bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Theseus and the Parthenon as Mythic Propaganda
Authors: Tyrrell WM Blake , Brown Frieda S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At 9:40 p.m., 15 February 1898, two explosions demolished the forward part of the destroyer U.S.S. Maine while it was riding anchor in Havana harbor. Two hundred and sixty seamen and officers perished. The Cubans were rebelling against Spain, and President William McKinley had dispatched the ship to protect American citizens and investments on the island. An American court of inquiry and a subsequent American investigation in 1911 attributed the explosions to a submarine mine but did not fix responsibility for the destruction.
Praxis
Authors: Smith Theophus H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I derive an Afro-Christian praxis from a tradition beginning in the slavery period that includes in its purview the King movement. As we will see, however, King’s praxis refines the tradition in a qualitatively new way. I begin by reflecting on the transgenerational history of forgiveness and reconciliation in black religious experience. On the basis of his research, the historian Timothy Smith has argued that forgiveness and reconciliation toward enemies were the central doctrines of slave theology. The elements of their theology, Smith claims, were “first, forgiveness, awe and ecstasy … the experience of forgiveness and the doctrine of reconciliation were primary.”2 Smith then observes how theological doctrine converged with the psychological and existential needs of the slaves. In his view, their theology of forgiveness addressed the existential agony of impotence and outrage they experienced in the face of their severe oppression. Slave converts to Christianity in particular realized and acknowledged their need to be ‘saved’ from an internal cauldron of violent impulses. “Black converts knew they had a lot to forgive.
Emergence from Old Empires
Authors: Abu-Lughod Janet L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the second century A.D. the Roman empire covered a vast territory that included all regions abutting the Mediterranean Sea. The empire extended northward to encompass England and all of western Europe except Germany, eastward to encompass Greece, Anatolia, and the Fertile Crescent, and southward across the entire stretch of littoral North Africa. Rome’s southern and eastern peripheral areas were in contact, both overland and by sea, with sizable portions of the rest of the “Old World” as far away as India and China. By that time, the first nascent world system had come into existence, although it would not survive the “fall of Rome.”
The Mongols and the Northeast Passage
Authors: Abu-Lughod Janet L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some economic units in the thirteenth century owed their importance to their entrepot functions-to their competitive edge as neutral ground at a crossroads. These were places at which traders from distant places could meet to transact business, their persons secure in passage and their goods protected from confiscation or default. The towns of the Champagne fairs and, as we shall see later, the port entrepot of Aden, the towns along the Strait of Malacca, and, to some extent, those of the Malabar Coast offered such a haven.
Sindbad’s Way: Baghdad and the Persian Gulf
Authors: Abu-Lughod Janet L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of the three routes between Europe and the Far East, Sindbad’s “middle way” through the Persian Gulf was the easiest, cheapest, and, not unexpectedly then, the most ancient and enduring. When it functioned well, this middle route through the Levant and Baghdad took precedence over all alternatives. When it experienced blockages, however, the routes north of it, overland from Constantinople, or to the south, by land through Egypt and then water via the Red Sea, became more essential.
Cairo’s Monopoly under the Slave Sultanate
Authors: Abu-Lughod Janet L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The great coalescence of the Mesopotamian and Nile valley civilizations that had created the golden age of Islam was broken by the Mongol preemption of Iraq and Persia. Even after the Mongol II-Khans converted to Islam, the enmity between the Mongols and the Mamluks, who ruled Syria and Egypt, abated only briefly during the first half of the fourteenth century. This hiatus may have been partially responsible for the fact that Cairo reached her apex during the reign of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad (1294–1340, with two brief interruptions), when her population reached half a million (Abu-Lughod, 1971: 32–36). By then it was one of the largest cities in the world, exceeded by only the cities of China, Hangchow and possibly Zaytun.
Female Piety in the Lives of Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, and John Cotton
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Puritan ministers relied on images of female piety to characterize the way all Christians received grace, managed their feelings, and exercised authority. Thus in their use of female imagery to define humility, Puritan ministers did more than encourage wives to be submissive to their husbands; they also gave their listeners and readers a clear picture of the humble attitude essential to all forms of Christian activity.
Anne Hutchinson, Anne Bradstreet, and the Importance of Women in Puritan Culture
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As numerous scholars have pointed out, women in seventeenth¬ century New England were governed by a patriarchal social structure and patriarchal system of religious belief. In civic, ecclesiastical, and domestic life, men dominated and women submitted. A heartfelt devo¬tion to the Fatherhood of God supported this arrangement. Religious devotion to the Fatherhood of God invested ordinary fathers and father-figures with divine authority and represented the Puritan belief that strong fathers were necessary for social order and emotional security.1
The Rise and Fall of Female Piety as a Symbol of New England
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After 1660, the Puritan ideal of female piety acquired political signifi¬cance as a symbol of the strength and virtue of New England society. This development not only reflected the long-standing idealization of female piety in Puritan sermons, but also the growing preponderance of women church members, and the increasing religious authority Puritan women exercised at home as a result of their high rate of church membership. Thus the Puritan ideal of female sanctity came to symbolize the integrity of Puritan culture in New England as women came increasingly to represent religious virtue within Puritan culture.
The Intelligentsia and the Merchants
Authors: Bayat Mangol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the introduction to his excellent analysis of fin de siecle Viennese politics and culture, Carl Schorske asserts, “The word ‘modern’ acquired something of the ring of a war cry ... as an antithesis of ‘ancient’-implying contrast with classical antiquity. “1 This “war cry” rang loud and clear in Iran, its echo sounding among Moslem thinkers in the throes of an intellectual crisis. This crisis did not necessarily originate with Western contact, nor was this the direct cause. Rather, modern European thought offered viable answers to a quest for new modes of being and thinking. Modernity-a historical phenomenon developing from a set of particular economic, scientific, and cultural developments in the late fifteenth century in Western Europe-caught the imagination and inflamed the spirit of those already in rebellion against traditional sociointellectual norms.
The Religious Dissidents
Authors: Bayat Mangol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imani Shi’ism dominated Iranian thought for centuries, proving to be an important vehicle for intellectual continuity and change. In a remarkable fashion, despite the great hostility the established orthodox leadership displayed toward heterodox views, especially in the Safavid and Qajar periods, it had accommodated novel, sometimes radical, ideas propounded by progressive-minded men in revolt against the alleged “stifling narrow-mindedness” of the official religion. It kept a door open to divergent outlooks that reflected the changing conditions and mood of the time, and thus it periodically offered a more or less direct challenge to the conservative views of the sociocultural establishment.
The Transcaucasian Connection
Authors: Bayat Mangol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the signing of the treaties of Golistan (1812) and Turkomanchai (1828), which ended two disastrous wars with Russia, Iran gave up all claims to political rule in the Caucasus. The Turkic-speaking province of Azerbaijan was permanently divided in two, the south remaining as part of the Iranian kingdom and the north, with an estimated population of half a million Moslems, falling under Russian dominance. The Shia in Russian Azerbaijan held a clear majority, but Sunni influence was strong, and Russian authorities were able to use one sect against the other to break sporadic insurrections. At first, though, the khanate system of administration was kept intact, with a Russian commander replacing the local Moslem khan as governor. The religious courts continued to function as they had before Russian annexation, and Persian was maintained as the official administrative language.
The Establishment of the First Majles
Authors: Bayat Mangol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first experiment with parliamentarism, from August 1906 to June 1908, marked not the climax but rather the beginning of the revolution. It was during this two-year session of the first majles that groups of constitutionalists, emerging from British tutelage, formed more clearly defined political blocs with distinct targets and goals. Beneath their commonly adopted rhetoric, beyond their commonly held ideal of a representative government working in unison to reform society while abiding by the sacred rules and traditions of religion and monarchy, lay the divisive forces that, dormant in the preliminary stages leading to the proclamation of the constitution, were to explode weeks after the euphoria accompanying the festivities subsided.
The Mashruta-Mashru a Battle
Authors: Bayat Mangol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The struggle for the supplement lasted eight months. Two broad issues were central in the power struggle, one political, over the limitations of the shah’s authority in government affairs, the other sociocultural, over institutional and legal reforms aiming at the secularization of Iranian society. Neither issue constituted a state olama confrontation. In fact, all sides involved in the bitter battle, from the reactionary court to the equally intransigent constitutionalist leaders in the majles, sought to gain clerical support. Clerical and factional politics, rather than religious considerations, determined the individual ayatollahs’ stand. Paradoxically, the sociocultural issue created greater turmoil, as the shah chose to wage his political battle through a reactionary clerical front opposed to the reforms mainly because they were endorsed by rival olama.
The Coup
Authors: Bayat Mangol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“The difference between our nation and others,” proclaimed Aqa Shaikh Mohammad Ali, a Majles deputy, “is that others first shed blood then acquired a Constitution, and thus to them the Constitution is sacred. In our country we are shedding blood, and committing acts of violence, in order to ensure the application of the Constitution. “1 Indeed, there was a general feeling among the constitutionalists that the constitution was “given” to them, that they had not earned it the hard way, and that the real struggle began only when the time came to implement it.
The Lesser Despotism
Authors: Bayat Mangol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The period from the coup d’etat of June 23, 1908, and the destruction of the first majles until the deposition of Mohammad Ali shah on July 16, 1909, is referred to in the Persian annals as the “Lesser Despotism.” The shah ruled by decree, repeatedly postponing the elections he had promised to the nation and the foreign envoys, on the grounds that heresy and sedition had first to be entirely eliminated.
Old-Age Security in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Williamson John B , Pampel Fred C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book examines a central element of social welfare, old age security, exploring the history of policies in both developed and underdeveloped countries to assess their structure, ideology and effectiveness. The authors test five theoretical perspectives on old-age security policy in four industrial nations (the United States, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany) and three developing countries (India, Nigeria, Brazil), challenging the view that old age policy is the outcome of class conflict between capital and labour. Instead, the authors adopt a neo-pluralist perspective which emphasizes the influence of ethnic religious and regional groups, as well as “the grey lobby”, over that of class-based groups. The authors attempt to test ideas derived in part from these historical case studies by analysing quantitative data from a broader sample of countries (18 industrial nationa and 32 developing nations), and they use these results to anticipate future policy developments in the U.S.
Cross-National Analysis
Authors: Williamson John B , Pampel Fred C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To this point our focus has been on evidence drawn from a series of historical case studies. For many questions about the origins and the evolution of old-age security policy, qualitative comparative historical analysis is the methodology of choice. This approach allows us to address detailed questions about the ways in which policy has evolved in different countries. It lends itself to the analysis of issues and developments that are unique to a specific country. To approach a full understanding of the evolution of old-age security policy in a specific country, it is essential that we have access to the kinds of information and explanations that only a detailed historical case study can provide.
Faces in the Clouds
Authors: Guthrie Stewart Elliott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Religion is one of the most universal and most studied human phenomena, yet there exists no widely shared definition of religion. This ambitious study attempts to provide and defend such a definition. Stewart Guthrie argues that religion is best understood as systematic anthropomorphism: the attribution of human characteristics to non-human things or events. Many writers have seen anthropomorphism as a superficial characteristic of religion. For Guthrie, however, it is central; religion consists in seeing the world as human-like. Guthrie begins by demonstrating that we find plausible, in varying degrees, a continuum of human-like beings including gods, spirits, demons, gremlins, abominable snowmen, Hal the Computer, and Chiquita Banana. We find messages from such beings in phenomena such as weather, earthquakes, plagues, traffic accidents, and the flight of birds. Guthrie argues that this represents an adaptive strategy; we “bet” on the most important possible interpretation of our perceptions of our world – it is better to mistake a boulder for a bear than the other way around. Because of the extreme importance for us of other human beings and their actions, we project human characteristics onto what we see. Guthrie then shows how this explanation can be applied to virtually every belief and experience classified as religious. The result is a provocative and disturbing book that should be both influential and controversial.
Animism, Perception, and the Effort After Meaning
Authors: Guthrie Stewart Elliott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We often see nonliving things and events as alive, especially if they move, make noise, or otherwise stand out from the landscape. We credit our environment with more organization and more organisms than it has. Humans see boulders as bears, flying pieces of paper as birds, and stuck drawers as willful. Other animals also animate the world: cats see fluttering leaves as prey, horses see blowing bags as threats, and dogs hear sirens as howls. Our shared inclination to animate, moreover, is a strategy rather than an accident. To call this inclination a strategy, however, is not to say it is conscious. In fact, it almost never is.1
Anthropomorphism as Perception
Authors: Guthrie Stewart Elliott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nothing is so important to us as other humans. Because we are preoccupied with each other, we are sensitive to any possible human presence and have tolerant standards for detecting it. Mostly unconsciously, we fit the world first with diverse humanlike templates.1 Our preoccupation with a human prototype guides perception in daily life. We attend to what fits the humanlike templates and temporarily ignore what does not. Sounds, shapes, and smells thus first evoke humans and we mistake mail­ boxes, signposts, and saplings for people. Evidence of anthropomorphism in perception, and reasons for it, come from artificial intelligence, from psychoanalysis, from experimental, clinical, and developmental psychology, and from ethnography.
The Cynic Way: A Life Without the Household
Authors: Dawson Doyne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Toward the end of the fourth century the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition was challenged by a rival vision of utopia, which was attributed to both the Cynics and the Stoics. Whether the new utopian theory was of Cynic or Stoic origin is an important question, which will require a discussion at some length of the relationship between these closely affiliated schools.
Rhetoric, Comedy, and the Violence of Language in Aristophanes’ Clouds
Authors: O’regan Daphne Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a thought-provoking reading of Aristophanes’ Clouds. O’Regan’s principle theme is the logos, or power of argument, and its effects; she also assesses the self awareness of the second Clouds as a comedy of logos directed towards a resistant audience. Within and without the play, the logos meets defeat when confronted with human nature. The argument conveys insight into Athenian thought and the play’s workings, the more so because it balances rhetoric with comedy, reminds the reader that this is a comic logos, explored in the comic mode, and connected with the intentions and vicissitudes of the first and second Clouds.
The Changing Role of Logos: Background
Authors: O’regan Daphne Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While the Clouds’ focus on logos, human communication, and the power of rhetoric might seem odd to a modern audience, such a choice would hardly have surprised contemporary Athenians-late fifth-century Athens was experiencing a period of political and speculative turmoil centering in many respects on speech. This chapter outlines some of the major features of this controversy as they can be reconstructed from the limited sources which have survived. Its purpose is to help situate logos in the practical and conceptual framework of the time, and thus aid in the recovery of the full resonance of Aristophanes’ comedy. The orientation is one which will facilitate analysis in subsequent chapters, where frequent reference will be made to the issues and the images to be discussed here.
The Debate of the Logoi-The Agon: Lines 889-1112
Authors: O’regan Daphne Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The long-delayed agon, the famous debate of the logoi, inaugurates the last half of the Clouds. Although in the drama of Strepsiades and his debts we seem to be back where we started, much thematic progress has been made. In the course of Strepsiades’ failure, we have learned about the sophists, their theories, their logos, and their students. The new approach taken in the agon, the look at sophistic rhetoric from the inside, requires that we remember what has gone before, for the de bate of the logoi, whose position makes it the great turning point of the play, develops the theoretical implications of the preceding parts of the play to their logical if contradictory conclusions.
The “Cultural” Origin of the π ο λ ι τ ε α ι
Authors: Keaney John J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is another approach to genre which consists of treating the ‘A as a species of Kul-turgeschichte. The initial justification for this approach will be the use of similar language in works of Aristotle and in other works which more clearly belong to the genre of cultural history.
Structure and Meaning
Authors: Keaney John J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If, as I have argued, Aristotle’s basic cultural pattern in the ‘ ’ A θ π ο λdid not furnish him with generic guidelines of sufficient clarity and rigidity to aid him overly much in the composition of the work, we must ask how he expected his reader to know what was going on once he got below a superficial level, i.e., statements of unambiguous content. I am going to suggest that he did this in two ways: the second, which I discuss later, is through structure; the first is of relatively rare occurrence and involves manipulation of language.
Aristotle and Theramenes
Authors: Keaney John J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Critical evaluation of the actions, character, and motives of the Athenian politician Theramenes began during his lifetime, continued at some level of passion in the years immediately after his death, and is still with us. Aristotle’s judgment (28.5) of him, it is well known, was unambiguously favorable: why that should have been so is a question I cannot answer,2 and I tum instead to an examination of the (largely unexamined) panoply of techniques with which Aristotle so shaped his narrative as to justify his judgment of Theramenes to the mind of his reader.
Chapter 45:  β ο υ λ
Authors: Keaney John J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 45 raises question of three kinds: internal structure, contextual structure, and theme. These are interrelated, but distinctions are necessary because each rubric has its own contribution to the correct understanding of the chapter. By contextual structure, I refer to the question of why the chapter is placed here vis-a-vis chapters 42-69. By theme, I understand the relationship of the contents of the chapter to the contents of the ‘A03tOA as a whole.
The Youth Gang Problem
Authors: Spergel Irving A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A systematic and comparative analysis of youth gangs and the youth gang problem in the United States, this book deals with hands-on issues of policy and programs, describing the strategies and techniques for dealing with gangs employed by criminal justice organizations, social agencies, schools, employment programs, and grass-roots organizations. Spergel combines empirical research, first-hand experience, and a solid theoretical base to expose the causes of the gang problem. He recommends strategies that deal with gangs at a community level, using both local and national interests and resources to provide gang members with structured social and economic opportunities.
Criminal Justice System: The Police
Authors: Spergel Irving A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concepts involved in traditional strategies, policies, and programs dealing with the gang problem are useful as frames of reference for what organizations may do in the future to be more effective. Newer models for dealing with this problem are distinctive rather than categorically different from older models. This chapter and the following ones describe policies and programs that appear to be promising based on past experience, limited program evaluation and the theoretical framework used here. The chapter analyzes and compares mainly specialized police suppression approaches of the past two decades with evolving, more complex, community-oriented approaches.