bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Identification Of Custody Assets
Authors: Austen-Peters A O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis in Chapter 2 suggests that the practice of custody is often generally compatible with the establishment of a bailment or trust. In this way, investors may retain a direct legal or equitable interest in relation to custody assets so that in the event of the insolvency of the custodian the assets would not be available to his general creditors and could be retrieved by investors as their own. However, the transitive nature of such legal structures requires that they relate to something. This chapter seeks to determine whether the types of investments under consideration and modern custodial practices permit sufficient identification to accommodate a bailment or trust.
The Nature of the Investor’s Interest
Authors: Austen-Peters A O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The law governing the offer and operation of custodial services in England is an amalgam of the common law of contract, trusts and agency, as supplemented or supplanted by regulatory law. In the USA, the authors of the 1994 version of article 8 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) sought to avoid leaving the determination of the interest of entitlement holders of a securities intermediary to ‘common law property concepts ‘ on the basis that those ‘concepts do not work for the indirect holding system ‘. The analysis in the preceding chapters suggests that reliance on those same concepts in England, even if not wholly unworkable, can often be complex.
Custody Assets As Security For Lenders
Authors: Austen-Peters A O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the capital and money markets, the availability and/or pricing of loans may 6.01 depend on the borrower ‘s ability to offer some form of security1 to the lender, especially security that will be effective in the insolvency of the borrower. For many participants in such markets, a large part of their assets are made up of shares, bonds and other securities which may be held by their custodian. Forcreditors to be willing to accept custody assets as security for the debtor ‘s obligations, at least two conditions need to be met. The custody assets must be of a type satisfactory to the secured lender; and the asset offered must be susceptible to the intended or comparable form of security so that, in the case of real security, the creditor can assert a proprietary right to the assets offered as security and thereby protect itself from the consequences of the debtor ‘s insolvency.
Regulation Of Custody Business
Authors: Austen-Peters A O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the Financial Services Act 1986 (Extension of Scope of Act) Order 1996 ( ‘the Order ‘)1 the custody of investments, as defined in the Financial Services Act 1986 ( ‘the Act ‘),2 has been brought within the regulatory scope of the Act. The Order was made by HM Treasury and laid before Parliament on 25 November 1996 and came fully into force on 1 June 1997.
The Policy of Recoupment
Authors: Lewis Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This policy seeks to reimburse the collateral source. Although the payments made to the claimant may help to meet his immediate needs after the accident, they must be refunded by the tortfeasor. On the surface, this seems the most attractive of the solutions to the problems posed by the overlap of systems of compensation with tort: it neither over-compensates the claimant nor subsidises the defendant. It thus avoids the main criticisms of the policies of cumulation and reduction.
The Relationship between Intellectual Property Rights and Competition Law under the Treaty
Authors: Anderman Steven D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Under EC law, the way the balance is struck between competition law and intellectual property rights (IPRs) has been shaped by the structure of the EC Treaty and the interpretation it has been given by the Community Courts and the European Commission. Article 2 of the Treaty provides that: ‘The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a Common market . . . and by implementing the Common policies or activities referred to in Articles 3 and 3a, to promote throughout the Community a harmonious and balanced development of economic activities.’ Article 3(g) of the Treaty requires the institution of a system to ensure that competition in the internal market is not distorted. Articles 85 and 86 are then set out as the two main means of achieving this goal.
The Structure of Article 85 and Licensing Agreements
Authors: Anderman Steven D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Article 85 contains a two part structure, each part contributing to the determination whether any form of collaboration between two or more undertakings is pro- or anticompetitive. Article 85(1) provides the jurisdictional test to determine whether an agreement or concerted practice comes within the scope of the Article as a whole. It applies to ‘all agreements, decisions and concerted practices between undertakings’ which have the object or effect of preventing, restricting or distorting competition. In principle it is capable of applying to a wide range of acts of collaboration between two or more undertakings.
Conclusions
Authors: Anderman Steven D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As mentioned the introduction of a new, unifying regulation for technology licensing, alongside the regulatory regimes for specialization agreements, research and development agreements, franchise agreements, co-operative joint ventures, and mergers, offered the Commission an opportunity to make a substantial adjustment to traditional competition policy object-ives in the light of the pressing policy need of increasing the technological competitiveness of the EC in world trade.
The Concept of Abuse and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once an undertaking owning an intellectual property right (IPR) achieves a position of dominance it has a special responsibility ‘not to allow its conduct to impair genuine undistorted competition on the common market’. The Court has used its definition of abuse under Article 86 to place curbs on the exploitation of IPRs. A dominant IPR owner, particularly one in an enhanced dominant position, can be restrained from acquiring other firms with competing technology. It may be required to supply or license the protected products or processes to competitors in secondary markets. Its pricing and product bundling decisions may be found to be unlawful because of their effect on existing competitors in secondary markets.
Refusals to Supply and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From an early stage, the Court of Justice was prepared to give strong support to the Commission’s policy of treating a refusal by a dominant firm to supply existing, dependent customers as an abuse of a dominant position. In Commercial Solvents, a manufacturer of a raw material for ethambutol, a pharmaceutical product useful in treating tuberculosis, decided to vertically integrate into the downstream, etham. butol market. In consequence, it stopped supplying its long-standing customer, Zoya, who was dependent upon it for commercial survival as a producer of the drug.
Provisional Conclusions
Authors: Rammeloo Stephan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The preceding inquiry into the mobility of legal persons in Europe justifies no other conclusion than that, despite high expectations, the outcome for the time being is poor. Until now neither EC law nor private international law has shown itself capable of elaborating the versatile legal instruments needed to tackle the problem of deficient cross-border company mobility.
Long before the EC law era, private international law was already divided on what has been described as everlasting warfare between the ‘incorporation’ theory and the ‘real seat’ theory. According to the ‘incorporation’ theory, a company is governed by the law according to which it is (duly) established, whereas the latter theory prescribes that the law of the country where the company has its real seat (i.e. its management and control centre) is applicable to company relationships.
Studying social representations in children: just old wine in new bottles?
Authors: Emler Nicholas , Ohana Jocelyne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problem that struck us at the outset, however, was how our work was going to differ at all from the legions of already-published inquiries into children’s socio-cognitive development. Others had interviewed children and discovered stages in the construction of cognitive structures. What method were we going to use now to discover something completely different, children’s social representations? Would we ask children different questions, or ask the questions in a different kind of way? Would we do something completely different to bring forth data from the mouths of infants? Or would the novelty occur at the data-analysis stage? Was there a, ‘social representations analyser’ that one could wave over the data and make the social representations spring forth? The first author knew that people in France, working with Moscovici, had been studying social representations for some time.
Pharmacology of voltage-dependent calcium channels
Authors: Bean B P , Mintz I M , Boland L M , Sah, D W Y , Morrill J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Voltage-dependent calcium channels are present in the cell membranes of many cells and serve a variety of functions. In a few cell types, calcium channels play an important role in electrical activity. In many cells, though, the most important role of calcium channels is to transduce the electrical signal of an action potential into the intracellular chemical signal of an increase in calcium (Hille 1992).
Chloride channel pharmacology
Authors: Valverde M A , Hardy, S P , Monaghan A S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has become clear that chloride channels play a role in a number of different cellular functions. Until recently the γ-amino-butyric acid (GABA) and glycine-activated - receptor anion - selective channels were the only well-characterized anion channels but, following the introduction of the patch-clamp technique, it became possible to identify Cl - channels underlying anionic conductances and their different cellular functions in a wide variety of cells.
Basic properties of calcium release channels in neural cells
Authors: Kostyuk P , Verkhratsky A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The resting cytoplasmic free calcium concentration ([Ca2+ ]i) is maintained in all eukaryotic cells at a level not exceeding 0.1 µM (about four orders of magnitude lower than in the extracellular solution), but cellular excitation induces transient rise of [Ca2+ ]i up to several µM, or to even higher levels in tiny cellular compartments.
The Cingulate Gyrus in Schizophrenia: Imaging Altered Structure and Functions
Authors: Preda Adrian , Rilling Laurie M , Chin Ronald B , A.Tamminga Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Several convergent lines of evidence suggest the involvement of the cingulate cortex in the manifestations of schizophrenia: (1) the cingulate mediates specific aspects of cognition that are abnormal in the illness (predominantly, attention and executive function; Gold & Weinberger, 1995; Green et al., 1992; Posner & Petersen, 1990), as well as evidences (2) postmortem histological and neurochemical abnormalities (Benes & Bird, 1987; Benes et al., 1987; Benes, 1993; Benes & Tamminga, 2002), and (3) in vivoimaging changes in the illness (Tamminga et al., 2000a; Carter et al., 1998; Gold & Weinberger, 1995; Green et al., 1992; Posner & Petersen, 1990).Early in vivoimaging data gathered using whole-brain, unbiased sampling approaches, raised the possibility of ACC involvement in schizophrenia, especially when volunteers were drug-free, at rest, and floridly psychotic (Tamminga et al., 1992). Indeed, in the drug-free condition, correlations could be detected between neuronal activity in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the level of psychotic symptoms (Tamminga et al., 1992), correlations that were not present during antipsychotic drug treatment. More detailed analyses have followed, also showing ACC dysfunction during the performance of tasks shown to be mediated by ACC (Carter et al., 1997). Even in test conditions where performance
Cingulate Neuropathology in Anterior and Posterior Cortical Atrophies in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Vogt Leslie J , Perl Daniel P , Hof Patrick R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder that presents a heterogeneous array of cognitive and behavioral symptoms and it almost always involves the cingulate cortex. A common or typical form of AD presents early memory and visuospatial symptoms and often but not always begins in transentorhinal cortex. Early involvement of cingulate cortex in typical AD is well established in neuropathological studies showing that amyloid peptides and neurofibrillary degeneration involve subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sACC) and retrosplenial cortex (RSC; Braak and Braak, 1991, 1993) and neurodegeneration occurs in posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) relatively early in the disease (Brun and Englund, 1981; Mountjoy et al., 1983; Vogt et al., 1990). Moreover, very early glucose hypometabolism in PCC has been demonstrated in patients with early memory impairment in a prodromal form and typical AD (Minoshima et al., 1997). This suggests that amnestic symptoms need not be initially attributed to medial temporal lobe structures, although they may be (Greicius et al., 2004), but involve the cingulate gyrus itself. Thus, early cingulate damage is a prominent part of the primary etiology of the disease rather than the result of secondary, deafferentation lesions in the temporal lobe.
Population Genetics In Papua New Guinea: A Perspective On Human Evolution
Authors: Serjeantson Susan W , Board Philip G , Bhatia Kuldeep K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of human genetic studies in Papua New Guinea follows closely the history of genetic and physical anthropological studies elsewhere. But there have been important differences. In Papua New Guinea, evolutionary theories based on mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and migration have been tested in human populations. Practical application of theories in Papua New Guinea is not new. For instance, while nineteenth century Europe was still fascinated by possible anatomical differences between black and white men, Mikloucho-Maclay, the Russian student of morphological variation, was in 1871 deploring the lack of a suitably sized container for storing the brain of his Samoan assistant, Boy, following Boy’s death near the present site of Madang (Mikloucho-Maclay 1975; see also Webster 1984). At an analytical level, evolutionary theories based on the dynamics of partially subdivided populations were well in place by the 1940s, following the work of R.A. Fisher in Britain (e.g. Fisher 1930) and of Sewall Wright in USA (e.g. Wright 1943), but the mathematical formulae remained largely untested in human populations until they could be explored in traditional groups, such as those in Papua New Guinea.
Chronic Lung Disease And Asthma In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Anderson H Ross , Woolcock Ann J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Studies of normal respiratory function, chronic lung disease (CLO), and asthma in Papua New Guinea (PNG) have contributed much to the understanding of factors which determine normal respiratory function in different racial groups and have challenged traditional concepts of the nature and causes of chronic respiratory diseases. Between 1964 and 1974, epidemiological studies of respiratory function and of chronic respiratory diseases were undertaken independently by both of us in highland and coastal populations. Both studies showed that coastal populations have similar respiratory function to other non-European populations but that highlanders have larger lungs and higher diffusing capacities than coastal dwellers.
Shock Tubes with Area Changes
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earlier chapters dealt with simple shock tubes with a single diaphragm and a constant cross-sectional area, operated with both the driver and driven gases initially at room temperature. In Chapter 4, it was shown that the capability of such a shock tube to produce strong shock waves is limited. In this chapter it will be shown that to make the most economical use of the initial pressure ratio across the diaphragm it is advantageous to use a shock tube with an area reduction, in the diaphragm region, from the driver to the driven section. Such a shock tube is said to have a positive chambrage. In the case of an area enlargement, it is said to have a negative chambrage. This area transition between the driver and driven sections may be abrupt or gradual (monotonic). Such convergent shock-tube flows have been considered by Lukasiewicz [1], Resler et al. [2], and others [3–5].
Boundary-Layer Effects
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have considered in some detail the wave system that might be produced in a simple shock tube for a perfect inviscid gas. The present chapter will endeavour to compare the real-flow situations encountered in simple shock tubes with the ideal-flow configurations derived in previous chapters. It will be found that viscosity and heat-transfer effects in the wall boundary layer of a shock tube modify the idealized wave system and the flow variables in the uniform states. The magnitude of these effects depends mainly on the strength of the incident shock wave, the initial conditions, the type of boundary layer, and the area and length of the shock-tube channel.
Real-Gas Effects on Shock-Tube Flows
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most important attributes of a shock tube is the capability to generate strong shocks with resulting uniform-high-temperature-gas flows behind the shock. At these high temperatures monatomic gases will ionize, whereas diatomic gases will dissociate, ionize, and form chemical compounds. These conditions are commonly referred to as the real-gas effects. A considerable amount of energy is distributed over other degrees of freedom than the translational and rotational degrees. Therefore, the specific heat cannot be considered constant.
Closing Comments
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the first description of a shock tube was given by P. Vieille in 1889, the systematic study of shock-wave phenomena began in the late 1940s, thanks to the research efforts of several laboratories which developed and used various shock-tube designs. In its several forms, the shock tube has proved to be an excellent and versatile tool for the investigation of shock-wave-related problems both in fundamental science and in applied technology. The role of shock tubes as a controlled laboratory means of generating shock waves has helped to shape the progress of research. The topics of research have expanded to shock waves in complex media, in condensed matter, dusty gases and multiphased media, shock initiation of reactions and waves, shock–turbulence interactions, large-scale-blast simulation by multiple shock tubes, medical applications of underwater shock focusing to fracture kidney and gall stones, new shock-tube facilities, extreme shock strengths as in supernovae and laser-produced shock waves, novel laser-based techniques and nonlinear-optics methods for diagnostics, and interactive use of computational fluid dynamics with experiments. At the present time the shock tube has become a standard research tool in many universities and research laboratories. The above comments cover only a small part of the current applications of shock-tube research.
Supports and Guidance
Authors: Basak Amitava 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rotary equivalents of linear motors are much easier to support and guide. As the travelling distance of the linear motor increases, the problem of aligning the armature is accentuated since the travelling distance determines the length of the stationary unit. So a considerable air gap must be provided in order to avoid any unwanted contacts due to any imbalance in the system.
Diffraction gratings
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A ‘conventional’ spectrometer receives light through an entrance slit, separates out (disperses) the frequencies in the light by some means, and focuses each frequency to its own place at the output. When the light contains discrete frequencies, a set of bright lines is seen at the output, each of which is an image of the entrance slit. The present chapter is concerned with spectroscopic instruments that incorporate a diffraction grating as the dispersing element. The optical system of a spectrometer forms an image of the entrance slit, with diffraction affecting the formation of that image. The diffraction, therefore, takes place under the Fraunhofer condition, according to the formulation in §3.14.
Biological clocks
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the many unsolved problems concerning our conscious awareness of time, there is increasing evidence that our bodies contain various biological clocks. For example, some illnesses reveal diurnal, or twenty-four-hour, rhythms which normally cannot be detected. Dr C. P. Richter of Baltimore has cited the case of a bedridden patient, unable to speak clearly, who every day for nine years underwent a sudden change of personality between 9 p.m. and midnight, during which time she could walk about, look after herself and talk clearly. He has suggested that there are a number of clocks in the body which normally are not correlated but which under certain abnormal conditions are brought into phase so as to produce well-deﬁned physical or mental cycles.
Time, gravitation and the universe
Authors: Whitrow G J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the relational theory of time is now generally accepted, as recently as 1901 Bertrand Russell argued against the relational deﬁnition of a moment as a particular state of the universe. He claimed that it was not logically absurd to imagine the separate occurrence of two identical states of the universe. In fact, as we have seen, this possibility was widely regarded as true before the rise of modern science. Russell argued that if we deﬁne a moment as a particular state of the universe we should be faced with the logical absurdity that two moments could be both diﬀerent and identical.
Rethinking the Renaissance in the aftermath of Italy’s crisis
Authors: Brown Alison 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No one familiar with the histories and chronicles of Italy in the years from 1494 to 1530 can be unaware of the sense of crisis that pervades these writings. According to Francesco Guicciardini, the arrival of the French army in 1494 introduced ‘a flame and a plague into Italy’ which ‘not only overthrew the states but changed their forms of government and the methods of warfare’, turning everything ‘upside down’ and causing the ruin of Italy. Even his more reflective History of Italy, written in the late 1530s, described the invasions as ‘the calamity of Italy’ in introducing years of appalling disasters and fear, which were all the worse because they followed a period of unparalleled prosperity.1 The 1494 invasion was followed by other French invasions in 1499 and 1515. In 1502 the Spanish invasion of southern Italy