Microscopy
Authors: Kriete Andres , Gundlach Heinz , Amelinckx Severin , Reimer Ludwig 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe article contains sections titled:1.Modern Optical Microscopy1.1.Introduction1.2.Basic Principles of Light Microscopy1.2.1.Optical Ray Path1.2.2.Imaging Performance and Resolution1.2.3.Characteristics and Classification of Lenses1.2.4.Eyepieces and Condensers1.3.Illumination and Contrast Generation1.3.1.Optical Contrast Generation1.3.2.Fluorescence Microscopy1.4.Inverted Microscopy1.5.Optoelectronic Imaging1.6.Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy1.6.1.Basic Principles1.6.2.Imaging Performance1.6.3.Instrumentation1.6.4.Imaging Modalities and Biomedical Applications1.7.Computer Applications in Digital Microscopy1.7.1.Image Analysis1.7.2.3D Visualization1.8.High‐Throughput Screening for Histopathology and Drug Development2.Electron Microscopy2.1.Introductory Considerations2.2.Conventional Transmission Electron Microscopy (CTEM)2.2.1.Introduction2.2.2.Scattering by Atoms: Atomic Scattering Factor2.2.3.Kinematic Diffraction by Crystals2.2.3.1.Lattice, Reciprocal Lattice2.2.3.2.Geometry of Diffraction2.2.4.Dynamic Diffraction by Crystals2.2.4.1.General Considerations2.2.4.2.Basic Equations2.2.4.3.Dynamic Rocking Curve2.2.4.4.Anomalous Absorption, Bormann Effect2.2.4.5.Lattice Fringes2.2.4.6.Faulted Crystals2.2.4.7.Moiré Patterns2.2.5.Operating Modes of the Electron Microscope2.2.5.1.Microscope Optics2.2.5.2.High‐Resolution, High‐Magnification Mode2.2.5.3.Diffraction Mode2.2.6.Selected‐Area Electron Diffraction (SAED)2.2.7.Diffraction Contrast Images2.2.7.1.Imaging Modes2.2.7.2.Dislocation Contrast2.2.7.3.Extinction Conditions for Defects2.2.7.4.Domain Textures2.2.7.5.Interface Contrast and Domain Contrast2.2.7.6.Strain Field Contrast2.2.8.Convergent Beam Diffraction2.2.8.1.Geometry of Convergent Beam Patterns2.2.8.2.Point Group Determination2.2.8.3.Space Group Determination2.2.8.4.Foil Thickness Determination2.2.9.High‐Resolution Electron Microscopy2.2.9.1.Image Formation in an Ideal Microscope2.2.9.2.Image Formation in a Real Microscope2.2.9.3.Resolution Limiting Factors2.2.9.4.Image Formation Models2.2.9.5.Image Interpretation2.2.10.Scanning Transmission Microscopy2.2.11.Z‐Contrast Images2.2.12.Analytical Methods2.2.12.1.X‐Ray Microanalysis2.2.12.2.Electron Energy Loss Spectrometry (EELS)2.2.13.Specimen Preparation2.2.13.1.Diffraction Contrast Specimens2.2.13.2.High‐Resolution Specimens2.2.14.Applications to Specific Materials and Problems2.2.14.1.Crystal Structures2.2.14.2.Defects2.2.14.3.Small Particles2.2.14.4.Surface Studies2.2.14.5.Thin Epitaxial Layers2.2.14.6.“In situ” Studies2.3.Scanning Electron Microscopy2.3.1.Introduction2.3.2.Instrumentation2.3.2.1.Electron Guns2.3.2.2.Electron Probe Formation2.3.2.3.Detectors2.3.3.Electron–Specimen Interactions2.3.3.1.Elastic and Inelastic Scattering2.3.3.2.Electron Diffusion2.3.3.3.Emission of Secondary and Backscattered Electrons2.3.3.4.Specimen Charging and Damage2.3.4.Image Formation and Analysis2.3.4.1.Topographic and Material Contrast2.3.4.2.Electron Channeling Effects2.3.4.3.Imaging and Measurement of Surface Potentials2.3.4.4.Imaging of Magnetic Fields2.3.4.5.Electron‐Beam Induced Current2.3.4.6.Cathodoluminescence2.3.4.7.Special Imaging Methods2.3.5.Elemental Analysis2.3.5.1.X‐Ray and Auger Electron Emission2.3.5.2.X‐Ray Spectrometers2.3.5.3.X‐Ray Microanalysis2.3.5.4.Special X‐Ray Techniques