bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Synonymous and Nonsynonymous Nucleotide Substitutions
Authors: Nei Masatoshi , Kumar Sudhir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In chapter 3, we have seen that the rate of nucleotide substitution is much higher at the third positions of codons than at the first and second positions. This is caused by the fact that many nucleotide substitutions at the third positions are silent and do not change amino acids. However, not all substitutions at the third positions are silent. Furthermore, some silent substitutions may also occur at the first positions. It is therefore interesting to know the rates of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution separately. Since synonymous substitutions are apparently free from natural selection, the rate of synonymous substitution is often equated to the rate of neutral nucleotide substitution (Miyata et al. 1980). Indeed, the rate of synonymous substitution is similar for many genes, unless it is disturbed by codon usage bias and other factors. By contrast, the rate of nonsynonymous substitution is generally much lower than that of synonymous substitution and varies extensively from gene to gene. This is considered to be due to purifying selection, the extent of which varies from gene to gene (Kimura 1983).
Aspects of the Syntax and Semantics of ne
Authors: Cresti Diana 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The clitic ne in (1) is sometimes called a “partitive” clitic because it is associated with a DP that appears to be partitive in meaning, as suggested by the English translation of (1). Several Romance languages besides Standard Italian have this kind of clitic (cf. Catalan en, French en, Paduan ge-ne ), and some Germanic languages use the word for ‘there’ in the same manner, as shown below: The syntactic properties of these elements have been recently studied by various authors;1 the basic line of analysis is that ne-cliticization, and the corresponding process in the Germanic languages, is a form of subextraction from DP (or from QP; see Cardinaletti and Giusti 1992). According to this analysis, (1) would be assigned a structure like (3a), and (2b), for instance, would have a structure like (3b).
Integrated Solutions to Environmental Heterogeneity: Theory of Multimoment Reaction Norms
Authors: Dewitt Thomas J , Langerhans R Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Environmental change drives evolution. If environments were constant, evolution rapidly would proceed to a rather humdrum, mostly static, equilibrium. The diversity of life we see today is the result of moderate but continual environmental challenges. Put simply, the seed of creation is the strife of organisms at odds with their changing environments. The premise of this book is that environmental variation is responsible for a spectacular suite of adaptations more intricate and labile than those for dealing with fixed environments. Phenotypic plasticity is one of those adaptations, but several others exist. Among the many adaptations organisms have to cope with environmental variability are dormancy (i.e., seed banking or diapausing), to outlast problem environments; plasticity to produce relatively fit phenotypes for the demands of alternative environments; intermediate phenotypes (generalization) and bet-hedging, both of which reduce variance in performance across environments; and dispersal, to leave when environments are unfavorable. Much theoretical literature addresses the merits of each strategy, generally, compared with ecological specialization (e.g., Levins 1968; Lewontin and Cohen 1969; Cohen 1976; Lively 1986a; Seger and Brockmann 1987; Van Tienderen 1997; reviewed in Wilson and Yoshimura 1994; chapter 6).
Subject Positions and the Placement of Adverbials
Authors: Svenonius Peter , Savoia Leonardo M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The position of adverbs relative to other elements has been a critical diagnostic in the analysis of phrase structure. Earlier generative work on adverbs, such as Jackendoff 1972 and Ernst 1984, allowed for some flexibility in adverb placement, but noted certain regularities. Work on other aspects of clausal structure, such as Emonds 1976 and Platzack 1983, exploited the regularities, taking adverbs to mark phrasal boundaries, and used them to demonstrate the movement of other elements across them.
Amnesiac Selves
Authors: Dames Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With Joyce, Proust, and Faulkner in mind, we have come to understand the novel as a form with intimate ties to the impulses and processes of memory. This study contends that this common perception is an anachronism that distorts our view of the novel. Based on an investigation of representative novels, Amnesiac Selves shows that the Victorian novel bears no such secure relation to memory, and, in fact, it tries to hide, evade, and eliminate remembering. Dames argues that the notable scarcity and distinct unease of representations of remembrance in the nineteenth-century British novel signal an art form struggling to define and construct new concepts of memory. By placing nineteenth-century British fiction from Jane Austen to Wilkie Collins alongside a wide variety of Victorian psychologies and theories of mind, Nicholas Dames evokes a novelistic world, and a culture, before modern memory – one dedicated to a nostalgic evasion of detailed recollection which our time has largely forgotten.
Establishing and Maintaining a Psychological Practice in Primary Health Care
Authors: Searight H Russell , Price James W , Gafford Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Practice in primary care challenges a psycholo-gist’s decision making, efficiency, and clinical knowledge. Consider the following “slice of pri-mary care psychology life,” a composite of our ex-periences, but certainly within the realm of possi-bility for a primary care psychologist: Dr. Mandelbrot practices in a family medicine clinic staffed by three family physicians and two nurse practitioners. Halfway through an evaluation of a patient with chronic low back pain, he is interrupted by a knock on the door.
Ambiguities and Anomalies: What Can Eye Movements and Event-Related Potentials Reveal About Second Language Sentence Processing?
Authors: Frenck-Mestre Cheryl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Second language sentence processing is examined here in light of several monolingual psycholinguistic models of parsing, as well as of linguistic theories specifically adapted to account for second language acquisition in adult learners. I first examine studies that have primarily recorded eye movements to trace syntactic processing. Syntactic ambiguity resolution is used in these studies to address various current models of parsing, both in monolinguals and bilinguals. To illustrate how these models can be tested, I discuss a particular type of structural ambiguity: reduced relative clauses. Thereafter, the focus is on studies that have recorded event-related potentials during the processing of spoken and written sentences in bilinguals. In these studies, the emphasis is placed on how semantic and syntactic anomalies, rather than ambiguities, are treated. I conclude with a brief comparison of these two approaches.
Natural Enemies of Checkerspots
Authors: Nouhuys Saskya Van , Hanski Ilkka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Butterfly eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults are attacked by an array of natural enemies. Many characteristics of butterflies, such as larval crypsis, distastefulness or toxicity, gregariousness, web building, host plant use, and adult wing patterns, are thought to have evolved as defenses against natural enemies (Gilbert and Singer 1975, Bowers 1981, Stamp 1981a, Dempster 1984, Bowers et al. 1985, Sillen Tullberg 1988, Vulinec 1990, Montllor and Bernays 1993, Weseloh 1993, Ohasaki and Sato 1999, Hunter 2000). But, paradoxically, while population biologists widely agree that natural enemies have shaped the evolution of butterflies, the extent to which the observed abundances, population dynamics, and other ecological processes in butterflies are now influenced by natural enemies is more controversial. What is known from life-table analyses and experiments is that generalist arthropod and vertebrate predators often cause significant and typically density-independent mortality in butterflies and moths (Dempster 1983, Bellows et al. 1992). Disease can also cause massive mortality at high population densities, particularly in moths with outbreak dynamics (Anderson and May 1981, Dwyer 1994, Dwyer et al. 2000, Kamata 2000). In a review covering all insects, Hawkins (1994) found that parasitoids generally cause 20-60% mortality in their hosts, with the maximum level of mortality related to the host feeding niche. Insects feeding externally on leaves, such as butterfly larvae, tend to suffer lower parasitism than leaf miners, but higher parasitism than borers and root feeders. Parasitoid-caused mortality in butterflies is at least occasionally density-dependent and may thereby contribute to host population regulation (Ford and Ford 1930, 0. W.
The Role of Yeasts as Insect Endosymbionts
Authors: Vega Fernando E , Dowd Patrick F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Insect associations with fungi are common and may be casual or highly specific and obligate. For example, more than 40 fungal species are associated with the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei, Coleoptera: Cur­ culionidae; Perez et al. 2003) and about the same number with the subterranean termite Reticulitermesflavipes (Zoberi and Grace 1990; table 9.1). In one system 28 species of yeasts were isolated from the external parts of Drosophila serido and 18 species, including some not found on the external surfaces, from their crop (Morais et al. 1994; table 9.1).
Stochastic Processes In Evolution
Authors: Gillespie John H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pity the poor mutation: its most likely fate is extinction even if it is more fit than any other allele at its locus. When lost, these mutations play no significant role in evolution and evolutionists have no record of their short-lived existence. On the other hand, when an advantageous mutation is lucky enough to fix in the population, there are a number.of consequences that excite evolutionists of various stripes. Darwin focused on the idea that the species is better adapted to its environment as a result of the substitution. A population geneticist might note that there is reduced variation around the site of the fixed mutation; a molecular evolutionist might use the substitution as a basis for a new phylogeny; a functional evolutionist might wonder why this particular substitution rather than another one that would seem to be even more fit; a statistician might use the timing of the substitution as part of a description of the temporal sequence of evolution. At the core of all of this interest is a random event that includes the time at which the substitution occurred, the functional properties of the substituted allele, and the neighboring pieces of the genome that were carried along with the allele as it swept though the population.
Rates of Molecular Evolution
Authors: Rodriguez-Trelles Francisco , Tarrio Rosa , Ayala Francisco J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Changes in DNA that give rise to new sequences are called mutations. Mutational changes are the primary source of variation and novelty in evolution. Mutations are caused by the exchange of one nucleotide for another, by insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides (“indels”), and by reorganization of the genetic material. Mutations arise constantly, irrespective of their effect on the fitness of the organism that carries them. Yet, mutations do not occur at random with regard to genomic location, nor do all types of mutations occur in equal frequencies. A new mutant DNA sequence arising in an individual may be lost or spread and even become fixed in a species by genetic drift (i.e., random sampling errors on allele frequencies that occur as genes are transmitted from one generation to the next in finite populations), and/or natural selection. The process whereby a mutant replaces alternative sequence variants, or alleles, in a species is called “substitution”; substitutions that change the encoded amino acids are named “replacements.”
Classification of Bacteriophages
Authors: Ackermann Hans-W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bacteriophages or ‘‘phages’’ were discovered twice in a short time. The British pathologist Frederick William Twort described in1915 the glassy transformation of ‘‘Micrococcus’’ colonies by an unknown agent. Felix Hubert d’Herelle, a French Canadian then working at the Pasteur Institute of Paris, observed the destruction of Shigella bacteria in broth (5). Contrary to Twort, he clearly recognized the viral nature of this phenomenon and devoted the rest of his scientific career to it. He coined the term ‘‘bacteriophage,’’ devised several techniques still in use, and introduced the phage treatment of infectious diseases. For him, there was only one bacteriophage species with many races: the Bacteriophagum intestinale (6).
A Bayesian View on Multimodal Cue Integration
Authors: Ernst Marc O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We perceive our own body and the world surrounding us via multiple sources of sensory information derived from several modalities, including vision, touch, and audition. To enable interactions with the environment, this information has to converge into a coherent and unambiguous multimodal percept of the body and the world. But how does the brain come up with such a unique percept? In this chapter, I review a model that in the statistical sense describes an optimal integration mechanism. The benefit of integrating sensory information comes from a reduction in variance of the final perceptual estimate. Furthermore, I point out how this integration scheme can be incorporated into a larger framework using Bayesian decision theory (BDT).
Dissociative Disorders
Authors: Der Hart Onno Van , Nijenhuis Ellert R S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (text rev.) (DSM–IV–TR; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000) defi nes the essential feature of dissociative disorders as “a disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity, or perception of the environment” (p. 477). Curiously, it does not address the functions of motor control and sensation, even though, by defi nition, these are also fundamental to an individual’s integrated functioning. Dissociative disorders include the following: dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity disorder (DID), depersonalization disorder, and a residual category, dissociative disorder not otherwise specifi ed (DDNOS).
Norman Angell and Rationality in International Relations
Authors: Miller j.D B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I examine the international political theory of Norman Angell with particular emphasis on his use of the concept of rationality. Beginning with some details of Angell’s life, I then describe five themes in his thinking on international relations: the futility of war, the role of public opinion, the need for education in internationalism, the reality of the international anarchy, and the necessity of collective defence. The chapter closes with a discussion of the differences between Norman Angell and E. H. Carr and an assessment of the current relevance of his ideas.
Arnold Toynbee, Chatham House, and Research in a Global Context
Authors: Brewin Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Arnold Toynbee (1889-1975), one of the twentieth century’s most prolific writers on world politics, was director of studies at Chatham House from 1924 until his retirement in 1954. His fame rests on two monumental projects to establish a global perspective. The Study of History put western civilization in the context of a historical survey of previous civilizations. The Annual Survey each year reviewed the world as a geographical whole, selecting four or five themes for special treatment. It was not an edited volume. Quite apart from his considerable journalistic output, the thirty-four volumes of the Survey and the ten volumes of the Study show how seriously Toynbee had taken a schoolmaster’s injunction ‘first to see your subject or your problem as a whole’. Toynbee believed that a global perspective in terms of both time and space was of practical use.
Big Firms as Political Actors: Corporate Power and the Governance of the European Consumer Electronics Industry
Authors: Cawson Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relationships between firms in an industrial sector can be analysed on a number of levels. On the face of it, and according to the economics textbooks, the firms are competitors subject to the operation of market pressures, and the concept of ‘power’ is unnecessary in relation to market transactions. Firms are recognized to make different strategic choices in how to respond to market pressures, but ultimately are constrained by the operation of the market. According to economic orthodoxy, firms enter into power relationships only when they enter the political arena as lobbyists. Alternative approaches which explore the political and social dynamics of industrial sectors have, however, become increasingly prominent in recent years, especially since the publication of seminal articles by authors such as Harrison White (1981) and Mark Granovetter (1985). A new literature on economic governance has grown up, which explores empirically the structure of relationships between firms, employing concepts drawn from sociology, political science, and political economy.
Syria
Authors: Seale Patrick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last three and a half decades of the Cold War-say, from 1954 to the late 1980s-Syria and the Soviet Union were intimately involved with each other. So close did their relations seem that out siders often portrayed Damascus as Moscow’s principal Arab ally, even as its main Cold War partner in the region, more steadfast than Egypt, less fickle than Libya, less marginal than Algeria, more predictable than South Yemen. Syria had become, it was thought, a Soviet forward base in the very heart of the region. At moments of regional crisis, in 1956-7 for example, and again in 1966-7, there was anxious talk in the Western camp that Syria had made the dangerous leap from being a client of the Soviet Union to becoming a ‘satel lite’. Syria, it was said, was ‘going communist’.
Difference methods
Authors: Anderson Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Several of the designs and tournaments constructed in the first chapter had a cyclic nature. For example the seven-point plane can be obtained by starting with the block (l,2,4) and adding 1,2,...,6 (mod 7) to each of 1,2,4; and the schedule for five players in section 1.4 can similarly be obtained from the first game 1, 2 v 3,5 by adding 1, 2,3, 4 (mod 5). Clearly a clever choice of the first block or game has to be made for this method to work; for example if a schedule is constructed cyclically from the first game 1,3 v 2,5 then the next game would be 2,4 v 3,1, again involving 1 and 3 as partners. In this chapter we study cyclic constructions of designs, beginning with symmetric designs.
Algebraic Geometry and Arithmetic Curves
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a general introduction to the theory of schemes, followed by applications to arithmetic surfaces and to the theory of reduction of algebraic curves. The first part introduces basic objects such as schemes, morphisms, base change, local properties (normality, regularity, Zariski's Main Theorem). This is followed by the more global aspect: coherent sheaves and a finiteness theorem for their cohomology groups. Then follows a chapter on sheaves of differentials, dualizing sheaves, and Grothendieck's duality theory. The first part ends with the theorem of Riemann-Roch and its application to the study of smooth projective curves over a field. Singular curves are treated through a detailed study of the Picard group. The second part starts with blowing-ups and desingularisation (embedded or not) of fibered surfaces over a Dedekind ring that leads on to intersection theory on arithmetic surfaces. Castelnuovo's criterion is proved and also the existence of the minimal regular model. This leads to the study of reduction of algebraic curves. The case of elliptic curves is studied in detail. The book concludes with the funadmental theorem of stable reduction of Deligne-Mumford. The book is essentially self-contained, including the necessary material on commutative algebra. The prerequisites are therefore few, and the book should suit a graduate student. It contains many examples and nearly 600 exercises.
Bifurcations
Authors: Sprott Julien Clinton 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A bifurcation is a qualitative change in the dynamical behavior of a system or the topological structure of its phase portrait as one or more parameters pass through a critical value. Any point in parameter space where the dynamical system is structurally unstable is a bifurcation point, and the set of all such points is a bifurcation set. This set may contain infinitely many points but usually has zero measure.
On founding the theory of algorithms
Authors: Moschovakis Yiannis N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My topic is the problem of “founding” the theory of algorithms, part of the more general problem of “founding” computer science; whether it needs founding— which, I will argue, it does; what should count as a “foundation” for it; and why a specific “mathematical foundation” which I have proposed gives a satisfactory solution to the problem — better than the most commonly accepted “standard,, approach. It will be impossible to completely avoid making some comments about the general problem of “founding a mathematical discipline”, but I will strive (mostly) to stay away from overly broad generalities, and concentrate on the aspects of the question which are special to algorithms.
Neural basis of drug-induced yawning
Authors: Dourish Colin T , Cooper Steven J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a study of human yawning Robert Provine (1986) remarked that yawning is a prominent stereotyped action pattern and releasing stimulus which ‘does not deserve its current status as a minor behavioural curiosity’. Indeed, ‘yawning may have the dubious distinction of being the least understood, common, human behaviour’. In contrast, a large body of experimental data has been collected during the past 30 years on drug-induced yawning in animals (particularly rodents). In this chapter we consider the neural basis of drug-induced yawning in rodents and discuss the relevance of this pharmacological phenomenon to ‘spontaneous’ yawning in animals and man.We propose that yawning may be controlled by a complex interaction of catecholaminergic, serotonergic, and peptidergic neuronal mechanisms. A model is put forward to explain how yawning may be caused largely by peptidergic and cholinergic excitation and dopaminergic inhibition. Furthermore, we present evidence which suggests that, in animals and man, yawning may be a marker of recovery from acute stress and that these responses may be closely associated with an inhibition of brain dopamine metabolism.
Repeated measurements
Authors: Diggle Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we discuss methods for analysing data which consist of a number of relatively short non-stationary time series in which the trends, µ;(t) say, are of direct interest. This situation arises in experiments which involve comparisons amongst trends associated with different treatments (cf. Examples 1.6, 1.7). It also applies to growth studies (cf. Example 1.5). We refer to data of this kind as repeated measurement data. The distinction between this and the type of replicated time-series data considered in Section 4.8 is not precise in any mathematical sense. Rather, the change of name reflects a change in the practical emphasis of the investigation. In the terminology of Section 1.2, we now seek only to accommodate serial dependence within the individual time series in order to make valid inferences about the corresponding µ;(t).