bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Giving information and managing uncertainty
Authors: Washer Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Taking a medical history, where you gather information and explore the patient’s agenda, is given a great deal of prominence in medical education. However, the second part of the medical interview, where doctors give information, explain diagnoses and treatments, make decisions, and agree future management, is arguably neglected (Elwyn et al., 1999b). As a result, research suggests that doctors may be less proflcient in the skills required for giving information. For example, one Danish study contrasted simulated patient interviews between 22 students in the last semester of medical school and 23 experienced senior registrars with little or no training in communication. They found that both groups were lacking skills in terms of giving information, and both groups informed patients in a doctor-centred fashion with little regard for the patient’s understanding, views, and emotions (Aspegren & Lonberg-Masden, 2005).
Timing
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Delays in taking action both by a PR and a trustee are a frequent source of complaint. Even where the is not justified, it will sour relations with the . Postponement of actions that are can have genuine reasons behind them and it is good practice to explain this when a beneficiary may not readily see the . If any delay is looked at, in terms of justification to a beneficiary, most delays will not occur.
The Assessment of Damages
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sometimes, the assessment of damages will take place separately from the trial of the issue of liability, for example where a preliminary issue has been ordered on the question of liability. However, both parties need to undertake an assessment of the likely damages at the outset, not just because the likely value of the claim has to be specified when going through the process of the pre-action protocol, but also so that it is possible to attempt to settle the claim at an early stage, and the parties are clear what they are fighting over. It is also, of course, vitally important to ensure that some loss has actually been suffered by the person bringing the claim.
Mitigation and the Interrelation With Other Claims
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic rule is that a claimant must mitigate their loss, and this area of the law has attained great importance as far as professional negligence cases are concerned. It is often the first thought of insurers to advisors in any of the contexts discussed in this book to see if the problem which has arisen can be undone. A distinction has to be drawn between cases where the claimant has a duty to mitigate and failure to do so will affect the damages which he or she can claim, and cases where it may be possible to put right what has happened and desirable that that course should be followed, but there is no duty on the claimant to do so.
Beyond Consent: Applying Alter Ego and Arbitration Doctrines to Bind Sovereign Parents
Authors: Tyler Timothy , Kovarsky Lee , Stewar Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“‘Piercing’ seems to happen freakishly. Like lightning, it is rare, severe, and unprincipled.” This paper will analyze the way veil-piercing law in the United States interacts with sovereign corporate parenthood and how that interaction affects international arbitration. Until recently, two veil-piercing questions had developed along distinct threads: (1) under what circumstances a non-signatory third party may be bound to arbitrate as the “alter ego” of the signatory; and (2) how “veil-piercing,” or “alter ego” doctrine, should accommodate the unique attributes of sovereign corporate parents. Those threads intersected in Bridas v. Turkmenistan, which recently concluded after two rounds of litigation in the United States Court of Appeals.
Extension of the Arbitration Clause to Non-Signatories Under French Law
Authors: Mayer Pierre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The focus of this paper on French arbitration law is not capricious: indeed, French law is particularly favorable to the extension of the arbitration clause to non-signatories in a variety of situations. A significant advantageous element is the fact that French law does not require the arbitration clause to be signed, provided that there is at least a written document into which the clause is incorporated. The fact that an individual or company did not sign the contract containing the arbitration clause is not, therefore, in and of itself an obstacle to that individual or company being considered as a party to that clause.
The Manifold Respondent: Multiparty Issues Involving States in Investor-State Arbitration
Authors: Lowe Vaughan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of this section of the volume is multiparty issues in investor-state arbitration. The focus is very much upon the problems arising from multiple claimants. There is, understandably, an assumption that since everyone is suing the Republic of Utopia, the Republic of Utopia is a single entity, and that problems of multiplicity do not arise in relation to the respondent. I have one central point to make. It is that states are not monolithic institutions, and that this fact must be borne in mind when planning for the practicalities of international arbitration.
Introduction: Markets, Information, and Social Action
Authors: Preda Alex 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One cloudy day in March, 2008, I overheard a conversation between two students on the campus where I work, as we all were queuing in front of a cash machine. One of the students, tightly clutching a geography handbook, asked the other whether she had heard about the attack on the bank we were queuing in front of. And no, it wasn’t a terrorist attack: it was a speculative attack. Apparently, the day before, financial traders had launched a coordinated attack on the share price of that bank, one of the biggest in the country. Within less than 30 minutes, the price went down 17 per cent (Kollewe 2008). A couple of days before, Bear Stearns, the fifth largest US investment bank, had been bought by JP Morgan for $2 per share, down from over $120 only six months earlier. During those days, the prime spot on the front page of newspapers and on TV news channels was taken by worldwide markets still falling, in spite of the Federal Reserve having injected hundreds of billions of dollars.
Markets
Authors: Preda Alex 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Salizada San Moisè, one of Venice’s most elegant streets, is also one of the places where African peddlers align in a row every day, displaying their merchandise on blue plastic sacks rolled out on the pavement (the sacks also serve for transporting their wares). They do this right in front of the über-elegant fashion stores which line both sides of the street. While the peddlers’ merchandise selection is rather limited (mostly handbags, sun- glasses, sometimes watches as well), it is also an exact copy of some of the handbags and sunglasses sold inside the stores bearing the names of well- known designer houses. The items sold inside have price tags starting at about one thousand euros for a modest handbag, and very quickly working their way up into the rarefied zone of several thousands. (You have to look hard to discover the prices on minuscule lists in the shop windows.) The same handbag model sold by the peddlers will go for maybe about fifty euros— and even less, if one bargains harder.
Agents or Trustees? International Courts in their Political Context (2008)
Authors: Alter Karen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Delegation of interpretive authority to International Courts is expanding exponentially. In 1985 there were seven international legal bodies meeting the Project on International Courts and Tribunal’s (PICT) definition of an international court, meaning: (1) a permanent institution, (2) composed of independent judges, (3) that adjudicate disputes between two or more entities, one of which is a state or international organization, (4) working on the basis of predetermined rules of procedure, and (5) rendering decisions that are binding (Alter book manuscript in progress: Chapter 1).¹ Today there are 26 international courts that meet this definition and they are increasingly active, having issued 69 per cent of their over 15,000 decisions, opinions, and rulings since 1990 (see Table 2.1 in Chapter 2).
Market Power in Consumer Goods Industries
Authors: Steiner* Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a unified theoretical framework to estimate market power in consumer goods industries with differentiated products. In the industry to be described, consumer goods manufacturers buy from upstream suppliers and resell to downstream retailers who resell to household consumers. Horizontal competition takes place between firms at the same stage and vertical competition between firms at successive stages. The consumer goods manufacturer’s horizontal market share is the firm’s share of category sales denominated in manufacturer’s (factory) prices and typically represented by the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI). The manufacturer’s vertical downstream market share equals 1 s retailers’ percentage gross margins, which determines the manufacturer’s share of his brand’s retail price. The manufacturer’s vertical upstream market share equals 1 s its suppliers’ percentage gross margins, which determines the manufacturer’s share of its suppliers selling price and is the manufacturer’s invoice cost. Under this definition firms have both horizontal and vertical market shares and compete both horizontally and vertically.
The ‘Consumer Welfare’ Standard As A Form Of Substantive Protection For Consumers Under European Competition Law
Authors: Marsden Philip , Whelan* Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The introduction of the euro and the steady development of the internal market have both led to a growing number of retail sectors operating on a pan-European basis. As retailer consolidation occurs throughout Europe, and as supermarkets and shopping centres continue to replace traditional corner shops and smaller outlets, competition problems may begin to be perceived in these sectors. Consequently, now more than ever, the proper role of competition law in regulating conduct in the retail sector—including the use of private labels by retailers— deserves detailed consideration by legal scholars. Of particular concern is the place of consumers in a given competition law assessment of a retail market. More specifically, the status of a consumer welfare standard under EC competition law needs to be examined. According to the current Director General (DG) for Competition, the primary aim of modern European competition law and policy is to protect the functioning of competition on markets in order to enhance ‘consumer welfare’.Consumer welfare, then, apparently represents the standard according to which enforcement of EC competition law should be determined. Given the abundance of official statements to similar effect, it would not be an exaggeration to state that the position of the consumer in European competition law has never been stronger. Some commentators, however, have questioned the accuracy of these claims. One often criticizes the European Commission (the Commission) in this regard for paying insufficient attention to the interests of consumers in its investigations and for producing in its decisions only a cursory note on any potential consumer benefits. The courts too can arguably be criticized on a similar basis. Furthermore, it has also been argued that in any case the decisional practice of the Commission cannot be easily changed to encompass a consumer welfare standard as this would involve either ignoring or contradicting precedents set by the European courts.
Ireland
Authors: Seymour Mairéad , Mayock Paula 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past twenty years, Irish society has been transformed in ways that few might have anticipated. Depicted by The Economist as ‘easily the poorest country in rich north-west Europe’ in 1998, by the turn of the century, Ireland had managed to establish itself as ‘a post-industrial enclave within global capitalism’ (Peillon, 2002: 1. What has become known, both colloquially and internationally, as the ‘Celtic Tiger’ period of economic growth began in the mid-1990s, peaked around 1990, and has precipitated rapid social change. This period has also coincided with increasing rates of public disorder and violence.
Norway
Authors: Skutle Arvid , Mounteney Jane , Johannessen Vibeke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
some municipalities still prohibit alcohol sales outside of the state-controlled outlets, the numbers adopting this approach are dwindling. The sale of beer and cider in supermarkets is now permitted in most areas and the traditional government wine monopolies have had a facelift, shifting from counter service to self-service, super-market-style trading formats.
Hungary
Authors: Demetrovics Zsolt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Information concerning nightlife-related crime in Hungary remains limited. Police data is recorded and analysed in relation to acts prohibited by the criminal law, but these are not categorized according to the settings in which they occur. Moreover, neither the police, nor criminologists, have identified nightlife as a particular environment in which criminal acts should be explained or analysed. Academic literature in the field is therefore very limited and the domain has yet to be systematically explored.
The Conduct Of Civil Cartel Investigations In The Uk
Authors: O’Kane Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The OFT is the principal body charged with enforcing the Competition Act 1998 (‘the Competition Act’ or ‘the Act’) and is the national competition authority charged with applying and enforcing Articles 81 and 82 of the EC Treaty in the UK. In addition, there are sectoral regulators, which have a specific role to play in promoting or facilitating competition within their sectors. Some of these regulators have the power to apply the Competition Act concurrently with the OFT, as provided in section 54 and Schedule 10, Parts I and II of the Competition Act. Section 54 provides that:
criminal immunity in the uk and us
Authors: O’Kane Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history and rationale behind the use of immunity and leniency policies in anti-cartel enforcement in many jurisdictions has already been examined1 along with the OFT’s civil leniency powers under the CA 98.2 One of the main aspects behind the UK’s civil leniency regime is to reward the undertakings that come forward with information in relation to cartel conduct by eliminating or reducing their potential financial penalties. This rationale has continued into the criminal arena in the UK with the introduction of a criminal immunity regime under the EA, the clear aim being to encourage individual participants in cartel conduct to provide information in relation to their fellow cartelists in return for the provision of sufficient comfort that they will not be prosecuted.3
Legal Profession and Legal Education
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The expression ‘jurist’ in the Russian language can be understood in the broad sense to encompass all who have a legal education and all who work in a legal speciality, whether as academician, professor, judge, procurator, arbitrator, notary, investigator, advocate, jurisconsult, ZAGS personnel, paralegal, or whatever. In this chapter we examine two types of jurist who most closely approximate the narrower Anglo-American concept of the lawyer, solicitor, barrister, or attorney- at-law, that is, those who principally advise citizens and juridical persons or appear in court on their behalf. These in the Russian legal system are the advocate and the jurisconsult.
The Administration of Legality
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The expression ‘administration of legality’ is used in a special sense in this chapter to refer both to State and non-State bodies directly concerned in the Russian Federation with the application and enforcement of the law, excluding the advocates and jurisconsults, who have been discussed previously (see Chapter 5 above). The Russian ministries of justice in their present or past forms have no precise analogy in Britain or North America. The first RSFSR People’s Commissariat of Justice created the day after the 1917 October Revolution included among its functions the investigation of offences, the administration of prisons and camps, the administration of the separation of Church from State, and the codification of legislation, among others. In 1921 these functions were broadened to include supreme judicial control and in 1922 to embrace the Procuracy. The repeated reorganizations of the ministries need not detain us here, except to note that from 1963 to 1970 they were abolished completely and their functions dispersed among other agencies. On 31 August 1970 the USSR Ministry of Justice was formed as a union-republic ministry and the Statute on the Ministry confirmed on 21 March 1972.
Civil, Arbitrazh, and Criminal Procedure
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Russian civil, arbitrazh, and criminal procedure represent a model of procedure which contains a number of distinctive elements not found in the Western European continental model to which the Russian system is akin. Russian legal doctrine continues to regard these types of procedure as parts of a larger whole rather than as three entirely distinct legal realms.1 In the case of civil and criminal procedure the same courts hear each type of proceeding, although at higher levels of the judicial system special divisions are created for civil and for criminal cases. However, a separate system of courts, called arbitrazh courts.
Family Law
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prior to the 1917 October Revolution matters of marriage and divorce were left to the canon law of each religious denomination. A religious marriage ceremony was essential, and certain restrictions were imposed on the marriage of Christians with non-Christians or pagans. The State had been content to accept the practices of each religious denomination and give effect to their ecclesiastical judgments.1 The Bolsheviks, intent upon breaking the authority of the Church, secularized marriage and divorce even before formally legislating upon the separation of Church from State and of school from Church. The family in its bourgeois manifestation, as an economic and legal entity based on the inequality of spouses and the dependence of the wife and children upon the husband, was to be transformed into a free association founded on the free will of its members. How precisely that transformation was to be realized proved to be a lively subject of debate in the early post-revolutionary years. Some urged a rapid transition to collective housekeeping and State-reared children. In the end more responsible heads prevailed.
Natural Resources And The Environment
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Russian law, following the Soviet legal tradition, does not recognize natural resource law as a distinct branch of law or legal science. Land, water, forestry, the subsoil, the atmosphere, flora and fauna, atomic energy, continental shelf, exclusive economic zone, fisheries, and others are the subject of individual federal laws, and so-called ‘ecological law’ has achieved recognition as a branch of legal science and a distinct subject of legal and general education. With the transition to a market economy, environmental legislation has received less attention than during the 1970s and 1980s. Nonetheless, private interests must contend with environmental standards, whether surviving from the Soviet era or newly-introduced. Privatization transactions typically contain an environmental component, a major concern being whether the private owner succeeds to environmental liabilities incurred, and perhaps undiscovered, from the past. Foreign participation in oil and gas exploration and exploitation in remote and ecologically-sensitive areas of the Russian Federation has given rise to environmental litigation in Russian courts and the termination of foreign involvement in large investment projects. The dismantling of the Russian nuclear missiles and naval vessels has posed novel and difficult ecological issues.
The Law Relating To Foreigners And Foreign Affairs
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The legal regulation of Russian foreign relations in the broadest sense of the term is governed by several thousand normative acts, including international treaties of the Russian Federation. Some are directly concerned with inter-State relations, for example claims to sovereign rights, territory, the procedure for concluding international treaties, or a legal definition of aggression; whereas others touch upon foreign relations in passing, for example statutes on ministries, family, civil, criminal, citizenship, or other branches of legislation. Russian legal doctrine does not look upon foreign relations law as a separate branch of law, and there are no official efforts under way in Russia comparable to those in the United States to systematize the core principles in a Restatement of Foreign Relations Law. Although new rules regulating foreign relations have been set out in the 1993 Russian Constitution, major enactments survive from the former Soviet Union, the RSFSR, and the Russian Federation before the 1993 Constitution was adopted, complicating the legal regime of foreign relations considerably.
Foreign Investment and Trade Law
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While a vast variety of normative legal acts regulate foreign investments in the Russian Federation, the foundation laws are the 1991 Law on Investment Activity in the RSFSR, as amended; the 1999 Federal Law on Investment Activity in the Russian Federation Effectuated in the Form of Capital Investments, as amended; the 1999 Law on Foreign Investments in the Russian Federation, as amended; and the 2008 Federal Law on the Procedure for the Effectuation of Foreign Investments in Economic Societies Having Strategic Significance for Ensuring the Defence of the Country and Security of the State. They replaced Law on Foreign Investments in the Russian Federation, adopted on 26 June 1991, as amended. Foreign investors commonly overlook the Law on Investment Activity, although this law defined in greatest detail what constitutes an investment and expressly applies to foreign investments (Article 4).
The Case of Ghana
Authors: Development Bank African 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since 2002, Ghana has been receiving debt relief under the HIPC Initiative. From 2002 to 2006, actual HIPC spending stood at / c6,812.2 billion, of which / c1,003.0 billion was allocated to domestic debt payments. Planned and actual expenditures under the MDRI, which started in 2006, are / c2,103.6 and / c1,508.9 billion, respec- tively. HIPC spending focused on four areas: human development ser- vices, private sector development, governance of the GPRS thematic areas, and domestic debt payment. Expenditures on good governance and on domestic debt payments is expected to create an enabling environment that promotes growth and social sector expenditures. Since 2003, debt relief and aid have substantially increased spending in GPRS priority areas. Expenditure planning under the GPRS placed strong emphasis on private sector development for pro-poor growth. The allocation of HIPC resources also reflected the focus of the GPRS. Since external assistance (especially non- budget support aid) was allocated overwhelmingly to human devel- opment, a major portion of MDRI receipts are now spent on growth.