bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Yeomans J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A phase trans1t10n occurs when there is a singularity in the free energy or one of its derivatives. What is often visible is a sharp change in the properties of a substance. The transitions from liquid to gas, from a normal conductor to a superconductor, or from paramagnet to ferromagnet are common examples. The phase diagram of a typical fluid is shown in Fig. 1.1. As the temperature and pressure are varied water can exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas. \Yell-defined phase boundaries separate the regions in which each state is stable. Crossing the phase boundaries there is a jump in the density and a latent heat, signatures of a first-order transition.
Models
Authors: Yeomans J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to describe some of the most fundamental models of cooperative behaviour. To model a physical system one route is to include, as realistically as possible, all the complicated many body interactions and try to obtain a quantitative prediction of the behaviour by solving Schrödinger’s equation numerically. The other extreme is to write down the simplest possible model that still includes the essential physics and hope that it is tractable to analytic or precise numerical solution. The aim here is often to study universal behaviour or to gain a qualitative understanding of the physics governing the behaviour of a given class of materials.
The transfer matrix
Authors: Yeomans J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to describe how transfer matrices can be used to solve one-dimensional classical spin models. The idea is to write down the partition function in terms of a matrix, the transfer matrix. The thermodynamic properties of the model are then wholly described by the eigenspectrum of the matrix. In particular the free energy per spin in the thermodynamic limit depends only on the largest eigenvalue and the correlation length only on the two largest eigenvalues through simple formulae.
Series expansions
Authors: Yeomans J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Exact power series expansions for thermodynamic functions have in the past proved an invaluable aid to understanding the critical behaviour of insoluble models. Indeed, the first suggestions of power law singularities at criticality were based on such analyses. Immediately before the renormalization group was proposed, work using series expansions had led to a large body of evidence that exponents had universal properties, that they were the same above and below the critical temperature, and that mean-field values set in abruptly above four dimensions.
The renormalization group
Authors: Yeomans J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The approaches described so far in this book have given a broad phenomenological understanding of critical phenomena. However, although a substantial framework of results and connections has been built up, we have, as yet, no explanations for the following: What is needed is a theory, based on the physics of what is happening at the critical point. we argued in Chapter 1 that the special feature of criticality is that the correlation length is infinite and that the critical system is invariant on all length scales. The aim is to write down a (hopefully short, elegant, and comprehensible) mathematical theory which embodies this physics and explains all the observations listed above. A useful theory will also allow the calculation of critical exponents and transition temperatures, if not exactly, then within an accurate and well-controlled approximation scheme.
Catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) and COMT Inhibitors
Authors: Männistö P T , Ulmanen I , Taskinen J , Kaakkola S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT, EC 2.1.1.6) is a ubiquitous enzyme in nature, occurring in various plants, microorganisms (e.g. bacteria and yeasts), invertebrates, and vertebrates, including elasmobranchs (e.g. sharks), amphibians (e.g. frogs), birds, and mammals (Guldberg and Marsden 1975; Sariaslani and Rosazza 1983). It is unlikely that all of them share the same COMT protein(s). COMT is distributed throughout the various organs. In mammals, the highest sactivities are in liver and kidney.
Inhibitors of Aldose Reductase
Authors: Dvornik Dushan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aldose reductase (AR) inhibitors are designed to interfere with the initiation and early development of secondary complications of chronic diabetes mellitus. The concept was deduced from the insight that, in diabetic tissues with insulin-independent glucose uptake, excess glucose is metabolized via the polyol (sorbitol) pathway. The polyol pathway comprises two enzymatic reactions: in tandem, glucose is reduced to sorbitol by AR using NADPH, and sorbitol is oxidized to fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase using NAD+ (Fig. 16.1). According to Vander Jagt et al. (1990), AR functions as an NADPH-binding protein, thus facilitating oxidation of NADPH. In contrast with other aldehyde or ketone reductases, such as lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) or alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), AR is almost exclusively a ‘one-way catalyst, with a ratio of catalytic efficiency for the forward versus the reverse reaction that is 1000-100 000 times higher than that for either LDH or ADH (Grimshaw 1991).
Miscellaneous Topics
Authors: Schwartz J C , Gros C , Duhamel P , Duhamel L , Lecomte J M , Bralet J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two major hormonal peptide systems appear to play opposite roles in the regulation of electrolyte balance and blood pressure, so that their imbalance might be responsible for cardiovascular and salt-retention dis orders affecting much of the population. The first is the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system which several classes of established or potential antihypertensive agents, namely the inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE; EC 3.4.15.1), tend to oppose. The second consists of atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), also called atrial natriuretiic peptide (ANP), a 28 amino acid peptide (Fig. 17A.1) secreted by the heart into the circulation to decrease blood pressure, raise the urinary excretion of water and sodium, and lower plasma renin and aldosterone levels (Brenner et al. I 990).
Introductory survey
Authors: Lovesey S W , Collins S P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our purpose in this chapter is to give an introductory survey of the physical properties of magnetic materials that have recently been investigated by X-ray techniques. Hence, we cover the nature of the relevant techniques, namely absorption (dichroism) and elastic (diffraction) and inelastic (spectroscopy) scattering, and representative examples of materials that have been investigated. Later chapters expand on all aspects of the material, ranging from experimental methods, properties of synchrotron photon sources, and instrumentation through to a theoretical framework for the interpretation of measured signals at an atomic level of detail. For the moment, though, it is our goal to provide an overview of our subject, with minimal attention to finer points.
Non-resonant magnetic diffraction from antiferromagnets
Authors: Lovesey S W , Collins S P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The availability of experimental data on magnetic X-ray scattering has prompted a number of authors to develop cross-sections which include magnetic interactions; for diffraction a seminal paper is de Bergevin and Brunel (1981). However, despite a surge of activity over recent years, with a strong emphasis on elastic magnetic diffraction, the influence of electronic spin on photon scattering amplitudes has in fact been understood for a long time. A number of papers on the scattering cross-sections for an isolated polarized electron have appeared since the famous work of Klein and Nishina (1929), who derived an exact expression for the scattering of an electromagnetic wave from a free electron. One of the most interesting of these papers is that of Gell-Mann and Goldberger (1954), who developed the magnetic scattering amplitude using both classical physics and quantum mechanics. The important result was to demonstrate that for photon energies which are very low in comparison with the electron energy, the quantum and classical formalisms give exactly the same result. Although the electronic spin itself does not appear naturally from classical physics and has to be added in a rather ad hoc manner, the result is none the less useful as an aid to visualizing the physics behind magnetic scattering.
Non-resonant magnetic diffraction from ferromagnets
Authors: Lovesey S W , Collins S P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous two chapters we learnt that magnetic (Bragg) diffraction intensities, generated by the magnetic cross-section ((1.4) and (2.34), for example), are generally very much weaker than those of charge scattering, often by 6-8 orders of magnitude.
Kinematics and dynamics of electrons and holes in energy bands
Authors: Balkanski M , Wallis R F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the features that distinguishes semiconductors from metals is that the current carriers can include not only electrons in the conduction band, but also empty electron states or holes in the valence band. The dynamical response of these current carriers to external electric and magnetic fields is strongly affected by the energy band structure of the semiconductor and is characterized by their effective mass and charge. These parameters can be determined by means of cyclotron resonance and Hall effect, respectively.
Surface properties of semiconductors
Authors: Balkanski M , Wallis R F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physical boundaries of a semiconductor are found to produce significant effects on its electronic and vibrational properties. If the boundary separates the semiconductor from vacuum or a gas, it is referred to as a surface. If the semiconductor is separated from a liquid or a solid, the boundary is called an interface. Many of the technological applications of semiconductors are based on surface and interface effects. In the present chapter we focus on surface effects and defer our consideration of interface effects to Chapter 15.
Semiconductor lasers and photodevices
Authors: Balkanski M , Wallis R F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emis sion of Radiation. The concept of stimulated emission is due to Einstein, whose studies of the statistical mechanics of electromagnetic radiation indicated that the usual treatment based on induced absorption and spontaneous emission violates the principle of detailed balance. In order to correct this deficiency, Einstein introduced the notion that a system in an excited state is stimulated by the radiation field to emit a photon and drop to a lower energy state.
The motion of bodies along conic sections
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The propositions of Section III and most particularly Proposition XI (in which the inverse-square law of attraction is deduced for bodies revolving in ellipses under the action of a ‘a centripetal force tending to the focus of the ellipse’) are commonly regarded as the apex of the Principia. This view, in my judgement, greatly diminishes the Principia. Newton himself did not accord Proposition XI any special significance when he came to formulating his universal law of gravitation in Book III: his main references are to Propositions I-IV and especially Proposition IV and its seven ccrollaries (see Chapter 19).
Kepler’s equation and its solution
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
presentation of Section III of the Principia was completed in Chapter 6. Sections IV and V which follow are of the nature of an intermezzo: in them we are led into the realm of the conic sections that forms the background against which the rest of the play is to be enacted. There is much of interest in these sections. But we shall pass them by since they are not essential to the subsequent developments; and besides there is an excellent account of them by J. J. Milne that is already available (Isaac Newton,1642-1727, a memorial volume, W. J. Greenstreet, London 1927, pp. 96-114).
On revolving orbits
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Newton introduces the subject of this Section IX at the conclusion of Section VIII thus: I have hitherto considered the motions of bodies in immovable orbits. It remains now to add something concerning their motions in orbits which revolve round the centres of force. The problem he considers is the following. We know that under a centripetal law of attractive force a body is constrained to move in a fixed plane; and that it describes in this plane equal areas in equal times. Let r = f(&lt;/J) be such an orbit described under a centripetal force P(r). Consider the locus r = f(rx&lt;/J) where rx is some prescribed constant.
The universal law of gravitation
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After his Prolegomenon (Chapter 18), Newton proceeds to the deduction of his universal law of gravitation in the first 14 Propositions of Book III. We shall begin by listing the 19 propositions of Book I, the three propositions of Book II, and the Rules of Reasoning that will serve as the basis of Newton’s reasoning. An examination of this list is already of interest for revealing the priorities that Newton attaches to the various propositions; and in particular to Proposition XI (and XLI) in which he proved that a body will revolve in an elliptic orbit about its focus if acted upon by a centripetal force inversely as the square of the distance from the focus. It will be recalled that it was on hearing from Newton (in August, 1684) that he had proved this proposition ‘some years earlier’ and on receiving in the same year (November, 1684) De M otu Corporum in Gyrum in which the proposition is proved, that Halley persuaded Newton to embark on what was to become Philosophie naturalis Principia Mathematica. Nevertheless, Newton refers to Proposition XI only casually —almost as an afterthought¬ in the last but one of the 14 propositions that comprise this section. Newton’s priorities are clearly different.
The kinematics of fluids
Authors: Guyon Etienne , Hulin Jean-Pierre , Petit Luc , Mitescu Catalin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter covers the study of the motion of a fluid including, in particular, the analysis of its deformations (or strains), without concerning itself with the origin of these strains, which is discussed in Chapter 4. We start by indicating the methods used to characterize the motion of the fluid (Section 3.1)-the definition of the velocity of a particle of fluid, the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions, the acceleration and paths characteristic of a flow-and then we analyse (in Section 3.2) the strains in the fluid.
Synchrotron radiation and electromagnetic waves
Authors: Duke Philip John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Synchrotron radiation was first observed in 1947 and began to be used as a research tool in the mid-l960s. The first synchrotron radiation sources were low energy (several hundred MeV) electron accelerators which were also used for nuclear and particle physics. It was quickly realized that the needs of the growing number of people who used synchrotron radiation for their research required dedicated sources of radiation. Many of these research programmes required X-radiation, which pointed to the need for these sources to accelerate electrons to GeV energies in order to provide a useful output of X-rays as well as lower energy radiation. The first such dedicated X-ray source was the SRS (Synchrotron Radiation Source) at the Daresbury Laboratory in the UK, which operates at 2 GeV electron energy. The SRS did not retain its unique status for long. The NSLS (National Synchrotron Light Source) at Brookhaven, USA and the Photon Factory, Tsukuba, Japan quickly followed. There were similar developments in the then USSR; initially at Akademgorodok, Novosibirsk, and later in Moscow. The most recent advances have included the construction and operation of large scale facilities at Grenoble, France (ESRE 6 GeV) Argonne, USA (APS, 7 GeV) and Nishi-Harima, Japan (SPring-8, 8 GeV).
Radiation from moving electrons
Authors: Duke Philip John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electromagnetic waves in free space—no electric charges or currents In Chapter 2 we showed that Maxwell’s equations for the electromagnetic field could be rearranged as two equations which described the progress of an electric and a magnetic field throughout the whole of space and time at a speed which experiment showed was equal to the speed of light. We call these two waves electromagnetic radiation. Let us consider their properties.
Introduction to electron storage rings
Authors: Duke Philip John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Principles of operation The development of circular (or approximately circular) electron storage rings has been essential for the construction and utilization of synchrotron radiation sources. These machines have evolved from the first cyclotron, constructed by Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901-58) at the Berkeley campus of the University of California in 1932, to the massive complexes operating or under construction at present-day research centres. A brief historical survey has been compiled by Wiedemann.
Synchrotron radiation from electron storage rings
Authors: Duke Philip John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Description of the electron beam At any point in the storage ring, an electron can be described in terms of its position, its direction of motion, and its energy. It is convenient to measure these quantities relative to the ideal electron orbit. If we imagine a coordinate system as shown in Fig. 9.1 then at any given instant, any individual electron will be located at a point (x, y) in an x−y plane which intersects the ideal orbit at a point P, located at a distance s measured along the ideal orbit from some arbitrary starting point s0. This coordinate frame must be imagined as moving around the ideal orbit, so that, relative to an observer in the laboratory, the coordinate axes s and x(which with y, form a set of mutually perpendicular coordinate axes) change their direction in space as the electron moves around the storage ring. The advantage of this coordinate system is that it enables us to describe the movement of the electron in position and time relative to the ideal orbit as though the ideal orbit were a straight line.
Insertion devices—wigglers
Authors: Duke Philip John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Insertion devices are a general term for a range of magnetic elements which can be added to a storage ring (or designed in from the beginning). They are designed to provide radiation whose characteristics are enhanced compared with that available from the dipole magnets. The insertion device is placed in a drift space between the existing magnets of the storage ring. There are two principal types of such devices—the multipole wiggler and the undulator which are illustrated and compared with the dipole source in Fig. 13.1. Synchrotron radiation from dipole magnets has many desirable characteristics and the aim of the insertion device is to improve on these. These improvements are best described with reference to Table 13.1.
Insertion devices—undulators
Authors: Duke Philip John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Multipole wigglers have, in general, high magnetic fields and large K values. They are used to augment or enhance the synchrotron radiation spectrum at high photon energy. Undulators represent a logical extension of the multipole wiggler towards lower magnetic fields, more magnetic poles, and shorter magnetic wavelengths (see Fig. 13.1 ). These devices are designed with K values of the order of unity and operate in a completely different way to wigglers with large K. When K≈1 the maximum deflection angle of the electrons is of the same order as the angle of production of the radiation and the photons are emitted in a narrow forward cone.
Flux-Jumping In Superconductive Filaments And Composites; Stability Criteria
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The emergence of hard Type-II superconductors, once their behaviour and mechanism had been understood—see Chapter 2—raised considerable expectations as to their application in different domains. Increased performance and savings were expected from the use of high magnetic fields such as reduced energy losses in the excitation windings of electrical transformers and machines, smaller running costs and devices of reduced size, compared to ‘classical’ ones. When by the early 1960s the first technical super-conductors became available in the form of NbTi wires of 100—250 mm diameter and of Nb3Sn tapes of∼ 0.1 mm thickness, the obtained performances were disappointing; the test coils either failed at currents and magnetic fields well below the critical values or exhibited considerable training, a large number of quenches before approaching nominal performance.
The Quenching Process In Superconducting Magnets And Their Protection
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transition from the superconductive to the normal state in superconducting magnets and their protection from possible serious consequences of the quenching process have been investigated since the early development of superconducting coils. It has been demonstrated that the electromagnetic and mechanical energies stored in the magnet coils and released during a quench could seriously damage or even destroy them, unless adequate quench protection schemes and devices are implemented. With the recent development of large-size superconducting magnets wound with high jc, and high field superconductors of high energy density, the problem of protecting individual or strings of magnets has grown in complexity. With the emergence of large superconductive magnet systems in particle accelerators and colliders one had to extend the notion of quench protection of a single magnet to a string of interconnected magnets. The quenching process and the quench protection analysis comprise a large number of magnet components, which can be divided into internal and external elements.
Winding Configurations For Superconducting Accelerator Magnets
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapter on transverse beam dynamics examples of classical 2n-pole magnets for particle accelerators have been given. The steady development and improvement of technical superconductors of high jc and B as described in Chapter 5, led to a vigorous development of superconducting magnets for accelerators and colliders; an energy increase by a factor of 4-5 could be achieved solely by increasing B. A number of successfully operating accelerators and colliders like the I GeV Tevatron in the USA and the 800 GeV HERA in Germany were built and the design and construction of the ambitious project of the 7 TeV—7 TeV hadron collider LHC of CERN is under way.
High Field Solenoids And Detector Magnets
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
High field solenoidal magnets or solenoids belong to the second large group of superconducting high field magnets to be treated in this book. In fact, solenoids were the first devices to be wound and tested since the emergence of technical superconductors, which started with the development of Nb3Sn wires by Kunzler et al. in 1951 [1]. Solenoids are still efficient devices for the testing of technical superconductors and for the verification of specific coil winding techniques.