bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
History, ethnicity, and agriculturein the Sudan
Authors: Kapteijns L , Spaulding J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Sudan is home to a human community with a long history and a rich and diverse culture. Not all the elements of the Sudanese experience are known, nor is everything known of immediate relevance to agriculture. The purpose of the present chapter is to delineate in broad terms some aspects of the Sudanese historical and cultural experience that do carry such relevance. It is well to conceptualize the conduct of agriculture as systemic activity, in which some components are fixed by natural determinants, others by technological factors and the whole given structure and put in motion by the social arrangements of its practitioners. As a consequence of the systemic character of these social arrangements it is possible to make meaningful distinctions between groups distributed culturally through space or historically through time; in many cases, though not all, these distinctions are also validated by the criterion of language, the repository of culture and often the delineator of ethnic identity.
Systems of agricultural production in central Sudan and Khartoum Province
Authors: Simpson I G , Simpson M C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Central Sudan is located in the country’s savanna belt which extends from the fringes of the Sahara Desert to the broad-leaved forests, grassy river flood plains, and permanent swamps of the southern Sudan. This chapter is concerned with the eastern portion of the belt which is contained in the provinces of Khartoum, El Gezira, Blue Nile, the southern part of Kassala Province and the land east of the White Nile in the province of that name.
Irrigation development programmes
Authors: Davies H R J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1956, the year of Independence, agricultural products accounted for 97 per cent of Sudan’s foreign export earnings and three-quarters of the bank loans were for agricultural purposes (Ministry of Finance and Economics 1957). The most important export crop was cotton which provided 71 per cent of export earnings and an important source of budget revenue for the Sudanese Government through export taxes. More than 90 per cent of the cotton grown in the Sudan came from irrigated schemes.
Agricultural education, research, and extension
Authors: Robinson W I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thus spoke a ‘Mohamedan schoolmaster’ in the Bengal Infantry stationed in Suakin upon hearing that Kitchener was collecting money in England to build a College in Khartoum. The schoolmaster may have been a figment of Kipling’s imagination but the occasion certainly was not, for Kitchener’s initiative led to the opening of Gordon College in Khartoum in 1902. Gordon College, later to become Khartoum University, is really the starting point for both the themes of this chapter. Firstly, its foundation heralded what was to become known as the ‘educational experiment in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan’ (Currie 1934) an experiment which was to shape the current education system of Sudan and have a fundamental effect on education development throughout Africa.
A shape space network model
Authors: Rowe Glenn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While the plus-minus model of Hoffmann, considered in the last chapter, succeeds in predicting several observed states of real immune systems from a minimum of assumptions, it would be interesting to examine a model which incorporates more of the features of a functioning immune network. This can only be done, as you might expect, by a considerable increase in the complexity of the model. We will study one such model, that of De Boer and Perelson (1991), in this chapter. The paper which forms the main source for this chapter is one of a large collection of models by a group of researchers which has been working on models of the immune system for many years.
Reading German
Authors: Coles Waltraud , Dodd Bill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reading German is a structured reading course designed to take a wide variety of users to an independent reading of authentic German texts. It is ideally suited for courses in colleges and universities, for students or specialists in any discipline, and for independent learners. Drawing on recent research into reading in a foreign language, the course chapters focus on the recognition and decoding of progressively complex written structures, before rehearsing a variety of strategies (such as skimming and scanning) for negotiating longer and more complex texts. The book has four sections: a 16-chapter reading course an extensive reference section containing a specially-designed grammar of written German a further exercises section, for further work on recognizing structures a text corpus containing 23 texts of various types, with facing English translations. Grammatical points explained in the reference section are frequently illustrated using examples located in the text corpus. The only other resource the user will need is a bilingual dictionary. Advice on how to use a dictionary is contained in the reference section.
Introduction
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I would argue, nevertheless, that in the pages which follow, you will find everything you need to know if-although not a linguist in the strict sense-you love language and are fascinated by it. In addition, to all those people who may have been put off by theoretical linguistics which, all too often, hides its identity as a social (hence imprecise) science beneath mounds of mathematical formulae, I would like to show that beyond that dry-as-dust surface, linguistics can be appealing, fun, and quite, quite accessible. The use of a specific jargon, or metalanguage, can and will be kept to a strict minimum. It cannot, however, be entirely eliminated: it would not be real istic to believe that we can talk about language and linguistics using only everyday language.
Anti-dis-establish-ment-arian-ism
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The existence of words seems intuitively obvious to speakers. Are we then to believe that the morpheme is a mere invention of linguists? Since it some times corresponds to a word, but more often than not to a part of a word, the morpheme lacks the clear autonomy which characterizes the word and is not so easily identified. In a way, its definition is a negative one: it is 'the smallest unit of meaning' beyond which no further division can be made while still retaining some autonomous meaning.
The Incredible Lightness of Meaning
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Meaning, strange as it may seem, was for a long time excluded from lin guistics, especially by the followers of Saussure: functionalists, distribution alists, and structuralists. Roman Jakobson, in what is almost a caricature, tells the story of a comparative philologist who, after spending years deci phering an ancient manuscript was quite unable to call to mind its contents, since he had not even noticed them.
Green Ideas
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The grammar of a language is what enables us to create and understand well-formed sentences. For a sentence to be grammatical, it only needs to be recognized as such by the linguistic community on the basis of their intu ition as native speakers. This intuition is based in the speakers' competence. There is no question, here, of introducing some social or cultural norm or of passing value judgements about 'fine language' or telling speakers how they ought to speak. The grammar that the linguist endeavours to describe is not a normative or prescriptive grammar, full of do's and don't's: 'different than' is just as grammatical as 'different from' and 'I can't see no one' as accept able as ' I can't see anyone' or 'he talks real quick' as 'he talks really quickly'. The notion of a grammatical rule is supported by the usage com mon to a certain number of speakers, recognized as the only arbiters of grammaticality in their dialect. Whenever significant differences in usage are observed between different groups of speakers, no privilege should be given to the dominant group (the most educated or influential). The role of the linguist is to observe that there is such a thing as variation in any language, and this can, to a certain extent, be related to social, ethnic, or geographi cal differences. A language is no more than the sum of its various dialects.
Conclusions
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WITHIN the perspective adopted in this book I have claimed that language has no existence apart from the social reality of its users. Although language is a precondition for social life, it does not exist on its own and it does not simply reflect some pre-existing reality. I have tried to show how social and linguistic knowledge are intertwined by looking at some of the various ways in which social differences are encoded in speaker’s choices both of variants within what is thought of as one language as well as between languages.
Two Species of Philosophy: The Historical Significance
Authors: Stewart M A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hume’s Enquiry concerning Human Understanding was originally published under the title Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understandingin 1748. The title reference to ‘Human Understanding’ sets up one set of associations for the modern reader, but the opening sentence sets up another: we find ourselves reading about moralphilosophy. In fact, the opening section as a whole locates the work within a particular topical controversy. To understand how that is so, we have to look both at Hume’s career and at the nature of philosophy teaching at the time.
The Search for Certainty
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The nineteenth century saw a movement to make higher mathematics rigorous. This seemed to be on the brink of success when it was thrown into confusion by the discovery of the class paradoxes. That initiated a period of intense research into the foundations of mathematics, and with it the birth of mathematical logic and a new, sharper debate in the philosophy of mathematics. The Search for Certainty examines this foundational endeavour from the discovery of the paradoxes to the present. Focusing on Russell's logicist programme and Hilbert's finitist programme, Giaquinto investigates how successful they were and how successful they could be. These questions are set in the context of a clear, non-technical exposition and assessment of the most important discoveries in mathematical logic, above all Gödel's underivability theorems. More than six decades after those discoveries, Giaquinto asks what our present perspective should be on the question of certainty in mathematics. Taking recent developments into account, he gives reasons for a surprisingly positive response.
Incorporating simulation into the medical school curriculum
Authors: Steadman Randolph , Matevosian Rima 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The common aspect unifying these modalities is the reproduction of a state that allows the learner to systematically and deliberately rehearse tasks and/or thought processes associated with clinically relevant objectives. The role of deliberate practice, or rehearsal, in domains such as athletics and music, has been identified as important for medical training. Accrediting bodies recently expressed support for simulation as a risk free, standardized modality that promotes practice.
Caring for people living with motor neuron disease
Authors: Talbot Kevin , Marsden Rachael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Caring for someone with MND is a challenge whether you are a health care professional or a close family member or friend. Anyone who made the marriage vow ‘in sickness and in health’, however sincerely meant, would never have been able to envisage that a disease such as MND would transform their world. Occasionally caring for a person with MND can be too challenging; relationships suffer, the health of the carer deteriorates and the whole situation occasionally breaks down. However, for the most part, people placed in the position of caring for a loved one manage to come through with enormous bravery and resilience in which the journey through the illness is, perhaps, the most difficult, but one of many challenges that people face in their relationships.
The Evolutionary Analysis of Measurably Evolving Populations Using Serially Sampled Gene Sequences
Authors: Rodrigo Allen , Ewing Gregory , Drummond Alexei 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When two neutrally-evolving homologous gene sequences are drawn randomly from an unfragmented haploid population of constant size, N, theory tells us that they have a common ancestor, on average, about N generations in the past. Theory also tells us that with a constant rate of substitution, μ, these two sequences will accumulate, on average, Nμ substitutions each, so that between them one expects to see 2Nμ substitutions. These very simple statements about the times to common ancestry and numbers of substitutions lead to some quite powerful methods that allow us to work backwards from sequence data to derive estimates of population size, rates of growth or decline, migration, and selection. But what if each sequence was drawn at a different time? Now, the expected number of substitutions that separate the two is no longer a function of Nμ alone, but also of the time between sampling, and the substitutions that accrue over this interval. Extend the thought experiment, and consider sampling two sequences first, and another two later.
What about evidence-based protocols?
Authors: Nicholls Anthony , Wilson lain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is largely based on the tried and tested principles of experience, reasoning, and common sense, together with evidence-based medicine where that evidence exists. We support the principles underlying evidence-based medicine, but realize their limitations in many situations. The main methodology of evidence-based medicine is to base clinical decision-making upon the results of randomized clinical trials or meta-analyses of several trials. For example, the United States Preventive Services Taskforce rates the value of evidence from randomized controlled trials as grade 1 and evidence from non-randomized trials as grade 2, but evidence from the opinions of respected authorities is only grade 3. On this basis, we would claim that most of the clinical practice described in this book might be grade 2 or 3. We believe, however, that the guidelines described here are just as relevant to safe clinical practice as those of grade 1 status.
Patient consent
Authors: Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Only a competent patient can give informed consent. If the patient is by virtue of acute illness temporarily incompetent, then the next of kin has no legal right to give consent for treatment or to withhold therapy. The doctor must act in the best interests of the patient. Furthermore, relatives cannot take decisions for a competent patient, but are perfectly entitled to help the patient and the doctor come to the appropriate decision. Competence is discussed below. Consent may be implied for examination or simple investigation, but express consent (written or oral) is essential for any procedure that carries material risk. Material risks are defined as those to which a reasonable person in the patient’s position would be likely to attach significance.
The management of acute pain
Authors: Conn David , Murdoch Julie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Acute pain is often badly managed. This need not be so. Pain control can often be improved by a simple strategy: assess the pain treat with drugs and techniques with which you are familiar re-assess the pain after treatment and be prepared to adjust the treatment accordingly. Good pain relief reduces postoperative complications such as chest infections, nausea and vomiting, DVT, and ileus. Patients who say that they are in pain invariably are. Listen to your patients and believe them. There are no physiological or behavioural patterns that can be used to prove that someone is fabricating pain. The same surgical operation may produce widely differing analgesia requirements in different patients.
Fluid balance
Authors: Wilson lain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Surgical patients require careful attention to their fluid balance. Several factors alter fluid and electrolyte requirements. Patients who are nil-by-mouth after major surgery cannot depend on thirst to regulate body fluids. They rely solely on i/v fluids to maintain their fluid balance. Fluid shifts after surgery result from sequestering of fluid in the operative site or other places such as the abdomen (e.g. ileus). These unseen losses are commonly known as ‘third space’ and consist of mainly extracellular fluid. In other situations, loss of plasma occurs across leaking capillary membranes. Blood loss is usually easy to estimate in theatre, but may be con­ cealed in the pre- and postoperative phase. Indirect estimations of blood loss may be inaccurate.
Medical causes of acute abdominal pain
Authors: Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patients admitted to surgical wards with acute abdominal pain may have a medical cause for their pain. Table 20.1 lists the medical causes that mimic surgical pathology together with diagnostic features. Table 20.1 Medical causes of acute abdominal pain Cause Diagnostic clues Cardio-thoracic pathology Myocardial infarction Pericarditis Pneumonia Pneumothorax Pulmonary embolism Endocrine Diabetic ketoacidosis Adrenal insufficiency Haematological Sickle cell crisis Acute leukaemia Drug-induced Lead toxicity Opioid withdrawal Metabolic Acidosis Porphyria\ Previous history. ECG. Cardiac enzymes Aggravation by posture and/or respiration. Pericardia! Rub ECG - ST elevation in multiple leads Fever.
Neurological disorders
Authors: Hardie Richard , Day Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Death in neurologically disabled patients is most commonly a consequence of immobility. Typical postoperative complications include chest infection, UTIs, pressure sores, DVT, and PE. Except in the terminal stages of disease, these are preventable by good nursing, careful handling, and other appropriate prophylactic measures. Ask about personal activities of daily living and level of independence. Patients will usually have established a personalized programme of care and maintenance. Medical and nursing staff on surgical wards should recognize this and both seek and accept advice from patients and their carers. Preventable complications arising peri­ operatively may not simply extend the length of hospital stay, but might also destroy the confidence of the patient and carers in the hospital for the future.
Gastroenterological disorders
Authors: Daneshmend Tawfique , Dow Alasdair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A history of acid-peptic ulceration of the upper digestive tract affecting the duodenum, stomach, or oesophagus will often be obtained in patients presenting for elective or emergency surgery unrelated to the upper GI tract. Surgery for acid-peptic disease itself (elective surgery for peptic ulcer, gastro-oesophageal reflux disease; emergency surgery for perforated peptic ulcer or oesophagus; or surgery for acute GI bleeding) is not the purpose of this chapter. The management of these patients is addressed in standard surgical texts. Chronic peptic ulceration should now be rare. Since over 90% of (previously idiopathic) gastric and duodenal ulceration is associated causally with Helicobacter pylori, in ideal circumstances previous eradication of this bacterium should have eliminated the need for continuing medical therapy.
The geriatric patient
Authors: Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Surgical mortality increases with age. Chronic medical disorders, delays in seeking surgical opinion and diagnostic delays increase morbidity and mortality. Medical causes of postoperative mortality out­ number surgical causes by 3 to 1. Cardiorespiratory disease is the commonest cause of postoperative death but infectious complications of abdominal surgery are also important. Autopsy studies of postoperative deaths in the elderly show pneumonia to be the commonest cause of death as well being the most commonly missed diagnosis. Other infections (including peritonitis), cardiac failure and PE also often undiagnosed before death. Cardiac deaths are common even in those without clinical evidence of heart disease.
Hypotension
Authors: Wilson lain , Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hypotension is defined as a systolic pressure &lt;100 mmHg and after surgery is most commonly due to hypovolaemia. Blood pressure is the product of cardiac output and peripheral resistance. Cardiac output is dependent on efficient cardiac filling and contractility. Changes in any of these parameters may result in hypotension. The earliest practical distinction to make in the management of a shocked patient is to decide whether the patient is hypovolaemic, has cardiac problems or has a vasodilated state (such as sepsis). This is best based on history and examination. Underlying cardiovascular conditions, and their drug treatment, may modify physiological responses to hypotension and confuse the clinical picture.
Oliguria and renal failure
Authors: Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Renal failure is diagnosed when the serum creatinine rises rapidly by 20% or more above the preoperative value. Oliguria is typical but not invariable. Postoperative acute renal failure can also occur in the presence of a urine flow of 50 ml/h or greater (non-oliguric renal failure). Renal failure should be suspected when postoperative urine output is low: the diagnosis is confirmed biochemically. The preoperative biochemistry allows certainty in the diagnosis of acute or acute-on­ chronic renal failure. The differential diagnosis of postoperative acute renal failure is commonly limited to the following: Pre-renal factors: Renal hypoperfusion. Common in shock, aortic surgery, sepsis, and hepatorenal syndrome.
Headache in surgical patients
Authors: Thomas Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Headache is common on surgical wards (Table 49.1). Mostly benign and self-limiting, it may occasionally be a serious symptom. The history will normally exclude serious underlying pathology, and the patient can then be reassured and treated with appropriate analgesia. Headaches that are associated with altered neurology require urgent investigation. Table 49.1 Clinical features of types of postoperative headache in order of frequency of occurrence Cause Features Tension headache A feeling of pressure over the head or ache around the neck and shoulders. Often gets worse over the course of the day. Anxious patient. Previous similar headaches. Migraine Those regularly afflicted can often detect when an episode is about to occur.
The swollen leg
Authors: Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of a swollen leg in a surgical, orthopaedic, or gynaecology ward is common. The main concern is whether a deep venous thrombosis (DVT) is the underlying cause. PE only happens when thrombus extends into the femoral and iliac veins. Pelvic venous thrombosis can cause PE, particularly after gynaecological procedures. Venous thrombosis limited to calf veins does not cause PE. Unfortunately, clinical signs do not allow differentiation between calf vein thrombosis and proximal DVT. Calf vein thrombosis can extend above the knee if untreated. Not all swollen legs represent DVT, and many DVT are subtle, but the diagnosis is usually simpler than on a medical ward, because the change in the leg is usually observed.