bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Postempiricist Foundations: Social Constructionism and Practical Discourse
Authors: Fischer Frank 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is the first of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and examines the problems of policy research from an epistemological perspective. Focusing on the empiricist and technocratic aspects of policy analysis, the discussion first offers a critique of the neopositivist premises that have shaped and guided the enterprise; then, drawing on the theories of social constructivism and practical discourse, it sets out the foundations of a value-critical postempiricist framework for policy inquiry, emphasizing the need to integrate empirical and normative inquiry. The analysis shows the way in which what is understood as ‘science’ is influenced by the socio-historical context in which in emerges, and that social meanings and value judgements are built into scientific practices otherwise described as ‘value neutral’. In particular, it shows that in a world of multiple realities there is no ‘objective’ reality in which a scientific social science can anchor itself, rather, social science –– like science generally Vis a social activity and its products are based more on consensus than proof in the traditional understanding of the term. Towards this end, postempiricism offers a craft-oriented discursive or deliberative approach to policy science, one that better explains what social scientists are already doing; in this view, the analyst functions as an interpretive mediator between the available analytical frameworks of social science and the competing local perspectives. The chapter closes with a discussion of the problem of relativism traditionally associated with intepretivist approaches.
Interpreting Public Policy: Normative Frames and Methodological Issues
Authors: Fischer Frank 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is the second of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and explores the role of interpretation in policy analysis. While empiricists have sought to restrict the focus on meaning to the observable dimensions of social reality, the interpretive orientation requires the social scientist also to pursue the unobservable. Because language is able to carry and transmit meanings among people, access to the realm of meaning often can be gained through the study of communication (both spoken and written), but such meanings are generally only indirectly made available through such communications, so it is necessary for the analyst to move beyond empirical methods (such as content analysis) to an interpretive reconstruction of the situational logic of social action. This involves inferring other people’s meanings by identifying patterns that emerge through an examination of the verbal and non-verbal messages they give about their beliefs and experiences. Narratives, for example, are a way of making the subjective dimensions of verbal actions more accessible, and the social world is in significant part organized and interpreted through narrative exchanges in their various forms. The different sections of this chapter look at interpretative policy analysis, interpretative frames, methodological strategies, policy analysis as ‘thick description’ (an approach for exploring and discovering the meanings embedded in the language and actions of policy actors), the objectivity of interpretation, validity as credibility, and social meaning and the question of causality.
Public Policy as Narrative: Stories, Frames, and Metanarratives
Authors: Fischer Frank 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is the third of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and explores the narrative form of discourse and narrative analysis, an emerging and promising orientation in policy analysis. The social meanings uncovered by the interpretive analysis described in Chapter 7 are typically embedded in a policy narrative, designed to portray the fuller picture of a policy problem and the potential solutions. Built around interpretations, the narrative represents the policy situation, and offers a view of what has to be done and what the expected consequences will be. While there is a fair amount of conceptual overlap between the concepts of discourse and narration, narrative analysis is used in this discussion to refer to the analysis of stories. The first two sections of the chapter examines the general features of a narrative story, emphasizing its uses in both the social sciences and everyday social contexts, and discusses the basic epistemological issues involved in the production of a narrative text. The second three sections survey two prominent approaches to narrative discourse analyses that have emerged in the field of policy analysis per se: those of Stone and Roe. The last section examines how the logic of good reasons underlies the rationality of the narrative.
Policy Analysis as Discursive Practice: The Argumentative Turn
Authors: Fischer Frank 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is the last of four chapters offering a postempiricist methodology for policy inquiry based on the logic of practical discourse, and explores the dialectics (logical structure) of policy argumentation. Approaches are examined to discursive policy analysis and policy argumentation with an emphasis on the integration of empirical and normative inquiry. The discussion is oriented around a particular line of development in the argumentative turn, namely, a dialectical communications approach based on the informal or good-reasons logic of argumentation. In particular, the productive capacities of the communications model are emphasized, namely, its ability to generate ways of thinking and seeing that open new possibilities for problem-solving and action, or, in the language of Habermas’s critical theory, its ‘communicative power’. The different sections of the chapter look at argumentative discursive policy practices, the communications model of argumentative policy analysis, the search for rational procedures in argumentation, the logic of policy arguments (practical discourse), policy argumentation as practical reason, policy argumentation as communicative interaction (the role of analytical discourses), and critical rationality as undistorted communication.
The Deliberative Policy Analyst: Theoretical Issues and Practical Challenges
Authors: Fischer Frank 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe preceding chapters have covered the theoretical and epistemological support for citizen participation in policy-making. In this final chapter, the implications of this for the conduct of policy analysis are addressed, in particular the role of policy analysts as facilitators of deliberative practices. The different sections of the chapter are: Communicative Policy Analysis in Critical Planning Theory – the conduct of policy analysis, in particular the role of the policy analyst as facilitator of deliberative practices; Communicative Theory: Replying to the Critics – of the communications model; Policy Epistemics – for discursive policy analysis; and The Curriculum: Participatory Training and Qualitative Inquiry – the implications of a discursive, participatory approach for the policy analysis curriculum.
The Foundations of Ecocentrism
Authors: Humphrey Mathew 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter explores the philosophical foundations of ecocentrism, in particular its ontology. It explores the idea of a unity of humanity and nature and the proposition that ecological ‘laws’ should inform human morality. Does the quality of autopoiesis endow that natural world with intrinsic value? Can ecocentric principles offer guidance for human behaviour?
Dichotomy and Distortion: The Mutual Misunderstandings of Social Ecology and Ecocentrism
Authors: Humphrey Mathew 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The ecocentric‐anthropocentric dichotomy is explored through the debate between social ecologists and ecocentrists. The critique of ecocentrism that comes from social ecology––that it is a thinly disguised form of misanthropy––is found to be based on a number of misrepresentations and misunderstandings of the ecocentric argument. Similarly, the counter‐critique––which argues that social ecology implies conscious control of the evolutionary process––is found to be similarly misguided. There are multiple ways of being humanist, in the sense in which ecologists use the term, and one can construct humanist arguments from either an ecocentric or anthropocentric starting point.
The Government of Risk
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractWhy does the regulation of risks to human health and safety vary so dramatically from one policy domain to another? Why are some risks regulated aggressively and others responded to only modestly? Is there any logic to the techniques we use in risk regulation? This book addresses these important questions by systematically examining variety amongst risk regulation regimes across policy domains, analysing the significant driving forces shaping those regimes, and identifying the causes of regulatory failure and success. In order to do so, the book develops a systems‐based concept of a ‘risk regulation regime’, which enables comparative description and analysis of the rules, institutional arrangements, and cultures that are bound up with the handling of risk within and between regimes. Using that framework, the book analyses how regimes and their constituent components are differentially shaped by three major driving forces—namely, the pressures exerted by market failure, by public opinion, and by organized interests inside and outside the state apparatus—and blame‐avoidance responses of regimes in the face of pressures for greater openness. The book applies the method to analyse a range of risk regulation regimes that cross the divide between ‘natural’ and ‘socially created’, state‐created and market‐created, ‘voluntary’ and ‘involuntary’, high‐tech and low‐tech, individually, and corporately produced risks. Those regimes include the release of paedophiles into the community, air pollution, local road safety, radon, pesticides, and dangerous dogs. The analysis reveals both variations and paradoxes that can neither be identified by single case studies, nor be easily explained by macro‐oriented approaches to understanding risk regulation. The Government of Risk shows how such an approach is of high policy relevance as well as of considerable theoretical importance.
How Far Does Context Shape Content in Risk Regulation Regimes?
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractReviews received explanations of why governments regulate risk in the way they do and identifies a triangle of contextual forces that may sometimes pull together in shaping risk regulation regimes and sometimes pull in opposite directions. Those forces relate to market failure, mass public opinion, and organized interests. The chapter argues that analysis of these contextual factors can help explain variety amongst risk regulation regimes but identifies some of the methodological problems involved in such an analysis. Detailed analysis of how far such contextual factors shape the content of risk regulation regimes is presented in Chs.5, 6, and 7.
Opinion‐Responsive Government and Risk Regulation
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExplores the logic of basing risk regulation on mass popular opinion and explores the extent and conditions in which state regulation of risk reflects general public opinion. The chapter draws together existing empirical evidence about public attitudes towards the nine case‐study risks and presents a substantial and original analysis of the salience of those risks in UK newspapers over 12 years to 1998. Analysis suggests that public opinion is certainly a shaper of risk regulation regimes, most obviously in relation to some standard‐setting activities, but it appears to be a constraint or support rather than the key driver. Regulatory activity appears to be better explained by the contingent alignment and relative strengths of other forces shaping regimes. Moreover, the chapter also identifies four important strategies employed by regulators for managing misalignments between public preferences and the preferences of policy experts or other organized interests.
Interests, Lobbies, and Experts
Authors: Hood Christopher , Rothstein Henry , Baldwin Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExplores the logic of basing risk regulation on the interests of cohesive organized groups inside or outside the bureaucracy, including patterns of capture by professions as well as by orthodox producer capture. The chapter explores the extent and conditions in which state regulation of the nine case‐study risks is driven by such forces. Analysis suggests that activity by organized interests has powerful explanatory force and can help explain a number of regime features that are anomolous from market‐failure and opinion‐responsive perspectives, especially when the interests of regulatory professionals are taken into account. Moreover, careful analysis reveals that different regulatory components of the same regime, such as standard‐setting and enforcement, may be shaped by different sets of organized interests.
The Effectiveness of US Human Rights Policy, 1973–1980
Authors: Sikkink Kathryn 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The history of US human rights policy in Latin America provides useful case studies of the interplay between ‘control’ and ‘consent’ aspects of democratization. It presents a preliminary analysis of the influence of US human rights policy on human rights practices and democratization in Argentina, Guatemala, and Uruguay in the 1970s and early 1980s, focusing primarily on the Carter period. In each of these cases, the US policy attempted to influence the domestic human rights situation by linking the improvement of human rights practices to the provision of military or economic aid. But, the nature of the pressures applied and the responses thereto were quite different in the three countries, reflecting the importance of ‘consent’ issues, determined by the state of democratic transition achieved within the country concerned, in modifying the effects of ‘control’ pressures.
The Resurgence of United States Political Development Assistance to Latin America in the 1980s
Authors: Carothers Thomas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The surprisingly wide variety of US political development assistance programmes in Latin America prompts a number of questions, which are addressed in this chapter. First, what did the many different programmes actually consist of? Second, what methods did the programmes employ? Third, what was the relationship between the democracy assistance programmes of the 1980s and the general characteristics of the Reagan administration's policies towards Latin America? Fourth, what were the objective results of these policies in terms of contribution to the democratization trend in Latin America?
International Political Finance: The Konrad Adenauer Foundation and Latin America
Authors: Pinto‐Duschinsky Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Initiates the process of mapping foreign sources of political funding in Latin America, focusing on the activities of the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, located in Germany. Although the foundation is only one of a number of international bodies with a strong interest in Latin American politics, it provides a case study of the way such foundations operate. After a preliminary survey of other main sources of external political funding (the superpowers during the Cold War, other Latin American countries, church organizations, European countries), the chapter reviews the outreach activities of the main German political foundations or Stiftungen, of which the Adenauer Foundation, supporting the Christian Democrat agenda, is among the most influential. It ends with a survey of the extent and effectiveness of the Adenauer Foundation's activities in the various individual countries of the region.
Underwriting Democracy: The European Community and Greece
Authors: Tsingos Basilios 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Reviews the existing literature on the manner in which the Greek transition from authoritarian rule to democracy was effected, and evaluates the role that the European Community and its member states played both in the transition process and in the subsequent democratic consolidation. It argues that the channels of influence were supplementary, rather than central or decisive, and that the EC and its members cannot properly be labelled as ‘exporters’ of democracy within the transition process. The influence has rather been felt in the consolidation phase, with the EC acting as a ‘guarantor’ or an ‘underwriter’ of democracy.
Epistemic Justification
Authors: Swinburne Richard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Modern disputes about what makes a belief epistemically justified or rational are flawed through failing to recognize that there are different kinds of justifications that are in different ways indicative that the belief is true. I distinguish synchronic justification (the belief being a justified response to the believer's situation at the time) from diachronic justification (the belief constituting a justified response to adequate investigation over time); and, for each of these kinds, internalist justification (justification by introspectible factors) from externalist justification (justification by factors not necessarily accessible to the believer). A belief is internally synchronically justified if it is rendered inductively probable by the believer's basic beliefs; but ‘inductively probable’ may mean probable by true a priori standards (logically probable), by true standards to the best of the believer's ability to discover this (epistemically probable), or simply by the believer's own standards (subjectively probable). External synchronic justification is normally a matter of being produced by a reliable process, and there are many different ways of spelling that out. A belief is diachronically justified to the extent to which it results from adequate investigation. This depends (positively) on how probable it was that investigation would lead to evidence that would make a difference to the original probability of the belief; how probable it was that the issue was important; and (negatively) on how probable it was that investigation would cost much time and money. But all these ‘probabilities’ can be spelled out in different internalist and externalist ways. Almost all these kinds of justification are worth having, because it is logically probable that a belief justified in almost all these ways will be true. This account of justification is extended to give an account of different kinds of knowledge, all of which are worth having.
Theories of Synchronic Justification
Authors: Swinburne Richard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The synchronic epistemic justification of a belief lies in it being a justified response to the believer's situation at the time, and this consists in its being based on adequate grounds. For a pure externalist, being based is being caused, grounds are a state that causes the belief, and (normally) the grounds are adequate, if the process by which they cause the belief is a token of a reliable type. Different externalist theories result from picking out different kinds of cause and selecting different types to which the token belief belongs. Theories become more and more internalist as the different elements of justification are understood in terms of factors to which the believer has introspective access—being ‘based’ as being ‘believed to be caused’, grounds as apparently basic beliefs, and their adequacy as their rendering the belief probable by a priori criteria.
Probability
Authors: Swinburne Richard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Physical probability is a measure of the extent to which an event is predetermined by its causes. Statistical probability is a measure of the proportion of events of some kind in a population; I distinguish the proportion in an actual population from the proportion in a hypothetical population (a population that would be generated by a certain process). Inductive probability is a measure of the extent to which one proposition makes another one likely to be true; I distinguish the true measure of this— logical probability, from the best judgement of this that could be produced by a person using correct criteria but with limited abilities —epistemic probability, and from the measure that uses a person's own criteria—subjective probability. Whether or not a belief is rendered probable by its grounds (and so has adequate grounds) varies with the kind of probability being used.
Knowledge
Authors: Swinburne Richard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Knowledge is (strongly) warranted (strong) true belief. For the internalist, a belief being warranted is it being justified (in the sense of the belief being rendered inductively probable by other beliefs and ultimately by basic beliefs), where the justification does not proceed through or otherwise depend on a false belief. For the main kind of externalist, the reliabilist, a belief being warranted is it being produced by a type of process that normally produces true beliefs. For Plantinga, the central element in a belief being warranted is it being produced by a properly functioning cognitive process; but I argue that his account reduces to a reliabilist account. Knowledge is only more worth having than strong true belief if warrant is intrinsically valuable (i.e. valuable in itself, in addition to the fact that it has led to truth). Internalist warrant is intrinsically valuable, but externalist warrant is not. .
Experiential Highlighting
Authors: Campbell John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Conscious attention to an object can be what causes the selection of information relating to just that object, from various specialized processing streams, to control the subject's verbal reports about that object. Therefore, the content of conscious experience has to be capable of identifying information relating to just that object in various processing streams. The evidence suggests that experience of the location of the object will be critical to allowing selection of just the right information.
What Is Knowledge of Reference?
Authors: Campbell John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Knowledge of the reference of a demonstrative is provided by conscious attention to the object. This conscious attention causes and justifies your use of particular information‐processing procedures to verify and to find the implications of propositions involving the term. Feature‐integration theory provides a way of characterizing how conscious attention can recruit information in different processing streams to verify propositions about a single perceived object; we can give a parallel account of action on the object. This approach provides an explanation of the appeal of the idea that binding mechanisms are a neural correlate of consciousness.
Space and Action
Authors: Campbell John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractWhat exactly is the role of conscious attention to an object in making it possible for the subject to act on that object? In one view, the content of your conscious attention sets the parameters for your action on that object. But the visual pathways underlying conscious attention may be different from the visual pathways that set the parameters for action. So a different view seems preferable, in which the role of conscious attention is to identify the target of the action for the benefit of the underlying brain systems that have to swing into play so that the action can be implemented.