bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Punctuation
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no general agreement among Turkish writers or printers on how to punctuate and the reader must be prepared for anything. The advice given in the Introduction to OTD is not without its occasional value: ‘If you are completely bewildered by some sentence, try cutting out all the punctuation marks and often you will find it quite easy to translate.’ One cannot, however, afford to ignore a comma near the beginning of a sentence, which usually indicates the subject: bu Bakann karardr ‘it is this Minister’s decision’; bu, Bakann karardr ‘this is the Minister’s decision’. üniversiteli kz kaçrd ‘he abducted the girl undergraduate’; üniversiteli, kz kaçrd ‘the undergraduate abducted the girl’.
Consolidating the Republic: politics 1880–1914
Authors: McMillan James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new republican leadership was immediately confronted with the problem of how to translate its ideals into tangible political realities. Apart from inevitable clashes of personality and temperament, it was divided over the question of the pace of progress towards a fully democratic order, and in particular on how rapidly to proceed with the implementation of the secularization programme which would create the état laïc.
Religion, anticlericalism, and secularization
Authors: Larkin Maurice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Religion and secularization are commonly viewed as having a night and day relationship, in which the growth of one entails the symmetrical waning of the other. Yet the history of France since 1880 showed each as having a trajectory of its own, which periodically seemed like a reflection in reverse of its counterpart, but which in reality was shaped by sharply different if related forces.
Conflict with the Western powers 1843–1861
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In our concern with the events of the Taiping Rebellion, we have passed over the events of China’s relations with the foreign powers from 1843 to 1860. We now return to these. Before 1843 the community of foreign merchants at Canton had argued that expansion of trade with China was prevented only by certain political obstacles. These had now been removed. Traders had access, although only indirectly, to the most populous parts of China, and so to a market which, in the number of potential consumers, was as large as British India.
The Nationalist regime 1928–1937
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1927 the history of China splits again into two interlinked but separate narratives: the history of the Nationalist government, and the history of the state within a state founded in that year by the Communist Party of China. The split had another less obvious but profound significance. It had been unquestioned by both right and left that successful change in China must take place village by village—’not one revolution, but half a million revolutions’ was the theme.
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, I
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1962 and 1965 Chinese politics appeared to be stable. The Great Leap had been ended and the damage repaired. The rate of economic growth had increased satisfactorily. Progress in agriculture under the new policies was especially gratifying, so that even though these new policies had begun simply as an improvised response to the threat of hunger, their success disposed some of China’s leaders to accept them for the future.
First Perspectives: Spain from 1939 to the 1990s
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The intention of this first chapter is to provide a brief chronological overview of the years between the end of the Spanish Civil War and the late 1990s, setting a context within which the specific issues that form the focus of the following chapters will be considered. Substantial coverage in English of the social and cultural history of the period can be found in Carr (19 80: 155–81), Carr and Fusi (1981), Preston (1986, 1993), Shubert (1990: 206–64), Hooper (1995), and Graham and Labanyi (1995). Concise general accounts in English published recently are Grugel and Rees (1997) and Romero Salvadó (1999). Numerous studies in Spanish have been published since 1975: Equipo Reseña (1977), Blanco Aguinaga, Rodríguez Puértolas, and Zavala (1983), Tusell (1990: 651–62, 707–23, 737–46, 789-95), Ramos Gascón (1991: vol. ii), and Tusell (1998) are particularly useful for their focus on cultural developments.
Rewriting History
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The victors of the Civil War quickly set in motion a reactionary project of appropriating and immobilizing Spain’s history in the service of the regime’s central ideological concerns: the maintenance of national unity, the promotion of the Catholic faith as the essential determinant of national identity, and the legitimization of authoritarian government as the necessary means of defending these ideals. Certain periods of history were celebrated as divinely ordained stages in a heroic imperial destiny, and selected heroes of the past (el Cid, Columbus, the Catholic Monarchs, the conquistadors) were used as the focus for ideals of Patria (Fatherland), Raza (Race), and Hispanidad (Hispanic universalism), often directly linked with the personality cult of the Caudillo or with Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera.
Keeping it in the Family
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A crucial component of the Francoist vision of an ordered, unified, and uniquely spiritual nation was the idealization of the family. For Catholics and conservatives, the traditional model of dominant, breadwinning father, submissive, nurturing mother, and numerous obedient children was the ‘natural’ foundation of Spanish society which had been threatened by the Republic and almost destroyed by a war that was blamed on the ‘Reds’. Millions of families had suffered loss by death and exile or had been torn apart by ideological differences. For hundreds of thousands of families the post-war years were overshadowed by absence, imprisonment, and persecution. For the victors, though, the family had now been restored to its rightful place in public and private life, connecting, as Helen Graham has observed, ‘vertically with the state rather than horizontally within society’ and thus reinforcing ‘the unity and power of the state’, in particular by ‘promoting [society’s] “privatization” or “atomization” based on the “haven” of the private household at whose centre was the “mother” ‘(Graham 1995: 184, 186–7).
Getting a Sense of Reality
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Earlier chapters have shown the extent to which the Francoist state sought to control ideas and promote a permanent culture of conservatism, and have discussed writings that contribute to this project alongside others that resist it. This chapter will relate these processes to particular forms of representation: ways of perceiving and constructing reality. An important implication of the regime’s insistence on authority, national destiny, and the supremacy of Catholic values was that ‘reality’ was not a category to be investigated or problematized, but to be defined and fixed by the authorities, directly through censorship and control of education and publishing, and indirectly through general pressure to conform to a conservative status quo. In such a context, the ideological implications of apparently purely formal questions come forcefully to the surface, sharpening aesthetic debates about realism, abstraction, and experimentalism.
Assembly
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the monarch had decided to summon parliament, chancery was instructed to send out the necessary writs. These were of three kinds: writs of election, summons, and assistance. Although the secretaries of state were thus permitted to sit in the Upper House, they seem to have preferred election to the Commons to responding to the writ of assistance: writs of assistance were therefore, in practice, responsible for the appearance in the House of the legal element alone. The attorney-general and solicitor-general were perhaps the most important of those summoned by means of writs of assistance, although the solicitor-general in fact sometimes sat in the Lower House. Indeed, the solicitor-general Richard On slow was elected speaker of the House of Commons in I 566. A debate and a division took place before his election could be confirmed, but it was On slow himself who asked whether his oath of loyalty to the monarch as solicitor-general was compatible with his position as speaker. Edward Coke also served as solicitor-general and speaker in r 593. However, although exceptions were made in the early seventeenth century for Henry Hobart and Francis Bacon, the attorney-general was not expected to seek election as a member of the Lower House.
The Consolidation of Dominion: Illusion and Reality
Authors: Brown Judith M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Earlier historians whose framework of study was imperial history had little difficulty in seeing distinct phases in Indian history and marking clear dividing points in it. Their Eurocentric vision led them to chop up India’s experience into segments suggested by British politics, institutions, and decisions: for example, the gaining of empire, 1757-1818, or the subsequent ‘Age of Reform’ inaugurated by Lord Bentinck’s Governor-Generalship. But such clear periodization disappears when the observer shifts his focus to actual practice in India rather than proclaimed policy, whether the issue is the creation of a clear administrative system, the settlement of land rights and revenue obligations, or aspects of social reform. Nor does older periodization help if the historian’s main interest lies in the historical experience of India’s people in their own right, in Indian society’s own dynamics and resources, and in interaction between that society and western influences, rather than in attempting to discern any simple impact of imperial rulers and their policies.
The Dilemmas of Dominion
Authors: Brown Judith M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The half century between the suppression of revolt in 1857 and the First World War was arguably one of the most decisive in India’s history: a time critical for India’s emergence as Asia’s first democracy, with all its strengths and contradictions. It lacks the drama or towering personalities of the Mutiny or later nationalist movement, for Indian history in these years largely concerns the more mundane experiences of those, rulers and ruled, who lived and worked in the subcontinent. Both faced dilemmas posed by the new dominion. The new rulers faced problems generated by different and often conflicting interest groups among themselves-Whitehall in ambivalent relationship with Calcutta, British industrialists pressurizing the Government of India over its financial policies, expatriate planters and missionaries in uneasy political and social relationship with the civil and military officials who composed the raj’s ‘establishment’.
India in the 1940s: A Great Divide?
Authors: Brown Judith M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Indian public life in the 1940s was dominated by the Second World War, which affected the subcontinent far more closely and deeply than that of 1914-18, and by the escalation of communal hostilities which cost thou sands of lives and resulted in the country’s partition when the British withdrew in August 1947. Obviously a case can be made out that the decade was a great dividing line in the Indian experience, and that 1947 marked the end of an era. That year saw the end of the raj and the coming of the political independence India’s politicians had demanded for over half a century. This had major domestic consequences, but also far-reaching international effects. It heralded the obvious decline of British world influence and the contraction of the British empire, particularly in Africa where colonies lost much of their significance once they were no longer needed as guarantees of the routes to India.
Politics: Louis XIV
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although Louis XIV had been on the throne since 1643, come of age in 1651, and been crowned in 1654, in 1660 he was still a figurehead. No king had both reigned and ruled in France for half a century. Government under Louis XIII, and then his widow Anne of Austria, had been in the hands of energetic and insinuating cardinal-ministers. Mazarin, inseparable from the regent-queen, was even the young king’s godfather, and proved a genuine substitute for the royal parent he could scarcely remember. But the cardinal, though assiduous in initiating him into affairs of state, still took all the important decisions. And so it was this wily, acquisitive Italian adventurer who bequeathed to Louis XIV the issue that would dominate his entire reign: the Spanish Succession. Mazarin regarded the peace of the Pyrenees of 1659, which brought an end to twenty-four years of war against Spain, as the crowning achievement of his career. The peace was sealed the next year by the marriage of the king to the infanta Maria Theresa, thereby giving him and his heirs potential claims on the throne of Spain.
Power and Economic Constraints
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Differences in the richness of land, and in cultural inheritance, had many implications for the exercise of power. Rich land, permitting high productivity, together with high concentrations of population, offered exceptional opportunities for those in authority to extract both incomes from agriculture and large sums in tribute, taxes, or rents. These two conditions explain why the king of England was wealthier than the king of Scots and why even the greatest Scottish lords rarely enjoyed incomes above those of a middle-ranking English baron. The assessment of clerical incomes ordered by Pope Nicholas IV in 1290 permits assessments in all parts of Britain to be compared, and they show that the average ranged from£4.0 per square mile in England to £1.3 in Scotland and £0.9 in Wales.
Rural Settlement and Society
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the expansion of urban settlement between 1050 and 1300, British population remained overwhelmingly rural. In 1300 at least four-fifths of the population of England lived in settlements with no urban attributes, and the proportion for all Britain and Ireland was higher. Just as the character of towns varied from London at the apex to regional towns and smaller market towns, so did the character of rural settlement, which varied in accordance with regional differences we have already examined. Larger settlements were more characteristic of extensive arable cultivation, and especially numerous in southern and midland England; small hamlets and isolated farms were more usual in the predominantly pastoral landscapes of uplands and areas remote from large urban markets.
Pasture Husbandry
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of crop husbandry has long dominated the discussion about agrarian trends in the period 1050–1300, partly because surviving estate records from the thirteenth century onwards are more numerous from predominantly arable regions of Britain. In addition, the history of arable farming is more easily related to concerns about the demand for food and the history of population, and has contributed more to discussions about the relationship between population and resources. In debates about standards of living amongst the peasantry, pasture farming has finished up as a matter of residual interest, on the assumption that providing families with bread came first, and that only resources left over could be applied to supplying meat, dairy produce, or wool.
Lords and Tenants
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1050 and 1300 most of Britain experienced at some time or other an unwelcome change from a native aristocracy to one imposed from outside. In England this occurred under William I following the Norman Conquest of 1066. As a result of rebellions by the English nobility the vast majority of lay estates were transferred to Normans. In Wales the elimination of a native aristocracy was less complete, but there was a heavy infiltration of Norman nobility in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, and again during the later thirteenth following Edward I of England’s conquest of Gwynedd in 1282–3. The landlord class in much of Ireland was similarly transformed after the Anglo-Norman invasion of 1169–72. Scotland was not subjected to any comparable violent intrusion, but from 1124 onwards, under David I of Scotland and his successors, the introduction of Anglo-Norman and Flemish lords as feudal tenants of the crown alongside native landowners had something of the same effect.
Stability and Crisis
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the course of economic development between 1050 and 1300 is perceptible in broad outline, we can have little confidence, as we have seen, in measuring the perceived changes, and there is room for major difference of opinion concerning its welfare implications. For most of this period, none of our sources supplies the sort of continuous statistical data that are necessary to define economic trends. Some of the principal documentation used for this purpose in discussions of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries—estate accounts, customs records—becomes abundant only from the 1270s. The chronological analysis of economic change for the twelfth and earlier thirteenth centuries can barely rise above the level of a sketch, and in this respect the period is less well understood than later centuries.
Arable Husbandry
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of all areas of economic activity, arable husbandry was the one most severely disrupted by declining population during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and the one about which there is least disagreement among historians. Grain production peaked around 1300, but in many areas of Britain the arable acreage contracted after about 1315, as bread consumption declined following a run of disastrous famines in the years 1315–18 and the dire effects of warfare in Scotland, northern England, and Ireland. By this period, too, imports of grain from the Baltic may have had an independent effect on grain prices in eastern England, contributing to the price depression of 1337–44. This however was an effect of limited duration, soon swamped by the impact of the plunge in population and consumption levels that followed the Black Death of 1348–9.
Pastoral Husbandry
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the main consequences of declining population for agriculture during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was a shift towards pastoral activity. Until the later thirteenth, although livestock husbandry had expanded, the most visible changes in the landscape in many parts of Britain had been the ploughing up of grass and heath, and the felling of woodlands to grow more crops. To this day there are many parts of Britain where thirteenth-century arable working is to be seen underlying the grass or heath to which it reverted in the context of declining crop production. There were various reasons for this later shift, which operated with different force in different locations. On the supply side, the increasing cost of wage labour after 1349 affected the pastoral sector significantly less than the arable sector because labour inputs constituted a lower fraction of the total costs of production.
Collective Activity in Traditional Law, 900-1140
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To start a study of medieval lay communities by considering the law that lay behind them may imply that law is to be looked on as an independent, autonomous cause of social cohesion. That is not what is implied here. Medieval law was not handed down to medieval society on stone tablets from Sinai or Rome or on wooden tablets from the forests of Germany. Whatever the ultimate origin of medieval ideas on custom and justice and the methods used to apply them, both the content and procedures of medieval law were continually shaped and reshaped—if belatedly—by economic, social, religious, and political forces. This continual reshaping was all the easier in the early middle ages, when so much of the law was unwritten and customary and was not the preserve of professional lawyers.
The Community of the Parish
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is tempting to take the community of the parish for granted as needing no explanation. If longevity is a sign of strength in local forms of community then medieval parishes were certainly strong. Parish churches may have been rebuilt or entirely demolished, but neither Reformation nor wars of religion shook the framework of parishes as such. In most of western Europe they steadily accumulated more duties over the centuries, and it was not until after 1800 that substantial changes were made in their boundaries. Even now parochialism is synonymous with localism and the parish pump remains the symbol of local concerns.
The wars of religion,1562-1598
Authors: Benedict Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Catherine de Medici granted Protestantism legal toleration by the Edict of January 1562, she broke dramatically with the prior traditions of the French monarchy and made France the first Western European kingdom to grant legal recognition to two forms of Christianity at once. She also quickly learned that legislating religious co existence was far easier than making it work. Within three months, violent Catholic rejection of the legitimacy of toleration combined with Protestant hopes for the imminent triumph of their faith to plunge the country into the first of a deadly cycle of civil wars that would recur eight times over the next three decades. So frequent and gruesome were the massacres accompanying these conflicts, so searing the sieges, and so numerous the assassinations of leading political actors, that the events of the ‘time of religious troubles’ burned them selves into French and European historical memory for centuries to come.
Redrawing the lines of authority
Authors: Holt Mack P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The end of civil war in 1598 brought about by the Edict of Nantes guaranteed neither a sustained and lasting peace nor the certain restoration of the authority of the crown, much less the rise of an absolute monarchy. Although a more powerful French state with a much larger army and bureaucracy of civil servants did eventually emerge in the later seventeenth century, this process was by no means inevitable in 1598. What was most in the mind of Henry IV was recovery from the instability of the previous forty years, along with an abiding desire to strengthen royal institutions so that no future challenge to the crown like those of the Huguenots and the League during the religious wars could ever occur again.