bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Symmetry in crystals: fundamentals
Authors: Shmueli Uri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Crystalline solids possess a property which is absent from the amorphous, liquid and gaseous states, namely that their fundamental building blocks are arranged to a good approximation in a triply periodic array. Strict periodicity is, of course, an idealization, and the various (minor) deviations therefrom are subject to study in the advanced stages of structure determination. We shall, however, assume such periodicity while introducing the geometrical aspects of crystallography. The above-mentioned periodic arrangement of the building blocks underlies all of the geometry and symmetry of a crystal structure, and we shall try to describe it in some detail.
Point groups and lattice types
Authors: Shmueli Uri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Crystallographic symmetry can be considered from several points of view. The main ones are (i) the macroscopic symmetry of the crystal and its physical properties, (ii) the symmetry of a three-dimensional point lattice, and (iii) the symmetry of a periodic arrangement of material units, or the symmetry of the ideal crystal. The descriptors of macroscopic symmetry are rotations, introduced in the previous chapter, and rotoinversions (the latter include inversion and reflection). Their classification is one of the main topics of this chapter. The crystal and its geometrical abstraction–the three-dimensional lattice–must also conform to these macroscopic operations. However, the full symmetry of the periodic arrangement also includes translational symmetry which may be based on the lattice alone (in the case of lattices and some types of crystals) and on additional combinations of rotations and special types of nonlattice translations (in the general case of ideal crystals). These essentially microscopic symmetry operations that involve combinations of rotations and translations will be dealt with in the next chapter.
The emergence of George Eliot
Authors: Ashton Rosemary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Partly because of her anomalous social position, and partly because she had always liked to work anonymously, Marian Evans chose to write under a pseudonym. In November 1856 Lewes sent the manuscript of ‘Amos Barton’ to the Edinburgh publisher John Blackwood, saying it was by a ‘shy, ambitious ’ friend of his (Letters, 2.269, 276). No name was given for this unknown author, and Blackwood actually began corresponding, via Lewes, with ‘My Dear Amos’.
‘My age for invention’
Authors: Westfall Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the central stories in the Newton legend concerns the annus mirabilis, the marvellous year of discovery to which all of his later achievements in science could be traced. Newton himself helped to inaugurate the story in an often quoted passage that dates from much later:In the beginning of the year 1665 I found the Method of approximating series. The same year in May I found the method of Tangents of Gregory & Slusius, & in November had the direct method of fluxions & the next year in January had the Theory of Colours & in May following I had entrance into ye inverse method of fluxions.
Principia mathematica
Authors: Westfall Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Newton’s mother died during the spring of 1679 and he was absent from Cambridge for six months, tending her during her final days and then settling the estate in Woolsthorpe. Immediately upon his return late in November a letter from Robert Hooke arrived, the first of a number of intrusions prompted by his earlier renown in mathematics and natural philosophy. Hooke, now secretary of the Royal Society in place of the recently deceased Henry Oldenburg, invited Newton to resume correspondence with the society.
Newton in London
Authors: Westfall Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Newton had been consulted on matters connected with the Royal Mint in 1695. Through the combined efforts of clippers (who clipped silver from the edges of hammered coins that had no definite outline) and coiners (or counterfeiters), English money—the silver money of daily commerce— had deteriorated alarmingly in the early 1690s. The crisis in the coinage was made worse by the simultaneous financial crisis caused by the unprecedented expenses of a war with France. In an age when professional economists did not exist the government, in 1695, sought advice from eight men known for their intellectual prowess or their experience in matters financial.
Search for a sound ministry
Authors: Cannon John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Grenville ministry was a nightmare for the king. At an audience on 4 April 1763, George explained to Grenville that he was Bute’s choice, and that there must be no negotiation with New- castle or Pitt—‘I would rather quit my Crown’ (Letters … to Lord Bute, 210, no. 294). There were few disagreements on policy. They agreed on a strong attitude towards the American colonies and were resolved to treat the radical John Wilkes firmly for his attacks on the government in the North Briton. But George found Grenville intolerable—unbelievably prolix and much inclined to stand on his dignity. In less than three weeks the king was complaining to Bute of Grenville’s ‘tiresome manner’ and ‘ill humour’
Decline and oblivion
Authors: Cannon John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not easy to know whether the next and ominous development was a cause or a consequence of the political upheaval. But on 13 February 1801, amid the crisis, the king was unwell, and by the 17th he was excited, talkative, and hoarse. On the 21st he told Thomas Willis, son of Francis Willis and rector of St George’s, Bloomsbury, ‘I have prayed to God all night, that I might die, or that he would spare my reason’ (Brooke, King George the Third, 370). That night he became delirious, and the next day John Willis, Thomas’s brother and a now a mad-doctor like their father, was called in to take charge of the king; he was subsequently joined by a third Willis brother, Robert. This bout of illness formally lasted some four weeks, oﬃcially ending by 14 March when
Basic concepts and basic equations
Authors: Solymar L , Shamonina E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall make an attempt in this chapter to introduce most of the basic concepts needed later in the book and in a form upon which we can build in later chapters. Some will be very basic indeed, like fields and potentials, some others will be closer to practical cases, e.g. the incidence of a plane wave upon a dielectric slab. Some will represent useful artifices like electric and magnetic dipoles, leading from there to the introduction of the concept of polarizability: how large are the dipole moments excited by various fields. Boundary conditions and boundary refraction problems must of course be mentioned because they will appear repeatedly in the analysis of metamaterial properties. The Ewald circle construction will then come in as a useful technique. Dispersion is again one of the basic concepts. In any wave phenomenon one must know the relationship between frequency and wave number. Talking about dispersion necessitates the introduction of forward and backward waves. The latter were hardly mentioned in the past, their properties rarely emphasized in studies of electromagnetic waves, but they have lately risen to fame due to their role in metamaterials. Another departure from usual introductions is the prominence of circuit theory, a subject often neglected in physics syllabuses. Very often we shall have to look at phenomena both from the point of view of fields and circuits. Sometimes the two explanations reinforce each other, sometimes we shall resort to only one of them because the other one may be too unwieldy.
Seven topics in search of a chapter
Authors: Solymar L , Shamonina E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have tried to be as comprehensive as possible in our treatment of the various phenomena of metamaterials. It is, however, inevitable that some topics just do not fit into the general framework. We introduced imaging by negative-index materials in Chapter 2 and discussed it later in Chapter 5 in considerable detail. Then, there was imaging by MI waves both in Chapters 7 and 8. Nevertheless, there are still some aspects of imaging that are important and need to be included. They will be discussed in Section 9.2.
Although multilayers were discussed in Section 5.5 and have also been treated in a different context in Section 8.1.2 there is still a combination of layers (negative permittivity and negative permeability in neighbouring layers) that did not seem to fit into any of the discussions. We describe them briefly in Section 9.3.
Focusing by indefinite media is an odd phenomenon because it happens only under specific circumstances when both a certain type of anisotropy and a periodic structure are present. The physics is similar to that of MI waves (see construction of the output beam in Fig. 8.7) but there we were concerned with only a single plane wave incident at a particular angle, whereas for focusing with indefinite media the incident beam is taken as divergent. The mathematical treatments are also quite different so we decided to treat indefinite media separately in Section 9.4.
How should we respond to unconscionability? Unpacking the relationship between conscience and the constructive trust
Authors: Hopkins Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of unconscionability as a rationale for intervention has enjoyed an apparent revival not only in English law but throughout the common law world.2 This is a development that has attracted a degree of academic support,3 but also some powerful criticism.4 This chapter takes as its starting point the fact that courts do rationalize intervention in a number of circumstances as responding to unconscionability. It leaves to one side the normative question of whether courts ought to do so. Its purpose is to consider the form that the response should take. In particular, it is concerned with the extent to which that response should involve the imposition of a constructive trust. This matter is closely connected to the normative question as, in some contexts, concern at the use of the constructive This chapter is based on part of a paper delivered to the Propeny and Trusts Section of the Society of Legal Scholars’ Annual Conference, University of Strathclyde, September 2005. The full version of that paper is published as N Hopkins, ‘Conscience, Discretion and the Creation of Property Rights’ (2006) 26 LS 275.
Community Of Property, Joint Ownership, And The Family Home
Authors: Cooke Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since in our societies, marriage is the basis for the normal family, it follows that marriage must have a profound effect on the property of the spouse ... It is difficult to imagine any system of law which in its regulation of the impact of marriage on property could completely ignore these elementary social facts, i.e. confine itself to a strict rule of’separation of property’ in the sense that marriage has no effect on the property of the spouses at all.1 Grace Blumberg, in her Californian text on matrimonial property, 2003, states: In the western world, the basic ownership unity has been the conjugal, or husband-wife, dyad. Apparently rooted in Germanic and Visigothic law, community property principles spread all over Europe and many of the areas colonized by Europeans, such as South Africa and Latin America.
Landlords, Disabled Tenants And The Rising Tide Of Equality Law
Authors: Lawson Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the UK, obligations not to discriminate against disabled people were imposed on landlords, for the first time, by the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA). A necessary distinction was made between the landlords of employers and of service providers on the one hand, and those who let premises directly to disabled people on the other. Landlords in the former category were prevented from withholding their consent unreasonably to requests by their tenants (seeking to comply with their own obligations not to discriminate against their disabled employees or customers) to make physical alterations to the property.1 At that time, however, the ODA imposed no equivalent duty on landlords in the residential sector: landlords whose tenants might themselves be disabled and in need of physical alterations in order to use and access their homes.
Impact
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the clubhead of a driver strikes the ball, the duration of the impact is about half of a thousandth of a second. This is so brief we can learn nothing about the impact from direct observation, and even filming it is quite a challenge, requiring a very high-speed camera. However, it is fortunate that the laws of physics reveal much of what happens during the impact. The first step is to recognize that the process is really a bounce, the ball bouncing off the clubhead. So a good place to start is with the case of a simple bounce of a ball off the ground.
Aerodynamics –Drag
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aerodynamics of golf balls is an intriguing subject and, as we shall see, it holds several surprises. The most obvious effect of the air on the flight of the ball arises when there is a strong wind. A side wind can turn a shot aimed at the fairway into a search for the ball in the rough grass. A head wind leads to a disappointing shot, and a strong following wind gives a golfer the opportunity of producing his longest ever drive. However, although these are familiar effects they are minor compared to the less obvious but stronger effects of drag and lift on the ball as it flies through the air, with or without a wind.
Aerodynamics –Lift
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the ball leaves the clubhead it has a high rate of spin. A typical drive gives the ball a back-spin of around 60 revolutions per second, and the higher loft of an iron can produce a spin rate more than twice as fast. The principal effect of this spin is to produce a force on the ball perpendicular both to the axis of the spin and to the direction of the ball. The combination of the back-spin given to the ball in a drive and the ball’s forward velocity produces an upward force on the ball which can be greater than the downward force of gravity. In this case the curvature of the initial flight of the ball is up-wards rather than downwards.
Bouncing & Rolling
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physics of the interaction of the ball with the ground is quite straightforward, but there is a snag. Both bouncing and rolling are very sensitive to the nature and condition of the ground, and this is so variable that a wide range of behaviour occurs, making its accurate prediction rather point-less. However, for any given set of conditions, Newton’s law of motion can be used to calculate the ball’s bounce and roll, and the basic features can be illustrated by considering ‘typical cases’.
Handicaps
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of handicaps is the glory of golf. Imagine three friends playing a round of golf together having abilities corresponding to handicaps of 5, 15, and 25 but competing without the use of handicaps. There would be about a 95% chance that the best player would win with the weakest player coming last. A good handicap system would give them a roughly equal chance, completely transforming the game.
Matches & Competitions
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Playing in matches and competitions is, in a sense, straightforward. You just concentrate and play the best you can. However, a theoretical description is very complicated. There are 18 different holes and the outcome at each one is determined by the difficulty of the hole and the ability of the player. Then each match or competition will involve different players each with their own handicap. Finally, and crucially, there is the element of chance—the ball rolls into a ditch, hits a tree, lands in a bunker, and drops, or does not drop, into the hole. Any attempt at a full description of all these factors leads to enormous complexity, and we shall avoid that by making simplifying assumptions and considering typical cases. Let us start by examining the expected outcomes for players with a scratch handicap playing average holes.
The Players
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is clear that golf was being played in Scotland in the fifteenth century, because the Scottish King James II found it necessary to ensure the priority of military training by issuing the decree that ‘golfe be utterly cryed downe and not be used’. Perhaps the military training was still not what it might have been—James II was killed by the bursting of one of his cannons at the siege of Roxburgh Castle.
Economics
Authors: Wesson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The amount of money involved in the professional game is impressive. Many players make millions of dollars a year and the total amount awarded in prizes each year runs into hundreds of millions of dollars. How- ever, this is dwarfed by the amount of money spent by amateurs in payments to golf clubs and the purchase of equipment. No precise statistics are available but we can make a rough estimate of the expenditure on golf worldwide if we take the average spend of, say, 30 mil- lion golfers to be 2000 dollars a year, giving a total annual spend of 60 billion dollars. Most of this expenditure goes to golf clubs and we shall start our examination of the economics of golf by looking at the growth in the number of clubs up to the present day figure of more than 30,000.
Sources and Problems Facing the Prosopographer of the University of Paris in the Early Modern Era
Authors: Farge James K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Easter Sunday 1525, a nurse employed to care for an elderly woman on the rue des Noyers in Paris was intent on going to early Mass. Opening the front door she found her way blocked by a pile of books and papers that someone had pushed through the grill of the outer gate during the night. She called the woman’s daughter, who exclaimed (and we quote her very words, as recorded by a notary):
Loué soit Dieu de paradis et madame Saincte Barbe! je croy que veci bonnes nouvelles; car monsieur a perdu beaucoup de registres et y a longtemps qu’il s’en plaint; je croy que les vecy, se Dieu plaist . . .
The Collége de Montaigu Before Standonck
Authors: Courtenay William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most important dates in the history of the Collège de Montaigu—perhaps its most important date—was the appointment of Jean Standonck of Malines as principal of the college in 1483. According to the accounts of this event, the college was on the verge of complete collapse and the canons of Notre Dame, who oversaw the college, seriously considered dissolving it after the death of its principal, Amator Chetant, before choosing instead to appoint an impoverished regent master in arts, albeit sometime proctor of the Picard nation, as head of the college.
The Collége de Montaigu in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Authors: Brockliss Laurence W B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the course of the sixteenth century the forty-odd colleges of the University of Paris divided into two types: the residential, and the residential and teaching. Before the mid-fifteenth century, all the colleges had been residential: in accordance with their statutes of foundation, their primary purpose was to provide board and lodging for poor scholars from a designated diocese. Thereafter, subsequent to the reform of the University by Cardinal d’Estouteville in 1451, most colleges not only began to house and feed additional students who paid for their accommodation, but a number also laid on formal teaching in the arts.
European Company and Financial Law
Authors: Gale Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As with previous editions, this fourth edition features the full text of every piece of adopted European legislation affecting companies and the financial sector, including directives, regulations, recommendations and other relevant instruments. It is divided into sections on banking law, capital movement, company law, consumer protection, enterprise law, insurance law, and securities regulation. The purpose of this text is to offer an easily accessible, properly organised and updated collection of all European Instruments that have been enacted in the above fields. Both in legal practice and in academia the need often arises to consult European legislation with the knowledge that it is up-to-date and consolidated. The book includes section-by-section case commentaries on almost all of the relevant European Court of Justice cases and many rulings from national courts, thus providing a useful guide to interpretation of the various instruments.
First cornerstone: the defendant, general jurisdiction and its alternatives
Authors: Kruger Thalia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The best place to start the substantive part of this book is with the general rule of jurisdiction: the domicile (under Brussels I), habitual residence, nationality or domicile in the common law sense (under Brussels II bis) of the defendant, or the centre of the debtor’s main interests (under the Insolvency Regulation), can grant jurisdiction. This rule also provides the first general delimitation of the scope of these Regulations. However, in proceedings which have as their object tenancies of immovable property concluded for temporary use for a maximum period of six consecutive months, the courts of the Member
Provisional and protective measures
Authors: Kruger Thalia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapters 2, 3, and 4 have explained the circumstances under which the jurisdiction rules of the civil jurisdiction regulations apply. Chapter 5 examined other procedural rules linked to jurisdiction. Therefore the question of provisional and protective measures still remains. The main issue is whether the rules on such measures provide an exception to what has already been discussed: that is, do they contain an autonomous rule as to their application or conversely, do the rules on provisional and protective measures follow those already laid out?
Elimination of Customs Duties and Charges Having Equivalent Effect
Authors: Gormley Laurence W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first method of ensuring that trade between Member States was liberalized was the abolition and prohibition of customs duties and charges having equivalent effect between Member States. In the EC Treaty this is achieved by Article 25, which expands on the principle of Article 23(1) that the Community is to be based upon a customs union which is to cover all trade in goods and which is to involve the prohibition between Member States of customs duties on imports and exports and of all charges having equivalent effect.
Overview
Authors: Burrows Andrew , Peel Edwin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of this book is concerned with the construction of contract terms. This is the staple diet of commercial lawyers, whether litigators or, even more obviously, contract draftsmen. Yet until recently there was relatively little attention paid to it by commentators and, other than in respect of exclusion or limitation clauses, it rarely featured in university contract courses. Part of the aim of this book is to redress the balance by focusing on construction generally (in Part B) and on specific issues, including but going beyond construction, in relation to particular types of common contract term (in Part D). Part C has a slightly different focus in examining the legislative control of exclusion and limitation clauses and unfair terms. It examines where we have now reached with that legislative control and what businesses need to be aware of if they wish to draft effective exemption clauses.