bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Overview
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1776, which is where we start, the great Asian civilizations were vegetating, even decaying. They had reached the condition with which ey were quite consciously satisfied and from which they did not wish to move. Indeed, their governments strenuously resisted any influences which they thought might upset their priceless equilibrium. The Chinese still regarded their country as the hub of the world, the ‘central kingdom’, and rebuffed the efforts of outside powers like Britain to intrude upon them. Tokugawa Japan had sealed itself off from overseas. The Ottoman Empire slumbered, as did, in fact, all the states of Islam. The Mughal Empire was no more and the Indian subcontinent was in turmoil and decay. The only advances, such as they were, lay in military technology-the use of firearms-and even this was borrowed from the West.
China: The Golden Century of the Ch’ing, 1680-1780
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ook Three, Chapter Four of this History left China convulsed, the central government paralysed by the life- and-death struggle between Mandarinate and eunuchs, and the capital itself under threat from popular rebellion from the south and from the formidable Jiirchen (later ‘Manchu’) proto-state which was poised to pierce the Wall at a point only 200 miles to its north-east. It is not proposed in this chapter to dwell on the subsequent Manchu, or as it called itself, Ching (‘pure’) regime in the same detail as that devoted to earlier phases of Chinese government. What is presented here is, rather, an updating; and this for the simplest of reasons: the early Ch’ing polity is, basically, the Ming updated and-above all-made to work.
The Indian Experience and the Mughal Empire, 1526-1712
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some historians choose to take Indian civilization as commencing with the riverine cultures of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (2500 BC); others with the Aryan invasions (c.1500 BC). Either way the fact remains that it is thousands of years old. Furthermore, Hindu religion, its unifying and unique characteristic, is the oldest continuous religious tradition in the world, such that Hindus are still using some of the hymns of the Rig Veda, of c.1500 BC.
The Apogee of Absolute Monarchy: Europe, c.1770-1780
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
discretion’. The Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns and Swift’s Battle of the Books were over and the moderns had won. Europe felt equal, if not indeed superior, to the ancient Graeco-Roman world, which had intimi dated and dwarfed it till then. Four great, interconnecting developments were in movement, developments which seemed to be putting the seal on that drive to absolute monarchy that had begun in the sixteenth century.
The American Revolution
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
(T he transcendent importance of the American Revolution is that it “.L demonstrated for ever that quality of the Western European govern ment we have called ‘law-boundedness’. Here is a government which draws its powers from and can only act within a framework of fundamental law theConstitution-which is itself interpreted by judges in the ordinary courts of the country. Could law-boundedness go further, could it receive a more striking affirmation? It is notable too that while its government is elected on a wide popular franchise, its f’Ower to act is lost in a maze of channels which dilute it and slow it down:1 the celebrated ‘checks and balances’ in the system do not abolish explicit expressions of the popular will but restrain it. In this way the United States stands as the paradigm of what we have been calling the ‘liberal democracy’.
The Constitutionalization of the Absolute Monarchies of Europe, 1815-1871
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
(T he American, and more significantly, the French Revolutions worked a “.L change in the ordering of society and in consequence drastically altered the typology of polities we have been following till now. For as a result of the secularization and democratization of society after 1776, and particularly after 1789, two hitherto great Orders, each capable (in principle) of ruling a state on its own, namely the Clergy and the Nobility, ceased to be viable ruling strata. Consequently the two pure types-Clergy polities and Nobi lity polities-totally disappeared. By the same token so did all their hybrids. Of our previous ten types we are left with only three. These are the Pure Palace, the Pure Forum, and the Palace/Forum. Given the degree of democratization in the world, the Pure Palace type persists only in some principalities of the Third World, such as Saudi Arabia.
Industrialization
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
(T he industrial and technological revolution which began around 1770 “.L and is still in full flood today ushered in an entirely new phase of world history. It ‘made a far more drastic break with the past than anything since the invention of the wheel’.1 ‘From then on, the world was no longer the same . . . no revolution has been as dramatically revolutionary as the industrial revolution-except perhaps the Neolithic revolution.
Peasants, Real and Ideal: Venetsianov and his School
Authors: Gray Rosalind P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first two chapters have concentrated on the cultural context within which Russian genre painters worked. Changes in the system of patronage affected the visual material available to artists, and the consumption of their own art. The complex tapestry of artistic, social, and political discourse examined in the periodical press, on the other hand, indicates the key intellectual debates with which a genre painter might have been familiar, what sort of exposure he might hope to gain, and the critical approbation or vituperation which his work might stimulate. The focus will now shift to the painting itself.
Conclusion
Authors: Gray Rosalind P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This study of Russian genre painting in the period 1820 to 1870 reveals a subtle but complex interplay between two distinct sets of polarities: in the first place, that between European influences and national themes and traditions; and, of equal importance, the development of a realist treatment in painting, as opposed to the idealization of Academic art. The balance between these various concerns was constantly shifting, and none of the artists in this study aligned himself with one school of thought or practice to the exclusion of its opposite.
Liberals or Libertines? Staff, Students, and Government Policy at the University of Padua, 1814—1835
Authors: Laven David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In modern Europe the fate of universities following sudden changes in regime has usually been determined as part of the broader question of how far new governments have sought to accommodate or discard the institutions, practices and personnel of their predecessors. Yet within this context education has often retained a special significance because of the opportunities it offers for the development among the citizenry of values and opinions useful to the state. By the early nineteenth century universities had taken on a particular importance because of the role they played in many countries in the education of future public servants. In many states a rigorous control of universities was associated with a loyal and efficient administration. Establishing such control was perceived as a good means of securing future stability as well as easing the transition from one regime to another by limiting the intellectual legacy of the previous system.
University and Multinational Society in the Habsburg Monarchy: Students from Slovene Countries at the University of Graz, 1884—1914
Authors: Heppner Harald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This article will consider an aspect of the theme of ‘University and Society’ which has rarely been investigated: the national origins of students in a multinational state. States composed of several ethnic groups develop in different ways from those which are ethnically homogeneous, not least because their basis is more complex. They are obliged to have regard to their ethnic heterogeneity. One such multinational state was the Habsburg Monarchy, populated by Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ukrainians, Rumanians, Serbians, Croatians, Slovenians, Italians, and others. There the relation between university and society had a national dimension.
Curricular and Structural Developments at the Hebrew University, 1928—1948
Authors: Iram Yaacov 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The idea of establishing a Jewish University in Palestine was proposed systematically from 1882. However, the corner-stone for the Hebrew University in Jerusalem was laid in 1918, and it opened formally in 1925. The Hebrew University played a unique role in contemporary Jewish history. It was intended to fulfil a threefold purpose: I) to help generate Jewish national revival at the turn of the nineteenth century by providing a centre for research in Judaic studies and in the arts and sciences; 2) to respond to practical needs of an emerging Jewish community in Palestine; and 3) to make provisions of higher learning for Jewish students whose admission to universities in some European countries was restricted by a notorious numerus clausus.
Parliamentary Debate, Economic Vulnerability, and British Naval Expansion, 1860—1905
Authors: Ranft Bryan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are now passing through a period of transition, which, by changing the Navy in its scientific and mechanical character, will affect it as a political power. When wooden walls are entirely withdrawn from the seas … and when steam more completely supersedes sails, the practice oflong voyages up and down great tracts of ocean in distant regions of the world will fall necessarily into disuse. The fleets and squadrons, which under the pretence of guarding colonies and protecting commerce, are maintained at a vast expense in every ocean, will no more swell the Estimates of each succeeding year. What benefit this ubiquitous display of force confers on the country it is difficult to conceive. We may expect that it will break down through the absolute inability of any country to maintain it when ships are inordinately expensive to build and to move; and that then, the European navies will take the form of a few powerful vessels constructed for the defence of the coasts of the peoples who maintain them. (The Times, Wed. 22 Feb. 1865.)
‘Hidden in the Rock’: American Military Perceptions of Great Britain 1919—1940
Authors: Gooch John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In January 1941, preparing for the forthcoming Anglo-American staff conference which would mark the first stage in the lengthy and complicated process of allied military collaboration in wartime, the Joint Army-Navy Planning Committee warned the American chiefs of staff to be on their guard. The proposals London would lay on the table ‘will probably have been drawn up with chief regard for support of the British Commonwealth. Never absent from British minds are their postwar interests, commercial and military. We should likewise safeguard our own eventual interests’, they counselled Scepticism about Britain’s underlying objectives increased when, that August, Roosevelt and Churchill brought their military planners together secretly at Argentia Bay in Newfoundland and the Americans were briefed on British strategy.
Problems of Command in Limited Warfare: Thoughts from korea and Vietnam
Authors: O’neill Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This century has seen the two greatest wars of human history. The fi.rst was characterized by failure and futility at the cost of staggering human casualties. The second, while still containing elements of futility, saw military force used with telling effect from the campaign in Poland through to the amphibious drive on Japan through the Pacific. The successes of the Axis Powers proved transitory but largely through superior operational techniques and forces trained and organized for their use, they gained in five spectacular campaigns between mid-1940 and mid-1942 vastly more territory in Europe, Africa, and Asia than the Central Powers had been able to conquer in four years of desperate effort in 1914—18.
In Appreciation of Michael Howard: Remarks Offered at the Modern History Faculty Farewell Dinner 29 June 1989
Authors: O’neill Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The word perestroika has already become a cliche but if we look at what Michael Howard has done for the study of the history of war over the past forty years it is the most appropriate term to employ today. In essence what Howard has done is to have raised the standing of the whole field of enquiry and expanded the thinking of most of those who can make a serious claim to know something about warfare and its impact in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Central Government
Authors: Harriss Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By 1360 the principal agencies of government were normally located within the Palace of Westminster, the administrative capital of the realm. This reﬂected the king’s usual proximity to London, for government remained dependent on, and responsive to, the king’s authority. It also reﬂected the huge accumulation of records by the executive ofﬁces and their need for continuous accessibility. Enrolment was the normal method: the chancery enrolled all royal charters and letters under the great seal; the exchequer enrolled its receipts and expenditure, accounts, and memorandums; each of the courts of law had a roll of the pleas it heard; and parliament kept a roll of its proceedings. Enrolment constituted a public legal record, available for either ofﬁcial or private reference. For the business transacted in these ofﬁces of state was in equal measure that of the king and his subjects. Government was the interaction of their interests, and its impetus came as often from below as from above. The physical setting emphasized this, for Westminster Hall was open and accessible to all who had business there: petitioners, litigants, those rendering accounts and seeking payment, and all who hoped to ‘nobble’ ofﬁcials to seek a favour or make an excuse—a busy, noisy, chaotic place.
The Nobility
Authors: Harriss Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The late medieval nobility enjoyed a position of political, social, economic, and military dominance unmatched in any later age. While the king was the head of the body politic, the lords formed the shoulders and backbone, and acted as arms for its defence. Their ﬁdelity to the Crown validated their own rule over lesser subjects, thus constituting a hierarchy of authority on which the social order rested. Bishop John Stafford likened them to mountains towering above the hills and undifferentiated plains of the lower classes.2 Their status as a hereditary elite rested upon their lineage and lands, which furnished them with huge wealth and extensive lordship. As military leaders they epitomized the chivalric ideal of valour, prowess, and courtesy. In all these respects they provided the role model for a society of which they were the unquestioned leaders.
Ruling England, 1413–1461
Authors: Harriss Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historians have come to see the crises in social and political relations from c.1371 to c.1406 as expressions of a more liberated and assertive society, produced by the better equilibrium between population and resources. But to contemporary moralists, from Langland to Gower, the demands of labourers for freedom and money, the political aspirations of men of middling degree, and the factious quarrels of the nobility were symptoms of the pride and greed which threatened to subvert the social hierarchy. At the head of society, protecting and controlling it, stood the Church and the Crown; yet they too had been engulfed by disorder. The Church was rent by schism, threatened by heresy, and corrupted by wealth; kingship had descended into tyranny and its sacral legitimacy had been violated by usurpation. Nevertheless, Gower, who voiced this sense of crisis, directed his call for moral regeneration to the king, for ‘the king and his people are like the head and the body. Where the head is infirm the body is inﬁrm. Where a virtuous king does not rule, the people are unsound and lack good morals.’
The Instigation of the Devil
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The increasing rigour with which the law was enforced and the growing emphasis on the spiritual significance of the crime intensified both the folkloric and religious bases for popular horror of suicide. The coroner’s inquest and burial of the corpse were rituals of interpretation. They identified a death as a suicide and dramatized the jury’s verdict to the whole neighbourhood. The rites of desecration were collective expressions of the community’s conviction that self-murder was a heinous crime. Their ritual symbolism branded suicides as pariahs, excluding them from the churchyard, and condemning them to an eternal journey that had no destination. Historians and anthropologists have in recent years taught us to be sensitive to symbolic actions like the ritual burials of suicides. For they are keys to understanding how men and women in the past understood the social and metaphysical basis of the world in which they lived. From this perspective, it is plain that although ordinary people accepted the clerical elite’s view that self murder was a satanic sin, they also retained other, older beliefs about its supernatural significance. For the rites of desecration focused on the spiritual consequences of suicide.
A Theory of Wealth Distribution and Accumulation
Authors: Baranzini Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume provides the micro-foundations of a macroeconomic theory of income distribution and of the accumulation and distribution of wealth. Baranzini surveys current literature on the subject, before going on to make his own contribution by presenting a new model. He examines the laws which regulate the accumulation of inter-generational wealth and life-cycle savings of families or dynasties, both in a deterministic and stochastic context. The mechanisms which may lead to the generation and coexistence of different socio-economic classes are also studied.
Phraseology and the Learner’s Dictionary
Authors: Cowie A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At one point in the Preface to the first edition of the Concise Oxford Dictionary, its compilers, H. W. and F. G. Fowler, referred to the difficulties posed for the writer or speaker of English by the commonest words, which were, they said, (1) entangled with other words in so many alliances and antipathies during their perpetual knocking about the world that the idiomatic use of them is far from easy. (Fowler and Fowler 1911: v) Here, in a memorable phrase, they identified a major obstacle to normal, native-like use of the language, and foreshadowed the intense theoretical and descriptive interest in collocations and idioms shown by later generations of dictionary-makers — though chiefly, it has to be said, by makers of dictionaries for foreign learners.
The Role of the Computer in Learner Lexicography
Authors: Cowie A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Without doubt, the most important single development in learner lexicography from the mid-197os onwards has been the steadily increasing involvement of the computer at all stages of the dictionary-making process, from data gathering and analysis at one end, to compilation, production, and revision at the other. The first use of computers in learner lexicography dates from the early 1970s, and specifically from the compilation ofALD 3(1974). This was the first edition of any MLD to include a computerized stage, one which made it possible to turn the text into a printed book, but which did not reflect — as it had not involved— the use of the computer in the data-gathering, analytical, or editorial stages of production (Meijs 1992).
Focus on the Dictionary User
Authors: Cowie A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early history of the monolingual learner’s dictionary, three design features in particular came to dominate the plans conceived by lexicographers-though in fact no dictionary published at the time incorporated them all. These were: definitions based on a controlled defining vocabulary that the foreign student could be expected to understand; detailed information about function words, ‘heavy-duty’ lexical words, and verb-patterns (the latter in a specially ‘coded’ form); and coverage of a great number and variety of word-combinations (idioms, collocations, and formulae). If they had been brought together in a single work, those features would have ensured that the decoding and encoding needs of the learner were equally fulfilled, since while the first favours the user wishing to understand the foreign language and the second — grammatical information — s designed to meet the needs of the learner wishing to write in the L2, the third supports activity of both kinds. However, there can be little doubt that both philosophically and in practice Palmer and Hornby favoured the encoding function. At the practical level, as we saw earlier, Palmer’sGEWoverwhelmingly, and Hornby’sISEDto a considerable extent, laid stress on support for the writer and translator. The many years of research devoted to core vocabulary items, and their patterns and uses, were eventually to bear fruit in dictionary information for encoding rather than decoding (Cowie 1983b, 1984).
Switch-Reference and Discourse Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I shall be concerned with switch-reference and discourse anaphora. I shall first take a look at switch-reference. As an ‘in-between’ category, switch-reference seems to provide a natural ‘bridge’ between pure intrasentential anaphora and pure discourse anaphora. I shall first review the phenomenology of switch-reference in Section 5.1.1. Next, in Section 5.1.2, I shall first make a comparison between switch-reference and other reference tracking systems and then compare and contrast switch-reference and logophoricity. Finally, in Section 5.1.3, I shall first discuss a syntactic and a semantic, and then sketch a pragmatic approach to switch-reference. In the second part of this chapter, I shall turn my attention to discourse anaphora. I shall start with the problem of anaphoric distribution in Section 5.2.1. I shall then survey, in Sections 5.2.2-5.2.4, a number of influential approaches to discourse anaphora, focusing on the topic continuity analysis developed by Giv6n (1983), the hierarchical account represented by Fox (1987), and the cognitive model offered by Chafe (1976), Tomlin and Pu (1991), and Gundel, Hedberg, and Zacharski (1993). Finally, I shall develop a neo-Gricean pragmatic analysis of discourse anaphora in Section 5.2.5.