bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The beginnings and the writing of the Principia
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some acquaintance, with the antecedents of the less than two years-from the late autumn of 1684 to the early summer of 1686-in which Newton composed the entire Principia, is essential to a proper appreciation of the range and variety of the topics that are treated in it in depth and with rare perception. The literature on this ‘pre-Principia’ period is vast; but it is mostly not relevant to the purposes of this book as stated in the Prologue. And consistent with those purposes, the account that follows is a bare record of events that are not disputed.
On the motion of particles under centripetal attraction: an introduction to Newton’s treatment
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Newton’s treatment of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion is among the most celebrated parts of the Principia. To appreciate the novelty and the originality of Newton’s treatment, one must have in mind, for comparison, a more conventional treatment to which one is accustomed. Besides, it is important to have a treatment of elliptical motion under the inverse-square law of attraction that is readily adapted to obtaining the equations governing the perturbations of ellipitic motion based on the ‘variation of the constants’. For as Tisserand* has stated, Newton undoubtedly had in his possession these variational equations for this treatment of lunar perturbations.
The method of the variation of the elements of a Kepler orbit and Newton’s lunar theory: An introduction to Propositions LXV-LXIX
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have stated in the introduction to Chapter 12, Tisserand was of the opinion that Newton had derived for himself the equations expressing the variations with time of the elements of the Kepler orbit under the action of an external force ff —elements that would otherwise have been constants; and that Proposition LXVI and its 22 corollaries provide the principal basis for this inference (see Chapter 14). To make Propositions LXV-LXIX more readily understandable, we shall give in this chapter, in the spirit of the Principia, an elementary self-contained account of the method of the variation of the elements and its application to the perturbations of the Moon. The present chapter is in effect a continuation of Chapter 4 whose notations we shall follow.
‘The superb theorems’
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1, we have already described the antecedents of Newton’s discovery of the theorem that was later to be described as ‘superb’ by J. W. L. Glaisher. Therefore, on this occasion, we shall, as the saying goes ‘cut the cackle and come to the bosses’. We shall begin with an explanation which Newton provides later: By the surfaces of which I here imagine the solids composed, I do not mean surfaces purely mathematical, but orbs so extremely thin, that their thickness is as nothing; that is, the evanescent orbs of which the sphere will at last consist, when the number of the orbs is increased, and their thickness diminished without end. In like manner, by the points of which lines, surfaces, and solids are said to be composed, are to be understood equal particles, whose magnitude is perfectly inconsiderable.
Prolegomenon
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding books I have laid down the principles of philosophy; principles not philosophical but mathematical: such, namely, as we may build our reasonings upon in philosophical inquiries. as To this purpose the philosophers say that Nature does nothing in vain, and more is in vain when less will serve; for Nature is pleased with simplicity, and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes. As to respiration in a man and in a beast; the descent of stones in Europe and in America; the light of our culinary fire and of the Sun; the reflection of light in the Earth, and in the planets.
On comets
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The seven Lemmas, IV-X, and the three Propositions, XL-XLII, devoted to comets and occupying 43 pages (439-481) in the original 1713 second edition of the Principia are quite exceptional: basic matters are treated in the normal tenor of the Principia in Lemmas V-X and in the three propositions in barely ten pages; the remaining 33 pages are concerned with the results of numerical computations of cometary orbits and the physics of comets.
The physics of fluids
Authors: Guyon Etienne , Hulin Jean-Pierre , Petit Luc , Mitescu Catalin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From a microscopic viewpoint, the study of the physics of fluids can be considered as a branch of thermodynamics. In a classical thermodynamic approach, we study the equilibrium states of pure substances-solids, liquids, and gases-and the changes of state between these several phases.
Laminar boundary layers
Authors: Guyon Etienne , Hulin Jean-Pierre , Petit Luc , Mitescu Catalin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of a boundary layer is crucial to the understanding of the flow around an obstacle at large Reynolds numbers. Far from the object, as long as the incident flow is not turbulent. the terms corresponding to viscous forces, in the Navier-Stokes equation, are negligible; the flow velocity profile is then effectively that of an ideal fluid.
From the finite to the infinite
Authors: Sutton Adrian P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this section we shall consider a series of hypothetical molecules consisting of chains of between two and an infinite number of hydrogen atoms. One aim is to show that the quantum mechanical description of bonding in an infinite linear chain is essentially no different from what we have already discussed in Chapter 2 for a diatomic molecule. In this way we hope to convince you that solids may be thought of as infinite molecules, but, of course, in three dimensions. Another aim is to set up the machinery that we need to discuss an infinite periodic system, such as k-space, Bloch functions, Brillouin zones, the Fermi energy, and so on. Once we have done that then moving onto a three-dimensional perfect crystal is more complicated, but no new ideas are needed.
s-p bonding-a case study in silicon
Authors: Sutton Adrian P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall enlarge the basis set that we assume for each atom to include p electrons. It is necessary to do this in order to understand the cohesion of many elements of the periodic table and their compounds. In Chapter 9 we shall consider bonding caused by interactions between d states. By surveying the elements of the periodic table we see that s-p bonding occurs among the valence electrons of the elements of groups I-VII. The elements of the first three groups have closed packed metallic structures, i.e. f.c.c., h.c.p., and b.c.c. As we go down the elements of group IV from C to Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb, the stable crystal structures change from three-fold coordination in graphite, to four-fold coordination in the diamond cubic structure in Si and Ge, to 12-fold coordination in f.c.c. Pb. In group V (apart from N which forms diatomic molecules) the pnictides take structures based on the stacking of three-fold coordinated buckled layers of atoms. In group VI the chalcogenides take structures based on two-fold coordinated helical chains. The group VII halogens crystallize as diatomic molecules (and thus with a coordination number of 1) which are held together by weak van der Waals interactions. Thus, s-p bonding in the elements gives rise to a wide variety of crystal structures and coordination numbers.
Properties of free electron metals
Authors: Sutton Adrian P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We noted in the previous chapter that Drude’s free electron model of a metal failed in one principal aspect: it regarded the electrons as classical particles obeying Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics. Sommerfeld’s free electron model recognized that the electrons obey quantum mechanical laws. Owing to the electron spin of 1/2, electrons are fermions and they obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. Each quantum state of the system can be occupied by at most two electrons, one with spin up and the other with spin down.
Recent developments and future prospects
Authors: Duke Philip John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Synchrotron radiation is a highly versatile research tool which provides electromagnetic radiation over a wide range of wavelengths. It is highly collimated. When an undulator is the source, the radiation, especially in the X-ray region, is of unparalleled brightness. In this concluding chapter we indicate how synchrotron radiation sources are being developed at the present time. These developments are being driven by the requirements of the synchrotron radiation users themselves.
Introduction And Summary
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present book on Superconducting High Field Magnets contains 13 chapters. It is intended to cover the relevant interdisciplinary fields of applied physics with the aim of transmitting to the professional reader the vast theoretical work and experimental data which should help him to design, build and operate superconducting magnets and magnet systems. Chapter 2, ‘Basic features of superconductivity,’ starts with the experimental discovery of the phenome by K. Ones and analyses the intriguing fundamental experiment of Meissner and Ochsenfeld, which triggered vast theoretical and experimental activity with the aim of understanding and explaining superconductivity. The two-fluid thermodynamic theory and the intuitive but non-rigorous approach of the London brothers are presented, and this leads to the rigorous BCS theory, fully explaining the phenomenon. Basic parameters like critical magnetic fields and temperature, superconducting screening current, elementary quantized fluxoid, penetration depth and pinning forces are dealt with and the particular cases of Type I and Type II superconductors are given. High temperature superconductors are not dealt with.
Magnetization And Ac Losses In Superconductors
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Magnetization losses in superconducting filaments and other losses in superconductive wires, composites and cables in time-varying magnetic fields are of considerable importance to magnet design. Important theoretical and experimental investigations in this domain had been performed since the understanding of hard Type II superconductors due to the work of Bean and Kim (see chapter 2), Anderson et al. [1], which led to the development of the two main technical superconductors and and of other potential candidates, to be treated in Chapter 5.In the early 1970s high energy particle accelerators with superconductive dipole and quadrupole magnets and with duty cycles close to those of accelerators equipped with classical magnets were investigated; rise times of∼ 1 s and duty cycles of a few Hz had been assumed. Loss calculations have shown that such ‘fast’ cycled machines would require more elaborate composites and cables and higher performance cooling systems compared to quasi-de operated superconducting accelerators. It has been a fortunate coincidence that a parallel evolution pointed towards such an operation. Slow, long duration beam extraction and spilling techniques had been developed leading to cycles with longer flat tops of several minutes. When the advantages of particle colliders over fixed target machines became more and more evident [2,3,4] with flat tops extending to several hours or days, this mode of operation was also beneficial for the development of adequate superconducting de magnets.
Mechanical Computations And Design Principles For Superconducting Magnets
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A sound and thorough mechanical design kf high field superconducting magnets is of prime importance for their successful operation. In the early days of magnet development the computational and design effort was mainly concentrated on the analysis and realization of suitable field configurations, while the mechanical problems had been treated in a rather marginal way. The poor test results, failures, and premature quenches experienced with these early magnets indicated the need for a thorough understanding, analysis, and solution of the mechanical problems as well.
Penning Trap Mass Spectrometer
Authors: Bollen G , Kluge H -J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been proved that Penning traps are efficient tools for high-accuracy mass determinations. With these devices the mass ratios of a number of stable or long-lived light particles, as for example electron and positron, electron and proton, proton and antiproton, helium-3 and tritium or the molecules N2 and CO, have been determined with unsurpassed accuracy.
Nuclear Stability, Hadron, And Cluster Emission
Authors: Poenaru Dorin N , Greiner Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present chapter is devoted to the problem of nuclear stability against various spontaneous decay modes, in which a parent nucleus A, Zin its ground state is split into nuclei A1, Z1 and A2, Z2 in a way that conserves the hadron numbers A — A{ + A2, Z — Z\ + Z2.
Low-Dimensional Semiconductors
Authors: Kelly M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This text is a first attempt to pull together the whole of semiconductor science and technology since 1970 in so far as semiconductor multilayers are concerned. Material, technology, physics and device issues are described with approximately equal emphasis, and form a single coherant point of view. The subject matter is the concern of over half of today's active semiconductor scientists and technologists, the remainder working on bulk semiconductors and devices. It is now routine to design and the prepare semiconductor multilayers at a time, with independent control over the dropping and composition in each layer. In turn these multilayers can be patterned with features that as a small as a few atomic layers in lateral extent. The resulting structures open up many new ares of exciting solid state and quantum physics. They have also led to whole new generations of electronic and optoelectronic devices whose superior performance relates back to the multilayer structures. The principles established in the field have several decades to go, advancing towards the ultimate of materials engineering, the design and preparation of solids atom by atom. The book should appeal equally to physicists, electronic engineers and materials scientists.
Silicon and silicon hetero junctions
Authors: Kelly M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Si dominates the electronics industry, being associated with more than 90 per cent of the added value in components and subsystems (Sze 1988), and if it were a direct-gap material as required for optical applications, the 111-V and other semiconductors would have remained curiosities. Compared with all other semiconductor materials, Si substrates come in large areas. They have high mechanical stability, modest electrical insulation, and a good thermal conductivity. The ease of forming a thin stable high-resistance thermally grown oxide which is capable of withstanding high electric fields and of being patterned by a variety of methods is also a strong advantage. However, the extra speed of carriers in 111-V materials, the negative differential mobility of GaAs at high fields, and light emission from direct-gap 111-V materials (as light-emitting diodes and as laser diodes) has given semiconductors other than Si a chance. A further advantage, peculiar to GaAs, is that very-high-resistance substrates are available, and this property is maintained during the thermal, chemical, and other cycles associated with microwave device fabrication. During equivalent processing of Si a low level of mobile carriers is introduced into the substrate, and their response to rapidly changing electric fields introduces an extra reactive impedance to the microwave signals and degrades the performances of devices at high frequencies. The advent of hetero junctions has continued to give high-performance 111-V devices a lead over their Si counterparts where there is direct competition (as in high-speed microwave and low-density logic applications). This advantage was further helped by the availability of lattice-matched combinations of materials. The technology of hetero junctions has made possible new generations of devices and new device functions in 111-V materials. With time, the incorporation of strain has been mastered, and some effects of strain, particularly on the hole band structure, have been deliberately exploited to give superior device performance.
Theoretical developments in static light scattering from polymers
Authors: Benmouna Mustapha , Reed Wayne F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of light scattering was first put forward by Lord Rayleigh, in a series of papers in which he discussed the case of particles with a small size compared to the wavelength of the incident light. Debye extended this theory to large particles, including the effects of intramolecular interference between waves scattered by different parts of the same molecule. In particular, he derived the form factor of a flexible Gaussian chain in the absence of excluded volume interaction (see eqn (1.17)). This expression is extremely useful for analysing scattering data from polymers. Rayleigh-Debye theory was extended by Zimm, who calculated the scattering intensity of a dilute polymer solution in good solvent conditions in which the excluded volume interaction is important.
Low angle light scattering and its applications
Authors: allamace Francesco M , Micali Norberto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The length scale ranging from some hundreds of Angstroms to micrometers is relevant in many different research areas of physics, chemistry and biology, and in particular in the interdisciplinary field of complex systems. The characteristic properties of these latter systems, i.e. polymers, polymer solutions, gels, charged colloids, microemulsions, micelles, liquid crystals, proteins, DNA solutions, living cells, etc., reflect structures or superstructures (cluster networks built up by precise aggregation phenomena) that fall in a length interval termed the mesoscopic region. In addition, many of these systems arrange themselves in extended networks with self-similar long-ranged structures characterized by scaling laws. A more complete understanding of such systems can be obtained by exploring many orders of magnitude in length.
The Equivalent Linear Sigma Model
Authors: Ripka Georges 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to transform the Nambu Jona-Lasinio action into the action of an equivalent linear sigma model. The equivalence holds when the cutoff which regulates the quark loop is large compared to the constituent quark masses. We shall find in fact that the cut-off is only about twice the constituent quark mass. In spite of this, the equivalent sigma model is a convenient way to understand the physics contained in the model and to make simple and realistic estimates of the model parameters. However, the equivalent sigma model hides many of the shortcomings of the model such as, for example, its inability to confine the quarks. The real physical content as well as the limitations of the Nambu Jona-Lasinio model become apparent when correlation functions and solitons are calculated (see chapters 7 and 9). This chapter also serves as a pedagogical introduction to some of the basic techniques used in the meson sector.
Correlation Functions In The Nambu Jona-Lasinio Model
Authors: Ripka Georges 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reader is advised to go through the calculations in chapter 5 if he wishes to familiarize himself with the techniques applied in this chapter. Reviews of the calculation of correlation functions in the Nambu Jona-Lasinio model can be found in [29, 52). In [98], euclidean correlation functions are compared with 'experimental' ones deduced from data by dispersion relations. We follow the methods developed in [30].
Overview Of Results In The Meson Sector
Authors: Ripka Georges 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are several reviews of chiral quark models, such as the Nambu Jona-Lasinio model, applied to the meson sector [29, 52, 115, 116, 117, 118] as well as innumerable applications. Each one stresses a different approach to the subject, although they all boil down to similar calculations. This chapter is an introduction to the vast literature on the subject, and further references appear in the text. We choose a limited number of observables and we expose the physical meaning of the calculations as well as the inevitable problems which are encountered.
The diffraction of paraxial beams
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fresnel’s approximation in diffraction theory. Fresnel’s integrals and Cornu’s spiral. Fresnel diffraction by unidimensional structures. Fresnel diffraction by two-dimensional structures. The parabolic equation and quasi-optical approximation. Solution of the parabolic equation. The propagation and diffraction of a Gaussian beam. The focusing of a Gaussian beam. The application criterion for quasi-optical approximation.
Ice Models
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the models we have studied in the preceding chapters of this book have been variations of the using model. Although using models are the most important and best-studied class of models in statistical mechanics, it is useful for us to study other classes as well, since there are many concepts in the design of Monte Carlo algorithms which only arise when we look at other models. In this chapter we introduce the so-called ice models, which, as the name suggests, model some of the thermodynamic properties of ice, though they do so only in a rather primitive fashion. Ice models are similar to using models in that the microscopic variables making up the model are discrete quantities having just two possible values, positioned on a lattice. However, unlike the models of the previous chapters, these variables are now located on the bonds of the lattice, rather than the sites, and, as we shall see, this, in combination with some other features of ice models, makes for some interesting challenges in the design of Monte Carlo algorithms.
The Repton Model
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters of this book we have given a number of examples illustrating the use of creatively designed Monte Carlo algorithms to answer questions about problems in statistical physics. In this chapter we will apply the same techniques to a problem of great importance in biophysics, the problem of polymer electrophoresis. We will study the problem, as we have the others in the book, by simulation of a simplified model which captures the essence of the processes involved. This model is called the “repton model” and, as we shall see, it is very similar in spirit to the models we are familiar with from statistical physics. This should come as no great surprise; the demarcation of science into the separate disciplines of physics, biology, chemistry and so forth is, after all, an artifact of our own creation, and has little to do with the science involved. Indeed, it is the wide applicability of the ideas of physics to problems which traditionally have been classified as biophysics or genetics or biochemistry, which has led an increasing number of physicists to desert their conventional fields of study for other equally fertile ground.
Electronic Theory for Nonlinear Magneto-Optics
Authors: Hübner W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This effect reflects the symmetry of the surface structure and surface magnetism and has been proposed as an ultrafast spectroscopic probe for the investigation of two-dimensional mag netism.12-14 NOLIMOKE is very well suited for a direct investigation of surface structures and electronic and magnetic properties. Thus, two-dimensional ferro magnetic structures at surfaces, at interfaces, in thin magnetic films and in multilayers can he studied.