bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Personal Separateness
Authors: Spector Horacio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The argument in the last chapter was designed to justify the pre-eminent moral importance of those negative duties which can be generically described as duties not to actively damage positive freedom. However, the deontological conception of practical rationality which I am suggesting here must possess two other features to contribute to the justification of the existence of libertarian rights. The first of them bears upon two different meanings of the expression ‘damage to a value’. Let us go back to the familiar example of an agent who has the option of killing a person as a means of saving another five or of not slaying the first and letting the other five die. The thesis proposed in the previous chapter implies that if the agent decides on the first course of action, he performs certain bodily movements which cause the death of the first person, whereas if he chooses the second course of action, he does not causally contribute to the death of the five. But though the first course of action causally contributes to the death of a person, it does also involve a causal contribution to the preservation of the life of another five persons; therefore, it might be claimed that, since the positive freedom of the one person and the positive freedom of each of the other five have the same value in so far as they are parts or instances of one and the same value, the first course of action causes a gain of 5 units of positive freedom besides causing a loss of . The claim is then that this course of action does not signify a net loss but a net gain of positive freedom and that, consequently, proceeding in this way, the agent does not damage but promotes positive freedom. Here the two meanings of ‘damaging a value’ that I have just referred to are clearly manifested. In accordance with the first meaning, which we might call numerical, an agent damages a value if and only if he causes a net loss of this value.
Ammonius And Adverbs
Authors: Barnes Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
for our part, if we are to have an articulated knowledge of the sentences here under discussion and if we are to follow with any ease what Aristotle has to say about them, then before we give an interpretation of the text, we must grasp (1) what Tp61roi are, (2) whether their number is finite and knowable by us, (3) how many and which Tp61roi Aristotle selects for his exposition of these sentences, (4) why these and not others, (5) how the Tp61roi he introduces differ from what are called 'matters' although they are called by their names, (6) whether he has omitted any of the Tp61roi which ought to have been introduced in the present treatment of sentences, (7) how we make negations from affirmations in the case of such sentences (this, as I said, is the first point which Aristotle considers about them), and finally, (8) how we may grasp by way of a division the total number of these sentences.
Theoretical Background
Authors: Rubach Jerzy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this book is twofold: descriptive and theoretical. On the one hand, we intend to provide a fairly complete description of Slovak phonology in generative terms. On the other hand, we would like to investigate how the recent developments in phonological theory can contribute to such a description. Thus, on the theoretical side Slovak is used as a testing ground for confirming or disconfirming the validity of various concepts in the most recent theories, such as Lexical Phonology, Three Dimensional Phonology, Prosodic Phonology, and Auto segmental Phonology. It is shown how these theories can be combined together in a coherent analysis of a large body of data.
Syllable Structure
Authors: Rubach Jerzy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we look at Slovak syllable structure. A general outline is presented in 7.1. We then proceed to investigate the properties of the Syllable Structure Algorithm. Specifically, we address the questions of whether it applies cyclically and whether it is continuous (sections 7.2 and 7.3). In 7.4 we look at the domain of syllabification and conclude that prefixes as well as constituents of compounds constitute separate domains. Glides are discussed in 7.5. We then pursue the problem of how extra-syllabic consonants are treated in various components of phonology. We conclude that some liquids are made syllabic in the cyclic component (section 7.6), while other liquids trigger a post cyclic rule of vowel insertion (section 7.7). The status of v — whether v is a glide or not — is discussed in 7.8. On a more general level, this problem occasions a debate of adjunction and resolving extrasyllabicity by changing the feature composition of a segment.
Postlexical Rules
Authors: Rubach Jerzy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we look at rules which apply in domains larger than words and which are hence post lexical. In particular, we consider Vowel Vocalization, Voice Assimilation, and Voicing. The first two rules apply both inside words and across word boundaries. On the other hand, Voicing applies exclusively at word edges and is thus a classic instance of a rule whose inputs arise first in the syntax.
The Study of Real Language: Observing the Observers
Authors: Stevenson Patrick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The traffic in borrowed words and phrases between English and German is by no means one-way, even if the balance of trade heavily favours English exports into German. Perhaps because of their relative rarity, German words used in English often appear more conspicuous and more exotic: consider, for example, Schadenfreude or Berufsverbot. One of the most recent additions to this inventory is the concept of the Wende (meaning ‘radical change of direction’ or ‘turning point’). In the immediate past, the term Wende was used to refer to the dramatic historical developments in the former GDR in its last days, and it is probably true to say that in virtually everything that has been written about the twelve months between the first pro-democracy marches in Leipzig in October 1989 and the official day of unification in October 1990 the word Wende has appeared, either in its own right or in one of many newly coined compounds (Wendesprache, ‘language of the Wende’; Wenderede, ‘speech about the Wende’, Wendesprüche, ‘Wende sayings or slogans’; Wendehals, ‘turncoat’; etc.).
Language in Intercultural Communication
Authors: Rost-Roth Martina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many people living in Germany today speak a language other than German and consider themselves members of another culture. These people may be ‘Gastarbeiter’ (guest workers), ‘Asylsuchende’ (refugees seeking political asylum in Germany), or ‘Aussiedler’ (former residents of eastern European countries who are of German descent). Not surprisingly, therefore, contact within the German context often entails problems of intercultural communication.
Critical Linguistics and the Study of Institutionar Communication
Authors: Wodak Ruth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many important changes have taken place in the study of language in social context since the first sociolinguistic studies were carried out in the USA and Great Britain in the early 1960s. In this chapter, I shall concentrate on the consequences of two particular developments: first, the shift of emphasis from the sentence or utterance to ‘text in context’, in other words to the study of discourse, which in tum led to the linking of sociolinguistics and discourse analysis; secondly, the more systematic approach to the study of context, which entailed both a more interdisciplinary perspective and a greater emphasis on qualitative (as opposed to quantitative) research. The results of these developments are that sociological, psychological, social-psychological, and historical perspectives have been incorporated into sociolinguistic study, and that the analysis of context has become an important object of study in its own right. In particular, a whole area of research has developed focusing on the study of language use in institutional settings.
Jugendsprachen: Speech Styles of Youth Subcultures
Authors: Schlobinski Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If one were to believe the statements of linguists thirty years ago, then youth speech is no more than the ‘Jargon einer bestimmten Sondergruppe, der den gro6eren und wertvolleren Teil der Jugend erniedrigt und beleidigt’ (Kupper 1961: 188) (slang of a particular subgroup, which is degrading and insulting to the larger and more reputable section of the young generation). Hartmut Engelmann was no less flattering in a radio programme broadcast by the Hessischer Rundfunk: about ‘young people and their private code’: ‘Das Klotzige, Protzige und Brutale ist wohleines der wesentlichen Charakteristika des Jargons’ (Engelmann 1964: 6) (It is overblown, showy, crude: that is one of the main characteristics of this slang). Those who take this point of view maintain that young people’s speech is directly responsible for the ‘decline of the German language’, and it has been argued that for this reason they should be required to use standard German in school.
Pronunciation
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the standard pronunciation of Russian was considered to be that of educated Muscovites (Košutić 1919: vii; Ožegov 1955: 16; Panov 1967). There was considerable interest in phonetics in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and we are fortunate in having on-the-spot descriptions of this kind of pronunciation, usually referred to as the Old Moscow (OM) pronuncia tion; of these, the best is usually considered to be Košutić (1919).
Syntax
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject-matter of this chapter may be divided into two main parts: syntactic variation and syntactic stylistics. The first is similar to the subject-matter of most of the rest of the book, in that it deals with syntactic variants—different syntactic means of expressing the same meaning—where the choice between the variants impinges on the question of which syntactic forms are admissible in the current standard.
Modes of Address and Speech Etiquette
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Russian, like nearly all other European languages, has a system of address entailing a choice between pronouns (including other parts of speech agreeing with them), depending on social factors. In Russian the pronominal system involves a choice between TbI (hereafter abbreviated as T) and Bbl (abbreviated as V).
Conclusion
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the intellectual predecessors of this book, Ward (1965), concludes with a summary of tendencies observed in the Russian language throughout the first five decades of the Soviet period. Ward also makes some predictions about the fate of Russian in the later periods as well as its more long-term prospects. The goals of this brief conclusion are threefold: firstly, we will examine Ward’s predictions to see which of them have been borne out and which have not; secondly, we will summarize the main tendencies of the language as discussed throughout this book; and thirdly, we will briefly comment on the latest period in the development of Russian, the period whose beginning roughly coincides with the end of the Soviet regime. In presenting our conclusions below, we will not be able to separate the first and second goals, and they will be treated as intertwined.
Some Confusions about Subjectivity
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THERE is a certain interrelated batch of confusions connected with the expressions ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ as used in ethical theory, and with the words ‘objectivism’, ‘subjectivism’, and also ‘relativism’, used to describe types of ethical theory—confusions which I myself saw to be confusions quite near the beginning of my career as a moral philosopher, and thought I could put behind me. I saw that they were confusions, not by any original thought on my part, but because, as it seemed to me, everybody who had thought about the matter had seen that they were confusions. I did not devote more than a few desultory remarks in my own writings to showing that they were confusions, because I thought it unnecessary—instead, I tried to present my views in such a way that the confusions would be avoided. I hoped (naively as it turned out) that they would not continue to muddle moral philosophers in the future as they had in the past.
The Promising Game
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ONE of the most fundamental questions about moral judgements is whether they, and other value-judgements, can be logically derived from statements of empirical fact. Like most important philosophical questions, this one has reached the stage at which its discussion is bound to proceed piecemeal, in terms of particular examples, arguments, and counter-arguments. This article is intended as a contribution to one such controversy. Professor J. R. Searle (1964) attempts a feat which many before him have thought to perform. His argument, though it seems to me unsound, is both more plausible, and sets a higher moral tone, than that recently supplied by Mr MacIntyre (1959: § v) and repeated in an unimportantly different form by Professor Black (1964). While Searle seeks to demonstrate logically that we ought to keep our promises, Black and MacIntyre seek to demonstrate that we ought to do whatever is the one and only means to achieving anything that we happen to want, or avoiding anything that we want to avoid (see H 1971a).
Some Reasoning about Preferences: A Response to Essays by Persson, Feldman, and Schueler
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I TAKE the occasion of Schueler’s essay (1984) to discuss, not only some points raised in it, but also other closely related points made in essays by F. Feldman (1984) and I. Persson (1983), all about an argument in MT chs. 5, 6. I must confess that in that book I as usual succumbed to my besetting vice of concision and failed to spell out moves and countermoves in the game which I thought would at once suggest themselves to an alert reader. Obviously there are many more of these than can be discussed in a short book, and in my long experience it is not always of much use to do so, both because, whichever of them one chooses, somebody is bound to pick on others and because, even if one does mention a point, it is often not noticed. The second sentence of the preface to LM still represents my considered policy. However, since even Feldman, whose essay is fuller and more careful than the other essays, misunderstands my argument, it looks as if I did not express myself clearly enough. I shall therefore explain some points which affect more than one of the three essays, leaving aside minor points or those which affect only one of them.
Modal Epistemology and the Rationalist Renaissance
Authors: Bealer George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘modal epistemology’ may be understood in three ways. First, as the theory of modal knowledge—knowledge of what is necessary and possible. Second, as the theory of possible knowledge-what sorts of knowledge are possible. Third, as the intersection of the first two: the theory of possible modal knowledge-that is, of what modal knowledge is possible.
A Geographical History of the Bajo Urubamba
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Baja Urubamba is that area drained by the Urubamba river from its confluence with the Camisea downstream to where it joins the Tambo (Map 1). Like its western neighbour the Tambo-Ene Apurimac, the Urubamba river rises in the southern Andes of Peru. The two rivers flow northwards, then converge just below Atalaya to form the Ucayali, which continues north to join the Maranan, forming the Amazon mainstream. In terms of relief and vegetation cover, the Baja Urubamba area is a region of low rolling hills densely covered in humid tropical rain forest.1 In this area, the Urubamba is a big river, averaging about 300 metres in width, but often spreading out into a network of channels and islands. In many places, the river cuts into hills, creating tall cliffs, while the large flood plain is flat and covered in a complex of climax tropical forest and a series of successional vegetation associations reflecting the winding migration of the river. The flood plain is the area of most extensive human occupation and landscape modification.
Bosses and Workers: The System of Habilitación
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The commercial economy of the Bajo Urubamba is an extractive-mercantile economy dominated, at the time of my research, by lumbering. The present chapter analyses the local socio-economic system in terms of how, through the system of credit and debt known as habilitación, the local entrepreneurs use a largely native labour force. The native workers mobilize subsistence security independently of their bosses, but rely on the economy of habilitación for the provision of many items they need. The major concern of the local bosses is to maintain their access to the native labour force, while the major concern of the native workers is to maintain their access to credit and therefore to the various commodities they consume.
Introduction
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Native people define themselves as people who eat plantains and manioc, game from the forest and river, and manioc beer, and oppose themselves to rich white people who do not. The production of ‘real food’ engages native people in particular forms of relationship with the landscape, the river, and forest, and thus places them in the system of meanings attached to landscape. The chapters of Part II explore further dimensions of the meanings of ‘real food’ for the native people of the Bajo Urubamba. ‘Real food’ is produced in particular relationships, and its circulation and consumption sets up other relationships. The production of plantains, game, and manioc beer is definitional of gender identity, and the production of ‘real food’ is dependent on the relationship of marriage. The circulation of this food constitutes the relations between kin, as parents feed their children, and as adults respond to the hunger of other kin. The production of food engages people with the forest, making gardens and houses, and this food is sent out to feed others. Native communities focus on the relationships in which food is produced, circulated, and consumed, such that for native people, to live with kin is life itself. Death threatens life, causing the living to abandon the dead, and to live elsewhere. Death defines kinship as life, and life for native people is created and sustained by kinship.
Husband and Wife
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The house and the garden establish the human space of settlement. Both are transformed forest, and both must be constantly maintained in the face of forest regeneration. The house is the locus of most human activity, the place in which meals are prepared and eaten and in which people sleep. The meals are prepared in the kitchen and eaten in the open section of the house, while the enclosed room is used for storing possessions and for sleeping and making love. Almost all the houses and gardens are created and owned in the same way in native communities: they are made by a man and owned by him and his wife. The only exceptions to this pattern are those houses belonging to the widowed, for either a widower will build his own small house, or a widow will have one built for her by her son or son-in-law. These cases are restricted to the old who are reluctant to give up their independence for reliance on younger kin. Younger unmarried people simply do not own either houses or gardens. The houses and gardens of a native community like Santa Clara thus encode the relationships of marriage between men and women.
Landownership
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
GIVEN the central position of farming in Iceland, access to land was of primary social concern, .and land the vital resource of both the economic and the cosmological order. In this chapter I shall deal with landownership, and th’e social categories which were a corollary to the distribution of land.
From the earliest settlements rights in land were central to social thinking. It was when the land was albyggt (‘fully settled’) that Icelandic law was drawn up according to the twelfth-century fslend-ingabok ((islb.) ch. 3). Among other things the law regulated rights in land. The laws were written down in 1II7—18, a few decades before Landndmabok, ‘the book of settlements’.
The Power of Knowledge
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
MAGIC, witchcraft, and healing constitute a field of indigenous explanations of individual success or misfortune. It is worth remembering, therefore, that in the social experience of the Icelanders, death and disaster were recurrent phenomena. Demographic crisis, economic stagnation and decline, worsening climate, and unfavourable trade regulations, all contributed to the Icelandic view of the human condition. From 1400 to 1800 catastrophe always lurked in the background, in Iceland as elsewhere in Europe. Whenever disaster struck explanations were called for, and some were found within the field of popular belief.
Gender and Hierarchy
Authors: Thomas Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gender is often a primary axis of differentiation in small-scale societies. Together with age, it is often said to provide the basis for whatever limited division of labour exists. Images of this kind of ‘simple’ or ‘small-scale’ societies rest uneasily with what is now known about Melanesia and Polynesia: many societies were localized but specialized, and possessed complex hierarchies which were often unconnected with wider centralized political structures. Both economies and social inequalities in these regions were thus more differentiated than stereotypes and expectations about tribal societies would permit.
Feasting and Warfare
Authors: Thomas Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Polynesian societies have long been conceived of as small-scale aristocracies in which the statuses of individuals were defined, prior to their birth, by rank, and particularly by their genealogical proximity to ‘royal’ or chiefly families. The image of a rigid order through which social positions were ‘ascribed’ was qualified in so far as it was recognized that certain people such as warriors could create status through their personal prowess or expertise. Marquesan society did accord with this view to a certain extent: chiefly status was prescribed genealogically, albeit neither finally nor unambiguously, and the way chiefs stood above society and in a sense embodied it was given in a prior, cultural sense. The position of haka’iki derived from genealogy and cosmology, ancestors and deities. When the first-born daughter of a chief came of age, there was no question but that this was an event to be celebrated on a grander and different scale from the puberty of simply any woman. However, Marquesan society was structured by varieties of difference and inequality unconnected with the sanctity of chiefs and chiefly lines. Nor were these simply associated with the individual brilliance of male warriors and craft specialists.