bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Solitary Saint, the Pratyekabuddha
Authors: Ray Reginald A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pratyekabuddha (P., paccekabuddha; “solitary Buddha “ or one “enlightened on his own “ ) is frequently mentioned in Indian Buddhist texts. Pali tradition, for example, attributes several characteristics to him. First and foremost, he is like a buddha, an enlightened being by virtue of having comprehended the four noble truths on his own, without the help of any teacher (Mp 105 [T.R. 1890-94, 1:158]). However, he does not have the capacity to proclaim the dharma to others and is not a teacher, and this separates him from a buddha. In addition, the pratyekabuddha cannot coexist in the same time period with a buddha and thus does not arise in the era when the teaching of a perfect buddha is known (Nyanatiloka 1980, 140). In terms of his personal style, the pratyekabuddha enjoys solitude and speaks little (La Vallee Poussin 1908-27c, 152). Among the wellknown and frequently appearing triad of arhant, pratyekabuddha, and buddha, he is superior to an arhant but inferior to a buddha (Mn 3:254 [Hn., 3:302]). Sometimes, he is closely linked with the buddhas, whereas the arhant seems to stand off to the side as a markedly lower ideal. The Sarvastivadin definitions follow closely upon the Pali.
The Cult of Saints and Buddhist Doctrines of Absence and Presence
Authors: Ray Reginald A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the evidence examined in previous chapters, we have seen certain tensions, sometimes oppositions, between two ways of considering the Buddhist saints. On the one hand is the view that the Buddhist saints of the forest are the primary reference point for normative Buddhism. On the other is the view that tends to play down the saints and to find the heart of normative Buddhism elsewhere, in the characteristic values and preoccupations of settled monasticism. This raises the question of whether, at least to some extent, this divergence of views is not an isolated instance, but is rather connected with two distinguishable, sometimes quite different, understandings of what Buddhism is and should be. The present chapter takes up this question by focusing on ways in which these two views tend to express themselves in Buddhist doctrine and, in particular, where they stand in relation to the important question of the extent to which, and the way in which, the Buddhist saint, after death, is immanent within or absent from the deluded world.
/ The Stillness Controversy
Authors: Tyson John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Charles Wesley’s hymns and sermons were tools of evangelism and Christian nurture. As early Methodism was shaken by controversies his hymns also took on a polemical tone and became his ablest instruments in defending the movement. His polemical interests ranged from the issue of theodicy in Hymns Occasioned by the Earthquakes (1750) to a matter near and dear to Charles’s heart in “An Apology for the Enemies of Music. “ His hymns often assumed a posture that was prophetically critical toward eighteenth-century Christianity. The enlightenment’s christologies drew charges of “Arians,” “Socinians,” and “vain philosophies” in Charles’s hymns. The deists were poetically transformed into modern day Sadducees for their uneasiness about supernaturalism, while the orthodox Anglicans became “Pharisees” for their pride, arrogance, and hostility toward the Methodists.3 His Short Hymns on Select Passages of Scripture, especially those based on the Gospel of Luke, decried the materialism of his age. His hymn “The Man of Fashion” was a biting criticism of the trendy gentry and their aristocratic arrogance. In a similar way religious hypocrisy, which Charles described as a “mask of piety,” was often singled out for special criticism.
/ Christian Perfection and Its Pretenders
Authors: Tyson John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Charles Wesley deemed Christian Perfection one of “the two great truths of the everlasting Gospel” (the other being “universal redemption”). It was the soteriological axis of his theology, a point around which a constellation of redemption themes revolved. Sanctification, as articulated in even his earliest preaching [No. 6], was the “one thing needful”-a renovation of the whole person in the image of God and mind of Christ. But the doctrine, despite its vital position in Wesleyan soteriology, was difficult to articulate. It demanded both theological balance and personal humility from its adherents in order to avoid extravagant claims and abuses of Wesley’s sanctification language and vision.
/ The Final Days
Authors: Tyson John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Charles Wesley’s declining years were punctuated by bouts of serious illness and flurries of ministerial activity. A hymn, one of his most autobiographical, reveals his state of mind during this final period. Written between December 3, 1763, and April 30, 1764, the following unpublished hymn revealed Charles’s growing sense of physical frailty and increasing resignation of himself to the will of God.
Introduction
Authors: Gottschalk Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A friend had just returned from India, and we sat having tea in my Chicago apartment. She spoke of the disillusionment caused by the divergence between her American university, book-based education of India and her first year’s experience of living in India. One of the most difficult aspects of her life, she explained, was dealing with the communalism that increasingly simmered on the front burner of the 1996 national elections. Indian friends, whose opinions she thought she could predict, surprisingly began to echo the bigoted sentiments that bubbled and frothed in the heated climate of the elections. Her comments spurred my memories of uncomfortable moments I experienced occasionally in my rural research site—moments when a Muslim flamboyantly condemned Hindus or a Hindu harshly denigrated Muslims. Trying to camouflage my revulsion toward such talk without condoning these ideas with silence, I seldom responded to such situations with anything more than a halfhearted nod or a barely audible grunt. After all, I had come, in part, to explore such sentiments. Moreover, I knew that not only would any protest on my part be without good effect but also it would most likely make residents less forthcoming to me about such matters. Like my friend, I struggled with my feelings and lived with my frustration.
Multiple Identities, Singular Representations
Authors: Gottschalk Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modernity has proven to be an illusive animal to snare in the trap of description. This results, in part, from the manner in which its constituent elements serve as paradigms for understanding the world—paradigms so basic to Western interpretation that they are often as presumed as looking through one’s eyes. Most Westerners, as children of the Enlightenment and the Protestant Reformation, unreflectively consider individualism, rationalism, secularism, and nationalism as prerequisite components of “modern” societies. Because they often adopt an idea of progress that posits the modern as the pinnacle of human cultural development, Westerners sometimes harshly judge cultures that fail to fulfill modern expectations, negatively labeling them as backward, medieval, or less developed. Absorbing and appropriating many of these paradigms and valuations through hundreds of years of Western cultural hegemony, many non-Westerners have come to share some of these views of modern Westerners and their critique of non-Western societies.
Monopolizing the Conversation: On Being Civilly Egocentric
Authors: Derber Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Individualism has a counterpart in American psychology. People tend to seek attention for themselves in face-to-face interactions. This attention getting psychology reflects an underlying character structure of “self-orientation” that emerges in highly individualistic societies.’ Erich Fromm has theorized that a shared character structure develops in each society, a “social character” that is a response to the requirements of the social order and best suited for survival and success within it. The self-oriented character type develops a highly egocentric view of the world and is motivated primarily by self-interest. To cope with social and economic insecurity bred by individualism, he becomes preoccupied with himself.
G
Authors: Andrews Tamra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gaia was the Greek Mother Earth, the most ancient divinity born out of chaos. She was the female creative principle and the personification of the physical earth. The earth goddess was the object of a widespread cult but was gradually displaced by more humanized goddesses who embodied the same creative principle. Though Gaia embodied the entire planet, to the Greeks she more likely personified their particular area of earth and the fertile power of the land. The mountains were her breasts, the caves her womb, the earth’s waters her female fluids. She gave birth to Ouranos, the sky, then mated with him to create the first races of mankind.
L
Authors: Andrews Tamra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lei Kung was the Chinese Duke of Thunder, a deity that can be traced back to the first century B.C. In ancient times, he was called simply “the thunderer;’ but after Buddhism came to China he assumed the name Lei Kung and became an official in the Ministry of Thunder. The Chinese believed thunderstorms were a form of divine punishment, and Lei Kung was one of the primary deities responsible for meting it out. But because he only made the noise of thunder, he enlisted help from the other gods to carry out the storms. Lei Kung often worked in tandem with T’ien Mu, who flashed the lightning, Yu Shih, who poured the rains from a watering can, Yun’t’ung, who piled up the clouds, and Feng Po, who released the winds from his goatskin bottle.
W
Authors: Andrews Tamra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many cosmogonies, the world began with water alone. Water contained the seeds of life, so it had infinite possibilities and power-power to create the universe and to circulate through all three realms. The mythology and symbolism of water is pervasive and complex, and it encompasses the duality that defines the character of many natural forces. Water as creator and water as destroyer fostered the development of a wide range of spirits, some who ensured life and fertility and others who caused death.
The Practice of Silent Illumination
Authors: Sheng-yen Master , Stevenson Dan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have spoken in an earlier chapter of the codification that the “gateless gate” of Chan underwent as it developed institutionally during the late Tang and early Song Dynasties. In an atmosphere of increasing sectarianism the different lines of Chan sought to formalize their patriarchal heritages and delineate the distinctive features of their particular brand of Chan practice and culture.
Muhammad the Model
Authors: Ruthven Malise 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullah of the Banu Hashim of Quraish was born in Mecca in about 570, at a time when the ruling tribe of Quraish were increasing in wealth, power and prosperity. The caravan-city of Makka, probably the ‘Makorba’ mentioned in the writings of the second century geographer Ptolemy, had long been a centre of pilgrimage. The shrine from which its name derived, and the surrounding haram or sacred area, was a place where the beduin tribes who controlled the traffic in spices and other goods between South Arabia and the Mediterranean could exchange goods without fear of attack. The pilgrimage to the Ka’ba, in addition to its religious functions, encouraged trade, especially during the four sacred months when fighting was forbidden. Other harams in the Peninsula similarly combined religious with commercial functions, but Makka seems to have been the most important of these sanctuaries, lying as it did on the strategic road between Yemen, seat of an ancient if declining civilization, and the Mediterranean. In the decades before Muhammad, the volume of trade had increased, partly as a result of the continuing warfare between the Persian and Byzantine empires which disrupted the northern land routes. The tribes who controlled the Hejaz trade were becoming not only more powerful but increasingly civilized as they came into closer contact with the regions of high culture.
When Egypt Was Christian
Authors: Hasan S S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The following three chapters are a very rough historical sketch, based on a few of the better known works. Those who are well versed in Egyptian history are advised to skip chapters 1-3 of this book. To shed some light on Coptic myths and the commemorations of suffering and sacrifice that reproduce the Coptic past, I will attempt to outline in a rudimentary fashion the main personalities and events of the third to fifth centuries AD that captivate the imagination of Egyptian Christians to this day. The Greeks of Egypt were the first converts to Christianity and the first proselytizers among the native population. Alexander the Great arrived in Egypt in October 332 BC; the priests of Memphis (modem Luxor) offered him the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, and after seven months, in April of 331, he left Egypt to engage in further conquests. He was never to return; he died eight years later in the year 323 BC in Babylon. However, his legacy, the prosperous capital city of Alexandria, which he had founded in April 331, was to become, under the Ptolemaic dynasty, the home of some of the greatest scholars of the age: Euclid the geometer, Erastosthenes the geographer, and Philo the New Platonist, a Jew who resided in Alexandria in the first century AD (after the Greeks, the Jews constituted the largest foreign community in Alexandria).
The Dawn of a New Era
Authors: Hasan S S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Arab rulers were willing, on the whole, to allow Christians and Jews to practice their own religion and be governed by their own religious laws, since the Koran recognized the validity of these two religions (Suras 2 and 5 maintain that anyone who believed in God and performed good deeds, whether Jew or Christian, would be rewarded by God). Nonetheless, conversions to Islam gained in momentum between the seventh and ninth centuries, at times under pressure, at others for financial and tax advantages, so that by the ninth century the Coptic peasantry had largely intermingled with the Arab invaders and Coptic was being replaced by Arabic.
The Warring Founding Fathers: Bishop Shenuda, Bishop Samuel, and Abbot Matthew the Poor
Authors: Hasan S S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The “revolution of the saints” in Egypt was replete with the kind of fierce infighting and bitter feuds that characterize worldly revolutions, for each one of its leading figures had his own burning vision of the Orthodox revival movement and went after it with single-minded, almost ruthless, determination. When in 1959 the papal throne became vacant, the members of the Sunday School Movement felt that their turn had come. They decided to put forward the candidacy of a member of St. Anthony’s Church, Father Anthony, and that of a member of the Giza church, Father Macari, as well as that of Father Matthew the Poor. In the words of another former member of the Giza church, Bishop Bimen, “We felt that if the pope was chosen from among members of the Sunday School Movement, he would be younger, more energetic, more dynamic, and more moral.’’1 But the revolutionary ideas of this generation were suspect. The old guard quickly closed ranks against it, by influencing the Holy Synod to enact a law making ineligible any monk who had spent less than fifteen years in a monastery and who was under 40 years of age.
Dealing with the Muslim State: Pope Shenuda
Authors: Hasan S S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ironically, President Nasser’s authoritarian regime unwittingly schooled the church for a political role, by weakening the Christian secular aristocracy as well as the liberal institutions like Parliament and the Communal Council in which they had played an important role. Even before it issued the decree banning the multiparty system, the new regime that had come to power as a result of the 1952 revolution had undermined the political power of the Coptic landed aristocracy by destroying, through the Agrarian Reform Act, their economic base. Nasser was uncomfortable with private voluntary associations: he regarded them as potential centers of subversion. The Communal Council, an institution dominated by that same aristocracy, was not done away with in quite as blatant a manner as Parliament had been, but it was reduced to a shadow of its former self The same republican decree that limited land holdings to 200 feddans authorized the Agrarian Reform Authority to confiscate all church holdings beyond that limit.
Centralizing the Church Administration
Authors: Hasan S S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The battle Pope Shenuda had to fight was not only against the state: within the church itself, it was not possible for Shenuda to implement his socioeconomic reform project without causing an upheaval and generating many enemies, both among the clerics and the laymen who served the church. For one thing, such reforms threatened their position, because they necessitated a centralization of power. During his reign, the church ceased to be the loose conglomerate of self-governing units (dioceses) that it had been in the past. he dioceses were pretty much autonomous quasi-feudal principalities before the reign of Shenuda, with the bishops paying pro forma homage to their overlord, the pope, while in fact regarding their dioceses as their own private fiefdoms. Even the selection of the bishops was far more decentralized. Often the pope was happy to leave the choice of the bishop up to the local notability, in whose interests it was to nominate someone pliable, whom they could control.
Culture and Hegemony: “Islam Is the Solution”
Authors: Hasan S S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The revolutionary junta that came to power in 1952 was drawn from the lower middle class, whose cultural mooring was religious, hence Islamic. The leading cadres of the conspiratorial movement of the Free Officers did not feature a single Christian (possibly because of the underrepresentation of religious and ethnic minorities in the Egyptian military academy).1 Unlike members of the old regime, not a single member of the junta had studied in the West, and few spoke a foreign language. Thus, they had not come into contact with western secular thinkers or with the notion of the separation of church and state. And though Nasser himself was not wed to any particular ideology when he first came to power (he had ties at different times to a variety of political groupings), other members of the junta had had close ties with the Muslim Brotherhood.
The Church as Amphitheater
Authors: Hasan S S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The General Meetings, which the Coptic canticles inaugurate, well examplify the way in which the new and old mesh to create traditions. Pope Shenuda first called these meetings” Dars” (Lesson). This at one and the same time underlined their innovative character, by distinguishing them from the religious sermon, and created a tradition, by emphasizing their continuity with the pedagogical mission of the founder of the Sunday School Movement, the by then “resting” I:Iabib Jirjis. (Pious Copts never use the word dead; they say itnayah, “he rested.”) Thus, we can see how new traditions are fashioned, as the rapid transformation of society weakens the social patterns for which the “old” traditions had been designed. The sermon itself was at one time an innovation for the Coptic Church. Prior to its adoption, by the Sunday School generation in the 1940s, the Coptic Church was limited to the celebration of mass.
Introduction—Reconstructing Ancient Sport
Authors: Scanlon Thomas F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last decades of the past century witnessed in many countries the literal and metaphorical unveiling of the body, a huge interest in sports both as a medium of personal fitness and as immensely profitable big business, fervid public discussion of sex and gender, and radical restructuring of conventional religious institutions. Academics concerned with ancient Greece and Rome, spurred on by these cultural dynamics, are asking newquestions of ancient materlaI, to some extent so that classical constructions of sex, gender, sports, and religion might open up new perspectives on analogous modern phenomena. Cultural relativity shows us alternative modes of thinking about Individual behavior and societal institutions. Hy noting similarities and differences with the ancient civilizations on which European culture was based, and by recognizing the ways In which cultural constructions In general take place, the dialogue with the past continues to enlighten the present. ln this work, explicit comparisons and contrasts with parallel modern phenomena will mostly be left to the readers: many parallels will be obvious from individual experiences of contemporary social contexts.
Athletics, Initiation, and Pederasty
Authors: Scanlon Thomas F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though It is essential to understand the character and history of the Olympics as the earliest known regular athletic festival among the Greeks, a myriad of other games testify to the use of athletics in constructing Greek society, The athletic contests of Greek myth and history were held in a variety of contexts: pure entertainment, physical education, funeral games, sacred festivals, and initiation rituals, The last of these occasions may be the least obvious, since it has not received much scholarly attention lately, but it is an essential strand in the complicated social nexus of Greek athletics. Moreover, In recent decades some scholarship has argued that Greek initiation had its origins in a prehistoric, India European ritual that assigned a significant role to homosexuality, or more specifically pederasty, in Greek culture. Since much of this work discusses issues of gender and sexuality In relation to Greek sports, it Is crucial that these theories of an initiatory origin of pederasty be examined In relation to athletics. Though origins per se are of less interest here than later historical manifestations, most of the Initiation theories claim that the Initiation-pederasty nexus continued to function in various ways in the historical period. Thus the theories may shed light on historical practice.
“Only We Produce Men”—Spartan Female Athletics and Eugenics
Authors: Scanlon Thomas F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With typically erotic overtones, Propertius sang the praise of Spartan maidens: “I marvel at the many rules of your palaestra, O Sparta, but even more at the blessings of your gymnasium for girls [virgineum gymnasium], since a naked girl may take part in the well-known games amidst men as they wrestle” (3.14.1–4). As with the Olympian Heraia, Spartan girls’ contests offer a unique perspective from which to observe young women engaged in the rites of passage from adolescence to adulthood. Unlike men’s athletics, which was an expression of heroic and martial aretē at Sparta and elsewhere, Spartan glrls’ games, like their counterparts in the Hernia and the Attica Arktela, were ultimately an expression of prenuptial strength for the wives- and mothers-to-be of warriors. At Sparta, however, the girls’ athletic regimen more closely resembled the men’s in form and variety than anywhere else. As in the Heraia and the Arkteia, Spartan female contests were open only to maidens (parthenoi) and, in part, the contests functioned as ritual tests of strength prior to marriage.