bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quarrels Among Scientists*
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter looks at another excerpt from The Assayer—one, however, which does not deal with comets, the main topic of the book. The reader will find, instead, an impassioned attack on ethically incorrect scientists, those who, according to Galileo, had usurped his ideas or attacked him out of malice. The way he makes a fool of Father Grassi, his main opponent of the moment, is delightful.
The Scientist and the Cicada *
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Again from The Assayer, here is the tale of the scientist and the cicada. This is an allegory about learning to “know that one does not know”, about discovering that knowledge extends without end, and also about how satisfying curiosity merely serves to stimulate it the more. And, perhaps, about other, more disturbing, truths.
Feynman Diagrams and External Potentials
Authors: Bruus Henrik , Flensberg Karsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the previous chapters on linear response theory and Green’s functions, it is clear that complete calculations of thermal averages of time-dependent phenomena in quantum field theory are a rather formidable task. Even the basic imaginary time-evolution operator Û (τ ) itself is an infinite series to all orders in the interaction Û(ϊ) . One simply faces the problem of getting lost in the myriads of integrals, and not being able to maintain a good physical intuition of which terms are important. In 1948 Feynman solved this problem as part of his seminal work on quantum electrodynamics by inventing the ingenious diagrams that today bear his name. The Feynman diagrams are both an exact mathematical representation of perturbation theory to infinite order and a powerful pictorial method that elucidate the physical content of the complicated expressions. In this chapter, we introduce the Feynman diagrams for the case of non-interacting particles in an external potential. Our main example of their use will be the analysis of electron-impurity scattering in disordered metals.
Introduction
Authors: Challet Damien , Marsili Matteo , Zhang Yi-Cheng 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘It’s night already and I’m still sat at the trading desk, staring at the screen where the price history of the past twenty or so trading periods zigzags so teasingly. Now the trading frenzy is at its most intense, I have just scored five consecutive successful trades, a feat I never achieved previously during the whole day. I feel euphoric and invincible now, for the first time after countless hours’ numb sitting I can stretch my aching neck and back, savouring the prospect of getting the upper hand of the seemingly indomitable market. In hindsight I might blame my previous bluntness on my own miscalculations: wasn’t that moving average line stretching far out of the previous range, and I failed to react, for wanting to play contrarian? That double-shoulder on the trading chart was full of warning bells of imminent perils, but I stuck obstinately to my position. I saw that mini-crash coming and should have gotten out of my position way before ... had I not been too greedy! Yet invincible I feel now, even though I’m still under for the day, having suffered huge losses during the afternoon session, and on a few times I was on the brink of being wiped out entirely of my authorized loss limit. My rival traders are invisible, for me they are just emotionless professionals ready to prey on any mistakes on my part, and on their fellow traders. But as my last straight winning track shows, I finally see through their schemes. The price history indicates that we have just come out from one of the characteristic volatility clusters—currently the slow, steady upward trend confirms my gut feeling that finally I can outsmart those cunning, bastard traders on the other side.
Understanding the Minority Game dynamics
Authors: Challet Damien , Marsili Matteo , Zhang Yi-Cheng 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is an extraordinary event in scientific research to hit by chance a model that can be solved analytically. That is even more extraordinary for a model such as the Minority Game, which was introduced and defined as a binary algorithm, without writing down a single equation. The path towards the analytic solution of the Minority Game is the subject of the present chapter. We shall see that a wide range of sophisticated tools of statistical physics—from non-equilibrium stochastic dynamics to the replica method—will be required along the way. This path is full of surprises: the non-trivial behaviour shown by early numerical simulations turns out to be only a small part of the richness of behaviours which the Minority Game has in store for us.
Radiative transitions in atoms
Authors: Fox Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter gives an overview of the theory of optical absorption and emission in atoms at the level appropriate to introductory quantum and atomic-physics texts. The aim is to provide an introduction to the more advanced treatment of these topics given later in the book, especially in Chapters 9 and 10. It is assumed that the reader is reasonably familiar with the concepts, and so the material is only developed in summary form. Readers who are less well acquainted with these topics may find it helpful to refer to the bibliography for further details.
Working in Primary Health Care
Authors: Cape John , Millar Yvonne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Today, many clinical psychologists can be found working within primary health care settings. This chapter concerns this development, and explores some of the issues raised by it. Health policy, in the United Kingdom and internationally, has increasingly emphasized the role of primary care and psychologists have recognized the importance of playing their part at this first point of contact in the healthcare system. Likewise, the potential of clinical psychology here has been recognized, and it seems highly likely that this trend will continue to grow in the coming years.
Working With Adults of Working Age
Authors: Llewelyn Sue 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychological distress has always been widespread amongst at least a proportion of adults of working age in many societies, both currently and in the past, and there has always been a range of ways of trying to respond to it. Most distress is never presented for professional help but is dealt with by family, friends, and communities, for better or for worse. Clinical psychology represents just one source of help for adults who are depressed, anxious, or who have major relationship problems. Within clinical psychology there are a range of models which inform interventions for those disorders. This chapter outlines some of the main types of difficulty often presented, and will describe the range of treatments available to reduce distress. Throughout the chapter there is reference to the competencies which clinical psychologists aim to call upon in all areas of their work and which are used specifically when working with adults.
Working With Older People
Authors: Fossey Jane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An interest in and perspective on lifespan development is essential for anyone working with older adults. How people have adapted through the phases of their lives and in the context of their cultural history often makes assessment and intervention with older people a rewarding experience. Inevitably the clinical psychologist is also faced with issues of personal reflection and development as they lead their own lives towards their own old age, and so need to be mindful of how this contributes to the work they do. They also need to be aware of their own preconceptions. The principles and practices of therapeutic work with adults certainly apply, and can be adapted for an older client group quite easily. However, ageist attitudes have continued to abound in society, many of which go unnoticed or are taken as fact. Samuel Johnson noted in the eighteenth century that there is a wicked inclination in most people to suppose an old man decayed in his intellect. If a young or middle-aged man, when leaving a company, does not recollect where he laid his hat, it is nothing: but if the same inattention is discovered in an old man, people will shrug their shoulders and say ‘his memory is going ‘. The broad impact of similar attitudes is evidenced today in The Times newspaper, which has invented an anti-ageist column ‘ Not Dead Yet ‘ to challenge in a humorous way the many negative remarks made about people as they age in our society.
Working With Addictions
Authors: Wanigaratne Shamil , Ashby, Kirsty , Jones Alison 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years there has been growing interest amongst clinical psychologists in working with those who experience a variety of addictions. This chapter outlines the role of psychologists within addiction services and the nature of the individuals they work with. Our current conceptualization of the term ‘addiction ‘ includes any human behaviour that has become excessive, with the individual ‘s control over it impaired, which is damaging to the individual and society. Addiction has been described as the single most pervasive public and mental health problem of our time. The word ‘addiction ‘ is derived from the Latin verb addicere meaning ‘to devote; to give oneself over ‘ and implies impaired control.
Working With Physically Disabled People
Authors: Kennedy Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Clinical psychologists aim to work in partnership with service users, providers, and planners to ensure, enable, and maximize the fullest access to, and participation in, physical, psychological, social, and vocational domains. The prevalence of disability increases with age and as people live longer, many more people will experience a longer period of their life in a state of limited physical functioning. Much of health care expenditure is associated with the care and management of chronic disease and disability. There is a growing recognition of the contribution individuals can make to their associated morbidity and mortality. In the United Kingdom there has been a significant growth in the number of clinical health and rehabilitation psychologists working in the National Health Service (NHS). Historically, the contribution of clinical psychologists to people with physical disabilities was to assess psychopathology, but now clinical psychologists contribute not only to the management of mood and adjustment disorders, but also contribute to rehabilitation planning, assist with the amelioration of psychophysiological aspects, and have taken the lead in developing a variety of self-management and resilience enhancing techniques. Before discussing this contribution further, it would be helpful to describe the terms most commonly used, summarize the main causes, and outline the incidence and prevalence of the major conditions involved.
Working in Cross-Cultural and International Settings
Authors: Hall John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The formal discipline of psychology began as essentially a western European science. The subject matter with which it deals was originally drawn from a range of backgrounds, with an appeal to philosophy from classical Greece, and to the empiricists Locke and Hume in the eighteenth century, founded against a background of nineteenth-century European physiology and psychophysics, and nourished with mostly American empirical evidence. The conventional dating of the beginnings of academic psychology in 1879 in a laboratory at Leipzig only underlines this point.
DNA supercoiling
Authors: Bates Andrew D , Maxwell Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the first chapter, we described the classical double-helical structure of DNA, and the local alterations of that structure that can occur as a consequence of specific nucleotide sequences. We hope you now have a good feel for these concepts, and we will move on to the main subject of this book, the supercoiling of DNA, a global alteration of structure that arises directly from the double-helical nature of the molecule.
Relativistic optics
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Optics is one of the fields to which relativity brought considerable simplification. In the old ether theory, light behaved simply only in the ether frame, and it made a difference how the observer and the source separately move through the ether. Relativity eliminated this middleman: every inertial frame is now known to be as ‘primary’ as the ether was once thought to be.
Spacetime and four-vectors
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have now reached a point at which further progress can be greatly clarified and simplified by the introduction of a new concept combining space and time and a corresponding mathematical technique that is tailor-made for special relativity. The new concept is Minkowski’s 4-dimensional ‘spacetime’ (now usually called Minkowski space) and the mathematical technique is the ‘4-vector’ calculus in that spacetime. (Later we shall recognize this as only a part of a more comprehensive ‘4-tensor’ calculus.)
Relativistic particle mechanics
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What we have done so far has been essentially an elaboration of Einstein’s two basic axioms, without the addition of further hypotheses. We have seen how Newton’s concepts of space and time could be replaced by a somewhat more complicated but still elegant and harmonious spacetime structure that accommodates Einstein’s axioms. But now we have arrived at the next point in the program of special relativity, namely the scrutiny of the existing laws of physics and the modification of those that are found to be not Lorentz-invariant.
Four-tensors; Electromagnetism in vacuum
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we saw in the last chapter, the mathematical formalism of 4-vectors is ideally suited for the discussion of particle mechanics, where the chief quantities involved— velocity, acceleration, momentum, and force—are indeed 4-vectors. But when it comes to electromagnetism, it turns out that 4-vectors, though important, are not enough. One might perhaps have expected that the electric and magnetic field 3-vectors e and b should give rise to corresponding field 4-vectors E and B, but this is not so.
Curved spaces and the basic ideas of general relativity
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most revolutionary features of general relativity is the essential use it makes of curved space (actually, of curved spacetime). Though everyone knows intuitively what a curved surface is, or rather, what it looks like, people are often puzzled how this idea can be generalized to three or even higher dimensions. This is mainly because one cannot visualize a 4-space in which the 3-space can look bent. But no such surrounding or ‘embedding’ space is needed to understand curvature. On the contrary, an embedding space introduces elements that are quite irrelevant to our purpose.
Static and stationary spacetimes
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Loosely speaking, a gravitational field is stationary if it does not change in time, and it is static if, additionally, ‘there is no rotation’. Examples are the following: the fields in a uniformly accelerating rocket or on a uniformly rotating disk in Minkowski space (these are a little unusual in having no sources); the fields of an arbitrary massive body at rest, or of an axially symmetric body rotating uniformly; the field of a gravitating fluid flowing uniformly around an arbitrarily shaped closed tube that is fixed in space.
An exact plane gravitational wave
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this short chapter we shall exhibit and discuss one very special gravitational wave, not so much because in itself it has any practical importance, but rather to familiarize the reader with the very idea of gravitational waves and with some of the topological subtleties that may arise. In this particular case these are quite as surprising as was the topology of Kruskal space.
Light propagation in FRW universes
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Almost all the information we have of the cosmos comes to us via electromagnetic waves of one kind or another—which, for brevity, we shall here just call ‘light’. Evidently, in order to interpret the observations, we must understand what happens to the light on its long journey to us. We shall make a simplifying assumption about the universe, namely that it is sufficiently rarefied so as not to impede the null-geodetic propagation of light.
Dynamics of FRW universes
Authors: Rindler Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a famous laborintensive paper of 1938, Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann showed that the field equations of general relativity actually imply the geodesic law of motion— which had originally been regarded as one of the axioms of the theory. Of course, that law had been strongly suggested by the equivalence principle, but that could not be considered a ‘proof’. Even the rigor of the 1938 paper was soon challenged and numerous improvements followed. But the result itself is not in question: the field equations determine the motion.
Elementary Climate Physics
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Climate Physics is a modern subject based on a space-era understanding of the physical properties of the atmosphere and ocean, their planetary-scale history and evolution, new global measurement systems and sophisticated computer models, which collectively make quantitative studies and predictions possible. At the same time, interest in understanding the climate has received an enormous boost from the concern generated by the realization that rapid climate change, much of it forced by the relentless increase in population and industrialization, is potentially a serious threat to the quality of life on Earth. Our ability to resist and overcome any such threat depends directly on our ability to understand what physical effects are involved and to predict how trends may develop. In an introductory course like that presented here, we want to clarify the basics, topic by topic, and see how far we can get by applying relatively simple Physics to the climate problem. This provides a foundation for more advanced work, which we can identify and appreciate at this level although of course a full treatment requires more advanced books, of which there are many.
Solar radiation and the energy budget of the earth
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Table 2.1 compares the principal sources of energy available to drive the Earth’s climate system. It confirms what we would expect intuitively: that virtually all, in fact 99.97%, of the energy arrives from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The remainder, from the interior of the Earth, from space in the form of energetic particles (most, but not all, of which also originate in the Sun), cosmic rays, and from human power production using fossil and radioactive fuels, are negligible for most purposes.
Atmosphere and climate
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The atmosphere is a complicated thermodynamic ‘heat engine’, consisting of a layer of gas, vertically and to some extent horizontally inhomogeneous, gravitationally bound to the surface of a rapidly rotating33 sphere with complex surface topography, and fed with radiant energy originating effectively at infinity. Its response is extremely variable on time-scales of hours or days, as our weather frequently testifies. In order to deal quantitatively with the role of the atmosphere in the climate, we want to investigate the mean state of this complex and dynamic system, typically averaged over a year or longer so that fluctuations due to weather (and even those due to the seasons in many cases) are suppressed in favour of secular or long-term changes, particularly those which may occur in response to external forcing.
Ocean and climate
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ocean has a key role in the Earth’s energy budget, primarily by contributing to the massive poleward transport of heat that is required to balance the latitudinal gradient in mean solar input. This meridional transport of energy is divided roughly equally between the atmosphere and the ocean, and if the ocean were not present or if its circulation slowed down the polar regions would be much colder, and the equatorial regions much warmer, than currently.
The ozone layer
Authors: Taylor F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nevertheless, it is still one of the more important minor constituents of the atmosphere. One reason is because ozone has more strong absorption bands in the ultraviolet (UV) than the other common atmospheric gases, and so it dominates radiative transfer in this part of the spectrum. It also has important bands in the infrared. Ozone is extremely chemically active, as a result of which it plays a key role in determining the amounts of other constituents with which it reacts. It follows that ozone will be fairly short-lived; in the stratosphere, the lifetime of a typical atmospheric ozone molecule is just marginally longer than the diurnal cycle, at 1 to 2 days.
Rubber goes East
Authors: Loadman John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is probably useful to note at the beginning of this chapter the location of the Hevea or Para’ rubber tree which was, and still is, believed to provide the best rubber. With two very small exceptions, it is confined to the land south of the River Amazon, dropping from its estuary at Bele’m to about 15o south, then swinging west to the border between Peru and Bolivia, before swinging round in a great loop taking in about one-third of Peru, before rejoining the Amazon where Brazil, Peru, and Colombia meet. The two exceptions are a small looped incursion to the north-west of Manaos (today known as Manaus) and a triangular excursion north of the estuary delta 1o or so north of the equator. Between 1851, the year of the ‘Great Exhibition’ in London, and 1855 a Scottish explorer, Richard Spruce, was searching for new plants in the Amazon basin. Thousands were brought to England but he did not bring any Hevea seedlings as he knew that these would not survive the long journey home. He thought of bringing some seeds back but found that these quickly turned rancid after collection, so he abandoned that idea. He did, however, make detailed studies of the tapping and collecting procedures adopted by the natives and noted that the price (demand) was rising rapidly. He also realised that the tappers were essentially slaves, given advances for tools and food which were to be paid off against future earnings.
The King and the Congo
Authors: Loadman John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early 1880s the article shown in Fig. 7.1 appeared in a British magazine. But the truth was somewhat different. In the previous chapters we have seen that wild natural rubber could be obtained from many plants and that these are widely distributed across the tropics, sub-tropics, and even the tem perate regions of the Earth. However, only one region other than Amazonia made a significant contribution to the world’s supply of this material during the late nineteenth and early twentieth cen turies, and this was the Congo.