bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aeschines and Athenian Democracy
Authors: Fox Robin Lane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aeschines’ surviving speeches contain some of our most explicit statements about the ideals of democracy and its procedures among the Atheniansr. Athenian ideology, the issues of sovereignty, the role of oratory, and the rule of law have been at the centre of the recent spate of writings on the subject. The importance of Aeschines’ evidence has been noted and the temptation is simply to list each passage in his speeches and take it at face value. One aim of this paper is to draw attention to the range of his references but to warn against generalizing out of context.
Beyond Reciprocity: The Akhilleus-Priam Scene in Iliad 24
Authors: Zanker Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to argue that Book 24 of the Iliad presents Akhilleus as behaving with a degree of what even modem thought would recognize as altruism. More specifically, it argues that Akhi1leus transcends the institutionalized reciprocity which the epic presents as the dominant ethical orientation of the heroic society which it depicts; furthermore, Iliad 24 prescriptively commends, through the description of Akhilleus’ behaviour, a recognizable form of altruism, as a foil to the reciprocity-based values described as normal in the poem’s society.
Akhilleus and Agamemnon: Generalized Reciprocity
Authors: Postlethwaite Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his address to the conference on ,which this volume is based Gabriel Herman voice&lt;l the general consensus that ‘the [Homeric) hero [does not] seem capable of giving a gift or performing a service without expectation of return-a pattern which, since Comte, has come to be known as altruism. Benevolent and disinterested sentiments, dispositions, tendencies and actions which have as their direct object the good of others than the hero himself and his family seem to be totally alien to his spirit.’ However Graham Zanker argues in Chapter 3 that Akhilleus’ conduct towards Priam in Book 24 of the Iliad reaches beyond the norms of reciprocity evident in the dealings of other characters ‘Within the poem and does indeed display a degree of altruism.
Reciprocal Generosity in the Foreign Affairs of Fifth-Century Athens and Sparta
Authors: Missiou Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In modern research, Sparta and Athens are usually considered to be archetypes representing opposite political and socio-economic systems; but in studies of their inter-state relations modern scholars usually neglect to refer either to similarities or dissimilarities. However it is useful to explore the differences between these two Greek states not only in terms of socio-economic and military structure but also in terms of the ideology displayed in their diplomatic rhetoric. Relatively little archaic and fifth-century Athenian and Spartan diplomatic rhetoric has survived. It is mainly in the works of Herodotos and Thukydides that we find, either in direct or indirect speech or in comments by the historian, versions of the arguments used to express or shape the views of Athenians and Spartans on various occasions in the fifth century. Although I am, of course, aware that a strong subjective clement is inherent in the selection of cases presented by ancient historians, I take these versions as expressing the values and norms of contemporary diplomatic rhetoric.
Illyrians at Constantinople
Authors: Croke Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preface to his chronicle Marcellinus makes clear to his audience that his preoccupation is chiefly with the eastern empire—Orientale tantum imperium. So we might reasonably expect to find little in the chronicle pertaining to affairs in the western empire, and then only in so far as such affairs affected Constantinople and the East. For Marcellinus the perspective and nomen clature of the Chronicle clearly divide East and West. There is a geographical east (Oriens: 418. 3, 420. 2, 484. 1, 529) and west (Occidens: 416. 1,468), as well as an imperial east (Orientale imperium: Praef.; Orientate respublica: 379. 1) and west (Occidentalis respublica: 434, 454. 2; Occidentalie imperium: 392. 1; Occidentale regnum: 424. 3; Hesperium regnum: 454. 2; Hesperium imperium: 476. 2; principatum Occidentis: 465. 2). There are also designated eastern emperors (Orientalibus principibus: 379. 1) and consuls (Orientalium consulum: 521). Not once after 395 does he refer to the Roman empire as a whole but only to its separate halves. However, on the occasions when he identifies himself as specifically Roman it is clearly as a citizen of the Roman empire as a whole, not just the eastern part of it. In speaking of ‘us’ (447. 2), ‘our generals’ (503), ‘this expedition of ours’ (529) and ‘our emperor’ (532, 533) he identifies him self as a citizen of the Roman world as distinguished from its foes,the Huns (447) and Persians (503, 529).’
The Alexandrian Lists
Authors: Fraser P M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall be concerned in this opening chapter, not with the cities attested by the Alexander-historians as having been founded by Alexander in the course of his campaigns but with the lists of cities named as Alexandrias in (a) the Epitome of Stephanus of Byzantium’s ‘[ineq], (b) the earliest surviving Greek and associated versions (henceforth called the a-tradition) of the Alexander-Romance, properly called the Life of Alexander of Macedon, and (c) the lists found in Alexandrian World-Chronicles and Annals of the Imperial period. These lists agree at several points, and the type of information they provide enables us to consider them collectively, but nevertheless each group presents different problems. It seems probable that, except for Stephanus, in the form and substance in which they survive they have a common origin in the same type of popular Alexandrian literature, and, specifically, in the lost original version of the Greek Alexander Romance; although the text of Stephanus is associated with the same milieu, it only occasionally draws on the same sources. It is, in any case, essential that the traditions which they represent should in the first place be studied individually. We may begin with Stephanus.
From Liberal Education to Learning: The Growth of Academic Scholarship
Authors: Stray Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I turn to the institutional and ideological development of classics in the universities after 1870. The main focus is on Cambridge, where the impact of academic organization is both clearer and more advanced than in Oxford. In the half century from 1870 to 1920, a gradual but distinct shift took place in the nature of English classical scholarship. In essence, it moved from the text-centred solidaristic affirmations of permanent humanist value to a more detached investigation of the classical world which went beyond the margins of the literary text. In the process its social bases and organization, its institutional forms, its scope and its dominant legitimations all changed. These changes were to varying degrees resisted and contested: my summary indicates direction, not completion. Not till the 1920s was an academic/faculty structure in place, and even then its introduction was in Oxford deflected by the organized power of Greats tutors.
The Politics of Cultural Pluralism: State Intervention and the Defence of Classics, 1902—1922
Authors: Stray Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In December 1903, almost exactly fifty years after Hodgson’s prediction was published, the Classical Association was founded. The event reflects a belated recognition that a new era had begun in English education; one in which passivity was fatal, and even activity might not prevent loss. The early history of the Association is marked both by struggle with the promoters of other subjects, and by internal dissension on the content, organization, and methods of classics teaching. Where the previous chapter surveyed the ideological formulations produced by a range of individuals committed—in different ways—to classics, my concern here is with the politics of curricular legitimation. My attention is still directed mainly at the defenders of classics. Its critics, however, will also appear in this chapter, since we are now dealing with the emergence of a pluralized curricular field in which specialized subjects are promoted by a wide range of special-interest groups. In addition, however, conflicts of opinion are also identifiable, not only within the ranks of the Classical Association, but also within the Board of Education.
Ancestors at the Elections: Ancestral Portraits and Magisterial Office
Authors: Flower Harriet I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE Roman political caste was a nobility of office which relied on repeated electoral successes to maintain its position of leadership. Yet nobilitas as a status was often described in terms of imagines. What then was the connection between ancestor masks and the elections, both characteristic features which defined Rome’s political elite? Meanwhile, the imagines were complemented by many other images of ancestors in various media to be found all over the city. Outside the home and tomb, both private domains in the eyes of the law, ancestral iconography appeared in public spaces in the city as a background to the life of all its citizens. These images rein-forced the effect of displays in the atria of the political families.
The Surveillance of Legitimacy (2): The Protection of the Wife from Extraneous Impregnation
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The surveillance of legitimacy in classical Athens can be looked at also from another perspective: not only was it necessary to maintain a watch over the origins and credentials of those seeking admission to various parts of the state in both its religious and secular aspects, it was also necessary to maintain a watch over access to citizen women themselves, to ensure that they were not illegitimately impregnated. This was ensured above all by the ideology of seclusion, and by the laws and customs relating to adultery and rape.
Bastardy and Citizenship
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most fraught and most cherished issue in the tradition of scholarship on Athenian bastardy is the question as to whether those bastard children born of two Athenian parents that were not married were none the less entitled to citizenship after Pericles’ citizenship law. Such is the momentum of debate behind the issue that neither this book nor any other will have the authority to bring the matter to a dose. At the conceptual level, the question is indeed a very important one, far more important indeed than its usual treatment as a legal technicality suggests, since it is upon this question that the issue turns as to whether membership of the classical Athenian state was determined ultimately by marriage or by descent. At the practical level the question is less important, since it concerns the fate of a group of individuals that would have been extremely tiny, and possibly non-existent.
From Autochthony to Democracy
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Students of the citizenship law have been too reluctant to exploit in its interpretation the abundant evidence for the Athenians’ obsession with their autochthony (although Loraux has seen the relevance of the citizenship law for the issue of the Athenians’ conceptualization of autochthony). But the connection was perceived strongly by one famous mētroxenos, the Socratic philosopher Antisthenes, who defiantly defended his metroxeny in the following terms: ‘He himself deflated the Athenians, who puffed themselves up on the basis of being earthborn, by saying that they were no better born than snails and slugs’ (Diogenes Laertius 6. I ).
Aspects of the Lives of Athenian Bastards
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Athens’ laws of legitimacy and bastardy were very specific to the state, but actual attested disputes about bastardy in Athens often seem to have been occasioned not so much by the particular stipulations of Athenian law, as by the tensions inherent within Greek family structure. The structure that above all sowed discord in Greek families was the amphimetric one, i.e. that in which a man kept two women (ideally, but not necessarily, in tandem) and fathered lines of children from both. Inevitably, both women competed to be regarded as the ‘legitimate’ wife, and their respective lines of children competed for succession. Thus beneath legal disputes about legitimacy in which it is discussed as an absolute thing, there may often have lurked a more relative agenda.
Gortyn
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neither nothos nor any other word that might denote or formulation that might define an effective status of bastardy appears in the code. However, the word gnēsios, which usually means ‘legitimate’, does feature in the code (at x. 41 and 44 and xi. 7), and scholars have consequently argued on the basis of this that there was a status of bastardy at Gortyn. 5 But the context in which it appears is that of the adoption law, and it stands clearly in opposition to the Gortynian word for ‘adopted’ (ampantos, the equivalent of Attic poiētos), and the word is used therefore without question in its other sense of ‘of the blood’ (these two complements of gnēsios are discussed in the lntroduction).
Hellenistic Egypt: The Chora
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our most enlightening evidence for the legitimacy behaviour of expatriate Greeks towards each other and the indigenous barbarians derives from hellenistic Egypt. The evidence is for the most part that of practice rather than interdiction: some 100 papyrus contracts relating to marriage. Legal Systems In The Chora The cities of Alexandria, Ptolemais, and Naucratis were, in legal terms, exclusively ‘Greek’ communities (although non-Greeks could reside there); outside these, Greeks from all over the hellenistic world migrated into the open territory or chōra in the wake of the Macedonian invasion, many as members of Ptolemy’s army. They were generally organized into townships known as politeumata, but these were not autonomous states with defined memberships. So, despite the linguistic, cultural, and religious gulf between these Greeks and the Egyptians, there was no difference in citizenship status.
Some Theoretical Considerations
Authors: Fox Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cicero’s account of the regal period raises a number of theoretical issues which can be explored more thoroughly. They are issues concerning the nature of history and myth, the fluidity of this distinction, and the influence upon it of political reality. In the De Republica Cicero describes the need for political reform to rest upon a certain vision of history. This need is met by the recreation of mythical material in a historical guise in the reconstruction of the regal period. Although applying an ironic framework, Cicero hopes that by giving a historical account of the regal period, a basis can be found for political renewal. His ironic commentary emerges from the problem of historical truth and historical belief; the regal period is essentially legendary in character, and to reclaim it as historical is something he cannot do without equivocation. For the sake of his political message, however, he is clear that a historical recreation is necessary.
Introduction
Authors: Dench Emma 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The enduring fascination of images of peoples of the Central Apennines may be seen in Salmon’s monograph of 1967, Samnium and the Samnites, a work that evokes the character of the Samnites by drawing heavily on images from Horace and Livy. It was not my intention to rewrite Salmon’s book: in particular, I have not set out here any comprehensive description of aspects of life in the Central Apennines, drawn together from material and literary evidence. This is partly because the sheer quantity of material evidence available today would render such a task even more ambitious than it was in 1967. More importantly, however, this is because my focus is on images of peoples of the Central Apennines, shifting according to the perspective of the observer.
Mountain Society
Authors: Dench Emma 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the present chapter, the first task is to identify what were really the preoccupations of ancient authors: for example, it will become clear that modern preoccupation with pastoralism in the Central Apennines is not echoed by ancient authors for our period. Ancient authors were, however, interested in the mountainous landscape of the Central Apennines, the social organization of the area, and in the effect of the environment on moral character. When peoples of the Central Apennines were incorporated within the Roman citizenship, it became possible for their ‘rough landscape’ to function as a moral ideal for the city of Rome. In the final sections of this chapter, I shall consider evidence which suggests that the social structure of the Central Apennines was rather different from that in the much more profoundly urbanized areas of Tyrrhenian Italy.
Urbanization and Rome: An Overview
Authors: Fear A T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Let wild beasts live in fields and woods, men ought to draw together into cities.’ This opinion of Cassiodorus, writing at the end of antiquity, can be seen as a summary of the constant belief of the classical world that civilization consisted in urban life. Aristotle, writing a millennium earlier than Cassiodorus, regarded the city-state as the natural end of man’s evolution; hence his now hackneyed statement that man is a political (i.e. a city-state dwelling) animal. For Aristotle the polis made not merely life, but the good life, possible. Plato held similar opinions. In the Laws, although some citizens of his theoretical Cretan state are to live in country villages rather than its main town, these villages too are to have the typical features of a classical city. Roman authors hold out a parallel ideal. Lucretius speaks of man’s evolution to the city-state, depicting the steps on the way in terms of Roman history. Tacitus too regards the touchstone of civilization as the fostering of cities, the ‘urbium cultus’. The same analysis of the good life was found even amongst the early Christians. Tertullian, arguing that all God’s works are acceptable, says the Christians live in a world of fora, macella, balnea, tabernae (town-squares, market-places, baths, and inns), and various other typical constituents of a city-state.
The State of Southern Spain in c.50 BC
Authors: Fear A T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evolution of the south of Spain in the late republican period is a highly controversial topic. Nevertheless, if we are to understand the development of Baetica in the imperial period it is necessary to look closely at the area of Hispania Ulterior (Further Spain) out of which the province was formed in order to assess whether the region’s evolution, marked most notably by the grant of the ius Latii (Latin rights) to the peninsula by Vespasian, differed in scale or form in the imperial period from that which had taken place previously, or was simply a continuation of a process whose foundations had been firmly laid down in the earlier period.
The Coloniae of Baetica
Authors: Fear A T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The coloniae founded in the future provincia of Baetica at, and just after, the end of the Roman republic were the first large-scale settlements of Roman citizens in this area organized directly by the Roman state. As such they were of a markedly different character from previous Roman communities established in Hispania Ulterior, which had taken the form either of informal conventus, or possibly of individual settlement. In contrast to these ad hoc developments of the past, the new coloniae were established according to a firmly Roman model of what constituted a town. This model, to be used for coloniae of all provinces, was, not unnaturally, the city of Rome itself: Aulus Gellius calls coloniae ‘effigies parvae et simulacra’ (‘little copies and replicas’) of Rome.
Rome and Latium the Sixth Century
Authors: Smith Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this final section is to try to combine the archaeological evidence which has been compiled in previous chapters with the literary and documentary evidence which exists for the sixth century BC. I wish to focus on three aspects, beginning with the social structure of Rome and Latium. It is clear enough that archaic Latium contained groups of different social status, and some of the tensions this created came to a head in the Struggle of the Orders from the fifth century on. Some of the social groupings can be identified, and their possible relevance to the archaeological record will be explored here. In the second place, we have reasonably good evidence for laws and treaties in the Latin world. Examining the legal evidence allows us to make hypotheses concerning. the status of the Latins. We may also try to gain a very basic understanding of patterns of land ownership as one of the most important structural aspects of Latin society. Finally, religion is prominent in the archaeological record because of the many temples that have been discovered; the combination of literary and antiquarian material can help to give an outline of the context of this religious activity. In other words, I wish to indicate the sorts of areas in which archaeological and literary evidence seem to come together fruitfully. In so doing, I shall not attempt to solve the many problems of the sixth century, but only to indicate broad areas of interest.
General Conclusions
Authors: Smith Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this book has been to present the available archaeological evidence for Rome and Latium Vetus from c.1000 toc.500 BC and to proceed from the evidence to some conclusions concerning the economy and society of the region. The archaeological discoveries of the past twenty or so years have allowed us radically to improve our understanding of the region, and at the same time to be more precise about its place in Central Italian and Mediterranean culture, as this too has become better known. The development of theoretical approaches in the study of ancient history and material culture usefully underpins our knowledge of both. The book should have indicated the generally homogeneous nature of Latium, from the early burial material to later urban development. It would not be right to suggest that one could define the boundaries of Latium at any time with accuracy, but the region does hold together as a cultural entity.
The Iliad
Authors: West M L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Iliad’s title may suggest an epic about the Trojan War, or even the classic epic about the Trojan War. But although the tale is set at Troy during the war, and much fighting is described, the city’s fate remains in the background. It is not the real theme. The poem does not tell of the capture or sack of Troy, or of any major stage in the progress of the war. It is true that the death of Troy’s greatest defender, Hector, forms its climax. But this gain for the Achaeans’ cause was achieved at high cost, and it was soon to be cancelled out by the loss of their own supreme hero, Achilles.