bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Genesis
Authors: Borsay Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the genesis of Bath’s Georgian image. It examines the way contemporaries in the eighteenth century perceived their city, and its past. Such an approach is adopted for two reasons. First, though much of this book is about the manner in which Georgian Bath came to be represented in the Victorian and modern eras, the ‘primary’ sources upon which such views were based are of the eighteenth century, and were themselves representations and not mere reflections of the world. When reading nineteenth- and twentieth-century accounts of Georgian Bath it is necessary, therefore, to be conscious of being subject to a process of double-imaging, and to understand this process it is important to comprehend the original image itself. Secondly, Bath was a city dependent upon image-making. Perhaps more than any other town in eighteenth-century Britain, its success and its very identity depended not upon what it was, but what it was imagined to be. This arose from its role as a resort and fashionable residential centre. In a Manchester or a Birmingham product and place were separate, if interrelated entities, and the goods made could be freely consumed beyond the point of manufacture. At Bath the services and facilities which the city offered for sale were inextricably associated with their location and had to be consumed in situ The product was the place. Moreover, the value of what Bath produced relied heavily upon ascribed rather than inherent meaning. The waters of the city were health-giving, and the hills beautiful, because they were portrayed as such rather than because some innate qualities proclaimed them to be so. Image, therefore, was central to Bath’s economic livelihood. It must also be added that, because of its social and cultural functions, Bath attracted an extraordinary concentration of the verbally and visually literate, and encouraged authors and artists to ‘textualize’ the city to an extent only matched by London. By the end of the Georgian era Bath was encrusted with layer upon layer of imagery.
Causes Of The Agricultural Depression, 1870-1914
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The depression of British agriculture during the last quarter of the nineteenth century loosened the grip of British landowners on society and politics, it impelled the Irish to revolt, and it helped to split the Liberal party down the middle and to keep it out of power for a generation. As we shall see, it was also one of the distant causes of the First World War. Now what exactly do we mean by agricultural depression? The first symptom that meets the eye is the collapse of prices, followed by the decline of production and finally by the contraction of landed incomes and wealth, of rents and of land values. Hundreds of thousands of labourers left the countryside. The price of wheat fell from 46 shillings a quarter in 1870 to 22 shillings in 1894. The price of meat and wool also declined. Land under grain co ‘ntracted by some two-thirds in thirty years, most of which reverted to rough pasture. By 1913 Britain imported some four-fifths of its wheat and flour.
Wheat And Empire In Canada
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In England, where there was “ni terre sans maitre”, every bit of ground was fenced off and grazed, cultivated or hunted. In Canada, the grain frontier was open almost to all: farmers ‘ sons, small tradesmen, skilled artisans, together with many native-born Canadians from the towns and countryside of Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes and experienced farmers from the United States. Enough capital for a start could even be raised by a few seasons ‘ wage labour.
Fear of famine in british war plans 1890-1908
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Kipling ‘s rhymes capture the gist of Part Two and its implications for national security. The Edwardian economics of blockade are related to economics as this ditty relates to strategy (or, for that matter, poetry). The point is a serious one: international specialization in agriculture affected the balance of power and generated new problems of national security. In so far as these problems were operational and strategic ones, they fell within the realm of the Admiralty and the Royal Navy. Naval officers had, how-ever, no training in economics, and showed little aptitude for the subject.
The Dominion Dimension
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The pressures of international rivalry turned Britain’s attention towards the settler societies even before the turn of the century. At the Imperial Conference of 1897 Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, probed the possiblities of stronger political ties. By the next conference in 1902 he had a more coherent conception. Britain would grant the white colonies favoured access to its markets, in return for stronger military and political bonds. The Empire would become a free-trade zone, with preference for colonial staples in the British market, and protection for British manufactures in colonial markets as well as at home. Under the name of “tariff reform”, this project became the central and most divisive issue in British politics before the First World War.
Morality And Admiralty: ‘Jacky’ Fisher, Economic Warfare, And International Law
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One foggy summer night during the naval manreuvres of 1888, a squadron of the Royal Navy crept up the river Mersey and lowered anchors two hours after midnight. Liverpool and Birkenhead lay at its mercy. Admiral Tryon, in command, announced he would spare the two cities for a ransom of one million pounds. Other towns were not so “lucky”. ‘Greenock is in ashes,’ wrote The Times, ‘Ardrossan has been destroyed, Campbelltown has been punished for some unknown sin-perhaps that of helping to return a Gladstonian at the late election.’ Aberdeen was bombarded, the Forth Bridge (in construction) blown up, Filey laid waste. A distinguished jurist wrote a letter of protest to The Times. Many officers responded, and one of them wrote, ‘the talk about international law is all nonsense.
Blockade And Its Enemies, 1909-1912
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Royal Navy commanded by far the largest national array of warships, but only had a smallish brain relative to its missions. The Board of Admiralty was absorbed in detail. A few planners worked in the intelligence department and the war college, but there was no regular General Staff. Strategic authority was centralized in the person of Admiral John Fisher and he made a principle of never discussing his plans.
Preparation And Action, 1912-1914
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The CID meeting of 23 August 1911 made it more likely that Britain would send its regular army to help France if Germany attacked. Neither Hankey nor Esher or Fisher considered that this foreclosed the issue. Hankey acknowledged the navy's poor showing, but the fact that no formal decision was taken he regarded as a defeat for the army. 1 In the autumn the Cabinet, Liberal back-benchers and Liberal newspaper editors all reacted to the prospect of a continental intervention. A majority of cabinet members opposed it. 'The net result was a continuation of the contradiction and confusion that had characterised British grand strategic planning. '2 The strategic issue remained in suspense.
Germany: Economic Preparation And The Decision For War
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The perils of dependence on overseas trade began to attract serious discussion in Germany around the turn of the century, in conjunction with the tariff and naval construction debates. According to the naval office, some 74 per cent of Germany’s imports arrived by sea, directly and indirectly. Was it possible to prepare in advance for the loss of imports and the closure of markets? This was not merely a technical problem. It could not be separated from the large questions of foreign policy and military strategy.
‘A Second Decision For War’: The U-Boatcampaign
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
THE decision to begin unrestricted submarine warfare on 1 February 1917 was Germany’s most critical action during the course of the war. On the eve of the Russian revolution and of Britain’s impending bankruptcy, it fortified the Allied side with all the wealth and power of the United States. In its consequences for Germany, it was rightly likened by the German Chancellor to ‘a second decision for war’.1 In the deliberations of July 1914 economic considerations had entered the calculations, but they were buried in the background. In 1916 economic considerations were no longer marginal: economic warfare was the decisive strategy.
The Expansion of the Conflict August 1914-April 1917
Authors: Stevenson David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The war of 1914 originated in a sequence of decisions that seemed rational to the Governments that made them yet in their cumulative effects brought no belligerent what it sought. States went to war on the assumptions that its international ramifications could be limited, its domestic repercussions managed, and that military operations would yield a rapid and decisive result that could be translated into a corresponding political gain. In the event, the opening offensives brought not victory, but frustration or disaster: to the French, in Lorraine and the Ardennes; to the Austrians, in Serbia and Galicia; to the Russians, at Tannenberg; and to the Germans, on the Marne. Nor were the succeeding counter-offensives more conclusive. From now on, the outstanding feature of the conflict was stalemate. From Switzerland to Flanders there formed an unbroken line of trenches that the attacks of neither side displaced by more than a few miles for the next three and a half years. In Eastern Europe large tracts of territory did change hands, and smaller belligerents were overrun; but Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia remained in the field. Stalemate on land was matched by stalemate at sea, where the expected clash of battlefleets failed to materialize and neither the Allied blockade nor German submarine warfare had rapid results. And stalemate in battle was paralleled by stalemate on the home fronts and in the diplomacy that intermittently continued across the barbed wire. Neither side could end the war by military operations. But neither could end it by inducing a collapse in enemy morale and revolution behind the lines. Nor could either end it by negotiation and compromise on its political objectives, or war aims.
Conclusions
Authors: Moreton C E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A study of the Townshends which failed to consider the political and economic as well as the social aspects of their time would be incomplete, for during the one hundred years or so covered by this book each aspect played an interrelated part in their affairs. Too often our knowledge of the English gentry in this period is hampered by lack of evidence, but the relatively abundant source material associated with the Townshends makes possible a discussion of several of these aspects, making them too important to ignore.
The Caliphate in the West
Authors: Wasserstein David J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is a study of the caliphate as a political institution in Islamic Spain, from its inception in 316/939 until the disappearance of the Umayyads in Cordoba in 422/1031. David J. Wasserstein explores the caliphal claims of the Hammudid dynasty in the south of the peninsula, and examines the caliphal practices of two Slav rulers of the eleventh century. He shows that the caliphal insitution was not abolished at any stage, and that it served rulers throughout the eleventh century as, among other things, an important source of legitimacy. Professor Wasserstein's important new interpretation is thoroughly grounded not only in the documentary sources, but also in the little-studied and revealing numismatic evidence. This is a significant contribution both to the Islamic history of the Iberian Peninsula and to our understanding of the nature of the caliphate within Islam in general.
Introductory
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1660 Europe was emerging from half a century of violent convulsions. It was, many contemporaries thought, a ‘time of shaking’, an ‘age of iron’. Yet until fairly recently historians tended to ignore the Jeremiahs of the seventeenth century. Was this not the ‘grand’, the ‘golden’, the ‘splendid’ century? The solemn magnificence of classical literature, of Baroque architecture and music, spoke for themselves. The heavy pomp of Versailles seemed to epitomize the aspirations of a whole century. Such glories diverted attention from over forty years of savage warfare which had left no part of the continent untouched, and from the bitter rebellions and civil wars which had convulsed every major state at some time during that same period. And the intellectual life of the time was seen as an inexorable progress towards enlightenment, rather than a desperate search for certainty where all former authorities had been called into doubt.
The Ruled: the Town
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The social structure of the countryside, diverse and varied though it was, was simple compared with that of the towns. Yet, with the exception of the Netherlands, towns housed only a minority of the population. By the later eighteenth century the proportion of Englishmen living in towns was still only about a third. In France it was around 23 per cent in 1800. Elsewhere the proportion was even less, especially towards the east. In Sweden in 1760 it was 6 7 per cent. In Russia, although it nearly doubled over our period, it was still only 4 per cent in 1796. Yet this urban minority provided the most dynamic and the most vital sections of the population.
Religion and the Churches
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The lines dividing western Europe into Catholic and Protestant in 1660 had not changed significantly in 1800. France, Spain, Italy, the Habsburg dominions, Poland, and southern Germany were Catholic. Great Britain, the United Provinces, northern Germany, and Scandinavia were Protestant in one form or another. Russia and certain neighbouring territories observed their own variant on Greek Orthodoxy. In 1660, however, France harboured an important Protestant minority, Poland an Orthodox one, Protestant Holland was in fact half Catholic, and in Ireland Protestant England ruled an overwhelmingly Catholic population. Such dissident communities were profoundly mistrusted by governments, associated as they were with civil wars and attempts for over a century to change the established order. Only in the United Provinces, where a Protestant government ruled a fairly evenly divided population, was toleration implemented with any goodwill and even there formal Jaws forbade Roman practices.
Watching From Curiosity
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Did Polite People Ever Feel An Unabashed Excitement And curiosity when they attended executions? Could they ever have attended without disgust or guilt overlaying those simpler feelings? Is it thinkable that readers of Pamela or Sense and sensibility were moved by the same impulses as the vulgar crowd? If so, what within their secret natures accounted for that ‘strange fascination’ and ‘dark and dreadful interest’ which Dickens discerned whenever the scaffold was in view? When did it cease to be permissible to contemplate executions in these open ways? The supposition which shapes our answers was stated in the last chapter. It is that fascination with what happened on the scaffold was primal. It was common to all people regardless of social standing. At its most self-regarding, the fascination spoke for pleasure that it was others who died, and it expressed an elemental curiosity about how they died. ‘I never saw a man hanged but I thought I could behave better than he did,’ James Boswell declared; or as a New Grub Street character admitted when he read of a Newgate hanging, ‘There’s a clear satisfaction in knowing that it is not oneself’ Provided that identification with the vic tim was checked, a fantasy about one’s own relative longevity might be savoured as the other’s fate was settled before one’s eyes. Add to that the gratification of watching a life extinguished which law or morality had defined as deserving of extinction, and add again the crowd’s self loving solidarity as it watched-and the ‘pleasures’ of witnessing become more intelligible, even to those who would prefer not to admit such proclivities in themselves or their fellow creatures.
The Pursuit Of Victory
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Western Europe and North America the idea that war can deliberately be used as an 'instrument of policy' has become unfashionable, not least because of the carnage of two World Wars and the Americans' humiliating experience in Vietnam. But wars are still fought. Those who start wars clearly believe they are worthwhile. Why? In this original study, Brian Bond discusses the successes and failures of military and political leaders in their pursuit of victory over the last two centuries. Professor Bond argues that in order to be counted victorious, a leader has to progress beyond military triumph to preserve the political control needed to secure an advantageous and enduring peace settlement. Napoleon was a brilliant general, but failed as a statesman. Bismarck, on the other hand, was a success in skilfully exploiting Moltlike's victories on the battlefield to create a unified Germany. In the First World War, Germany and her allies were defeated but at such great cost that confidence in the idea that war could be controlled, and the pursuit of victory made rational, received a terrible shock. Germany and Japan exploited their military opportunities between 1939 and 1942, but lack of political control and moderation brought them catastrophic defeat. After 1945, nuclear weapons and the increased complexity of international relations blurred the identity of 'victors' and 'losers' and seemed to make the idea of a 'decisive' victory almost unthinkable. But this study warns against the assumption that war as an instrument of policy has now been completely discarded. The Falklands and Gulf conflicts show that aggressors are still prepared to risk war for tangible goals, and that their opponents are quite capable of responding successfully to such challenges.
The Napoleonic Legacy: The Influence of Jomini and Clausewitz
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Of the numerous historians, military theorists, and polemicists who in the nineteenth century contributed to the legend of Napoleon as the ‘God of War’ the two most influential were surely the Swiss Antoine-Henri Jomini (1779-1869) and the Prussian Carl von Clausewitz (1780-1831). Although there were many contrasts in their careers as professional soldiers, their political and cultural outlooks, and their approaches to the study of war, Azar Gat argues persuasively that the recent tendency to put them at opposite poles as interpreters of Napoleonic warfare is somewhat exaggerated. Both in fact ‘reflected the spirit and outline of Napoleonic strategy’.1
The Quest for Victory in the Schlieffen Era 1890–1914
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Historians are very properly reluctant to use the word ‘inevitable’, but from about 1890 onwards public figures displayed an almost uncanny sense of an impending great war between the European powers. This was surely the last period when war could be discussed not simply in terms of catastrophe, but also positively and even ecstatically as a social and biological necessity, even a tonic. For serious students of the phenomenon, the prevailing model was that bequeathed by the elder Moltke: total victory in a short decisive campaign.
Court And Household
Authors: Vale Malcolm 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What was ‘the court’ in the later Middle Ages? What did contemporaries mean by the term? Satisfactory answers to these questions are notoriously difficult to arrive at, partly because the term could carry different meanings according to the context in which it was used. There is, how- ever, a broad measure of agreement that a ruler’s household (domus, hospitium, hôtel ) played a fundamental part in giving substance to the idea of ‘the court’. The material infrastructure, or underpinning, of all princely courts—in both the medieval and modern periods—was provided by the household. Court and household were never entirely synonymous, yet courts could not have existed without household organizations behind and within them. When a ruler ‘held court’, for example, the resources, and resourcefulness, of his household and its officers were necessarily brought into play. The holders of household office might be required to perform domestic functions, sometimes on a hereditary basis, and these services formed an essential element in court ceremonial. Furthermore, the holding of ‘full’, ‘solemn’, or plenary courts, summoned by a ruler on specific occasions, obviously depended upon the wide range of services provided to those present by household departments—lodging, catering, provisioning, and stabling all fell within the purview of the household.
Visual Language: Setting the Scene
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
On a small Anglo-Saxon boxwood casket, probably of mid-eleventh-century date, which is now in Cleveland, Ohio, are carved scenes of the Nativity, the Baptism of Christ, the Entry into Jerusalem, the Crucifixion, the Ascension, and Christ en throned in a mandorla, attended by four angels. Nowhere on the object is there a text or an inscription. As the scenes depict key events from the life of Christ, it might be said that the relevant biblical texts are ‘presumed ‘; and clearly the depictions cannot be dissociated from the context of contemporary familiarity with, and thought about, the events in question. Nevertheless no words are actually present, and it is clear that the carver of this Christological cycle was guided less by ‘presumed ‘ texts than by visual models. Most of the scenes relate to, and draw on, familiar iconographies, and the point is underlined by the one that does not-the Baptism of Christ. Here, in contrast to the biblical accounts and to most depictions of the scene,3 Christ stands not in a stylized River Jordan, but in a large vessel. The vessel is flanked by two figures, one holding up a book, the other ladling water on to Christ.
Society And Status
Authors: Sawyer Birgit 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since a rune-stone was a sign of social and economic status we can assume that all sponsors were landowners, among whom different social strata can be distinguished. The various indications that a rune-stone was erected by or to commemorate a person of high status include titles and honorific epithets, as well as the number and (relative) size of the stones, the length of the inscription, the use of more than one face, and the elaborateness of the ornament. Individuals who sponsored or were commemorated by two or more inscriptions appear to have been unusually important, while rune-stones placed close to such prestigious monuments as large burial mounds or ship-settings (where stones are arranged in the shape of a ship) show even more clearly that they were the work of families of exceptionally high rank.