bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Recognition of viral antigens by cytotoxic T lymphocytes
Authors: Mcmichael Andrew J , Gotch Frances , Robbins Penelope , Rothbard Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are generated during most viral infections. They are detected in vitro by their ability to lyse virus-infected cells and probably act in the same way in vivo (Zinkernagel et al., 1986), although they may also release lymphokines including interferon-gamma (Morris et al., 1982). In acute infections such as with influenza A virus, CTLs have been shown to terminate infection and to contribute to the clearing of virus (Yap et al., 1978; Lin and Askonas, 1981). This was most clearly demonstrated in experiments in which virus-specific CTL clones were transferred to lethally infected mice (Lin and Askonas, 1981). The level of specific CTL responses has been shown to correlate with virus-clearing in humans (McMichael et al., 1983). In Epstein - Barr virus (EBY) infection in vitro, CTLs have been shown to cause regression of the outgrowth of transformed B lymphocytes, and in vivo they probably inhibit infection by persisting virus (Rickinson et al., 1979). This may be a model for other persisting virus infections. The importance of CTLs in vivo has been demonstrated in mice depleted of CD4+ cells by specific monoclonal antibody. These animals generated weak antibody response to infecting influenza virus, because they lacked helper T cells, but a good CTL response was demonstrated and influenza virus-infected irradiated mice were cured by transfer of these CTLs (Lightman et al., 1987). Similarly, mice that are genetically incapable of making a CTL response to a virulent strain of Sendai virus are more likely to die during acute infection (Kast et al., 1986).
The immune response to hepatitis B virus
Authors: Thomas Howard C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recovery from hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is dependent on the integrated activity of the patient’s interferon (IFN) and immune system. Chronic HBV infections arise because of defects in these defences. Acute hepatitis B infection
HBV is not cytopathic and the resulting liver damage is caused by immune lysis of infected hepatocytes, an essential part of the recovery process. Analysis of the inflammatory infiltrate demonstrates the presence of natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic T cells (Eggink et al., 1982). Viral antigens are seen on the surface of the hepatocyte (Gudat et al., 1975) and these, in association with the class I MHC proteins, make the cell a target for cytotoxic T cell lysis (Doherty and Zinkemagel, 1975). Studies in patients with chronic HBV infection suggest that the nucleocapsid antigens (HBc and HBe-a cleavage product of HBc) are an important target (Eddleston et al., 1982; Pignatelli et al., 1987). Hepatocytes usually express very little MHC class I protein (Thomas et al., 1982) but in the early stage of acute HBV infection, following the production of IFNα, MHC expression on hepatocytes increases and coincidentally transaminase levels rise (Figures 1 and 2). Interferon also activates a series of enzymes, including the 2-5A oligoadenylate synthetase/endonuclease system, which leads to inhibition of viral protein synthesis (Figure 2). This would be expected to produce an antiviral state in uninfected regenerating liver cells, preventing re-infection during the lysis of infected hepatocytes.
Introduction
Authors: Gunstone Frank D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis of lipids can be undertaken to answer at least four questions at both the qualitative and quantitative level: (a) what fatty acids (or alcohols or amines) are present, (b) what different lipid classes are present, (c) what is the fatty acid composition of each separate lipid class, and (d) since lipids generally contain two or three acyl chains, how are these associated in individual lipid molecules? This chapter is devoted to the structural nature of the acids (alcohols, amines) and the lipids so that these analytical questions and their answers can be understood. Prior to the development of chromatographic methods of separation these questions were answered by measuring average properties such as unsaturation (iodine value), chain-length (saponification equivalent), or phosphorus content. These have now been replaced by ever-improving chromatographic separation procedures accompanied, when necessary, by spectroscopic methods of identification. These topics are covered in the following chapters of this book.
High-performance liquid chromatography
Authors: Sewell Peter A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is, in many areas, the main technique used for analysis. However, in the area of lipid analysis its use is still relatively uncommon, and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and gas chromatography (GC) are the more commonly used techniques. Both of these techniques have advantages and disadvantages compared to HPLC: TLC is a very simple and cheap technique but it is a relatively inefficient process and is difficult to quantitate; GLC (gas-liquid chromatography) is easier to use and the equipment is cheaper than HPLC, but samples must be capable of being volatilized without decomposition. Thus, whilst it is unlikely that HPLC will ever displace GC as the preferred technique for the analysis of fatty acids the use of HPLC will increase in other areas of lipid analysis. HPLC is the analogue of gas chromatography where the stationary phase, be it a liquid, a solid surface, an ion-exchange resin or a porous polymer, is held in a metal column and the liquid mobile phase is forced through under pressure. The analyte is injected into the mobile-phase stream and the separated components are detected as they elute from the column. The ‘chromatogram’ (a trace of the variation in component concentration against time) may be used to obtain both qualitative and quantitative information. For a discussion on the technique of HPLC the reader is referred to any of the several texts available on the subject (1-3). Only those topics which are essential to an understanding of the methodology presented later in the chapter will be discussed here.
Cholesterol esterifying enzymes—lecithin:cholesterol acy1transferase (LCAT) and acylcoenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT)
Authors: Gillett Michael P T , Owen James S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unesterified cholesterol (UC) is an important structural component of cell membranes, modifying their fluidity, and of the surfaces of lipoprotein particles; it is also the precursor for steroid hormones and bile acids. The apolar nature of cholesteryl ester (CE) molecules largely excludes them from lipoprotein surfaces and from cell membranes and they form lipid droplets, either within the core region of lipoproteins or intracellularly. The CE of lipoproteins can be regarded as a transportable form of UC and that of cells as a storage form. Lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT, EC 2.3.1.43) is responsible for the formation of most lipoprotein CE and acylcoenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT, EC 2.3.1.26) for intracellular CE.
Polymerase chain reaction: basic principles and automation
Authors: Taylor Graham R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique for the in vitro amplification of specific DNA sequences by the simultaneous primer extension of complementary strands of DNA. The PCR method was devised and named by Mullis and colleagues at the Cetus Corporation (1), although the principle had been described in detail by Khorana and colleages (2, 3) over a decade earlier. The use of PCR was limited until heat-stable DNA polymerase (4) became widely available. The PCR is a major development in the analysis of DNA and RNA because it has both simplified existing technology and enabled the rapid development of new techniques which would not otherwise have been possible.
Products from animal cells
Authors: Griffiths Bryan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The manufacture of products from animal cells is currently a large and important component of the biotechnology industry. This exploitation of cells (Table I) as a manufacturing substrate dates back to 1949 when Enders and his colleagues (1) published the first report on growing viruses in cultured cells. The effect of this discovery was dramatic, especially in the field of virology and eventually biotechnology. It took only 5 years for the first cell vaccine to be on human trial and licensed (Salk polio vaccine-1954). Classically, cell culture became the means of assaying, isolating, and producing a virus, and for 25 years this was the only cell product. The first human vaccines were produced in primary monkey kidney cells but this choice of substrate was controversial. Monkeys carry a wide range of adventitious viruses, many of them oncogenic (although subsequently it has been found not for human cells). The derivation of the human diploid cell (HOC) line WI-38 in the early 1960s by Hayflick and Moorhead (2) was welcomed as it made available a safer substrate for the production of human vaccines. This cell line was genetically stable, diploid, of normal cell derivation (fetal lung), free of all known viruses, and had useful markers for quality control evaluation.
Extracellular Matrix
Authors: Haralson M A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Studies of the extracellular matrix (the material that surrounds cells and tissues) span much of modern biological research. In addition to providing structure to organisms the extracellular matrix is crucial in determining cell growth, how the cell responds during injury and development and what the cell makes. Changes in the extracellular matrix are important components in both inherited and acquired diseases such as diabetes and cancer. This important volume brings together under a single cover the majority of techniques currently employed in extracellular matrix research and will serve as an indispensable resource for researchers and clinicians in this field.
1H NMR studies of oligosaccharides
Authors: Homans S W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Proton NMR is a very valuable technique for the structural analysis of oligosaccharides since it is possible to determine primary sequence as well as three-dimensional structure. In view of their branched nature, there is at present no cyclical degradative chemical or enzymatic sequencing strategy for oligosaccharides which could potentially be automated as has been done for proteins and nucleic acids, and NMR is probably the most useful technique in this regard. Despite their relatively small size, oligosaccharides generally give remarkably complex proton NMR spectra. The primary reason for this is the poor spectral dispersion of ring protons, which presents problems due to severe resonance overlap and the increased probability of strong coupling effects. Resonance assignment strategies thus differ significantly from those used in studies of proteins and nucleic acids, although the experimental techniques are the same. Below we shall discuss the practical aspects of these techniques primarily by reference to a single compound, namely GlcNAcpi-4GlcNAc. This disaccharide exhibits all of the idiosyncracies of oligosaccharide NMR spectra while at the same time generating spectra which are simple enough to allow casual interpretation by the non-specialist.
Structure Determination From NMR Data II. Computational Approaches
Authors: Sutcliffe Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Structure determination by NMR can be divided into four steps as shown in Protocol .
Reviews of the steps involved in Protocol 1 are given by, for example, Close and Gronenborn (1) and With rich (2). Steps 1 and 2 are covered in earlier chapters of this book.
Ion-selective electrodes
Authors: Sykova Eva 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The invention of ion-selective microelectrodes (ISMs) has opened up new possibilities for experimental physiology. The measurement of the activity of specific types of ions in different cells and in the extracellular space, together with the resting potential, action potential, and extracellular potential shifts, has increased our knowledge about the relationship of ion activities and membrane transport mechanisms in excitable tissues. Measurement with ISMs is the only available method which provides simultaneous information about ion activity and electrical parameters of a cell in living tissue. Therefore, the measurement of ion activities with ISMs has become, in the last 20 years, an important tool in microelectrode studies not only in neurophysiology, sensory physiology, muscle physiology, but also in epithelial studies and in renal physiology.
Structure determination of acylated proteins
Authors: Aitken Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will describe methods available for the study of the modifications in the wide range of eukaryotic and prokaryotic proteins known to be acylated with fatty acids. There are three main types of such modification in eukaryotes: at the amino terminus on glycine residues (1); internally attached to cysteine or hydroxy-amino acids (2); or at the carboxy-terminus as a PI containing glycan moiety (3) (see Figure 1). Analysis of isoprenylation (4) at the carboxy-terminus will also be covered. The methods described will be confined to those not included in other chapters of this volume.
Identification and characterization of lipid-modified proteins in bacteria
Authors: Hayashi Shigeru , Wu Henry C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Covalent modification of membrane proteins with lipids is ubiquitous in all living cells. Research on the biosynthesis of lipoproteins has been focused mainly on the major outer membrane (Braun’s) lipoprotein of Escherichia coli as a prototype of all other bacterial lipoproteins (lipid-modified proteins) (for a recent review of bacterial lipoproteins, see ref. 1). Braun’s lipoprotein is first synthesized as a precursor protein-the unmodified prolipoprotein that contains a signal sequence with a cleavage site of Leu-Ala-Gly-Cys. More generally, the sequence of Leu-(Ala, Ser)-(Gly, Ala)-Cys is found at the -3 to +1 positions of the prolipoprotein modification/processing site in about three-fourths of all lipoprotein signal sequences in bacteria, as indicated by an analysis of the signal sequences of twenty-six distinct bacterial lipoprotein precursors (1). The unmodified prolipoprotein with this consensus sequence undergoes sequential modifications and processing catalysed by glyceryl transferase, 0-acyl transferase(s), prolipoprotein signal peptidase (signal peptidase II), and N-acyl transferase, in that order, to form the mature lipoprotein containing N-acyl diglyceride-cysteine at its amino-terminus (2).
Der β-Glucan-Abbau im Griinmalz wahrend des Darrens
Authors: Zahn Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For investigation of the degradation of β-glucan during kilning, commercial, green malts were malted by our usual technology but subjected to different kilning procedures. The objective of the trial was to reduce the content of β-glucan in the malt during this last phase of the malting process.
Extensional viscosity of some food hydrocolloids
Authors: C.Clark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conventional rheological techniques such as steady shear viscosity and dynamic oscillatory rheometry have long been used to characterize differences between hydrocolloid solutions. Useful information on structure and conformation has been obtained in this way. A complementary method, extensional viscosity, is now available to study these solutions. The newly released Rheometrics Extensional Rheometer (RFX) measures extensional viscosity by means of an opposing jet design. The fluid being tested is drawn into two opposing nozzles from a test beaker. The area between the nozzles undergoes an extensional flow. Such instruments are called stagnation point devices and have been used to study molecular alignment via optical techniques. However, these devices were not able to quantitate the extensional viscosity.
Interactions between xanthan gum and konjac mannan
Authors: Dalbe Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Konjac mannan has been used for many years as an ingredient in food recipes, in Japan, Pakistan and India. Konjac mannan is a partially acetylated polysaccharide produced from tubers of Amorphophallus konjac, composed of 1,4-B-linked mannose and glucose residues. Xanthan gum is a hetero-polysaccharide obtained by fermentation with a naturally occurring micro-organism, a bacteria called Xanthomonas Campestris. Although neither xanthan nor Konjac mannan aqueous solutions, at neutral pH, form a gel alone, blends of the two polysaccharides form gels at low total concentration. In this paper,the synergism between xanthan and Konjac mannan is described. We show how the synergism varies with different parameters (total gum concentration, ionic strength...). During the preparation of the mixed gels, certain parameters such as the temperature of preparation and the rate of cooling, can greatly affect the properties of the final gel.
Somatic cell hybrids in the analysis of the human genome
Authors: Cowell J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The genetic information of cells from very different origins can be combined in a single nucleus by somatic cell fusion. Such hybrid cells have been used extensively in, for example, standard genetic complementation tests and the production of monoclonal antibodies, though it is perhaps in the field of human gene mapping that they have found their broadest application. The concept has been extended to the mapping of anonymous DNA sequences isolated through recombinant DNA technology. In this chapter the production and subcloning of hybrids is discussed.
Intestinal protozoa
Authors: Smith H V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Examine the stool macroscopically and record whether it is formed, soft, unformed, or liquid or it contains evidence of blood or mucus. Stools with evidence of blood or mucus may contain the developmental or reproductive stages of protozoa and are examined with the minimum of delay by direct microscopy to ensure that these stages are still intact and motile. Where possible, blood or mucus should be examined separately as they are more likely to contain trophczoites.
Analysis of Terpenoid Phytoalexins and their Biosynthetic Enzymes
Authors: Threlfall David R , Whitehead Ian M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Terpenoid phytoalexins and terpenoid stress metabolites (some of which have been ascribed phytoalexin status) are produced by members of nine plant families (1, 2). Their accumulation both in planta and in plant cell cultures can be induced by a variety of biotic and abiotic agents. The class of terpenoid phytoalexin produced is uniform within a plant family. The largest class comprises the sesquiterpenoid phytoalexins which, in common with the pentacyclic triterpenoid phytoalexins, are formed from (2E, 6E)-farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) (see Figure I). The only other documented class of terpenoid phytoalexin is made up of the diterpenoid phytoalexins, which are formed from (all E geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) (see Figure 1). It should also be noted that the terpenoid precursor dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), provides the hemiterpenoid (dimethylallyl) residue(s) for many isoflavonoid phytoalexins produced by members of the Leguminosae (see Figure 1).
Analysis of gene expression in haemopoietic cells
Authors: Cowling G J , Hampson, I N , Pope L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Haematologists are increasingly using molecular biology methods to detect changes in the RNA levels of specific marker genes. Such changes reflect both the proliferative state and the developmental stage of a haemopoietic cell. RNA analysis by northern hybridization can be used to observe gross changes of gene expression, whereas in situ mRNA hybridization coupled with morphology, identifies single cells expressing a specific gene within complex populations of cell types. Both types of analysis can be used for assessing the expression of genes introduced into haemopoietic cells using the methods described in Chapter 10. In this chapter, we give protocols for the isolation of total cellular RNA, northern hybridization, and in situ RNA hybridization adapted for use with haemopoietic cells. The reader is referred to other molecular biology manuals for further descriptions of these methods (1-4) and other methods of analyzing gene expression including nuclease Sl/RNase protection assays (4), cDNA cloning (4), and polymerase chain reaction analysis of cDNA (5).
Mechanism and control of immunoglobulin gene rearrangement
Authors: Lansford Rusty , Okada Ami , Chen Jianzhu , Oltz Eugene M , Blackwell T Keith , Alt Frederick W , Rathbun Gary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The seminal studies of Landsteiner led to the notion that immunoglobulins can interact with an unlimited array of antigens (1). B lymphocytes produce immuno globulins (lg) which are composed of heavy (H) and light (L) polypeptide chains. At the amino terminus of H and L chains are regions of highly variable amino acid sequences (variable region) which pair with each other to form the antigen-binding site. The vast diversity of the antibody repertoire derives largely from the fact that H and L chain variable regions are encoded by a portion of the H or L chain gene that is assembled somatically from component germline gene segments (2). The T cell antigen receptor (TCR) is composed of immunoglobulin like polypeptides, which are also encoded by genes that are assembled somatically by the same enzymatic mechani&ms (3). lg heavy chain genes can also undergo a separate type of recombination event, termed 'class switch recombination', which permits clonal lineages of B cells to express the same variable region with a different constant region effector function (4). This chapter will focus on our current knowledge of the organization of lg genes in mice and humans and on the mechanistic aspects and the control of the gene rearrangement events involved in their assembly and expression.
An introduction to human retroviruses
Authors: Cullen Bryan r. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first retrovirus to be discovered, Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), was described in 1911 as a filterable agent that caused sarcomas in chickens (1). The association between retroviral infection and oncogenesis in animals is clearly the primary reason that this viral genus was to become such a focus of biological research over approximately the next 70 years (2). Indeed, retroviruses are still occasionally referred to as ‘RNA tumour viruses’ or ‘oncornaviruses’. The various acutely transforming retroviruses, such as RSV, were subsequently shown to express novel gene products, termed oncogenes, that are critical for their transforming potential but that play no role in viral replication per se (3, 4). The demonstration that these viral oncogenes are actually mutant forms of cellular genes that had been acquired by retroviruses through a process of illegitimate recombination was the first, and most critical, step in the development of the proto-oncogene hypothesis of cellular transformation, i.e. the concept that oncogenesis initiates with the aberrant expression of cellular genes that regulate the response of eukaryotic cells to extracellular stimuli and/or that regulate gene expression directly (4, 5).