bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Northern Europe: Languages as Prime Markers of Ethnic and National Identity
Authors: VikØr Lars s. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I discuss together as ‘Northern Europe’ five independent states. From east to west they are Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Iceland. In addition I include two territories that are largely autonomous, but not fully independent: the Aland Islands (under Finnish sovereignty) and the Faroe Islands (under Danish sovereignty). One might also include Greenland, which is also under Danish sovereignty, but this island belongs more to America than to Europe geographically as well as ethnically, and it will therefore be excluded from the present discussion. The joint treatment of these states is justified by much shared history, which manifests itself in strong linguistic and cultural links. Traditionally, the over whelming majority of the population in each state is Lutheran Protestant by religion, and the majority languages of each state but Finland show striking similarities and share a relatively recent common origin, and even Finland experienced long domination by Swedish speakers, Swedish still being the first language of a significant minority.
Language and Dialect Death: Socio-Political and Linguistic Considerations
Authors: Jones Mari C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fieldwork carried out in the sociologically similar but linguistically contrasting communities of Rhymney and Rhosllannerchrugog has demonstrated the existence of two distinct phenomena. The first of these, occurring on a superordinate level, concerns the language as a whole, which is threatened by England and English on both socio-political and linguistic fronts although, as stated in Chapter 1, there are considerable revitalization efforts afoot. There now follows in the first half of this chapter, an examination of case studies which have appeared in the language death literature. The subsequent discussion concentrates both on socio-political and linguistic factors in an attempt to give a comprehensive portrayal of an obsolescent language.
A Comparison with the Other Varieties of P-Celtic: Is Language Obsolescence Predictable
Authors: Jones Mari C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapters have demonstrated that as the Welsh language displays increasing signs of obsolescence, at a subordinate level the regional dialects are also displaying certain linguistic changes which may have the long-term effect of creating a single homogeneous variety throughout the territory.
The reasons for the creation and subsequent proliferation of Standard Welsh have already been given in Chapter 4 and need not be reiterated here. However, it is worth pointing out that, by virtue of phenomena such as the education system and the media, and the opportunity it provides for all Welsh-speakers to come together as a separate, cohesive unit with a common identity, the de-dialectalization of modern spoken Welsh seems to be retarding the language’s progression towards extinction, something which, in 1962, the date of Saunders Lewis’s famous speech to the Welsh nation, many people considered to be an inevitable, if somewhat regret-table, fait accompli.
The Price of Eggs: Who Should Bear the Costs of Fertility Treatments?
Authors: Burley Justine C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diderot’s insight into the radical implications of the science of re production is in many ways as acute today as it was in the eighteenth century. Two hundred years on, technological advances have made it possible not only to prevent conception, but also to facilitate the creation of human life through a variety of assisted conception techniques (ACT).
Sperm as Property
Authors: Steinbock Bonnie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new reproductive technologies force us to think about embryos and gametes in ways never before necessary or possible. In particular, cryopreservation enables sperm and fertilized eggs to be maintained for long periods outside the body, giving rise to questions about to whom they belong and what may be done with them. For example, frozen embryos created by married couples intending to undergo in vitro fertilization have become the subjects of ‘custody’ disputes, when the marriages ended in divorce.
Time and Meaning: Sense and Definition in the OED
Authors: Silva Penny 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eighteenth-century theories of meaning, philosophical and a priori in nature, ‘began with the mental categories and sought their exemplification in language, as in universal grammar, and based etymology on conjectures about the origin oflanguage’ (Aarsleff 1967: 127). The source of the ‘true’ or ‘original’ meaning of words lay in their etymologies-but in this philosophical approach, etymological work was ‘a matter of discovery through skill, rather than knowledge through study’ (Aarsleff 1967: 248). John Horne Tooke, the master of what Dugald Stewart termed ‘etymological metaphysics’ (Aarsleff 1967: 107), exercised a powerful influence in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century thinking about language in Britain. For Horne Tooke, the etymology-that is, the ‘primordial meaning revealed by it’-comprised ‘all the senses of the word and those of all its derivations’ (Zgusta 1991: 599).
Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure presents an overall view of the nature of prosodic features of language - accent, stress, rhythm, tone, pitch, and intonation - and shows how these connect to sound systems and meaning. It is a work of great scholarship and learning, expressed in way that will be accessible to all linguists from advanced undergraduates to postdoctoral researchers. The last substantial overview was published over 20 years ago. Since then the subject has been transformed by linked advances in phonological and phonetic theory and accoustic technology. This book will interest phonologists, phoneticians, and researchers in related applied fields such as speech pathology and speech synthesis.
Sight-Lovers, Mortals, and Doxa
Authors: Palmer John A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Who are the ‘lovers of sights and sounds’? Some may think this a question better left unasked given the extremes to which nineteenthcentury scholarship, particularly in Germany, went in trying to detect in such labels veiled allusions to Plato’s contemporary rivals. The fashion for such identifications stretches back to the beginnings of modern Platonic scholarship. Friedrich Schleiermacher detected a polemic against Aristippus in the Theaetetus’s refutation of the thesis that knowledge is perception. He saw traces of a parallel polemic against Antisthenes in the remainder of the dialogue, particularly in the ‘dream theory’ at 2ore-202c.1 Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates’ and a key figure in the early history of Cynicism. He attacked his younger contemporary Plato in the scurrilously entitled Sathon (a crude pun on ‘Plato’ meaning, roughly, ‘little willy’).2 He has been the second most frequently proposed target of Plato’s criticism in the dialogues after Isocrates. Plato’s treatment of the views of the ‘opsimaths’ or ‘late-learners’ in the Sophist, for instance, has been widely accepted as a direct reference to Antisthenes.
Compensation and Consent: A Brief Comparative Examination of Liability for HIV-Infected Blood
Authors: Giesen Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many complex legal and ethical issues have been raised by the AIDS crisis. As lawyers, scientists, and ethicists, it is vital that we collaborate in identifying and clarifying these issues and that we contribute thereby to rational public discussion of the problems associated with AIDS in society. This chapter will focus upon just one quite specific, but nonetheless significant aspect of this legal and ethical problem field, namely consent in relation to the obtaining and transfusion of HIV-infected blood and the liability of hospitals, blood banks, and others for the transmission of the virus in this manner.
The Possibility of Practical Reason
Authors: Velleman J David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume contains the work that I have done in the philosophy of action since completing the book Practical Reflection. One of the papers, ‘Epistemic Freedom,’ is an expanded version of a chapter in the book; it was written after the book went to press, though it was published first. I have included it here because I think that it significantly improves on the corresponding portions of the book. One or two of the other papers are attempts to build upon or renovate the theory set down in the book, but most of them are attempts to dig beneath it. Without even referring to that theory, I have tried to unearth more fundamental reasons for wanting a theory of its general form—reasons for thinking that there ought to be a theory of its kind.
The Story of Rational Action1
Authors: Velleman J David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Decision theory comprises, first, a mathematical formalization of the relations among value, belief, and preference; and second, a set of prescriptions for rational preference. Both aspects of the theory are embodied in a single mathematical proof. The problem in the foundations of decision theory is to explain how elements of one and the same proof can serve both functions. I hope to solve this problem in a way that anchors the decision-theoretic norms of rational preference in fundamental intuitions about rationality in general. I will thus depart from the tradition of anchoring those norms in intuitions about gambling strategies or preference structures of the sort that are the special concern of the theory itself. Although my interpretation is meant to capture what is right about the decision-theoretic conception of rational preference, it will lead me to argue that there is also something fundamentally wrong about that conception. In my view, decision theory tells us how to be rational in our preferences because it tells us how to have preferences that make sense; but there are ways of making sense that outrun, and may in fact conflict with, the prescriptions of decision theory.
Avoiding Perplexity: The Paradox of Inquiry
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The picture of Socrates as a self-stinging stingray is a profoundly memorable one. Many of us were first won over to philosophy by a teacher who could pace back and forth in front of a class and wrestle publicly, and inconclusively, with endlessly engrossing questions about free will and determinism, or the problem of other minds, or the nature of causality. In other subjects, a teacher might be expected to know the answer to almost all questions students are capable of even formulating. Not so in philosophy. Here the most memorable teachers may be just as adept at getting themselves perplexed, as they are at inducing perplexity in the philosophical neophytes they teach.
Purely Instrumental Perplexity
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To illustrate the thesis that seeking and learning are simply recollection Socrates, in the dialogue Meno, asks Meno to call one of his servants, or house-boys, for Socrates to interrogate him. Meno does as requested. Then Socrates, having first established that the slave-boy before him is a Greek and speaks the language, sets him a geometrical problem. Socrates wants the slave-boy to tell him how to construct a square with an area twice that of a given square.
The Ethical Content of Liberal Law
Authors: Skorupski John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a sign of our philosophically and politically perplexed times that one can hardly discuss the ethical content of liberal law without a surprising amount of preliminary exhumation and revitalizing of the liberal idea. This may appear a perverse proposition. Is there not a sense in which ‘we are all liberals now’?
I use the word ‘idea’ in a Coleridgean or idealist sense. The Idea of an institution, such as church, university, or law, is the legitimating vision of the purpose of that institution. And while there is a sense in which we are all liberals now, it is also true that agreement about the ethical sources of liberalism-or indeed about whether it is a doctrine that needs ethical sources at all-is eroded, fractured, and unstable. Does this matter? Does the liberal attitude to government and law require an Idea? Or is it more likely to flourish if we do not search too explicitly for its Idea?
Soma and Psyche in Hippocratic Medicine
Authors: Gundert Beate 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The intuitive feeling that man is something other than the strength of his limbs and the appearance of his physique, something that manifests itself as his thoughts and behaviour, is as old as Greek literature: in Homeric poetry (c.750 BC), thought (phrenes) and works, together with form and stature, make up the whole of the person.1 In life, man’s true self, his essence qua human being, is apparently his mind (nous), which remains constant, even though his outward appearance, his bodily frame, and his voice may change, as happens to Odysseus’ companions when they are transformed into wild beasts by Circe’s spell.2 At death, on the other hand, what is identified as the ‘person’ (autos: he himself) is his corpse (soma), while his soul (psyche), which is similar to breath or air, passes to the house of Hades, where, without its body,
Aspects of the Micro-structure of Word Meanings
Authors: cruse D Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the central problems of lexical semantics is the sensitivity of word meaning to context. This creates difficulties for the description of the content of the meaning of a word, for attempts to account for compositional processes (what are the units being composed?), and for studies of lexical relations and word fields (what are the units which stand in sense-relations, and constitute word fields?). An extreme view of the relation between word meaning and context would be that the notion of the meaning of a word in isolation from particular contexts is not intelligible: every change in context in principle produces a change (maybe minute) in the semantic contribution the word makes. This view is probably untenable in such an extreme version; however, a modified version of it will pervade and underpin claims put forward here. The view that will be defended here is that although in principle word meaning may be regarded as infinitely variable and context sensitive, there are nonetheless regions of higher semantic ‘density’ (metaphor is unavoidable here), forming, as it were, more or less well-defined ‘lumps’ of meaning with greater or lesser stability under contextual change. The process of congelation into lumps will be called ‘nodulation’, and the lumps thus formed ‘sensenodules’.
‘The Garden Swarms with Bees’ and the Fallacy of ‘Argument Alternation’
Authors: Dowty David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Analyses of so-called argument alternations such as those in (I) have been a mainstay of syntactic research since the beginnings of generative grammar. In this paper, I argue that the usual syntactic approach to analysing such cases, which assumes that the two sentence types in each case express the same propositions and differ only in their syntactic form, ignores the main linguistic phenomenon that ought to be of interest, namely that such 'alternate' forms serve to convey significantly different meanings. One moral to be drawn is that linguists should not be quick to assume that language 'wastefully' makes its speakers learn alternative syntactic forms to express the same propositions, but rather that we should rather ask for what semantic purpose the second form exists that the first does not.
‘Life-Enhancement’: Its Degrees and Types
Authors: May Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though Nietzsche himself, true to his distaste for definitions, docs not clearly explicate criteria for ‘life-enhancement’, the valuations and practices that he deems life-enhancing in his works do, I suggest, consistently exemplify one or more of the following three criteria: ‘power’, ‘sublimation’ (of power), and the sort of ‘formcreation’ that invites love of world and life. Maximal life-enhancement will maximize all three criteria at once.
The Valuation of Truth in Nietzsche’s Philosophy
Authors: May Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the light of this survey of both Nietzsche’s general critique of morality and his specific attack on unconditional truthfulness, what conclusions can we draw about how truth is valued in his new ethic? My answer is that, for Nietzsche, the principal (but not the sole) value of truth is to overcome those life-denying ‘errors’ that morality perpetrates ‘as a matter of principle’; that because morality, like any ethic, is, for him, an inextricably historical development, truth is valuable in this way not for anybody at any time, but only for a very particular sort of ethical community at a very particular time in its own history; and that, for those not afflicted by such errors, truth may be valuable in quite different ways.
Rheta- Romance
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘Rheto-Romance’ (R-R) conventionally covers a heterogeneous grouping of Romance varieties spoken in south-eastern Switzerland and parts of north-eastern Italy. Three main branches are customarily recognized. In the West, there are the various Swiss dialects spoken in the canton known in R-R as Grischün, in French as Grisons, and in German as Graubiinden. No single standard variety exists, nor indeed is there a convenient unambiguous term to designate all the different varieties, since the commonly used label ‘Romansh’ (in R-R rumantsch) properly refers to one variety in particular, namely Surselvan, which is spoken in the west of the canton. We will use the French form ‘Grisons’ in referring to the area of R-R speech in Switzerland.
What are cities for? The ethics of urban planning
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Other words, though not functional in the sense that the function is implicit in their meaning. nevertheless are words for things that do have functions, ‘Heart’ is an example of such a word. People knew what hearts were, or what the word ‘heart’ meant, before it was discovered that the heart is a pump whose function is to circulate the blood, So the function is not implicit in the meaning. Nevertheless, the heart does have this function. It does not much matter to which of these classes we assign the word ‘city’. Actually I think that it belongs to the second: one could know what a city is without knowing the function of cities (indeed many of our most vocal Greens are in this position); but they do have a function, and we can ask what it is. In other words, we can ask what good it does to have cities in which people live and work in proximity to one another, instead of living and working scattered uniformly over the countryside. I asked and answered this question in 1969b. I said that the reason why we have cities is in order to facilitate communication with one another.
René Descartes (1596–1650)
Authors: Cottingham John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of Descartes’s early work as a “philosopher’ was what we should now call scientific. His Le Monde (The World, or The Universe), composed in the early 1630s, was a treatise on physics and cosmology, which resolutely avoided the old scholastic apparatus of “substantial forms’ and “real qualities’, and instead offered a comprehensive explanatory schema invoking only simple mechanical principles.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716)
Authors: Sleigh.Jr. R C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eminent rationalist philosopher, born in Leipzig, died in Hanover. Leibniz was acquainted with all the major scientific developments of the second half of the seventeenth century. He made important contributions in geology, linguistics, historiography, mathematics, and physics, as well as philosophy. His professional training was in the law; he earned his living in the Court of Hanover by combining the roles of councillor, diplomat, librarian, and historian.
George Berkeley (1685–1753)
Authors: Warnock Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Berkeley is a most striking and even unique phenomenon in the history of philosophy. There have been many philosophers who have constructed bold and sweeping, often strange and astonishing, metaphysical systems. Some, particularly in the English tradition—for example, Thomas Reid in the eighteenth century or G. E. Moore in the twentieth—have been devoted to the clarification and defence of ‘common sense”.
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (1813–1855)
Authors: hannay Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Danish writer and social critic widely credited with setting the stage and providing the conceptual tools for modem existentialism. Kierkegaard was also one of Hegel’s most devastating critics. The formative years in Copenhagen were marked by personal dependence on an oppressively religious father and by the deaths, before he reached the age of 21, of his mother and five of the family of seven of which he was the youngest.
Organization of spatial knowledge in children
Authors: Jr Herbert L Pick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How is our spatial knowledge organized? This question has been posed by many investigators of spatial cognition over the last 20 years. A classical answer by Siegel and White (1975) as well as others suggested a progression both in ontogenetic development and microgenetic. According to this formulation the initial organization includes mainly information about proximity to landmarks. Next there is a stage in which there is route knowledge, and finally achievement of an organization which is characterized by configurational knowledge. There is considerable research indicating such a trend over age with children and also reports of such a trend with adults as they acquire more experience with a space. Perhaps as a reaction to rigid behaviourism many researchers (including the present author)
Introduction: Action
Authors: Brewer Bill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two problems are discussed under the head of’ Action’. The first concerns the connection between the spatial representations involved in perception and action. How does perception control and co-ordinate basic spatial action? More precisely, what can we say about the relation between the ways in which spatial information is coded in perception and in the organization of spatial behaviour, given the nature of perceptuo-motor control? The second problem concerns the nature of action itself, as the directed dioing of something by an agent, as opposed to certain bits of animals’ bodies moving in various ways.