bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Popular Culture
Authors: Scribner R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Popular culture’ is an elusive concept, and in this period can be distinguished only arbitrarily from ‘popular belief’. It can mean common social custom, such as the practice of strangers sharing a common bed in inns.2 It can be taken to be mass as opposed to elite culture, the village fair rather than the exclusive dances of the well-to-do.3 Seen from another angle, it can be contrasted to ‘official’ culture, almost as a sub-culture outside socially controlled modes of behaviour. This is the culture of wayfaring folk, journeymen, of the plebeian lower strata, as opposed to the regulated life of those organised in guilds or corporations. Another approach could define it as superstition, as a pattern of behaviour dependent on having access to and control over supernatural power.5 The use of skin taken from a hanged man as a talisman against evil exemplifies this definition. Finally, it might be related to elemental aspects of material life, to basic biological rhythms such as reproduction, nourishment and the cyclesofnature.6 Shepherds’ calendars and blood-letting tables illustrate this usage. The third and fourth of these definitions merge with ‘popular belief’, with attempts to contact or deal with the supernatural. Popular belief in this sense was often set apart from officially sanctioned belief, as unorthodoxy to which the Church either turned a blind eye, or which it sought to channel as far as possible away from heterodoxy. Popular devotion to the saints during the later middle ages was of this nature.
Emergence: to 1688
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Iclubs and societies were clearly among the most numerous, diverse, and dynamic organizations in late Georgian society. Challenged only by drinking houses and churches in their level of support, they flourished throughout the urban system, and came to occupy a central position in British social life. Whereas diaries of the late seventeenth century recorded largely traditional social activities, with only minor reference to clubs and societies, by 1800 association meetings figure time and again in the pages of private journals. That of the American Samuel Curwen, who lived in London after 1775, shows him to have been a keen devotee of voluntary societies. Over two months, in February and March 1781, he took part almost twenty times in a society-related event, going to meetings of the SPG, the Je Ne Sais Quoi Club, and his great love, the masonic order, with its lodge nights and less formal gatherings of brethren. Though he went in smart company to auction rooms, taverns, coffee-houses, eating houses, and church, only private socializing, usually at home with fellow lodgers, surpassed his society commitments. Another London diarist, the artist Joseph Farington, noted how during the winter of 1793—4 he spent much of his time (apart from private socializing) at meetings of the Royal Academy, the Royal Academy Club, and the Society of Antiquaries. Particularly striking (as with Curwen) was the amount of time spent informally with other club members, away from formal meetings, suggesting a wider, ripple effect across social life. Club activities were even incorporated into the civic calendar, as can be seen from the journal of Richard Clark, lord mayor of London in 1784 to 1785, who was entertained at a succession of society dinners and events throughout the season.
Medieval Images of Old Age
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The translation of surviving classical texts was most active in Europe, including England, from the twelfth century and reached its peak in the thirteenth. Classical ideas about the life cycle were disseminated through Latin dictionaries containing citations from the classics, selected by topic. On old age Seneca and Cicero were most often cited.1 The classical sources provided a language in which old age could be and was discussed and described, though its social meanings and the purposes of such discourse changed in the context of Christianity. Old age had a particular place in theological narratives.
Old Age in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Minois believes that with the coming of the Renaissance, youth—associated with rebirth and creativity—was celebrated and hostility to old people pervaded European culture, creating a literature of lamentation and invective about old age, directed especially against old women.1 Keith Thomas has argued, in an English context,2 that the pace of change in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, especially with the invention of printing and the wide dissemination of new religion and new science, led to the scorning of old people with old ideas.
An Unfailing Zest for Life’: Images and Self-Images of Older People in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How did older people from differing backgrounds see themselves and how were they seen by others in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? Diaries, letters, biographies, and autobiographies in particular give some insights into the lives of the many older people who were not poor and whose private lives, in consequence, were unlikely to be exposed in public documents. Some were powerful enough to be regarded by others as individuals worthy of interest, rather than as 4old people’ worthy of pity.
Pensions and Pensioners in War and Depression
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The state pension, low and means-tested though it was, gave a regular and secure income to a higher proportion of old people than the poor relief system had ever done. It rescued some of them from painful and degrading labour, enabled more of them to keep independent households, and assisted families to support ageing relatives. It even stimulated saving among older people.
Érlam.The Patron-Saint of an Irish Church
Authors: Charles-Edwards T M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Patrick’s Confessioa story is told about a vision that the saint saw in a dream when he was at home in Britain, after he had been a slave in Ireland, and before he returned as a missionary. In this dream he saw a man called Victricus give him a letter, which began ‘The Cry of the Irish’; and, as he read those words in his dream, he heard ‘the cry of those who were by theWood of Voclut, which is by the Western Sea, and they cried out as if from one mouth: “We ask you, deeply respected young man, to come and walk among us “.’ By the time of TÍrechán’s Collectaneain the late seventh century, this had been transformed into a cry uttered by children who were still in their mothers’ wombs; in the Tripartite Life of St Patrick, a century or two later, the story was attached to a particular church, where the mothers, from whose wombs the summons to Patrick had gone out, now named Creibriu and Lesru, were the patron-saints: ‘It is they who are the érlamaof Cell Forclann among the UÍ Amalgada west of the Moy.’ Patrick’s text, therefore, engendered a story that took on a life of its own, and acquired topographical precision, being attached to named persons buried in a named church.
The Saints of SouthWales and the Welsh Church
Authors: Davies John Reuben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is not a land in all Christendom of like size with so many saints therein as there were of old among Welshmen. This romantic reflection of Wales’s saintly heritage came from the pen of a Welsh Recusant writing around 1583. Y Drych Cristianogawl, ‘The Christian Looking Glass’, was part of a literary campaign to recall the Welsh to the glories of their pre-Reformation past. Wales was the land of saints— not unlike Ireland, ‘the island of saints’. In fact, as far as the anonymous author of Y Drych Cristianogawlwas concerned, even Rome did not surpass Wales in its contribution to the heavenly population of Confessors
The Civilianization of Internal Security, 1923-1932
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The four years between April 1923 and August 1927 saw the steady consolidation of the new state, beginning with republican collapse in the civil war and culminating in de Valera’s grudging entry to the Dail. In retrospect the victory of constitutional politics has the appearance of inevitability. At the time, however, matters (1:-1 not seem so simple: the violent deaths of key political figures mark key point:, 111 the period. The republican irreconcilable Liam Lynch was killed in action in April 1923, and Kevin O’Higgins, the passionate advocate of the rule of law, was assassinated while walking to mass in July 1927. As he lay dying O’Higgins forgave his killers but warned his friends to beware of de Valera. He was right: his death forced Fianna Fáil into parliamentary politics. In so doing it wrought not only the marginalization of militant republicanism which O’Higgins had hoped for, but also the electoral triumph in 1932 of the man whom he and his colleagues loathed the most.
The Black Market
Authors: Zweiniger-Bargielowska Ina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The black market casts doubt on the myth of shared sacrifice on the home front. This chapter aims to transcend the conventional image of 1940s Britain characterized by a commitment to the overriding principle of fair shares. According to this image, common sacrifice fostered national unity during the war. After 1945 Labour tried to harness this spirit to its reconstruction programme and particularly the export drive. The following discussion shows that the black market was extensive during and after the war. The emphasis here is not on theft and receiving of stolen goods but on endemic circumvention of the emergency legislation which confronted many citizens with the prospect of law breaking for the first time. There are countless examples of exploitation of loopholes and breaches of the legislation controlling production, distribution, and supply of consumer goods. These provide a good indication of the limits of public acceptance of the austerity policy. The black market has received insufficient attention in the literature and, in contrast with Smithies who details examples of spectacular rackets based on local newspapers or Hughes who provides an impressionistic account of the spiv in the late 1940s, this chapter examines the topic from an administrative perspective. The administration had to ensure that the controls were at least reasonably well observed. There were numerous changes of the control orders, while the public had to cope with an avalanche of new laws and regulations.
Party Politics
Authors: Zweiniger-Bargielowska Ina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyses the party political debate about rationing and controls and the electoral implications of the austerity policy from the end of the Second World War and Labour’s landslide election victory of 1945 until the general election of 1955 when the Conservatives were returned to power with an increased majority. It examines the connection between consumption and politics and illustrates the changing relationship between state and society in war and peace, in the sense that public acceptance of sacrifice in wartime did not necessarily imply that this would be equally forthcoming after the immediate transition period. Labour assumed after 1945 that the electorate shared its wider purpose of building socialism even if this required continued sacrifice. In the event, the Attlee government’s failure literally to deliver the goods undermined its initial popularity and the campaign against austerity provided a focus for the Conservative recovery of the late 1940s.
Italy
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of the problems of non-Marxist feudalism in Italy are similar to those of French feudalism that were sketched at the beginning of the last chapter, in particular the problems created by the imposition of categories created by later historians. The historiography of Italian feudalism, however, includes its own paradoxes. Although the whole idea of feudalism originated from a north Italian book, the first post-medieval French scholars who used the Libri Feudorum to elucidate French history were so anxious to play down any dependence of France on Roman law or Lombard precedent, and their successors had their eyes so firmly fixed on the north, that Italy came to seem as marginal to feudalism as feudalism did to the history of Italy. Carlo Sigonio (d. 1588) derived the origin of fiefs from the time of King Authari (584–90), but, after French historians had effectively postponed their appearance in France to the Carolingians, it must have seemed reasonable to attribute their introduction into Italy to Charlemagne. By the nineteenth century feudalism had become closely connected with an agricultural stage of human evolution, while medieval Italy was seen as the land of urban continuity and the rebirth of civic culture. Italian feudalism had to be squashed in chronologically between the Romans (or even the Carolingians) and the age of the communes. C. G. Mor’s L’ Eta feudale started in 887 and ended in 1024, paradoxically missing both the introduction of Carolingian benefices verbo regis at one end and the ordinance of Conrad II that is generally taken to have formed the basic text of the Libri Feudorum at the other.
The Kingdom of France, 1100–1300
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evidence that I have examined for the terminology of property in twelfth-century France is at first confusing. On the one hand the growth of evidence confirms the suspicion expressed at the end of chapter 5 that, as rulers and landlords became more demanding and more effective, the distinction between full and subordinate property became in some ways blurred. On the other hand, there is also evidence that during the twelfth century rulers began to exploit a distinction between what the records explicitly call alods and fiefs. By the thirteenth century it is clear that this was not the same distinction as that drawn in the ninth century between alods and benefices. What we seem to have is a new term-inology that gradually resulted in the construction of new categories. By the thirteenth century the word alod was restricted in many areas, chiefly if not exclusively, to the property of the relatively humble, while the property of people of high status, which would once have been considered alodial, was described as fiefs. Fiefholders were beginning to be occasionally called vassals, though this was still rare and probably indicates the influence of lawyers with some knowledge of the academic law of fiefs. Exceptions and anomalies were many and various, not least because the actual rights and obligations of property were seldom changed when the words changed. Rationalization of past custom into rules so as to create categories of even approximate coherence and consistency was a slow business which would be the work of professional and academic lawyers over centuries.
Conclusion
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Good deal of this book has been rather negative in tone. Many sentences have begun with ‘It is not clear that ... ‘, ‘There is no evidence for ... ‘, ‘There is no reason to believe . . .’, and similar phrases. That has been inevitable. My purpose has been to compare the medieval evidence of property relations and political relations with the concepts of the fief and of vassalage as they are used by medieval historians. I started with some doubts about fiefs and considerable scepticism about vassalage, but I have found much less evidence to support the traditional picture of either, and of their connection and development, than I expected in my most sceptical moments. I hope that I have not overstated my case and understated the evidence. I have tried not to do so.
Medieval and Renaissance Theories of State Finance
Authors: lsenmann Eberhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Middle Ages witnessed both the development of more differentiated and varied forms of taxation and-at least in most states-a more sophisticated financial administration. Contemporary theories of state finance comprise a broad spectrum of views, from legal and moral statements, maxims and principles to relatively simple ideas. Yet the Middle Ages also saw the emergence of comprehensive and far-reaching theories relating to the legal foundation and justification for imposing taxes; the classification of the various types of revenue and taxes; the techniques of assessment; the question of fiscal equity and fairness of both the tax assessments and the tax burden; and finally the interrelationship between taxation and the economy, the social order and the political system.
The Spanish System: Centre and Periphery
Authors: Muto Giovanni 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There was a close connection between the process of state formation and the development of state finance in early modern Europe. This took different forms according to the nature of the state (whether it was a republic, a principality or a monarchy), its structure (whether it was a nation state, an empire or a confederation), and the political objectives that each state set itself During the early years of the sixteenth century, monarchs and their advisers realized, if it had ever seriously been doubted, that territorial control and the assertion of their rule were impossible to achieve without adequate financial resources. Yet to obtain these resources was no easy task. The state met with numerous difficulties in finding the right solutions to ensure that money flowed into its coffers or to those places which most urgently required the payment or remittance of funds. Not all states succeeded in establishing the most suitable financial system for the requirements of their political development (this was the case with France, for example, in its mid-sixteenth-century crisis). Success or otherwise crucially affected the hierarchy of states, and the place of each state within the system of international relations.
Church and State in Medieval and Early Modern Denmark. The Legal Issue
Authors: Uruszczak Wadaw 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
State formation in medieval Denmark may well be seen as an immediate consequence of the Danes adopting Christianity. The medieval Danish kings seem to have wanted it to be so, for reasons not entirely revealed to posterity. And the Danish Church was, on the eve of the Reformation, to be remarkably wealthy, in comparison with other north-European churches.
Royal Power and its Legal Instruments in France, 1500-1800
Authors: Durand Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The power of the state in France saw the establishment of its sover eignty as early as the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. The king was no longer merely a suzerain: he was sovereign, exercising an institutionalized power the content of which-making ordonnances ordinances-was new. ‘Li rois’, Beaumanoir wrote, ‘puet fere teus establissemens pour le commun pour fit, et ce qu’il establist doit estre tenu [The king can make such dispositions for the common profit, and what he establishes must be kept]’.1 But if the king, like the Roman emperor, was already the holder of this power ‘de faire des ordon nances qui vaillent loy [to make ordinances which are valid as law]’, as Boutillier put it, he was also, and more so at this time, the possessor ofjurisdictio.As source de toute justice (the fount of all justice), the king obtained from this right the power of administering justice, reducing and subordinating first feudal lords, then ecclesiastical judges, in short, accumulating the ‘rights’ that it would be impossible to draw up a list for this period because they were so numerous and constantly expanding.
Rulers, Representative Institutions, and their Members as Power Elites: Rivals or Partners?
Authors: Bulst Neithard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To understand the role of power elites in their respective societies we must be aware of the social, legal, political, and institutional framework in which they developed, acted, and played their part in the process of the formation of the modern state. It could undoubtedly be maintained that the development of representative institutions was an important factor in the process of state formation, and they have often been considered in this context. However, even this statement is disputed today Research, particularly on absolutism, has denied the role of representative institutions in state formation, or at least of many of them in a number of different countries.
Great Friends and Small Friends: Clientelism and the Power Elite
Authors: Lind Gunner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘You may beasperfect as a man can be, without patrons you will always be sailing against the stream. ‘ So wrote Professor Simon Paulli in the 1640s when dedicating a book to Christian Thomesen, chancellor of the king of Denmark. Few contemporaries would have used words like ‘patron ‘ or ‘client ‘, common to the learned professor and modern scholarship. Still the phenomenon was well known to them, indeed to most people of medieval and early modern Europe. They would describe it with other words, the most important being ‘friendship ‘.2 A patron-client relationship is the friendship between unequals: the powerful patron and the humble client. The lack of equality transforms the emotional content of the relationship. It tends to reduce it, compared with friendship in our conventional sense. Still the connection does indeed resemble friendship: a lasting bond where services are exchanged.
English Feminism 1780-1980
Authors: Caine Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Barbara Caine offers the first complete overview of the history of `modern' English feminism, from the French Revolution through to the advent of Women's Liberation. Her analysis of feminist organizations, debates, and campaigns shows a keen sense of the relationship between feminist thought and actions, and wider social and cultural change. The result is a fascinating study with a new perspective on feminists and feminist traditions, which can be used both as an introductory text and as an interpretative work. Professor Caine examines the complex questions surrounding the concept of a feminist 'tradition', and shows how much the feminism of any particular period related to the years preceding or following it. Though feminism may have lacked the kind of legitimating tradition evident in other forms of political thought, the ghost of Mary Wollstonecraft is seen here as something which all nineteenth- and twentieth-century feminists had to come to terms with. Her story was a constant reminder of the connection between the demand for political and legal rights, and its conflation with the issues of personal and sexual rebellion. Like Mary Wollstonecraft, every woman pioneer into the public arena was faced with assaults on her honour as well as on her intellectual position. Professor Caine also addresses the language of feminism: the introduction and changing meanings of the term `feminist'; the importance of literary representations of women; and the question of how one defines feminism, and establishes boundaries between feminism and the `woman question'. She ends with a discussion of the new emphasis, post-1980s, on the need to think about `feminisms' in the plural, rather than any single kind of feminism.