bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Encoding a Corpus in Machine Readable Form: The Approach of the Text Encoding Initiative
Authors: Johansson Stig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If we compare speech with a conventional written transcript (as we find it, for example, in Studs Terkel’s The Great Divide: Second Thoughts on the American Dream, New York: Avon Books, 1989), we see that the text must have gone through a transformation. It is neatly divided into words, sentences, and paragraphs. There is no trace of pauses in mid sentence, hesitations, background noise, etc. Occasional uses of italics and non-standard word forms give a hint of the original spoken delivery, but the spoken realization is largely lost. Such a text is a successful adaptation to the written mode (and Studs Terkel does indeed acknowledge the main transcriber, who ‘has revealed transcribing as an art form’, p. xv), whereas a transcription closer to the original might be unbearable, except to a linguist interested in the peculiarities of speech.
Starting where the Dictionaries Stop: The Challenge of Corpus Lexicography
Authors: Fillmore Charles J , Atkins B T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How does the dictionary description of a word measure up to the facts that may be discovered about it in an electronic corpus? Does access to a large corpus help the lexicographer to give an accurate, comprehensive, and intelligible account of what the word means and how people use it? Does such a corpus provide facts relevant to the dictionary senses of a word which go beyond what lexicographers have found? If so, is it possible to incorporate the new facts within the constraints of traditional approaches to word meaning and usage? These are the questions addressed in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is an investigation into the relationship between some morphological and syntactic changes which took place between Old English (OE) and early Modern English (ModE). Extensive changes in morphology occurred in late OE and in Middle English (ME); in particular, the old system of case marking was nearly completely swept away. This drastic reduction of case marking has usually been seen as responsible for many syntactic changes. This book will focus on four major syntactic changes which have been treated by some observers as results of the loss of case marking morphology, and will evaluate the evidence concerning some changes in grammatical relations which have been attributed to the reduction of case marking.
An Overview of Old English Syntax
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before examining the grammar of the verbs which later underwent a change in case assignment and/or grammatical relations, it is necessary to make some general observations about OE syntax. Only those aspects of OE syntax relevant to the changes examined in this study will be discussed here. The facts which are of particular interest to us mainly concern case marking and constituent order, since changes in these two systems are usually assumed to have triggered reanalyses of grammatical relations. Accordingly, section 2.1 is a discussion of case marking in OE. Section 2.1.1 covers the case marking of the objects of monotransitive verbs in OE, while section 2.1.2 discusses the case-marking patterns found with ditransitive verbs. Section 2.2 is devoted to some relevant facts concerning the possible orders of major constituents in OE. These are discussed in some detail, because there is considerable disagreement about how constituent order is to be dealt with in OE, and the topic has been the focus of a good deal of attention. In order to evaluate the competing theories, it is essential that certain empirical questions be clarified. In particular, it is important to look closely at the question of how different constituent order was in main and subordinate clauses, and this is reflected in the separation of these two clause types into separate sections.
The Development of the Experiencer Verbs
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The loss of case distinctions detailed in Chapter 5 has generally been agreed to have played an important role in the history of the experiencer verbs in English. Two changes are commonly seen as having been triggered by the syncretism of nominative, accusative, and dative case in the nominal system: (1) the loss of the ‘impersonal’ constructions, in which there was no nominative NP, and (2) the replacement of object Experiencers by subject Experiencers with verbs such as like in constructions in which the Theme had been in the nominative case in OE. In this chapter, we will look at how these verbs developed in ME, with a view to evaluating the role of changes to case marking in the loss of the ‘impersonal’ constructions. The facts presented in this chapter will put us in a position to evaluate, in the next chapter, different hypotheses about the effects of the changes to the case-marking system on these constructions.
Explaining the Demise of the Preposed Dative Experiencer
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapter, I described the development of nominative Experiencers with verbs which formerly took non-nominative Experiencers, and the disappearance of PDEs. In this chapter, we will look at how these facts tie in with ideas about the role of the loss of case marking in the loss of the PDE verbs. The most widely held view about the disappearance of PDEs is that this was a syntactic reanalysis, triggered by changes which took place in the case-marking system. There is disagreement, however, about the precise role to be attributed to the loss of case marking.
Changes in Passives: Verbs with More than One Object-like Argument
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the preceding chapter that all single objects generally began to be treated the same for the purposes of passivization by the beginning of the thirteenth century. This was true whether or not another argument was present in the form of a prepositional phrase, except that there is some evidence that indirect passives linger a bit longer when the second argument is a PP, and some fixed expressions with indirect passives persist until about the beginning of the fourteenth century. I have argued that the shift to direct passives did not involve a change in grammatical relations, but only in case marking. Matters are very different, however, when the second argument was an NP or a clause. The introduction of what I have called ‘recipient passives’, in which the Recipient of a ditransitive verb appears in the nominative case, occurred much later and clearly involves a change in grammatical relations: what was earlier analysed as a bare indirect object becomes analysed as a direct object.
Conclusion
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book, I have investigated the interaction between the loss of case marking distinctions and some syntactic changes involving the experiencer verbs and passives. I have concentrated on four syntactic changes: (1) the loss of ‘impersonal’ constructions (ones with no nominative NP), (2) the reassignment of grammatical relations with ‘personal’ verbs such as like, (3) the appearance of what I have called ‘direct’ passives, that is, ordinary passives of verbs which formerly had dative objects, as opposed to the older passive which retained dative case marking, and (4) the appearance of ‘recipient’ passives, in which the Recipient is made the subject of the passive of a ditransitive verb. In this chapter I will review the most import ant findings of this investigation and discuss their implications for our understanding of how syntactic change is implemented.
Proto-Dravidian*?
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Applying the usual procedures of comparison and reconstruction to Dravidian, we can set up on definite grounds the following phonemes for Proto-Dravidian: 0.1. Since long vowels contrast with the corresponding short vowels in all the Dravidian languages, a phoneme of length marked /-/ can be set up for Proto-Dravidian.
Constraints, Causation, and Change
Authors: Mcmahon April 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Haspelmath (1999: 22), ‘ ... a linguist who asks “Why?” must be a historian.’ In certain phonological frameworks, notably Lexical Phonology, the trend towards seeing purely synchronic, distributional factors as the key to understanding grammars, which was so prevalent in the early days of generative phonology, is now being supplemented, or even replaced, by a search for the roots of synchronic phenomena in the history of the language involved: in a sense, introspection is being challenged by retrospection. The question is how far Optimality Theory is or should be in line with these developments, and with associated attempts to model and explain sound changes.
“Antonymy,”: Scope and Delimitations
Authors: Mettinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In studies such as the present one it is customary to give a critical survey of all the work that has been done so far in the respective field of research. To do so with regard to antonymy1 would, however, lead to a monograph with a tide like Antonymy: the history of a term and a concept in philosophy, rhetoric,2 logic, and linguistics, including lexicography, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, and text-linguisticsand clearly go beyond the scope of this book. Moreover, Gsell (1979) can be regarded as a valuable source of information on the treatment of antonymy up to the mid-seventies, with special emphasis on Romance studies; the chapter on ‘Nichtstrukturelle Ansätze’ (Gsell 1979, 24-34, with a discussion of works by Ch. Bally, C. K. Ogden, M. Peter, 0. Ducháček, L. Guilbert, J. Pohl) is of special interest as it demonstrates some of the ideas “structuralist” semanticists such as Eugenio Coscriu and John Lyons drew upon when formulating their theories.3 In line with the growing interest in linguistic semantics in the sixties and seventies antonymy has been given its place in handbooks on linguistics (e.g. Lyons 1968, 460 ff.), semantics proper (e.g. Leech 1974, Lyons 1977, Viehweger et al.1977, Palmer 1981, Kastovsky 1982b, Cruse 1986),4 and lexicology (e.g. Fomina 1978, Agricola and Agricola 1979, Hansen et al.1982, H. Schmidt 1985, Lipka 1990), and a vast number of articles connected with the topic has been and is still being published.
Central Oppositeness of Meaning: Analyses
Authors: Mettinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is dedicated to the presentation of analyses performed on lexical items presented in the 1972 edition of Roget’s Thesaurus of English words and phrases.The choice of Roget’s Thesauruswas motivated by the assumption that investigating part of the lexical material contained in a ‘conceptual dictionary’ (Lyons 1977, 300; sec also Lipka 1990, 38 f.) would provide the investigator with a greater variety of phenomena demanding an explanation than any alphabetically arranged dictionary of antonyms would have done—an assumption that has, I hope, turned out to be correct. It must be admitted, of course, that Roget’s Thesauruscontains a number of lexical items that are hardly used in contemporary English; in view of the sememic basis of analysis as outlined in the previous chapters, however, this is not really a major problem.
Central Oppositeness of Meaning: Some Further Issues
Authors: Mettinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lyons (1977) points out that morphologically unrelated pairs of opposites in English are outnumbered in the vocabulary by such morphologically related pairs as ‘married’: ‘unmarried’, ‘friendly’ : ‘unfriendly’, ‘formal’· “informal’, ‘legitimate’ ‘illegitimate’, etc. In each case the base-form of one member of the pair is derived from the base-form of the other by the addition of the negative prefixes un-or in-.(Lyons 1977, 275 [my emphasis]) Thus the English prefixes un-, dis-,and non-have often been referred to as “negative prefixes” (e.g. by Funk (1971, 1986), Stein (1971), Kastovsky (1982b)); they have been described in connection with ‘affixal and non-affixal negation’ (Tottie 1980, 101) or as instances of ‘präfixale[r] (morphematisch gebundene[r]) Negation im Englischen’ (Welte 1978, 186). H. Schmidt (1985, 58) regards cases such as anständig.:: unanständig, artig: unartig, gerecht: ungerecht, sportlich: unsportlich, Ruhe; Unruhe, Schuld Unschuld,etc. as ‘Gegensatzwörter mit gesonderter lexikalisierter Anzeige der Polarität bei nur einem Partner’ and points out: Gerade für diese Gruppe bestehen z.T. Zweifel an der Auffassung der Partnerwörter als Antonyme [im weiteren Sinn (A.M.)].
Substratum or Universals?
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bickerton’s ‘bioprogram’ hypothesis (Bickerton 1981) was greeted with a good deal of adverse criticism, e.g. Aitchison (1983), Holm (1982), Le Page (1983). Much of the ‘Open Peer Commentary’ following Bickerton (1984a) is also highly critical, e.g. Seuren (1984:208): ‘Bickerton’s argument for “biological determination of linguistic properties” (Section 4.0) suffers from factual incorrectness as well as tendentious and often fanciful analyses.’
To Be or Not to Be: Variation in Be Occurrence
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the distinctive syntactic features of Black English Vernacular (BEV) is the variable use of be. Among the more detailed studies on variation in the copula in BEV are Labov (1969, 1972), Wolfram (1969, 1974), and Baugh (1980). Perhaps the best-known work in this area is Labov’s (1969) ‘Contraction, Deletion, and Inherent Variability of the English Copula’. In this article, Labov argues that the deletion of be is largely a result of phonological processes. After the present tense full forms of be in constructions such as he is, they are have been contracted, the remaining ‘s and “re are deleted. However, deletion does not apply to ‘m as ‘there are phonological processes which operate upon final [z] and [r] in BEV, but not upon final [m]’ (Labov 1969:721). He further states that ‘wherever SE [standard English] can contract, NNE [non-standard Negro English] can delete is and are, and vice versa; wherever SE cannot contract, NNE cannot delete is and are, and vice versa’ (Labov 1969:722). This analysis lends support to the hypothesis that BEV does not have creole origins, but is in fact a ‘dialect’ of English and has an underlying copula.
The Acquisition of Past Tense
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The acquisition of the tense-aspect system of a language by speakers of another language is often problematic, even if the languages are related. For example, English sentences with verbs in the simple past tense are often the appropriate translations of German sentences with a compound verb form which is structurally similar to the English present perfect, such as when an adverb of time occurs: English: She saw him yesterday. German: Sie hat ihn gestern gesehen She has him yesterday seen. With languages as far apart genetically and typologically as English and Chinese, the acquisition of the English tense-aspect system obviously presents considerable problems for the speaker of a Chinese-language background. It has been claimed, e.g. by Lyons (1977:687), that Chinese is among the languages which do not have tense but which grammaticalize aspectual distinctions. On the other hand, Comrie (1976:58) states that in Chinese (Mandarin) ‘the verbal particle -le indicates perfective aspect and relative past time reference’. Later (p. 82) he explains that ‘in many cases the use of -le is optional ... but when it does occur -le indicates a past perfective situation’. In any case, Chinese is among those languages which do not mark tense or aspect on the verb itself by morphological means.
The Repetition of Verbs in Singaporean English
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of verbal repetition is a particularly interesting feature of Singaporean English. Ho has divided this repetition into six categories: I Verbal repetition where a verb may be uttered twice or a few times, e.g. blink blink, wait wait wait, etc. II Verbal repetition with and, e.g. calculate and calculate. III Repetition of phrases, e.g. quickly learn quickly learn, sell finish take again sell finish take again, etc. IV Repetition of phrases with this/that, here/there, up/down, e.g. buy this buy that, look here look there, run here run there. V Onomatopoeic reduplication. VI Repetition to show emphasis in SgE, where very often in SgE stress and intonation would be used. Table 10.1 shows the number of informants who used repetition of verbs (Types I to IV) and the frequency of such repetitions according to the educational attainment of the informants.
Null Subjects in Middle English Existentials
Authors: Williams Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Early Middle English (II50-1250) as in Old English (850-1150), the expletive pronoun there (per, pear, etc.) is often missing from existential sentences in which it could grammatically occur, as it is missing from (1). (2) comes from the same text as (1), but here the expletive is pronounced.
From OV to VO in Swedish
Authors: Delsing Lars-Olof 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I present new data on the change from OV to VO in Old Swedish and Early Modem Swedish. Like several other languages (see e.g. Pintzuk 1991 on English and Hróarsdóttir 1999b on Icelandic), Swedish goes through a stage where there is variation in the surface word order of the verb and its object(s). My investigation shows that during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries both OV and VO word orders are possible. The Swedish data indicate that the choice between OV and VO is not arbitrary, but to a large extent dependent on the form of the object.
Verb Movement in Slavonic Conditionals
Authors: Willis David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A striking feature of the historical development of the morphosyntax of a number of Slavonic languages is the reanalysis of what were once inflected conditional auxiliaries as uninflected conditional-mood markers. Such a development has taken place in East Slavonic (Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian), Slovak, Lower Sorbian, Slovene, Macedonian, and to some extent also in Serbian.’ The details of the development vary among the different languages. In Slovak, for instance, the conditional marker co-occurs with the perfect tense, and a form of agreement has been reintroduced; in others it co-occurs with the former past participle alone. The purpose of this chapter is to examine some of the asymmetries between the conditional auxiliary and other auxiliaries in two historical varieties of Slavonic in the hope of moving towards an account of why the loss of an inflected conditional auxiliary should be a feature of Slavonic. The chapter begins (§14.2) by examining the conditional in Old Church Slavonic, a language whose morphosyntactic rules for the conditional may resemble those of the Slavonic parent language. The conditional auxiliary in Old Church Slavonic is traditionally termed a semi-enclitic.
The Concept Of Socialist Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book seeks to remedy the contempt for law prominent in socialist writings. While political thinkers on the left are indisputably concerned with justice, they dismiss those legal institutions which, in liberal capitalist societies, have ensured some minimum measure of justice in citizens' lives. Marxists in particular have tended to reduce law to a capitalist apparatus necessary to mediate conflict between egoistic wills or social classes. The book argues against this doctrine by showing that however ideal a society socialists envisage, legal institutions would be necessary to fairly adjudicate conflict between private and public interests. Each chapter takes up an issue in liberal jurisprudence to see how it would fare in a socialist theory which takes a constructive approach to law. The rule of law, natural and legal rights, obligations, and the sources of law are among the subjects covered. The book concludes that a socialist concept of law would enrich, not only debates about the nature of socialism, but also debates about community and justice which preoccupy `mainstream' political theory and jurisprudence.
Social Order and Social Control
Authors: Heidensohn Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a convention of social-science practice to define as early as possible in the project the terms one is using in it. With ‘social order’ and ‘social control’ there are considerable difficulties with this approach since distinctive meanings and interpretations abound. These are by no means always in competition or in conflict. Rather they reflect very disparate forms and usages applied by discrete groups of scholars to their own areas with little interest or awareness of what occurs elsewhere. This scene remarkably resembles that of Shakespearian comedies such as As You Like It or The Tem/Jest where characters in another part of the forest or elsewhere on the isle obliviously engage in contemporary activities. In order to simplify a multiply complex and scattered situation I shall adopt and adapt the terminology used by Sinfield who writes of the ‘social division of control’ (1978: 138) and consider the sociological division of control first.
Comparisons and Contrasts in Policing
Authors: Heidensohn Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous two chapters I have set out the perceptions of the women I inte viewed in Britain and America. I did so separately but within one framework. Now I want to draw this material and its broader background together and tease out the useful similarities and differences. It is not, however, my aim to repeat the lengthy quotations, but rather to suggest conclusions which may, perhaps, tentatively be based on what has gone before. While women’s role in policing has been the focus of these sections, and it is lessons about that on which I wish to speculate, there is also instruction to be gained about more general themes such as the comparative study of policing and of social institutions, social change, and social policies generally.
Conclusions: Are Women in Control?
Authors: Heidensohn Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The title of this book is a question. It was with this question and related ones in mind that I first began this project. Were women now more involved in social control? If they were did this make a difference either to them or to the agencies which employed them? It would be easy to say that the answers to these queries seem respectively to be ‘yes’ and ‘no, not very much’. In fact it has turned out to be a much more complicated enterprise to pursue than such straightforward enquiries might suggest. Nevertheless, while there are many caveats and qualifications to be made, there is now enough material available to respond to such questions, even if it is necessary first of all to summarize some of the difficulties I encountered in trying to answer them.
Conclusion
Authors: Kelly P J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the argument of this book is based on unpublished Civil Law manuscripts, reference has been made to some of Bentham’s published works, such as An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, A Fragment on Government, and Deontology. Many of these works have been used to support the received interpretation of his moral theory. However, it should be clear that the Civil Law writings give a different perspective to the role of these other works in the development of his political and moral theory. Bentham did not intend the principle of utility to function as a straightforward injunction to maximize social well-being. Therefore, the principle of right which constitutes Bentham’s theory of distributive justice provides the formal response to the arguments of Rawls and others, who have claimed that utilitarianism cannot account for individual entitlements or respect for persons.