bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Toxic gas tests in perspective
Authors: Edgerley P. G. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA study of the 1979 UK fire statistics and the Annual Report of the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys shows that only 1 death per 1000 is attributable to toxic gases from combustion. However, of the ‘deaths by violence’ it rises to 30 (3%). As 37% of all fires in occupied buildings were confined to the first item ignited and 53% to the area of origin it is postulated that such fires (and the consequent deaths) largely concerned substances which will burn on their own. From experience these are largely materials with limiting oxygen indices below 22 or 22–28 for restricted burning only. Those with limiting oxygen indices >28 cannot on their own sustain combustion. These considerations suggest the mode in which toxic gas tests should be conducted, i.e., horizontally or vertically and vertically only for the first two groups, respectively, and in the presence of a fire sustainer for the limiting oxygen index >28 group. Wood in the form of a wooden crib is suggested as suitable. To this end some experiments are described with PVC placed on top of a No. 5 crib (PSA). These latter show that, making the best assumption possible from the existing data, the wood contributes about 63% to the toxicity and the PVC 37%. On the large scale, other work has shown that wooden cribs alone will give lethal concentrations of carbon monoxide for significant periods. Thus difficult‐to‐burn substances need to evolve gases of exceptional toxicity for their contribution to be worth considering.
The Delphi method—a complement to research
Authors: Harmathy T. Z. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn making fire safety decisions the designer often finds that some input variables concerning his problems are chance variables. As detailed statistical data are rarely available the designer must rely largely on his expert judgment. With the application of the Delphi method such decisions can be optimized and formalized. The essence of the Delphi method is described and its use illustrated through an example related to the assessment of fire resistance requirements.
Breaking of window glass close to fire, II: Circular panes
Authors: Keski‐Rahkonen Olavi 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA heat‐conduction equation with linearized radiation cooling boundary conditions is used to calculate the thermal field in a circular window pane heated by thermal radiation (fire) but screened on narrow strips along edges built into the frame. This temperature field is used to calculate a quasi‐static thermal stress field in the pane in the first‐order planar thermal stresses build up at the edges in a narrow strip of a few times the pane thickness. As the radius of the pane grows the edge stresses quickly approach those of the linear strip pane. The round window does not differ much from the strip window in the geometrical region of practical utility in windows. The results also indicate, without explicit calculations, that in rectangular windows the stresses do not concentrate in the corner regions. As the final result of the theoretical work it seems plausible to use simple, general relationships obtained for the strip window as well for all geometries deviating from linear to evaluate approximately the danger of thermal breakage of a pane.
Thermogravimetry of wood treated with water‐insoluble retardants and a proposal for development of fire‐retardant wood materials
Authors: Hirata Toshimi , Kawamoto Sumire , Nishimoto Tetsuya 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe combustion of wood and methods for the fire retardacy of wood are reviewed briefly first, and then a study on thermogravimetry (TG) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) of water‐insoluble retardants and wood treated with retardants is presented. In the review of the flaming combustion of wood supported by cellulose, three categories of fire‐retardant methods, namely (1) chemical modification of the wood pyrolysis, (2) inhibition of the flaming combustion in the gas phase, and (3) thermal effects to restrain the increase in the temperature of wood and assumed temperature profiles in the heated wood are described. The results of TG and DTG, discussed in terms of kinetics, indicate three kinds of action of the retardant tested: (1) acceleration of dehydration and carbonization, (2) thermal stabilization of the chemical structure of cellulose, and (3) inhibition of the flaming combustion by halogen products. In conclusion, models of fire‐retardant wood materials for interior and exterior use are proposed, which contain retardants for the dehydration and the stabilization in the outer layer and those for the inhibition in the inner layer, respectively.
Cone calorimetry—a review of tests carried out on plastics for the association of plastic manufacturers in Europe
Authors: Scudamore M. J. , Briggs P. J. , Prager F. H. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractAn evaluation of the cone calorimeter by the Association of Plastic Manufacturers in Europe (APME) involved testing of 25 plastic materials together with two natural polymers. Specimen preparation is identified as having an important influence on the results, especially for certain types of material. Ignition time, rate of heat release (RHR) and smoke results are presented to show the influence of external heat flux. The dynamic smoke results (which should be measured from the time of exposure) are only relevant to well‐ventilated fires unless the cone calorimeter is specially modified. For a complete evaluation a cumulative smoke measurement may be needed in addition. Although the cone calorimeter is a valuable research tool, and may be used frequently in industry, it needs to be made more robust and user friendly to avoid excessive downtime and to reduce calibration time. If the instrument is to be used for routine development and quality assurance, only one or two heat flux levels should be selected. These could represent a developing and a developed fire and should depend on the product application.
Standardization of formats and presentation of fire data—the FDMS
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Peacock Richard D. , Janssens Marc , Batho Nigel E. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractEffective exchange of fire test data, even within a single laboratory, has been difficult due to the multiple, and often incompatible, data formats and hardware. This issue has been addressed by a careful study of user needs, leading to the development of a series of standard formats whereby fire test data could easily be exchanged among users. These formats have been made practical by the development of a computer program—the Fire Data Management System (FDMS)—and pertinent hardware standards. The system includes the most commonly used of modern‐day fire test methods, but also has provisions for future extension to other tests of interest.
Full‐scale/Bench‐Scale correlations of wall and ceiling linings
Authors: Wickström Ulf , Göransson Ulf 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA complete testing and classification system requires both small‐ and large‐scale test methods. In this article such a system in outlined employing the Cone Calorimeter and the Room/corner Test for testing on a small and a large scale, respectively. Translation models are also described allowing the Room/corner test to be predicted by Cone Calorimeter results only. A proposal for a classification system for wall and ceiling linings is also given together with actual and predicted test results.
Surface radiant‐energy balance for structural thermal analysis
Authors: Mooney J. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe development of computer programs to model the effects of fire on structures has led to an increase in the variety of problems to which they are applied. Programs which provide the thermal analysis for such problems must determine the energy exchange between the structure and the fire environment, and this paper addresses the radiation aspect of this exchange. The radiant energy exchange of a surface exposed to any fire environment is considered in relation to equations used in such programs. With the aid of a simple model an alternative generalized expression is derived, which takes a simple form. Two equations, typical of those used in such programs, are compared with this generalized form and their shortcomings discussed. It is proposed that the expression derived in this work should be the preferred choice.
Recent developments in understanding the toxicity of PTFE thermal decomposition products
Authors: Purser David A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractFluropolymers, especially polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), have good fire‐resistance properties, but their application is limited by concerns over the toxicity of their thermal decomposition products. In experiments using a tube furnace system similar to the DIN 53 436 method, the 30‐minute (+ 14 days observation) LC50 in mass loss terms was found to be 2.9 mgI−1 (Standard Error 0.40) under non‐flaming conditions, approximately ten times as toxic as wood and most other materials. Toxicity was due to upper respiratory tract and airway irritation, and was consistent with the known effects of carbonyl fluoride and hydrogen fluoride. When decomposed in the NBS cup furnace test under‐non‐flaming conditions, PTFE evolved extreme‐toxicity products with an LC50 of approximately 0.05 mgI−1 (mass loss), approximately 1000 times as toxic as wood and most other materials. Toxicity was due to deep lung irritation and oedema. Investigations of the range of conditions under which the extreme toxicity of PTFE products occurs in both small‐scale (200‐litre) and intermediate‐scale (6 m3) experiments have shown that the highest toxicity occurs when PTFE is decomposed under non‐flaming conditions over a temperature range of 400–650°C, and when the primary decomposition products are subjected to continuous secondary heating. At higher or lower temperatures, when the sample is flaming, when decomposition products from wood are also present in the chamber, when secondary heating is curtailed, or when the molecule contains hydrogen as well as fluorine, the toxicity of the products is greatly reduced, tending towards the region of ten times the potency of most other materials. Extreme toxicity is associated with a particulate, but the particulate atmosphere is not always extremely toxic, the potency decreasing as the fumes age.
The pyrolysis of benzonitrile
Authors: Sonya‐T‐Etemad‐Rad  , Metcalfe E. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe pyrolysis of benzonitrile under nitrogen at atmospheric pressure has been studied at temperatures of 823–873 K in a flow reactor. The results demonstrate that conversion to hydrogen cyanide occurs directly by a free radical mechanism. The dominant products detected are hydrogen cyanide, monocyanodiphenyl, benzene, dicyanodiphenyl and dicyanobenzene. Reaction orders and activation energies have been determined for product formation. A reaction scheme involving three competing chain reactions in the gas phase with chain carriers H., C6H and .C6H4CN is proposed to explain the observed kinetics. A mechanism is advanced for the formation of significant quantities of polymer, consistent with infra‐red spectra and elemental analysis.
Surface modification of hybrid fibres for fire protection
Authors: Heidari S. , Parén A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe formation of polyaluminosiloxane networks through surface modification of cellulose‐polysilicic acid hybrid fibres with inorganic aluminium compounds enhances flame retardancy and laundry performance of these fibres. Fibres of cellulose‐polysilicic acid (VISIL) have been reported as a flame retardant. In contrast to their thermal property, these fibres undergo a significant change, in terms of flame retardancy, when subjected to alkaline conditions (pH > 10). Surface modification of these fibres with inorganic aluminium compounds not only reduces the solubility behaviour but also increases the flame retardancy.
The behaviour of commercially important di‐isocyanates in fire conditions Part 1: Toluene di‐isocyanate (TDI)
Authors: Marlair G. , Prager F. H. , Sand H. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractSeveral ‐i‐isocyanates have become commercially important materials, used as intermediates in the manufacture of a wide variety of polyurethane products, yet little is recorded on their behaviour if involved in fire. This paper describes a series of programmes carried out under the auspices of the International Isocyanate Institute Inc. First, a small‐scale laboratory investigation of the ignition, heat release, smoke and toxic gas production characteristics of di‐isocyanates was carried out. Second, their behaviour in drumstock and pool fires, respectively, was examined, using full‐sized samples and selected real‐fire scenarios. Part 1 records the results for toluene di‐ isocyanate (TDI) showing the need for a modest energy input to ignite it from a pilot flame. It then burns in a steady rather than vigorous manner, leaving no residues. Toxic gases evolved are mainly carbon monoxide, while free isocyanate is likely in the early stages of the fire, and hydrogen cyanide may be important in well‐developed fires. Drumstock material behaviour in a fire is dictated mainly by the rupture characteristics of the containers, which can be violent. A series of simple guidelines is suggested, which includes the need for firefighters to wear full protective clothing and fresh‐air breathing equipment. It is also recommended that drumstock TDI should be stored away from easily ignitable materials.
Discussion of smoke corrosivity test methods: Analysis of existing tests and of their results
Authors: Hirschler Marcelo M. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractSmoke corrosivity was, until recently, associated only with acid, mainly halogenated, gas emission. It has now been shown that all smoke is corrosive, even if it does not contain acid gases. Moreover, acid gas emission from burning materials does not fully correlate with smoke corrosive potential. Many factors govern corrosion, e.g. smoke amount and composition, humidity and temperature. Four small‐scale performance tests for smoke corrosivity have been proposed and are described: CNET, ASTM E‐5.21.70 draft radiant, ASTM D‐9.21.4 draft cone corrosimeter and DIN 53436 draft flow‐through tests. All are undergoing attempts at standardization but none has completed the process. Furthermore, none of them has, as yet, been correlated with full‐scale fires. An analysis was made of the advantages and disadvantages of each of the tests, based on the concepts applied, on the reproducibility and on the results supplied to date. Of particular interest in this respect was a study, by the Society of the Plastics Industry Polyolefins Fire Performance Council, which tested over 20 materials using three of the tests mentioned above. This analysis suggests that the cone corrosimeter is the most promising. The three main reasons for this statement are: (1) it generates a broad range of smoke corrosivity data,(2) the data have good reproducibility and (3) the apparatus is capable of yielding, with an excellent fire model, a whole range of fire properties other than smoke corrosivity. Moreover, this analysis also suggests that the CNET test is the one with the largest number of negative aspects.
Time‐dependent mass loss rate behavior of wall materials under external radiation
Authors: Brehob Ellen G. , Kulkarni Anil K. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractExternal radiation in enclosure fires can significantly enhance flame spread and fire growth. One of the effects of external radiation is to increase the mass loss rate of the fuel, which in turn produces larger flames. In this work, a measurement of mass loss with and without applied radiation was made as a function of time for three types of materials: a plastic (polymethylmethacrylate), wood‐based products (particle board and hardboard), and a paper‐based product (cardboard). The levels of applied radiation ranged from 0 to nearly 12 kWm−2. The purpose of the investigation was to (1) quantitatively determine the effect of external radiation on the mass loss of various materials,(2) measure various parameters which may be used to characterize the mass loss rate history of the materials and (3) determine a method for expressing the mass loss rate as a function of time for input into numerical models. Higher levels of external radiation resulted in higher peak mass loss rates and quicker consumption of the material. Quantities which are useful for ranking the flammability of materials have been measured for the samples tested and are tabulated.
Assessment of effectiveness of smoke suppressants—using a He–Ne laser in a flow system
Authors: Sharma Sunil K. , Singh M. P. , Saxena N. K. , Srivastava S. K. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn the study of smoke suppressants the measurement of gross amount of smoke from a given sample is essential. However, smoke being a complex phenomenon, its measurement with optical methods presents practical problems. The paper describes a flow system for the measurement of smoke production. Effectiveness of smoke‐suppressant formulations for poly(vinyl chloride) as assessed in a flow system is reported. Results of experiments conducted to probe and establish the capability of smoke measurement in a flow system using a helium–neon laser are discussed.
Autoantibodies against GLEA2 and PHF3 in glioblastoma: Tumor‐associated autoantibodies correlated with prolonged survival
Authors: Pallasch Christian Philipp , Struss Anne‐Katrin , Munnia Angela , König Jochem , Steudel Wolf‐Ingo , Fischer Ulrike , Meese Eckart 
Published: May 2005

AbstractUsing serological identification of recombinantly expressed tumor antigens (SEREX), we identified several autoantibodies against glioma‐expressed antigens including GLEA1, GLEA2 and PHD‐finger protein3 (PHF3). Analysing sera of 62 glioblastoma patients, we found an antibody response against GLEA1 in 15 sera (24.2%), against GLEA2 in 30 sera (48.4%) and against PHF3 in 35 sera (56.5%). Relating patient survival to the occurrence of autoantibodies against either GLEA1, GLEA2 or PHF3, we found a significant prolonged survival for glioblastoma patients positive for autoantibodies against GLEA2 (p = 0.0115) and PHF3 (p = 0.0031), respectively. The median survival of patients with GLEA2 antibodies was increased to 17.4 months and for patients with PHF3 antibodies to 14.7 months, as compared to 7.2 months for patients without GLEA2 or PHF3 antibodies. There was no significant correlation between patient survival and GLEA1‐autoantibodies (p = 0.1611). Herein we present autoantibodies that are: (i) most frequent in glioblastoma patients; (ii) specific for glioblastoma‐associated antigens; and (iii) significantly correlated with prolonged survival in patients with glioblastoma. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Deficiency in surface expression of E‐selectin ligand promotes lung colonization in a mouse model of breast cancer
Authors: Monzavi‐Karbassi Behjatolah , Whitehead Tracy L. , Jousheghany Fariba , Artaud Cecile , Hennings Leah , Shaaf Saeid , Slaughter Aubrey , Korourian Soheila , Kelly Thomas , Blaszczyk‐Thurin Magdalena , Kieber‐Emmons Thomas 
Published: May 2005

AbstractExpression of sialyl Lewisx (sLex) and sLea on tumor cells is thought to facilitate metastasis by promoting cell adhesion to selectins on vascular endothelial cells. Experiments supporting this concept usually bypass the early steps of the metastatic process by employing tumor cells that are injected directly into the blood. We investigated the relative role of sLex oligosaccharide in the dissemination of breast carcinoma, employing a spontaneous murine metastasis model. An sLex deficient subpopulation of the 4T1 mammary carcinoma cell line was produced by negative selection using the sLex‐reactive KM93 MAb. This subpopulation was negative for E‐selectin binding but retained P‐selectin binding. Both sLex‐negative and ‐positive cells grew at the same rate; however, sLex‐negative cells spread more efficiently on plates and had greater motility in wound‐scratch assays. Mice inoculated in the mammary fat pad with sLex‐negative and ‐positive variants produced lung metastases. However, the number of lung metastases was significantly increased in the group inoculated with the sLex‐negative variant (p = 0.0031), indicating that negative selection for the sLex epitope resulted in enrichment for a subpopulation of cells with a high metastatic phenotype. Cell variants demonstrated significant differences in cellular morphology and pattern of tumor growth in primary and secondary tumor sites. These results strongly suggest that loss of sLex may facilitate the metastatic process by contributing to escape from the primary tumor mass. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
An investigation of bioactive glass powders by sol‐gel processing
Authors: Li R. , Clark A. E. , Hench L. L. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractBioactive glass powders, with a composition of SiO2‐CaO‐P2O5,have been successfully synthesized via a sol‐gel process at considerably loer temperatures than required for conventional melting method. Bioactive glass powders made via conventional methods form an interfacial bond wih none when they are implanted. Bonding is correlated with the formation of a surface hydroxyapatite layer. This study examinded the formation of a hydroxyapatite layer in Tris‐buffered solution as a function of SiO2 content of sol‐gel derived powders. A FT‐IRRS technique was used to monitor the formation of the hydroxyapatite on the surface of the powders. X‐ray diffraction analysis and BET were also used to characterize the chemical and physical properties of the sol‐gel derived bioactive powders. It was discovered that: (a) the rate of hydroxyapatite formation decreased wih increasing SiO2 content for powders whose SiO2 content was less than 90 mol%; (b) a hydroxyapatite film does not form for the powders whose SiO2 content is more than 90 mol%; (c) the SiO2 limit, beyond which the powders lost their bioactivity, was much higher for bioactive glass powders mad through sol‐gel process (90%) than those made by conventional melting methods (60%). These results indicate that it is possible to significantly expand the bioactive composition range through microstructural control made possible by sol‐gel processing techniques.
A method to determine shear adhesive strength of fibrin sealants
Authors: Sierra David H. , Feldman Dale S. , Saltz Renato , Huang Shu 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe adhesive strength of fibrin sealants has not been rigorously evaluated to date. The adhesive strength of six different concentrations of cryoprecipitated fibrinogen as well as the commercially available fibrin tissue adhesive Tissucol® was tested under controlled conditions utilizing split‐thickness skin grafts as the test adherand. This test configuration permitted the modeling of bonding strength for attachment of skin grafts as well as incorporate established engineering test standards for adhesives. An increase in fibrin concentration corresponded with an increase in shear adhesive strength. No significant increases in adhesive strength were attained after 5 min of bonding for all tested concentrations, except for the commercial adhesive, which attained the adhesive strength of an equivalent concentration of cryoprecipitated adhesive after 90 min. The adhesive strength, however, was an order of magnitude less than reported values of the tensile strength of fibrin material for similar concentrations. Therefore, it is important that the surgeon use a sufficiently high fibrinogen concentration for the specific clinical indication. The method of fibrin sealant preparation and/or the compounding adjuncts appear to have an effect on the development of adhesive strength.