bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Demise of the Turing Machine tn Complexity Theory
Authors: Stewart Iain A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Computational complexity theory is essentially an aspect of recursive function theory involving the consideration of specified resources. These resources are usually those of time and space, where time and space are defined relative to the model of computation involved. Given that the model of computation used in recursive function theory is often the Turing machine (with most models related via the Church-Turing thesis, of course), it is not surprising that this model plays a central role in complexity theory, with the notion of time being the number of moves in a computation and that of space being the number of tape cells used. It is usually the case that restrictions are imposed on the Turing-machine model and that relationships between the classes of Turing machines so obtained are studied. For example, a well-known complexity class is P, the class of all deterministic polynomial-time Turing machines, obtained by imposing the restriction that this class should consist of those Turing machines which halt on all inputs and expend time polynomial in the length of the input string in any computation (the polynomial is fixed).
Religions and Language: the Myths of a Single Source and of Superiority
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This much is obvious: the language wars that will be discussed through out this book would not have occurred in a world with only one language. At the origin of the conflict lies the multilingualism of the planet. It is not the only reason for the war but it is a necessary condition. If we examine a map of the world and look for populations and their languages under states and frontiers, we find ourselves faced with a vast jigsaw puzzle.
Case Studies: Language Planning and Nationalism
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As in the previous examples, the origin of the Norwegian language problem is a political event. After three centuries (from 1523 to 1814) of domination over Norway, Denmark, which had been involved in the Napoleonic Wars on the side of Great Britain, was obliged by Bernadotte to abandon this domination and give way to Sweden (the Treaty of Kiel, 1814). Denmark had, however, tried a last-minute manoeuvre to avoid this loss of sovereignty, and granted Norway an extremely liberal constitution, called the ‘Eidsvold constitution’ and a parliament, the storting. These provisions, which Sweden accepted, led to the debates we shall now discuss.
Case Study: The Language Struggle of the Jivaro of Ecuador
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let us begin with some precise terminology: the ‘Jivaro’ never call themselves ‘Jivaro’ but ‘Shuar’. In fact, the term ‘jibaro’ means ‘peasant’ in Spanish, with a pejorative connotation, and was applied to the people living in Peruvian and Ecuadorian Amazonia by the first arrivals from the Iberian peninsula, in the sixteenth century. I have kept it for the title of this chapter, for reasons of clarity, since the Shuar are practically un known in Europe, as is their culture, especially if their famous practice of head-shrinking, the ‘tsantsas’, is excluded. But from now on I shall de scribe this people by using the name that they use: Shuar.
Hobbes: Ancient and Modem
Authors: Goldsmith M M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a strong case for regarding Hobbes as the first distinctively modern political philosopher. That case does not rely on Hobbes’s rejection of antiquity, even though he trenchantly repudiated at least some Greek and Roman political ideas. Nor does it rely on Hobbes’s ignorance or rejection of the political theory of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries: the natural law theories of the neo-scholastic ‘School of Salamanca’ and of Grotius, or the tracts of the monarchomachs and their opponents.
Introduction
Authors: Senft Gunter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The famous German poet Friedrich Schiller, in Act II, scene ii of his classic drama Wallensteins Tod, has his protagonist, General Wallenstein, recite the following: Eng ist die Welt, und das Gehirn ist weit-Leicht beieinander wohnen die Gedanken, Doch hart im Raume stoBen sich die Sachen. With these phrases Schiller describes exactly the problem linguists and anthropologists have to face in researching conceptions of space and spatial reference in different cultures and languages. Together with Jandl’s poem, this quotation forms a kind of motto for this anthology, which presents studies on space and spatial reference in Austronesian and Papuan languages.
Modifying, Switching, and Recalling Contexts
Authors: Emmott Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Judging contextual continuity and change requires inference-making on the part of the reader. Chapter 4 suggested that narrative events may require the updating of overt and covert entity representations, yet, in a particular context, the reader must also assume some contextual continuity. These assumptions of continuity are necessary, but readers also need to recognize that contexts can change. Characters may move in and out of a location or, alternatively, the narrative may shift to a completely new context. This chapter explores these different types of context change and examines the mechanisms by which a context which has previously been activated may be reinstated.
Mental Representations, Inference-Making, and Reference Theory
Authors: Emmott Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Previous chapters have argued that the notion of mental representations is needed to explain how information that has been provided at an earlier point in a text is available at subsequent points to supplement the literal words of the text. For narrative text, important mental representations are entity representations, which provide information about particular characters, and contextual frames, which monitor which characters are together in a location at any particular time. These representations explain the behaviour of characters and provide information which enables ‘shorthand’ forms such as pronouns to be interpreted.
Logical Consequence: Models and Modality
Authors: Shapiro Stewart 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My long-standing interest in the notion of logical consequence became urgent when I was working on my recent book on higher-order logic (1991). The most common complaint is that second-order logic is out of bounds. as logic, because its consequence relation is not effective. Even though higher order logic is squarely within the prevailing model-theoretic tradition, its set of logical truths is not recursively enumerable-it is not even in the Kleene hierarchy.
The Iberian Peninsula: Conflicting Linguistic Nationalisms
Authors: Mar-Molinero Clare 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of language and of nationalism in the Iberian Peninsula—that is, present-day Spain and Portugal—shows many of the same features as other Western European countries, reflecting the emergence of unified states from fragmented communities and medieval kingdoms. The story of a series of conquests, the most important of which being the Roman, characterizes the development of linguistic varieties in the peninsula. What distinguishes the peninsula, however, from neighbouring European areas, is the conquest and long occupation of large parts by the Arabic-speaking Moors. The influence that the latter left on the language and culture of Spain and Portugal, and the significance of the bringing together of potentially hostile groups during the Reconquista against a common enemy, cannot be overstated.
Basic Concepts of Grammatical Theory
Authors: McGregor William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss some of the most fundamental concepts of grammatical theory, necessary for the elaboration of SG. The first section begins by discussing the notion of constituency and suggests that current conceptions are misguided. It proposes that constituency must be understood as the syntagmatic relationship between a part and the whole to which it belongs, specifically the function that the former serves in the latter. Following this, in section 2.2, we briefly discuss the classification of words into parts of speech categories. Section 2.3 goes on to argue that Saussure’s notion of the sign permits an understanding of the nature of constituents and functions, as well as the special relationship between them. This leads to a general discussion of the nature of meaning. In section 2.4 some important preliminaries are set out, through a discussion of the Saussurean dichotomy between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships. It is argued that both types of relationship are fundamental to grammatical theory, and that they are mutually defining and logically independent; this means that neither can be replaced by the other. Finally, in section 2.5 we outline the contextual theory of meaning that informs SG.
Nominal and Locational Switching
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having discussed category switches for predicate adjectives, we will now proceed to explore category-switching for the two remaining nonverbal predicate classes. For both predicate nominals and locationals, category-switching is a rather rare phenomenon, which is why we can deal with N-switching and L-switching in one single chapter. The relative marginality of these types of switching is, of course, to be expected. Unlike adjectives, nominals and locationals have their own prototypical strategy, which makes these categories more resistent to partial takeover, as well as to takeover in general. For the same reason, those switches which do not feature the prototypical strategy for the category in question will be highly unlikely to occur. V-L-switching for nominals is marginal, and V-N-switching for locationals has not been attested at all.
Time as Spacetime
Authors: Nerlich Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sore spot in the philosophy of time is, and always was, the idea that the present time is metaphysically remarkable whereas the present place is not. So the present time is, somehow, a burning topic, one which is tied, in the minds of many, to the vexed question whether or not time flows. There are two main but rather different ideas about all this: first, that it has something to do with language; second, that it is tied tightly to the way we experience the world. The first idea has led to a great deal of ingenious analysis of tensed language aiming either to show that, metaphysically, tense is deep or that it is shallow. The second theme has proved less approachable for, while the sense of something experientially primitive and striking about the present is strong, it proves difficult indeed to say what this highly intuitive feature is. I want to discuss both sorts of view.
Tense and Egocentricity in Fiction
Authors: Currie Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fictions are said to transport us to other times and places. Not literally, of course, but in imagination. On this view, the engrossed reader of Scott’;s The Talisman imagines things the book describes as occurring in twelfth-century Palestine, not as events long ago and far away, but as here and now. As such a reader, I do not imagine those events occurring in Australia in the late twentieth century, which is where I am actually located. Rather, I imagine that my here and now is the place and time of the novel. So it is said.
Miklukho-Maklai
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Great changes were occurring on Rapanui. Following Father Zumbohm’s departure, the two remaining missionaries Father Roussel and Brother Escolan became the almost daily target of the megalomaniac Frenchman Dutrou Hornier and his henchmen. There were shootings and burnings. Dutrou Hornier claimed to rule the island. But only terror and desperation ruled Rapanui at the end of 1870.
Pebbles and Pearls
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the same time that Thomas Barthel in Germany and Knorozov, Butinov, and Fedorova in Russia were turning the study of Easter Island’s rongorongo script into a scientific discipline, the number of popular publications on the subject was skyrocketing. This sudden public awareness of rongorongo can doubtless be ascribed to the phenomenal interest in Rapanui that had been generated by Thor Heyerdahl’s Norwegian Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific in 1955-56, and especially by the remarkable commercial success of Heyerdahl’s later written account of this adventure, Aku-Aku (1958). (Tremendous changes were taking place on Rapanui, too, and a radical new life style for the Rapanui people was shortly to intrude on the island, for better or worse.) Most of these publications on rongorongo were superficial and erroneous. Few serious scholars braved a creative analysis of the script. Of these few, only a handful were properly trained linguists and epigraphers. And, all too typically, for most of even these, it was as if Barthel and the Russians had never set pen to paper.
The Rongorongo Inscriptions
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Inscription” here signifies a sequence of two or more glyphs that have been incised for a proven or assumed non-ornamental purpose. With the physical description of the tablets, all measurements are given in maximum centimetres. If these measurements differ from those in the secondary literature, it is because I have measured nearly every artefact in situ.2 Glyph “totals” are only speculative, non-functional approximations, since the many glyphic fusions are ignored in the count. The constituent elements of the compounds as well as most affixes are counted separately. I have here adopted Barthel’s prudent custom of calling such counted glyphs “elements”.
Syntax of the Verb Cluster
Authors: Kathol Andreas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the hallmarks of modern feature-based theories such as HPSG or LFG is that much of the work that had been attributed to the transformational machinery in frameworks such as Government Binding theory is instead captured in terms of informational identity among different parts of different pieces of linguistic structure. us In HPSG, this is achieved by means of structure sharing. This notion is of particular relevance in the description of nonfinite complementation. On the common view approach, any dissociation between syntactic and semantic ‘subjecthood’, such as in subject-to-subject raising constructions, is achieved by means of trans formational relationships among syntactic tree representations. Lexicalist theories instead treat raising constructions in terms of a (partial) informational identity between the NP and VP dependents of the raising verb. In Pollard & Sag’s (1994) rendition of raising as structure sharing, the subcategorization information of the subject-raising verb consists of an NP subject and a VP complement. The subject required by that VP is not provided by means of some inaudible element (‘PRO’); rather the raising verb lexically states the token-identity between its own subject and the understood subject of the dependent VP predicate.
Tone
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pitch is not in itself a phonological feature; it is a phonetic feature with a variety of prosodic functions, and it can only be interpreted phonologically in the light of these different functions. These functions are usually assigned to one of three broad types: tone, accent, and intonation. The precise definitions of these, and the criteria for delimiting them, are, however, a matter of some controversy. Intonation can be distinguished from the other two first because its domain of application is the phrase or the sentence, rather than the word, and second because its function is discourse-oriented rather than lexical or grammatical. Pitch-accent involves the use of pitch in an accentual function, i.e. to give prominence to one particular element, as discussed in Chapter 3. Tone, finally, has lexical or grammatical significance, as an intrinsic property of a morpheme, word, or grammatical construction.
Plato’s Parmenides
Authors: Palmer John A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I shall suggest that Plato understood Parmenides as presenting in the deduction that comprises the bulk of BS a description of the cosmos in its intelligible aspect qua being. This description is compatible with a description of the cosmos considered from another perspective as a differentiated world system. We shall also see that the possibility of considering the cosmos from different perspectives and describing it in its different aspects relates in important ways to the problem of how one thing can have many names.
Individual Responsibility for Health
Authors: Beaufort Inez De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In these times of limited resources for health care, different criteria for the allocation of health care both on a micro- as well as on a macro- (societal) level are being discussed by philosophers, physicians, and policy-makers. I will discuss one of the criteria that has featured in the Netherlands, in quite heated debates, that is the responsibility of the individual for his or her own health. (More colloquially: does one have to pay for one ‘s faults and unhealthy habits?) Some people have a chronic unhealthy lifestyle: they smoke, drink, work too hard, eat junk food, and engage in ‘unsafe’ sexual adventures. Others have dangerous hobbies like hang gliding, parachute jumping, or participating in the Paris-Dakar rally.
Perplexity and the Figure of Socrates
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No doubt some philosophers are much more given to perplexity than others. Certainly some of us admit to being perplexed much more readily than others do. Still, perplexity is so central to philosophy, to what interests us in philosophical questions in the first place, and to what keeps us awake at night thinking about them, that it is hard to imagine a good philosopher who is not thoroughly familiar with the bewilderingly unsettling experience of being philosophically perplexed.
Professionalized Perplexity: The Midwife
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The writings of Plato give us three memorable images of Socrates. In the Apology Socrates describes himself as ‘a kind of gadfly’ for ‘a great and noble horse’, Athens, which, he says, needs to be stirred up (3oe). In the Meno, as we have seen, Socrates’ interlocutor characterizes him as a stingray who ‘makes anyone who comes close and touches it feel numb’ and unable to speak (8oa). Socrates, as I have emphasized, accepts the stingray image, provided that the stingray also stings itself, for, as he insists, he is himself as numb and perplexed as those he interrogates. The implication is clearly that some of the same questions that numb and perplex Socrates’ interlocutors also numb and perplex him. So the second image of Socrates is that of the self-stinging stingray.
Objectivity and Convergence
Authors: Skorupski John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
truth depends upon agreement with the object, and in respect of it the judgements of each and every understanding must therefore be in agreement with each other (consentientia uni tertio, consentiunt inter se). The touchstone whereby we decide whether our holding a thing to be true is conviction or mere persuasion is there fore external, namely, the possibility of communicating it and of finding it to be valid for all human reason. For there is then at least a presumption that the ground of the agreement of all judgements with each other, notwithstanding the differing characters of individuals, rests upon the common ground, namely, upon the object, and that it is for this reason that they are all in agreement with the object-the truth of the judgement being thereby proved.1
Reasons and Reason
Authors: Skorupski John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have reasons to believe, to act, to feel. We deal in reasons at every turn—for example I have reason to believe you covered for me in an emergency, reason to feel grateful and so reason to thank you in some more or less substantial way. What we make of a person turns on how that person responds or fails to respond to reasons in one or other of these three domains—belief, feeling, and action. Personality is the manner of one’s responsiveness to reasons. A testy person is more easily annoyed than he has reason to be. A credulous person believes when there is insufficient reason to believe. A precipitate person acts when there is insufficient reason to act.
Descartes: Heart and Soul
Authors: Voss Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘The preservation of health’, writes Descartes to the Marquess of Newcastle in October 1645, ‘has always been the principal end of my studies’ (AT IV, 329: CSMK, 275).1 In a famous passage in the Discourse on Method, to which we shall return, he explains why medical matters mean so much to him.
Faithfulness and Prosodic Circumscription
Authors: McCarthy John J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Faithfulness constraints have been an essential part of Optimality Theory (OT) since its inception (Prince and Smolensky 1991, 1993), but the form and function of faithfulness constraints have evolved. McCarthy and Prince (1995a) propose that faithfulness constraints are formalized within a Correspondence Theory of relations between representations. Correspondence Theory permits the statement of constraints demanding faithfulness to diverse linguistic entities, such as features, segments, and prosodic constituents. Furthermore, it generalizes faithfulness from its original role, comparing underlying and surface forms, to similar but distinct linguistic relations, such as comparing a stem to its reduplicative copy.
Derivational Residue: Hidden Rules in Optimality Theory
Authors: LaCharité Darlene , Paradis Carole 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Optimality Theory (OT) (following McCarthy and Prince 1993; Prince and Smolensky 1993) has focused on the identification and articulation of ranked phonological constraints by test-driving phonological phenomena from a variety of languages through selected subsets of those constraints. OT’s goal has been to account for phonological generalizations within languages, and for differences among languages, using universal surface constraints that are prioritized on a language-specific basis, instead of using rules, derivations and intermediate representations, as in Chomsky and Halle (1968) (henceforth SPE).
Introduction and Methodology
Authors: May Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My aims in this book are threefold. The first is to scrutm1ze Nietzsche’s subtle critique of certain key concepts and values of traditional Judaeo-Christian morality and its secular embodiments--a critique that, I will argue, is far from uniformly hostile to that morality. Throughout I take traditional ‘morality’ to be simply one type of ethics, despite its claims to universal validity. And I take ‘ethics’ to be concerned with two general questions, to which the traditional ‘morality’ examined by Nietzsche supplies a very particular set of answers: namely, what is the ‘good’ life for agents? And what are the best means-virtues, values, and practices-for attaining it? How I regulate my behaviour towards others is, on this definition, only one aspect of the good and its attainment.