bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Broadcasting of Cellular Information
Authors: Loewenstein Werner R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Toward the end of the second billennium of the evolutionary calendar, the prin­cipal players of the intercellular game were in place. These belonged to the Maxwellian fraternity of transmitters who had served the cells so well during their monistic age. By then, several members of that fraternity had reached peak form and were ready to strike out for greener pastures. In partnership with messenger and signal molecules, these protein demons eventually would stretch a communication network between the cells, with tentacles spreading out everywhere, vastly expanding their original internal networks.
The Theory-Observation Distinction III The Third Distinction
Authors: Kukla Andre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Here’s a way of drawing the theory-observation distinction that seems to avoid both the devastation of van Fraassen’s distinction and the chancy dependence on empirical results of Fodor’s distinction. Let’s suppose that theories are formulated in such a way that their singular consequences are about the occurrence or non occurrence of events. Van Fraassen, for his part, is willing to admit that statements about objects are intertranslatable with statements about events: “There is a molecule in this place” and “The event of there-being-a-molecule occurs in this place” are merely notational variants (van Fraassen 1980, 58). Let OX be the proposition that an event of type X occurs. If X is the decay of a particle of type A, then OX is the proposition that an A-particle decays. Also let E(T, “X”) be the event (type) that theory T refers to as “X”. If Tis true, then E(T, “X”) = X. For instance, if current particle physics is true, then it’s also true that the event that current particle physics refers to as “the decay of an A-particle” is the decay of an A-particle. But this identity may fail for false Ts. Consider, for example, the false theory that identifies certain types of shimmering reflections with the presence of ghosts. Then, a particular type of reflection may very well be the type of event that this theory refers to as “the presence of a ghost”, but the reflection wouldn’t be a ghost.
Patterns of Scientific Controversies
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Current thinking about scientific controversies is dominated by two models. one, popular among logical empiricists and their intellectual descendants, proposes that scientific controversies are ultimately settled by experimentation, evidence, and the exercise of reason. The principal rival to this rationalist model, which I shall christen the anti-rationalist model, supposes that context-transcendent canons of reason and evidence have no power to resolve major scientific controversies. Both models come in simplified and more sophisticated versions, and in recent years much ink has been spilled by sophisticates on one side deriding the oversimplifications made by the other.
The Concept of the Individual and the Idea(l) of Method in Seventeenth-Century Natural Philosophy
Authors: Machamer Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries saw the introduction of many changes in Europe. Indeed, in many ways it was the dawn of the modern world that is still with us. Not the least important of these was a change in a person’s awareness of self, and a concomitant social belief in the individual as a the locus of power.1A person’s conceptions of the relations of an individual human being to other persons, social institutions, and the natural world changed, as did the descriptions, metaphors, ideals, and values by which one conceived oneself. Epistemologically, socially, and economically, the individual was forced into the center of the new order of things. The reasons behind this rise of individualism are many. It was the time, as Karl Marx (1845) said, of the break from feudalism to original capitalism; from, as Alexandre Koyre (1957) said, a closed world to an infinite universe; yet too, as Max Weber (1904— 1905, p. 179) put it, from organic social organization in a fiscal monopolistic form to individualistic motives of rational legal acquisition by virtue of one’s own ability and initiative. As empires gave way to nation states, and as relatively homogeneous elitist intellectual and theological traditions collapsed into narrowly defined sectarianisms and intellectual anarchy, people were forced into new beliefs and institutions, and back into themselves in order to justify and rationalize them.
A Rational Controversy over Compounding Forces
Authors: Freudenthal Gideon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I attempt first to clarify the concept of “scientific controversy” in general, and then apply it to one historical case.” The interest in scientific controversies as a phenomenon sui generis is relatively new. of course, the fact that controversies arise in science was not just recently discovered. However, in a traditional interpretation of science, controversies should not have arisen. Conceiving of science as proceeding from a firm foundation of indubitable facts on the one hand, and according to evident logical principles on the other, there was only one path to follow, and this led toward truth. Disagreement resulted from error of one side (or both). “Legitimate scientific controversies” seemed to be an oxymoron. In more recent approaches, science is conceived of as a complex social system. Institutions and the involved economic and political aspects, instrumental practices, power, and rhetoric come to the fore, rather than theory and justification. Theories now appear entrenched in practice, and since no clear-cut decision on individual truth claims is possible, it is widely accepted that all knowledge results from a (more or less controversial) “negotiation” both among practitioners of one group and also across the borders of such groups. However, the fact that science is a messy business does not recommend that the means of its study should be blunt and its historical narrative undifferentiated; on the contrary I propose therefore an analytical approach to science, especially to scientific controversies, that clearly distinguishes between the means of study and its object.
The Dangerous Method: Trying To Write It Right the First Time
Authors: Elbow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are obvious attractions to a writing process where you avoid the complications of the last two chapters and try to get your piece right the first time. You don’t have to make such a mess with raw writing, you don’t have to write in the dark without knowing where you are going, you don’t have to engage in extensive revising-just a little tidying up, perhaps, at the end. No wonder most people instinctively try to write this way. Why keep on writing when you know something is wrong and will have to be changed? It feels obvious that you should stop and cross it out now and not go on to the next bit till you get this bit right.
Working On Writing While Not Thinking About Writing
Authors: Elbow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While Abby fails to communicate, I examine her language with all my attention. As soon as minimal communication occurs, I ignore her language and all my attention slides through it, past it, to the meaning, to the nonlinguistic reality, to the question of whether to call the hospital. When the glass is fogged up, we look at the glass. The glass is all we can see. As soon as it gets unfogged, we ignore it and see through it to the scene outside. You will help your writing if you can find occasions when the job you are doing matters a lot but the quality of the writing doesn’t matter at all-occasions when you pay no attention to the glass and look only at the scene beyond it. A good example is if you are trying to make up your mind about which of two jobs to take and after sitting and stewing and not getting anywhere for a few days, you finally decide to spend a couple of hours writing out all your thoughts and feelings. You don’t try to make an orderly presentation or argument, you just write and write until your thoughts and
Cut-And-Paste Revising And The Collage
Authors: Elbow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the great advantages of an approach to writing where you make a mess during the first half is that you have to clean up that mess before you are done. You can’t let yourself slip into halfhearted, soft-minded revising where you just tidy things up and call it a day. Making a mess means that your revising tool is not a touch-up brush, to start with anyway, but a chain saw. It means that you can’t possibly revise without stopping and thinking hard about what you really mean, about what you are trying to accomplish-even if you think you already made those decisions. The main message about revising in this book is that it is a lot of work.
The Lost Step: Getting Rid Of Mistakes In Grammar
Authors: Elbow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I suppose I shouldn’t talk about “getting rid of mistakes in grammar” because I’m not just talking about grammar strictly defined but also about punctuation, spelling, and mechanics; and because these things are really conventions of usage rather than matters of absolute correctness or error. W’hether a given usage is a “mistake” or not often depends on the audience and the situation. But I would rather talk crudely about grammar and right and wrong since that is the way most of us experience this whole business and that is the way we are going to have to come to terms with it.
Audience as Focusing Force
Authors: Elbow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I prepared my lecture carefully. I arrive and start in and suddenly realize I have the wrong approach. I thought carefully last night about what I was going to say and worked out a focus, but now that I see my audience I realize it’s the wrong focus for them. The presence of the real audience gives a new orientation to the material in my head. A teacher is asked a hard question in class. He thinks for a few seconds and then turns around and walks to the corner of the room, hunches over a bit, closes his eyes and scrunches up his face and thinks silently for a full minute-perhaps two. Then he comes back and cheerfully tells what he has figured out.
Hysterical Ties Gwendolyn Brooks and the Rise of a “High”Neomodernism
Authors: Smethurst James Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The project of connecting Langston Hughes’s Montage of a Dream Deferred to the “red”spirit of the 1930s is relatively easy owing to the existence of Hughes’s “revolutionary”poetry of the 1930s (with direct appeals to class consciousness, worker solidarity, proletarian revolution, and antifascist unity), published in unquestionably radical (often Communist) journals that can then be compared to his work in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Discussing Gwendolyn Brooks in this manner is obviously far more difficult, despite her association with Left-influenced organizations and individuals, since she does not have a similar body of overtly “radical”work. Nonetheless, on careful examination it is possible to see how Brooks’s “high”neomodernist style in Annie Allen (1949), where there is a deliberate attempt by an African-American narratorial consciousness to create an “international”modernist documentation of the African-American subject, develops directly out of the formal and thematic concerns of the late 1930s and early 1940s transposed into the context of the “high”cold war. In many respects, Brooks is the cold-war poet of anger and self-repression par excellence.
Site and Landscape Characterization for Ecological Studies
Authors: Grigal David F , Bell James C , Ahrens Robert J , Boone Richard D , Kelly Eugene F , Monger H Curtis , Sollins Phillip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is growing awareness of the importance of adequately defining the environment when conducting ecological studies. Our objective in this chapter is to present the rationale and procedures for describing soils and landscapes (sites) for such studies. We use the term site characterization to refer to the entire suite of soil biogeophysical descriptors that places a site into an environmental context. A primary goal of any environmental study is to understand a phenomenon or set of linked phenomena, whether attributes or processes. Macro- and microclimate, soil, and landscape properties influence both ecosystem attributes and processes. To understand our own data or those of others, we must understand the environment in which they were collected. In addition, we are increasingly called upon to apply our research results to land management issues. Extrapolation from study sites can be either statistically rigorous or qualitative. Both understanding and extrapolation demand good site characterization.
Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Pools and Fractions
Authors: Sollins Phillip , Glassman Carol , Paul Eldor A , Swanston Christopher , Lajtha Kate , Heil Justin W , Elliott Edward T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Soil organic matter (SOM) is important as a major source of most nutrients, especially nitrogen (the one major plant nutrient not supplied by weathering), and as a source of cation exchange capacity, especially in highly weathered soils. SOM also contributes to good soil structure, thus promoting drainage, water-holding capacity, aeration, and root penetration, and provides strong control of soil pH, especially in highly weathered soils. In addition, soil organic matter is a major global C source and sink. Jenkinson et al. (1991) calculated that an increase in global temperature of 0.03 °C/yr could increase CO2 release from soil by about 1 Gt C/yr over the next 60 years; by comparison, fossil fuel burning currently releases about 5 Gt C/yr.
The Determination of Microbial Biomass
Authors: Paul Eldor A , Harris David , Klug Michael J , Ruess Roger W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The soil biota represents 1-3% of the soil carbon and 3-5% of soil nil trogen. The microbial component, often ranging from 100 to &gt; 1000 µ,g C g-1, is usually considered to contain those soil organisms not visible without magnification. It includes nematodes, protozoa, filamentous and yeast forms of the fungi, microalgae, and bacteria. The bacteria, in turn, contain great diversity, including the actinomycetes, archae, and chemo- and photolithotrophs plus many still uncultured forms. Often the effects of climate, landscape, soil type, and management on ecosystem functioning and nutrient dynamics in the environment are most easily interpreted through the highly responsive microbial component. Microbial biomass acts both as a nutrient reservoir and as a catalytic force in decomposition, and is crucial for understanding nutrient fluxes within and between ecosystems (Smith and Paul 1990). Microbial biomass can also be a sensitive indicator of environmental toxicity attributable to pesticides, metals, and other anthropogenic pollutants. Because microbial biomass is a sensitive indicator of many belowground components and interactions, it is an important measurement for cross-site comparisons in ecosystem studies.
Cantata 60
Authors: Chafe Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ONE OF THE RUNNING THEMES OF this book has been that the endings of many Bach cantatas—above all their sense of completeness or incompleteness—reflect the extent to which their theological concerns are oriented toward eschatological or present perspectives. In this respect, the tonal “directions” of Cantatas 21 and 77 can be considered opposite each other. In Cantata 21 the overall C minor—major shift and the pattern of increasing “sharpness” in the movement keys that leads to the C major of its final chorus mirror the idea of a progression from worldly tribulation to the anticipation of eternity. In contrast, the change from a weakened G major to a real but incomplete G minor over the course of Cantata 77 delineates a downward progression from God to humankind that expresses the hope of eternity in terms of life on earth. The final chorus of Cantata 21 is one of the closest approaches Bach ever made to the representation of eschatological fulfillment, whereas the final chorale of Cantata 77 is, as we saw, tonally incomplete and most likely associated with the idea of human imperfection. In terms of traditional hermeneutics, the one work represents transcendence of the Old Testament framework (part 1 of Cantata 21) by means of the message of the Gospel (part 2 of that work), while the other centers on the meaning of the Law as given in the Old and New Testaments, building its entire design around the inability of humanity to fulfill it and the acknowledgment of that inability as the prerequisite to salvation.
Probable Inferences versus Probable Conclusions
Authors: Kyburg Henry E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Distinction
In “Aspects of Scientific Explanation” and “Deductive Nomological vs. Statistical Explanation,” (Hempel 1961, 1965), Hempel drew attention to a distinction that even now, nearly forty years later, is insufficiently appreciated. This is the distinction between uncertain inference, and inference about uncertainty. Hempel even introduced a useful notation to embody the distinction.
The Paradoxes of Hempelian Explanation
Authors: Fetzer James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among Carl G. Hempel’s most admired achievements were his contributions to the theory of induction, including the paradoxes of confirmation, and his contributions to the theory of explanation, especially the covering-law model (Hempel 1965). The purpose of this presentation is to suggest that Hempel’s work on the theory of induction can shed light on his theory of explanation, where there appear to be explanatory counterparts to the paradoxes of confirmation that illuminate certain inadequacies in the covering-law model. I shall propose that these “paradoxes of explanation” clarify connections between causation and explanation and also indicate the direction a more adequate theory may be found.
Reasonable People
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Charles Darwin was considering whether or not to propose to his cousin Emma Wedgwood, he divided a clean sheet of paper into two columns, noting on one side the benefits of marriage (delight of female society, the regular schedule of domestic life) and, on the other, the costs (loss of freedom to attend meetings of scientific colleagues, time wasted in frivolous family pursuits). Presumably, Darwin believed that noting these points explicitly would enable him to appreciate their relative value. And perhaps it did, for, in a far less careful and restrained hand, he scribbled at the bottom of the page “Marry! Marry! Marry!”
The Objectivity and the Rationality of Science
Authors: Nozick Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Facts and truths are termed “objective,” and so are beliefs. There are three strands to our ordinary notion of an objective fact or truth. First, an objective fact is accessible from different angles. It can be repeated by the same sense (sight, touch, etc.) at different times, and it can be repeated by different senses of one observer, and by different observers. The second mark of an objective truth, related to the first, is that there is or can be intersubjective agreement about it. And the third feature concerns independence. If p is an objective truth, then it holds independently of people’s beliefs, desires, hopes, and observations or measurements that p. A fourth and more fundamental characteristic of objective truths underlies and explains the first three features (to the extent that they hold): an objective fact is invariant under all admissible transformations. Which transformations are the admissible ones, for instance, Lorentz transformations, is discovered in the course of the history of scientific investigation.1
III
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was five in the morning, and Sao Romao awoke, opening its long rows of doors and windows. It was a joyous awakening after seven hours of heavy sleep. The last misty, indolent guitar notes from the night before still hovered in the air, dissolving in the dawn’ s golden light, tenuous as a sigh of longing lost in a far-off land. The clothes left to soak overnight made the air damp, filling it with the sour smell of cheap soap. The stones on the ground, bleached around the washtubs and spattered with indigo, looked gray and sad. Meanwhile, sleepy heads poked from doorways, mighty yawns were heard, people cleared their throats and spat, cups began to rattle, and the smell of hot coffee overwhelmed all others.
V
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The next day, at seven in the morning, when the courtyard had already begun to seethe with toiling washerwomen, Jeronimo and his wife appeared, ready to move into the house they had rented the night before. The wife’ s name was Piedade de Jesus. She looked about thirty years old-tall, with firm and abundant flesh, thick, dark chestnut hair, teeth that, though discolored, were strong and well formed, and a round face. Everything about her breathed guileless goodwill, radiating from her eyes and mouth in a winning expression of simple and instinctive honesty. They were’ sitting beside the driver of a wagon that held all their earthly belongings. She was wearing a red serge skirt, a white cotton blouse, and a red kerchief around her head; her husband wore the same clothes as the day before.
VI
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A beautiful April morning, crisp and cool, had dawned. The washtubs stood abandoned; there was no one on the bleaching ground. Baskets heaped with ironed garments left the little homes, mostly borne by the washerwomen’ s children, almost all dressed in clean clothes. Short jackets fluttered above brightly colored calico skirts. Straw hats and burlap aprons were scorned. Instead, the Portuguese women wore bright flowered kerchiefs around their heads, while the Brazilians had combed their hair and stuck two-vintem bouquets among their curls. The formers’ shoulders were wrapped in red woolen shawls, while the latter favored pale yellow crochet.
XV
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There was a good-sized crowd at Bantam’ s Bar that night. Around a dozen rough-hewn, wooden tables covered with tin painted to resemble marble, sat groups of three or four men, almost all with their sleeves rolled up, smoking and drinking amid terrific din. The most popular beverages were local beer, new wine, straight rum, and rum flavored with orange peel. The floor was strewn with sand amid which one could spot an occasional cheese rind, scrap of liver, or fishbone, making it clear that people ate as well as drank there. And indeed, toward the back beside the bar and among the racks of unopened bottles, stood a table bearing a platter of roast beef and potatoes, a big ham, and several portions of fried sardines.
XX
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
They returned home at nine in the evening. Piedade’ s mood was as black as could be; she had n’ t uttered a word during their journey, and as soon as she had put the girl to bed, she leaned against the chest of drawers, sobbing uncontrollably. Everything was over! Over and done with! She fetched the bottle of rum and drank a few swigs. She wept some more, drank again, and went out into the courtyard, hoping to distract herself with her neighbors’ cheer. Das Dores was throwing a dinner party. Piedade could hear her laughter and her lover’ s voice, thick with wine, sometimes drowned out by Machona, who was quarreling with Agostinho. The sounds of singing and strummed guitars came from several spots.