bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A SYNTHETIC ESTIMATE OF THE NATIONAL WEALTH OF JAPAN 1885–1973*
Authors: Goldsmith Raymond 
Published: March 2005

This article present estimates, in current prices, of the national wealth of Japan and of about a dozen components for twelve benchmark dates between 1885 and 1973, the distance ranging, with one exception, from five to twelve years. The estimates are derived by a combination of (a) Ohkawa's perpetual inventory estimates of reproducible fixed assets for the period from 1885 to 1940 and Economic Planning Agency censuses for 1950 to 1965, roughly extrapolated to 1973; with (b) estimates of other components of national wealth (land, inventories, consumer durables and net foreign assets) taken for the pre‐war period chiefly from census‐type data and derived for the postwar period from miscellaneous, mainly official, sources.As in most countries the current value of Japan's national wealth increased until World War II considerably more slowly than its national product, which expanded with extraordinary rapidity. In the postwar period, however, the ratio showed a slight upward trend reaching by 1973 fully 3 1/2. The ratio of all reproducible assets to national product showed a similar pattern at a lower level, reaching 2 1/2 in 1973. In contrast the ratio of so‐called productive assets (non‐residential buildings, equipment and inventories) failed to show a definite secular trend remaining between 1.5 and 2.2 at all but one benchmark date.Changes in the structure of national wealth over the past century were pronounced, but very different before and after World War II. Up to the 1940's, the share of land declined sharply from about one‐half to less than one‐fourth, to the benefit primarily of producer durables and non‐residential structures. In the last quarter of a century, in contrast, the extraordinary rise in urban land prices brought the share of land in national wealth back to one‐third (though the share of agricultural land continued to decline rapidly), while that of producer and consumer durables continued to increase.
TOWARDS A DEFINITION OF NON‐MARKET ACTIVITIES*
Authors: Hawrylshyn Oli 
Published: March 2005

Recent attempts to measure value of household work and other non‐market activities have been based on a simplistic interpretation of Opportunity Cost of Time Theory; this paper attempts to refine this and develop practical definitions from basic Utility Theory. First a distinction is made between economic and other activities, the former being the only ones subject to dollar‐measurement; we recognize economic activities can occur outside the market and focus our analysis upon these latter. In the framework of Becker‐Lancaster a Household‐Production Function is posited which produces jointly such non‐market economic activities‐called indirect utility‐and welfare or satisfaction‐ called utility. A criterion for identifying the indirect utility activities (Third‐Person Criterion) is outlined, and related to time‐use survey data.Finally, four practical estimation methods are outlined: simple opportunity cost of time; gross replacement cost; individual function replacement cost; and the full production function approach. This latter, which includes evaluation of capital contributions, is deemed theoretically most valid but for present purposes least practical because of lack of data on domestic capital stock. The paper concludes that there exists both a theoretical basis for valuing non‐market activities, and the necessary data to apply the formulas developed.
CONCEPTUAL AMD STATISTICAL ISSUES IN DEVELOPING ENVIRONMENTAL MEASURES‐RECENT U.S. EXPERIENCE
Authors: Cremeans John E. 
Published: March 2005

The purpose of this paper is to describe the conceptual and statistical basis of the estimates of United States public and private spending for pollution abatement and control (PAC) prepared by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce. The concepts and definitions were designed to ensure comparability with the national economic accounts since much of the analysis of the effects of environmental programs on the economy is conducted with the aid of the accounts. The work to date has been limited to pollution associated with harmful “foreign” substances and forms of energy discharged in the course of production, distribution and consumption. The conceptual base includes evaluation of benefits, but estimates completed thus far are limited to the cost of pollution abatement and control.Definitions are given for pollution, pollution abatement, direct pollution abatement cost, indirect pollution abatement cost and indirect benefits. A framework for the estimation and presentation of PAC expenditures is developed and the estimate of U.S. PAC expenditures for 1972 and 1973 is presented. A brief chronological summary of the BEA project is also provided.
NEW MEASURES OF PRICES AND PRODUCTIVITY FOR TRADABLE AND NONTRADABLE GOODS*
Authors: Goldstein Morris , Officer Lawrence H. 
Published: March 2005

Empirical work on the division of real output and prices into tradable and nontradable components has not kept pace with theoretical developments. The conventional proxies of prices and productivity by tradable and nontradable sector are examined and found deficient in several important respects. It is demonstrated that an approach that relies on the long–standing data on gross domestic product by industry of origin can overcome some of these deficiencies. These data are used to construct new annual measures of prices and productivity for tradable and nontradable output for 12 industrial countries over the period 1950–73. While far from precise, the new measures are consistent with the following criteria for distinguishing between tradables and nontradables: the degree of foreign trade participation should be higher for tradables than for nontradables; the degree of international commodity arbitrage, as measured by cross‐country correlations of price changes, should be higher for tradables than nontradables; and tradables should be closer substitutes than nontradables for traded goods from other countries (imports).Despite the considerable conceptual advantages of the new measures of prices and productivity over the conventional proxies, correlation analysis indicates that the new and old measures usually move together rather closely in our 12 subject countries. The correlations are higher across the alternative relative productivity measures than for the alternative relative price measures.
DEFINING AND MEASURING THE PUBLIC SECTOR: SOME INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS
Authors: Pathirane Leila , Blades Derek W. 
Published: March 2005

The public sector is defined here to include government plus public enterprises. Historically, economists and statisticians have been more concerned with its separate components than with the public sector as a whole, but it is suggested that the public sector may be an appropriate concept for studying several current problems of economic policy.While there is general agreement as to what constitutes government, countries have differing views about what makes an enterprise public. Differences in country definitions of public enterprises are identified as one of the main problems in making international comparisons for the public sector.Statistics are presented for up to 16 OECD countries on the share of the public sector in total final demand, value added, employment, and net lending. It is argued that there is rarely a unique answer to the question “How big is the public sector?” For most countries judicious selection of data and careful definition will lead to different conclusions about the size and growth of the public sector.Because of the lack of data, it is not possible to analyse public sectors in developing countries in the same detail as OECD countries. The evidence available suggests that while public sectors are about the same size in both OECD and developing countries, public enterprises play a more important role in the latter.
INFLATION, INFLATION ACCOUNTING AND ITS EFFECT, CANADIAN MANUFACTURING, 1966–82*
Authors: Daly D. J. 
Published: March 2005

This paper provides estimates of the effects of inflation in Canada on the reported rate of return in manufacturing from 1966 to 1982. It provides estimates for several different concepts of rate of return (both for all assets, whether financed by equity or debt, and for the narrower equity to the owners) and for both a narrow and wide range of financial assets. Comparisons are made with similar studies for the United Kingdom. Such studies show that reported profits are overstated and total assets are undervalued during and after periods of inflation with traditional accounting concepts relative to an economic concept designed to maintain the firm as an ongoing entity.The paper also discusses a number of factors that have contributed to the marked drop in the rate of return in Canadian manufacturing when both income and assets are valued at replacement costs. Some of these factors are also present in the other industrialized countries, such as increased raw materials prices, and a slower increase in productivity. Other factors have been relatively more important in Canada than in other countries, such as the historically higher level of production costs in Canada than in the United States and Japan, the two most important countries in Canadian trade. This is important during a period of tariff reductions when international competition in manufactured products is widespread.Although corporate profits and the adjusted profits rates of return were depressed by the severity of the 1981‐82 recession, some of the key factors depressing the rates of return are longer‐term in nature. A continued persistence of these factors during the balance of the 1980s could contribute to restraint in business investment in manufacturing when total returns on a replacement cost basis are so much below the corporate long‐term cost of capital.This paper applies the concepts of inflation accounting to total Canadian manufacturing for the period from 1966 to 1982. Measures of rates of return for individual years are provided, both on the basis of total assets and on the basis of the net assets attributable to the owners. There are four sections in the paper after an introduction. Section 2 is a brief conceptual statement and outlines the methods. Section 3 makes comparisons with similar studies for the United Kingdom and summarizes the results of this and other studies. Section 4 discusses the environmental factors for Canadian manufacturing that appear to contribute to the lower rates of return in recent years. Section 5 discusses the implications of the results for future business decisions.
THE CONCEPT OF MACROECONOMIC COST AND ITS UTILITY
Authors: Marczewski Jean 
Published: March 2005

The proposed “Variable Domestic Cost” includes all net payments by sectors belonging to the productive system (enterprises, credit institutions and government) to all other sectors (households, private non‐profit organizations and the rest of the world). Compared with the rate of growth of demand, represented by Gross Domestic Marketable Product at current prices, the rate of growth of VDC per unit produced forms the “profitability function of the nation.” Profitability is positively related to the rate of economic growth and to the price/cost relation. A relative deceleration of unit VDC stimulates economic growth, which enlarges the positive difference between price and cost, and that, in turn, accelerates economic growth. Inversely, a relative acceleration of unit VDC brakes economic growth, while a slowdown in production raises unit costs and depresses prices. The resulting fall in profitability stops economic growth.The main explanatory variables of demand are World trade, monetary and fiscal policy and import prices. The main components of VDC are enterprises' wage costs, social benefits minus social contributions and the government wage bill minus direct taxes payable by households. The fact that in West Germany all these unit costs were increasing more slowly than in France explains why Geman economic growth, much slower than French before 1975, outpaced it after that year, achieving a lower rate of inflation, a larger positive balance of trade and a higher appreciation of the national currency.The concept of VDC is a useful contribution to the theories of inflation and of economic fluctuations and provides a possible explanation of structural unemployment. Maintaining VDC at a lowest possible level should be considered a major object of economic policy.
A NEW SET OF INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF REAL PRODUCT AND PRICE LEVELS ESTIMATES FOR 130 COUNTRIES, 1950–1985
Authors: Summers Robert , Heston Alan 
Published: March 2005

A new set of international comparisons covering the period 1950–85 is developed here for 121 market and 9 centrally planned economies. This new so‐called Penn World Table (Mark 4), a completely revised and updated expansion of an equivalent table published by the authors in 1984, draws on the data of two previously unavailable international comparison benchmark studies. This article presents a detailed description of all estimation procedures, and excerpts from the overall DATA TABLE covering two years, 1980 and 1985. Three computer diskettes accompanying this article (and also available from the authors) contain the complete 36–year, 60,000 entry DATA TABLE in a form that economizes on scarce journal space and is immediately machine‐readable. For the 121 market economies, the DATA TABLE gives annually, in addition to population and exchange rates, real product and price level estimates for four different national income concepts, and for the major subaggregates, consumption, investment, and government. Only population and real gross domestic product estimates are given for the nine centrally planned economies, however.This new table is one more step toward the goal of establishing a new worldwide System of Real National Accounts.
GUIDELINES TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SOCIAL ACCOUNTING MATRIX
Authors: Keuning Steven J. , de Ruuter Willem A. 
Published: March 2005

The increasing number of countries for which a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) has been compiled testifies to the usefulness of this integrated data framework. Considerable resources are always involved in the construction of a SAM, for it provides a comprehensive description of an economy with emphasis on distributive aspects. This means that, unlike other data systems, incomes and expenditures of several categories of households and their relation to the production structure, the balance of payments and transactions by other institutions are shown.However, apart from this minimum requirement, no standardized concepts and guidelines for SAM construction are as yet available. Although a SAM should stay as close as possible to the specific (institutional) reality of the economy it describes, some general remarks as to its design and compilation are in order. This paper represents a first attempt in that direction. After a general introduction to SAMs, each stage of the construction process is reviewed in turn.The construction process begins with the overall design of the system and various options are discussed. This section includes a schematic representation of a fairly extensive SAM. Next, the sources for the SAM need to be identified, and a provisional checklist is given here. After an overview of considerations regarding the choice of a reference year, the topic of classification in the SAM is reviewed in detail. Finally, the paper describes how the different data sets might be integrated and reconciled for consistency.The guidelines may also aid in designing a time schedule and in organizing the work when constructing a SAM.
CONCEPTUAL INCONGRUITY IN THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS
Authors: Sunga Pretom S. 
Published: March 2005

This paper is presented as a general contribution to discussions underway with respect to the revision of the SNA. The author argues that underlying premises in the current (1968) version of the SNA tend to favour quantitative aspects of production and that the treatment of certain financial items such as interest and valuation of inventory change have been compromised in regard to their effects on production.The need for alternative approaches to these components in the subaccounts of the SNA is emphasized, the rationale involved is explained and modifications to some of the subaccounts are proposed. The alternative approaches affect the boundaries of production and it is argued that the new boundaries would provide a more realistic representation of current values of gross domestic product. It is also noted that the modified production accounts are more compatible with the balance sheet subaccounts.The author shows that production subaccounts on input‐output and productivity are based on the need for quantitative measures in analysing growth in the volume of goods and services produced and of productivity to determine efficiency of factor utilization. It is argued that the existing conceptual structure of these two subaccounts meet these needs and should be retained in their present form.
THE REAL RATE OF U.S. NATIONAL SAVING
Authors: Eisner Robert 
Published: March 2005

The conventional measure of national saving in U.S. accounts does not include saving in consumer durables, public investment, or intangible capital. It reflects a measure of net foreign investment that relates in considerable part to original cost rather than market values. It also does not include real capital gains.Comprehensive, adjusted measures of national saving are calculated for as many of the years from 1946 to 1989 as relevant components are available. They generally suggest much larger rates of national saving than are usually recognized. They also cast a sharp and substantially different light on the likely effects of policies designed to increase provision for the future.
WAGE DIFFERENTIALS AND OCCUPATIONAL WAGE PREMIA: FIRM‐LEVEL EVIDENCE FOR BRAZIL AND CHILE
Authors: Mizala Alejandra , Romaguera Pilar 
Published: March 2005

This paper examines wage differentials at the firm level in Chile and Brazil, using data for 1985 and 1991, and 1987 respectively. The high level of disaggregation in the data available for Chile enables us also to analyze the degree to which wage differentials between individual employers are similar across occupations.The results of this study reaffirm those of previous research pointing to non‐competitive explanations for wage differentials, specifically providing clear evidence that inter‐firm wage premia are highly correlated across occupations.
Finite Element Stress Analysis of Tooth‐to‐Implant Fixed Partial Denture Designs
Authors: Misch Craig M. , Ismail Y.H. 
Published: March 2005

Purpose The purpose of this study was to conduct a three‐dimensional finite element stress analysis to compare models representing a natural tooth and an integrated implant connected with rigid and nonrigid prostheses.Materials and Methods The mathematical models described an integrated implant connected to a second premolar tooth with a three‐unit metal‐ceramic fixed partial denture. In one model, the tooth and implant were rigidly connected, and in the other, a nonrigid connection was assumed. From a simulated vertical load the computer generated resultant stress contours and values (compressive and tensile) in horizontal and vertical dimensions.Results A comparison of the magnitude and pattern of stresses generated in the models shows minimal differences. Although the maximum stress values were slightly higher in some areas of the rigid prosthesis model, the differences were negligible.Conclusions Based on the similarities in both the patterns of stress contours and the stress values generated in the two models, advocating a nonrigid connection because of a biomechanical advantage may be erroneous.
Common Errors in Panoramic Radiography of Edentulous Patients
Authors: Glass Birgit Junfin , Seals Richard R. , Williams Earl O. 
Published: March 2005

PurposeInstructions for patient positioning during panoramic radiography usually describe positioning dentate patients, and errors in patient positioning are commonly identified by distortion of the dentition. The purposes of this study were to identify common errors in panoramic radiography of edentulous patients, describe the image distortions that can be expected with positioning errors in edentulous patients, and review quality assurance methods that improve the diagnostic value of panoramic films.Materials and MethodsPanoramic films were randomly selected from the inactive files of 75 edentulous patients seen at the dental school for complete denture construction. The radiographs were numbered and reviewed by a board‐certified oral and maxillofacial radiologist trained to identify errors in panoramic radiography.ResultsOf the 75 panoramic radiographs examined, only 6 films (8.0%) were free of errors, and 67 films (89.3%) had one or more errors in patient positioning and 33 films (44.0%) had one or more technical errors. The most common positioning errors in were positioning the chin too high (32 films, 41.3%) and positioning the patient too far forward (26 films, 34.7%).ConclusionsWithout modification, manufacturer's instructions for positioning dentate patients during panoramic radiography may result in positioning errors on the panoramic radiographs of edentulous patients. Proper training and appropriate attention to detail while exposing and developing panoramic films are required to ensure maximum diagnostic benefits for edentulous patients.
Fatigue Resistance and Stress of Wrought‐Steel Wire Clasps
Authors: Vallittu Pekka K. 
Published: March 2005

PurposeThe objective of this study was to determine the fatigue resistance of wrought‐steel wire clasps used for removable partial dentures.Materials and MethodsFive wrought‐steel wires with cross‐sectional diameters of 1.2,1.1,1.0, 0.9, and 0.8 mm were tested using a deflection fatigue test with deflections of 0.4 to 0.7 mm. The force and stress required to cause deflection was determined, as well as the number of loading cycles required to cause fatigue fracture. The fracture surfaces of the wrought‐steel wire clasps were examined with a scanning electron microscope.ResultsThe number of loading cycles required to cause fatigue fracture increased with reduced deflection of the wrought wire (p < .005). To obtain fatigue resistance for loading cycles of over 106, the stress in the wrought‐steel wire clasp should remain under 1.0 GPa.ConclusionsThese results suggest that to avoid fractures of wrought‐steel wire clasps caused by bending fatigue, the stress on the clasp during its deflection should be taken into account.