bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Designing Forest Carbon Markets For Efficiency, Ecology, And Equity
Authors: Elgie1 Stewart AG 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Kyoto Protocol is ushering in the first large-scale global experiment in market-based environmental protection, in the form of carbon emissions trading. In 2006, about 1.6 billion tonnes of carbon credits were traded, with a market value of roughly US$30 billion.2 That amount is expected to grow dramatically in 2008, when Kyoto’s main obligations come into force.3 Kyoto’s emission trading market differs from its domestic predecessors in more than just scale. It also represents the first global market for an ecosystem service; forest owners can now get paid for sequestering carbon in trees. Forest carbon storage can play an important role in mitigating climate change, since forest loss is responsible for almost one-quarter of all human-caused carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.4 The emerging market for forest carbon could also represent the beginning of a profound transformation in forest regulation and management— one with significant implications not only for climate change but also for forest ecosystems and communities that depend on them. The nature and extent of these implications will depend, to a large degree, on how forest carbon markets are designed. Despite these lofty possibilities, many environmental groups, and European countries, were very critical of including forest carbon trading in Kyoto,5 and some remain sceptical.6 Their concerns fall into three main categories:
Tax Strategies To Deal With An Environmental Disaster
Authors: Kreiser1 Larry , Sprohge2 Hans , Butcher3 Bill , Sirisom4 Julsuchada 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last few years, the world has witnessed three major environmental disasters: a destructive tsunami in Southeast Asia; a devastating hurricane in the New Orleans area of the United States; and a disastrous earthquake in Pakistan and India. In the short term, government units responded to these disasters with medical assistance, temporary housing, and food relief for disaster victims. In the longer term, however, it is up to the citizens in a disaster area rather than the government to lead in disaster recovery efforts. The government, though, can and should assist in these redevelopment efforts in various ways. One way is to provide tax relief to disaster victims to help them overcome their losses and to provide tax incentives to encourage redevelopment in the disaster areas. Environmental taxation deals with the use of tax policy to promote environmental goals. When a natural disaster occurs, a significant disruption has taken place in the environment. Government bodies and other interested parties should take steps to reverse this environmental damage with enlightened policies for disaster recovery. Environmental taxation policies can be useful in assisting with these disaster recovery efforts. In this chapter, the authors review various environmental tax strategies used by the Federal government to support economic redevelopment in the New Orleans area after Hurricane Katrina struck the area in 2005. The authors also analyse whether key provisions of two hurricane tax acts passed by the United States Congress support their intended purpose.
An Ethics Committee for Patent Offices?
Authors: Petit* Elodie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since 2002, in its opinion on the ‘ Ethical aspects of patenting inventions involving human stem cells’ , the European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies (EGE) considered that there may be a need to make ethical evaluations in the course of the examination of patent applications involving specific ethical dimensions. It would be desirable that such ethical evaluation becomes part of the review process of national patent offices or European Institutions like EPO and that advisory panels of independent experts are set up for that purpose.
Nanostructured materials
Authors: Lindsay S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The science of nanostructured materials is evolving so rapidly that it is almost impossible to give a current account of the field, let alone one that would survive for any period of time in a text book. Therefore, the goal of this chapter is to outline some of the principles that underlie the nanoengineering of materials. The meaning of a nanostructure is context dependent, in the sense that the length scales associated with various physical phenomena that one might wish to engineer can be very different. Thus, we start with electronic properties in which the length scales are the Fermi wavelength and the mean free path of electrons. We then turn to optical materials where the length scale is the wavelength of light. Magnetic properties arise from a complex set of interactions that operate over many length scales. Thermal properties depend on the scattering length for thermal vibrations. In nanofluidic devices, length scales are chosen to optimize interactions with macromolecules dissolved in fluids or between fluids and the walls of a container. The chapter ends with a look at biomimetic materials, based on copying biological nanostructures, developed through the process of evolution in living systems. The effects of nanostructuring are different depending on the number of dimensions that are constrained to have nanoscale sizes, so for this reason I have generally given examples of nanostructuring in two (layers), one (wires), and zero dimensions (dots) for each class of material property, where appropriate.
The Discovery of the Electron (1897)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1897 cathode rays were known for nearly three decades. They were produced in a gas discharge and gave rise to X rays when they fell on matter, e.g., the glass wall of a discharge tube. But their nature was unknown. There was contradictory experimental evidence. Some researchers took them for charged particles, in fact for ions which were familiar from electrolysis. Perrin had determined the sign of their charge to be negative. Others, among them Heinrich Hertz, who was unable to influence the rays by an electric field and to detect a magnetic field which should be caused by the rays if they were moving charges, took them to be electromagnetic waves.
Bothe and Geiger – Coincidence Experiments (1925)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1914 Bothe obtained his Ph.D. in Berlin with work done under Planck. Already a little earlier, at the end of 1913, he had become assistant to Geiger at the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt. Geiger who had returned to Germany in 1912 had set up the laboratory for radium research there. At the same time as Bothe another promising young scientist joined Geiger in Berlin: James Chadwick, coming from Rutherford’s group in Manchester where Geiger had worked before. When the First World War broke out, Chadwick was interned in Berlin. Bothe volunteered for the army, was taken prisoner in Russia in 1915, and sent to Siberia where he stayed till 1920. Fortunately, the two young men were able to continue doing science in their captivity although with severely restricted means. On his return to Germany, Bothe brought with him his Russian bride, to whom he was soon married, and continued to work with Geiger at the Reichsanstalt.
Heisenberg and the Creation of Quantum Mechanics (1925)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a certain similarity in the early lives of Planck and of Heisenberg [1,2]. Both had fathers who were professors at the University of Munich, both visited the Maximilians-Gymnasium in Munich, and both went to see a professor in Munich to seek advice for their studies. We have mentioned at the beginning of the Prologue how Jolly in vain tried to dissuade Planck from studying physics. Heisenberg, in his autobiographic book [3], which is devised as a series of conversations, tells us of a similar experience. In the autumn of 1920, when he was about to enter the university, his first choice was mathematics. He wanted not only to do course work but also learn about problems of current interest. This, he thought, he could do best by participating in a professor’s seminar usually reserved to advanced students and Ph.D. candidates. He asked for an interview with Lindemann , the most distinguished mathematician in Munich, who was famous for having proved that the number π is transcendental. But the old professor and the young student found no understanding, partly because Lindemann’s dog noisily interfered. The result was that Heisenberg opted for theoretical physics and went to ask Sommerfeld to be admitted to his seminar. Sommerfeld agreed. At that time Pauli, only a year older than Heisenberg, was already actively doing research under Sommerfeld. The two young men became life-long friends.
Schrödinger Creates Wave Mechanics (1926)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The breakthrough to quantum mechanics was, as we have seen in Episode 37, achieved by Heisenberg in the summer of 1925 and the theory, in the form now known as matrix mechanics, was completed a little later by Born, Heisenberg, and Jordan. From his first days as a student Heisenberg had belonged to groups which worked on quantum theory. He was, so to speak, totally immersed in the field and reached his solution at the age of twenty-three. At the turn of the year 1925/26 quantum mechanics was created again, now clad as wave mechanics [1], by Schrödinger, who did not belong to an active research group in the field and who was then thirty-eight. As soon as it appeared wave mechanics was popular with physicists, because it was based on familiar differential equations and not on matrix formalism which was practically unknown.
Quantum Mechanics and Relativity – The Dirac Equation (1928)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dalitz, who relates this story, adds that ‘this has been preserved to this day’ [1]. It was this philosophy that Dirac used when he found the equation that now bears his name. Unlike many results in theoretical physics it was neither inspired by unexplained measurements nor by physical insight but only by considerations of mathematical ‘beauty’ or, in other words, simplicity. In the Dirac equation not only quantum mechanics and the special theory of relativity were married, but also the spin of the electron is contained in it without any ad hoc assumption. So far, so good. But the equation not just beautifully described known phenomena, it did more. It predicted the existence of electrons with negative energy. This was at first held to be a severe problem of the theory but was finally understood as great progress, because negative-energy electrons could be interpreted as hitherto unknown particles. Thus, the existence of new particles was predicted which had all properties of the electron except for the electric charge, which must be positive rather than negative. These particles were indeed found four years after the equation. Dirac is often quoted to have said that his equation ‘contains most of physics and all of chemistry’. This, however, is not the case, although in a paper on the (non-relativistic) Quantum Mechanics of Many-Electron Systems, quite unrelated to the Dirac equation, similar words appear [2]: ‘The underlying physical laws necessary for the mathematical theory of a large part of physics and the whole of chemistry are thus completely known, and the difficulty is only that the exact application of these laws leads to equations much to complicated to be soluble.’ We begin this episode by mentioning briefly the work, previous to Dirac’s, on the reconciliation of quantum mechanics with special relativity and with spin, respectively.
Lawrence and the Cyclotron (1931)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One night early in 1929 in Berkeley, California, Ernest Lawrence [1,2], in his habitual effort to keep abreast of the literature, came across an article in a German journal on electrical engineering. Lawrence had recently arrived from Yale University although his friends there had warned him of the ‘unscientific climate of the West’ [2]. In 1930 he would become the youngest full professor on the Berkeley faculty. The article that caught his eye was based on the doctoral dissertation which Wideröe [3], a young Norwegian engineer, had submitted to the Technische Hochschule in Aachen [4]; it was entitled On a New Principle for the Production of High Voltages. Lawrence later described how he extracted the relevant information from that paper [5]: ‘Not being able to read German easily, I merely looked at the diagrams and photographs of Wideröe’s apparatus and from the various figures in the article was able to determine his general approach to the problem … ‘ Lawrence was interested because the paper demonstrated a new way to accelerate charged particles.
CP – Another Symmetry Broken: The Peculiar System of the Neutral K Meson and Its Antiparticle (1964)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before the ‘Fall of Parity’ in 1957 (Episode 77), it was taken for granted that the laws of physics were mirror symmetric. For every given process the mirrorinverted process should be possible. Also believed to hold was time-inversion symmetry , the symmetry between a process and the corresponding one with time running backwards. Of course, time cannot really be inverted but time inversion of a process is equivalent to viewing the process in a film with the projector running backwards. The symmetry says that the projected process should also be possible in reality. Another symmetry is that of charge conjugation . The name is a little misleading; what is implied is the replacement of every particle by its antiparticle and vice versa. For every process the one with this replacement performed should be possible, too.
Blackbody Radiation from the Early Universe (1965)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The foundations for radio astronomy were laid in 1933 in the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey. A young physicist from Oklahoma, Jansky , had been given the task to investigate the phenomenon called static , disturbing communication by short radio waves. Working with a rotatable antenna at a wavelength of 14.5 metres, he identified near and distant thunderstorms as sources of static but also the centre of our galaxy [1]. The development of radar for military use resulted in sensitive receivers for wavelengths of centimetres and below, which were put to scientific application after the Second World War. The interstellar gas, which contains atoms and molecules emitting radiation in this range, for instance, hydrogen H and cyan CN, thus became ‘visible’. Radio astronomy was established as a new field of research. In 1965, also at the Bell Labs in Holmdel, a particular type of radiation from space was discovered by Penzias and Wilson, two physicists who had become radio astronomers.
Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) – The New Theory of Strong Interaction (1973)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The riddle of the strong interaction, i.e., of the force that keeps the nucleus together, was finally solved in the early 1970s in a rather unexpected way. In previous episodes we told of various attempts to describe nuclear forces, in particular, Heisenberg’s introduction of isospin (Episode 51) and Yukawa’s postulate of the meson as carrier of the strong force (Episode 57). While these theories led to important developments, they failed to reach their original goal. The present theory was arrived at in three steps. First, quarks were postulated to have an additional property which was to come in three different forms, soon called colours . Second, a Yang–Mills theory, similar to the one successfully constructed for the electroweak interaction (Episode 90), was formulated using as gauge symmetry an SU (3) group providing transformations between the three colours. Finally, this type of theory was found to have an astonishing property called asymptotic freedom : The nearer two quarks come to each other, the smaller is the force between them. Small distances are reached only for very high momentum transfer between the two quarks; in such situations quarks approach the behaviour of free particles. On the other hand, the force increases with rising distance or falling momentum transfer. Let us now look at the developments in a little more detail.
The Discovery of the Gluon (1979)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Episode 14 we witnessed Perrin uncover ‘la réalité moleculaire’, the reality of atoms and molecules, in a time when these objects were considered still far from real by many. By experimental analysis he showed that a visible phenomenon , the Brownian motion of tiny spheres, was caused by the movement of molecules, although the latter remained invisible. The experiments discussed now prove the ‘reality of quarks and gluons’, although, as mentioned in Episode 92, these particles are confined inside hadrons and do not exist as separate entities. Perrin observed his little spheres instead of the invisible molecules; particle physicists study jets of hadrons instead of the confined quarks and gluons. The first to do so was Hanson as a member of the Stanford–Berkeley group which had discovered the charm quark with the Mark I detector at the SPEAR collider (Episode 93
The Quantum Hall Effect (1980)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Superconductivity (Episode 18) and superfluidity (Episode 58), both discovered unexpectedly, were later shown to be quantum phenomena on a macroscopic scale, not on the scale of atoms, nuclei, or particles. Another such macroscopic phenomenon, the quantum Hall effect , was observed in the small hours of 5 February 1980, by von Klitzing. It, too, came as a complete surprise.
Relativistic transformations and the equivalence principle
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a precursor of a discussion of invariance principles and symmetries in Chapter 3, we summarize in this chapter relativistic transformations and Lorentz invariance, the Equivalence Principle, and important solutions of the Einstein field equations of general relativity. These are central to our discussions of cosmology in later chapters. Readers familiar with these topics can skip to Chapter 3. The special theory of relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1905, involves transformations between inertial frames (IFs) of reference. An IF is one in which Newton’s law of inertia holds: a body in such a frame not acted on by any external force continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. Although an IF is, strictly speaking, an idealized concept, a reference frame far removed from any fields or gravitating masses approximates to such a frame, as does a lift in free fall on Earth. On the scale of experiments in high-energy physics at accelerators, gravitational effects are negligibly small and to all intents and purposes the laboratory can be treated as an IF. However, on the scale of the cosmos, gravity is the most important of the fundamental interactions. We list here the coordinate transformations, called Lorentz transformations, among IFs in special relativity. These are obtained from two assumptions: that the coordinate transformations should be linear (to agree with the Galilean transformations in the non-relativistic limit); and that the velocity of light c in vacuum should be the same in all IFs (as observed in numerous experiments).
Conservation rules, symmetries, and the Standard Model of particle physics
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most important concepts in physics is that of the symmetry or invariance of a system under a particular operation. For example, a snowflake is invariant under a 60 rotation in the plane of the flake, and this tells us something about the physics of the molecular bonding in water. In fact, conservation rules and the associated symmetries have been called the backbone of high-energy particle physics. Not all conservation rules are absolute. While conservation of electric charge or of energy and momentum are, as far as we know, sacrosanct in all situations, some quantities—for example, conservation of parity—that is, invariance under spatial reflection—hold for certain types of fundamental interaction but not for others. Moreover, on the enormous distance and time scales of the universe at large, it turns out that some quantum numbers, such as baryon number, which seem to be exactly conserved under laboratory conditions, are violated in cosmology. This violation presumably occurred at a very early, very hot stage of the universe, involving some new type of interaction at energies far above what can be obtained by accelerators on Earth.
Extensions of the Standard Model
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Standard Model described in Chapter 3, which has given a magnificently accurate account of a huge range of data from accelerator experiments since its inception, does, however, have limitations. As examples, it assumes neutrinos are massless, in conflict with recent experimental results, and has theoretical difficulties with topics as diverse as the so-called hierarchy problem, or of accounting for the baryon asymmetry of the universe. As will be indicated in later chapters, it is indeed on the scale of the universe that it fails to take into account completely new forms of matter and energy, which have only really become apparent since the Standard Model was first introduced in the mid-1970s. Finally of course, it does not include gravity. Including gravity with the other fundamental interactions is still an unsolved problem. Of course, we do not know what better theory will eventually replace the Standard Model, although whatever that is, the Standard Model will surely be a part of it. In this chapter, we just outline some new directions in physics going beyond it. As was pointed out in Chapter 1, the question as to the nature of neutrinos— whether they are Dirac or Majorana particles—is still open. In the Standard Model, neutrinos are assumed to be massless—an assumption in accord with all the data available when the Standard Model first appeared. But, as described below, evidence from neutrino flavour oscillations, appearing after 1990 showed the neutrino masses to be finite, although very small. The fact that the masses of the light neutrinos, of order 0.1 eV/c, are some ten orders of magnitude less than the typical masses of the known Dirac particles, such as quarks and charged leptons, suggests that they might indeed be Majorana particles, the smallness of the mass arising from the so-called see-saw mechanism described below.