bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Signal Transduction In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Chen Di , Schwarz Edward M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cellular activation, suppression, replication, differentiation, and apoptosis occur as a consequence of extracellular signals. The biochemical events utilized by cells to perceive and respond to these signals appropriately is known as signal transduction. Extensive research over the last twenty years has elucidated many of the critical signal transduction pathways that are operant in rheumatic diseases . Moreover, this knowledge has been used to develop novel therapeutic interventions, both small molecules (i.e. cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 selective inhibitors) and biologics (i.e. tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonists), which have completely transformed rheumatology and our ability to effectively treat arthritis. In this chapter we will review the fundamental basis of signal transduction using the TNF, interleukin (IL), interferon (IFN), T-cell receptor (TCR), steroid, and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-(3) signaling pathways as examples of host inflammatory/immune responses. Since a new research focus to understand the pathways involved in healing and skeletal repair has emerged, we will also review bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and Wnt signal transduction as examples.
Patients with common haematological malignancies
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Leukaemias may be subdivided into acute and chronic, myeloid and lymphatic The acute leukaemias are characterized by the accumulation of blast (primitive) cells in the bone marrow. These cells are usually also present in the peripheral blood, sometimes in high numbers. Acute leukaemia is characterized by a rapid cellular proliferation and a corresponding rapid disease course. The patient may quickly develop life-threatening complications such as neutropenic sepsis unless treated promptly. The chronic leukaemias are characterized by the accumulation of cells that have differentiated beyond the blast stage. Organ dysfunction may develop after many months/years because of the accumulation of malignant cells.
Parasympathetic activation in experimental trigeminal pain
Authors: Evers S , Rahmann A , May A , Husstedt, I W , Frese A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Autonomic, in particular parasympathetic, activation ipsilateral and simultaneously to unilateral trigeminal pain is a hallmark of a group of primary headache disorders. The most common of these disorders, cluster headache and paroxysmal hemicranias, are characterized by strictly unilateral autonomic symptoms such as miosis, ptosis, lacrimation, conjunctival injection, and nasal congestion/rhinorrhea. In fact, the autonomic disturbances are so prominent that this group of headache syndromes has been coined trigemino-autonomic cephalgias (TAC). However, it seems frequently overlooked that other primary headache and facial syndromes may also exhibit autonomic symptoms. Most recently, autonomic activation during severe unilateral migraine attacks and first division trigeminal neuralgia have been described.
Mechanisms of cutaneous hyperalgesia
Authors: Treede Rolf-Detlef 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hyperalgesia is the psychophysical counterpart of sensitization (either peripheral or central) of the nociceptive system (for review see Cervero and Laird 1991, Treede et al. 1992, Woolf and Salter 2000).ȃ3 As such, it is characterized by a decrease in pain threshold, increased pain to suprathreshold stimuli, and spontaneous pain. Increased pain sensitivity at a site of tissue damage is called primary hyperalgesia: in normal skin surrounding a site of tissue damage it is called secondary hyperalgesia. The antonym to hyperalgesia is hypoalgesia (decreased pain sensitivity), which may occur as a consequence of damage to the peripheral or central nociceptive system.
Allodynia as a manifestation of migraine and other headaches
Authors: Ashina Messoud 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last ten years there has been an increasing focus on the role of extra cranial hypersensitivity or cutaneous allodynia in pathophysiology of primary headaches, in particular in migraine. Since most of the important studies on cutaneous allodynia were performed in migraines this review will highlight the contribution that these studies have made to our understanding of the pathophysiology of migraine.
Brainstem mechanisms of ongoing pain
Authors: Goadsby Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Migraine is a complex central nervous system disorder characterized by pan-sensory sensitivity that seems substantially inherited. One conceptual way to explain the throbbing discomfort, unpleasantness of light, sound and smells and pain with head movement would be to consider that normal afferent signals are hyper synchronized producing perceptions of profound discomfort that are fundamentally of the central nervous system (CNS) in origin. In this chapter I have been assigned the task of discussing the role of the brainstem in migraine, and I will extend this to involve the central nervous system more broadly (Table 26.1). The role of the peripheral trigeminovascular system is discussed elsewhere in this volume, as is classical central sensitization. Suffice to say here that pain-producing structures within the head are innervated substantially by branches of the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve, and by branches of the C2 dorsal root.
Crustacea Iii Malacostraca Eucarida
Authors: Moyse J , Smaldon G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Decapoda is the largest natural grouping within the Mala¬ costraca. In all decapods the thoracic segments are fused dorsally to a carapace, a fold of which extends ventrally on each side of the animal, enclosing the gills and constituting a branchial chamber. The maxilla has a large, modified endopodite, the scaphognathite, which drives water through the branchial chamber by rhythmic beating.
Stratigraphy, Depositional Environments, and Palaeogeography of the Koobi Fora Formation
Authors: Brown F H , Feibel C S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Studies of the geology of the Koobi Fora deposits have been under way for nearly two decades. Over that span of time, a great deal of information has accumulated, and many arguments have been raised and laid to rest. In recent years our understanding of the Koobi Fora sequence has changed dramatically through geochemical correlation of volcanic ashes, improved age control by reliable isotopic age determinations, continued study of the stratigraphical features of the deposits themselves, and, perhaps most importantly, secure correlation of the Koobi Fora sequence with those of the lower Omo Valley and along the west side of Lake Turkana. As a result, we are now able to outline our knowledge of the sequence at Koobi Fora in far greater detail than was possible only a few years ago, and to present a summary of some important revisions to earlier discussions.
Introduction
Authors: Isaac Glynn Ll. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The researches that form the basis of the reports in this volume started in 1970 and ended in 1979. They began with exploratory work conducted in an atmosphere of high adventure, as one dramatic discovery followed another in quick succession. That the work was being done by an expedition operating in remote, wild, and beautiful terrain added an air of romance to the enterprise. The early discoveries defined opportunities for detailed work relating to questions and problems that steadily became more clearly articulated. Each phase of the research had its own legitimacy, with its own limitations.
The rabbit in New Zealand
Authors: Gibb John A , Williams J Morgan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
New Zealand has the same two lagomorphs introduced from Britain in the nineteenth century as has Australia: the rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus and the hare Lepus europaeus. Both are widespread and com mon. Though the hare has been blamed for damaging high country catchments and newly-planted trees (Flux 1967), the rabbit has been the major pest competing with sheep, depleting native vegetation and aggravating erosion. New Zealand (Fig. 6.la) has a wide latitude range from 34° to 48°S and mountain ranges rising to 3760 m (Mt Cook). Cook Strait, separating the North and South islands, is at the same latitude as Tasmania, or Madrid.
Stramenopiles: Chromophytes From A Protistan Perspective
Authors: Patterson David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of chromophytes as a group of algae is restrictive and phylogenetically unsatisfactory. As a result, the composition of the taxon (and the meaning of the word) is unclear. For the purposes of discussion, the group is pruned to well-documented ‘core chromophytes’. Similarities in ultrastructural appearance are used to identify those protozoan taxa that may be related to the core chromophytes. Arguments are presented in relation to the opalinids and proteromonads; bicosoecids; actinomonads (Pedinellales and actinophryid heliozoa); labyrinthulids, thraustochytrids, Diptophrys, and Sorodiplophrys; Spiromonas, Perkinsus, and the apicomplexa; and the foraminifera. The character best suited to define the core chromophytes and related protists is the presence of tripartite tubular hairs attached to the cell surface _ usually to the surface of one flagellum. From a phylogenetic perspective it is desirable that the concept of the Chromophyta be relinquished in favour of an extended (mostly protistan) assemblage, members of which are here referred to as stramenopiles.
Morphology And Anatomy
Authors: Kapp H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chaetognaths are elongated, bilaterally symmetrical marine animals; they may be planktonic or benthic. Their body, which is more or less circular in section, bears one or two pairs of lateral fins and a tail fin. Chaetognaths are named from their large cephalic grasping spines (χαιτζ = chaete = spine, γνατoζ = gnathos = jaw). Their common name, arrow worms, aptly describes both their body form (Fig. 2.1) and their remarkably rapid darting movements. The majority of species are almost completely transparent, but some are translucent and others contain blue, brown, orange, or red pigments.
Distribution Patterns In Chaetognatha
Authors: Pierrot-Bults A C , Nair V R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chaetognatha are holoplanktonic animals, except for the genera Spadella, Bathyspadella and Krohnittella. They are found in all oceans and seas, from coast to coast and from the surface to the bottom; they have even invaded estuarine habitats.
Some foliicolous lichens 1n Xishuangbanna, China
Authors: Wei J C , Jiang Y M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Twenty species of foliicolous lichens from 12 genera in 10 families, collected in October 1980 from Xishuangbanna are reported in the present paper. Amongst them seven foliicolous genera, Asterothyrium, Byssolecania, Dimerella, Fellhanera, Gyalectidium, Opegrapha, and Tricho thelium, and 15 species including one variety are new to China, and Byssolecania deplanata is new to Asia.
Tropical pyrenocarpous lichens. A phylogenetic approach
Authors: Aptroot A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of the phylogenetic relationships of tropical pyrenocarpous lichens was undertaken in view of their present doubtful systematic position. The pyrenocarpous lichens as a whole are probably not monophyletic, but have evolved several times from non-lichenized fungi. Before preparing a monograph of some selected, presumably monophyletic, genera within, or closely related to, the Pyrenulaceae, a cladistic analysis was made of most groups within the pyrenocarpous lichens. For this purpose material was studied of most genera and of some species with uncertain affinities. Interpretation of the resulting cladogram leads to hypotheses about character transformations and relationships, as well as to inferred monophyletic groups. A key to genera investigated is provided in an appendix.
Parent-offspring conflict IV: clutch size and sexual conflicts
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Up to this point, our attention has been directed toward the genotypic ‘ hattleground’ for POC and the resolutions one most expects for behavioural phenotypes. Trivers’ s original characterizations of POC were mostly behavioural (e.g. weaning conflict), yet there is no reason why other fitness-affecting components of phenotype should not be subject to the arguments, in which case some attention should be paid to life-history traits. This chapter addresses some of these issues and completes our treatment of POC theory with a consideration of how sexual conflicts may affect the ·supply side’ in taxa with both hiparental and uniparental care. The following chapter then deals with some of the interpretation problems that remain.
Epilogue
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book began with the observation that Hamilton’ s rule initially inspired a generation of field studies on the apparent cases of altruism among close kin. The main thrust of our efforts, by contrast, has been to explore how it may influence the dark side of family interactions. Along the way, it will have occurred to many readers that virtually every biological system featuring important contact among close genetic relatives surely contains a shifting equilibrium between the incentives for selfishness and those for altruism. As ecological and social conditions change over time, the balance point-or balance zone, in fact, as it will usually span a range of values-moves toward greater or lesser co-operation among kin. The next focus, it seems to us, must be on identifying and testing the factors that set and re-set this zone. That search will operate on many levels, some relatively ‘ ultimate’ (e.g. modelling the ecological consequences of one strategy or another) and others quite ‘ proximate’ (e.g. working out which actual cues provide the stimuli on which behavioural changes depend or the hormonal changes that affect important perceptual limits).
Cell diversification in heterotrophic flagellates
Authors: Cavalier-Smith T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Heterotrophic flagellates are tremendously diverse. This chapter aims: (1) to outline my recent ideas on the higher classification of heterotrophic flagellates from the perspective of an eight kingdom system; (2) to outline the most probable phylogenetic relationships of heterotrophic flagellates; and (3) to discuss the radical steps in eukaryote cell evolution and diversification that created the major differences among the 15 phyla that contain heterotrophic flagellates. I argue that the first eukaryote was a heterotrophic and phagotrophic flagellate. The most fundamental steps in eukaryote evolution occurred either in heterotrophic flagellates or during their conversion into other types of eukaryote. These steps include the symbiotic origin of mitochondria and of chloroplasts. Heterotrophic flagellates are either primitively heterotrophic (most) and form a paraphyletic assemblage directly descended from the first eukaryote flagellates which had neither mitochondria nor chloroplasts, or they are derived from photosynthetic eukaryotes by the loss of plastids.
The diversity of heterotrophic dinoflagellates
Authors: Larsen Jacob , Sournia Alain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dinoflagellate genera which are partly or entirely composed of heterotrophic species are included. About half of the extant dinoflagellates are presumed to be heterotrophic or mixotrophic and are assigned to 9 of the 13 orders recognized here. The group is very diverse, ranging in size from nanoplanktonic to millimetres, and morphologically from relatively simple, unarmoured-’non-preservable’-species to forms with highly elaborate architectures. A few of the heterotrophic dinoflagellates have been associated with red tides.
The Relative Vulnerabilities of Moth Higher Taxa to Habitat Change in Borneo
Authors: Holloway J D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Biogeographic and ecological data for about 1200 Bornean species in 15 higher taxonomic groups of moths are analysed to assess the relative vulnerabilities of these groups to habitat change. The numbers of taxonomic decisions required to establish these data are calculated. The results illustrate a spectrum of vulnerability amongst the groups to different types of habitat change, with those most at risk having a high proportion of endemic species dependent on primary lowland rainforest. The implications for environmental management and conservation policy are discussed.
Using the Proteaceae to Design a Nature Reserve Network and Determine Conservation Priorities for the Cape Floristic Region
Authors: Rebelo A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Cape Floristic Region (CFR), covering 90 000 km2, comprises one of the world’s six floral kingdoms. With 8600 species, of which 68 per cent are endemic, it ranks amongst the richest of temperate and tropical floras, although most of the diversity is concentrated in a few speciose taxa. Some 19 per cent of the area of the CFR is in nature reserves, but by far the majority of the preserved area comprises mountain Fynbos. Fortunately Fynbos vegetation is the richest habitat for Red Data Book (RDB) plant, freshwater fish, amphibian, butterfly, and reptile species in southern Africa. However, only 3 per cent of the original extent of lowland Fynbos is preserved, with the greater Cape Town metropolitan area ranking globally as one of the most urgent conservation priorities. Previously used methods for evaluating priority conservation areas have underrated species-poor areas containing a high proportion of RDB species. By correcting for species richness, a far more realistic picture of threatened areas can be obtained from RDB taxa. Utilizing an iterative selection procedure to identify optimal reserve configurations, based on Proteaceae species richness, suggests that 95 per cent of all vascular plant species in Fynbos can be preserved in 16 per cent of the area. Two null models for evaluating the efficiency of a spatial configuration of reserves are proposed. These results suggest that the ideal approach to designing a reserve configuration is to identify areas of high endemism and richness in distinctive vegetation types within particular biogeographical regions. A priori hypotheses based on ecological traits indicate that seed dispersal and regeneration strategies are most strongly correlated with rarity, most specifically with distributional area.
Embodying natural vision into machines
Authors: Srinivasan M V , Chahl J S , Nagle M G , Zhang S \V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone who has tried to swat a fly, or watched it execute a flawless landing on the rim of a teacup, would have noticed that insects possess a visual system that is fast, precise, and reliable. This is so despite the fact that the insect brain weighs less than a tenth of a milligram and possesses far fewer than 0.01 per cent as many neurones as the human brain. Do simple nervous systems such as these use computational ‘short-cuts’ to achieve their goals? Observation of the visual behaviour of insects suggests that this may indeed be the case.
Natural vegetation
Authors: Hadidi M N El 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Egypt is perhaps the most arid country in North Africa. According to Ayyad and Ghabbour (1986), hot desert ecosystems cover all of Egypt and extend south to latitude 12°N in Sudan. Such hot ecosystems are either arid or hyperarid and it is possible to distinguish between three main hyperarid and two arid provinces (see Fig. 3.1). Hyperarid provinces are characterized by a hot or very hot summer (mean temperature of 30 °C in the hottest month) and a winter rainfall averaging 30 mm per year. Arid provinces are characterized by a hot summer (mean temperature of 20-30 °C in the hottest month) and a winter rainfall ranging between 20 and 100 mm per year.
Land tenure
Authors: Richards A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since the eighteenth century, economists have argued that the distribution of land shapes the pattern of resource allocation, distribution, and growth in an agricultural economy. We have since accumulated a great deal of evidence which strongly suggests that the distribution of assets determines how the gains of growth are shared. Although the percentage of land in the value of total assets declines with economic development, historical evidence shows that the land tenure system has important consequences for the rate and distribution of human capital investment, which becomes increasingly important as development proceeds. Viewed historically, the distribution of land is fundamental to the distribution of income in the rural areas. Income distribution, in turn, may affect the pattern of industrial growth through final demand linkages. The structure of asset ownership and the pattern of growth and distribution are intimately connected (Johnston and Kilby 1975; Mellor 1976; De Janvry 1981; Adelman 1984).
Natural environment
Authors: Guohua Xu 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
China is the third largest country in the world, after the USSR and Canada. It has a land area of 9.6 million km. This is 6.5 percent of the total land area of the world, 40 times the size of Great Britain, or 91 per cent of the area of Europe as a whole. Located in the east of the continent of Eurasia, bordering the Pacific Ocean, China extends over 49° 16’ of latitude, from 4° 15’ N to 53° 31’ N. It thus lies mainly in the subtropical and temperate zones. The western border begins at 73° 43’ E, and the furthest eastern point is at 135° 5’ E, a distance of 65° 25’ of longitude. The northern part of the country is adjacent to the USSR and the People’s Republic of Mongolia, the western part to Afghanistan and Pakistan, and the southern part to India, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Laos, and Vietnam. Japan is to the east of China across the Sea of Japan, and Korea lies to the north-east across the Yalu Jiang River (see Fig. 1.1).
Systems of agricultural production in western Sudan
Authors: Haaland G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Western Sudan includes the two regions of Darfur and Kordofan, and covers a vast area of 850000 km ranging from desert in the north to high rainfall savanna in the south. Of a total population of 6.5 million, 85 per cent is classified as rural, deriving all or part of their livelihood from agricultural and pastoral production.
Neurons and synapses
Authors: Rowe Glenn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The human brain is without doubt the most complex object in the known universe. It is a lump of tissue about the size of two clenched fists, yet it contains more than 1012 cells and is the seat of essentially everything a human being is. The brain controls and initiates virtually every act a person performs in his life, from relatively simple, but vital, functions such as breathing and heartbeat, to the height of creativity as exemplified by the composition of great symphonies and the formulation of intricate scientific theories.
Memory
Authors: Rowe Glenn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How does the brain store its past experiences? It would be reasonable to think that there is a strong analogy between the human brain and a modern digital computer. After all, both systems are composed of a large number of units (neurons in the brain, bits in a computer), which communicate with each other electrically, have two main states (firing and quiescent in the brain, binary 1 and O in the computer) and can store enormous amounts of information which can be retrieved more or less at random (you can think of widely different topics in quick succession, and a computer’ s RAM—random access memory—can be accessed in any location).