bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Glass
Authors: Boyd David C. , Danielson Paul S. , Thompson David A. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractBoth organic and inorganic materials may form glasses if their structure is noncrystalline, ie, if they lack long‐range order. This includes some plastics, metals, and organic liquids. In principle, rapid cooling could prevent crystallization of any substance if the final temperature is sufficiently low to prevent structural rearrangement. Thus glasses are formed primarily for kinetic reasons.Glasses can be prepared by methods other than cooling from a liquid state, including solution evaporation, sintering of gels, reaction sputtering, vapor deposition, neutron bombardment, and shock‐wave vitrification.Conditions favorable for glass formation may be deduced from either geometric or bond strength considerations. Glass formation of individual oxides can be predicted from the melting point, and individual bond energies can be normalized by dividing by the melting point of the oxide. Glass is a good medium for controlled crystallization, and has become the basis for a number of unique crystalline materials known as glass‐ceramics.Most glass articles are manufactured by a process in which raw materials are converted at high temperatures to a homogeneous melt that is then formed into the articles. Molten glass is either molded, drawn, rolled, or quenched, depending on desired shape and use.In a secondary forming, a piece of preformed glass is reheated and reworked into the finished product. Glass manufacture is classified according to the product into flat, container, fiber, or specialty glass.Glasses are used in the electrical and electronic industries as insulators, lamp envelopes, cathode ray tubes, and encapsulators and protectors for microcircuit components. The resistance of glass to chemical corrosion $$$ frequently the reason for its use. However, the durability of a glas varies from highly soluble to highly durable, depending on its composition and the solvent considered. Optical glasses are usually described in terms of their refractive index.
Hafnium and Hafnium Compounds
Authors: Nielsen Ralph H. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractHafnium, Hf, is in Group 4 (IVB) of the Periodic Table, as are the lighter elements zirconium and titanium. Hafnium is a heavy gray‐white metallic element never found free in nature. It is always found associated with the more plentiful zirconium. The two elements are almost identical in chemical behavior.Hafnium is obtained as a by‐product of the production of hafnium‐free nuclear‐grade zirconium. Hafnium's primary use is as a minor strengthening agent in high temperature nickel‐base superalloys. Additionally, hafnium is used as a neutron‐absorber material, primarily in the form of control rods in nuclear reactors.Hafnium is a hard, heavy, somewhat ductile metal having an appearance slightly darker than that of stainless steel. Hafnium's aqueous chemistry is characterized by a high degree of hydrolysis, the formation of polymeric species, a very slow approach to true equilibrium, and the multitude of complex ions that can be formed. Hafnium is a highly reactive metal.Most hafnium compounds have been of slight commercial interest aside from intermediates in the production of hafnium metal. However, hafnium oxide, hafnium carbide, and hafnium nitride are quite refractory and have received considerable study as the most refractory compounds of the Group 4 (IVB) elements.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Halogens
Authors: Bailey Webb I. , Woytek Andrew J. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThere are eight known halogen fluorides, binary compounds of fluorine with chlorine, bromine, and iodine. The halogen fluorides are highly reactive, powerful oxidizing agents that exist as noncryogenic liquids, offering a storable liquid source of fluorine at low pressure. Properties are described.Chlorine trifluoride, bromine trifluoride, and iodine pentafluoride are available commercially. Chlorine trifluoride is used in the processing of nuclear fuels, bromine trifluoride as a chemical cutting agent for oil well pipe and tubing, and iodine pentafluoride as a fluorinating agent for organic compounds.
Hydrogen
Authors: Czuppon T. A. , Knez S. A. , Newsome D. S. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractHydrogen is one of the most important industrial commodities. Physical thermodynamic, and chemical properties are described. The chemistry of hydrogen from a commercial perspective is followed by a description of manufacturing methods. Steam reforming of hydrocarbons and partial oxidiation of hydrocarbons account for almost all hydrogen production. Other, less conventional manufacturing methods are also presented, such as hydrogen from coal, water splitting by electrolysis and chemical means, solar processes, metal–water reactions, bacteria, nuclear, and hydrogen sulfide‐splitting reactions. Hydrogen purification is reviewed. The storage of hydrogen is discussed, including conventional methods for gas and liquid storage, and possible future methods, such as in metal hydride systems and microcapsules. Analysis of hydrogen, health and safety issues, and environmental considerations are discussed. Hydrogen consumption figures are presented, and the possible future usage of hydrogen is discussed.
Hydrogen Peroxide
Authors: Hess Wayne T. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractHydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizing agent commercially available in aqueous solution over a wide concentration range. Its many uses involve its varied chemistry and are based on oxidations, reductions, substitutions, molecular additions, and decompositions. Product from hydrogen peroxide decomposition are the environmentally benign oxygen and water. Manufacture and use, especially in industrial bleaching applications, are on the rise, fueled by environmental concerns and ecological pressure to replace chlorine‐based bleaching with the cleaner peroxide chemistry.Manufactured primarily in large, strategically located anthrahydroquinone autoxidation processes, the primary use for hydrogen peroxide is in bleaching wood pulp. Hydrogen peroxide is also produced electrolytically. The various manufacturing processes are discussed. Safe use and handling require adherence to approved procedures and use of proper protective equipment.
Indium and Indium Compounds
Authors: Slattery James A. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Indium, indium alloys, and indium compounds exhibit a wide range of diverse properties. For example, the metal retains plasticity at cryogenic temperatures and many compounds with the metalloids are semiconducting. Applications vary from the use of the metal in the control rods of nuclear reactors, to that of alloys as solders, and of indium trioxide as an electrically conductive film for glass and plastic.
Indium is basically a by‐product of the zinc and lead–zinc industries. Properties are described. Uses and production are discussed.
Enzyme Applications, Industrial
Authors: Kirk Ole , Damhus Ture , Borchert Torben Vedel , Fuglsang Claus Crone , Olsen Hans Sejr , Hansen Tomas Tage , Lund Henrik , Schiff Hans Erik , Nielsen Lone Kierstein 
Published: August 2004

AbstractEnzyme technology has been used in industrial applications since ancient Greece. The present industrial applications of enzymes are, however, the result of a rapid development seen primarily over the past four decades thanks, first of all, to the evolution of modern biotechnology. The result is a highly diversified market that is still growing both in terms of size and complexity.The detergent industry is the largest user of industrial enzymes. Enzymes such as proteases, amylases, lipases, and cellulases are used to remove soilings, increase softness, and protect fabric. The starch industry uses a variety of enzymes, first of all of amylases, in the production of value‐added products from starches. Enzymes also find use in the textile, leather, pulp and paper, and animal feed industries. Another important area is the food industry in which enzymes are used in the dairy, bakery, brewing, and protein modification industries.The introduction of protein engineering and directed evolution has revolutionized the development of industrial enzymes and made it possible to tailor‐make enzymes to display new activities and adapt to new process conditions enabling a further expansion of their use. Production of enzymes involves recombinant expression in selected host microorganisms, fermentation, recovery, and formulation.
Inks
Authors: Bassemir R. W. , Bean A. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis article includes a description of the important commercial printing processes used in the world. The inks required for each of these processes are described, including the key ingredients in the formula necessary due to the physical constraints of each particular printing process. A discussion of the nature of the raw materials used in printing inks and their general chemical composition is given. A summary of the environmental regulations applying to the printing industry and their impact on ink formulation is presented.
Aluminum Compounds, Introduction
Authors: Sleppy William C. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract

The CAS registry lists 5037 aluminum‐containing compounds exclusive of alloys and intermetallics. The aluminum containing compound having the largest worldwide market is metal‐grade alumina. Second is aluminum hydroxide. The split between additive and feedstock applications for Al(OH)
3
is roughly 50:50. Additive applications include those as flame retardants in products such as carpets, and to enhance the properties of paper, plastic, polymer, and rubber products. Significant quantities are also used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, adhesives, polishes, dentifrices, and glass. Aluminum sulfate,

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, also known as alum cake, is industrially produced for major applications as a sizing agent in the paper industry and as a coagulant to clarify municipal and industrial water supplies. In terms of worldwide production, it ranks third behind alumina and aluminum hydroxide. All the halogens form covalent aluminum compounds having the formula AlX
3
. The most important commercially are the anhydrous chloride and fluoride, and aluminum chloride hexahydrate. The latter is used in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics as a flocculant and for impregnating textiles. The alkyls and aryls, R
3
Al (in monomer form), are colorless liquids or low melting solids easily oxidized and hydrolyzed when exposed to the atmosphere. Triethylaluminum (TEA), one of the most commercially important members of this family of chemicals, is so reactive it bursts into flame on contact with air, ie, it is pyrophoric, and it reacts violently with water. Special techniques are necessary for the safe handling and use of organoaluminum compounds, which are used commercially in multimillion kg/yr quantities as catalysts or starting materials for the manufacture of organic compounds such as plastics, elastomers biodegradable detergents, and organometallics containing zinc, phosphorus, or tin. Sodium aluminate is used in water purification, in the paper industry, for the after‐treatment of TiO
2
pigment, and in the manufacture of aluminum‐containing catalysts and zeolite. A large and growing industrial use of aluminum hydroxide and sodium aluminate is the manufacture of synthetic zeolite. Zeolites are aluminosilicates with Si/Al ratios between 1 and infinity. There are 40 natural, and over 100 synthetic, zeolites. Zeolite‐based materials are extremely versatile: uses include detergent manufacture, ion‐exchange resins (ie, water softeners), catalytic applications in the petroleum industry, separation processes, and as an adsorbent for water, carbon dioxide, mercaptans, and hydrogen sulfide.
Ketones
Authors: Braithwaite John 
Published: August 2004

AbstractBraithwaite, John (Union Carbide Chemicals and Plastics Co., Inc.). Ketones are a class of organic compounds that contain one or more carbonyl groups bound to two aliphatic, aromatic, or alicyclic substituents. Ketones are an important class of industrial chemicals that have found widespread use as solvents and chemical intermediates. Acetone is the simplest and most important ketone and finds ubiquitous use as a solvent. Higher members of the aliphatic methyl ketone series (eg, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, and methyl amyl ketone) are also industrially significant solvents. Cyclohexanone is the most important cyclic ketone and is primarily used in the manufacture of γ‐caprolactam for nylon‐6. Other ketones find application in fields as diverse as fragrance formulation and metals extraction. Physical and chemical properties as well as uses, manufacture, and health and safety data are given.
Lanthanides
Authors: Sabot Jean‐Louis , Maestro Patrick 
Published: August 2004

AbstractMaestro, Patrick, and Sabot, Jean—Louis (Rhône‐Poulenc Inc.). Lanthanides is the name given collectively to the 15 elements from lanthanum to lutetium sharing the same space in Mendeleev's original Periodic Table. Lanthanides have a unique electronic structure because of partially filled 4forbitals. Occurrence and preparation of the rare earths is described. Mining of lanthanide ores and the various separation methods are discussed. Except for cerium and europium, the lanthanides are separated industrially of solvent extraction. The production of lanthanide metals is also presented.Industrial applications of lanthanides encompass a number of different fields, including the high technology field of electronics. Uses in metallurgy, catalysis, and the glass and ceramics industry are based on unique chemical and structure properties. Uses as luminescent materials for phosphor applications or in medical imaging technology are limited to specific optical properties. Uses of lanthanides and their alloys as high energy magnets result from the special magnetic properties. Information storage is but one of many industries in which lanthanide usage is expected to grow. Vol. 14, pp. 1091–1116, 51 refs. to January 1993.
Lime and Limestone
Authors: Gutschick K. A. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Lime and limestone are mainstays of the construction industry, in chemical and metallurgical production, and for other industrial and agricultural uses. In the United States limestone production comprises about 75% of total stone output. Lime is produced from high purity limestone.

The geological, physical, and chemical properties of lime and limestone are described as well as steps in production and primary uses. Whereas limestone is primarily a construction material used especially in road building, it is also used in the production of pig iron, glass, cement, and lime, as a scrubbing agent for removal of SO
2
from stack gases, as a mineral filler, etc. Lime is primarily a chemical and metallurgical raw material, used in the production of steel, gold and copper, aluminum, calcium carbide, pulp and paper, etc. It is also a leading material in environmental uses, such as SO
2
removal from power plant stack gases, in potable and wastewater treatment, and for hazardous wastes. Lime is also an important construction material, used in masonry mortar, plaster, and stucco, in road building to stabilize highly plastic clays, and in manufacture of calcium silicate building products such as sand–lime brick. Growth is expected in scrubbing stack gases, in the production of precipitated calcium carbonate for use as a filler in fine white paper, and for sterilizing sewage sludge for cropland use.
Amines, Lower Aliphatic Amines
Authors: Turcotte Michael G. , Johnson Thomas A. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract

Lower aliphatic amines are derivatives of ammonia with one, two, or all three of the hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl groups of five carbons or less. Amines with higher alkyl groups are known as fatty amines. Amines are toxic, colorless gases or liquids, highly flammable, and have strong odors. Lower mol wt amines are water soluble and are sold as aqueous solutions and in pure form. Amines react with water and acids to form alkylammonium compounds analogous to ammonia. The base strengths in water of the primary, secondary, and tertiary amines and ammonia are essentially the same. The lower aliphatic amines are widely used as intermediates in the manufacture of medicinal, agricultural, textile, rubber, and plastic chemicals. Some commercially important alkylamines are methylamine, dimethylamine, ethylamine,
n
‐propylamine, isopropylamine, allylamine,
n
‐butylamine, isobutylamine,
sec
‐butylamine, ethyl‐
n
‐butylamine,
n
‐amylamine. The formation of salts with acids is the most characteristic reaction of amines. Alkylamine are corrosive to copper, copper‐containing alloys (brass), aluminum, zinc, zinc alloy, and galvanized surfaces. Lower aliphatic amines can be prepared by a variety of methods, using many different types of raw materials. By far the largest commercial applications involve the reaction of alcohol with ammonia to form the corresponding amines. Other methods are employed depending on the particular amine desired, raw material availability, and plant economics. The U. S. Department of Transportation requires labeling of all shipments of amines commensurate with the associated hazards. Alkylamines are toxic. Both the liquids and vapors can cause severe irritation to mucous membranes, eyes, and skin. Protective butyl rubber gloves, aprons, chemical face shields, and self‐contained breathing apparatus should be used by all personnel handling alkylamines.
Magnesium Compounds
Authors: Kramer Deborah A. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
A variety of magnesium compounds and minerals are found both in seawater and in the earth's crust. Commercial magnesium compounds are widely used in chemical processing, whether in the production of paper or rayon fiber, or as a catalyst, filler, flame retardant, alkaline material, stable coating for magnetic recording media, or wastewater or flue gas scrubber. Magnesium hydroxide is a common over‐the‐counter antacid and laxative. Additionally, the branch of synthetic organic chemistry known as Grignard reactions is based on magnesium compounds. Magnesium forms stable salts with most common anions, such as acetate, carbonate, the halides, hydroxide, oxide, and sulfide, as well as with some less common ones such as vanadates. Many magnesium alkyls are also known. The production, properties, economics, uses, safe handling, and analysis of the commercial magnesium compounds are described.
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Authors: Wilson Clifford B. , Claus Ken G. , Earlam Matthew R. , Hillis James E. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractMagnesium is the world's most readily available metal and occurs naturally in minerals, brines, and seawater. Magnesium metal is prepared commercially by two types of processes. In the first process, magnesium chloride is recovered from the raw materials and converted to metal by molten salt electrolysis. The second process involves the reduction of magnesium oxide with silicon or aluminum at high temperatures. The resulting metal is then cast into a variety of shapes and sizes of ingots, or alloyed with various other metals and made into ingots, slabs, billets, and many extruded shapes. Pure magnesium is used for making aluminum alloys, the desulfurization of steel, the manufacture of ductile iron, and as a reducing agent for the production of other metals. Elemental magnesium is the lightest structural metal. Magnesium alloys are used mainly in die and sand castings, and in the manufacture of wrought products. Alloy composition is varied to obtain the desired physical and mechanical properties for a given application.
Metal‐Matrix Composites
Authors: Chawla K. K. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
(New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology). Metal‐matrix composites have a metal or an alloy as the continuous phase, in which the reinforcing phase (particle whisker, short or continuous fiber) is distributed. Important techniques for processing metal‐matrix composites are described. A description of the reinforcement/matrix interface region and its characteristics, and properties of different metal‐matrix composites are provided. Different applications of metal‐matrix composites are summarized.
Methacrylic Acid and Derivatives
Authors: Gross Andrew W. , Dobson John C. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractMethacrylic acid, the simplest branchedα,β‐unsaturated carboxylic acid, and its ester derivatives have found wide use in polymer chemistry. Although primarily utilized in radical polymerizations, these materials also undergo a variety of reactions typical ofα,β‐unsaturated carbonyl compounds. The primary method of manufacture is via the conversion of acetone cyanohydrin to methacrylamide sulfate and subsequent hydrolysis to methacrylic acid. Alternative syntheses include routes starting from ethylene, propylene, methylacetylene, and isobutylene. Key intermediates include isobutyraldehyde and methacrolein. Market and price data are presented. Handling procedures and toxicological studies are reviewed.
Methyl Chloride
Authors: Holbrook Michael T. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractMethyl chloride is the simplest chlorinated hydrocarbon and occurs naturally in significant quantities. At ordinary temperatures and pressures it is a colorless gas with a very mild odor and a sweet taste. The principal methods of industrial preparation are methanol hydrochlorination and methane chlorination. U.S. capacity has been estimated at 339,000 t/yr. Its primary use is in the production of silicone rubbers and as a general methylating agent. Growth rates of 1–2% per year have been made for the early 1990s. Methyl chloride is regulated by a number of federal and state laws.
Catalyst Regeneration, Metal Catalysts
Authors: Robinson D. W. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThe regeneration of deactivated heterogeneous noble metal catalysts, such as promoted platinum‐alumina reforming catalyst, can be successfully achieved by the removal of carbonaceous deposits from the catalyst surface using a carefully controlled combustion procedure followed by platinum redispersion and rechloriding of the catalyst support. Three regeneration techniques are in common commercial practice for noble metal catalysts. The continuous catalyst regeneration system used in the CCR Platforming process continuously circulates spherical catalyst between the regeneration vessel and the process reactors. The regeneration methods used for fixed catalyst‐bed reforming processes are also discussed. Regeneration of non‐noble or base metal catalysts such as those used in hydrocracking processes can also successfully restore catalyst performance to near that of fresh catalyst. Catalysts containing base metal hydrogenation components, such as nickel, cobalt, molybdenum, and tungsten, and an acidic support, such as alumina, silica‐alumina, or zeolites, are used in a variety of refining processes. If catalyst deactivation in this service is a result of carbonaceous deposits, the catalytic performance can be substantially improved by a regenerative oxidation treatment to remove this deposit. Theex situregeneration is performed in moving‐bed belt calciners or conical‐shaped rotating drum calciners.