bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Language Change in Social Perspective
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As I was writing this book in Sweden, an interesting case of linguistic change came to my attention. It seems that young people in Sweden have begun using the word nord (from American English nerd) to refer to someone who is stupid. There is also an adjectival form nordig ‘nerdy’. This new usage has been commented on by the newspapers and the radio, and some of my Swedish colleagues began noticing it over the summer of 1991. After some discussion, my colleagues and I concluded that nerd probably crossed the Atlantic to Sweden via the American film Revenge of the Nerds, which was translated in Swedish as Nordama kommer ‘The nerds are coming’. Some young people have apparently also picked up the word through visiting the United States. It has now been noticed in Denmark too. The influence and prestige of American pop culture on youth everywhere has no doubt been responsible for the introduction of a number of new English words into other languages.
Causation: The Evideuce and its First Effect on Us
Authors: Pears David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last three chapters the emphasis has been on the shortcomings of Hume’s theory of mind. Its failure to deal with the problem of meaning separately from the problem of truth and evidence, its excess ive assimilation of thought to perception, and its consequent under estimation of the importance of activity were all serious faults. It emerged as a loosely constructed theory, based on an intuition of empiricism and worked out With insufficient care. However, when he applied it to the three problems, causation, personal identity, and perception, he turned its loose construction to advantage. His best ideas were not hampered by it, but were able to develop with a large measure of freedom in the open interstices.
Causation: The Second Effect of the Evidence
Authors: Pears David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The second effect produced on us by the evidence for a causal inference must now be examined in greater depth. The first effect was the laying down of the associative track in the observer’s mind, and the second one is the internal impression of constraint or inevitability that he feels when on some later occasion he moves along this track from the premiss to the conclusion of a causal inference:
Sense-Perception: Hume’s Heroic Solution
Authors: Pears David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If neith er sensation nor reason are capable of producing our belief in the continued and distinct existence of objects, then ‘that opinion must be entirely owing to the imagination: which must now be the subject of our inquiry’.1 So there has to be something which puts into our minds the ideas of objects existing in the gaps in our observation, and there also has to be something which gives them the vivacity which, according to Hume, constitutes belief. But what are die causes which produce these two effects? As usual, the inquiry belongs to die scientific investigation of the human mind.
Introduction
Authors: Millican Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hume’s Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (standardly referred to as the first Enquiry) has long been recognized as one of the best available ‘classics’ for introducing students to the study of philosophy; indeed in this role probably only Descartes’s Meditations enjoys a comparable popularity. The Enquiry is therefore well known, but tends to be considered rather lightweight-a useful stepping-stone for those approaching epistemology for the first time, or those wishing to sample Hume’s philosophy in a relatively undemanding way, but a work destined to be put on one side once the reader has graduated to the more serious business of his earlier Treatise of Human Nature.
Clarifying Mathematical Analysis
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early decades of the twentieth century, mathematicians showed an unprecedented concern for the foundations of their subject, not just in expressions of disquiet but also in attempts to find a secure basis. This search for certainty and the crisis that sparked it off is the subject of the central parts of this book. The aim of Part I of the book is to give the mathematical setting of this story, so that it is possible to see how the foundational endeavours grew out of the nineteenth-century quest for clarity and rigour in mathematics. We should not assume that mathematical progress prior to the twentieth century had been untroubled. Advances in mathematics, especially the introduction of new kinds of entity and new methods, often produced puzzles and paradoxes. Sometimes these were easily solved, but not always; until solutions were found the new ideas were regarded with suspicion. But eventually ideas would be clarified and doubts dispelled. A case in point is the introduction of negative integers.
Paradoxes of Truth
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paradox was first discovered by Russell, who regarded it as variant of his class paradox.1 The best known version of this paradox, known as Grelling’s paradox, will be presented after Russell’s original version, which is as follows. Some conditions seem true of themselves; others not. For example, the condition ‘xis expressible’ is expressible, but ‘xis inexpressible’ is not inexpressible. What of the condition ‘xis not true of itself’? If, on the one hand, it is true of itself, it satisfies the condition ‘xis not true of itself’, which is just to say that it is not true of itself. If, on the other hand, it is not true of itself, it satisfies the condition ‘xis not true of itself’; but this is the condition itself, and so it is true of itself. Hence, it is true of itself if and only if it is not true of itself.
Hilbert’s Finitism
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It must be admitted, Hilbert said in 1925, that the present situation in which we run up against the paradoxes is intolerable. ‘Where are we to find certainty, if even mathematical thinking fails us?’ This lament is followed by the cheerful declaration that ‘there is a completely satisfactory way of escaping the paradoxes without betraying our science.’1 In fact, neither Hilbert nor his co-workers believed that the paradoxes showed that mathematics, in particular set theory and analysis, was in any way defective. Hilbert stoutly assert ed that there is nothing wrong with Zermelo’s axioms, but if we use them ‘as starting points and foundations for the proofs, mathematics thereby loses the character of absolute certainty’.2 To settle what Hilbert called the foundational question, it is not enough to find axioms for set theory which do not generate contradictions, as it was believed Zermelo had done; it was also necessary to prove that the axioms do not generate contradictions or patent falsehoods.
Underivability of ‘Consistency’
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Godel’s Second Underivability Theorem is widely thought to pose a direct threat to Hilbert’s Programme. It is sometimes referred to as the ‘unprovabil ity of consistency’ and glossed as showing that a proof of the consistency of a theory that contains a bit of arithmetic must depend on assumptions that lie beyond the theory itself. It is impossible to assess such claims about the implications of Godel’s Second Underivability Theorem without going some way into the fine print. This requires that we keep in mind the facts about coding and arithmetization of syntax mentioned in the last chapter. This chapter outlines the proof and then turns to the controversial matter of the theorem’s significance for Hilbert’s Programme.
Paradise Restored?
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How worrying is the fact that a finitary proof of the consistency of set theory is not a serious possibility? Zermelo’s axiomatization of set theory made explicit positive principles of set existence while avoiding the essential ingredient of all the class paradoxes, the Comprehension Principle. But at the time that Zermelo first published his axioms (1908), no one could present a unifying picture of a universe of sets for which the axioms could be seen to be true, and so the axiom system was viewed as an ad hoc weakening of the inconsistent theory. Hence consistency of the axioms was a pressing concern, as Zermelo himself noted. But in 1930, the year when Godel made his underivability discoveries, Zermelo published a paper that did present a unifying pic ture,1 and when eventually it was recognized that his axioms were a partial articulation of this picture, confidence in the axioms rose sharply.2 The next section presents the core of Zermelo’s picture.
Outlook
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The central concern of this book is the epistemic status of non-finitary mathematics. Epistemology is not the only concern in foundational studies, though it has been dominant. The nature and intrinsic organization of mathematics has also been a major concern. Later developments in mathematics show that set theory is not the only basis for this kind of inquiry. Of course, those who think that true mathematics must be constructed will reject not only classical set theory but also the nineteenth-century mathematics out of which it grew. In this regard the development of constructive analysis can be regarded as partial fulfilment of an alternative foundational programme.I am not able to evaluate the success and significance of this programme, and perhaps it is too early anyway. For those who accept classical mathematics, category theory has been offered as an alternative to set theory for its catholic reach. Mathematics is definitely not just logic, not just higher-order logic, not just set theory. The old picture of a single fundamental theory to which all else must be reduced has faded. If pure mathematics is the study of abstract structures, set theory is just one framework among others for thinking about that subject matter, and it may not be the best. Universes of sets are themselves structures, and these may be instances of something more general, as is suggested by topos theory. In addition, topos theory sheds new light on the intrinsic organization of mathematics, revealing a surprising unity between apparently disparate fields, topology and algebraic geometry on the one hand, and logic and set theory on the other.
Logic and Language
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his account of his childhood in his Confessions Augustine describes the learning of language. One passage of his account has become famous: When they (my elders) named some object, and accordingly moved towards something, I saw this and I grasped that the thing was called by the sound they uttered when they meant to point it out. Their intention was shewn by their bodily movements, as it were the natural language of all peoples: the expression of the face, the play of the eyes, the movement of other parts of the body, and the tone of voice which expresses our state of mind in seeking, having, rejecting or avoiding something. Thus, as I heard words repeatedly used in their proper places in various sentences, I gradually learnt to understand what objects they signiWed, and after I had trained my mouth to form these signs, I used them to express my own desires.
Knowledge
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the time prior to his conversion to Christianity, Augustine, under the inXuence of Cicero, took an interest in the sceptical arguments of the New Academy. The Wrst of the philosophical treatises that he wrote at Cassiciacum was Contra Academicos, in which he defended the possibility of attaining knowledge of various kinds. We know logical truths, such as the principle of excluded middle, namely, that either p or not p (CA 3. 10. 23). We also know truths about immediate appearance. The sceptic cannot refute a person who says ‘I know this thing seems white, this sound is delightful, this smell is pleasant, this tastes sweet, that feels cold’ (CA 3. 11. 26). Such claims cannot be erroneous.
The Rise of Modern Philosophy
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sir Anthony Kenny's engaging new history of Western philosophy now advances into the modern era. The Rise of Modern Philosophy is the fascinating story of the emergence, from the early sixteenth to the early nineteenth century, of great ideas and intellectual systems that shaped modern thought. Kenny introduces us to some of the world's most original and influential thinkers, and shows us the way to an understanding of their famous works. The thinkers we meet include René Descartes, traditionally seen as the founder of modern philosophy; the great British philosophers Hobbes, Locke, and Hume; and the towering figure of Immanuel Kant, who perhaps more than any other made philosophy what it is today. In the first three chapters Kenny tells the story chronologically: his lively accessible narrative brings the philosophers to life and fills in the historical and intellectual background to their work. It is ideal as the first thing to read for someone new to the history of modern philosophy. In the seven chapters that follow Kenny looks closely at each of the main areas of philosophical exploration in this period: knowledge and understanding; the nature of the physical universe; metaphysics (the most fundamental questions there are about existence); mind and soul; the nature and content of morality; political philosophy; and God. A selection of intriguing and beautiful illustrations offer a vivid evocation of the human and social side of philosophy. Anyone who is interested in how our understanding of ourselves and our world developed will find this a book a pleasure to read.
Descartes to Berkeley
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The seventeenth century, unlike the sixteenth century, was fertile in the production of philosophers of genius. The man who is often considered the father of modern philosophy is Rene´ Descartes. He was born in 1596, about the time when Shakespeare was writing Hamlet, in a village in Touraine which is now called after him La-Haye-Descartes. A sickly child, he was exempted at school from morning exercises and acquired a lifelong habit of meditating in bed. From his eleventh to his nineteenth year he studied classics and philosophy at the Jesuit college of La Fle`che. He remained a Catholic throughout his life, but chose to spend most of his adult life in Protestant Holland.
Bentham to Nietzsche
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Britain escaped the violent constitutional upheavals that affected most of Europe during the last years of the eighteenth, and the early years of the nineteenth, century. But in 1789, the year of the French Revolution, a book was published in England that was to have a revolutionary effect on moral and political thinking long after the death of Napoleon. This was Jeremy Bentham’s An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, which became the founding charter of the school of thought known as utilitarianism.
Peirce to Strawson
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The thinkers whom we have considered so far in these volumes have all come from Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East. The American continent, nowadays home to many of the world’s most influential philosophers, was almost barren of philosophy until the latter part of the nineteenth century. In the eighteenth century acute contributions to different areas of philosophy were made by the Calvinist theologian Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) and the Enlightenment polymath Benjamin Franklin (1706–90). Early in the nineteenth century the essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–82).
A Defence Of Dogmatism In The Interpretation Of Plato
Authors: Beversluis John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Traditional and contemporary Anglo-American Platonic scholarship relies heavily on two assumptions. The first is that the Platonic dialogues contain Plato’s philosophical views. The second is that his views discernibly changed as he moved from his early, ‘Socratic’ period to his middle period. These hermeneutical positions have acquired the unattractive labels ‘dogmatism’ and ‘developmentalism’. The term ‘dogmatism’ is particularly unhappy. The idea is not that Plato held views dogmatically but that he held views (δ6γµατα) which he advanced in the dialogues. Developmentalism is a comparatively recent phenomenon. It originated in the early nineteenth century with K. F. Hermann, the first to identify a ‘Socratic’ period in the Platonic corpus and to interpret the dialogues that followed as charting Plato’s philosophical evolution.
Teaching in clinical settings
Authors: Lake Fiona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Learning in the simulation setting offers the opportunity to closely plan educational encounters, provides a safe environment, can ensure trainees receive detailed feedback and provides repetition allowing consolidating of skills. Trainees learn from making mistakes, and in the simulation setting, such mistakes when combined with reflection are powerful learning opportunities. However, the point of the learning is to take it back to the real life setting and apply the skills and knowledge to patient care. Clinicians, be they doctors, nurses or clinical educators, usually find themselves teaching in both simulated settings and in the clinical setting, in the latter often both teaching and supervising students and trainees while caring for patients(1). Unless some thought is put into how skills are taken from simulated to clinical settings, there is some evidence that learning is not transferred(2). Learning in the clinical setting is often chaotic; patients need care, other tasks need to be completed, the clinical team consist of different people with different needs. In the clinical setting mistakes need to be anticipated and minimized but when they do occur, a supportive no-blame environment where trainees can reflect on their practice is important. Often in this clinical environment, teaching and learning need to be done ‘on the run’.
Trees of Genes in Populations
Authors: Felsenstein Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Molecular evolution represents phylogenies as branching diagrams composed of thin lines. At the tip we often find one molecular sequence, sometimes described as ‘the yeast sequence’ or ‘the mouse sequence’. It is as if we were viewing the evolutionary tree from a great distance, so that each branch appears thin. If each of these thin lines truly contained only one copy of this gene’s sequence, we would have a species that consisted only of a single individual, and a haploid one at that. But the lines are not lineages of single copies. Coming closer to them, we find that in reality the lines are thick—they are whole species, consisting of multiple populations, each of many individuals.
Case studies in RNA virus evolution and emergence
Authors: Holmes Edward C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this penultimate chapter is to put the previous, somewhat general, discussions of RNA virus evolution into the context of real, at-the-coalface, biology, by describing how a small number of viruses evolve in nature. Each case study will consider an RNA virus with a very different biology, epidemiology, and relationship with its host species. I have also selfishly chosen those viruses to which my own research has taken me. Because of space limitations, and the familiarity of some of these viruses, I cannot cover every aspect of their evolution and emergence, and I will bypass most of their basic biology. Rather, I have focused on those areas that best serve to illustrate the major points covered in this book. When reading this chapter it is also important to keep in mind that our success in unravelling the evolutionary history of RNA viruses has resulted from a happy marriage of increased amounts of gene and genome sequence data with new methods of phylogenetic analysis (for example, Drummond et al. 2006).
Resuscitation decisions
Authors: Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although patients undergoing elective surgery should automatically receive cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in the event of cardiac arrest, there are patients in hospital for whom resuscitation would be futile and inappropriate. All hospitals should have policies in place about withholding CPR from these patients, so called ‘do not resuscitate’ or DNR orders. Doubts about the appropriateness of CPR may arise when a patient has major life-threatening complications, when a patient is extremely elderly or frail, when malignancy is the cause of admission, or when the underlying quality of life is poor. CPR in these circumstances may be wrong for the patient, offensive to relatives, and upsetting to medical and nursing staff. An explicit decision about CPR must be made in these patients and recorded in the notes. Relatives should be reassured that in the event of cardiac arrest the patient will be left undisturbed and in dignity.
Postoperative care after major surgery
Authors: Munn Julia , Wilson lain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The principles involved with looking after patients who have under­ gone major surgery are the same whether the patient is on the ward, ICU, or HDU. Major surgery in patients with chronic medical illnesses carries a high mortality. Some of this is unavoidable, but detection and correction of physiological abnormalities can reduce mortality and shorten length of hospital stay. If hypotension or hypoxia is untreated for several hours, complications such as myocardial infarction, renal failure, or even cardiac arrest may occur. Recognition of physiological deterioration requires frequent review of the patient. Once adverse signs are recognized, a downward trend may be often reversed by simple measures undertaken on a general ward. Other patients will need transfer to an HDU/ICU.
Nutritional support
Authors: Woodward Will 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many surgical patients are undernourished and at risk of developing overt nutritional deficiency. Undernutrition is associated with increases in the risk of postoperative infection, the length of hospital stay and mortality. Patients at particular risk are those who are: already undernourished on admission to hospital (elderly, unsupported, poor, self-caring, chronically infected, alcoholic, anorexic, nauseated, or vomiting owing to disease process, e.g. upper GI cancer) presenting acutely with sepsis (e.g. emergency surgery for bowel perforation, urological sepsis) with major trauma with burns. Appropriate nutritional support can reduce mortality in severe illness, increase the rate of recovery and reduce complications.
Palliative care
Authors: Gilbert Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Palliative care is often needed on surgical wards for those with progressive advanced cancer and limited prognosis. Competent palliative care can be practised outside a hospice, and is based on four basic principles: Symptom control: Quality of life depends on good symptom control, both physical and psychological. Communication: Open and sensitive communication should extend to patients, informal carers, and professional colleagues. Autonomy: Respect the patient’s autonomy and choice (e.g. over place of care, treatment options). Support for relatives and friends: Care must take account of not only the patient with terminal disease but also those who will be bereaved. Specialist palliative care by a multi-professional team is required by those with more complex or persistent problems.