bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Disabilities
Authors: Brody Howard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In October, 2004, I was moved to offer an apology. When the case of David Rivlin was heard by a Michigan court in the 1980s, I had thought of it at the time as a typical “right to refuse life-sustaining treatment” case, such that all right-thinking individuals would support the principle of respect for patient autonomy. After I had become better sensitized to some of the concerns raised by advocates for persons with disabilities, I regretted my initial reaction. It now seemed more plausible to me that Rivlin might have wished to remain alive, even with quadriplegia and ventilator-dependent, if only he could have received better and more humane services that would have given him some meaningful options for living his life.
The Russian Occupation
Authors: Tec Nechama 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The air was filled with enthusiastic shouts, laughter, and handclapping. Here and there a flower could be seen flying, as if searching for a safe landing. The crowd and the flowers were welcoming the Soviet soldiers who, whether walking or sitting on top of military vehicles, seemed surprised, perhaps even embarrassed by the tumultuous greetings. Some smiled, others waved tentatively. Most just looked ahead as they passed the lines of excited people. The Russians had not expected such a reception. After all, they had come uninvited. To the beleaguered Polish government their presence was a hostile act closely identified with Germany’ s 1939 attack.
The Partisan Network
Authors: Tec Nechama 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After being exposed to German terror, the Jews in Western Belorussia remembered the Soviet occupation as being the “good old days.” They would ask, “Since the Russians were good to us in the past why should the Soviet partisans not be good to us now? Now that we have a common enemy, the USSR has even more reason to protect us.” Jews expected the Russians to help. Even independent and apolitical people like Tuvia Bielski waited for this to happen. For quite some time, however, no one in his otriad hadmet these likely protectors. In the meantime, as the group grew, it had to contend with different kinds of dangers.
Building a Forest Community
Authors: Tec Nechama 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the manhunt behind them, the Soviet partisan leaders were eager to reestablish order. Through this reorganization they had intended to get a firmer grip on the different partisan groups in the area. The Bielski otriad, caught in this effort to reorganize, became officially attached to the Kirov brigade. Vasiliev, its head, had special plans for the Bielski partisans. Tuvia was told that his unit would get a Russian deputy and a Russian Chief of Staff. He recalls that “ in the guise of ‘ advice’ we were asked to send all of our ‘ non-fighters’ to the Nalibocka forest. The fighters would remain here and would from time to time send food to the families in the forest. I realized that our independence was being seriously threatened. All kinds of thoughts occurred to me. Perhaps I should detach myself from the brigade and leave the area?” But Tuvia knew that headquarters would not tolerate this kind of disobedience— they would probably kill him. And if this happened his people would be unprotected.
Keeping Order
Authors: Tec Nechama 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“ Put a partisan’ s jacket on the ground and it will begin to walk.” 1 Lice, the permanent inhabitants of partisan garments, were credited with this unexpected motion. Overcrowding, no change of clothes, and limited washing—all acted as an invitation to these insidious pests. Lice are stubborn. Once they establish residence they are difficult to dislodge. Inevitably, filth and lice lead to disease. Aware of this connection, Tuvia supported those who could improve the otriad’ s cleanliness. Because Riva Reich qualified for such work he assigned her to double duty: nursing and sanitary inspection of the camp. Every morning she walked through the otriad checking its hygiene. When she finished this overall survey, she stepped inside the kitchen and into several ziemlankas. But Riva was only one of several women who took turns watching over the camp’ s cleanliness.
From Self-Preservation to Rescue
Authors: Tec Nechama 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People who are exposed to extreme dangers may be paralyzed into inaction. Whether this occurs is in part contingent on the extent to which they define a situation as hopeless. As a rule, fighting requires hope, yet hope tends to fade with grave dangers. Those who have been sentenced to death tend to give up hope. Yet hope dies reluctantly. For some individuals condemned to death even a slim chance of survival turns the wish to live into an all-consuming passion. During the Nazi occupation, among the Jews in Western Belorussia, a clinging to hope and life was expressed in a variety of ways.
Benjamin Franklin, Jonathan Edwards, and the Problem of Human Nature
Authors: Edwards Jonathan , Lincoln Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Reason should govern Passion, but instead of that, you see, it is often subservient to it.” So ran the conventional wisdom of the eighteenth century, in this case stated by Sir Richard Steele in The Spectator. Throughout the eighteenth century, the Western world typically thought of human nature in terms of a model of faculties or powers. The “active powers,” which collectively composed the “will,” supplied the motives prompting human action. The most common version of eighteenth-century faculty psychology arranged these powers in a hierarchical sequence. First in order of precedence came the rational faculties of the will: conscience (or the moral sense) and prudence (or self-interest). Below them were the emotional springs of action, called either by the approving term “affections” or the more derogatory word “passions,” as the context might dictate. Still further down were mechanical impulses like reflexes, not subject to conscious control at all. The hierarchical structure of human nature, explained a later number of The Spectator, corresponded to humanity’s intermediate position in the great chain of being, partly divine, partly animal.
Iris Young and the Gendering of Phenomenology
Authors: Bartky Sandra Lee 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Western philosophers have until very lately assigned a lower ontological status to the body than to those other aspects of the person which have the task of holding this body, prone as it is to epistemological error and moral weakness, in check; higher than the body, hence authorized to police it, have been nous, mind, spirit, soul, rational intuition. Women, thought to be more in thrall to the body than the mind, have been correspondingly depreciated.
Iris Marion Young: Between Phenomenology and Structural Injustice
Authors: Mann Bonnie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A few months before her death, I had the honor of hosting a visit by Iris Marion Young to the University of Oregon. Young was focused, luminous, and generous presenting two papers on the topic of structural injustice; and annoyed by our department’s interest in her phenomenological work on embodiment. I, in turn, was somewhat impatient with her annoyance. Many of us considered her to have done more in her essays on female body experience than any other philosopher since Beauvoir to force open the question of female embodiment.
L’Imagination au pouvoir: Comparing John Rawls’s Method of Ideal Theory with Iris Marion Young’s Method of Critical Theory
Authors: Jaggar Alison M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After Iris Marion Young’s untimely death, celebrations of her life and work were organized by many philosophical communities of which she had been a beloved member. At one celebration, organized by the Radical Philosophy Association in November 2006, Kevin Graham observed that Young had come of age in the philosophical world that Rawls had built but that her work had transformed Rawls’s world. In this paper, I suggest that Young’s transformative contributions were made possible—though certainly not guaranteed—by her method of critical theory.
Iris Young’s Last Thoughts on Responsibility for Global Justice
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At her untimely death, Iris Young left the manuscript of a mostly completed book, called Responsibility for Justice. I am extremely grateful to Dave Alexander for allowing me to read the manuscript. I feel privileged for having been able to see this book so early in its career. It is a major book, one of her very best things. Iris did not have time to complete it as she would have wished. Many footnotes remain to be filled in. One crucial chapter still takes the form of an independent paper on Hannah Arendt, and it was Iris’s plan to integrate the argument of that paper fully into the book, with a consequently diminished focus on the exegesis of Arendt’s ideas. But it is clear that she intended some version of the paper to be the third chapter of the book. A separate paper on Fanon on historic injustice, which discusses the question of reparations for slavery, remains less clearly placed in the project as a whole. It discusses similar questions in a similar way, but it does not contribute a missing piece to the argument, and thus it may in the end function as an Appendix rather than a chapter. Finally, Dave tells me that in revising Iris always attended to clarity, rewriting a good deal to make her ideas more accessible and transparent to her readers. I find the existing manuscript extremely clear, but Dave feels that she would have worked even further on that aspect.
Introduction
Authors: Arjomand Saïd Amir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Iran has not ceased to surprise the world since the American ambassador’s famous “thinking the unthinkable” 1978 cable about the imminent fall of the Shah and the coming of the Islamic revolution. The apparent sequence of moderate government under President Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani (1989–1997) and democratic reform under President Mohammad Khatami (1997–2005) was followed by a spectacular reversal no one foresaw. The hardliners returned to capture the Majles (Iranian parliament) in the national elections of 2004, and one of their leaders, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, beat a former President (Hashemi-Rafsanjani) and two much better known reformist candidates in the presidential elections of 2005. President Ahmadinejad (2005–2009) has revived the revolutionary populism of old, now coupled with an aggressive foreign policy, including a nuclear program. Iran’s political regime has proved remarkably resilient through all these changes, despite the disaffection of the younger half of the population. And the regime has become all the more robust and defiant internationally, partly as a result of the Bush administration’s ill-advised bluff about regime change from 2002 onward.
Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution
Authors: Arjomand Saïd Amir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the undisputed leader of the islamic revolution and the founder and charismatic leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) from 1979 to 1989, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini set the direction of post-revolutionary developments in the two decades after his death. Iran has remained firmly in the hands of Khomeini’s followers, the children of the Islamic revolution, and his successors who inherited the IRI have continued along one of the several paths he broke or adumbrated.
When Khomeini overthrew the monarchy in 1979, he was already an old man. His Islamic revolutionary rhetoric was of course directed against Mohammad Reza Shah and the United States, but his formation predated the advent of both the last Shah and the United States on the Iranian scene, as did the preoccupations that made him a revolutionary when he was already an aging Grand Ayatollah (Sign of God).Shi’ism had by the beginning of the nineteenth century developed an independent hierocracy (religious institution) that constituted one of the two powers in Iran’s authority structure, the other power being the monarchy—the state under the Shah.
Iran’s New Political Class and the Ahmadinejad Presidency (2005–2009)
Authors: Arjomand Saïd Amir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ahmadinejad as a lay member of the second stratum of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) kisses the hand of the Supreme Jurist, something his two predecessors as the latter’s clerical colleagues and Khomeini’s disciples never did. This symbolic gesture of class subordination has left its mark on the psyche of Ahmadinejad and has been compensated for by an assertive and strong presidency and by disdain toward members of his own hardliner faction of the new political class, especially those who have formed the Majles majority. He has also found supernatural support from the Hidden Imam, of whose imminent reappearance Ahmadinejad is convinced. (According to the Shi’ite creed, the Twelfth Imam went into occultation in the ninth century and will return at the End of Time to save the world.) Ahmadinejad’s election in 2005 was conditioned by the rise of the military-security second stratum of Iran’s new political class and reflects its aspirations. It is as a representative of the hardliners from the second stratum that he has contested the pragmatist and the reformist definitions of Khomeini’s heritage in seeking to articulate the consciousness of this new political class and its aspiration to rule Iran indefinitely. His alternative definition of Khomeini’s heritage highlights what was left unclaimed by the previous two groups of the children of the Islamic revolution: populism, social justice, and unflinching loyalty to the martyrs of the revolution and war. He is thus a throwback to the early days of revolution.
Khomeini’s Successor: Ayatollah Khamenei as the Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran
Authors: Arjomand Saïd Amir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the presidents of the islamic republic of iran have changed, there has been remarkable stability at the apex of the Islamic order, with Ayatollah Sayyed ‘Ali Khamenei having served as the Leader and Supreme Jurist since Khomeini’s death. The gradual extension of Ayatollah Khamenei’s control over the political, judiciary, and economic institutions was the counterpart to the progressive marginalization of Hashemi-Rafsanjani in the mid-1990s and to the decline and fall of Khatami in the early 2000s. It took the form of the penetration of the Judiciary by securing the appointment of the Ayatollah’s own men, thereby “politicizing” it, and more surprisingly, by penetrating the state bureaucracy and lastly the legislature. Khamenei considered the military- security elite his men and let two of them run for President in 2005. The victory of his preferred candidate, Mahmud Ahmadinejad, in 2005 and the electoral putsch of June 2009 did not end the Leader’s dominance, but modified it as the military-security elite represented by the President has become increasingly vocal in speaking for Iran’s newly maturing political class.
The Origin
Authors: Jeffery L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Greeks learnt many inventions from their eastern neighbours, and the greatest of these was the art of alphabetic writing. It is known beyond any doubt that the North Semitic script was the model for the Greek, and there are existing examples-all too few, it is true-both of the model and of the copy in their early stages. Yet the full history of the birth and first growth of the Greek alphabet is still a matter of uncertainty and dispute. The ancient literary tradition offers a series of contradictory statements concerning the origin and date, only one of which has stood
Central Greece
Authors: Jeffery L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The script of Attica might be described as a cross between those of her two neighbours Aigina and Eretria. Whether this was in fact its parentage cannot be decided until more is known of the history of Athens in the eighth century; for, while the literary tradition suggests that she was then an agricultural state with few overseas interests, the warships painted on her Geometric pottery, and the wide distribution of this pottery, seem to reflect an interest in shipping no less strong than that of her two commercial neighbours.
North-Western Greece
Authors: Jeffery L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among these pioneers Corinth was pre-eminent. The little ports of Molykreion, Makynia, and Chalkis were Corinthian settlements;1 and excavations in the precincts of Artemis Laphria at Kalydon and Apollo at Thermon have revealed how strong was the influence of Corinthian painting and plastic art in these parts. There is no doubt that much of Aitolia’s civilization came ultimately from Corinth; but it is important to remember also her close contact with Achaia, especially at the narrows between Rhion and Antirrhion, where traditionally the Herakleidai crossed from Aitolia to the Peloponnese (Paus. v. 3, 5-6), and Achaian Patrai later maintained close links with the Aitolians (Paus. iv. 31. 7; vii. 18. 6 and 20. 6). Lastly, in addition to Corinthian and Achaian, there are traces of Sikyonian interests also; the Sikyonian sculptors Dipoinos and Skyllis settled there (Pliny, NH xxxvi. 4), and one of the suitors of Agariste of Sikyon was Males of Aitolia (Hdt. vi. 127).
The Aegean Islands
Authors: Jeffery L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cycladic pottery forms much of the eighth-century Greek material from Al Mina,1 and it may be conjectured that some at least among the Cycladic Greeks became acquainted very early with the Greek alphabet from their trading along the Semitic coast. The script of the Cyclades may be divided basically into two types, the Naxian and the Parian, the chief points of difference being that Naxian had a curious by-form of closed eta which was used for the aspirate in the Naxian spelling of xi (p. 291); while Parian, in its turn, distinguished the long 5 from the short by the use of two letter-forms, as the eastern Ionic did also.
Theopompus on Philip
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If Theopompus had any admiration for Philip it was not as a Panhellenist who looked to Philip as the one who would unite the Greeks in an expedition against the Persian empire. As we saw in the last chapter, no Panhellenist bias can be detected in the fragments. But one does not need to search for an ideological reason why Theopompus approved of Philip’s foreign policy or held some positive view of him. The truth is that Theopompus did not admire or approve of Philip in any respect whatsoever. To Theopompus’ way of thinking, the fact of Philip’s political and military success was not proof of his abilities as a statesman and general, but rather, it was an indictment of the Greeks for their decadence and laziness.
Theopompus’ Place in the Development of Greek Historiography
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Philippica of Theopompus was unlike any historical work which came before or after it. The ancient critics were fully aware of this, and were especially struck by the severity of Theopompus’ judgements, the coarseness of his language, and the extent of his digressions. This difference, however, was more a matter of degree than of kind. Without doubt, he elaborated and adapted the traditional elements of historical writing to suit his own needs and interests. But he does not seem to have altered its theoretical basis or to have incorporated elements of a fundamentally new kind.
Spreading the Word: Byzantine Missions
Authors: Shepard Janathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Byzantine emperor, as a successor to Constantine the Great, was ac- claimed as ‘equal of the apostles’ in court acclamations and rhetoric. An emperor, not a patriarch or any other sort of churchman, had been chosen by God to bring about the conversion of the inhabitants of the Roman world, and proclaiming one’s willingness to spread the Word was a useful political prop: it impressed the uniqueness of the emperor’s relationship with God upon his own subjects as well as foreigners.
Towards a Franco-Greek Culture
Authors: Jeffreys Elizabeth , Mango Cyril 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fall of Constantinople was followed in a few years by the conquest of the Despot ate of the Morea (1460) and the bloodless absorption by the Turks of the kingdom of Trebizond (1461). When Mehmed the Conqueror died in 1481, the greater part of Greek-speaking lands were under Ottoman rule, excluding the islands which were gradually mopped up:
Hunters, Gatherers, and Fishers of the East Arabian Littoral
Authors: Potts D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the reasons behind it are by no means clear, the absence of any palaeolithic sites in the western Arabian Gulf littoral is now generally recognized, as noted in Chapter 1. Yet such was not always the case, and for the unsuspecting reader who consults works treating the prehistory of the Arabian Gulf published before 1980, it is important to underscore the fact that a palaeolithic presence has, for many years, been assumed for Kuwait, eastern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar. Let us quickly review the origins of the palaeolithic controversy in eastern Arabia.
The Late Second and Early First Millenniums BC in the Central Arabian Gulf
Authors: Potts D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The late second and early first millenniums BC in the Arabian Gulf are of interest for many reasons, not least of which is the fundamental change which occurred in the political relations between the area and Babylonia. While military campaigns had been conducted by Mesopotamian rulers against the region in the remote past, most notably by Maništušu and Naram-Sin, nothing suggests that the Arabian Gulf had ever been ruled by a Mesopotamian power up to this point. By the fourteenth century, however, this was no longer the case. For the first time in the region’s history, representatives of a foreign power—the Kassites—are attested in written sources as having control over Dilmun. Archaeological remains, too, show such conformity with Babylonian types that we must probably reckon with an influx of Babylonians into the area at this time. By the middle of the first millennium that relationship had changed from one of overt control to one of tributary clienthood. Let us turn now to the archaeological and philological evidence for late second-millennium and early first-millennium settlement on Bahrain and the east Arabian mainland.
Xenophon’s Cyropaedia
Authors: Gera Deborah Levine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a literary study of the Cyropaedia, Xenophon's fictional account of Cyrus the Great and the founding of his empire. The Cyropaedia is a complex blend of various literary forms, and this book examines several of its literary genres. General discussions of the works of Xenophon's predecessors and contemporaries, in particular Herodotus, Plato, and Ctesias, are combined with a detailed commentary on select passages. Socrates--his life, ideas, and techniques of argument, is an indirect presence in the work, and the Socratic tenor of several of the dialogues in it is the subject of one chapter. The lovely Panthea, the fairest woman in Asia, is Xenophon's most colourful heroine and her story, along with the dramatic tales of the eunuch Gadatas, bereaved Gobyras, and defeated Croesus, are the focus of another section; special attention is paid to the question of Xenophon's originality in fashioning these tales. The symposia of the Cyropaedia, an intricate blend of Greek and Persian elements, are also investigated at length. The book concludes with an examination of Xenophon's ambivalent attitude towards his hero, Cyrus the Great: the author argues that both Xenophon and his hero are more complex than they might seem.