bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cell culture model for oxidative stress
Authors: Suzuki Keiiciiiro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cells in culture are widely used as experimental models to study pro-oxidant and antioxidant responses. Although the conditions used are usually simple, and the results are obtained easily and rapidly, proteins, e.g. foetal calf serum, can act as radical scavengers, and iron and copper salts can also contaminate culture media during free-radical experiments. Appropriate controls must therefore be included and conditions carefully standardized, for example by using foetal calf serum (FCS)-free media.
Numerical Solution Of Triple Deck Equations
Authors: Sobey I J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neither Stewartson (1969) nor Messiter (1970) computed a solution to the triple deck problem. Stewartson offered no assurance that a solution even existed, Messiter used a guessed displacement function A (X) to calculate an improved function and this way indicated how a numerical solution might be determined without directly solving the problem.
Introduction To Channel Flow
Authors: Sobey I J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two-dimensional channel flow is important when flow occurs through a duct which is much wider than it is high. In such situations the effoct of the sides of the duct is relatively unimportant and the flow through much of the duct is essentially two-dimensional. Of course, it is much easier to organise manifolding for pipes than channels, so the greater number of flow devices used for heat and mass transfer are based on flow though or around cylinders but there are a significant number of situations where heat or mass transfer devices are made using plates and the flow between the plates is best described as channel flow.
Upstream Influence
Authors: Sobey I J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We saw in the last chapter that if a channel indentation was sufficiently small then the leading order term for the pressure was constant across the channel and further, the flow would be undisturbed until the channel indentation first occurred. It also emerged that the structure which was found for small channel indentations, an inviscid rotational core perturbation and two non-linear wall layers would still carry over to greater wall changes provided the pressure variation across the channel could be properly accounted for.
Properties of the electric dipole and the application of Gauss’s law when dielectrics are present
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most solids, liquids and gases are electrically polarizable in that, when placed in an electric field, electric charges are induced within the material and on its surface. To make physically realistic electrical predictions in the presence of such material, the origin of such induced charges must be understood and the electric fields they produce must be accounted for. In this chapter the origin and distribution of the induced charges are discussed and it is shown that the by formulating Gauss’s law in terms of a new electric field vector the presence of electrically polarizable material is simply dealt with. The properties of the new field vector are discussed and compared with those of the electric field. The continuity of the new vector and the electric field vector between adjacent blocks of different polarizable material are also discussed.
Magnetic polarization of material
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the same manner that electrically polarizable material complicated the application of Gauss’s law in electrostatics, the presence of magnetically polarizable material complicates the application of Ampe’re’s law in magnetostatics. However, as with electrostatics, the introduction of a new field vector enables this complication to be simply overcome in magnetism. The properties of the new field vector are discussed and contrasted with those of the magnetic field. The continuity of the new vector and the magnetic field vector across the boundary of two adjacent blocks of different magnetically polarizable material is described.
Ions in aqueous solution and the ionization of acids and bases
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The behaviour of ions in aqueous solution is of paramount importance in biology and serves as an application of many of the equations that govern electrical behaviour that have been derived in previous chapters. The topics discussed in this chapter include the stability of the equilibrium state, electrical neutrality, pH and pKa and the influence of electric fields and dielectric environment on these parameters.
The behaviour of ions in narrow pores
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Essentially because the ions within a solution passing rapidly through a narrow pore may not be in equilibrium with each other or with the charges on the walls of the pore, the behaviour of ions passing through a narrow pore is more difficult to predict than the behaviour of the same ions in bulk solution. In addition, the electrostatic self-energy of an ion in a narrow pore is very different from that of the same ion in bulk solution. A simple model of this enhanced self-energy is presented, and stronger electrostatic inter-ionic interactions within the pore are shown to be a consequence. The mechanisms that may lead to partial ordering of the electric dipole moments of water molecules in the pore are discussed, and the consequences of such order on the prediction of the ionic current through ion channels are described.
Ion traps
Authors: Foot C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a trap operating with a voltage of 10 = 500 V, singly-charged ions have a maximum ‘binding’ energy of order 500eV.3 This trap depth corresponds to the kinetic energy at a temperature of 6 x 106 K. This is more than enough to trap ions, even if the ions do receive a large recoil kick during the ionization process-to load an ion trap experimenters send a weak (neutral) atomic beam through the trapping region where an electron beam ionizes a few of the atoms by knocking an electron off. These ions created by electron bombardment have much greater kinetic energy than the thermal energy of atoms at room temperature (equivalent to only 1 / 40 eV). It would be unwise to try to be more precise about the typical energy of an ion since it depends on the voltage used. In contrast, a magnetic trap for neutrals has a maximum depth of only 0.07K.
Quantum computing
Authors: Foot C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantum computing will be a revolutionary new form of computation in the twenty-first century, able to solve problems inaccessible to classical computers. However, building a quantum computer is very difficult, and so far only simple logic gates have been demonstrated in experiments on ions in a linear Paul trap. The ideas of quantum computing have also been tested in experiments using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). In the Paul trap, the ions sit in an ultra-high vacuum (pressure 007E 10-11 mbar) so that collisions rarely happen, and the ions are well isolated from the environment. We have seen that these conditions enable extremely high-resolution spectroscopy of single ions because of the very small perturbations to the energy levels.
Introduction
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theoretical basis of statistical methods is mathematics. The power of mathematics comes from the generality of its results. Because the relations are so general, only a few are required for a great variety of calculations. The power of computer algebra lies in rendering these genera) relations in a form for use by machine. As a result, a very limited amount of programming makes possible algebraic computation for a great variety of problems. Symbolic algorithms are to mathematics as numerical algorithms are to arithmetic. This is a book about the use of such algorithms in statistics. By symbolic computation, or computer algebra, we refer to the calculation of algebraic expressions such as £[X2]/n - (£[X]/n)2 for the variance of an average, rather than the numerical evaluation of this expression for a particular distribution.
Probability and random variables
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic definitions and relations used in statistics may be specified in a language for symbolic computation and then used for calculation. Programming a machine to do symbolic computation in statistics is similar to teaching undergraduates. Although it is not as much fun, the machine has a superhuman attention span. The following sections present algorithms for many of the calculations faced by undergraduates. It is surprising how little needs to be specified for these calculations. As with undergraduates, we assume the language of implementation has (only) the basic prerequisite operational skills in algebra, arithmetic, and calculus, comparable to those required to complete a first-year course in calculus. We assume therefore that procedures for matrix multiplication, inversion, and simple integration are available. Aside from these. all of the definitions and procedures required are indicated in the text. In almost all cases. these are set out in displays.
The analytic bootstrap
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bootstrap methodology refers to a class of general resampling procedures for inference. The book by Efron and Tibshirani (1993) is an excellent introduction to the subject Many of the procedures they describe involve the use of averages of a large number of Monte Carlo samples to approximate an expectation. In this chapter, the procedures of Chapter 5 are used to compute series expansions of the same expectations. The evaluation of these series expansions is much faster than Monte Carlo sampling because it involves only the evaluation of a small number of averages. In addition, the analytic form of the expansions permits further analysis. For example. the moments and cumulants of the bootstrap estimates may be computed. These calculations are illustrated with a number of simple parameters. Boot strap estimates of variance, confidence intervals, and BCA confidence intervals for these parameters are computed. The same, fundamental procedures used for these examples may be applied to much more complex parameters. The computational procedures are beautiful in their simplicity. Appreciating the simplicity is difficult. Using the methods of Section 5.8, parameters of a distribution G are expanded about another, reference distribution F. When G is replaced with the empirical distribution Fn we immediately have the plug-in estimate in expanded form appropriate for further series computation. Alternatively, it may be evaluated to give the usual plug-in estimate. This is a good strategy because it simplifies computation although admittedly it is novel.
Feasibility Graphs
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With formal proofs one has the possibility to represent objects only implicitly. The notion of feasibility provides a general mechanism for doing this, as in Sections 1.3 and 4.8. In this chapter, we present a simpler combinatorial framework in which similar effects can be achieved.
Roughly speaking, a feasibility graph is an optical graph in which the edges and branch points are labelled, in such a way that the graph represents some kind of construction or computation.
Duality And Np-Completeness
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Definition 13.1 Let G, H, and K be oriented graphs, and assume that G and H have no nontrivial oriented cycles. Let g: G→ K and h: H → K be orientation-preserving mappings. Fix vertices v in G and w in H, and assume that g(v)= h(w). Set z = g(v) = h(w), and letinduced mappings between visibilities, as in Section 10.1. Given these data, the visibility mapping problem asks whether the images of ĝ and ĥ inside V+ ( z, K) are not the same.
The Corona Decomposition Revisited
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have discussed some notions of symmetry and compact descriptions for graphs in earlier chapters. In particular, one might say that the visibility of an oriented graph G enjoys a lot of symmetry when the visibility is much larger than G itself, even if this symmetry is not reflected in a perfect kind of periodicity (especially when the visibility is finite).
Bipolar transistors and integrated circuits
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bipolar transistors consist of a pair of closely spaced p-n junctions in a single semiconductor structure. The order can be ‘n-p-n’ or ‘p-n-p’. These devices, in both discrete and integrated form, are essential components in many electronic systems, especially in applications (such as in amplifiers), which require a high current gain or considerable ‘drive’ current. Radiation produces degradation of gain and an increase in leakage. The degradation of gain is well understood and derives from degradation of the transport of minority carriers across the base region. We will discuss the effects of electrons, neutrons, and gamma rays on this transport, dividing them into those occurring near the surface of the device and those that occur deeper in the material, i.e. bulk effects. In this chapter, we discuss the basic effects with emphasis on discrete silicon planar transistors. In this structure (see Fig. 5.I), the silicon substrate forms the collector region. Base and emitter regions are formed by the successive introduction of appropriate dopants by diffusion or ion implantation. The junctions are protected by a passivation layer which usually is thermally grown oxide. In general, this layer is thicker than that of MOS devices and accumulates charge when irradiated. Two books by pioneers in this field give detailed treatments of the semiconductor transport equations controlling transistor action in irradiated bipolar transistors (Larin 1968; Messenger and Ash 1992). This second edition has brought the description of radiation effects and electronic technology up to the millennium era. On the other hand, the acquisition of test data for current types of device is best pursued through the web references given in Appendix G, mainly those in Section GS, ‘Radiation effects databases’, in which will be found results for the devices and materials dealt with in this chapter, with the number increasing with time.
Equipment hardening and hardness assurance
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The prime role of this handbook is to introduce tolerance to radiation (‘radiationhardness’) into large electronic systems. The essentials of the task are shown in Fig. 15.1. This diagram may appear simple but, if the radiation environment is severe, then–udging by experience in Europe and the USA–the task can require a large amount of effort. The skills required, mainly subspecialities of physics, chemistry and engineering, are those outlined in this handbook. In the case of a severe environment, if ‘radiation-hardening1 is to be successful, it has to be very thorough. In particular it has to permeate all stages of the development of a piece of equipment, including the earliest system engineering and technology development. This argument of the ‘early starf has been made over the past 30 years and largely responded to by large agencies (Holmes-Siedle 1974a, 1974b; Van Lint et al. 1977; Baur et al. 1981; Lauridsen 1995a,b,; Adams 2000). The serious effect of a late start is stressed by Messenger and Ash (1992): ‘… the cost [of radiation hardening] … is relatively modest when [it] is incorporated at the inception of the development … [but] … eleventh-hour add-ons to existing systems … are expensive, unduly extensive and … manifest reduced confidence … ‘. Nuclear power projects, previously paying most attention to metals and ceramics, are now devoting similar attention to electronics (see e.g. Baur et al. 1981).
Brains and brawn
Authors: Tweed Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
God said, ‘Let there be light’ and there was light, but God is a special case. If you want light, you can’t just will it; you have to proceed indirectly, for example by moving your feet and hands to search for a light switch. Outside your own nervous system, the only things you can reliably influence by a direct act of will are your skeletal muscles. These 656 muscles98 are the main output path between you and the rest of the world-they are the user interface of the universe. Every command issued by your brain must be shaped to act through this layer. Much of what goes on in the late stages of sensorimotor transformations, the stages just before the motor neuron, can be understood as the brain’s attempt to make optimal use of its interface.
Drawings and constructions
Authors: Silvester J R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, you are encouraged to draw for yourself lots of diagrams in order to get a feel for what geometry is about, to develop your visual skills, and to build up a catalogue of geometrical facts and experiences which will help illustrate and motivate later parts of the book. There are few theorems and no formal proofs in this chapter-they come later-but just exercises, interspersed with comments and hints.
Isometries of ℝ2
Authors: Silvester J R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have met isometries in Section 3.5; recall that an isometry is a distance-preserving transformation of ℝ2. One can also define isometries in ℝ3: it is simply a matter of replacing ℝ2 by ℝ3 in Definitions 3.17 and 3.18. We shall continue to concentrate attention on ℝ2, but the reader who feels sufficiently confident is encouraged to generalize statements to ℝ3 where possible.
Isometries of ℝn
Authors: Silvester J R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall make a brief excursion into n-dimensional geometry, in order to see how isometries can be written down, and to see a few examples of what can happen in dimensions higher than 2. The methods will be via matrices, so we first rewrite our isometries of ℝ2 in matrix form.
More properties of likelihood
Authors: Pawitan Yudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The idea of Fisher information (Section 2.5) captures the notion of ‘information ‘ only roughly. Owing to its association with a quadratic approximation of the likelihood, it is typically meaningful only in large samples. The qualitative concept of sufficiency (Fisher 1922) captures precisely the idea of information in the data. An estimate T (x) is sufficient for θ if it summarizes all relevant information contained in the data about θ. This is true if for any other estimate U (x), the distribution of U (x) given T (x) is free of θ. So, once T (x) is known U (x) does not carry any additional information.
It is a fundamental result that the likelihood function is minimal sufficient. This means the likelihood function captures all of the information in the data, and anything less involves some loss of information.
Complex data structures
Authors: Pawitan Yudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The focus in this chapter is on problems with complex data structure, in particular those involving dependence and censoring. Modelling is crucial for simplifying and clarifying the structure. Compromises with the likelihood, for example using the marginal, conditional or estimated likelihood, also become a necessity. With some examples we discuss the simplest thing we can do with the data, with as little modelling as possible. This will provide a safety check for results based on more complex models; similar results would give some assurance that the complex model is not off the mark. It is important to recognize in each application the price and the reward of modelling.
Random and mixed effects models
Authors: Pawitan Yudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Regression models are the work horse of statistics, but while rich classes of models have been introduced to deal with various data types, in most cases the underlying mean structure is still the linear model h(μ) = Xβ, where β is a fixed parameter of dimension p, and p is typically quite small. Such a model is called a fixed effects model.
Introduction to advanced distance sampling
Authors: Buckland S T , Anderson D R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Distance sampling, primarily line transect and point transect sampling, has had a relatively short history. The earliest attempts to use distances to detected animals to estimate abundance date back to the 1930s, and the first line transect estimator with a rigorous mathematical basis was due to Hayne (1949). Nearly 20 years later, Gates et al. (1968) and Eberhardt (1968) made important contributions to the development of line transect sampling methodology. Neither the radial distance model of Hayne (1949) nor the negative exponential model of Gates et al. (1968) is based on plausible assumptions about the detection process. Eberhardt’s (1968) work was more conceptual, and attempted to provide a class of models that were robust to differing detection processes.
Microscopic mechanisms of biological motion
Authors: Derényi I , Vicsek Tamás 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origin of biological motion can be traced back to the function of tiny motor proteins operating at the molecular scale [1,2]. During the last few decades numerous different families of these molecular motors have been discovered, and the newest experimental techniques developed in recent years have allowed us to study in vitro the operation of individual motor proteins (for a review see [3]). Such studies have revealed that the motors move in discrete, unidirectional steps with step sizes in the range of a few nanometres and exert piconewton forces. The motors use the chemical energy stored in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules or in a proton gradient as fuel and convert it into mechanical work.
The Dynamics Of Discrete Systems. Lagrangian Formalism
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mathematical modelling of the dynamics of a constrained system of point particles (P1, mi), ... , (Pn, mn) is based on the equations of motions for the single points: where Ri denotes the sum of all forces acting on the point (Pi, mi)- In addition to equations (4.1), one has to consider the constraint equations. The forces acting on a single particle can be classified in two different ways: either distinguishing between internal forces and external forces, or using instead the distinction between constraint reactions and the so-called active forces which we used in the study of the dynamics of a single point particle. These two different classifications yield two different mathematical schemes describing the dynamics of systems.
Analytical Mechanics: Hamiltonian Formalism
Authors: Fasano Antonio , Marmi Stefano 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within the Lagrangian formalism, the phase space for the equations of motion makes use of the coordinates (q, q). We start this chapter by studying the coordinate transformations in this space. We shall see that this study has wide and significant developments. The first objective is the transformation of the equations of motion into a form, the so-called canonical form, whose particular structure highlights many important properties of the motion. This objective is realised by an application of a transformation due to Legendre. In this section, we study the most important properties of this transformation. For simplicity, consider a real function f of a real variable w, defined in an interval (a, b) (not necessarily bounded), with continuous, positive second derivative,