bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The New Heavens and the New Earth
Authors: Bonomi Patricia U 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There have emerged two fairly distinct ways of looking at religious developments in the seventeenth-century American colonies. The older approach explores religious life and institutions from the traditional perspective of the civil magistrates and churchmen who provided leadership for the early colonies. The newer scholarship takes a more popular position, seeking to understand the religious perceptions and practices of men and women at every level of colonial society. Because the two approaches start from different points on the social scale, each contributes important insights about our religious beginnings, but they do so in terms not always easy to reconcile or combine.
According to traditional history, colonial leaders were concerned above all with creating stable New World communities, and it was an axiom of early seventeenth-century political thought that a strong church was the handmaiden and bulwark of a stable state. The church’s guardianship of morality and public behavior made it an ally of orderly government, an interdependence that statesmen acknowledged by granting official status to one church only.
The Churchgoers
Authors: Bonomi Patricia U 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Churchgoing, which was strong in most parts of provincial America, must be seen as one gauge of religious feeling and belief. In the colonial era, however, churchgoing was subject to a number of variables, such as community cohesion, family tradition, geography, and various others already referred to. Such variables were in turn affected by the kinds and classes of people involved; whether male or female, young or old, rich or poor. Thus a closer look at who went to church in colonial America may be of some help in discovering why they did so.
Recent estimates suggest that a majority of adults in the eighteenth¬ century colonies were regular church attenders. Though the worship of God was no doubt the primary motive for churchgoing, eighteenth-century worshipers, like those of today, found that church attendance served a number of non-spiritual needs. The quest for community, long recognized as an incentive for churchgoing, must have operated with particular force among inhabitants Historical thinking about the colonial clergy is at present in some flux, a consequence of two long-term problems of interpretation.
The Formation of American Religious Culture
Authors: Bonomi Patricia U 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Whatever may have been the fluctuating fortunes of religion over the past two hundred years, religion to this day seems, somehow, to occupy a larger place in American culture than it does in the life of most western societies. If elsewhere religion is seen mostly at the surface of things, in ecclesiastical ceremonies and feast-day rituals, in the United States it breaks through the confines of church and congregation to influence civil, social, and other aspects of the national life. This blurring of religion’s normative boundaries began with the earliest settlements. Indeed, it was in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that the mold was set in which American religious institutions have developed ever since. Religion permeated early American life in part because religious institutions had to be built anew in the colonies, a task that incorporated the laity into the very fabric of the churches at the same time that it built the churches into the structure of civil society. Over the years, commentators, especially foreign ones, have been repeatedly struck by two aspects in particular of American religion, one being the social dimension of American religious practice, and the other, the latitudinarianism that resulted from the voluntary character of American church life.
Sitric Silkenbeard
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
THE UNSKILLED SAILOR will frequently find himself shipwrecked,” Dudo of St. Quentin sagely warns, “just as the merchant who is not skillful at purchasing or bargaining will be ruined:’ This little observation in the midst of a panegyric on the Norman dukes illustrates the increasing importance of commercial aptitude in the equation of political success. What was true along the banks of the Seine was equally applicable farther north, on the shores of the Irish Sea. The years around the first millennium witnessed an increasing prosperity throughout northern Europe. Villages and ship forts were developing into towns, and these towns were becoming economically important. The expansion of commercial activity around the North Atlantic benefited from changes in the climate since the ninth century. The improvement was pronounced by the beginning of the eleventh century. Winters were milder and the growing season was extended. Ships had more time to sail to lands around the Arctic Circle with less danger from drift ice, a particular worry for Icelanders. Agricultural productivity grew as farms were established up to the utmost limits of arable cultivation, and cereal cultivation increased to feed an expanding population with more wealth to spend on goods.
From Dublin to England and Norway
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
IN BOTH lR1sH and Viking literature, Clontarf was more than just a battle, it was a meeting of this world with the supernatural. Cocad Gaedel re Gallaib has witches, goblins, and demons howling and gibbering when the armies clashed. Even the champion of Christianity is included, and on the night before the combat a banshee visited the high king Brian to tell him that he would die the next day. In the Viking poem Darraoarljo, the atmosphere is almost entirely pagan. As a man looks into a window, he sees Valkyries/witches chanting verses while they work at a loom. Human heads are the weights, a sword is the beater, and an arrow is the shuttle. The Valkyries chant that they move through the battle with drawn swords, deciding who will live and who will die.
The Brief Ascendancy of the Haraldssons
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
BY THE TIME of his death in 1042, Sitric Silkenbeard could have offered some interesting comments on a favorite medieval theme: the wheel of fortune. From an unsteady beginning to mature survival, Sitric had a career of extremes. Then, in a final turn, after a decade of economic prosperity, ecclesiastical progress, and military success, he was forced into exile. With Sitric’s abdication, for the first time since the mid-tenth century, the family of Olaf Cuaran did not rule Viking Dublin. The new lord of the town was Echmarcach Ragnallsson from the rival dynasty ofHaraldsson. Henceforth there was direct competition between the Olafssons and Haraldssons, first for Dublin and then for the kingdom of the Isles.
The Contest for Supremacy in the Irish Sea
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
THE POLITICAL ORGANIZATION around the Irish Sea that had been disrupted so severely by the Viking raiders of the ninth century was very different by the end of the eleventh century. Small kingdoms and political fragmentation had given way to a few powerful families controlling vast empires. Ironically, this had repercussions for the descendants of the Viking settlers, as the Olafsson and Haraldsson dynasties were diminishing in influence under pressure from the great lords. The capture of Dublin by Diarmait mac Maelna mb6 might have been seen by contemporaries as a temporary occupation due, in part, to the intrusion into its kingship by an interloper from the Isles. The Irish conquest of the Isle of Man starkly illustrated the real danger to the Viking families; the sea was no longer their refuge. Twenty years later, after Diarmait’s death in 1072 and the seizure of Dublin by his protege Tairdelbach ua Briain of Munster, the permanence of the Irish domination of the Viking settlements was clear. The dynasty of Olaf Cuaran had been unable, or unwilling, to reassert its independence. Less and less were they the masters of their fate. The temporary seizure of the town late in the eleventh century by Olaf Cuaran’s descendant Godred Crovan and the efforts by the Irish to recapture it emphasize the importance of the commercial center as a revenue generator for the princes who controlled it.
Asset-Based Policy in Historical and International Perspective
Authors: Midgley James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Social welfare is a contested field in which very different ideas about human well-being are expressed. Divergent beliefs about the importance of individual responsibility, the contribution of markets, the support of family members, the role of charities and religious bodies, and the intervention of the state all compete to shape welfare policy. These beliefs are accompanied by different views about which policies, programs, and approaches are the most effective in promoting human well-being. While some contend that nonmaterial interventions such as professional counseling are the most useful, others believe that the transfer of cash benefits are a highly desirable means of addressing social needs. Yet others are critical of the provision of benefits and services to passive recipients and believe that steps should be taken to enhance the self-sufficiency and autonomous functioning of those in need.
Toward Progressive Pensions: A Summary of the U.S. Pension System and Proposals for Reform
Authors: Orszag Peter , Greenstein Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The three tiers of retirement income and security are Social Security; private savings, accumulated by families and individuals in a variety of forms (e.g., bank accounts and mutual funds); and tax-favored retirement savings. The focus of this chapter is the final tier. Though the government tries to promote pension saving by offering a variety of tax incentives, pension coverage remains unevenly spread, especially among lower-income workers and employees in small businesses. Frustrated by the failure to raise overall coverage rates much above the present 50-percent level and concerned about the implications of inadequate pension coverage of the coming retirement of baby boomers, policy makers included a variety of changes to the pension tax laws as part of the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act (EGTRRA) of 2001 (Joint Committee on Taxation, 2001).
Canons Afire: Libraries, Books, and Bodies in Don Quixote’s Spain
Authors: Black Georgina Dopico 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This essay opens in the smoke of a fire, “in a village in La Mancha,” in the early years of the seventeenth century. The scene is a familiar one: a “public trial” presided over by a priest, a barber, a housekeeper, and a girl in her teens, this last, the niece of Alonso Quijano, who dubs her uncle’s books “heretics” and opens his library to the “amusing and exhaustive scrutiny” that will be its undoing. On that very day, as Don Quijote’s books are consumed by flames, another fire is burning, in another village in La Mancha, or perhaps Toledo, Cuenca, or Seville. The smoke that fills the air of this second fire does not carry the distinctive smell of burning books, however, of words and thoughts ablaze, but the equally distinctive smell of burning flesh.
Don Quixote: Crossed Eyeand Vision
Authors: Echevarría Roberto Gonzaá Lez 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It is well known that Alonso Quijano’s brain dried up from reading too many chivalric romances, but what is much more remarkable is that this fifty-plus-year-old man, who read every night from dusk to dawn, probably by the dim light of a candle, did not actually go blind. In a novel in which the characters, above all the bruised and battered hero, suffer countless injuries and illnesses, it is never once mentioned that Don Quijote might have experienced even the slightest decline in his vision. The knight’s bodily integrity diminishes gradually over the course of his adventures: He loses various molars and part of an ear, his ribs are broken, his wrists chafed, his face scratched; he sustains contusions that leave him unconscious and suffers stomach cramps and debilitating bouts of vomiting. But his eyes remain intact until death closes them. This compulsive reader can see across great distances those who bring him grace and disgrace, and he reads from a book that he finds in an abandoned suitcase while on horseback in the midst of the Sierra Morena.
Introduction
Authors: Ellis David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1913 D . H. Lawrence was twenty-eight and living in Italy with Frieda Weekly, the German wife of his former language teacher at Nottingham University. Already the author of two novels, he was waiting to see how his third, Sons and Lovers, would be received. That novel had been largely based on his childhood and youth in a small mining community near Nottingham but he was looking now for new subjects, new ways of writing, fresh points of view. In April he began writing about Gudrun and Ella Brangwen and their involvement with two men called Gerald Crich and Rupert Birkin. As he decided to ask himself more questions about the likely family background of the Brangwen sisters, Ella was rechristened Ursula and Lawrence found himself imagining not only her parents but the early life of her grandfather. The consequences would have made a very long novel indeed and by 7 January 1915 he had announced his intention of splitting the Brangwen story into two. The first part, which he called The Rainbow, was published at the end of September 1915 and suppressed by court order a few weeks later. The ostensible reason was obscenity but expressions of antiwar feeling in the novel might also have influenced the authorities’ decision. With the publication of Sons and Lovers Lawrence had emerged as a successful young novelist whose future seemed assured but by the time The Rainbow was suppressed, his situation had changed completely. Now married to Frieda, his outspoken opposition to the war that Britain had been fighting against Germany and her allies since August 1914, and the unwelcome official attentions that opposition inevitably provoked, meant that he was being increasingly driven into angry and bitter isolation.
The Dialogue with the Avant-Garde in Women In Love
Authors: Katz-Roy Ginette 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In his autobiography, Wyndham Lewis evokes the drastic changes that occurred in Europe just before World War I in these dramatic terms: “Europe was full of titanic stirrings and snortings—a new art coming to flower to celebrate or to announce a “new age.” Those were the days when T. E. Hulme, under the influence of Wilhelm Worringer’s theories on primitive art and inorganic forms, advocated a new anti-humanist art in Alfred Orage’s socialist magazine, significantly called The New Age. Those were the days when Ezra Pound proclaimed: “I want a new civilization.
Ideas, Histories, Generations and Beliefs: The Early Novels to Sons and Lovers
Authors: Rylance Rick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What gave Lawrence’s work its distinctive character in the second decade of the twentieth century? Reviewers of the first three novels appeared perplexed. There was confusion about the author’s social milieu and gender, and irritation that provincial fiction should be so learned in literary and intellectual allusion.1 His characters moved unpredictably between ‘public-houses and dinner parties’ and had deplorable grooming rituals: ‘among their habits is a trick of messing and caressing and stroking each other’s hair or arms’.2 This zoological sneer loped after Lawrence throughout his career. Behind it lurked worries about evolutionary descent from the apes and, more worrying still, the possibility of degenerate reversion. But amid fretfulness about his carelessness with social and literary form, and his shocking lack of sexual reticence (a charge that began with The Trespasser in 1912), the central issue was bewilderment about his meaning. Few denied his talent; fewer still had a collected sense of where it led:
International Complaint Procedures
Authors: Anaya S James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The procedures described in the previous chapter provide varying levels of ongoing international scrutiny that encourages state action to implement international norms concerning indigenous peoples. In addition to those procedures are international mechanisms, in some cases involving the same international institutions, that are specifically designed to examine complaints of human rights abuses and, as a matter of course, to lead to decisions or recommendations in response to the complaints. International complaint procedures, which may generate heightened scrutiny on problem situations, are important adjuncts to the compliance-monitoring procedures ordinarily functioning in less contentious contexts.
The General Prologue and Estates Literature
Authors: Mann Jill 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The meanings of the word “estate” which concern us are defined by the Middle English Dictionary (MED) as follows: “a class of persons, especially a social or political class or group; also a member of a particular class or rank,” and “a person’s position in society... social class.” To these definitions I think it necessary to add a particular reference to the role played by a person’s work in determining the estate to which he or she belongs. It is true that the estates included in estates literature are not classified only in terms of what we would now recognize as their occupation; they can, for example, be distinguished according to clerical or marital status. But clerical and marital status inevitably include some notion of the particular duties and temptations of the work that accompanies them.
Imagery, Structure, and Theme in Chaucer’s Merchant’s Tale
Authors: Wentersdorf Karl 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Merchant’s Tale of January and May is by common consent one of the finest examples of Chaucer’s narrative art. Structurally, the story falls into two carefully balanced and slightly overlapping parts. In the first part (1245–1865),1 we are introduced in detail to the character and marital intentions of the elderly knight, January; the introduction is followed by a debate between his two brethren over the advisability of his plan to marry a young woman: Placebo encourages him, Justinus warns against the marriage. January decides to take young May as his wife; he makes preparations for the wedding, and the first half of the story culminates in a description of the bridal festivities and the subsequent consummation of the marriage. The second part of the tale (1768–2418), beginning just before the Merchant has completed his account of the wedding, starts with a description of the old knight’s young squire, Damian, who is lovesick for May from the moment he sets eyes on her; May decides to take Damian as her lover as soon as the opportunity arises. In January’s walled garden, where the lovers’ first rendezvous is to take place, there is a debate—this time supernatural—over May’s intention of cuckolding her husband, in the course of which Pluto announces his opposition to the adultery and his young wife, Proserpine, decides to take May’s part.
A Reading of the Nun’s Priest’s Tale
Authors: Pearsall Derek 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There has hardly been a time when the Nun’s Priest’s Tale has not been appreciated as one of the wittiest and most accomplished poems in
the English language. Readers have been delighted by its inexhaustible ingenuity and inventiveness and by its irreverent mockery of the solemn apparatus of human learning and rhetoric; they have warmed to its generous portrayal of the all-too-human foibles and weaknesses of its barnyard hero. If one were looking for Chaucer’s most perfect poem—not the one with the loftiest ambitions but the one that most fully achieves the ideas implied in its form—it would certainly be a serious rival to Coleridge’s choice, the Miller’s Tale. It is a tale also of hidden depths, shoals for the unwary, unplumbable abysses of multiple signification. The development in recent years of more sophisticated techniques of literary analysis has been notable for the light it has thrown on this most sophisticated of Chaucer’s poems, but it is likely to remain elusive. Elusiveness is indeed its character, and the life and wisdom it contains are of a kind that must necessarily defy formulation. It is not always easy to resist the temptation to substitute an interpretive paraphrase for one’s lived experience of reading a work of literature. The Nun’s Priest’s Tale, in fact, offers us an explicit invitation to do just that (“Taketh the moralite.. .”).
The Nun’s Priest’s Metamorphosis of Scholastic Discourse
Authors: Rhodes Jim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In his tale, the Nun’s Priest suspends his narrative in order to address a specific theological problem that arises within it. In the familiar and oft-cited passage on free will and predestination (3215–50), theological and literary interests converge on the meaning of philosophical truth. The passage opens with the Nun’s Priest wondering if Chauntecleer is destined to perish in the jaws of the fox because whatever God foresees “moot nedes bee,” a view he immediately qualifies by adding the comment, “After the opinioun of certein clerkis.” The earlier debate between Chauntecleer and Pertelote over the meaning of dreams nicely anticipates and parodies these clerkly debates in their infLexibility and their self-canceling appeals to authority and precedent. Through the parody, the Nun’s Priest puts the reader on the alert to his own artful manipulation of language and intellectual distance from the emotions of this debate. When he turns to the aforementioned clerks for an authoritative resolution to the question of Chauntecleer’s freedom, he encounters a bewildering welter of opinion.
Introduction
Authors: Michie Elsie B 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When jane eyre first appeared in 1847, the passionate voice of its first-person heroine took the Victorian literary world by storm. Contemporary reviewers called it “an extraordinary book,” “unlike all that we have read,” full of “originality and freshness” (Allott 78, 79, 87). Readers loved it even more than critics; “the public taste seems to have outstripped its guides in appreciating the remarkable power which this book displays” (Allott 88). An American journal characterized New England as suffering from “Jane Eyre fever” (Allott 97). Queen Victoria wrote in her diaries that she stayed up till half past eleven reading to Prince Albert out of “that melancholy, interesting book, Jane Eyre” (Allott 389). The energy that made Brontë’s novel so compelling also meant it risked being unconventional, irreligious, improper, and revolutionary. One contemporary reviewer criticized it for “moral Jacobinism,” a point expanded by Lady Eastlake, who described it as “pre-eminently an anti-Christian composition” that echoed “the tone of mind and thought which has overthrown authority and violated every code human and divine” (Allott 109–10). Jane Eyre’s combination of confident selfassertion and rebelliousness has intrigued readers and critics from the time the novel was first published to the present moment.