bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
From Muscovy Towards St Petersburg 1598–1689
Authors: Torke Hans-Joachim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The seventeenth century has long been a focus of historiographic debate. Impressed by the broad-ranging reforms of Peter the Great (1689–1725), most early historians tended to emphasize the ‘break’, juxtaposing a traditional Muscovy of the seventeenth century to a Westernizing state of the eighteenth. But for over a century specialists have realized that the Petrine reforms built upon changes initiated by his predecessors in the seventeenth century.
Russia In War And Revolution 1914–1921
Authors: Orlovsky Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The years separating the outbreak of war in 1914 and the announcement of the ‘New Economic Policy’ in 1921 form a critical watershed in modern Russian history. The revolutions of 1917, while not an unbridgeable caesura, fundamentally transformed the polity and social order. This era also had a profound impact on the ‘bourgeois’ West, which in the coming decades had to contend with the spectre of a socialist Prometheus in the East.
Constraints
Authors: Culicover Peter W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The preceding two chapters provide linguistic evidence for the position that a learning mechanism for language must be able to accommodate a substantial range of variation in syntactic generality. Many linguistic phenomena are very general, perhaps even falling under the designation ‘Affect a’, and these have formed the basis of ‘core grammar’. Many phenomena are not general, as I have argued, but are no less part of the language and constitute knowledge of language as much as the more general phenomena do. It is of course natural to try to account for the apparent exceptionality of apparently idiosyncratic phenomena as following from the interaction of general principles, thereby requiring the minimal special stipulations in the grammar of a particular language. However, I have argued that it is impossible to eliminate entirely the need for special stipulations. Moreover, I have suggested that the phenomena that require special stipulations do not fall into a special class for which a special learning mechanism is required, but are merely instances of the kinds of sound/meaning correspondences that are found in the lexicon and in syntax for all degrees of generality.
Noun and Adjective Suffixes
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the suffixes whereby nouns and adjectives are derived from other nouns and adjectives. Diminutives. The diminutive suffixes are -rek, -cek, -ceğiz, -cik, and -ce, of which the first two are no longer productive. Before these suffixes, adjectives invariably and nouns usually drop final k. -rek, the ancient comparative suffix (III, 4), survives with diminutive force in acrak ‘rather bitter’ (ac ‘bitter’), bozrak ‘light grey’ (boz ‘grey’), küçürek ‘rather small’ (küçük ‘small’), ufarak ‘rather tiny’ (ufak ‘tiny’), alçarak ‘lowish’ (alçak ‘low’).
Pronouns
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In pre-nineteenth-century texts the usual forms of the third person are: (sing.) ol, an, ann, ana, anda, andan; (pl.) anlar, anlar, etc. It will be noticed that the table exhibits some anomalies: the m in the genitive of the first-person singular and plural; the change from e to a in the dative of the first- and second-person singular; in the third person the n before the case-suffixes of the singular and before the -lar of the plural. The most plausible explanations of these anomalies are: the original beniŋ and biziŋ became benim and bizim under the influence of the pronominal suffixes -im and -imiz, helped perhaps by the labial b.
Numerals
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Numbers are compounded by simple juxtaposition: yüz bir ‘a hundred and one’; üç milyon dört yüz yirmi bin sekiz yüz doksan alt ‘three million four hundred and twenty thousand eight hundred and ninety-six’. In the numbers from 11 to 19 inclusive (which may be found written as one word), the accent is on the on. In higher numbers the last syllable of the unit is accented. Whereas ‘one hundred’ and ‘one thousand’ are yüz and bin respectively, ‘one million’ and ‘one milliard’ (i.e. an American billion) require bir.
Postpositions
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
General observations. The functions of some English prepositions are performed in Turkish by the case-suffixes. Those of the rest are performed by postpositions, which follow the word they govern. A few of them can appear as suffixes, but the majority are independent words. Those listed as primary are variously construed with the absolute, genitive, dative, and ablative cases. What may be termed a postposition taking the accusative is the obsolescent müteakip [A] ‘following’, as in PaŞann vefatn müteakip ‘sub-sequent to the Pasha’s demise’. Those listed as secondary postpositions are nouns in the dative, locative, or ablative case, linked by izafet to the word they govern. An English analogy would be to call ‘in’ and ‘before’ primary, and ‘on the inside of’ and ‘in front of’ secondary prepositions.
Adverbs
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a host of reduplicated adverbial expressions, including onomato-poeic words like horul horul; see XIV, 30. Some verbs have reduplicated cognate adverbs ending in m: sürüm sürüm sürünmek ‘to grovel grovellingly’, i.e. to drag out a wretched existence; burum burum burulmak ‘to be contorted gripingly’; kvrm kvrm kvrlmak ‘to writhe convulsively’. The adverb için için ‘inwardly’ must not be confused with the postposition için ‘for’.
The Subjunctive
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Clauses of purpose. Clauses of purpose containing a subjunctive may, but need not, be introduced by ta ki (sometimes written tâ ki) or by ki alone: o vakit, bir sağa bir sola baŞvurmağa baŞlyorsunuz; tâ ki daldğnz bu toprak deryas içinden kendinize bir iz bulup çkasnz (Yakup Kadri) ‘then you begin to cast about, now to right, now to left, so that you may find a track for yourself and emerge from this ocean of earth into which you have plunged’. oturdum ki bir dakika dinleneyim ‘I sat down so that I might rest a minute’. Note that there is no ‘sequence of tenses’; the main verb in the past tense is followed by the present subjunctive. herkesten çok koŞacaksn ki paçay kurtarasn ‘you will run more than everybody so that you may save your skin’. Şimdi uyuyun ki, sabah kalknca dinç kafayla çalŞasnz ‘now sleep, so that when you get up in the morning you may work with a sound head’.
Conditional Sentences
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Open conditions. These are expressed by the conditional form of the appropriate tense.
present: halkmz gerçekten seviyor-sak, onun için çalŞyoruz derken yalan söylemiyor-sak, onu kuŞkulardan korkulardan kurtarmak ilk iŞimiz olmal ‘if we truly love our people; if, when saying we are working for them, we are not telling lies, our first task ought to be to deliver them from doubts and fears’.
The ethnography of everyday life
Authors: Gentilcore David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The title for this chapter suggests both an approach and a subject matter. The intention is to explore how the approaches and methodologies of sociocultural anthropology have been applied to the study of the everyday phenomena of social life in early modern Italy. The use of such approaches, beginning in the 1970s, reflected a desire among historians to reach where other approaches did not: to explore the social relationships and interactions among historical persons, people who actually existed and experienced life as a series of events. It was made all the more attractive for Italian historians by the existence of a strong, often quite historically minded, Italian ethnographic tradition. At the same time, it implied a whole new range of theoretical concepts, as well as a new way of going about research, analysis, and presentation.
Introduction: Republic and nation in the belle époque
Authors: McMillan James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1880 the French Third Republic had been in existence for ten years. That it was destined to fulfil the revolutionary dream of creating a viable democratic polity and go on to become the longest-surviving regime since 1789 was, however, far from self-evident. French national life had been fractured by conflicting ideas of the nation since 1789, and if anything the advent of the Republic in 1870 served only to deepen the ideological divide.
France, Europe, and the world: international politics since 1880
Authors: Watson David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This topic is treated here primarily in the form of an account of policies followed by French governments over this period. Whatever the future may hold, in the year 2002, as in the year 1880, France is a nation state, a community which has a sense of identity, and which is represented by a government with the task of defending the national interest. The primary element of this task is defence of the national territory, and of its inhabitants: second is safeguarding the economic basis of their existence.
The transformation of society
Authors: Horne John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If there is a ‘peculiarity’ of French social history since 1880, it is the opposite of that sometimes attributed to Germany. The industrial revolution transformed German society, eventually producing a cataclysm in a political system still rooted in the ancien régime. France possessed a democracy inspired by the Revolution, yet society and the economy changed more slowly than in Germany, with periods of stagnation.
Women: distant vistas, changed lives
Authors: Reynolds Siân 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If one of the indexes of modernization is an increase in women’s rights, France has seen remarkable moves in this direction since the belle époque, when the formal rights of women—whatever their unofficial power and weight in society—were extremely restricted. There are several possible ways to approach this history. A list of key dates would have all the virtues of clarity, charting every barrier broken down, every ‘first’ achievement such as Marie Curie’s becoming the first woman professor at the Sorbonne in 1906, and every anti-discriminatory law, as so many milestones on the road towards women’s emancipation.
The traditional society
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To Europeans of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment the Chinese Empire seemed to show the possibility of a polity based on reason without hereditary privilege or religious authority, ruled by a philosopher-king counselled by philosophers. Yet by the start of the next century, China had come to symbolize almost the opposite: a polity stifled by the power of a self-perpetuating élite who were both the guardians of a quasi-religious tradition and the servants of an arbitrary despot.
The radicalization of Chinese politics
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We must now return to 1913 in order to look more closely at the parallel events in the south, and the gradual consolidation of the Nationalist regime. From 1913 Sun struggled to maintain a foothold amid the military and political rivalries of the south and south-west. His first problem was that opposition to Yuan Shikai was by no means unanimous even among his own supporters. While the Guomindang in the south favoured war, most of the parliamentary party opposed it. Among the provincial military commanders only one, Li Liejun of Jiangxi, was determined to resist; his colleagues in Hunan, Anhui, and Jiangsu were prevented from effective action by disagreement among their officers, who were as split on the issue as public opinion generally. These circumstances account for the easy victory of Yuan Shikai’s Beiyang commanders.
The Chinese People’s Republic 1949–1957
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new Chinese People’s Republic was proclaimed in Tian An Men Square, Beijing, on 1 October 1949. Mao Zedong from the rostrum announced, ‘China has stood up.’ It was the nationalist message which most Chinese wanted to hear; to most of his vast audience, socialism in 1949, as in 1919, was first and foremost a means to national revival. The institutions which were created by the conquerors were ostensibly in this spirit. They expressed Mao’s view, held since the days of the May Fourth Movement, that the vast majority of the Chinese people could unite behind revolution, and that its only opponents would be the landlords and the handful of businessmen whose fortunes, he believed, depended upon the exercise of foreign economic privilege.
The Great Leap Forward
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Free criticism during the Hundred Flowers period had culminated in demands for the fulfilment of the democratic rights offered in the 1954 constitution, but no Chinese leader was willing to interpret these rights as offering anything analogous to Western Democracy. Mao went further in this direction in 1957 in permitting criticism, approving protest, emphasizing the distinction between Party and State, and defending the right to strike even though the constitution did not legalize strikes.
Reaction and renewed reform
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jiang Zemin was from Shanghai which, recently opened to foreign trade on much the same terms as Shenzhen, had a strong interest in continued economic reform. Nevertheless, the conservative veterans, with Li Peng as their protégé, had for the moment regained power. A period of attempted reaction followed. They issued orders for continued retrenchment and recentralization. Price controls were reimposed.
Power and Disempowerment
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The focus on alienated individuals exploring their subjectivity in the writing of the 1980s and 1990s can be traced in the earlier writings of those marginalized by the discourses of the regime. As is evident from the preceding discussion of the construction of the family, women were identified exclusively with the domestic sphere in the family model of National Catholicism. Novels by women highlight the restrictions imposed on them by this paradigm and present a challenge to the discourses of the regime, and the institutions which implemented them, through a variety of strategies which emphasize the use of language, or paradoxically silence, as a tool of empowerment.
Introduction
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origins of parliament lay in the monarch’s need for counsel and consent, and the giving and receiving of advice was the main purpose of a parliament. Edward I’s writ of summons to the earl of Cornwall in 1295 made this clear: For monarchs, parliaments were occasions on which they could consult a wider range of their subjects than was normally available. Parliaments were not, of course, the only occasions on which the king could consult his most influential subjects-he might summon some of his nobles, or a group of merchants, or a ‘great council’, that is, an assembly of nobles with a sprinkling of specially invited humbler persons-but parliaments were the most important of such occasions. This was because many of the matters on which the king sought advice involved the levying of taxation, for which the consent of parliament was necessary. The principle had been established long before the Tudors that the king could raise money from his subjects as a whole only with their consent: a meeting of parliament had from the fourteenth century been recognized as the means by which that consent was given.
Material Resources and Economic Constraints
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Implicit in the concept of an economy is an awareness that constraints of resources, time, and knowledge limit the potential of human groups for happiness and prosperity. In the course of history certain of those constraints have been eased—and that is what constitutes economic development—but they are never removed, and often new ones are created in the process of change. That being so, it is important, before embarking on a discussion of Britain’s economy between the eleventh and the sixteenth centuries, to survey the material restrictions on its potential for development. Economies before 1530 contrast with those of the present day in the much lower level of energy inputs available for productive use; they lacked the means for converting mineral fuels such as coal and oil into generating power mechanically.
Merchants and their Trade
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of long-distance, especially seaborne, trade is one of the most demonstrable sources of British urban growth between 1050 and 1300. It was chiefly beneficial to eastern England and Scotland, whose economies it integrated into the expanding North Sea trading area; northern France (including Flanders) and the Rhineland were the principal trading partners. A statistical assessment of the magnitude of change is only possible in part; the evidence of customs accounts becomes available for English ports from 1275, for Welsh ports from the beginning of the fourteenth century, and for Scottish ports from 1327. Comparison between English customs returns of the years 1304–5 with customs dues recorded in a royal exchequer account of 1204 suggests that over that hundred years the value of English overseas trade may have tripled in real terms.
Towns, Industry, and Local Trade
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For anyone accompanying Edward I northwards to Galloway in the summer of 1300, Britain was a showcase of different types of town and different degrees of regional urbanization. From Britain’s largest city, and the commercially vigorous south-east, a traveller passed through the small towns and village markets of provincial England and the Scottish burghs, into tracts of the Scottish mainland and the western isles that remained as remote from urban experience as any part of Europe, having few institutions of any kind to encourage formal trade. The route passed through regionial centres, small towns, and mere villages with markets, and the traveller would observe a continuum in size and institutional complexity from the largest down to the smallest. Very few of these centres of trade would have more than 2,000–3,000 inhabitants, and most would have fewer than 1,000. Britain had many small focal points of market demand but very few large ones.
Britain and Ireland in the Early Sixteenth Century
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early sixteenth century, as we saw in Chapter 4, the population of Britain and Ireland was still much lower than it had been at its peak around 1300. There is no reason to suppose that England’s population was any higher in the years 1522–4 than it had been in the later eleventh century; the available estimates, of 1.8–2.3 million, are well within the margin of error for the precarious estimates derived from Domesday Book. There is less basis for assessing how far the populations of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland diverged from their eleventh-century levels. Wales is estimated to have had about 250,000 inhabitants, and Scotland probably had at most 700,000 (many fewer, if the estimate of 250,000 for the fifteenth century is to be believed), implying a total of perhaps only 2.75–3.25 million for Britain as a whole. Ireland’s population was perhaps less than a million.
Legal Change, 1140-1300
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There can be no doubt that the twelfth and thirteenth centuries began to bring important changes to the ideas and practices of law. The strengthening of government began to transform the law by emphasizing one source of its authority and enforcement among others. More and more crimes came to incur formal punishments, inflicted by the authority of the ruler, instead of being left to mutual negotiation by feud and wergeld. Although in practice the maintenance of law and order still depended in large measure on collective self policing, it was now the king’s (or sometimes the count’s or duke’s) peace which the law-breaker broke.
Villages and Rural Neighbourhoods
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Medieval historians talk a good deal about ‘the village community’ but the concept is one which needs some examination before the manifold evidence of collective activity in the thirteenth-century countryside can be evaluated. To start with, we need to consider how much of the rural population lived in villages rather than in more scattered settlements, and in particular, how many of them lived in the typical medieval village of the textbooks: a firmly nucleated settlement with its own church and single manor-house in the middle, and its open fields and common pastures spread round about.
Provinces and Lordships
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with the collective aspect of units of government or lordship, whether royal, seigniorial, or acephalous, which occupied the intermediate ground of status and geographical extent between the local communities of chapters 5 and 6 and the kingdoms of chapter 8. They form a large and amorphous subject which will be surveyed even more briefly than the smaller local communities. If any justification for that is needed, beyond the sheer difficulty of covering so many sorts of collectivity, then the best one may be that communities of this kind encompassed less of their members’ lives. They were communities primarily of judgement, government, and sometimes warfare, whose participants interacted with each other less often and in fewer ways than did peasants who lived in the same village and had to cooperate in its fields, or townspeople who tried to regulate their own economy and met regularly in the market-place and town hall.
The Community of the Realm
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The preceding chapters have argued that medieval ideas of custom and law facilitated collective action so that communities of all sorts and sizes were being easily and unselfconsciously formed, altered, and indeed superseded by each other, all through the period covered by this book. The highest, most honourable, and most perfect of all secular communities was the kingdom. Although at every date there were some kingdoms which looked less united than some smaller units of government, kingdoms as such nevertheless seem to have been normally perceived as the ideal type of political unit, just as kings were perceived as the ideal type of ruler. A kingdom was never thought of merely as the territory which happened to be ruled by a king. It comprised and corresponded to a ‘people’ (gens, natio, populus), which was assumed to be a natural, inherited community of tradition, custom, law, and descent. So much was this taken for granted that learned writers seldom argued about it directly when they discussed political subjects: they merely made remarks which suggest that it was an unreasoned premise of their political arguments.