bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Developing a district health service
Authors: Walley John , Wright John , Hubley John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Everyone who has studied and worked in the health system in their own country will be used to their own system. Unless one has experience of working in another country one will not be familiar with alternative ways in which health services could be organized. Although we may feel that the health service is running satisfactorily, there is always room for improvement—such improvements could possibly be achieved by changing to a better system of organizing the health service.
Managing medicines
Authors: Walley John , Wright John , Hubley John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter has been written because the efficient management of essential drugs is a condition for the successful functioning of health systems at all levels. Despite spending some 40 to 60 per cent of their limited overall health budgets on medicines, many developing countries are unable to deliver health services for their people. Safe, effective, and affordable pharmaceutical products are fundamental to public health, yet at present at least a third of the world’s population lacks access to even the most basic drugs.
Sensory processes and orientation
Authors: Holland Owen , McFarland David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before Muller’s (1827) doctrine of specific nerve energies it was thought that each specific environmental event, or stimulus, affected sensory nerves in a manner specific to the type of stimulus. Muller discovered that a given nerve pathway always produces the same type of sensation regardless of its mode of stimulation. Thus light falling upon the eye produces a visual sensation, but so does mechanical stimulation, such as a blow to the eye. If our ear could be attached to the optic nerve, auditory stimulation would then give rise to visual sensation. The sense organ acts as an energy transducer providing quantitative information. The destination of the nerves that relay the sens01y messages determines the qualitative information. The doctrine of specific nerve energies provides a key organizing principle for sensory physiology. It banishes all previous speculations as to the role of sense organs in perception, making it clear that these are primarily transducers of one form of energy to another.
Motivation and learning
Authors: Holland Owen , McFarland David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of motivation has a complex and contentious history, and many issues remain unresolved today. Plato and most of the ancient Greek philosophers regarded human behaviour as being the result of rational and voluntary processes, with individuals being free to choose whatever course of action their reason dictates. This view, called ‘rationalism’, persists to this day.
Thomas Aquinas, in the thirteenth century, regarded animal behaviour as being determined by sensuous desire, though he appeared to recognize some elementary process of judgement in animals: ‘Others act from some kind of choice, such as irrational animals, for the sheep flies from the wolf by a kind of judgement whereby it considers it to be hurtful to itself; such a judgement is not a free one but implanted by nature’.
Bosons
Authors: Krauth Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present chapter introduces the statistical mechanics and computational physics of identical bosons. Thus, after studying, in Chapter 3, the manifestation of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle at finite temperature for a single quantum particle or several distinguishable quantum particles, we now follow identical particles to low temperature, where they lose their individual characters and enter a collective state of matter characterized by Bose condensation and superfluidity.We mostly focus in this chapter on the modeling of noninteracting (ideal) bosons. Our scope is thus restricted, by necessity, because quantum systems are more complex than the classical models of earlier chapters. However, ideal bosons are of considerably greater interest than other noninteracting systems because they can have a phase transition.
Inferring the action of natural selection from DNA sequence comparisons: data from Drosophila
Authors: Aguadé Montserrat , Rozas, Julio , Segarra Carmen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Advances in molecular biology techniques over the last two decades have contributed to a dramatic increase in the number of DNA sequences available in databases. In addition, the development of more efficient and powerful hardware, software, and algorithms has facilitated the handling and analysis of these sequences. Population genetic studies have greatly benefited from these developments. Datasets based on homologous DNA sequences from a single species are now essential to understand the forces driving molecular evolution. Indeed, valuable information about the mechanisms involved in the evolution of particular gene regions can be obtained from studying intraspecific nucleotide variation. Our understanding of this information has also benefited from further development of theoretical models such as the infinitesites model (Kimura 1983).
Evolution and population structure of parasitic protozoa: the Plasmodium model
Authors: Rich Stephen M , Ayala Francisco J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human malaria is the cause of tremendous morbidity and mortality in the world. The complexity of its causative agents, Plasmodium species, has thwarted efforts to eradicate the disease (for review, see Spielman et al. 1993; Bradley 1999). Many methods have been proposed for intervening in parasite transmission, and hence reducing human malaria, including development of vaccines to protect individuals against infection and new drug therapies, as well as efforts that target the mosquito vector of the parasite. The extensive antigenic diversity of the parasite and its widespread resistance to existing anti-malarial drugs call for a better understanding of the parasite’s biology as a prerequisite to enhance the likely success of control efforts.
The evolution of symbiosis in insects
Authors: Ham Roeland C H J van , Moya Andrés , Latorre Amparo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prokaryotic microbes are nearly everywhere: from the atmosphere at altitudes as high as 77 km to within subsurface sediments as deep as 4 km, from benign and eutrophic places like freshwater lakes, tropical rainforest soils, and mammalian intestines, to the most harsh environments of deep ocean hydrothermal vents, acidic rivers, desert soils, and the Antarctic ice shell. But not only are they “every-where”: in many habitats prokaryotes occur in astronomic numbers.
Evolutionary and ecological genetics of cyclical parthenogens
Authors: Meester Luc De , Gómez Africa , Simon Jean-Christophe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cyclical parthenogenesis (CP) is defined as the more or less regular alternation of sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction (Bell 1982; Hughes 1989). The terminology is, to some extent, unfortunate, as the alternation between sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction is not necessarily genetically determined in the life cycle, but responds largely to environmental conditions, the resulting pattern often being far from “cyclical.” In general, parthenogenetic reproduction is sustained as long as environmental conditions remain favorable, whereas sexual reproduction is elicited by cues anticipating unfavorable conditions.
Play: how evolution can explain the most mysterious behavior of all
Authors: Burghardt Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a visit to a zoo, one is apt to see gibbons vigorously, but gracefully, swinging through branches or rope “vines” with the greatest of ease. In a nearby enclosure, juvenile chimps chase each other, wrestle, and seem to laugh. In the polar bear exhibit empty beer kegs are tossed around with abandon. Moving on to the bird section, an adult Andean condor repeatedly attacks, grabs, and tosses a small red hard rubber object. All of these actions are enjoyable for the visitors to watch, but why do they even occur? These energetically costly activities are not actions that seem directed at accomplishing important ends such as eating, escaping from enemies, or mating.
The debate on the role of biodiversity in ecosystem functioning
Authors: Mooney H A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the past decade there has been an impressive development of research inquiry into the issue of the role of biodiversity in the functioning of eco systems. Large numbers of research scientists have been attracted to this area, rooms in research meetings have been filled with people presenting and listening to the results of new inquiries into this topic. The literature is burgeoning with new findings and insights. However, recently there has been an unusual discord within this research area that is having some unfortunate consequences in both the larger realm of science and policy but also at the fundamental level of a negative feedback to further inquiry.
Biodiversity manipulation experiments: studies replicated at multiple sites
Authors: Hector A , Loreau M , Schmid B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Biodiversity is usually defined in a general sense as a collective term for all biological differences at scales ranging from genes to ecosystems (e.g. Harper and Hawksworth 1994). This breadth of meaning is both a strength and weakness of the term, which poses many challenges in its study. In this chapter, we focus on the BIODEPTH project, presenting an overview of published analyses of the combined site datasets from Hector et al. (1999) and Loreau and Hector (2001), and re-examining the debate caused by the early results (Hector et al. 1999, 2000b; Huston et al. 2000). We present some additional material and new methods and analysis that we hope will clarify some points of debate and draw comparisons with the small number of other multi site biodiversity experiments that have been con ducted so far.
The critical role of plant-microbe interactions on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: arbuscular mycorrhizal associations as an example
Authors: Heijden M G A van der , Cornelissen J H C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning has been a main focus of ecological research in recent years as is summarized in this book. Studies that investigated this relationship mainly concentrated on plants and how their divers ity influences productivity and stability of terrestrial ecosystems (e.g. Hector et al., Chapter 4; Tilman et al., Chapter 3). Plants, as primary producers, are the basal component of most terrestrial ecosystems, which justifies this approach. However, most ecosystems harbour diverse communities of vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and many micro organisms. These organisms interact with plants and hence influence the relationship between bio diversity and ecosystem functioning.
Perspectives and challenges
Authors: Loreau M , Naeem S , lnchausti P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Few areas of ecology have expanded as fast as biodiversity and ecosystem functioning research during the last few years. Starting from simple intuitive hypotheses, this scientific area has generated a new wave of ambitious experiments using synthesized model ecosystems in both terrestrial and aquatic environments, it has stimulated the emergence of new theoretical approaches linking concepts and perspectives from community ecology and ecosystem ecology, and it has more broadly renewed interest in synthetic approaches in eco logy, cutting across increasingly specialized eco logical sub-disciplines.
Modern Theories of Nuclear Moments
Authors: Castel B , Towner I S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of nuclear moments parallels the development of nuclear physics as a whole. Thus it can prove an excellent pedagogical tool to acquaint oneself with the complexities and elegance of some of the most current and powerful nuclear models, and it is this that the authors have attempted in this book. Instead of presenting a compilation of theoretical calculations of nuclear moments, they have endeavoured to show to what extent nuclear moments can be used as a stringent test of current nuclear models and of their predictive power.
Statistical Mechanics of Phase Transitions
Authors: Yeomans J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent developments have led to a good understanding of universality; why phase transitions in systems as diverse as magnets, fluids, liquid crystals, and superconductors can be brought under the same theoretical umbrella and well described by simple models. This book describes the physics underlying universality and then lays out the theoretical approaches now available for studying phase transitions. Traditional techniques, mean-field theory, series expansions, and the transfer matrix, are described; the Monte Carlo method is covered, and two chapters are devoted to the renormalization group, which led to a break-through in the field. The book will be useful as a textbook for a course in `Phase Transitions', as an introduction for graduate students undertaking research in related fields, and as an overview for scientists in other disciplines who work with phase transitions but who are not aware of the current tools in the armoury of the theoretical physicist.
Some Applications of GRs
Authors: Harakeh M N , van der Woude A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the known properties of GRs are used to study some specific nuclear properties, either as an alternative to already existing methods or as the only method to obtain any information at all. The following topics will be discussed: Fission time scales: hot, fast-rotating nuclei resulting from a heavy-ion fusion reaction can fission. It has been found from neutron multiplicity measurements that the fission time scale is considerably longer than expected on the basis of a simple statistical model. A longer fission time should also affect the multiplicity of isovector giant dipole resonance (IVGDR) decay γs.
Inhibitors of Protein Tyrosine Kinases
Authors: Yarden Yosef , Peles Elior 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Phosphorylation of tyrosine residues of proteins is an extremely rare post translational covalent modification, accounting for less than 0.1 per cent of overall cellular phosphoproteins. Nevertheless, this modification appears to be uniquely involved in the regulation of cell growth and differentiation by extracellular signals. Close to 50 protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) are already known, falling into two groups: the receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are transmembrane glycoproteins that bind polypeptide growth factors, whereas the soluble PTKs reside in the cytoplasm. The catalytic function of both groups is activated, either directly or indirectly, by exoplasm-facing proteins and leads to self-phosphorylation of the stimulated kinase as well as modification of a set of cytoplasmic proteins. Loss of regulation of this catalytic function usually results in rapid cell proliferation and neoplastic transformation.
Inhibitors of Non-Protein Kinases
Authors: Buechter Douglas D , Kenyon George L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Small molecule (non-protein) kinases are ubiquitous enzymes that catalyse the transfer of a phosphoryl group, usually from a nucleoside triphosphate donor (e.g. ATP), to a non-protein acceptor molecule. A few kinases are able to utilize pyrophosphate as the phosphoryl donor (e.g. pyrophosphate dependent phosphofructokinase (Reeves et al. 1974)). Non-protein kinases are key enzymes in numerous critical cellular processes. These include the generation of ‘high-energy phosphate ‘ compounds in glycolysis, cellular storage of such compounds, salvage, and de nova synthesis of nucleotides/ nucleosides for nucleic acid synthesis and phospholipid biosynthesis. Inhibitors of non-protein kinases are of importance in mechanistic and enzymological investigations and in the elucidation of their physiological roles. Because these enzymes catalyse critical biochemical reactions, cellular growth and metabolism are often highly dependent upon their activity. As a result, many of these enzymes are attractive targets for anticancer and antiviral agents. Of particular importance is the design of inhibitors that are selective either for certain isozymes of one organism (e.g. fetal versus adult isozymes) or for enzymes from different organisms (e.g. viral versus host enzymes). The design of such inhibitors is facilitated by an understanding of the mechanism and structure of the enzyme at the molecular level. Thus investigations of the three-dimensional structure, kinetics, chemical mechanism, and active site residues of kinases are of considerable importance in modern drug design.
Enzyme Targets as an Approach to Therapy for HIV Infections
Authors: Clercq Erik De , Vandamme Anne-Mieke , Schols Dominique , Debyser Zeger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The life-cycle of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) begins with the binding of the viral envelope glycoprotein (gpl20) to the CD4 receptor of the host cells. Fusion between the viral envelope and the cell membrane follows, whereupon the viral nucleocapsid gains entry into the cell. After entry, uncoating of the nucleocapsid takes place. Once it has been released (at least partially) from its core (group-specific antigen (gag)) proteins, the genomic RNA is converted into double-stranded (proviral) DNA by reverse transcriptase (RT). The pro viral DNA then migrates to the nucleus where it is integrated into the host genome by integrase.
Fungal Enzyme Targets
Authors: Berg Dieter , Plempel Manfred 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The therapeutic situation in the treatment of fungal diseases changed dramatically with the development of the sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBis). The imidazoles and 1,2,4,-triazoles that are already on the market are highly effective topical and vaginal antimycotics, and oral administration has become possible in the case of some of these compounds. The azoles, originating from the chemical classes of imidazoles, 1,2,4-triazoles, pyridines, or pyrimidines, interfere with the biosynthesis of fungal sterols by inhibiting the demethylation at Cl4. The Cl4-a-demethylase is a mono oxygenase of the cytochrome P450 type which is inhibited by direct interference with the prosthetic group, i.e. an iron porphyrin moiety.
Inhibitors of Phospholipase A2
Authors: Mobilio Dominick , Schiehser Guy A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the first rate-limiting enzyme in the arachidonic acid cascade, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) has long held promise as a strategic target for therapeutic intervention. In hydrolysing arachidonyl esters from the sn-2 position of membrane phospholipids, this enzyme class initiates the generation of a host of humoral mediators including the leucotrienes, prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and lipoxins. When utilizing 1-0-alkyl phosphatidylcholines as substrates, PLA2s liberate lyso platelet-activating factor (lyso-PAF), the progenitor of the potent lipid mediator platelet-activating factor (PAF). This ‘remodelling pathway ‘ is the primary biosynthetic route for the generation of PAF following cellular activation. In addition to its pivotal role in mediatoi biosynthesis, the direct effects of PLA2s on phospholipid catabolism and the preferential hydrolysis of oxidized substrates suggest a role in membrane remodelling and homeostasis. As a consequence of its multiple physiological effects, unregulated PLA2 activity is suspected of major involvement in inflammatory pathologies. Despite intense efforts to identify modulators of these enzymes, selective inhibitors and clinically useful agents have proved to be frustratingly elusive.
Inhibitors of Mammalian Collagenases
Authors: Johnson W H , Bottomley K M K , Broadhurst M J , Brown P A , Nixon J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family of enzymes contains at least 11 members, subdivided into three groups, gelatinases, stromelysins, and callagenases. They are zinc metalloenzymes, which have a requirement for calcium, operate optimally at neutral pH, and are secreted as latent pro forms requiring activation. Sequence homology between family members is 55 per cent between human fibroblast collagenase and stromelysin, and
57 per cent between human fibroblast and neutrophil collagenases. The zinc-binding motif and three cysteine residues are totally conserved. All MMPs are inhibited by tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP 1-4) (Docherty et al. 1985; Williamson et al. 1990) and by armacroglobulin, although a physiological role for this inhibitor is questionable. Under normal circumstances, the MMPs are probably involved in the remodelling of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue. This is re quired to facilitate cell migration, morphogenesis, and growth.
Mass of the Neutron
Authors: Alexandrov Yu. A , Drozdova T F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the neutron is electrically neutral, the usual methods of comparing the atomic masses (mass spectroscopy and chemical methods) are not applicable in its case.The neutron mass was estimated immediately after the discovery of the neutron. First estimates were based on the measurement of the recoil energy of nuclei after their collision with neutrons. Naturally this method could not be very accurate. Therefore, a more precise method of analysis of the mass-energy balance in the transmutations involving neutrons was later employed for this purpose. Soon after the discovery of the neutron, therefore, the reactions 11B(α, n)14B and 7Li(α, n)10B were used for the determination of the neutron mass. Later, the (n, p), (p, n), (d, p), and (d, n) reactions with light nuclei were used for this purpose. A review of these experiments can be found in Ref. 92.
Introduction to modern quantitative theory
Authors: Sutton Adrian P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far in this book we have used simple models to gain insight and basic understanding about the electronic structure and properties of materials. These models have all involved a number of approximations and while they give valuable insight and can even predict trends in properties, they contain parameters which must be fit either to experiment or to accurate calculations. But in order to make confident predictions about the properties of materials it is necessary to work with theories that contain nothing that has to be fit to experiment, that is the calculation should be done from first principles with as few approximations as possible. Since about 1980 it has become possible to make quantitative predictions of a wide range of materials’ properties essentially from first principles. These calculations are almost exact solutions of the Schrodinger equation for the material.
Physics of Semiconductors in High Magnetic Fields
Authors: Miura Noboru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book describes the basic concepts of various physical phenomena in semiconductors and their modulated structures under high magnetic fields. The topics cover magneto-transport phenomena, cyclotron resonance, far-infrared spectroscopy, magneto-optical spectroscopy, diluted magnetic semiconductors in high magnetic fields, as well as the recent advances in the experimental techniques needed for high field experiments. Starting from the introductory part describing the basic theoretical background, each chapter introduces typical experimental data which were actually obtained in very high magnetic fields mostly in the pulsed field range up to several megagauss (20-100T). The book has both the character of a textbook and a monograph. For researchers and students with an interest in semiconductor physics or in high magnetic fields, it will serve as a useful guide.