturbance.
Water Quality Modeling—Case Studies
Authors: Ji Zhen‐Gang 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Although a variety of models are available for studying water quality processes, it is still a complex task to select a model (or models) that best meets all (or most) of the study objectives. Model selection should be balanced among competing demands. Time and resources are always limited, to one degree or another, so the goal should be to identify the model(s) that addresses all of the important processes that affect the waterbody. Selecting a model that is too simple can result in lack of accuracy and certainty that are needed in decision making; selecting an overly complex model may result in misdirected resources, study delays, and increased cost.

It is helpful to ask the following questions during model selection:

What are the key hydrodynamic processes?

What are the water quality concerns?

What spatial and temporal scales are adequate for resolving these processes?

How will the model be used in supporting management decision making?

It might be desirable to select the simplest model that can meet the study needs. However, in real practice, comprehensive models are often preferred to simple models for a variety of reasons. Typical features of comprehensive models include

three‐dimensional (3‐D) in space and time dependent

turbulent scheme for vertical mixing

hydrodynamic, thermal, sediment, and eutrophication processes.
Water Quality Models for Developing Soil Management Practices
Authors: Zhang Harry X. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
It is important to estimate the collective impacts of all management activities in a watershed to evaluate whether water quality goals will be achieved. In watersheds that have easily characterized problems, it may be easy to project that water quality benefits will be achieved by implementing management measures such as erosion and sediment control and runoff minimization. However, in a watershed that has multiple land uses where agriculture is considered to contribute groups of pollutants, it is more complicated to estimate the combined impacts of a variety of management measures and practices on a fairly large number of diverse farming operations. In this type of situation, computer modeling may be needed. A variety of models exist to help assess the relative benefits of implementing practices at the field and watershed level. Managers can use models to develop goals and objectives for watershed and waterbody use and protection, to develop and to evaluate the effectiveness of various management and mitigation alternatives to improve existing water quality, and to determine the response time of a waterbody after implementing a management alternative. In particular, models can help understanding key “cause‐and‐effect” processes within the natural environment, developing waste load allocations and TMDL analysis, and evaluating the effectiveness of various contaminant reduction scenarios.
Whole Effluent Toxicity Controls
Authors: Markle Philip J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The selection of an appropriate control sample/water for whole effluent toxicity testing is a critical experimental design component. Whole effluent toxicity (WET) testing has been an important tool for toxicity compliance and research testing alike to identify acute and chronic toxicity in effluents and receiving waters. The U.S. EPA and others have developed several manuals detailing specific WET methods; many have been incorporated into the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program for compliance determination. The primary objective of these aquatic toxicity tests is to estimate a maximum “safe” concentration of toxic substances in a discharge or receiving water that will allow for normal growth and propagation of aquatic organisms. A typical WET test experimental design consists of exposing organisms under controlled laboratory conditions to a series of effluent, receiving water, and/or toxicant dosed samples and recording biological observations such as reproduction, growth, and survival.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Authors: Butkus Michael A. , Manous Joe D. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
A vast number of organisms, primarily bacteria, survives and even thrives in an environment containing no oxygen. However, most living creatures with which we commonly interact are aerobic; they need oxygen to survive. Aerobic creatures include all of the higher life forms such as fish, birds, mammals, and reptiles, as well as simpler species such as some bacteria and protozoa. The 4.7 billion year development of the earth and the evolution of species in response to this development have created many types of ecosystems; most support a balance between the demands of aerobic organisms for oxygen and the availability of oxygen. These “balanced ecosystems” are found in aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric biomes.
Remote Sensing and
GIS
Application in Water Resources
Authors: Jain Sanjay Kumar 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Remote sensing is a tool that permits accurate and real‐time evaluation, continuous monitoring or surveillance, and forecasts of inland water resources. Remote sensing systems are used to observe the earth's surface from different levels of platforms, such as satellites and aircraft, and make it possible to collect and analyze information about resources and environment across large areas. Remote sensors record electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted from the earth's surface. Different kinds of objects or features such as soils, vegetation, and water reflect and emit energy differently. This characteristic makes it possible to measure, map, and monitor these objects and features using satellite or aircraft‐borne remote sensing systems. Satellite imagery offers a number of advantages over conventional survey techniques:

areal synoptic coverage (gives areal information as against point information through conventional techniques)

repetitive global coverage (for monitoring change)

real‐time processing

sensing of surrogates rather than the desired specific observation

multispectral coverage

More automation, less human error.
Spot Prices, Option Prices, and Water Markets
Authors: Lee Terence R. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Markets in water rights do not operate only for buying and selling permanent water rights. Using a market makes available a variety of other tools for increasing the efficiency of water use. Among the most interesting of these tools is the use of spot markets and water use options or future markets. Both alternatives lead to a broadening of the market and to an increase in the number of participants on both the buyer and the seller sides of the market. Their use also results in more stable demand and supply conditions as the market has a larger number of buyers and sellers. They also permit water users to hedge against changes in the price and availability of water rights and thus eliminate the need to hoard as a hedge against this risk. On the other hand, the use of spot and option or future markets requires developing storage facilities and interconnected conveyance systems if their full benefits are to be obtained.
State and Regional Water Supply
Authors: Downs Timothy J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Integrated watershed management (IWM) seeks to combine interests, priorities, and disciplines as a multistakeholder planning and management process for natural resources within a watershed ecosystem, centered on water quantity and water quality. Driven bottom‐up by local needs and priorities and top‐down by regulatory responsibilities, it must be adaptive, evolving dynamically as conditions change. Water resource spatial and political scales range from local/municipal, subregional, state, regional (multistate), national, multinational (‘regional’ in a global sense) to continental and global. Large watersheds occupy state and regional spatial scales, presenting considerable challenges for IWM and water supply, in particular, because of the number and diversity of human consumers and biodiverse habitat needs.
A watershed spatial scale is often used by ecologists to analyze species distribution and biogeochemical cycling. Watersheds can be characterized by the proportions of land area taken up by five main land use/land cover categories: urban land, agricultural land, rangeland, forestland, and water. It is arguable whether a watershed or ecoregion scale (region of relative homogeneity based on soil, climate, and vegetative criteria) is most appropriate for managing water quality and aquatic habitats. Even in terms of water stocks and flows, the differences between precipitation and evapotranspiration in one watershed that determine the runoff and infiltration that can be used for water supply are influenced by regional climatic and hydrological processes.