bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Root Commitment
Authors: Lange Marc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I offer a proposal regarding the “root commitment” that we undertake when believing in a law. Whether an inference rule possesses the properties that we attribute to it in undertaking this root commitment is a matter of objective fact, in that it obtains whether or not we recognize it as obtaining. However, whether an inference rule possesses these properties depends partly on certain facts about us. In this section, I give an overview of the proposed root commitment and how it accounts for the laws’ special roles in science.
The Autonomy of Scientific Disciplines and Levels of Scientific Explanation
Authors: Lange Marc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The laws of a given scientific discipline are associated with the inference rules that result from the best inductive strategies for workers in that field to pursue, considering the kinds of evidence that the field has available, the kinds of predictions that it aims to make, and the kinds of applications in the service of which its predictions are to be used. These considerations are common to all of the laws of a given field, but differ for different fields. Accordingly, there are separate laws of physics, of population ecology, of cardiology, of “folk psychology,” and so on (see appendix 1 in chapter 1). That different disciplines are “autonomous” (have their own laws) is perhaps most evident when contrasting the laws of a typical “special science,” such as human medicine or ballistics or island biogeography, with the laws of fundamental physics. But these latter laws likewise depend for their lawhood on the particular range of concerns characteristic of fundamental physics.
The Jew in the Museum
Authors: Freedman Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Art Institute Of Chicago; 1994: a collection of recent acquisitions to the photography collection. The crowd swarms, though not quite as thickly as upstairs, where it encounters masterpieces dismally familiar yet unexpectedly moving in their full auratic presence. The avidity of these spectators is hardly deterred-it may, in fact, be enhanced-by signs posted throughout the photography exhibition informing us, in purest officialese, that “material in this exposition may prove offensive to some patrons.” Nothing conspicuously shocking, overtly prurient, initially presents itself; luckily, a cluster of signs soon appears demarcating one room containing “potentially objectionable material.” Here the crowd quickens with particular intensity; and here indeed is much to catch the eye: a Mapplethorpe (part of the Lisa Lyon series); Josh Wytkin’s transsexuals; Richard Avedon’s portrait of a bee keeper, nude, covered with swarming insects. On one wall stands a familiar-looking image, discreetly clothed amid this abundance of flesh: Leonardo’s Christ, from the very center of the Last Supper. On closer inspection, negative marks band the image; to its side entirely stands a plaque announcing the title, Delay, and the name of the artist, William Anastasi.
Henry James and the Discourses of Anti-Semitism
Authors: Freedman Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Powerful Linkages Between The Idea, and the ideal, of culture and the figure, and fact, of the Jew circulate, I have suggested, throughout AngloAmerican high culture in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Such conjunctions were particularly prominent in the 1910s and 1920s, the period when antiSemitic and anti-immigrant sentiment boomed in England and America, climaxing politically in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 but resonating throughout the next decades before receding in the aftermath of World War II. In the works of many writers of this era, the Jew is invoked as a corrupt agent debasing culture with a thoroughgoing commercialism, insistent sexuality, and resolute neuroticism. Such a representation notoriously animates the poetry of Pound and Eliot; the topos filters into Fitzgerald’s Gatsby and (ironically) Hemingway’s Sun Also Rises; it is present, in a somewhat more subtle form, in Willa Cather’s Professor’s House.
Metaphysics and Ethics
Authors: Antonaccio Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Murdoch’s effort to retrieve a metaphysical conception of ethics in a century that has been, in Franklin Gamwell’s phrase, “so decidedly unfriendly to metaphysics”1 is one of her most significant contributions to contemporary ethical inquiry. Challenging what has been called the “dominant consensus” against metaphysics in modern moral theory, Murdoch criticizes the attempt to sever morality from any normative framework that might determine the agent’s purposes and threaten the agent’s autonomy. Equally, however, she resists the alternative attempt to define the agent’s purposes within a framework narrowly delimited by the conventions and institutions of a historical community or tradition. Against both options, Murdoch appeals to a metaphysical notion of ethics in order to ground moral claims with respect to a normative conception of “the real.” For this reason, understanding the relation between metaphysics and ethics in Murdoch’s thought is essential to understanding her moral realism.
Merleau-Ponty
Authors: Pietersma Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The work that established Maurice Merleau-Ponty as a major phenomenological philosopher, Phenomenology of Perception, was published in 1945.1 Because of his early death, it remained his main work and is therefore the principal source for my study in this chapter. Upon turning to it after a study of Being and Time, the difference between Heidegger and him seems very great indeed. If Heidegger tends to overwhelm his reader with ontological terminology and his emphasis on the question of being, one who is reading the Phenomenology for the first time often loses the sense of reading a philosophical text because the author takes his reader through so much psychological and related scientific literature that it takes more than one reading to trace the outlines of the philosophical argument that runs beneath the surface. Nothing seems to have been further from his mind than the primacy of the question of being or the importance of recognizing the ontological difference. If the difficulty with Heidegger was to discern epistemology in his ontology, with Merleau-Ponty it is to find a doctrine of knowledge in psychological discourse.
Foolish Virgins
Authors: Reardon Colleen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the liveliest artistic traditions in Sienese convents was the staging of theatrical productions1. The plays, most often based on stories from the Bible or the lives of saints, were ostensibly intended as spiritual recreation for the nuns but were often performed as entertainment for members of the lay community. In addition to providing yet another point of contact with the outside world, convent theater allowed nuns to showcase their dramatic prowess and to display their musical skills, for scenes requiring songs, dances, and instrumental music were often incorporated into the spectacle. Documents suggest that these convent productions were frequent; nevertheless, only a handful of the many plays that survive in Siena show signs that they were composed specifically for female monasteries. Musical scenes are incorporated at standard points for traditional reasons in most of those works. Although no scores for those scenes have yet come to light, the plays still have much to tell about the variety of music known and performed in the convents of Siena and about the arguments that must have circulated concerning the musical genres deemed most appropriate for cloistered women.
Socrates the Apollonian?
Authors: Reeve C D C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
About the historical Socrates it has been said that we know only that we know nothing. While this is, no doubt, an overly pessimistic view, we surely know distressingly little of interest that is not subject to dispute. With a few minor lapses I shall focus, therefore, on Plato’s Socrates, and adopt a somewhat agnostic stance on the nature of his relation to the historical prototype. The topic I want to pursue about this scarcely less-but at least differently-controversial figure is his relationship to Apollo, a god often described as the most Greek of the gods. A vague question, certainly, but as I hope to show, an illuminating one for a student of the relationship between reason and religion in fifth-century Greece to pursue.
Sleepy Hollow, 1844
Authors: Marx Leo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pastoral ideal has been used to define the meaning of America ever since the age of discovery, and it has not yet lost its hold upon the native imagination. The reason is clear enough. The ruling motive of the good shepherd, leading figure of the classic, Virgilian mode, was to withdraw from the great world and begin a new life in a fresh, green landscape. And now here was a virgin continent! Inevitably the European mind was dazzled by the prospect. With an unspoiled hemisphere in view it seemed that mankind actually might realize what had been thought’ a poetic fantasy.
Two Kingdoms of Force
Authors: Marx Leo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Then the little locomotive shrieked and began to move: a rapid churning of exhaust, a lethargic deliberate clashing of slack couplings travelling backward along the train, the exhaust changing to the deep slow clapping bites of power as the caboose too began to move and from the cupola he watched the train’s head complete the first and only curve in the entire line’s length and vanish into the wilderness, dragging its length of train behind it so that it resembled a small dingy harmless snake vanishing into weeds, drawing him with it too until soon it ran once more at its maximum clattering speed between the twin walls of unaxed wilderness as of old. It had been harmless once. …
Clinical Effects of Stimulant Medication in ADHD
Authors: Greenhill Laurence l. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A serendipitous observation made more than 60 years ago revealed that psycho stimulants ameliorate symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children (Bradley, 1937, Appendix). Today, there are four immediate release (IR) stimulant medications approved for use in children-methylphenidate (MPH), dextroamphetamine (DEX), Adderall, and pemoline (PEM)-approved for treatment of school-aged children with ADHD.
Introduction
Authors: Solanto Mary V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neuroimaging technology has opened a window on the functioning human brain that is already beginning to revolutionize our understanding of psychiatric disorders. Studies using these methods have identified, for the first time, differences in the brains of individuals with ADHD. F. Xavier Castellanos begins the first chapter in Part III with a helpful orientation to the cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical circuitry that appears to be central to the pathophysiology of ADHD. He proceeds to review, critique, and integrate anatomic MRI studies, including his own major investigations at NIMH, which have reported differences between individuals with ADHD and nor mal volunteers in corpus callosum, prefrontal brain, caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and cerebellum.
The Limits of Thought
Authors: Pascal Blaise 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) was a brilliant mathematician and physicist whose early work in projective geometry and infinitesimal analysis influenced Leibniz. Although he was not a Jansenist, he published an anonymous defense of their Augustinian views on free will against the Jesuits (Letttres Provinciales, 1656– 1657). His most influential work is a set of balanced aphorisms whose interpretation has remained in dispute (Pensées, 1670). Some scholars see him as an antirationalist skeptic who held that both theology and scientific knowledge rest on unjustifiable premises. Others see Pascal’s skeptical position as a step toward a pragmatic, calculative fideism that presents a rational argument for betting on both the truth of Christianity and the reliability of scientific knowledge. Yet other scholars interpret the conclusion of the wager argument as an indication of the limits of reason, its inability to produce belief, and its reliance on faith to supply its fundamental principles. The Frailty of Human Thought (The Provincial Letters) The last thing one settles in writing a book is what one should put in first. Order.—Why should I undertake to divide my virtues into four rather than into six? Why should I rather establish virtue in four, in two, in one? Why into Abstine et sustine rather than into “Follow Nature,” or, “Conduct your private affairs without injustice,” as Plato, or anything else? But there, you will say, everything is contained in one world. Yes, but it is useless without explanation, and when we come to explain it, as soon as we unfold this maxim which contains all the rest, they emerge in that first confusion which you desired to avoid. So, when they are all included in one, they are hidden and useless, as in a chest, and never appear save in their natural confusion.
God, Mind, and Logic
Authors: Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) was the polymath’s polymath. Trained in jurisprudence, he codified Roman laws; independently of Newton, he invented the infinitesimal calculus; he undertook engineering projects; he began work on a universal grammar; serving as an advisor to the Elector of Mainz, he was sent as an ambassador to the court of Louis XIV; he urged the conquest of Egypt and the construction of a canal in the Isthmus of Suez. Himself descended from a Lutheran family, he proposed an ecumenical council to reconcile Protestants and Catholics; from 1676 until his death, he served the House of Hanover as an engineer, historian, librarian, statesman. He traveled to Holland, Austria, and Italy, and he met with Peter the Great to discuss educational programs and the formation of a Russian Academy of Science. And of course he was a logician, metaphysician, epistemologist, theologian. He waited to publish his attack of Locke’s theory of ideas (New Essays on Human Understanding) until Locke died in 1704. As a metaphysician, he argued for the identity of indiscernibles; as a theologian, he used the principle of suffficient reason to reconcile determinism with the doctrine of free will (Theodicy, 1710); as a physicist, he defended the relativity of space, time, and motion in the Monadology (1714). His correspondence with Samuel Clark, Malebranche, Spinoza, Arnauld, and Huygens was largely polemical.
Clarity Against Dogmatic Superstition
Authors: Diderot Denis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Denis Diderot (1713–1784) was the driving spirit behind the Enlightenment project of the Encyclopédie des arts et sciences (1751–65, 1780). With D’Alembert, he deffined the topics and selected the authors of that immensely influential work. The underlying thesis of the Encyclopédie was practice oriented. The technology of the crafts and trades was treated as the sound beginning of \scientific understanding. A polymath, Diderot also wrote literary and art criticism (Discourse on Dramatic Poetry, 1758); Essais sur la Peinture and Salons (1739–1781) as well as essays in the natural sciences (Elements of Physiology, 1774–80) and On the Interpretation of Nature (1745). He was briefly imprisoned for his attack on Christianity (The Skeptics’ Walk, 1747) and for the materialism of his Lucretian essay, Letter on the Blind (1749). Although early commentators treated Diderot’s ironic dialogues, Rameau’s Nephew (1767) and Jacques the Fatalist (1765–1784), as brilliant examples of Romanticist psychology, recent literary critics have interpreted them as deconstructivist satire.
Idealism and Self-Reflection
Authors: Fichte Johann Gottlieb 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814) studied philosophy and theology at the Universities of Jena and Leipzig, both Kantian strongholds. Although he was also influenced byJacobi and Solomon ben Maimon, he set himself the task of (what he saw as) completing Kant’s project of uniting theoretical and practical reason. They are, he thought, fused within the essentially moral activity of the selfconscious, self-defining ego. Fichte undertook to apply the antirealist, transcendental idealist position that he had developed in The Concept of the Wissenschaftslehre (1794) to political theory. In The Foundations of Natural Right (1796– 1797) he developed the view that the subjectivity which pervades all conscious experience is coordinate with—and limited by—the realization of the freedom of others. A conception of justice is, he maintained, implicit in the activities of self-awareness. In On the Basis of Our Belief in a Divine Governance of the World (1798) Fichte argued that a universal and necessary morality follows from the rational reflection of a free self-positing agent rather than from the commands of a divine lawgiver. Charged with atheism and nihilism, forced to resign his professorial chair at Jena, he wrote The Vocation of Man (1800). After moving to Berlin, Fichte turned his attention to political questions and wrote Addresses to the German Nation (1808), proposing a culturally nationalistic system of education. Much to Fichte’s grief, Kant denounced Fichte’s claim to provide definitive interpretations of his work. While Hegel and Schelling criticized (what they regarded as) his extreme subjectivism, they acknowledged their indebtedness to him, as did such Romantics as Schlegel and Novalis.
Vitality and the Tasks of Life
Authors: Schopenhauer Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) came from a wealthy and well-connected family in Danzig. After private education and travel, he studied medicine at the University of Göttingen and philosophy in Berlin and Jena. In his early work, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Suffficient Reason (1813), he developed the view that the logical principle of suffficient reason entails metaphysical determinism: everyevent, everyobject, every moment of consciousness is necessarily determined by—and determines—others. In his major work, The World as Will and Representation (1818), Schopenhauer argues that Kant’s thing-in-itself is not a postulate: it can be directly experienced as an activity of Willing. Equally critical of Hegel, he argued that Hegel’s dictum “the Real is the Rational” must be abandoned; the agonistic striving of the Will cannot be rationally reconstructed. Influenced by his study of the Upanishads, Schopenhauer saw human suffering as a manifestation of the Will’s expression of—and struggles against— the conflict and suffering brought about by the psychological dominance of unsatisfiable desires. Because artistic creation is also an expression of the Will, aesthetic experience can nevertheless present us with another—more serene— avenue to reality. Although Nietzsche eventually became critical of (what he saw as) Schopenhauer’s simplistic, unremitting pessimism, his theories of the Will to Power and of Eternal Recurrence are indebted to his predecessor. More recently, commentators have found Schopenhauerian traces in Wittgenstein and Heidegger.
My Host the World
Authors: Santayana George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The son of a Spanish father and a Boston mother, George Santayana (1863–1952) came to the United States as a child. After attending the Boston Latin School and Harvard University, he went to Germany to study Plato and idealism. On returning to Harvard, he worked with William James and wrote a thesis on Lotze. He remarked that James had succeeded in making him a naturalist without making him a pragmatist. Remnants of his Platonic studies are manifest in his early work, The Sense of Beauty (1896) and The Life of Reason (1905–1906), in which he developed the view that artistic creativity is the primary human activity. He regarded society, religion, and even science and philosophy are expressions of that exuberance. In his four-volume The Realms of Being (1927– 1940) he attempted to reconcile his naturalism with Platonic idealism, analyzing the relation among (what he called) the four realms of being: essence, matter, spirit, and truth. Santayana taught at Harvard until 1912, when he retired to live in England, Paris, and Rome. Besides occasionally writing poetry, he also wrote a much acclaimed novel, The Last Puritan (1935), a subtle and nuanced account of the social and intellectual life of Boston Brahmins.
Logical Arrangements
Authors: Wittgenstein Ludwig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Born in Vienna to a wealthy industrialist family, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) was privately educated before he studied engineering in Berlin and Manchester. Having become interested in the philosophy of mathematics, he went to Cambridge to study with Bertrand Russell in 1912, who introduced him to G. E. Moore and J. M. Keynes. He began writing the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921), but, having given away his large inheritance, Wittgenstein decided to return to Austria, to serve as a soldier in World War I. He was held prisoner at Monte Casino. After the war, Wittgenstein taught in a rural elementary school from 1920 to 1926. He fell into a depression, gave up schoolteaching, became a gardener, and spent two years in Vienna designing a house for his sister. He became acquainted with Moritz Schlick and other members of the Vienna Circle. Renewing his interest in philosophy, Wittgenstein returned to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1928.
Autobiography
Authors: Carnap Rudolph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rudolph Carnap (1891–1970) studied philosophy at the University of Jena, got his degree in 1921, and went to teach at the University of Vienna in 1926. With other members of the Vienna Circle—which at various times included Moritz Schlick, Hans Reichenbach, and Otto Neurath—Carnap became engaged in the programs of (what came to be called) logical positivism or logical empiricism. He helped develop and refine the verification criterion of meaning, according to which the meaning of a sentence is given by the conditions under which it would be true. The strict verification criterion was later revised as a probabilistic theory of degrees of confirmation. A good deal of the work of the Vienna Circle originally appeared in Erkenntnis, a journal founded by Carnap and Reichenbach in 1930. Carnap’s first major work, The Logical Construction of the World, was published in 1928; it was followed by The Logical Syntax of Language (1934).
Self-Portrait at Seventy
Authors: Sartre Jean-Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While studying at l’école Normale Supérieure and teaching at a lycée, J.-P. Sartre (1905–1980) immersed himself in reading Hegel, Husserl, Heidegger, and Marx. During World War II, He was active in the Resistance and spent a year in prison. He joined the, group that founded and edited Les Temps Modernes in 1945. In his early work—phenomenological studies of the imagination and self-consciousness (The Imagination, 1936, and Transcendence of the Ego, 1937)— Sartre argued that consciousness has no essence: it is a radically free activity, choosing to define and redefine itself. In Being and Nothingness (1943) he analyzed “the self” as a “for-itself,” a being actively engaged in self-conscious awareness that is also, at the same time, passively observing itself as an object in the world, an “in-itself.” While the self has no essential attributes, it afffirms itself to be this or that (“a writer,” “a Jew,” “sad,” “dreamy”). Although it is also capable of realizing itself as nothing (“no-thing”), the self nevertheless is a writer, a French Jew, melancholy. Bad faith is the human condition. Against the background of this theory Sartre wrote Anti-Semite and Jew (1948).