bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Databases
Authors: Williams Martha E. , Grant James L. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Databases may be considered a research tool for the chemical industry whether for researchers, applications engineers, or marketing or legal personnel. Growth in the dynamic database industry is discussed in terms of numbers of database records, online searches, databases, database producers, and database vendors. Databases may be classified by form of data representation, subject categories, medium of distribution, geographic origin, or status of the producer or vendor. Online connections to databases may involve terminals or personal computers. Alternatively, some databases are available on CD‐ROM.
Commercially available databases in the fields of chemistry, biochemistry and biophysics, geochemistry and mineralogy, biology and medicine, engineering, mathematics, and physics, and in claims and patents are given.
Detergency
Authors: Lynn Jesse L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMany factors determine the ultimate effectiveness of a cleaning system. Knowledge of the substrate to be cleaned, the soil to be removed, the nature of the bath, and the detergent formulation is required to adequately describe the cleaning process. Home laundering, for example, involves removal of particulate or oily soils from textiles of varying compositions in an aqueous bath. Formulated detergents, added to the bath or fabric, significantly affect this process. Hard surface cleaning involves the removal of soil from a nonporous substrate, normally assisted by a detergent formulation.Detergent formulations differ in complexity, depending on the particular application for which they are designed and the variability in conditions under which they are expected to perform. Laundry detergents can require high water softening capability and therefore significant levels of water softeners. The replacement of phosphate has led to much research and development activity and increased numbers of choices in determining the most suitable formulations for a given purpose. The type and concentration of surfactant is another primary factor in determining the formulation.Measurement of cleaning efficacy can be done by several methods, ranging from the subjective (panelists rating) to more objective ones, such as reflectometry. Performance profiles are then used to determine more efficient formulations. Once the formulation is identified and deemed ready for commercialization, it must be manufactured. Liquids can be mixed simply by addition of the ingredients to water. The historic method of mixing ingredients for powders is to blend in a crutcher and spray dry in a hot tower. The resulting particle typically dissolves easily because of its porous structure. The formulations also must meet or surpass existing/potential health, safety, and environmental issues. With an understanding of all the appropriate factors involved in detergency, the formulator can more quickly and efficiently determine the optimum formulations to meet the specified objectives.
Deuterium and Tritium
Authors: Katz Joseph J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDeuterium (2H or D) the heavier, stable isotope of hydrogen (1H) occurs in nature, and is always present in all hydrogen‐containing compounds. Deuterium oxide, known as heavy water, is the most important deuterium compound. Heavy water differs from ordinary water in structure of the liquid phase, in nuclear spin, ionic equilibria, and in various spectroscopic properties. Kinetic isotope effects occur in chemical reactions involving bond rupture of H and D. This effect in hydrogen exchange between water and hydrogen sulfide is the basis for the most important separation process for large‐scale deuterium production. Infrared absorption is the method of choice for the analysis of heavy water. Deuterium has far‐reaching biological effects, and it is possible to grow living organisms in which all of the hydrogen normally present is replaced by deuterium. The nuclear properties of deuterium are such that heavy water is the most efficient neutron moderator known for nuclear fission reactors. Deuterium is also important in nuclear fusion technology.Tritium (3H or T) is the heaviest isotope of hydrogen. Unlike hydrogen or deuterium, T undergoes radioactive decay (B−, ∼ 12 yr half‐life). Thus T compounds experience radiation damage at elevated tritium levels. Tritium is produced by cosmic rays in the higher atmosphere, and by neutron capture in lithium–aluminum alloy in nuclear fission reactors. Tritium can be purified by distillation, by thermal diffusion, by diffusion through palladium‐silver‐nickel membranes, or by chromatography on coated molecular sieves. Tritium is widely used as a tracer in molecular biology experiments. Tritium is a key element in nuclear fusion, in which energy is produced by the controlled fusion of tritium with deuterium.
Diamond, Natural
Authors: Shigley James 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Naturally occurring diamond is a relatively rare polymorphic form of carbon characterized by a three‐dimensional arrangement of tetrahedrally coordinated carbon atoms. Both natural and synthesized diamond have the highest hardness of all known materials, the highest thermal conductivity at room temperature, a high refractive index and optical dispersion, a low thermal expansion, and a relatively high inertness to chemical attack. This unique combination of properties permits diamond to be foremost in certain applications: as a highly prized gemstone; industrially as an important abrasive material unsurpassed in certain cutting, drilling, sawing, machining, grinding, and polishing operations for many materials; and in electronic and optical applications as a heat sink and window material, respectively. Upstream exploration has sometimes led to the discovery of kimberlite or lamproite pipes. These structures are the principal source of natural diamonds, and there are > 6000 occurrences of them in the world. Only a small number contain a high enough concentration of diamonds to warrant mining. Alluvial diamonds are recovered from streambeds by panning or washing techniques or, more productively, by removal from pockets in the streambed where the water has concentrated them. High quality gemstones are recovered from ocean deposits off the western coast of southern Africa. A modern method for the separation of diamond crystals from rock uses the emission of light by luminescence of diamond when exposed to X‐rays. The diamonds are then separated mostly by hand into two main categories, gem and industrial. Besides the single crystals usually implied in a discussion of diamond, the latter also occurs in nature in the form of polycrystalline aggregates. These can be classified into two types based on origin: carbonado and ballas. Diamond is nominally pure carbon with a
12
C/
13
C ratio of ∼99:1. Although other elements are often reported in analyses, only boron and nitrogen are considered to be truly substitutional in the lattice. The classification of diamonds into four types (Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb) is based primarily on the presence or absence of nitrogen and boron and their location in the lattice. Diamond is the hardest material known because of its combination of a three‐dimensional arrangement of tetrahedrally coordinated CC bonds with a bond distance of 0.154 nm. The Knoop hardness (
K
) is in the range of 68.7–98.1 kN/m
2
(7000–10,000 kgf/mm
2
). Although hard, diamond is also very brittle. The high refractive index (2.42 at 589.3 nm) and dispersion (0.044) are the basis for the “brilliance” and “fire” of a properly cut gemstone. The optical transmission out to 10.6 µm for type IIa diamonds makes possible windows for CO
2
lasers and for devices such as were used in the Venus probe.
Dicarboxylic Acids
Authors: Johnson Robert W. , Pollock Charles M. , Cantrell Robert R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAliphatic, linear dicarboxylic acids of the general formula HOOC(CH2);ynCOOH, and branched dicarboxylic acids are the subject of this article. These dibasic acids are referred to by their trivial names, IUPAC system, or by adding the suffix “dicarboxylic acid” to the name of the hydrocarbon skeleton. For example, a 10‐carbon atom dibasic acid is designated sebacic acid, decanedioic, or 1,8‐octane‐dicarboxylic acid. Physical and chemical properties of most of the common dibasic acids are given and discussed.Manufacture, preparation, and processes for glutaric acid, pimelic acid, suberic acid, zelic acid, sebacic acid, dodecanedioic acid, brassylic acid, C‐19, C‐20, C‐21, and C‐22 dicarboxylic acids are given. Also discussed is the preparation of dicarboxylic acids using microorganisms.The diacids are important industrial intermediates for the manufacture of diesters, polyesters, and polyamides. These derivatives find application as plasticizing agents, lubricants, heat‐transfer fluids, dielectric fluids, fibers, copolymers, inks and coatings resins, surfactants, fungicides, insecticides, hot melt coatings, and adhesives. The prices and mode of shipment for the various commercial grades of the diacids are given. The toxicities and environmental effects of the diacids are also discussed.
Dichloroethylene
Authors: Mertens James A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

1,2‐Dichloroethylene, also known as acetylene dichloride, dio‐form,
α
,
β
‐dichloroethylene, and
sym
‐dichloroethylene, exists in two isomers cis[156‐59‐2] and trans[156‐59‐2]. This solvent is used as an extraction solvent and as a chemical intermediate for other chlorinated solvents and compounds. The article describes the manufacturing, chemical and physical properties, storage and handling, toxicity, and its common uses.
Diffusion Separation Methods
Authors: Halle E. Von , Shacter J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDiffusion separation methods refer collectively to processes such as gaseous diffusion and gas centrifugation, developed specifically for difficult separations such as those involving the isotopes of uranium. These processes, used worldwide primarily for uranium enrichment, are based on the differences that exist in the rates of gaseous diffusion of the particular isotopes. These difficult separations almost always involve an aggregation of separation units known as a casade.Casade design, unit separative capacity, ideal and real casades, and various separation factors are presented. Equipment and plant design for the enrichment of uranium‐235 by gaseous diffusion, by various pressure diffusion processes, and by jet diffusion, also known as the separation nozzle process, is discussed.
Dimethylformamide
Authors: Marsella John A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDimethylformamide (DMF) is a widely used solvent and reagent, both in the laboratory and in industry. Its industrial applications range from the synthesis and purification of pharmaceutical products to its use as a cleaning solvent for printed circuit boards. This article reviews the properties, uses, manufacture, handling, and safety of DMF. DMF is currently manufactured by one of two carbonylation processes. In a two‐step process, methanol is carbonylated to methyl formate, which then reacts with dimethylamine to give DMF. The other method of commercial significance is the direct carbonylation of dimethylamine to DMF. Uses include pharmaceutical applications, polymer processing and production, extraction and absorption processes, and laboratory synthesis. Although it is generally a safe solvent, it must be handled properly. Its use must take into account its toxicity, reactivity, and tendency to be absorbed through the skin.
Drilling Fluids
Authors: Clark R. K. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDrilling fluids (muds) play a vital role in the drilling of oil and gas wells. These muds are typically complex chemical mixtures formulated to perform a variety of functions under a wide range of down hole temperatures and pressures but yet are nondamaging to the environment and safe for personnel to handle. These fluids are circulated down the hollow drill string and up the annulus, formed by the drill string and the hole to remove formation material dislodged by the bit. The fluids must have sufficient density to offset formation pressures to prevent a blowout and to maintain a stable well bore but be formulated to prevent excessive loss of fluid to permeable formations. Other important functions include lubrication of the drill bit and drill string, collection of information about subsurface formations, and noncorrosivity to surface and down hole equipment. Drilling fluids are composed of liquids (water, petroleum oils, and other organic liquids), dissolved inorganic and organic additives, and suspended, finely divided solids of various types. The article describes drilling fluid classification, properties, materials, testing, economics, and environmental considerations.
Drug Delivery Systems
Authors: Kost Joseph , Lapidot Smadar A. , Kumar Neeraj , Chaubal Mahesh , Domb A. J. , Kumar Ravi , Majeti N. V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe rapid advancement of biomedical research has led to many creative applications for biocompatible polymers. As modern medicine discerns more mechanisms of both physiology and pathophysiology, the approach to healing is to mimic, or if possible, to recreate the physiology of healthy functioning. Thus, the area of responsive drug delivery has evolved. Also called “smart” polymers, for drug delivery, the developments fall in two categories: externally regulated or pulsatile systems (also known as “open‐loop” systems) and self‐regulated systems (also called “closed‐loop”). The fundamentals of this research area a detailed account of the most recent advances in both pusatile and self‐regulated drug delivery systems are detailed.Controlled release technologies present an invaluable scientific and practical tool for improving performance and safety of drugs. These technologies involve designing the system of materials/drugs/site of action in such a way that barriers surrounding the drug to deliver the latter act with efficacy and safety of the drug at the optimum time and the rate needed. Advances in polymer science have led to the development of several novel drug delivery systems. A proper consideration of surface and bulk properties can aid in designing of polymeric systems for various drug delivery applications. This article is an overview of polymeric controlled release technology starting from fundamentals to applications.
Drying Oils
Authors: Wicks Zeno W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe composition of drying oils and mechanisms of film formation are discussed. Various proposals for the mechanism of autoxidation reactions for both nonconjugated and conjugated drying oils are covered. The use, selection, and mechanism of action of driers to catalyze film formation are covered. Modification of drying oils to bodied oils, boiled oils, conjugated oils, higher functionality oils, maleated oils, and vinylated oils are discussed.
Dye Carriers
Authors: de Guzman Ernesto , Sutton Boyce 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Dye carriers are used most commonly in the dyeing of polyester. Carriers are used to lower the glass‐transition temperature so the dye solution can penetrate the fiber. Carriers, under controlled conditions and selectivity, can give good color yield and fastness properties. Dye carriers are especially needed for atmospheric dyeing and occasionally for high temperature dyeing. However, most high temperature dyeings are run with high temperature levelers. Some carriers have found more acceptance than others due to availability, cost, environmental concerns, odors, etc. All carriers must be homogeneously dispersed in the dyebath to get full color yield. Carriers should be selected according to the equipment and conditions under which they are to be used. The fabric blend, color yield, and migration are also some factors to be considered when selecting carriers. Dye carriers are supplied by many chemical manufacturing companies. A list of these companies is provided.
Dyes, Reactive
Authors: Lewis D. M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractReactive dyes have proven to be one of the most successful classes of modern synthetic dyes. The reasons for this success lie in their shade versatility, their flexibility in application, and the all‐round good fastness properties obtained from dyeings produced with reactive dyes on wool, silk, cotton, and regenerated cellulosic fibers. The chemistry of the different reactive groups used, the chemistry of reactive dye manufacture, and the chemical principles behind their application to cellulosic fibers and polyamide fibers is reviewed.
Economic Evaluation, Synthetic Organic Chemicals
Authors: Moskowitz Sanford L. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The synthetic organic chemicals industry supplies materials to a wide range of industrial operations. These include plastics, fibers, solvents, biochemical agents, food chemicals, and materials of construction. The sectors increasingly affected by organic chemicals include electronics and telecommunications, automotive and transportation industry, biotechnology, agriculture, environmental remediation, and the food sciences.
This article gives economic data and patterns for important organic compounds, e.g., methanol, ethylene, benzene, propylene, etc. Economic data include U.S. and International general trends, regional patterns, consumption, supply and demand. History and process technologies are discussed. Environmental data include information on organic chemicals that have come under regulatory control, e.g., methyl‐t‐butylether and the chlorofluorocarbons.
Carboxylic Acids, Economic Aspects
Authors: Sauer E. T. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Aliphatic carboxylic acids produced on a reasonably significant commercial scale range from acetic acid (two carbons or C2) through stearic acid (C18). Lesser amounts of commercially available shorter chain‐length acids such as formic (C1), and longer chain‐length acids, such as erucic (unsaturated C22) and behenic (saturated C22), are also produced. As a general rule, all of the even chain‐length, nonisomeric acids from C6 to C22 are produced from naturally occurring fats and oils. A significant proportion of the lower chain‐length (C1‐C6) and longer isomeric chain‐length (C7‐C10) acids are made synthetically. For both oleo‐based and nonoleo‐based acids production and consumption figures, prices, producers, and applications are given.
Economic Evaluation
Authors: Ward Thomas J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Economic evaluation is the quantitative estimate of expected venture profitability, often in comparison with other choices, including the competition. It is part of the analysis that supports the decision‐making task in engineering and management. For essential parts of such an evaluation are problem definition, cost estimatiomn, revenue estimation, and profitability analysis, as well as a characterisation of the uncertainity and risk. The methodology associated with each part is summarised. A highlight is the development of the net rectum rate (NRR) as the logical profitability—a profit rate in which the cost of capital has been separarted out. This profit rate is illustrated for a typical production venture and advantages over historical profitability criteria are discussed.
Eggs
Authors: Bergquist Dwight H. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Eggs are used in homes, restaurants, and institutions as shell eggs; they are used in the food industry primarily as egg products. Eggs, which have various functional properties including coagulation by heat, whipping ability, and emulsifying power, are also highly nutritious. Egg products are produced under USDA inspection, which requires that all egg products be pasteurized so they are
Salmonella
‐negative.

There are liquid, frozen, and dried egg products. Automation has come into play for the production of shell eggs and egg products including handling, breaking and separating, processing, and drying of eggs. Eggs are separated into three components in an egg products plant, ie, whites, yolk, and whole egg, at a rate of 32,000 eggs per h per single row, single‐tier egg breaking machine. Eggs are spray‐dried under very mild conditions to preserve quality.
Fibers, Elastomeric
Authors: Boliek John E. , Jensen Arnold W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMost elastomeric fibers are currently produced from either natural rubber or segmented polyurethane polymers. The elastic properties or rubber fibers derive from chemical cross‐links formed by vulcanization of either sheets or extruded threads. The segmented polyurethanes, called spandex fibers, are linear block copolymers with relatively long weakly interacting segments that are interconnected by shorter blocks in which intermolecular interactions are strong. Rubber fibers are formed either by slitting vulcanized sheets or by extruding latex into a coagulation bath followed by heating to vulcanize. Spandex fibers are most commonly formed by passing polymer solution through a spinneret followed by removal of solvent; certain spandex compositions can be formed into fibers by melt extrusion. These fibers are normally blended with hard fibers such as nylon, polyester, or cotton to form fabrics with desirable stretch and recovery characteristics. Stabilizers must be included with elastomeric fibers to provide adequate protection from exposure to heat, sunlight, atmospheric pollutants, and active chlorine materials. The unique properties and availability in fine sizes compared to rubber has recently allowed extensive penetration of spandex fibers into hosiery and sportswear markets.
Electrical Connectors
Authors: Antler Morton 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Electrical connectors are mechanical devices that connect wires, cables, printed circuit boards, and electronic components to each other and to related equipment. Electronic connectors are designed primarily for low power signal applications as in telecommunications and computers. Another category is the utility and industrial connectors used in power distribution systems. Almost all connectors that join two or more conductors have an insulating body or dielectric, most usually made of a plastic, which separates the contact elements. Connectors are used to make permanent joints or to allow separation and remating of the conductors. Connectors are composed of contact substrates which are generally metallic, contact finishes, lubricants, and an insultating shell. Insulators are also employed for multicontact connectors. The reliability and testing procedures for electrical connectors, together with the thermal, chemical, and mechanical mechanisms of connector failure, are discussed.
Electronics, Coatings
Authors: Cohen Edward , Simmons Howard E. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Electronic coatings consist of a wide variety of materials that are used in the manufacture of electronic devices for military, industrial, and consumer usage. Coatings may be organic and inorganic compounds and polymers or metals. These coatings may be functional, providing electrical, magnetic, optic, mechanical, and/or thermal functions; they may be manufacturing aid coatings such as those used in the manufacture of circuit boards, or they may be protective or decorative coatings.
Polymeric materials are used to protect components from the environment and polymers having conductive metallic fillers are used to alleviate electromagnetic interference. Photoresists, inks or screenable resists, and solders all serve as coatings to produce microelectronic components such as printed circuit boards and integrated circuits.
Electronic coatings are applied in a wider range of coating widths and densities, under more stringent conditions, than conventional coatings. Both continuous and discrete coating methods employing a variety of solvents are used in designated clean rooms.