bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The General: 1861-1865
Authors: Nagel Paul C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Early in 1861, and still in Texas, Robert watched what he most dreaded, an unraveling Union. Then came orders that he appear in Washington. For once, he encountered no delays in the long trip home. He arrived at Arlington on 1 March 1861, where he joined Mary in praying that “designs of ambitious and selfish politicians who would dismember our glorious country may be frustrated and that our own state may act right and obtain the result promised in the Bible to the peace makers.” Robert found Mary an even more advanced cripple, while their daughters seemed to grow frailer. Custis was nearly disabled by rheumatism, and Rooney had discovered agriculture posed unanticipated difficulties. It was such a dismaying homecoming that Robert’s only en couragement were signs he was approaching the end of what he con sidered a lackluster life. At age fifty-four he could point to a steadfast military career, but few uninitiated observers standing outside the army would see it as very promising. There was little sign at the start of April 1861 that soon Robert E. Lee would have star casting in one of history’s greatest tragedies.
Representation and Voting
Authors: Susskind Lawrence E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What are the incentives for national governments to participate in global environmental treaty-making efforts? And, why is the United Nations resistant to offering nongovernmental organizations a more full-fledged role in the treaty-making process? These questions could be addressed separately, but I believe they are intrinsically related. Both deal with representation—who is at the negotiation table—and that issue is often the most conflictual in any environmental discussion.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Issue Linkage
Authors: Susskind Lawrence E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Most global environmental treaty making involves hundreds of negotiators in a dialogue sustained over many years that covers literally thousands of complex issues. Unfortunately, most of the published theoretical work about negotiation presumes just two parties negotiating a single issue, or two adversaries negotiating on a continuing basis. In addition, most negotiation theorists focus on monolithic parties: individuals who can speak for themselves and make binding commitments.
Factors in the Brain That Enhance Growth and Repair
Authors: Stein Donald G , Brailowsky Simon , Will Bruno 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We have seen how the brain can respond to injury with regeneration and growth of new terminals. But we have also seen that this new growth is not always beneficial. We have learned that disease and injury to the central nervous system is not a single, isolated, damaging event. Instead, brain injury unleashes a cascade of processes that may take a very long time to conclude. And these processes affect areas well beyond the site of the injury. If we have learned anything, it is that the brain’s mechanisms are highly complex, taking place within a chemical soup of dozens of compounds the functions of which we are just beginning to understand.
Environment, Brain Function, and Brain Repair
Authors: Stein Donald G , Brailowsky Simon , Will Bruno 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A few years ago, a very disturbing article titled “Unshackle Nursing Home Patients” appeared as an editorial in The New York Times. The editorial claimed that Every day, half a million elderly patients are tied down, strapped in or drugged into a stupor in American nursing homes. Only a few are dangerous to themselves or to others. The overwhelming majority are restrained or sedated because it makes them easier to handle. And heavy sedation or straps so diminish the existence of vast numbers of patients that they are robbed of the freedom and vitality that can make life worth living.
Charcot’s Private Life
Authors: Goetz Christopher G , Bonduelle Michel , Gelfand Toby 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Charcot’s personal life was inseparably linked with his profession. Al though he spent his mornings at the hospital, his private patients came to his home in the afternoon, where Charcot and his family set aside their own family rooms for waiting areas and for examination and consultation. The young Charcot children grew up playing and running through rooms crowded by people with strange atrophies and contortions: “an inferno for neurological suffering, it was also a paradise for children” (Daudet, 1915, p. 19).
The House of Osman
Authors: Peirce Leslie P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The central fact of Ottoman history is surely the extraordinary survival of the ruling dynasty, unmatched in the Islamic world. There is nothing else that gives coherence to the history of what is really several states: a local Turkish principality emerging in the late thirteenth century on the Anatolian frontier of the Byzantine Empire; a regional sultanate straddling western Anatolia and the Balkans; and a multiethnic empire spanning three continents that endured from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries and subsumed the histories of what is today nearly a score of nations. Here we are concerned not simply with the institution of the Ottoman sultanate, but with a single dynasty: Al-i Osman, “the House of Osman.” The founder of the state in historical legend (from whose name the European “Ottoman” was derived), Osman established a dynastic claim that was maintained by thirty-six of his descendents ruling in unbroken succession for nearly six and a half centuries.1
The Imperial Harem Institution
Authors: Peirce Leslie P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Very little is known about the internal functioning of the harem and of relationships among its residents in the period under study. Ottoman narrative sources are virtually silent with regard to life within the harem. Just as the harem was hidden from a man’s eyes, so was talk of life within it meant to be beyond the reach of his ears. In the absence of indigenous descriptions of the workings of the harem institution, we must turn to accounts written by European observers of the Ottomans, our only contemporary sources. In the sixteenth and particularly the seventeenth centuries, many works providing comprehensive descriptions of the Ottoman Empire and its court were written by European travelers and ambassadors as well as by captives and renegades who had served in the sultan’s palace. Descriptions of the harem and the sexual practices of the sultans clearly helped to sell books about the Ottomans and were therefore featured prominently. A mix of fact, hearsay, and fantasy, these works frequently conflate various descriptions of harem life that appear to have their origins in different stages of its
The Beginning of Psychiatric Historiography in Nineteenth-Century Germany
Authors: Marx Otto M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Traditionally medicine had its share of patients with mental derangement or behavioral disorder, and medical texts included the careful description of these symptoms and their treatment. While in some patients these disturbances preceded the onset of other recognizable physical symptoms, were concomitant with them or subsided with recovery, in still others the mental symptoms or disordered behavior remained. In yet another group of patients mental symptoms or disordered behavior was all that a physician could discern. The situation was further complicated by the fact that there was much overlap among these groups of patients, and that relatively few patients with mental symptoms only came to the attention of physicians. After all a physician was called only when there was grave concern for a sick person and when the physician’s services could be afforded. When the physician was consulted no radically different measures of treatment were prescribed, since medical theory provided guidelines for the treatment of all diseases. In the majority of cases, mental, emotional, or behavioral changes were concomitants of many diseases, and there was no need for a special literature to address these secondary changes, or complications. People who developed mental or behavioral changes without other discernible signs of illness were not necessarily candidates for medical attention; even today we are still uncertain whether all instances of disturbed behavior represent an illness. In such cases, as in all others, the economics of the patient’s situation played an important role, and physicians were ready to interpret a variety of complaints as medical problems when the patient could afford their services.
The History of Psychiatry in Italy: A Century of Studies
Authors: Guarnieri Patrizia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To establish a real identity it is essential to have a past, a memory. Italian psychiatry has constructed its past while constructing itself: It has tried to emancipate itself-from philosophy, from general medicine, from common sense-and to attain an independent status, in the universities as well as in the asylums where physicians were striving to gain total control.1
Feminist Histories of Psychiatry
Authors: Tomes Nancy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The category of feminist histories of psychiatry considered in this essay is of comparatively recent origin. Its scholarly agenda originated in the “second wave” of modem feminism (as distinguished from the “first wave” of the nineteenth century), which emerged in the United States and Western Europe during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The first attempts to write a feminist history of psychiatry can be found in the founding texts of the modem women’s movement, including Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex and Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique. Making women aware of the negative consequences of psychiatry’s conservative, indeed soul-damaging, influence on their lives was a central goal of the movement’s early “consciousness raising” efforts.1
Deconstructing Images
Authors: Doreski C K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Much that characterizes Elizabeth Bishop’s writing-what Randall Jarrell called that “whole moral and physical atmosphere” - originates in her language of exteriority. Her assertive rhetoric of geographical situation encourages us to read her poems as maps, as documents that confirm the reader’s sense of place and physical presence. Two-dimensional surfaces (maps, mirrors, paintings) preoccupy her because poetry shares both their limitations and possibilities, and because their problematic relationship to the actual world challenges ordinary definitions of fiction and fact. If Bishop seems a skilled cartographer, it is because her tropes of geography convince the reader of her knowledge of the world. Her charting of contours and elevations, summits, valleys, and seas embodies and extends the language of terrain and the evocative power of specific locale.
The Childish Dusk
Authors: Doreski C K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As the previous chapter demonstrates, much of the discovered rhetoric of identity derives from the act of giving voice to inheritance. A language of self-awareness derives, at least in the early stages, not so much from voicing interiority as from received knowledge. In continuing the concern of the previous chapter with Bishop’s writing about childhood, this will trace the child’s drive for independence through the partial integration of languages of exteriority and interiority. As Bishop’s child-persona struggles to assemble the confusingly diverse particulars - the “elements” - of her world, her childhood gradually reveals itself as troping upon the poetic process itself. Whether as the child coveting Gwendolyn’s blocks of “clear reds, yellows, and blues” or in the child’s fight to obtain what Dickinson called “consent of language” in hopes of understanding her earth, Bishop strives to integrate the social and the individual hues of language, and to communicate the burden of this growing consciousness. The child’s quest for linguistic connections between herself and others (what William James called “thought stuff and thing stuff” and what Henry James called “a collection of images and echoes to which meanings were attachable”) establishes the terms of this chapter.
Who Is This That Darkens Counsel Cross-Talk in the Book of Job
Authors: Reed Walter L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In any discussion of the Bible as literature, the Book of Job is apt to figure prominently. Although rabbinic commentators were not much interested in the literary qualities of this (or any other) biblical book, the Church Fathers, developing approaches of Hellenistic Jews like Philo and Josephus, were appreciative of its artistic dimensions. Jerome believed that the bulk of the book was com­ posed in Hebrew poetic meters analogous to Greek meters, and Theodore of Mopsuestia introduced the idea, still occasionally proposed today, that Job was modeled on Greek drama. the Renaissance, with the renewed appreciation of biblical and classical models and the deliberate merging of biblical and classical traditions with one another, it became commonplace to include the Book of Job among the great works of Western literature: as epic, as drama, or as lyric poetry. Job was not the only book of the Bible whose poetic qualities were highly esteemed. Sidney mentions “David in his Psalms; Solomon in his Song of Songs, in his Ecclesiastes, and Proverbs; Moses and Deborah in their Hymns; and the writer of Job.”
Pathophysiology of Viruses and Viral Diseases
Authors: Koelle David M , Corey Lawrence 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Medical virology seeks to understand the pathogenesis and therapy of viral agents infectious for humans. Molecular detection systems, serology, electron microscopy, cell culture, and animal models have revealed an amazing diversity and specificity in the pathogenesis of viral infections. Every virus-host relationship has new lessons to teach us, and generalizations are becoming less and less possible as our analytic tools improve. However, certain broad themes have stood the test of time. This chapter will present a general overview of viral pathogenesis at the cell and organism level, introducing concepts developed in detail in discussions of individual agents and clinical syndromes.
Hematologic Alterations in Infectious Disease Patients
Authors: Beris Photis , Waldvogel Francis A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Defense of the host against infectious agents covers a large spectrum of mechanisms, which include: acute inflammatory reactions, activation of complement, activation of macrophages, activation of granulocytes, polyclonal activation of some T-cell subsets, and T cell-dependent or T cell-independent polyclonal B cell activation. Cellular and humoral blood elements are involved in protection against infection and, when this is not possible, in its eradication or control.
Outpatient Parenteral Therapy of Serious Infections
Authors: Tice Alan D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Hospitals have played an important role in the evaluation and management of serious infections. In fact, for many years, some institutions were devoted simply to the care of patients with infection. As therapies and our understanding of disease have improved, however, the sanitoria and leprosaria have been closed and the majority of the hospitals in the United States are now downsizing with the cost constraints of health care reform. This transition has been brought about by advances in available antibiotics and increasingly in the technology of delivery as well. Oral antibiotics, such as the quinolones, have been substituted for parenteral ones in the therapy of gram-negative bacteria.
Sulfonamides and Trimethoprim
Authors: Sanche Stephen E , Ronald Allan R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Sulfonamide antibiotics are derivatives of sulfanilamide, the metabolite of a compound called prontosil that was developed by the German dye industry. Prontosil was reported to have antibacterial properties in 1932, and later in the same decade, sulfonamides were among the first antimicrobial agents to be used to treat infections in humans. Several synthetic derivatives with enhanced antimicrobial activity, improved pharmacokinetics, and more favorable side-effect profiles have subsequently been developed, allowing sulfonamides to maintain clinical usefulness six decades after the initial recognition of their anti-infective potential.
Urinary Tract Infections
Authors: Stamm Walter E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Urinary tract infections (UTI) are among the most common bacterial infections experienced by humans. On a worldwide basis, Harding and Ronald have estimated that 150 million UTIs occur annually, resulting in an estimated 6 billion dollars in health care costs. These infections range from asymptomatic bacteriuria on the one hand to acute pyelonephritis and gram-negative septicemia on the other.
Myositis and Fasciitis
Authors: Stevens Dennis L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Infections of the deep soft tissues are uncommon; they are often life-threatening processes, which require intense efforts to establish a diagnosis and begin aggressive surgical and medical treatment. Pyomyositis is usually caused by Staphylococcus aureus. It generally remains localized and is rarely associated with bacteremia, shock, and organ failure. In contrast, necrotizing fasciitis and myonecrosis are associated with toxic systemic effects including bacteremia, shock, and organ failure. This chapter will emphasize the clinical clues necessary to make an early diagnosis.
Infections Complicating Traumatic Injury
Authors: Campbell Wayne N 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Blunt and penetrating injury represents the leading cause of death for individuals under 44 years of age in both industrialized Europe and the United States. Mortality rates due to unintentional injury from the early 1990s are as follows: United States-38.3 deaths/100,000 population; Germany-36.9/100,000; United Kingdom-26.9/100,000; France-59.8/100,000; Finland-55.7/ 100,000; and Japan-26.9/100,000. The vast majority of deaths occur in the first hours following injury, due primarily to exsanguination, respiratory failure, or devastating head injury.
AIDS Pathogenesis: Molecular Biology and Virology of HIV
Authors: Kilby J Michael , Shaw George M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1981, the first published reports of unusual opportunistic infections occurring in otherwise healthy homosexual men from urban centers of the United States led to widespread speculation among the scientific community about the etiology of this apparently rare syndrome. Three years later, the retrovirus that causes the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was identified. Since that time, a great deal of knowledge about the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and its interactions with the immune system has accumulated, although the pathogenic mechanisms of the infection remain incompletely understood.
Introduction
Authors: Roht-Arriaza Naomi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book grew from an article I wrote in 1989. At that time, the difficult process of moving from military dictatorship to democracy was under way in a few countries of the Latin American Southern Cone. As a human rights lawyer with a longstanding interest in Latin America, I tried to do two things in the article: show how changes in the types of human rights violations committed in that region during the 1970s and 1980s required a new response from the international community, and establish how international law was beginning to provide that response. I posited that it did so by placing an affirmative obligation on states to investigate and prosecute those who, under state aegis, violated at least a subset of fundamental human rights.
Special Problems of a Duty to Prosecute: Derogation, Amnesties, Statutes of Limitation, and Superior Orders
Authors: Roht-Arriaza Naomi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The existence of an international law obligation to investigate, prosecute, and provide redress for at least certain human rights violations raises but does not solve a host of thorny legal issues. Can a state exempt itself from its obligations by passing domestic laws granting total or partial amnesty? Could such an amnesty be justified as a permissible derogation from existing international commitments? And could a state avoid most if not all its obligations if potential defendants successfully raise the defenses of superior orders or the statute of limitations?
Overview
Authors: Roht-Arriaza Naomi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Europe has faced issues of investigation, prosecution, purge, and redress periodically throughout the twentieth century. Responses to the Armenian genocide and World War I, to the vast crimes committed during World War II, and to the transition from military to civilian regimes in Southern Europe in the 1970s all provide lessons for the current wave of transitions in Eastern Europe. This chapter provides an overview of these early attempts to confront these issues.
The supreme Court, 1917-1931: The ‘ ‘Progressive ’’ Judge
Authors: White G Edward 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the Harvard Law Review celebrated his seventy-fifth birthday with a symposium, Holmes may have inwardly rejoiced that he had not elected to retire on a full pension three years earlier, that at long last recognition was beginning to come. Had he been able to predict the future, however, he would have been astonished at what lay ahead. At an age at which most of his mid-career contemporaries were no longer alive, he would be able to live for nearly twenty more years, during all but the last three of which he would continue to sit on the Supreme Court. He would retain his physical and mental powers for almost all of those years, so that at ninety he would still be able to write a memorable birthday radio speech and to keep up with his work on the Court. As he aged and persisted the momentum of his recognition, swelled by his longevity, would grow to the point where his contemporaries applied to him epithets usually reserved for the dead. The years from 1917 to his retirement were, for the most part, a time of glory for Holmes, in which the vast reach of his ambition seemed closely approximated by the vastness of his reputation.
A Traditional Jewish Community: Berlin Jewry Before the Changes
Authors: Lowenstein Steven M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There was little in the life of Berlin Jewry during its early years, or even in the first third of the eighteenth century, to indicate that Berlin would be the first Ashkenazic Jewish community to break with tradition. Even in the 1740s and early 1750s, Berlin Jewry was still overwhelmingly traditional. In fact, the Berlin Jewish community of the first half of the eighteenth century may very well have been more traditional than many others. In any case, it would seem that “modernity,” however defined, came to Berlin Jewry suddenly rather than gradually. A number of historians, notably Azriel Shohat, have searched for precursors to the changes that took place in German Jewry in the second half of the eighteenth century and thereafter. From their work, a picture has emerged of a traditional society already in the early stages of decay in the first half of the eighteenth century. There was a decline in otherworldliness and asceticism, a lack of respect for traditional authority, a laxity in observance of ritual law, and a growing interest in secular culture. Although some of the phenomena pointed out by Shohat are open to argument, many are undoubtedly true. The bulk of Shohat’s examples, however, do not come from Berlin but from such other cities as Hamburg-Altona or even from the countryside. 1 It would seem that the scenario of gradual decline in tradition and the gradual rise of a more modern lifestyle is less applicable to Berlin than to other parts of German Jewry.