bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Language and Gender
Authors: Hellinger Marlis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Almost ten years after language and gender studies had been established as an academic discipline in the United States, the topic was taken up in Europe. In 1978, the 8th World Congress of Sociology held at Uppsala University (Sweden) featured a section on language and sex, and in the same year the debate on male and female language began in Germany (Trömel-Plötz 1978). In 1979, the first German international conference on ‘Sprache und Geschlecht’ was held at the University of Osnabriick, with Cheris K.ramarae, Muriel Schulz, and Dale Spender as influential participants (Andresen 1979). In 1980, the first German guidelines for the equal treatment of the sexes were published (Guentherodt et al. 1980), and with the publication of Das Deutsche als Männersprache (Pusch 1984) the topic was firmly established in German linguistics.
Stress and Intonation
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Stress in Russian is free (i.e. can occur on any syllable in the word) and mobile (i.e. the position of stress can change in the inflection of a word, or between derivationally related words). The rules determining position of stress are complex (Zaliznjak 1967 151-75; 1985: 386–7), and the stress of many individual words and word-forms is seemingly idiosyncratic.
Sex, Gender, and the Status of Women
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Traditionally, Russian has distinct masculine and feminine forms for nouns that can refer both to men and to women, in much the same way as it has separate masculine and feminine adjectives, the main difference being that with adjectives the distinction is shown by inflection (declension), whereas with nouns it is shown by derivation, the latter being less regular in formation.
Essays In Ethical Theory
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this volume, R. M. Hare has collected a number of essays which fill in the theoretical background of his thought and which together give an overall picture of his views on a variety of questions. Each essay is self-contained, and topics covered include the objectivity and rationality of moral thinking, the issue between the ethical realists and their opponents, the place in our moral thought of appeals to common convictions, and how to tell whether a feature of a situation is morally relevant. His central theme is the paradox that, if moral judgements were just statements of fact, relativism would be inescapable. We can treat moral thinking as a rational activity only because moral judgements are more than this.
Ontology in Ethics
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THERE is a long-standing dispute between two main types of ethical theory, which, nevertheless, is not always stated in the same terms. It is the purpose of this paper to ask whether it matters in what terms we formulate it. I shall argue that one way of posing the issue has advantages over the others, if we want to get to the root of the matter. This is because all the others pose it in terms which, for want of clarity and other reasons, leave it undecidable unless in the end we have recourse to the preferred way. Here is a list of the formulations that I shall be considering, with, in brackets, indications of the type of distinction that each purports to be.
A Reductio ad Absurdum of Descriptivism
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
MOST moral philosophers are, I suppose, descriptivists of some sort; and most of those who become so (unlike John Mackie ( 1977), who was one of the few exceptions) do it because of a certain motivation. They have a deep desire to establish something that can be loosely described as the objectivity of moral judgements. And this desire in turn arises from a still deeper one, the desire to do one’s moral thinking in a rational way. The route from the desire for rationality via the desire for objectivity to descriptivism is a well trodden one; but it is nevertheless a primrose path; for, as we shall see, it leads those who follow it into one or another form of relativism, which .is precisely what these thinkers are trying to avoid. They can avoid it only by retracing their steps. This primrose path starts from the assumption that the only way to achieve rationality is to secure objectivity. This assumption might be acceptable, if only the word ‘objectivity’ had a clear and unambiguous meaning. But it notoriously has not. The primrose path is followed by those who take it as obvious that the only kind of objectivity is that provided by descriptivism. What this kind is we shall see in a moment.
Rawls’s Theory of Justice
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ANY philosopher who, like John Rawls (1971), writes on justice or on any other subject in moral philosophy is likely to propound, or to give evidence of, views on one or more of the following topics: (1) Philosophical methodology—i.e. what philosophy is supposed to be doing and how it does it. Rawls expresses some views about this, which have determined the whole structure of his argument, and which therefore need careful inspection. (2) Ethical anarysis—i.e. the meanings of the moral words or the nature and logical properties of the moral concepts. Rawls says very little about these, and certainly does not treat them as fundamental to his inquiry (51/10).
Relevance
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the mouths of many radicals, a piece of philosophical or other academic work is said to be relevant if it lends support to the speaker’s own political opinions. I shall not be using the word in that sense; nor even in the sense’in which I used it in the title of my inaugural lecture ‘The Practical Relevance of Philosophy’ (H 1971 b: 98), although I do think that what I am going to say has that kind of relevance, because it helps to sort out some practical issues of great importance.
The Idea of Development
Authors: Pivčević Edo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The idea of development is one of the most commonplace as well as the most powerful tools in our conceptual machinery, and it is not surprising that in various forms it has exercised a dominating influence on philosophical and scientific thinking alike. In what follows, l shall confine myself to examining whether and how this idea might be utilized to cast more light on the structure and the possibility of change. As my purpose is purely theoretical, I shall not comment on the various historical interpretations of this idea, except when necessary to illustrate my own argument.
Clarke on Divine Perfection and Freedom
Authors: Rowe William L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In contrast to Locke, who characterized freedom as the power to carry out the action that we choose (will) to do, leaving the choice (volition) itself to be causally necessitated by the agent’s motives, Clarke locates freedom squarely at the level of the choice to act or not act: ‘ … the essence of liberty consists in (a person’s) having a continual power of choosing whether he shall act or whether he shall forbear acting’ (D, 101). The implication of Clarke’s view is that freedom (liberty) would be impossible should a person’s choices be causally necessitated by his motives or desires. For if a person’s choice to act is causally necessitated by earlier states of his body or mind, then at the time of that choice it was not in the agent’s power to choose to not act. It is for Clarke a secondary matter whether the agent is able to carry out his choice. Of course, since God is omnipotent, his power to carry out the action he chooses to do is unlimited. But our question is whether God has it in his power to choose to refrain from following what he knows to be the best course of action. Should he lack that power, it follows from Clarke’s conception of freedom that God does not freely choose the best course of action. In fact, it would follow for Clarke that in this instance God is totally passive and not an agent at all.
Jonathan Edwards on Divine and Human Freedom
Authors: Rowe William L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A book on the topic of divine freedom must come to grips with the penetrating discussion of freedom, both human and divine, by Jonathan Edwards (1703–58), the greatest American philosophical theologian of the eighteenth century. In his day there was a struggle between two theological traditions: Calvinism and Arminianism. Calvinism, a movement originating with the work of John Calvin (1509–64), endeavored to reconcile our longings for freedom of the will with both the philosophical view of universal causation and the theological view of divine predestination. Arminianism, a view originating with the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609), advocated a stronger conception of human freedom than Calvinism allowed, a conception according to which a free agent has a power of willing and doing otherwise than he in fact does. Consequently, Arminianism denied universal causation and total divine predestination. It seemed clear to the Arminians, for example, that if some action of ours was causally necessitated by an unbroken chain of causes proceeding from the distant past, then at the time we performed that action it was not really up to us whether we would do that action or refrain from doing it.
Must God Create the Best World?
Authors: Rowe William L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thus far we have supposed with Leibniz that among possible worlds there is one that is best. And we have argued that given God’s absolute perfection, he would of necessity create the best world. If the reasoning for this conclusion is correct, then in the matter of creating among possible worlds God cannot be free. However, as with many important philosophical arguments, the reasoning that has led us to the conclusion that God necessarily creates the best world has been challenged. And in this chapter we will consider an important challenge to this reasoning. Of course, one way of challenging the reasoning is to reject the initial claim that among possible worlds there is one that is best. Perhaps there is no best possible world. Instead, so the suggestion goes, there may be an infinite number of possible worlds ranked in order of goodness such that for any world there is a world better than it. We will discuss this challenge in the next chapter and consider the implications of the ‘no best world’ hypothesis for the existence of the theistic God. But the challenge to be discussed here is quite different. For it allows that there may be a best possible world, but maintains that even if there is a best world God would not need to create it. Instead, so the claim goes, he might create some good world that is considerably less good than the best world. But before examining this challenge it will be helpful to have a clearer idea of just what a possible world is, as well as a clearer idea of what it is for a possible world to be better than some other possible world.Up to this point we have assumed, what I believe is correct, that we all possess some rudimentary idea of what a possible world is and what it would be for one such world to be better than any other possible world.
Berkeley’s Puzzle
Authors: Campbell John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Berkeley famously claimed to be unable to conceive of existence unperceived, from which he famously concluded that existence unperceived is impossible. But say you, surely there is nothing easier than to imagine trees, for instance, in a park, or books existing in a closet, and nobody by to perceive them. I answer, you may so, there is no difficulty in it: but what is all this, I beseech you, more than framing in your mind certain ideas which you call books and trees, and at the same time omitting to frame the idea of anyone that may perceive them? But do you not yourself perceive or think of them all the while? This therefore is nothing to the purpose: it only shows you have the power of imagining or forming ideas in your mind; but it doth not shew that you can conceive it possible, the objects of your thought may exist without the mind: to make out this, it is necessary that you conceive them existing unconceived or unthought of, which is a manifest repugnancy.
The Character and Obligation of Natural Law According to Richard Cumberland
Authors: Haakonssen Knud 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Richard Cumberland has had a mixed press, not only for the worth of his achievement, but also for the nature of his enterprise. During the past century he has commonly been seen as a proto-utilitarian;1 in the eighteenth century he was mostly viewed as a natural lawyer. A utilitarian he was not, proto or otherwise, as will become clear hereafter. He was a natural lawyer, but of a kind little appreciated in English scholarship and only by the way in German.
He is in fact an example of that combination of Liebesethik and Naturrecht which Werner Schneiders in particular has studied so carefully in connection with Thomasius. One reason why this has not been more widely appreciated is that Cumberland from an early stage was seen as the third man in the triumvirate of seventeenth-century founders of the “modern” school of natural law.
Introduction
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the time of my fieldwork in the early 1980s, the Bajo Urubamba area was a relatively sleepy backwater of the Department of Ucayali, itself rather far from the power centres of Peru. But, geographically, the area is a nodal point in a complex network of lines of communication. In the headwaters of the Urubamba river itself is the city of Cuzco, while the neighbouring Tambo draws its waters from the Central Andes. Downstream to the north, the waters of this river flow into the Amazon mainstream, while to the east its tributaries rise in the same hills as the major rivers of western Brazil and northern Bolivia. Historically, the primary orientation of the inhabitants of the Bajo Urubamba has shifted from one axis of this network to another, without ever losing sight of the others. My research was undertaken during a period of primary orientation to the north, down-river along the Ucayali to the cities of Iquitos and Pucallpa. For over a century, the ties to the Andes and to the east have been quiescent, and their impact on local people muted. The three chapters of Part I explore the complex development of the riverine axis over the past century and a half, and its ramifications within the world-view of local people and their practical experiences.
Living and Dying
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is an extensive literature on residence patterns in Amazonia, including considerable discussion of cases in which, like the case of the native communities of the Bajo Urubamba, there is no other residence rule than the injunction that people should live with all their kin. Riviere and Overing have discussed societies in the Guianas where the only residence “rule” is the injunction to reside with all one’s kin. Both writers have provided statistical analyses of which kin tend to live together for the societies they discuss and linked these to the political activities of leaders who build up settlements by attracting people to live with them (Rivière 1969: 104—40, 1984: 72—86, and Kaplan 1975: 88—123).
The Comunidad Nativa
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the level of space, there is nothing which turns one of an infinity of possible sites along the course of the Bajo Urubamba river into a village site in preference to any other. Nor is there any moral discourse which turns one set of people related as kin, affines, or compadres into a community in preference to any other possible set. As noted in Part II, on the Bajo Urubamba, the relations between people and land and the relations they have with each other are conditioned by almost perpetual movement. The place of coresidence is a transient thing, soon to be abandoned and reclaimed by the forest. The set of coresidents is equally transient, continuously fragmented by death and abandonment. How, then, is the community given bounded form? Any discussion of residence, or relationship to locality in general, with native people will lead them to raise the institution of the Comunidad Nativa. Chapter 1 discussed the legal origins of the Comunidad Nativa, and the history of the application of this law in the Bajo Urubamba. My concern here is not with the formulation of this law, but with why it is of such importance to native people.
Conclusion: The Bajo Urubamba 1n Amazonian Perspective
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Overing has argued that underlying all the dissimilar social structures of Lowland South America is a single philosophy of society: ‘the universe exists, life exists, society exists only insofar as there is contact and proper mixing among things that are different from one another’ (Overing Kaplan 1981: 161). Her argument is persuasive, and its echoes ring around Amazonian cultures, with their deep concern with duality, reciprocity, and safe self and the dangerous other. Amazonian cultures become variations on this essential theme. Both Overing (Overing Kaplan 1981) and Viveiros de Castro (1986b) have argued for a unity underlying all indigenous Amazonian cultures, which replaces the evolutionism and culture area particularism of older comparative approaches. Viveiros de Castro, in particular, has pointed out that this unity is topological (1986b: 276): there is no basic element present or absent in each culture, but rather all these cultures are variants of a single structure of relations. No culture “has” this basic structure, for the structure exists in the transformational relations between them all. Overing and Viveiros de Castro have shown how this basic structure explains the similarities and differences between the GeBororo cultures of Central Brazil, the Tukanoan peoples of North West Amazonia, and Cariban-Piaroa cultures of the Guianas.
Coming Together in Jamnagar
Authors: Banks Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter expands the ethnography presented in the last chapter and prepares the main argument of the next-religious property as a focus of division for the Jamnagar Jains. In this chapter I concentrate on events-'functions' as they are known-which bring the Jamnagar Jains together; events which, like ritual, can be seen as a possible locus for that which makes the Jains Jain.
Which Way Forward? Ways of Believing in Leicester
Authors: Banks Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 4 I presented a puzzle that had struck me while I was working in Jamnagar-who OError! Hyperlink reference not valid. the various pieces of Jain property that were scattered throughout the city? To a large extent my interest in this issue had been brought from my earlier fieldwork in Leicester where a similar problem-though at a more abstract level-hovered over the Jain Centre, at least in my eyes. That is, in what sense was the Leicester Jain Centre 'owned' by the Leicester Jains? I have touched on this issue in Chapter 6 and discussed it in much greater detail elsewhere (Banks 1991).
Empirical Background
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THIS work considers an epoch in Icelandic history. In speaking of an epoch, we give an impression of coherence and unity, and it is important to remember that this sense of ‘wholeness’ is to some degree analytically arbitrary. I intend to use the term ‘epoch’ in contradistinction to the ‘period’ of the historian—using epoch as an ‘emic’ periodization, a lived experience of coherence and unity, in contrast to the ‘etic’ periods of the historian.1 In these terms, the comprehension of an epoch implies both that it can be seen as a systematic whole, and that this whole can be demonstrated to be of internal relevance.
The Environment
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
AN environment can only be defined relative to something else whose environment it is. In this chapter we are still dealing with the human condition, and the environment under consideration is that of the Icelandic people, as seen from their point of view. Although the Icelanders lived in a space which obviously had certain objective physical characteristics, these did not in themselves constitute the environment; they were, rather, conceptually moulded by people, who thus defined the significant qualities of their space.
Textile Design in Southern Lembata: Tradition and Change
Authors: Barnes Ruth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The German ethnographer Ernst Vatter was the first to comment at length on the textiles woven in this particular group of islands in eastern Indonesia, and he was also the first to speak of the local weaving and ikat as a form of artistic activity.1 Scattered throughout his book one finds comments on weaving in particular villages; patterns are sometimes mentioned by name, and textiles appear in 1-pecific social contexts, such as at dances and-most significantly and familiarly from other Indonesian societies-as part of the gift exchange associated with marriage. Vatter also includes one chapter that deals exclus ively with the ikat textiles of the islands. However, Vatter did not attempt to interpret the designs in detail, but restricted himself to a description of what he saw and collected.
‘The Hammer of the Kujurs’: Government, Ethnography, and Nilotic Religions
Authors: Johnson Douglas H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A beast was slaughtered and divided up. A few visitors gathered at Ngundeng’s cattle byre to get their share of meat, milk, and porridge. Ngundeng lay inside the byre, propped up against the pile of ashes in the hearth. Garang Ngundeng, then still an uninitiated boy, brought in the milk, but the gourd was too heavy for him to handle and one of the visitors poured the milk into the porridge. Ngundeng stirred it, gave some to the dogs and the rest to his guests, eating none himself, but eating some of the cooked meat from the ox he had just sacrificed.
Dual Diu and the Continuity of a Prophetic Tradition
Authors: Johnson Douglas H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dual Diu, son of Deng Laka, was born at the end of the nineteenth century. He first came into conflict with the Anglo-Egyptian government in 1914. After a period of co-operation with local administrative officials he again clashed with the government in 1928, was captured in 1930, and spent the rest of the Condominium period in exile. Thus for most of his adult life, and throughout his career as a prophet, he had to come to terms with a government presence and the restrictions that presence placed on his range of action. Despite his willingness to work with the government, and despite his central position in the native administration of the Gaawar in the 1920s, he suffered a fate similar to those Lou prophets who had earlier held aloof from any contact with government officials. Yet Dual outlived the Anglo-Egyptian government, returning to his home just before the Sudan’s independence, and dying there in 1968 during the Sudan’s first civil war. He is thus a link between the earliest and the most recent periods of prophecy among the Nuer, and his life demonstrates a continuity within the broader prophetic tradition.
Duelling Currencies in East New Britain: The Construction of Shell Money as National Cultural Property
Authors: Errington Deborah B Gewertz ,Frederick K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has become increasingly common for indigenous and minority groups throughout the world to promote and defend their own representations of identity by invoking images and other embodiments of tradition, history, and ethnicity. In this chapter we examine such a politicization of culture in Papua New Guinea, one which centred on a recent phase in a history of contrast between native and introduced currencies.