bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Development of Medieval Legal Science: The Commentators
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We return to the iuscivile. While the Glossators cannot be said to have been mere theorists remote from the world, since as teachers, givers of opinions, and draftsmen of deeds they were persons of standing in the constitutional and legal affairs of their time, and their teaching was recognized as excellent practical training for public life (p. 29), nevertheless they did not have as much impact on the daily life of the law as we would expect of lawyers today. Unlike the canonists, whose very sources involved them in current affairs, the Glossators spent most of their time expounding the CorpusJuris and other texts which were not actually ‘in force’ in Italy or anywhere else in Europe. Even where the general authority of these texts was admitted, as it was in the Empire and, thanks to the famous fiction invented by French legists,1 in Western Europe as well, it had to give way to any applicable personal or local laws, for in the medieval view such laws took precedence over more general laws and thus over Roman law, universal as it might be.2 What students in Italy and France learnt was a method, a juridical ‘grammar’ so to speak, rather than law capable of application in any particular place. For this very reason the Glossators could maintain their view that Roman law was timelessly right and universally valid regardless of local conditions,4 a point on which the whole of Europe readily agreed with them.
Law in Germany on the Eve of the Reception
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conditions in Germany as it entered the Middle Ages were very different from those in other major countries in Europe. Germany was rather backward: as part-heir to the Empire of Charlemagne, it had ever since the time of Otto borne the standard—and the burden—of the imperial idea.
The Discovery of Legal History
Authors: Wieacker Franz , Weir Tony , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The historical school renewed the study of law by seeing it-in its own way as ‘historical’. It was not so much interested in historical research for its own sake as in producing a new kind of legal doctrine, and while its programme certainly encouraged the use of research into legal history as a means of under standing the law which it now saw as historical, its very emphasis on the doctrinal tasks of jurisprudence prevented it from taking a full part in the development of historiography in the nineteenth century. On the other hand, the study of legal history benefited greatly from the marvellous flowering of philology; indeed, like classical studies, legal history was so concerned with sticking to the facts, extending its field of study, and refining its critical methods that it almost forgot its humanistic and romantic origins. Even today mainstream legal history is closer to philology than to general historical studies, and here the Romanists and Germanists were in step, though on different paths.
Private Sales
Authors: Graham Cosmo , Prosser Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The large-scale flotations and sales of shares described in the previous chapter do not represent the whole of privatization of public enterprises in either Britain or France. It is these large sales which have been in the public eye and to which most academic attention has been paid; however, there have been a number of private sales not involving flotation but the direct sale of enterprises by the Government to private companies or consortia, or the sale by the industries themselves of their subsidiaries. Table 4.1 lists examples in Britain.
International Society
Authors: Hoffmann Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I was always an admirer of the extraordinary sweep of Hedley Bull’s mind, and yet when I reviewed his work I was left with an inevitable sense of incompleteness. He accomplished so much, but there were also so many more directions in which he might have gone and in which he was beginning to go. The most striking aspect of his work is its extraordinary unity and the coherence of his approach: the unity of method and of substance, and the consistency and continuity of his concern about international society and those contemporary issues which are decisive for the survival of an international society. However, there were also significant tensions in his work: they gave it its density, and make it particularly instructive and thought-provoking.
Strategic Studies and Arms Control
Authors: Millar T B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A very high proportion of Bull’s writings bore directly or indirectly on this subject: directly, because he was passionately interested in the world of nation states, in which there is so much overt conflict almost all the time; indirectly because, interested as he was in theories about relations between states, and in order and ‘justice’ in the world system, the use of force or the threat or capacity to use it is never far from the surface. The general sits at the ambassador’s elbow. Political power, economic power, military power, are functions of one another. Nevertheless, Bull has produced a whole corpus of literature that bears directly on strategic studies, and not least an assessment of the subject itself which emerged after he had become interested in arms control and indeed had written his lucid first book2 on that topic which was so to exercise him for the rest of his life.
Introduction
Authors: Parnell Martin F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Had the West German coal industry suddenly been confronted with a dramatic reversal, or did this new arrangement represent just the latest stage in a long-standing, ongoing retrenchment? Such a question had become all the more topical and urgent within a problematic environment exacerbated by the sharply contested redundancies in the West German steel industry whose own crisis appeared to be deepening. These developments appeared to confirm the apparently irreversible demise of those two traditional industries which had been the twin pillars of the industrial revolution and which had contributed so profoundly to Germany’s industrial pre-eminence not just on the European scene but, indeed, on the world stage.
The State, War, and Industry
Authors: Parnell Martin F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To a certain extent government intervention became self-perpetuating, as one set of government measures created a situation which could only be remedied by further government actions. This is amply illustrated in t.l1e German coal industry. During the war total production fell by more than 30 per cent mainly because the most able-bodied miners were withdrawn to fight and between 70 and 80 per cent of pit supervisors, Steiger, were called up. An additional handicap arose from state control of the railway system which gave priority to the movement of troops and armaments, thus hindering the efficient distribution of such coal as was produced. Already, in 1914, production was down 29 million tons from 1913, and, by 1915, it was 44 million tons down. From April 1915 permission could be obtained to recall miners in special cases and there was increasing recruitment of foreign workers and employment of prisoners of war in the mines.
Epistemic Communities and the Dynamics of International Environmental Co-Operation
Authors: Haas Peter M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Encountering unprecedentedly large environmental disasters in the 1960s, governments engaged in a paroxysm of international regime formation. Seventy-six multilateral environmental treaties have been signed since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE), and environmental regimes have been growing increasingly sophisticated in their approach to managing ecosystems. How can this phenomenon be explained? International relations theorists from at least three schools of thought have sought to formulate general propositions to describe and explain the creation and transformation of regimes under a variety of international. political conditions or domains specified by each school.
Explaining Party Activism
Authors: Whiteley Paul , Seyd Patrick , Richardson Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theoretical framework which was developed in Chapter 4 to explain why individuals joined the party can also be used to ex plain why some of these become active once they have joined. Again, the idea is that incentives of various kinds induce the party member to become more actively involved in politics. Since these incentives have a different impact on different people, this explains why some are active and some are not.
Local Campaigning and the Conservative Vote
Authors: Whiteley Paul , Seyd Patrick , Richardson Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Conservative party has traditionally enjoyed the reputation of having the most formidable election machine of any party in British politics. Robert McKenzie’s (1964) description of local Conservative party organizations in their heyday of the l950s captures this point very well. In his description of the local party organization, McKenzie mentions the ‘block system’ and the ‘canvassercorps’, the former being a group of households in a ward or polling district, which are looked after on a regular basis by the latter, a group of active party members. He describes the activities of these volunteers as follows:
The Role of the National Civil Service 1n European Lobbying: The British Case
Authors: Spence David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the role of the UK’s national administration, focusing on British officials in Whitehall and Brussels. These two levels of the government machine are not merely geographical distinctions; they also demonstrate important conceptual points of relevance to the Community decision-making process itself. There are four important points to make. First, the national Official is clearly a lobbyist of European institutions and other Member States’ Officials. But the Official is also a target for the national lobby and the ‘foreign’ lobby-whether of Community countries or elsewhere. Secondly, European policy-making is far more complex and less accessible to the lobbyist than at the purely national level. Thirdly, the stakes in Brussels are often higher and the institutional game more fraught with risk.
Business Lobbying in the European Community: The Union of Industrial and Employers’ Confederations of Europe
Authors: Collie Lynn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Union of Industrial and Employers’ Associations (UNICE) was set up in 1958 by the industrial federations of the six founder Member States of the European Community. It was an early reconition that the European Community was going to be important for business and that business therefore needed to develop a European-level association to represent its common interests. Not surprisingly, the evolution of UNICE has in many respects mirrored that of the European Community in its move from the ‘Euro Sclerosis’ of the late 1970s and early 1980s to ‘Euro-Acceleration’ in the mid-1980s. As the European dimension increased in importance, member federations became dissatisfied with UNICE.
The Paradox of Voting and the Theory of Social Evolution
Authors: Carling Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The paradox of voting is less paradoxical than is commonly assumed because it is more paradoxical than is usually thought: this is its paradox. Assume that members of an electorate are instrumental and rational in their orientation to the act of casting a vote. The fact that they are instrumental means that they are in it for what they can get out of the result. The fact that they are rational means, in this context, that they vote or not according to whether their benefit from the act of voting does or does not exceed the cost incurred in performing the act. But the chance of any one vote affecting the outcome of the election in the voter’s favour is so tiny (in any electorate of reasonable size) that the potential gain from the act is bound to be outweighed by the costs of the act, even if the voter stands to gain a great deal from a favourable outcome to the election and the costs of voting are very low. So rational instrumental voters will not vote.
Rationality, Revolution, and Reassurance
Authors: Wickham-Jones Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The orthodox rational-choice account of revolutionary behaviour is that ‘rationality requires inaction’.1 The free-rider conclusion is entailed by a series of assumptions: actors are end-orientated and selfish; the large number required for successful revolutions creates co-ordination problems; and the non-excludable benefits mean backsliding from putative agreements is probable. Revolutionary participation has thus been typified as an n-person Prisoners’ Dilemma with a dominant strategy of non-cooperation.
A Zero-Sum Conflict: Domestic, Regional, and Global Factors
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Broadly speaking, Syrian attitudes towards Israel became increasingly hostile after 1954 because of domestic instability, ideological and political radicalization, the growing fear of Israel military action or aggression, as well as owing to Syria’s new alliances with the USSR and Egypt. In turn, Syria’s militant attitude to Israel, and its Soviet and Egyptian orientations, coupled with Egypt’s increasing belligerency, deepened Israel’s sense of siege and fear, and contributed as well to strengthening Ben Gurion’s hardline stance, leading to serious military operations against Syria and Egypt. Consequently, while a series of armed clashes periodically erupted between Israel and Syria, their mutual antagonism was further aggravated.
The Struggle over Lebanon and the Palestinians
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With Jordan’s refusal to integrate into Asad’s Greater Syria strategy, his remaining potential partners were Lebanon and the Palestinians. Both these parties, being politically and militarily much weaker than Jordan, could, it seemed, be easily influenced if not dominated by Damascus and serve its regional strategic interests, notably vis-a-vis Jerusalem. For generations Damascus had considered Lebanon as the western part of Syria, arbitrarily and artificially carved off by the French Mandate; Damascus thus had never established diplomatic relations with Beirut.
The Social Regulation of Unemployment
Authors: Callie Duncan , Paugam Serge 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How different was the experience of unemployment in the EU societies that have been examined in this study? And what factors appear to have played the strongest role in affecting this experience? In embarking on this investigation, we noted that there were in particular three types of factor that might affect the severity of the effects of unemployment on people’s lives. In the first place, there were the characteristics of the welfare institutions for the unemployed, which reflected distinctive mixes of welfare principles. Second, there were diverse patterns of family life and sociability, which, although possibly influenced by the nature of the welfare institutions, also related to much longer-standing cultural traditions. Finally, there were the specific economic conditions that each society was confronted with, deriving from their level of economic development and the rapidity of economic restructuring. In examining the impact of such differences, we have been concerned with three main spheres of the experience of unemployment: financial deprivation, labour market marginalization, and social integration.
Introducing Childcare: Questions and Themes
Authors: Randall Vicky 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is about the politics of childcare in Britain in the post-war era. As such its ambit is broad-ranging, covering different forms of childcare provision, different time-periods, different decision-making levels and contexts. Even so it is informed, and to an extent inspired, by a single overriding question, concerning why it is that the state’s contribution, whether in terms of direct provision, or direct or indirect subsidy, to child daycare in this country has been so meager. Although at one level, and from a feminist perspective, this might not seem so surprising—men have dominated the political process so what do you expect?—viewed another way it is more of a puzzle: that is, when this record of public neglect is considered alongside the growing percentage of women in paid employment, the upsurge and impact of second-wave feminism, and the much more generous provision in a range of other European countries.
Mothers, Feminists, and the Demand for Childcare
Authors: Randall Vicky 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis so far has tended to focus on the level of national institutional decision-making. It has demonstrated the extent to which earlier assumptions and decisions about child daycare were embodied in institutional arrangements in the early post-war era which constrained both the practical and the imaginable policy options of later decades. But while there has been a degree of institutional inertia, there has also been very little effective political pressure challenging the status quo. As we have seen, what I have called the childcare lobby, which emerged in the 1970s, has all along been weak and divided. Its constituent groups have represented differing and potentially conflicting assumptions about the respective needs of children and mothers, different interests, and professions. Within their ranks explicitly feminist arguments and energies have played a relatively minor role (although the impact of second-wave feminism has contributed to a growing public acceptance of the legitimacy of working mothers’ childcare needs).
Israel
Authors: Karsh Efraim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Cold War played a secondary, if significant, role in the making of Israel’s foreign and defence policies, and virtually no role at all in her domestic politics. Subjected to a concerted Arab attempt to destroy her at birth in 1948, and to a subsequent political, military, and economic siege which began easing only with the conclusion of the peace treaty with Egypt in 1979, Israel’s national interests have been predominantly focused on her immediate environment, namely, consolidation of her statehood and security, and the attainment of regional acceptance of her existence, expressed, if possible, in official peace treaties. From the Israeli standpoint, the Cold War was relevant only to the extent that it affected the pursuit of these goals.
Introduction
Authors: Stock Thomas , Lohs Karlheinz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The efforts at the Geneva Conference on Disarmament to achieve a convention banning chemical weapons (CW) were successfully completed in September 1992. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (CWC) was opened for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993.
Characteristics of chemical warfare agents and toxic armament wastes
Authors: Lohs Karlheinz , Stock Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chemical weapons have a long history of use. In modern times they were first employed extensively in World War I, beginning with their use on the Western front by Germany at Ypres on 22 April 1915. Chemical weapons were intended to create a tactical advantage and to demoralize the enemy. The initial success of CW in World War I and subsequent developments in the chemical industry led countries such as Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the former Soviet Union, the UK, the USA and others to conduct extensive research and develop¬ment (R&D) and testing of new and potentially more effective chemical weapons and agents.
The storage of old and abandoned chemical weapons in Austria
Authors: Stolz Josef 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the signing of the Chemical Weapons Convention in Paris on 13 January 1993 a new chapter opened in the efforts to rid the world of chemical weapons. Austria was one of many original signatory states. Austria does not produce chemical weapons, but as a consequence of World War II it has a CW storage site on its territory. It is therefore particularly interested in the provisions of the Convention which address old and abandoned CW munitions as it faces the problem of the handling and eventual destruction of such munitions.
The Baltic and North Sea dumping of chemical weapons: still a threat?
Authors: Laurin Fredrik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In May 1945 when Germany surrendered and after almost six years the war in Europe ended, most of the nations involved in the war had stockpiles of hundreds of thousands of tonnes of a weapon that was never used-chemical munitions. There had been little enthusiasm for chemical weapons among the nations which participated in the war, and the primary reason for not deploying CW was probably the special nature of these weapons. In addition, wind and other weather conditions are important factors in chemical warfare, as is the ability of an opponent to strike back with the same means.
The Chemical Weapons Convention and old and abandoned chemical weapons
Authors: Stock Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is general agreement that the destruction of chemical weapons owned or possessed by a State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention after 1 January 1946 will be a major focus of the Convention in the first 10 years after its entry into force. Destruction must be completed within 10 years. (In excep¬tional cases a 5-year extension may be granted.) In Europe only Russia, the inheritor of the former Soviet CW stockpile, faces the challenge of destroying chemical warfare agents, of which it possesses at least 40 000 tonnes.
Compellence: Resuscitating the Concept
Authors: Schaub Gary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of force and threats to use force are standard fare in the practice and study of international politics. Assumptions that anarchy best characterizes the international system have directed theoretical attention to the potential use of force by any international actor against any other. Of course, both practitioners and scholars have realized, as did the Athenians at Melos, that it is much more cost effective to achieve their goals through the threat of force as opposed to using force. Given this, one may suspect that any basic textbook on international relations would have extensive discussions on the use of threats of force in world politics.