bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Bramble Bush
Authors: Llewellyn Karl N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For over 70 years, prospective and enrolled law students have been assigned to read a text that prepares them what they are about to encounter. That text is Bramble Bush. This classic answers questions that all students have when starting law school, and virtually takes them inside the classroom like no other text. Karl N. Llewellyn offers understanding on the context of law, techniques on how to study the law without losing heart, and how to engage in the material within the classroom. The Bramble Bush is required reading at many top tier law schools and is recommended by many Law School Deans for the insight it provides to new students. An outgrowth of Professor Llewellyn’s introductory lectures at Columbia University School of Law, Bramble Bush continues to be the best introduction to the study of law for both potential and enrolled law students. This edition includes an introduction by its editor Steve Sheppard, the William H. Enfield Professor of Law at University of Arkansas’s School of Law. He is a faculty adviser to the International Law Society, the Journal of Islamic Law and Culture, the Environmental Law Society, and the H.L.A. Hart Society. His service includes enlistment and commission in the U.S. Coast Guard Reserve and membership in the Iraq Advisory Group of the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, in 2005.
State, Market, Philanthropy, And Self-Help As Legal Services Delivery Mechanisms
Authors: Abel Richard L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bill Clinton is famous (or notorious) for promising to end welfare as we know it. Whether or not he succeeded, the boast expressed a tectonic shift in attitudes toward the state, possibly comparable to earlier “great transformations,” to use Polanyi’s phrase (1944). In societies with little or no division of labor, people produce most of the goods and services they consume (and barter for the rest). The market transforms this arrangement, enormously increasing the variety and quality of what can be enjoyed. Prior to the twentieth century, the primary method for redistributing goods and services to those who could not buy them was philanthropy: soup kitchens, poor houses, charity hospitals, foundling homes. The Great Depression and World War II changed all that. The British welfare state marginalized charity, assuming the obligation to end poverty or at least ameliorate its most conspicuous hardships. In the United States two decades later, Medicare and Medicaid severely undermined doctors’ feeling of responsibility to treat patients unable to pay. Governments that had begun to offer free primary and secondary education in the nineteenth century extended this to the university and added food, housing, transportation, communication, culture and recreation, unemployment compensation, health care, child care, and pensions. Almost simultaneously, however, this provoked a conservative backlash, driven in part by the fiscal crisis of the state, compounded by a taxpayer revolt. The only thing unusual about Clinton’s proposal was that he was a Democrat rather than a Republican. But his program differed little from Tony Blair’s “New” Labor or its contemporary socialist and social democratic counter-parts throughout continental Europe. The hegemony of the state—which seemed inevitable after World War II—may turn out to be little more than a brief interlude between the dominance of market and philanthropy before World War II and again today.
A Better Pencil
Authors: Baron Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Better Pencil examines the digital revolution in light of the history of writing technology. Baron looks at how we love, fear, actually use our writing machines-not just computers but typewriters, pencils, and clay tablets-how we deploy them to replicate the old ways of doing things while actively generating new modes of mass expression; how we learn to trust new technology and the new and strange sorts of texts that it produces; hwo we expand the notion of who can write and who can't; and how we free our readers and writers while at the same time trying to regulate their activities.
Childbirth
Authors: Loudon Irvine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To a historian of childbirth, the illustration of the grandmother, mother, and newborn baby of a sharecropper’s family in the Mississippi Delta in 1937 raises a series of questions. Where was the baby delivered? Who was the birth atten dant? What kind of maternal care was available to such a family and how did it compare with maternal care in other parts of the world and other periods? From what is known of the history of childbirth in the USA, the baby was prob ably delivered at home, either by a midwife or general practitioner, or possibly a neighbour, and the risk of such a mother dying in childbirth was about twice as high in Mississippi as it was in New England, and about three times as high as it was in Scandinavia in the 1930s. This illustration serves as an introduction to this chapter, which will be concerned as much with systems of maternal care in various countries as the traditional landmarks and great names in the history of obstetrics.
The Spread of Western Medicine
Authors: Worboys Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A world survey of medical ideas and practices in AD 1000 would have found three ‘great systems’-the Chinese, Indian, and Western, though the latter would have been more appropriately termed ‘Mediterranean’, as it was based largely on Greek, Roman, and Islamic ideas. Alongside these systems was a myriad of ‘little systems’ and folk beliefs, specific to local communities or regions. TI1e ‘great systems’ all worked with similar humoral models ofbodily function and were broadly equivalent in their therapeutic aims and efficacy. There had been contact between them, but each remained quite distinct, embedded in the religion, culture, and politics of its society. A similar survey undertaken today, as the next millennium closes, would find a single predom inant medical system-Western medicine. While having roots that are trace able to its forebear, modern Western medicine shows little or no resemblance to its earlier form. What is historically distinctive about the Western medical tradition has been the revolutionary changes that have taken place in its ideas and practices, especially since the eighteenth century. This is not to say that Chinese, Indian, and other systems have remained static, but that they evolved more slowly and have probably changed most in the last 100 years in response to the claims of modern Western medicine to be the world orthodoxy. These other systems persist today and some thrive, though now as ‘traditional’ and ‘alternative’ systems, or as lay beliefs.
The Introduction of Classical Physics in Greece: The Role of the Italian Universities and Publications*
Authors: Vlahakis George N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the interesting problems engaging the attention of the community of historians of science from an epistemological point of view is the study of the spread of scientific knowledge from an advanced metropolitan centre to regions characterized by a relatively lower cultural level. Although several theoretical schemes have been proposed for examining the channels for the dissemination of scientific knowledge, international bibliography is lacking in certain examples which, used as case studies, may be considered critical to the verification (or the falsification) of such theories. One of the questions which arises in this spread of scientific knowledge is the connection of scientific production in the advanced centres of Central Europe during the eighteenth century and its acceptance in the European periphery such as the Balkans, Iberia, and Scandinavia.
The Late Middle Ages 1250–1500
Authors: Mackay Angus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In addition to the documentation held in royal, seigneurial,ecclesiastical, and urban archives, the historian of Spain fromthe mid-thirteenth century down to the accession of theCatholic Kings, Ferdinand and Isabella, has at his disposalsplendid series of chronicles. The authors of almost all of these concentratedon the events of the royal courts and the deeds of the kings or theirenemies, either because their salaries were paid by the monarchy or becausethey attached themselves to particular political factions.
The Functions Of A European Security And Defence Identity And Its Institutional Form
Authors: Tams Carsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of a European security and defence identity (ESDI) reflects the belief of some European states that they must cooperate more closely in providing for their own defence and security. ESDI has been pursued in several ways.1 The creation of the European Political Cooperation (EPC) process and the revitalization of the West European Union (WEU) during the 1980s were first steps, followed by the creation of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by EU member states in the Treaty on the European Union in 1991.2 The treaty links the EU and the WEU by stipulating that the EU can request the WEU ‘to elaborate and implement decisions and actions of the Union which have defense implications.
Spontaneous Institutions: Peacekeeping As An International Convention
Authors: Daase Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neo-liberal institutionalists have acknowledged this fact, conceding that international institutions may take the form not only of organizations and regimes but also of conventions, which are ‘informal institutions, with implicit rules and understandings, that shape the expectations of actors’.1 Yet despite this avowal and the pioneering work on conventions conducted in other disciplines,2 institutionalists in international relations have neglected patterned behaviour3 and have concentrated on more formal, negotiated institutions, leaving the analysis of conventions largely to con structivists and postmodernists.4 This self-restriction has deprived institu tionalists of the analytical means to explain phenomena that are not easily accounted for by the intentions of their creators or that do not fulfil the usual expectations of efficiency.
The Continental Commitment in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Rodger N A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It would be possible to 611 a short article, perhaps entitled ‘Variations on an Eighteenth-Century Cliche’, solely with the views of statesmen, British and foreign, on the necessity of winning America in Germany, or Germany in America. Such a collection would serve at least to display the central debate of British grand strategy—the question of maritime versus continental warfare- as well as some of the most characteristic blind-spots of British politics. It would show how often the issue rose to the lips, if not always to the minds, of eighteenth-century British public men; and how difficult the Age of Reason found it to emancipate itself from the unthinking prejudices which foreign affairs never failed to arouse. It would also point to an obvious contrast between the hostility, so widely felt among those who had not held office, towards ‘this execrable, detestable, ruinous, ill advis’d, ill concerted, romantick, quixote, senceless, all consumeing land war’ (as Lord Tyrconnel described it in 1748), and the frequency with which successive British governments committed themselves to a land war.
‘Cornwallis Triumphant’: War in India and the British Public in the Late Eighteenth Century
Authors: Marshall P J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In December 1789 Tipu Sultan, ruler of the powerful state of Mysore, began military operations against his much weaker neighbour, the Raja of Travancore. Travancore was formally an ally of the British East India Company, whose Governor-General, Earl Cornwallis, interpreted Tipu’s moves as a provocation which must be met by all-out war. Thus began the third Anglo-Mysore war. A very large British army was assembled under the Governor of Madras, General William Medows, to invade Mysore from the east, while the East India Company’s Bombay army attacked his western territory. The British also negotiated alliances with the Marathas and with the Nizam of Hyderabad. Their forces too were to invade Mysore. During the campaign season of 1 790 the attacking forces achieved few tangible successes, the main British army eventually withdrawing back towards Madras. For the next campaign Cornwallis himself took personal command of the ‘grand army’ that renewed the invasion. The army penetrated deeply into Mysore, driving Tipu’s forces back to his capital at Seringapatam, but Cornwallis's advance had outrun his capacity to keep his troops supplied, and in adverse weather conditions he felt that he had no alternative but to retreat from Seringapatam. The offensive was resumed in 1792 and a decisive battle was fought outside Tipu’s capital in February. British victory after a night attack compelled Tipu to sue for peace. Cornwallis insisted on large cessions of territory, both to the East India Company and to its allies, together with a substantial indemnity in cash. Two of Tipu’s sons were handed over as hostages while the terms of the treaty were being executed.
The Invention of Suicide
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Used more and more commonly, the non compos mentis verdict was the most important manifestation of the secularization of suicide. Whatever their private beliefs may have been, jurors acted on the medical interpretation of suicide and so sanctioned the popular rituals punishing the crime less and less often. This change in the responses of juries to suicide effectively transformed its meaning. Most such deaths were no longer treated as diabolical crimes that visited spiritual peril on the village community. The secularization of suicide at the level of the local community was prompted in part by resentment of the crown’s right to the goods of felons of themselves. But it was also a response to wider shifts in attitudes to self-destruction, and its relationship to these broader currents of thought is characteristic of other social and cultural changes that occurred in late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century England. Swiftly moving currents that originated among the ruling elite pulled it along, and an undertow of popular traditionalism held it back. Coroners’ juries were eventually caught up in the tide of scepticism about supernatural phenomena, but for almost a century, contrary to the charge of their critics, they lagged a little behind progressive opinion. It was not until the reign of George III that juries entirely abandoned the belief that self-murder was a diabolical crime.
The International Corpus of English in Hong Kong
Authors: Bolt Philip , Bolton Kingsley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sociolinguistic realities of English in Hong Kong are unlike those of any other society in Asia, not least of all because Hong Kong is Britain’s only surviving territorial colony of any economic or strategic significance. Although an estimated 97 per cent of the population is Chinese, and Cantonese is the principal local language, English has been an official language of government and law since 1841, and throughout the present century it has been accorded semi-official status as the major language in many secondary schools, colleges, and universities. In addition, English is also considered the dominant language of business in the larger companies. Hong Kong is currently experiencing a period of transition in which the decolonialization of institutions from Britain is being given increasing priority. Partly as a result of this and of other economic and social forces, English and Chinese now have an increasingly complex coexistence in government, public administration, law, education, the business sector and the mass media. On 1 July 1997 Hong Kong will become a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China. It is likely that after this date the de facto and de Jure status of English will be changed, and that either Cantonese or Putonghua (Mandarin) will assume a greater proportion of some of the roles previously held by English.
Centering in Naturally Occurring Discourse: An Overview
Authors: Walker Marilyn , Joshi Aravind , Prince Ellen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This introduction first provides a brief overview of the rules and constraints of centering that are used in the chapters in the book. Then we group the open issues in centering into a set of five general themes: (I) utterance-level issues in centering (2) centering as a cross-linguistic universal; (3) information structure and centering; (4) the role of centering in processing models of discourse; (5) discourse structure and centering, and outline how each chapter provides detailed studies and empirical evidence addressing these themes.
Centering, Anaphora Resolution, and Discourse Structure
Authors: Walker Marilyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Centering was formulated as a model of the relationship between attentional state, the form of referring expressions, and the coherence of an utterance within a discourse segment (Grosz, Joshi, and Weinstein 1986, 1995), In this chapter, I argue that the restriction of centering to operating within a discourse segment should be abandoned in order to integrate centering with a model of global discourse structure.
r, Hypercorrection, and the Elsewhere Condition
Authors: Halle Morris , Idsardi William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our purpose in this article is to contribute to the current debate regarding the differing theoretical assumptions between Optimality Theory (OT) and the more traditional theory of derivations employing ordered rules. Such a discussion of fundamental issues is greatly facilitated if there is a body of data at hand that satisfies two desiderata: (1) the data are of a degree of complexity that makes it necessary to invoke more than just the most elementary resources of the competing theories, and (2) the phenomena are well-enough understood so that obviously inadequate solutions can be rejected without extensive investigation of the most basic facts. One body of data that satisfies these desiderata is the well-known shibboleth of the Eastern Massachusetts r. We are fortunate, moreover, in that these data have been reviewed in two recent papers by John McCarthy (1991; 1993), a native speaker of the dialect, who happens also to be one of the leading phonologists of our generation. In addition, much of the same data have been discussed in chapter V of Harris (1994), where parallel developments in other dialects of modern English are also considered.
Coordination
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume is a study of coordination, i.e. structures with conjunctions such as and, but, and or. These are important words in their constructions, rather than being unimportant and superfluous, because they have many properties in common with categories such as verbs and prepositions. Dr Johannessen has analysed data from thirty-three languages, many of them unrelated, and has found striking similarities. She focuses in particular on ‘unbalanced coordination’ (UC), that is, coordination in which the conjuncts differ with respect to crucial grammatical features such as case and word order. UC occurs in many of the languages in the study, and provides evidence for an analysis of overt, as well as covert, conjunctions as heads in an X-bar theoretical framework. Specifically, there is a strong correlation between the order of conjunctions and abnormal conjuncts and that of heads and complements generally in the languages that have UC. Dr Johannessen also considers extraordinary balanced coordination, in which both conjuncts are abnormal. This phenomenon provides additional evidence for conjunctions being heads. She gives a comprehensive account of coordination in general, including extraction, coordination categories, multiple coordination, and ‘discontinuous conjunctions’. SERIES DESCRIPTION Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax Series Editor: Richard S. Kayne The growing sophistication of syntactic theory is making it possible to achieve an increasingly precise characterization of syntactic differences among languages. By shedding light on the nature of syntactic variation, the books in this series will also contribute to our understanding of that which is syntactically variant, i.e. those facets of syntax that can be construed as reflecting properties of universal grammar.
Absolute Ungrammaticality
Authors: Ackema Peter , Neeleman Ad 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given the principles of optimality theory, there should be a grammatical output for every input. After all, of the possible outputs corresponding to a particular input, the one that is the most harmonic with respect to a set of ranked universal constraints is grammatical by definition. Nonetheless, it appears to be a rather obvious fact that certain constructions have no realization at all in some, or even all, languages. How is this possible, then? Given the structure of the grammar in optimality theory, several types of solu tions have been proposed for this problem. An Optimality-theoretic grammar consists of two components: a device GEN that generates all possible structural realizations of a particular input and a function EVAL that selects out of this candidate set the structure that is optimal. One possibility therefore is to argue that there are restrictions on GEN such that certain constructions never enter into competition. It is also possible that two candidates score equally on all constraints but one. In that case, the candidate that wins out on this particular constraint will block the other candidate under any constraint ranking. In the terminology of Prince and Smolensky 1993, this is expressed by saying that the latter is harmonically bound by the former.
Adverbial Marking of Stance in Speech and Writing
Authors: Conrad Susan , Biber Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conrad and Biber’s chapter is a statistical study of three collections of texts: one of conversations, one of academic writing, and one of news reportage. In this corpus they identify adverbials with a variety of grammatical forms: mainly adverbs such as probably, prepositional phrase such as in most cases, and subordinate clauses such as I think. These adverbials express meanings associated with the speaker or writer’s attitude, or stance, towards what he or she is saying.
Evaluating Evaluation in Narrative
Authors: Cortazzi Martin , Jin Lixian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We mentioned in the introduction to this volume that there is a well-established tradition of using the term ‘evaluation’ in a relatively specialized sense to refer to a semantic and/or structural element of narrative; and Cortazzi and Jin’s chapter is set within that tradition. They start from Labov’s model of oral narrative, in which the presence of evaluation — signalling to the audience the ‘point’ of the story — is not only crucial in determining the perceived effectiveness of the story, but also criteria! in distinguishing narratives from other stretches of talk such as reports or summaries. They discuss ways in which evaluation can be recognized, noting that it is frequently context- and culture-specific, and may depend as much upon performance as upon any features of the language itself.