bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Furred Homicides, Sable Bigots
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We May As Cheerfully As We Like (In Part Iv) Survey The penal critiques of the 1770s and 1780s, their rearticulation in par liament in and after 1808, the mounting vociferousness of radicals, prison reformers, and Quakers, and the gentler pressure of those who used the mercy process on others’ behalf. Yet the outcome of none of these pressures was assured; for decades yet there was little for reform ers to celebrate. With conditions in prisons still remote from those envisaged by advocates of separation and solitude, men and women hanged as numerously as ever. It bears repeating that in the post-war quinquennium 1816-20 over three times as many people were con demned to death in England and Wales as in 1806-10, and in 1826-30 three and a half times as many. Moreover, more were hanged in the 1820s than in the pre-1815 decade. And 325 hanged in London between 1816 and 1830 as against only 181 in the years 1801-15. Also, Home Secretary Peel still defended the main bastions of the bloody code, con vinced that his holding operations would last a generation or two. In England and Wales in 1829, the last full year of his office, 74 people were hanged. With hindsight we know it could not last. As the Introduction suggested, too many more people were being prosecuted after the peace, too many more had to be capitally convicted under the statutes and too many more were therefore having to be pardoned-for the hanging law’s credibility to be long sustained. Yet decision-makers at all levels were determined to perpetuate it so far as possible.
Theking In His Council
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Everyone Knew That The Quality Of Mercy Was Supposed To drop as the gentle rain from heaven upon the place beneath; that it was an attribute to awe, majesty, and God himself; and that royal power was most like God’s when mercy seasoned justice. Peel the home secre tary told the Commons that the exercise of mercy ‘ought to be as prompt and as pure as the visitation of justice’. Alas for the sorrier truth of the matter. Eavesdroppers on the king’s Council as it reviewed the Old Bailey’s capital sentences might have given away their presence behind the arras by involuntary snorts. In no other context was the power of life and death wielded with such remote and capricious dis dain. Enmeshed in courtly rituals, insulated from the cramped worlds of those whom they decided to kill, half-attentive to the death-dealing business in hand-most of the Council’s members present themselves as aloof, arrogant, and merciless beings. As ever in this book, this judge ment is endorsed by the fact that some contemporaries said so too--at least in so far as they knew what went on, which was not much.
Mercy And Mr Peel
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1831 Edward Gibbon Wakefield Raised A Key Question. Lately released from three years in Newgate for abducting an under age heiress, scales had dropped from his eyes in that dark place. Gentleman though he had been and would become again, he had lost the politeness which inhibited questions as rude as this. This question was in effect: how could these men bear to send people to the gallows with such equanimity? He had the home secretary Robert Peel in mind: Almost every Old Bailey Sessions subjects the Secretary of State to the pain of denying, absolutely or for a time, the prayer of some heart-broken wretch, who face to face with the judge, half choaked with grief, and perhaps kneeling at his feet, pleads for the life of a father, a husband, or a child. To undergo this pain, not less probably, on the average, than once a month, must, one would think, injure the health, so as to shorten the life, of him who suffers the pain. Yet the late Secretary who had suffered it for a great many years, was, at the end of his career, and in his legislative capacity, adverse to abolishing the pun ishment of death Mr Peel’s long practice in that one matter had rendered him callous, and had led to his piquing himself on his firmness.
Introduction The Human Factor
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The popularity of historical biography has varied inversely with the prestige of the social sciences. Like narrative history, it has languished for a long period in the wilderness exiled by both structural and quantitative social and economic history.1 To those anxious to explain how a whole society or economy works, the life of one person is a statistically insignificant event, which can illustrate but not demonstrate a general thesis. Even historians who prefer the microscope to the telescope, who study the process as well as the structure of particular sectors, institutions, and regions, proceed not by particular example, but by systematic accumulation of data.2 The theoreticians reject even cumulative case-studies as too subjective and limited a tool for analysis and prefer to construct objective, explanatory models which do not depend on empirical evidence or on the chronology of events.3 The biographical approach has been dismissed as impressionistic, intuitive, and amateurish, a luxury of a pre-numerate society, and an indulgent waste of academic resources.
The Civil Servant
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Dudley’s career as an administrator followed a typical pattern. For nine years he was Treasurer of the Levant Company in Constantinople. When he returned to England, he served on the governing bodies of three commercial Companies and assumed the routine burdens of management. He was elected one of the eighteen Assistants of the Levant Company and he also served in every office in the Royal Africa Company and was Governor of the Russia Company.
The Urban Gentleman
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Dudley was ‘very much a gentleman ‘ and, unlike Nathaniel Harley, he never doubted that business was compatible with gentility. He noted that the Italian nobles enjoyed the privilege of retailing wine and he intended one of his sons for trade. Dudley did not recognize any conflict between the landed and monied interests and he viewed the divisions in English society as horizontal rather than vertical. Nor did he consider that the professions and office-holders were more public spirited and less acquisitive than businessmen. He felt no need to conceal his occupation and he did not suffer from any feelings of social inferiority. Although proud of his landed ancestry, he was confident that he had earned his right to social recognition. Consequently he did not succumb to the false modesty and pomposity which so often accompanies self-help.
The Family Man
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Dudley ‘s objective, when he went to Turkey was ‘to return honorably rich, to be well matcht and have hopeful issue ‘.1 But the marriage market could be as unpredictable and hazardous as the commodities market.2 Widows and well-endowed daughters certainly provided opportunities for rapid capital accumulation, but marriage created additional ties of kinship, imposed new financial and emotional obligations, and required adjustments in personal life-style. Dudley was not indifferent to the financial and social inducements of matrimony and he wanted to marry a person of breeding and property. But his primary purpose was to secure a companion and a loving partner, to have his own household, and to raise children who would bear his name and perpetuate his fortune.3
The Political Economist
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Dudley ‘S contribution to economic thought, like that of any other author, must be placed in its specific historical context as well as judged by universalistic criteria. Debates over policy in the seventeenth century did raise theoretical issues and slowly advance the study of political economy. But they were grounded in political and economic realities. Because Dudley ‘s ideas translate fairly readily into the terminology of classical economics, later commentators have been tempted to read into his Discourses whatever their particular interpretation requires, to regard him as one link in an evolutionary chain. Although Macaulay excoriated Dudley ‘s politics, his lax principles, and unfeeling heart, he credited him with rare mental endowments and hailed him as a prophet of the In visible Hand emerging miraculously from the intellectual wilderness of the Levant.
Conclusion Self-Help in Action
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Sir dudley north is remembered as a political economist rather than as a man of business; half of his fortune came from office and marriage. But he did succeed in business when his partners and many Levantine merchants performed modestly or failed. According to Roger, he acquired such a reputation in Turkey that the Grand Signor arranged to observe him from a window. His rise from obscurity to wealth in twenty years was a remarkable personal achievement. What made the difference? The multitude of decisions which underlie his success do not always find expression in his accounts and those which do cannot be condensed into a few simple formulas. Each sector of his business required different qualities. Guilford remarked that trade had ‘many subtletys ‘, but he singled out industry and justice, accounting, hard work, honesty, and fair treatment of associates. Dudley himself considered that business was too technical for amateurs, that it could only be managed by those brought up to it. In particular he emphasized internal resources: the rich were distinguished from the poor by industry and ingenuity, quick decision, patience, sense, and courage.
Changes In Tenurial Patterns Between 1066 And 1086
Authors: Clarke Peter A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The question of how much change was wrought on England by the Norman Conquest is one which has been the subject of much con troversy. This is especially true when tenurial patterns and practices are considered. At first sight Domesday shows a complete tenurial revolution, with a total replacement of the major landholders of 1066, but signs of continuity do exist. More than one recent paper has questioned whether any revolution took place at all. In this con cluding section the evidence from earlier chapters will be used to see what changes in tenurial patterns took place, and how far a ‘tenurial revolution’ can be substantiated.
Frederick the Great and the Era of Limited War
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If we are to appreciate the tremendous impact made by the French Revolution and Napoleon on both the theory and practice of war it is essential to describe the character and ethos of war in the preceding era. These can most conveniently be viewed through the exploits and experiences of the outstanding soldier-statesman, Frederick the Great of Prussia (1712-86). Historians agree that there was a great deal of continuity between, say, the 1750s and 1790s in the steady improvement of physical conditions, notably of roads; of weapons such as field artillery, and, perhaps most important of all, of military organization.
Napoleon and the Decisive Battle
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The battle of Valmy in 1792 marked the dawn of a new era in military history. Between that date and 1815 Europe witnessed almost uninterrupted warfare between France and virtually all the other powers of a scale and intensity not experienced for centuries. This transformation in the direction of ‘total war’ made the ‘temperate and indecisive contests’ of the era of the Enlightenment appear as absurd anachronisms.
Moltke and the Wars of German Unification
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Prussia’s sensational victories in 1866 and 1870-1 are pivotal to any consideration of the pursuit of victory in modem history. In purely military terms they suggested that decisive, Napoleon-style campaigns were still possible in the railway age and thereby created a seductive but dangerous model. Even more impressive than Napoleon’s campaigns, they were near perfect examples of Clausewitz’s celebrated axiom that war is an instrument of policy. As this chapter will argue, it was mainly due to Bismarck’s state craft that these wars were politically controlled and yielded lasting political gains to the victor. Austria never challenged her expulsion from Germany and the settlement with France lasted until 1914-even then Alsace Lorraine was not the casus belli and it was Germany who invaded France. The greatest prize, German unification, seemed to have been achieved at a very reasonable price and would only be undone some seventy-five years later by reckless adventures undreamt of in the Bismarck era.
The Pursuit of Victory in the Nuclear Age
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
John Keegan concludes his stimulating study of The Face of Battle with the reflection that ‘the suspicion grows that battle has already abolished itself’.1 What he had chiefly in mind was the great projected clash of the super powers and their rival alliances in Central Europe in which nuclear weapons would probably be used. Writing in the mid-197os, Keegan believed that modem conditions of war, generally, let alone of battle itself, had become too psychologically stressful to be endured by the majority of troops. Con fidence that battle was meaningful and decisive was waning; future battles might well be fought only in ‘never never land’.
Court Life and Court Culture
Authors: Vale Malcolm 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters we have seen how the material infrastructure of courts developed from the later thirteenth century on wards.The following chapters attempt to describe and analyse the superstructure—that is, the cultural forms and artistic expression—of court life. Nevertheless, just as the religious and secular features of the court can never be entirely separated, so its material and non-material aspects can never be completely divorced from each other. There was a symbiotic relationship between the two, and one sphere constantly overlapped and impinged upon the other. Moreover, as we shall see in a subsequent chapter, it is necessary to adopt a much broader definition of court ‘culture’ than has sometimes been the case. Thus the following chapters seek to integrate the arts, both ‘fine’ and applied, into a more general cultural context in which as much emphasis is placed upon use and function as upon style and aesthetic response. The elaborate panoply of ritual and display, of liturgy and ceremony, was supported by—and to some extent embodied in—the visual and other arts. It is evident that during this period painting, sculpture, literature, music, dance, drama, and the applied arts could serve many purposes. But, in a courtly setting, they could convey specific messages about the nature and representation of power, the role of devotional religion, and the forms of behaviour appropriate to a social milieu in which concepts such as courtoisie and debonaireté were increasingly gaining ground.1 Art at court is therefore treated here as both a symptom and an agent of cultural change—as an active as well as a passive index of the evolution of taste, of the representation of power, and the development of dynastic ideologies.
Art at Court: Investment in Culture?
Authors: Vale Malcolm 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
With the increasing development of the French royal court into a sharply distinguished social elite formation, court society developed a special culture as a natural part of its special social existence. Early forms of this elite culture in gestures, speech, love-making and taste ⃛ had existed not only at royal courts but even, and especially, at the courts of territorial lords as early as the Middle Ages.
The Role of Art in the Late Anglo-Saxon Church
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This study explores the role of early medieval religious art in its historical context, focusing on England from the reign of Alfred the Great to the aftermath of the Norman conquest. Tenth and eleventh century society expressed itself extensively through visual means, and the surviving material provides a rich body of evidence for the religious culture of the time. Combining visual and documentary evidence, The Role of Art in the Late Anglo-Saxon Church sheds new light on a wide range of magnificent art works and their functions, and offers fresh perspectives on the ecclesiastical history and beliefs of late Anglo Saxon England, with important implications for the study of early medieval civilization in general.
Liberty, Civic Rights, and Duties in Sixteenth-Century Europe and the Rise of the Dutch Republic
Authors: Gelderen Martin van 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Everywhere people have the ‘desire to live in liberty’, but, at least according to Guido Bentivoglio’s Relatione dell[e] Provincie Unite of 1611, nowhere was ‘the love for liberty’ as strong as in the ‘Flemish regions’. It was an opinion widely shared in seventeenth-century Europe. With the rest of Europe suffering from civil wars or rising absolutism, the Dutch Republic was said to offer a haven of tolerance, intellectual and individual freedom, serving as sanctuary for philosophers such as Descartes, Spinoza, Bayle, and Locke. The Dutch themselves had cherished the idea of liberty from the beginning of their revolt in the 1560s. In the political literature justifying and motivating the protest and resistance against the government of Philip II, liberty was presented as the supreme political value, to be virtually equated with the common good.
The Modern State: Equal Rights. Equalizing the Individual’s Status and the Breakthrough of the Modern Liberal State
Authors: Stourzh Gerald 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Paul of Tarsus was about to be questioned under torture —so the Acts of the Apostles tell us —and preparations had begun. ‘The chief captain commanded him to be brought into the castle, and bade that he should be examined by scourging’. Yet as the Roman soldiers ‘bound him with thongs, Paul said unto the centurion that stood by, “Is it lawful for you to scourge a man that is a Roman, and uncondemned?” When the centurion heard that’, so the story goes on, ‘he went and told the chief captain, saying, “Take heed what thou doest: for this man is a Roman”.’ The Latin Vulgate puts it even more precisely: hie enim homo civis Romanus est.
Property And Inheritance
Authors: Sawyer Birgit 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Throughout Scandinavia the sponsors were normally closely related to the deceased. With few, if any, exceptions they, as survivors, can be assumed to have had an interest in property that had been owned by the deceased, whether by inheritance or because it had been jointly owned, for example by man and wife or by trading partners. There are, indeed, various indications that it was the new owner of the property that had belonged to the person being commemorated who commissioned the inscription and determined how it was formulated. The heirs’ natural interest in marking their status and in proclaiming the inheritance could explain the care taken to state the nature of the relationship in the inscriptions.
Dictionary Of Saints
Authors: Orme Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since the earliest days of Christianity its people have venerated God, the angels, and the saints in distinctive religious cults. Such cults have been much studied by historians, but their multiplicity and variety present huge obstacles to understanding them fully. This book attempts to produce a complete inventory of all known religious cults, dedicated to the Deity or to another named person, in one part of England: the county of Cornwall.
Relic Cults in England in the Twelfth Century
Authors: Crook John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The twelfth century in England was characterized by a resurgence of interest in indigenous saints’ cults. The reservations of Norman churchmen had vanished, and a new generation of prelates eagerly espoused the cause of native saints. The art and architecture of the period bears witness to this renewed enthusiasm, not least the adaptation of early Anglo-Norman architecture in response to the renaissance of the cults of local saints.Typical of the new attitude was Faritius, appointed abbot of Abingdon in the auspicious year 1100. He was an energetic rebuilder of his monastery church. His opinion of English saints was evidently very different from that of his sceptical predecessor, Abbot Athelhelm; for during his fifteen-year abbatiate a shoulder-blade and arm of St Ethel world were received at Abingdon, and Bishop William Giffard, who, one supposes, may have been the donor of these Winchester relics, presided at their translation into a new reliquary.
The Foundation of the Garter
Authors: Collins Hugh E L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1416, the fourth year of the reign of Henry V, arrangements were made for the membership, assemblies, and electoral meetings of the order of the Garter to be regularly recorded in an official register, named the Registrum Ordinis Chartaceum. Fortunately preserved by Anstis in the Black Book of Windsor, these annals form the basis for much of our knowledge of the fraternity during the later Middle Ages.
The Garter in Fifteenth-Century Politics, 1400–1461
Authors: Collins Hugh E L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If the Garter had succeeded in consolidating its position in English political life by the end of the 1390s, then it was certain to have this new-found stability challenged during the tumultuous events of the following century. As a monarchical institution, founded to celebrate and perpetuate traditions of service and loyalty among the knightly classes, the order was never more vulnerable than during periods of political opposition and upheaval. The fifteenth century, then, was to test the mettle of the fraternity as it had never been tested before.
The Sovereign and the Garter
Authors: Collins Hugh E L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In view of the central role played by the king in the Garter’s organization and ceremonial life, it was inevitable that the tone and character of the order during each reign would be shaped, at least partially, by the personality and preferences of the individual monarch. Indeed, as a curial institution, the order’s composition was to large degree reflective of the broader changes in the temper of the royal court and household during the period.