bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
This International Historical Museum
Authors: Larson Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of Wellcome’s collectors was given a much freer rein, financially and administratively, than any other during the late 1920s and 1930s. Peter Johnston-Saint, a suave and well-connected ex-army officer, spent more money buying a single batch of letters than Winifred Blackman ever received for an entire field season in Egypt. Between 1927 and 1935, Johnston-Saint went on two or three long tours, of two to five months, every year for Wellcome. He almost always began his travels in France, and frequently moved on to Italy or Spain. He went to Austria, Greece, Germany, Switzerland, Egypt, and the Middle East a number of times. He also visited India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) on behalf of the Museum. During his earlier trips he spent £100–£200 a month on artefacts; six weeks in France and Italy at the beginning of 1929 saw him spend nearly £1,100 on objects and around £35 a week on travel expenses; during thirteen weeks in the Mediterranean in 1930 he spent £1,900 on acquisitions and £600 on expenses, and a similar trip a year later cost £700 in expenses, and more than £2,300 in purchases. He secured thousands of objects for Wellcome while touring abroad as the Museum’s Foreign Secretary. It was the kind of work he had been born to do: hobnobbing with men of influence in the morning and haggling with street vendors in the afternoon.
Sir Henry Wellcome is dead
Authors: Larson Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Without Wellcome, the collection lost its driving force, and, almost immediately, it began to fragment. Wellcome’s successors could not defend such a great, and expensive, material legacy, particularly when most of it was stashed away, out of sight and in a state of disarray. Had Wellcome successfully transformed his collection into a museum during his lifetime no doubt the story would have been different. Once completed, the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum might have provided a service to the public that justified its maintenance in perpetuity. As it was, Wellcome’s trustees were faced with thousands of unopened packing cases, many filled with artefacts of unknown provenance and quality. Now that Wellcome’s vision could no longer hold this largely impenetrable collection together, practical and financial considerations took precedence for the first time and dictated that the collection must be rationalized.
Editor ‘s Introduction
Authors: Natali Carlo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
NE book VII ( EE book VI) appears to be the sum of two different logoi, the first (VII. 1 – 10) dedicated to weakness of the will and other undesirable states of the mind, and the second (VII. 11 – 14) to pleasure. Each logos has the aspect of an independent short treatise, with its own introduction and structure. Each develops its argument with no explicit reference to the other. The discussion of weakness of the will even has its own conclusion (1152a34 – 6), whereas the discussion of pleasure lacks an explicit conclusion but ends with the quotation of a poem. After that we have a conclusion to the whole book. This is the only passage that connects the two parts of the book. I shall quote it below.
Nicomachean Ethics VII. 8-9 (115122): Akrasia, enkrateia, and Look-Alikes
Authors: Broadie Sarah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This portion of NE VII studies the boundaries of akrasia and enkrateia. The overall aim is to distinguish these qualities from various ethical look-alikes, partly for the sake of a correct descriptive taxonomy, partly so as to provide solutions to certain dialectical puzzles, and partly (I assume) in order to sharpen or refine our everyday evaluations of human character and conduct, whether others ‘ or our own. These purposes are accomplished through a thematic engagement with the notions of constancy and change as applied to ethical agency.
Nicomachean Ethics VII. 11 – 12: Pleasure
Authors: Frede Dorothea 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
That Aristotle should feel prompted to engage in a systematic investigation of pleasure and pain in the Nicomachean Ethics after treating self-control and its lack, softness and endurance, seems prima facie quite natural, because pleasure and pain are the objects of those dispositions. But it takes no more than a perfunctory look to see that the discussion of pleasure and pain in chapters 11 – 14 is not a continuation of what went before. Instead, Aristotle makes a fresh start from quite a different angle. He no longer focuses on the pleasures of the body, but sets out to discuss pleasure and pain in general, on the grounds that it is a topic of central interest to the political philosopher, who, as the master-architect (architekto¯n) of the end or aim in human life, serves as the arbiter of what is good and bad in all things without qualification. An investigation of pleasure and pain is also required because of their intrinsic relation to virtue and vice, and because most people associate happiness with pleasure. This introduction leads us to expect a clarification of three points: (a) the relation of pleasure and pain to the end of human life, (b) their function in virtuous and vicious actions, and (c) the special connection between pleasure and happiness
The Metaphysics of Dispositions and Causes
Authors: Handfield Toby 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In explaining what happens, we commonly use both dispositional and causal concepts. A historian might refer to the belligerent disposition of a nation-state, and use this to explain why a neighbouring state was so anxious to seek an apparently unwise alliance. A physicist might have occasion to mention the disposition of a metal to expand when heated, and use this to explain why a measurement was inaccurate when taken in abnormally hot conditions. The contexts of explanation— physics and history — are very different, but the concepts are recognizably causal and dispositional in both cases.
Agent-Causal Power
Authors: O’Connor Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our universe is populated, at bottom, by a vast number of partless particulars of a few basic kinds. Each of these particulars instantiates some of a small range of primitive qualities and stands in primitive relations with other particulars. We may conceive of qualities as immanent universals that are numerically identical in their instances, along the lines championed by David Armstrong (1978), or as ‘tropes’ that are non-identical but exactly resembling in their instances, following C. B. Martin (1997). (Nothing of what follows hangs on which alternative one prefers.) In calling these qualities ‘primitive’, we are contending that they are real existents whose being does not consist, even in part, in the existence or instantiation of other entities. The nature of these qualities is irreducibly dispositional: they are tendencies to interact with other qualities in producing some effect, or some range of possible effects. (Or, in certain cases— as we shall consider below— they may instead confer upon their possessor a tendency towards, or power to produce, some such effects.) It may be that the dispositional profile of a quality does not exhaust its nature, so that it has a further ‘qualitative character’, or quiddity. Here again, we may be neutral on this question for present purposes.
From Kiev to Muscovy
Authors: Martin Janet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The formative centuries of the Russian state are perhaps best divided into three main periods: the era of Kievan thus from its roots in the ninth century to the Mongol invasion of 1237–40; a century of ‘Mongol dominance’ from 1240 to c.1340, during which Kievan traditions and structures lost their potency and the thus principalities adapted to Mongol or Tatar suzerainty; and the period from c.1340 to the mid-fifteenth century when the foundations of the new state of Muscovy were laid.
European Cities and Towns
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the Middle Ages Europe has been one of the most urbanized continents on the planet and Europe’s cities have firmly stamped their imprint on the continent’s economic, social, political, and cultural life. This study of European cities and towns from the fall of the Roman Empire to the present day looks both at regional trends from across Europe and also at the widely differing fortunes of individual communities on the roller coaster of European urbanization. Taking a wide-angled view of the continent that embraces northern and eastern Europe as well as the city systems of the Mediterranean and western Europe, it addresses important debates ranging from the nature of urban survival in the post-Roman era to the position of the European city in a globalizing world. The book is divided into three parts, dealing with the middle ages, the early modern period, and the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—with each part containing chapters on urban trends, the urban economy, social developments, cultural life and landscape, and governance. Throughout, the book addresses key questions such as the role of migration, including that of women and ethnic minorities; the functioning of competition and emulation between cities, as well as issues of inter-urban cooperation; the different ways civic leaders have sought to promote urban identity and visibility; the significance of urban autonomy in enabling cities to protect their interests against the state; and not least why European cities and towns over the period have been such pressure cookers for new ideas and creativity, whether economic, political, or cultural.
Governance 400 – 1500
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the close of the Middle Ages, the essential administrative and political structures of towns, including municipal powers and civic leadership, had been constructed, at least for the greater towns, in most parts of Europe. As we shall see, the process was slow and difficult, but from the twelfth century it proved incremental. The other main development in medieval urban governance— the creation of civic autonomy from outside control— was more problematic and fraught with difficulty.
Governance 1500 – 1800
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In November 1576, Henry III of France and his queen made a joyous entry into the city of Orléans. Outside the gates, seated in a ceremonial grandstand, draped with rich hangings, the king watched a march past by the city’s militia, followed by 200 royal pages (dressed up in orange velvet jerkins with grey and green hats), snaking processions of aged professors and students, royal officials, and, finally, the mayor and aldermen in their coloured gowns, and other leading citizens.
Conclusion
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As this book has revealed, the making of urban Europe since the early Middle Ages was a slow and complex process with sudden rushes of expansion, but also numerous changes of gear and losses of momentum. Urban decline after the disintegration of the Roman Empire in the West was only slowly reversed in the eighth and ninth centuries, but by the high Middle Ages the rate of urban growth was as high as at any time before the nineteenth century, only to be followed by widespread urban deceleration after the Black Death.
What are the Beneﬁts?
Authors: Guillebaud John , Maccregor Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The contraceptive benefi ts of the pill are obvious. But many of its benefi ts have nothing to do with contraception (Table 5.1). All the other good effects can have considerable advantages for some women—indeed, they may choose to take the pill even if they don’t need it for contraception.
What about Blood Clots, Heart Attacks, and Strokes?
Authors: Guillebaud John , Maccregor Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A major, rare, unwanted effect of the pill is that it increases the risk of thrombosis. This means the formation of blood clots in veins and (even more rarely) arteries. But this risk should be balanced against the fact that pill users are less likely to have thrombosis than if they were pregnant. Further, this is not just a pill problem—it can also happen in women who have never taken a pill in their lives, and in men.
The Semantics of Clause Linking in Akkadian
Authors: Deutscher Guy 
Published: November 2023

AbstractAkkadian is the earliest known Semitic language. It was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia, the ‘land between the rivers’ (Tigris and Euphrates), in an area which roughly corresponds to today’s Iraq. It was written in the cuneiform script, on clay tablets. Akkadian is one of the earliest and longest attested languages, with a history spanning more than two thousand years. The first written attestations are from around 2500 Bce, and the language was spoken until around 500 Bce, when it was displaced by Aramaic. From the second millennium Bce, two distinct dialects of Akkadian emerged, Babylonian and Assyrian.
Toxins of anaerobes
Authors: Lyerly David M , Wilkins Tracy D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A large number of the anaerobic bacteria, including members of the genera Clostridium, Bacteroides, Fusohacterium, and Aclinomyces, are pathogenic for man and animals. Members of the Bacteroides, Fusohacterium, and Actinomyces produce capsules, haemagglutinins, and a variety of proteolytic enzymes but the exact role of these substances as virulence factors is not clear. Diseases caused by the clostridia, on the other hand, have been shown to result from the production of tissue-damaging toxins (see references I 5 for general reviews of clostridial toxins). In this chapter, properties and assay procedures for the better known clostridial toxins are described. Some of these procedures have been described in detail in other literature and in those instances, the reader is referred to those references.
Isolation and cultivation of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria
Authors: Tindall B J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Photosynthetic or phototrophic bacteria include two groups of organisms, the anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria and the oxygcnic cyanobactcria (often referred to as the blue-green algae). Although it has been demonstrated that certain cyanobacteria are capable of anaerobic growth, the subjects of the present chapter are the anoxygenic red, purple. and green phototrophic bacteria.
Plants
Authors: Vincent Julian F V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plants are complex structures, very largely cellular, with the cells either under turgor or the cell walls lignified. A general approach to cellular materials (1) is very good for the prediction of stiffness and, to a lesser extent, strength of non-turgor systems such as wood and bark but cannot properly cope with cells under internal pressure. In order to analyse the plant mechanically, the con tributions of the different components would ideally be quantified, which requires mathematical models for turgid cellular systems. There are several studies which analyse the relationship between turgor and mechanical prop erties of individual cells, but such models have not yet been developed to describe assemblages of cells with their more complex interactions. There are models which do describe the properties of turgid tissues, but these have not been derived from the properties of individual cells.
Proteoglycans
Authors: Carney S L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Proteoglycans, by definition, are conjugates of protein and glycosaminoglycan which are found largely in connective tissue. Their major role is to provide swelling pressure in these tissues by virtue of a Donnan osmotic effect due to the high fixed negative charge found on these molecules. Proteoglycans by their very nature are related to glycoproteins, but are generally differentiated from this class of molecule because of their distinct glycosaminoglycan component. In glycoproteins, generally the sugar moiety composes only a small percentage of the molecular mass, the sugars are relatively small, generally uncharged (with the exception of sialic acid residues), and frequently highly branched. In contrast, glycosaminoglycans from proteo glycan are large, linear molecules which are highly charged, containing both carboxylic acid and sulfate ester groups, and comprise generally a significant proportion of the total molecular mass.
The prediction challenge
Authors: Saqi Mansoor a. S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Genome projects will soon be producing hundreds of kilobases of raw sequence a day. A major effort in biocomputing will be the analysis of sequence data in terms of functional and structural characterization. Homology-based predictions have proved to be useful. However, given the rate of growth of the sequence databases, homology searches are increasingly likely to spot a similarity with another sequence of unknown function. This ‘function-homology gap’ (1) is likely to increase. There is a need for both statistical analyses to maximize the amount of information that can be used to characterize function and also new algorithms and approaches for secondary and tertiary structure prediction. The level of detail required will vary from establishing function, to getting an idea of the protein fold with a view to prompting site-specific mutagenesis experiments to detailed molecular modelling.
Classical and molecular cytogenetics of Arabidopsis
Authors: Jones G H , Heslop-Harrison J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many species of importance, either as genetical research tools or because of their economic value, cytogenetics has played a prominent role in providing a framework for genetical and molecular analyses of their genomes. The small genome size of Arabidopsis thaliana L. which confers particular advantages for molecular analysis has been a distinct hindrance to cytogenetical analysis. It has been unkindly suggested that Arabidopsis chromosomes resemble ‘mouse droppings seen through the wrong end of a telescope’! While this is perhaps too harsh a judgement, the chromosomes of Arabidopsis are certainly very small by comparison with most eukaryotes, and this limitation has with-out doubt restricted the examination of chromosome organization and behaviour during mitosis and meiosis, and their numerical and structural variants, in short– cytogenetics. Despite these difficulties, Arabidopsis has attracted the attention of cytogeneticists over a long period of time and slow but erratic progress has been made in characterizing its chromosome organization and behaviour both in normal and abnormal situations.
The Analytical Chemistry of Microbial Cultures
Authors: Mousdale David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The immense potential of microbes for producing biomedical and pharmaceutical agents, enzymes, acids, flavours, and speciality chemicals has been realized in a continually increasing number of industrial fermentations. Such processes are, however, necessarily complex, both biologically and biochemically. Growth and primary and secondary metabolism are combined with the utilization (sometimes only partial) of inputs and the generation of a mixture of products and side-products. degradation products, and metabolites. The understanding of a fermentation process is therefore always an analytical challenge, whatever its commercial status, and the problems arc invariably increased by the development of a microbial strain and scaling-up a fermentation process. With secondary metabolites the complex regulatory networks at the genetic level preclude beneficial changes by random mutations, which act on either growth or the supply of metabolites or cofactors to biochemical pathways (sec ref. 1). Such changes can be analyses by measuring nutrient uptake and utilization, the sizes of the intracellular pools, and the fluxes through the pathways (see Chapter 9).
Protein molecular weight determination by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
Authors: Makowski Gregory s. , Ramsby Melinda L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) is a widely used analytical technique for the separation and characteri1.ation of complex mixtures of proteins and peptides and for the estimation of the relative molecular weight (M,) of a protein. Despite numerous variations (l-3 and references therein), the discontinuous SDS-PAGE system described by Laemmli in 1970 (4) remains the most popular. Using this classical method as a paradigm, this article will review the principles and theory of electrophoresis, describe the essential components of SOS-PAGE, and demonstrate relevant applications including the use of SOS-PAGE for detection of enzymatic activity.
Protein analysis by mass spectrometry
Authors: Jensen Ole Norregaard , Shevchenko Andrej , Matthias Mann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The molecular weight is a highly specific characteristic of a molecule and is often the first physicochcmical property that is measured of a protein. Traditionally, SDS-PAGE (Chapter 1), analytical ultracentrifugation, or gel permeation chromatography (Chapter 9) are used for molecular weight measurements. Recently, mass spectrometric techniques have been developed that permit mass determination of intact proteins with an accuracy far superior to the above mentioned methods. At the same time biological mass spectrometry has changed from being a complex and exotic discipline performed only by specialists into being an invaluable analytical technique used by skilled biochemists at all levels of protein characterization. This change is mainly due to the emergence of two new ionization techniques that allow production of gas phase molecular ions of proteins and peptides, as well as to the availability of relatively simple and easy to operate mass spectrometers. The power of the techniques is apparent from the following performance data. Only a few picomoles of a protein arc necessary to obtain its molecular weight with an accuracy of 0.01-0.1%. Even Jess sample is necessary for peptide analysis: subpicomolc amounts can now be analysed with a mass accuracy better than 0.01%, i.e. an error of 0.1 Dain 1000 Da. Although mass spectrometry is a versatile and powerful analytical technique, it has some limitations. This chapter focuses on practical guidelines for sample preparation for mass spectrometric analysis which, if followed, should ensure good results. The principles of operation and applications of mass spectrometry in biological research can be found in recent reviews (1-5). Here, we only provide a brief overview so that the reader can appreciate the utility and limitations of the new mass spectrometric techniques.
Disulfide bonds between cysteine residues
Authors: Gray William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Disulfide bonds between cysteinc residues, to generate cystine, are a common post-translational modification of proteins, principally of those that operate in the extracellular milieu. A full description of the covalent structure demands that the connectivity of the bridged cysteines be analysed. Although disulfidcs are chemically rather simple, two factors can make the analysis difficult. First, the number of possible isomers grows rapidly as the number of bridges increases-1, 3, 15. 105, 945, etc. Second, base and reducing agents can catalyse exchange among partners, obscuring the original connectivity (1). Native proteins under physiological conditions are deceptively stable, but once they are denatured or nicked by proteases, disulfide exchange occurs when even a trace of thiol is present. Offsetting this complexity is one’s prior knowledge of the amino acid sequence. This helps greatly in designing cleavage methods, and in simplifying peptide analysis-an accurate mass will often identify a peptide fragment, thereby defining a disulfide connection.