bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Toxic phospholipases in snake venom: an introductory review
Authors: Harris John B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many snakes elaborate several phospholipases A2 and some elaborate phospholipase A2 homologues with little or no biological activity. Since each phospholipase A1a homologue is the product of a single gene, the animals clearly expend a great deal of metabolic energy in maintaining the expression of so many similar genes. Perhaps this suggests that there is a selective advantage to the production of such a multiplicity of protein homologues.
Analysis of the structure of the phospholipases A2 isolated from snake venoms suggests that the enzymes of viperid/crotalid snakes and elapid/hydrophid snakes respectively have evolved from different precursors.
The toxic phospholipase A2 components of venom are of great clinical signifi-cance; the long-term neurotoxicity that results from many bites can be fatal and is a therapeutic challenge; myotoxicity is potentially life-threatening and difficult Ito control.
Zeolites
Authors: Newsam John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The properties of zeolites derive directly from the particular characteristics of their crystal structures and the broad field of solid state chemistry provides few other examples where the interplay between local structure and bulk macroscopic properties can be so directly observed. Academic and industrial interest in zeolites continues to grow steadily. This reflects the expanding scope of zeolite synthetic procedures, and further developments in commercial zeolite utilization. In addition, many of the solid state characterization tools that have been developed over the past two decades or so1 arc directly applicable to zeoiite structural problems. The deeper understanding of zeolite chemistry that such techniques promise affords the hope of more direct control of zeolite synthesis, and of developing predictive capabilities for zeolite selection and optimization for particularly desired applications.
Atoms And The Topology Of The Charge Density
Authors: Bader Richard F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It would be a voluntary and unnecessary abandonment of most valuable aid, if an experimentalist, who chooses to consider magnetic power as represented by lines of magnetic force, were to deny himself the use of iron filings. By their employment he may make many conditions of the power, even in complicated cases, visible to the eye at once; may trace the varying direction of the lines of force ;1nd determine the relative polarity; may observe in which direction the power is increasing or diminishing; and in complex systems may determine the neutral points or places where there is neither polarity nor power, even when they occur in the midst of powerful magnets. By their use probable results may be seen at once, and many a valuable suggestion gained for future leading experiments.
‘An exceedingly ingenious thesis’
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Van der Waals’s two corrections have a wonderful effect; the simple equa tion (3.2), which describes only the limiting case of an ideal gas (a theoretical rather than a real substance) metamorphoses into an equation that covers the fluid states of matter from a dilute gas to a dense liquid, and accounts also for the existence of a critical point at which the distinction between these phases vanishes. How did he obtain this remarkable result? In his Nobel Lecture in the autumn of 1910, van der Waals recalled that ‘The first incentive to this my life’s work came to me when, after my studies at university, I learned of a treatise by Clausius (1857) on the nature of the motion which we call heat’ [103e, p. 254]. This treatise is, of course, Clausius’s famous paper Ueber die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Wdrme nennen [2].
At the Royal Academy of Sciences
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Van der Waals was a member of the Academy for almost forty years. Here he sent all his papers, and here he showed himself to be a leading organizer of science. From the earliest days of his membership he was one of the most conscientious attenders in his Section, that is, the Physical and Mathematical Division (PMD). But after the meeting on 24 December 1881, when he had presented a report on the possible dependence on temperature of the internal pressure of liquids and gases [19], his name vanished for three semesters from the reports of the monthly meetings. For a year and a half a member of the Academy ignored its meetings, without even an apology for absence or explanation of why he would not attend. He ran the risk of expulsion, since a member who failed to attend for two years without a valid reason was expelled automatic ally. After the death of his wife, however, van der Waals had lost all interest in scientific gatherings. It was perhaps with the aim of bringing him back to active life that the Section elected him to be a Vice-President. This election in absentia took place in the spring of 1883 and seems to have achieved its purpose since van der Waals started to attend again in the autumn semester of that year. The next autumn he gave a report [20] on the magneto-optical investigations of his first assistant, Ph. Kaz.
Van der Waals and Russian Science
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter serves both as a ‘case history’ of the spread of the ideas of van der Waals to another country, and also to inform Western readers of the contributions of Russian scientists to the development of his ideas in molecular physics and physical chemistry. The first report of van der Waals’s work in Russia came from A.G. Stoletov, one of the few owners of the Dutch original of Continuity. In January 1879 he published a Sketch of the development of our knowledge of gases [1], which contained ‘a new law’, that is, the equation of state of van der Waals. Stoletov wrote that this ‘explains exactly all the complicated phenomena if we ascribe to gas molecules only a definite volume and a definite force of cohesion. Conversely the experimental data on any gas can be fitted to the law of van der Waals, and so we can determine the size of the molecules and the strength of their mutual attraction. Thus the irregularities of gases, their deviations from ‘ideal’ behaviour, have a particular significance; they provide us with the means of solving problems in the world of atoms that are apparently totally inaccessible’ [1, p. 174]. The quotation shows that even in these early days van der Waals was not alone in his ideas and Kamerlingh Onnes was right to note that ‘Stoletov was, of course, among the first to understand van der Waals’ [233].
In retirement
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nevertheless the age of seventy is the age of retirement, the official boundary between work and rest in Dutch academic life. An academician who has reached this limit becomes a rustend lid; he keeps his rights but is relieved of his obligations, in particular, he is no longer required to attend the sessions of his Section, and his place in the Academy is filled at a new election. For university teachers the law requires retirement at the end of the academic year in which a professor or lector becomes seventy. On 21 March 1908 he sent to the City Council of Amsterdam a request that he might retire at the end of his current course of lectures, and expressed his thanks for the enjoyment of the Council’s unfailing confidence [250, p. 278]. Van der Waals accepted that there must be this change in his life but there is no trace of his coming retirement in the last courses of lectures he gave. As in previous years, he was unfailingly in his laboratory by 9 in the morning. Once during this last winter there was an unprecedented snow storm one night, but he still was in his place in the morning to find a very thin class before him. He said, with a chuckle, ‘I appreciate very much the presence of those gentlemen who were not kept away by the weather’ [190, p. 328].
Inclusion compounds of multi-dimensional cyanometal complex hosts
Authors: Iwamoto Toschitake 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cyanide group, CN-, is able to build up one- (1D), two- (2D), or three-dimensional (3D) frameworks by alternately linking one metal atom M to another metal atom M’. The M’—CN—M linkage is usually colinear; in some cases the M'—C—N or M—N—C bond, or both, bends to a certain extent. The deviation from colinearity is, however, not appreciable in comparison with the case of another ambidentate pseudohalogen group SCN-: the M’—SCN—M linkage is generally bent at the sulphur atom with an approximately tetrahedral angle. The sp hybridization character of the —C=N triple bond may contribute to the colinearity of the M’—CN—M linkage. One can easily depict the structure of a multi-dimensional framework comprised of the linear M'—CN—M linkages with the Mand M’ metal cations taking particular configurations of the respective coordination spheres: a ball- and-stick model is effective to depict the multi-dimensional host structure which can accommodate guest species.
Molecular mechanics
Authors: Allinger Norman L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest reference known to the author on molecular mechanics is to be found in a paper by Andrews (1930), which has to do with vibrational spectroscopy. Andrews indicated that if we really understood the underlying fundamentals in this area, we should be able to calculate all of the kinds of things with which this discussion will be concerned. But this was in 1930, when people said that by solving the Schrodinger equation, we can find out essentially everything we want to know about chemistry and physics. The practical use of molecular mechanics (or of the Schr ö dinger equation) for determining molecular structures was still far in the future. In 1946, three separate papers appeared, one by Hill, one by Ingold and coworkers, and a third one by Westheimer and Mayer, which taken together provide a very substantial basis for molecular mechanics (Dostrovsky et al.1946; Hill 1946; Westheimer and Mayer 1946; see also De Ia Mare et al. 1955; Westheimer 1956).
Photodermatology
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the first section of this chapter, a description of skin structure and of its optical properties indicates the regions and the depth to which the various wavelengths of light penetrate. Then the biological responses induced by visible light and UV in skin are presented. They have two aspects: firstly relating to the molecular (direct or sensitized) photodamage to the main molecules present in skin (DNA, enzymes, proteins, and lipids); secondly relating to the medical aspects of photosensitization produced by exogenous compounds.
How quantum theory was discovered
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A scientist in the late nineteenth century could be forgiven for thinking that the major elements of physics were built on unshakeable foundations and effectively established for all time. The inspirational work of Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century had been shaped by a further 200 years of theoretical and, in particular, experimental science into a marvellous construction which we now call classical physics. This physics appeared to explain almost every aspect of the physical world: the dynamics of moving objects, thermodynamics, optics, electricity, magnetism, gravitation, etc. So closely did theory agree with and explain experimental observations of the everyday world that there could be no doubt about its basic correctness- its essential ‘truth’. Admittedly, there were a few remaining problems but these seemed to be trivial compared with the fundamentals - a matter of dotting a few is and crossing some ts.
Putting it into practice
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now that we have satisfied ourselves of the need for a quantum theory of radiation and matter, and we have seen the different positions taken up by the major figures in the theory’s early development, we must interrupt our historical narrative and turn our attention to details of how the theory works in practice. Readers are reminded that this is not a textbook, and so the description we will give here is a highly selective one.
Putting it to the test
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Work on hidden variable solutions to the conceptual problems of quantum theory did not exactly stop after the publication of von Neumann’s ‘impossibility proof, but then it hardly represented an expanding field of scientific activity. About 20 years elapsed before David Bohm, a young American physicist, began to take more than a passing interest in the subject. His first, all-important contributions to the debate over the interpretation of quantum theory were made in 1951.
Colloid and surface chemistry
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the beginning of the nineteenth century chemists had become aware that substances ordinarily considered insoluble, such as gold and sulphur, could sometimes exist in apparently homogeneous solution. The expression ‘pseudo solutions’ came to be applied to such systems, which often had to be prepared in an indirect manner, and which were obviously of a different character from solutions of substances like salt and sugar. Much clarification of the problem was given by the Scottish chemist and physicist Thomas Graham(1805–1869), who is regarded as the founder of the science of colloid chemistry. In 1829 Graham became professor of chemistry at the Anderson an College in Glasgow. There he carried out important work on the phosphates and arsenates, and also began to study gaseous diffusion.
Nonequilibrium Phenomena in Polyatomic Gases
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most gases in nature are polyatomic, yet they are not considered in many textbooks of kinetic theory. In recent years they have been the subject of intensive research, and interesting results have been obtained which remain largely unknown. This book reviews the present state of knowledge of the kinetic theory of polyatomic gases, and is the first to provide a comprehensive account of both theoretical and experimental aspects of their behaviour. The first volume deals with dilute gases, in which boundary-layer effects can be neglected. Transport and relaxation phenomena such as heat conduction, diffusion, thermal diffusion, and viscous flow are considered from the point of view of kinetic theory. Special attention is paid to phenomena which do not occur in monatomic gases, including light scattering, nuclear spin relaxation, microwave absorption, and the effects of magnetic and electric fields on transport properties. Volume II begins by establishing the connections between molecular scattering theory and effective cross-sections in dilute gases,and then considers rarefied gases in detail. Detailed theoretical derivations are presented throughout the book, and experimental results and methods are documented in tables and figures. Introductory sections will be of use to graduates with a knowledge of elementary classical and quantum mechanics. The more specialized chapters are aimed at professionals who want information regarding the present state of the art in a particular field or who require data for various phenomena.
Generalized Boltzmann Equations
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 we discussed the nature of the Boltzmann equation and its collision operator for monatomic gases. Its basic structure has been known and understood since Boltzmann’s time. Although it was known that the Boltzmann equation was, strictly speaking, not applicable to polyatomic gases, it was nevertheless used to treat the transport properties of such gases for many years, not without success, so long as it was not employed to describe phenomena depending upon molecular internal states. It is possible, for example, to obtain quantitative agreement between the most accurately measured shear viscosity coefficients and values calculated from an effective spherical interaction potential (using omega integrals and the monatomic Boltzmann equation). However, the same potentials cannot be used to generate accurate values of phenomena in which the internal states play an important role as they do, for example, in the thermal conductivity. Only qualitative agreement can be obtained in this manner.
Effect Of Fields On Transport Phenomena
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As discussed in § 5.1, the imposition of an external magnetic or electric field on a polyatomic gas causes a lowering of symmetry for the system from spherical (isotropic) to axial (anisotropic). As a consequence, the single scalar field-free shear viscosity coefficient of the gas is replaced by a fourth rank tensor shear viscosity which has five independent components in the case of a magnetic field, and three independent components in the case of an electric field. Three of the coefficients in the magnetic field case do not differ by much from the field-free value while the other two, vanishing in zero field, are smaller by orders of magnitude. In the electric field case, none of the three coefficients differs by much from the field-free value.
Light Scattering
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until now we have been concerned with flows of gases under the influence of externally imposed thermodynamic forces, such as a temperature gradient. Special attention has been paid to the respective transport coefficients and to their changes caused by external fields. It is now time to tum to a different class of phenomena, where the gas is suddenly disturbed and then left to relax towards equilibrium. We are particularly interested in the relaxation constants which are characteristic for various types of disturbances.
Partial miscibility of quasi-binary polymer systems
Authors: Koningsveld R , Stockmayer W H , Nies E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a quasi-binary system both constituents may contain many components, so that an extension of (130) for the FHS modelis needed. This was accomplished by Flory, and independently by Scott and Magat, and leads to the following expression for the free enthalpy of mixing:
Direct Methods For Powder Diffraction Data
Authors: Giacovazzo Carmelo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Often Direct Methods fail when applied to powder data. There are several reasons for this. Among others: (a) The overlapping, accidental or systematic, of diffraction peaks. Large scale overlapping makes the intensities of several reflections uncertain: large intensity reflections are sometimes estimated weak andvice versa. Therefore the reliability of several triplet invariants is uncertain, and consequently phase expansion and refinement become rather ineffective processes frequently failing to solve the structure. Over the past few years improvements were obtained in reducing the effect of (non-systematic) overlapping. The recent generation of high resolution diffractometers and the use of synchrotron radiation generate diffraction peaks with very small full width at half maximum (FWHM). Furthermore, modern computational techniques allow reliable estimates of single peak intensitiesvia deconvolution of sets of partially overlapping peaks.
Chromium- and titanium-mediated synthesis of alkenes from carbonyl compounds
Authors: Hodgson David M , Boulton Lee T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter contains organometallic-based one-step procedures for: Reductive coupling of aldehydes or ketones to produce alkenes (the McMurry reaction) Carbonyl methylenation using titanium-based reagents (the Oshima Lombardo reaction) Conversion of esters and amides into enol ethers and enamines Homologation of aldehydes to (E)-1,2-difunctionalised alkenes using gem dichromium reagents The procedures in this chapters are distinct from the organometallic methods described in Chapter 7, since here the alkene functional group is constructed from two components. The two individual components are coupled via organometallic intermediates such that a new C=C bond is constructed.
Order in chemical systems: elements and their combinations
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 we indicated that through careful analysis it has become clear that there are only some 90 elements on Eartht and that, putting to one side man’s synthetic capability of making heavier nuclei, there are no more to be found. This conclusion is based on the firm knowledge of the unitary nature of nuclear structures, protons plus neutrons, which become generally unstable above atomic number 92 (Fig. 2.1), and on the fact that the electronic shells are completed in an understood systematic numerical manner, namely, 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, (+6) electrons. There are no gaps for new elements. It was necessary to describe these findings since it is against the background of this sure knowledge that we can begin to see how these 90 or so elements have been selected naturally during the development of the universe. By this natural selection we imply that there are reasons for: (1) the limitation of the number of elements to 90; (2) the appearance of some of these elements in larger amounts than others; and (3) the selective coming together of one or more of the atomic elements in gases, liquids and solids with molecular or continuous structures. There are yet further reasons for: (4) the incorporation of some elements and not others into biological structures and organisation; and ( 5) their use in man’s constructions. The scene is not yet set for us to pursue this sequence of events historically since we need to describe the chemical and physical principles that have led from the production of atoms to that of chemicals, planets, life and man’s artefacts. We shall use as little of modern theory as possible in describing these principles since this theory of forces acting between atoms is conceptually difficult and not indispensable for the understanding of the actual relevant phenomena. Throughout this chapter we shall be examining separated and isolated, chemically ordered species in particular phases and not real chemicals that equilibrate in systems between phases and chemical species (see Chapter 3). It is the ordering of atoms in space and the properties of the associated atoms that we wish to appreciate first.