bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conscription and Volunteering in the Roman Imperial Army
Authors: Carolyn Higbie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At all times in the history of Rome both citizens and subjects were legally liable to military service. Th. Mommsen, who recognized this, also held that after Marius the legions were mainly composed of volunteers, except in the great civil wars of the late. Republic. This opinion has been endorsed by countless other scholars and often generalized to cover all branches of the imperial army. I have tried to show elsewhere that in the late Republic it was not only in civil wars that Italians were frequently subjected to conscription; I now propose to argue that at any rate until the second century AD conscription was far more common in the Principate than the current dogma, endlessly repeated, would allow. That it was normally employed in the fourth century I take to be accepted. It will not be denied that many recruits at all times were volunteers: only the government could not rely on a sufficient supply of such recruits; probably in certain regions conscription was usual; the evidence does not, of course, permit us to determine, however approximately, the proportions of volunteers and conscripts. In the Republic the terms dilectus, supplementum and conscribere almost always suggest resort to compulsion; this nuance persists in imperial Latin though some ambiguity must be admitted. Fronto, for instance, can write: in hello ubi opus sit legionem conscribere, non tantum voluntarios legimus sed etiam latentes militari aetate conquirimus, a text which shows both that conscribere can be used neutrally and that in the mid second century the government did not necessarily rely on volunteers alone.
The Administrators of Roman Egypt
Authors: Carolyn Higbie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before AD 70 the prefecture of Egypt was the greatest prize in an ejuestrian career—three or four praetorian prefects were promoted to it —and thereafter it ranked only just below the praetorian prefecture to which no fewer than fourteen governors of Egypt were advanced between 70 and 235. In the other great provinces of the empire legati Augusti pro praetore could leave finance to the procurators, while proconsuls perhaps soon came to retain little of their original responsibility for the collection of taxes, and had no army to command. The prefect of Egypt combined fiscal with military and judicial functions.
Publicans in the Principate
Authors: Carolyn Higbie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Roman Republic had few civil servants, and none collected its revenues. The property tax (tributum) paid by Romans themselves until 167 BC was collected by citizens of substance (tribuni aerarii); they doubtless discharged the task as a compulsory public service, a munus corresponding to the Greek ‘liturgy’, and their property was probably pledged to the treasury for due performance; we do not know what arrangements were made for collection of the extraordinary levies imposed on citizens between 43 and 29 BC. In some provinces Rome demanded lump sums from the local communities, presumably assessed on a rough estimate of their resources, which they were free to raise by their own imposts and through their own agents, including local publicans. For the collection of direct taxes in other provinces, of indirect taxes, and of rents or fees for the use of public domains, both in Italy and in the provinces, Rome relied on private contractors working for profit, as it did for the construction and upkeep of public buildings and the provision of supplies for armies and fleets.
The Combat Potential of the Hippeis
Authors: Spence I G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The supreme test of any military organization’s effectiveness is its performance in combat. However, success or failure in action are insufficient as a complete measure of an organization’s military value. This is because a variety of influences outside a unit or arm’s control can cause it to perform poorly in an action or series of actions. These influences include terrain, the information available, the size of the enemy, the physical condition of the force, and, not least of all, luck. For example, it is quite possible for a unit with a good combat record (or a high combat potential) to perform badly on unsuitable terrain, when overwhelmingly outnumbered or already exhausted from previous engagements, or when misused by the high command.
The Theory and Practice of Cavalry Warfare c.450-300
Authors: Spence I G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE combat potential of Greek cavalry was relatively high: mounted troops were mobile, flexible, and capable of exerting considerable hitting power, even against heavy infantry, and the course of Greek warfare from c.450 to 300 shows that this potential was frequently realized in battle. Cavalry not only achieved some major successes against enemy troops, but there were also solid developments in the theory and practice of cavalry employment; despite this, in most Greek city-states (including Athens) it generally remained subordinate to the hoplite arm. Because of this, and as cavalry was usually employed either in support of or in opposition to hoplites, its military role can only be understood within the framework of hoplite warfare.
Minicius Fundanus from Ticinum
Authors: Birley Anthony R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What the nine Plinian books have to tell about senators exhibits a wide variety. Some of the most illustrious get few letters, sporadic at that and not very revealing. To the great Licinius Sura, Pliny imparts information about curious natural phenomena and recounts ghost stories (iv 30; vii 27). Sosius Senecio, away from Rome in 97, learns about a rich crop of poets (i 13). Next, in 103, he emerges as governor of a military province (iv 4). Then nothing more. Yet a vague allusion can prove valuable. Pliny expressed grave solicitude for Julius Servianus: ‘exspectantem in horas timentemque pro capite amicissimo’ (iii 17, 3). Servianus, it follows, was with the emperor on the Danube. The first campaign against the Dacians began in Io 1 . Sometime later Servianus is commended when betrothing his daughter to young Pedanius Fuscus (vi 26).
The Acme of Transpadana
Authors: Birley Anthony R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Adverting on the ‘iniquity of oblivion’, Sir Thomas Browne in his Hydriotaphia was moved to ask ‘whether there be not more remarkable persons forgot than any that stand remembred in the known account of time’. Pertinent examples confirm. Atilius Agricola is only epigraphically extant, and no writer names M. Cornelius Nigrinus Curiatius Maternus (suff. 83), general in the Dacian war of Domitian and honoured with a double set of military decorations. Only a dedication at Pergamum retrieves the fame of C. Julius Quadratus Bassus (sujf. 105); a ‘vir triumphalis’, then governor of Cappadocia, Syria, Dacia. Others among the illustrious earn simple and sporadic mention in a literary source. Thus the great Julius Ursus in the historian Dia; and Julius Candidus in Pliny, for remarks on the volubility of Greek orators and his employment of the word ‘loquentia’.
Personality in Greek Epic, Tragedy, and Philosophy
Authors: Gill Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a major study of conceptions of selfhood and personality in Homer, Greek tragedy, and philosophy. The focus in on norms of personality in Greek psychology and ethics. The key thesis is that, to understand Greek thinking of this type, we need to counteract the subjective and individualistic aspects of our own thinking about the self. The book defines an 'objective-participant' conception of personality, symbolized by the idea of the person as an interlocutor in a series of types of psychological and ethical dialogue. The book is both an original contribution to the history of ideas of personality and the self and also offers sustained analysis and new interpretations of a number of important topics in Greek philosophy and literature. These topics include: Homeric decision-making; the problematic hero in Homer's Iliad and Greek tragedy; monologues of self-division in Greek poetry; the tripartite division of the soul and ethical education in Plato's Republic; Aristotle's ideas about 'being yourself' and meeting the claims of others; Greek philosophical thinking about what it means to be fully 'human' or 'divine'. The book is shaped as a response to recent work in the philosophy of mind, ethics, personhood, as well as in classical scholarship. Clear and non-technical, with all Greek translated, the book brings out the continuing importance of ancient Greek thinking for contemporary study of ideas of personality and selfhood.
Making up Your Mind
Authors: Gill Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a point of access to the issues of this book, I use the question of how to interpret Homeric decision-making. This is a well established topic of scholarly debate; it is also one in which the crucial importance of the psychological and ethical assumptions brought to the topic has been underlined by some recent contributions.1 I develop the latter point in a way which brings out some of the aspects of the contrast between subjective-individualist and objective-participant conceptions of the person. I take the comments on Homeric deliberation by Bruno Snell and A. W. H. Adkins as expressing certain leading features of post-Cartesian and post Kantian thinking about the self and personhood. I note some of the recent criticisms of that way of thinking by philosophers of mind and ethics, particularly those which are linked with a favourable re appraisal of Greek thought.
Being Yourself and Meeting the Claims of Others
Authors: Gill Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I take up, in connection with a number of Greek philosophical theories, especially Aristotle's, a general question which raises similar issues to that raised by Plato's presentation of the philosopher-rulers' attitude to re-entering the cave. The question is how to describe, and to resolve, the conflict between pursuing your own happiness and meeting the ethical claims of other people.
Being a Person and Being Human
Authors: Gill Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this final chapter, I take up a topic which enables me to examine in a more general way the contrast between subjective-individualist and objective-participant conceptions of personality, and to clarify the way in which this contrast has informed the more specific discussion in previous chapters. This topic also provides a way of pursuing the question of the relationship between Greek and modern thinking, which has formed a fundamental element in my argument from the start of the book. In addition, it serves as a means of high lighting other questions that could be pursued usefully in the light of the conceptual and interpretative framework developed here.
Eunomius of Cyzicus and the Nicene Revolution
Authors: Vaggione Richard Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of 'Arianism' has proved one of the abiding fascinations and the abiding problems of early Christian studies in recent years. In this book Richard Vaggione addresses the definition of the doctrine and why it generated such intense social turmoil by examining the standpoint of one of 'Arianism's' principal supporters, Eunomius of Cyzicus. Eunomius' life is used as a framework within which to discuss changes in the doctrine of the Trinity. His origins, personal history, education, theology, and works are discussed in detail, as well as his unique philosophy of language. Dr Vaggione examines the relationship of Eunomius and his movement to the non-Nicene movement, and considers the meaning of the liturgical and other changes he made. He also traces the fortunes of the Eunomian following are traced through its final disappearance in the sixth or seventh century. One of the principal themes of the book is the nature of doctrinal change, especially the contribution of ordinary people, including those of women and ascetics. Richard Vaggione argues that the process of doctrinal change is not exclusively the task of the religious 'professional' but of the Christian community as a whole, involving a prolonged dialogue between nave and pulpit leading finally to a new doctrinal and devotional synthesis.
Ariomaniac
Authors: Vaggione Richard Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Located in what could then be reckoned the centre of the inhabited world and regarded by many as the most populous city of all,Alexandria in the second quarter of the fourth century could still provide its visitors with abundant justification for the superlatives of previous centuries:‘world’s greatest emporium’,‘cross-roads of the world’,‘all-nurturing city inhabited by every kind of human being’.For while it had suffered heavily in the troubles of the previous century, and under Aurelian had lost not only the glittering palace quarter of the Ptolemies but the original site of the Great Library,it was still arguably the empire’s greatest city, outranked in political importance only by Rome, and, in the east, by the upstart new capital on the Bosporus.
Logic Chopper
Authors: Vaggione Richard Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the things which most astonished almost all the participants in these controversies was the sheer inability of their adversaries to understand the plain meaning of scripture.Indeed, the very fact that so much else was held in common made their disagreement on this all the more puzzling—foes who had begun as members of a single eucharistic assembly,and who continued to share a common liturgical inheritance,found themselves bitterly divided over the interpretation of a book they regarded as ‘the common possession of all’.Their problem was neither canonical nor textual.
Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology
Authors: Healy John F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Elder Pliny's Natural History is essentially a work of reference providing a wide-ranging account of human mores and achievement in the arts and sciences in the first century AD. It influenced the content and character of subsequent technical literature, but errors in transmission of the manuscripts led to undeserved criticism from the time of Niccolo Leoniceno, the late fifteenth-century Italian humanist. Pliny's work is here re-examined for the first time since the 1920s. Modern experiments, simulating the techniques described by Pliny, and an in-depth study of his development of a technical language, confirm his unique contribution to our knowledge of science in early imperial Rome. Pliny does not, in general, understand the principles underlying the phenomena he observes but makes a significant input - especially in the fields of crystallography, chemistry, and physics as well as of the applied sciences - from which beginnings those scientific disciplines would evolve many centuries later. Ironically, Pliny's scientific curiosity led to his death in AD 79 while observing the eruption of Vesuvius at close quarters.
Technology
Authors: Healy John F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some advances in technology in the ancient world were attributed to accidental discoveries, among them the basic metallurgical processes. Lucretius, in a well-known passage (DRN 5. 1255—64), ascribes the rise of civilization to its acquisition of the technology needed for smelting and casting of metals.1 Similarly Pliny (36. 191 ff.) records the traditional account of the origin of glass.2
Structure and Cohesion
Authors: Hutchinson G O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We turn now to explore directly and on a larger scale the question of form which has already concerned us on a smaller. The audacity, and the cohesion, which we have seen there also appear here. In the past this literature has often been accused of devoting its attention chiefly to the individual episode, or even the individual sentence, and of disregarding wider entities. This view continues to find very distinguished adherents. More positive judgements are now often delivered on particular authors, frequently on the basis of detailed and rewarding study. Yet in justly stressing how works cohere, scholars perhaps fail to stress sufficiently how bold and strange these works can be. It is not enough to attack disunity or defend unity: unity of one kind (say in theme) can effectively be combined with disunity of another (say in plot), and rupture and excursion can be positively valued, for their daring or their expressive force or both.
The Gods in Prose and in Lucan
Authors: Hutchinson G O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall concentrate chiefly on Seneca, whose works dwell far more on the divine than any other writer’s in prose.By considering some particular passages, we shall be able, among other things, to savour the difference of his philosophical writing on the the divine from writing on the divine in poetry. We could have made that difference seem smaller, at least theologically, by concentrating on certain types of passage in poetry, and by taking less interest in play; our purpose, however, is not to arrive at an absolute measurement of the interval but to glimpse characteristic differences between the genres in scope, atmosphere, world, and manner. Many divergences are obvious, but less simple than they appear. From the harmony and theological optimism of Seneca’s explicitly Stoic universe polytheistic discord, and sinister or entertaining anthropomorphism, utterly disappear.
The Work of Seleukos Nikator
Authors: Grainger. John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the time Seleukos came to Syria as its ruler, in 301, that land had been under Macedonian rule for a full generation, since its conquest by Alexander in 333. Alexander had occupied it without opposition in the exploitation of his victory at Issos. The only substantial political authority in Syria at the time, apart from the Persian governor, had been the city-kingdom of Arados, which had been speedily surrendered to him as he approached; in return he allowed the kingship to continue. A detachment of Macedonian troops was sent to Thapsakos on the Euphrates to block any Persian attempt to recover Syria and to prepare two bridges to allow Alexanders army to cross over in pursuit of further conquests.
The Kings and the Cities
Authors: Grainger. John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evolution of the Syrian cities in terms of size and the gradual development of their hierarchy was not simply a matter of geographical factors working themselves out to an inevitable conclusion. There was nothing definitive about the process. After all, the artificiality of the urban system in Syria. during Seleukos’ reign was such that the ‘natural’ evolution of the system would need to contend with the determination of Seleukos’ heirs and successors to maintain the system unaltered. The foundation of the cities—most of them—had been a royal act, and the royal will was one of the factors which geography could not take account of.
The Classical Athenian Democracy
Authors: Stockton David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Greeks had a word for it, and the word was demokratia, a compound of demos (`the people') and kratos (`power or rule'). But it is significant that the first occurrence of the word in surviving Greek literature is in Herodotus' History, which he was writing during the third quarter of the fifth century BC. It was perhaps coined in the period following the reforms of the last decade of the sixth, which later won fame for Cleisthenes as `the man who gave the Athenians their democracy'. In 431 BC Pericles could claim that the Athenian system of government was unique, and an example to every other society in Greece. It is the object of this book to explain to the modern reader what the institutions of the classical Athenian democracy were, how they worked, and what assumptions underlay them. It is principally concerned with the fully developed democracy of the post-Ephialtic period; but a chapter is devoted to tracing the broad development of the Athenian constitution from the reforms of Solon in the early sixth century to those of Ephialtes in the late 460s, so that the developed democracy can be seen in its proper historical context. Stockton incorporates recent important work by historians, epigraphists, and archaeologists into his study, which is easily accessible to the sixth-form and first-year undergraduate student as well as interested general readers since all Greek is translated, difficult terminology explained, and full suggestions for further reading made in endnotes to each chapter.
Terminology
Authors: Dasen Véronique 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most informative text is the letter of congratulation sent by King Pepy II (c. 2246-2152 bc) to Harkhuf, a high official who had successfully led a fourth trading expedition to the southern kingdom of Yam. Harkhuf had the king’s letter carved beside the accounts of his journeys on the facade of his tomb in the necropolis of Aswan.2 We read that he brought back many precious exotic products, such as incense, ebony, and ivory 3. He also had an unusual present from the land of Akhtiu, ‘of the horizondwellers(?)’, a small man called a ‘dng of the god’s dances’, whom the king longed to see: You have said in this dispatch of yours that you have brought all kinds of great and beautiful gifts, which Hathor mistress of Imaau has given to the ka of King Neferkare, may he live forever.
Iconographic Conventions
Authors: Dasen Véronique 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Iconography reflects the sensitivity of the Greeks to the human body, its proportions, its integrity. Greek artists, like Egyptian, had little interest in showing human physical anomalies. Monsters are usually composed of human and animal elements otherwise normal when looked at separately. The hundred eyes of Argos are neatly designed and scattered over a well-proportioned body, Geryon has three normal upper bodies, and apart from his single eye, Polyphemos has no conspicuous malformation; even the Giants are muscular naked men, seldom strikingly tall, only sometimes distinguished by a peculiar bushy hairstyle.
General Conclusion
Authors: Dasen Véronique 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This study has shown that in ancient Egypt and Greece, dwarfs had a specific place in the socio-religious system of the community. They were regarded as full humans, and perhaps also as lifelong children. Their physical abnormality was accepted and valued because of religious associations specific to each culture. In Egypt, dwarfs were regarded as manifestations of the sun-god Re and of Horus; in Greece, they were equated with satyrs and included in the world of Dionysos. These associations are reflected in the different models used to depict them in each culture: in Egypt their connections with youthful solar deities, such as Horus, are suggested by their ideal youthful faces and flattopped heads, while in Greece snub noses, half-bald heads, and large genitals stress their resemblance to satyrs.
Commentary
Authors: Scourfield J H D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ad Heliodorum Epitaphium Nepotiani: though epitaphium dues not appear in the title in all the MSS, it is Jerome’s own word for the letter; cf. 1. 2, epist. 77. 1. 1, and esp. epist. 112. 3. 2, amid discussion of the proper title of De viris illustrihus: ’epitaphium autem propne scribitur mortuorum, quod quidem in dormitione sanctae memoriae Nepotiani presbyteri olim fecisse me novi’.