bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The UMB Intelligent ICE Markup Assistant
Authors: Blachman Edward M , Meyer Charles F , Morris Robert A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have developed an editor, the UMB Intelligent ICE Markup Assistant (UMB/ IMA), that greatly eases the task of adding ICE markup to samples of written or (especially) spoken English. The editor brings to ICE ease-of-use innovations developed in other areas of computer application, particularly in ‘What You See Is What You Get’ (WYSIWYG) document editing. There are many such interactive programs familiar to scholars and desktop publishers, and there is a sense in which these programs can be considered markup systems. Certainly the documents they create can be expressed in markup languages for interchange and other purposes; yet these editors allow users to create and edit those documents without ever having to see or understand the intricacies of the interchange markup. With the UMB/ IMA, a sample’s markup can be seen and edited via a presentation that is easier to understand than ICE markup, yet with constraints and filters that make the effort completely compatible with the SEU Markup Assistant (see Chapter 6) and ICE in general. Finally, we know that linguists deal with many varieties of markup, so we strove to build a system whose concepts could be applied not only to ICE but also to other markup schemes. From the outside, a markup system is not very different from any other kind of editor: it requires import and export facilities (or Open and Save, if you prefer), as well as support in the user interface for making new objects, and for selecting and manipulating existing objects. It is at the next level of detail that markup concerns enter into the picture-determining the objects to be made and selected, finding the places where a judicious amount of programming can ease the job of adding markup, and determining the appropriate import and export facilities.
ICE Annotation Tools
Authors: Quinn Akiva , Porter Nick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A key aspect of the International Corpus of English (ICE) is the detailed linguistic annotation it contains. Providing annotations for textual features, word classes, syntactic categories, and functions allows comparisons to be conducted along many axes. Transforming a raw input file into a properly annotated text can involve much work, so software tools have been developed to keep this effort to a minimum. This paper describes three programs produced by the Survey of English Usage for machine-assisted annotation. The Markup Assistant automates the insertion of textual markup, generating ICE markup symbols at a single key press and ensuring that markup symbols are closed. The ICE Tag Selection System automates the selection from the alternative word-class tags generated by an automatic word-class tagger. The ICE Syntactic Marking System automates the addition of syntactic markers to texts prior to parsing by an automatic parser. The ICE Syntactic Tree annotator complements automatic parsing by providing a graphical environment for the manual editing of syntactic analyses.
ICE and Teaching
Authors: Kirk John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The British component of the International Corpus of English (hereafter ICE-GB) makes available a new, machine-readable resource to teachers of native-speaker students and foreign learners. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate possible uses of ICE-GB in both of these teaching contexts. Although ICE-GB is intended to form the basis of authoritative descriptions of British English for years to come, the material lends itself for teaching and for assessment work in its copious supply of fresh data from across a wide range of spoken and written registers. As far as mother-tongue teaching is concerned, ICE-GB enables students to learn about the structure of English, to develop a descriptive and theoretical vocabulary, and to cultivate a methodology for dealing analytically with, and writing effectively about, language. Following Kirk (1994a), this paper considers the likely use of ICE-GB in terms of three central characteristics of the student approach to language study which I have developed at the Queen’s University of Belfast: data, model of analysis, and the analysis itself, which correspond to higher-level issues in corpus linguistic methodology in general, and which receive special emphasis in my course.
Aspects of Meaning: P1 and its Markers
Authors: Müller Nicole 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapters have established patterns of usage for various constructions involving a non-subject PL Here, we shall explore aspects of the semantics underlying the selection of the markers of PL The discussion follows on from the theoretical framework sketched in Chapter 1: it is assumed that prepositions are polysemous lexical items, and that prepositions, as well as participants in situations, can be described in terms of prototype categories. Furthermore, it is assumed that, usually, a spatial sense can be identified as a prototypical use of a preposition, and that agentive uses can be described as extensions of more concrete, usually spatial senses.
One of the features shared by many earlier studies of prepositions and case forms in Welsh and Irish (discussed below) is the attempt, whether made explicit or not, to establish a diachronic hierarchy, in other words, to distinguish earlier from later uses of, for example, a preposition, or a syntactic construction-an approach that usually also implies the assumption that later uses can be etymologically linked with earlier ones. While there can be no doubt that the uses of lexical categories change over time, and that certain senses of a preposition may go back in time less far than others, while others may die out, this is not a concern that is central to this book-although the texts analysed do not represent a synchronic slice of the Welsh and Irish language use, respectively, and therefore diachronic factors are potentially encapsulated in our material.
Summary and Concluding Remarks
Authors: Müller Nicole 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The investigation in this book has pursued aspects of the marking of P1 in early Welsh and Irish, and of the way in which agentive constructions are employed in their contexts. It has emerged from the Welsh material that prepositional P1 marking in VN constructions is very consistent in the use of o ‘from’; VN constructions other than vN+o P1 , are of marginal occurrence only. The semantic specification of o as P1 marker was analysed as that of the source of energy of a process, more specifically an action. This is supported by the character of CAUSE and INST marked by o: in causal function, o specifies an influence that results in the situation described by the clause; the CAUSE can be interpreted as the source from which the situation develops. In instrumental (or modal) function, o only rarely marks a concrete instrument or tool controlled by an AG, but more often marks the abstract manner, or, with a concrete complement, the material or substance out of which something is made or develops. In addition, o can also denote the IAG, or ‘giver’, with VNs such as caffael ‘get’ or bot (in possessive construction) ‘be’/’have’. This is, however, rare, compared to the use of gan ‘with’ or y gan ‘from (with)’ in this function.
Corpus and Computer
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I take it as axiomatic that effective and robust descriptions of any kind of lexical item must be based on evidence, not intuition, and that corpora provide evidence of a suitable type and quality. At the heart of the study described in this book lies a database of several thousand FEIs, recording their features and characteristics as demonstrated in corpus data. This chapter briefly discusses the database, corpus, and some related computational issues. The following chapters set out the results of the research, and correlations to be drawn.
Lexical and Grammatical Form
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not at all surprising that the vocabulary of FEIs has a distribution that is different from that of the lexicon in general. A frequency list of the constituent words of database FEIs differs markedly from that for OHPC. This is, of course, not comparing like with like, but it gives some indication of words (and so concepts, images, and structures) which feature strongly in FEIs, or occur relatively more often in FEIs than in freely formed text. Just over 4,000 types or forms, unlemmatized, constitute the vocabulary of database FEIs, including variations. This is a remarkably small number, given that even a moderate-sized English dictionary includes 20-30,000 lemmas. Whole areas of the vocabulary—whole semantic fields—simply do not occur in FEIs.
Evaluation and Interactional Perspectives
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter looks at FEIs in relation to interaction and the interpersonal component of discourse (Halliday 1978: 128ff.; Halliday and Hasan 1989: 20 and passim; Morley 1985: 44-81). The selection and use of FEis is not simply a matter of the lexical realization of meaning, but part of the ongoing dynamic interaction between speaker/writer and hearer/reader within the discoursal context. Moreover, many FEis may be seen as culture-bound stereotypes, indexing (in Hallidayan terms) language through experience.
Afterword
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three main conclusions can be drawn from this account of English FEIs. First, further corpus-based studies are needed in order to make the picture of FEIs more accurate and complete. Second, existing models and descriptions need to be revised in the light of emerging corpus evidence, in particular with respect to form and variation. Third, the significance of the roles of FEIs in discourse should not be underestimated.
CALL in context II: an interdisciplinary perspective
Authors: Levy Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
CALL is a relatively new, interdisciplinary field of study that has been subject to the influence of a number of other fields and disciplines. In addition to the fields of computing and language teaching/learning, which one would expect to have an impact on CALL, real or potential influences in the development of the field have included elements of psychology, artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, instructional technology and design, and human-computer interaction studies (see Table 3.1). Many of these disciplines are relatively new in themselves, having developed very significantly since World War II; they each have their own perspective and frame of reference, they often overlap and interrelate, and the extent to which any one should influence the development of CALL has not been determined.
Introduction
Authors: Cornish Francis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is an attempt to place (discourse) anaphora firmly within a cognitive psychological processing framework, ‘rescuing’ its study from the familiar kind of armchair theorizing based on constructed data controlled by the linguist acting as his or her own native informant. Such a method of analysis has been all too common over the last twenty years, whether in linguistics, philosophy, artificial intelligence, or even in psychology-the well-worn two-sentence text format in which examples are constructed being something of a hallmark of such studies. Symptomatic of this methodology is the use of the asterisk rather than the crosshatch to indicate the ill-formedness of given two-sentence examples putatively linked via anaphora. Such a usage is highly revealing, for it reflects the view that anaphora, for analysts who proceed in this way, is essentially a formal-syntactic phenomenon wholly or mainly describable and explicable in terms of the language system. Thus discourse anaphora is often treated as if it were an inter sentence level occurrence subject to the criterion of grammaticality.’ See Reichler Beguelin (1988; 1993), Wiese (1983), Valentin (1985), Cornish (1986a), and Bourstin (1996) for arguments against a sentence-syntactic account of (pronominal) anaphora.
Semantic-pragmatic determinants of anaphoric value
Authors: Cornish Francis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in Chapter 2 (in§§ 2.3, 2.4.1, and 2.4.2 in particular) that the ‘antecedent’, in the traditional conception, in actual fact plays a relatively limited role in the setting up and interpretation of anaphoric relations and in the construction of discourse from text and context. Indeed, its co-presence with a given anaphor in a text is not in fact necessary at all, as the phenomenon of’situationaJ anaphora’ (often termed ‘exophora’1) dearly shows. Under the present approach, exophora, rather than ‘endophora’ (where the anaphor is said to refer within, rather than outside of a text, in terms of an appropriate antecedent expression), is the paradigm instance of anaphora as a discourse-based phenomenon (see Chapter 4). In fact, the distinction often made between these two alleged subtypes of anaphora is irrelevant within this framework, since in both types of instance the anaphor in question finds its referent as well as context-determined sense from within a conceptual representation of prior discourse rather than uniquely from either the text or the situational context of the anaphor-containing utterance.
Exophora, saliency, and discourse memory
Authors: Cornish Francis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So-called ‘antecedentless’ anaphors have tended to be conceived of as illustrated in examples such as (4.1) (see Hankamer and Sag 1976; Tasmowski-de Ryck and Verluyten 1982): (4.1) [A and B turn a corner on the pavement, and suddenly find themselves face to face with a rather large dog] A to B: Do you think it’s friendly? {adapted from Yule 1979: ex. I) Three characteristics of the occurrence and mode of interpretation of it in (4.1) are first, that there is no co-occurring textual expression which might serve as its antecedent (in terms of which it might receive its full sense and reference), second, that its referent is present in the situational context of the utterance itself, and third, that it is salient within that context (the speaker assuming that this is the case for his/her interlocutor). The second characteristic-the presence of the referent within the situational context-is indeed elevated into a criterion for the very existence of exophora, or pragmatically controlled anaphora, by Tasmowski-de Ryck and Verluyten (1982: 332). A further feature is that the anaphor occurs in the spoken form with low pitch and without stress or any accompanying gesture (see Yule 1979; Kleiber 1994b: ch. 5), indicating that its referent is assumed to enjoy ‘focus’ status in the addressee’s consciousness.
Conclusion
Authors: Cornish Francis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Discourse anaphors do not operate by ‘pointing’ backwards (or forwards, in the case of ‘cataphors’) to a co-occurring segment of the co-text, and causing its sense and denotation as well as its relevant morphosyntactic features (animacy, gender) to be transferred to them as a result. As we have amply seen in the foregoing, this is not an adequate theoretical account of how anaphoric reference functions, as indeed many have argued-including myself. But it is even less adequate as an account of how anaphoric and other indexical expressions are actually processed by users in real time and in real contexts of utterance.
Nominal Interpretation And Case-Marking
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, some aspects of the lattice-theoretic framework found in Krifka (1989, 1992) were introduced. However, we have yet to examine the ways in which nominal arguments are related to their predicates in that system. In this chapter, I will be concentrating on the problem of nominal interpretation in our SGaelic constructions in particular, but also in natural language more generally. In the next section, I will assess the Krifka (1989, 1992) framework in dealing with these issues. I will show that the notion of quantized vs. non-quantized in the object domain does not accurately characterise the difference in nominal interpretation found in these constructions, despite its initial plausibility.
The External Argument
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we look more closely at the nature of the external argument position. There will be two kinds of distinctions made here: the first concerns the difference between eventive and stative subjects; the second is the distinction between stage level and individual level subjects (Kratzer 1989; Diesing 1988). although this latter distinction will be given a somewhat different semantic representation than is traditionally assumed.
Introduction
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a survey of diachronic semantics published some twenty years ago, Winfred Lehmann (1976) suggested that future progress in the study of meaning changes would have to come primarily from a systematic application of the descriptive model provided by componential analysis. But although such feature-based approaches were indeed developed in the context of various componential models of semantic structure, by authors such as Voyles (1973), Fritz (1974), Werth (1974), Lipka (1985), and Kleparski (1986), the main developments in historical semantics were to lie elsewhere.
Prototypicality in a Classification of Lexical Change
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IF prototype-based features do indeed (as demonstrated in the previous chapter) characterize the process of semantic change, an obvious next question to ask involves the relationship between prototypicality and the more traditional analyses of changes of meaning. As these traditional analyses commonly take the form of a classification of semantic changes, the question that will detain us in this chapter boils down to the following: what is the position of prototypicality in a classification of lexical changes? The question will be approached from a functional angle. It will be suggested that prototypicality, as a principle organizing the semasiological structure of lexical items, plays an important functional role in the language, and should therefore be properly incorporated into a functionally orientated classification of lexical changes.
Introduction
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main aim of this book is to explore the implications for linguistic theory of a case study in bilingual acquisition. We construe linguistic theory broadly to include language acquisition theory (cf. Radford 1981: 1). Some of the implications will be for language acquisition theory in general, while others will be for theories of bilingual acquisition in particular. General theoretical questions to be discussed in this book include whether phono logical distinctions can be acquired on acoustic evidence alone; whether lexical acquisition involves an avoidance of synonymy; whether all words in early two word utterances can necessarily be assigned to lexical categories; and how early children are able to make appropriate language choices. Specific implications for bilingual acquisition, on the other hand, include the question of: whether a bilin gual child has one or two linguistic systems from the very beginning; what cri teria should be used in identifying one versus two systems; and what the most important determinants of language choice are for the developing bilingual.
Methodology of Data Collection and Transcription
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In an overview of research on child bilingualism, Lindholm (1980) distinguishes between studies that use naturalistic methodology and those that use experimental methodology. Among naturalistic studies she mentions three types: intensive lon gitudinal case studies of one child, studies of several children over a shorter period of time, and ‘informative but somewhat impressionistic studies of children with the limited data gathered by the parents or friends’ (Lindholm 1980: 217). Our study is of the first naturalistic type, though it has experimental aspects, to be described in Section 2.2.2. As a case study, we would argue that its positive fea tures outweigh its limitations, both of which have been discussed in Section 1.3. Details of the subject of the case, M, her linguistic environment, and language input have also been described in Section 1.4. In this chapter we shall provide a detailed description of our procedures for data collection so that our results will easily lend themselves to comparison with other studies of bilingual development.
Some Aspects of Phonological Acquisition
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we address the question of how one can determine whether a developing bilingual has one phonological system or two, and consider the con tribution of previous studies to answering this question, mostly at the level of segmental phonology. We illustrate the difficulties involved by analysing the invent ory of segments in English and Spanish acquired by M. We then report on an acoustic analysis of the child’s acquisition of the voicing contrast in both English and Spanish (initially reported in Deuchar and Clark 1996), and aim to throw new light on the process whereby the child acquires a contrast that has different phonetic realizations in the two languages. It is important to realize from the out set that, while there are many unanswered questions about the relation between perception and production in phonology, our concern in this chapter is with pro duction data.
Conclusion and Implications
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book we have tried to present the findings of our case study in terms of what theoretical implications they might have. In this chapter we shall summar ize those findings and their possible theoretical implications, drawing them together. In Section 1.3 we discussed the case-study approach and its positive aspects, following arguments by Platt (1988).
Formal Systems for Complexity and Control of Inference: A Reprise and Some Hints
Authors: Joshi Aravind , Weinstein Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this short chapter we have gone over some of our earlier work on centering, which was motivated by the desire to construct formal systems for studying some aspects of complexity of inference in discourse, at least those concerning the local structure of discourse. We have also made some suggestions for further research in this direction.
Ranking Forward-Looking Centers
Authors: Cote Sharon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps the most important single element of centering theory is the idea that the entities realized in an utterance can be ranked according to the likelihood that they will be the center of the subsequent utterance. The ordered set of features for a language which determine this ranking may be called the ‘Cf template’ for that language (distinguishing it from a ‘Cf list’ which may refer to the ranking of discourse entities in a particular utterance based on these features). Ultimately, centering theory will work as a model of local coherence for a particular language only if we select the appropriate features in that language for the Cf template.