bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The vanishing tropical rain forest as an environment for bryophytes and lichens
Authors: Gradstein S Rob 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tropical forests make up about half of the world ‘s closed forests, yet are rapidly being destroyed. By the end of the 1970s, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAQ) of the United Nations estimated that about 46 per cent of the tropical forests were already gone and the remainder were disappearing at a rate of over 2 per cent per year, either by clear-cutting or by shifting cultivation (Raven 1988). The conclusion was that all tropical rain forests would be destroyed by the middle of the next century, while the seasonal forests, occurring in regions with more pronounced fluctuations in rainfall and usually more suitable for human inhabitation, would already have disappeared long before.
Ecophysiological effects of acid rain on bryophytes and lichens
Authors: Farmer, Andrew m. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘acid rain ‘ encompasses a range of different pollutants. In its widest sense it includes wet acidic deposition, gaseous acidic and oxidant pollutants, and even ammonia and its derivatives. All of these pollutants can cause detrimental effects to lichens and bryophytes. We shall mostly discuss wet-deposited pollutants, which occur in rain, snow, and mist, the latter being termed ‘occult ‘ deposition. The effects of SO2 on bryophytes and lichens are well reviewed elsewhere (see Hawksworth and Rose 1976; Richardson and Nieboer 1983; Richardson 1988; Fields 1988; Winner 1988) and so only a brief overview is given here. Some attention will also be given to photochemical oxidant pollutants and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which have been the subject of recent studies with cryptogams, but have not been reviewed elsewhere. The effects of NH, on bryophytes and lichens, which may be of increasing importance in Western Europe are considered in Chapters 6 and 10.
The evolutionary capacity of bryophytes and lichens
Authors: shaw A Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
14.1 Introduction
Most information about evolution in plants is derived from studies of flowering plants. The angiosperms are hardly typical of plants in general, however, having undergone an explosive adaptive radiation within the last 60-100 million years. It is the purpose of this chapter to summarize data on evolutionary change in natural populations of lichens and bryophytes. Although the bryophytes and lichens are often discussed together, they are not, of course, phylogenetically related.
Lichens are symbiotic organisms consisting of a fungus (the mycobiont, generally an ascomycete) and an alga (the phycobiont orphotobiont, generally Chlorophyta). Weber (1977) discussed the lichen symbiosis in terms of the gene-for-gene hypothesis developed from studies of plant-hostlfungal¬ pathogen genetic interactions. Although validity of this theory has been questioned (Barrett 1983), concepts of lichen evolution need to consider models of coevolution. A most pressing issue in lichen evolutionary biology is how closely coevolved the fungal and algal symbionts are. Genetic interactions between the mycobionts and phycobionts of lichens may be analogous to epistatic interactions between non-allelic genes in other organisms. That is, the fitness value of any gene in the mycobiont may depend upon its own genetic background as well as the genetic background provided by the phycobiont. The degree to which these epistatic interactions result in close genetic coadaptation between the fungus and alga depends in part upon the degree of taxonomic specificity between symbionts (Howe 1984).
Conditional Interactions In Ant-Plant-Herbivore Mutualisms
Authors: Cushman J Hall , Addicott John F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ecologists traditionally classify species interactions into categories such as competition, predation, parasitism, and mutualism. While this typological approach has obvious benefits, it ignores the variation that characterizes species associations in nature, and creates significant problems for understanding their ecology and evolution (Thompson 1988). Species interact within a biotic and abiotic matrix that exhibits complex patterns of spatial and temporal heterogeneity, leading to variation in the occurrence, strength, and outcome of species interactions.
Variation In The Attractiveness Of Lycaenid Butterfly Larvae To Ants
Authors: Pierce N E , Nash D R , Baylis M , Carper E R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although this volume is primarily concerned with ant-plant interactions, the association between Iycaenid butterflies and ants brings an extra dimension to bear on such relationships by introducing an additional trophic level, or, to be slightly more accurate, an additional organism that links two levels. As has been argued by May (1973), the length of a food web can be related to its stability. Communities with many species are likely to be less stable following perturbation than those with fewer species, and variations are amplified as they propagate through the system when the food web is more complex (Pimm 1982). Discussions of stability and complexity have largely focused on food webs whose third-level trophic interactions are essentially antagonistic: for example, the role of predation and parasitism in structuring herbivorous insect communities has been considered at length (Price et al. 1980; Strong et al. 1984). Somewhat less attention has been paid to how mutualisms may influence community structure and diversity (Addicott 1986; Cushman and Addicott, Chapter 8, this volume).
Bracken And Ants: Why Is There No Mutualism?
Authors: Rashbrook V K , Compton S G , Lawton J H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the advantages of studying a plant as cosmopolitan and ubiquitous as bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn), is that ecological comparisons can be made between different areas of its world-wide range (Lawton 1982, 1984; Compton et al. 1989). Bracken was initially assumed to be relatively immune to herbivory and thought to possess a scant arthropod fauna (Darwin 1877). However, although the plant does contain an array of secondary plant compounds (Lawton 1976; Cooper-Driver et al. 1977), it is by no means under-exploited by insect herbivores in comparison with other common plant species, and supports a diverse arthropod fauna in different parts of its range. Areas surveyed so far include continental Europe (Simmonds 1967), the UK (Lawton 1976, 1982), Papua New Guinea (Kirk 1977, 1982), south-west USA (Lawton 1982), Hawaii (Lawton 1984), Australia (E. Shuter and M. Westaby, unpublished work), New Zealand (Winterbourne 1987), and South Africa (Compton et al. 1989).
Phylogenetic Analysis Of Pseudomyrmecine Ants Associated With Domatia-Bearing Plants
Authors: Ward Philip S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The close relationship between domatia-bearing plants and certain ants has long held the attention of naturalists and raised questions about the nature and origin of such interactions (Belt 1874; Muller 1876; Ule 1906; Spruce 1908; Bequaert 1922; Wheeler 1942; recent reviews in Benson 1985; Huxley 1986; Jolivet 1986 ). Tropical arboreal ants of the subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae are especially prone to involvement in intimate associations with plants, and their behaviour in defence of the plant is often quite apparent, at least to sting-vulnerable observers. Indeed, studies on pseudomyrmecines inhabiting swollen-thorn acacias in Central America and Barteria (Passifloraceae) in Africa have provided some of the best evidence of the mutualistic nature of such ant-plant interactions (Janzen 1966, 1972).
Ants, Plants, And Beetles; A Triangular Relationship
Authors: Jolivet Pierre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although many invertebrates are successfully removed or deterred by the ants of ant-plants, there are also many phytophagous insects which have evolved ways of appeasing or repelling the ants (Jolivet 1987a). Different solutions are used by beetles and also by a range of other arthropods. The biocoenoses of myrmecophytic plants are usually less diverse and abundant than those of non-myrmecophytic congeners, but consist of more specialized insects (Table 26. I). The most extraordinary case of adaptation to an anttree is that of the beetle Coelomera (Galerucinae) to Cecropia in tropical America, and there are other cases where beetles mimic ant species. These beetles feed with impunity on ant eggs and on plant food bodies.
The Greasy Pole Syndrome
Authors: Harley Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While there are many examples of plant adaptations which attract ants to the mutual benefit of both plant and ant, there are very few known examples of mechanisms which actively deter them. Ants, while readily attracted to nectar, are unreliable pollinators and act as nectar thieves. Most of the cited examples of ant deterrence involve systems within the flower, either due to unpalatable nectar (van der Pijl 1955, Janzen 1977) or chemical or morphological modification of the floral tissues themselves (Guerrant and Fiedler 1981).
Ecology and evolution of cannibalism
Authors: Elgar Mark A , Crespi Bernard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Traditionally, cannibalism has been regarded as abnormal behaviour and of little evolutionary or ecological interest. Sociological reasons may partly explain why cannibalism has been neglected in the biological literature, but it is also likely that the relatively rare frequency of cannibalism, compared with other behaviours, is an important contributing factor. Most reports of cannibalism are either anecdotal observations or records of occasional instances among captive individuals. Consequently, the evolution of cannibalism has received relatively little theoretical attention compared with other fields of evolutionary biology.
Cannibalism in gastropods
Authors: Baur Bruno 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gastropods (snails and slugs) constitute by far the largest and most diverse class of Mollusca, with an estimated 40 000 marine, 3000 freshwater and 24 000 terrestrial species (Solem 1974). They are characterized by a distinct head with eyes and tentacles, and a usually coiled shell. Slugs are snails in which the shell is lost or reduced to a remnant.
Empirical Studies Of Cannibalism In Fish
Authors: FitzGerald Gerard J , Whoriskey Fredrick G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cannibalism can be classified as heterocannibalism, the killing and consumption of unrelated conspecifics, and filial cannibalism, the eating of kin. How distantlyrelated individuals must be, in order to be considered as non-kin by a fish is not known. However adult guppies prefer to eat their neighbour’s offspring rather than their own (Loekleet al.1982). Cannibalism is widespread and can have profound consequences on an individual’s inclusive fitness. Behavioural ecologists are concerned with quantifying cannibalism in natural populations and identifying what selective advantage, if any, the behaviour confers to the cannibal. The existing theoretical framework explaining cannibalism in mammals can be attributed to Hrdy (1979) and for fishes to Dominey and Blumer (I 984). Suggested benefits to cannibals include: (1) nutrition; conspecifics are a high quality food, (2) reduced resource competition; the number of potential competitors for food and space are reduced, (3) parental manipulation; the cannibal terminates parental care in order to improve its own survivorship or those of its other offspring, and (4) sexual selection; reduced competition for mates. Glasset al.(1985) provide an explanation for the adaptive significance of infanticide (relevant to cannibalism in fishes) which emphasizes a cost-benefit approach. They used game theory to reject a ’maladaptive’ explanation for infanticide. Infanticide confers a relative advantage to the perpetrator when other population members are non-infanticidal. For additional discussion of the theoretical aspects of cannibalism, see Sargent (this volume).
Cannibalism in birds
Authors: Stanback Mark T , Koenig Walter D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cannibalism in birds has generally been relegated to the realm of the anecdote. Any fitness benefits of cannibalism were often thought to accrue at the species level via population regulation (e.g. Wynne-Edwards 1962). This limited view of the significance of intraspecific killing and cannibalism changed following the publication of Hamilton’s (1964) theory of kin selection. Inclusive fitness might be increased not only by killing and eating conspecifics, but even, in particular circumstances, by being eaten by a closely related conspecific (e.g. Alexander 1974; O’Connor 1978).
Why dunnocks?
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Unobtrusive, quiet and retiring, without being shy, humble and homely in its deportment and habits, sober and unpretending in its dress, while still neat and graceful, the dunnock exhibits a pattern which many of a higher grade might imitate, with advantage to themselves and benefit to others through an improved example’. With these carefully chosen words, the Reverend F.O. Morris (1856) encouraged his parishioners to emulate the humble life of the dunnock, or hedge sparrow Prunella modularis.A gentle stroll around an English garden in spring might well lead the casual observer to endorse this view. The dunnock is indeed unobtrusive, as it shuffles about under the bushes searching for tiny insects and seeds, and its plumage does not, at first, catch the eye, some identification guides concluding with apparent exasperation that it ‘lacks any conspicuous features’. But a closer look will reveal that the sober and unpretending brown dress is subtly and beautifully streaked with darker markings on the back and flanks, with the head and neck a delicate shade of grey. A bird watcher who pauses for a while will hear the male’s warbling song and a search in the hedgerow may reveal a moss-lined nest with a clutch of glossy, turquoise-blue eggs, or a brood of young with the adults hard at work nearby, collecting billfuls of prey.
Mate guarding and mating: sexual conflict
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of Chapter 4, we were left with two scenarios as mating combinations formed at the start of the breeding season. One was of some males coming to an amicable agreement to share the defence of a territory with a subordinate beta male. The other was of females playing no active part in determining the mating system and apparently ignoring males altogether when they set up their breeding territories in relation to food distribution and nest sites.
How males allocate effort between broods in polygyny and polygynandry
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 9 I considered the question of which mating system best maximised an individual’s reproductive success and concluded that for males it was best to breed with more than one female. This chapter, like the previous one, attempts to go back a step and ask, given the choice of mating system how should a male best allocate his mating and parental effort? It is the outcome of these choices which determines the reproductive payoffs and so sets the stage for the behavioural conflicts described earlier in the book.
Introduction
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Captive propagation is an important component of primate conservation (Mittermeier 1982; Foose et al. 1987). Although keeping primates for display in zoos, for research, and as pets has a long history, it is only relatively recently that species have been bred in captivity on a large scale. Progress in captive primate husbandry, driven by the need for healthy animals for research and, more recently, by the recognition of the importance of captive breeding as part of a conservation strategy, has been remarkably rapid. It is surprising, now that marmosets are bred in large numbers in research and zoo colonies all over the world, that just 25 years ago Lee S. Crandall (1964) observed in his book on the management of wild mammals in captivity that: ‘General and usually unhappy experience has convinced most zoo authorities that marmosets are too delicate to survive under ordinary conditions.’
Ruffed lemur
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two subspecies Varecia variegata variegata, the black and white ruffed lemur and V. v. rubra, the red ruffed lemur. The former occurs in eastern madagascar and the latter in a restricted area in the north-east of the island (Jolly 1986). The species is classified as endangered International Union for the Conservation of Nature, (IUCN 1990). Numbers in the wild have declined rapidly Tattersall 1982).
Senegal or lesser bush-baby
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are nine subspecies, distributed throughout much of Subsaharan Africa, excluding the ZaЇre river basin and the southern tip of the continent (Doyle 1974; Wolfheim 1983). Lesser bush-babies occur mainly in savanna and woodland habitats, and are common in some areas (Wolfheim 1983). The species was classified as not threatened (Lee et al. 1988).
Bosman’s potto
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Five subspecies are recognized (Wolfheim 1983). It is a species which inhabits a wide range of forest habitats in western and central Africa from Guinea to western Kenya, in a belt extending 5 to 10 degrees on either side of the Equator (Wolfheim 1983). It was classified as not threatened by Lee et al. (1988).
Cotton-top tamarin
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cotton-top tamarin is an endangered species (IUCN, 1990). It is found in parts of Colombia and the population is thought to be between 1000 and 10 000 (Neyman 1977). Tardif (1986) estimated the captive population at 1450, with 40 per cent in zoos and 60 per cent in research colonies.
Golden lion tamarin
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are three subspecies of Leontopithecus r. rosalia, the golden lion tamarin, L.r. chrysomelas, the golden-headed lion tamarin, and L.r. chrysopygus, the golden-rumped or black lion tamarin. These species are restricted to the Atlantic forest of Brazil, and their ranges have been reduced to tiny isolated fragments (Mittermeier 1986). All three subspecies are endangered (Mittermeier et al. 1986, IUCN 1990). Leontopithecus r. chrysopygus is the rarest and Mittermeier (1986) considered that the wild population was unlikely to exceed 100. Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier (1977) estimated the number of wild populations of L.r. chrysomela to be 100 to 200, and Kleiman et al. (1986) suggested that there were 250 to 350 wild L.r. rosalia.
Lar gibbon
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Status, subspecies, and distribution Opinions differ about the taxonomy of gibbons, but Wolfheim (1983) recognized eight subspecies of H. lar: agilis, moloch, muelleri, abbottii, vestitus, entelloides, carpenteri, and lar. The species occurs from southern China, through Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, and Borneo) (Robbins Leighton 1987). It is highly arboreal and is found in many different types of forest (Wolfheim 1983).
The structure and sequence of insulin
Authors: Derewenda U , Dodson G G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
9.1 Some early history of insulin
In 1922 Banting and Best (Banting and Best 1922) finally extracted a hormone factor from the dog pancreas and showed that it was responsible for controlling the level of blood sugar. This hormone was named insulin. It was one of the first proteins to be obtained in a sufficiently pure form for pharmaceutical purposes and was also the first protein for which the full amino-acid sequence was determined (Sanger et al. 1955; Sanger 1959).
The first crystals of insulin were obtained by J. J. Abel in 1926 (Abel 1926). Due to the impurities of the first insulin preparations, these early crystals were not always reproducible. The discovery of zinc in crystalline insulin was made by J. Brown in 1931 (Jukes 1979) and then by Scott (Scott 1934). The first X-ray diffraction photographs were taken from zinc­ containing crystals. The first crystal structure of insulin to be solved by X-ray crystallography was also that of zinc insulin. The first electron density map was calculated at 2.8 Ä resolution (Adams et al. 1969). Today the molecular structure of insulin is known to 1.5 Ä resolution (Baker et al. 1988), which allows one to locate individual atoms with 0.1-0.2 Ä accuracy.
Oligonucleotides
Authors: Kennard Olga , Hunter William N , Moore Madeleine H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
10.1 Single-crystal X-ray structure determination of oligonucleotides containing four or more bases
Tables 10.1-10.5 list the principal references to structure determinations published between 1979 and mid-1989.
There are three main families of double-helical oligonucleotide structures. These are the right-handed A- and B-forms and the left-handed Z-form. Figures 10.1-10.3 show examples of each family, based on a single-crystal structure determination using coordinates deposited in the Brookhaven Protein Data Bank (Bernstein et al. 1977). Useful references to the polymorphic variants of DNA are Rich et al. (1984), Shakked and Kennard (1984), Jovin et al. (1987) and Drew et al. (1988). Detailed numeric data on oligonucleotide studies can be found in the Landolt-Bornstein Tables (Kennard and Hunter 1989a) and a recent review in Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics (Kennard and Hunter 1989b).
Unassigned or nonsense codons
Authors: Osawa Syozo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The genomic G + C content of Micrococcus luteus is 75 per cent, the highest of all the organisms that have been examined. Figure 4.1 shows that codons ending with G or C comprise 95 to 100 per cent of all codons (Obama et al., 1990a). In the NNY pair, use of the NNC codon does not reach 100 per cent, and a small amount of NNU is utilized. This is because codons NNC and NNU are normally read by a single anticodon, GNN (except for family boxes in mitochondria and Mycoplasma capricolum), so that the NNU codon can be regenerated by backmutation from NNC (or NNG in family boxes) to some extent. On the other hand, NNG usage is 100 per cent in six out of 14 NNR pairs. In high G + C bacteria, NNR codons are read by two anticodons; NNA by anticodon *UNN (or + UNN in family boxes) and NNG mainly by CNN, and inefficiently by *UNN, especially in 2-codon sets. Therefore, complete conversion of an NNA codon to its synonymous NNG codon by GC-pressure, together with positive selection of NNG by anticodon CNN, is likely to occur if the *UNN anticodon is deleted. If this happens, the NNA codon regenerated by back-mutation from NNG is subjected to negative selection. Even if GC-pressure is weakened during evolution, with an increase in mutation rate from NNG to NNA, NNA cannot appear because of the absence of the *UNN anticodon that translates it. In effect, such an NNA codon cannot exist in the coding frames. Such a codon is called an unassigned or nonsense codon.
Selenocysteine is coded by UGA
Authors: Osawa Syozo 
Published: November 2023

abstract
Selenium (Se) is an essential nutritional trace element in the diet of animals. Some selenoproteins, such as mammalian glutathione peroxidase and E. coli formate dehydrogenase, contain Se in the form of selenocysteine (Sec) at the active centre of the corresponding enzyme. Sec plays an essential role in maintaining a lower redox potential for these enzymes through the resulting selenol group as compared with the thiol group of Cys. This may be advantageous for anaerobic environments. In fact, selenite is required for the production of formate dehydrogenase activity in E. coli, which is expressed and is active under anaerobic conditions (Pinsent, 1954). Replacement of Sec by Cys results in a 75 per cent reduction in enzyme activity (Zinoni et al., 1986).