bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Composition
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall examine the nature of Anglo-Saxon pictorial composition. We will consider its forms, the various reasons for them, and what they could be used to convey. When laying out a figural composition on the page of a book, one of two ‘planes ‘ can be followed as the dominant axis for design. The first is the flat surface of the page itself. The second is the illusionistic ‘field ‘ of pictorial space. This may be considered as starting at a right angle to the surface of the page, and continuing into and beyond it. It is clear that the decorators of late Anglo-Saxon books thought principally in terms of the former plane. It was the business of free-standing sculpture and metalwork, not book decoration, to operate in three-dimensional space. The Anglo-Saxon illuminator liked to organize a composition across the surface of the page rather than into it, and he preferred to emphasize the surface pattern of a design rather than its recessional qualities. The distinctive characteristics of late Anglo-Saxon manuscript art-the foliate frame, coloured line drawing, and agitated draperies-all adorn the surface of the page; and by affirming rather than disguising its presence, they pin the individual figures and the com position as a whole firmly to it.
The Individual in Medieval Historiography
Authors: Bagge Sverre 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with individualism and the state in medieval historiography. My main interest is not the question of the rights of the individual versus those of the community but, rather, the more general problem of individual behaviour, the norms governing it, and its relationship to society or ‘the state’. I shall distinguish between two senses of individualism: firstly, the role of individuals compared to collective groups, impersonal structures, and so forth in political decision-making, and, second, the uniqueness of the individual.
‘Liberty is an Inestimable Thing’: Some Unexpected ‘Laboratories’ of Human Rights in France and Germany
Authors: Schmale Wolfgang 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This quotation is to be found in the Tractatus de feudis of Pierre de Belleperche (Petrus de Bellapertica, c.1250-1308), which was written at the end of the thirteenth century. The last sentence is surely curious because Belleperche seems to argue in favour of liberty at a moment when feudalism was still in full vigour, but the reason I have drawn attention to this paragraph is its first sentence, ‘Liberty is an inestimable thing’ (libertas res est inaestimabilis). Belleperche found this sentence in Roman Law (D. 50. 17. 106). The sentence is attributed to the Roman lawyer Paulus and it is preserved only in this absolute dictio, without any comment. The title of D. 50. 17 is De diversis regulis iuris antiquis (‘On Various Ancient Rules of Law’), and, in practice, the sentence was later used as a regula iuris. This regula was known and employed by feudalists in France and Germany during the ancien regime to reduce, or even abolish, remaining feudal dues
The change of religion
Authors: Macculloch Diarmaid 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Christianity’s twenty-first-century profile in the four nations of the British Isles is a result of seventeenth-century upheavals: in particular the civil wars between 1640 and 1660. The picture has been blurred by the arrival and naturalisation of many other world faiths, by modern Christian ecumenism, and by general decline in institutional religion, but the fourfold character can still be recognized. English religious life is divided between a majority church priding itself on having evolved a distinctive ‘Anglican’ synthesis of historic Catholicism with Protestant reform, and a Protestant Nonconformity which has developed in reaction to this synthesis: still on the outside is Roman Catholicism, despite its numerical strength. Ireland presents majority Celtic Roman Catholicism and minority Anglo/Scottish Protestant ism: Wales equally sharply confronts Celtic Protestant Nonconform ity with English-oriented Anglicanism, while Scotland is dominated by an established church with a self-consciously Presbyterian and Calvinist tradition.
The Renaissance in Britain
Authors: Walker Greg 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Thus Sir Philip Sidney (1554-86), the archetypal Renaissance man, excoriated contemporary dramatists in his Apology for Poetry (pub lished posthumously in 1595). What annoyed Sidney most was the playwrights’ lack of decorum, their failure consistently to apply clas sical precepts, resulting in a hybrid product, neither one thing nor another. In fact this charge might be levelled at most of the artistic disciplines in Britain in the sixteenth century. Yet it was this very ‘mongrel’ failure to conform to pure generic categories which was to produce most of what is now seen as characteristic of the Renaissance in Britain.
The Renaissance, in reality not one movement but a number of related pan-European phenomena, was largely initiated by Italian humanists in the fourteenth century. Humanism, a term derived in the nineteenth century from the studia humanitas, was essentially an academic reform movement dedicated to the rediscovery of Greek and Roman literature and culture in their original languages and forms, and the cultivation of classical style as the informing principle
Britain, Europe, and the world
Authors: Adams Simon 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There are few greater myths in British history than ‘our island story’, not least because ‘Britain’ is not an island, but an archipelago. In 1603 the union of the crowns between England and Scotland combined with the successful imposition of effective English military control throughout Ireland created for the first time-on a governmental level at least-a single relationship with the outside world. Before 1603 the position was far more complex. In 1500 England’s relations both within and without the British Isles were still defined by what were essentially feudal relationships of considerable antiquity. The most important of these was the English crown’s substantial if fluc tuating interests in France. In 1340 Edward III had laid claim to the crown of France itself, a claim revived by Henry V in 1420 and not abandoned by his successors until 1801. It was to prevent an English succession that the ‘Salic Law’, which barred claims to the French crown by the female line, had been invented. In 1453 the French possessions had been reduced to the Pale of Calais and the Channel Islands, but the pretensions remained, even if Edward IV and Henry VII were prepared to barter them for a pension, whose symbolic value as tribute was more important than regularity of payment.
The Vietnam Wars, 1945-1975
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The war in Vietnam was the most divisive conflict of the Cold War for most Americans. It brought home to ordinary people-who had not worried much about foreign affairs the sacrifices which the global role of the United States could demand of them. The division between supporters and opponents of the war was fierce, and the historians are still struggling to disentangle themselves from political partisanship. By 1954 the French government was unwilling to continue an unpopular war and offered the Viet Minh a ceasefire that would split Vietnam in two halves for a limited period leading up to national elections. Under strong pressure from China and the Soviet Union, Ho Chi Minh agreed to most of the French conditions during· a conference at Geneva. The United States, however, was sceptical towards the Geneva agreements, and started supporting the building of an independent non-Communist regime in South Vietnam.
The Rise of Détente
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the late 1960s the Cold War seemed to give way to a new era of high-level negotiations, arms-control agreements, and superpower summitry. Such events as the SAIT I agreement of 1972 and the Nixon-Brezhnev summits of 1972—4 highlighted the way in which Soviet-American relations, while not amicable, had at least moved towards a new level of civility. As the United States simultaneously moved to finally break away from its earlier non-recognition policy vis- á vis the People’s Republic of China-while the Soviets and the Chinese exchanged blows on their border in 1969—the view of the Cold War as a bipolar confrontation had, it seemed, become a thing of the past. In Europe, the German question moved towards stabilization wi.th the advent of inter-German relations, a Four Power agreement on the status of Berlin, and a series of bilateral treaties between the Federal Republic of Germany on the one hand, and the USSR, Poland, and other Soviet bloc countries on the other. In the early 1970s, moreover, the talks that eventually led to the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe and the signing of the Helsinki Final Act in 1975 were additional signals of the beginning of a new era in East-West relations. (For more documentation on the European developments see Chapter 10.)
The End of the Cold War
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The new challenges that both superpowers faced in the 1980s pointed in the direction of fundamental changes in international relations. By the late 1980s the Eastern Bloc economies were in crisis, and perestroika in the Soviet Union began to stall as increasing numbers of Soviet citizens lost faith in Gorbachev’s ability to renew the system from within. And although the challenges to the West were of a less essential nature-primarily created by the crass ideological confrontations surrounding Reagan’s and Thatcher’s domestic neo-conservatism and, in the economy, by the massive American trade and budget deficits-they still made many people ask questions about the stability of the Cold War international system.
War Ended, Peace Launched, 1813-1814
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Part of the conventional wisdom about the final coalition, that it succeeded because the allies, despite many disagreements, remained united, and that Napoleon’s intransigence and Castlereagh’s leadership were vital factors in keeping them so, is true. Another part of the conventional view, however, is wrong: that the coalition preserved its unity by putting military victory ahead of the individual interests and divergent aims of its members. First of all, this did not happen. Military victory was never the primary goal for the coalition as a whole, even in the final stages of the war. The allies, though they sometimes differed sharply over terms, always sought a negotiated peace in one form or another and agreed that the war should be ended as soon as the right terms were attained. The reason the war lasted to a military decision, though not total victory, was Napoleon’s persistent refusal to negotiate seriously. As soon as a French government agreed to negotiate, the war was ended, though at the time the French army was still capable of fighting and controlled most of France and vital areas outside it as well. Secondly, when, as happened at particular times, certain allied leaders did try to make military victory the primary goal of the alliance, they did so not to hold the coalition together but to promote special purposes of their own, and invariably in so doing they jeopardized allied unity. Pursuit of military victory as the prime goal tended to tear the final coalition apart, just as it had done to earlier ones.
Greece and the Russo-Turkish War, 1823-1829
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The years 1823-9 were the most tranquil of the post-war era. Only one major crisis in international politics developed, over Greece and the Eastern question; and though it was always troublesome and sometimes dangerous, things finally turned out better for the international system than most had anticipated. Other international problem areas either remained quiescent or were managed in fairly routine fashion. The relative tranquillity, however, would end abruptly in 1830, in revolutions much wider and more threatening to the international system than those of the early 1820s. Conservatives like Metternich saw a direct link here: governments in opening the floodgates to liberalism and revolt in the Near East had undermined the dikes against revolution in the rest of Europe. Liberals argued just the opposite: the 1830 revolutions were the result of the repressive policies of most governments in the 1820s. In fact, the connection between the stability of the 1820s and the upheavals of the early 1830s was real, but more indirect and subtle than either side recognized.
From Civitas to Commune, 500-1100
Authors: Jones Philip 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Right from the start in fact, the notion of rinascita, with the whole Renaissance scheme of history, was closely linked in Italy with the revolutions of towns: the revival or survival of civilitas and municipal libertas. Interpretations certainly differed, even conflicted, according to local circumstance and legend. In urban, unlike cultural history, the writers, even Renaissance writers, of various Italian towns, among them Venice and Milan, were inclined, following civic tradition, to see not a dark-age break but sturdy continuity, an uninterrupted if not untroubled descent from antique antecedents: Roman, pre-Roman-or anti-Roman. Elsewhere instead, most notably at Florence and Siena, civic life, liberty, and virtue (virtus) were believed rather to have experienced, in common (if not at the same time) with the whole ancient heritage, a period of depression and decay, beginning according to Leonardo Bruni with the predatory or enervating rule of imperial Rome and coming to an end (for all but the pessimist Machiavelli) with an urban and republican renascence between the time of Charlemagne and the final demise of empire under the late Hohenstaufen.
Introduction
Authors: Blair John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is a study of the Church, and of churches, as forces for change: in ritual and social behaviour, in economic life, and in the organization of landscape and settlement. It is not a book about theology and learning, nor even primarily about conversion. Its concerns are with the externals of Christian culture rather than its spirituality; with churches as social and economic centres rather than as sites of scholarship or the religious life; with the topographical and tangible rather than the intellectual and conceptual. At the same time, it explores the central importance of ritual activity and organized devotion in the Anglo-Saxons’ perceptions of themselves and the world around them, in their senses of identity, and in their ways of articulating the communities in which they lived. Above all it is a book about places, and the various functions in a wider world which stemmed from their religious character.
From Hyrness to Parish: The Formation of Parochial Identities c.850–1100
Authors: Blair John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To what extent had the English landscape been organized into local parishes by 1100? Later in the middle ages, a good working definition of a parish would be: ‘a self-contained local ecclesiastical territorial unit which controls pastoral provision to its inhabitants and claims their religious allegiance’. But in a society with two competing tiers of parishes, there will be degrees of self-containedness and allegiance. There will also be big differences of scale, and it is these that most clearly distinguish the new from the old structures. Whereas mother-parishes had been complex federations of sub-districts, served from one centre but stretching across large and diverse territories, the parishes of midland England were often unitary entities with strong internal foci, characteristically containing a single agrarian community, village, or manorial centre. Even in the regions—most obviously East Anglia—where parishes were tenurially and economically more fragmented, their smaller scale still enabled the forging of a sharper parochial identity and firmer discipline. The model of ‘cellularization’ does not explain everything, but it provides a social and land-management context for the new parochial order, just as the world of provincial regiones, itinerant courts, and food-renders had done for the old one.
Europe and the Revolution of 1688
Authors: Stoye John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Amid much that is serious in these lectures let me begin convivially. A wonderful—even a stunning—musical party was given in Rome on 2 February 1687. Many guests were there, above all the guest of honour Lord Castlemaine, English ambassador to the Pope. So was a large chorus of singers, with soloists who impersonated the city of London, the River Thames, and other muses. So were a hundred string players led by the great Corelli. So was the hostess, Queen Christina, the senior royal convert to Rome alive, offering her felicitations on this symbolic occasion to the junior, King James of England. The words said that day, as distinct from words sung or recited, were not recorded, but the event itself is a reminder that Christina, James, and a fair number of other princes or members of princely families, Protestant by upbringing, became Catholic during this period. The business of conversion, the strenuous efforts made to shift people from one confession to another, or to resist these efforts, was of course a characteristic element in both the popular and the intellectual culture of Europe after the Protestant Reformation; but changes of this kind in the dynastic network, in the cluster of sovereign families, were of particular importance.
Introduction
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Until recently, the activities of non—governmental organizations (NGOs) in developing countries were widely considered to be peripheral to the mainstream efforts of governments and official aid agencies to resolve the problems of world poverty. Studies at universities and development centres rarely examined the role and impact of NGOs in the development process, and few development journals carried articles about NGOs. The development profession viewed NGO projects as, at best, interesting oddities, but more widespread was the view that they were largely irrelevant to what were considered the more fundamental issues of development.
NGOs and Poverty Alleviation: Some Policy Implications
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter highlighted a number of themes and issues which appear to bt: of central importance to project impact and which NGOs, in the North and the South, will increasingly have to address, since the 1990s are likely to be a decade in which the role of NGOs in poverty alleviation is set to increase. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss further a number of these themes,1 grouped under four headings: questions of effectiveness, the scale of NGO interventions, relations between NGOs and governments, and, more specifically, between northern NGOs and official aid donors. The chapter also attempts to draw out policy lessons for the major groups involved in NGO development: NGOs working in the field, grant—making NGOs, host governments, and bilateral and multilateral donors who provide funding to NGO projects and programmes.
Bangladesh
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The increasing favour of non—governmental approaches within the international community has been reflected in mushrooming growth for NGOs in Bangladesh. The variety of organizations and ways in which they are registered means that it is possible only to estimate the figures involved. The NGO coordinating body, ADAB (Association for Development Agencies in Bangladesh), reported in 1990 that it had registered around 550 local—level NGOs engaged in development activities and 316 national and foreign NGOs receiving foreign donations. With many provisos about the hazards involved in making such estimates, this suggests that throughout the country there may be perhaps 2 million NGO group members. Even if this figure is anywhere near accurate, however, the uneven distribution of NGOs around the country needs to be borne in mind. There is a high correlation between accessibility to the major metropolitan centres and concentration of NGO activity; there is also a noticeable association between density of NGOs and communities of Christians, since many of the NGO funding agencies have some form of Church links.
India
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Voluntary agencies in India have a history of involvement in a wide range of social welfare and development work which stretches back to the last century. In this respect they have firmer foundations than their counterparts in most other developing countries. India is also of interest for this study because of its intractable problems of rural poverty and the apparent limitations of government poverty—alleviation programmes.
Introduction
Authors: Vasciannie S C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although land-locked States have historically played little more than amarginal role in the development of the traditional legal rules relatingto the sea and its resources, this situation changed quite dramatically atthe Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. At thatConference, the land-locked States as a group joined forces with a numberof other States which considered themselves to be geographically disadvantagedand pressed for compromises that would reflect their collectivestrength as a negotiating unit.
Preferential Treatment for Land-Locked and Geographically Disadvantaged States: A Critique
Authors: Vasciannie S C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In supporting their claims at the UNCLOS III, the LLGDS relied, to some extent, on arguments which were specific to particular zones of maritime jurisdiction. So, for instance, the claim of the LLS to continental shelf resources was based on the idea that pre-UN CLOS III rules on entitlement in continental shelf law were inherently biased against States without coastal fronts, and therefore, needed to be reformed in the interests of justice. At the same time, however, there was an important underlying trend in the overall LLGDS approach: in general, they favoured the proposition that, as a class of States, they should be entitled to preferential treatment so as to overcome problems which they face as a result of their disadvantaged location.
Land-Locked and Geographically Disadvantaged States and the Question of the Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf
Authors: Vasciannie S C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The question of the outer limit of the continental shelf raised some of the most contentious issues for the States participating at the UNCLOS III. This was far more than a technical controversy. Because the outer limit of the continental shelf also signifies the point at which the sea-bed area beyond national jurisdiction begins, the LLGDS and some coastal States found that their interests were fundamentally at variance.
For the LLGDS, the basic goal was to limit, to a minimum, the seaward extent of the continental shelf regime. They hoped that this would increase the scope for benefits which they expected from the area beyond national jurisdiction. The starting-point for several influential coastal States was precisely the opposite: consistent with the view that the continental shelf regime should retain its exclusive character,1 they were determined to extend the ambit of the regime over the widest possible area of sea-bed. Between these extremes, there emerged a range of possibilities at the Conference.