bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Overview
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the refugee situation during the 1970s and 1980s, up to 1990. The scenario concerns transfrontier displacements rather than internal displacements. There were approximately 7 million refugees in Asia in 1990, as seen in Table 2.1, derived from estimates of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). These figures should be seen as illustrative rather than definitive; they do not include those refugees falling outside the UNHCR mandate-for example, some 300,000 Cambodians near the Thai-Cambodian border.
China
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
China holds a central position in this study, both geographically and politically. The vastness of its landmass and population means that it is inevitably linked with the destiny of its neighbours. Its population is over one billion, some 67 million of whom belong to fifty-five minority groups. Five regions with a large number of minorities enjoy regional autonomy: Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Guangxi, Ningxia, and Tibet.
Thailand
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thailand, a country of some 56,000,000 people in South-East Asia, is very much a front-line state in geographical and ideological terms. Her neighbours to the north and east include Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, which are Communist countries, and it is these countries which have produced refugee outflows most markedly since 1975. To the west, she is bordered by Burma, also a refugee-producing country, ruled by a military dictatorship. To the south there is Malaysia.
Conclusions
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The exodus of refugees is unabated; when the plight of one group seems resolved, others seem to emerge in the nation-building process. In 1990 the principal groups varied from Afghans, Iranians, and Iraqis in West Asia to Vietnamese, Laotians, Cambodians, and Burmese in South-East Asia. A multiplicity of other groups were at stake and their status varied per group, depending upon the interaction between national and international laws and policies.
O
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Council Reg. 139/2004 of 20 January 2004 on the control of concentrations between undertakings (the EC Merger Regulation) (OJ 2004 L24/1) prohibits as incompatible with the common market those concentrations that significantly impede effective competition in the market or in a substantial part thereof, in particular as result of the creation or strengthening of a dominant position (Art. 2(3)). In light of this substantive test, the existence or reinforcement, as a result of a transaction, of factors which may constitute incentives to reduce competition in a concentrated market will be carefully assessed by the Commission. It follows that mergers in oligopolistic markets raise special concerns, because they involve the elimination of an independent market player and may reinforce transparency or previous links between the few existing operators. Prior to the adoption of Reg. 139/2004, oligopolies were not expressly referred to in the Merger Regulation. Unlike Art. 82 EC, that foresaw abuses of collective dominance, Art. 2 of Council Reg. 4064/89 of 21 December 1989 on the control of concentrations between undertakings (OJ 1989 L395/1, corrected version in OJ 1990 L257/13) only referred to the creation or reinforcement of a dominant position. Reg. 139/2004 does not give a definition of oligopoly but limits itself to mentioning the possible concerns resulting from oligopolistic markets in recital 25. Thus, despite its importance in the analysis of mergers, there is no clear set of binding rules identifying and differentiating between oligopolies with a negative impact on competition and oligopolistic structures operating in competitive markets.
U
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The competition rules of the EC Treaty (Arts. 81–86) apply to ‘undertakings’ and ‘associations of undertakings’, but neither the Treaty itself, nor any act of secondary legislation defines the concept of an undertaking. On the other hand, the Community Courts have given several definitions of ‘undertaking’ for the purposes of general competition law, which are considered below (for the concept of undertaking for the purposes of State aid rules (Arts. 87–89 EC), see further under State aid, section I.1(b); for the concept of public undertaking, see further under Public undertaking, section III; for the concept of association of undertakings, see further under Decision by an association of undertakings).
The Drug Trade
Authors: Robins David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the end of the 1980s drug-dealing replaced armed robbery as the main opportunity for neighbourhood youth to obtain large sums of money illegally. Until the drug-dealing scene took off in the mid-1980s, there were few realistic opportunities for youth to get rich through crime. There was little recruitment of youngsters into adult¬ organized professional crime activities. Jump on a young woman from behind, knock her to the ground, and steal her bracelets; snatch a gold chain from a passing stranger; jostle a confused pensioner trying to board a bus and remove her purse; ‘tax’ children by demanding they hand over their pocket money or newly purchased trainers; put a brick through a car window and remove the stereo and other valuables: most juvenile crime consisted of such unpredictable, unplanned, ill-organized, often downright stupid acts, which, although intensely anti-social and highly disruptive in their effect on the community, and causing great distress to the victims, offered a very moderate return to the perpetrators. With the expansion of the drug-dealing economy, opportunities emerged for youngsters to make large sums of money quickly.
Pornography and Pollution: An Environmental Analogy
Authors: Hynes H Patricia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ten years ago ecofeminism looked like terrain where one could synthesize the liberation of women and the integrity of nature. The findings of environmental science were directly applicable to the conditions of women in patriarchy. Polluted and stressed environments are identified by their low species diversity and low occupational diversity. Species die off – often the complex ones – and the ecosystem becomes more homogeneous. Similarly, many women live under severe stressful conditions of poverty, powerlessness and sexual violence. Like polluted ecosystems, women in sexist societies have low occupational diversity and few resources. Large numbers of women in industrial societies are concentrated in few, low-status occupations: housewife, secretary and the service professions, so that women have limited power and self-expression in society.
Working in the Ministry of Truth: Pornography and Censorship in Contemporary Britain
Authors: Moorcock* Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pornography turns sex inequality into sexuality and turns male dominance into the sex difference. Put another way, pornography makes inequality into sex, which makes it enjoyable, and into gender, which makes it seem natural. By packaging the resulting product as pictures and words, pornography turns gendered and sexualized inequality into ‘speech’, which has made it a right. Thus does pornography, cloaked as the essence of nature and the index of freedom, turn the inequality between women and men into those twin icons of male supremacy, sex and speech, and a practice of sex discrimination into a legal entitlement.
IT and Organizational Change
Authors: Boddy David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is based on the proposition that worthwhile results cannot be obtained from the current generation of IT products simply by installing expensive, state-of-the-art technology. Our studies of many applications of computing and information technology have included both successful and unsuccessful examples (Boddy and Buchanan 1986, 1987). The clear, practical lesson from this work is that the successful cases have usually been those where technological change has been accompanied by appropriate organizational change. The less successful ones have generally been those where projects have been dominated by technical considerations, with little or no thought given to organizational ones.
Foreword
Authors: Earl Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps the most striking and emotional issue in information management in the early 1990s has been the question of outsourcing IT activities. Large outsourcing deals in both the USA and UK have legitimized the practice in minds of several CEOs and put it on the agendas of CIOs. Equally, there have been smaller-scale horror stories of what can go wrong with ‘unthinking’ outsourcing. Lacity, Willcocks, and Feeny draw on their collective research on both sides of the Atlantic to write a managerial chapter on outsourcing strategy. They propose a framework for decision-making which breaks through some of the simplistic policy and practice rhetoric heard in organizations today. This framework may not have all the answers but it does provide a potentially valuable set of questions to avoid mishaps, to assess IS in the organization and to be more astute in sourcing decisions. It also offers more precise language and terminology in this very contemporary area of organizational challenge.
‘Big-Bang’ Decisions: Notes on a Naturalistic Approach
Authors: Manning Peter k. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The assumptions that underlie the use of the concept of discretion in reference to legal decisions require careful examination. Discretion in legal terms is said to occur when a decision once made comes under review using legal standards (rules) set by someone with authority (Dworkin 1977b). The implication of such a definition is that, prior to the review, regularly unreviewed choices were made (Reiss 1974a). It also implies that an individual case is decided on its merits in the absence of explicit consideration of socio-legal factors other than those stated in the opinion; that is, the reference is to judicial decision making. The idea that discretion is fettered, and that guidance for examining cases derives from precedent and to a lesser extent, doctrine, explicitly denies the political-economic surround or broad social context in which decisions are made, the organizational context of decisions, and the cognitive framing of the elements, other than the facts of the case, that govern decisions. These matters may be seen as a set ofimplicit or background features to be put aside in explaining or accounting for any given decision outcome. The idea of the isolated case being adjudicated by a decision-maker thoughtfully weighing up the issues is a useful legal fiction, but perhaps too narrow for sociolegal analysis.1
The Origins of the Supergrass System:1969-1982
Authors: Greer Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Broadly speaking there are two ways in which modern states can respond to serious internal political violence: criminalization modifying the criminal justice system in significant respects in order to secure convictions more effectively than under the regular process; and militarization-for example, in the form of martial law, detention without trial, selective assassinations, and shootings on sight-insulated as far as possible from effective supervision by judicial and representative institutions. However, although the focus may be more clearly on one approach than on the other, various mixtures between the two are likely to be adopted in practice. In liberal democracies criminalization will officially be the preferred strategy, since these societies must, by definition, find an effective response which does not destroy the fragile fabric of democracy itself. This does not, however, mean that distinctively military measures will not also be employed.
Collapse: 1986
Authors: Greer Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ON 19 March 1986 the Attorney-General issued his second substantial Commons statement on the supergrass trials in Northern Ireland.1 But by the end of the year the system itself had come to an end when the convictions secured in the McGrady, Black, Quigley, and Kirkpatrick cases, which were not supported by a confession or what was deemed to be an admission, were all quashed on appeal. The statement, which added little to the debate, was largely aimed at countering suggestions that there were differences between the law and practice on supergrass trials in Northern Ireland on the one hand, and in England and Wales on the other. The Attorney-General said that a judicial warning was issued by the judge either to a jury or to himself in both jurisdictions and neither DPP regarded himself bound by a rigid rule or practice regarding the need for corroborative evidence in the strict sense before authorizing prosecutions, although in the absence of either supportive or corroborative evidence it was unlikely that a prosecution would be brought. He also denied that supergrass trials were a ‘routine and frequent occurrence ‘ in Northern Ireland, and referred to the low conviction-rate which the supergrass system had by this stage achieved, together with Lord Lowry ‘s judgment in the Mc Grady case, as evidence of the ‘scrupulous care ‘ which the judiciary had brought to bear upon supergrass evidence.
Restoration to the Register
Authors: Smith Russell G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Originally, once a practitioner’s name had been erased from the Register for disciplinary reasons, it could not be restored, thus making erasure a final and irrevocable termination of a doctor’s career as a registered practitioner. Indeed, as will be seen from the following discussion, a high proportion of practitioners whose names have been erased from the Register do not seek restoration and in serious cases the practitioner may simply indicate at the, hearing that he or she will never seek restoration, in the future (e.g. Case No. 1658 (minutes 22-3 November 1982: 149--52)- -erased for drug convictions and improper association with three patients). Many practitioners do, how ever, apply for the restoration of their names to the Register as soon as they are entitled, and this chapter is primarily concerned with such cases.
Scoring and Grafting
Authors: Taylor Avril 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once the state of dependence is recognized and a decision to carry on with drug use is taken, two things become acutely apparent to the drug user: she has to make sure she has a steady supply of drugs to ward off withdrawal, and she has to find the means to do this. Until this point, drug use had been perceived as a part of her life. Drugs had been consumed as and when they became available, and this availability had not been recognized as an essential part of her life. This is not to say that purchasing drugs and financing this had not already become a major part of her everyday life. Becoming physically dependent requires that substances have to be taken on a regular basis over a period of time (Zinberg, 1984). But recognition of the stage of dependence brought with it a simultaneous recognition of the importance of the other features of a drug lifestyle. In particular, two activities assume major importance: obtaining a supply of drugs and finding the means, usually financial, to make this possible.
The Right to Development: A Right of Peoples?
Authors: Rich Roland 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1982 I set out some of the arguments for recommend of the right to development as a human right. That paper stopped short of the claim that the right to development was a part of positive international law. That being the case I did not believe I needed to make explicit what seemed implicit-that major international law texts do not list the right to development as an existing human right. My aim was to cite authorities who had recognized the right to development as a means of gauging the level of acceptance it had achieved.
The Rights of ‘Peoples’ and Individual Rights: Conflict or Harmony?
Authors: Triggs Gillian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1966 the United Nations General Assembly was unable to agree to include civil and political rights in the same document as economic, social, and cultural rights. The resulting human rights instruments, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESR), were each formulated, in the main, in terms of individual rights. At least some civil and political rights now command respect as rights in customary international law, whereas it is doubtful that economic, social, and cultural rights are more than political aspirations. For this reason, among others, attempts have been made, within UNESCO and elsewhere, not only to emphasize fundamental economic, social, and cultural rights but also to reformulate certain individual rights as collective rights or rights of ‘peoples’. International law presently affords limited protection to ‘peoples’: the right to self-determination, the right to physical existence under the Genocide Convention of 1948, the right to ‘permanent’ sovereignty over natural resources, and the rights of indigenous peoples and of ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities under Article 27 of the ICCPR have been cited as examples.
Black Consciousness on Trial
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The day after the Viva Frelimo rallies, ten people were formally charged in connection with the events in Durban, and on the next day the net cast wider, with raids on the homes of Drake Koka of BAWU, Mathe Diseko of NAYO, Jeff Baqwa, Ruben Hare, and Steve Biko. In addition, the Johannesburg branches of BCP and BPC were raided, as were the homes of many members of the organizations. Twelve who had attended the rally were charged under the Riotous Assemblies Act, though they were all participants rather than organizers. The authorities were clearly using the rallies as a pretext for a wider crackdown, for those detained at the end of October under the Terrorism Act included those, like Mapetla Mohapi in King William’s Town and Barney Pityana in Port Elizabeth, who had played no part in the rallies. Further arrests would be made in January, when Sadecque Variava and Solly Ismail were arrested. This general round-up was in preparation for a major trial: but as yet it remained wholly unclear who would be charged and what the charges would be. This was not resolved until the last day of January 1975, when twelve men (soon to be thirteen) appeared to be charged in the Pretoria magistrates’ court.
Breaking the Structures: Terrorism Trials after the Soweto Uprising
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gwala’s case showed that, where there seemed to be hard evidence against defendants, a court might be reluctant to reject the evidence by casting doubt on its reliability and questioning its origins. Given the evidence, however tarnished, a court would convict; and after June 1976, the courts were in many ways spoiled for evidence, for very many cases came to court with clear evidence against the accused. In this context, one might expect that the state would no longer have felt the need to fish for grand conspiracies, and that the courts would no longer have felt the imperative to build convictions on weak foundations. With the wealth of evidence, one might have expected fewer contentious trials. However, as will be seen in this chapter, this did not occur. While there was a flood of trials involving ANC and PAC structures where there was solid evidence against the accused, the state continued to seek to prosecute even very minor cases to deter those who even dreamed of seeking recruitment.
Black Revolt on Trial: Sedition and the Soweto Students
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the authorities wasted no time in prosecuting thousands for public order and security offences arising out of the riots,1 it would take more than two years after the riots began for a trial to begin which sought to ascribe blame for the unrest overall. It was not until 25 September 1978—the fourth anniversary of the Viva Frelimo rallies—that eleven members of the Soweto Students’ Representative Council2 came to court to face charges of sedition. As will be seen in this chapter, the state displayed a very different attitude towards the students in this case from that shown to the students in the trial of the Pretoria Twelve and the Bethal trial. The students were to be branded not as revolutionaries but as seditionists, disturbing the state, but not seeking to overthrow it.
Conclusion
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although this study ends in 1979, there was to be no interruption in the number of political trials. In contrast to the late 1960s, the early 1980s saw no lull in political activism or in the state’s oppressive response. Security trials remained a permanent feature. As well as bringing charges under the Internal Security Act (the successor to the Terrorism Act), the state turned increasingly to charges of treason. With the imposition of annually renewed states of emergency after 12 June 1986, with major trials being supplemented by large-scale, long-term detentions,4 and with the courts increasingly being by-passed by the executive, it is apparent that political repression was clearly on the increase.
A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Bills of Rights
Authors: Alston Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1787 Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter from pre-revolutionary Paris to James Madison opining that ‘a bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth’.1 In the intervening two centuries, a great many peoples have got what Jefferson considered to be their due. Moreover, within the course of the last decade alone, bills of rights have assumed particular and renewed importance in an extraordinary number of countries in all parts of the world. Whether proclaimed by constitutional assemblies, adopted by legislatures, incorporated on the basis of international treaties or discerned by judiciaries, not only their number but also their importance (in formal terms, at least) have increased very significantly.
Bills of Rights in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Darrow Mac , Alston Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Constitution-making is an activity that has been especially high on the agenda of an unprecedented number of states during the final decade of the twentieth century. It is by now a truism that the adoption of a constitution does not, in and of itself, signal a state’s commitment, even in theory, let alone in practice, to constitutionalism. While the latter has been the subject of a great many definitions, it will suffice for present purposes to accept the minimum ingredients noted by Louis Henkin:
Wills As Social Documents
Authors: Finch Janet , Hayes Lynn , Mason Jennifer , Masson Judith , Wallis Lorraine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is about wills, in particular what they can tell us about the ways in which inheritance is used in contemporary Britain, especially in the context of family relationships. In this introductory chapter we shall consider the question: what are the distinctive characteristics of contemporary wills, as a resource for social research? Exploring this question highlights the value of studying wills as social documents, and also helps to identify their limitations. In the course of this introduction we shall also give details of our own study of 800 wills, on which this book draws.