bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Statutes of the Collége de Montaigu: Prelude to a Future Edition
Authors: Bakker Paul J J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The statutes of a university or a college constitute an important source for the history of teaching and education. Unlike many other types of documents, these texts are generally well preserved, either in their original form or in the form of subsequent copies. In some cases, they are the only surviving sources. For this reason, historians have quite understandably given a great deal of attention to these texts and, as a result, many works on the history of educational institutions are to a large extent based on a study of statutes and comparable texts, such as founding charters and privileges.
The Common Customs Tariff
Authors: Gormley Laurence W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The major characteristic of the customs union, as far as imports from third countries are concerned, is the Common Customs Tariff (CCT) which is now to be found in the integrated Community Tariff, the Taric (which uses the new Combined Nomenclature (CN) for customs and statistical purposes with additional Community sub-headings) in accordance with Council Regulation 2658/87,and is designed to permit the tariff developments negotiated in the World Customs Organization to be brought into the Community system.
The Effect of Special Provisions in the Framework of Energy Taxes on Environmental Effectiveness—The Case of Germany
Authors: Kohlhaas Michael , Bach Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many countries apply energy taxation to give an incentive to reduce energy use and energy-related emissions. Most of them grant special provisions to energy intensive production in order to meet concerns about negative economic effects and to mitigate carbon leakage. In Germany’s ‘ecological tax reform’ (ETR) special provisions were introduced in the form of reduced tax rates and tax rebates in 1999. In 2003, the tax law was revised in order to increase the incentive for energy and emission reduction for companies that profi t from those tax privileges.
Tackling the Growth in International Road Haulage using Economic Instruments: A Case of the Czech Republic
Authors: Máca, Vojtˇech , Foltýnovà Hana , Bru°ha Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Czech Republic has faced a rapid growth in road freight transport following the European Union (EU) accession in May 2004. Because of its location ‘in the heart of Europe’, it has traditionally been a transit country. Before joining the EU, there used to be an administrative bottleneck at the national borders, which limited the number of heavy goods vehicles entering the country. But being a Member State, the Czech Republic is now obliged to respect common market requirements, ie, free movement of goods. With respect to these requirements, there are limited opportunities for handling the problem of increased road freight transport and its negative effects on the environment and human health.
Government Spending on Canada’s Oil and Gas Industry: Undermining Canada’s Kyoto Commitments
Authors: Taylor Amy , Bramley Matthew , Winfield Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Governments in Canada subsidize a number of socially beneficial services, including health care, education, and energy services. Subsidies to the energy sector that are for oil and gas production, however, are not all socially benefi cial. In part, they contribute to negative environmental impacts and hinder the development of environmentally friendly alternative energy options. Indeed, Canada’s implementation of the Kyoto Protocol is seriously threatened by continued government support for oil and gas production, a sector with large and rapidly growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This chapter examines the extent and type of government support provided to the oil and gas sector in Canada between 1996 and 2002 within the context of GHG emission trends and Kyoto commitments. We begin with a discussion of what constitutes a subsidy, at what point subsidies are ‘perverse’, and the need for an evaluation of subsidies in Canada, especially in the energy sector.
Renewing Civil Liberties
Authors: Gearty Conor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book has a particular perspective on the law and practice of civil liberties. It sees the subject as inextricably bound up with representative government. On this account, civil liberties is another name for the political freedoms that we must have available to us all if it is to be true to say of us that we live in a society that adheres to the principle of representative, or democratic, government. It follows that the subject as developed here is concerned with the right to vote, which as I shall argue presently (and perhaps, at first glance, surprisingly) is the core civil liberty, and also with those other basic freedoms—life, liberty, thought, expression, assembly, and association—that help give full meaning to that right. The prohibition on politically motivated ill-treatment (at its most extreme, torture and other inhuman and degrading treatment) is also within the book’s remit. These are the freedoms which are essential to the proper functioning of our contemporary political community; they are the oil without which our democratic engine would grind to a halt. An alternative way of describing this book, therefore, would be to say that it is about the law and practice of political freedom.
The Visitations to Aberdeen’s Colleges in 1619: Scotland’s Universities and the Nature of Concern about ‘Truth’ and ‘Heresy’
Authors: Lilley Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The visitations to King’s and Marischal colleges in 1619 offers an instructive case study of the concerns, methods, and outcomes of the authorities’ involvement in university affairs. These concerns are indicative of wider conflicts within Scotland over church polity, theological principles, and moral discipline, all of which were conceived of in terms of truth and deviance. Indeed, so much concern was expressed over the condition of Scotland’s universities in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that we must consider them not only as institutions of learning and training, but also as sites of social, cultural, and intellectual mediation and formation. University visitations were among the most direct means devised by the concerned authorities to influence the form and functioning of Scotland’s universities, and to intervene directly in the universities’ role as pursuers and upholders of the ‘truth’. Controlling and shaping the key elements of the university culture was the most reliable way to ensure that a university would remain truthful, useful, and loyal in providing the educational infrastructure necessary to secure the emerging state and the Protestant religion. In the Scottish context, the key elements can be identified from the priorities expressed in the visitation records: a strong material/financial base, an appropriate curriculum, the right sort of personnel, qualified students, and the correct sort of responsibilities. In view of the belief that reforms would bring about far-reaching effects, it is no wonder that they had been eagerly fought over, opposed, and subverted since the First Book of Discipline and Melville’s university reforms.
Matthew’s Gospel: The Way of Righteousness
Authors: Stanton Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early church Matthew’s gospel was used more widely and more extensively than any of the other gospels. The reasons for its popularity are not hard to find. Matthew has ordered his whole gospel most effectively. His prose is rhythmical and often poetic; individual sections contain carefully balanced and readily memorable phrases. Matthew’s gospel is nearly half as long again as Mark and contains many more sayings of Jesus. In the early church the evangelist was widely believed to have been one of the disciples of Jesus. It is probably for this reason that Matthew always heads lists and copies of the four gospels in the early church, even though there are some variations from the order familiar today.
The Kingdom of God
Authors: Stanton Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mark, Matthew, and Luke all stress that Jesus the ‘prophet–teacher’ referred to the kingdom of God frequently. The opening verses of Mark’s gospel are terse but dramatic. Mark’s account of John the baptizer, of the baptism of Jesus, and of the temptation of Jesus by Satan pave the way for the first words of Jesus himself: ‘Now after John was arrested, Jesus came to Galilee, proclaiming the good news of God, and saying, “The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God has come near; repent and believe in the good news”‘ (Mark 1: 14–15). For Mark the evangelist the central theme of the preaching of Jesus is “the kingdom of God has come near”.
Express Terms
Authors: Atiyah P S , Smith Stephen A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having established the steps necessary to create a contract, it falls next to consider the content of a contract. How do courts establish what it is that contracting parties are contractually obliged to do? Part of the answer to this question is found in the law of offer and acceptance: a contract’s content is established in the first instance by whatever terms the parties promised or agreed to. But while it may be clear that the parties have reached an agreement, it may not be clear which of their various communications are included in that agreement. In addition, the meaning of a contractual term or phrase is also often a matter of dispute.
Third Parties
Authors: Atiyah P S , Smith Stephen A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until very recently, it has been a fundamental principle of English law— known as the doctrine of ‘privity of contract’—that only the parties to a contract (the offeror and the offeree) may sue or be sued upon the contract. Indeed, this principle has long been regarded as a distinguishing feature between the law of contract and the law of property. True proprietary rights are ‘binding on the world’ in the lawyer’s traditional phrase. Contractual rights, on the other hand, are (in the traditional law) only binding on, and enforceable by, the immediate parties to the contract.
Remedies for Breach of Contract
Authors: Atiyah P S , Smith Stephen A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A of remedies are made available to the victim of breach of contract. In one sense these remedies are remarkable examples of the willingness of the state to lend its assistance to the enforcement of private arrangements: when a contracting party goes to law, and obtains a judgment against his defaulting partner, he obtains the right to the support of all the forces of the state to enforce that judgment. In the last resort, bailifis, sheriff’s officers, the police, and even the armed forces can be called in to enforce that contract—and all this at the behest of a private citizen.
Shareholder Value, Company Law, and Securities Markets Law: A British View
Authors: Davies Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The argument in this chapter is that the move to shareholder value in the U.K. has been driven, on the legal front, not by changes in the law relating to directors’ duties nor the rules on shareholders’ appointment and removal rights, despite the central role one might expect such rules to play in determining how central management exercises the discretion vested in it.
On the Legitimacy and Democratic Accountability of the European Central Bank: Legal Arrangements and Practical Experiences
Authors: Amtenbrink Fabian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the fact that, both with the Treaty of Amsterdam and more recently the Treaty of Nice, an effort was made to address the frequently illustrated ‘democratic deficit’ and the somewhat weak legitimacy of the EU, these complex issues are far from resolved. Indeed, they may also find their roots in an area of Community law that has remained outside the limelight of discussions on institutional reform, that is the provisions on EMU and in particular the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) and the European Central Bank (ECB) introduced by the Treaty on European Union. In fact, a full understanding of the issue in a wider context of all Community bodies also requires a critical review of the legitimacy and democratic accountability of the ECB, which is charged with the independent conduct of monetary policy for the economic area of 12 Member States.
Drafting a Constitution for Europe: A Case of Too Many Borders?
Authors: Boyron Sophie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rapid succession of Treaty negotianons has ignited interest in the adoption of a formal constitution for the European Union. This was reflected in a speech given at the Humboldt University in Berlin on 12 May 2000 by Joschka Fischer, the then German Foreign Minister. Discussion on the merits of adopting a constitution for the Union is often combined with reflection on the appropriateness of the Treaties’ amendment procedure and the need to define more clearly the powers and competences of the Union.
Social Policy in the Post-Nice Era
Authors: Szyszczak Erika 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Treaty of Nice gives the impression that, after the momentous changes to social policy in the Maastricht and Amsterdam Treaties, the Member States had run out of ideas and ambition for any further development of social policy in the Community. The only Treaty amendments to social policy are to be found in Article l 3 EC, where a new sub paragraph, Article 13(2), was added, a11owing the Member States to adopt incentive measures; and the addition of a new indent to Article 137 EC, which allows the Community to support and complement the activities of the Member States in the area of the modernization of social protection schemes … ’ Linked to the latter amendment, a new Article 144 EC a11ows for the creation of a Social Protection Committee. These small, ad hoc, unconnected and seemingly innocuous and uncontested Treaty changes have a significance much greater than may be realized.
Introduction
Authors: Kasuya Makoto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In November 1997 Hokkaido Takushoku Bank, one of the top twenty Japanese city banks, and Yamaichi Securities, one of the four major Japanese securities firms, both declared bankruptcy. Since then, failures of large commercial banks and life insurance companies have become commonplace in Japan. Many critics blame this phenomenon on the burst of the ‘economic bubble’ of the late 1980s and early 1990s and the intense com- petition resulting from financial deregulation. Deregulation of the financial sector began in the 1970s in the United States and became a worldwide phenomenon with the 1986 ‘Big Bang’ reforms in the United Kingdom.
German Banks and their Business Strategies in the Weimar Republic: New Findings and Preliminary Results
Authors: Wixforth Harald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of the First World War it became obvious to the greater part of German society that the world had changed considerably. The German banks and their directors, as well as the private bankers, were faced with this situation, too. During the Kaiserreich the large German universal banks like the Deutsche Bank, the Discontogesellschaft, the Dresdner Bank, and the Darmstädter Bank für Handel und Industrie played a dominant role in financing all the important branches of German industry, as well as the greater part of enterprises that were engaged in foreign trade. The universal banks that had their headquarters in Berlin, in particular, expanded in every region of the Kaiserreich by establishing a large number of branch offices, thus strengthening their influence in almost every section of German industry. Moreover, they founded several specialized financial institutions in other European countries, as well as in Asia and even South America.1
Growth Stocks for Middle-class Investors: Merrill Lynch & Co., 1914–41
Authors: Perkins Edwin J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the major consequences of the First World War was that New York surpassed London as the world’s leading financial centre. Despite challenges from Tokyo in the late 1980s, New York has retained its dominant position in world capital markets. Today, the combined market value of the corporate shares listed on the New York Stock Exchange and its main competitor, Nasdaq, top the world’s equity markets by a large margin.Here, at the dawn of the twenty-first century, Americans have a higher participation rate in equity markets than the citizens of any other nation. Approximately two-thirds of US households currently own common stock either through direct investment or indirectly through mutual funds. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the managers of private pension plans, which are typically designed for a broad range of employees from top executives to assembly line workers, have increasingly focused on the acquisition of equities rather than bonds for their portfolios. Over 40 per cent of the net worth of American households is represented by common stocks.
German Academic Theology in America: The Case of Edward Robinson and Philip Schaff*
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As is well established, the influence of German univers11Ies and research methods in the late nineteenth century played a large role in reforming and modernizing American higher education. Educators at Michigan, Cornell, Johns Hopkins, and elsewhere, like their counterparts in other parts of the world, became convinced of the superiority of the German university system and German critical scholarship (Wissenschaft) and rigorously sought to found and/or refashion their own institutions according to what was often called ‘the German model’ or ‘the Prussian model’. Andrew Dickson White, the first president of Cornell University, called the University of Berlin, which he had visited in the 1850s, ‘my ideal of a university not only realized—but extended and glorified’. Abraham Flexner, the cofounder of Princeton’s Institute for Advanced Studies, once argued that a genuine modern university did not exist in the United States until the founding of Johns Hopkins (1876), modeled self-consciously on the German system.
Post-Soviet Life
Authors: Rausing Sigrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In February 1993 the collective farm ‘V. I. Lenini nimeline kolhoos’, named, like hundreds of farms throughout the Soviet Union, after Lenin, ended. It had been started in 1947, when collectivization, which began in 1994, was enforced throughout Estonia. The original thirty-two villages on the peninsula were turned into twenty-three collectives between 28 January and 30 April 1949. In that year, the largest wave of arrests in Estonian history took place, when, on25–6 March, between 20,000 and 80,000 people were deported from the countryside during a two-day operation (Kionka in Smith 1990: 52 n. 11). On the peninsula, all except the ‘Lenin’ collective farm were founded after the March deportations. On 25 March, sixty people on the peninsula were on the list for deportation, of whom some were let off, and a small number escaped to the forest. Of the remaining forty-six people, five died in Siberia. Twenty-five of the original sixty people on the list were children, seven of them under 10 years old. The death of Stalin in 1953, and the subsequent liberalization under Khrushchev, meant that many of the deported prisoners were released. Some, however, were not allowed to return to their home countries, and most were not allowed to return to their home villages.
The Charged Symbolism of Transition
Authors: Rausing Sigrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of a science of signs is linked to the notion of an underlying, hidden, social, or linguistic logic, which the signs simultaneously function to reveal and to hide. Lévi-Strauss (1963) based his system of structural anthropology on structural linguistics, suggesting that culture was an expression of the mind’s tendency to think in terms of structures, and particularly structural opposites. Subsequent cultural critics argue that a structuralist analysis involves looking behind the obvious; not at facts but at the meaning behind facts, or facts as ‘tokens of something else’ (Barthes 1993: 111). In Barthes’s writings, for example, that ‘something else’ largely consisted of the inherent and systematic social dynamic of bourgeois class society. The signs are organized according to this dynamic, or social order, which is ‘naturalized’ with the help of myths, the constantly changing and invented narratives of the bourgeoisie that function to conceal the economic structures of power within capitalism. The myths of the bourgeoisie, then, with their hidden powers of signification, support the Gramscian hegemony of this particular economic and social order: a social order that is both a function of history and, as a system of power and distinction, constitutive of history (Barthes 1993: 111). In this chapter I will look at the signs of the landscapes of transformation—billboards, advertising, signposts, as well as architectural signs, changes in the landscape, and the new festivals—what they meant to my informants, and what they reveal about the culture that was growing out of the transition.
Agreed Remedies: Comment
Authors: Shelton John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whatever else the English law of contract may be, it is a product for which the world-wide business community are customers. The views and expectations of the customer should be influential, even if they are not conclusive, in any discussion about reform of the law of contract. What would a commercial party expect to be its position and liability if it failed to perform its side of the bargain, or if other foreseen events occurred through no failure on its part? A number of observations may be made in this regard.
The Jurisdiction of the Magistrates’ Court
Authors: Corre Neil , Wolchover David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To remand a defendant means that when a case is adjourned to a future date the defendant is ordered to appear at court on that date and in the meantime to be committed to custody or to be admitted to bail. Adjournment and remand are therefore not synonymous.
Where a defendant appears before a magistrates’ court charged with an indictable offence or an offence triable‘either way’, the court may adjourn the matter. The rule under s. 51 of the CDA 1998, whereby an adult (i.e. a person aged 18 or over) who is charged with an offence which may only be tried on indictment must be sent by a magistrates’ court forthwith to the Crown Court for trial (see para. 7.6 below), is subject to the discretion of the magistrates’ court to adjourn such proceedings and to the requirement that upon such an adjournment the defendant must be remanded: CDA 1998, s. 52(5). In the case of an offence which may be tried ‘either way’, the magistrates’ court may adjourn the hearing before beginning to inquire into the offence as examining justices, and if it does so it must remand the accused: MCA 1980, s. 5.
The Arbitration Agreement and the Parties
Authors: Tweeddale Andrew , Tweeddale Keren 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An international commercial arbitration agreement is an agreement between two or more parties in which they agree to refer disputes of a commercial nature, and which have an international element, to arbitration. At one time English common law took the view that an arbitration agreement had to confer mutual rights on the parties in relation to the right to refer a dispute to arbitration.The requirement for mutuality is no longer accepted as a necessary requirement for a valid arbitration agreement and an arbitration agreement may permit either one or both of the parties to refer a dispute to arbitration.2 An arbitration agreement has been defined as a separate contract, procedural in nature3 and ancillary to the main contract which does not create substantive rights between the parties, but provides how disputes which may arise should be resolved.4 It has also been described as an agreement which creates collateral rights to the main contract.