bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Calibration
Authors: Lippmann Morton 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Proper interpretation of any environmental measurement depends on an appreciation of its accuracy, precision, and whether it is representative of the condition or exposure of interest. This chapter is concerned primarily with the accuracy and precision of industrial hygiene measurements. Although considerations of the location, duration, and frequency of measurements may be equally or even more important in the evaluation of potential hazards, they require knowledge of the process variables, the kinds of hazard and/or toxic effect that may result from exposures, and their temporal variations. Such considerations, which require the exercise of professional judgment, are beyond the scope of this chapter.
The accuracy of a given measurement depends on a variety of different factors including the sensitivity of the analytical method, its specificity for the agent or energy being measured, the interferences introduced by cocontaminants or other radiant energies, and the changes in response resulting from variations in ambient conditions or instrument power levels. In some cases the influence of these variables can be defined by laboratory calibration, providing a basis for correcting a field sample or instrument reading response. In cases such as the effect of variable line voltage on an instrument's response, they can be avoided by modifications in the circuitry or by the addition of a constant voltage transformer. When the effects of the interferences cannot be controlled or well defined, it may still be desirable to make field measurements, especially in range‐finding and exploratory surveys. The interpretation of any such measurements is greatly aided by an appreciation of the extent of the uncertainties. Laboratory calibrations can provide the basis for such an appreciation.
It is important to document the nature and frequency of calibrations and calibration checks to meet legal as well as scientific requirements. Measurements made to document the presence or absence of excessive exposures are only as reliable as the calibrations upon which they are based. Formalized calibration audit procedures established by federal agencies provide a basis for quality assurance where they apply. They can also provide a systematic framework for developing appropriate calibration procedures for situations not governed by specific reporting requirements.
State and local air monitoring networks that are collecting data for compliance purposes are required to have an external performance audit on an annual basis.
Ionizing Radiation
Authors: Cember Herman 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Ionizing radiation may be defined as electromagnetic (X‐rays and gamma rays) and particle radiation (alpha and beta particles, electrons, neutrons, and protons) with sufficient energy to disrupt an atom or a molecule. This is done by knocking out an electron, thereby “ionizing” the atom or molecule.
Knowledge of radiation and safety problems associated with its use goes back more than 100 years, with the discovery, in 1895, of X‐rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. On the same day that Roentgen announced his discovery, Emile Grubbe, a physicist working in Chicago with an apparatus similar to Roentgen's, developed severe skin burns after handling an energized cathode ray tube similar to the one used by Roentgen. This was the first work‐related injury from radiation. In 1896, Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity while working with an ore called pitchblende. Investigation revealed three different radiations that originated in the ore. Becquerel called these radiations alpha, beta, and gamma rays. (Later investigations showed that X‐rays and gamma rays were the same type of radiation.)
The discovery of these radiations opened new fields of scientific investigation and uses for these radiations. Parallel with the studies of the physics and chemistry of radiation and radioactive materials were researches into their biomedical effects. With this expanded use of radiation there were further reports of harmful effects, such as skin burns and hair loss when X‐rays were used in medical diagnosis. In 1899 the first case of a cancer, a basal cell carcinoma on a woman's face was cured by X‐rays. In 1906, two French physiologists, Bergonie and Tribendeau, published their classical paper on the relative radiosensitivity of different cells and tissues. They found that the less differentiated a cell was, and the more frequently it divided, the more radiosensitive it was. From then until now, we have found nothing to contradict their observations. However, much is understood now about the molecular biology basis for their findings. Since then, an enormous amount of information on the nature of the interaction of radiation with living tissue, and on the dose–effect and dose–response relationships has been amassed. Sources of information, such as the experiences of the radium dial painters, early radiologists, and the uranium miners, showed that occupational overexposures led to harmful effects. Other major sources of information include the populations that had been medically exposed to diagnostic and therapeutic radiation, the survivors of the atomic bombings in Japan, radiation accidents, epidemiological studies of populations exposed to low level radiation from nuclear facilities and from natural background. This body of knowledge forms the scientific basis for the radiation safety standards currently in use. After radiation safety guidelines were developed, occupational exposures that were within the radiation safety guidelines did not lead to harmful biomedical effects.
Biohazards and Occupational Disease
Authors: Heinsohn Patricia A. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Microbes inhabit every environmental niche on the earth, and some have adapted to survival under extremely harsh conditions. Most do not cause disease in humans or animals. Indeed, they have many beneficial uses. Fungi can deteriorate organic materials, including, textiles, leather, wood, foods, paper, and paint. Molds synthesize chemical reagents and medicines and are used in food fermentation, pest control, and other industrial processes. This chapter deals only with microorganisms that can cause occupational disease.
Potential Exposures In the Manufacturing Industry—Their Recognition and Control
Authors: Burgess William A. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThe conventional approach in an introduction of the occupational health practitioner to the health hazards in industry is to provide an industry by industry check list of the major chemical and physical exposures and the available control methods. This approach is not used in this chapter. Rather, a limited number of operations are presented in some detail with the topics weighted toward metal, chemical, and rubber products. Although the selection represents only a fraction of the major industrial workplaces, the issues that are identified can be used to evaluate health risks in many other work settings. Where possible, comments are made on the health status of today's workforce, and if exposure data are available, summary information is noted. Although the details of control approaches cannot be presented in this brief review, the proven control techniques are cited.
Industrial Hygienist's Liability Under Law
Authors: Allan Ralph E. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
The complex area of toxic‐substance law and regulation is one of the fastest growing areas of the law, and industrial hygiene activity is an inherent component of this exploding legal area. Society is mandating that irresponsibility in reference to toxic substance management be dealt with immediately in order to protect the current and future health of the earth's population. The occupational and environmental health issues are complex and in many instances rest largely upon inferences derived at the very frontiers of science and technology. Lawyers and courts assume their roles in adjudicating complex social issues not easily resolvable whether dealing in the areas of administrative, civil, or criminal law. It is therefore important that the industrial hygienist in the process of anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of health hazards in the workplace and community understand their responsibility in the legal system in order to assist more favorably in unraveling some of the most complicated legal issues that have ever needed resolution in our society.
The practice of industrial hygiene has dramatically changed since the early days of the profession. At one time, the industrial hygienist had to be concerned only about being able to recognize the factors and stresses associated with work and work operations and to understand their effects on humans and their well‐being; to evaluate, on the basis of experience and with the aid of quantitative measurement techniques, the magnitude of these stresses in terms of the ability to impair health and well‐being; and to prescribe methods to eliminate, control, or reduce such stresses when necessary to alleviate their adverse effects. Presently, environmental and safety responsibilities have added to traditional industrial hygiene practice, creating some uncertainty in the basic definition of industrial hygiene practice. In order to assist in clarifying the definition of industrial hygiene practice, the American Industrial Hygiene Association is launching a broad project to document guidelines and standards of good practice aimed at helping industrial hygiene professionals in their everyday practice.
Presently, not only must an industrial hygienist perform his or her duties with the ever‐present thought that whatever is done may become the subject of litigation, but he or she also must deal with an ever‐expanding definition of industrial hygiene functions and responsibilities. Needless to say, it is not sufficient to do just an adequate job. Industrial hygienists are in a position to practice one of the most interesting areas of professional interaction in an ever‐changing professional environment. In addition to the actual performance of the work and the understanding of the legal parameters related to the work, elements of importance include the definition, standards of practice, and the Code of Ethics for industrial hygiene.
The History and Biological Basis of Occupational Exposure Limits for Chemical Agents
Authors: Paustenbach Dennis J. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractOver the past 50 years, many organizations in numerous countries have proposed occupational exposure limits (OEL) for airborne contaminants. The limits or guidelines that have gradually become the most widely accepted both in the United States and in most other countries are those issued annually by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and are termed Threshold Limit Values® (TLVs).The usefulness of establishing OELs for potentially harmful agents in the working environment has been demonstrated repeatedly since their inception. It has been claimed that whenever these limits have been implemented in a particular industry, no worker has been shown to have sustained serious adverse effects on his health as a result of exposure to these concentrations of an industrial chemical. Although this statement is arguable with respect to the acceptability of OELs for those chemicals established before 1980 and later found to be carcinogenic, there is little doubt that hundreds of thousands of persons have avoided serious effects of workplace exposure due to their existence.The contribution of OELs to the prevention or minimization of disease is widely accepted, but for many years such limits did not exist, and even when they did, they were often not observed.Although it is not possible for any single book chapter to discuss how each of the various biological issues that need to be considered when establishing an OEL should be quantitatively accounted for, most of them have at least been generally addressed here. It should be clear from the discussion that the process for setting OELs remains remarkably similar to those that were used in the late 1940s but that the quality and quantity of data used to set these limits, as well as the methodology, has evolved with our increased level of scientific understanding. It is also clear that as occupational health professionals develop a better understanding of toxicology and medicine, techniques for quantitatively accounting for pharmacokinetic differences among chemicals, and better knowledge of the mechanisms of action of toxicants, more refined approaches for identifying safe levels of exposure will be developed. Hopefully, the end result will be that future occupational exposure limits will be based on the best scientific principles and, therefore, our confidence that workers will be protected at these limits will be even greater than it is today.
Health Promotion In the Workplace
Authors: Toeppen-Sprigg B. , Schmidt K. , Hart A. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract

Worksite health promotion programs first appeared in industry during the 1970s. Interest in these programs has grown exponentially since then. In the late 1970s and early 1980s less than 5% of employers had employee health promotion programs. The 1992
National Survey of Worksite Health Promotion Program Activities
revealed that 81% of workplaces offered at least one health promotion initiative, compared to 66% at the time of the previous survey in 1985. The majority of the companies with health promotion programs stated that health care cost containment and improved worker health and safety were the primary goals of their health promotion programs. It is unclear how many of these programs attained their stated goals. Indeed, only 12% of the companies surveyed reported that they conducted a formal program evaluation.

The purpose of this chapter is to present a broad overview of the concept and application of outcome‐based worksite health promotion. The theory behind worksite health promotion is reviewed, including the definitions of health and health promotion and the theoretical frameworks that attempt to explain how people decide whether or not to participate in these programs. Worksite health promotion is defined and several program‐planning models discussed.
Following this review of the basics, there is a discussion of outcome analysis as a means to evaluate the effectiveness of worksite programs. Several examples of successful health promotion programs within industry are reviewed. The chapter concludes with an overview of the trends that will affect the delivery of health promotion services in the future and suggested approaches to address these challenges.
Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems
Authors: Redinger Charles F. , Levine Steven P. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
As organizations become globally integrated, occupational health and safety (OHS) professionals are forced to focus on the strategic management of their organizations. In this environment, new approaches to OHS integration with business functions and performance measurement become critical. Compliance with varying national regulations is a challenging starting point. International consensus standards add an increasingly interesting dimension to this challenge. For OHS professionals to play a key role in their organizations, they need to understand existing management system approaches, know how to develop and implement such systems, and understand the conformity‐assessment structures that affect these systems.
The objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of necessary information to understanding OHS management system issues. Various aspects of formal occupational health and safety management systems (OHSMS) and conformity assessment structures are addressed. The topics contained here are important to industrial hygienists as increased emphasis is being placed on strategic management and “beyond compliance” strategies to reduce OHS injuries, illness, and fatalities.
Business Analysis for Health and Safety Professionals—The State of the Art
Authors: Birkner Lawrence R. , Brandt Michael T. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Increasingly, environmental, health, and safety (EHS) practitioners are reporting that it is becoming more difficult to sell investments in health and safety, and environmental management. Global competition, government downsizing—including ongoing efforts to re‐engineer Safety and Health regulatory agencies and their underlying legislation changes in technology, and the overall drive by organizations to improve operating efficiency have placed added pressure on EHS practitioners. This pressure manifests itself by placing increased financial accountability on all staff functions, including EHS.
Business, economics, and environmental management literature have increasingly devoted space for articles concerning such topics as performance measures, quality management, cost control and management, cost and benefit analyses, environmental liabilities, business and environmental management integration, EHS management systems, and EHS performance and the valuation of firms, among many other topics. It is clear that the expectations of senior executives for EHS performance have changed. EHS practitioners must continue to come to the workplace with exceptional academic education and training in the sciences and engineering, but business and communication tools are also needed to successfully meet the new performance challenges.
This chapter presents the basic concepts of financial and quality management tools to plan, manage, measure, and control EHS activities, so they may be considered as investments and not pure cost. The goal of this chapter is to demonstrate that EHS practitioners can begin to integrate their technical disciplines into the “business of business”. In some cases, the business and financial tools presented are not commonly used by EHS organizations today. In such instances, the discussion focuses on advantages and benefits of using such tools. By using the tools presented in this chapter practitioners will be better able to manage EHS activities to drive improved EHS performance and to facilitate greater line management interest and involvement in this critical business function. These tools are useful to all EHS practitioners, regardless of whether they organizationally reside in private, public or nonprofit sectors of the economy.
Industrial Hygiene Education, Training, and Information Exchange
Authors: George Dennis K. , Flynn Michael R. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract

As defined by the American Industrial Hygiene Association, industrial hygiene is principally an applied discipline dedicated to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of environmental factors or stresses arising in the occupational environment that may cause sickness, impaired health and well‐being, or significant discomfort among workers or among citizens of the community. These factors or stresses may be chemical (e.g., solvents, heavy metals), physical (e.g., noise, heat stress), biological (e.g., bloodborne pathogens, tuberculosis), or ergonomic (e.g., manual materials handling, repetitive motion) in nature and may arise in virtually any sector of the occupational environment. Practitioners in the field of industrial hygiene must be able to:

Identify situations in the workplace that pose a potential threat of adverse consequences to employee health and well‐being,

Determine the nature and extent of this risk through extensive investigation of all pertinent background information and qualitative and quantitative assessment of the environmental stressors involved,

Judge the acceptability or unacceptability of the risk upon careful observation of all relevant factors and thorough analysis of all pertinent qualitative and quantitative data.

Design and implement adequate measures of remediation for those situations posing unacceptable risk.

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to various outlets for industrial hygiene education, training, and information exchange. It is intended to provide guidance for those seeking their first degree in industrial hygiene, those wishing to update their educational credentials, and for those attempting to identify resources enabling them to remain regularly updated and informed on responsible and ethical industrial hygiene practice. For the purposes of this chapter, the word “education” is used to refer to the acquisition of knowledge in a formal, academic setting, typically occurring in the context of a college or university curriculum and ultimately leading to the award of a formal degree. The process of pursing information outside of an academic, “degree‐seeking” program of study is termed training, continuing education, or professional development. This avenue encompasses a wide variety of information delivery systems and formats such as seminars, workshops, short courses, self‐paced/self‐study courses, etc. A brief discussion of various mechanisms and forums of information exchange such as printed materials (e.g., journals), personal interactions (e.g., conferences, meetings), and electronic interfaces (e.g., listserves, web pages, etc.) is also included. Please note that this material is by no means exhaustive. The reader is encouraged to consider this chapter as a beginning point for further exploration.
Environmental Control In the Workplace: Water, Food, Insects, and Rodents
Authors: Shapiro Maurice A. , Barron Gerald M. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Environmental control consists of maintaining and improving the general environment of the workplace. Exposures to pathogenic organisms and toxic substances in the environment, e.g., in drinking water, can and do lead to illness among employees. Moreover, an industrial establishment which provides its workers with a food service lacking sanitary food handling facilities and practices that afford protection, invites the possible disaster of widespread foodborne infection. Discussions include provisions of a safe, potable, and adequate water supply; assurance of a safe food supply; control and elimination of insects and rodents; general environmental control; maintenance of general cleanliness, and the environmental engineer in industry.