bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Seasonality, Fallback Strategies, and Natural Selection: A Chimpanzee and Cercopithecoid Model for Interpreting the Evolution of Hominin Diet
Authors: Lambert Joanna E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within this evolutionary framework, we can reasonably assume that feeding-related features observed in extant primates should be, at least in theory, demonstrably the result of natural selection. It is the demonstrable aspect of this important assumption that those concerned with dietary adaptations in the present and in the evolutionary past must confront. In addition to information derived from morphology, it is a truism that scientists studying extant primates have the luxury of observing the function of diet-related anatomy via direct observation of a feeding animal, while those scientists evaluating fossil species do so in the absence of such data (Kay, 1984). Yet, both scientists confront a similar challenge, and in evolutionary terms yield comparably synchronic interpretations; the ghost of selection past haunts us all. Hence, our use of the powerful combination of comparative models, extant species analogs, and correlative evaluations as tools for interpreting changes in form and function over evolutionary time.
Trust No One: Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theories from the 1970s to the 1990s
Authors: Olmsted Kathryn S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Bill Clinton won the presidency in 1992, he said he wanted to provide health care for all Americans, revive the economy, and build a “bridge to the twenty-first century.” But the president also had other goals. Soon after his election, Clinton spoke with an old friend, Webster Hubbell, whom he planned to appoint to a high post in the Justice Department. As they talked privately, Clinton gave him some secret orders. “Webb,” Clinton said to his golfing buddy, “if I put you over at Justice, I want you to find the answers to two questions for me. One, Who killed JFK? And two, Are there UFOs?” The president, Hubbell said, was “dead serious.”
Introdution
Authors: Rothbaum Barbara Olasov , Foa Edna B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of the emotional problems following a trauma are best described by a syndrome called Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The trauma is defined as a situation involving actual or threatened injury or death, and the survivor feels helpless, horrified, or terrified during the experience. Such traumatic life events, especially sexual and criminal assault, are unfortunately extremely common. It has been estimated that approximately one quarter of trauma survivors suffer from PTSD at some point in their lives. Women appear to be more likely than men to develop PTSD following trauma.
Case Descriptions
Authors: Rothbaum Barbara Olasov , Foa Edna B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It seems a good way to start this self-help guide about how to overcome post rape difficulties by sharing with the reader an account of reactions to rape, as presented in our book for professionals (Foa & Rothbaum, 1998): the rape survivor’s own report of the rape and how she reacted to being raped. This story describes clearly and powerfully the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder following sexual assault. Below is a powerful statement by Sarah, the survivor. This is followed by some reports from Sarah’s father illustrating how the family may also be profoundly impacted by the event.
Assessment of My Problems
Authors: Rothbaum Barbara Olasov , Foa Edna B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, we presented many of the common reactions to assault. If you are following the program as you read this workbook, you may have written down some of the problems you have been experiencing. In this chapter, you may take the next step in the program and think about the various symptoms of PTSD you may be experiencing. Identifying these symptoms will help you and your therapist decide which of them to observe or monitor throughout your program as an indication of whether the program is helping you to work through your PTSD.
What Do We, Know About the Treatment of PTSD?
Authors: Rothbaum Barbara Olasov , Foa Edna B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we will summarize the knowledge that comes from studies on the treatment of PTSD, psychological therapy and therapy by medication. We will begin with a brief review of traditional therapies for PTSD. This review is by no means comprehensive and is intended as an introduction. If you want to find out more about these approaches, you can look up the references pertaining to a topic in the Additional Reading section of this chapter. We will also briefly review a few of the large number of studies on cognitive behavioral treatment programs for PTSD, which is the treatment program described in this workbook. We have included some discussions of treatment with survivors of traumas other than sexual assault as there are many similarities in the problems and treatment of PTSD across traumas. In our review here we will discuss results of studies comparing the effectiveness of different treatment programs, and we will also discuss case reports that clearly describe the treatment and evaluate the efficacy of the treatment with good measures. Results of studies in which some clients are given treatment soon after they present to the clinic are compared with others who receive a delayed treatment after first being put on a wait-list. The effectiveness of treatment is often determined by comparing clients who received the treatment to those on the wait-list.
Designing My Treatment Program
Authors: Rothbaum Barbara Olasov , Foa Edna B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section IV we will describe the cognitive-behavioral techniques that help with PTSD. These include exposure techniques and anxiety management procedures. We have found in our research that prolonged exposure (PE) alone (including trauma reliving and in vivo confrontation of trauma reminders) is as effective, if not more effective than more complicated programs. Therefore, we recommend the PE alone program as the first line of treatment for most survivors. We present the exposure program in a session-by-session format, because we recommend that everyone receive exposure therapy. We present each of the other techniques or set of techniques separately to teach all the cognitive-behavioral techniques that have been used with female assault survivors. You may not need all of the techniques that we describe here.
Confrontation of Feared Situations
Authors: Rothbaum Barbara Olasov , Foa Edna B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this program, we are going to focus on the fears that you are experiencing, and your difficulty coping, both of which are directly related to your assault. By now, you have discussed your thoughts, memories, and emotions concerning the trauma with your therapist. You have also discussed the behaviors, such as avoiding situations and memories that remind you of the assault, that you have been using to reduce the stress associated with thinking about the traumatic event. A majority of the symptoms experienced after an assault will eventually decline over time. However, some of these problems may not get better on their own in the long run for some survivors. By learning about what causes your symptoms, you can speed up the healing process. Although it is quite normal for people to want to escape or avoid anxiety-provoking and painful emotions, thoughts, and events, doing so actually extends posttrauma reactions. Avoidance provides some short-term relief from distress, but it also prevents you from actually getting over your problems that much sooner.
Prontosil
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Christmas Day 1932, I.G. Farben applied for a German patent on procedures to prepare a red crystalline powder with the formidable chemical name of 4-sulfonamido-2,4-diaminoazobenzene. Little was said of the compound’s properties, little hint given of the momentous consequences for medicine that might follow from its introduction. Jealously guarded by a small circle within the company, the compound’s secrets would not be proclaimed to the world for more than two years. In February 1935, less than two months after the patent was granted, Gerhard Domagk announced the new compound, now called by the trade name Prontosil, in a short communication to a German medical periodical. From that time on, the fate of Prontosil was inextricably bound up with its reception, particularly by the international medical, scientific, and industrial worlds. Before February 1935, however, its history is largely enclosed within the company.
At War
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On December 3, 1941, New York surgeon John J. Moorhead arrived in Honolulu to give a series of lectures on traumatic surgery. His first lecture, delivered on the evening of December 5, was titled “Treatment of Wounds, Civil and Military.” Many of the some 300 people in the audience were Army or Navy doctors. Moorhead’s second lecture was scheduled for 9:00 Sunday morning. As he finished his breakfast that day, he heard gunfire in the distance and was told that Pearl Harbor was under attack. When he reached the lecture hall, he found an audience of fifty, with no Navy or Army personnel. Moorhead had barely begun to speak before a local physician rushed in to say that twelve surgeons were needed immediately at the Army’s Tripler Hospital. He spent the next eleven hours in the operating room, as a member of one of eight operating teams treating a flood of casualties of the attack. In the midst of this marathon session, Moorhead, who had served with the U.S. Army Medical Corps in World War I, was restored to temporary active duty with the rank of Colonel.
Trial by Fire
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the Merck ad at the end of chapter 9 suggests, the millions of pounds of sulfa drugs pouring from U.S. production lines in each year of World War II were quickly taken up by military and civilian supply networks, and ultimately made their way to doctors and patients at home and in all the military theaters. How were the sulfa drugs used? How effective did practitioners believe them to be, and what problems were associated with their use? Did wartime research on sulfa drugs influence practice, and if so, in what ways? Finally, what effect did the appearance of penicillin on the therapeutic scene have on the place of the sulfa drugs in medical practice?
The Sulfa Drugs and Twentieth-Century Medicine
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sulfa drugs stand at the center of a major transformation of medicine in the twentieth century. They initiated a revolution in the therapeutics and management of bacterial infections. They gave a powerful impetus to the expansion of the pharmaceutical industry, and to its research and development component in particular. They contributed heavily to the opening of an era of miracle drugs, with its attendant optimism, increased rate of appearance of new medicines, regulatory dilemmas, and unanticipated therapeutic problems. Finally, the sulfa drugs, apart from their place in the treatment of bacterial infections, also had numerous and often unanticipated ramifying effects on the development of different medicinal drugs or compounds with other practical uses.
More Syntax
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Languages are fairly economical communication systems. One of the ways in which they achieve this economy is by using the same forms for different purposes, as we have seen with homophones such as right, write, rite, and so on, or with expressions such as a handsome millionaire. Another is by avoiding unnecessary repetitions. For example, suppose I tell you I saw an elderly man with a long grey beard, a squint, and a limp carrying a tattered umbrella yesterday and I wish to inform you of something this individual did, I do not need to say and the elderly man with a long grey beard, a squint, and a limp carrying a tattered umbrella suddenly began shouting obscenities. In fact, you would think it odd if I said that instead of and he suddenly began shouting obscenities. The word he can be used to replace a long phrase such as an elderly man with a long grey beard, a squint, and a limp carrying a tattered umbrella. Words of the type of he are called pronouns, although this is really a misnomer since what the pronoun replaces is not simply the noun man but the whole noun phrase of which it is a part. The crucial point here is that, in order to use and understand what the pronoun he refers to, both the speaker and the hearer have to recognize that an elderly man with a long grey beard, a squint, and a limp carrying a tattered umbrella is a single unit, of a particular kind. Utterances do not consist simply of sequences of words; the words are grouped into phrases and it is these phrases that are the units of syntax.
Semantics
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most important aspect of language is meaning, which is mainly studied under the heading semantics. It is the most important because all linguistic communication depends upon some common understanding of what is being said. For the most part we take it for granted that other people who speak the language understand an utterance in the way we do. This assumption is most dangerous in talking with children. Just because a child uses a word adults can identify as one in their own vocabulary, it does not follow that the word has the same meaning for both adult and child. In fact, it would be truer to say that words never have exactly the same meaning for adults and for young children, because words take part of their meaning from their relationship to other words, and when the child knows only a few, those words are likely to have a wider meaning than they do for adults. One girl used the word papa to refer not only to her father but also to her grandfather and her mother, and later to any man. Children often use the word doggie to refer to a wide range of animals. Partly this is because children usually begin by learning words that are neither very specific nor very general. For example, a child is much more likely to learn the word dog than the more specific poodle or the more general term animal, even though dog may be used with the general sense of animal and the only dog that the child knows is a poodle. As children learn more words, they become able to distinguish verbally between dogs and cats or horses and thus show that they know the difference between them.
Variety
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imagine a distant horizon against which can be seen as yet unidentifiable moving objects. As one gets closer it becomes possible to see that the objects are indeed human beings but other than that they are indistinguishable. Getting closer still, it is possible to draw certain conclusions about the age, sex, race, and even perhaps the nationality and relative social status of the individuals. Finally, through such attributes as facial features and fingerprints, it is possible to determine that each individual is unique. Such identifications are made visually, but we can also draw similar inferences from what we hear. At one extreme we may simply realize that the sounds we hear belong to human language; at the other we may recognize that it is a friend speaking. Between the universal and the unique, a number of categories can be identified from speech. In this chapter we shall examine some of the group characteristics of speech, but first it is necessary to recapitulate some of the basic features of language.
Regional Dialects
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is impossible to think back to a time when any language was homogeneous. Even when, if it was the case, there were very small groups speaking the same language, there must have been some variety. Language is heterogeneous by its very nature and the existence of differences creates the possibility of combining certain features into new groupings. To take a parallel from another field, there are now several hundred recognized breeds of dog but all dogs have as their common ancestor the wolf. Through centuries of selective breeding, the wolf has evolved into such different creatures as the Great Dane, the dachshund, the poodle, and the Lakeland terrier. Certain features of size, color, temperament, and so on have been selectively reinforced or suppressed. So it is with language. Although we have no idea what the ur-language was, or even whether there was only one, we know enough about language diversification to know that languages can change dramatically with changing circumstances. Most European languages can be traced back to a hypothetical single ancestor (see chapter 27), yet speakers of Russian, Greek, Welsh, French, and English do not consider themselves as speaking the same language, though they will find occasional resemblances among the words of the different languages.
Written Language
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no way to determine when human beings first began to use language as we know it. The origins of language are lost in the prehistoric past and can never be recovered. Archaeological evidence is no help because bones are not the critical parts of the speech apparatus. Estimates of how long people have been using language vary from fifty to a hundred thousand years. We do know, however, that languages have been written down for widespread uses only during the past three thousand years. The earliest writing systems used pictures to represent aspects of the world. Later these pictures became more stylized and could be used more flexibly. Later still, the symbols came to represent language rather than refer to the world directly. There are three major kinds of writing system at present. A logographic system has symbols that represent whole words (or at least morphemes), as does the Chinese writing system. A syllabic writing system has a symbol for each syllable but not for each sound. Thus the Japanese Katakana system has symbols for [pa], [ta], [ka], and so on but no separate symbols for [p], [t], and [k]. Finally, there is an alphabetic writing system where each symbol represents a single sound.
Style
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Choice always implies meaning. Even if we choose to say nothing, our silence may be meaningful. What meaning that silence has depends not only upon the situation but also on what people expect. Among the Western Apache, for example, it is normal to greet strangers and those who have been absent for a long time with silence. Talking begins only when the pants feel at ease with each other. In most Western societies, the way to reach the stage of feeling comfortable is through talking. Many people feel awkward in the presence of strangers if the silence goes on too long. There is a tendency to make remarks about the weather, sports, or other uncontroversial subjects just to be friendly. Again, such feelings are culturally determined. V. S. Pritchett once described how a young man in Ireland had contributed to a lengthy and lively session merely by “breathing sociably.” Where there is no choice, the use of a form does not in itself signify a special meaning. For example, the use of the word banana to refer to a banana does not convey any special emphasis since there is no other word that would do. Similarly, in English the choice between an infinitive and a gerund is often restricted. For example, we must say he wants to sing (not *he wants singing) and he enjoys singing (not *he enjoys to sing). However, when both alternatives are possible there may also be a difference in meaning, as in he tried to sing (but couldn’t) versus he tried singing (but nobody paid any attention). In the first case he did not succeed in singing and in the second he did. This is a considerable difference of meaning. In some cases, however, it is much harder to bring out a clear meaning between two alternatives, as in he likes to sing versus he likes singing.
The Magic of Words
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are all familiar with fairy stories in which someone utters certain words and something wonderful (or terrible) happens. We also have heard in such stories of people who can cast spells that have a binding effect on other people. We may even have read accounts of societies in which such things are said actually to occur. We mostly think of such things as absent from our own use of language, but this is not so. To take one of the commonest but also one of the most perilous utterances, the words I love you may have far-reaching consequences for both speaker and the person addressed. Although the words alone without confirming behavior might not be very effective, the behavior without the words somehow will never be convincing. Of course, the words are often uttered insincerely or casually but, if they are taken seriously, then they will have serious consequences.
Rhetoric
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The English philosopher Paul Grice claimed that in everyday conversational exchanges there operates a cooperative principle according to which interlocutors try to make life easy for each other by neither exaggerating nor understating the truth and by judging just what it is, the hearer needs to be told in order to understand the message. We often violate this principle in joking, teasing, dissembling, apologizing, and especially in arguing. In order to convince an antagonist, we do not feel obliged to reveal everything we know or to admit ignorance. In particular, we are often happy to say something we hope will be misinterpreted so that we cannot be accused of lying. This happens in many forms of writing and speaking. It is normal in advertising, political speeches, and other polemical uses of language. It can even happen in scholarly presentations. Someone translated into plainer English various expressions that commonly occur in reports of research: It is believed that . . . (“I think”); It is generally believed that . . . (“My friends think so too”); It has long been known that ... (“I didn’t look up the original references”); Three of the samples were chosen for detailed study (“The others made no sense”); and so on. Most people will be able to supply examples from their own reading. This kind of writing was savagely attacked by George Orwell, who particularly disliked the use of the passive voice, since it leaves unstated who is responsible.
Narratives
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People tell stories for a variety of purposes: to amuse, to inform, to impress, to ask for sympathy, to illustrate a point, and so on. In particular people often enjoy telling stories about their own experiences whether recent or from their past. Telling stories, however, like many other forms of speech behavior is not as straightforward as it might seem. Stories must have a point and the point must become obvious to the hearer. Children often take quite a long time to learn how to tell a story effectively, and it is clear that some adults are better storytellers than others. There are certain features that contribute to a successful story told in a conversation.