bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Misuse of drugs
Authors: Berry Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One in four of the UK population aged over 16 has taken an illegal drug at some stage in their life. Substance abuse is commonest in the lowest income groups in urban areas. High rates of regular illicit drug usage occur in many societies, and contribute to violent and accidental injury. In the USA around a half of patients admitted with violent assault­ related trauma, and a quarter of those with road traffic trauma, test positive for cocaine metabolites on urine or blood screening. Doctors working in both emergency and elective settings must suspect drug related-illness in many patients. Chronic abusers may give explicit details of their recent drug­ taking activity. Other patients conceal their activities for fear of legal recrimination.
Uncontrolled postoperative hypertension
Authors: Nicholls Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Simple postoperative hypertension rarely needs acute emergency treatment in surgical patients unless BP &gt;220/120, or complications of hypertension develop - LVF, cardiac ischaemia, bleeding. Lesser degrees of hypertension may indicate an underlying physiological problem that needs solving. Neuro-, cardiac and vascular surgery may require tighter blood pressure control. rebound from withdrawal of previous medication pain, anxiety, confusion arousal from anaesthesia retention of urine hypoxia, hypercarbia hypothermia and shivering raised intracranial pressure volume overload secondary to excessive blood transfusion or fluid replacement exaggeration of previously untreated mild hypertension by any of the above factors drug error (check that a vasopressor has not been administered).
The breathless patient
Authors: Wilson lain , Sheldon Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dyspnoea in a surgical patient is normally caused by hypoxia. It always requires urgent investigation and treatment. The cause of the hypoxia can usually be diagnosed on the basis of history, examination, and CXR. Anaesthesia affects respiratory function in a variety of ways, but these are largely over within 24 h. A thoracic or upper abdominal incision affects respiration for several days. Lung atelectasis, diaphragmatic and chest wall splinting, and sputum retention occur commonly. Uncontrolled pain worsens the situation. Dyspnoea that develops over a few minutes is suggestive of pulmonary oedema, PE, pneumothorax, anaphylaxis, aspiration, or a cardiac disaster such as a valve rupture.
Treatment of irregular or absent menstrual periods
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Irregular or absent periods is the most common symptom of PCOS, affecting over two-thirds of women. A menstrual period is the result of shedding of the lining of the womb. The womb lining grows in response to oestrogen secretion by the ovaries in preparation for implantation of a fertilized egg. Following ovulation (release of the egg), if the egg is not fertilized then the womb lining is shed. The production of the hormone progesterone following ovulation is essential for the normal shedding of the womb lining.
What should you be eating?
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With so many books and articles about ‘healthy eating’ and ‘dieting’, and with many of these articles being based on the latest celebrity food fads, it can be difficult to know which of the conflicting pieces of advice to believe. A healthy balanced diet should follow the recommendations made by the Department of Health as set out in advice from the Food Standards Agency and large professional organizations such as the British Dietetic Association.
Alternative dietary approaches
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most people consume more than 200 g of carbohydrate daily as part of a normal balanced diet. Low-carbohydrate diets (diets with a daily carbohydrate intake typically less than 60 g per day) have become popular since the publication of numerous diet books, the most famous of which were written by Dr Robert Atkins. There has, however, been much controversy surrounding this type of diet, with many professional organizations, including the British Dietetic Association and American Dietetic Association, cautioning against their use.
Treatment of obesity: the role of drugs and surgery
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Obesity is defined as the accumulation of excess fat resulting in a body weight which is more than 25 per cent above what is considered to be normal for sex and height. The body mass index (BMI) is the measure most often used to determine whether someone is obese. You are obese if your BMI is greater than 30. The number of people in the Western world who are obese has soared over the past 30 years, and currently about a third of all adults in the USA and just under a quarter of adults in the UK are obese. Being obese increases your risks of developing diseases such as diabetes and heart disease.
Weight maintenance— the bit ‘diets’don’t tell you
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Murphy Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Any diet that results in you eating fewer calories than you are burning off will result in weight loss. There are literally thousands of different diets on the bookshelves, each one with a different set of rules, which simply limit your choice of food so that you eat fewer calories. Most people, therefore, have managed to lose weight at some point in their lives. What these diet books do not teach you is how to keep the weight off once you have lost it. Keeping your weight the same (i.e. preventing future weight gain) requires a completely different set of skills from those needed when losing weight.
On the Semantic Markedness of Phi-Features
Authors: Sauerland Uli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When linguists talk about features, they usually talk about markedness as well. One reason is that feature systems are more efficient if there is an unmarked default value contrasted with a marked value. Nevertheless it is often difficult to determine which feature value should be regarded as the unmarked one; φ-features are a particularly interesting case since they are important in many different domains of linguistic inquiry, and therefore markedness considerations arise in several different ways. The main goal of this paper is to establish the concept of semantic markedness and its independence from morphological markedness.
When is a Syncretism more than a Syncretism?
Authors: Harley Heidi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Syncretism occurs when different combinations of morphosyntactic feature values are represented by the same form. For instance, of the various forms of the past tense of the English verb to be, lsG and 3sc syncretize, and so do 2sc, I PL, 2PL and 3PL.
Who gets osteoporosis?
Authors: Black Alison J , Sandison Rena , Reid David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bone is a living structure, like our hair and nails and skin it grows and is broken down constantly throughout life. The thickness of our bone at any point in our life is due to everything that has had an influence on our bone up until that time point. Some of these factors we can influence/change, some are inherent characteristics that we cannot alter. Generally our bones build up to peak by our third decade, stay stable for a period, and then we all lose a little bone from our fifth decade onwards. Women additionally have a period of more rapid bone loss at the menopause.
Semantics in Context
Authors: Stanley Jason 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Consider an utterance of the sentence “Some philosophers are from New York”. If no philosopher in the world comes from New York, competent speakers of English know that it is false. They also know that this utterance is true, if six philosophers in the world come from New York. In other words, competent English speakers have clear intuitions about the conditions under which what is said by an utterance of this sentence is true or false.
Conducting yourself
Authors: Tulloh Bruce , Lee David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is good etiquette to arrive in the theatre suite before the scheduled time of the operation and greet the theatre and anaesthetic staff. If you don’t know their names, introduce yourself. Discuss any special needs you may have—for example, your scrub nurse will appreciate advance warning of any particular instruments you might require, and the anaesthetic staff and porters will happily discuss the position you’d like the patient to be in on the table. If you might require intra-operative radiology or pathology, warn the X-ray department or the laboratory beforehand.
Syntactic Categories
Authors: Culicover Peter W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with syntactic categories. Section 2.1 introduces the traditional lexical categories, such as noun and verb, as well as the minor categories, such as article, quantifier, and conjunction. An important idea introduced in this section is that words of the same category may substitute for one another in a given syntactic context. Section 2.2 looks at the grammatical properties of words, such as number, case, and gender, and introduces the notion of a morphological paradigm. Section 2.3 looks at how a sequence of words forms a phrase of a given category, and highlights the relationship between the category of the phrase and the category of the head of the phrase. Section 2.4 explores some methodological issues in the general theory of linguistic categories.
Complementary and alternative medicine in inflammatory bowel disease
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is exactly what it says it is. In other words, it describes medical theories and practices that are complementary or alternative to conventional medicine. The combined term, CAM, includes a vast and varied range of procedures and concepts of health and disease. These include traditional practices such as acupuncture, traditional Chinese medicine, Ayurvedic medicine, homeopathy, and herbal medicine, as well as more modern complementary practices, including aromatherapy and reflexology.
Fixing English
Authors: Machan Tim William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the courses I regularly teach is the History of the English Language. This is a curricular staple in many universities that offer advanced degrees in English language and literature, and for its historical breadth and the range of language-related issues that it raises, it’s also one of my favorites. Inevitably, history of the language courses are structured chronologically, beginning with the Indo-European language and people of around 5,000 BC, moving through the Primitive Germanic grouping of about 2,000 BC to the Western Germanic grouping of about 500 BC, and proceeding from there to the beginning of Old English.
Bradwardine’s Revenge
Authors: Read Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose Socrates utters sentence (A): Socrates utters a falsehood and I claim, using sentence (B): Socrates utters a falsehood. Bradwardine agrees with this assessment, but considers the following objection: But if it is true that Socrates utters a falsehood, and Socrates says that, then Socrates utters a truth. His reply is: The minor premise is false, because Socrates does not utter the proposition proposed by you and conceded by me [that is, (B)], but another proposition just like it, namely (A).
Aristotle and Thrasymachus
Authors: Scott Dominic 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There has been considerable interest recently in the kind of audience Aristotle is addressing in the Nicomachean Ethics and in the nature of the arguments that he uses. On the basis of some passages, it has been argued that he is not aiming to convert anyone who does not already aspire to the moral life; instead he demands that his audience must have been brought up with beliefs in the value of justice and the other virtues, beliefs to which he can appeal throughout the course of his argument.1 If one accepts this view, it is then tempting to see a strong contrast between his aims and those of Plato, especially in the Gorgias and Republic book 1. In these works we find interlocutors who deny the value of justice and claim thateudaimonia(‘happiness’) is to be found in pursuing its exact oppositeuntrammelled pleonexia. Proceeding dialectically and professing to use only premisses that they can accept, Socrates attempts to refute their challenge and steer them towards the life of justice.2
The Evolution of Knowledge
Authors: Papineau David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human beings are one of the great success stories of evolution. They have spread over the globe and refashioned much of it to their own convenience. What has made this possible? Perhaps there is no one key which alone explains why humans have come to dominate nature. But a crucial part has surely been played by our high potential for theoretical rationality. Human beings far surpass other animals in their ability to form accurate beliefs across a wide range of topics, and many aspects of human civilization rest on this accomplishment. My aim in this essay will be to explain this ability from an evolutionary perspective. I want to understand how beings with our biological history came to be so good at theoretical rationality.
Rules and Reasoning in Stoic Ethics
Authors: Inwood Brad 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Stoic ethics is often criticized for its impractical rigidity and pointless idealism. Its most prominent feature seems to be its proneness to paradoxical theses, such as claims that all moral errors are equal, that only the wise man is free, and that all human passions should be eliminated rather than moderated. Stoic ethics demands that human beings achieve perfect virtue and act accordingly; the alternative is the complete unhappiness from which all of us suffer. And yet at first sight it appears to offer very little in the way of realistic hope or guidance for people who wish to be happy. It seems to be an abstract and Procrustean dogmatism, which deduces from general principles conclusions which have little bearing on the kind of striving and thinking which normally characterizes ethics. It seems to leave little room for progress in an ethics which (like most others in the ancient world) is centred on the improvement of human character.
Discourse and Moral Responsibility in Biotechnical Communication
Authors: Jamieson Dale 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are living in the heart of the biotechnological revolution. Almost every day newspapers publish stories about new techniques and products that some scientist, venture capitalist, or major corporation hopes to develop and bring to market. Already biotechnology has a much larger effect on us than most people realize, particularly in the areas of food and medicine. If there were ever a time for an informed public debate about the uses and deployment of these technologies, it is the present. And yet I think that no such constructive debate is likely to occur. In my opinion, the development path of biotechnology will be determined by other imperatives than those that issue from meaningful public discourse. I shall try to explain why in this essay. The reasons are interesting, not just for understanding the development of biotechnology, but also because they generalize and apply to other complex, new technologies as well. Our kinds of societies are appallingly inept when it comes to rationally planning technological innovations and aligning them with our deepest social values.
All at Sea in Semantic Space: Churchland on Meaning Similarity
Authors: Fodor Jerry , Lepore Ernest 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT is old news that the identity conditions for contents, meanings, and the like are problematic, perhaps because there cannot be identity conditions for meanings unless there is an analytic/synthetic distinction, and there is n ’t. We are n’t proposing to consider whether the notion of content identity can be made metaphysically respectable. But we want to discuss a proposal about how to save semantics if it does turn out that ‘same meaning’ can ’t be reconstructed; it is one that is currently popular in both the philosophical and the cognitive science literature.1The idea is that the purposes semantic theories are supposed to serve do not actually require principles of content individuation; all they require is a notion of content similarity. On such a view, similarity of meaning is primitive relative to sameness of meaning, and the latter might be of interest only as a limiting case of the former; perhaps, indeed, a limiting case that is never achieved in practice. Meaning similarity is real and robust, there is a lot of it around, and it is metaphysically prior to synonymy. So the story goes.
Causation in the Philosophy of Mind
Authors: Jackson Frank , Pettit Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Causation has come to play an increasingly important role in the philosophy of mind, reaching its apotheosis in the doctrine that to be a mental state of kind K is to fill the causal role definitive of that kind of mental state: the typology of mental states is a typology of causal roles. However, ironically, there is, from this very functionalist perspective, a problem about how to understand the causal role of mental properties, those properties which make a mental state the kind of mental state that it is. This problem surfaces in one way or another in the debates over the language of thought (for instance, in the argument that only if intentional states have syntactic00ADlike structure can they play the required causal roles); over the explanatory role of broad content (for instance, in the argument that broad content is explanatorily irrelevant to behaviour because doppelgangers behave alike while possibly differing in broad content); and over the eliminativist implications of connectionism (for instance, in the argument that certain versions of connectionism falsify the propositional modularity component of the folk conception of the causes of behaviour).
The Study of Language and Language Acquisition
Authors: Yang Charles D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fundamental to modern linguistics is the view that human language is a natural object: our species-specific ability to acquire a language, our tacit knowledge of the enormous complexity of language, and our capacity to use language in free, appropriate, and infinite ways are attributed to a property of the natural world, our brain. This position needs no defense, if one considers the study of language is an empirical inquiry. It follows, then, as in the study of biological sciences, linguistics aims to identify the abstract properties of the biological object under study—human language—and the mechanisms that govern its organization.
A Variational Model of Language Acquisition
Authors: Yang Charles D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a simple observation that young children’s language is different from that of adults. However, this simple observation raises profound questions: What results in the differences between child language and adult language, and how does the child eventually resolve such differences through exposure to linguistic evidence? These questions are fundamental to language acquisition research. (6) in Chapter 1, repeated below as (14), provides a useful framework within to characterize approaches to language acquisition:Language acquisition can be viewed as a function or algorithm, ℒ, which maps the initial and hence putatively innate state (𝒮0) of the learner to the terminal state (𝒮T), the adult-form language, on the basis of experience, E, in the environment.
Grammar Competition in Children’s Syntax
Authors: Yang Charles D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hackel’s proposition that ‘ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny’, which has been drifting in and out of fashion in biology, may well be vindicated in the ontogeny of human language, with a twist. If language is delimited in the finite space of Universal Grammar, its ontogeny might well recapitulate its scope and variations as the child gradually settles on one out of the many possibilities. This is exactly what the variational model leads one to expect, and the present chapter documents evidence to this end. The variational model also serves another important purpose. If we survey the field of language acquisition, we cannot fail to notice an unfortunate gap between learnability studies and developmental studies. As far as we know, there is presently no formal model that directly explains developmental findings, nor any rigorous proposal of how the child attains and traverses ‘stages’ described in developmental literature. The variational model intends to fill this gap.
Typological Profile and Pronominal Systems of East Tucanoan and Arawak Languages
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The East Tucanoan impact on Tariana morphology mostly involves indirect dif-fusion. The few borrowed morphemes simply fit into the previously calqued patterns. This is consistent with our hypothesis that the coexistence of languages in long-term multilateral linguistic areas with stable multilingualism results in structural convergence—developing typologically similar structures and tending towards structural compatibility. We expect a considerable degree of structural isomorphism—that is, a one-to-one correspondence between various units of speech—to be the principal outcome of areal diffusion from East Tucanoan onto Tariana.
Nominal Categories and Diffusion
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In nominal morphology, the categories which underwent restructuring under the impact of indirect diffusion are the ones present in both Tucanoan and in Arawak languages. These categories—marked on the noun and within a noun phrase— include possession (§4.1); classifiers, genders, and animacy (§4.2), and number (§4.3). Nominal categories reanalysed and developed under the impact of East Tucanoan languages in Tariana are nominal past tense, and vocative forms for kinship terms (§4.4), and cases for core and oblique grammatical relations (§4.5). In §4.6 I consider the diffusional impact on the structure of numerals and in §4.7 on demonstratives. The last section, §4.8, contains a brief summary.
ΧαZρε καi πlει εV (AVI 2)
Authors: Wachter Rudolf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between about 560 and 525 bc (i.e. in the Peisistratan era), many Athenian potters and painters produced a particular type of wine-cup, usually called the ‘little-master cup’ (Beazley 1932). Most of these are ‘lip-cups’. Some bear no figured decoration (‘plain’ cups),1many have figured decoration on the lip (Ext.: A, B) and a plain interior (Int.),2or a plain lip and inside a figure-decorated tondo, or, rarely, there is figured decoration inside and out. In a closely related type of cup, in which the lip is less clearly marked o• from the bowl and painted black, the handle zone is often decorated, mostly with several to many figures, the interior rarely (‘band-cups’).