bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Individuals and populations
Authors: Rose Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Motor car manufacturers try to design the best possible car to meet the requirements of a particular market and then, in theory if not always in practice, every car coming off the production line conforms to this ideal design. Humans are not like this; they are all different. Some elements of their distinctiveness may be common to a whole population. Kalahari bushmen and Eskimos, for example, are clearly built according to different designs (corresponding no doubt to the demands of their contrasting environments), but even within any one population individual people differ much more than individual motor cars—in their size, physical strength and stamina, intelligence, energy intake, patterns of behavior and temperament, blood pressure, and a host of other personal attributes. This is surprising. Why, after some millions of years of Darwinian selective survival, do we not all conform to an ideal height, intelligence, and athletic performance? Our variability cannot all be blamed on defects in manufacture, since near-perfect standardization is achievable when such uniformity is required. For example, humans vary but little in their basic biochemical and physiological mechanisms: we all have almost identical concentrations of sodium and potassium in the blood, delicately and accurately stabilized.
Antidepressant treatment of functional somatic symptoms
Authors: Katon Wayne , Sullivan Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter Dr Katon and Dr Sullivan review the role of antidepressant drugs in the treatment of patients with functional somatic symptoms. They first review the prevalence and importance of depression and anxiety in the aetiology of functional somatic symptoms and then go on to use their recent research into chronic tinnitus to illustrate the complex relationship between depression and the experience of symptoms. The evidence for the efficiency of antidepressants is reviewed and practical guidelines for treatment outlined.
Psychological treatment of irritable bowel syndrome and abdominal pain
Authors: Creed Francis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Professor Creed describes the high prevalence of functional gastrointestinal com plaints – as high as 22 per cent in some community studies – as well as the considerable health care costs incurred by this group of patients. He also points out that patients attending a gastrointestinal clinic with irritable bowel syndrome differ from those in the community and that these critical differences have to be addressed in treatment. An overview of the physical and psychological treatment of patients with functional bowel disorders is presented and the importance of selection criteria and concurrent psychiatric illness emphasized. Professor Creed describes those factors that predict a favourable outcome with psychological treatment and concludes with practical guidelines for treatment.
Psychological aspects of premenstrual syndrome: developing a cognitive approach
Authors: Blake Fiona , Gath Dennis , Salkovskis Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many symptoms have been reported to be associated with the changes of the menstrual cycle. The premenstrual syndrome has been difficult to define but refers to symptoms which are clearly premenstrual, recurrent and distressing. Whilst many aetiological mechanisms have been proposed, there is substantial evidence that psychological factors are of particular importance in the determinance of the severity of symptoms and associated disability. Dr Blake and her colleagues describe a pilot study which focuses on the cognitions of people with premenstrual syndrome and of a new cognitive behavioural treatment. Their findings suggest that this approach can be effective and that it has practical implications for the provision of both primary and specialist care.
Chronic fatigue, chronic fatigue syndrome, and fibromyalgia
Authors: Wessely Simon , Sharpe Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter Drs Sharpe and Wessely discuss the nature of fatigue as a symptom. They then examine the chronic fatigue syndrome emphasizing the arbitrary quality of existing definitions. The aetiology of chronic fatigue syndrome is reviewed and it is concluded that it is a functional syndrome strongly shaped by social and cultural factors. Finally a cognitive behavioural model of the perpetuation of symptoms and disability is described. Practical guidelines for the cognitive behavioural treatment of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome are outlined.
The management of functional somatic symptoms in children
Authors: Garralda M Elena 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Professor Garralda points out that children whose powers of expression are more limited than those of adults, are likely to express distress as in the form of somatic symptoms. She cites evidence of the frequency of such problems both in the general population and in primary care, as well as in specialist paediatric and child psychiatry clinics. Whilst functional somatic symptoms in children generally have a good prognosis, they may be persistent and often cause distress to both the children ·and their families. In many aspects the aetiology and management of functional somatic symptoms in children differs little from that in adults but in children the family is of particular importance.
Terminology, introduction, diagnostic criteria, and overview
Authors: Calin Andrei 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A debate continues as to what name should be given to the spondylarthritides. We find no compelling reason to change from the title of our initial text (Calin 1984) and so continue to favour the use of spondylarthropathies or the spondylarthritides. We accept that Fran9ois and colleagues (1995) have made some suggestions towards a new glossary for the rheumatic spinal diseases. They base this on pathology and appear to favour the term ‘spondyloarthropathy’ originally proposed by Moll and Wright in 1974. However, as pointed out by Braun and Sieper (1996), spondylarthropathy and spondarthritis, and even spondyloarthropathy, have all been used interchangeably to describe the heterogeneous group of diseases that have a number of features in common.
Enteric infections and arthritis: bacteriological aspects
Authors: Uksila Jaakko , Toivanen, Paavo , Granfors Kaisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ReA has provided investigators with an opportunity to focus on the properties of the triggering organisms, and recent studies have indicated that microorganisms are intimately involved not only in the pathogenesis during the intestinal phase of disease, but also in the target organ, the joint. It is anticipated that a continued study of microorganisms and the immune reactions directed against them will reveal how synovial inflammation is initiated, how the immune system maintains the reactivity, and what dictates the final outcome of the disease-either recovery or chronicity.
Triggering mechanisms and T-cell responses in the spondylarthropathies
Authors: Sieper Joachim , Braun Jurgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term spondylarthropathy (SpA) applies to a group of different, although closely related, diseases: ankylosing spondylitis (AS); reactive arthritis (ReA); a subset of psoriatic arthritis (PsA); arthritis/sacroiliitis in inflammatory bowel disease; and undifferentiated SpA. All these diseases have an HLA-B27 association, sacroiliitis, a characteristic type of peripheral joint involvement, enthesitis, and some extra-articular manifestations in common (Dougados et al. 1991a). Their pathogenesis is not clear, but the interaction of bacteria, T cells, and the HLA-B27 molecule seems to be important (Kingsley and Sieper 1993).
Microcephaly
Authors: Baraitser Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Microcephaly is defined as a head circumference of more than two standard deviations below the mean. It is common to many conditions, both genetic and environmental, and it occurs in 1.9% of the ‘normal’ population. Many different figures exist for the birth frequency. Book et al. (1953) suggested a figure of 1.6 in 10 000 live births and Quazi and Reed (1973) suggested a figure of 1 in 40 000 for true recessive microcephaly.
Epilepsy
Authors: Baraitser Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Epilepsy in the neonatal and infantile period; Generalized epilepsy in the slightly older child: Tonic—clonic (Grand mal); Absences (Petit mal); Atypical absences; myoclonic (see Chapter 13); tonic (these patients fall stiffly to the ground but this is not a specific genetic entity); atonic (these patients slump to the ground; some probably have myoclonus—see p. 127);
Cerebral palsy
Authors: Baraitser Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Abstract: This is a non-progressive, evolving, extrapyramidal disorder, most frequently the result of prolonged jaundice and anoxia. Intelligence is often normal but communication can be very difficult. Because of additional features, Foley (1983) distinguishes between pure athetosis, ataxic athetosis, and athetoid quadriparesis.
Myasthenia
Authors: Baraitser Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The congenital myasthenic syndromes are caused by congenital defect in neuromuscular transmission. They can be subdivided as follows (Shillito et al., 1993; Janas and Barohn, 1995): presynaptic familial infantile (possibly small vesicle size); paucity in density of synaptic vesicles; other presynaptic disorders—synthesis, release, and mobilization; acetylcholinesterase deficiency;
Extrapyramidal disorders
Authors: Baraitser Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Previous studies have tended to emphasize the unimportance of genetic factors in Parkinson’s disease. This is mostly based on the finding of considerable discordance in a number of recent twin studies (note however the PET scan findings in clinically unaffected twins might suggest that concordance is higher, Holthoff et al., 1994). One study looked at a cohort of twins and reviewed previous clinical studies, and found that only 5 out of 81 pairs of monozygotic twins to be concordant and for dizygotic twins 5 out of 56 were concordant (Sommer and Rocca, (1996). The offspring risks are therefore small, possibly no higher than a couple of percent.
Introduction
Authors: Harrison Paul J , Roberts Gareth W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Few subjects have generated as much sustained controversy in the field of medicine as the neuropathology of schizophrenia-the Holy Grail of biological psychiatry. At times it has been considered a misguided or meaningless question to ask, reflecting contemporary opinions as to the nature of the relationship between mind and brain, distress, and disease. At the other extreme, eminent psychiatrists and neuropathologists throughout the twentieth century had described putative histological explanations for schizophrenia. Neither of these polarised views can be sustained, the nihilists falling into the dualist trap, and the empiricists finding that the results were not repeatable or were artefactual.
Functional Imaging and Neural Circuitry in Schizophrenia
Authors: Schultz Susan K , Andreasen Nancy C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
New medical imaging techniques have stimulated exponential advances in the study of brain structure and function. They provide neuroscientists and clinicians with the capacity to see brain structure in a high level of detail and to observe metabolic and neurochemical processes such as cerebral blood flow, glucose utilization, and receptor occupancy. Over recent years these techniques have been applied to schizophrenia, resulting in a veritable revolution in the conceptualization of the illness. In many ways these advances have brought the field back full circle to the emphasis on neurobiology put forth a century ago by such founding fathers as Nissl, Brodmann, Kraepelin, Alzheimer, and Cajal.
Perspectives from other Diseases and Lesions
Authors: Esiri Margaret M , Pearson R Carl A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aims of this chapter are twofold. Firstly, to set the neuropathological findings reported in schizophrenia in the context of other neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders; and secondly, to consider what light experimental studies of the nervous system can shed on the interpretation of the schizophrenia findings, especially those concerning alterations in neuronal structure.
A Sceptical View of the Neuropathology of Schizophrenia
Authors: Chua Siew E , McKenna Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps the most appropriate place to begin a sceptical review of the neuropathology of schizophrenia is with a review of the same field carried out over 40 years ago by David (1957). He noted that there had been numerous reports of structural brain abnormality in the disorder, some by researchers as distinguished as Nissl and Alzheimer; the findings ranged from macroscopic cortical atrophy, affecting particularly the frontal lobes, to histological findings including but not limited to cell loss, shrinkage and ballooning, dwarf cells, metachromatic bodies, cellular inclusions, demyelination, and gliosis. After carefully examining the literature, David dismissed all of the alleged abnormalities with the exception of demyelination, on the grounds that they were either not well replicated or had also been documented in normal individuals. Demyelination itself he considered questionable as it could have been due to fixation artefacts.
Methodological Issues
Authors: Harrison Paul J , Kleinman Joel E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are no methodological problems unique to schizophrenia neuropathology. Rather, the field must contend with the problems common to all schizophrenia research, as well as with the factors which introduce noise into postmortem brain studies and which are magnified because of the subtlety of the pathology being sought. Though the technical and statistical sophistication of research has improved dramatically over the past 20 years, limitations continue to hamper progress to an unnecessary extent, contributing to the persisting short comings in the data discussed elsewhere in this book, especially in Chapter 13.
The role of psychological factors in cancer onset and progression: a critical appraisal
Authors: Levenson J L , McDonald K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many professionals and lay people believe that psychological factors play a major role in cancer onset and progression. The media have promoted popular ideas of overcoming cancer through ‘mind over body’, and there are self-help books and retreat centres where patients can learn imagery and relaxation techniques to fight their cancer. Guided imagery (visualizing white cells attacking cancer cells), cognitive restructuring (thinking positive thoughts), and assertiveness training have all been promoted alongside traditional health care for the cancer patient to ‘combat’ the disease.
Primary Inherited Metabolic Diseases of the Kidney
Authors: Town Margaret , Hoff William Van’t 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Renal disease is most commonly associated with structural, immunological, or infective causes but this chapter deals with those in which there is a metabolic defect. There are several such metabolic disorders in which substrate accumulation or an enzyme deficiency can be demonstrated in the kidney but without any significant renal dysfunction (e.g. some of the lysosomal storage disorders).
Inherited Predispositions to Kidney Cancer
Authors: Zbar Berton , Glenn Gladys , Turner Maria , Weirich Gregor , Choyke Peter , Hewitt Stephen , Nickerson Michael , Nakaigawa Noboru , Linehan, W Marston , Schmidt Laura 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the generalizations that has emerged from the study of inherited epithelial tumors of the kidney is that each inherited form of renal cancer has a distinct histologic appearance, that is, distinct histologic phenotype (Zbar and Lerman 1998).
Theoretical concepts in the economic evaluation of health care
Authors: McGuire Alistair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The traditional theoretical base of econoamic evaluation rests on welfare analysis. Individuals are said to maximize utility and societal welfare is defined as an aggregation of utility across all individuals. Governments, in taking societal decisions, do so in a completely benevolent manner; they have no additional objective other than to maximize welfare. Under idealized conditions certain institutions, including perfectly competitive markets, will allocate resources in a manner consistent with this aim. Where markets do not exist the technique of cost-benefit analysis can be used as means of mimicking market allocations to ensure welfare maximization.
Modelling in economic evaluation
Authors: Kuntz Karen M , Weinstein Milton C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Economic evaluations depend on evidence on the costs and health effects of medical and public health interventions. This evidence can be derived from clinical trials, observational studies, meta-analysis, databases, administrative records and case reports. Because the evidence required on consequences and costs of interventions is never present in a single source, practitioners of cost-effectiveness analysis use analytical structures–or mathematical models–to synthesize data on the costs and benefits of alternative clinical strategies. These mathematical representations can be used to simulate a patient’s or a population’s life experience under a variety of intervention scenarios. A model synthesizes data from multiple sources by making explicit assumptions about the incidence and/or prognosis of a disease, the magnitude and duration of risks and benefits of prevention and/or treatment, the determinants of utilization of health-care resources, and of health-related quality-of-life. Of particular value to clinicians and policy makers, a model allows one to investigate how cost-effectiveness ratios might change if the values of key parameters in a model, which are often unobservable in primary data, are changed. Typical outputs from a model are life expectancy, quality-adjusted life expectancy, and lifetime costs.
Macrophages in tumor biology
Authors: Kreutz M , Fritsche J , Andreesen R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1882, Elias Metchnikoff for the first time described macrophages as phagocytic cells. It is now clear that beside phagocytosis, cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) are not only major players in natural immunity to microbial infections but also participate in host defense against malignant tumors. The MPS is found ubiquitously in all tissues and body cavities. Circulating blood monocytes are the common precursor cells of this heterogenous cell family and serve as a source for the constant renewal of tissue macrophages and dendritic cells under normal physiological conditions. The extravasation of blood monocytes markedly increases under different pathological conditions, e.g. inflammation. The tissue-adapted maturation of the infiltrating monocytes is most probably modulated by the site-specific microenvironment. Hypoxia seems to be one relevant factor for the activation and differentiation of macrophages in the microenvironment which may also, in part, be responsible for a tumor-specific phenotype of macrophages (Lewis et al., 1999). However, the tumor microenvironment can differ dependending on the tumor type or due to differences between the primary and metastatic site leading to different types of tumor-associated macrophages (Figure 11.1).
Macrophages in reproductive biology
Authors: Okamura H , Katabuchi H , Kanzaki H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Macrophages are present in every organ of the female genital tract. During the last two decades, considerable attention has been paid to macrophages and their various functions in reproductive biology. Apart from defense against specific microorganisms or antigens in collaboration with other immune cells, they are involved in a variety of homeostatic and physiological conditions through their products such as enzymes, cytokines, reactive oxygen intermediates and other biological substances. The foundation for these research achievements was laid by many functional morphological approaches. In female genital organs, they exhibit certain morphological differences, presumably attributable to the cyclical and pregnancy-induced alterations in the levels of sex steroid hormones and the immune mechanisms of embryonic-maternal interactions. In their structural diversity, the functional properties and heterogeneity of macrophages are seen in the ovaries, peritoneal cavity, fallopian tubes, endometrium and placenta.
Macrophages in gene therapy: cellular targets and gene delivery vehicles
Authors: Burke B , Sumner S , Mahon P C , Lewis C E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As described in various other chapters in this volume, macrophages play a central role in the immune system mainly by participating in the ingestion and killing of invading microorganisms and the presentation of antigen to T cells. In addition, they secrete over 120 different substances (Gordon, 1995) involved in host defence and inflammation. These include complement components, a wide range of cytokines and enzymes with narrow- or broad-range specificity. During infection, macrophages have the capacity to become ‘activated’ by cytokines and different bacterial products. These activated macrophages exhibit increased tumoricidal and microbicidal activity, and release increased levels of immune mediators. However, macrophages (whether through ‘normal’ pro-inflammatory or pro-angiogenic activities, or through defects in activity, or by acting as hosts and reservoirs for pathogens) have been implicated in the onset and/or progression of various pathogenic conditions. These include the growth and spread of malignant tumors, the pronounced inflammation present in rheumatoid arthritic joints, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, chronic granulomatous disease, atherosclerosis, lysosomal storage diseases, diabetes, lupus erythematosus and Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome (reviewed by Speer and Gahr, 1989).
5-HT receptors in brain and vasculature
Authors: Hargreaves Richard , Beer Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Current opinion is that the generation of headache pain involves a primary CNS dysfunction that in some way, as yet undefined, provokes activation of the trigeminal sensory nervous system and changes in vascular regulation within pain-producing intracranial structures. The synthesis of these views have led to an integrated neurovascular hypothesis for migraine and the description of migraine headache as a neurovascular disorder.
Synergism of 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 receptors on sumatriptan-induced vasocontractile response in rabbit common carotid artery
Authors: Akin Demet , Onaran H Ongun , Gurdal Hakan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sumatriptan (known as a 5-HT1B/D agonist) induces vasocontractile responses that have been suggested to be mediated by 5-HT1-like receptors. Unlike many other receptor agonists that cause vasocontraction, sumatriptan possesses an atypical response pattern across different vessels. For instance, sumatriptan can produce vasocontractile responses in standard experimental conditions in some vessels such as human pulmonary artery and temporal artery, whereas it can contract others only after the vessels are slightly precontracted by a contractile agent such as KCl, histamine, tromboxane, etc. The exact mechanism of this heterogeneity is not clear.