bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fungicides, Hymexazol
Authors: Ypema Hendrik 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Hymexazol was originally introduced by Sankyo. Common names used for this fungicide are hymexazol and hydroxyisoxazole. The fungicide is marketed under the tradename Tachigaren. Hymexazol is distinct from most fungicides with activity against Oomycete fungi in that it is active against certain
Aphanomyces
spp. Hymexazol is used worldwide as a systemic soil and seed fungicide for the control of diseases caused by
Fusarium
,
Aphanomyces
,
Pythium
, and
Corticium
spp. in rice, sugarbeet, fodderbeet, vegetables, cucurbits, and ornamentals.

Investigations into its mode of action suggested that hymexazol may interfere with fungal RNA and DNA syntheses. Hymexazol is rapidly translocated and has locally systemic distribution properties. Upon entry into the plant, hymexazol is rapidly transformed into glucosides. The O‐glucoside has fungitoxic activity, whereas the N‐glucoside has been associated with certain plant growth promoting effects, such as stimulation of lateral root hair development in seedlings.
Genetic Toxicity and Cancer from Agrochemicals
Authors: Gammon Derek W. , Frank Joseph P. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractAgrochemicals are regulated very thoroughly at both the national and international levels. Toxicology tests generally include lifetime rodent studies to determine whether or not the the compound is capable of causing cancer. In addition, a battery of shorter duration tests designed to evaluate an agent's genotoxic potential are conducted. These studies provide insight into the toxicological mechanisms of the agents tested and provide an opportunity to evaluate the relationship between activity at the molecular level and observations made in cancer studies. In this article, the major tests required by regulatory authorities have been described and the results obtained for many agrochemicals are presented. The main databases used were IARC, USEPA and CDPR and the main publications considered were Eastmond and Balakrishnan (2001), Gold and Ames (2001), and Sasakiet al.(2000). Tumor sites are also presented and correlations drawn, where possible, between genotoxic activity and reported oncogenicity. Furthermore, a number of types of cancer are described where the primary cause may not be a genotoxic event, but instead an epigenetic phenomenon, and some possible examples are given. Finally, some suggestions are provided for potentially improving the regulation of pesticides that cause cancer using the tools of molecular biology.
Glyphosate
Authors: Duke Stephen O. , Baerson Scott R. , Rimando Agnes M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractGlyphosate is the most widely used, biggest selling, and fastest growing herbicide in the world. The herbicidal properties of glyphosate were disvocered by Monsanto Agricultural Products Company in 1970, and it was first marketed by Monsanto in 1974. Since then, its use has continually increased, especially since the introduction of glyphosate‐resistant crops and the expiration of the glyphosate patent. Glyphosate is unique in chemical structure and molecular target site, and its unparalleled success has led many to consider it the most “ideal” herbicide available.
Herbicides, Biotechnology for Control of Weeds
Authors: Duke Stephen O. , Scheffler Brian E. , Boyette Douglas , Lydon John , Oliva Anna 
Published: November 2003

AbstractBiotechnology can be used to enhance the management weeds in several ways. Crops have been made resistant to herbicides by inserting transgenes that impart herbicide resistance into the plant genome. Glyphosate‐, glufosinate‐, and bromoxynil‐resistant crops are commercialized in North America. This technology has been highly successful, transforming weed management in several major crops. Selection for mutations that impart herbicide resistance to crops has also been successfully used to generate herbicide‐resistant crops. There are several living microbial products for the biocontrol of weeds. These agents have not been very successful, but work is being conducted to improve them with biotechnology methods. The use of crops that produce their own herbicides (allelopathy) has been even less successful. Biotechnological approaches are being used to generate crops that can poison weeds with less or without synthetic chemical inputs. Research on natural phytotoxins from plants (allelochemicals) has also provided lead compounds for herbicide discovery.
Herbicides, Cinmethylin
Authors: Dayan Franck E. , Romagni Joanne G. , Duke Stephen O. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractCinmethylin was developed by Shell Chemical Company in the early 1980s as a weed control agent for monocotyledonous species. This herbicide controls important grasses, such as green foxtail and barnyardgrass and suppresses the growth of several broadleaf weeds such as prickly sida and velvetleaf. The mode of action of cinmethylin eluded scientists for many years in spite of several efforts by industrial and government research groups. This article will review the development of cinmethylin and its primary use in agriculture, the work that led to the discovery of its mode of action, and the function of the enzyme targeted by this herbicide.
Herbicides, Inhibitors of Photosynthesis at PhotosystemII
Authors: Oettmeier Walter 
Published: November 2003

AbstractHerbicides of photosystem II inhibit the reduction of plastoquinone at the secondary quinone acceptor site (QB‐site) and its subsequent reoxidation at the cytochromeb6/f‐complex. TheQB‐site is located at the photosystem II reaction center protein called D1. When the reduction of plastoquinone is blocked by the herbicide, light‐induced charge separation leads to recombination processes that via a chlorophyll triplet state generate reactive oxygen species. These will cause extensive damage in photosystem II and eventually kill the plant. Amino acids involved in herbicide binding can be identified in three ways: 1) by comparison with the well‐known X‐ray structure of the bacterial photosynthetic reaction center, 2) by photoaffinity labeling with photolabile radioactive analogs of herbicides, and 3) by analysis of the herbicide binding in herbicide‐resistant mutants of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria with known mutations in the D1 protein. Herbicides of photosystem II belong to the following chemical classes:s‐triazines, triazinones, uracils, ureas, phenylcarbamates, anilides, cyanophenols, dinitrophenols, and some chemicals that do not belong to these classes, like bentazon, fluoromidine, pyrazon, and pyridate.
Turfgrass Pesticides: Management and Environmental Issues
Authors: Clark J. Marshall 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe lawn and turf industry in the United States, including private and commercial lawn care, generates approximately $25 billion annually. The United States golf industry generates approximately $64 billion. A variety of pests are capable of damaging turf, and a number of fungicide, insecticide, nematicide, and herbicide products, respectively, are applied to promote turf health. Currently, pesticide application is the major control factor in lawn and turf management.
Insecticides, Imidacloprid
Authors: Kagabu Shinzo 
Published: November 2003

AbstractIn 1986, imidacloprid was discovered as a new insecticide with a unique structure and with a hitherto unrecognized insecticidal performance. Since being launched on the Japanese market in 1992, its sales potential has increased yearly, and it ranks as one of the top‐selling insecticides in the world in 2000. Imidacloprid, besides its agricultural use, is also used for the control of subterranean pests and pet ectoparasites.
Immunoassays
Authors: Wang Shuo , Kennedy Ivan R. , Skerritt John H. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe development and application of specific immunoassays is reviewed, as a complementary method to instrumental methods such as gas–liquid chromatography or high‐performance liquid chromatography. The simplicity of performing immunoassay methods, and their high detection sensitivity is traded off by the greater effort required for method development. In some (but not all) cases, immunoassay methods may be lower in precision than instrumental methods, but higher sample throughput may allow more analysis of a larger number of subsamples. The review describes the steps in the development of immunoassays for agrochemicals (including design and synthesis of haptens, conjugation to carrier proteins and enzymes, antibody production and immunoassay formats), application of immunoassays to a wide range of agrochemicals and immunoassay validation. The application of assays to food and environmental sample matrices and the need to overcome sample matrix interference is reviewed.
Inhalation Toxicity
Authors: Pauluhn Juergen 
Published: November 2003

AbstractSeveral animal models have traditionally been used in inhalation studies with pesticides. Especially in inhalation toxicity, the introduction of new animal models is usually a very slow and involved process, as respective baseline data are not yet available and, due to the number of variables involved, the validation of novel exposure systems or new animal models is commonly more elaborate when compared with other routes. Moreover, experimental animals may experience exposure‐related stress and ensuing physiological response following inhalation to local irritants, which may be absent following other routes. Therefore, the selection of the most appropriate test animal model for an inhalation toxicity study is not a simple matter.
Herbicides, Carotenoid Biosynthesis Inhibitors
Authors: Dayan Franck E. , Duke Stephen O. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe carotenoid biosynthetic pathway is an important target site for several classes of herbicides. Carotenoid biosynthesis can be stopped by inhibiting a number of key enzymes. Phytoene desaturase (PDS) is the most common target site of herbicides affecting carotenoid production. As a group, these herbicides are considered environmentally safe because they are used at very low concentrations and target an enzyme not found in animals. As a result, fluridone is the most successful aquatic herbicide available to date.
Insect Resistance to Insecticides
Authors: Brown Thomas M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractResistance to pesticides has evolved, not only in insects, but also in acarines, weeds, fungi, bacteria, rodents, and other pests. The phenomenon of resistance is due to Darwinian evolution at a rate that is accelerated by the intensity of selection from pesticides. Insects present many difficult challenges related to resistance in that they are especially well adapted for dispersal through flight, they have a high reproductive capacity with multiple generations per year, and they are often difficult to detect in products traded around the world, such as grain, flowers, or even used tires.
MALDI
Authors: Wilson M. F. , Startin J. R. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractMatrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) is a specialized sample introduction and ionization technique for mass spectrometry (MS). Following its announcement by Hillenkamp and Karas in 1988, MALDI was quickly recognized as a major new weapon in the armory of chemists and biochemists for measurement of the molecular weights of large molecules. MALDI has been most widely and most successfully applied to the study of proteins and peptides, but it has also proved useful for other types of biomolecules, for synthetic polymers, and to a lesser extent, for lower molecular weight compounds.
Metabolism of Herbicides
Authors: Hoagland Robert E. , Zablotowicz Robert M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractHerbicide metabolism in plants and microorganisms is a major factor in the dissipation of these compounds in the environment. Metabolic degradation of herbicides by plant enzymes is the main mechanism of plant resistance to such phytotoxic chemicals. Alternatively, some plant enzymes can metabolize certain nonphytotoxic chemicals (termed proherbicides) to yield active herbicides within the plant. Generally, metabolism of pesticides can be categorized into three separate phases: phase I (enzymatic conversion of a herbicide to a less active compound), phase II (enzymatic conjugation of the parent compound or metabolites generated from phase I), and phase III (conversion of phase II metabolites into secondary conjugates of bound residues). These categories are discussed generally and specifically using typical herbicides as examples. The metabolic divergences and similarities of plant and microbial metabolism are discussed in general, and selected compounds from various herbicide families are used to illustrate metabolic routes of herbicides in plants and microorganisms.
Microcosms
Authors: Edwards Clive 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The maintenance of soil quality, fertility, and structure is essential to the long‐term health and biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystems. A major problem is that ecologists still have a relatively poor understanding of the ecology, structure, and functioning of soil ecosystems and the dynamic processes in soil that are driven by biological cycles and interactions. This makes the reliable assessment and prediction of the impact of pollutants on soil ecosystems very difficult. For instance, there is a gap between single‐species laboratory tests and field studies. Therefore, using microcosms and theoretical computer simulation models can bridge this considerable gap.
Minor Use Pesticides, Registration
Authors: Markle George M. , Baron Jerry J. , Holm Robert E. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The Interregional Research Project No. 4 (IR‐4 Project) was organized 37 years ago by the Directors of the State Agricultural Experiment Stations (SAES) to obtain regulatory clearances for crop protection chemicals on minor food crops when the economic incentives for the registrants precluded private sector investment. IR‐4 has been administered by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Cooperative State Research Education and Extension Service (CSREES) since its inception in 1963. The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) component of the USDA established a companion minor use program in 1976 to provide further program support. The objectives of the program were expanded in 1977 to include registration of pest control products for the protection of nursery, floral, forestry and turf crops and again in 1982 when the objective of clearance of biological control agents or biopesticides was added. Also in 1982, the project added a Minor Use Animal Drug component to the work effort. The animal drug portion of the program became a separate entity several years later and continues today as a separate project funded by CSREES. The minor crop program works as a model government funded program due to a unique partnership formed between the USDA (CSREES and ARS), the IR‐4 Headquarters and Regional Laboratory staff, the land grant university system, the crop protection industry, commodity and grower groups, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the California Department of Pesticide Regulation to bring crop protection solutions to minor crop growers.
Natural Enemies
Authors: Jepson Paul , Lewis Gavin B. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractTerrestrial nontarget arthropods make a vital contribution to agroecosystems. Their functional roles include pollination of crop and noncrop plants, regulatory interactions maintaining pest species below economically damaging thresholds, contributing to the nutrient recycling process, and providing food to species higher up the food chain. Of particular interest in terms of assessing the risk of agrochemicals to the environment is the species group known as arthropod natural enemies. These are predators and parasitoids, which prey on other arthropods, thereby helping to limit the population increase of predominantly phytophagus species.
Natural Product Pesticides
Authors: Ujváry István 
Published: November 2003

AbstractDuring their evolution, living organisms have developed a broad array of defense strategies often involving complex and dynamic chemistries that assure survival, coexistence, or in some cases, territorial dominance of the species and the individual. Since prehistoric times, people in all parts of the world have exploited natural products in one form or another in curing diseases and fighting pests that endanger their health or compete for their food. Natural products can be used either directly in pest control or can serve as models for the development of new synthetic analogs with favorable biological and physiochemical properties. Although natural products can affect several different organisms, they can be categorized according to their main use as follows: insect control agents; weed control agents, including plant growth regulators; disease control agents, including fungicides and bactericides; nematicides; and rodenticides.
Nematicides
Authors: Chitwood David J. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractFew chemical nematicides remain registered for agronomic use because of the deregistration of many soil fumigants. The major chemical nematicides presently available include 1,3‐dichloropropene, metam sodium, methyl bromide, aldicarb, oxamyl, ethoprop, and fenamiphos. Most of these face additional future restrictions. Various formulations and application techniques are utilized in order to maximize nematicidal efficacy and minimize atmospheric or groundwater contamination. Although resistance of plant‐parasitic nematodes to chemical nematicides in agricultural fields is insignificant, in some cases, enhanced microbial degradation reduces nematicidal effectiveness. Two biopesticidal nematicides are registered in the United States: a chitinous material and a plant extract. Future control of phytoparasitic nematodes will involve increased use of nonchemical, sustainable, or site‐specific management tactics. Fumigants receiving increased research attention as methyl bromide alternatives include the registered sodium tetrathiocarbonate and the unregistered methyl iodide and propargyl bromide. In addition, phytochemicals and other biorational chemicals are providing leads for discovering future nematicides. Future implementation of safe and effective chemical nematode management will be challenging.
Nitrate in Groundwater
Authors: Addiscott Thomas 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe nitrate ion is one of the ubiquitous chemical substances on the planet and is nearly always found in water. Most of the water around us contains nitrate, but the water with which we are concerned here is groundwater, which is water accumulated in the saturated zones of certain rock formations, usually at depth. Most of this water has passed through the soil before it accumulates, so that activities at the soil surface, particularly agriculture, can have a strong influence on the concentrations of nitrate and other agrochemicals in groundwater. Despite its commonplace nature, nitrate has for at least two decades been a source of widespread concern because of its perceived effects on our environment and our health.
Organophosphorus Insecticides
Authors: Eto Morifusa 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Many organophosphorus (OP) insecticides including acaricides and nematicides are used in agriculture and public health all over the world; they are the largest insecticide group with some 38% of worldwide sales in 1996. Their variety in structure reflects the broad range of their physicochemical properties such as water solubility, lipophilicity, volatility, and persistency in the environment. Owing to this wide range of physicochemical properties, OP insecticides offer various degrees of activities in soil, in plants, in the vapor phase, and against a variety of pests, though they exhibit a single mode of action, i.e., acetylcholinesterase inhibition. In this entry, the description of general principles on the synthesis, chemical reactions, mode of action and toxicity, metabolism, and environmental fate is followed by that of individual OP insecticides, which involve 71 currently used chemicals. The names of discussed chemicals are as follows: acephate, azamethiphos, azinphos‐ethyl, azinphos‐methyl, cadusafos, chlorethoxyfos, chlorfenvinphos, chlormephos, chlorpyrifos, chlorpyrifos‐methyl, coumaphos, cyanophos, demeton‐
S
‐methyl, diazinon, dichlorvos, dicrotophos, dimethoate, dimethylvinphos, disulfoton, EPN, ethion, ethoprophos, etrimfos, famphur, fenamiphos, fenitrothion, fenthion, flupyrazofos, fonofos, formothion, fosthiazate, heptenophos, isazofos, isofenphos, isoxathion, malathion, mecarbam, methacrifos, methamidophos, methidathion, mevinphos, monocrotophos, naled, omethoate, oxydemeton‐methyl, parathion, parathion‐methyl, phenthoate, phorate, phosalone, phosmet, phosphamidon, phoxim, pirimiphos‐ethyl, pirimiphos‐methyl, profenofos, propaphos, propetamphos, prothiofos, pyraclofos, pyridaphenthion, quinalphos, sulfotep, sulprofos, tebupirimfos, temephos, terbufos, tetrachlorvinphos, thiometon, triazophos, trichlorfon, and vamidothion.
California Pesticide Illness Surveillance Program
Authors: Mehler Louise 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The State of California requires physicians to report all health conditions that they know or have reason to believe resulted from pesticide exposure. The Department of Pesticide Regulation (part of the California Environmental Protection Agency) investigates these reports and any other pesticide cases identified. This effort, the Pesticide Illness Surveillance Program (PISP), attempts to track any type of health effect attributable to any product registered or used as a pesticide, including antimicrobial sanitizers and disinfectants.
PISP scientists evaluate the incidents investigated and code case specifics in a computerized database. Data have been collected on more than 40,000 individual cases. Over 90% of the cases provide enough information to permit a judgment as to the likelihood that pesticide exposure caused or contributed to development of a health problem. Roughly two‐thirds of these are evaluated as at least possibly related to pesticide exposure. The PISP publishes annual data summaries and responds to inquiries from individuals, government agencies, advocacy groups, and industry.
Herbicides, Plant Hormone Mimics—Auxins
Authors: Friesen L. J. Shane , Van Eerd Laura L. , Hall Christopher 
Published: November 2003

AbstractSynthetic auxins act in a very similar way to the natural plant hormone auxin, and they may become herbicidal to numerous plant species, i.e., causing an “auxin overload,” if applied at a sufficient dose. Many of these compounds have been synthesized over the past century, and some have been developed into potent commercial herbicides. Due to commercial success, chemical companies have pursued the development of other organic herbicides for use in agriculture, and thus have contributed to the creation of multi‐billion–dollar worldwide pesticide industry of today.