bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Paul Ewald in Cambridge and Belfast
Authors: Bethe H A , Hildebrandt G , Perutz Max F , Hodgkin Dorothy C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
His friend, Sir Lawrence Bragg, secured him a research grant at Cambridge, and Paul left Germany in the autumn of 1937. His wife and the two younger children followed in spring 1938, and his mother soon afterwards. Lux, the older son, emigrated independently. He had a good job in Stuttgart with Bosch, the electrical firm, and the directors, knowing his situation, sent him abroad to a subsidiary with good wishes for his future. So as not to draw attention to their emigration, which would have entailed permits and delays, the family travelled to England separately and with little luggage, as for an extended visit only. Lux, having the task of dissolving the apartment, put the furniture in storage but managed to ship the Ewalds’ beloved books, wrapped in bedsheets and other linen, all of which were sorely needed in England. Old Mrs Ewald followed her son’s invitation to celebrate her birthday in England, expecting to return soon.
Commentary on Ewald’s fundamental papers of the dynamical theory of X-ray diffraction
Authors: Juretschke Hellmut J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ewald’s dynamical theory of X-rays in crystals is embedded formally in the work of his doctoral thesis (Ewald 1912). Although the immediate goal of the thesis was to develop a microscopic theory of dispersion of visible and near-visible light in anisotropic crystals, its main results were actually valid at all wavelengths. The thesis was submitted a few months before the experimental discovery of X-ray diffraction. Hence the substance of its theoretical formulations predates that event, as well as the initial (kinematical) interpretation of the experimental results.
Contributions to the Theory of the Interferences of X rays in Crystals
Authors: Ewald P P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Currently there are two points of view on the interpretation of the interference effects described by Laue. The explanation proposed by Laue ascribes the maxima of beam intensity emerging from the crystal slab to the cumulative action in the interior of the crystal of the individual oscillators (dipoles), the regular arrangement of which allows the crystal to be viewed as a three-dimensional diffraction grating. On the other hand, following Bragg, the orientation of the interference patterns can be adequately described on the assumption that the incident X-ray undergoes an optical reflection from each crystallo graphically allowed plane (lattice plane of the space lattice). On detailed examination, there is no difference between these two approaches, as has already been shown by G. Wulff and M. Laue (see also§ 5). The connection between the phenomena of X-rays and ordinary light passing through a crystal can be deduced easily from the equations of§ § 3 and 4 [TNl, 2].
Electron diffraction theory
Authors: Humphreys C J , Bithell E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the theoretical models upon which our understanding of electron diffraction is based. There is a broad experimental division in the electron microscopy of materials between diffraction contrast methods (i.e. bright and dark field imaging etc.) and phase contrast techniques (high resolution ‘lattice’ imaging). In both cases the elastic scattering processes which dominate the image behaviour are well described by the time- independent Schrödinger equation for a fast electron accelerated through a potential E and travelling through a material with an inner potential.
Electro diffraction Structure analysis
Authors: Vainshtein B K , B.B. Zvyagin , A.S. Avilov 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three diffractional methods are applied for the analysis of crystal structures: X-ray diffraction structure analysis (XDSA), neutron diffraction SA (NDSA) and electron diffraction SA (EDSA). The general requirement which they have to satisfy is that the wavelength X should be suitable for the resolution of the structure inhomogeneities. It must be of the same order as the interatomic distances (1-3A) or less. The ^-values used in XDSA and NDSA are in the interval 1.5-1 A. For the electrons which may conveniently be used in EDSA, having acceleration voltage of up to 1MeV, the λ- values from 0.05-0.04 to 0.015A (See section 1.1).
Electron Channelling and its Uses
Authors: Spence J C H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter covers the field of channelling and its effects for electrons traversing thin crystals in the transmission geometry. Channelling effects in the reflection or RHEED geometry, where the beam makes a glancing angle with the crystal surface, are treated in Vol. 2, chapter 3. Backscattered channelling patterns from bulk crystals, where the beam and detector make a smaller angle with the surface normal, are also treated briefly in this chapter. (The distinction between these catagories depends on the energy of the beam).
Gas Electron Diffraction
Authors: István Hargittai 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gas electron diffraction may be different in many aspects from the fields described in the preceding chapters in this book. It is linked to them, however, by the common nature of its basic phenomenon as well as by the similarity of its primary application as source of structural information. This technique provides bond lengths, bond angles, torsional angles, and vibrational and energetical data for gaseous molecules
A
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The small amount of quantum chemistry still conducted in Latin is the province of °computational chemists. Ab initio, roughly translated, means ‘from scratch’. The term is applied to calculations of molecular structure that use no input other than the °Schr6dinger equation, the values of the fundamental constants (specifically e, me, and Ii), and the atomic numbers of the atoms present.
F
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An f orbital is an atomic orbital with l = 3; they occur in shells for which n is equal to or greater than 4. There are seven f orbitals in a subshell, corresponding to the seven vales of the quantum number m1, namely+ 3, + 2,... , - 3. Mathematical expressions for the real forms of the orbitals are given in Box F.1 and their boundary surfaces are shown in Fig. 7.1. The 4f orbitals are occupied starting with lanthanum and are responsible for the existence of the first row of the f block (the ‘rare earths’ or ‘lanthanides’). The 5/ orbitals are occupied from actinium, and give rise to the second row of the f block (the ‘actinides’). One chemically important characteristic of the f orbitals is that electrons that occupy them shield the nuclear charge only very poorly (partly on account of the large number of angular nodes, which denote regions of zero electron density).
G
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall deal with five types of g-value (or ‘g-factor’) in this section; each of them is involved in the relation of an angular momentum to a magnetic moment. They are: The g-value of the free electron. The nuclear g-factor. The Lande g-factor. The g-factor of electron spin resonance. The molecular g-value.
I
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An electrical insulator is a substance that does not conduct electricity; however, strictly speaking, no solid is an electrical insulator. A metallic conductor is a substance with an electrical conductivity that decreases as the temperature is raised, a °semiconductor is a substance with an electrical conductivity that increases as the temperature is raised, and all solid substances fall into one or other of these two classes. However, it is conventional to regard semiconductors with very low electrical conductivities as ‘insulators’. Nevertheless, the conductivities of solid ‘insulators’ increase with temperature, and hence they are properly regarded as semiconductors. Solid ‘insulators’ are semiconductors with large °band gaps and hence a very low concentration of charge carriers at normal temperatures.
Disorder and Defect Scattering, Thermal Diffuse Scattering, Amorphous Material
Authors: Gjønnes J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most properties and virtually all transformations in solids are strongly influenced by defects. Hence the characterization of defect structures has been a challenge to structure research ever since models of various crystalline defects were advanced in the 1930s. Optical microscopy, spectroscopy and in particular x-ray diffraction contributed significantly to insight in the nature of defects, notably the statistical description of short range order and the relation of crystal structures to transformations.
But it was through the application of electron microscopy techniques, at first by diffraction contrast imaging and selected area diffraction in the 1950s and 60s, that we were able to construct the present detailed and many-faceted picture of defects in inorganic solid matter: of dislocation configurations, of the nature and distribution of planar faults and of relations between short range and long range ordering in a variety of compounds. Schematic models and statistical pictures based on more circumstantial evidence could be confirmed, replaced or augmented by direct observations of defect arrangements and by diffraction information about local structure within individual crystal grains and precipitates. A further wealth of detail was offered in the 1970s by high resolution imaging of the projected atomic arrangement. The investigation of local structure - as distinct from the average structure normally studied with x-ray or neutron diffraction - became a prime domain of electron microscopy techniques.
Rheed and Rem
Authors: Yagi K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A brief historical survey of reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) has been included in Volume 1, section 1.6. Until the nineteen fifties, RHEED was used as a unique method for the study of surface processes such as the initial oxidation and corrosion of metals and alloys with crystallographic information (Cates, 1933) and the growth of thin films on crystalline surfaces (Uyeda, 1942). In the same period, progress was made in basic research on diffraction phenomena such as the refraction effect (Yamaguti, 1935) Kikuchi patterns (Kikuchi, 1928), surface wave resonance (Kikuchi and Nakagawa, 1933: Miyake et al., 1954) and asymmetry in RHEED patterns (Uyeda and Miyake, 1957).
However RHEED became less widely used after the development of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (Hirsch et al., 1965) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) because these techniques can give direct information in real space on the nature of surfaces and the microstructure of thin films.
Introduction to Crystallographic Statistics
Authors: Shmueli Uri , Weiss George H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern structural applications of crystallography make extensive use of statistical methods, in particular the probability density function (pdf) of the magnitude of the structure factor. Similarly, direct methods of phase determination have been responsible for much of the success of crystallography - methods based on properties of joint pdfs. This monograph, from two authorities in the field of structure factor statics, presents a survey of techniques and theories in this field of research in a self-contained and consistent way, with an emphasis on the probabilistic principles involved.
The Hot-Plasma Dielectric Tensor
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We will now derive the dielectric tensor of a uniform hot plasma immersed in a static magnetic field. For this purpose, we must evaluate the current induced in the plasma by the electric field of a small-amplitude h.f. wave; in turn, this requires that we solve the Vlasov equation to determine the distribution functions of ions and electrons in the presence of the h.f. field. The concept of a dielectric tensor, introduced in Section 4, implies a linear relation between the current and the field; hence, in the first place, we must linearize the kinetic equation.
Quasilinear Theory of Heating and Current Drive
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Irreversible absorption of h.f. power is the result of resonant wave-particle interactions occurring in well-defined domains of phase space. To evaluate the number of resonant particles and the heating rate in each particular situation, the equilibrium distribution function F0(ii) must be assumed to be known and, as a first approximation, time independent. This is acceptable not only on the very short time scale of a few wave periods, but also for the somewhat longer duration of individual resonant interactions. Over still longer times, however, F0(V) itself will change as a consequence of the heating. Our goal now is to derive a kinetic equation adequate to describe this slow evolution of the average distribution function. In the following sections of this chapter we will present a few applications of this equation to problems of h.f. heating and current drive in fusion plasmas.
The Semi-Empirical Picture Of Turbulent Shear Flow
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Turbulence, a phenomenon which is complicated in itself, can be encountered in a wide variety of more or less complicated situations, both in the natural environment and in many industrial processes. Thus, when engineers attempt to predict the behavior of turbulent systems, they have more to reckon with than the intrinsic difficulty of the turbulence problem. In order to carry out design calculations, they must also tackle the problems inherent in describing fluid flow through complicated physical systems such as turbine rotors, chemical reaction vessels, or tube bundles in heat exchangers. Nevertheless, as computational methods improve and computers grow in power, there is continuous progress in treating the merely complicated aspects of problems. Therefore, in many engineering applications nowadays, the major problem faced is the irreducible one of the turbulence itself.
Renormalized Perturbation Theories of the Second Kind
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapter, we discussed the pioneering theories of turbulence, in which systematic renormalization methods were introduced to the subject for the first time, but we did not dwell to any extent on the virtues (or otherwise) of these theories. We shall continue to defer such considerations, for the most part, to Chapter 8, where the overall assessment of RPTs will be considered in some detail. However, before turning our attention to those theories which do yield the Kolmogorov spectrum as a solution, we shall make a rather limited analysis of certain unsatisfactory features of the older theories. Our reason for doing this at the present stage, is that it provides a perspective into which we can fit the development of the newer theories. Inevitably this means that the discussion is conducted in terms of failures to achieve the Kolmogorov form of the energy spectrum. Nevertheless, this should not be taken to mean that we are asserting that the Kolmogorov distribution provides a crucial test for analytic turbulence theories.
An Assessment Of Renormalized Perturbation Theories
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our principal source of information on the performance of RPT, is a handful of numerical investigations into the application of RPT to the problem of freely decaying isotropic turbulence. Accordingly, this will be our main topic in the present chapter, although we shall also revive the question of whether such theories should be compatible with the Kolmogorov spectrum at high Reynolds numbers. We shall also examine the problems involved in applying RPTs to inhomogeneous flows-along with a glance in passing at some other approaches to shear flows-before attempting to come to some overall conclusion about the various theories.
Renormalization Group Theories
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 3.5.3 we introduced the basic idea of renormalization group (RG) methods, and illustrated the general method by discussing how it might be applied in principle to fluid turbulence. The key phrase here is ‘in principle’, for in practice there are quite formidable problems in the way. Some of the attempts to overcome these problems will form the subject of this chapter. However, before turning to this-the main topic-a few remarks about the background to the subject may not be out of place. To begin with, RG was a procedure for eliminating divergences in field theory, and later became famous when it was successfully applied to critical phenomena in the early 1970s (e.g. see Wilson and Kogut 1974; Wilson 1975). More recently there has been an interplay between field-theoretical and renormalization group methods (Amit (1984) emphasizes this aspect), and this tends to be reflected in papers describing attempts to apply RG to turbulence.
Non-Newtonian Fluid Turbulence
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There may appear to be some element of ambiguity about the title of this chapter. Does the adjective ‘non-Newtonian’ qualify the fluid? Or, should we read ‘fluid turbulence’ as a single entity, and take it to be non-Newtonian? In fact, this ambiguity is really rather more general in character. A purely Newtonian fluid flowing in the presence of solid boundaries which are flexible may behave quite differently from the case where the boundaries are rigid. It might therefore be appropriate to regard the combination of Newtonian fluid and flexible boundaries as an example of a fluid flow which should be described as non-Newtonian. Another example (and arguably the most important) is the phenomenon of drag reduction by additives (see Section 3.4). As we shall see later, the turbulence which occurs in the presence of drag-reducing additives is different from the turbulence which occurs in the solvent alone. Indeed, in some cases of very dilute polymer solutions, the anomalous (i.e. less dissipative) turbulence is probably the only detectable non-Newtonian effect.
Chemical Reactions And Thermal Radiation
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The molecular model is ideally suited to the study of chemically reacting gas flows in that the basic theory of gas phase chemical reactions is primarily concerned with processes at the molecular level (e.g. Levine and Bernstein 1987). The theory is supported by studies in experimental chemistry that are becoming increasingly concerned with measurements at the molecular level. In addition, computational methods are now being applied to the interactions between reactive molecules, but these can involve extensive calculations for each set of impact parameters. It is impossible to make such a calculation for each of the billions of collisions in a flow simulation, but it might eventually be possible to build up a database of outcomes for all impact parameters in the collisions of interest.
The Representation of Stress-Strain Relations in Cyclic Loading
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In making seismic response analysis of ground or soil structures based on the theory of wave propagation or on the finite element principle, of uttermost importance is to represent the cyclic behaviour of soils in a form of material model correlating shear stress and shear strain. Modelling of soil behaviour under cyclic or random loading conditions must be made so that the model can duplicate the deformation characteristics in the range of strains under consideration. When soil behaviour is expected to stay within the range of the small strain, the use of an elastic model is justified and the shear modulus is a key parameter to properly model the soil behaviour (see Fig. 3.1). When a given problem is associated with the medium range of strain, approximately below the level of 10-3, the soil behaviour becomes elastoplastic and the shear modulus tends to decrease as the shear strain increases. At the same time, energy dissipation occurs during cycles of load application.
Low-Amplitude Shear Moduli
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A vast majority of experimental data has been accumulated to evaluate the shear modulus of various soils at very small levels of strains. This modulus is called maximum shear modulus, initial shear modulus, or low-amplitude shear modulus, and denoted by Gmax or Go- In the laboratory, the most widely used procedure has been the resonant column test, but because of its simplicity, the cyclic triaxial test procedure with precise monitoring of axial strains is finding overriding popularity in recent years, particularly in Japan, for measuring modulus and damping. The outcome of these investigations will be described in the following section with emphasis on laboratory studies.
Strengths of Cohesive Soils Under Transient and Cyclic Loading Conditions
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Several types of dynamic loading tests have been attempted thus far to determine the dynamic strength of soils. These may be classified into four types, as illustrated in Fig. 9.1, according to whether the loading is rapid or slow and also whether the loading is monotonic or cyclic. Monotonic loading tests can be conducted with varying speeds of loading. The conventional static loading tests employ a rate of loading to failure on the order of a few minutes. The monotonic loading tests conducted in less than a few seconds to failure are classified as rapid loading tests. The rapid loading test or transient test has been performed to evaluate the strength of soils exhibited under blast loading such as detonation of explosives or falling of bombs. The second type of dynamic loading consists of a cyclic load application that is executed following the static monotonic loading as illustrated in Fig. 9.l(b). This type of test has often been conducted to evaluate the strength of soils during earthquakes. The initial phase of the static monotonic shear stress application is envisaged as representing a sustained static pre-earthquake state of stress which exists in a soil element beneath sloping surfaces. After applying the sustained shear stress, soils samples are subjected to a sequence of cyclic stress until failure occurs.
Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance by in Situ Soundings
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For accurate evaluation of the cyclic strength of sand, recovery of high-quality undisturbed samples and testing in the laboratory would be the most reliable procedure. However, the sampling of sand samples from deposits below the ground water table is a costly operation and cannot be recommended for every occasion of liquefaction investigation except for an important construction project. Therefore a simpler and more economically feasible procedure to assess the cyclic resistance of sand needs to be established. One of the methods to accomplish this end is to take advantage of the penetration resistance of the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) or Cone Penetration Test (CPT) which have found worldwide use in investigating in situ characteristics of soil deposits. There are basically two different approaches as described below for correlating penetration resistance with the cyclic strength of soils in the field.
Onset Condition for Liquefaction and Consequent Flow
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters, laboratory testing on reconstituted samples has been recognized as a useful tool for making the most conservative estimate of the residual strength of in situ sands. A similar argument may be developed as to the cyclic strength controlling the triggering of liquefaction. The relationship between the cyclic strength and the Ni value summarized in Fig. 12.2 is reproduced in Fig. 16.1 in the form of a belt zone where most of the proposed correlations are clustered. Also shown superimposed in Fig. 16.1 are the points derived from the results of the coalescent tests conducted in the United States and Japan.