bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Repairing Distribution Line Breaks
Authors: Bhardwaj Vipin 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Occasionally, water systems encounter situations where they must repair distribution system pipes. Corrosion and tuberculation (i.e., buildup of sediment, dirt, or rust) may have caused small leaks in the lines, or worse, a major line break may occur, creating an emergency situation. This Tech Brief discusses ways to manage these situations and outlines steps a utility may take to repair the distribution system.
Key Causes of Drinking Water Quality Failure in a Rural Small Water Supply ofSouthAfrica
Authors: Momba M.N.B. , Makala N. , Zani B. , Brouckaert B.M. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractDespite recent efforts by the South African government to extend and improve water services in rural and periurban areas of the country, most small treatment plants are still experiencing serious operating problems that jeopardize the quality of the water produced and the health of consumers. In the present study, the operation of Alice Water Treatment Plant (AWTP), a small treatment plant serving the town of Alice in the Eastern Cape Province, was evaluated, and the major causes compromising the effectiveness of the disinfection process were identified. The investigation revealed that the AWTP's major operational problems include: (a) The lack of a proper coagulant dosing control resulting in inadequate turbidity removal in the clarifiers and filters. The most common source of problems in rapid filtration was inadequate backwashing. The filters appeared to go for days without backwashing. (b) The lack of a proper chlorine dosing procedure and monitoring program. These problems are linked to the inadequate training of the plant staff. As a result of inadequate pretreatment, which also resulted in high dissolved organic carbon and biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) concentrations and insufficient chlorine residuals, Alice treated water did not meet the minimum safety limits for potable water.
Hydraulic Design of Water Distribution Storage Tanks
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water distribution storage ensures the reliability of supply, maintains pressure, equalizes pumping and treatment rates, reduces the size of transmission mains, and improves operational flexibility and efficiency. Numerous decisions must be made in designing a storage tank, including size, location, type, and expected operation. There are several key considerations in the hydraulic design of water storage tanks.
Equalization is the primary purpose for constructing water distribution storage tanks. Water utilities like to operate treatment plants at a relatively constant rate, and wells and pumping stations generally work best when pumped at a steady rate. However, water use in most utilities varies significantly during the course of the day. These variations in use can be met by continuously varying source production, continuously varying pumping rates, or filling and draining storage tanks.
Improving Waterborne Disease Surveillance
Authors: Frost Floyd J. , Calderon Rebecca L. , Craun Gunther F. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractPublic health surveillance has played a key role in controlling the spread of communicable disease and identifying the need for specific public health practices, such as the filtration and chlorination of drinking water supplies. However, the characteristics of waterborne outbreaks since the early 1990s have raised questions about whether current water treatment practices can prevent transmission of some enteric pathogens. It is increasingly accepted that additional information is needed about the occurrence and causes of waterborne disease, both epidemic and endemic. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) funded “emerging pathogen” surveillance projects in selected state health departments, in part to improve surveillance for several important waterborne agents. In New York City (NYC), the Department of the Environment (DEP), responsible for drinking water treatment and delivery, convened a panel of public health experts in 1994 to evaluate current health department disease surveillance programs. The panel recommended specific waterborne disease surveillance activities and epidemiologic studies to determine endemic waterborne disease risks associated with use of unfiltered surface water sources.
Desalination
Authors: Voutchkov Nikolay 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Desalination is the production of fresh potable water from a saline water source (seawater or brackish water) via membrane separation or evaporation. Desalination plants operate in more than 120 countries worldwide, and some desert states, such as Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, rely on desalinated water for more than 70% of their water supply. Sea or brackish waters are typically desalinated using two general types of water treatment technologies—thermal evaporation (distillation) and membrane separation. All thermal desalination technologies use distillation (heating of source water) to produce water vapor that is then condensed into low‐salinity potable water. The thermal desalination technologies most widely used today are multistage flash distillation (MSF), multiple effect distillation (MED), and vapor compression (VC). Membrane desalination is a process of separating minerals from source water using semipermeable membranes. Two general types of technologies are currently used in membrane desalination—reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis (ED). Reverse osmosis desalination is the most widely used membrane separation process today. Currently, there are more than 2000 RO membrane seawater desalination plants worldwide whose total production capacity is in excess of 3 million cubic meters per day (800 MGD).
The Economics of Water Resources Allocation
Authors: Bond Patrick 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

No one would doubt “the principle that water is a scarce good with dimensions of economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental sustainability.” Yet as articulated in the World Bank's (1)
African Water Resources
document, the principle disguises two polar‐opposite positions about pricing water.

On the one hand,
The Economist
magazine's (2; pp. 1–5) survey on water declared the central dilemma: “Throughout history, and especially over the past century, it has been ill‐governed and, above all, collossally underpriced.” Identifying this problem, naturally begets this solution: “The best way to deal with water is to price it more sensibly,” for “although water is special, both its provision and its use will respond to market signals.” In rural areas where there is competition among farmers for irrigation water, “The best solution is water trading.” As for the problem of allocating and delivering water to the poor, “The best way of solving it is to treat water pretty much as a business like any other.” We can call this the “neoliberal” position.
Extraterritorial Land Use Control to Protect Water Supplies
Authors: Phoenix Laurel 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Cities continually need water to grow. If they are located near a river, lake, or groundwater source, they will use these closest sources first. Some cities, however, have needed to search for water far beyond their boundaries, typically looking for rivers, large lakes, or valleys suitable for damming to create reservoirs. Because these distant areas are in different political jurisdictions that may fight a city in its quest for water, a state may step in and give a city the power it needs to expropriate and subsequently control lands outside its municipal boundaries. A city needing water from a new source may need extraterritorial control over land in that area in order to (1) establish the source, (2) maintain access to the source, and (3) maintain quality of the source. Brief descriptions are given of how Boston, New York City, and Syracuse exert their extraterritorial control to protect their source water supplies.
Air–Sea Interaction
Authors: Hsu S. A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAir–sea interaction (ASI) is the exchange of energy and mass across the air–water interface. ASI encompasses vast variations in spatial and temporal scales, so a list of recent literature regarding these fields is provided. This article summarizes several basic and applied topics in ASI. They include but are not limited to the parameterization of stability and roughness lengths, determination of friction velocity, parameterization of latent heat flux and evaporation, and estimation of wind–wave interaction and shoaling depth during hurricanes. It is shown that the stability and roughness parameters, Bowen ratio, and evaporation can be estimated directly using measurements of wind, wave, and air and water temperatures from offshore buoys. The data from these buoys are reported hourly by the U.S. National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) at its website (www.ndbc.noaa.gov). Because of the extensive impact caused by hurricanes, formulas are also provided to determine the maximum sustained wind speed, maximum significant wave height, storm surge, and shoaling depth using the minimum sea‐level (central) pressure as the only input.
Trace Element Pollution
Authors: Presley Bobby J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractUnlike pesticides and other synthetically produced substances, trace elements occur naturally in the environment. Their concentration in rocks, soil, water, tissue and other substances can be determined using sensitive instruments. At least two dozen trace elements are known to be essential to the health of humans and other organisms. However, several trace elements are very toxic, even in low concentrations, and some essential trace elements are toxic at elevated concentrations. Many human activities, such as mining, manufacturing, transportation and agriculture, can mobilize trace elements and add them to the environment. If the additions are too great, they cause pollution which has adverse effects on human and ecosystem health. For this reason, industrialized nations regulate trace element additions to the environment. In the United States, most parts of the environment are less polluted with trace elements than they were before environmental regulations took effect in the 1970s.
Renewable Energies from the Ocean
Authors: Jalihal Purnima 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThis chapter discusses wave, tidal, and ocean thermal energy. The principles involved in these various types of renewable ocean energy forms are discussed. Some earlier efforts toward harnessing these energy forms are also discussed. Two Indian case studies are presented, one of which is a wave‐powered desalination system and the other is the design and installation of a 1‐MW floating OTEC plant. It is concluded that harnessing ocean energies is challenging and needs several engineering and technological innovations.
Food Chain/Foodweb/Food Cycle
Authors: Juhl Andrew 
Published: July 2005

AbstractA representation of the feeding relationships within an ecosystem is given. Energy flow through the system is shown by diagrammatically linking predators with their prey. The three terms “food chain”, “foodweb”, and “food cycle” are nearly interchangeable, although food chains are usually simpler representations, lacking omnivory and other complications of real systems. Oversimplification is a common criticism of food chains, but also of foodwebs and food cycles. As models of one of the ways that organisms within an ecosystem interact, they always lack some complexities found in real ecosystems. The degree of naturally occurring complexity that is represented in any given foodweb depends largely on the purpose for which the model is constructed. It may be acceptable for some purposes to show only the most important energy paths, with many species lumped together into functional groups. Other needs may require greater detail or may require making aspects of the foodweb quantitative. Regardless of the simplicity or complexity, foodwebs are a powerful tool for studying ecosystems. Foodwebs from different types of ecosystems share certain basic characteristics. The search for properties that are general to all foodwebs is an interesting area of ecological research.
Histopathology in Biomonitoring Marine Invertebrates
Authors: Martín‐Díaz M.L. , Jiménez‐Tenorio N. , Sarasquete C. , González de Canales M.L. , DelValls T.A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe use of the histopathological alterations as a biomarker of effect in marine invertebrates has been widely included in the assessment of the quality of the marine environment. This biomarker may link the bioavailability of different compounds with the effect at target tissues and it has been successfully included in major national monitoring programmes. Nevertheless, this biomarker is still under a experimental stage.The present work critically reviews the advantages and limitations of the use of this biomarker: the methodology for its determination and its inclusion as a complementary tool for the marine pollution assessment in a Weight of Evidence (WOE) approach.
Solubility of Hydrocarbons and Sulfur Compounds in Water
Authors: Yaws Carl L. , Narasimhan Prasad K. , Lou Helen H. , Pike Ralph W. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Correlations are presented for the solubility of hydrocarbons and organic sulfur compounds in water. A wide variety of compounds are covered—alkanes, olefins, diolefins, acetylenes, cyclopentanes, cyclohexanes, benzenes, mercaptans, thiophenes, and sulfides. The new correlation provides reliable solubility values down to very low concentrations (parts per million range). The correlation is based on the boiling point of the compound. Correlation and experimental data are in favorable agreement. The results are useful in process engineering for wastewater minimization.
Dissolved Gases
Authors: Boström M. , Ninham B. W. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Gases dissolved in water play an important role in solution chemistry and in biological processes in solutions. The story that we will present of dissolved gases in water is in some sense twofold. We begin with the more conventional description and a general discussion of gases dissolved in groundwater, in seawater, and in blood, and decompression sickness. We then give a short introduction to a new and rapidly developing scientific field within colloid and solution chemistry that has demonstrated a profound role for dissolved gas in, for example, colloidal interactions, hydrophobic interactions, conductance, surface tension, and bubble fusion. We argue strongly that different scientific disciplines that consider dissolved gases in very different ways can benefit tremendously from better knowledge of work in other disciplines.
Acid Rain and Society
Authors: Middleton Paulette 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The relationships between chemical emissions into the atmosphere and the effects of the chemicals on various ecosystems, human health, and materials are highly complex. Many harmful chemicals (i.e., air pollutants) chemically interact to form other pollutants, which are perhaps even more harmful than the originally emitted chemicals. The most prominent examples of these dangerous chemical products are acid rain, ozone, and aerosols. In addition, many air pollutants are thought to interact in a synergistic fashion to cause even more harm as a group rather than individually. An example of the possible synergism is the hypothesized impact of acid rain and ozone on forest ecosystems. Understanding the causes and effects of acid rain and related air quality issues has become an important mission of atmospheric scientists around the globe.
Mechanisms of Water Adsorption on Carbons
Authors: Gauden Piotr A. , Terzyk Artur P. , Rychlicki Gerhard , Furmaniak Sylwester , WesoŁowski RadosŁaw P. , Wiśniewski Marek , Kowalczyk Piotr 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The properties of water are of importance in many scientific disciplines such as chemistry, biology, geology, nanotechnology, and materials technology. Moreover, the adsorption of water on activated carbon (AC) is an important topic in many different areas of science and technology because water is the most common solvent in nature. The adsorption and phase behavior of polar fluids in carbon pores has been studied extensively, but our understanding of the adsorption of water on carbonaceous materials is still incomplete (1, 2, 3, 4).
In recent years, a number of experimental and simulation studies of adsorption of water in pores have appeared in the literature. Some studies have assumed that the adsorption behavior of water in graphite pores is hydrophobic. Although principally hydrophobic adsorbents may contain significant numbers of adsorption centers that can interact with water, it is generally believed that the combination of weak carbon–water dispersive attractions and strong water–water associative interactions are responsible for the complex behavior of water confined in carbonaceous pores.
Shear‐Driven Overturns
Authors: Smyth W.D. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Shear‐driven overturns are an important mechanism for mixing in most geophysical and many industrial flows. This article summarizes both the physical processes leading to the turbulent state and the properties of the resulting turbulence. Formulae are provided for estimation of the dominant spatiotemporal scales as well as the turbulent fluxes and diffusivities.
Defluroidation
Authors: Dahi Eli 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Defluoridation refers to methods of water treatment that reduce the concentration of fluoride in the water, normally in order to make it safe for human consumption. Some water treatments that have the capacity of reducing the fluoride concentration along with most other anions, or anions and cations, in the water are not considered defluoridation methods. Thus, general demineralizing methods like distillation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and resin deanionization, which are able to remove fluoride fully or partly from the water, are not considered defluoridation methods. On the other hand, methods that only remove fluoride without any addition or reduction of other parameters are not yet discovered, which is why the expression “fluoride removal” lacks precision. Defluoridation is used to characterize methods that reduce the fluoride ion specifically, without other

major

changes to the quality of the treated water.
Watershed Modeling
Authors: Wagener Thorsten 
Published: July 2005

AbstractModels of watershed hydrology are important tools in hydrological investigations for operational and research purposes. Areas of application are the extension of streamflow time‐series in space and time, evaluation of a watershed response to climate and/or land‐use variability and change, calculation of design floods, as load models linked to water quality investigations, real‐time flood forecasting, and the provision of boundary conditions for atmospheric circulation models. This multitude of, often very specific, tasks and circumstances has contributed to the development of a vast number of watershed models starting in the early 1960s (see Todini, for a historical review). These models are usually a mixture of linear and nonlinear functions, combined to represent those processes occurring in the specific watershed and important for the study objectives at hand. Watershed models are also used in water quality studies, but the focus here is simulation of the quantitative response and general features of these models.
Drainage Ditches
Authors: Moore Matthew T. , Cooper Charles M. , Farris Jerry L. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractDrainage ditches are unique aquatic ecosystems that have gone virtually unnoticed by the scientific community. These systems are often considered nothing more than conduits for water transport from wet or moist areas, when indeed they serve as crucial sites for contaminant transfer and transformation. In many parts of the world, ditches also serve as refuges for endangered species of flora and fauna. Maintenance of drainage ditches is a subject that stirs intense debate between farmers, landowners, scientists, and regulators. Finding a balance between efficient water transport and ditch water quality improvements is a growing field of concern. Various characteristics of drainage ditches are identified, with an emphasis on ditches in agricultural systems. Also included is a brief history of drainage ditches, as well as past and present drainage ditch research, and a brief synopsis of future ditch research directions.
Dyes As Hydrological Tracers
Authors: Mon Jarai , Flury Markus 
Published: July 2005

AbstractDyes have been used in hydrological investigations for more than a century. Dye tracers are versatile tools to study flow connections, residence times, hydrodynamic dispersion, flow patterns, and chemical leaching. The major advantage of dyes compared with other tracers is that dyes are readily detected at low concentrations, simple to quantify, and inexpensive. The visualization of dyes is often a powerful tool to demonstrate flow pathways. As most dyes are organic molecules, they tend to sorb to solid surfaces and can be photo‐ and biochemically degraded. For water tracing, dyes should therefore be tested under the specific conditions under which dye tracing is to be conducted. We present a brief overview on the use of dyes as hydrological tracers, and we propose a cost‐effective screening technique for selection of optimal dye tracers. This technique is based on quantitative structure‐activity relationships (QSARs). We conducted a case study on the application of QSAR for screening and selection of dye tracers. The QSAR modeling revealed many hypothetical dyes that show potential to be good tracers.
Water—The Canadian Transporter
Authors:   Environment Canada
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Water plays an important role in the transformation of the Canadian landscape by moving large amounts of soil, in the form of
sediment
. Sediment is eroded from the landscape, transported by river systems, and eventually deposited in a lake or the sea. For example, the Fraser River carries an average of 20 million tonnes of sediment a year into the marine environment.

The sediment cycle starts with the process of
erosion
, whereby particles or fragments are weathered from rock material. Action by water, wind, glaciers, and plant and animal activities all contribute to the erosion of the earth's surface. Fluvial sediment is the term used to describe the case where water is the key agent for erosion. Natural, or geologic, erosion takes place slowly, over centuries or millennia. Erosion that occurs as a result of human activity may take place much faster. It is important to understand the role of each when studying sediment transport.
The Theory of Alternative Stable States in Shallow Lake Ecosystems
Authors: Williams Adrian E. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The concept of alternative stable states within ecosystems was first forwarded in the 1960s. The current view with respect to shallow lakes is that over a range of nutrient concentrations, two alternative stable states can exist. One state comprises of clear water dominated by submerged macrophytes, whereas the other is a turbid phytoplankton‐dominated state. Each of the stable states has a number of buffer systems that maintain that state through top‐down and bottom‐up processes. As many of the buffers and thus forward and reverse switches are well understood, attempts are sometimes made to influence these processes and thus force a change from one state to another, which is especially true during lake restoration projects when it can be desirable to turn a turbid algal‐dominated lake into a clear water macrophyte‐dominated lake.