bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
“Restructuring” and Functional Structure
Authors: Cinque Guglielmo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In what follows I would like to show how the articulated functional structure of the clause suggested in Cinque (1999) may shed new light on the “restructuring” phenomenon (Rizzi 1976a, b, 1978) and perhaps afford a deeper understanding of it. In the past twenty-five years, numerous analyses have been proposed to explain why certain phenomena that are otherwise clause-bound (such as Clitic Placement—see [1]) appear to be able to span over two clauses when the matrix verb is either a modal, an aspectual, or a motion verb and the complement is nonfinite (see the “climbing” of the clitic in [2]):1 Even if each of the proposed analyses captures one or another aspect of restructuring, it is fair to say that none of them manages to answer the two most basic questions that the phenomenon raises: namely, why it should exist at all and why it should exist with those particular verb classes (modal, aspectual, and motion). The fact that one finds transparency phenomena comparable to Clitic Climbing language after language, and with the same set of verbs (or subsets thereof), suggests that the phenomenon is universal and should thus follow from some general property ofUG.2 Here I would like to propose an analysis that derives its universality and answers at the same time the two basic questions just mentioned.
Acrylonitrile–butadiene Elastomers
Authors: Wang Shuhong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications Hoses for transportation of oil, fuel, chemicals, and solutions. Oil-drilling industry. Powder and particulate forms in cements and adhesives. Modification of PVC and ABS to improve impact resistance. Properties of Special Interest Special-purpose, oil-resistant rubbers. Balance of low-temperature, oil, fuel, and solvent resistance. Good abrasion resistance, gas permeability, and thermal stability. Good strength.
Aromatic Polyamides
Authors: Hsu Shaw Ling 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Acronyms and Trade Names Ultramid T (BASF), nylon 6 copolymer, nylon 6/6T, polyphthalamide Class Polyamides, aromatic nylon Structure These aromatic nylons consist of aliphatic and aromatic building blocks and incorporate the repeat units of nylon 6 [poly(caprolactam)] and nylon 6T [poly(hexamethylene terephthalamide)]. Because of this composition, Ultramid T resins are often designated as nylon 6/6T materials. The basic structure is nylon 6/6T, with the majority component being nylon 6.
Carborane-containing Polymers
Authors: Peters Edward N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
General Comments The term ‘carborane’ is commonly used in a generic sense to describe cage compounds composed of boron, hydrogen, and carbon whose molecular geometries are polyhedra or polyhedral fragments. The polyhedral C2Bn Hn+2 species (where n = 5 and 10) have been used in the preparation of carborane–siloxane polymers. The incorporation of the carborane moiety into the siloxane backbone significantly enhances the overall thermal stability. Properties of polymers prepared from dodecahedral and heptahedral will be summarized in this section.
Carbosilane Dendrimers
Authors: Muzafarov Aziz M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Introduction Carbosilane dendrimers have appeared as a logical evolution of the synthesis of organosiloxane dendrimers. High reactivity of the functional groups used in the previous case was even improved by switching to organometallic reagents instead of silanolates, while a molecular skeleton became less polar. The controllable synthesis and a variety of suitable reagents attract much attention to this class of silicon-containing dendrimers and extend flexibility of synthetic approach in the area. A variety of combinations of branching unit parameters used resulted in the synthesis of a long list of similar dendritic structures with small but important differences Recently the general approach to the carbosilane dendrimer preparation was significantly enriched by introducing heterocyclic units between the silicon branching centers.
Cellulose Nitrate
Authors: Yang Yong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications Photographic films, guncotton, membranes, protective and decorative lacquer coatings, rotogravure and flexographic inks, leather finishes, fabric and household adhesives, explosives, propellants, plastics. Preparation Techniques Cellulose nitrate is prepared by reacting cellulose with nitric acid to convert the cellulose into cellulose nitrate.
Collagen
Authors: Premachandra Jagath K , Jayasuriya Chandima Kumudinie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Class Polypeptides and proteins Structure The most common type of collagen, Collagen I, is composed of two kinds of polypeptide helices, α1 and α2, in a 2:1 ratio respectively, to form a triple helix. The α1 and α2 chains of tropocollagen have a regularly repeating sequence of amino acid residues in which glycine is found at every third residue. This sequence can be written (GLY–X–Y)n , where X and Y are often proline and hydroxyproline respectively.(1) Functions An extracellular protein, which is responsible for the strength and flexibility of connective tissue. Accounts for 25–30% of the protein in an animal.Major component in all mammalian tissues including skin, bone cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. Major Applications Biomaterial applications such as dermal implant, carrier of drugs, cell culture matrix, wound dressing, material for hybrid organ, drug delivery system, soft contact lens, tissue implants, cardiovascular graft, artificial heart, etc. Synthetic sausage casings in food industry.
Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate Copolymer
Authors: Xu Ping 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Acronyms, Trade Names EVA; Elvax® (DuPont); Levapren® (Lanxess); Microthene®, Ultrathene®, Plexar (Equistar Chemicals); Airflex® (Air Products); Novatec® (Japan Polychem) Class Chemical Copolymers Film extrusion, packaging, wire and cable insulation, adhesives, coatings, and compounding.
Glycogen
Authors: Mansencal Rachel , Kadla John F , Braun Jennifer L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Functions Biological function restricted to source of energy. Principal food-reserve materials in animals. Found in cells of vertebrates and invertebrates. No commercial use. Extraction Extraction with hot concentrated alkali. But extensive degradation. Milder extraction with cold trichloroacetic acid solution, dimethyl sulfoxide, or water-phenol mixtures. Purification After extraction, redissolution in distilled water; low speed centrifugation (100 g); precipitation with excess ethanol; high speed centrifugation (1,500 g).
Nylon 12
Authors: Lee Seung Woo , Sur Gil S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications Blow molded bottles. Extruded film and sheets for food packing, including blend, multilayer, and laminate with nylon 6, PET, and polyolefins. Monofilament for bristle and filter cloth. Glass fiber reinforced injection molding materials used to make parts for automotive, machine, electrical /electronic, civil engineering, sports, and other industries as a metal substitute. Properties of Special Interest Relatively low cost. High mechanical strength, modulus, and heat resistance. Very low oxygen permeability in humid atmosphere.
Phenolic Resins
Authors: Morgan Alexander B , Sohoni Milind 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alternative Names Novolacs, resoles Trade Name Bakelite (Georgia Pacific Resins, Inc.) Durite (Hexion) Class Thermoset polymers; chemical copolymers Typical Comonomers Phenols, substituted phenols, formaldehyde Polymerizations Condensation Major Applications Construction materials, electronics, aerospace, molded parts, insulating varnishes, laminated sheets, industrial coatings, wood bonding, fiber bonding, and plywood adhesives. Properties of Special Interest Toughness, temperature resistance, low void content, chemical resistance, corrosion inhibition, and low flammability.
Poly(aryloxy)thionylphosphazenes
Authors: Magill Joseph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications Experimental specimens have considerable potential interest. There are ongoing evaluations and development of these new types of noncrystalline polymers. Properties of Special Interest Film-forming elastomers, potential oxygen sensors for biomedical and aerospace are among this class of poly(thionylphosphazenes) depending upon substituents present.
Poly(benzobisoxazole), Naphthalene Derivatives
Authors: Venkatasubramanian N , Dang Thuy D , Park Soo-Young , Kholodovych Vladyslav , Welsh William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications of Interest High performance fibers, films, and coatings. Synthesis Polycondensation of 2,6-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid or 1,5-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid with 4,6-diaminoresorcinol dihydrochloride in 83% polyphosphoric acid (PPA)(1−4) using the ‘P2O5 adjustment method’.(5) Although Naph-2,6-PBO composition is mentioned in the Japanese patent (reference 3), the properties of this rigid-rod polymer have not been described in the literature. Processing Isotropic films are mainly cast from dilute methanesulfonic acid solutions. Fabrication of the polymeric fibers is from the lyotropic liquid crystalline phase of the polymer in PPA; polymer fibers are spun from the dope by a dry-jet wet spinning technique, a variation of wet extrusion, at 90°C with draw ratios in the range 35–45.
1,2-Polybutadiene
Authors: Patil Rahul D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications With one chiral center, 1,2-polybutadiene can exist in the amorphous atactic form and two crystalline forms: isotactic and syndiotactic. In the formation of 1,2-polybutadiene, it is believed that the syn p-allyl form yields the syndiotactic structure, while the anti p-allyl form yields the isotactic structures. The equilibrium mixture of syn and anti p-allyl structures yields heterotactic polybutadiene. The two stereo-isomers that are most used commercially are the syndiotactic and heterotactic structures.
Poly (n-butyl isocyanate)
Authors: Jaysuriya Chandima Kumudinie , Premachandra Jagath K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Application An ideal example of a polymer model for a rigid-rod macromolecular chain material amenable to physical studies. Properties of Special Interest Hydrodynamic rigid-rod molecule, unusual chain stiffness, helical conformation(1). Other Polymers Showing this Special Property Rigid-rod molecule, helical conformation: Poly (n-hexyl isocyanate), poly (γ -benzyl-l-glutamate).
Poly(diethylsiloxane)
Authors: Godovsky Yuli K , Papkov Vladimir S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications Comonomer for low-temperature silicone rubbers: for example, poly(dimethyl-diethyl)siloxane. Low molecular weight PDES is the basis for low- and high-temperature silicone oils, greases, and lubricants. Properties of Special Interest Low glass transition temperature, mesophase behavior including reversible stress-induced mesophase formation accompanied by necking– denecking phenomena in cyclic deformation of elastomers.
Poly(ethylene terephthalate)
Authors: Iroh Jude O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Major Applications Fibers, films, barrier film, soft drink bottle (amorphous PET), film for compression molding PE, PP, and for replacement of commodity metals such as steel and aluminum (1–3). Copolymers of PET are proposed for use as fire retardants (4) and biodegradable films (5, 6). Preparative Techniques Synthesized by condensation/step growth polymerization between ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. Low viscosity and easily spinnable PET are synthesized by ester interchange. Dimethyl terephthalate is reacted with ethylene glycol in a 1:1.7 ratio at 0.020 atm and 160–230◦C. Final reaction occur at 260–300◦C under vacuum at 0.001 atm. Synthesis of PET is done by using aromatic sulphonates as catalysts (7–10).
Choices: Genre, Content, Style
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The narratives that we call Caesar’;s Gallic War and Civil War were spoken of by his contemporaries as the “records of his achievements.”1 The term here translated as “records” is commentarii (its singular form is commentarius). The word itself contains a reference to memory (the root -men-, also present in mention, memento, comment and, contracted, in amnesia), and our translation reflects the word’;s etymology. The ancient evidence allows us to arrive at relatively good inferences about what Caesar’;s readers would have expected from a commentarius. When Caesar’;s officer and later continuator Aulus Hirtius, in Gallic War 8, refers back to Gallic War 7 with the phrase “it was shown in the preceding commentarius,” “preceding commentarius” means something like “the record of the preceding year.”2 The Gallic War as Caesar published it was a set of seven commentarii, the records of seven annual campaigns in Gaul (58–52 bce), not one commentarius, or record, of his conquest of Gaul.
Structure as Argument in Civil War 1
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we argue that in book 1 of the Civil War Caesar uses the commentary form for a new purpose. Caesar’;s seven Gallic War commentaries have a consistent year-by-year structure and appear to function as reports to senators and others in Rome about Caesar’;s achievements in Gaul. They offered a picture of Caesar the general and Caesar the man who brings order and civilization to the chaotic and warring provinces, but these political and rhetorical purposes remained a function of particular scenes and of the overall picture of success toward which the Gallic War points but at which it never arrives, since it is Hirtius, rather than Caesar, who completes the record in book 8. The Civil War is different from the Gallic War in important ways, perhaps none so significant as the fact that its events were not news to Caesar’;s first readers: they had lived through and in many cases participated in those events.
Aphorisms, Maxims, and Old Saws: Some Rules ofClinical Reasoning
Authors: Montgomery Kathryn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Clinical judgment is not a skill separable from a well-stocked fund of scientific and practical information. To provide good care to their patients, physicians must know human biology—both normal and pathological. Yet if science were all that physicians needed, patients would be able to consult a user-friendly computer program and never need to see a doctor at all. Sometimes it seems as if medicine is already halfway there, especially when expert panels create algorithms that map successive decision points in a patient’s diagnosis or treatment. (See, for example, one of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network’s Practice Guidelines in Oncology, Figure 7-1.) Helpful as these diagrams of decision pathways are, clinical reasoning is far more situated and flexible than even the most complex clinical algorithm can express. These decision trees are aids to clinical judgment—teaching the young and reminding the old—but they are not a substitute. While the tension inherent in medical decision-making is regularly resolved, it regularly reappears. Medical schools and residency programs must cultivate a capacity for complex and flexible but often inconclusive clinical reasoning. The learners, luckily, are intelligent, but they are also (most of them) longtime students of science who are not used to negotiating ambiguous alternatives or to tolerating incomplete or uncertain answers.
Alternative Construals of the World
Authors: Koller Bálint , Endrődi Noémi , Komlósi Sarolta , Tóth Rita , Kövecses Zoltán 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Construal is a way of understanding an aspect of the world (i.e., objects, events, etc.). It is used here in the sense of interpretation or conceptualization. When we say that an entity or situation is construed in a particular way, what we mean is that it is interpreted or conceptualized in some way. Often there are several different ways of conceptualizing the same “thing.” We call such different ways of conceptualizing the same thing alternative construal. Alternative construal may be achieved by means of a variety of cognitive operations. As a matter of fact, we have seen several such construal operations, or processes, in the previous chapters, such as categorization, framing, metaphor, and others. We saw that we can often categorize, frame, or metaphorically understand the same thing in several different ways.
Genetic and Genomic Approaches to Taxonomy of Human Disease
Authors: Kumar Dhavendra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The philosophy of disease is complex and reflects the way an abnormal body state is perceived and understood on the background of sociocultural, psychological, and biomedical interpretation. The sociocultural factors influence the outcome of disease by modulating the environment. The psychological and biomedical factors provide the innate framework for generating and developing symptoms and signs of the disease, dependent on the pathology. On this basis, a disease could be best defined as an ‘‘overall perception of an abnormal body state and appreciation of the ensuing psychological and physical impact.’’ Historically, clinical practice has always faced its inability to differentiate events that mediate the disease process from the resulting clinical, biochemical, and pathological changes (Bell, 2003). Despite having made tremendous advances, clinicians continue to rely on phenotypic manifestations of the disease process to define most diseases. Inevitably, this approach often obscures the underlying mechanisms and thus a clinician may fail to identify significant heterogeneity. Concerns have been raised that most human disease provides only ‘‘insecure and temporary conceptions’’ (Lewis, 1944). Apart from infectious diseases, alarmingly, there are few diseases that have a truly mechanism-based nomenclature.
Nutritional Genomics
Authors: Stover Patrick J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nutrients and other food components are amongst the most persistent, variable (both in terms of the nature and abundance of the food supply), and essential environmental exposures for all life forms. The need for organisms to balance constant nutrient ‘‘need’’ with intermittent nutrient ‘‘availability’’ has driven the evolution of sophisticated yet distinct strategies to sense, store, and utilize individual nutrients to achieve internal homeostasis. Indeed, epidemiological, whole animal, and tissueand cell-culture studies validate nutrition’s pivotal role as an exogenous determinant of health. Most common human chronic diseases, including diabetes (type 2), metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular and neurological disease, and many cancers are initiated and/or accelerated by nutrient/ food exposures. In the absence of adaptation, nutrient deficiencies can impair the function of transcriptional and metabolic networks whereas nutrient excesses can exceed their capacity and/or overwhelm the buffering capability of the associated signaling pathways that maintain homeostasis.
Neuropsychiatric Diseases I: Schizophrenia
Authors: Sullivan Patrick F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neuropsychiatric disorders are not uncommon and amount to a major global health burden. The field is broad and covers a wide range of distinct clinical entities with overlapping features. Psychiatric disorders are commonly components of the phenotype of several seizure disorders (Chapter 18), progressive neurodegenerative disorders (Chapter 19), and disorders of learning and behavior (Chapter 29). This chapter reviews the present understanding of genetic and genomic basis of schizophrenia (Part I) and mood addition, migrant status, urban residence, cannabis use, and sex are supported as risk factors for schizophrenia. Although the attributable risk of some of these risk factors may be greater (e.g., place and season of birth) (Mortensen et al., 1999), the size of the odds ratio for family history suggests that searching for the familial determinants of schizophrenia is rational for etiological research.
Complex Ophthalmic Disorders
Authors: Manson Forbes DC , Webster Andrew R , Black Graeme CM 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As in many other clinical specialties, the overall contribution of genetics to the whole of ophthalmic disease is broader than generally imagined. For some conditions, this is obvious and when faced in the clinic with a patient with retinitis pigmentosa (RP), the ophthalmologist is immediately aware of the inherited basis of a patient’s condition. However less straightforward, but no less significant, are the genetic etiologies that are beginning to emerge for rare sporadic disease such as microphthalmia or optic nerve hypoplasia; for common early-onset phenotypes such as squint or myopia; and for later-onset phenotypes such as senile cataract or macular degeneration.
Applications in Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine
Authors: Weston Gareth C , Ponnampalam Anna , Rogers Peter AW 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The total number of genes in the human genome has been estimated at between 32,000 and 39,000 (Bork, and Copley, 2001). Genomics concerns the study of these genes in context within our genetic system, rather than as individuals. Large numbers of genes, or even all of the known genes in the genome, can have either their level of activity or their structure examined simultaneously.
Symptoms and signs
Authors: Simonson Lisa A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Symptoms are features which patients report. Physical signs are elicited at the bedside. Together, they constitute the features of the condition in that patient. Their evolution over time, and interaction with the physical, psychological, and social spheres comprise the natural history of any disease. Here we discuss symptoms in isolation. This is unnatural—but a necessary first step in learning how to diagnose. All doctors have to know about symptoms and their relief: This is what doctors are for.
Pulmonary medicine
Authors: Polito Albert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Films are usually taken with the patient standing in front of the film with the x-ray source behind (PA film). Emergency films may be done in the opposite direction (AP), which magnifies heart size. There are 4 radiographic densities: Air, fat, water/soft tissue, bone. A border is only seen at an interface of 2 densities, eg heart (water) and lung (air); this ‘silhouette’ is lost if air in the lung is replaced by consolidation (water). This is the silhouette sign and helps localize pathology (eg middle lobe pneumonia or collapse causing loss of distinction of the right heart border).
Endocrinology
Authors: Kim Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Define clinical syndromes associated with deficiencies of hormones (hyposyndromes) and corresponding clinical syndromes associated with secretion of excessive amounts of hormones (hyper- syndromes). Measure levels of hormones or metabolites of hormones in blood or urine samples—be mindful of circadian variation in the secretion of specific hormones when planning measurements.
Oncology
Authors: Laheru Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since Richard Nixon signed the historic National Cancer Act on December 23, 1971 to focus and prioritize federal resources to advance cancer clinical and basic science research, there have been a number of notable achievements particularly in solid tumors such as germ cell tumors and hematologic malignancies including Hodgkins lymphoma and ALL and AML. Such notable breakthroughs have been largely realized by visionary researchers integrating classical methods of drug development with innovative clinical trial design.
Symptoms and signs
Authors: Bartlett John G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The majority of travel-related illnesses are not infections but due to other events such as accidents, indiscretions (alcohol ± promiscuous sexual contact), and other illnesses. Most infections are due to ignorance or indiscretions. Advice to travelers is more important than vaccination: Eg simple hygiene, malaria prophylaxis, and protective measures. Take time to advise travellers on the benefits of safe sex and the risks of HIV and other STDs.