bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Study on enhancement of the turbulence around the spark timing by auxiliary injection during the compression process
Authors: Noh K C , Song Y S , Lee J T 
Published: October 2003

It has been found in a previous study that enhancing the turbulence intensity at the beginning or middle of the compression process and generating the strong turbulence at the end by the compression effect is desirable in order to create and maintain the high level of turbulence around the spark timing. This study aims at analysing and evaluating the auxiliary injection method for inducting the pressurized air at the beginning of the compression process to enhance the level of turbulence around the spark timing. An electronic solenoid valve is fitted to the auxiliary injection device for the purpose of active control of the in-cylinder turbulence characteristics. The level of in-cylinder turbulence with the auxiliary injection increases by about 40 per cent compared with a conventional engine. A desirable distribution of turbulence around spark timing with lower levels of turbulence around the spark plugs and cylinder wall and with a higher level near the half-radius of the cylinder is obtained by the auxiliary injection. Furthermore, the conditions suitable for injection are identified with respect to injection direction, injection pressure and injection timing.
Ariane Rocket Program
Authors: Vignelles Roger 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis article describes the circumstances that led Europe to go ahead with the Ariane Program in 1973 and subsequently to decide on a series of follow‐up versions, up to and including Ariane 5. The article also describes the main management principles adopted that have varied little in 20 years and includes brief details of the successive launcher configurations from Ariane 1 to Ariane 5.
Astrobiology
Authors: Morrison David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Astrobiology is a relatively new term that embraces the multidisciplinary study of the living Universe. It is the investigation of the origin, evolution, distribution, and destiny of life in the Universe. Astrobiology addresses some of the most profound questions of humankind.
Although the term had been used occasionally during previous decades as a synonym for “exobiology,” astrobiology in its present incarnation was proposed by NASA. NASA encouraged this new discipline by organizing workshops and technical meetings, establishing a NASA Astrobiology Institute, providing research funds to individual investigators, ensuring that astrobiology goals are incorporated in NASA flight missions, and initiating a program of public outreach and education. NASA's role is derived from its history of studying the origin of life and searching for evidence of life on Mars or elsewhere in our solar system. Under the umbrella of astrobiology, these efforts are expanded to include the search for life within other planetary systems, as well as investigating the response of terrestrial life to global changes on Earth and to exposure to conditions in space and in other worlds. Astrobiology addresses our origins and also our aspirations to become a space‐faring civilization.

The NASA Astrobiology road map provides an initial description of the technical content of astrobiology. This road map was formulated through a series of workshops and discussions. Astrobiology addresses three basic questions, which have been asked in some form for generations.

How does life begin and evolve? (Where did we come from?)

Does life exist elsewhere in the Universe? (Are we alone?)

What is life's future on Earth and beyond? (Where are we going in space?)

These are very general questions, and no one expects that definitive answers will be found easily. More specific is the analysis of astrobiology in terms of 10 long‐term science goals and each is addressed here.
Liquid‐Fueled Rockets
Authors: Rosen Robert , Glickstein Marvin , Joyner Russell 
Published: October 2003

AbstractSince the beginning of the space age, liquid‐fueled rockets have provided the basis of everything we have accomplished in space. Whether it has been the mighty F‐1, which powered Apollo to the Moon, or the workhorse RL‐10, or the high performance SSME, all of the major missions depend on liquid‐fueled propulsion. And as we move forward to the next generation systems, the success or failure of these systems will be intimately tied to the success of its liquid‐fuel propulsion system.The following discussion focuses on the design of liquid‐fueled rocket systems and examines the design choices that must be considered in integrating the propulsion system for a selected application. It is to be understood that liquid‐fueled systems refer to the oxidizer as well as the fuel and that both of these are carried aboard the vehicle.Today's liquid‐fueled rocket propulsion designs originate from the theories of a Russian, Konstain E. Tsiolkovsky, and from experiments performed by an American, Robert H. Goddard and a German, Herman Oberth. Goddard and Oberth made some of the first working liquid propellant rocket engines.A liquid‐fueled rocket propulsion system consists of a number of carefully integrated components that must be chosen and designed to function as part of the whole. The operation of an integrated system can best be viewed by identifying the required functions that must be satisfied and then considering the components that are chosen to fulfill these functions. The primary function of a rocket propulsion system is to produce thrust that accelerates the spacecraft to the final velocity required to achieve its goal. To produce a practical propulsion system, the integrated system must control the flow of propellants from the storage tanks, deliver them at the required pressures, and inject them into the combustor.Part of this article is structured around the subsystems of an engine. But it is important to keep in mind that these engines are highly coupled systems, from both the viewpoint of mechanical systems and fluid flow. An overview of some of the design issues are given to put things in perspective.
Space Resources, Occurrence and Uses
Authors: Lewis John S. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Space resources consist of all of the useful materials, energy sources, and energy found in space. For practical purposes, this article focuses on those resources that may be accessible within the next 25 years, and for which large‐scale demand is plausible. Therefore, the principal focus of this review is the bodies of nearby space: Earth's Moon, the planets Mercury and Mars, the two small Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos, and the near‐Earth population of asteroids and comets.
This article briefly surveys the significance and promise of space resources, including scientific and technical issues and the legal and regulatory regime surrounding their economic use. Current treaty obligations are reviewed, and some suggestions made regarding legislation and treaty language that would encourage the growth of this enormous new arena of economic activity, making vast new resources available to all.
Asteroids
Authors: Morrison David 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAsteroids are small members of the solar system in heliocentric orbits concentrated between Jupiter and Mars. Since most of them have orbits that are roughly similar to those of the planets (low inclination and eccentricity), they have sometimes been called minor planets, although this term is no longer in common use. More important is the distinction between asteroids and comets, where the primary difference is one of composition. Most asteroids are rocky objects, composed of the same sorts of materials as the inner planets. Comets, in contrast, contain a substantial quantity of water ice and other frozen volatiles in addition to silicates and organic compounds. However, there are ambiguities in terminology. Comets that make frequent passes around the Sun may lose their volatiles and become indistinguishable from rocky asteroids. In addition, there are many volatile‐rich objects being discovered in the outer solar system (beyond Neptune) that resist classification as either asteroids or comets. These are the Kuiper Belt Objects (KBOs).Asteroids are too faint to be visible to the unaided eye, so their discovery belongs to the era of telescopic astronomy.Our census of the larger asteroids is fairly complete by now, based primarily on ground‐based surveys, complemented by infrared space observations, such as those from the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) in 1983. It is likely that we have discovered all main‐belt asteroids 25 km or more in diameter, and discovery should be more than 50% complete for diameters down to 10 km. Ceres, the largest, has a diameter just under 1000 km. This article gives information on the physical and chemical properties of asteroids and their orbits. Also discussed are techniques for study of asteroids, including space missions, and the impact hazards of asteroids.
Space Shuttle Orbiter
Authors: Cohen Aaron , Silveira Milton A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This article gives details on the preliminary design considerations involving the Space Shuttle. Basic requirements and effects on design had to be studied. Since the Shuttle was entirely different from any other spacecrafts, engineering teams had to be organized.
The reusable main engine was a major advance in rocket engineering and development of the main engine is discussed. Orbiter specifications are given. Various orbiter systems include: Crew compartments, Guidance, Navigation control, Hydraulics, Auxillary power unit, Communications, Environmental control, Life support, Payload deployment, Payload retrieval systems.

The first Space Shuttle vehicle was the
Enterprise
, and it was not intended to fly. The orbiter was launched from a Boeing 747.
Columbia
was the first Space Shuttle to be completed and flew for the first time in 1981. Space Shuttles have flown more than 100 missions. Many studies have been conducted to consider replacements for the Shuttle. No system has shown promise yet.
Exploration of the Moon by Soviet Spacecraft
Authors: Basilevsky Alexander T. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractLaunches of Soviet spacecraft to the Moon started on 2 January 1959, only 15 months after the launch of the first Sputnik. The full list of missions to the Moon is given. It includes all officially declared Soviet lunar missions. According to some sources there were also several failed Soviet attempts to send spacecraft to the Moon, when for various reasons, spacecraft stayed in Earth orbit or failed even earlier. They have never been officially recognized by the Soviet Union as lunar missions, and this is why they are not mentioned here. In total, there were 29 Soviet missions to the Moon. Of them, 20 were successful, one was partly successful, and eight missions failed. Twenty‐four missions were named Luna (the Moon, in Russian); five missions were named Zond (probe, in Russian). All Soviet missions to the Moon were robotic, although there was a program of Soviet manned flights to the Moon, which was canceled in the late 1960s because of failures of the heavy booster rocket necessary for those flights.It is necessary to mention that in the 1960s–1970s, when the Soviet Union sent spacecraft to the Moon, the space activity of both the Soviet Union and the United States was strongly politically motivated. The Soviet Union, by sending numerous lunar missions, wanted to demonstrate the superiority of its political system. The Apollo mission to the Moon, the backbone of the U.S. space program of that time, was a response to the challenge of Soviet space activity.This article gives details on the various Soviet missions and there findings.
Military Ground Control Centers, United States
Authors: Mortensen Adam L. , Worden Simon P. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCurrent military space operations centers grew out of 1950s and early 1960s facilities and missions—some of those missions were quite different from those of today. The military is quite conservative when it comes to innovation and modernization. And nowhere is this more evident than in space operations. The watchword is evolutionary, not revolutionary. Thus, a facility, and even its hardware, has often been adapted from a previous mission in the same facility. Because the old mission, often critical to national security, must continue as new missions are brought on, old hardware and procedures are replaced only when new technologies and hardware are well proven. Similarly, organizations responsible for military space missions tend to be adapted from older, often quite different missions and organizations. In recent years, this is particularly evident in the U.S. Air Force's space organizations that are steadily being evolved out of and in a way that mimics air operations. Organizations such as the Air Force Space Command's 50th Space Wing, the operator of much of the Service's on‐orbit satellites, is organized exactly as a flying wing, complete with the assumption of a unit name. As this article unfolds, the reader should keep this conservatism and legacy in mind.The U.S. military currently maintains ground control centers for three related missions: early warning, space surveillance/space control, and on‐orbit satellite operations. Early warning and space surveillance/space control evolved from the North American Air Defense mission developed jointly by the United States and Canada in the 1950s, culminating in the construction of the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) Combat Operations Center (COC) in the early 1960s. On‐orbit satellite operations centers have a different pedigree. Shrouded in secrecy during most of the Cold War, these facilities began as control centers for the United States space‐based intelligence collection mission. As such, they were originally developed and largely operated by the still secretive National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). To understand current military operations centers, it is necessary to understand the history of these missions and organizations. This history is the focus of this article. The future of the military use of space is discussed.
Uranus and Neptune
Authors: Sromovsky Lawrence A. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractUranus and Neptune, were the first planets discovered by telescopic observation. They are of Jovian Planets similar size and much more massive than Earth (by factors of 14.5 and 17) but are still far less massive than Jupiter (by factors of 22 and 18). Both have deep atmospheres dominated by hydrogen, but unlike Jupiter and Saturn, most of their mass consists of rocky and icy components, which are in fluid form due to high interior temperatures. Both have ring systems, a diverse system of satellites, unusual tilted and offset magnetic fields, and similar atmospheric circulations. Their blue colors distinguish them from the pale tans of Jupiter and Saturn. But they also differ significantly from each other; they have very different obliquities (spin axis inclinations relative to their orbital planes), vastly different internal heat fluxes, and remarkably different weather patterns. These simularities and differences are discussed in detail in this article.
Military Use of Space
Authors: Menshikov Valeriy A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Starting at the very beginning and continuing until now, one of a nation's objectives for the conquest of space is to obtain military strategic advantages by using such unique features of space as extraterritoriality, global access, unique physical conditions, and a number of others. Thus, in the late twentieth century, the revolutionary development of humanity's new technological capacities inexorably moved the world into a new phase of geopolitical confrontation — the race to attain strategic advantages in space, which, in turn, made military operations in space one of the most important ways to ensure national security. This implies that the significance of various arenas of confrontation will change in the twenty‐first century; space will grow considerably in importance as the arena for attaining the objectives of armed conflict. The world's leading nations thus accord space a special position in contemporary military doctrine and approaches to national security.
The U.S. and Russia both have formulated strategies for the use of space in the interest of national security. Colaboration in space is also considered.
Russian Spaceports
Authors: Kuznetsov Alexander N. , Dedus Alexander F. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Russia's spaceports (launch sites) serve as the basis for all Russian activities in space, enabling an independent policy in exploration and use of outer space. They comprise a number of facilities, equipment, and land areas designed for receiving, storing, assembling, testing, prelaunch preparation, and launching rockets with spacecraft. Depending on its location, a spaceport may have one or several launch azimuths along which tracking stations are located.
The major facilities at spaceports are the launch and technical maintenance complexes, the fueling and decontamination stations, landing complexes, storage facilities of various types, launch debris impact areas, and telemetry monitoring stations. In addition, spaceports have plants for producing rocket propellants, airports, railroads, motor vehicle roads and various supply lines, as well as living quarters and social amenities.
Now Russia has three spaceports on its territory: Plesetsk, Kapustin Yar and Svobodnyy and, in addition, uses the Baikonur spaceport, which it acquired on a 20 year lease from the Republic of Kazakhstan in 1994. A map of these spaceport locations is provided.
Russia's Launch Vehicles
Authors: Kuznetsov Alexander N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The history of cosmonautics and rocket building in Russia may be considered to have begun at the start of the twentieth century. The founder of these disciplines was the great Russian scientist K.E. Tsiolkovsky; major theoretical contributions were made by F.A. Tsander and Yu. V. Kondratyuk. Even in the prewar years, experimental work was being conducted to develop rocket technology for a number of purposes. Early research resulted in the development of the world's best volley fire (Katyusha) and aircraft missile systems. At the same time, experimental, jet aircraft and liquid‐fueled guided missiles were being designed and developed. The production facilities and supporting fundamental and applied science for these areas developed rapidly, serving as the basis for the start of the powerful space and rocket industry in the 1950s. This article details the history of Russia's development of launch vehicles.
The current system of launch vehicles evolved during the process of addressing a whole set of tasks through design and use of previously developed military rocket and space complexes. Light class, intermediate, and heavy class vehicles are discussed. Specifications and modifications of Soyuz‐type vehicles are given. The future of Russian development is discussed. Among others, the Angara is a heavy launch vehicle under development. Reusable launch vehicles and transport systems are the focal points of future development.
Capacitive Probe Microscopy
Authors: Kopanski Joseph J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractA scanning capacitance microscope (SCM) combines a differential capacitance measurement with an atomic force microscope (AFM). The AFM controls the position and contact force of a scanning probe tip, and a sensor simultaneously measures the capacitance between that tip and the sample under test. The capacitance sensor can detect very small (≈10−21F) changes in capacitance. The sensor is electrically connected to an AFM cantilevered tip that has been coated with metal to make it electrically conductive. As the SCM/AFM tip is scanned across the sample surface, simultaneous images of topography and differential capacitance are obtained.Currently, the most common application of SCM is imaging the carrier concentration variations (also known as dopant profiles) qualitatively within transistors that are part of silicon integrated circuits (ICs).Another application that has encouraged the development of commercial SCMs is the need for quantitative two‐dimensional (2‐D) carrier profiling of silicon transistors.This article reviews the history, operating principles, and applications of SCM. Special emphasis is placed on measuring quantitative 2‐D carrier profiles in silicon using SCM. This article also reviews implementation and applications of the scanning capacitance spectroscopy (SCS) technique, the intermittent contact mode of SCM (or IC‐SCM), and two other techniques that can also be classified as scanning capacitance probes: the scanning Kelvin probe microscope (SKPM), when operated at twice its drive frequency, and the scanning microwave microscope (SMWM).
Color Image Processing
Authors: Castleman Kenneth R. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe objects in a visual scene differ not only in brightness, and also in the spectral characteristics of the light that emanates from them. This is true whether they generate light themselves, as in astronomy and fluorescence microscopy, or if they merely reflect a portion of the incident illumination. The human eye responds to their overall brightness, but to the spectral content of the emanation as well. We refer to this perceptual phenomenon as “color vision.” This article addresses color image processing, which is the digital image processing counterpart of color vision.Several systems have been developed for specifying color. They derive mainly from the large body of work that has been done on the international standardization of television transmission methodology by standards organizations. A few of the more important color systems are listed.For image processing purposes, some techniques are naturally more successful when carried out in one system or the other. It is, thus, useful to be able to convert between rectangular (RGB) and cylindrical color coordinates.Sometimes, a digitized color image is obtained without the proper balance between the red, green, and blue components, or the RGB values may not truly represent the characteristics of the scene. In this case it may be necessary to perform a color correction step prior to processing or display, such as color image calibration, color image enhancement, segmentation, measurement, and display.
Endoscopy
Authors: Vakil Nimish , Affi Abboud 
Published: October 2003

AbstractEndoscopy is an imaging method that is used to visualize the interior of human organs. The widest application of endoscopy is in the gastrointestinal tract. Specialized instruments have been developed to image specific gastrointestinal organs. Gastroscopes, which are passed through the mouth, are used to examine the esophagus, the stomach, and the duodenum. Enteroscopes, also through the mouth, are specially designed to examine the small intestine. Colonoscopes, passed through the anal orifice, are used to examine the lower gastrointestinal tract. There are two major classes of instruments, fiber‐optic endoscopes that consisting of a bundle of coaxial fiber‐optic bundles or electronic endoscopes that rely on a charge coupled device. The electronic endoscope consists of a charge‐coupled device that transmits an electronic signal resulting in an image that is visualized on a television monitor. Modern endoscopes, whether electronic or fiber‐optic contain three systems: (1) a mechanical system used to deflect the endoscope tip, (2) a system of air/water and biopsy/suction channels with controls. Insufflation of air is important to distend the walls of the organ being studied. Suction capabilities allow the aspiration of contents from the gastrointestinal tract for examination. In other cases, fluid in the gastrointestinal tract obscures the view and suction allows the fluid to be aspirated away. (3) The imaging system which may be fiber‐optic or electronic is used to visualize tissue. The most frequent reasons for which endoscopy is performed and the organs that are visualized are listed. Examples of endoscopic images are given.