bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Quantum Theory of Radiation
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is unique in covering phenomena in photon- matter interactions in a unified way over a range of many orders in energy. The quantum field theoretic approach to the fully relativistic theory of quantum electrodynamics (QED) is presented together with the non- relativistic theory in both confined and unconfined geometries. The predictions of QED have been verified to a greater accuracy than any other physical theory. Moreover QED is a paradigm for other gauge theories and is presented in such a way that the generalisation to other gauge theories is natural. Gauge and Poincare symmetry properties and the non-existence of a photon wave function are thoroughly discussed. Starting from the Dirac equation the non-relativistic interaction of the electron with the electromagnetic field is derived as an effective Hamiltonian of multipole expansions. Much of quantum optics is based on the lowest order dipole approximation. From this point on the treatment of fully relativistic QED and quantum optics is done in parallel. Applications of perturbation theory such as Compton and Moller scattering and the theory photdetection are given. After the impressive successes of QED, the limitation of the theory and the necessity of electroweak theory and quantumchromodynamics are discussed. The remaining chapters are devoted to quantum optics inside cavaties. Various approaches to open systems such as master equations are discussed within the context of active systems (e.g. the laser) and passive systems. Semi- classical approximarions are shown to imply a rich non- linear dynamics including chaos for certain parameter regimes. The effect of fluctuations on such non-linear dynamics is also studied. The final chapter is devoted to highly non- classical states of the light field such as photon number, squeezed and two photon entangled states. The latter are studied for the important system of parametric down conversion and the localisation properties of photons are characterised in terms of asympotic tails in photodetection probabilities as a function of time delay. The range of the book has wider benefits. Workers in quantum optics will gain a deeper understanding of the foundations of their subject and field theorists will see concrete examples of open systems, which are beginning to impinge on fundamental theories.
Quantization of the Free Maxwell Field, Canonical and Functional Approaches
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The quantum theory of radiation describes the interaction of light with matter. Over the last 60 years our understanding, both experimental and theoretical, has deepened considerably. Experimentally the phenomena have been studied at energy scales which span many orders of magnitude. In the early days it was atomic physics and, in particular, spectroscopy which dominated. Since then we have had the advent of particle accelerators which routinely accelerate matter to energies of billions of electron volts. Atomic physics itself has been revolutionized by the invention, over 25 years ago, of the laser. Thanks to modern technology experiments of great accuracy are now feasible. The coherence of laser light has also allowed the study of cooperative behaviour among many atoms. Is there a simple underlying theory of all these rich phenomena or do we have to invent ad hoc theories for different energy scales? One’s belief is that any such fundamental theory has to be compatible with quantum mechanics and special relativity. It is also necessary to remember that a fundamental theory may involve in an essential way incorporation of some other matter-matter forces. In this book we will describe such a theory of electromagnetic radiation and examine its validity at different energy scales.
The Photon as a Particle: The General One-Photon State
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Through the classic work of Planck, Einstein, and others the particle nature of the photon has been established. In the previous chapter we considered the wave field of the photon. In this chapter we will emphasize more its particle nature and discuss the extent to which a wave function with a probabilistic interpretation is an appropriate description. Once we have the concept of a particle it is natural to ask how localized the state can be. The degree of localizability of photons is of concern in the interpretation of experiments in quantum optics involving weak light sources and non-linear electromagnetic media. If a photon is not to have the structure of a composite particle its quantum states should be describable by translations, rotations, and Lorentz boosts of a particular state and possibly super positions of such states. This is equivalent to a photon being associated with an irreducible representation of the Poincaré group. A brief overview of the general theory of group representations is given in Appendix 3. We will be able to give a complete discussion of the representations of the Poincaré group pertinent to the photon. Our discussion of localizability will be quite rigorous but we will gloss over measure-theoretic niceties. For more mathematical discussions the reader can refer to the works of Mackey (1978) and Wightman (1962). We will finish the chapter by examining the implication of Poincaré invariance for the metric on the space of quantum states of the photon.
Electron − Photon and Matter − Photon Interactions: Relativistic and Non-Relativistic Cases
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Without the interaction of light with matter the world would not exist. There would be no chemistry and no biology. With recent advances at the particle accelerators throughout the world, our knowledge of what constitutes matter has increased. Matter is characterized as leptons, the electron and neutrino being prime examples, and hadrons (made up of quarks), the proton and neutron being prime examples. Hadrons are more complicated than leptons in the sense that they interact via strong nuclear forces. There are weak nuclear forces as well and the leptons also feel such forces. (Everything does feel gravity of course, but for elementary particles at current terrestrial energies such effects are unimportant.
Quantum Electrodynamic Processes
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We will consider now the consequences of the theory that we have developed for situations in which the geometry is essentially unbounded. The simplest scattering of a photon by an electron is described by the Feynman diagram shown in Fig. 5.1. The matrix element M for the process (on using the momentum-space Feynman rules of Chapter 4) is given by The transition probability | M |2 involves the square of a 8-function which needs to be suitably interpreted.
Extensions of Quantum Electrodynamics
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have accumulated an impressive set of successful predictions of QED. However, the fact that it is not an ultimate theory appears even in low-energy experiments for stable atoms. From the discussions in Chapters 1 and 3 it is clear that the theory is invariant under parity. Since QED is rotationally invariant and the parity transformation can be made up of a mirror reflection and a rotation, parity violation is equivalent to a breakdown of mirror reflection symmetry. In experiments in bismuth and lead vapour it has been shown that the effective refractive index of light passing through the vapour is different for left and right circularly polarized light. This can be deduced from the rotation of the plane of polarization of linearly polarized light passing through the vapour. The effect is very small, the rotation angle being approximately 10 −7 radians for 1 metre of dense vapour. Other types of experiment may also be devised. Some involve an explicit handedness in the experimental configuration. An important example is provided by the breaking of parity symmetry in the configuration shown in Fig. 6.1
Non-Classical Light
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The processes that we have already described in quantum optics undoubtedly produce effects which are specifically quantum or ‘non-classical’ in nature. In this chapter we will first give more precise criteria for our notion of nonclassical light and then consider specific examples of non-classical experiments in optics. We conclude with a detailed discussion of parametric down-conversion as an example of a practical source of non-classical light.
Effects caused by the Lorentz force acting along the surface’s normal
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Subsurface SCR is formed if there exists a force acting on electrons and holes along a normal to the surface. The most thoroughly studied case is that seen when this force is induced by electric field (see Chapter 1 and 2). However, SCR may arise and change under the action of forces of other nature, for example, the Lorentz force. Under Hall effect conditions, this situation is realized near the surface of a sample parallel to the magnetic field, when charge carriers are being deflected towards this surface. This is discussed in the present chapter.
Polymers and Polymer Solutions
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The observation of polymers and the work devoted to their synthesis goes back to the beginning of the nineteenth century. However, the definitions given to them varied until 1920. Flory has shown that the many incidents which occurred during the formation of the basic notions are of great interest even now, and a few notable facts are mentioned below.
Radiation Scattering
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The interaction between radiation and condensed matter produces multiple effects, which have been the subject of many observations and of very different studies. Scattering has been one of the first observed effects. Originally, scattering was studied in order to know more about the nature of light and the interaction of light with matter. The discovery of the Tyndall effect (1863) is a typical example. When white light encounters a material, the scattered light often appears as coloured, the reason being that for shorter wavelengths the scattering is stronger.
Renormalization and Criticality
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theconcept of renormalization covers several different processes. Its origins are old and, for instance, dielectric constants and effective masses can be considered as renormalized quantities. In Quantum Electrodynamics, renormalization was developed around 1950, especially by Schwinger, Feynman, and Dyson, in order to eliminate non¬ physical ultraviolet divergences.
Polymer Physics
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a polymer physics textbook for upper level undergraduates and first year graduate students. Any student with a working knowledge of calculus, physics and chemistry should be able to read this book. The essential tools of the polymer physical chemist or engineer are derived in this book without skipping any steps. The book is a self-contained treatise that could also serve as a useful reference for scientists and engineers working with polymers. While no prior knowledge of polymers is assumed, the book goes far beyond introductory polymer texts in the scope of what is covered. The fundamental concepts required to fully understand polymer melts, solutions and gels in terms of both static structure and dynamics are explained in detail. Problems at the end of each Chapter provide the reader with the opportunity to apply what has been learned to practice. The book is divided into four parts. After an introduction in Chapter 1, where the necessary concepts from a first course on polymers are summarized, the conformations of single polymer chains are treated in Part 1. Part 2 deals with the thermodynamics of polymer solutions and melts, including the conformations of chains in those states. Part 3 applies the concepts of Part 2 to the formation and properties of polymer networks. Finally, Part 4 explains the essential aspects of how polymers move in both melt and solution states. In all cases, attention is restricted to concepts that are firmly entrenched in the field.
Ideal chains
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we consider the conformations of chains with no interactions between monomers that are far apart along the chain, even if they approach each other in space. Such chains are called ideal chains. This situation is never completely realized for real chains, but there are several types of polymeric systems with nearly ideal chains. Real chains interact with both their solvent and themselves. The relative strength of these interactions determines whether the monomers effectively attract or repel one another. In Chapter 3, we will learn that real chains in a solvent at low temperatures can be found in a collapsed conformation due to a dominance of attractive over repulsive interactions between monomers. At high temperatures, chains swell due to dominance of repulsive interactions. At a special intermediate temperature, called the 0-temperature, chains are in nearly ideal conformations because the attractive and repulsive parts of monomer-monomer interactions cancel each other. This 0-temperature is analogous to the Boyle temperature of a gas, where the ideal gas law happens to work at low pressures. Even more importantly, linear polymer melts and concentrated solutions have practically ideal chain conformations because the interactions between monomers are almost completely screened by surrounding chains.
Real chains
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2, we studied the conformations of an ideal chain that ignore interactions between monomers separated by many bonds along the chain. In this chapter we study the effect of these interactions on polymer conformations. To understand why these interactions are often important, we need to estimate the number of monomer-monomer contacts within a single coil. This number depends on the probability for a given monomer to encounter any other monomer that is separated from it by many bonds along the polymer.
Random branching gelation
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Everyday life encounters many materials in transition from liquid to solid, examples are preparing Jello® gelatin or mixing Epoxy glue. This fascinating phenomenon is called gelation and it is caused by the formation of crosslinks between polymer chains. In the above examples, these crosslinks are induced either by microcrystallization upon cooling (Jello) or by covalent bonds formed on mixing (Epoxy). The final state after crosslinking consists of linear polymer strands connected by crosslinks.
Ethnicity
Authors: Johnson Mark R D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first major study of health inequalities in modern Britain, the Black Report (Black et al. 1980), highlighted the existence of ethnic or racial disparities in health, although a comprehensive review of the then available literature on ‘race and health’ (Johnson 1983) noted that ‘research writings on health issues which have relevance to the study of race and ethnic relations are a relatively recent phenomenon in the UK’, recording only 109 items and a dozen conference proceedings.
Mapping the life-world: a future research priority for public health
Authors: Kelly Michael P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter sets out an idea which it is essential for public health to embrace. It is called the life-world. It is important to develop this as a programme of action for the direction of future research for two reasons. First, we do not have sharp enough tools to map the population in a way that fits its needs for intervention and which are sociologically meaningful (see Chapter 2). Our tools to describe inequalities in health and our knowledge of how to tackle them is very limited (Graham and Kelly 2004; Killoran and Kelly 2004). Life-world provides a device to understand the nature of the variegated population. Secondly,
Attitudes, social attitudes, and widespread beliefs
Authors: Bethlehem Douglas W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter, to adopt for a moment L.L. Thurstone’s blunt and forthright style, is to consider whether the concept ‘attitude’ provides a sufficient structure for the study of widespread beliefs. Ancillary to this major question are a look at what psychology already knows about widespread beliefs, and a consideration of what psychology can peculiarly offer in relation to widespread beliefs and how psychology might approach their study in the future. The first substantive issue to address, then, is the nature of a widespread belief.This term is not yet a well-defined one, either operationally or conceptually. Clearly, for a social science, particularly the study of social psychology, some such concept is of great potential importance. What related concepts have been used in social psychology or allied studies Four major concepts come to mind: from anthropology, the concept myth', from sociology, the concept norm from the sociological side of social psychology, the concept social representation', and from the psychological side of social psychology, the concept stereotype. These are not, of course, the only concepts that might have been chosen from these fields, but each is an important concept, each is well identified with the field from which it has been chosen and typifies in some respects concepts used in that field.
The dynamics of public opinion
Authors: Himmelweit Hilde T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Public opinion is the expression by many individuals-it might be the public at large, particular segments of society, members of an institution, or a crowd-of sentiments, evaluations, or beliefs about societal issues. The term public opinion covers a wide range from evaluations of specific events or policy proposals, e.g. whether the police should be armed, to an examination of the relative priorities the public attaches to widely shared values. Some assessments ask for probabilistic or comparative probabilistic judgements relating, for example, to the economic health of the country a year from now; others assess the public’s general emotional state, e.g. apathy, optimism, or other states, or reactions to particular individuals, e.g. leaders of political parties; to groups such as Americans and Blacks, or to institutions such as the City, the monarchy, or Trade Unions. Others elicit the public’s attributions, in the case of unemployment, for example, whether this is due to government policy or to structural factors beyond any government’s control. Assessment of public opinion ranges from momentary impressions or evaluations, through an examination of beliefs, in the Fishbeinian sense, to the study of broadly held attitudes or the degree to which people subscribe to more enduring values, like patriotism or egalitarianism. Public opinion differs from privately held opinion in that it needs to be expressed and heard. The scope of public opinion goes beyond the results of systematic questioning of representative samples which began only in the 1930s with the pioneering work of Elmo Roper and Lazarsfeld. Rather, public opinion is manifested when by one means or another ‘those in the know’, which might be those in power, journalists, the 19th century coffee house clientele, as well as the people themselves hear of what the public thinks or feels. Marsh and Fraser (1989) offer a more extended discussion of conceptions of public opinion.
The political and social beliefs of adolescents
Authors: Michael Billig Raymond Cochrane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of the work on the political attitudes of young people looks at what is commonly called ‘political socialization’. This is unfortunate because the very concept of political socialization often draws attention to the continuities of social life, at the expense of overlooking the discontinuities. The concept of socialization, when applied to political attitudes or commitments, implies the task of successive generations is to learn the political and social beliefs appropriate to their familial and social environment. In this respect, successful socialization implies the intergenerational transmission, with modification, of political beliefs and attitudes. At the back of much of this work, is the image of a society reproducing itself across generations with the basic elements remaining essentially unchanged. However, a crucial feature of capitalist society may be discontinuity, rather than continuity. As Marx and Engels wrote in The Communist manifesto: ‘The bourgeoisie cannot exist without constantly revolutionising the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production, and with them the whole relations of society’ (Marx and Engels 1968, p. 38). If we are to take seriously this diagnosis, then we should expect constant change in social relations, and under conditions of constant change, one would expect social relations, and social attitudes, to take more indeterminate forms than might be expected from reading some of the writings on ‘political socialization’. For our theories to capture the social psychological dimensions of this indeterminacy, we need a perspective which can encompass discontinuities and contradictions.
The social dimension in relative deprivation
Authors: Smith Patten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is now commonly accepted that in the past social psychologists have been na’ive in assuming that generalizations arising from research on individuals’ psychological processes may be used to explain, without difficulty, social behaviour in social contexts. Recent developments, particularly in Europe, have emphasized the importance of analysing social psychological phenomena in ways which respect their social nature (e.g. Tajfel 1984). This chapter takes relative deprivation theory as a case in point, comparing ‘individualistic’ with ‘social’ approaches in two rather different respects. The first involves the obvious comparison between individualistic measures and apparently social measures of relative deprivation, that is egoistic and fraternalistic relative deprivation respectively. The second entails the more radical argument that relative deprivation theory will only achieve really substantial predictive and explanatory power when it succeeds in moving towards a genuinely social perspective such as one incorporating assessments of widespread and shared beliefs in the populations in question.The central idea in relative deprivation is that militant collective behaviour is better explained by reference to people’s sense or feelings of deprivation rather than by their absolute level of deprivation. Historians and political scientists have employed the concept to account for a variety of episodes of collective action from the French Revolution to the urban riots in America in the 1960s, having found that purely economic accounts were insufficient. Over and above such considerations people’s feelings of despair, discontent, and frustration arising from changed economic circumstances, comparisons with others or the perceptions of intolerable discrepancies between what they had and what they wanted, had to be recognized. This development is an acceptance of the fact that a satisfactory explanation must include a psychological dimension. So Hobsbawm and Rude (1970) wrote about the Captain Swing riots in Britain in the nineteenth century: