bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Review of Parasite Fate and Transport in Karstic Aquifers
Authors: Blanford William J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractEvery year in the United States, cases of waterborne illness are generally characterized bygastrointestinalproblems (vomiting, diarrhea, etc.). However, these same symptoms can be more serious and even fatal in certain groups, such as the young, elderly, and those with compromised immune systems. Furthermore, viral pathogens found in groundwater are linked to chronic diseases such as adult onset diabetes and myocarditis. Recognizing that preventing contamination of water sources is the first step in the multiple barrier approach to drinking water protection, the Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) and the Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule (DBPR) were released in 1999. The two rules will provide additional protection of public water supplies and address microbiological contamination. The rules address the risks of the trade‐offs between disinfection necessary for microbial inactivation and disinfection by‐products. The requirements of 40 CFR 141.72(b) are consistent 99.99% removal and/or inactivation of viruses and 99% removal ofCryptosporidiumoocysts. The code gives public water suppliers the option to demonstrate compliance through pilot plant studies or other means that combine filtration techniques with disinfection as in EPA 1999 Microbial and Disinfection Byproducts Rules Simultaneous Compliance as in Guidance Manual.Presently, only surface water systems and systems using groundwater under the direct influence of surface water are required to disinfect their water supplies. Though historically considered free of microbial contamination, most recent research has shown that aquifers can be readily contaminated by pathogens. To lessen the requirement for disinfection and to protect water resources, water suppliers have sought to use natural systems to treatCryptosporidium. Thus, there is a critical need for information regarding the transport and fate of pathogens during water infiltration into subsurface systems.
Disinfectants
Authors: Venkatapathy Raghuraman , Weintraub June , Wright J. Michael 
Published: July 2005

AbstractDisinfection of drinking water was instituted at a time when waterborne infectious diseases were the primary focus in public health. The use of disinfectants such as chlorine, chloramine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and ultraviolet radiation has resulted in a reduction in the outbreak of diseases such as cholera and polio in many parts of the world. The choice of disinfectant is dependent on their availability, ease of use, cost, and their efficacy in disinfecting water. Some disinfectants commonly used in water treatment plants are not stable in water for long periods of time, which reduces their disinfection efficacy. Current practices to control pathogens in drinking water include using a combination of disinfectants, coagulation, and filtration. A main disadvantage of using disinfectants in drinking water is their ability to react with organic and inorganic matter in water to form disinfection byproducts that may be of health concern. The disinfectants can also be hazardous at high concentrations, but toxicological studies suggest that their toxicity is likely not relevant at the low concentrations encountered in drinking water.
MeasuringCryptosporidium ParvumOocyst Inactivation Following Disinfection With Ultraviolet Light
Authors: Bukhari Zia 
Published: July 2005

AbstractHistorically, ultraviolet light inactivation ofCryptosporidium parvumoocysts was considered ineffective; however, recently it was demonstrated that the methods for measuring oocyst inactivation can yield erroneous results and that neonatal mouse infectivity assays, which indicated that very low UV doses are highly effective for oocyst inactivation, are needed for determining inactivation of UV‐treated oocysts. The moral, ethical, and financial constraints of using mouse infectivity has generated the need for more user‐friendly alternative methods for measuring oocyst inactivation. Cell culture infectivity assays are considered promising alternatives, and this article discusses a cell culture‐immunofluorescence (IFA) procedure, which following optimization, yielded results similar to those expected from mouse infectivity assays. This cell culture‐IFA procedure will be an invaluable analytical tool for control or bench scale studies usingC. parvumoocysts and the same water matrices as those intended for use in UV reactor validation studies.
Ultraviolet Irradiation
Authors: Siddiqui M. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractUltraviolet irradiation (UV) is a potential alternative to chlorination for drinking water disinfection. UV provides disinfection without producing the problematic disinfection by‐products of chemical disinfectants such as chlorine. During retrofitting of UV to an existing potable water treatment process or during design of a new installation, there can be significant benefits in reexamining the overall disinfection strategy for the treatment plant and the water distribution system.
Water Filtration
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The most universally used particulate removal technology in drinking water treatment is filtration. Filtration is the process of removing particulate matter or suspended solids from water by passing the water through a porous medium, permeable fabric, or membrane. The commonly available water filtration processes are rapid gravity filtration, slow sand filtration, diatomaceous earth filtration, membrane filtration, cartridge filtration, and special types of filtration. A variety of modes of operation are available such as downflow, up‐flow, multiple layer, biflow, radial flow, semicontinuous (moving bridge), continuous (media recycle), variable voidage, and pebble matrix. All of these have the same basic objectives: to produce a filtrate that is clear and contains very few particles and to provide a medium‐cleaning process so that operation may be continued with the same medium or by replacing the old medium. The same principles of filtration apply to all these processes.
Zebra Mussel Control Without Chemicals
Authors: Sanderson Charles H. , Molden T. C. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Methods to control the zebra mussel became top priority in many municipalities and industries that use water from the Great Lakes. In desperation, chemicals (mostly chlorine) became the quick fix; however, the toxic discharge back into the fresh water lakes increased the fish kill and killed other wildlife species. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers sought other (nonchemical) means to control the spread of the mussel threat and set up workshops in which academic and industry professionals were invited participate.

The National Research Council listed several technologies more friendly to the environment than chlorine and other chemical biocides. Among those identified were
filtration systems, thermal techniques, electric pulse and pulse plasma techniques, ultraviolet treatment, acoustic systems, magnetic fields, deoxygenation
, and
antifouling coatings
.
Filtration Water Treatment
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Filtration systems employed at water treatment facilities use a porous medium through which water passes to remove suspended solids. A number of methods have been developed to meet this objective. Currently, rapid gravity filtration is the most commonly used filtration technology in developed countries for drinking water treatment. However, developments in filtration technology have increased the popularity of the other types of filtration systems. Filters can be classified into different types depending on the rate of flow (e.g., rapid sand and slow sand filters), media (single and dual media filters), hydraulic arrangement (gravity and pressure filters), direction of flow (up‐flow and down‐flow filters), and removal depth (cake and deep filters). The two most common types of filtration system used in water treatment are gravity filtration and pressure filtration. The gravity filtration system has two major types: rapid gravity filtration and slow sand filtration. The pressure filtration system commonly consists of four types: rapid rate pressure filtration, diatomaceous earth filtration, membrane filtration, and cartridge filtration.
Plankton
Authors: Juhl Andrew 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Plankton are aquatic organisms living in the water column that drift, float, or swim only weakly. The term describes a lifestyle used by a tremendous diversity of organisms including plants, animals, and bacteria that range from less than 1 µm to more than 1 m in length. Several common categorization schemes are used to group plankton depending on shared ecological roles, size, and whether they are plankton for their entire lives, or only for a portion of their development. Despite this diversity, consistent patterns of plankton abundance have been documented throughout the world's oceans, both horizontally with distance from land, and vertically with increasing depth. Seasonal patterns of plankton abundance are also well known for many locations. Although individually small, planktonic organisms are numerous. In aggregate, they have global impacts. Plankton are the base of aquatic foodwebs, providing food for larger aquatic organisms, including commercially valuable species. Plankton influence global climate by taking in atmospheric carbon and releasing volatile sulfur compounds. They also supply half of the Earth's oxygen production. Finally, the remnants of plankton settle through the water column, eventually forming the sediments that cover most ocean bottoms.
Distribution and Dynamics of Gas Hydrates in the Marine Environment
Authors: Trehu Anne M. , Torres Marta E. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Gas hydrate is an ice‐like substance that forms at low temperature and high pressure when adequate amounts of water and low molecular weight gases are present. In nature, gas hydrates containing primarily methane are widespread in the shallow sediments on continental margins. Under certain geologic conditions, enough methane hydrate may be present for these deposits to represent a fossil fuel resource for the future. Concentrated deposits of gas hydrate near the seafloor form the substratum for unique assemblages of microbes similar to those found at hydrothermal vent sites. Destabilization of gas hydrate in marine sediment may occur as a result of artificial structures, resulting in catastrophic structural collapse. Because methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, sudden destabilization of gas hydrate on a large scale can have an impact on global climate. Indeed, past episodes of climate change linked to gas hydrate destabilization have been documented in the geologic record.
Marine Sources of Halocarbons
Authors: Moore Robert M. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Halogens, particularly chlorine and bromine, are important in the atmosphere as catalysts for destruction of stratospheric ozone. The oceans are a major reservoir of dissolved halogens and act as a supply to the atmosphere through the production of sea salt aerosols and organic trace gases. The latter, having in many cases much longer lifetimes in the atmosphere than sea salt particles, are able to mix to high altitude and, on photolysis, release halogen radicals. Organoiodine compounds, notably methyl iodide, have marine sources but, on account of their short atmospheric lifetime, normally release iodine at lower elevations. Nevertheless, the transport of marine‐produced methyl iodide in the atmosphere represents an important source of this biologically essential element to the continents. Marine macrophytes are well established as sources of numerous halogenated gases, and marine phytoplankton are known to be significant sources of bromoform and dibromomethane. While the fluxes of methyl halides between the ocean and atmosphere have been estimated within reasonable limits, the processes that produce them are a subject of active research. Many halocarbons are consumed in seawater by a combination of chemical and biological processes with the result that the direction of flux between ocean and atmosphere can vary temporally and spatially in both magnitude and direction.
An Analysis of the International Maritime Organization–London Convention Annual Ocean Dumping Reports
Authors: Dickenson Christine , Duedall Iver W. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Trends are analyzed for types and quantities of permitted wastes, primarily dredged material, sewage sludge, and industrial waste, to be dumped at sea by member countries to the London Convention (LC) from 1992 and 1995 through 1998. In 1972, the Inter‐Governmental Conference on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea led to the creation of the London Dumping Convention (now called the London Convention) to help regulate the dumping of wastes at sea. The act of dumping, as defined by the LC, is international disposal at sea of any material and in any form, from vessels, aircraft, platforms, or other artificial structures. The first consultative meeting of the LC contracting parties was held in 1976 by the Inter‐Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization [now called the International Maritime Organization (IMO)]. During this meeting, the procedure for the reporting of permits issued, on an annual basis, for dumping at sea by contracting parties, was determined. The IMO‐LC annual reports on permitted wastes list the number of permits issued by member countries, the types and quantities of wastes permitted for dumping at sea, and the location and designation of dump sites. Now with nearly 25 years of dumping records available, we are able to see trends in permitted dumping activity. In 1976, the first year of permitted dumping records, the combined amount of permitted wastes was nearly 150 million tons. In the last four years (1995 through 1998), where data are available, the total amount of wastes permitted to be dumped by the LC contracting parties as between 300 and 350 million tons. Currently, a majority of these wastes are being disposed of in the East Asian Seas and the North Sea and the largest quantity of waste being dumped is dredged material. Although the disposal of wastes at sea is considered to be a major issue, it is only responsible for about 10% of the total anthropogenic contaminants entering the ocean. Unfortunately, the long‐term impacts of this dumping in the ocean are still largely unknown.
Coastal Waters
Authors: Stedman Susan‐Marie 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Coastal waters are usually defined as those waters in a zone whose landward boundary is the limit of tidal influence and whose seaward boundary is the edge of the continental shelf (or a depth of 200 m if there is no continental shelf). Salinity, temperature, turbidity, and other characteristics of coastal waters vary considerably in this transitional and very dynamic zone.
Floating Ice
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Floating ice, or sea ice, is very important because it regulates the surface exchange of heat, moisture, and salt between the atmosphere and the oceans. It is a high latitude phenomenon and can be found only in the Arctic ocean and in the oceans around Antarctica. Although the local amount of sea ice changes with the season, at any given time sea ice covers, globally, an area larger than the North American continent.
Marine and Estuarine Microalgal Sediment Toxicity Tests
Authors: Moreno‐Garrido Ignatio , Lubián Luís M. , Blasco Julián 
Published: July 2005

AbstractCurrent guidelines for toxicity bioassays concerned with marine or estuarine sediments do not include any probe involving elements from the microphytobenthos [microalgae living on the surface of the (temporary or not) submerged sediments], in spite of the importance of the benthic microflora on coastal trophic and geodynamical processes. Here, a revision of the importance of microphytobenthos in the benthic trophic nets as well as in the structure of the upper part of the marine coastal and estuarine sediments is performed, and the most recent efforts to develop sediment toxicity bioassays on marine microphytobenthos are reviewed and discussed. The benthic mobil pennate diatomCylindrotheca closterium(formerly known asNitzschia closterium) seems to be a good target organism in toxicity testing for marine and estuarine sediments because of its easy handling, fast growth, sensitivity, low nutritional requirements, and wide distribution in temperate coastal waters. Additionally, there exists a good literature background about this species.
Chemical Precipitation
Authors: Striebig Bradley A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Chemical precipitation is the removal of dissolved and suspended solids from aqueous solutions through chemical means. Chemical precipitation includes the removal of dissolved solids by altering the aqueous chemistry to make the dissolved solids less soluble. It also includes removing suspended solids by increasing their size in a process referred to as chemical flocculation. Chemical precipitation processes are utilized in water and wastewater treatment due to their effectiveness for pollutant removal with relatively low capital investment. Chemical precipitation processes can also process very toxic wastewaters. The focus of chemical precipitation for municipal wastewater treatment is to remove the cell mass or suspended solids prior to and after biological treatment. Industrial process water and recycled wastewater use chemical precipitation to remove hardness and dissolved salts from water. The solubility product constant, or solubility product, is an equilibrium constant that describes the reaction by which ions dissolve and solids precipitate. Chemical precipitation by coagulation and flocculation enhances the removal of suspended solids and BOD. These processes are widely used to improve the performance of primary clarifiers, in basic physical–chemical processing of industrial wastewaters, for phosphorus removal, and for heavy metal removal.
Clathrate Hydrates
Authors: Ann Koh Carolyn , Sloan E. Dendy 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Clathrate hydrates are crystalline inclusion compounds consisting of a network of polyhedral water cages (host), which enclathrate small hydrophobic molecules. An overview is given for the structural properties of the most common clathrate hydrate structures (sI, sII, and sH). Hydrate structure, occupancy, and dissociation pressures of a range of hydrate formers (guests) around 277 K are presented from calculations using a Gibbs energy minimization program (CSMGem) and/or experiment. Examples of novel clathrate hydrate structures are presented. Discussion is also given to clathrate hydrates in natural and industrial environments.
The Mirage of The H
2
Economy
Authors: Shinnar Reuel 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

In a recent paper, I analyzed the new “hydrogen economy” and explained why, for most uses, it makes no sense to convert fuels, electricity, or any other form of energy to hydrogen, only to use the hydrogen as a fuel for fuel cells. As H
2
is not a resource but an inefficient energy carrier, it would appear that the H
2
economy is just a mirage. If alternative energy sources are ever developed, an economy based on electricity would be cheaper (by a factor of three) and much easier to adopt than H
2
. Oddly, I had covered the same topic twenty years ago in a paper that analyzed the hydrogen economy of the 1970s. Then, the investment in H
2
research was about 10 billion wasted dollars before it was phased out. In this column, I will try to explain why the scientific establishment engages in such obviously futile behavior and why this mirage attracts so many followers.
Freezing and Supercooling of Water
Authors: Zachariassen Karl Erik 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The solid form of water is known as ice, which is the physically stable form of water at temperatures below 0°C. The transition of water from the liquid to the solid state is known as freezing, and 0°C is usually referred to as the
freezing point
or
melting point
of water. However, small samples of liquid water will usually not freeze until they are cooled far below 0°C. The maintenance of the liquid state below the melting point is referred to as
supercooling
or
undercooling
, and the temperature at which spontaneous freezing takes place is referred to as the
supercooling point
.

Freezing is initiated either by the water molecules themselves or by freezing promoting agents or
ice nucleators
, which may trigger freezing at high subzero temperatures. Increasing concentrations of solutes and increasing hydrostatic pressure depress melting point as well as supercooling point, whereas increasing sample volume causes an elevation of the supercooling point.
Osmosis‐Diffusion of Solvent or Caused by Diffusion of Solutes?
Authors: Zachariassen Karl Erik 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The prevailing theory describes osmosis as a diffusion of water down a water concentration gradient created by different concentrations of solutes. However, this description is at odds with several features of osmotic phenomena, and it does not explain why osmotic pressures are related to solute concentrations as described by the universal law of gases. An alternative theory, which appears to explain the observed features of osmosis, was published by George Hulett in 1903. This theory ascribes osmosis to a negative pressure created by the diffusive movement of the solute molecules. Like molecules in a gas, the solute molecules create an expansive pressure when they collide with the boundary wall. However, water cannot expand, but the expansive pressure of the solutes creates a negative solvent pressure, which sucks solvent water into the solution from the outside if the boundary wall has sufficient water permeability, i.e., is like a semipermeable membrane.
The osmotic pressure varies precisely proportionally with melting point, vapor pressure, boiling point, and osmolality, and these features are, therefore, referred to as the colligative properties of a solution.
Molecular Network Dynamics
Authors: Marrin D.L. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractLiquid water forms a vast interconnected network that is just beginning to be understood for both its structure and its dynamics. The network is composed of individual molecules that chemically bond to two, three, or four of its nearest neighbors in a manner such that the bonds, or links, are switched as rapidly as a trillion times per second. Although most of liquid water is currently modeled as a disordered arrangement of molecules (known as bulk water), a fraction of the molecules are grouped together in more ordered arrangements that are known as clusters. Even models that posit a more homogeneous and extended water network predict a highly dynamic system, whereby the many and varied vibrations of chemical bonds are superimposed on the repositioning and reorientation of water molecules comprising the network. Water's network dynamics are responsible for many of its anomalous properties, as well as its ability to serve as a facilitator for biological life and a key participant in the chemistry of the universe.
Water—Nature's Magician
Authors:   Environment Canada
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Water molecules are attracted to each other, creating
hydrogen bonds
. These strong bonds determine almost every physical property of water and many of its chemical properties too.

Pure water at sea level boils at 100°C and freezes at 0°C. At higher elevations (lower atmospheric pressures) water's boiling temperature decreases.
Water absorbs or releases more heat than many substances for each degree of temperature increase or decrease.
Large bodies of water, such as the oceans or the Great Lakes, have a profound influence on climate.