bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Relationship between the University and the City of 45 Louvain in the Fifteenth Century
Authors: De Maesschalck Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Medieval universities were founded and developed in existing cities. They relied on safety within the city walls, could use the infrastructure of streets and buildings, and profit from the material advantages brought by trade and industry. For the rest, they wished to lead their own lives, organize their own jurisdiction, be exempt from all kinds of duties and taxes and in general retain clerical privileges and acquire new ones. Inevitably, this led to conflicts which usually were settled to the advantage of the universities. In their opposition to local authorities the universities often had powerful friends at their disposal: the pope, the bishop, the king, parliament, etc. The ultimate sanction for forcing a city to its knees was secessio which frequently signified the starting signal for the founding of a new university in another town. This constant tension and occasional bloody struggle between city and university finally produced a modus vivendi which differed from area to area. In the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge the town in the long run was completely dominated by the university, to such an extent that ‘the burghers lived henceforth in their own town almost as the helots or subjects of a conquering people ‘. It never came to such a pass in Louvain.
The Politics of Professorial Appointment at Leiden, 1709*
Authors: Ultee Maarten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In mid-January 1709, Petrus Hotton, Professor of Botany in the medical faculty of Leiden University, died. On February 18, after a remarkably brief interval, the Curators of the University and Burgemeesters of Leiden appointed Herman Boerhaave as Hotton ‘s successor. In time the appointment appeared fully justified, as Boerhaave became one of the greatest medical teachers of the age. He gave his inaugural lecture on March 20, and soon acquired an international reputation, attracting many foreign students to Leiden. Boerhaave showed an almost superhuman capacity for work. He lectured four to five hours a day, four days a week; he treated patients, took care of the botanic garden, and served as vicechancellor of the university in 1714 and 1730. In 1715 he proposed to revive clinical teaching of medicine; in 1718 he added the professorship of chemistry to his duties. Only in 1729 did he resign from the chairs of botany and chemistry, while keeping the professorship of theory of medicine until his death in 1738. Admiring students, biographers, and historians of medicine have agreed that his influence was great in his own university and at Edinburgh and Vienna, the leading medical schools of the later eighteenth century.
Opposition and Ambivalence
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The prevailing attitude to self-destruction in sixteenth- and seven teenth-century England, it must be emphasized, was profoundly hostile. Punishment of suicide was unprecedented and unparalleled in severity. And yet like an astrological conjunction this unity of attitude and action was temporary, a coincidence of views that were moving in different and sometimes opposed directions. Both at the local level, among village communities, and at the national level, among the educated elite, it is possible to detect signs of ambivalence about the punishment of suicide that appeared even as attitudes and responses were hardening. Literary critics and cultural historians influenced by poststructuralist thought have taught us to be sensitive to the ways in which texts tend to subvert themselves. They imply their own negations, and in the awareness of opposition one finds the key to deconstructing them. Very few social historians have found the poststructuralist programme an attractive one, and we do not propose to advance it here. But it is helpful to think of cultural change in terms of oppositions and subversions, for beliefs and the behaviour that expresses them are dynamic and unstable entities. The prevailing hostility to suicide in early modern England was the result of political and religious changes that were themselves the product of a highly complex set of events and forces. The centralization of the state and the Protestant Reformation had consequences no one could have intended or predicted. They also generated tensions that moderated their course and content, limiting the reach of the crown’s power and frustrating the attempt to impose religious unity.
The Revival of Lenienry
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Attitudes to suicide changed profoundly in the century and a half following the English Revolution. Judicial and ecclesiastical severity gave way to official leniency and public sympathy for most people who killed themselves. This transformation was a complex phenomenon. The views of particular classes and groups altered at different times and for different reasons; the actions of officials and institutions did not simply reflect public opinion. The signs of change were apparent even before the Restoration. Freed temporarily from crown supervision during the civil war, juries began to return higher numbers of non compos mentis and ambiguous verdicts, and although the governments of the 1650s reestablished the effectiveness of King’s Bench, its challenges did not halt the upward trend in acquittals. John Donne’s Biathanatos was belatedly published in 1647, after censorship had collapsed. The trend toward more lenient responses and more liberal attitudes to suicide accelerated after 1660. By the last three decades of the eighteenth century,/e/o de se verdicts had become as rare as non compos mentis ones had been two centuries earlier. And although there were persistent calls to retain the old punishments and protests against tolerance, the weight of lay opinion swung back against severity. Classical philosophy and medical science, which had been the basis for dissenting opinions in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, dominated Georgian thinking about suicide. Radical defenses of self-killing were published and widely read; admiration for classical suicides became more general and more unapologetic than ever before; upper-class laymen came to regard suicide as a rational choice or a medical calamity.
Motives for Suicide
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contemporaries had clear notions about the kinds of behaviour and moods that preceded suicide and the sorts of people who were more or less likely to commit it, however broad and imprecise the folk psychology of suicide may have been. They also had definite ideas about the motives that moved men and women to slay themselves. And just as juries were unlikely to find an ambiguous death a suicide without evidence that it fitted the psychological profile they associated with self-slayers, so they were highly unlikely to return a suicide verdict without evidence of a plausible motive. When they tried to explain why people killed themselves, observers typically mentioned calamities that might befall anyone. Their conception of the stresses that shattered the psychological well-being of men and women was grounded on their own frustrations and disappointments and on widely held beliefs about the sources of unhappiness. It was the mirror image of the vision of an ideal life in early modern society. To sustain their social positions and navigate through the uncertainties they encountered, people relied on a shared set of beliefs about security and danger, about the actions and events that promoted their well-being or destroyed it. The commonly accepted motives for suicide marked out dangerous passages in the social world, like the legends on old maps warning of hostile peoples and perilous seas.
Income Distribution, Capital Accumulation, and Inter-Generational Transfers in a Discrete-Time Model
Authors: Baranzini Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As pointed out in the previous chapter the idea of the introduction of some micro-foundations (as the life-cycle hypothesis) in the traditional two-class model of distribution is somewhat recent and has drawn increasing but scattered attention in the literature. Britto (1972), in a short note, has confined his analysis to demonstrating that in a two-class life-cycle growth model, in equilibrium, the saving/income ratio of the ‘pure rentiers’ is always greater than the saving/income ratio of the workers, who derive their income from work and accumulated life-cycle savings. (This outcome will, inter alia, be confirmed by our analysis.) The first Part of Bevan’s unpublished work (1974) is surely much more appealing and comprehensive, although the main purpose of his analysis falls outside the traditional two-class framework since he focuses on the case where the caste assumption is relaxed.
Main Conclusions and Perspectives for Further Enquiry
Authors: Baranzini Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this last chapter is essentially threefold. First of all we want to give an assessment of the methodology used for seeking answers to the questions outlined in Chapter 1. Secondly, and this will be the main theme of this chapter, we want to draw together and assess the main conclusions of the research programme and to point out the implications of the results obtained by providing an economic and possibly historical interpretation. Thirdly and finally, we shall try to make some suggestions for an extension of the research programme, since we are well aware of the incompleteness of the answers that we have provided and of the necessity to explore alternative and more sophisticated grounds of study. We shall fuse these three objectives in the present and following three sections, since they are closely connected with one another.
Kazuo Okochi, 1976. A Short History of Japanese Translations of the Wealth of Nations
Authors: Sakamoto Tatsuya 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dr Hyoe Ohuchi, having completed his painstakingly complete version of WN for the former Iwanami Bunko [Iwanami Library] edition, wrote in deep-felt realization, “Smith should be mortal, but he is someone who dies hard/’ Although I have no idea about whether WN “should be mortal” the fact that its marvellous novelty is still kept alive for all the shortcomings and logical inconsistencies does suggest that Smith is something who dies hard. Naturally the novelty of WN can be observed in different meanings and with changing emphases through different historical periods. Nevertheless WN is not merely a classic work written by Adam Smith, the founder of political economy. Through two hundred years of history since its publication, WN has been constantly provocative and has never failed to direct readers’ attention to the fundamental mechanism underlying the superficial forms of economic life. Its attraction is so powerful that it seems as if it was born out of an immortal spirit.
Sons of the Female Spirit, Men of Steel
Authors: Clark Jeffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wiru tell stories of cannibalistic ogres who have vegetation growing out of their man-like bodies, and of how a human being was created out of another hybrid beast, half-man, half-reptile. This creature possessed no anus and could not defecate until it was pushed into a pit filled with sharpened stakes, one of which punctured its backside, creating an anus, the ability to excrete, and a man at the same time.
The Second Generation of Learners’ Dictionaries
Authors: Cowie A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The twenty-year period between the publication ofISED /ALD 1(1942) andALD 2(1963) was one in which A. S. Hornby achieved a unique status and authority in learner lexicography—a position that was to remain unchallenged for a further fifteen years. Harold Palmer’s involvement in dictionary-making had virtually ceased with the compilation of GEW—though hisEnglish-French Phraseological Dictionary(1943−4) showed that his interest in idioms and collocations was far from extinct after 1938—while Michael West—though subsequently involved in a number of dictionary schemes, including the radical recasting of NMED—never attempted to compile an advanced-level, general-purpose dictionary that could rivalALD.
Conclusions
Authors: huang Yan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book, I have provided an extensive overview of the major contemporary issues surrounding anaphora and given a critical survey of the many and diverse contemporary approaches to the study of anaphora. I have also developed a revised neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora. The survey and analysis are based on a rich collection of data drawn from around 550 of the world’s languages, which represent a variety of areal, genetic, and typological characteristics. The main contributions of this book, I think, are the following: first, the richness and complexity of anaphoric systems in the world’s languages are demonstrated; secondly, inadequacies of all current syntactic, semantic, and discourse approaches to the study of anaphora are pointed out; and thirdly, a revised neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora is constructed.
Prosice: A Spoken English Database for Prosody Research
Authors: Huckvale Mark , Fang Alex Chengyu 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prosody-the study of the intonation, stress, and rhythm of speech-is now assuming a greater importance in phonetics, phonology, and speech technology than ever before. Once regarded as subservient to studies of segmental structure, it is now being seen as providing the ‘framework’ which holds different levels of phonetic description together. The recent past has seen novel views of the phonology of intonation (e.g. Pierrehumbert, 1980), a new interest in prosodic phrase structure and prominence (e.g. Liberman and Prince, 1977) and the rise of autosegmental or non-linear accounts of phonetic description which integrate metrical structure with phonetic substance (e.g. Clements and Keyser, 1983). The role of prosody is also changing in speech synthesis and recognition. In speech synthesis, the success of concatenative systems-whereby recorded segments of speech are glued together to make novel utterances-has meant that the key issues have changed from segmental to supra-segmental quality (Klatt, 1987). In speech recognition the increasing emphasis on dialogue systems has meant more research is taking place into the automatic determination of prosodic structure for the purposes of utterance disambiguation (e.g. Wightman and Ostendorf, 1995).
Irish
Authors: Müller Nicole 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The different VN clause types containing an overt P1 to be found in medieval Irish texts, and the structural similarities they bear to their Welsh counterparts, have been briefly introduced in Chapter 1 (Section 1.3.1, example (11) ). The most common types in a narrative context are vN+PPp1 and vN+GENp1 (see (ia) and (1b) ), the latter being, as in Welsh, restricted to use with intransitive VNs. More rarely encountered in narrative texts are P2+dovN+P1 and PHdovN( +P2) (see (1c) and (1d) ); these two structures are, however, very prominent in annalistic material (see Section 3.2.2).
Introduction and Background
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a text-based account of English fixed expressions and idioms. It sets out to describe the characteristics, behaviour, and usage of fixed expressions and idioms as observed in text, in particular in corpus text. My central contention is that such items can only be properly described and understood if they are considered together with the contexts in which they occur: I take it for granted that this should involve corpus evidence. I will report on the frequencies, forms, and functions of fixed expressions and idioms, drawing data from a database of several thousand such items, which I investigated by means of an 18 million-word corpus of contemporary English, the Oxford Hector Pilot Corpus. Discussions will be augmented as appropriate from other text sources, in particular The Bank of English. I will then explore use and function further, in order to ascertain the discoursal behaviour and roles of fixed expressions and idioms: this discussion will also centre on data from corpora and other texts.
Ambiguity, Polysemy, and Metaphor
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers three aspects of the semantics of FEIs: ambiguity (and homonymy), polysemy, and metaphoricality. These are surface characteristics, in contrast with non-compositionality, which is one of the key properties of FEIs: see Section r.2.3, and, in relation to lexicalization, Section 2.3. I will not be looking at the specific meanings of FEIs, which are very much matters of the individual items. Much of the following discussion will concern metaphors, rather than FEIs in general.
Call in context I: a historical perspective
Authors: Levy Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Histories of computers and education, and CALL in particular have already been documented elsewhere. This historical review is more selective. It aims to pick out beginnings and significant developments in CALL by focusing on selected CALL projects representative of three time periods, the 1960s and 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s. The review aims to highlight the developments and the thinking of each period by introducing suitably representative CALL projects decade by decade. The historical perspective aims to identify some of the less variant qualities of CALL, and particular emphasis is placed on insights or developments made some years ago that still have contemporary relevance. In his recent article on the PLATO project, for instance, Hart describes the legacy of PLATO IV, the most recent incarnation of this ground-breaking educational computing project (1995).
Conceptualization I: the CALL literature
Authors: Levy Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What goes through a CALL author’s mind when contemplating the creation of new CALL materials and learning environments? Is the starting-point, a conception of how learners might benefit through communicating internationally, as with the International Email Tandem Network? Is the initial focus the creation of a resource that can be accessed and used from remote locations, as with the Oral Language Archive or is the point of departure a desire to meet specific learner needs outside and beyond normal class contact time? The points of departure vary enormously as does the path to implementation. Some advocate starting with a particular theoretical position, while others begin with curriculum specifications, or a recognized language-learning problem that appears amenable to a computer solution.
Conceptualization II: the CALL Survey
Authors: Levy Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Using the literature alone as a source of information for a description of CALL is, of itself, rather limited. In particular, information relating to the indicators is often fragmented. The indicators, it will be remembered, are the elements that are held to inform the key issues for understanding CALL’s conceptual frameworks. While for some CALL projects, descriptions in the literature and other documentary sources are detailed and comprehensive, in others the descriptions are only partial, and information on one or more of the indicators is incomplete or missing. To complement the findings from the literature, therefore, a detailed CALL Survey was undertaken. The CALL Survey is able to provide a catalogue of responses to specific questions that relate directly to the indicators that underpin conceptual frameworks.
Emerging themes and patterns of development
Authors: Levy Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When CALL is viewed as a whole, as a body of work, the diversity is remarkable. With no agreed agenda for research and development, with a sensitivity to local conditions, and with the flexibility of the computer, materials developers have conceptualized CALL in many ways, and they have drawn their theoretical base and practical orientation from many sources. As a result the points of departure are numerous. Moreover, the ways in which CALL authors conceptualize CALL are often complex and multifaceted. The initial conceptualization may undergo significant transformation as theoretical ambitions are reconciled with practical realities. Hard ware and software characteristics, for example, variously shape and form how the initial concept is transformed into a fully implemented CALL program.
A tutor-tool framework
Authors: Levy Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The tutor-tool framework is offered here as a mechanism for addressing a number of concerns in CALL, the most far-reaching being the belief that all CALL is of the tutorial type, characterized by one-to-one interactions where the computer evaluates the student input and then presents the new material accordingly. In my view, this assumption has obscured some very important issues, notably in the areas of methodology, learner training, integration and the curriculum, the roles of the teacher and the learner, and evaluation. My thesis is that an understanding of the tutor and tool roles of the computer can help to clarify these issues, whilst at the same time usefully highlighting aspects of CALL that are too often overlooked.
Reference within a discourse model
Authors: Cornish Francis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapters 2 and 4, in particular, have demonstrated the need for a conceptual representation of the context-determined sense and, where there is one, referent of a given indexical expression within a mental discourse model. Not only does the indexical expression-where it is not ‘bound’, a type of expression which is outside the purview of this book-not link up with some co-occurring textually explicit ‘antecedent’ expression, but such an expression may well not exist in the indexical’s textual environment at all. Whether or not this is the case, the indexical, in conjunction with the entire indexical segment, accesses a discourse representation bearing a focus level which conforms to its referential-semantic type. Such a discourse representation is not identical to the one introduced into the discourse by the explicit textual antecedent, where there is one: by the time it is re-accessed via an appropriate indexical, the intervening predication(s) which will have applied to that antecedent expression, where it is a nominal, will have modified that representation in certain specific ways. And the indexical segment as a whole will inevitably contribute a further specification to that representation once it has been integrated into its discourse context.
Aspectual Arguments: The Internal Roles
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The results of the previous chapter seem to indicate that a certain class of objects (the strong structural case-marked ones in de Hoop’s (1992) sense) are true individuated arguments of the verb, while others (the weak structural case-marked ones) are merely predicate modifiers. Intuitively, what this seems to be saying is that some objects are ‘real’ objects, while others are merely ‘pseudo’-objects. But what can this mean from the point of view of verb-argument composition, given that both sorts of object must be able to discharge an argument position? What I would like to argue in this chapter is that ‘real’ or ‘strong’ objects have a relationship with the temporal trace of the verbal event that ‘weak’ or ‘pseudo’-objects do not.
Aspect And The Verbal Noun
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter, I argued for a semantic formalisation of the particular role types and verb types that we find in natural language, and in SGaelic in particular. In this chapter I look more closely at the relationship between this system of role types and the syntactic structures of SGaelic. In particular I will examine the role of the aspectual particles and the verbal noun in constructing predication.