bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Points of departure
Authors: Dowrick Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bernie has a pre-Raphaelite appearance, with flowing dresses and long curly hair which she uses to hide her face. She likes to make a dramatic entrance to my consulting room, peeping around the door, apologising for coming to see me but‘ I just need to check out a couple of things with you, if it’s not too much trouble’. She has a lot of complicated family problems, both past and present. I think they include some abusive experiences as a child, though we have never talked about this directly.
Depression as a medical condition
Authors: Dowrick Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within those branches of the medical profession which are concerned with mental health - mainly psychiatry, general practice, and family medicine a broad consensus has been developing during the past two decades about the concept of depression as a medical condition. This consensus has been articulated through joint professional statements ( 1) and has formed the basis of public campaigns such as ‘Defeat Depression’ in the United Kingdom (2), ‘Keep Your Chin Up’ in Finland, and ‘Beyond Blue’ in Australia. It has also been energetically promoted by federal health agencies in the United States of America (3).
Encounters in primary care
Authors: Dowrick Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters I have shown how, in western medical practice, we are increasingly likely to make a diagnosis of depression. A great deal of time and energy has been invested in describing it as a disease, with sophisticated diagnostic categorisations, detailed information about its natural history, its aetiological factors (whether inherited or environmental, predisposing, or precipitating), its impact on the individual and on society, and the multiplicity of its available treatments, including medication, psychosocial interventions, and managed care pathways.
Design issues in clinical trials
Authors: Everitt Brian S , Wessely Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first question to be addressed by anyone contemplating carrying out a clinical trial is whether it is appropriate to mount the trial at all? If previous trials have conclusively demonstrated the effectiveness (or lack of effectiveness) of a treatment, there is little point in investigating that treatment further. This may seem an obvious truism but it has not always been followed. Chalmers and Lau (1993), for example, looked at a series of randomized clinical trials of endoscopic treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer carried out from the 1980s to the 1990s. Combining the results from trials up to 1982 showed that the chances that endoscopic therapy was not reducing recurrent or continued bleeding, when compared to the standard therapy, were less than one in a thousand. Yet in the 25th published trial, carried out between 1989 and 1991, patients continued to be randomly assigned to a control group.
Modern multidisciplinary mental health working
Authors: Burns Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite doubts about the essential ingredients of community mental health work, multidisciplinary team working is not in question. The movement from institutionbased care to the community occurred alongside the development of community mental health teams and the therapeutic community movement. Severe mental illnesses generate a broad range of psychological, behavioural, and social problems. Helping such individuals often requires input in several, if not all, of these areas simultaneously.
Generic adult CMHTs
Authors: Burns Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As outlined in Chapters 1 and 2 the adult CMHT has been the basic model for the development of subsequent, more specialised teams. It was in these CMHTs that roleblurring and skillsharing first moved out of the rarefied atmosphere of therapeutic communities and captured the thinking of general services. Until recently they were responsible for all the assessment and most of the treatment of adult patients referred for secondary mental health care in the UK.
Highly specialized teams
Authors: Burns Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The teams outlined so far in this book serve ‘adults of working age ’. They are, essentially, different structures for meeting the range of patient needs, rather than for meeting the needs of different groups of patients. This chapter will briefly overview how some of the more specialized teams (teams which are targeted on specific patient groups) adapt to these models. Many of the team structures and practices are remarkably similar (as, of course, are many of the patient needs) so it would be repetitive and unhelpful to describe them in great detail. Attention will be drawn to major differences that are common in them.
Antioxidants in Nutrition, Health, and Disease
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years, there has been an explosion of interest about the use of `antioxidant' nutritional supplements. Do they really defend the body against diseases? Should we all be taking vitamin E, vitamin C, or more of certain polyunsaturated fats? Written by two leading experts in the field of free radicals in biology and medicine, this book unravels the confusion caused by many nutrition-related claims, and clarifies the situation over whether maintaining high intakes of vitamins, minerals, and other food consituents really does help protect against life-threatening diseases.
Oxidative stress
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oxygen radicals and hydrogen peroxide are constantly produced in the human body. Some of this production is a chemical accident, such as generation of hydroxyl radicals (OH”) by our constant exposure to low levels of radiation from the environment (see Chapter 1) and of superoxide (O2·™) by leakage of electrons from electron transport chains (see Chapter 2). Other production of these species is deliberate, including the generation of H2O2 by such enzymes as o-amino acid oxidase (see Chapter 2). Perhaps the best-known examples of deliberate production of radicals in the human body are the generation of2·™ by activated phagocytic cells (see the Appendix to this chapter) and the generation of nitric oxide by the cells lining blood vessel walls (see Chapter 1).
Free radicals and cardiovascular disease
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Coronary heart disease is a major cause of death in the USA and Europe. A heart attack (myocardial infarction) is usually the consequence of two events—the narrowing of coronary arteries by atherosclerosis (Figure 1) and the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) in a narrowed artery, which blocks it completely and renders a portion of the heart muscle ischaemic (lacking inO2). Atherosclerosis of arteries in the brain also predisposes to stroke. There have been many speculations that dietary intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol, antioxidant nutrients, iron, copper, and selenium affect the development of atherosclerosis. The purpose of this chapter is to review what is, and is not, actually known about this complex area.
Diagnosis
Authors: Green Stephen A , Bloch Sidney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conferring a diagnosis of mental illness on people initiates a process that has the potential to impose profound, adverse effects on their lives. Placed in a group that requires treatment, the person, once labelled a psychiatric patient, commonly encounters prejudice and may well feel stigmatized. Moreover, those deemed at risk of harm to themselves or others may have their fundamental civil rights abridged through legal commitment, often resulting in treatments which have disturbing and/or severe side-effects. These possible consequences justify Reich’s1 call for the most thorough ethical examination of what he terms the clinician’s ‘prerogative to diagnose’. In this section we will follow his advice and begin with the core question of what constitutes mental illness.
Bacterial taxonomy
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Taxonomy is the term given to the systematic classification, naming, and identification of living organisms. Bacterial taxonomy is often thought of as a complex but ‘necessary evil’, that is uninteresting to learn and overwhelms many students. It is, however, at the very root of biological communication and is essential for describing an organism, whether newly discovered or well known. A working knowledge of taxonomy is also useful for diagnostic microbiology and for studies in epidemiology and pathogenicity. The intricacies of the rapidly moving field of modern taxonomic research and its methodologies are largely beyond the scope of this book. However, sufficient detail will be given to enable the reader to acquire adequate skills in the communication of bacterial names, and to illustrate the reasons why taxonomy is so important.
Host defences
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of the natural defences of the host against foreign materials or infectious agents is known as ‘immunology’. It is a large subject of increasing complexity, but a good knowledge of the principles of immunology is crucial to the study of how micro-organisms cause disease (pathogenesis). The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the immune system and to describe, as clearly as possible, the various immunological mechanisms which operate during any association between the pathogenic micro-organism and the defence systems of the host. While the main function of the immune system is to protect the host, the complex processes involved not infrequently result in varying degrees of damage to the host. Thus, the question is often posed: is the immune system friend or foe?
An introduction to clinical functional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain
Authors: Sunaert Stefan , Thomas Bejoy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first papers on functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) were published just fifteen years ago, and in the relative short time since, FMRI has assumed a major role in mapping human brain functions. A search of the term “FMRI” in the medline database reveals that more than 5000 peer reviewed original articles have been produced world-wide, a number which has increased exponentially, since last year alone more than one FMRI article a day was published. Almost nine out of ten publications cover either technical aspects of FMRI or the neurophysiological research concerned with the function of the human brain in normal subjects. The latter field is undergoing an explosive growth due to several distinctly advantageous characteristics of FMRI. These include total noninvasiveness, relatively high spatial and temporal resolution, and the ease of imaging the underlying anatomy. In addition, state-of-the-art whole brain FMRI can now be performed on almost all recently installed clinical MR scanners, and online analysis tools allow the visualization of neuronal activity at the level of the single subject (or patient) in real time. The non-invasive character means that subjects can be studied repeatedly, without harm, allowing for longitudinal studies. These benefits have thus led to a considerable growth of neurophysiological data of the human brain — normal and pathological.
The development of applications of FMRI for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in patients with neurological, neurosurgical, or psychiatric diseases forms about ten per cent of the total number of publications since the beginning of the FMRI era, and this field is growing almost as fast as that of ‘neurophysiological FMRI’. This (at first view) limited share of clinical FMRI is actually a tremendous achievement, considering the fact that clinical FMRI is much more difficult to perform than non-clinical FMRI. The reasons for this are multiple and pertain to all aspects of functional imaging. First, at the design stage of a FMRI experiment, compared to the paradigms or stimuli employed in the neurophysiological study of volunteers, those that will be used to elucidate neuronal activity in patients will have to be adapted to their pathology. Second, at the stage of acquiring the functional scans, acquisition time will often be much more limited than in young healthy volunteers. Third, the post-processing of the FMRI data will often have to be altered or improved due to the presence of ‘unexpected’ signals from the brain abnormalities.
Dementia: mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease
Authors: Dickerson Bradford C , Sperling Reisa A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia. In most individuals, the symptoms of the disease begin with mild memory difficulties after the sixth decade of life. Symptoms progress slowly, leading to significant impairment in memory, language, executive function, and other domains of cognition. Eventually, impaired cognitive abilities interfere with complex activities of daily life and ultimately result in the loss of independent function. The diagnosis is typically made in this context on the basis of clinical evidence of dementia with progressive impairment in multiple domains of cognition. Structural neuroimaging is often used in the clinical setting to evaluate for the presence of other pathologies (e.g. cerebrovascular or neoplastic disease). Functional neuroimaging, such as PET or SPECT, may be employed clinically to assist in the discrimination of different types of dementia (e.g. frontotemporal vs. Alzheimer’s dementia). Current treatments are primarily symptomatic, in that clinical trials demonstrate short-term stabilization of cognitive function but not a slowing of the rate of decline. Increasing emphasis is being placed on the development of disease-modifying therapies — drugs that impede the underlying pathophysiologic process of neurodegeneration in AD and, thereby, slow the rate of cognitive decline.
Gene therapy for cancer&#x97; approaches and ethical considerations
Authors: Beirne Deborah , Seymour Leonard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of gene therapy as a potential therapeutic modality for both inherited and acquired disease has continued to gain momentum and sustained interest among the scientific and medical community. The number of gene therapy clinical trials conducted in the UK and elsewhere has risen year on year since its infancy in the early 1990s. In the UK, the Gene Therapy Advisory Committee (GTAC) has approved 96 trials in its I I-year history, 11 in 2004 compared with 3 in 1993 (GTAC 2005; Nevin 1998).
Haematological disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The blood is a vital transport medium which consists of a fluid called plasma in which the cellular elements of the blood are suspended. Plasma is made up of mostly water in which a number of substances are held in solution, including mineral ions (e.g. sodium, potassium), small organic molecules (e.g. amino acids, glucose), plasma proteins (e.g. albumin, immunoglobulins, clotting factors), and hormones. If a blood sample is allowed to stand, it separates into a clot and a clear yellow fluid called serum.
Pathology as a clinical discipline
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far in this book we have talked about pathology as a scientific subject. Pathology also exists as a clinical speciality, being one of the core diagnostic services in the hospital. As a junior hospital doctor, you will be sending samples to the pathology laboratory many times every single day, so it is useful to have a basic understanding of what actually happens in that somewhat mythical place ‘the lab’.
The Computational Simulation of Language Acquisition: Aqui
Authors: Culicover Peter W , Nowak Andrzej 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter and the next we describe our computational simulations of language acquisition. We discuss two basic approaches, the distributional and the grammatical. The distributional approach uses statistical information about the frequency of co-occurrence of individual forms in a string as the primary, and perhaps only, information that the learner extracts from its linguistic experience. The grammatical approach assumes that the learner formulates a grammar in terms of the hierarchical organization and linear ordering of categories exemplified by strings that it encounters in its linguistic experience. There are very strong claims in the literature that one of these two approaches is necessary or sufficient to account for knowledge of language and that the other is inadequate, wrong-headed, or irrelevant. It is of course possible to imagine accounts of language acquisition in which both approaches play a role. Ours is such an approach.
Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cognitive Grammar’ is a theory of language which has been developing since the late 1970’s. Underlying the theory is the assumption that language is inherently symbolic in nature and that a language provides its speakers with a set of resources for relating phonological structures with semantic structures. John R. Taylor introduces the theory of Cognitive Grammar, placing it in the context of current theoretical debates about the nature of linguistic knowledge, and relating it to more general trends in ‘cognitive’ linguistics. The central concepts of the theory are explained in clear, non-technical language, and are applied to in-depth discussions of a range of topics in semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology. Suggestions for further applications of the theory are contained in the numerous study questions which accompany each of the main chapters.
Cognitive Grammar and Cognitive Linguistics
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cognitive Grammar—the subject of this book—is the name which Ronald Langacker has given to a theory of language which he has been developing since the mid-1970s.1 Initially, Cognitive Grammar occupied a very marginal place in the theoretical linguistic landscape. Over the years, as the theory has developed and become more widely known, it has attracted increasing numbers of adherents and sympathizers. There is now a sizeable literature which has applied the theory of Cognitive Grammar to a wide range of linguistic issues, in a variety of languages.
The symbolic thesis: Some questions and answers
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters I introduced the Cognitive Grammar claim that language is inherently symbolic. Following Saussure, I emphasized the mental nature of the linguistic sign. The sign does not associate a thing out there in the world with an actual pronunciation. Both poles of the linguistic sign—the concept and the acoustic image—are mental entities, stored inside a person’s mind.
Schema and instance in symbolic units
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen how the schema-instance relation applies both to semantic and to phonological units. In this chapter I tum to symbolic units, i.e. associations between phonological and semantic structures. These, too, can stand in the schema-instance relation. A symbolic unit can be an instance of a more schematically characterized symbolic unit, and can itself be schematic for a range of more fully specified symbolic units.
Morphology
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. I approach the topic with a couple of very straightforward cases. The first example concerns a word whose analysis into its component morphemes is beyond dispute; the second example concerns a word which is clearly not analysable into component morphemes. In spite of their seeming simplicity, the examples will allow us to apply and refine some of the theoretical notions introduced so far, concerning, in particular, the function of schemas in linguistic analysis. Further aspects of word structure are addressed in Chapters 15 and 16.
Analysability and productivity
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discussion in the last chapter was based on some relatively straight forward examples. Words such as books, singer, and never can be exhaustively analysed into their component morphemes (even though, in the case of never, the analysis may not be particularly salient). Each of the component morphemes has an identifiable semantic and phonological content which it contributes to the meaning of the composite expression. The case of hear was equally clear-cut. The word, quite simply, is morphologically unanalysable. Very often, morphological analysis is less straightforward. In this chapter I consider some of the factors that render morphological analysis somewhat less clear-cut than in the case of books and somewhat more compelling than in the case of hear. I also address what may be regarded as the converse of analysability—the question of productivity.
Networks and complex categories
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Early in this book I illustrated the symbolic thesis on the Saussurean example of tree; this is a symbolic unit which associates a phonological representation [tri:] with a semantic representation [tree]. It is rarely the case, however, that a symbolic unit has, at its conceptual pole, a single semantic representation. A phonological form tends to be associated with a cluster of more or less distinct though related senses. Equally, the phonological pole cannot be regarded as a unitary entity. Words, for example, have a range of different pronunciations, according to speech style, accent, and the phonological and morphological environment. A symbolic unit, therefore, is more accurately regarded, not as an association of a concept with a sound pattern, but as an association of a network of semantic representations with a network of phonological representations.
Idioms, formulas, and fixed expressions
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The topic of this chapter is the vast inventory of multi-word expressions—idioms, fixed expressions, formulaic phrases, familiar turns of phrase, frequent collocations, catchphrases, cliches, proverbs, witty sayings, literary quotations, song refrains—that are familiar to all competent users of a language. There is no standard term to refer to this class of linguistic expressions; the triad ‘idioms, formulas, and fixed expressions’ is intended merely as a convenient descriptive label. The chapter examines some general properties of these expressions, and their status within Cognitive Grammar.
Fighting for Spain, 1931–43
Authors: Vincent Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sudden appearance of a Republic in Spain suggested to many that the country had finally broken with its past. At a time when much of Europe was rejecting parliamentary government, Spain embraced constitutional democracy. Primo was gone, his fall discrediting the king as a collaborator and so offering little prospect of a return to the status quo ante. Using what remained of his royal prerogative, Alfonso charged General Berenguer and other senior military men with the uncomfortable and ultimately impossible task of re-establishing ‘normality’ as defined by the 1876 constitution.