bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The popolo
Authors: Zorzi Andrea 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the thirteenth century political regimes were established in many Italian communes in which the ‘popolo’ participated for the first time. Until then power had been the prerogative of nobles and the knightly aristocracy, but the advent of the popolo would affect the political development of Italy for a long time and make it distinctive. What was the popolo? Broadly speaking, it consisted of the middle ranks of urban society and of families that were not as old as the aristocratic lineages. It is more difficult to mark them off from those lower on the social ladder. ‘Popolo’ should not be given the modern connotations of the ‘people’. It did not include groups at the bottom, or on the margins, such as unskilled workers, hired labourers, peasants, or the poor. The base of the popolo consisted of self employed artisans organized in occupational guilds, skilled workers, masters and foremen, small traders and entrepreneurs, small property owners, notaries, teachers, and doctors. But the political leadership was usually taken by merchants, some of whom engaged in long-distance trade and banking, others in regional and local commerce. In short, the popolo was a heterogeneous group drawn from different social and occupational classes with varying levels of wealth and culture and sometimes divergent interests. Its two key components were the merchants and the artisans, and the shifting relations between them determined the political fate of popular movements and governments.
The South
Authors: Abulafia David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to examine the history of the Italian South in the context of the Italian peninsula as a whole. Reference to most standard histories of Renaissance Italy, whether concerned with culture, politics, economy, or society, reveals a chasm in the writing of Italian history: the South, which nowadays claims with some reason to have been neglected by modern politicians and industrialists, has also suffered neglect at the hands of historians. It was not always so. Jacob Burckhardt saw in Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, king of Sicily and Holy Roman Emperor, the precursor of the princes of Renaissance Italy who owed much in his methods of rule and cultural interests to the model of ‘despotism’ provided by formerly Islamic Sicily.
Introduction
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Religions take shape in particular human cultures and they come to have distinctive social forms. Indeed, it is part of the belief-structure of most religions that there should be a particular society which protects and sustains their basic values and beliefs, within which one may pursue the ideal human goal, as defined within the society.
As religions become embodied in social forms of life, a number of tensions, polarities, and ambiguities arise which are important and perhaps in eliminable features of the phenomenon of religion. One polarity is the very fundamental one between the religious belief-system and the culture in which it is embodied. There are a number of possible relations between religion and culture, all of which have probably been exemplified in every fairly long-lasting religion, but each of which can be primarily associated with a specific religious tradition.
Judaism and the Nation of Israel
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the tribal societies in which all religions arose it would be difficult to separate out a religious belief component from the social practices of the tribe. Rituals centered on annual events of hunting, planting, and major seasonal changes, and would have involved attempted communication with the spirit powers which controlled such things, and rites to ensure fertility and success in the hunt. Rites often continue after such beliefs die out: many people bring trees into their homes at Christmas and decorate them, without believing that they are dressing and feeding the tree god and invoking his power to bring Winter to an end.
Islam and the Universal Umma
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Islam is like Judaism in seeing the appropriate way to human fulfillment in obedience to a divinely revealed law, the Shari ‘a. It is unlike Judaism in positing this law as given to be followed by all humanity, and not just by one special community. The Qur’an accepts that the Hebrew Bible was the result of genuine prophetic revelation, but maintains that it contains misunderstandings and errors, due to tahrif,or corruption of the Scriptures, which the revelation given to Muhammad sets out to correct. One of these misunderstandings is the unique role given to the descendants of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob by the Hebrew Bible. The Qur’an maintains that the prophetic revelation is universal, and the laws of God are meant to apply to all people without exception. Consequently, Islam aims to set out a law which can be the basis of all human social life. The way to true relationship with God is a way of living righteously in the divinely guided, just society. If one lives thus, one may be assured that God will raise one from death and welcome one into Paradise—the ultimate reward for the servants of God who freely and gladly submit to the divine will. It has often been claimed that Islam is more a religion of law than of theology. The way to fulfilment is the way of obedience to divine law, which is the way of obedience to God’s will.
Hinduism and the Sampradaya
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Judaism theoretically tries to construct a society which lives under the revealed law of a merciful Creator God, and can thereby be an exemplary pattern to the rest of the world. Islam theoretically attempts to create a global society living under the law of God, which will make it easier for people to achieve that fellowship with God that Muslims see as the Creator’s purpose. Buddhists theoretically form a Community of monks and nuns who renounce the world and its concerns, and pursue the path of final liberation from sorrow.
In practice, things are not quite like that. Israel is a secular state, and religious (rabbinic) Judaism is a set of very diverse groups scattered throughout the world, almost the only common feature of which is a strong commitment to ethical monotheism, and some sort of commitment to simply being Jewish. The umma of Islam is in fact identifiable with a particular group of national states, and with many minority groups of Muslims throughout the world. Attitudes within that umma vary considerably, and again the only common commitment is obedience to a God who commands social justice, mercy, and potentially universal fellowship among human beings. The Buddhist sangha is involved in a number of different ways with the governments of South-East Asian countries, and interrelates with lay organizations which are committed to varying programmes of social action and with encouraging greater compassion and sensitivity in the wider human society.
The Secular State
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1789 the American Revolution introduced to the world in a formal way the idea of a secular state. The first amendment to the constitution of the United States of America, drafted two years later, laid down that there would be ‘no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof’. The idea of a secular state was born.
In primal societies ‘religion’ is hard to distinguish from the general rituals and festivals of the tribe. Ancient Hebrew religion was a primal religion, in which the lives of the people were governed by laws that were inextricably religious, social, and political. Inevitably, however, religious and political leadership became separated. The ‘judges’ of Israel might have been religio-political leaders, but in a later age the kings and the prophets were different and often at odds with each other. The religious became partly supportive of, and partly critical of, the state. But there remained a close connection between political rule and religious practice. Rulers would no more claim to be neutral with regard to religious matters than they would with regard to moral and social matters. It is natural for there to be a generally agreed, state-supported religion, just as there is a general social agreement on modes of conduct and moral practices. This practice entered into the constitution of the states of modern Europe, and a principle almost universally accepted among the European nations after the Reformation was ‘Cujus regio, ejus religio’—let the religion of the people be that of the ruler.
The Church as a Teaching Community
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whereas Judaism and Islam seek, generally speaking, to bring the world under the law of God, and Buddhism and Hinduism seek, on the whole, to renounce the world, it is typical of Christian faith to set up a tension between the religious community and the world which is both critical and putatively transformative. There have, it is true, been many attempts to set up a Christian state, but a key part of the tradition is that ‘the world’ is fallen, that ‘you cannot serve both God and Mammon’, and that the kingdom of Christ is not of this world.2 There have been Christian attempts to renounce the world, but the central doctrine of incarnation gives a value to earthly life that is hard to gainsay, and the hope for a renewal of the world by the Spirit of God is at the heart of Jesus’ teaching.
So, on the one hand, the world is corrupt, and the faithful are called out of the world to live in Christ, whom the world crucified.’ On the other hand, the world is created, indwelt, and redeemed by God, and the faithful are called to a ministry of reconciling the world to God.’1 This ambiguity enters into the heart of the Christian community itself. The faithful remain as part of the world, so that their community is one of sinners who stand before God to plead forgive ness. Yet the community of faith is called to be a community of saints, of those who are sanctified by the Spirit, and commanded to be a light to those in darkness.
The Church as a Charismatic Community
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have suggested that the church can best exercise its proper teaching role by faithfully proclaiming its normative discernment of the divine nature and purpose, recorded in the Bible witness to the life of Jesus Jesus sent out the apostles to preach, exorcize, and heal, and the proclamation of the Word is perhaps the primary role of the church. This proclamation, however, is more than the presentation of a set of factual truths. What is proclaimed is the actual presence of the kingdom,’ the divine Spirit breaking into the world as an image and foreshadowing of the fulfillment of human potentiality in a community of love which God promises to all who respond in trust. The proclamation is the coming of God to a humanity in bondage, in the power of the Holy Spirit, to liberate from egoism and implant a new life of creativity, responsiveness, and love, to forgive, renew, and raise to eternal life in God. Through this proclamation, God gives new birth, as hearers respond in faith—or if they turn away, to that extent they remain in sin.
The Church as a Sacramental Community
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Christian church is a distinctive religious society, in that it is a sacramental community. It is not, like Judaism, to be closely associated with a particular socio-political state. Despite the fact of the church’s historical ties to the Byzantine and Holy Roman Empires, and the attempt of some popes to assert political supremacy, the church is truly ‘catholic’, an international community, existing in many different political frameworks and cultures. It is not, like Islam, a society of obedience to divine law. It has no detailed code of divine law, but seeks to pattern its life on that of Jesus, empowered by the Spirit which was fully manifest in him. It seeks to live by an inward and personal union with Christ, as an organic unity (a ‘body’) which mediates Christ’s life to the world. It is not, like Buddhism, centered on a community of renouncers, leaving the world to attain nirvana. Despite the fact that there have always been groups of Christians who have cut themselves off from the secular world, the church as a whole is a community that seeks not to leave but to transform the world, liberating it from all that separates it from God, and shaping it to express the divine beauty. It is not, like some main forms of Hinduism, a society that seeks a way of individual release from the wheel of rebirth; it is a society that delineates the way to eternal life, life in conscious, communal, and continuing personal relationship to a Creator God who wills the fulfillment of creation.
Christian Theology in a Comparative Context
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Comparative theology is a co-operative enterprise. It is a way of doing theology in which scholars holding different world-views share together in the investigation of concepts of ultimate reality, the final human goal, and the way to achieve it. Naturally, each scholar will have a particular perspective. One might expect it to develop and deepen in the many conversations of comparative theology, but it will most probably remain the same in its fundamental elements, especially if the scholar is a member of a religious community.
The series of four books which this volume completes are intended to form a contribution to comparative theology. But the conversations upon which they are founded have taken place outside the text, and a proper comparative theology would need to include written responses and original contributions from members of many traditions. So one might best see these four books as a systematic Christian theology, undertaken in a comparative context.
Constitutions
Authors: Barendt Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE opening pages of textbooks on constitutional law frequently pose the question: what are constitutions? A standard answer is that the word has two meanings. In the first, the constitution of a state is the written document or text which outlines the powers of its parliament, government, courts, and other important national institutions. Almost every country in the world has a documentary constitution of chis type. Some of them also set out fundamental rights, such as the right to freedom of speech and the right to a fair trial. It is characteristic of documentary constitutions, particularly those guaranteeing fundamental rights, that they impose constraints on the powers of the legislature and the government. In some cases such limits may be enforced by the courts. Their decisions comprise the central part of constitutional law. Moreover, there are special procedures for constitutional amendment; a documentary constitution cannot usually be changed by ordinary legislation.
Federalism and Devolution
Authors: Barendt Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE United Kingdom has a unitary, rather than a federal, constitution. Since the Act of Union with Scotland 1707, legislative and executive authority has been concentrated in the Westminster Parliament and the government in London. That has remained the position until the introduction of the devolution measures by the Labour government elected in 1997. Considerable legislative power is now to be devolved to the Scottish Parliament, while an Assembly for Wales is to take over the executive responsibilities hitherto discharged by the Secretary of State. Devolution measures were enacted in 1998. Radical though these changes are, they do not in theory affect the unitary character of the constitution.
The Courts and Judicial Power
Authors: Barendt Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ALEXANDER Hamilton, one of the authors of the Federalist Papers, described the judiciary as the ‘least dangerous’ branch of government. He meant that it cannot significantly damage the rights of citizens. The courts do not enjoy the wide law-making power of the legislature or the capacity of the executive to implement political policies. They are dependent on the government for financial support. Further, they ma} not be able to enforce their judgments without the assistance of bailiffs and other executive officials. Hamilton shared Montesquieu’s view that judges are relatively weak. It is, however, more interesting that he also agreed with the French jurist’s opinion that ‘there is no liberty, if the judiciary power be not separated from the legislative and executive.
Political Parties and Elections
Authors: Barendt Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
POLITICAL parties play a key role in modern democracies. Governments are formed from one party or from a coalition or loose alliance of parties; others constitute the opposition. Indeed, it would be difficult to carry on stable government without them. Parties are essential to trans late the views of individuals and pressure groups into political programmes, which in their turn constitute the policy of the executive government and provide the basis of legislation. The parties’ role is particularly important in parliamentary systems like that of the United Kingdom, where the government is formed from members of the majority party sitting in the legislative assembly. Party solidarity makes the Members of Parliament of that party extremely reluctant to vote agajnst the government, or even to hold individual ministers to account, if that would embarrass it. These inhibitions have rendered increasingly dated the traditional account of ministerial responsibility; they have consequently upset the balance of powers between the Parliament on the one hand and the Crown and ministers on the ocher. If one party controls both the legislature and the executive, and also enjoys a monopoly power of appointment to the judiciary, the separation of powers is significantly weakened as a check on arbitrary government. Ultimately the ambitions of a strong cohesive party can only be checked by the possibility of its removal from power at a general election.
Constitutions in Times of War and Emergency
Authors: Barendt Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ONE theme of this book has been that modern liberal constitutions are generally characterized by a separation of powers between distinct branches of government and by a concern to guarantee basic human rights. Indeed, it is these features which distinguish such constitutions from those systems of despotic or totalitarian rule which at most erect a constitutional fa ç rade behind which the government can do whatever it wants. But there are some situations in which even the most enlightened government finds it necessary to exercise power free from the normal constraints, in particular those imposed by the separation of powers and the need to respect the full range of individual liberties. Liberal constitutional principles may appear a luxury when a nation faces invasion or terrorism.
Crime
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Criminal justice, it might be said, presupposes crime. The existence of police, prosecutors, judges, courtrooms, and prisons might seem evidence enough of crime. It might even be said that crime calls the rules and practices, the agencies and institutions of criminal justice into existence. As Marx wryly observed: ‘The in?uence of the criminal upon the development of the productive forces can be shown in detail. Would the locksmith’s trade have attained its present perfection if there had been no thieves? Would the manufacture of bank notes have arrived at its present excellence if there had been no counterfeiters?’ Texts on criminal justice might also be said to owe their existence (if not their perfection) to crime. Yet even if, on the evidence of their existence, we could take crime as a given, we would still be left uncertain as to its meaning. What is this phenomenon that provokes such public concern, political interest, institutional endeavour, and expense? How is it defined? By whom? And to what ends?
Industrial Relations And Performance Since 1945
Authors: Nolan Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter investigates the nature of the linkages between industrial relations and the character and performance of British industry since 1945. Countless studies of Britain’s post-war performance record have cited industrial relations as a critical source of weakness. Employers, the argument runs, were prevented from organizing production efficiently by the adversarial production politics which allegedly inscribed workplace behaviour and bargaining systems in the three decades after 1945. Indeed, so commonly has this argument been advanced, and so rarely has it been challlenged, that it has come to serve as a powerfully seductive conventional wisdom.
The Impact of European Union Legislation on Intra-UK Conflict Rules
Authors: Hood Kirsty J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It must now be accepted that one of the most significant events for the UK in the development of modern private international law, has been entry into the (then) EEC, now the EU. Over the years, the range of areas in which EU action has been deemed necessary to support the Internal Market, and now to create an area of freedom, security and justice, has increased. A particularly important shift in EU involvement in conflicts law has been the move away from the use of Conventions (which in the UK required implementation with domestic legislation), to the use of Regulations, which are directly enforceable in all member states, and which have been described as ‘the most invasive legal instrument that European law has at its disposal’. In this chapter, the effect on intra-UK conflict rules of the various pieces of EU legislation will be considered.
Public Policy in Intra-UK Conflict of Laws
Authors: Hood Kirsty J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Public policy is a nebulous, multi-faceted concept. In theory, at least, it should occupy an important role in the conflict of laws. In reality, how-ever, the courts are often (rightly) reluctant to use such a powerful tool. In the intra-UK conflicts context, the question is how far public policy can, or should, feature at all. Is it possible, when a number of jurisdictions are part of a political whole, for one of those jurisdictions to make use of a concept of public policy in respect of another? Furthermore, is the answer to this question affected by the 1998 devolution settlements?
Conclusion
Authors: Hood Kirsty J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A particular factual-legal matrix, whereby there is contact between the peoples of different nations (each with their own legal system), is necessary before a need for conflict rules can arise. In the British isles this largely occurred between, on the one hand the Common Law nations of England, Wales and Ireland (recognizing that, whilst distinctive in certain ways, historically neither Wales nor Ireland were able to forge a lasting nation of their own) and, on the other hand, Scotland: although this is not to deny that clashes could also occur as between the laws prevalent in, for example, England and Ireland. However, despite these propitious conditions, the growth of a body of conflict laws was initially stunted, by a number of factors.
Organizing Business
Authors: Moran Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The organization of any interest for political purposes is a problematic affair, but it is especially problematic for business interests. We know why from the first two chapters of this book. There is a tension between the desire of business to maximize its political impact by organizing collectively and the pressure felt by individual enterprises to compete with business rivals. The tension has been made more acute by the historically fragmented organization of business interests on both sides of the Atlantic.
This chapter is about how business organizes now in the face of these problems.