bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Thermoelectric Energy Conversion
Authors: Skrabek E. A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Thermoelectric energy conversion is the science of the interchange of thermal and electrical energy in simple solid‐state devices, generally heavily doped semiconductors. Thermoelectric devices can be used to generate electrical power, to refrigerate, or to transfer large amounts of heat without the use of freons or compressors or any rotating machinery. As well as providing the historical background and summaries on materials and technology, this article discusses such topics as thermoelectric effects, power generation, and cooling. It also provides summary descriptions of a number of applications of thermoelectric power supplies and coolers. These include spacecraft power supplies, remote location power systems on earth and newer commercial devices which could benefit the environment.
Thiosulfates
Authors: Bean S. L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe thiosulfate ion has two inequivalent sulfur atoms, leading to interesting chemical properties. Thiosulfates are used primarily in photography as a fixative to dissolve undeveloped silver halide from negatives or prints. Either the sodium salt, also known as hypo, or the ammonium salt, ammo hypo, is employed in the photographic industry. The latter is also used for dechlorination of potable water and in flue gas‐desulfurization. A gold thiosulfate has been used in treatments for rheumatoid arthritis.
Tin and Tin Alloys
Authors: Gaver Charles C. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Tin is one of the world's most ancient metals. In most cases, tin is used on or in a manufactured material in small amounts, much out of proportion to the purpose it serves. Tin in some form has been associated with the economic and cultural growth of civilization. Food preservation and canning developed rapidly with the invention of tin‐coated steel; transportation and high speed machinery became a reality with the invention of tin‐base bearing metals; the casting of type metal was an important advance in printing technology; bronze alloys became weapons, tools, and architectural objects; and telecommunications and electronic equipment depend on the tin‐lead soldered joint. In modern technology, new uses of tin include the plating of protective coatings, nuclear energy, plastics and other polymers, agriculture, biochemistry, electronic packaging, and glassmaking. Physical properties, chemical properties, processing, economic aspects, specifications and analytical methods, health and safety factors, and uses of tin are discussed.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Tin
Authors: Lindahl Charles B. , Mahmood Tariq 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTin forms stannous fluoride, stannic fluoride, and fluorostannates. Stannous fluoride is a white solid with mp 215C. It is soluble in water ∼ 30–39% and up to 72–82% in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride. It is commercially prepared by the action of hydrogen fluoride on stannous oxide or metallic tin. Stannous fluoride is used widely in dentifrices and dental preparations because of its anticaries effect. Complexes of the type MSnF3, where M Rb, Cs, etc, were obtained from the molten mixture of SnF2with NaF, Rb, and CsF. Stannic fluoride is a white solid that sublimes at 705C. It can be prepared from the reaction of fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, or bromine trifluoride with tin(II) or tin(IV) compounds. It acts as a Lewis acid to form many complexes. It is used in the manufacture of glasses. Stannous fluoroborate, Sn(BF4)2, is produced in an electrochemical cell and is used in electroplating.
Tire Cord
Authors: Bhakuni Roop S. , Chawla Surendra K. , Kim D. K. , Shuttleworth D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe development of various tire cord materials such as cotton, rayon, nylon, steel, polyester, fiber glass, and aramid used for the reinforcement of pneumatic tire is reviewed. Balanced properties developed through tailored cord–rubber composite laminates required for optimum tire performance are described. A general overview of tire cord materials and subsequent processing steps necessary for the laminate structure integrity during varying tire service conditions are presented. Typical chemical and physical properties pertinent to anisotropic cord–rubber composites are also described. Attempts to correlate cord mechanics and nonlinear viscoelastic responses of cord–rubber laminates with tire performance are reviewed. Tire cord laboratory test methods used for chemical and physical characterization are described. The importance of tire cord cost structure and its value governed by tire performance is depicted. In addition, environmental factors affecting vehicle design leading to research efforts for future tire cord materials with high strength‐to‐weight ratio is postulated.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Titanium
Authors: Meshri Dayal T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTwo stable binary fluorides of titanium have been characterized: titanium(III) fluoride and titanium(IV) fluoride. A more important material commercially is hexafluorotitanic acid which is used as a metal surface cleaning agent. Fluorotitanates are used in abrasive grinding wheels. Properties, manufacturers, and applications of the various compounds are described.
Tool Materials
Authors: Komanduri Ranga 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMachining of materials using a cutting tool harder than the work material is a common manufacturing operation. Geometrically defined cutting tools are used to produce parts to specifications. Materials that use abrasives where the geometry changes continuously are outside the scope of this article, which covers mainly tool materials used in operations involving metals and their alloys. Wear on the cutting tool can be in the form of crater wear, flank wear, notch wear, plastic deformation, and cracking of the tool. A wide range of tool materials is available, including various steels, cast cobalt alloys, cast and coated carbides, cubic boron nitride, sintered polycrystalline diamond, and diamond coating on cemented carbides and ceramics. Performance capabilities of these materials vary. Tool materials in the United States have an estimated value of greater than $300 billion per year. High speed steels (HSS) and cemented carbides are the most extensively used tool materials, accounting for $2 billion in sales. Safety is of particular concern in metal‐cutting operations, and precautions should be taken for flying fragments. Future prospects for development of tool materials with superior qualities are outlined.
Trademarks
Authors: Ackerman Marc E. , Bogdanos Claudia T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article provides basic information on trademark rights and the procedures to be followed for securing those rights. It discusses the selection of trademarks and the advantages to obtaining federal trademark registration. The article sets forth the proper manner of trademark usage, so as to avoid a finding of abandonment or genericism of a mark. In this context, the assignment and licensing of trademarks are considered, with a focus on good will and quality control. Registration procedures, as well as the maintenance, protection, and enforcement of registrations, in the United States and foreign countries, are also treated. Issues of foreign priority are considered in connection with various international trademark treaties.
Water, Treatment of Swimming Pools, Spas, and Hot Tubs
Authors: Wojtowicz John A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe swimming pool market has grown at an average of about 3% per year over the last 10 years. The total number of pools in 1991 was about\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${6\times 10^{6}}$\end{document}in the United States. The number of spas and hot tubs has grown rapidly since 1970, with an estimated\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${2.7\times 10^{6}}$\end{document}spas and hot tubs in 1991 in the United States in a growing market. Most swimming pools are of the recirculating type. Through filtration, chemical treatment, and dilution with rain and makeup water, the water can be reused without draining and refilling. Sanitizing chemicals must be added regularly to oxidize pool contaminants and kill and control disease‐carrying bacteria and other organisms introduced by swimmers and dirt entering the water. It is also necessary to destroy algae whose spores are carried into the water by wind and rain. The pH of pool water must be maintained within a desirable range for swimmer comfort and optimal effectiveness of chlorine sanitizers. In order to control the corrosive or scaling tendencies of pool water, it is also necessary to maintain a proper balance between pH, alkalinity, and hardness. Undesirable trace metals such as iron, manganese, or copper are sometimes found in source water or formed by corrosion of pool equipment. Unless removed, these metals discolor pool water and cause stains, especially damaging to plaster pool surfaces. Filtration of pool water is necessary for removal of suspended solids which otherwise cloud water and interfere with the disinfection process.
Analytical Methods, Trends
Authors: Montana Anthony J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAnalytical chemistry, the science of the measurement and characterization of systems, is being revolutionized by rapid advances in computer technology, microelectronics, and materials science. These developments are being driven by five factors: the quest for truly automated or intelligent instruments; ie, the continued development of multidimensional hyphenated instruments, the marriage of two instruments having complementary capabilities to facilitate the analysis of complex samples; continuous improvements in analyte detection limits; increased capabilities in data manipulation, hardware miniaturization, and remotein vivosensing, leading to instrumentation capable of both separation and specification; and the development of nondestructible, stable, field‐operable instrumentation utilizing fiber optic technology as in‐field sampling devices and for process control. It is becoming more desirable for the analytical chemist to move into the field via in‐field instruments and remote, point‐of‐use measurements.In situanalysis enables the study of key process parameters. On‐line analysis capability has already been extended to gc, lc, ms, and ftir techniques as well as to icp‐emission spectroscopy, flow injection analysis, and near‐infrared spectrophotometry. New technology developments such as on‐line Raman spectroscopy, x‐ray diffraction, and gc/lc were commercialized during the 1990s. One challenge is the migration of analytical techniques out of research and development, into quality control and process control. Another involves continued advances in smaller sample size, higher sensitivity and specificity and achieving lowered costs per analysis.
Carboxylic Acids, Trialkylacetic Acids
Authors: Keenan M. J. , Krevalis M. A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe trialkylacetic acids, carboxylic acids with three alkyl groups on the alpha‐carbon, have been manufactured in the United States and Europe since the early 1960s. They are offered commercially by Exxon as neo acids and by Shell as Versatic Acids. The principal commercial products are the C5acid and the C10acid, although smaller quantities of other carbon number acids are also produced.The C5acid, 2,2‐dimethylpropionic acid, also referred to as neopentanoic acid and as pivalic acid, is a solid at room temperature and undergoes reactions typical of carboxylic acids, such as formation of the acid chloride, esterification, reduction. Because of steric hindrance of the carbonyl group, reactions often proceed less readily than with straight chain acids, but once formed derivatives of neopentanoic acid are typically more resistant to hydrolysis and oxidation.Neopentanoic acid is manufactured using variants of the Koch reaction, in which a strong acid catalyst is used in the reaction of olefin, carbon monoxide and water. Production worldwide is estimated at 15 thousand metric tons per year. Neopentanoic acid finds numerous uses in the production of polymers and resins, pharmaceuticals, agricultural chemicals, cosmetics, fuels, lubricants and transmission fluids.The C10trialkylacetic acid, also known as neodecanoic acid and as Versatic 10, is a mixture of isomers, resulting in a material that is a liquid at room temperature. This acid undergoes the same reactions as neopentanoic acid, such as acid chloride formation and esterification. In addition, neodecanoic acid finds a large commercial use in the preparation of metal salts. The manufacturing process is the same as that used for neopentanoic acid. Production volumes of the C10acid are estimated at tens of thousands of metric tons per year.Neodecanoic acid is used in a number of applications, including polymers, resins and coatings, adhesion promoters, metal‐working fluids, hydraulic fluids, metal‐extraction, fuels, lubricants, and electrical/electronic applications. Significant derivatives of neoacids include the glycidyl and vinyl esters. The glycidyl esters are manufactured by both Exxon and Shell, and are used as intermediates for the production of alkyds and acrylics, and as a reactive diluent for epoxy resins. The vinyl esters, manufactured by Shell, are used primarily in coatings, but also in construction, adhesives, cosmetics, and in a number of miscellaneous areas.
Deuterium and Tritium, Tritium
Authors: Katz Joseph J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTritium (3H or T) is the heaviest isotope of hydrogen. Unlike hydrogen or deuterium, T undergoes radioactive decay (B−, ∼ 12 yr half‐life). Thus T compounds experience radiation damage at elevated tritium levels. Tritium is produced by cosmic rays in the higher atmosphere, and by neutron capture in lithium–aluminum alloy in nuclear fission reactors. Tritium can be purified by distillation, by thermal diffusion, by diffusion through palladium‐silver‐nickel membranes, or by chromatography on coated molecular sieves. Tritium is widely used as a tracer in molecular biology experiments. Tritium is a key element in nuclear fusion, in which energy is produced by the controlled fusion of tritium with deuterium.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Tungsten
Authors: Henderson Philip B. , Woytek Andrew J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Although several binary tungsten‐fluorine and some tungsten oxy‐fluoro compounds are known, tungsten hexafluoride is the only compound of commercial importance. The principal use of tungsten hexafluoride is for blanket and selective chemical vapor deposition of tungsten and tungsten silicide films in the manufacture of electronic devices. This article reviews the physical and chemical properties of tungsten hexafluoride, as well as its manufacture, specifications, handling, toxicity, and uses.
Tungsten and Tungsten Alloys
Authors: Penrice Thomas W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTungsten, discovered in 1755 and produced as a metal in 1783, is notable for having a very low vapor pressure, the highest melting point of any metal, and the highest tensile strength of any metal above 1650°C. It is used in the manufacture of high speed steels and as a metal filament in electric lamps, where it is fabricated by powder metallurgy using the Coolidge process. The largest application is in the manufacture of cemented carbide cutting tools. Tungsten is rated as a strategic material in the U.S. economy.Tungsten occurs in a number of mineral forms, the most important being scheelite and wolframite. The beneficiation and hydrometallurgy are described, together with the principal intermediate compounds used to make the metal powder by hydrogen reduction. Technically it is possible to process compacted powder by arc or electron‐beam melting, but commercially the power metallurgy process of compaction, sintering, and working is used exclusively.The largest reserves of ores occur in China, which has, in more recent years, become the principal source of supply not only for ores but for metal powder and intermediates at prices that have caused most U.S. mines to be closed. About 65% of tungsten usage is as tungsten carbide in cutting and mining tools. The instability of the market as well as economic and environmental factors have favored development of recycling processes. Used cutting tools can be treated with molten zinc and both tungsten carbide and cobalt binder are recovered as mixed powders after vacuum‐distillation of the zinc. It is estimated that 25% of cutting tools are recycled in this way in the United States.Tungsten alloyed with nickel and iron is used for a range of high density compositions that find applications as counterweights in aircraft, as armor‐piercing penetrators, and for collimators and shielding in x‐ray machines. These alloys are characterized by high density and high modulus, which make them suitable for use in critical dynamic structures. Tungsten forms only a few alloys; tungsten–rhenium is important for thermocouples and as a tough lamp filament alloy. Insoluble tungsten has relatively low toxicity, but aerosols with cobalt and with impurities found in mining can have some effect and require controls of exposure level.
Ultrafiltration
Authors: Kuriyel Ralf 
Published: July 2004

AbstractUltrafiltration is a pressure‐driven filtration separation occurring on a molecular scale. Typically, a liquid including small dissolved molecules is forced through a porous membrane. Large dissolved molecules, colloids, and suspended solids that cannot pass through the pores are retained. Most ultrafiltration membranes are porous, asymmetric, polymeric structures produced by phase inversion, that is, the gelation or precipitation of a species from a soluble phase. Fouling is discussed. Electroultrafiltration, diafiltration, membrane equipment, systemization, and uses are thoroughly examined.
Units and Conversion Factors
Authors: Lukens Robert P. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The International System of Units, universally abbreviated SI, and also known as The Modern Metric System, is the dominant system of measurement units used throughout the world, with the exception of the United States.

SI was originally defined in
Le Système International d'Unités
, a publication by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), located in France. The present article conforms, with certain exceptions for use in the United States, to the latest revision of this document.

A brief history of the evolution of SI is included in the article, as well as a listing of its many advantages. Also included are a description of the seven base units and a number of derived units; a list of the prefixes used with SI and their proper use; a list of some non‐SI units used with SI; a list of units used temporarily with SI; and a list of units not to be used.
Some comments concerning units for mass, force, and weight; temperature; pressure and vacuum; energy and torque; nominal dimensions; and dimensionless quantities are also given. A list of rules for style and usage and an explanation of how to handle conversion and rounding are presented.
Uranium and Uranium Compounds
Authors: Whitlock Jeremy 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAn overview of uranium and uranium compounds with an emphasis on their relevance to chemical technology is provided. Uranium and its compounds have many uses both potential and applied, examples include nuclear fuel, radiation shielding, and kinetic energy penetrators. These uses have a substantial economic impact, the aspects of which are provided. Sections are provided which illustrate the occurrence, recovery, and radiochemistry of uranium as well as the properties and preparation of uranium metal. A broad overview of uranium coordination and organometallic compounds is also provided. Drawbacks to the application of uranium and uranium compounds in many processes include the chemical reactivity of the metal and the inherent radioactivity of uranium isotopes. As such, health and safety factors which must be taken into account while working with uranium are discussed.
Urea
Authors: Mavrovic Ivo , Shirley A. Ray , Coleman G. R. “Buck” 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Urea was the first synthesis of an organic compound from an inorganic compound. Urea is prepared by the direct dehydration of ammonium carbamate at elevated temperature and pressure. At this time, 95% of all new urea plant are licensed by Snamprogetti, Stamicarbon, or Toyo Engineering. STAM utilizes the thermal stripping process while STAC and Toyo use CO
2
stripping. These processes are described in detail. Finishing processes, prilling, and granulation, as well as treatment of wastewater, are also discussed. Uses for urea include as a basis for fertilizer, in cattle‐feed as a supplement, in the manufacture of resins, glues, solvents and some medicinals. Some economic data is also given.
Clays, Uses
Authors: Murray Haydn H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractClays and clay minerals have been and continue to be one of the more important industrial minerals. They are widely used in many facets of our society. Clays are important in geology, agriculture, construction, civil engineering, process industries, and environmental applications. Traditional applications number in the hundreds. Some of the more important include the use of kaolins in paper coating and filling, ceramics, paint, rubber, plastics, ink, catalyst preparations, and many others. The physical and chemical properties of kaolin are dependent on structure and composition and on the processing methods used to beneficiate the products. Bentonites are used in drilling fluids, as a binder for foundry sands and pelletizing iron ore, as a barrier to control fluid transport, as absorbents, as bleaching earths for edible oils, and many others. Palygorskite, sepiolite, halloysite, and common clays all have multiple applications. The physical properties of all these clays and clay minerals will be discussed in this article on uses of clays.
Vacuum Technology
Authors: Milleron Norman 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Vacuum technology concerns the means to predict, effect, and control subatmospheric environments, ie, vacuum. Increasingly, each vacuum environment must be not only safe and cost‐, energy‐, and materials‐effective, but also tailored to serve use profitably. However, as of the late 1990s, the likely interactions between a dynamic endeavor and a potentially profitably serving vacuum environment may still not be straightforward. This article examines such topics as vacuum dynamics, instrumental measurement, vacuum systems and equipment, molecular transport, and problems such as gas leaks.
Vanillin
Authors: Esposito Lawrence J. , Formanek K. , Kientz G. , Mauger F. , Maureaux V. , Robert G. , Truchet F. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Vanillin is found as a natural product, glucovanillin, in vanilla beans. The extract, as such, has an inconsistent quality and its use has given way to production of synthetic vanillin, derived from catechol. It can also be obtained from lignin in sulfite wastes treated with alkali, and from guaiacol, where its impurities, by comparison, are odorless.
Physical properties, solubility data, and data about particle‐size distribution, taste and flavor, and available grades of Rhovanil Extra Pure vanillin of Rhône‐Poulenc are given. Chemical reactions such as decomposition are discussed.
Uses as a flavor enhancer in numerous food products, and as a key part of flavor compounding are mentioned. The four principal notes in flavor perception are classified to show the role played by vanillin in flavor compounding. Uses in baking, chocolate, vanillin sugar, and as a palatability enhancer in animal feed are discussed.
Use in perfumery of a vanilla‐like product is examined, with its important role in the field of aroma description. Many vanillin uses in perfumery are touched on, as are also some in flavor‐masking, pharmaceuticals, agrochemical products, and in antiultraviolet protection. Analysis and determination techniques are discussed. Vanillin in the diet shows no significant health or carcinogenic risk to humans.