bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Jones Mari C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this study has been to examine the nature of the modern Welsh language with special reference to two sociologically similar but linguistically contrasting communities. Until recently, Welsh could have been described as a rapidly contracting language both in terms of speaker-numbers and geographical territory. As such, the language has displayed phenomena typical of language obsolescence, a sociolinguistic process which results in one linguistic system being replaced by another, usually dominant, variety (English, in this case) and seems to be common to all language families and continents—Hill suggests that ‘at least half the languages in the world have disappeared in the last 500 years’ (1978: 69). As such, the study of language obsolescence is a potentially valuable and highly accessible source of information about linguistic change.
Introductory Remarks
Authors: Kathol Andreas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It might seem somewhat of an odd undertaking to propose another approach to the clausal syntax of German, after about 30 years of research in various frameworks of generative grammar. One might think that after all this time, the research community has come reasonably close to definite answers for at least some of the basic questions regarding the description of the different types of clauses in this language which can count hardly as understudied. Alas, as the following quote from one of the most prominent German syntacticians shows, regarding the state of the (transformational) analyses of German vis-a-vis assumptions about Universal Grammar (UG) in the early nineties, there still seem to be unsettling questions regarding the adequacy of the common descriptive devices when applied to the peculiarities of German.
Intonation
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Intonation has traditionally been regarded as a problem. Scholars have frequently drawn attention to the difficulties and uncertainties surrounding its analysis, its systematic description, and its incorporation into linguistic models and theories. These difficulties have doubtless contributed to its relative neglect; it is often treated as an optional element, which may be effectively disregarded, or at best assigned to the periphery of the subject. In monographs on the phonology of individual languages it is frequently relegated-in so far as it is mentioned at all-to the final pages, as an inessential appendix to the description proper.’
The Possibility of Practical Reason
Authors: Velleman J David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose that reasons for someone to do something must be considerations that would sway him toward doing it if he entertained them rationally. And suppose that the only considerations capable of swaying someone toward an action are those which represent it as a way of attaining something he wants, or would want once apprised of its attainability. These assumptions, taken together, seem to imply that the only considerations that can qualify as reasons
Bayle and Late Seventeenth-Century Thought
Authors: Lennon Thomas m. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The collective task of the essays in this volume is to provide a diachronic map of the division between mind and body. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) is of particular interest in charting this philosophical terrain. Like Descartes, for example, he engages the issue and takes a position on it. But, unlike Descartes, he engages, or at least reports, practically everyone else’s engagement of the issue. In particular, he testifies to the seventeenth-century dialectic among three views that will serve as sub headings here: (1) materialism, (2) Cartesian dualism, and (3) the Leibnizean alternative to materialism and dualism. Because Bayle read and discussed just about everyone, and because he was read so widely himself, it is not surprising that Bayle’s treatment of this material opens the way to much of the eighteenth century’s treatment of the topic.1
Introduction: Optimality Theory: Phonology, Syntax, and Acquisition
Authors: Boersma Paul , Dekkers Joost , Weijer Jeroen van de 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The introduction of Optimality Theory (OT) by Prince and Smolensky (1993) can be considered the single most important development in generative grammar in the 1990s. It has profoundly changed (morpho-)phonological inquiry, and it has given an important impulse to the study of language learning. Although its impact on (morpho- )syntax is not as overwhelming as on phonology, the success of OT is remarkable. Perhaps the key to its success is its applicability in all areas of grammar, offering a new perspective on a wide range of problems in linguistics. The major shift OT brought about in phonology is that from a rule-based to an output-based model—a move that was also foreshadowed in several other publications (see Prince and Smolensky 1993: 1). In Chomsky and Halle’s (1968) influential Sound Pattern of English it was assumed that phonology consisted of sequentially ordered rules. In the decades that followed there was increasing attention for so-called phonological conspiracies—i.e. the phenomenon that several phonological rules together aim at the same representational goal. In an output-based approach, such as OT phonology, constraints on surface forms can express these conspiracies.
Cycles, Non-Derived-Environment Blocking, and Correspondence
Authors: Burzio Luigi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion of morphologically ‘derived’ environment plays a role in phonology in two different ways. In some cases the phonology ‘misapplies’ precisely in those environments, as in the celebrated example cond[ e] ns-ation (Chomsky and Halle 1968), where the bracketed vowel is unreduced despite its lack of stress, in contrast to morphologically underived hápp[a]n, where reduction occurs as expected. In other cases one finds the opposite situation, in which the phonology misapplies to underived environments, as in v[áy] tamin or sén[ay] le, where a certain vowel shortening does not occur, in contrast to derived sen[í]l-ity, where it does.
Towards an Optimal Account of Second-Position Phenomena
Authors: Anderson Stephen R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the early classics in generative grammar, published in the same year as Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures, was a paper by Morris Halle (1957) ‘In Defense of the Number Two’. The present chapter might be seen as a further attempt to substantiate the linguistic significance of ‘two’, this time in the ordinal sense of ‘second’ rather than that of binarity. A variety of recent analyses have attempted to claim, in effect, that the appearance of a notion of ‘second position’ in the descriptive statement of several natural language regularities is actually an artifact, that the real generalizations in each case refer to something else, and that the connection with second position is coincidental. I will argue, in contrast, that a number of effects are indeed related in a fundamental and unitary way to the notion of second position. The most appropriate way to capture these regularities appears to be in terms of a system of interacting constraints of the type envisioned in Optimality Theory, referring to the organization of a ‘post-Spell Out’ level of syntactic structure such as PF.
Language Evolution: Computer Simulations
Authors: Nettle Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The review of the mechanisms of language evolution in the previous chapter left a number of unanswered empirical questions. First, it is not clear whether the averaging and threshold problems can be overcome in groups of a realistic size. Secondly, it is unclear whether the neutral model can account for the finding that linguistic boundaries can develop and persist in the absence of complete isolation. Thirdly, the neutral model does not predict that changes will be correlated in the history of neutral. Introducing social and functional selection to the model may or may not overcome these problems and provide a model that predicts sustained but systematic diversification. In this chapter I use computer simulations to suggest some more concrete solutions to these issues. As one of the main results of the simulations concerns the importance and power of social selection, I conclude the chapter with a discussion of the nature and function of that mechanism.
Phylogenetic Diversity
Authors: Nettle Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous two chapters we examined the distribution of language diversity across the globe and through time. In this chapter we shift attention to diversity at a different level, that of the family of languages. As I pointed out in Section 1.3, there is no necessary correlation between diversity of languages and diversity of language families. The Congo, for example, is rich in languages, but they are almost all closely related, belonging to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo. I will call diversity of higher-level units of this kind phylogenetic diversity. This chapter first presents information on the distribution of the world’s phylogenetic diversity, and then considers the kind of processes that have produced that distribution.
Moral Generalities Revisited
Authors: Little Margaret Olivia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A great deal of discussion in ethical theory has recently centred on the particularity of moral situations. In some cases, the point of discussion has been to emphasize how important it is to attend to the nuances and contextual details of a case before applying any moral norms, rules, or principles to it. But in a number of discussions, the point has been to question the idea that there are any moral norms, rules, or principles capable of codifying the moral landscape. Theorists from a variety of camps, including neo-Aristotelians and a certain brand of British moral realist, have urged that moral answers resist capture in any general formulae. The situations we confront are often saturated with unique combinations of morally salient features; no principles, however subtle or complicated, provide an adequate guide or model of how we should navigate through them.
Spatial and nonspatial avenues to object recognition by the human haptic system
Authors: Klatzkv Roberta L , Lederman Susan J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we think about our ability to learn and represent spatial information, we generally think of the visual modality. Vision simultaneously conveys the relative positions of multiple features (e.g. landmarks, object vertices) within a coherent frame of reference, which is provided by the field of view. We should not forget, however, that touch is also a spatial modality. Kinaesthetic information from muscles, tendons and joints tells us about the positions and movement of the limbs in space and hence provides us with the ability to construct a spatial map of objects and surfaces that we encounter. The distribution of pressure on the skin tells us about the local spatial properties of objects. The system that provides and processes cutaneous and kinaesthetic information is called the haptic system (Loomis and Lederman, 1986).
Actions and responses: The dual psychology of behaviour
Authors: Dickinson Anthony , Balleine Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The psychological analysis of behaviour is riven by two different models of the agent. Students of human action usually adopt a cognitive approach to behaviour, and indeed contemporary action theory is replete with accounts of agents planning various behavioural strategies on the basis of their knowledge of action-outcome relationships and selecting courses of action by some rational criterion after an evaluation of the alternative outcomes (e.g. Frese and Sabini, 1985). When, however, psychologists are relucta11t to shoulder the burden of intentionality implicit in such cognitive accounts, they usually resort to associationism, namely the thesis that the mind consists of ‘representational’ elements linked by excitatory (or inhibitory) connections. In contrast to cognitive theory, with its appeal to the rational interactions between the contents of mental states, associationism is essentially mechanistic in nature in that mental processes, such as excitation or activation, gain their explanatory power by analogy to physical ones.
Hobbes and the Royal Society
Authors: Malcolm Noel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why was Thomas Hobbes never elected a Fellow of the Royal Society? This is a question which has often been asked. I agree with many of the details of the answers which have been given to it; but I believe that, in putting those and other details together, it is possible to arrive at a rather different overall conclusion. In the process it may also be possible to add something to our knowledge of Hobbes-and perhaps even to our knowledge of the Royal Society.
Agency and Causal Explanation
Authors: Hornsby Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some philosophical problems about agency can be put in terms of two points of view. From the personal point of view, an action is a person’s doing something for a reason, and her doing it is found intelligible when we know the reason that led her to it. From the impersonal point of view, an action would be a link in a causal chain that could be viewed without paying any attention to people, the links being understood by reference to the world’s causal workings. We might take it for granted that there are truths available to be discovered from each of these points of view. The problems about agency surface when we start to wonder whether the impersonal point of view does not threaten the personal one.
Plato And The Erotics Of Narrativity
Authors: Halperin David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most curious and seldom remarked facts about Plato’s Dialogues is that many of them are not, in fact, dialogues. By this I do not mean that Plato's Dialogues are not ‘real’ dialogues or ‘true’ conversations (measured against some normative standard of conversational reciprocity): I am not about to lodge against Plato the routine liberal complaint that he fails to portray genuinely mutual, free-wheeling discussions-choosing to represent, instead, a series of highly asymmetrical exchanges between Socrates (or some other Platonic mouthpiece), who does most of the talking, and various other, more or less co-operative, interlocutors, who (with the refreshing exceptions of Callicles in the Gorgias and Thrasymachus in the first book of the Republic) are largely ‘yes-men’.
Performative vs. Critical Interpretation in Music
Authors: Levinson Jerrold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter takes as starting-point the curious fact that two activities, on the surface quite different, are called by the same name: interpreting. On the one hand, there is what critics of the arts do with respect to individual artworks, such as Kafka’s Penal Colony, Picasso’s Demoiselles d’Avignon, or Mahler’s Ninth Symphony—that is, offer interpretations of them. In other words, they try to say, roughly, how such works should be viewed, what they mean, and why they are structured as they are. On the other hand, there is what performers in the performing arts do with respect to individual artworks, e.g. Mozart’s Clarinet Concerto, Balanchine’s Four Temperaments, Shakespeare’s King Lear—that is, perform them. In other words, they play (dance, enact, recite) them in a particular way. Obviously there is some connection between these activities—it is sometimes suggested, for example, that the performing interpreter is doing implicitly what the critical interpreter is doing explicitly—but the similarities here are perhaps no greater than, and no more interesting than, the dissimilarities. This chapter will devote itself to emphasizing the latter. My particular concern will be to contrast, within the tradition of Western classical music, a musical performer’s interpretation of a given piece of music, and a music critic’s interpretation of the same. For convenience in what follows I will often abbreviate performative (or performer’s) interpretation as PI and critical (or critic’s) interpretation as CI.
Music as Ordered Sound: Some Complications Affecting Description and Interpretation
Authors: Margolis Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hanslick’s classic essay surely deserves the enormous respect it commands—but not for the reasons one might insouciantly suppose. It is not because it actually captured the ‘essential’ nature of music (or, paradoxically, missed it in a corrigible way). It is, rather, remarkably sensible about the nature of human mental states, the complexity of emotions in particular, their dependence on physiology and thought: it is in this sense that it is perceptive about the utter difference between music and mental states. It certainly announces what it takes the ‘specifically musically beautiful’ to be and to exclude: for instance, ‘The representation of a specific feeling or emotional state is not at all among the characteristic powers of music.’ But it never says why it must be so, or how we should ever demonstrate that it is indeed so. In making its claim, moreover, it obliges us, by its own indirection, to consider a neglected constraint on all theorizing about musical expression and representation (as well as about expression and representation in the other arts): namely, that we must be prepared to support a conceptual ‘adequation’ between whatever we impute as the nature of music and what, congruent with that ‘nature’, we concede or insist is possible or impossible regarding expression and representation and similar functions. Hanslick is particularly instructive in this regard.
Politeness: Setting the Scene
Authors: Sifianou Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recently it has become widely acknowledged that verbal communication is not simply a means of conveying information, but also an equally important means of establishing, maintaining, and even terminating social relationships with other people (Hymes, 1972b; Lyons, 198ra; Trudgill, 1974). For instance, strangers who, under certain circumstances, may exchange uninformative views about the weather or even apparently informative statements about their past experiences or future plans do not usually have any need for this information. Such exchanges are themselves courteous acts performed basically in order to satisfy the need for involvement (Hurford and Heasley, 1983: 5). Even scientific statements, whose main function is to inform, usually have as one of their aims to approach and influence people (Lyons, 198ia: 143).
Language in Change
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How, then, is the task of language comparison to be undertaken? What can be compared, and how?
In the first place, it is evident that word units, which can be isolated fairly easily, invite comparison. If the same idea is expressed by (virtually) identical words, as for example ice and Grm. Eis, the impulse to compare them is irresistible. It thus appears that comparison is natural when meaning and expression both coincide. It is surely inconceivable that Lat. pater and Gr. 7TaT P should have arisen independently and have no connection with one another.
Lëtzebuergesch, Spoken And Written, Developments And Desirabilities
Authors: Hoffmann Fernand 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout its entire existence as a territory, first as a comté (AD 963), then a duchy (1354), the situation with regard to the languages in spoken use in Luxembourg has remained unchanged. French (in the form of Walloon) and German (in the form of Luxembourgish West Moselle Franconian) have functioned side by side in a diglossia which is centuries old. The only true bilingual speakers have been those living in the areas actually along the language border. Thus the present-day situation was established well before the act of 963 which brought about an exchange between the Benedictine abbey of Trier (Trèves) and Siegfried, count of Ardenne, whereby Siegfried (or Sigefroi)–a figure now shrouded in mystery–took possession of the Lucilinburhuc, a ruined fortress on the Bock, in exchange for certain of his estates around Feulen, in what today is the southern part of the Oesling (see sections 1.1 and 1.2.1).
Defining the Domain
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The topic of this book is Linguistic change in French. Most of us think we know what French is: it is the language of French grammar books and/or the language in which French texts are written. We cannot properly, as we shall see later, apply the name to a geographical entity, like ‘the language spoken in France’. We do know, too, that ‘Ce n’esl pas fran1-ais’ is frequently said of familiar expressions, that arc certainly used by French-speakers, and are not part of languages other than French. But let us look at the notion that the ‘French’ we are concerned with is a language identical with Standard French.
Lexical Change
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For most speakers of a language the most obvious linguistic changes are of words and their meanings. The word-in the sense of lexical free form-is the linguistic unit of which the speaker is most conscious. It is usually seen as a discrete entity, representing a concept. a distinct meaning. Thus the entry or exit of a word from contemporary usage, or a shift in lcx1ca! meaning, is salient for the language user. Yet these are the changes which usually occupy least space in general works about the theory of linguistic change. Admittedly quite a deal of attention is paid to borrowing, in the context of language contact But, on the whole, discussion of change in the lexicon soon descends to citation of individual examples and a general picture of how a lexicon changes rarely emerges.
Reason, Moral Virtue, and Moral Value
Authors: Cooper John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In moral philosophy Aristotle is well known to stand for the primacy of character, judgement, and perceptiveness. For him, the virtues of character and the nuanced appreciation they bring of the multiplicity of legitimate claims there always are on one‘s attention are the central phenomena for ethics. For many, this is an appealing view. But Aristotle‘s theory of the virtues is constructed upon an elaborate and well-articulated basis in psychological theory. He approaches the question what the virtues are and what of value they contribute to a human life through the postulation and analysis of several psychological capacities that he argues human beings by their nature all possess. It is a person‘s use of these capacities that determines how their life goes, whether for better or for worse. In order properly to understand Aristotle’ theory of the virtues one must develop it explicitly from within the context of his psychological theory. I attempt to do this in what follows. As a result I am able to offer in conclusion some thoughts about what precisely that ‘nobility’ or ‘fineness’ or ‘beauty’ in action is that Aristotle makes the constant goal of morally virtuous action as such, and how its pursuit fits together with the other concerns that also motivate the morally virtuous agent.