bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Taxonomy and Functional Biotic Measurement, or, will the Ark Work?
Authors: Cousins Steven H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Biodiversity is represented differently in systematics and in ecology. This chapter uses hierarchy theory to relate the two approaches. Modifications, based on functional attributes, are made to representations of ecological biodiversity. Taxonomic uniqueness measures are scale independent whereas the functional evaluation tools proposed are different for local, ecosystem, and global scales. Higher taxonomic categories are functionally important for ecosystem analysis and may indicate a shift in the role of taxonomy in ecology. The quantity of life in contrast to the number of types is seen as important at the global scale. The measurement of human interaction strength with the existing biological environment is necessary for conservation evaluation. UK data for birds and mammals are used to exemplify the above points.
Flagella and flagellar roots
Authors: Green C , Hori T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Members of the Prymnesiophyceae (division: Haptophyta) typically have two flagella, equal or unequal but similar in form in the subclass Prymnesiophycidae, unequal and dissimilar in the subclass Pavlovophycidae. The basal apparatus in all members of the Prymnesiophyceae typically includes two basal bodies, the haptonematal base, an array of microtubular and fibrous roots, and interconnections between the bases of the appendages and other organelles. In the Prymnesiophycidae there are basically three or four microtubular roots, one having its proximal termination close to the left flagellar base and the haptonema, one terminating ventrally between the basal bodies, and one or two associated with the right basal body. In the Pavlovophycidae there are two microtubular roots associated with the basal body of the left (shorter) flagellum. At present, information on the structure of the basal apparatus supports the separation of the Pavlovophycidae and Prymnesiophycidae as major taxa, but is of little value in the determination of relationships between species.
Life cycles
Authors: Billard C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alternations of morphologically distinct generations are frequent in the Haptophyta, but the existence and place of sexuality, if applicable, often remains unknown. In most Pavlovales a nonmotile stage exists as an alternative to flagellate cells and is assumed to respond to environmental conditions. Similarly palmelloid and motile stages are recorded in the Isochrysidales where the dominant stage is planktonic (lsochrysis) or benthic ( Chrysotila). In the Prymnesiales a complex cycle is suspected for Phaeocystis involving colonial and motile stages, although observations on the nuclear ploidy levels of the different phases are lacking. Except in Platychrysis where amoeboid cells produce swarmers, members of the Prymnesiaceae are flagellates in culture, with resting cysts recorded in Prymnesium. Two motile cell types, with different scales, recently described in Chrysochromulina polylepis cultures could possibly indicate sexuality in Chrysochromulina. Many Coccolithophorales have heteromorphic life histories. In coastal genera (Pleurochrysis, Hymenomonas, Ochrosphaera), diploid coccolith-bearing cells and haploid scale-covered forms alternate, with different patternings on the organic scales of both phases. Life histories combining hetero- and holococcolithophorids are noteworthy: increasing numbers of oceanic holococcolithophorids, previously considered as autonomous species, are now shown to be alternate phases in the life cycle of heterococcolithophorids, but, as often in the Prymnesiophyceae, information on the nuclear cytology is needed.
Robert Robinson
Authors: Williams Trevor I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sir Robert Robinson was among the last of the great organic chemists in the classical tradition, achieving brilliant results with extremely simple apparatus. In this area he may be compared with Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, who revolutionized atomic physics with equipment based on `string and sealing wax'. This biography examines Robinson's long and distinguished career, from his academic achievements to his work in the chemical industry, and illustrates his complex personality.
Agriculture in the national economy
Authors: Antle J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Agriculture played a central role in the national economy of Egypt in the Pharaohs’ time and continues to do so today. Like other developing countries, a large share of Egypt’s national income is generated in the agricultural sector; the state of agriculture is integrally related to the welfare of the Egyptian people and to the national economy. However, in many ways Egypt is unlike other developing countries due to its unique position in geography and history. Egypt’s agriculture along the Nile River and in the Nile Delta has, historically, been one of the most productive in the world, and Egypt’s position as a crossroads for trade has linked its agriculture to developing world markets since the industrial revolution.
Systems of agricultural production in the Delta
Authors: Ward P N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Nile branches just north of Cairo to form a triangular area which extends to the Mediterranean coast; both branches, the Rosetta (western) and the Damietta (eastern) are approximately 240 km long. The Nile Delta is the irrigated area between and around these branches; it consists of some 25 000 km2 and includes nine of the governorates of Egypt (Fig. 13.1). The region is flat, extending from Cairo at 24 m, to Damietta at 1.5 m a.s.l. The cultivated area amounts to some 3.59 million feddans (1.51 million ha), and includes 60 per cent of the area under cultivation in Egypt (El-Tobgy 1974). The Nile Delta is one of the oldest agricultural regions in the world. Much of its area has been under continuous cultivation for more than 5000 years and, until the twentieth century, the economy was agrarian with some exports of cotton, rice, and a few minor crops.
Feedstuffs
Authors: Barker T J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Egypt feeds and feedstuffs are still in short supply particularly in summer when a high proportion of the winter fodder lands are replaced by the cotton crop. In spite of this livestock continues to form a major part of the agricultural economy. It is estimated that livestock production, including animal power and manure, account for as much as one-third of Egypt’s agricultural output. Historically, animals have been kept mainly for draught power-water lifting, land preparation, transport-as well as for meat and milk, but with the advent and increasing use of tractors and diesel water pumps the need for work animals has declined. According to the 1982 census, actual numbers of cattle and water buffalo have increased at a greater rate than the annual government estimates suggested. This emphasizes the growing importance of meat and milk in the economy and therefore of feed and fodder on the farm.
Theoretical Models in Biology
Authors: Rowe Glenn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book surveys theoretical models in three broad areas of biology (the origin of life, the immune system, and memory in the brain), introducing mathematical and (mainly) computational methods that have been used to construct simulations. Most current books on theoretical biology fall into one of two categories: (a) books that specialize in one area of biology and treat theoretical modes in considerable depth; and (b) books that concentrate on purely mathematical modes, with computers used only to find numerical solutions to differential equations, for example. Although some mathematical modes are considered in this book, the main emphasis is on stochastic computer models of biological systems, and are likely to be the preferred modelling methods of the future. By considering three different areas in biology, the book shows how several of these modelling techniques have been successfully applied in diverse areas. Put simply, this book is important because it shows how the power of modern computers is allowing researchers in theoretical biology to break free of the constraints on modelling that were imposed by the traditional differential equation approach.
Toxins Are Everywhere
Authors: Lax Alistair J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Bulgarian playwright and novelist Georgi Markov was a marked man. He had defected to Britain in 1971 and was hated by the uncompromising communist junta that ruled his native country for his out-spoken broadcasts against them. It was Thursday 7 September 1978, the birthday of Todor Zhirkov, the Bulgarian leader, when the fatal blow was struck. It was at least the third attempt to kill him, and after the previous failed attack he had heard that the next attempt would be ‘special’. Markov was standing at his usual bus stop on Waterloo Bridge on his way to the BBC for his afternoon broadcast. He felt a sharp pain at the back of his right thigh.
Where Is Toxinology1 Going Now?
Authors: Lax Alistair J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been pointed out that humans have more or less dealt with the larger animals on the planet, so the lions and bears and wolves are no longer much of a threat. That leaves the most dangerous animal of all, man, and the microbes to cope with. Whether humans can survive without using their own clever technology to kill their own race is impossible to tell. Of the microbes, many would see the viruses as the greatest threat. Horrifying as the AIDS epidemic is becoming, it is unlikely to lead to worldwide extinction unless its mode of transmission changes. Viruses such as Ebola, flu, and smallpox are potentially more worrying.
In a World at War
Authors: Wilkins Maurice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Through 1939, the British people wondered when their war would begin. Then, on I September, Hitler launched a great mechanized offensive that rapidly advanced into Poland. Appeasement was over, and Britain declared war. Reaching the north of Poland, the German army neared the frontier with Russia. The Red Army was said to have moved across its border into Poland, where it met the Germans on 17September.
Semantics and Lexicography
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For years, I have argued that semantics as a scholarly discipline must prove itself in lexicography. “Lexicography needs linguistics, and linguistics needs lexicography. As Zgusta (1971: 111) points out, for the treatment of meaning in dictionaries to be radically improved, preparatory work has to be done by linguists” (Wierzbicka 1987a: 1-2). I believe that during the two decades which have elapsed since Zgusta made this comment, much of this preparatory work has in fact been done. In this chapter I will try to show that, as a result of this work, the treatment of meaning in dictionaries can indeed be radically improved.
Semantics and Ethnobiology
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is widely agreed today that “culture ‘does not consist of things, people, behavior, or emotions’, but the forms or organization of these things in the minds of people” (Frake 1962: 85, with reference to Goodenough 1957). The question which mightcause disagreement is this: How can the organization of “these things” in the minds of people be discovered?
Dramaturgs and literary managers
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Adramaturg is literally a drama-worker or -maker, from Greek drama+ ‘i:pyov, ergon, ‘work’, and in antiquity probably incorporated the modern ideas of playwright and director. The earliest English use of the word is in 1787, shortly after the tenure of G. E. Lessing, the first official modern dramaturg, at the German National Theatre, Hamburg, 1767-9. Lessing’s collection of theatre-criticism, Hamburg ische Dramaturgie (1768-9),1 roused considerable interest, and the word dramaturgy, ‘the structural composition of a drama’ and ‘a collection of writings about drama’ as well as ‘the activity of a dramaturg’, followed in 1801.
Critics
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theatre-critics review performances and write on contemporary theatre. They may be journalists writing for the daily or weekly press, or academics usually writing for quarterlies and annuals, but though there are differences in the length of pieces (and in the UK of ‘social status’) the distinction is not in itself significant. Theatre-criticism is distinct from theatre-theory and theatre-history, but a good critic needs to know about both.
Editors
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the eighteenth century some critics have also been editors, initially of Shakespeare but then of any playwright of scholarly or pedagogic interest. Before the professionalization of literary criticism in the late nineteenth century and the development of the enormous student-market there were no necessary qualifications, and what editors actually did varied widely. The modern consensus is that early texts need modernization and glossing both for students and for a general market, but it is increasingly clear that both didactic and popularizing interventions characteristically overstep their marks.
Existence and Identity
Authors: Bostock David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall use ‘a=b’ as short for ‘a is the same thing as b’. The sign’=‘ thus expresses a particular two-place predicate, and since we generally write a predicate-symbol in front of the name-letters that fill its gaps, you might have expected the same here. Very occasionally this can be convenient (Exercise 8.1.2), but it is confusing to have the same sign’=‘ appearing in these two roles. So let us say that officially the letter ‘I’ is the identity predicate, and it is to have just the same grammar as the familiar two-place predicate letters.
Hume on Liberty and Necessity
Authors: Botterill George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hume was certainly tackling a ‘long disputed question’ under his heading ‘Of Liberty and Necessity’. If our actions are causally determined, can we still maintain that we are capable of acting freely? Or does our deeply rooted commitment to regarding other people as morally responsible agents also commit us to regarding them as exceptions to the general order of nature and, at some level, somehow exempt from the operation of causal laws? By now this has been disputed even longer, whether we call it the Problem of Free Will and (or versus) Determinism, or the topic of Moral Responsibility and Causal Determination. The basic issue is familiar enough to be referred to as an ‘old chestnut’-which, in my view, implies we ought to have cracked it by now.
Cantor’s Approach to the 2 Class Paradoxes
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cantor was the first to discover class paradoxes, but they did not strike him as paradoxical. Rather, he took them to confirm a view he had come to years before, that some totalities cannot be treated as objects of mathematical study. In the course of developing the theory of infinite sets, in particular the theory of infinite ordinal and cardinal numbers that he had created,1 he naturally reflected on the totality of ordinal numbers and the totality of cardinal numbers, and he came to view them as importantly unlike other infinite totalities. It had been traditional to distinguish between finite and infinite, the former being increasable by addition, the latter not. Cantor challenged this tradition. Instead of a simple division into finite and infinite, Cantor’s theory led him to a tripartite classification: finite, transfinite, and absolutely infinite. A transfinite number is unlike a finite number in having infinitely many predecessors; but it is like a finite number in being increasable.
The Definability Paradoxes and the Vicious Circle Principle
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the type restrictions block the class paradoxes, Russell did not think that the source of those paradoxes was just ignorance about types. Why not? Russell learned of other apparently logical paradoxes that are not blocked by the type restrictions, known as paradoxes of definability. Preferring a univocal explanation, he concluded that both the class paradoxes and the paradoxes of definability have their source in the violation of a single principle, which he called the Vicious Circle Principle. Let us first look at three definability paradoxes, before turning to Russell’s diagnosis.
The Search for Certainty: A Reckoning
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Godel’s Underivability Theorems mark a watershed. Once they and related theorems were fully assimilated, Hilbert’s Programme was not pursued, and no other foundational programme quite so ambitious replaced it. As the iterative conception of sets became more widely appreciated, the worry that set theory might be inconsistent quite reasonably abated, as did the sense of urgency that informed foundational work. None the less, basic epistemological questions remained. We cannot be certain of the reliability, regarding finitary consequences, of much mathematics.
Mind and Soul
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The area of philosophy that underwent the most significant development in the early modern period was the philosophy of mind. This was due above all to the work of Descartes. Whereas Cartesian physics had a short and inglorious life, Cartesian psychology was widely adopted and to this day its influence remains powerful in the thinking of many who have never read his work or who explicitly reject his system. Descartes redrew the boundaries between mind and body, and introduced a new way of characterizing the mental. Since his time it has been natural for philosophers and scientists to structure psychology in a way quite different from that employed by his Aristotelian predecessors in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. This has affected even everyday thinking about human nature and about the natural world.
Philosophy in the Modern World
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sir Anthony Kenny tells the fascinating story of the development of philosophy in the modern world, from the early nineteenth century to the late twentieth century. Alongside (and intertwined with) extraordinary scientific advances, cultural changes, and political upheavals, the last two centuries have seen some of the most intriguing and original developments in philosophical thinking, which have transformed our understanding of ourselves and our world. In the first part of the book Kenny offers a lively narrative introducing the major thinkers in their historical context. He then proceeds to guide the reader lucidly through the nine main areas of philosophical work in the period, offering a serious engagement with the ideas and arguments. Among those we meet are the great figures of continental European philosophy, from Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche to Heidegger and Sartre; the Pragmatists who first developed a distinctively American philosophical tradition; Marx, Darwin, and Freud, the non-philosophers whose influence on philosophy was immense; Wittgenstein and Russell, friends and colleagues who set the agenda for analytic philosophy in the twentieth century. Philosophy in the Modern World brings to completion Kenny’s magisterial New History of Western Philosophy. The four volumes have been designed to dovetail with each other: they offer a unified overview of the entire development of philosophy, allowing readers to trace themes through the centuries, from antiquity to the present day. The story is illuminated by a selection of intriguing and beautiful illustrations.
The Dustbin Theory of Mind: A Cartesian Legacy?
Authors: Nolan Lawrence , Whipple John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is part of the lore of Descartes’s philosophy that he subscribed to what might be termed the ‘Dustbin Theory of Mind’. According to this traditional picture, Descartes’s conception of the mental was determined by his prior conception of matter as pure extension, shorn of the various sensible qualities familiar from our ordinary experience of the physical world. Having banished these qualities from nature, and finding no other place to locate them, Descartes swept them into the dustbin of the mind. The mind thus became a repository of heterogeneous items— colours, sounds, odours, heat and cold, pains, beliefs, intellections, etc.
Some Cautionary Remarks On The ‘ Is’/’ Teaches’ Analogy
Authors: Malcolm John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ancient Greek thinkers, notably Parmenides, Plato, and Aristotle, are regarded by some as having been led into error through a failure to recognize the difference between two uses of (their equivalent of) the verb ‘to be’: the incomplete or copula, and the complete or existential.1 They allegedly acted as if ‘X is F’ entailed ‘X is’, i.e. ‘exists’. Not everyone is convinced by this. I shall consider two responses. The one I favour is to grant that a rigid existence/copula distinction is a legitimate tool for the interpretation of these philosophers. Furthermore, I suggest that their reasoning may be understood in a way that does not leave them as vulnerable to the charge of this confusion as is sometimes supposed.
What is motor neuron disease?
Authors: Talbot Kevin , Marsden Rachael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord which transmit the electrical signals to muscles for the generation of movement. Two sorts of cells are required and, although it is an oversimplification, one can think of these as being like two switches in an electrical circuit (Fig. 1.1). The upper motor neuron starts at the top of the brain in an area called the motor cortex and travels down to the spinal cord to connect at different levels with the cells known as lower motor neurons. These cells in turn travel out of the spinal cord (e.g. along our arms and legs) and connect to muscle. If motor neurons are damaged or die, the main consequence is difficulty with voluntary movement.
Processing Syntax and Morphology: A Neurocognitive Perspective
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book reviews interdisciplinary work on the mental processing of syntax and morphology. It focuses on the fundamental questions at the centre of this research, for example whether language processing proceeds in a serial or a parallel manner; which areas of the brain support the processing of syntactic and morphological information; whether there are neurophysiological correlates of language processing; and the degree to which neurolinguistic findings on syntactic and morphological processing are consistent with theoretical conceptions of syntax and morphology. The authors describe the outcomes of methods in neurophysiology (for example, functional magnetic resonance imaging), behavioural psycholinguistics, and neuropsychological lesion studies, and provide brief introductions to the methods themselves. They extend basic findings at the word and sentence level by considering how the mental processing of syntax and morphology relates to prosody, discourse, semantics, and world knowledge. They have divided the work into four parts concerned with word structure, sentence structure, processing syntax and morphology at the interfaces, and a comparison of different models of syntactic and morphological processing in the neurophysiological domain. The book is directed at graduate students and researchers in theoretical linguistics, psycho- and neurolinguistics, neurophysiology, and psychology.