bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fighting Power with Power
Authors: Bagg Samuel Ely 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter applies the ideal of resisting state capture to the second major task of democratic theory, as outlined in Chapter 1: namely, developing an agenda for the reform of law and policy. It begins by reframing this task in terms of a “dilemma of public and private power.” Previous chapters concluded that deepening democracy would require ambitious state action aimed at dispersing private power—especially through policies of anti-monopoly, countervailing power, and systemic redistribution. Yet empowering state actors also invites capture by the very hegemonic groups those policies are designed to constrain. As such, the key challenge for reformers is to find the safest and most efficient ways of advancing these democratic goals. After reformulating the task of democratic reformers in terms of this dilemma, the chapter presents a three-stage process for addressing it. First, they should ask which general approach to state involvement in different policy areas will most likely minimize capture. Second, they should ask how substantive policy tools can be designed to advance democratic aims while minimizing their susceptibility to capture. And third, they should ask what kinds of procedural mechanisms can most effectively insulate such ambitious forms of state action from capture. The chapter works through each question in turn, endorsing significant but not overwhelming public ownership and participation in private markets; a structuralist approach to policy that favors simplicity, transparency, and adversarialism; and procedural reforms that institutionalize oppositional expertise, employ randomly selected citizens in an oversight capacity, and create leverage points for popular mobilization.
Introduction
Authors: Ford E. David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The weather on which plants depend for their growth is changing—so the question of how plants respond to change is of great interest. However, the effects of climate conditions on plant growth cannot be considered as discrete, independent events for each environmental variable. The normal course of plant growth depends upon responses to changes, such as diurnal and seasonal variation and weather events, in which there is partial correlation between environmental variables. Several theories of the control of plant growth are reviewed and a critique is developed showing that interaction of components of the growth process is important and produces a dynamic system. Six general groups of interacting control processes are identified for analysis in subsequent chapters. Plant growth is a biological process. It is not a chemical process, although chemical synthesis and transformations of compounds are involved. It is not defined by the physical environment, although the environment affects both rates and limits to component processes. The response of plant processes to variation in the environment is determined by the plant’s genetics which defines the structure and properties of the plant body and its tissues that determine how growth responds to change.
Processes producing organization in the plant
Authors: Ford E. David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Typically, controls of growth process are embedded within a network of nuclear control that acts as an interface with the environment and integrates component responses. Constituent modules of plant growth, and the apical meristems that produce them, become spatially distributed with a substantially regularly pattern. The dynamics of the WUS-CLV3 system (which acts as a regulator in apical meristem function) and the PIN1-auxin system (which acts as a positive feedback for auxin accumulation to produce cell wall loosening and cellulose microfibre increment) are described. Modules and meristems throughout the plant can experience different environments and come to have different status and relationships with other modules on which they depend. The circadian clock, a feedforward controller, ensures nuclear control at the local (cellular) level and an integrated response to the local environment in that physiological systems are gated to respond to conditions in the diurnal cycle that are most suitable for them.
Stability of the photosynthesis system
Authors: Ford E. David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Photosynthesis is frequently represented as an interaction between outputs of NADPH and ATP from light reactions and their use in CO2 fixation via the CBB cycle, or dark reactions. However, the action of light energy in photosynthesis is to drive a redox reaction. Redox reactions involve a change in the oxidation states of atoms with a reduction of one chemical and a complementary oxidation of another through the transfer of electrons. Photosynthesis uses the products of the redox reaction, but if these are not utilized, which may occur under high light conditions, then reactive oxygen species (ROS) can form and damage cell contents and tissues. Control of the photosynthesis system has components that operate to reduce excess redox reactions whilst maintaining competence for CO2 fixation in conditions of fluctuating light flux. This involves processes protecting against damage from high light flux and the repair of damage that does occur. Control around PSII involves both reduction of transfer of light excitation to PSII through action involving protective pigments and damage of PSII itself, which reduces electron flow, and is gradually repaired. Control around PSI through cyclical electron flow is an essential component because its action produces ATP even though linear electron flow (from PSII) is reduced and this ATP may be essential for the repair process of PSII. Control of photosynthesis does not achieve homeostasis in CO2 fixation, or an optimum rate; it protects and repairs both the light and dark cycle systems.
Conclusion
Authors: Ford E. David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
A standpoint can be defined and used to develop a theory for the growth of a particular species, or possibly some variant of a species. The standpoint maintains that four characteristics of plants, as dynamic systems, must be considered to define how growth is controlled in a particular instance. These characteristics may have different relative effects between species: (i) growth is the result of a sequence of processes that starts with developmental processes involved in meristem activity and continues with structural development, autotrophic processes, and then synthesis of material for the plant body; (ii) the environment, whether internal to the plant or external, may affect each of these processes; (iii) it is necessary to understand interactions between processes in order to explain how growth is controlled; and (iv) primary control of development of the plant body is dispersed—it occurs within each apical module of the plant where genetic programmes interact with availability of resources and environmental conditions and that may result in expression of plasticity. The way that modules are integrated to form what appears as the complete plant is the result of this dispersed system of control.
The distribution of urban populations
Authors: Barthelemy Marc , Verbavatz Vincent 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
It is remarkable that cities are not all of the same size. This seemingly trivial fact disqualifies the idea of an “optimal size” of cities, a typical size scale that would reflect optimal transport costs or living conditions for people. On the contrary, there is no rule that leads cities to a universal equilibrium – typically between economical increasing and decreasing returns to scale – and universal size, as would result from urban economics models. More importantly, the most recognized and characterized quantitative urban fact is the idea of a regular and universal inequality of sizes of cities, long approximated by Zipf’s law. This chapter aims at describing how the distribution of urban population has been thought so far. After some theoretical reminders on power-laws (and power law fitting methods), we will see how urban populations could appear to be described by Zipf’s law that we will formally introduce.
Dynamics of ranking
Authors: Barthelemy Marc , Verbavatz Vincent 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Ranking objects according to a given measure goes far beyond cities as we can rank virtually anything, from countries, cities, people to products such as movies or songs. Given the generality of this problem, we outline in this chapter some theoretical results on the ranking dynamics of any system. The application of these studies to the case of cities certainly requires more work, but the models presented here are interesting starting points for further studies of the ranking dynamics of cities. In addition, the study of city ranking shows that cities exhibit a very turbulent ranking dynamics. This idea will be paramount in the future chapters while attempting to find a new model of city growth.
Stochastic calculus
Authors: Barthelemy Marc , Verbavatz Vincent 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
To understand the modeling of city growth, we need to resort to the mathematical formalism of stochastic differential equations (SDEs). Stochastic differential equations are dynamical equations in which future events are not purely deterministic, they depend on some noise that happens at each time. The noise term models everything that is too complex to be written explicitly: particle shocks in Brownian motion, bid and ask in stock market prices, migrations, births and deaths in city growth. This is the main reason why this type of equation appears in so many different fields of research and is a fundamental tool in the study of complex systems. In this chapter, we propose a short introduction to these stochastic differential equations. Starting with the notion of random walk, we will show how to use these nontrivial objects and will avoid the use of complex mathematical objects. We will also elaborate on the particular case of multiplicative noise that appears to be fundamental for understanding the growth of cities.
From first principles to the growth equation
Authors: Barthelemy Marc , Verbavatz Vincent 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
In this chapter, we discuss a bottom-up approach to understand the growth of cities. We start from elementary mechanisms and propose a quantitative description of the growth dynamics. Essentially, the growth of a city belonging to a country can be decomposed into the sum of a natural growth term (births and deaths) and a migration term, the balance of the number of newcomers to the city minus the number of emigrants. The empirical study of these different terms shows that in particular that interurban migrations are characterized by rare but important fluctuations that correspond to “shocks”. This is a crucial feature that will allow us to understand the dynamics of cities.
The joint search for new approaches with a public good benefit
Authors: Huysentruyt Marieke 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Today’s many crises—the climate crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, social division, the steep economic downturn, and the contentious matters raised by social movements—urgently call for compelling ideas and approaches that benefit us all, but are privately costly to uncover. Yet, decision-makers rarely foresee incentives for citizens, employees, groups of individuals, organizations, or groups of organizations to actually search in partnership for such solutions, giving way to the free-riding problem. In this chapter, four distinct strategies to redress this problem are put forth: raise the stakes; boost information-sharing; promote prosociality; and embrace an uncertainty mind-set. The chapter underlines the essential role that social economy organizations can play to make these strategies work.
The social economy and the Fourth Industrial Revolution
Authors: Mulgan Geoff 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The Fourth Industrial Revolution is a broad umbrella term that covers just data and AI, but also their links to physical objects: infrastructures, cars, homes, and cities. It has profound implications for civil society both as a threat and an opportunity. This chapter assesses both. It analyses the relative failure to influence a previous generation of digital technologies or to realize some of the hopes for platforms and the sharing economy. It then suggests some more strategic approaches, including to the governance of data, and describes more detailed approaches relevant to net zero, jobs, and care. It also sets out the relevance of collective intelligence as an important concept for the future social economy.
Beyond a niche approach
Authors: Battilana Julie , Krol Leszek , Sheppard-Jones Kara , Ubalijoro Alexandra 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Social businesses have been praised for creating innovative models that combine financial, social, and environmental goals, but they continue to exist in a niche in parallel with the rest of the market economy. This parallel evolution, which implies that some businesses can legitimately focus solely on returns to shareholders, presents two major risks: first, if social businesses remain a minority in a world driven solely by profit maximization, they will have continued difficulty accessing necessary resources because of their lack of alignment with dominant organizational forms and so will struggle to survive. Second, if the sole pursuit of profit maximization remains the driving force of the business world, then inequalities will continue to increase and we will destroy our natural ecosystems. How can we change the institutional context in which businesses operate in order to better support social businesses, and in the process shift away from profit maximization at the expense of all else? To investigate this question, we explore the historical development of the social economy and of the shareholders-first paradigm. We then briefly highlight the key activities in which social businesses can engage internally to sustain their pursuit of multiple goals. Finally, we conceptualize three levers to shift the institutional context in order to better support social businesses: legal structures; accountability metrics; and financial and fiscal strategies. The chapter contributes to conversations about sustainable capitalism by synthesizing three mechanisms for institutional change in order to create a ‘new normal’ in which social businesses not only survive but thrive.
Empowering knowledge and training in higher education to leverage social economy action on societal challenges
Authors: Nogales-Muriel Rocío , Nyssens Marthe 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to analyse how knowledge, research networks, and higher education training can support the development of social economy ecosystems. Departing from a succinct review of the various ‘social economy notions’, we propose to analyse them as relevant analytical resources to enrich the scientific and the public debate. Understanding the landscape of social economy research in the past decades, including the role of research networks, is critical to assess how research supports social economy ecosystems. In a complementary way, by delineating the development of pioneering formal higher education training initiatives, some reflections emerge on the possible contributions that formal social economy education can make to social economy ecosystems and society in general. We conclude with policy recommendations in order to empower knowledge and training in higher education as a lever for social economy ecosystems.
Social economy resilience facing the COVID-19 crisis
Authors: Chaves-Avila Rafael , Guillén Ángel Soler 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The COVID-19 crisis highlights the threat posed to humanity by non-economic external shocks, such as pandemics, natural catastrophes, and armed conflicts, which have a harsher and more widespread impact on economies than strictly economic downturns. To cope with these shocks, resilience is critical. Resilience refers to a society’s capacity to resist and react to shocks, to adapt to them, and to seize them as opportunities for economic and social development through systemic transformations. Institutional framework and socio-economic structure are recognized as key elements of resilience. This chapter analyses the resilience function of the social economy in the face of COVID-19. It highlights the worth of the social economy both theoretically and empirically, focusing on its systemic role in addressing market and state failures and for social and economic resilience. The chapter provides empirical evidence based on a meta-analysis of a number of studies recently carried out in Spain and in other European countries and on our own statistical work. Theoretically we draw on the socio-economic and resilience functions of the social economy and on the theory of the emergency shock management cycle. We empirically analyse the social economy’s response to the health emergency situations generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, with particular stress on its response to mitigate the crisis’ economic and employment impacts. Thereby we take account of the impact of government action on the economy, the world of work, and the social economy. We offer proposals for addressing future challenges and highlight the systemic functions of the social economy.
Civic leadership for a transformative social economy
Authors: Sancino Alessandro , Pagani Michela , Corvo Luigi , Braga Alessandro , Scognamiglio Fulvio 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of civic leadership as an open agency which can promote place-based partnerships and coalitions (both formal and/or informal) to address complex challenges and to create social, economic and environmental value. In particular, we argue that social economy actors should develop civic leadership roles and capabilities to become more effective social change agents, to design and lead place-based ecosystems for value co-creation, and to institutionalize new collaborative governance structures. We present explorative empirical research conducted in the cities of Padua (Italy) and Peterborough (United Kingdom), which is based on a multi-site mixed-methods research design and uses a qualitative approach to social network analysis. Specifically, our work aims at identifying city leaders from a positional and reputational perspective in four main domains of local governance: political/democratic; public services; business environment; community/social domain. Our findings reveal that a decentred vision of civic leadership works in the eyes of the city leaders who participated in our study, showing city leadership constellations that are often fragmented and, in some cases, invisible to other city leaders, especially in the case of social economy actors. Implications of our study are both conceptual and practical: conceptually, they call for opening up our cognitive understanding and cultural legitimation of civic leadership; practically, our findings highlight the importance for social economy organizations to develop leadership functions and managerial structures devoted to building connections within civic leadership constellations.
The Politics of Agenda-Setting
Authors: Gifkins Jess 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyses the process by which the Security Council added the situation in Darfur to its agenda. It begins by providing background on the politics of adding and removing items from the Council’s formal agenda. It then demonstrates that for the first six months of the Darfur conflict, there was extremely limited information about the conflict outside Sudan, which can plausibly explain the Security Council’s lack of engagement during this period. From late 2003, however, the US and the UK possessed intelligence showing the scale and nature of the violence in Darfur. They chose not to push Khartoum on Darfur because the peace negotiations for the concurrent north–south conflict in Sudan were nearing completion. Staff from the UN’s Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) lobbied Western states on Darfur to no avail. The US and the UK only changed their position after OCHA staff spoke to the media and drew an analogy with the Rwandan genocide, which gained significant domestic traction. Briefings to the Security Council by UN agencies and NGOs also helped to build momentum towards inclusion of Darfur as a formal agenda item. The shift in position from the US and the UK is an example of an external legitimation practice, whereby key domestic audiences no longer viewed their argument on sidelining Darfur as legitimate, so they changed position and became advocates on Darfur.
Peacekeeping and the Challenge of Consent
Authors: Gifkins Jess 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyses the negotiations towards the hybrid UN/AU peacekeeping operation in Darfur. Security Council members sought to move away from the pre-existing AU peacekeeping operation because donors were reluctant to continue funding it, whereas UN peacekeeping is funded via assessed contributions from all UN member states. This priority aligned with civil society demands for greater civilian protection in Darfur. The authorization of the hybrid operation was a circuitous process because the Security Council first authorized UN peacekeeping, which was rejected outright by Sudan. This first attempt can be understood in terms of the external legitimation practice of ‘doing something’, whereby Western drafters prioritized taking action even though it was known in advance that Khartoum would not offer the requisite consent. It was the UN Secretariat, using its legitimated authority, that proposed the plan for hybrid peacekeeping and pitched it to both Security Council member states and Khartoum. China shifted from backing Khartoum in the first round of negotiations to lobbying Khartoum for consent in the second round of negotiations, which was instrumental in achieving Sudanese acquiescence. This shift can be understood as an external legitimation practice in that China shifted position towards one that would garner greater legitimacy from international peers. When negotiating the hybrid peacekeeping operation, Security Council members refocused on normal internal legitimation practices—unanimity and regional support—with the understanding that legitimacy was central to implementation.
Introduction
Authors: Kruger Wikus , Eberhard Anton 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Structured competitive procurement programmes are producing competitively priced renewable energy projects in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. The book provides an overview of innovative auction approaches in the Global South which have yielded attractive price and investment outcomes. We draw lessons from countries as diverse as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, India, South Africa, Zambia, and Namibia. We show how auctions have been applied and adapted to very different (and often challenging) contexts to produce incredible results with the aim of extracting lessons from the Global South for the design and implementation of auctions generally. The introductory chapter will introduce readers to the topic of renewable energy procurement (including feed-in tariffs and direct negotiation); provide an overview of auctions as both a procurement method and a scholarly topic; discuss the ascendancy of auctions globally in the 2010–2020 period, including major results; introduce the combined analytical (country–programme–project) framework that will be used in the case chapters; provide a list of preliminary findings and recommendations.