bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Seleukid Peace, 193-129 BC
Authors: Grainger John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inclusion of the Phoenician cities in the huge Seleukid empire, rather than the much smaller Ptolemaic kingdom, does not seem to have seriously affected the cities’ economic fortunes. There is little sign of any difference in trade or trading direction between the third and second centuries, except in a certain intensification of previous practice. Perhaps the Egyptian market was more difficult to enter, since it was now foreign territory, but detail and evidence is lacking. The merchants themselves are unlikely to leave epigra phic traces of their presence, for they were often mobile. Thus Hannibal located a Tyrian merchant called Ariston in Ephesos in 194 and persuaded him to take a message to Carthage. It was clearly not a suspicious matter that a merchant of Tyre should travel from Ephesos to Carthage. Hannibal also seems to have been able to locate such a man in Ephesos easily.
The ‘Minister’ Of Nero
Authors: Griffin Miriam T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two of our principal sources for the reign of Nero credit Seneca and Burrus with the excellence of the early years. Tacitus and Cassius Dio differ somewhat in defining the temporal limits of their ascendancy, but both agree that, for a period, they effectively controlled Nero and exercised their control in the interest of good government. The lack of prominence accorded them by our third main source, Suetonius’Nero, is not contrary evidence but merely reflects the biographer’s natural tendency to portray his subject as the focus of activity.
The Nature and Function of the Agon
Authors: Lloyd Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
GREEK tragedies are representations of human action, but also formal structures with internal rules of their own. The possibilities of tension between these two aspects of tragedy are especially evident in the plays of Euripides, which combine realism with a marked formalism of structure. This formalism is most apparent in the construction of his plays as sequences of distinct formal units. These units tend to be strongly demarcated within the individual play, and to contain formulaic elements which recur in many plays. Electra, for example, can be analysed as a series of set-pieces: prologue speech, actor’s monody, formal rhesis, stichomythia, messenger speech, agon, and deus ex machina. The formality and distinctness of these set-pieces is emphasized, but the play is also, in some respects, realistic in its depiction of human behaviour.
Electra
Authors: Lloyd Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The agon in Electra resembles the scenes discussed in the previous chapter in that it involves two persons, who are closely related to each other. The resemblance to Hippolytus is especially striking, where the agon also comes towards the end of the play, is part of a larger structure rather than occupying a complete act, and involves a character arriving unawares into a situation in which he has already been condemned to dea. The Electra agon differs, however, in both the balance and the complexity of the arguments on each side. Of Euripides’ earlier agones, only that in Alcestis presents a problem about which side is in the right, at least on the narrower issues of the debate. The agon in Electra resembles those in Troades and Orestes in being finely balanced, with good arguments on both sides. Perhaps as a result of this, the arguments in these three scenes are detailed and complex, although another factor could be that all three scenes deal with much discussed problems.
The Hellenic League against Persia
Authors: Brunt P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ln 480-79 the Greeks saved themselves and the future of European civilization from Oriental conquest. They were victorious because they had achieved a certain measure of unity. For the first and last time in Greek history consciousness of community in race, language, religion and customs (Herodotus viii 144) formed the basis for common political action, prompted by a common danger. When the danger had passed, the Greek world was soon divided again by internecine feuds, which became more and more bitter till unity was only to be purchased by subjection to a foreign power, first and temporarily to Macedon and then, beyond all hope of redemption, to Rome.
Introduction to Thucydides
Authors: Brunt P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘My history is an everlasting possession, not a prize composition that is heard and forgotten’ (I 22). Thucydides meant his history to be instructive, and his proud claim which time has vindicated was not based on the literary merits of his work. Yet it was perhaps those merits that preserved it amid the loss of most of the classical literature of Greece. If some of the narrative is arid, Thucydides always rises to the great moments; no one could tell an exciting story better; he has the same sharp eye as Francis Parkman among the moderns for vivid details; and his dramatic gifts, worthy of the great age of Attic tragedy in which he lived, make us share the hopes and fears of the men whose actions and sufferings he recounts. Macaulay pronounced his seventh book the ne plus ultra of human art. In antiquity the crabbed style of the speeches with which his history abounds was justly criticized, yet even here he can attain to a monumental eloquence which few ancient authors rivalled.
Cicero and Historiography
Authors: Brunt P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a general consensus of scholarly opinion that with few exceptions Hellenistic historians sought primarily to ‘charm, divert, and edify’ and paid at most ‘lip-service to truth’; ‘if they deal with events already narrated by others, their overriding aim is not to outdo their predecessors in accuracy or balanced judgement, but to outshine them in splendid and dramatic description. Often the theme is chosen on artistic criteria, being a self-contained whole like a plot for tragedy’, and mere fables or irrelevant digressions are introduced ‘to alleviate the tedium of continuous narrative’.
Mamre
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
CONSTANTINE is the first person known to have built churches in Palestine at places Christians regard as holy. These churches were begun shortly after he defeated his rival Licinius, on 18 September 324, and became emperor of the East as well as the West. Our examination of Christian holy sites in Palestine will therefore begin with the four places which were developed by imperial order: Mamrefferebinthus (Ramat el-Khalil), Bethlehem, Golgotha in Jerusalem, and Eleona on the Mount of Olives. We will consider what we know about the history of these sites before their development by Constantine, and discuss the question of authenticity.
Bethlehem
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Jerom , the Cave of the Nativity in Bethlehem, 1 believed by Christians to be the place where Christ was born, had been a pagan cult site. ‘Bethlehem ... belonging now to us ... was overshadowed by a grove of Tammuz, that is to say, Adonis, and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of Venus was lamented’ (Ep.Iviii. 3). This attestation is fairly late, since the letter from which this comes is to be dated to 395. Eusebius does not mention any pagan veneration of the cave,3 and the absence of other specific patristic references to the fact has prompted some scholars to doubt whether it is true. In a recent study, Peter Welten has attempted to challenge the assumption that Tammuz-Adonis was worshipped here, arguing that there is no independent literary, numismatic, or archaeological evidence for any pagan cult in Bethlehem. Welten himself believes that Jerome was predisposed to thinking of the cave as being connected with Adonis because he knew of the Venus temple in Jerusalem.
The Bethany Cave, Gethsemane, and the Tomb of the Virgin
Authors: Taylor Joan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THREE places on the Mount of Olives apart from the Eleona cave require special attention. The first of these, the Bethany Cave, is a very recent rediscovery and is not yet developed into a tourist site. The latter two have never been forgotten; they are more or less part of the same complex, and are visited by a great many people every year. On the Mount of Olives, especially on the side facing Jerusalem, there are a number of different Christian holy sites. It is important not to see them as a package; if one site is genuine, then it does not mean that all are, and vice versa: if one site was invented out of nothing much, then this should not predispose us to think that all the sites must be Byzantine inventions. In the case of the Bethany Cave, it is important to establish just what it was in the Byzantine period, because its identification has been lost over the centuries. This is not necessary in the case of the Gethsemane Cave and the Tomb of the Virgin.
Tragedy and Iconography
Authors: Taplin Oliver 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On one level many of the mythological scenes in South Italian painting are ̔tragic̓: ornate clothing, scenes of suffering and catastrophe, the general ̔theatricality̓ of treatment. But the connection becomes more problematic, the line blurred and lacking resolution, once one tries to focus on whether a particular scene or a particular tragedy is or is not present, is or is not reflected or ̔illustrated̓, in a particular painting.
The Transplantation of Athenian Comedy
Authors: Taplin Oliver 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been generally–and surely rightly–supposed that Athenian tragedy was widely known and performed in Megale Hellas and Sicily in the fourth century. The enthusiasm of Dionysios, the construction of theatres, the reflections in painted pottery, and so forth, all attest this. It has also been generally supposed that Athenian comedy was not widely reperformed, at least not Old comedy. We lack evidence that any Aristophanes play was performed after its author’s lifetime, and I shall be surprised if evidence to that effect ever presents itself’, as it is put by K.J. Dover.1 This book has by now accumulated enough evidence that it was, especially in Apulia in the period up to 360, to mean that we now have to face the implications of this surprising discovery.
Commodities Sold in the Markets
Authors: Frayn Joan M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHEN we begin to consider the nature of the commodities actually on sale in the markets of Roman Italy, a number of problems arise. First, we must differentiate between the nundinaeexisting: before the advent of permanent macellain the urban areas, and those which continued to exist in certain sites and on private estates. We must also draw a distinction between the nundinaeand the macellain respect of their goods, and try to discern any change through time which takes place in the function of the markets, and therefore in their contents. There is also a line to be drawn at some point between the shop and the market stall. It will be easier to do this if we remember that the Roman shop was usually the sales outlet for a workshop or other premises in which the proprietor, with or without helpers, produced the goods he sold. It may well be found that the ‘general store’ had no place in the ancient town, and this, if true, would reveal something about the origin of the goods on sale.
The Affair of the Mysteries: Democracy and the Drinking Group
Authors: Murray Oswyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The events of the summer of 415 BC in Athens affected the lives of many individuals for the next twenty years; and, in the larger political view, they can be held to have been ultimately responsible for the fall of the Athenian empire, in that they opened up a fatal breach of mistrust in Athenian political life, between the demos and its traditional aristocratic leaders. This revelation of the potential existence of a true class struggle in Athens led directly to the defensive oligarchic reaction of 411 BC, and to that trahison des clercs which moulded intellectual attitudes to the Athenian democracy from the end of the fifth century onwards.
The Anacreontea
Authors: West M L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we think of Greek sympotic poetry, we think primarily of poetry composed between the seventh and fifth centuries BC. But we have sporadic examples from later periods. One may think, for instance, of that interesting collection of stanzas beginning with successive letters of the alphabet, and each rounded off with the refrain aǔλϵt чot the other of the third.1 Each stanza is self-contained, and expresses a gnomic, popular philosophy of a sub-Cynic, hedonistic kind. This appears to have been a favourite text at Oxyrhynchus over many generations.
Introduction
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To the Great King, seated on his throne at Susa or Persepolis, Greece and the Greeks were a very long way away, those of the mainland 2,000 miles or more as the crow ?ies. Nor can they have figured very largely in his mind. To the east, 1,200 miles or so, lay the satrapy of Bactriana and Sogdiana, the empire’s north-east frontier where the pressures of nomadic migration were especially to be felt and where, as Alexander was to discover, men were fierce fighters. Neither they nor those they kept in check could ever be neglected. Then there was Egypt, difficult to reach across its protective desert and difficult to hold in subjection. The mistake of incorporating it in the empire once made, imperial pride could not permit the sensible course of letting it go. That satrapy was out of control for about one third of the period between its conquest by Cambyses and the conquest of Alexander, and great efforts were constantly being made to recover it.
‘The lands beyond the sea’
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the late sixth century Persia was firmly established in Europe. In the inscription which Darius caused to be set on the upper edge of the south wall of the terrace at Persepolis there is included in the list of subject peoples, at the end of the western section, ‘countries which are across the sea’, and in the list given in the first Naqš-i-Rustam inscription after Ionia come ‘Scythians who are across the sea, Skudra, petasos-wearing (takabara) Ionians’. Both inscriptions thus refer to the European conquests of Darius.
From the King’s Peace to the End of the Social War
Authors: Cawkwell George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The King’s Peace of 387/386, whatever its precise terms, ended the long dispute over the status of the Greek cities of Asia. Not until the king of Macedon began to plan conquest with the Greeks of the mainland as his allies was Persian domination of any part of Asia challenged, save once. That was in 355 BG when the Athenian general Chares, needing to find money to pay his army and his ?eet, campaigned in support of a rebel satrap. He was initially successful but the King’s response was abrupt and decisive. He sent an embassy to Athens to require immediate withdrawal and to threaten massive naval support for Athens’ allies in revolt and the complete defeat of Athens (Diod. 16. 22). Athens promptly complied. She not only ordered Chares to leave Asia; she made peace with her allies and ended the Social War. Asia was secure.
Interpretatio: Making Sense of Catullus
Authors: Gaisser Julia Haig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although his companions in the first edition had all received printed commentaries by 1475 and were well on their way to acquiring a modern critical tradition, it was to be another decade before anyone published a commentary on Catullus. Renaissance readers could use Propertius and Tibullus to explain each other, and they found Statius’ subjects well documented in Martial and Pliny, but they lacked contemporary comparandaand sources for Catullus. Because the poet had appeared in the Renaissance without any critical baggage from the past, they lacked even the dubious guidance of ancient scholia or medieval allegories to assist their interpretations. Thus, they had to confront Catullus directly, explaining his poetry either from the confusing and corrupt text itself or from clues scattered here and there in other ancient authors.
Barbarian Officers and Generals
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fact that the defence of the Empire came to depend very largely on troops of non-Roman, and particularly Germanic, origin is remarkable, and must seem even more remarkable if we remember that the Romans had once been warlike and militarized to an altogether exceptional degree. It is natural to ask when and why this development came about and in what ways, if any, it affected the fighting efficiency of the army, and an attempt will be made in this chapter to provide some answers.
The Murder of Rufinus
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Previous chapters have illustrated the problems caused by the largely barbarian army in the West. Among these not the least was that power passed from emperor and civil administration to a long series of military commanders, Stilicho, Constantius, Bonifatius, Aetius, until in 476 the general Odoacer deposed Romulus the last Western emperor. In the East the outcome was different: civilian control was maintained and the Empire survived.
Clerical Opposition in Constantinople and in Neighbouring Provinces
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theophilus would not have succeeded in mobilizing so formidable an attack on Chrysostom if there had not been a great deal of latent hostility. After so many generations have felt sympathy and admiration for the personality of John Chrysostom, it is difficult to believe that he was disliked by many of his contemporaries, and not only the wicked, jealous, or ambitious. But there is plenty of evidence of hostility among the clergy of Constantinople and neigh bouring provinces. These were the people whom the four dissident bishops could most easily organize into a pressure group against their bishop. The charges brought against Chrysostom at the Synod of the Oak show that his ecclesiastical administration had been extremely contentious.
Introduction
Authors: Treggiari Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Marriage is such a normal part of human life that it is taken for granted. The Romans held that it had not existed at the beginning in a Latin city made up of male immigrants and fugitives, simply because there was a shortage of women and no rights of intermarriage with neighbouring peoples. It was necessary to ask for alliances and intermarriage, conubium. Rejected everywhere, Romulus arranged the kidnapping of suitable maidens by decoying whole families from nearby towns and the Sabine country to a festival.
The Greek Philosophical Background
Authors: Treggiari Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some components of the Romans’ ideology of marriage have emerged from consideration of legal structures, choice of coniunx, and wedding ritual. In Part III we shall examine popular morality, moving from the formal teachings of philosophers to the ideas expressed by poets, rhetoricians, and the authors of epitaphs. Because all Latin literature, but especially philosophical writings, was inescapably influenced by Greek tradition, it will be necessary to go back to classical Athens to disentangle some of the main themes and place Roman conventional theories in a cultural context.
Domus
Authors: Treggiari Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As for feast of reason and for flow of soul, is it not a question whether any such flows and feasts are necessary between a man and his wife? How many men can truly assert that they ever enjoy connubial flows of soul, or that connubial feasts of reason are in their nature enjoyable? But a handsome woman at the head of your table, who knows how to dress, and how to sit, and how to get in and out of her carriage-who will not distress her lord by her ignorance, or fret him by her coquetry, or disparage him by her talent-how beautiful a thing it is! For my own part, I think Griselda Grantly was born to be the wife of a great English peer.
Death
Authors: Treggiari Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Losing a wife by death was a major misfortune. A philosophical topos compared it with the subjugation of one’s country or the loss of children. Only the wise man could rise above it to account himself happy.1 Since a woman had fewer pleasures in life than a man, and less philosophy, the Romans must have felt that loss of a coniunx was even more disastrous for women. But the nature of the sources tends to obscure this. We even lack formal letters of condolence or consolatory essays addressed to women on the deaths of husbands, although our authors must have been in the habit of writing them.
Introduction
Authors: Saunders Trevor J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Laws, Plato’s last and longest work, depicts in vivid detail a blueprint for an ideal state called Magnesia, which is to be founded in the South of Crete under guidance from the Academy. ‘Ideal’ does not imply the perfection of the state described in the Republic: Magnesia is simply the best state that Plato considered capable of realization in the circumstances of the Greek world in the middle of the fourth century BC.1 Though in that sense a utopia, it is a realistic and practical one; it must expect to have crimes and criminals. It therefore stands in need of a penology and a penal code. Indeed, to judge from the sheer amount of space Plato devotes to these two topics, he regards them as of central importance to the entire enterprise.His penology combines the ‘rule oflaw’ with the ‘rule of philosophy’ to powerful effect. His fundamental inspiration is the Socratic paradox, ‘no one does wrong willingly’. If a man does do wrong, it must be because of some psychic mistake; and mistakes are not the kind of thing one can reasonably punish. Our treatment of a criminal, therefore, should never look backward to his crimes, but always forward, to the ‘cure’ of his mental and moral ‘disease’.
Anxieties And Surrogates
Authors: Saunders Trevor J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the varied literature of the roughly three centuries that separate Hesiod and Plato, three processes went on simultaneously. (i) The mode of operation of surrogate punishers of several kinds is described and elaborated in vividly imaginative forms; (ii) a formal system of courts came into being, with their own characteristic purposes, procedures, and provisions for punishment; (iii) reflection about equity and moral responsibility, and their implications for punishment, developed considerably in a variety of legal, political, and philosophical contexts. These three developments affected each other. In order, therefore, to preserve clarity of outline in a long and complex period of history I shall in this and the next two chapters attempt to say something about each of the three in turn, and to examine some of their relationships. We shall then be in a position to approach Plato.At the root of the development of Greek penology lies anxiety lest the of fonder escape scot-free. This no doubt is a universal human worry; but in Greek thought it is conspicuous. Naturally; for remedies lay, at least in archaic times, largely in self-help, and victims could easily find that through weakness or other circumstances they could not retaliate effoctively; and such courts as existed at any period were not without expense, open to various kinds of corruption, and of variable and unpredictable effectiveness.