bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Non‐verbal cognitive development and language impairment
Authors: Botting Nicola 
Published: March 2005

Background:  Specific language impairment (SLI) is currently partly defined by the presence of non‐verbal IQ scores in the normal range. However, not only is there a debate concerning where ‘normal thresholds’ should be, but increasing information about the presence of processing deficits in SLI have led some researchers to question the use of IQ criteria in clinical diagnosis. In particular, little is known about the longitudinal and developmental patterns of cognitive performance in this population.Method:  Data from a long‐term follow‐up study of SLI was examined in 82 children defined at original participation as having SLI who had IQ measurements at 7, 8, 11 and 14 years.Results:  Analyses revealed a significant fall between 7 and 14 years of over 20 IQ points. This fall took place mainly between 8 and 11 years but was still continuing between 11 and 14 years. Further investigation revealed different groups of children showing different developmental patterns in IQ, even after controlling for baseline measurement. These groups also showed significantly different language outcomes at 14 years. Analyses controlling for IQ at 7 were also performed that suggested a dynamic process between language and cognitive development.Conclusions:  These findings appear to be in agreement with a model of impairment that views ‘Residual Normality’ as unlikely (Karmiloff‐Smith, 1998; Thomas & Karmiloff‐Smith, 2002). The implications are therefore discussed in relation to the dynamic development of systems along with the possible cognitive mechanisms (such as working memory) that might interact with language to create an SLI profile.
THE TREATMENT OF EDUCATION IN NATIONAL ACCOUNTING1
Authors: Seers Dudley , Jolly Richard 
Published: March 2005

It is argued that the conventions of an accounting system, such as the S.N.A., are a matter of convenience. The treatment of education as a current expenditure, instead of as a form of capital formation, derives from the Keynesian system, and is not appropriate for dynamic problems of developing countries, where weaknesses in education are often the main “bottleneck” in the process of development. In such countries, expenditure on education clearly yields its benefits mainly in the longer run. To treat this as a consumption item biases policy in the direction of using financial resources for fixed capital rather than human investment, and may cause aid agencies to penalize countries which expand their educational systems. A similar problem arises on other expenditures such as health, but the case for treating them as investment is not so strong.To treat educational expenditure as part of capital formation logically requires two major changes. First education needs to be removed from private and public consumption, and for this purpose a fairly broad definition of what is education should be used. Secondly, the stock of educational capital should be valued. The valuation problems are, however, severe. Variations in cost components make historic cost of little value as a yardstick, and calculations of future returns are fraught with difficulties. Using replacement costs, which seems the best method, involves the construction of education profiles in physical terms which can then be valued by present or by standardised costs. The depreciation of human capital through mortality and retirement can be allowed for by applying national average rates to these physical profiles.Switching educational expenditure from current to capital accounts involves no serious practical problem. However, although there should logically be an allowance for depreciation on human capital, this is not recommended; single monetary measures of educational stock are not very meaningful, and this would involve changing the definition of “net” aggregates. Development of statistics of educational stocks and flows in physical terms—the beginnings of “demographic accounting” fully integrated with the rest of national accounting—is strongly advocated.
THE TREATMENT OF INTEREST AND NET RENTS IN THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS FRAMEWORK1
Authors: Sunga Preetom S. 
Published: March 2005

The contention in this paper is that the present method of treating interest and net rents as transfers rather than as payments for services provided creates problems in the measurement of production by industry and that the difficulties encountered in explaining the treatment of interest items in the different tables of the National Accounts are even more apparent when one views the National Accounts framework as an integrated reflection of economic reality.It is argued that the lending of money arises from the stretching out of the production and consumption process, and the interest charges constitute a charge for the administrative services and risk involved. This is somewhat analagous to the charges for hiring out real goods and services. A similar case is made for the treatment of rents with the exception of imputed net rent where it is contended that economic risk is incurred only when production is undertaken for sale and that there should be no entrepreneurial return where the production is for the use of the owner‐producer.It is suggested that an alternative treatment of interest and rents as payments for services is more realistic. Its adoption in the National Accounts would eliminate the need for imputations now made to account for the production of financial intermediaries, as well as the unconvincing explanations put forward for the present treatment of interest on consumer and public debt. Finally, it would serve to integrate the production accounts with the financial flows and the related financial structure.
ON REVISIONS IN NATIONAL ACCOUNTS ESTIMATES1
Authors: Rinne Horst 
Published: March 2005

This paper treats three subjects:(1) In Sections II and III there is given a general analysis of revisions in national income data, namely the sources of revisions are enumerated and the conclusions that might be drawn are discussed in some detail.(2) Section IV gives a description of the history of revisions in national income estimates for the FRG (Federal Republic of Germany) for the period 1949–1965. The general revisions are classified according to their causes.(3) Sections V to VII give a statistical analysis of the revisions described in Section IV. Revisions in the level and in the linear annual change are characterized by their mean and their mean absolute deviation. Theil's coefficient of inequality is computed and on the basis of its decomposition a kind of analysis of variance is carried out.
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION FINANCED BY INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE RESOURCES, IN FRANCE AND ITALY (1959, 1965, 1969)
Authors: Cao‐Pinna Vera , Foulon Alain 
Published: March 2005

In this article the authors anticipate some results of a study carried out in France and in Italy, in the framework of a wider research project aiming at analysing in some depth and at comparing the recent trends and patterns of total household consumption in some capitalist and socialist countries.1The accounting scheme used to arrive at a comprehensive definition of household consumption, inclusive of the “non‐market” divisible services produced by public administrations, and to identify the share of this new aggregate which is financed by collective resources, isoutlined in the first section. In the second section, the article shows the growing relative importance of publicly‐supported consumption, but it also shows that during the sixties, the overall cost of divisible public services and of social benefits provided in kind or in cash was, in both countries, almost entirely auto‐financed by the household sector, via social security contributions and taxes levied on that sector's income and consumption. In the third section, comparative analysis of the recent structural evolution of the “market” and the “non‐market” shares of total household consumption points out the similarities and dissimilarities between the patterns and forms of private and public spending in the two countries.The results of this analysis seem to support the thesis that unless a better integration of social policies with economic growth policies is achieved, it will not be possible to implement rational choices between the “market” and the “non‐market” ways of satisfying specific population needs. The authors' conclusion is that under present circumstances, public civil expenditures will continue to rise, both in France and in Italy, more rapidly than total national resources and it will become difficult to balance total receipts and total outlays of the public sector.
THE EFFECT ON POVERTY STATUS IN ISRAEL OF CONSIDERING WEALTH AND VARIABILITY OF INCOME
Authors: Habib Jack , Kohn Meir , Lerman Robert 
Published: March 2005

This paper assesses the effects of including wealth and the variability of income on the incidence of poverty and the degree of income inequality in Israel. A special survey, which includes data on the wealth and income of a national sample of Israeli families in 1963–64 and 1964–65, allows us to go beyond measures based on current income alone.The first section reviews earlier studies of poverty in Israel. The next section looks at poverty and inequality in terms of current income, current wealth, and a combined measure of income and wealth. The combined measure is the Hansen‐Weisbrod measure (HW), which equals income plus the annuity value of wealth, assuming all wealth is just consumed at the time of death. It is interesting that, in spite of the much higher wealth inequality than income inequality, the HW measure was slightly more equally distributed than income. This result occurred because the annuity component made up a low share of the total HW measure and the correlation between income and wealth was well under 1. Although overall inequality and poverty were similar for income and HW measures, the incidence of poverty by subgroup depended on the measure used.The final section presents a dynamic view of poverty and inequality. Year‐to‐year changes in poverty were substantial. Because of the use of a relative poverty concept and the rise in real incomes, the real income poverty line rose by 15 percent between 1963 and 1964. Still, of those in income poverty in 1963, 37 percent managed to escape poverty in 1964. The paper shows how the degree to which poverty was stable or transitory varied substantially by age and country of origin.
THE REDISTRIBUTIONAL EFFECTS OF THE INFLATIONARY PROCESS IN JAPAN, 1955–75*
Authors: Niida Hiroshi 
Published: March 2005

It is often discussed that inflation introduces a substantial, arbitrary and regressive redistribution of income and wealth under even mild inflation. But after a quarter century of experience with inflation in postwar Japan, very little is known about these costs of inflation on an empirical basis. Due to the complexity of the evaluation of the redistributional impact on Japan, the present paper analyzes the effects of inflation on individuals or groups as wage earners, debtors and creditors, taxpayers, and holders of real estate.The main results of the present investigation suggest that the Japanese inflation for 1955–75 did not seem to introduce much inequality in the income (flow) account in the economy, but that the inequality between households has appeared more in the wealth (stock) account, especially between the house‐owner groups and non‐house‐owner groups. These observations are mainly derived from the following investigations; (i) the wage lag hypothesis about inflation, even if not wrong, does not seem acceptable when applied to the entire period (1955–75) as well as to each of the five sub‐periods; (ii) there has been a substantial transfer of real purchasing power from households to non‐financial corporations, and, to a lesser extent, to government entities in the debtor‐creditor redistribution; (iii) among households, the most substantial redistribution takes place from the non‐houseowners to houseowners with land, because of the huge amount of capital gains from the rapid increase in the price of real estate relative to the prices of other assets or the consumer price index, except for the last three years of rampaging inflation.
A COMPARISON OF DISTRIBUTIONS OF ANNUAL AND LIFETIME INCOME: SWEDEN AROUND 1970.
Authors: BLOMQUIST N. S. 
Published: March 2005

The concern with income distribution has always mainly existed because of a concern with individuals' economic welfare. In recent years, the question has arisen whether the distribution of annual income—the distribution most often studied—is the best proxy for the distribution of economic welfare. Other measures, such as lifetime income, have been proposed instead.The paper starts with a discussion of how to define and measure the distribution of lifetime income. By using a simulation model, which partly consists of estimated functions and partly of tax functions taken directly from tax laws, distributions of lifetime income, variously defined, are then constructed. These distributions are compared with each other, and with distributions of annual income. The simulations indicate that the distribution of lifetime income is considerably less unequal than the distribution of annual income. Whether inheritances are included or not seems to be of no importance for the inequality of lifetime income. If, on the other hand, we include the value of leisure time in lifetime income, inequality increases by about 10–15 percent. Distributions of income after tax have Gini coefficients which are approximately 25 percent less than the Ginis for the before‐tax distributions. We thus find that the picture of inequality we get is very much dependent on which income concept we use.
THE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME IN LIBERIA
Authors: Akpa E. K. 
Published: March 2005

The economy of Liberia is one in which, in spite of past satisfactory growth performance, a high level of income inequality persists. In 1977, for instance, a mere 2 percent of the people accounted for some 33 percent of nation‐wide wage income. These people live disproportionately in Montserrado County in which the capital city is located. While each of the other counties are largely rural and poor, each has far lower intra‐county inequality than wealthy Montserrado.Intersectoral location of the income‐earner, average income levels and the extent of access to human capital formation opportunities are some characteristics of the economy that have been found to explain significant portions of intercounty variations in the levels of household income concentration. Income inequality is reduced with increases in the extent of agricultural activity as the share of the top income group falls and that of the bottom group rises. The reverse happens with growing urban‐area activity. Higher income concentration occurs with rising per capita incomes as the top group's income share rises and the bottom income group's share falls. While this appears to be an instance of the Kuznet U‐shaped hypothesis, here there are no definite signs of a possible reversal any time soon. The levels of access to educational facilities move inversely with the level of inequality, with expanding elementary facilities benefiting the poorer people at the expense of the wealthy while the reverse happens in the case of expanding secondary educational facilities.
HUMAN CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HEALTH: A MEASUREMENT FRAMEWORK AND ESTIMATES FOR THE UNITED STATES, 1952–78
Authors: Gates John H. 
Published: March 2005

Lack of a conceptual basis for measuring human capital investment in health has hampered efforts to expand national accounting systems to include human capital investment. This paper presents a conceptual basis for developing estimates of this health investment, an estimation methodology consistent with the conceptual basis, and preliminary estimates for the United States for 1952‐78.While much work remains to be done before comprehensive estimates of investment in health are achieved, it is clear that previous estimates based on answers to the question, “What improves health?” have included some inappropriate expenditures while excluding others that should be included.The conceptual basis presented here leads to a methodology for separating health care costs (not the costs of illness) into maintenance and gross investment. Gross investment can be further separated into net investment and the sum of damages and depreciation but empirical implementation of this step is not attempted here.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS TOWARDS RESOLVING THE COMPANY‐ESTABLISHMENT PROBLEM*
Authors: Postner Harry H. 
Published: March 2005

The paper begins by stating various aspects of the national economic accountant's “company‐establishment problem.” Six possible approaches to the problem are briefly outlined. The paper concentrates on one approach based on new developments in business accounting theory and practice, namely divisional‐reporting procedures. The division represents the smallest operating entity capable of reporting both a complete set of production (income) statistics and a set of related financial (balance‐sheet) statistics. When companies are owned and controlled by the same interests, namely the enterprise, each division reports on an enterprise‐wide basis. In this important case, the traditional company‐establishment problem has an enterprise‐division‐establishment resolution.There is considerable emphasis on clarifying the issues needed for systematic development of divisional‐reporting to meet the requirements of a national statistical agency. Key aspects are the provision of appropriate conceptual distinctions relating to statistical structure of corporate organizations and patterns of intercorporate ownership consolidation. Practical experience gained by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission's line of business reporting program is also highlighted. Two tables show details with respect to a proposed divisional income statement and balance‐sheet statement that a systematically developed division‐reporting unit can provide. The tables are related to existing statistics yielded by traditional company‐ and establishment‐reporting units. In effect the paper is part of a movement giving national economic accounting more microdata dimensions. Future research must integrate the proposed new statistical reporting unit within systems of national accounts presently constructed on the basis of a dual sectoring classification.
ESTIMATES OF THE HIDDEN ECONOMY IN AUSTRIA ON THE BASIS OF OFFICIAL STATISTICS
Authors: Franz Alfred 
Published: March 2005

By definition, the hidden economy eludes straight observation by means of official statistics. Nevertheless, attempts to quantify these phenomena usually make reference to official materials in various respects, e.g. as regards definition, or when evaluating the relative importance or some indirect reflections of such activities. In this context, official statistics may serve as a particularly useful reference when those sections of the economy are concerned which are hardly or not at all susceptible to hidden activities. Such sections can be identified in terms of industry and in terms of occupation.In the present investigation such techniques have been used to a large extent and only official statistics have been drawn upon as a data source. Accordingly, the outcome matches closely with national accounts concepts and existing national classifications of various socio‐economic statistics. The estimates refer to the hidden (“off the records”) activities of the self‐employed as well as to similar activities of employees, the unemployed etc. (“moonlighting”). Per se criminal activities have not been included, however. As regards the self‐employed the estimates basically rely on income differentials observed between small scale entrepreneurs and their employees. As regards employees numbers employed of various preselected occupational categories and of some additional groups of non‐employed have been processed successively, matching them e.g. with comparable data on time budgets and regional frequency.The outcome largely confirms common experience or expectations as regards the fields where hidden activities assume significant relative importance whereas the overall size of the hidden economy turned out fairly small as compared with official GDP.
DOES CONSUMPTION ENTAIL INCOME? IMPLICATIONS OF THE DUAL CLASSIFICATION OF CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE FOR THE INCOME SIDE OF THE HOUSEHOLD SECTOR IN THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS*
Authors: Reich Utz‐Peter 
Published: March 2005

In the future revision of the SNA the dual classification of flows in the national accounts will gain some importance with respect to consumption expenditures. It is likely that outlays of different institutions for consumption are added to form a new aggregate “individual consumption.” The question is whether this development requires an adjustment on the income side of the household accounts.In order to find an answer it is first necessary to scrutinize the concept of disposable income in its standard form, and in its different variations. The result is a distinction between “disposable income in the strict sense” and “income after distribution,” where the standard definition actually realizes the latter concept. It is then shown that the dual structure of the accounts does not permit the adding of individual consumption to saving of households so that the concept of enlarged income defeats its purpose.
MODELING AGGREGATE PRODUCTIVITY GROWTH: THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERSECTORAL TRANSFER PRICES AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Authors: Gollop Frank M. 
Published: March 2005

The value‐added model underlies current measures of aggregate productivity growth. Unbiased estimates result only if the economy is closed to trade in foreign‐produced material inputs and all domestic intersectoral transactions are characterized by marginal cost pricing. Neither condition typically holds.This paper identifies these biases and proposes a delivery‐to‐final‐demand framework, a modified form of that first introduced by Domar. The rate of aggregate productivity growth is decomposed into terms identifying the contributions of total factor productivity growth within individual sectors, the reallocation of the economy's primary inputs among sectors, and changes in the allocative efficiency of markets for intermediate goods. The adjustments necessary to remove biases from existing value‐added estimates are derived.
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF AUSTRALIAN GDP IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Authors: Haig Bryan 
Published: March 2005

This paper summarises the results of a new comparison of the level of Australian and U.K. real product in the 1890s, obtained by the direct deflation of money values of GDP by relative prices. The object of the study was to provide a check on the existing comparisons, obtained by extrapolation of time series of real GDP, as shown, for example, in Maddison (1982). Existing estimates imply that in the 1890s Australian GDP per capita was about 50 percent higher in the U.K. and U.S.A. and more than twice that for the average of 12 other western countries. The present study suggests these results probably overstate Australia's real GDP, and that Australian real GDP per capita was 36 percent higher than the U.K. in 1891 and 3 percent higher in 1900. Personal consumption per capita was 15 percent higher in Australia than in the U.K. in 1891, but about the same level in 1900.Although this study compares prices and GDP in the colony of New South Wales with those in the U.K., the colony may be taken as representative of Australia as a whole.1