bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Knowing Ridicule and Skeptical Reflection in the Moral Essays
Authors: Noggle James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pope’s attitude toward inconsistency is inconsistent. He displays his own in the Horatian poems as a potent, candid pose that establishes his moral and satirical authority, the clearness of his poetic “Medium,” but this seems at odds with the numerous passages of poems of the 1730s that satirically attack the inconsistency of others. In a generalizing, philosophical register, he accepts and often savors the idea that all human lives are bafflingjumbles, but he also views inconsistency as the essence of what is distasteful or even horrifying in human behavior, of immorality or perversion—and so uses it as his main charge against the vicious and ridiculous. Even excellent critics of Pope resolve the issue unconvincingly. David Morris says that Pope distinguishes between inconstancy, a moral fault only wicked or insane people exhibit, and inconsistency, shared by all.1 While this view is commonsensical enough, Pope never clearly articulates it, and nothing suggests he held such a firm distinction in mind from poem to poem. He furthermore seems aware that using inconsistency as a moral index is a fraught problem: since all deviations from the good are disruptive of one’s requus animus or moral center, it is an interesting fact that they are not all morally equal. Indecisiveness about landscape design is not as bad as treason, corruption, or rage: still, Papillia’s cry in the Epistle to a Lady of “odious, odious Trees!” after having them planted in her park links her fault to Atossa’s “warfare upon earth.”
Modernity and the Skeptical Sublime in the Final Dunciad
Authors: Noggle James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The power of skeptical doubt more than any other factor generates Pope’s ambivalent perspective on the apocalyptic course of British cultural history charted in the final Dunciad (1743). Critics for some time have seen evidence of his mixed feelings in the poem: while obviously attacking the dunces’ literary endeavors, Pope seems fascinated by Dulness’s surreal, disorienting effects; he also takes the dunces seriously as representatives of potent intellectual tendencies, despite his dismissals of them as mere fools and bad stylists.1 The concluding acceptance of Dulness’s triumph makes the poem seem like less an act of satirical resistance than one of surrender—to forces that are somehow superior to his own good sense. Emrys Jones’s classic essay “Pope and Dulness” (1968) reads Pope’s evident delight in the dunces’ activities as an oblique rebellion against the “imaginative depletion”2 of his times: “what Pope as a deliberate satirist rejects as dully lifeless his imagination communicates as obscurely energetic” (637).
Getting the Arithmetic Right 1974-1976
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The year 1974 marked the recognition of Peter Mitchell as a leading scientist who had made a significant contribution to his field of interest No particular event Sf’ems to have triggered this. Simply, the scientific world had become conscious that, at the very least, Mitchell might be right about the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation. Even if this were not true, he could still be credite’d both with stimulating the debate on the subject and with promoting a good deal of experimentation. ln addition, he had contributed significantly to the field of active transport across membranes. ft was also true that an increasing number of scientists were convinced of the validity of the chemiosmotic theory. The championing of his chemiosmotic theory, together with the extensive experimental evidence he had gathered with Jennifer Moyle, was now paying dividends.
The Cytochrome Oxidase Controversy 1977-1986
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mitchell was involved in many controversies. That concerning the cytochronw oxidase&gt; was certainly a major one and throws light on his personality and on his approach to science. lt also provides a window on the nature of scientific debate. ln the late 197us, a major public argtmwnt with a Finnish biochemist developed ove’f an aspe’ct of the chemiosmotic theory. The question under debate, whether or not protons were pumped by the cytochrome oxidase (the terminal enzyme of the respiratory chain that reduces oxygen to water), was related to the more diffuse argument over the number of protons pumped by the respiratory chain, as discussed here earlier. lt was an issue that was to be debated for eight years and in which many of the leaders in the bioenergetics field became involved. For Mitchell personally the underlying basis of the chemiosmotic theory was at stake.The Origins of Mitchell’s View of the Oxidase When Mitchell developed his original theory in the Grey Books of 1966 and 1968, he specifically considered the question of how the passage of electrons down the respiratory chain would move protons across the mitochondrial membrane.
Theory-Based Categorization in Early Childhood
Authors: Gelman Susan A , Koenig Melissa A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we argue that children’s categories as expressed in language are “theory based.” By this we mean that the categories of young children include information about ontology, causation, function, intentions, and other properties that are not directly observable. Moreover, children use their categories to form important inferences and explanations that go beyond the available evidence. In staking these claims, we explicitly build on recent proposals by Carey, Gopnik, and others suggesting that children’s thought is organized into intuitive framework theories that, like scientific theories, help children organize experience, make predictions, and causally interpret their world (Carey, 1985; Gopnik & Wellman, 1994; Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1997) (what Robert Siegler [personal communication] recently termed “core knowledge theories”). The crucial additional claim here is that such theories are reflected in the individual categories that children form (see also Gelman, 1996).
Human Rhythms: Basic Processes
Authors: Palmer John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a word: difficult. The main reason in two words: hates isolation. Dungeons, “the box;’ “the hole;’ solitary confinement, “Go to your room” et cetra, have been, since we first became civilized, a standard form of punishment. Social animals like to be around their own kind.
And there is the rub: In the study of biological rhythms, because of the important influence of the day/night cycle on rhythms, all subjects—even the human ones—must be isolated in constant conditions for extended periods of time. There aren’t many normal people who, even for a price and a free place to eat and sleep for six weeks, are willing to endure the loneliness. Thus, using those who are willing to volunteer often has its limitations because a good experiment should involve only subjects who are representative of the population as a whole. On top of that, as anyone who has ever kept a lover knows, they are expensive and difficult to maintain: They can be fastidious about what they eat and their creature comforts. Even when willing volunteers are found, if they begin to miss a loved one, become fidgety over whether the stock market is going up or down, or whatever, their psychological state often disrupts their physiological rhythms and spoils the experiment.
Megiddo 15 May 1479 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early years of the eighteenth century B.C., the power of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom was waning. That coincided with the immigration of the Hyksos, a Semitic population probably from the region of Palestine, that used superior weaponry to topple the faltering Thirteenth dynasty. The Hyksos dynasty began ruling Egypt in 1786 B.C. and lasted until 1575 B.C. By then the Hyksos had become sufficiendy complacent and content to lose their edge, and the Egyptian population reasserted control over their own nation. The new pharaoh, who began the New Kingdom era, was Ahmose (ruled 1575-1550 B.C.). Ahmosewas not content with merely regaining his country, bur wanted to extend Egypt’s northeastern frontier to establish a strong buffer zone. He also wanted to extend Egypt’s power because exposure to foreign peoples had given the Egyptians a taste for things that could come only from outside their country. Hence, conquest and trade as well as security motivated Ahmose’s war making.
Salamis 23 September 480 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although Darius’s attempt to invade Greece in 490 B.C. failed, he was not about to allow the Greeks to go unpunished for their earlier aid to rebellious provinces in Ionia. He would have immediately mounted another invasion, but first had to deal with a rebellion in Egypt. Before subduing that revolt, Darius died in 486 B.C., to be succeeded by his son Xerxes. Xerxes finished the job in Egypt and then set about mounting the punitive expedition to Greece. It is impossible to know for sure just how large an expedition it was because contemporary writers are notorious for exaggerating numbers, whether to make their own victory look better or because the Persian juggernaut seemed so immense it had to be the 2.6 million people Herodotus claimed. Then again, if one assumes that this number includes not only soldiers but also all the various support personnel (cooks, clerks, launderers, etc.), then perhaps it is not too outrageous. Herodotus, however, claims that with the support personnel the total number on campaign with Xerxes was more than 5 million. More modern writers (Maurice, journal of Hellenic Studies, and Munro, The Cambridge Ancient History) place the fighting forces at between 150,000 and 180,000, drawn from all the Persian Empire.
Since their stunning victory in 490 over the Persians at Marathon, the Greeks had not been as focused as the Persians on the upcoming war. Athens, Sparta, and most other poleis (city-states) had returned to their contentious ways and fallen out among themselves. When hearing the news of Xerxes’s oncoming forces in the winter of 481, they finally sublimated their differences by meeting in a panHellenic conference under Spartan leadership at the Isthmus of Corinth. Many of the northern poleis did not send representatives, however. The major point of discussion was where to make their defensive stand. Sparta argued that, because the Peloponnese, the peninsula upon which they lived, was the heart of Greek independence, the stand should be made at the Corinthian isthmus. This, however, would abandon all of northern and central Greece to Persia without a fight, and such a decision might lead to the poleis north of the isthmus defecting to Xerxes in order to save their lands from destruction.
Pydna 22 June 168 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rome first got involved in Greece in 215 B.C., when the Carthaginian leader Hannibal concluded an alliance with Philip V of Macedon. This proved a serious diversion from Rome’s focus on its on going war with Carthage, but enough Greek states joined with Rome to keep Philip from overrunning the peninsula. The 10 year war was inconclusive, but Philip remained dedicated to establishing Macedonian control over Greece. In 200 B.C., Philip entered into an alliance with Antiochus III, king of the Seleucid Empire based in Syria, one of the divisions of Alexander the Great’s empire. When Philip again made aggressive moves toward Greece, Rome declared war.
Pavia 773-774
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relationship between the pope and the kingdom of the Franks started in 756. Pepin III, known variously as “the Short” and “the Great,” responded to a call from Pope Stephen II to save Rome from depredations by the Lombards, the population that dominated the northern Italian peninsula. The amity upon which this response was based rested on Stephen’s support of Pepin’s deposition of the last king of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, in 751, and the blessing for that action that Stephen bestowed upon Pepin in 754. This began close ties between politics and religion in the Frankish lands, for Pepin and his heirs were to hold the title of patricius Romanus and protect the Catholic Church from spiritual and temporal threats. Thus, in 755, Pepin marched his army into Italy to capture the city of Pavia and stop the aggressive actions of the Lombard King Aistulf. As soon as he returned to France, however, Aistulf was again threatening Rome. Pepin was back in 756, defeated Aistulf again, and is reported to have promised the pope possession of a large amount of the Italian peninsula. When Aistulf died shortly thereafter, he was replaced by Desiderius, who promised to respect papal authority and possessions. That he did not do.
Hattin 4July 1187
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of the eleventh century, the First Crusade had won for European Christians the strip of coast along the eastern Mediterranean. From Antioch in the north to Gaza in the south the Holy Land was under European command, but not necessarily under its control. The imposition of feudalism in the region had alienated even the Christian inhabitants, while persecution of lslam and Judaism had angered the remainder. Living in a land populated by enemies, the only way the crusaders could have maintained their position was through close cooperation. However, the rivalries that had existed in Europe between aristocrats were merely transplanted to the Middle East, and fighting among the Europeans was as common as Christian-Moslem clashes.
Ain Jalut 3 September 1260
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By 1219, the Mongols under Genghis Khan had spread their influence as far as the Caspian Sea. There, the Shah of Khwarizm offended the Great Khan by declining to extradite one of his governors for the death of two Mongol merchants. This provoked an invasion and the destruction of Khwarizm and led to the Mongol onslaught into the Middle East. Four Mongol armies engaged in the punishment: Genghis led one army that burned Bokhara, Samarkand, and Balkh; his son Juchi defeated the Shah’s forces at Jand, reportedly killing 160,000 men in the victory; another son, Jagatai, captured and sacked Otrar; yet another son, Tule, led 70,000 men through Khorasan and pillaged everywhere he went. All the armies proceeded undefeated, capturing and despoiling Merv, Nishapur, Rayy, and Herat.
Vienna 27 September-14 October 1529
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Europe in the 1520s presented to a potential outside aggressor a wonderful opportunity, just as the weakened condition caused by ByzantinePersian hostility had opened the door for Islam to break out of Arabia in the seventh century. More than weakness, however, it was political rivalry in Europe that made the continent vulnerable. Politically, King Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, argued and fought over land that today is the FrancoGerman frontier, as well as control over northern Italy. France had a powerful military based on artillery and heavy cavalry, with which it won a number of victories. Charles, as head of the Hapsburg family, controlled not only the Holy Roman Empire (which consisted of Austria and parts of whatever countries bordered it) but also Spain, whose military power was based on the tercio, a phalanx of pikemen supported by smaller contingents of soldiers, each armed with the harquebus, a matchlock musket. Against these formations, cavalry made no impression, and, when the rwo armies met at Pavia in northern Italy in 1525, France came up the loser. Ferdinand not only was defeated, he was taken prisoner. During and after his captivity, he plotted revenge and pondered on possible allies.
Sekigahara 21 October 1600
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the Heian Era (794-1192) of Japanese history, the emperor ruled from the newly established capital at the city of Kyoto. In the late twelfth century, the power of the emperor was challenged by the rise of the samurai, a class of warriors. For more than a century, the emperors had depended on the samurai to fight their wars and maintain regional order, but a struggle between two strong samurai clans resulted in war in the 1180s. The battle of Dannoura in 1185 ended in a victory for the Minamoto clan, whose leader saw an opportunity to challenge the emperor for supreme authority. To forestall such a move, the emperor appointed Minamoto-no-Yoritomi to be commander of all the imperial armies, with the authority to call them out at his own discretion. Thus was created the position of shogun. Although the shogun was officially subservient to the emperor, control of the armies made the shogun the real power behind the throne.
Minamoto established an alternate administration at the town of Kamakura, that town giving its name to the shogunate for the next century and a half. Through the middle of the sixteenth century, the respective powers of the emperor and the shogun waxed and waned.
Trenton 26 December 1776
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The colonial military forces of the American Revolution got off to a fairly successful start. A surprise attack on the isolated Fort Ticonderoga at Lake Champlain on 10 May 1775 netted about a hundred heavy guns for an army that had none. Using those weapons, American commander General George Washington was able to force the British to evacuate their primary base at Boston in March 1776. With that withdrawal, the vast majority of British forces in the American colonies was removed, eliminating the immediate threat of British action against the Revolution and depriving the British of a port of entry for men and materiel. If they were to continue the struggle to suppress the rebellion and reestablish control, the British had to have a harbor. The next best facility was New York City; in some ways, it was superior to Boston, in that it was more centrally located along the colonial coastline. Further, it threatened the Hudson River, an artery vital to the revolutionary cause for the free flow of American men and materiel between Philadelphia (the site of the Continental Congress) and the primary center of revolutionary ferment in Massachusetts. Washington realized that New York was the most likely location for the British to return, so he shifted forces there as soon as Boston was secured.
Rivoli 14 January 1797
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the wake of the execution of Louis XVI, his wife, and several thousand of their supporters, the monarchs of Europe felt distinctly uneasy after January 1793. Having seen the Americans successfully throw off royal rule in 1783, most European kings were afraid that the French Revolution was too close to home. Fearing that their own populations might be encouraged by American and French actions, a coalition of European kings decided to invade France, restore the monarchy, and crush the notion of revolution before it spread any farther. They failed. Thanks to a massive conscription policy and new tactics on the battlefield, France remained whole in the face of invasion. By 1796, only Great Britain and Austria remained officially at war with France. With France having spent most of the previous few years on the defensive, the Directory, the French governing body, decided to change tactics and operate on the offensive. They sent Napoleon Bonaparte, a rising star in the new French army, to take command against Austrian forces fighting in northern Italy.
Aboukirbay (Battle Of The Nile) 1 August 1198
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte was the most successful French general of his day, having recently gained much of Italy for his country. It was therefore not surprising that he was the one chosen by the French governing body, the Directory, to lead a daring mission to the east. Since the British East India Company’s victory over a French-supported prince of India at Plassey in 1757, French fortunes in the subcontinent had rapidly ebbed. The French were evicted from their last remaining trading post at Pondicherry in 1796, and it seemed as if Britain would remain supreme in India. If, however, Napoleon could seize Egypt, the French could control the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, giving them a starting point for a possible return to India and a base from which to harass British shipping in the Indian Ocean. This was Napoleons secret mission in 1798.
Mexico City 19 August-14 September 1847
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Texans defeated the Mexican army of President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna at San Jacinto on 21 April 1836, the surrender document that Santa Anna signed designated the border of the newly independent country, the Republic of Texas, to be the Rio Grande. Although the Mexican government never ratified the agreement that Santa Anna signed, the Texans continued to regard the Rio Grande from mouth to source as the southern and western borders of their country. For the following 9 years, Mexico never seriously tried to regain the lost province, launching only the occasional raid that accomplished nothing.
Atlanta/March To The Sea22 July-22 December 1864
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the city of Vicksburg surrendered to Union General Ulysses Grant on 4 July 1863, the same day that Confederate General Robert E. Lee was retreating from his defeat at Gettysburg, any chance that the Confederacy had to win the Civil War was fading. Vicksburg’s fall meant that the Union controlled the Mississippi River, severing Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the remainder of the Confederate States of America. In the eastern theater, although Lee had repeatedly beaten back Union invasions of Virginia, his lack of supplies meant that his army could not fight in top form. When Grant was transferred from the west to Virginia, Lincoln directed him to do what a half dozen previous commanders had failed to do: defeat Lee and capture Richmond. In early May 1864, Grant led about 100,000 men into northern Virginia to attempt just that.
Battle Of Britain Summer 1940
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having easily overrun Poland in September 1939, German forces remained quiet through the winter. In April 1940, however, they roared back into action with surprise offensives into Denmark and Norway. Denmark surrendered in a matter of hours; Norway lasted several weeks. In early May, German forces violated Belgian and Dutch neutrality on their way into France. This maneuver bypassed the strong French defenses of the Maginot line, and rapidly moving armored columns drove deep into France heading for Paris. The British army, stunned by the speed of the offensive, found themselves separated from French forces and driven back to the coastline. There at Dunkirk, they stood isolated as German panzers bore down on them. Only the shift from a ground to an air attack saved the British, as a massive flotilla arrived to spirit the British away from under the noses of the German tanks.