bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Political and Social Risk Amplification of GMOs
Authors: Jamison Wesley , BenDor Todd , Kolpak Adrianne , McDonnell Maureen 
Published: July 2004

AbstractRisk is not a simple phenomenon; contrary to the arguments of frustrated scientists who claim evidentiary support for the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), opponents of these organisms claim that the risks associated with their release are unacceptable. Obviously, the evaluation of risk is often contentious and ambiguous, and yet the phenomenon of how people actually evaluate risk is not widely known among scientists. Hence, we present a review of the literature on risk that underscores its complexity. Scholars argue the merits of different types of risk assessment, but most agree that the process is far more complex than simple cost/benefit analyses. Indeed, the literature presents a plethora of theories, ranging from economic and actuarial assessment to psychological and social assessments. We agree with the social constructionist view, and argue that opponents of GMOs have amplified the socially derived feelings of risk that the various stakeholders and publics harbour towards GMOs. We likewise conclude that GMO opponents are amplifying the factors of control and unknown risk.
Global Social Acceptance of Plant Biotechnology
Authors: Jefferson Hoban Thomas 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Plant scientists made remarkable strides during the 20th century. Now, biotechnology has the potential to significantly increase the quality and quantity of food and other needed products. This is particularly important given the increased demand for meat and poultry throughout much of Asia. Developing countries will benefit most from these new crop varieties designed to have enhanced nutrition, while minimising the impacts on the environment. However, the potential benefits of biotechnology will only be realised if society accepts the science and new products as safe, effective and ethical. As we have learned from the ‘GMO’ controversy in Europe, such acceptance is not guaranteed.
The Story of Bollgard® Cotton
Authors: Purcell John P. , Oppenhuizen Mark , Wofford Thomas , Reed Andrew J. , Perlak Frederick J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBollgard® cotton is one of the great success stories for agricultural biotechnology. It broke new ground as a commercially successful transgenic plant product that could protect itself from damage from insect pests. This provided farmers with a dramatic new technology that offered significant benefits over the chemical insecticides that were being used. Delivering this product took many years of discovery and development and required significant scientific advances. Since its introduction in 1996, the use of Bollgard® cotton has expanded rapidly. It is now a valuable tool for agriculture with commercial growings in nine countries on five continents. Bollgard® cotton provides economic, environmental and social benefits for large and smallholder farmers around the globe.
Benefits of Commercialised Biotechnology‐Derived Crops in the United States
Authors: Sankula Sujatha , Gianessi Leonard 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis chapter examines the importance of pest management in crop production and details the commercially available biotechnology‐derived traits and the need for them in the context of available pest management options in conventional crops. The discussion is mainly focused on the actual and potential benefits of this innovation for crops commercialised so far in the United States. Economic advantage to growers is the ultimate key factor, which determines the adoption and success of biotechnology‐derived crops. Economic benefits normally result from reduced input costs, or increased yields or both.
Agricultural Biotechnology for Developing Countries: A Strategic Overview
Authors: Sasson Albert , Elliott Malcolm C. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
More than 2 billion people have no food security while 840 million of them are chronically malnourished. Six million children under the age of five die each year as a result of hunger and malnutrition. This crisis of food security is focused in the developing countries where the populations continue to increase at an alarming rate. In order to confront the problem, which is often exacerbated by a decrease in the area of land available for agriculture coupled with a decrease in the amount of water available for irrigation and an increase in the environmental impact of agrochemicals, it will be necessary to fully exploit agricultural biotechnology.
Agricultural Biotechnology in Latin America and the Caribbean
Authors: Cockcroft Claire E. , Herrera-Estrella Luis , Borroto Nordelo Carlos G. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The area of land viable for agriculture is diminishing each year due to topsoil erosion, loss of soil fertility, water insecurity and climatic change, factors which limit productivity and threaten crop yields. The changing climate will exaggerate the existing differences between developed and developing countries and may also see pests and diseases infiltrating wider geographical zones, further threatening productivity. These factors are particularly important for many countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). Hence, with the current range of agricultural land having reached a supply threshold and limited prospects of increasing the area, the rate of increase in food production will not keep pace with the rate of population growth.

Modern biotechnology offers a means of delivering sustainable agricultural practices and this chapter provides an overview of the institutions and research projects in LAC countries, whose objective is to provide more food in a safe, sustainable way. There is a wealth of research being undertaken in Latin America on both commodity crops and locally‐important staples. Molecular breeding, genetic engineering,
in vitro
micropropagation, germplasm screening and conservation projects are being used to identify useful traits, improve resistance to a variety of abiotic and biotic factors and boost crop yields throughout the region. An overview of the current status of GM crops–research, approval and commercialisation status–demonstrates that these biotechnological methods, together with the development of novel bioproducts and integrated pest management strategies, are facilitating an environmentally conscious attitude to crop protection and enabling more sustainable agricultural practices in a number of countries from the LAC region.

Engineering crops that are tailored to the environment, so as to resist climate change and environmental stress, may permit marginal lands to be brought into agricultural use to produce locally‐important crops and commercially relevant crops for a growing population, as well as feed for the livestock on which the population depends. Some countries in Latin America, such as Costa Rica and Colombia, have a particularly rich biodiversity so changing agricultural practices and the adoption of genetically modified (GM) varieties in such regions must not pose a threat to local biodiversity. Projects to assess the likelihood of GM traits passing into weedy and wild relatives are being conducted in centres of biodiversity for key crops within Latin America.
Agriculture in Latin America will come under increasing pressure to provide food, income and livelihoods for current and future generations. Its success will depend on the appropriate integration of traditional methods with contemporary technologies to enhance productivity in a sustainable way, without jeopardising ecological security.
Poverty Alleviation, Plant Biotechnology and the Importance of the CGIAR International Agricultural Research Centres
Authors: Spillane Charles , Doyle Aisling 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOver 75% of the 1.2 billion who live in extreme poverty currently live in rural areas, and over half of the poor will still be located in rural areas by the year 2025. Food staples can absorb half the consumption of the poor who live on less than US $1 per day. At present the rural poor who subsist on less than a dollar a day are not a target market for any research and development efforts funded by venture capital. Agricultural biotechnology can contribute to poverty alleviation if public sector research funding and activities are targeted towards the needs of the poor. Such pro‐poor agricultural biotechnology will be most effective if it is integrated with existing poverty reduction approaches and measures. Most agricultural biotechnology research and development is conducted in institutions that have minimal multi‐disciplinary capacity or expertise to accurately assess the livelihood needs of the rural poor. Many public sector agricultural research institutions such as NARs, universities and the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) play a vital role in conducting applied agricultural research to meet the needs of the poorer groups of society, who do not represent a lucrative commercial market for most companies. In particular, the CGIAR is an example of an institution, which is explicitly mandated to perform ‘public good’ oriented agricultural research to meet the needs of the poor. Yet, public funding for pro‐poor agricultural research (including biotechnology) is declining, even though alleviating rural poverty is central to meeting the primary Millennium Goal of the world's governments who stresses the broad global commitment to halve the proportion of people living in extreme income poverty (less that 1$ a day) by the year 2015. Sustainable funding strategies for pro‐poor agricultural biotechnology research will require a clearer definition of pro‐poor research targets and objectives. In this regard, there are lessons to be learnt from the innovative funding strategies developed recently by the pro‐poor biomedical research community. There remains a pressing need to actively develop policies, mechanisms and/or institutions that ensure that the poor could benefit from agricultural biotechnologies.
Crop Biotechnology for Developing Countries: Opportunity and Duty
Authors: Khush Gurdev S. , Ma Julian 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Plant biotechnology has the enormous potential to benefit mankind through numerous applications. Perhaps the most significant beneficiary will be the poor in the developing countries, where illnesses associated with malnutrition and infectious diseases are most prevalent. There are several key areas where a pressing need exists to develop new technologies. These include increasing the productivity of agriculture and tackling the problems of malnutrition including those of micronutrient deficiencies. Plant biotechnology can also be harnessed to improve health care and disease control in other ways, including the production of recombinant pharmaceuticals such as medicines, antibodies and vaccines. In order to achieve these goals, there are not only technical hurdles that need to be overcome. The greatest challenges will be to assuage public concerns and develop momentum within the established pharmaceutical industry.
Drilling Fluids
Authors: Ukeles Shmuel D. , Grinbaum Baruch 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDrilling fluids (muds) play a vital role in the drilling of oil and gas wells. These muds are typically complex chemical mixtures formulated to perform a variety of functions under a wide range of down hole temperatures and pressures, but yet are nondamaging to the environment and safe for personnel to handle. These fluids are circulated down the hollow drill string and up the annulus, formed by the drill string and the hole to remove formation material dislodged by the bit. The fluids must have sufficient density to offset formation pressures to prevent a blowout and to maintain a stable well bore, but be formulated to prevent excessive loss of fluid to permeable formations. Other important functions include lubrication of the drill bit and drill string, collection of information about subsurface formations, and noncorrosivity to surface and down hole equipment. Drilling fluids are composed of liquids (water, petroleum oils, and other organic liquids, eg, synthetic brine fluids), dissolved inorganic and organic additives, and suspended, finely divided solids of various types. This article describes drilling fluid classification, properties, materials used as drilling fluid additives, testing, economics, and an update on current environmental restrictions on drilling fluids/muds in the North Sea and in the Gulf of Mexico. A detailed section has been devoted to clear brine drilling fluids (CBFs) that are used in completion and workover operations. Also presented is a selection of new and recent drilling fluid formulations from the patent literature.
Dyes, Application and Evaluation
Authors: Glover Brian 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe physical and organic chemistry of dyes and the dyeing process is described outlining the importance of the fiber choice, the basic chemistry of the dye, the interactions between dyes and fibers, and the driving forces of the dyeing process. The molecular design of dyestuff molecules to give desired dyeing properties and performance is outlined, as are the basic principles of the physical chemical processes taking place in the dyebath. Detailed practical dyeing procedures including preparation, dyeing mechanisms, dyestuff selection, and practical processes are given for the primary fiber types: cellulose (direct, reactive, vat, and other dyes); wool (acid, mordant, metallized, and reactive dyes); synthetic polyamides (acid, metallized, disperse, and other dyes together with the use of auxiliary agents to enhance dyeing behavior); polyacrylonitrile (cationic dyes); and polyester and related synthetics such as acetates (disperse dyes). The equipment used in bulk dyeing is also described. Textile printing techniques and paper and leather coloration are included. The main methods used for assessing the fastness of dyed fabrics to agencies they are likely to be exposed to in use, eg, light or water, are outlined, together with the methods of classifying and characterizing dyestuffs and their performance.
Dyeing
Authors: Bide Martin 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDyes are used to color textile fibers, paper, and leather. Today's dyes are almost exclusively synthetic: They are classified chemically and by application class. The properties of the dyes and of the substrates to which they are applied (and their interactions with water as an application medium) lead to the attractive forces that drive the dyeing process, and to an understanding of the thermodynamics and kinetics of dyeing.Practical dyers control their processes with agitation, heat, and auxiliaries, and aim to achieve a dyeing that is the correct color, level, fast to subsequent use, in an efficient and profitable manner.The wide range of textile fibers requires different dyes and application processes and conditions. Dyes can be applied in batch or continuous processes, and dyeing machines are also designed to handle material at different stages of the textile chain (fiber, yarn, fabric, and garment). The application of dyes to paper and leather takes into account the ways in which those materials are processed.Dyeing should lead to a level coloration, but dyes are also printed on textiles to provide colored patterns. Printing is carried out with dyes and with pigments, in a range of styles and with a variety of printing machines.The fastness of colored materials to many different agencies can be assessed using standard test methods. Dyes themselves can be tested for application performance, and can be analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Electroless Plating
Authors: Krulik Gerald A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectroless plating is the controlled autocatalytic deposition of a continuous metallic film on a nonconductive or a metallic article. High purity chemicals are needed for the electroless coatings that are applied for both functional and decorative uses. Key application areas are multilayer and surface mount printed circuit boards, radio frequency interference shielding for computers, corrosion‐ and wear‐resistant metal surfaces, and lightweight plated plastics. The ability to produce metal deposits in controlled patterns makes electroless plating of primary importance to modern electronics technology.The most important electroless plating baths are copper and nickel‐phosphorus. Electroless gold, nickel‐boron, and composites of nickel having particles for higher wear resistance or greater lubricity are also commonly used. Aluminum, steel, copper, and other metals, as well as plastics, ceramics, glass, fibers, and composite materials, are all coated by means of electroless plating.
Flocculating Agents
Authors: Heitner Howard I. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFlocculating agents are chemical additives that cause suspended solids to form aggregates called flocs. These agents are used in water treatment, municipal and industrial waste treatment, mineral processing, and papermaking. Flocculating agents are either inorganic salts or water‐soluble organic polymers. They act by shrinking the ionic double layer, or neutralizing the surface charge of suspended particles, or bridging between particles. The type of flocculant used depends on the type of solid‐liquid separation being performed. The physical properties and size of the flocs as well as the rate of floc formation are the critical parameters in this process. Flocculants are usually selected by the results of laboratory‐scale experiments. The manner in which the flocculating agent is mixed with the substrate can affect the results. Special analytical methods are used for some flocculating agents. Some agents or impurities in them may present toxicological or environmental problems. The general economic trend is the replacement of inorganic salts with organic polymers, which give improved performance.
Flocculating Agents
Authors: Heitner Howard I. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFlocculating agents are chemical additives that cause suspended solids to form aggregates called flocs. These agents are used in water treatment, municipal and industrial waste treatment, mineral processing, and papermaking. Flocculating agents are either inorganic salts or water‐soluble organic polymers. They act by shrinking the ionic double layer, or neutralizing the surface charge of suspended particles, or bridging between particles. The type of flocculant used depends on the type of solid–liquid separation being performed. The physical properties and size of the flocs as well as the rate of floc formation are the critical parameters in this process. Flocculants are usually selected by the results of laboratory‐scale experiments. The manner in which the flocculating agent is mixed with the substrate can affect the results. Special analytical methods are used for some flocculating agents. Some agents or impurities in them may present toxicological or environmental problems. The general economic trend is the replacement of inorganic salts with organic polymers, which give improved performance.
Polychloroprene
Authors: Glenn Furman E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPolychloroprene has been in commercial use for over 65 years, but continues to be the elastomer of choice for dynamic applications requiring moderate heat and oil resistance, or where long‐term environmental resistance is required. The material is manufactured by emulsion polymerization of 2‐chloro‐1,3‐butadiene. The properties of the product can be optimized for specific end uses by selection of polymerization conditions, by use of comonomers such as 2,3‐dichlorobutadiene and methacrylic acid, and by choice of the method used to control molecular weight. The kinetics of the polymerization process and the structure of the polymer have been studied in detail and related to polymer properties. Commercial products vary widely in properties depending on the intended end use and the details of the manufacturing process. Tough crystalline or ionomeric polymers are preferred for adhesive applications, whereas softer, more flexible polymers are preferred for mechanical goods applications. The latter polymers may be compounded and fabricated by substantially all the techniques used for manufacture of rubber goods by molding, extrusion, or calendering operations. Latexes are used for various bonding and adhesive applications as well as for dipped goods requiring toughness in the unreinforced film. Monomers can undergo runaway reactions so strict handling procedures must be followed.
Nutraceuticals
Authors: Eggersdorfer Manfred , Burdick David , Goralczyk Regina , Raederstorff Daniel , Riegger Christoph , Schalch Wolfgang , Stöcklin Elisabeth , Weber Peter , Bonrath Werner 
Published: July 2004

AbstractNutraceuticals are the active ingredients in functional food or nutritional supplements that deliver a health benefit. The past years have seen an enormous increase in the understanding of the role of these ingredients for health and wellness. Consequently, this resulted in a fast growing market of new active ingredients as well as consumer products containing them. Examples of products well established on the market aren‐β long‐chain fatty acids to reduce cardiovascular riks, probiotics to improve the growth of beneficial intestinal flora, phytosterols to reduce cholesterol uptake and folic acid to reduce homocysteine, a risk factor for cardiovasucular disease. Combinations of essential nutrients and nutraceuticals contribute to wellness, may strenghen the health promoting potential by synergy and could be expected to reduce risk for chromic diseases.Regulatory authorities worldwide catch up with these developments and provide guidelines and rules and define requirements regarding safety, efficacy, and intake levels.Based on their deifinition, nutraceuticals contain product classes like vitamins, carotenoids,n‐3 long‐chain fatty acids, polyphenols, flavons and isoflavons, sterols, and an enormous number of products from different chemical structures. Nature provides thousands and thousands of minor constituents from which as a mixture a health benefit has been described or claimed in the literature. The identification of the single compounds and the investigation of their potential health effects are a difficult and science‐intensive process.This article describes trends in nutrition, processes for the identification of nutraceuticals and major established products as well as products in development including markets and future trends.
Acrylic Fibers
Authors: Capone Gary J. , Masson James C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAcrylic fibers are spun from copolymers in which acrylonitrile is the major component. The fibers are solution spun from solvents such as dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, and sodium thiocyanate–water either by wet (extrusion into a nonsolvent) or dry (extrusion into a hot inert gas) technologies. The basic technologies were developed in the 1950s and first commercialized in the United States. Expansion to Europe and Japan soon followed. In the twenty‐first century, the locus has shifted to Asia, with significant downsizing in the United States. An extensive table lists producer capacities. Acrylic fibers occupy market niches such as sweaters, half hose, upholstery, hand‐knitting yarns, and carbon fiber precursor. The technology adapts the basic polymer and fiber for each of these products is described. The physical properties of standard acrylic fiber are compared to those of other synthetic and natural fibers in a table. Stress–strain curves are shown under differing conditions. Chemical properties of the fiber such as resistance to acids and bases and flame retardancy are detailed and compared. Commercial polymer and spinning technologies are explained in detail, including processes for bicomponent and producer‐dyed fiber.