bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Trade, and Growth, and Catching-Up
Authors: Bliss Christopher 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The theoretical literature on trade and growth is mostly of recent vintage, but already quite extensive. Aghion and Howitt (1998: ch. 11) provide a good overview, and allow the reader to obtain a sense of the shape and variety of the modelling approaches that have been adopted. It is no slight on the various authors who have contributed to this body of research to say that this work makes uncomfortable reading. There is a makeshift feel to these models, and it is clear that the authors cannot agree, even in broad terms, as to what are the crucial ways in which trade and growth are related to each other. This is unsurprising if one considers that both growth, and trade, have been modelled independently, according to their particular requirements.
Consequences of a Violation of a Treaty and of Divergences of Interpretation Among its Member Countries
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As Chapter 7 has shown, it is not always easy to unequivocally ascertain the meaning behind a particular provision of a treaty when applied to a specific scenario. In case of ambiguity, there is a need for clarification; where the provision leaves no doubt as to its correct interpretation but a country does not comply with it, enforcement is needed. Both clarification and enforcement may be sought by a private party through a lawsuit in the country for which protection is claimed. Where this is not helpful, recourse to dispute settlement at the state level remains an option.
Reasons for the Shift Towards the Trade Context
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
From the very beginning of copyright protection, when the emergence of printing techniques triggered the system of privileges, technical developments have resulted in the emergence of new kinds of works and new kinds of uses which have provoked the adaptation of existing laws in the field. The extent of the technical progress that has taken place since the last revision of the Berne Convention and the adoption of the Rome Convention has inevitably had repercussions on copyright and neighbouring rights laws. Examples have included: the emergence of cable (re)transmission and satellite broadcasting; the improvement of reproduction techniques available even to consumers (offering better quality, greater speed, and more options such as colour reproduction and private audio and audiovisual copying); the emergence of computer programs; and the growing importance of databases.
Unilateral Trade Measures
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As one of the US responses to the economic decline that had started in the 1960s, Section 301 of the US Trade Act of 1974 introduced the new trade policy of promoting US exports by forcing foreign countries to provide fair access to their markets for US products and services. This provision allowed the President to impose trade sanctions against countries that were considered to harm US exports by unfair practices, whether or not such practices violated any international law. Due to the economic power of the USA, threats of retaliation were efficient. Although this provision also covered intellectual property rights, the US Congress and industry subsequently preferred a more stringent and aggressive application of these provisions to intellectual property rights by the Office of the US Trade Representative (USTR), not least in order to use this provision during the negotiations of the GATT Uruguay Round. As a result, the 1988 Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act introduced the so-called ‘Special 301’ provisions on intellectual property rights as a part of the overall reform of Sections 301 ff of the Trade Act of 1974,5 labelled as the ‘Super 301’ provisions on the enforcement of US trade rights. The Special 301 provisions aimed at securing an efficient intellectual property protection through legal provisions and enforcement measures in foreign countries in favour of US industry in order to allow the US industry to reap the benefits6 from the ongoing utilization of their works on foreign markets.
Presentation of the Wipo
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Before the WIPO was established in 1970, the Paris and Berne Unions as well as other intellectual property treaties were administered by the BIRPI (Bureaux Internationaux Réunis pour la Protection de la Propriété Intellectuelle). The BIRPI itself had its roots in the International Bureau of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property adopted in 1883 and the International Bureau of the Berne Convention of 1886, which were united in 1893 into one common bureau with the same staff and director. The word ‘bureau’ was commonly used at that time as a designation for the secretariat of an international organization. Since at that time the League of Nations and the United Nations (UN) did not exist, the BIRPI was placed under the ‘high supervision’ of the government of the Swiss Confederation. The Swiss government appointed the Director and staff of the BIRPI and controlled its activities and finances, while the Member States of the Berne and Paris Unions and other related international treaties made decisions only when needed, namely at revision conferences rather than continuously within an established structure such as a governing body.
The Wipo Copyright Treaty (Wct) and the Wipo Performances And Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) of 1996
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
17.01 The Berne Convention of 1886 was revised about every twenty years up to 1971. In 1971, the unanimity required for a revision of the Convention was achieved only with major efforts, due to the North–South conflict between industrialized and developing countries which had arisen in the meantime. Thereafter, the economic importance of copyright and, consequently, conflicts of interest among Member States increased—not only between industrialized and developing, but also among industrialized countries, so that it seemed even more difficult to reach unanimity in the future. Nevertheless, copyright needed to be adapted to new technical and other developments that occurred after 1971. WIPO decided to meet this challenge by the so-called ‘guided development’ rather than by the preparation of a new revision conference. The strategy of ‘guided development’ aimed at discussing and promoting common and new standards of protection regarding new kinds of works and new forms of uses. The related work was accomplished mainly in common Committees of Experts of WIPO and UNESCO which resulted in recommendations, guiding principles, or model provisions, and were accompanied by studies mandated or carried out by WIPO and UNESCO. Although these results were not binding upon Member States, they had a considerable impact on the awareness of governments of particular problems and on the development of national copyright laws.
The Project of a Treaty on the Protection of Broadcasting Organizations
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The most recent neighbouring rights treaty, the WPPT, did not follow the Rome Convention and the TRIPS Agreement in their coverage of broadcasting organizations. One of the reasons is certainly that it emerged from the call to better protect phonograms and their producers at the international level; performers, whose performances are often incorporated into phonograms, were natural allies for protection. Broadcasting organizations, however, are no such natural allies; rather, their interests are often in conflict with those of phonogram producers and performers. Consequently, their inclusion could have complicated negotiations on the WPPT. In addition, just before the WIPO Committees started their work, TRIPS negotiations had shown the difficulties in agreeing on minimum standards for the protection of broadcasting organizations: different national law back grounds had proved to be a stumbling block for a meaningful protection in the TRIPS Agreement. Nevertheless, some delegations during Committee of Experts’ discussions suggested including broadcasting organizations in the later WPPT, but they did not find sufficient support to extend the mandates of the Committees accordingly.
Protection of Folklore
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For a long time, indigenous peoples have sought respect and protection for their folklore or traditional cultural expressions. They consider that folklore belongs to the particular community from which it emanates, as confirmed by their customary laws, while Western intellectual property systems largely to consider that folklore is part of the public domain. The resulting conflict is evident: Westerners and other outsiders, in relying on Western laws for legality, have regularly used folklore without asking for consent from and without sharing the benefits with indigenous peoples. Thereby, Westerners affect the economic and non-economic interests of indigenous peoples whose customary laws recognize these interests; yet, these laws do not apply to outsiders. Consequently, indigenous peoples have claimed protection at national and international levels.
Comparative Tables of the Contents of the Main International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Treaties
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The following tables for the main copyright and neighbouring rights treaties present a ‘big picture’ of the rules and elements of protection through their juxta position and thereby aim at facilitating their understanding in a broader context. The tables may be useful to clearly visualize developments over time as well as the strong tendency to build on the relevant earlier treaties. In combination, the tables may be of benefit for the reader who is interested in a comparison of the individual elements of protection and provisions under copyright and neigh-bouring rights. The tables are necessarily rudimentary; the preceding chapters should be consulted for details.
Overall Assessment of the Development of International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Protection
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the beginning, there were thirty-two intra-German bilateral treaties. Then came the creation of the Berne Convention by ten, mostly European countries. Today, about 120 years later, there are four major multilateral treaties that cover copyright protection, five major multilateral treaties that cover different neighbouring rights, and a multitude of bilateral and regional trade or investment treaties that cover both areas, as well as several treaties on general issues, such as human rights or enforcement aspects, which have an impact on copyright and neighbouring rights. International protection of copyright and neighbouring rights today has a largely worldwide coverage. International law up to the latest treaties has largely succeeded in adapting the protection to the requirements of technical and other developments. This chapter focuses on some of the notable aspects of mainly more recent developments.
Outlook: Prospects for the Development of International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Law
Authors: Lewinski Silke von 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Where are we today, and what can be expected for the development of international copyright and neighbouring rights law in the near future? When looking at the recent past, one may observe a fundamental change of atmosphere at the international level: the success of the adoption of the WCT and WPPT in 1996 was generally felt as a zenith for the protection of authors’ rights and neighbouring rights; enthusiasm was so great that soon thereafter, the idea of adopting both agreements en bloc within the TRIPS Agreement was considered. A meaningful protection of authors and neighbouring rights owners then was still an unquestioned goal and considered a good thing to achieve. Only a few years later, such a statement would no longer be undisputed, and no one would seriously think of incorporating the standards of the WCT and the WPPT into the TRIPS Agreement (although, ironically, the same result is meanwhile being reached through bilateral trade agreements and other trade measures). The user movement and the growing opposition by developing countries in the multilateral for a have changed the general situation.
Knowledge Work in Policing
Authors: Dean Geoff , Gottschalk Petter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Policing is a profession heavily reliant on knowledge. The form such knowledge takes varies from information to intelligence. What does not vary is the ‘value’ of knowledge for police work. Initially, the chapter discusses just what this notion of ‘knowledge’ means in so far as its usefulness and application in policing and law enforcement is concerned.
Furthermore, the chapter details the value of ‘Knowledge Management’ (KM) as a cross-disciplinary field of study with direct applicability to the practice of policing and law enforcement. Finally the chapter looks at the form and shape of ‘police knowledge’ and sketches out how it works. Hence, this chapter sets the stage for the rest of the book.
The Formative Years 1945–1949
Authors: Lindley-French Julian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Formative Years 1945–1949: The Cold War begins with the end of a World War. On 6 August 1945 an American atomic bomb explodes over the Japanese city of Hiroshima, reducing it and much of its population to ashes in the splitting of an atom. Europe is in pieces, Asia is mauled, America is supreme, and Russia is resurgent. Europe, consumed by its own conflagration, is divided along the lines agreed at two so-called Big Three conferences in 1945 between the US, Soviet Union, and Britain at Yalta in the Crimea and Potsdam a short distance from Berlin, which has rapidly become a shrine to the defeat of German expansionism. In reality, the Big Three are the Big Two plus One because, broken by two successive wars in defence of liberty and democracy, Britain is but a shadow of its former self and neither the Soviets nor the Americans are in any mood to humour a fading power. In an atmosphere redolent of a chess tournament the Soviets and the Americans set about creating their spheres of influence. However, whilst the Americans cannot bring themselves to play machtpolitik without at least the patina of ideological overlay, the hard-bitten Russians have no such qualms. And, whilst they smile politely at first Roosevelt’s and then Truman’s hope for a new world order, behind the scenes the Soviets busily go about the business of imposing an empire, albeit masked by the empty rhetoric of the communist brotherhood.
Countdown to Freedom 1980–1989
Authors: Lindley-French Julian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
1980–1989 The Countdown to Freedom begins with the overreach of oppression as the ever more defensive Soviet Union desperately tries to shore up the failing dykes of its authority. All it needs is a push—albeit a big push. The 1980s see the climax to the Cold War and its end as the US successfully plays strategic poker with the Soviet Union and forces its hand ... and its fate. However, as the Soviet Union fades a newly emergent Europe challenges the role and place of the US in its affairs. Even as the Cold War reaches its climax the battle for the shape of a new Europe is already underway.
The Strategic Vacation 1990–1999
Authors: Lindley-French Julian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
1990–1999 The Strategic Vacation: Much of the 1990s is spent clearing up the detritus of the Cold War. It is also the start of strategic vacation. Indeed, while at times fierce debate erupts over Europe’s role in the world that splits Atlanticists and Europeanists, most Europeans retreat into Euro-isolationism as they grapple with the construction of an increasingly complicated European institutional architecture. For nine months between 9 November 1989 and 2 August 1990 the world is in strategic equilibrium. It is a unique moment. The elder Bush talks of a new world order, a leading thinker foresees a systemic liberal-democratic victory that will presage the end of history and even much of the Russian elite see their ‘defeat’ as an opportunity. The Europeans get in on the act. In 1991 they agree the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and with it a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The site of its signing, the Dutch town of Maastricht, enters the political lexicon. However, for many Europeans the intricacies of European institutions become the very stuff of international relations. There is, however, a whole different world out there. It is the certainty of the profoundly out of touch.
Property Interference: Police Act 1997 Pt III
Authors: Hopkins Andrea 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Part III of the Police Act 1997 (‘PA 1997’) provides a statutory basis for the authorization of surveillance operations involving interference with property or wireless telegraphy carried out by the police or other agencies authorized under the Act. In common with the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA), it was drafted in anticipation of an adverse finding against the UK by the European Commission of Human Rights in Govell v UK. In that case the applicant was subjected to police surveillance consisting of a hole drilled into his living room wall from an adjoining house enabling police officers to listen from next door and/or insert a listening device in the wall. At the time, the only regulation of the covert use of listening devices and visual surveillance devices by the police.
Extradition
Authors: Jones John RWD 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Extradition is the formal procedure for a state to obtain a person’s surrender from another state for purposes of prosecution or serving a sentence. Extradition is governed by statutory law enacted in order to give effect to the UK’s bilateral and multilateral extradition arrangements with other states. Extradition is thus an area of law sui generis. To a certain extent it may be regarded as part of criminal law, since it involves the return of persons to be tried or to serve their sentences for criminal offences. On the other hand, the purpose of extradition proceedings is not to determine guilt or innocence, but to decide whether the person may be lawfully returned by the requested state to the requesting state.
Thomas Paine
Authors: Philp Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Definitive, concise, and very interesting... From William Shakespeare to Winston Churchill, the Very Interesting People series provides authoritative bite-sized biographies of Britain's most fascinating historical figures - people whose influence and importance have stood the test of time. Each book in the series is based upon the biographical entry from the world-famous Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. The Very Interesting People series includes the following titles: 1.William Shakespeare by Peter Holland 2. George Eliot by Rosemary Ashton 3. Charles Dickens by Michael Slater 4. Charles Darwin by Adrian Desmond, James Moore, and Janet Browne 5. Isaac Newton by Richard S.Westfall 6. Elizabeth I by Patrick Collinson 7. George III by John Cannon 8. Benjamin Disraeli by Jonathan Parry 9. Christopher Wren by Kerry Downes 10. John Ruskin by Robert Hewison 11. James Joyce by Bruce Stewart 12. John Milton by Gordon Campbell 13. Jane Austen by Marilyn Butler 14. Henry VIII by Eric Ives 15. Queen Victoria by K. D. Reynolds and H. C. G. Matthew 16. Winston Churchill by Paul Addison 17. Oliver Cromwell by John Morrill 18. Thomas Paine by Mark Philp 19. J. M. W. Turner by Luke Herrmann 20. William and Mary by Tony Claydon and W. A. Speck
‘That Untravell’d World’: Symbolist London
Authors: Freeman Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In H. G. Wells’s story, ‘The Door in the Wall’ (1906), an ambitious MP, Lionel Wallace, tells his friend Redmond how he is troubled by a recurring vision of a green door in a white wall. As a small child he had opened the door and entered a garden of surpassing loveliness where he played with gentle panthers and met a ‘sombre dark woman, with a grave, pale face and dreamy eyes’ who might have stepped from a Burne-Jones painting. When he returns to ‘a long grey street in West Kensington, in that chill hour of afternoon before the lamps are lit’, he is overpowered by a Wordsworthian sense of loss that he carries with him into adult life.1 Although the door appears before him on several subsequent occasions, worldly pressures prevent him from going through it, further intensifying the distance between his earthly life and his ideals. As Wallace nears 40, he sees the door with increasing regularity and is stricken with a terrible emptiness regarding his achievements and career. Soon afterwards, he is found dead at the bottom of an excavation shaft at East Kensington Station.
Differentiation in the European System of Central Banks: Circles, Core, and Directoire
Authors: Umbach Gaby , Wessels Wolfgang 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In officially launching the euro with only a limited number of EU Member States partaking in the Euro system, the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) intensified trends to the differentiated integration of Member States in tasks and competences within the EU system (Giering 2007; Janning 1997; Junge 2006; Tekin and Wessels 2008). The ex ante limitation of membership, as defined by the Maastricht convergence criteria, consolidated differentiated integration within monetary policy and the European System of Central Banks (ESCB).
Czech Republic and Poland: The Limits of Europeanization
Authors: Epstein Rachel , Johnson Juliet 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Czech Republic and Poland underwent rapid economic transformation in the first decade of post-communism, which included embracing international standards of central bank independence and the depoliticization of monetary policy. However, they have shown much less appetite for adopting the euro since acceding to the European Union in 2004. ‘Europeanization’ in terms of meeting, or even striving to meet, the criteria for euro entry has been incomplete.
The Political Economy of Central Banking in Australia and New Zealand
Authors: Eichbaum Chris 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the political and economic context of central banking in Australia and New Zealand and seeks to illuminate the causes and consequences of markedly different trajectories of institutional reshaping in the two nations. The focus is largely on institutional reshaping over the past 25 years and on patterns of similarity and difference over that period. Both Australia and New Zealand are classified as Westminster political systems. However, the former has a federal constitution and a bi-cameral legislature (with the governing party only infrequently commanding a majority in both houses). The latter is a unitary state, with a single legislature.
Financial Supervision: Internationalization, Europeanization, And Power
Authors: Moran Michael , Macartney Huw 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Understanding central banking in the European Union since the introduction of the euro turns critically on one question that is central to this volume: how far has the experience of monetary union been accompanied by convergence? It also raises a further vital political question: what is all this doing to the way power is wielded in central banking? Our opening question immediately brings us to others: how far convergence, if it is occurring, is traceable to the introduction of monetary union; how far, if it is occurring, it is characteristic of those systems that have joined the Euro Area; and, alternatively, how far does it embrace those occupying varying positions outside the Euro Area.