bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
An Introduction To The Theory Of Numbers
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers by G.H. Hardy and E. M. Wright is found on the reading list of virtually all elementary number theory courses and is widely regarded as the primary and classic text in elementary number theory. Developed under the guidance of D.R. Heath-Brown this Sixth Edition of An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers has been extensively revised and updated to guide today's students through the key milestones and developments in number theory. Updates include a chapter by J.H. Silverman on one of the most important developments in number theory -- modular elliptic curves and their role in the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem -- a foreword by A. Wiles, and comprehensively updated end-of-chapter notes detailing the key developments in number theory. Suggestions for further reading are also included for the more avid reader The text retains the style and clarity of previous editions making it highly suitable for undergraduates in mathematics from the first year upwards as well as an essential reference for all number theorists.
General Properties of Congruences
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Roots of congruences. An integer xwhich satisfies the congruence is said to be a rootof the congruence or a root of f (x) (mod m). If ais such a root, then so is any number congruent to a(mod m). Congruent roots are considered equivalent; when we say that the congruence has lroots, we mean that it has lincongruent roots. Analgebraic equation of degree nhas (with appropriate conventions) just nroots, and a polynomial of degree nis the product of nlinear factors. It is natural to inquire whether there are analogous theorems for congruences, and the consideration of a few examples shows at once that they cannot be so simple. Thus has no root. The possibilities are plainly much more complex than they are for an algebraic equation.
Quadratic Fields (1)
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Algebraic fields. In Ch. XII we considered the integers of k(i)and k(ρ), but did not develop the theory farther than was necessary for the purposes of Ch. XIII. In this and the next chapter we carry our investigation of the integers of quadratic fields a little farther. An algebraic fieldis the aggregate of all numbers where ϑis a given algebraic number, P(ϑ)and Q(ϑ)are polynomials in ϑwith rational coefficients, and Q(ϑ)0. We denote this field by k(ϑ). It is plain that sums and products of numbers of k(ϑ)belong to k(ϑ)and that α/βbelongs to k(ϑ)if αand βbelong to k(ϑ)and β0. In § 11.5, we defined an algebraic number ξas any root of an algebraic equation where a0, a1, ...are rational integers, not all zero. If ξsatisfies an algebraic equation of degree n, but none of lower degree, we say that ξis of degree n. If n1, then ξis rational and k(ξ)is the aggregate of rationals. Hence, for every rational ξ, k(ξ)denotes the same aggregate, the field of rationals, which we denote by k(1).
Elliptic Curves
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The congruent number problem. A congruent numberis a rational number qthat is the area of a right triangle, all of whose sides have rational length. We observe that if the triangle has sides a, b, and c, and if sis a rational number, then s2qis also a congruent number whose associated triangle has sides sa, sb,and sc.So it is enough to ask which square free integers nare congruent numbers. If we take cto be the length of the hypotenuse, then we are looking for square free integers nsuch that there are rational numbers a, b, csatisfying A simple algebraic calculation shows that the positive solutions to the simultaneous equations (25.1.1) are in one-to-one correspondence with the positive solutions to the equation Thus nis a congruent number if and only if (25.1.2) has a solution in positive rational numbers xand y.
Thickening Thin Concepts: Issues in Large-N Data Generation
Authors: Coppedge Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the distinction between ‘thick’ and ‘thin’ approaches to data generation and spells out the trade-offs that are associated with these two conventional approaches in comparative politics. I discuss these two approaches as they relate to matters of conceptualization and measurement and identify trade-offs between generality and specificity, quantity and quality, and absolutes and matters of degree. I illustrate these principles with references to research on democracy.
Why Regions of the World Are Important: Regional Specificities and Region-Wide Diffiusion of Democracy
Authors: Mainwaring Scott , Brinks Daniel , Pérez-Liñán Aníbal 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For decades, the subfield of comparative politics has primarily been organized around regions of the world. The job market is still structured primarily around regions, although less so today than was the case in the 1970s or 1980s. About 70 percent of the articles published in the top three comparative journals over the last fifteen years have dealt exclusively with one geographic region (Munck and Snyder 2007a: 14).1 Some respected political science journals are organized around regions. Curiously in light of the traditional organization of comparative politics along regional lines, however, there has been almost no explicit defense of why regions are important. Criticism of organizing comparative politics along regional lines has drawn more attention than defenses of why regions are important. For example, Robert Bates’s criticisms (1996, 1997) of area studies could be taken as a critique of organizing comparative politics along regional lines.
The Credit Scoring Toolkit
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Credit Scoring Toolkit provides an all-encompassing view of the use of statistical models to assess retail credit risk and provide automated decisions. In eight modules, the book provides frameworks for both theory and practice. It first explores the economic justification and history of Credit Scoring, risk linkages and decision science, statistical and mathematical tools, the assessment of business enterprises, and regulatory issues ranging from data privacy to Basel II. It then provides a practical how-to-guide for scorecard development, including data collection, scorecard implementation, and use within the credit risk management cycle. Including numerous real-life examples and an extensive glossary and bibliography, the text assumes little prior knowledge making it an indispensable desktop reference for graduate students in statistics, business, economics and finance, MBA students, credit risk and financial practitioners.
Credit scoring and the business
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Books, websites, pamphlets, etc. often have a section containing frequently asked questions (FAQs). This should be restated as ‘frequently answered questions’. Countless websites use this format, whether provided by lenders, credit bureaux, or government bodies. The same format is used for much of what follows, as it is very effective. This first chapter focuses on the theory of credit scoring, and attempts to answer questions like:
Credit micro-histories
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most people think of history in terms of the Magna Carta, Christopher Columbus, the Second World War, or other events that define human existence. There is also a new and increasingly popular genre called micro-histories, which chronicle seemingly inconsequential events, which may even have been part of a temporary phenomenon. The history of credit scoring is a micro-history, but the phenomenon is far from temporary (Table 2.1). It is treated under four headings:
Data sources
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In primitive credit environments, no application forms were used. Lending was based upon personal knowledge of the borrower, and either the interest rates were high enough to counter the risks of incomplete knowledge; or the penalties for non-payment were high. Indeed, these features still apply to loan-sharking today. In modern times, pressures are different: (i) personal knowledge of customers is less, especially in instances of high staff and customer mobility;
(i) interest rates and other fees are limited by legislation, and competitive pressures; and
(ii) exorbitant and unreasonable penalties have become infeasible. The result is that lenders have had to become much more adept at gathering information about people they, at least initially, know nothing about.
Finance
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ultimately, lenders’ main goal is to make a profit, whether by increasing revenue, decreasing expenses, or both. Thus far, very little has been mentioned about these key dynamics. This module’s final chapter takes a side step, to look at key subject areas directly related to finance: In the credit environment, provisions are raised for expected loan losses. They are a key part of prudent credit risk management; even the earliest moneylenders grappled with the problem mentally, but did not have the proper tools until after modern accounting was developed in the fifteenth century. Although frowned upon by investors, provisions can also be adjusted during an economic cycle; lenders’ profits are understated in good years, to create a ‘war chest’ that can be drawn upon during less favourable times. Loss provisions fall into two categories:
Vowels
Authors: Colvin Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Raising of [a:] to [ε:] (η): universal in eastern Ionic and Euboea, partial in Attic (§30.3). In central Ionic (Cyclades) was used for inherited [ε:], and only for the new vowel that had emerged from [a:], until the end of the V cent. This indicates that a complete merger did not take place till late (presumably denoted a more open vowel than [ε:], such as [ä:]), and raises the interesting possi- bility that a difference might have been heard in Attica and Ionia as well for longer than is commonly assumed. Cf. §10.1.
The Last Minstrels
Authors: Schuchard Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recovering a lost literary movement that was the most consuming preoccupation of W. B. Yeats’s literary life and the most integral to his poetry and drama, Ronald Schuchard’s The Last Minstrels provides an historical, biographical, and critical reconstruction of the poet’s lifelong attempt to restore an oral tradition by reviving the bardic arts of chanting and musical speech. From the beginning of his career Yeats was determined to return the ‘living voice’ of the poet from exile to the centre of culture - on its platforms, stages, and streets—thereby establishing a spiritual democracy in the arts for the non-reading as well as the reading public. Schuchard’s study enhances our understanding of Yeats’s cultural nationalism, his aims for the Abbey Theatre, and his dynamic place in a complex of interrelated arts in London and Dublin. With a wealth of new archival materials, the narrative intervenes in literary history to show the attempts of Yeats and Florence Farr to take the ‘new art’ of chanting to Great Britain, America, and Europe, and it reveals for the first time the influence of their auditory poetics on the visual paradigm of the Imagists. The penultimate chapter examines the adjustments Yeats made for his movement during the war, including chanting and other adaptations from Noh drama for his dance plays and choruses, until the practice of his ‘unfashionable art’ became dormant in the 1920s before the restless rise of realism. The final chapter resurrects his heroic effort in the 1930s to reunite poetry and music and reconstitute his dream of a spiritual democracy through the medium of public broadcasting.
London Minstrels
Authors: Schuchard Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While the Dublin papers had favorably anticipated the promise of an Irish Literary Theatre for months, Yeats’s astrological charts forecast days fraught with nationalist and religious friction. Although versions of The Countess Cathleen had been in print for seven years, exciting no previous controversy, its religious heterodoxy now attracted the scrutiny of Edward Martyn’s religious adviser, who warned of blasphemous content. Martyn, the primary financial supporter of the Irish theatre, was a pious and scrupulous Catholic who had always been suspicious of Yeats’s unorthodox religious beliefs, and he threatened to withdraw all support for the enterprise.
Dublin Minstrels
Authors: Schuchard Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On arrival in Dublin, Yeats was greeted with the distressing news that members of the Anglo-Israelite sect, who believed that the English had descended from the lost tribes of Israel, had resumed destructive excavations on the Hill of Tara in search of the Ark of the Covenant. He was prevailed upon by Arthur Griffith, George Moore, and Douglas Hyde to visit the site for a confrontation with the landlord, and his involvement in the lively protest led him to write to the editor of the Times “to draw the attention of the public to this desecration. Tara is, because of its associations, probably the most consecrated spot in Ireland, and its destruction will leave many bitter memories behind it” (CL3 209).
Political theory, social science, and real politics
Authors: Swift Adam , White Stuart 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Political theory students are often also interested in real politics—the kind that they read about in the newspapers and that get debated at election times. Sometimes they study political theory because they are interested in real politics. Many are then disappointed. What they are asked to read is disappointingly abstract, utopian or apparently irrelevant; it can be hard to connect debates as conducted by political theorists with policy issues or political choices in the real world. This chapter will try to ease the frustration, partly by exploring how best to make those connections, partly by urging reconciliation to the inevitability of disconnection. Political theory, as we understand it, occupies a very specific place in the political and policymaking process. That space is crucial and fundamental, but it is also modest and limited.
Political theory and history
Authors: Philp Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every graduate student of political theory faces a series of choices about what to study and how best to study it. In the natural sciences topics are generally located in a well-defined research programme rooted in a shared view of what the most interesting and current problems are and what the appropriate methods are for approaching them. In political theory, issues of method are themselves so much part of the contested terrain of the subject matter that identifying the problem may itself be a function of commitments that derive from the position one takes in methodological debates. For that reason the student of political theory cannot remain methodologically naive or uncommitted; part of choosing a topic involves decisions about how one should approach it methodologically.
Function and localization within rostral prefrontal cortex (area 10)
Authors: Burgess Paul W , Gilbert, Sam J , Dumontheil Iroise 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We propose that rostral prefrontal cortex (PFC; approximating area 10) supports a cognitive system that facilitates either stimulus-oriented (SO) or stimulus-independent (SI) attending. SO attending is the behaviour required to concentrate on current sensory input, whereas SI attending is the mental processing that accompanies self-generated or self-maintained thought. Regions of medial area 10 support processes related to the former, whilst areas of lateral area 10 support processes that enable the latter.
Statistical Methods in Environmental Epidemiology
Authors: Thomas Duncan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Environmental epidemiology is the study of the environmental causes of disease in populations and how these risks vary in relation to intensity and duration of exposure and other factors like genetic susceptibility. As such, it is the basic science upon which governmental safety standards and compensation policies for environmental and occupational exposure are based. Profusely illustrated with examples from the epidemiologic literature on ionizing radiation and air pollution, this text provides a systematic treatment of the statistical challenges that arise in environmental health studies and the use epidemiologic data in formulating public policy, at a level suitable for graduate students and epidemiologic researchers. After a general overview of study design and statistical methods for epidemiology generally, the book goes on to address the problems that are unique to environmental health studies, special-purpose designs like two-phase case-control studies and countermatching, statistical methods for modeling exposure-time-response relationships, longitudinal and time-series studies, spatial and ecologic methods, exposure measurement error, interactions, and mechanistic models. It also discusses studies aimed at evaluating the public health benefits of interventions to improve the environment, the use of epidemiologic data to establish environmental safety standards and compensation policy, and concludes with emerging problems in reproductive epidemiology, natural and man-made disasters like global warming, and the global burden of environmentally caused disease. No other book provides such a broad perspective on the methodological challenges in this field at a level accessible to both epidemiologists and statisticians.
Reconciliation Reconceived: Religion, Secularism, and the Language of Transition
Authors: VanAntwerpen Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In September of 2001, a former professor of religious studies named Charles Villa-Vicencio was invited to give the keynote address at the inaugural workshop of a new multidisciplinary research project at the University of Notre Dame, just outside South Bend, Indiana. The new project, sponsored by Notre Dame’s Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, was dubbed RIREC—shorthand for the Research Initiative on the Resolution of Ethnic Confiict. Villa-Vicencio’s address to the RIREC workshop, entitled ‘Lessons from South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission’, was drawn from his own personal experience with South Africa’s path-breaking and internationally heralded attempt to come to grips with its violent past, to pursue national healing, and to build a bridge between the old apartheid system and the ‘New South Africa’.
Making Corporate Self-Regulation Effective in Developing Countries
Authors: Graham David , Woods Ngaire 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Corporate self-regulation has become dizzyingly popular. Most global companies today are signing up to codes of conduct in respect of their social and environmental impact. Many such codes are issued by individual corporations or industry associations, some involving other groups of stakeholders, committing participants to minimum standards of environmental and social conduct (Haufler 2001; Florini 2003). An inventory prepared by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) analyzes the contents of 246 such codes across most major industry sectors and finds that environmental and labor standards were most prominent among the goals addressed, which also included commitments to protect human rights and refrain from bribery (OECD 2001).
The Universe and Alfred Russel Wallace*
Authors: Dick Steven J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alfred Russel Wallace is best known for his work as a naturalist and evolutionist, and for his general interest in life on Earth, taking “life” in the broadest sense of the word to include both biology and culture. So it comes as a surprise to many to learn that he had an early fascination with astronomy, remained “deeply interested” in astronomical discoveries throughout his life, and late in life wrote two books on one of the most sensational and important aspects of the subject—life on other worlds.
Epilogue: Conclusions and Policy Implications
Authors: Mol Arthur , Liefferink Duncan , Lauber Volkmar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Finally, in this last chapter, we move to the implications of the theoretical elaborations and the case-studies presented throughout this book for the general emergence and successful implementation of JEP. In the first section we present the overall conclusions to be drawn from our detailed case-studies for the wider application of joint environmental policy-making in distinct political and institutional settings. Subsequently, we apply these findings to explain the limited possibilities of successful implementation of JEP at the EU level. The final section summarizes the general conclusions that are directly relevant to policy-makers in distinct political-institutional settings.
Finally! Comparative Over-Time Mapping of Party Policy Movement
Authors: Budge Ian , Klingemann Hans-Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The crowning achievement of the Manifesto Research Project has been to measure party policy change in a variety of countries over an extended time period along the Left-Right dimension. Being able to do so is important because of the centrality of this dimension in political discussion and analysis, confirmed by its spontaneous, near-universal emergence in our previous analyses of election programmes (Budge, Robertson and Hearl (eds.) 1987). It is probably the single most important indicator of party policy, and a pointer to underlying ideology which meshes with membership of a generic ‘family’ and other distinguishing party characteristics.
The Pre-epidemic History of Poliomyelitis (Antiquity to AD 1880)
Authors: Smallman-Raynor M R , Cliff A D , Trevelyan B , Nettleton C , Sneddon S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is convenient to view the history of poliomyelitis in three epidemiological phases (Table 3.1). The endemic phase of poliomyelitis activity extended from antiquity to the nineteenth century AD, and was associated with sporadic and low-level occurrence of clinical disease. The endemic phase was superseded by the epidemic phase, which continued into the mid-twentieth century and was associated with the emergence of poliomyelitis outbreaks of ever- increasing magnitude and geographical reach. Finally, the introduction and mass administration of poliovirus vaccines from the mid-1950s ushered in the vaccine phase of epidemic control, local elimination, and global retreat (Melnick, 1997).
New Worlds
Authors: Smallman-Raynor M R , Cliff A D , Trevelyan B , Nettleton C , Sneddon S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As if written by the moving finger in Fitzgerald’s famous free translation of Omar Khayyám’s Rubáiyá t, the story told in Chapter 4 of the emergence of epidemic poliomyelitis across Europe from the latter years of the nineteenth century was repeated again and again between 1900 and 1920, first in North America, then in Latin America, and finally in Oceania. It is this time ordered stepping stones model of the emergence of global epidemic poliomyelitis which we examine in this chapter. We begin in Section 5.2 with an overview of the evidence for the occurrence of poliomyelitis in the United States in the quarter century or so from 1881, a period which immediately preceded the onset of formal national level surveillance in that country. We then focus upon the first major outbreak in the United States, in New York in 1907 (Sect. 5.3), before studying in Section 5.4 the great epidemic of poliomyelitis which swept through New York City and the northeasttern United States in 1916. Next, we review in Section 5.5 a classic series of descriptions of poliomyelitis emergence in one state of New England: Charles S. Caverly’s records of poliomyelitis in Vermont, 1910–17. Finally, evidence for the appearance of poliomyelitis in other New World countries in the Americas and Oceania is summarized in Section 5.6. The chapter is concluded in Section 5.7.