bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Flight
Authors: Altringham John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are several excellent accounts of aerodynamics in relation to animal flight, and all will be mentioned somewhere in the chapter, but for a recent and very wide ranging book on all aspects of vertebrate flight, you should go to Norberg (1990). Pennycuick (1972) has written a short and very readable book on animal flight, and more recently (1989) a book and computer program for experimenting with flight morphology and performance. A real understanding of flight can only be gained if you are familiar with a little of the terminology and some of the concepts of aerodynamics, so that is what we will start with. The shape of an idealised aerofoil, and that of a bat’s wing, are shown in Fig. 2. la. The tapered profile and convex upper surface are responsible for the forces generated by an aerofoil which keep the bat in the air and move it forward. Because of this shape, air flowing over the top of the wing must move faster than that flowing below (Fig. 2.la). This results in an area of low pressure above the wing, and high pressure below, and therefore a net aerodynamic force (NAF) which raises the wing (Fig. 2.1b). If the bat is to go forward, then the NAF must have two components, a vertical, lift component to overcome the effect of gravity, and thrust to overcome drag. The wings and body of the bat experience drag which resists forward movement. Drag is usually minimised by having a streamlined shape, but is always significant, at around 10-20% of the lift. Since lift acts at right angles to the movement of the wings, the wings must move forwards and down wards relative to the airflow. A gliding bat (Fig. 2.1c) achieves the right angle of incidence to overcome drag by losing height. The angle of incidence (or attack) is the angle the aerofoil makes with the plane of the airflow. A flapping bat must use appropriate wing movements (kinematics) during the downstroke and the upstroke to overcome drag.
Echolocation
Authors: Altringham John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Echolocation is a complex and highly evolved process which has given bats the ability to exploit an ecological niche closed to all but a few animal groups-the night sky. Echolocation is not unique to bats, but it has arguably reached its evolutionary peak in these mammals. What is echolocation? A simple definition is that it is the analysis by an animal of the echoes of its own emitted sound waves, by which it builds a sound-picture of its immediate environment. A number of animals use sound in this way, and many use high frequency sounds or ultrasounds, beyond the range of human hearing. These include, as well as the bats, the Cetacea (whales and dolphins: see Au, 1993) and the insectivores (shrews and tenrecs). It is not clear how sophisticated ultrasonic echolocation is in the insectivores but there is no doubt about its value in cetaceans. Ultrasonic sounds are also emitted by some rodents and a number of marsupials, but we do not know if they are used for echolocation, or just for communication (Sales and Pye, 1974).
Behavioural ecology
Authors: Altringham John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bats spend most of their lives in their roosts. Roosting habits influence local and global distribution, densities, foraging and mating strategy, social structure and seasonal movements, and even the morphology and physiology of bats. An understanding of their roosting ecology is therefore fundamental to an understanding of bats. The most wide ranging and thorough review is that by Kunz (1982). I have already talked a little about roosting ecology when we covered hibernation and reproduction. In this chapter I will take a broader view, and look at the great diversity of roosting adaptations and show how they relate to other aspects of bat biology. By choosing a suitable roost, bats can gain many advantages. Here are the most important potential benefits: The processes involved in roost selection are complex, with many mutually dependent interactions. The availability of suitable roosts, for example, will influence foraging behaviour, but roosting behaviour itself may be influenced by the abundance and dispersal of food, and both have an important role in determining the social structure of intra and interspecific bat communities.
Evolution, systematics and biogeography
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is currently a vigorous debate on the phylogeny of arthropods. Many old ideas are being overturned following molecular analysis of relationships between extant arthropod groups and discovery of new fossils. In recent years, there has been a welcome trend towards taking a much broader cladistic view of evolution, rather than forcing different arthropod groups into strict Linnaean categories (Queiroz and Gauthier 1994). In this chapter, the origins of Collembola and their relationship to other arthropods are discussed (Section 3.2). The systematics of Collembola themselves is examined (Section 3.3) and the main characteristics of each family are outlined (Section 3.4). Finally, an overview is given of the biogeography of Collembola together with a discussion of the problems involved in deter mining past and present day distributions of the different species (Section 3.5).
Taxonomic methods and the species concept in Collembola
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The great majority of genera listed in Appendix A are well characterised. Most discussions about genera among taxonomists concern which species to place in them, rather than their validity. Providing the boundaries of genera are well defined, and can be shown convincingly by cladistic analysis to be monophyletic units, I see no good reason why existing genera should not be split into two or more genera, or why subgenera should not be raised to generic rank. Although some authors still use the category of subgenus in their publications (e.g. Fjellberg 1991b; Snider 1990a,b), it might be preferable to abandon subgenera altogether as their use frequently causes confusion.
Eucalypts natural and planted
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Species of the genus Eucalyptus are commonly known as ‘eucalypts’ throughout the world, although in Australia they are often called ‘gum trees’ because of the gum (kino) that exudes from the trunk of older trees (Zacharin 1978). The use of correct botanical names is important to growers of eucalypts when they order seed or seek information on appropriate practices in breeding and plantation silviculture. As the common name is often used for more than one species we avoid common names, except where there is no ambiguity. In this book we use botanical names. While most eucalypts can be identified fairly easily in the field as mature trees with the help of books such as those by Chippendale (1988), Boland et al.(1984), Broker and Kleinig (1983, 1990), Gutierrez (1977), or Goes (1985), there are some problems. It is certainly convenient to consider eucalypt species and subspecies as discrete taxa but it is important to remember that within most species, and between some pairs of species, there is a continuum of variation in many characteristics.
Eucalyptus deglupta
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Australia. The natural distribution (Fig. 7.2) is markedly discontinuous from Mindanao in the Philippines, through Sulawesi, Ceram and Irian Jaya in Indonesia, and parts of mainland Papua New Guinea and most of New Britain (Heather 1955; Davidson 1973b, 1978b; Turnbull 1974). Best development of the species is to be found in riverain situations at altitudes mainly below 150 m in New Britain. Full altitudinal range is from sea level to about 1800 m. Throughout its natural range the climatic region in which E. deglupta occurs is the humid tropics (Fig. 4.2, p. 41). Mean annual rainfall is typically 2500-3500 mm but some areas receive up to about 5000 mm. Seasonal distribution varies according to local monsoon patterns. Except for a rainshadow in south-eastern Papua New Guinea, rainfall is seldom less than 100-150 mm per month in the driest part of the year. In the lowlands mean monthly maximum temperature is around 30-32°C, while in the highlands the mean monthly maximum of the coolest month may be only 24°C.
Eucalyptus delegatensis
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eucalyptus delegatensis and E. nitens are the only eucalypts which combine fast growth, cold tolerance, and production of high-quality sawn timber suitable for joinery and furniture. E. delegatensis is economically important in Tasmania, eastern Victoria, and southern New South Wales. In Tasmania and Victoria it has been the principal timber-producing species for many years, probably exceeded only byE. obliqua in total quantity of sawlogs and pulpwood harvested in those regions.
Eucalyptus globulus
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the earliest of the eucalypts to be both validly named and brought into cultivation, E. globulus was formally described by Labillardiere (1799) from a specimen he collected in southeastern Tasmania in 1792 (Fig. 10.1). It is the best known of four closely related species (or subspecies) of blue gum, the others being E. bicostata, E. pseudoglobulus, and E. maidenii (Fig. 10.2). The natural range of E. globulus is approximately 38°26’ S to 43°30’ S. Its principal occurrence is in eastern Tasmania in disjunct populations along the coast and up to 20 km inland in relatively dry open forest. Rainfall in some places is as low as 550 mm. The morphological affinity of trees in natural stands in south-eastern Tasmania with those in plantations in Europe (Orme 1978) suggests that the plantations originated from seed collections near the coast in that area.
Eucalyptus obliqua
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eucalyptus ohliqua the type species of the genus (Fig. 1.2, p. 6), is one of the most widespread and economically important eucalypts of south-eastern Australia. The natural range extends from northern New South Wales to southern Tasmania between latitudes 29° and 43°S and westward as far as Kangaroo Island, South Australia (Fig. 13.1). It is known as messmate stringybark and is an attractive component of the landscape in much of the moister hill country in the part of the continent where most Australian people live.
Seed production
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The end product of any breeding program is the material to be used in propagating plants for afforestation or reforestation programs. Before the recent progress with mass vegetative propagation, all new eucalypt plantations originated from seed. Although vegetative propagation will decrease the demand for seed, we consider that seed will still play a major role in plantation establishment for many years. Somespecies are very difficult to propagate vegetatively and even for more favourable species many problems are still being experienced with rooted cuttings. This chapter deals with mass production of genetically improved eucalypt seed with specific discussion of seed production areas, seedling seed orchards, and clonal seed orchards.
Mass vegetative propagation
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before 1960 the only genera of forest trees mass propagated for wood production by making rooted cuttings of superior individuals were Populus and Salix in temperate areas and Cryptomeria and Cunninghamia in subtropical areas. Since that time progress in cloning techniques and a better, though still far from complete, understanding of the maturation process and ways of reversing it, have led to other genera of forest trees such as Picea, Pinus, Sequoiadendron, and eventually Eucalyptus joining the list of trees able to be mass propagated by rooted cuttings. Vegetative propagation is a technique widely used in tree breeding to manage breeding populations more efficiently. Grafts, cuttings, or micropropagules of selected trees are brought together in a clone bank where the genotypes are conserved and pollinations are made near ground level, in safety. Clonal seed orchards are established using the same techniques. Vegetative propagation for clone banks and seed orchards is on a small scale compared with the mass propagation described in the following sections.
Introduction: The Australian Environment
Authors: Adam Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the present day, rainforest in Australia is very limited in its distribution (opposite). It was once much more widespread, and the contraction to its present limits reflects environmental changes over many millions of years (Chapter 6). In order to provide the background for understanding why rainforest survives where it does, and is absent elsewhere, this chapter presents an overview of the environment of the Australian continent. More detailed recent reviews have been provided by Nix (1981), Bridgewater (1987), and in Jeans (1986).
Controls on growth and productivity of bryophytes: environmental limitations under current and anticipated conditions
Authors: sveinbjornsson Bjartmar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Where they occur in abundance, bryophytes play a key role in the structure and function of ecosystems (Oechel and Lawrence 1985; Chapin et al. 1987). Their relative effect on the ecosystems in which they occur, including effects on nutrient cycling, soil temperature, soil moisture, soil decomposition, vascular plant biomass, and vascular plant productivity, may be far greater than the fraction of the total plant biomass they represent (Oechel and Lawrence 1985; Oechel and Van Cleve 1986; Chapin et al. 1987).
The Selection And Detoxification Of Plant Material By Fungus-Growing Ants
Authors: Powell R J , Stradling D J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most phytophagous insects have digestive systems which are adapted to cope with a limited range of plant chemical defences and are monophagous or oligophagous. However, the ability to fly over relatively large distances facilitates the search for specific food plants. It is advantageous for walking, centre-place foragers like ants to have less specialized diets, and among plant-feeding insects the leaf-cutting ants probably contain the only truly polyphagous species.
Effects of ants on temperate woodland trees
Authors: Whittaker J B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a large quantity of literature on the behaviour and activity of ants associated with temperate trees because red wood ants ( Formica rufa group) in particular, have been considered as potential biological control agents of forest pests. There are excellent reviews of this work by Wellenstein (1954), Cotti (1963), and Adlung (1966), amongst others, which need not be repeated here. Instead, I shall take this opportunity to place more emphasis than they do on deciduous woodlands where more recent work has been carried out, and to consider in more detail the impact of the ants on the herbivore community structure, the dynamics of the insects in the tree canopy, and the effects of ant activity on herbivory.
The Evidence For, And Importance Of, Ant Pollination
Authors: Peaked Rod , Handel Steven N , Beattie Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the world abundance of ants. and the wide radiation of pollination vectors. very few plant species have been described as ant pollinated. Various authors have attempted to explain this lack of ant pollination but these explanations have never been supported by adequate data. However, a recent series of studies have suggested that antibiotic secretions may have contributed to the paucity of ant pollination systems and provide a new series of hypotheses which can be tested experimentally. One consequence of these studies is a call for a reappraisal of the published reports of ant pollination. In this chapter we briefly examine these reports and point to the need for critical experimental studies. It is hoped that this review will widen interest in ant pollination systems and encourage the discovery of other cases of ant pollination.
Light Environments, Stage Structure, And Dispersal Syndromes Of Costa Rican Marantaceae
Authors: Horvitz Carol C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even though morphological traits of fruits, seeds, and infructescences are widely assumed to be adaptive to different kinds of dispersal (van der Pijl 1972; Howe and Smallwood I 982; Augspurger 1984), we still understand very little about the factors that select for one type of dispersal morphology instead of another (Janson 1983; Charles-Dominique 1986; Howe 1986; Janson et al. I986). The usual paradigm is that plants that inhabit early seres of successional environments (newly disturbed sites) are characterized by small, widely dispersed, frequently dormant seeds that are packaged in relatively low-energy fruits adapted for either wind dispersal or a wide array of animal foragers.
Problems Outstanding In Ant-Plant Interaction Research
Authors: Beattie Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last few decades have witnessed a phenomenal growth in our understanding of ant-plant interactions. Nevertheless, many important questions remain to be answered. The five topics discussed here have been selected to show that these questions are both fundamental and diverse and that antplant research may be seminal in advancing our understanding of species interactions, their genetics, and their role in population dynamics and community organization. My remarks will be confined almost wholly to those interactions that are regarded as mutualistic but some of the major points apply equally to other types of interaction such as leaf-cutting and seed-eating.
Ecology of filial cannibalism in fish: theoretical perspectives
Authors: Sargent Robert Craig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rohwer (1978) proposed a theory of filial cannibalism for fishes with paternal care, where filial cannibalism is defined as a parent eating its own offspring. Since that time, filial cannibalism has been widely documented, not only in fishes with paternal care, but also in species with maternal and biparental care (see Dominey and Blumer 1984; FitzGerald and Whorisky this volume, for review). Rohwer (1978) begins with two assumptions: (1) nesting male fishes are food limited and forced to fast; and, (2) a male’s own offspring may be an alternative source of food. Rohwer (1978) proposes that a filial cannibal trades off current offspring against an energetic investment in future reproductive success. From these simple assumptions, Rohwer (1978) provides a verbal model that potentially explains the diversity of filial cannibalism, and associated behaviours, in natural populations.
Reproductive output from the different mating systems
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter and the next one is to assess male and female reproductive success in the various mating systems. It is clear from the behavioural observations that there are conflicts of interest both during the setting up of breeding territories and during the mating period. Can we make sense of these given the assumption that individuals are expected to behave in ways that promote their own reproductive success? Can the outcomes of these conflicts help us to understand the dunnock’s variable mating system? In this chapter I shall consider the factors which influence the reproductive output of the various mating systems. In Chapter 9 I shall then use these results to calculate male and female reproductive success in the different combinations. The analysis is based largely on data collected in the four breeding seasons from 1981 to 1984 when I simply observed natural variation in reproductive success. In the following seasons there were extensive experimental manipulations, so these have been included only in cases where they have illuminated the causes of the natural variation.
Individual reproductive success in the various mating systems: conflicts of interest
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I shall use the data from Chapter 8, on reproductive output from the various mating systems, to assess individual reproductive success. The analysis is based largely on work I did with Alasdair Houston (Davies and Houston 1986), combined with the results from DNA fingerprinting to measure maternity and paternity (Chapter 7). In many ways this represents the culmination of the previous eight chapters. They have raised two puzzles; why does the dunnock have such a variable mating system and why are there such intense conflicts among individuals over mate guarding and paternity? The assumption underlying modern interpretation of animal behaviour is that individuals will adopt behaviour patterns which best promote their own reproductive success. Measuring the reproductive consequences of behaviour patterns is therefore crucial to an understanding of why individuals behave in particular ways. I shall show how measuring individual reproductive success not only helps solve the puzzle of why there are conflicts of interest in dunnock behaviour, but also provides the key to understanding why there is a variable mating system. In solving the second puzzle, therefore, we can provide an answer to the first.
Parental effort by males and females pairs and trios
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We ended Chapter 9 with the pleasing conclusion that the observed conflicts of interest between individuals make good adaptive sense, given their reproductive payoffs from the various mating systems. It might be thought that we could now end the book with the claim that the dunnock puzzle has been solved. However, all we have really done is to push the problem back a step. Why have the reproductive payoffs ended up at the particular values we observe? Why, for example, does the beta male not help more with chick feeding so that it pays the alpha male to cooperate? If this happened, then there would be no male-female conflict over the occurrence of cooperative polyandry. Likewise, why does a polygynous male not help his females more so that they do not suffer costs from reduced chick care? If this happened, then there would be no male-female conflict over the occurrence of polygyny.
Paternity and parental effort: how good are male chick feeding rules?
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most important findings of this study is that male and female behaviour makes good adaptive sense in terms of maximising individual reproductive success (Chapter 9). The first reaction of a colleague was: ‘Well, those dunnocks must be very clever to work out all the reproductive payoffs in Table 9.4!’ The standard reply is that the animals themselves need not be aware of the consequences of their actions. The dunnock’s cryptic plumage has presumably evolved without individuals being aware of exactly how the crypsis works. In the same way, behavioural strategies can evolve without individuals working out all the costs and benefits. It is natural selection which judges the success of alternative strategies, favouring those which best promote an individual’s reproductive success, the means by which genes programming those strategies proliferate in the population. Individuals may play their strategies unconsciously, as programmed by their genetic and physiological make-up; this will influence, for example, plumage colour, the tendency to be aggressive to rivals, work rate in chick feeding, and so on.