bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Re-evaluation of classic examples of metaplasia and some related systems
Authors: Okada T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The early classic term for a change of one cell or tissue type into another was as metaplasia. Examples of metaplasia have been presented in studies of regeneration, and also the ectopic appearance of cell or tissue types which are not normally associated with a given anatomical structure. Studies of regeneration will be reviewed in Chapter 6. In this chapter, a number of examples deriving mainly from medical science are briefly summarized, and several related cases in mammalian tissue, which have been reported more recently, will be discussed in some length. For a concise review of metaplasia observed in man, usually based on case reports in the medical field, readers may refer to a paper by Lugo and Puttong (1984). These authors emphasized that differentiated human cells have wide capabilities of altered differentiation, most of which are not expressed in healthy individuals, but appear under abnormal conditions. Metaplastic change seems to sometimes involve conversion between histological tissue types, as suggested by the formation of bony plaques in human degenerated eyes, perhaps from the retinal pigmented epithelium. However, conversion between tissue types of different germ layer origin is rare.
Characteristics of the transdifferentiation process
Authors: Okada T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A review of reliable examples of transdifferentiation indicates the presence of several general features common to most of them. This is surprising, because examples discussed in this monograph cover such a variety of systems in a number of different organisms and cell types (Table 9.1). Basically, transdifferentiation is a unidirectional process, from cell type A to B. Reversible change from B to A is rare, or more precisely, is outside the present definition of transdifferentiation. Such examples can be called modulation which sometimes denotes a fluctuation of minor phenotypic changes. Within examples of trans-differentiation discussed earlier, interconvertible change is found, for example, between subclasses of amphibian chromatophores. However, even in this system, there is a basic tendency to change towards melanophores, which are the most stable subclass to become an end result of a series of transdifferentiation steps (see Chapter 4.2). Lens is the terminus of more distinct changes among three major elements of vertebrate eyes. Therefore, the tripartite relationship assumed in the eye transdifferentiation system (Okada et al. 1975; Pritchard 1986) may also hold true among the three subclasses of amphibian chromatophores (Fig. 9.1).
Symbiosis And The Eukaryotic Cell
Authors: Douglas A E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eukaryotes have acquired the capacity to respire aerobically and to photosynthesize, exclusively through symbiosis; and all symbionts with aerobic respiration and many photosynthetic symbionts have evolved into organelles, the mitochondria and plastids respectively. This chapter concerns two issues: the processes underlying the transformation of intracellular symbionts into organelles, and the identity of the microorganisms from which mitochondria and plastids evolved.
The comparative method for studying adaptation
Authors: Harvey Paul H , Pagel Mark D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is second nature for evolutionary biologists to think comparatively because comparisons establish the generality of evolutionary phenomena. How much molecular evolution is neutral? Do large genomes slow down development? Is sperm competition important in the evolution of animal mating systems? What lifestyles select for large brains? Are extinction rates related to body size? These are all questions for the comparative method, and this book is about how such questions can be answered.
Why do Oystercatchers migrate?
Authors: Hulscher Jan B , Exo Klaus-Michael , Clark Nigel A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oystercatcher habitat requirements vary between times of the year. In the breeding season, they require the food supplies to be close to their nesting sites (Safriel et al., Chapter 9, this volume), whereas in winter they can successfully forage on exposed intertidal areas that usually lie several kilometres from their land-based high tide roosting places. In northern, cold temperate regions, habitats that are suitable for Oystercatchers throughout the year are not common, so the birds must migrate, although often over relatively short distances. Oystercatchers that move north in summer, for instance to the breeding areas around the White Sea, may find highly productive habitats in which to breed, but at the cost of having then to migrate several thousands kilometres south to escape the severe cold of winter.
The Pleistocene dwarf elephants of Mediterranean islands
Authors: Caloi Lucia , Kotsakis Tassos , Palombo, Maria R , Petronio Carmelo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discovery of ‘dwarf elephants (Fig. 22.1) on the Mediterranean islands (Fig. 22.2) dates back to the first half of the nineteenth century. There were two schools of thought regarding the classification of these forms. Generally, a single colonization of each island or group of islands was followed by a process of dwarfism. Now, it is believed that, on some islands, there was more than one colonization and the dwarfing processes were repeated. This hypothesis has been demonstrated on the island of Crete, where micro-mammals permit a biostratigraphical control (Mayhew 1977), and also on Sicily and Malta.
Implications Of The Palaeobiogeo-Graphical Provincialization Of China For Plate Tectonics
Authors: Hongfu Yin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Central Asia-Mongolia palaeo-ocean separated Siberia and China proper during the Late Proterozoic and Palaeozoic, and had mainly closed up by the end of Permian, although a welding of the Mongolo-Okhotsk suture was not completed until Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times (Kosigen and Parfenov 1981). It included the vast northern Chinese borderland, Xingan-Junggar province. The Xar Moron River-Gaxunnur Lake-Ebinur Lake subduction zone is one of the major remains of this vast ocean.
Quantitative Ecology and the Brown Trout
Authors: Elliott J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Covering not only brown trout, but also their close relatives, this book provides valuable information which is also relevant to animal ecology. The book highlights the global success of the species and provides a long-term case study of population dynamics of one population. It also considers growth and energetics, ecological differences between brown trout populations, natural selection and genetic differences between brown trout, and the mechanisms responsible for population regulation in juvenile trout. Emphasizing the value of such long-term studies to species management and conservation, the book stresses the importance of development, testing and use of realistic models when considering species such as brown trout.
Tea And Opium
Authors: Desmond Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before the end of the nineteenth century, cinchona on many private plantations had been ruthlessly uprooted to make way for tea, one of the most profitable commodities handled by the East India Company. Dutch and English factors in India had soon acquired the tea-drinking habit: they served it at business meetings and on social occasions; with the addition of sugar-candy or lemon it was a cooling drink; mixed with hot spice it was a remedy for ‘headache, gravel and griping in the guts’. Portuguese and Dutch merchants introduced the beverage to Europe-the precise date is unknown but by about 1610 it had reached the Netherlands through Chinese junks trading with Java. Not until 1657 did the first public sale of tea in London take place; it soon became available in the city’s coffee houses and in 1660 Samuel Pepys tentatively sipped his first cup. His wife took it as a cure for ‘her cold and defluxions’. Initially there was some confusion about its culinary use-some households garnished the boiled leaves with butter and salt. The correct recipe for its preparation had been presumably established when the Court of Directors decreed in July 1664 ‘good tea to be provided for the Company’s occasions’.
The role of vascular endothelial growth factor in the regulation of blood vessel growth
Authors: Ferrara Napoleone 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of a vascular supply is a fundamental requirement for organ development and differentiation in multicellular organisms (1). Blood vessel formation is also necessary for tissue repair and reproductive functions in the adult (2,3). Substantial experimental evidence also indicates that neovascularization (angiogenesis) plays an important part in the pathogenesis of a variety of disorders. These include: proliferative retinopathies, age-related macular degeneration, tumours, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, etc. (2,4). In the case of proliferative retinopathies and age-related macular degeneration, the new blood vessels are directly responsible for many of the destructive events characteristic of these conditions, as leakage and bleeding, followed by organization of the clot and fibrosis, may ultimately lead to retinal detachment or irreversible damage to the macula (5). Conversely, in neoplasms the role of the neovascularization consists in providing nourishment to the growing tumour, thus allowing the tumour cells to express their critical growth advantage, and permitting the establishment of continuity with the vasculature of the host (4).
Cation-anion interactions in crystalline quininium salts
Authors: Oleksyn B J , Śliwiński J , Kowalik J , Serda P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quinine (Q) is an organic base which contains two nitrogen atoms capable of protonation. One of them, N(l), belongs to the aliphatic quinuclidine moiety which is a tertiary amine, while the other, N(13), is a member of the aromatic quinoline ring. In the environment of polar solvents, protonation of N(l) precedes that of N(13), so that two kinds of quininium cations can be formed: i. QH+ in which only N(l) is protonated, ii. QH2+ in which both N(l) and N(13) are protonated.
Molecular data processing
Authors: Leslie A G W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Macromolecular data processing is an extensive topic, which has been developed considerably in recent years with the advent of commercially available area detectors and the new Laue methods utilising synchrotron radiation. Rather than giving what could only be a superficial overview of all aspects of data processing, I have chosen to concentrate almost entirely on one stage of the process; reflection integration. I will also limit the discussion to the use of 2- dimensional detectors (including film and image plates as well as area detectors) and monochromatic radiation, although many of the points raised have a more general applicability.
Organocopper chemistry: an overview
Authors: Taylor Richard J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Organocopper reagents are an indispensable part of the synthetic organic chemist’s tool-kit. They can be employed to prepare alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatics and the transformations are usually characterized by high chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivity. Vicinal carbon–carbon bond formation, via conjugate addition–enolate trapping or alkyne carbocupration–trapping, can be achieved and new methods are being developed for the preparation of highly functionalized organocopper reagents. Organocopper reagents have been employed to prepare innumerable novel and natural compounds. The latter category is well illustrated by a 1992 compilation which lists 522 natural product syntheses which employ organocopper reagents.
Refinement of Large Small-Molecule Structures Using SHELXL-92
Authors: Sheldrick George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many ‘mid-sized’ molecules in the 100-1000 atom range play important physiological roles, and include antibiotics, hormones and small proteins. Advances in data collection and structure-solving techniques have now effectively closed this gap between small molecules and macromolecules. Historically, quite different strategies have been adopted for the refinement of small-molecule and macromolecular structures against diffraction data. The explosion in available computing power now makes it feasible to refine structures of up to at least 1000 atoms by small-molecule techniques, though not without reconsidering the strategies involved.
Many-Body Effects
Authors: Stone A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 we assumed that the interaction energy of an assembly of molecules can be written in the form of a series starting with pairwise interaction terms and continuing with three-body terms, four-body terms, and so on: We have assumed further that this series converges rapidly, so that the pairwise interactions dominate and the many-body corrections are relatively small. In many cases this is true, but we have already seen in §4.2.1 that the induction energy is inherently non additive, and in §8.3 we developed an expansion of the induction energy in which many body contributions appear even in the leading term. In this chapter we study first a case where the non-additive effects of the induction energy dominate, and then go on to ex amine other non-additive effects.
Sites in the Upper Kbs, Okote, and Chari Members: Reports
Authors: Harris John w. K , Isaac glynn ll. , Kaufulu Zefe m. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the eroded badlands area on the eastern flank of the Ileretridge (Area Sa) there is a small conical hill capped by the residuum of an indurated, lime-cemented sandstone (see Fig. 4.r, Plate 4.r, and a regional plan in Chapter 2, Fig. 2.26). While searching for hominid fossils, Peter Nzube observed considerable numbers of artefacts among tumbled blocks of sandstone, on the eastern slopes of this hillock. The locality was shown to the archaeology team in 1971, and it was immediately dear that this was an cxcavatable archaeological site the only one yet found in the Koobi Fora Fom1ation at Leret, a distinction that the site retains.
Growth and Reproduction
Authors: Pearre Sifford 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interest in the anatomy and physiology of growth and reproduction of the Chaetognatha dates from the middle of the last century. Much of the early investigation addressed questions about their phylogenetic relationships, central to which was the discovery that the mouth was not derived from the original blastopore opening: this placed the chaetognaths among the evolutionarily 'advanced' Deuterostoma. However, Deuterostomes may have been polyphyletic (Salvini-Plawen 1988), so this discovery may be less significant than formerly believed. Recent decades have seen a rise in research on growth and ecological production, spurred by advances in culture techniques and ecological theory.
Lichenological studies 1n Ecuador
Authors: Aravindsson L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lichen flora of mainland Ecuador is still insufficiently known. For the purposes of collecting material, four expeditions were undertaken during the period 1972-1985. The herbarium at GB now comprisesc. 10 000 lichen specimens from Ecuador, of which the majority are epiphytic macrolichens. About 160 genera have been identified so far. The collecting work was concentrated in the Andes, particularly in forests between 1000 and 4000 m altitude. The lower montane rainforest (800-2500 m), the cloud forest (2500-3400 m), and the grass paramo (3400-4000 m) are especially rich in lichens. The most important macrolichen genera of these zones are: Sticta, Leptogium, Erioderma, Lobaria, Usnea, Coccocarpia, Pseudocyphellaria, Everniastrum, Hypotrachyna, Heterodermia, and Parmotrema. It is premature to present a detailed survey of the phytogeography of the area. Apart from cosmopolitan taxa, the lichen flora of Ecuador includes neotropical, pantropical, American-African, circum-Pacific, and southern, and northern temperate elements. Examples of lichens found in some selected habitats are given and many lichens are recorded here for the first time from Ecuador.
Allozyme variation in the Gasterosteus aculeatus complex
Authors: Buth Donald G , Haglund Thomas R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Biologists from many disciplines have chosen to study Gasterosteus aculeatus because of its highly variable behavioural, ecological, physiological, and morphological characters, which have provided the raw materials with which to examine correlations and have challenged researchers to explain the observed diversity through analytical and experimental approaches. However, the very characters that have made G. aculeatus so attractive to researchers are incompletely understood in terms of genetic control and vulnerability to environmental influence. Questions about population divergence and gene flow have been answered ambiguously, or only in localized contexts.
Flagellates of benthic communities: characteristics and methods of study
Authors: Alongi Daniel M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Flagellates are numerically and functionally important in most benthic habitats. Abundances of large (&gt;20 µm) flagellates in sediments range from 10to 10’’ cells cm-3and of micro flagellates (&lt;20 µm) from 10to 10cells cm-3 The most common heterotrophs are dinoflagellates, bodonids, euglenids, and a variety of organisms of unclear phylogenetic origin. Most problems relating to their study concern efficient extraction and enumeration techniques. Heterotrophic flagellates are estimated to consume a small fraction of daily bacterial production in sediments. Flagellates consume other foods, such as microalgae, organic detritus, and other protists. Amensalistic and mutualistic interactions between flagellates and larger members of the benthic community may be common, enhanced by mucus secretions, biogenic structures, and the locomotory activities of invertebrates. These aspects of their ecology will remain inadequately studied until methodological and taxonomic difficulties are surmounted.
The Measurement of Biodiversity and the Politics of Implementation
Authors: Heywood V H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reason for failure on the part of many agencies and governments to recognize biodiversity as a serious issue stems from the difficulties of defining it so that it can be applied to real problems of management, regulation, and monitoring. Biodiversity is viewed differently by community ecologists, park managers, plant breeders, population geneticists, agriculturalists, conservation biologists, and taxonomists. This is not a weakness provided that no one group insists on pre-eminence of their sectoral interest: on the contrary, having broad constituency strengthens both the concept and the likelihood of support. On the other hand it is critical for biodiversity conservation to appreciate that different objectives will require the use of different measures. This paper will examine some of the problems.in defining biodiversity at its various levels. It is conventional to consider biodiversity at ecosystem, species, and genetic levels-although an alternative approach recognizes compositional, structural, and functional biodiversity, each encompassing multiple levels of organization. The problems of measuring biodiversity at each of the three main levels are discussed particularly with respect to the difficulties of measuring taxonomic diversity and its application to conservation. It will be argued that to achieve many of the declared conservation objectives, a multiple level strategy of measuring biodiversity is required.
On What We Should Save: the Role of Culture in Determining Conservation Targets
Authors: Norton Bryan G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper examines the role of culture in the protection of biological diversity. The present situation exists that while a few commentators question the urgency sometimes asserted for biodiversity protection, at the same time there is no organized, scientifically respectable, and political influential group that advocates destruction of species, nor suggests that we do nothing. The cultural basis of this enquiry is, that whilst it is not seriously questioned that there is an incumbent moral obligation for us to sustain biological diversity for the benefit of future generations, we still have to find the rationale for consensus and to articulate it in a specific and operational manner.
The Use of Phytogeographic Data for Conservation Planning
Authors: Prance G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patterns of plant distributions in the New World tropics as derived from Flora Neotropica are described using a variety of mapping techniques. Examples of some ways in which phytogeographic data can contribute to conservation, particularly in Brazil, are given. Sixteen per cent of all described taxa are widely distributed whilst the remainder show restricted and/or disjunct patterns. Endemism is common in widespread families and prevalent in rain forests. The major phytochoria are described and particularly areas of endemism as these are prime targets for biological reserves.
Emiliania huxleyi as a key to biosphere-geosphere interactions
Authors: Westbroek Peter , Van Hinte Jane. , Brummer Geert-Jan , Veldhuis Marcel , Brownlee Colin , Green J C , Harris Roger , Heimdal Berit Riddervold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cells of Emiliania huxleyi are surrounded by ‘coccoliths’, minute, elegant scales of calcium carbonate. In all the oceans, particularly at mid-latitudes, this species forms gigantic blooms, readily visualized by satellite imagery. Coccolith-bearing organisms, of which E. huxleyi is by far the most abundant representative, are major contributors to the ocean floor limestone sediments, and this in turn is the largest long-term sink of inorganic carbon on earth. In addition to coccoliths and organic carbon, E. huxleyi blooms emit vast amounts of dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a gas which, on oxidation, is a dominant source of cloud nuclei. The profusion of E. huxleyi and its intimate involvement with the global biogeochemical cycles of both carbon and sulfur make it a key component of the greenhouse effect (CO2), natural acid rain, and albedo regulation.
Systems of pastoral and agricultural production in eastern Sudan
Authors: Sørbø G M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eastern Sudan is defined for the purposes of this chapter as the country lying to the east of the Blue Nile and to the north of the line of permanent villages and regular cultivation that runs approximately from Sennar through Gedaref to the valley of the Settit River. To the north it includes the whole of the Red Sea Hills area as far as the Egyptian frontier. In administrative terms, the whole of Red Sea Province and the major part of Kassala Province are included.
Toxin
Authors: Lax Alistair J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What do the following have in common: the promise of Botox as the key to everlasting youthful looks; E. coli O157 hamburger disease; a mysterious illness which killed 35 heroin users in 2000; and the assassination by poisoned umbrella-tip of a Bulgarian dissident in the 1970s? The answer is that all of these are caused by toxins, the powerful biological poisons released by bacteria and some plants. In Toxin, Alistair Lax reveals the panoply of ways in which bacterial toxins overcome the defences of our cells. He explains how they work, how they are so successful in causing major diseases, the terrible human impact they have had, and how apparently ‘new’ diseases arise from them. He also discusses how we can combat toxins, and how we can harness their actions for beneficial purposes. Enlivened by the very human story of the persistence, rivalries, and insights from which modern microbiology grew, Toxin is the first widely accessible account of this exciting and important topic.