bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Menu Costs
Authors: Andersen Torben M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If prices do not adjust, it is natural to associate this fact with adjustments being costly. It is rather obvious that costly price adjustments-or so-called menu costs-will make prices less flexible than they would be in the absence of such costs. It is also intuitive that if these costs are fairly ‘small ‘ we should expect firms to avoid price adjustment if they are exposed to only ‘small ‘ shocks, while they will find it worth while to adjust to ‘larger ‘ shocks. Is this all, or do the costs of adjusting prices have other less obvious implications? This chapter addresses this question and outlines the basic implications of costly price adjustment and its policy implications; it also provides a critical evaluation of the explanatory power of these models. This section presents some basic results concerning the implications of menu costs for the adjustment of prices. To avoid unnecessary complications, the starting-point is a static model; the next section deals with implications in dynamic models.
Introduction
Authors: Albala-Bertrand J M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The emphasis of this study is on the framework of economic and social effects of disaster situations rather than on disaster policy prescription. We prefer to concentrate on the analytical framework within which policy-making should be based and carried through rather than on actual policy-making. This frame work is also intended to facilitate a critical analysis of existing viewpoints on disasters, particularly in relation to the economy. The study refers especially to developing countries affected by large natural disasters in the last three decades, but as most prevailing views derive from disaster analysis in developed countries, especially the USA, the developed world is also well represented.
Indirect Disaster Effects and In-built Responses
Authors: Albala-Bertrand J M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Indirect effects of disasters are mentioned by most authors, who suggest that they are likely to be larger than direct effects (see Chapter 1, sect. 3.3 for definitions), but evidence regarding indirect effects is either poorer than that for direct effects or simply non-existent. We intend to show in this chapter that indirect disaster effects are more a possibility than a reality. In actual disaster situations, these effects are often unimportant for the economy and society as a whole and are rapidly counteracted within the disaster area. We attempt to show, especially for the economy, first, the probable outcome of a disaster impact in the absence of an in-built counteraction and, secondly, how that outcome would be modified by endogenous or in-built mechanisms of response. The rationale for proceeding this way is to show that in-built societal mechanisms may prove sufficient to prevent most potential indirect effects on the economy and society, making our results more consistent with those of actual disaster situations than with sensationalist claims.
Disaster-Response Motivations
Authors: Albala-Bertrand J M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The way individuals and groups respond to disasters is largely determined by pre-disaster societal characteristics and conditions. If we assume an individual to be fully ̔rational̓, his response will be determined first by the range of available options and second by both economic and non-economic considerations. Setting aside problems of knowledge, information costs and calculation, societal structures and dynamics will differentiate among individuals and groups by imposing, explicitly or otherwise, different restrictions upon choice. For the purpose of this chapter, choice and motivation refer to actual emergency and reconstruction responses as well as preventive and alleviative measures. We present below the range of motivations (or rationalities) and decision processes behind the choices of decision-makers (private, public, and international) in the face of disaster response.
Effects of Disaster Situations on Economy and Society
Authors: Albala-Bertrand J M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Disaster situations have effects on economy and society. Previous chapters have focused on short-rather than long-term effects. We attempt here to give a more general view, accounting also for ̔incidental interference̓ from disasters (see Chapter 1, sect. 5.2). First, we show a record of longer-term effects of disasters by means of a number of studies carried out especially for developed countries and some evidence derived from developing countries. Secondly, the previous point is integrated into the material displayed so far to establish a general picture of the effects of disaster situations.
Individual agents vs. Individual persons
Authors: Walsh Vivian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The constructed concept of rationality (in its various versions) embodied in neo-classical economic models primarily characterizes the choices or actions of an ‘individual economic agent’. General equilibria with rational or ‘optimal’ properties are then the result of such choices by all of the individual agents in a given model. It seems reasonable therefore to begin our investigation by examining these individual agents. If problems arise in the interpretation of these agents, such problems would necessarily affect the neo classical constructed concept of rationality at its roots and cause difficulties in turn for ‘optimality’ claims concerning the general equilibria which are wholly built up out of the choices or actions of the individual agents.
The Rationality (Or Optimality) Of Allocations
Authors: Walsh Vivian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The rationality of individual economic agents is, as has been seen, a continually recurring theme in neo-classical theory; but it is not studied simply or solely in response to some deep interest in the nature of human individuals, as might be the case with a philosopher studying the nature of persons. This can be seen from the fact that methodological individualism is paid only lip service, when supposedly a fundamental assumption. Rather, economic theorists are interested in the rationality of individual economic agents because it is believed that, if all the agents in a model are rational in the required sense (and given certain other assumptions), it can then be shown that the model will have an equilibrium (not necessarily unique) and that any such equilibrium will possess certain properties believed to be desirable. A key concept in such arguments is that of an ‘allocation’ of the goods which are available in the model (whether through production or as an initial endowment) to the agents appearing in the model. Certain closely connected classes of allocations have then proved to be of especial interest to neo-classical theory, namely those known as ‘perfectly competitive’ allocations. and those called ·Pareto optimal’ allocations.
Agriculture and Regional Imbalances
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Italy is famous for its wide variety of geographical and climatic types, and as such this variety does not really need further illustration here: it has been an inspiration for poets and musicians, painters and town-planners, as well as a favourite topic of discussion for historians. Perhaps what is not so well known is that there is no part of the Italian landscape that, for geological and historical reasons, has escaped man’s efforts to manipulate it. This is true of the relatively scarce flatlands (only per cent of the total land area), as they are frequently situated near to the sea, and as such consist of alluvial plains which are constantly being reclaimed only to be eroded again; what is more surprising is that the same is also true of the hills and mountains which make up the rest of the land area, as the pressure caused by an ever-increasing population has led to attempts to cultivate these areas even more intensely, and this in tum has led to the growing need for protective measures, as more and more of the fertile topsoil is washed away or subsides as a result of the rain.
International Trade and Capital Flows
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If there was one area in which Count Camillo Benso di Cavour’s ideas were applied in full, it was that of free trade: the Sardinian customs tariffs and trade agreements, enacted by Cavour in the 1850s along the lines of the English example, were immediately extended to the newly unified Italy. Subsequently, tariffs were lowered even further following the navigation agreement signed on 13 June 1862 and the trade agreement signed on 17 January 1863 with France. As a result, Italy could boast ‘the most liberal tariffs that had ever been adopted in Europe up to that time’.
The Banking System: Its Evolution and Role
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The banking system of any country that is industrializing must, itself, undergo a series of important changes in line with that country’s new needs: it becomes more important in quantitative terms, and also less uniform, qualitatively speaking, when compared with its pre-industrial form. According to Toniolo, who avails himself of Goldsmith’s thesis,‘In general, during modern economic development, the financial superstructure grows more quickly than income and real wealth itself … Growth in income is usually accompanied by an increased specialization and division of the savings process on one hand, and of capital formation on the other’.2 Furthermore, an increasingly large part of savings is channelled through financial intermediation, while the cost of financial capital tends to diminish.
State, Industry, Finance, and Society between the First World War and the Post-War Period, 1914—1922
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Some sections of the Italian population were already on the warpath when war finally broke out in 1914. Although the parliamentary majority was neutral, there were many strong, vociferous groups crying out for Italian intervention in the war. Besides the nationalists, who were without a doubt the loudest and most cohesive group, there were democratic groups who took their lead from the struggles of the Italian Risorgimento, revolutionaries who thought that the war offered the opportunity to revolutionize the social order (among whom Mussolini was quick to make a name), cultural groupings of an anti-positivist and irrationalist nature, and also some industrial circles who saw the war as a possible answer to those problems of economic stagnation and excessive productive capacity which had materialized in 1913 and 1914. The industrialists became increasingly interested in the prospect of intervention, as they gradually realized the mistaken nature of the economic forecast which predicted that they, as industrialists, would prosper as a result of the manufacture of industrial products for the war effort of the belligerents.
The Economic Policies of Fascism,1922—1943
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Mussolini’s coming to power marked the beginning of a period in the economic history ofltaly which is sadly noted for a number of dramatic episodes, from the international crisis of 1929 to imperialism, from the war economy to the collapse in production and consumption. The following three chapters will try to throw some light on this period in order to understand how the country’s economic structure had changed from that of the first 50 years of unification. Despite this dramatic period of war and economic crisis, the process of industrialization that had begun earlier did not come to a halt, although it almost certainly followed a different path from the expected one.
The Slow Social Progress under Fascism
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One of the first reforms introduced by the Fascist regime as soon as it came to power was in connection with education. The urgency with which this reform was carried out has been interpreted in different ways by various scholars; some of them point out that plans for educational reform had been bandied about for over years prior to this, and that therefore the educational world was waiting with bated breath for some kind of change. Others underline the fact that Mussolini had himself been a schoolteacher, and was therefore particularly interested in this area, and especially in the possibility of a Fascist school system forming the basis for a true Fascist society. One must also take Giovanni Gentile, Education Minister in Mussolini’s first ‘cabinet’, into account. He was an idealist philosopher, determined to see that his elitist and humanistic ideology be considered as the basis for this reform.
The Building of New Foundations,1946-1952
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
According to a survey carried out by the Bank of ltaly, and subsequently sent on to the newly founded International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in the autumn of 1947, wartime destruction had failed to seriously damage Italian industry’s productive capacity. Only 8 per cent of industry’s capital existing in 1938 had been lost,1 although with important differences between one industrial sector and another (for example, losses in the metallurgical industry were estimated at some 25 per cent). This would thus seem to support Petri’s view that ‘the changes witnessed during the second half of the 1930s were undeniably responsible for the formation of that technical, geographical, and social order which was to enable the performance of the so-called “economic miracle” and the definitive transformation of Italy into an industrialized country’.
Yosef Weitz and the Transfer Committees, 1948–1949
Authors: Morris Benny 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As the Yishuv welcomed the 29 November 1947 UN General Assembly Partition Resolution on Palestine, its leaders grimly pondered the future prospect of war and the emergent Jewish state’s major problem: of the 1.1 million or so people included in the areas earmarked for Jewish independence, close to 45 per cent were Arabs. Was there a solution to ‘the Arab problem’, as it was commonly referred to in Yishuv leadership circles?
The Harvest of 1948 and the Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem
Authors: Morris Benny 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the 1947–9 Israeli-Arab war, which pitted two more or less agrarian societies against each other, an intense struggle developed, especially during May–July 1948, over the harvest. The struggle was won by the militarily stronger and better-organized side. While it was peripheral to the outcome of the major engagements of the war and of the war itself, it was important in a variety of ways in the creation of the Palestinian refugee problem and hence had a major bearing on the political outcome of the war.
Introduction
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Poverty is a notoriously ill-defined term, both in common usage and in academic application. Empirical research on poverty has to deal first of all with the ambiguities and confusions associated with the term and concept: what is it that one is actually trying to measure? It then has to address the problem that the various approaches to measuring poverty that are used in practice may not adequately implement the underlying concept: they may not correctly identify those one would wish to call ‘poor’. Despite the attention poverty statistics receive from policy-makers and the broader public, there is remarkably little consensus among social scientists on how best to measure the condition. In this book our aim is to identify and address key problems with the ways in which poverty has generally been conceptualized and measured in relatively rich countries. The core issue is how to define and measure poverty in such countries in a way that is valid, meaningful in the context, and valuable for policy-making.
Income, Resources, and Deprivation
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We have argued in earlier chapters that household deprivation indicators are valuable not only because they help to show in a graphic way what it means to be poor, but also because they may help in identifying the poor more accurately in the first place. Before they can safely be used for that purpose, however, we must have confidence that the indicators being employed are themselves satisfactory. By ‘satisfactory’, we mean in this context that they are likely to serve as indicators of an underlying state of generalized deprivation. In the previous chapter, analysis of the set of potential deprivation indicators on which we have information has suggested that the choice of indicators should not be governed simply by whether they are possessed by most people, or regarded by most people as a necessity. The interrelationships between the potential indicators, the way they cluster together, suggest that different dimensions are being picked up by different indicators. In this chapter we consider how this comes about and how it affects the way deprivation indicators are best employed in measuring poverty.
Income, Deprivation, and Poverty
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The relationship between current income, wider resources, and experience of deprivation is a complex one. We have seen in Chapter 5 that there is indeed considerable variation in the extent of deprivation being experi enced by households at a similar level of current income, which is consistent with earlier studies such as Townsend (1979), Mack and Lansley (1985), and Mayer and Jencks (1988). What we have been able to show, going beyond these studies, is that this variation is to a significant degree explicable in terms of household characteristics and previous experiences. Shifting from a static to a dynamic perspective, not only current income but the accumu lation and erosion of resources over a long period are seen to affect current living standards. The criticism of the use of deprivation indicators that they must primarily reflect differences in tastes rather than resources because they are relatively weakly related to current income thus loses much of its force. In understanding why people are poor and how to alleviate poverty, this focuses attention on the dynamic processes at work, particularly in the labour market, and we turn our attention to the implications for framing policy in Chapter 9.
Implications for Tackling Poverty
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Having discussed the implications of our work for the conceptualization and measurement of poverty in economically advanced countries, we now turn to consider what can be learnt from our approach and findings about how poverty is to be tackled in those countries. We look first at their relevance to assessment of the adequacy of the levels of support provided by the social security system, which is of central importance in effectively alleviating poverty. In the light of what we have found to be the key processes that make and keep some people poor, we then concentrate on the lessons for social security and for the role of social security versus other policies in combating poverty.
Conclusions
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this concluding chapter, we set out the central thrust of the argument put forward in this volume, review the key findings, and discuss their implications for poverty measurement, anti-poverty policy, and further research. Despite its importance-or perhaps because of it-there is remarkably little consensus among social scientists on how best to measure poverty. Our aim in this book has been to identify and address key problems with the ways in which poverty has generally been conceptualized and measured in relatively rich countries. We have sought to first demonstrate the extent to which current practice fails satisfactorily to measure poverty as it is now most often defined in these countries. We then proceeded to develop an approach to measurement which is more in accord with that definition, employing both income and direct indicators of deprivation.
Introduction
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since the tum of the century, the family in industrialized countries has undergone major transformations. Family size has declined, marriage has become less popular, unions are increasingly unstable, and women are no longer assuming their traditional role of housewives. At the same time, governments ‘ policies in respect of families have also greatly changed and expanded. Initially limited to mothers ‘ and children ‘s protection, governments ‘ policies have been steadily expanded to cover other aspects of family life and a larger number of families, as well as to provide a higher level of support. As a result, what is often referred to today as family policy encompasses a large number of measures and benefits ranging from measures specifically targeted at working parents, lone-parent families, or low-income families, to those more generally designed to support all families with children. It is the trends over time in these measures and their inter-country variations which are analysed in this book. The task is an ambitious one: a period of study covering a whole century, a comparison between twenty-two countries, and an analysis of the interplay between demographic changes and family policy. The story is however a fascinating one. What is now called family policy has changed considerably over the past 100 years, revealing major similarities in the ways governments have viewed and supported families, as well as revealing major dissimilarities shaped by country-specific events, ideologies, and circumstances. Until recently, the term ‘family policy ‘ had been very little used in political and academic circles. Alva Myrdal, in Sweden, talked of ‘a programme for family security ‘ in 1939, and a German article published in 1958 used in its title the term ‘Familienpolitik ‘ (Wuermeling, et al. 1958). During these early years, references to family policy or to governmental programmes for families were however mainly confined to restricted circles. The situation changed substantially from the mid-1960s. For example, the Swedish government set up a Family Policy Committee in 1965, the Austrian government set up a Family Policy Advisory Council in 1967, while suggestions for the adoption of a national family policy were made in the United States during a series of hearings on the family in 1973 (Kamerman and Kahn, 1978).