bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Agricultural Hygiene
Authors: Popendorf William , Donham Kelley J. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractAgriculture was and in most places still is, a disciplined life style that has bred strong character and high morals in virtually every culture. But such attributes are probably more the necessities of successful agriculture than its natural benefit. Modern agriculture, as practiced by Western cultures, is not the bucolic, healthful working environment fantasized in media classics such as Laura Ingalls Wilder'sFarmer Boy. Whatever it was, agriculture is changing or facing change everywhere. While some cultures (and indeed some crops within all cultures) have yet to make the transition from human to animal to mechanized power, or from chemical to genetically engineered tools, where these transitions have occurred, production per farmer has increased. Unfortunately, so too have health and safety stresses upon farmers. Twenty years ago agriculture was the third most hazardous occupation. Although conditions within general industry improved during the intervening years, agriculture has been exempt of mandated safety and health services. Today agriculture is the most hazardous occupational group in the United States. In fact, modern farm life has recently been described as “A Harvest of Harm.”This chapter hopes to address the needs and interests of industrial hygienists, as opposed to other reviews of agricultural hazards. It first describes the dilemma of agriculture as both an industry and as a way of life. Selected health hazards that are either characteristic of or unique to agriculture are then reviewed. A topical overview of hazardous processes, physical, biological and chemical agents, and diseases of concern in agriculture is given. The selected topics have been organized into acute and cumulative trauma, respiratory hazards, pesticides, veterinary chemicals, zoonoses, dermatoses, physical hazards, cancer, and mental stresses. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how the traditional industrial hygiene components of anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control might be applied to agriculture, potential policies to stimulate industrial hygiene and safety services on the farm and ranch, and approaches employed in other countries to deliver such services. While the problems discussed are world wide, this chapter will focus on U.S. agriculture.
Indoor Air Quality In Nonindustrial Occupational Environments
Authors: Morey Philip R. , Horner Elliott , Epstien Barbara L. , Worthan Anthony G. , Black Marilyn S. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractIndoor air in occupied buildings is always more polluted from human‐sourced contaminants than the air outside the building. This is true for modern buildings constructed during the past decade as well as for primitive shelters erected centuries or millennia ago. It follows that a continuous source of outdoor air is required to prevent the degradation of indoor air from contaminants arising from people and their activities. This was realized historically by the inventors of roof vents for exhaust of fire smoke and by early designers of openable windows for introduction of make‐up (outdoor) air.Major sources on indoor air pollutants are discussed, i.e., microbials, allergens, volatile organic compounds, pesticides, combustion products, tobacco smoke, radon, and particulates. Sampling of these pollutants and interpretation of data are included. Varied approaches to indoor air quality studies, ventilation, protocols and guidelines, and control are discussed.
Role of the Industrial Hygiene Consultant
Authors: Muranko Henry J. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
(1) Consultation by individuals: There are many individuals offering services related to industrial hygiene matters who are not actually considered industrial hygiene consultants, although at times the distinction may be difficult to define. There are, for example, individuals whose principal specialty is measuring or controlling noise, or ionizing radiation, or perhaps they consider themselves to be industrial ventilation engineers. This discussion is limited, however, to individuals offering full‐service industrial hygiene assistance, which is to say that they are prepared to consider or study any workplace, and make recommendations related to potential or actual health hazards arising from work operations. They may, of course, call upon other specialists, such as noted, to be of further assistance, but in general the industrial hygiene consultant is capable of taking appropriate actions related to any risk of adverse health effects arising from the occupational environment.
The profession of industrial hygiene is relatively young, and the process of maturing requires that attitudes and practices gradually change to meet contemporary needs. The substantial growth in the number of industrial hygiene consultants and their use by those requiring such assistance is part of the maturing process, and these trends are likely to continue indefinitely. Industrial hygienists who retain consultants should not be viewed as professionals who lack basic skills, but rather as enlightened professionals who choose to supplement their skills as required to meet their employer's/client's needs in the best manner possible. In this regard, industrial hygiene follows traditions established many years ago by such long established professions as engineering, medicine, and accounting, whose practitioners routinely retain required consultative assistance as soon as the need is perceived.
(2) The consulting organization: Emergence of the industrial hygiene consulting firm in the United States is a relatively recent phenomenon. With few exceptions most of the industrial hygiene firms in business today have their beginnings in the passage of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH) of 1970. A 1966–1967 survey of the industry conducted by the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) showed that as recently as 1967, only about 10 to 15 percent of the workforce ever came in contact with an industrial hygienist.
What Needs the Consultants Serve; Services offered consideration as a career, ethics, responsibilities, liabilities and choosing a firm are discussed.
Tuberculosis and Other Mycobacteria
Authors: Gardner Donald E. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract

The genus
Mycobacterium
is one of the most widely distributed bacteria genera in nature and includes those organisms that cause two of the world's most prevalent infectious diseases in humans,
M. tuberculosis
, the agent of tuberculosis and
M. leprae
, the agent of leprosy. A large number of other species in this genera are widespread and occur as contaminants in soil, water, or organic debris. These organisms may be ingested or inhaled in dust particles and produce syndromes that are indistinguishable from classic tuberculosis. The term tuberculosis (TB) is commonly applied to all cases of mycobacterial infections except leprosy. Many of these infections are now being recognized more frequently in immunosuppressed patients who have organ transplants, individuals being treated for leukemia or cancer, and patients suffering from AIDS. In most cases of TB in humans, the lungs are the major organ affected but other tissues and organs such as bone, skin, and the digestive tract may also be infected. Although this chapter focuses primarily on tuberculosis, a discussion of a few of these other opportunistic organisms in this genus that are associated with human disease are also discussed.

The bibliography provided will guide the readers to works which they can consult for more detailed information about these organisms. These references contain discussions on taxonomy, growth requirements, as well as the morphological characteristics, physiology, pathogenicity, and the metabolic activity of these organisms.
Ionizing Radiation
Authors: Albert Roy E. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Ionizing radiation is undoubtedly one of the most intensely studied of all toxic agents. The impetus for understanding its manifold effects came from its extensive use since the beginning of the century in medical diagnosis and in treating cancer. With the development of atomic energy during World War II, the field expanded dramatically. Atomic energy became one of the country's largest industries. The potential health hazards from occupational and environmental sources of radiation became an important area for research; it spawned a new field in the post‐World War II era of measurement and control called health physics.

Under the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), a great national laboratory complex was established for research on weapons and power production and for biomedical and physics research. Long‐term biomedical research was also initiated at large university‐based facilities and by the support of individual grants. The development and sale of radioisotopes and radiation measuring instruments was subsidized by the AEC to the great benefit of biomedical research in general. Radiation biology has its own society, (the Radiation Research Society), and its own journal, the
Journal of Radiation Research
. In recent years, radiation has become an integral tool for understanding cellular function at the molecular level, for example, the tumor suppressor gene, p53. However, the level of biomedical research on radiation is much lower in the last few decades than earlier.

This chapter gives the toxicologist the basic features of radiation biology. Because of the scope of the field, only the essential concepts are presented. The reader is referred to textbooks and other publications cited for more details.
Gallium, Indium, and Thallium
Authors: Repetto Guillermo , Peso Ana del 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThe chemical elements gallium, indium, and thallium belong to group IIIA in the periodic table. Unlike other metals, such as lead and arsenic, which have been featured prominently in toxicologic folklore since antiquity, they are relative newcomers, discovered from 1861 to 1876. Since then, thallium has developed a well‐deserved reputation for its toxic properties and is recognized as a potent accidental, occupational, and environmental poison, with incidence in cases of homicide and suicide. Although gallium and indium are not as toxic as thallium, their production and industrial use represent an important source of exposure, particularly in the increasing manufacture of semiconductor electronic devices. Gallium compounds particularly produce pulmonary toxicity. Indium compounds induce pulmonary toxicity and also nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and developmental toxicity, whereas thallium compounds act as general poisons. Some compounds are also capable of altering various cellular defense mechanisms involved in carcinogenesis. However, many aspects of the toxicity of individual compounds in human beings, including toxicokinetics, mechanisms of action, teratogenic potential, and the best treatment, remain to be elucidated.
Manganese and Rhenium
Authors: Davis J. Michael 
Published: August 2005

AbstractManganese (Mn, atomic number 25) and rhenium (Re, atomic number 75) are group 7 (VIIB) transition elements. Before the discovery and confirmation of the existence of rhenium predicted by Mendeleev's periodic law, rhenium was provisionally termed dvi‐manganese because of its expected resemblance to manganese. Manganese and rhenium share many of the general chemical characteristics of metals in the transition series, including multiple valency, the ability to form stable complex ions, paramagnetism, and catalytic properties. However, the second and third elements in the transition series generally have chemical properties more similar to each other than to the first member. Thus, in many respects, rhenium is chemically more similar to technetium than to manganese.Inhalation of particulate Mn constitutes the dominant route through which toxicity is expressed under most occupational conditions. Manganese is notably toxic to the central nervous system (CNS) and also has effects on the respiratory system and on reproductive function. Numerous clinical cases of frank Mn toxicity denote a characteristic syndrome that may include psychiatric symptoms, dystonia and rigidity, impaired manual dexterity, and gait disturbances. Several epidemiological studies provide a coherent pattern of evidence of neurotoxicity from occupational exposure to Mn at average concentrations around 1 mg/m3or lower. The primary effects observed in such workers pertain to motor function, especially hand steadiness, eye–hand coordination, and rapid coordinated movements, which imply involvement of the CNS extrapyramidal system. Although a growing body of literature is devoted to medical applications of the radioactive isotopes186Re and188Re, very limited information is available on the toxicity of rhenium itself, which makes it difficult to characterize its toxicity with confidence. The few studies conducted thus far suggest that acute administrations of Re may have relatively low toxicity, at least by noninhalation routes. It has been described as “relatively inert” in the body and produces transient changes in blood pressure (both hypo‐ and hypertensive), tachycardia, sedation, and ataxia. In one comparative study, the lethal oral dose of Re was about eight times higher than that of molybdenum. However, one report suggests that it could be more potent as an inhalation toxicant. If true, rhenium and manganese might share the feature of having much greater toxicity by inhalation than by ingestion.
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Authors: Carreón Tania 
Published: August 2005

AbstractAliphatic hydrocarbons are open‐chain compounds that may be saturated or unsaturated. The saturated compounds, known asparaffin hydrocarbonsoralkanes, include methane and its homologs having the empirical formula CnH2n+2. The unsaturated compounds fall into a number of homologous series: (1) those containing one double bond (ethylene and its homologs) and having the formula CnH2nare known asolefinsoralkenes; (2) those containing one triple bond (acetylene and its homologs) are calledacetylenesoralkynesand have the formula CnH2n−2; (3) those having two double bonds (allene, 1,3‐butadiene, and 1,4‐pentadiene represent three types) arediolefinsoralkadienesand also have the formula CnH2n−2; (4) those having a large number of double or triple bonds or both double and triple bonds are named in analogous fashion asalkatrienes,alkatetraenes,alkadiynes,alkenynes, andalkadienynes.Aliphatic hydrocarbons are asphyxiants and central nervous system (CNS) depressants. Serious toxic effects of aliphatic hydrocarbons include asphyxia and chemical pneumonitis for many paraffins, axonal neuropathy forn‐hexane, and cancer for 1,3‐butadiene.
Phenol and Phenolics
Authors: Gingell Ralph , O'Donoghue John , Staab Robert J. , Daly Ira W. , Bernard Bruce K. , Ranpuria Anish , Wilkinson E. John , Woltering Daniel , Johns Phillip A. , Montgomery Stephen B. , Hammond Larry E. , Leng Marguerita L. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractPhenol was originally isolated from coal‐tar streams, but now it is almost exclusively produced by the oxidation of cumene and subsequent cleavage of the cumene hydroperoxide to form phenol and acetone. The U.S. production of phenol for 1995 was 4.16 billion lb (3). Phenol is used in the petroleum industry to extract lube (lubricating) oil from residual oil. It is reacted with aldehydes such as formaldehyde to form “phenolic resins,” which are widely used as adhesives, structural products, and electrical laminates. Other uses include the manufacture of caprolactam (an intermediate in the manufacture of nylon), bisphenol A (an intermediate in the manufacture of epoxy resins and polycarbonates), herbicides, wood preservatives, hydraulic fluids, heavy‐duty surfactants, lube‐oil additives, tank linings and coatings, and intermediates for plasticizers and other specialty chemicals. Phenol is used medically in throat lozenges, disinfectants, and ointments; for facial skin peels; and to cause nerve block.With rare exceptions, human exposure in industry has been limited to accidental contact of phenol with the skin or to inhalation of phenol vapors. Other major sources of inhalation exposure include residential burning and automobile exhaust. Similar details are given for phenolics, including chloro and bromo compounds.
Saturated Methyl Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Authors: Reid Jon B. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractIt is impossible to generalize on the saturated methyl halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons discussed in this chapter. Physical properties and toxicological manifestations differ over a broad range depending on the particular halogen and the number of halogen atoms involved.As mentioned in the previous edition, the usefulness of these compounds has been significantly reduced because of the concern over stratospheric ozone depletion. On the other hand, toxicological interest in these compounds has increased because of concern over their production in chlorinated water systems. The USEPA (National Center for Environmental Assessment) and others are actively investigating the possible relationship between chlorination of drinking water sources and human cancer through many avenues, including sophisticated epidemiologic tools. Many of the compounds have been shown to produce cancer in animals, but their potency for humans is still under consideration, and the complex interactions with regard to human health are challenging.The other area of biochemistry that is of relevance to some of these materials is in regard to lipid peroxidation and its role in disease and in extrapolation from animal species to humans.As in the previous editions, this review relies extensively on information provided in earlier editions. Several online databases were utilized in searching for the most recent information in preparing the chapter. These included NTP (National Toxicology Program), IRIS (Integrated Risk Information Service), and the ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry) websites. Most recent information was sought through MEDLINE, and, when possible, the original articles were reviewed. Debatably, IRIS was considered to be the last word with regard to cancer. Many of the compounds have been recently reviewed by the ATSDR and are reported in their toxicological profiles. Recent reviews were utilized in preparing this chapter. In addition, the Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards and the ACGIH's TLV's and Other Occupational Exposure Values‐1999 were utilized.
Ethers
Authors: Mehlman Myron A. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractNaturally occurring ethers may be constituents of essential oils and may be extracted from these sources. Although some ethers may appear naturally, they may be prepared synthetically from other chemicals or other ethers.Symmetrical ethers are produced by the catalytic dehydration of their corresponding alcohols, for example, diethyl ether from ethanol. They are also obtained as by‐products from the formation of their corresponding esters or alcohols. Ethers may also be made by special synthesis procedures. Some ethers are obtained through the destructive distillation of selected hardwoods.Ethers have a wide variety of industrial uses. Their commercial value is recognized in the following industries: rubber, plastics, paints and coatings, refrigeration, medicine, dentistry, petroleum, chemical, perfume, cosmetics, toiletries, and food.The more volatile ethers have been used as liquid refrigerants, general anesthetics, commercial solvents, primers for gasoline engines, fuel additives, and rocket propellants. Other ethers have been used as alkylating agents in chemical syntheses of organic chemicals and in the manufacture of polymers. They are also used to denature alcohol. Halogenated ethers are used in the preparation of ion‐exchange resin, which is a modified polystyrene resin that is chloromethylated and then treated with a tertiary amine or with a polyamine. Ethers have wide use as commercial solvents and extractants for esters, gums, hydrocarbons, alkaloids, oils, resins, dyes, plastics, lacquers, and paints. They are used as dewaxing extractants for lubricating oils. Ethers have had limited use as cleaning and spotting agents. They are used as chemical intermediates in the manufacture of textile aids, such as dyes and resins. In the pharmaceutical industry, ethers are used as solvents, suspending agents, flavorings for oral drugs, and dental products. They are used to increase viscosity, as penetrants and wetting agents, and as antioxidants and stabilizers. Ethers are used in foods as flavorings and in perfumes as fragrances. They are used as solvents for elastomers and for regenerating rubber. They have use as antiskinning agents in surface coatings and as weathering agents for paints and plastics. Ethers are also used in soaps. Ethers appear in heat transfer agents. Several industries use specific ethers for thickening, dispersing, suspending, binding, and film forming.The data presented in here are arranged according to the chemical structure of the compounds. An effort has been made to place the chemicals within each group in an order that represents an increase in chain length. Even though the number of chemicals in any one group is limited, it is possible to make general, comparative statements. This corresponds with the acute toxicity data available in theNIOSH Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances.The oral toxicity and concentrated vapor data indicate that as the chain length increases in the symmetrical ethers the toxicity is reduced. The inverse is true for skin penetration toxicity.
Ketones of Four Or Five Carbons
Authors: Morgott David A. , Topping Douglas C. , O'Donoghue John L. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractA ketone is an organic compound containing a carbonyl group (CO) attached to two carbon atoms and can be represented by the general formulaSeveral billion pounds of ketones are produced annually for industrial use in the United States. Those with the highest production volumes include acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, cyclohexanone, 4‐hydroxy‐4‐methyl‐2‐pentanone, isophorone, mesityl oxide, and acetophenone. Common methods used to manufacture ketones include aliphatic hydrocarbon oxidation, alcohol dehydration with subsequent oxidation, dehydrogenation of phenol, alkyl aromatic hydrocarbon oxidation, and condensation reactions.Ketones are used because of their ease of production, low manufacturing cost, excellent solvent properties, and desirable physical properties such as low viscosity, moderate vapor pressure, low to moderate boiling points, high evaporation rates, and a wide range of miscibility with other liquids. The low‐molecular‐weight aliphatic ketones are miscible with water and organic solvents, whereas the high‐molecular‐weight aliphatic and aromatic ketones are generally immiscible with water. Most ketones are chemically stable. The exceptions are mesityl oxide, which can form peroxides, and methyl isopropenyl ketone, which polymerizes. Most ketones are generally of low flammability.Ketones are commonly used in industry as solvents, extractants, chemical intermediates, and to a lesser extent, flavor and fragrance ingredients. Ketones have also been reported in the ambient air, in wastewater treatment plants, and in oil field brine discharges.