bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hanging People
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Ways In Which People Were Killed On Public Scaf folds have always been shrouded in euphemism. Home secretaries would keep an emotional distance from their own orders as they pen cilled on the appeal dossiers of those they left to die a phrase sanitized by repetition: ‘The law to take its course.’ Newspapers likewise would tersely report that felons were ‘launched into eternity’. It was as if when justice was done, thought and feeling had to be muffled. We are still ret icent on the subject. Now that sexual taboos have fallen, what was and is entailed in death by execution may be one of the last agreed obsceni ties. Anxiety and distaste accompany a journey into a subject like this. Writing a book about it feels dangerous and contaminating.
Death And The Scaffold Crowd
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Wassemblies, elections, and the occasional heady excitement of riot, Hanoverian Londoners were used to crowds of themselves. Their rowdy gatherings have always interested historians. One kind of metro politan gathering has been all but excluded from historical study, how ever. It is the biggest, most frequent, and most sensational of them all-assembling eight times a year to watch others hang. Until the very end of public execution this insubordinate scaffold crowd touched the deepest anxieties of the polite classes; it takes us to the heart of popular mentalities as well.
The English Gentleman in Trade
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In a pre-industrial economy dominated by small family firms, economic growth could not have occurred without the skill, persistence, and initiative of individual businessmen like Sir Dudley North. North was not only a celebrated merchant and economist, but an important and controversial servant of Charles II and James II. Richard Grassby exploits the extraordinary wealth of documentation available to establish how North made a fortune in the Levant commodity trade and through usury. He explores his character, beliefs, and intentions, and the diverse technical and personal reasons for his success. As the younger son of a peer, his domestic life and his relationships with his family and the world of business demonstrate both the mobility of English society and the close integration of town and country. His works, which are here published in full for the first time, reveal the breadth of his intellectual interests. Although a man of exceptional personality, North confronted the same obstacles and opportunities as other merchants of his day, and this study of his life offers us unique and valuable insights into the seventeenth-century business world.
Introduction
Authors: Vale Malcolm 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book departs from conventional approaches to its subject-matter on at least two counts: first, it includes, rather than isolates, England; secondly, it attempts to treat both the material and non-material aspects of later medieval princely courts within the framework of a single study. It has been a common practice of historians to treat the unambiguously concrete and tangible aspects of the subject quite separately from the manifestations of court culture which they perceive in the visual, plastic and applied arts, and in music and literature. The court at this time was intimately and inextricably enmeshed with the ruler’s household, but studies of the household, its structure, organization, and personnel, tend—necessarily—to confine themselves to matter rather than mind. My aim has been to adopt a much broader definition of culture, which takes into account the material infrastructures upon which the arts rested and which, in part, could determine their nature and function. The memorable definition of culture formulated in 1871 by the anthropologist E. B.
The Individual and the Medieval State
Authors: Coleman Janet 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The medieval individual emerges in a variety of guises when one examines the wide range of texts produced during the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries. He is sometimes treated as a political subject when viewed from above by governing bureaucracies and institutions. He is sometimes discussed in terms of his capacities prior to, as well as subsequent to, civic recognition and definition. He is sometimes defined in terms of his allegiances and obligations and is situated in a changing society in terms of his functional contribution to the whole. He is sometimes spoken of as a bearer of rights, some of which are considered inalienable and which he may claim either universally or in a discrete territory. But in all cases he is defined by an intellectual and social matrix that is not ours.
The Secular State of the Reformation Period and the Beginnings of the Debate on Religious Toleration
Authors: Guggisberg Hans R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If anything characterizes the modem state, it is its hatred and concern which emerge as soon as it has to tolerate a religion which is tied to other countries and to a general whole that the state in question does not dominate. Until the eighteenth century the state nevertheless pretended to adhere at least to that religion whose church it had integrated into its administrative system. Since then, however, the situation has changed ... The enormous power of the state over the church suddenly became obvious in the sixteenth century. Nobody was able to set limits to it ... Protestantism came into existence on the state-church principle, and when the state becomes indifferent, it [that is, Protestantism] is in a precarious position.’ This statement is to be found in Jacob Burckhardt’s lectures on the history of early modem Europe which he gave at the University of Basle several times after 1859. I have not prefaced my chapter with his words out of local pride or because I felt the need to provide a historiographical ‘identification tag’ for my own remarks.
Rulers and Subjects: The Absolutist Making of the Individual
Authors: Weber Wolfgang 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The importance of Absolutism for individualization has, until now, rarely been the direct subject of historical, political, or literary research. When related problems have been addressed, the effort has usually lacked clear analytical conceptions and has analysed only one of the two dimensions that constitute the total process of individualization. Nevertheless, a view is shared, at least implicitly, by a majority of scholars: Absolutism is regarded as ‘the most anti individualistic principle of all’, because it sought to make individuals into inter¬ changeable role-players and because its norm for political and social organization was authoritarian holism. Accordingly, to the Enlightenment and the triumph of capitalism goes the credit for founding modem individualistic society; so-called enlightened absolutism may have contributed, at most, only slightly to this process.
Inheritance: Customs And Laws
Authors: Sawyer Birgit 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A widely held interpretation of early Scandinavian society has been that it was based on clans (Sw. iitter), in the sense of descent groups that were responsible for many of the functions that were later taken over by kings and the Church. Belief in their existence largely depends on interpreting the medieval laws as reflecting such a clan society in the last stages of dissolution, and some provisions of these laws have been taken to be relics of a time when the clan was supposed to have owned land collectively. For such a society to function each clan would have to be a well-defined, distinct group, which in turn requires that descent was traced from fathers only—or from mothers only. It has been supposed that Scan-dinavian clans were patrilineal and that upon marriage a woman left her own clan to join that of her husband. As a consequence, women are supposed to have had no right to inherit land; otherwise clans could not have had permanent rights over their own land.
The Formation of the Chinese State
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
11 this while, since and before the second millennium, 3,500 miles, eastward of the furthest confines of Iran, in the basin of the Yellow River, a wholly self-sufficient civilization and polity had been evolving in total independence of the Mediterranean world.1 China was a comparative late-comer to organized political life: the Shang dynasty (and they them selves are as shadowy as their empire was primitive) began their career when the political systems of Sumeria and Egypt were already some 1,500 years old. But this was only the precursor of a polity that was to march ahead of all others in the world in terms of its art and crafts, its grandeur, wealth, extent, and populousness, and its duration and self-sufficient completeness until the era of the French Revolution.
Introduction
Authors: Aylmer G E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Historians Should Start by telling their readers what they are trying to do, and why this might be of interest to anyone besides themselves. This book is primarily a study of the men (and the very few women) who staffed the central government and the royal court from the restoration of the monarchy at the end of May 1660 to the death of King Charles II at the beginning of February 1685. But before attempting to present any kind of group portrait of Charles’s servants, they must be set in their proper historical context. For this purpose we shall look first at the institutions of government, together with its methods and procedures, next at the terms and conditions of service in it; then at its members both collectively and as individuals. Finally we shall consider the policies, tasks, successes and failures of the regime, relating this to the process of state formation, and the impact of state on society. As in my earlier studies of Charles l’s servants (1625-42) and those of the English Republic (1649-60),1 this book therefore has two main aims: to provide a fuller understanding of English history over a limited span of time, namely during the reign of Charles II, and to relate this to longer-run continuities and changes in the English state.
European Imperialism and the Nile
Authors: Collins Robert O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Until the third quarter of the nineteenth century the importance of the Nile had been confined to continental Africa, and specifically to the people living by its banks, particularly the Sudanese of Nubia and the Egyptians inhabiting the barren deserts of its northern reaches. To be sure, men had pondered over the sources of the life-giving Nile waters, but these speculations were those of geographers, poets, and kings, whose curiosity may be the foundation of civilization but was the ethereal fascination with the unknown, devoid of the reality of daily life and death by the Nile. Within twenty years, between 1862 and 1876, three events expanded the crucial significance of the Nile valley beyond its banks in north-east Africa to the world-the discovery of the Nile source flowing from Lake Victoria in 1862, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the financial collapse of Egypt in1876.
Plans and Dams
Authors: Collins Robert O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The construction of a mighty dam at Aswan was a unilateral decision by the revolutionary government of Egypt in 1952, but even the revolutionary command council could not ignore the reality of the interests of other riparian States. Relations with Uganda had been normalized by the exchange of notes in May 1949 formally agreeing to the construction of the dam and power station at Owen Falls. Britain and Egypt had even revised their agreement of 1935 concerning the Lake Tana dam by the successful completion of the technical discussions in November 1946. The Sudan, however, was the most significant of all the riparian States and, by virtue of her geographical position, the dominant partner with whom Egypt must come to terms if development of the Nile valley was to continue south of Aswan. The Egyptians were well aware of this fact, and at the time of the exchange of notes over the Owen Falls dam agreement, the prime minister of Egypt issued a statement obviously calculated to win Sudanese support for the unity of the Nile valley under the Egyptian monarchy but one which, if taken literally, modified the Nile Waters Agreement by formally obliging Egypt to secure Sudanese permission before undertaking any projects for control of the Nile. Hitherto Egypt had had only to seek the consent of Great Britain.
The Canal-Builders
Authors: Collins Robert O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Compagnie de Constructions Internationales, SA (CCI) was founded in July 1963 by five French companies, with the aim of undertaking large and high-risk construction projects in foreign countries as well as in France, and with an average annual turnover of some F50 billion.1 Of the five firms, the leader and dominant partner, by virtue of its capitalization—nearly the total of its four partners—and its experience, was Grands Travaux de Marseille International (GTMI), which subsequently played a central role in the construction of the Jonglei Canal. During the decade after its formation, CCI had built dams in Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, the Ivory Coast, and Mozambique; harbours in Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt; and railways in Gabon; it had even participated in the glamorous salvage of the great temple at Abu Simbel from the rising waters of the Aswan high dam reservoir.
The European System,1763–1787
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The period after the Peace of Paris which concluded the Seven Years’ War (1756-63) has often been described as one of relative stability. Certainly this is what many Europeans needed and wanted. The great world war of fifty years before, the War of the Spanish Succession (1702-14), had ended the threat of the hegemony of Louis XIV’s France in Europe and had established a recognizable balance of power. Despite the efforts of some British and French statesmen to establish a durable peace by a system of collective security, however, old contests had continued after the Peace of Utrecht-Rastatt and new ones developed in the succeeding decades, involving Northern Europe, Italy, Germany, the Near East, the Polish succession, the Austrian succession, India, and the New World. A climax to forty years of indecisive balance-of-power struggle was reached in the Seven Years’ War of1756-63. Even wider and bloodier than the War of the Spanish Succession, it ended with all the belligerents tired of fighting and some of them exhausted. The outcome was decisive in both the maritime and Continental theatres, though in different ways. Britain clearly defeated France and Spain in the contest for colonies and control of the seas.
War and Revolution, 1787 -1792
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Though the wars of the French Revolutionary era predated the Revolution and were not caused by it, there is a certain parallel between the Revolution and the wars in terms of origins and results. The French Revolution arose from the failure of a patriotic reform movement-that is, various efforts by enlightened rulers and ministers, aristocrats, and liberal reformers to make the old regime work better.1 Once started, however, the Revolution in France quickly became a movement for something different and bigger than reform: a powerful, confused, and incoherent effort to replace the old aristocratic-monarchic political order with a new democratic one. In the traditional society of orders, law and governing authority came from the top down, based on tradition, prescription, and religious sanctions, and liberties and rights were corporate privileges based on one’s particular status in society. In the new democratic society, the state and the political and social order was to spring from below, from the whole people conceived as a body of free and equal citizens endowed with natural rights; political authority and governmental decisions would rest on the people’s will. The concept, though not new, was genuinely revolutionary, particularly for old-regime France and Europe, and, as recent historians have emphasized, the attempt to create new institutions,
The First Coalition, 1792-1797
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One might expect that the outbreak of war would at least restore France’s importance in international politics.1 Ultimately this happened with a vengeance, but not for a while; both France and the war against France continued for some time to be international sideshows. One reason for this, as will be seen, was that at first, despite the radical Revolution, France’s foreign policy continued along traditional lines. A more important reason was that none of the members of the first coalition fought mainly to overthrow the Revolution, and some were loath to fight at all. Their main reaction to the discovery that it would be more difficult than expected to defeat France and restore order was not to fight harder, but to attempt to end the war, coexist with Revolutionary France, and pursue other goals-which some found possible, others not. The problem is not to explain how the War of the First Coalition started, which is fairly easy, but why it persisted and proved difficult or impossible to end. The basic answer is that the same kind of traditional politics that got both sides into war also kept them from ending it.
The Second Coalition, 1798-1802
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Behind the French expedition to Egypt lay the difficulty France had in getting at England. Following the collapse of the peace talks at Lille, the Directors, particularly Reubell, again took up the idea of a cross-Channel invasion, despite the failure of an earlier effort and the fact that France did little to support the insurrectionary plans of the United Irishmen led by Wolfe Tone. But Bonaparte, given command of the proposed invasion force, soon decided that he would not sacrifice his popularity in this hopeless enterprise. With invasion infeasible and revolutionary subversion and raids on British commerce clearly inadequate, the idea of undermining Britain’s will and capacity to fight by seizing Egypt and threatening the route to India seemed more attractive.1 Other purposes, however, were at least as important.
Tilsit Undermined, 1807-1809
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As will be seen, not everything Napoleon did in reorganizing and expanding his empire after 1807 had the principal aim of bringing Britain down. Almost everything was in some way connected with this effort, however, and the measures taken were thorough and generally effective. First Denmark and Russia were brought actively into the anti-British coalition, then Austria and Prussia. A series of annexations and occupations were carried through in Italy, ostensibly to destroy British trade. The Emperor renewed his demands on his satellites for naval construction and a more vigorous war at sea.1 He pushed further his plans and preparations for the conquest of Sicily and the development of bases for more war in the east,2 and he annexed part of his brother Louis’s Kingdom of Holland, all supposedly to organize the Continent against the common enemy. The Russo-Swedish war in early 1808 and Napoleon’s campaign launched in late 1807 to destroy Portugal and turn Spain into a French province were at least ostensibly designed to bring England down.
The Iberian Peninsula: The Rewards and Problems of Conquest, 1274–1415
Authors: Housley Norman 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the Council of Lyons assembled in 1274 Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, the principal Christian states of Iberia, could look back on a recent crusading history which stood in sharp contrast to the run of disasters which their contemporaries had experienced in the Holy Land and Romania (see map 10). Following the decisive defeat of the Almohad army at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, at the hands of a mainly Castilian and Aragonese force, the territorial impasse which had characterized the Reconquista since the time of the Second Crusade was broken. The rulers of all three peninsular kingdoms made substantial gains. King James I of Aragon seized the Balearic Islands between 1229 and 1235, and overran the Kingdom of Valencia in 1232–45. Sancho II and Alfonso III of Portugal effectively completed the Portuguese Reconquista by extending their lands as far south as the coast of the Algarve. Most spectacularly, Ferdinand III of Castile brought under direct control Extremadura, Murcia, and much of Andalusia, including the great urban prizes of Cordoba (1236) and Seville (1248). From 1246 the Emirate of Granada endured tributary status to Castile, and as early as 1227 Ferdinand entertained hopes of carrying the war across the Straits of Gibraltar into Muslim North Africa. Within two decades about a third of the peninsula and its population had been transferred from Islamic to Christian hands, and the balance of power between the two contesting religions had been fundamentally and irrevocably altered.
The End of the Reconquista: Granada and Beyond, 1415–1580
Authors: Housley Norman 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The pivotal point of this chapter is the series of campaigns waged between 1482 and 1492 by the ‘Catholic Monarchs’, Ferdinand and Isabella, which culminated in the conquest of the Emirate of Granada and the ending of Muslim power in Spain (see maps 10 and 11). Recent research has confirmed the political significance of these events, while in its scale and intensity the Granada war ranks alongside the Varna campaign and the wars against the Hussites as one of the greatest crusades of the fifteenth century. Thanks largely to the work of Professor M. A. Ladero Quesada, the character of the war itself is now clear; but both the background to the crusade, and its long-term results, remain highly problematic. In the case of the former, the difficulty lies in deciding whether or not the crusade represented a radical change in Castilian policy towards Granada and, more broadly, attitudes towards convivencia. And in the case of the crusade’s long-term results, the dominant question is the fate of Iberian crusading ideas, institutions, and attitudes after the completion of the Reconquista. Continuity is apparent in some features of Spanish government and society in the sixteenth century, such as Castile’s advance into North Africa and the resultant struggle with the Ottomans, and the survival into the Early Modern period of both the Iberian Military Orders and the ‘Bula de la cruzada’. But investigation of the subtler links between the crusade and the Spanish conquest of the New World, and Habsburg imperial policy generally, forms one of the most tantalizing aspects of the history of later crusading.
Introduction
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Sir Robert Ensor’s fine volume in the first ‘Oxford History’ series was simply entitled England 1870–1914. Though I think it is no longer possible to concentrate as exclusively as Ensor did upon England alone, I have emulated him at least in choosing a plain title. Books deliberately written to delineate past periods as, for example, ages of reform or revolution or reaction, as ages of rising middle classes or collapsing aristocracies, of expansion or contraction, of new regimes or of old, whatever they may gain in invigorating coherence, too often achieve their effects by a species of historical brigandage or (worse still) of historical myopia. An approach appropriate for monographs examining one comparatively self-contained topic imposes an unduly partial influence upon more general works such as this.