bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Electoral Markets and Stable States
Authors: Mair Peter 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is the first of three chapters on political party systems and structures of competition, and looks at electoral markets in Europe. It begins by clarifying the term ‘electoral markets’ in the context of the chapter, noting first that the competition to be investigated is inter-party competition, which will arise when parties have a market in which to compete (i.e. when there are voters in competition), and is at least in part a function of the size of the electoral market. Second, it notes that when parties confront an electoral market, they have a choice of two not necessarily exclusive strategies –– defensive or expansive; and third, that the size of the markets in general, and the degree of electoral availability, is largely a function of the strength and pervasiveness of the relevant political identities. The first section of the chapter, Developments and Contrasts in Western Europe, looks at the history of the development of political parties in western Europe as a history of attempts to narrow the electoral market through the promotion and inculcation of mass political identities; it concludes that, other things being equal, polities characterized by the presence of strong identities are likely to be less competitive than those where they are not, and will, more precisely, tend to be more consensual. The next section of the chapter, ‘Electoral Markets and Consociational Democracy’, leads on naturally to a discussion of consociational democracies (which are plural societies) in western Europe, and this is followed. in ‘Small States and Large States’, by an examination of the differences in policy style in small states (which are largely consensual) and large states (which are adversarial, with high electoral volatility). The last section ‘Some Implications for the New East European Democracies’, applies the previous discussion to eastern Europe.
Party Systems and Structures of Competition
Authors: Mair Peter 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is the third of three chapters on political party systems and structures of competition, and presents an overall review. In the first section, Approaches to the Classification of Party Systems: A Review it looks at the principal existing approaches to the classification of party systems, pointing to both their limits and possibilities when applied within comparative analysis. It then goes on in the second section, Party Systems and the Competition for Government, to underline the importance of understanding the structure of competition in any given party system, since in many ways the whole notion of a party system is centred on the assumption that there exists a stable structure of competition. Structures of competition can be seen to be either closed (and predictable) or open (and unpredictable), depending on the patterns of alternation in government, the degree of innovation or persistence in processes of government formation, and the range of parties gaining access to government. The emphasis in the third section, Party Systems and Electoral Outcomes, is on the need to distinguish between processes of electoral change on the one hand, and changes in party systems and the structures of competition on the other, a distinction which also allows the possibility of situations in which electoral change is the consequence rather than the cause of party system change.
Taking Stock
Authors: Macfarlane S. Neil 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Addresses a number of definitional and methodological issues relating to the effect of the end of the cold war on developing countries. This is followed by an examination of expectations regarding the impact of the end of the cold war on the Third World expressed at the end of the 1980s and early 1990s. These expectations are compared with the progression of events in the Third World since 1989, and the reasons for the discrepancy between expectation and reality are discussed. Observations are then made on salient issues of Third World politics and security that were underemphasized or misconstrued in the cold war era, and that receive a fuller airing in subsequent thematic and regional chapters of the book. In particular, questions are raised about the extent to which a literature in security studies and international relations that emphasizes the centrality of the state, and the explanatory value of systemic structure, can adequately explain the evolution of politics in the Third World subsequent to the cold war.
The Political Dimension
Authors: Dannreuther Roland 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Aims to contribute to the emerging debate over the nature of capitalist development and its relationship to the social and political developments in different regions of the world, by suggesting an analytical framework for assessing the implications of these recent developments for the political structures within developing countries. The first section seeks to isolate the most important structural and international factors that have contributed to the democratizing trend in the developing world. The second section looks beyond these general trends and assesses the existing social, economic and political conditions of most developing countries, focussing, in particular on the continuing internal and external obstacles to democratization. The final section attempts to draw from this analysis an overarching assessment of the direction of political change in the developing world, and the most appropriate models or approaches for understanding the underlying dynamic of these changes.
Globalization Manqué
Authors: Sayigh Yezid 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The main strategic, economic, and political changes in the Middle East since the end of the cold war are outlined, and an attempt made to account for the linkages between them. It is argued, first, that a combination of external and internal factors has reinforced the fragmentation of the Middle East state system, and further undermined prospects for regional cooperation or integration in the security, economic, and political spheres. The record of economic liberalization is examined, before analysing the process of political liberalization. In both cases the focus is on the state, since that is the level at which management of the domestic and external environments is conducted. This allows consideration in the conclusion of the extent to which changes in the region can be directly attributed to the end of the cold war, and of the assumptions about the relationship between the international system and its regional and national units, particularly with regard to the impact of globalization on the nation state and domestic structures of political power.
The Idea of a Political Community
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCommunitarian politics values community activism and opposes alienating relationships between the state and the individual. The relationship and the tensions between communitarianism and republicanism are discussed, and difficulties with communitarian approaches to political strategy and democracy are examined. Finally, the very idea of a ‘political community’ is analysed and it is suggested that the nature and logic of political power mean that communitarian critiques of politics are difficult to sustain.
Divided Governance: The Case of Denmark
Authors: Fitzmaurice John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
As a result of a combination of specific characteristics of the Danish political system, such as the fragmentation of the Folketing, especially since 1973, Denmark has developed a tendency towards weak minority governments and even minority coalitions, and a cooperative, pragmatic political culture. These forms of divided government have arisen not so much out of formal institutional arrangements, as out of a Danish electoral predilection for holding the reigns of power by not passing too much of it to any majoritarian party. Their degree of success has varied over recent years, with a consequent variation in the extent to which the country has suffered from divided government.
Globalization, Regionalization, and Inequality
Authors: Oman Charles 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExamines whether globalization processes can be managed so as to minimize inequality and exclusion, and to strengthen social cohesion. It details the driving forces behind globalization, which include deregulation in OECD countries (a process that also fosters regionalization), the emergence of technologies that have altered the way in which firms organize production (from Taylorism to ‘post‐Taylorist’ flexible production), globalization of financial services (which has increased governments’ vulnerability to market instabilities), and the entry of non‐OECD countries into the global marketplace. Moreover, regionalization carries risks of exclusion and protectionism, which also threaten to create destabilizing inequalities.
Security and Inequality
Authors: Hurrell Andrew 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExamines the paradoxical and problematical relationship between inequality and security. It begins by looking at the classical state system, in which inequality was central not only to the genesis of insecurity (primarily because the ‘natural’ inequalities among states fostered power‐political competition and thus fuelled the security dilemmas that inevitably ensued), but also to its management and limitation. Considers how this traditional picture has been challenged. Whilst old‐style threats have by no means disappeared (especially at the regional level), the security agenda has expanded to take in a range of new threats in which inequality plays an operative role in fomenting violence. Concludes by discussing the implications of inequality for international security management today. It considers but rejects the argument that the recentralization of military power, whether conceived as the expression of a new international order or neo‐imperialism, can provide the basis for a stable and sustainable security order. However, while the old bases for security management, in which inequality played such a central role, have been undermined, they have not been replaced by anything more secure or reliable.
Political Support in Advanced Industrial Democracies
Authors: Dalton Russell J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractBuilds on the global analysis presented in Ch. 2 by focusing on political support in advanced industrial societies. The goal is to determine how citizens in these nations judge the democratic process today—is there a popular crisis of democracy? There are two challenges in answering this question: first, there is the conceptual problem about what is meant by ‘political support’ or ‘support for democracy’; and second, there is the empirical problem of assembling the appropriate cross‐national and cross‐temporal data to evaluate claims about changes in public opinion. This chapter addresses both of these topics to provide a framework for assessing public support for democratic politics in advanced industrial societies.
Five Years After the Fall: Trajectories of Support for Democracy in Post‐Communist Europe
Authors: Mishler William , Rose Richard 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAssesses the trajectories and dynamics of public support for seven democratizing regimes in Central and Eastern Europe—Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Slovenia—during the first five years following the fall of communism. It begins by offering a reconceptualization of support for new democracies. An examination is then made of popular approval of the new regimes in 1991, shortly following the collapse of communism, and the trajectory of support is tracked through to 1995. Next, a model of the dynamics underlying these trends is developed and tested, paying particular attention to the extent to which support is contingent on political and economic performance. More generally, an exploration is made of whether and to what extent the sources of support change over time as citizens acquire experience with the new regimes.
Social and Political Trust in Established Democracies
Authors: Newton Kenneth 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDeals with three main topics: the nature and origins of social trust and its importance in society; trends in social trust in Western societies (with some comparisons with less developed societies); and the relations between social and political trust, and their implications for theories of politics and society. In terms of the main concepts and measures of the book, and as outlined in the introductory chapter, social trust is a feature of the most basic level of community, while political trust refers primarily to attitudes about political institutions and leaders. The general assumption seems to be that social and political trust are closely linked, perhaps different sides of the same coin—social trust is regarded as a strong determinant of, or influence upon, political support of various kinds, including support for the political community, confidence in institutions, and trust in political leaders. As a result it is believed that the accumulation of social capital, in the form of social trust, will also result in the accumulation of political capital. Presents theory and evidence questioning these assumptions; it includes evidence comparing social trust in communal and modern societies, and of political trust in early modern and contemporary democracies.
Political Performance and Institutional Trust
Authors: Miller Arthur , Listhaug Ola 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Previous chapters have demonstrated that low and declining citizen respect for government institutions and political leaders is characteristic of contemporary industrialized societies. Evidence since the early 1970s reveals a trend toward growing distrust of government institutions in a number of countries. While this trend is evident, the interpretation of this phenomenon has proved far more controversial. One explanation focuses upon public dissatisfaction with government performance. This chapter explores this question. First, it examines the direct link between government performance, as measured by objective indicators of inflation, unemployment, or government deficits, and institutional confidence in support for government. It then considers the dynamics of political trust and government performance, before moving on to examine the role that expectations play in translating evaluations of government performance into political distrust in three countries where long‐term time‐series data are available—the US, Norway, and Sweden. The study explores how ethical expectations about government standards influence trust in politicians and the conclusion draws some general lessons from the results. The survey data employed in the analysis include the 1990–1 World Values Survey, the Norwegian, Swedish, and US Election Studies, surveys in the US, Russia, Ukraine, and Lithuania; data from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and OECD are used to measure inflation, unemployment, and government deficits.
Retributivism I: Fair Play Theory
Authors: Matravers Matt 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
A recent attempt to revive retributive theories of punishment, pioneered by Herbert Morris and Jeffrie Murphy, argues that punishment restores the balance of benefits and burdens in a society; a balance that is disturbed by crime. Classic and contemporary statements of this position are examined and rejected. The conclusion is that fair‐play theory, with its emphasis on free riding, does not have an adequate account of ‘wrong’.
The Scope of Impartial Justice
Authors: Matravers Matt 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Having argued that theories of punishment need to be embedded in wider moral theories, this chapter considers impartial theories of justice, such as those offered by Rawls and Barry. These aspire to give an account of the justification of the use of public power that does not depend on any particular, comprehensive conception of the good. By considering the relationship of impartial justice and morality, and testing the scope of impartial theories of justice, an argument is constructed to show that impartialist theory cannot give an account of the kind of rules relevant to punishment within the constraints of justificatory neutrality.
Science, Technological Advance and Economic Growth
Authors: Nelson Richard R. , Rosenberg Nathan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractApproaches the firm from the perspective of its critical role in contributing to overall economic growth, addressing the broad question of technological advance and how it comes about. The ‘technological residual’ in economists’ growth models has traditionally been treated as exogenous and has only recently come to be incorporated as endogenous, as a function of firms’ investment in research and development; the authors elaborate on this theme by focusing on the neglected role of science in technological advance and on the inherent uncertainty associated with such advance, and back their case with examples. The important contribution of private firms that invest in creating new or improved technology and appropriate the benefits thereof is given its due, but it is also noted that applied science (typically performed at universities) and research and development carried out by firms feed off each other; this interdependence stems from externalities, but also from less obvious linkages, such as private laboratories providing a labour market for university‐trained researchers, and applied university research rapidly responding to the need for scientific explanations of technological advances made by private firms. The fundamental uncertainty often associated with technological breakthroughs further complicates this picture, although the authors argue that there is commonly true surprise involved in the discovery of new technology, and in addition, make the point that in fact ‘old’ science often lies behind these breakthroughs. Finally, it is noted that incorporating the interdependence of public and private R&D, and the uncertainty of technological advance, into mainstream formal growth models may be difficult, however realistic it is.
“Sticky Information” and the Locus of Problem Solving: Implications for Innovation
Authors: Von Hippel Eric 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe problem of ‘sticky’ information in the context of firms—the fact that information needed for technical problem solving tends to be costly to acquire, transfer, and put to use in a new location—is highlighted. When the requisite sticky information resides at only one location, problem solving tends to take place at that location. When more sites collectively serve as a repository of the demanded sticky information, problem solving is iterated between these sites or the problem will be broken down so as to simulate the first case. The final avenue is to make investments that reduce the stickiness, and thus the costs, of applying such information at other sites. The findings have significant implications for more general issues such as patterns in the diffusion of information, the specialization of firms and the locus of innovation.
Learning How to Govern and Learning How to Solve Problems: On the Co‐Evolution of Competences, Conflicts and Organizational Routines
Authors: Coriat Benjamin , Dosi Giovanni 
Published: October 2003

AbstractHighlights the specificity of organizational competencies and their routinized, inertial, and conflictual properties from the perspective of the individual firm, arguing that persistent and distinctive variation among firms can best be understood by taking these properties into account, but only after also taking account of the pervasive influence of institutions in different countries. The role of organizational routines in explaining firm differences is addressed; with the critical competencies of firms embodied in the operational routines, they are difficult to copy and their evolution is constrained by both the characteristics of the firm itself and the environment of the firm. This is designated ‘competence specificity’, where competencies are seen not only as involving problem‐solving and learning skills, but also as including skills and rules governing firm internal relationships; hence, there is also a dual role of organizational routines—as problem‐solving procedures, and as governance devices or mechanisms for coordination. The firm is then interpreted as a behavioural entity that must compromise between several different functions and activities; this complex picture is not reducible to viewing a firm simply as a nexus of contracts, instead, competencies and routines are viewed as co‐evolving with the environment in which they are embedded. Inertia is thus ‘built into’ this concept of the firm, and in prying open this ‘organizational black box’, the authors also indicate several avenues for future research.
Design Issues for Innovative Firms: Bureaucracy, Incentives and Industrial Structure
Authors: Teece David J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The wider issue of linkage between organizational variables and the application of new technology is addressed, focusing in particular on innovation at the level of the firm and on the choice of organizational variables that go best with different types of innovation. In the process, there is a comprehensive analysis of the underlying properties of technological innovation per se, and a set of archetypal governance modes for firms. The thrust of the argument is the need to take a broader view of innovation, not only by looking at market structure but also by relating it to organizational structure and firm boundaries as well. Both the formal and the informal structures of the firm, and the network of external linkages that they have, substantially influence innovative activity in firms. The chapter goes on to suggest that the complex and increasingly common inter‐firm arrangements that exploit complementarities and are often linked to the development of technology in fact constitute an organizational innovation of great importance.
The Wide (and Increasing) Spread of Technological Competencies in the World's Largest Firms: A Challenge to Conventional Wisdom
Authors: Patel Pari , Pavitt Keith 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAddresses the specificities of firm competencies using data on more than 400 of the largest firms in the world. It demonstrates that these firms are characterized by being increasingly ‘multitechnology’, and are both stable and differentiated, with the firms’ main products strongly influencing their technology profile and direction of localized technological search. Together with home‐country conditions, the main products are also found to play an important role for the rate of search. Any determinism is, however, modified, since when looking at levels and rates of increase in technological activities, unexplained variance suggests that there is considerable scope for managerial choice. The extensive empirical data are argued to support several challenging conclusions about large firms, such as: they are heavily constrained in their technology choices and a technology strategy cannot really be outsourced; they are immune to radical technological breakthroughs to a surprising extent; and they are less than ‘focused’ in their technology strategy.