bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chemical aspects of combustion toxicology of fires
Authors: Woolley W. D. , Ames S. A. , Fardell P. J. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis report describes work currently being carried out at the Fire Research Station, Borehamwood to Study the role of the fire atmosphere in causing incapacitation, injury and death of building occupants in fires. The work includes a detailed study of polymer degradation mechanisms (particularly synthetic) and product formation under carefully controlled laboratory conditions and fires, together with pathological and bioassay (in vivo) work being carried out elsewhere under contract. Analytical studies are reported using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify the complex products formed during the controlled pyrolysis and thermal oxidative decomposition of butadiene‐styrene latex rubber foam, polyacrylonitrile and polypropylene under low (30–400°C), medium (400–650°C) and high (700–900°C) temperature conditions. Studies are reported of the products formed during smouldering and flaming fires in an experimental 0.4 m3 fire chamber in an attempt to reproduce conditions relevant to the early stages of fires. In this way, chromatographic fingerprinting of the smouldering products from BS latex rubber foam, and the flaming products of wood wool and polypropylene are given and where possible the major components identified. The relevance of this analytical work in predicting the types of products likely to be encountered during various stages of burning is discussed. General information on the pathological studies and bioassay work being carried out at the Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Glasgow and at the Huntingdon Research Centre respectively are given in order to integrate the overall research programmes and methods of approach being adopted to give an insight into the very difficult area of toxicity assessment.
Relative toxicity of pyrolysis gases from materials: Effects of temperature, air flow and criteria
Authors: Hilado Carlos J. , Cumming Heather J. , Scheinder Jane E. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractRelative toxicity can vary considerably, depending on the test conditions used and the toxicity criterion selected. Three commodity plastics, three engineering plastics and Douglas fir were evaluated at various temperatures and with the closed and flow‐through systems to demonstrate these effects. For the closed system, the rising temperature program (procedure B) appeared to be a cost‐effective method of summarizing a range of fixed temperatures.
Structural fire protection. Report of group session 5.2, CIB W14 commission meeting, Copenhagen, May 1978
Authors: Pettersson Ove 
Published: May 2005

AbstractRecent development and trends of development in progress within the field of structural fire protection are described and evaluated with a focus on the contributions circulated within CIB W14. The presentation is structured on the one hand with regard to different methods of design (experimental determination of fire resistance, analytical determination of fire resistance, analytical design based directly or indirectly on real fire exposure characteristics), on the other with regard to different structural materials (steel, concrete and wooden structures). The presentation gives evidence of a development towards an increased application of analytical design methods based on modern structural safety philosophy. The urgency of increased research is stressed for improving the present building code systems in order to achieve fire safety levels which are consistent with strictly defined functional requirements.
Heat transfer characteristics of flight jacket materials
Authors: Ross Jack H. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe heat transfer behavior was determined for textile materials used in Air Force flight jackets. The primary objective as to incorporate flame resistant, thermally stable fiber forms in jackets to provide greater protection to aircrewmen from fire. Combinations of fabric/insulation, flammable and nonflammable, were evaluated in the layered configurations intended for use in either cold weather and moderately cold weather jackets. A combination of Nomex fabric (outer shell) and Kynol® batting (insulation) proved superior to all other combinations of fabric and batting.
Heat release rate in fires
Authors: Tewarson A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn this paper the definition of heat release rate in fires is given in terms of heat of combustion and mass loss rate of the fuel. Various components of the heat of combustion are defined. The dependency of heat of combustion components and mass loss rate on factors such as fire stages, oxygen to fuel ratio, heat flux received by the fuel, chemical composition of the fuel vapors and products are enumerated. Applications of heat release rate data for relative fire hazard of fuels, for various fire conditions, for human escape potential from fires and for the operation of fire‐sensing devices are discussed.
The fire resistance test and its relation to real‐world fires
Authors: Harmathy T. Z. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe characteristics of fire resistance test furnaces are examined. It is shown that the efficiency of a furnace, as measured in terms of the heat load it imposes on a test specimen, depends markedly on the size of the furnace and the nature of the furnace gas. Only with large furnaces heated by gases of high radiation potential (near‐black gases) can the test results be regarded as meaningful and reproducible. Reling a defective furnace with a material of very low thermal inertia, though helpful, is unlikely to bring its performance up to the required level. Methods of determining the efficiency of test furnaces are outlined. The theorem of uniformity heat load is recognized as a succinct descriptor of fires with respect to their destructive potential. As such, it forms the basis for correlating real‐world fires with standard test fires.
Short‐term creep of concrete at elevated temperatures
Authors: Gillen Michael 
Published: May 2005

AbstractResults of a study of time‐dependent deformation of concrete over a period of five hours at room and elevated temperatures (22 to 649°C) are described. The influences of load, temperature and material variables are examined and data compared with several mathematical models commonly used to describe concrete creep behavior. Information obtained from this study will help in evaluation of the design of concrete structures to withstand fire and other high temperature environments.
Textile flammability testing: Appropriate levels for moisture content of specimens
Authors: Krasny John F. , Braun Emil 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis study was performed to establish the appropriate moisture level for textile flammability test specimens. Three investigations were carried out: into the effect of the level of humidity in dwellings; into the moisture content of garments worn at various distances from the body; and into the effect of relatively short exposures to heat on the moisture content of fabrics (simulating the case of a person standing in front of an open fire or space heater). The moisture content of ambient air in dwellings was found to be primarily governed by the moisture content of the air outside and can be quite low, ten to twenty percent, especially in winter (unless, of course, humidifying equipment is used). The moisture content of garment parts which are at some distance from the body (e.g., the loosely fitting parts of skirts) is governed by the relative humidity of the room. Closely fitting parts are more likely to be exposed to ignition sources than closely fitting parts. Fabric specimens exposed at a short distance from an electric space heater had moisture contents similar to specimens which has been oven‐dried and cooled in a desiccator. The results of these studies indicate that oven‐drying is a reasonable conditioning requirement for testing the flammability of apparel and home furnishing fabrics.
Development of an improved radiant heat source for fire testing
Authors: Robertson A. F. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe development, construction, and testing of a gas‐fired radiant heat source for use as part of a fire test method is described. The unit has been shown capable of operation over extended periods at surface temperatures yielding radiance corresponding to that of a black body at 935 °C. This permits a 60% increase of specimen irradiance over that possible with a burner previously used, without modifying the specimen–burner configuration factor. One such application of this burner allows operation with specimen irradiance levels at 5 W cm−2 or for short periods at levels approaching 7 W cm−2 at higher temperatures. This performance is achieved while maintaining effective spatial separation between specimen and heat source. This assists in avoiding imposition of vitiated air near the surface of a burning specimen. Some performance data are provided on its behavior when supplied with natural gas. The unit can burn propane but only with a significant reduction of thermal output.
The effect of ammonium sulphate—decabromobiphenyl oxide on the flammability of polyester/cotton blend
Authors: Kandil S. H. , Khattab M. A. , Farid M. M. , Morsi S. E. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA 87.5:12.5 polyester/cotton blended fabric was treated with various concentrations of ammonium sulphate and decabromobiphenyl oxide (DBBO) as well as mixtures of the two additives. The flammability of the resulting systems was determined by the limiting oxygen index (LOI) method and their thermal decomposition by thermogravimetry. Ammonium sulphate was particularly less effective as a flame retardant than the DBBO. Decabromobiphenyl oxide acts in the gas phase to retard the flammability of the polyester while the inorganic salt acts in the condensed phase to decrease that of the cotton. A mechanism for the interaction of ammonium sulphate with cotton was suggested. When a mixture of the two additives containing a high percentage of the bromo‐compound was used a significant increase in the LOI values was observed compared to one having the same total loading but containing a higher percentage of ammonium sulphate. This may be attributed to the stabilizing effect of the released ammonia on the intermediate species formed after the liberation of the bromine radicals from the DBBO.
Smoke generation from polypropylene in different thermal environments
Authors: McIlhagger R. , Hill B. J. , Stephens G. G. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis paper examines the effect of different thermal regimes on the production of smoke from a variety of injection‐moulded polypropylene samples. The tests were performed in a Stanton Redcroft BS 6401 smoke chamber. The results indicate that, of the thermal regimes examined, the radiant heat source alone produced the smoke with the greatest optical density, particularly after long exposure times, while the addition of an inorganic salt to the polypropylene produced a reduction in optical density. The different thermal regimes produced different effects depending on the additives used in the preparation of the polypropylene samples.
Response time of platinum resistance thermometers in flowing gases
Authors: Chohan R. K. , Hashemian M. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe determination of the time of response of industrial temperature sensors both during service and in various environments is of importance. Recent effort has been directed at this problem solution. The present paper is concerned with the determination of the response time using available procedures recently developed. A rig was constructed to test the procedures. The results appear to provide confidence in the use of these procedures.
Ammoniumphosphate—Decabromobiphenyl oxide synergistic effect in treatment of polyester/cotton blend
Authors: Kandil S. H. , Khattab M. A. , Farid M. M. , Morsi S. E. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractPolyester/cotton blend (87.5:12.5%) was treated with various concentrations of diammonium hydrogen phosphate (DAP)‐Decabromobiphenyl oxide (DBBO) mixture. The flammability of the resulting systems was determined by the limiting oxygen index (LOI) and simultaneous thermal analysis (TA) methods. Evaluation of the results was achieved by plotting the variation of the LOI with the percentage of ammonium phosphate‐‐‐DBBO mixtures at constant total additive loadings on triangular diagrams. The activity of the inorganic salt as a flame retardant was found to be synergistically enhanced by the addition of the DBBO. The maximum interaction between the two additives occurred at bromine‐phosphorus atomic ratio of about 3:1. This corresponds to the stoichiometric ratio for the formation of phosphorus tribromide, PBr3, a species which most probably interacts with the acidic products resulting from the thermal decomposition of the polyester and thus changes their nature so that they become no longer capable of recombination with the other decomposition fragments to produce flammable gases.
Problems in a drum friction test for fire‐resistance evaluation of rubber conveyor belts with fabric skeletons
Authors: Nakagawa Yuichi , Takahashi Masayoshi 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA drum friction test was conducted on four different ‘flame‐resistant’ and one ‘non‐flame‐resistant’ rubber conveyor belts with a fabric skeleton manufactured in Japan. These test results were compared with those obtained from the other flammability tests, i.e. a small‐scale flame test, an oxygen index test and a laboratory‐scale gallery test, and both sample and rank correlation coefficients were calculated. As a result, the authors have concluded that fire resistance of belting materials themselves could not be adequately assessed by the results from the drum friction test, which could have some significance only when other combustible materials exist near the drive pulleys or idlers of belt conveyors.
The integration of the objectives of fire safety into the process of architectural design
Authors: Stollard Paul 
Published: May 2005

AbstractArchitects designing a building are faced with a series of objectives which they must satisfy. Among these are those of fire safety, and the evidence of past fires indicates that both the design of a building the design processes behind it influence the building's eventual fire safety. Research into the factors in the architectural design process which influence the successful integration of fire safety objectives with the more general objectives of architectural design is described and the findings outlined. On the basis of these findings it is concluded that the education, attitudes and sources of advice of the architects are important, as is their relationship with the statutory authorities. Recommendations based on the research are made which could lead to a better integration of the objectives of fire safety into the process of architectural design.
Ignitability and heat‐release properties of forest products
Authors: Gardner W. D. , Thomson C. R. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractForest products comprising sawn boards of seven timber species, plywoods of three timber species, two hardboards and one particleboard have been tested to ASTM E 906—Standard Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products. One plywood was also tested after fire‐retardant treatment by pressure impregnation. The fire‐retardant treated plywood was also tested after being overlaid with untreated face and back veneers. One sawn board product was also tested after coating with an intumescent fire retardant. The ignition times of the forest products that had not been fire‐retardant treated increased with density when exposed to heat fluxes of 20 and 40 kWm−2. The maximum rate of heat release and the cumulative heat released rose with increasing impressed heat flux over the range 20–60 kWm−2. Heat‐release properties were dependent upon the impressed heat flux. Relationships were also established between the maximum rate of heat release and the cumulative heat released for heat flux exposures of 20, 40 and 60 kWm−2. The ignition times of plywood were increased by pressure‐impregnated fire retardants. Fire‐retardant treatment by pressure impregnation prevented the ignition of a plywood and reduced its heat‐release properties. The heat‐release properties of a sawn board product were reduced by a fire‐retardant surface coating.
Ignition of exterior building details in bushfires: An experimental study
Authors: McArthur N. A. , Lutton P. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA laboratory study of the ignition of building details incorporating timber, under bushfire conditions, using ‘mock‐ups’ of these details and both realistic (leaves and twigs) and, mainly, artificial (cribs) ignition sources has been carried out. Parameters such as mock‐up type, moisture content of the timber comprising the mock‐ups, and temperature and relative humidity of the experimental atmosphere were examined. It was found that all these parameters affected the ignition and flame propagation induced and that under conditions typical of a severe bushfire, only very small amounts of fuel were required to cause ignition. These results support the belief, based on field studies, that ignition of exterior building details composed of timber plays an important role in the destruction of buildings in bushfires.
The performance of aluminium building products in bushfires
Authors: McArthur N. A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA study of the behaviour of aluminium building products in bushfires was carried out to test the validity of assertions that they perform poorly under bushfire conditions. The work was conducted in two parts: an examination of data from bushfire damage surveys and laboratory experiments in which window assemblies were exposed to radiant heat from a furnace. Data from surveys conducted after major bushfires were augmented with information from a questionnaire related specifically to this work. Analysis of these data did not provide any support for the belief that houses incorporating aluminium building products are at greater risk of being destroyed. The laboratory experiments on both timber‐ and aluminium‐framed windows showed their performance under simulated bushfire conditions to be similar. It was found that bending of glass through distortion of the frames was not a factor in crack initiation.
The role of intumescents for construction products with improved fire safety
Authors: Becker Wolfram 
Published: May 2005

AbstractUsing a brief review of the history of fire safety technology, the author outlines the development of intumescents and their effect under fire conditions, in particular discussing silicate‐based materials. Finally a classification system based on the height of the foam and the foam pressure developed under fire exposure along with the operational stresses to which the intumescent may be subjected is put forward. It is suggested that this kind of classification needs to be taken into account in the development of guidelines for European Technical Approvals.
Toward the goal of a performance fire code
Authors: Bukowski Richard W. , Tanaka Takeyoshi 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe paper presents a strategy for the development and implementation of performance‐based fire codes on an international scale. The process begins with agreement on a common set of goals which underlie the code. Existing code bodies then decide on an appropriate set of quantitative prediction tools with which they are comfortable, and use them to quantify the degree to which their current code addresses these goals by establishing a standard design fire for each occupancy. By applying standard safety criteria and safety factors appropriate to the choice of predictive methods, the performance of any building can be quantified against the stated goals. To allow for an orderly transition from current codes, an interim code structure under which currently acceptable methods are ‘deemed to satisfy’ the code is presented.
Wall fire close to an horizontal surface: Numerical modelling and experimental validation
Authors: Annarumma Marcelo , Audouin Laurent , Most Jean‐Michel , Joulain Pierre 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn order to contribute to a better understanding of natural fire configurations, three different experimental arrangements were considered. They simulated, at laboratory scale, three simple room fire situations.1–3 First, we tested a gas‐fueled porous burner simulating a wall fire. Then an insulated floor was placed close to it. Finally the wall and the floor burnt simultaneously. Velocity and turbulence measurements were performed using a two‐component laser‐doppler velocimetry (LDV) system operating in the forward‐scatter mode. Mean gas temperatures were obtained with a 200 μm butt‐welded chromel‐alumel thermocouple, located 2 mm downstream of the velocity measurement control volume. Simultaneous measurements of two velocity components proved to be very useful, especially in the characterization of the flame structure and of the entertainment process. A simple field model describing strongly buoyant diffusion flames is proposed in search of computational economy and a basic understanding of the phenomena involved. Our aim is to analyse the suitability of such a simple model for the description of the mean properties of the flow. This work showed the interaction between the burning wall, the floor and the pool fire, and especially the role played by the large‐scale structures characteristic of entertainment and mixing processes in free fires.
A cone calorimeter for controlled‐atmosphere studies
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Twilley William H. , Janssens Marc , Yusa Shyuitsu 
Published: May 2005

AbstractMany fires occur in ambient atmospheric conditions. To investigate certain types of fires, however, it is necessary to consider combustion where the oxidizer is not 21% oxygen/79% nitrogen. The Cone Calorimeter (ASTM E 1354, ISO DIS 5660) has recently become the tool of choice for studying the fire properties of products and materials. Its standard use involves burning specimens with room air being drawn in for combustion. To facilitate studying fires involving different atmospheres, a special version of the Cone Calorimeter was designed. This unit allows controlled combustion atmospheres to be created by the use of bottled or piped gases. To make such operation feasible, a large number of design details of the standard calorimeter had to be modified. This paper describes the background for these changes and provides an explanation of how the controlled‐atmospheres unit is operated.
Communication: High‐performance liquid chromatography to identify melamine in order to differentiate between combustion modified and traditional polyurethane foam
Authors: Cody Maria K. , Patterson Iain D. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA high‐performance liquid chromatography method is described for the identification and quantification of melamine in polyurethane foam. A trial of this method has been undertaken and the results show a correlation between the presence of combustion‐modifying chemicals in the polyurethane foam and its compliance with the Furniture and Furnishings (Fire) (Safety) Regulations 1988. This method provides a rapid means of screening materials and supplements the British Standard flame test.