bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Schools and Libraries
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The method of investigation adopted in this book is to see how the diverse literary skills of Israel’s authors, in both poetry and prose, bear witness to their educational background. It is argued that their knowledge of the school-books of Egypt and their use of didactic language and literary forms are explicable only in terms of their training in professional, established and stable institutions. Although there are little specific factual data about Israel’s schools as institutions, a great volume of suggestive evidence has been supplied by archaeologists working in Mesopotamia, Egypt and Syria, and some of this is described; there are also recent finds from two southern military outposts on the edge of the Judaean desert that may provide evidence for a Hebrew school in the eighth century BC, and there is incontrovertible evidence for schools in Hebrew kingdoms from the Siloam Tunnel inscription and the Lachish Letters. There are also scattered references to reading and writing, and various bits of evidence suggesting education in the books of the Old Testament itself, not to mention the editorial process that has been revealed by biblical scholarship. Other topics addressed in the chapter are the evidence for libraries in Israel, its close educational, literary and cultural relationship with Egypt, and evidence for cultivation of the art of speaking.
School‐Books from Egypt
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
This chapter investigates further a topic introduced in the last: the school-books of Egypt. It identifies many connections and much common ground between the school literature of Egypt and Israel, despite the scanty amount of the former (because they were written on papyri). Specific examples of this are given from various conventional Egyptian instruction manuals, and from other assorted works, which appear to have been favourites in Egyptian schools. The various characteristics shown by miscellaneous other Egyptian works – a story, political propaganda, a satirical letter, love poems and lyrics – are also detailed, and comparisons made with the style of various Old Testament extracts.
Education in Wisdom
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
This chapter analyses the ‘wisdom’ and school traditions in the Old Testament books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, as shown by the instructions that they both give on various matters. Although the two books differ radically in various respects, a comparison between them shows that they give a range of common advice, and also exhibit a similarity in their use of literary genres. Comparisons are also drawn between Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and various much earlier Egyptian school instruction manuals. Many quotations are included to illustrate the points being made.
Prophets and Teachers
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The first part of this chapter examines the school tradition in the literary style of the teachings of the prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve (the minor prophets) – which were compiled by editors in Jerusalem at various stages during the centuries following return from the Babylonian exile. Examples are also given from other Old Testament books (Judith, Proverbs, Samuel, Job, Psalms, Ecclesiastes) where the same subject matter is being covered. The second part of the chapter examines books of the teachers, the schoolmen who rallied to the cause of Jeremiah, and are called here the Deuteronomists; their works include Deuteronomy itself, the prose narratives in Jeremiah, and the historical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. The school setting of these teachers is clearly reflected in their style. Once again examples are given from other Old Testament books (Isaiah, Proverbs, Psalms, Ezra, Exodus, Samuel, Kings, Micah) where the same subject matter is being covered.
Story‐Writers
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
An examination is made of the narrative skills of the Jerusalem school tradition in the stories of the Old Testament. The illustrations include the stories of Joseph, Daniel, Ruth, Rebecca, Adam and Eve, David, and numerous other examples are also given. Comparisons are drawn with various earlier stories from Egyptian school-books. The last part of the chapter looks at the style of Solomon’s Song of Songs, which uses the literary genre to which the Arabic term wasf (meaning extravagant metaphorical language) has been ascribed.
Honest Doubters
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The presuppositions of the comfortable outlook – ‘God’s in his heaven: All’s right with the world’ – had been questioned from time to time over the centuries, but Job and Ecclesiastes are the only major works in the Old Testament deliberately undertaken to articulate the doubt and debate then current in the Israeli schools. They are generally thought to come from the fifth or fourth and third centuries BC respectively, but there is no evidence to support the speculation that it was at this period that the age-old conflict between the theories of the theologians and the facts of life became more than usually acute. The two parts of the chapter look first at doubt, disaster, despair and pessimism in Job and then at the same attitudes in Ecclesiastes, and in doing so make comparisons between the two books. The Egyptian and Babylonian precedents to passages in Job suggest that its author is writing within a convention well established in the circles of schoolmen of the Ancient Near East, rather than presenting actual experiences, and the sustained protest of Job’s speeches challenges the two principal (and contradictory) dogmas that had become fossilized in the Israeli school tradition: ‘God moves in a mysterious way his wonders to perform’, and ‘God’s way in the world is not in the least mysterious and may be traced in the prosperity of the righteous and the suffering of the wicked’. Any interpretation of Ecclesiastes, who like Job was a literary stylist, must give due weight to the fact that he was a teacher, but the application of doleful description in the body of the work is discriminating, and probably represents his thought.
Belief and Behaviour
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
This chapter looks at various aspects of belief and behaviour in the Old Testament, as reflected in the school tradition. It starts with an analysis of the discourse of Elihu in Job – six chapters added late to the book of Job that were made by an angry young man, a teacher who thought that Job had made himself out to be more righteous than God. The next section of the chapter looks at God and goodness, a teaching based on the way that things ought to be, and used for encouragement and warning in the orthodox school tradition. The following section discusses God and the natural order from the viewpoint of the Israeli school tradition, looking at examples from Proverbs, Jeremiah, Isaiah, Job, Ecclesiastes and Deuteronomy. The last section presents final reflections on the school tradition.
Retrospect
Authors: Heaton E. W. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
It has not been a part of this study to argue the case for the existence of schools in Ancient Israel. From the outset, their work has been taken for granted and the aim has been to demonstrate how this would throw new light on much of the literature of the Old Testament, and provide an explanation for its growth and transmission. The exploration of Israel’s school tradition started out with tentative criteria, adopting the method of reviewing a fairly wide range of Old Testament literature in the hope of finding a distinctive literary stance and style. The selection of the literature to be reviewed has not been entirely arbitrary: it began with those works long recognized as being in some degree ‘intellectual’ and conventionally ascribed to a hypothetical ‘wisdom tradition’; the selection was then extended to include writings which, though not explicitly ‘intellectual’, exhibit features reflecting an educated literary background: the texts that have come to be represented as the product of an imagined ‘Wisdom Movement’; two other groups of texts were then added on the grounds of their general similarity. From this approach a school tradition has emerged that stands apart from a number of the writings of the post-exilic period (such as the books of Chronicles, Leviticus and Numbers), and is fundamentally different from the instruction of the seminary in being moral and intellectual, rather than professionally religious and institutional.
Selina, Countess of Huntingdon: Early Life and the Start of the Connexion
Authors: Harding Alan 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The future Countess of Huntingdon was born into an aristocratic Leicestershire family in 1707; her marriage to the Earl of Huntingdon in 1728 was a love match that produced seven children. She underwent an evangelical conversion in 1739, and thereafter came into contact with the Moravian Brethren, and leaders of the Revival including the Wesleys and George Whitefield. Gradually she assumed a position of influence within the Revival, as well as using her position to further evangelical religion within fashionable society. Her husband’s death in 1746 left her the care of a young family, but also enabled her to extend her religious activity, for example, by promoting harmony within the Revival in the face of internal divisions, and expanding her links with Anglican Evangelicals. From the early 1760s she began to open her own chapels and to build up a band of clerical helpers to serve at them.
Trevecca College
Authors: Harding Alan 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Trevecca College, founded by Lady Huntingdon in 1768, was one of the first institutions to be concerned exclusively with training for Christian ministry; it was significant both because of the influence that its achievements (and shortcomings) had upon later forms of ministerial education, and for the impact on evangelical and other congregations of the more than two hundred students who attended Trevecca in the twenty-three years of its existence. The chapter discusses the origins of the college, the initial plans for its curriculum and staffing, and the backgrounds and recruitment of the students. It describes the often haphazard nature of the educational regime at Trevecca (including the conflicting demands of study and preaching); the college’s involvement in foreign missions; its theology; and the diverse sources of authority and influence to which the students were subject. The successor to Trevecca opened at Cheshunt in 1792; its ground rules (particularly clearly defined courses of study, and strict limits on outside preaching) showed that some of the lessons of Trevecca had been learned.
Doctrines and Divisions
Authors: Harding Alan 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The chapter analyses the differences between Wesley’s Arminianism, and the moderate and hyper-Calvinism held by other sections of the Revival. All groups believed in the Fall of man and in man’s utter dependence on grace; differences arose over such issues as how grace operated, whether man enjoyed any degree of free will, how (if so) that free will related to the sovereignty of God, and where the dividing line lay between God’s justice and his mercy. In the years immediately prior to 1770, despite some personal tension between Lady Huntingdon and John Wesley, relations were generally cordial between the Calvinist and Arminian wings of the Revival; this harmony was broken by Wesley’s Conference Minutes of 1770, which appeared to allow for salvation by works. Lady Huntingdon led the initial Calvinist reaction, expelling non-Calvinist staff from her college, and presiding over a pamphlet war with the Wesleyans, although, as the 1770s progressed, the controversy developed a momentum of its own, and the Connexion did not remain in the vanguard of Calvinist attacks. Occasional rivalry occurred between individual Wesleyan and Connexion congregations (as it did between the Connexion and some other Calvinist groups, such as Whitefield’s Tabernacle Connexion), but by the end of the century the doctrinal controversy had largely played itself out.
The Bible in Qumran and Early Judaism
Authors: Alexander P. S. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis is the second of five chapters on the Old Testament and the reader, and presents an analysis of the Bible in Qumran (the site occupied by the early Jewish monastic community who lived near the shores of the Dead Sea) and early Judaism. The first part gives an account of the rediscovery of Midrash—a term initially borrowed from rabbinic literature, where it denotes the specifically rabbinic tradition of Bible exegesis—the commentary created in dialogue with the scared Scripture in early Judaism. The rediscovery of Midrash was prompted in particular by the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1947–1956), and the finding of the Codex Neofiti 1 in the Vatican library in 1953; these and other examples of Midrash have given rise to numerous monographs and articles over the last thirty years of the twentieth century. The second part discusses the use of the Scripture and the Dead Sea sect of Qumran, and the third analyses the use of Scripture among other Jewish rabbinical groups in late antiquity. The last two sections look at the Scripture in the Alexandrian schools and among the early Christians, and at the emergence of Judaism and Christianity as ‘Religions of the Book’.
The Hebrew Language
Authors: Emerton J. A. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis is the second of five chapters on the text of the Old Testament. It summarizes some developments in the study of the Hebrew language of the biblical period that have taken place since the years surveyed in Tradition and Interpretation (an earlier volume of essays by members of the Society for Old Testament Study, which was published in 1979). Here, attention is focused especially on the history of the development of the Hebrew language, which is important both in itself and because of its bearing on the composition and dating of the books of the Old Testament. Hence, the main section of the chapter is entitled ‘The history of the Hebrew language and its development’. The other, smaller, sections are: Grammar, syntax, and linguistics; The Hebrew verbal system; and Lexicography.
The Pentateuch and the Deuteronomistic History
Authors: Kaiser O. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis is the first of six chapters on the Old Testament and its authors. It looks at the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history, starting with a brief account of the model proposed by Martin Noth in the middle of the twentieth century in which he sought to establish a connection between the documentary approach and that of tradition‐history. However, since the end of the 1970s, Noth's explanation of the origin of the Pentateuch has, because it connected the history of traditions and documentary approaches, been criticized as methodologically wrong, and in its place a pure tradition‐historical solution has been proposed; various other criticisms of Noth's explanation have also been advanced. This account gives most attention to the new proposals on the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history, which strongly question the traditional view (although the documentary hypothesis still has its supporters). The sections are: The state of the question: the plurality of models; Pentateuchal problems; Fundamental questions concerning the Deuteronomistic history; and Retrospect and prospect.
Wisdom in Israel
Authors: Dell K. J. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis is the third of six chapters on the Old Testament and its authors. Its subject is wisdom in Israel, and this involves the three wisdom texts of the Bible: Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes, which make up the main wisdom literature, and in addition the phenomenon of wisdom, which is seen to be wider than just these three books. The first section discusses the definition, scope, and influence of the Israelite wisdom. The second analyses the Old Testament wisdom literature—Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes, and the wisdom Psalms. The last section discusses the place of wisdom in Old Testament theology.
The History of Israel: The Persian and Hellenistic Periods
Authors: Grabbe L. L. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis is the fifth of six chapters on the Old Testament and its authors. It gives an account of a later period of Israelite history than does the preceding chapter, and discusses the Persian and Hellenistic periods—the ‘post‐exilic’ period. The author notes that the sources for the Second Temple period give a series of vignettes into what was happening in the Palestinian region but the complete picture has to be inferred from fragmentary data, and there are major questions about the value of some of the traditional sources. The chapter is arranged in four main sections, which cover the Persian period, the Greek conquest, the Ptolemaic period, and Seleucid rule.
Growing World Trade: Causes and Consequences
Authors: Krugman Paul 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
A highly stylised model of global trade, employment, and wages is developed to analyse the effects of trade with newly industrialised countries (NIEs). It is argued that as NIEs grow, their comparative advantage may shift away from products of very low skill intensity. The extreme view that growing international trade will lead to full factor price equalisation, i.e., wages for unskilled labour in OECD countries will be driven down to their average levels in the world, neglects the fact that this only works so long as a country remains non-specialized. If the change in relative prices is large enough that the OECD no longer produces goods that compete with low-skill imports, any further reduction in the relative price of these goods will have no impact on income distribution. There are also limits to the change in relative wages that trade flows can produce.
The Impact of Globalization on Employment in Europe
Authors: Sapir André 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis chapter examines the effects of globalisation on the demand for low-skilled workers in Europe and the United States. Although there is little evidence that globalisation is the main cause of the unemployment of low-skilled workers in Europe, it may play a greater role in the future if structural adjustments are slow. There is also a lack of evidence that the growth of exports from developing countries is due to low labour standards. It is argued that domestic reforms are the key to solving Europe’s labour problems.
From Free Trade to Supranational Polity: The European Court and Integration
Authors: Stone Sweet Alec , Caporaso James A. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Proposes and tests a theory of legal integration as a process by which a supranational legal system has been constructed in Europe, centred on the European Court of Justice. It argues that legal integration has been driven by the emergence and consolidation of specific causal linkages between three factors: transnational exchange, triadic dispute resolution, and the production of legal rules. Once forged, these linkages generate a self‐sustaining dynamic that serves to expand the scope of supranational governance and to accelerate the institutionalization of existing supranational policy‐making authority at the expense of intergovernmental arrangements. The chapter begins by elaborating the principal‐agent model of delegation that is supported by the intergovernmentalist approach, and provides a theoretic explanation of the process by which bargaining between the principals (national governments) is replaced by decision‐making within the agents (supranational organizations). The application of the theory is tested against two policy domains—the free movement of goods and the provision of social services.
Rules, Transgovernmentalism, and the Expansion of European Political Cooperation
Authors: Smith Michael E. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Investigates why the EPC process (and its successor, the Common Foreign and Security Policy) have appeared to be ‘less than supranational, but more than intergovernmental’. First, it outlines a theoretical argument challenging the view that governments have dominated the EPC/CFSP decision‐making process. It then shows how EPC began to evolve (against the wishes of some governments) beyond its intergovernmental origins into a transgovernmental network, producing rules that became associated with European Community rules and procedures, and encouraged the involvement of EC actors. It then describes the process by which EPC was replaced by CFSP, inaugurating a new and supranational institutional basis for CFSP.
Human Rights
Authors: Buchanan Allen 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to articulate an understanding of basic human rights that is sufficiently clear and cogent to serve as the core of a justice‐based moral theory of international law. To accomplish this goal, the concept of human rights is first analysed into its key elements, and the analysis is used to explain how assertions about human rights can be justified, and show that plausible justifications for basic human rights can be grounded in a diversity of moral and religious perspectives. Next, several objections to the claim that there are human rights or that they can play a fundamental role in a moral theory of international law are refuted, and it is argued that the right to minimally democratic governance should be included among the rights that international law ascribes to all persons—whether it is a human right or of instrumental value in securing human rights, or both. It is then shown that the use of coercion to protect basic human rights is compatible with a proper tolerance for the diversity of values, and the chapter concludes with a discussion of how the international legal order can cope with the ineliminable abstractness of human rights norms. The seven parts of the chapter are: I. Clarifying the Idea of Human Rights; II. The Justification of Assertions about the Existence of Human Rights; III. A Plurality of Converging Justifications for Human Rights; IV. Is democracy a Human Right?; V. Critiques of Human Rights; VI. Human Rights and the Bounds of Toleration; and VII. The Inelimable Indeterminacy of Human Rights and its Implications for the Moral Theory of International Law.
Distributive Justice
Authors: Buchanan Allen 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
This chapter grapples with the most controversial topic in the discourse of human rights: distributive justice. The chief questions to be addressed are (1) whether a justice‐based international legal order should include rights of distributive justice (sometimes called social and economic rights) for individuals that exceed the right to the means of subsistence that is already widely recognized in international and regional human rights instruments, and (2) whether international law should recognize not only individuals but collectivities such as states or “peoples” or nations as having rights of distributive justice. To situate these questions, the chapter begins by considering alternative explanations for widespread skepticism about the possibility that distributive justice can have a significant place in the international legal order. The remaining sections of the chapter discuss: I. The Place of Distributive Justice in International Law; II. Reasons for Rejecting a Prominent Role for Distributive Justice in International Law Today; III. Deep Distributive Pluralism; IV. Societal Distributive Autonomy; and V. Institutional Capacity and Lack of Political Will.