bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Talking about pregnancy and reproduction
Authors: Myerscough Philip R , Ford Michael J , Currie C T , Doyle D , Hewitt A N M , Laing I A , Speirs A L , Wrate R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Normal pregnancy is not an illness, and so the mother to be rightly assumes a much less dependent role. The attendants’ central concern should be to stimulate confidence and self-reliance in preparation for motherhood. Child-bearing is thus likely to be experienced as a challenge, putting the woman on her mettle. But some of the vocabulary often used by professionals can be insensitive, so that, by their choice of words, they not only filch for themselves much of the credit for the woman’s achievement-by ‘supervising’ her pregnancy, ‘managing’ her labour, and ‘delivering’ the infant—but in some cases may appear to stigmatize the mother through the use of terms that could imply inadequacy. The ‘growth retarded’ infant has a ‘poor’ score on biophysical profile; a failed induction or failure to progress then necessitates operative intervention. Bastian [109] drew attention to the way in which this sort of terminology can erode the self-confidence that sensitive care would seek to foster.
Historical background and concepts in rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis
Authors: Rees Andrew J , Pusey Charles D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1914, Volhard and Fahr provided the classic description of what has come to be known as ‘crescentic glomerulonephritis’. The glomeruli were severely damaged and the tuft was surrounded by a mass of cells filling Bowman’s space. This was referred to as ‘extracapillary’ proliferation, but its appearance in crosssection on light microscopy led to the widespread use of the term ‘crescentic’ nephritis. It was appreciated that patients with crescentic nephritis usually died of renal failure within weeks of the apparent onset of the disease. Later, Ellis (1942) approached the same topic from a clinical standpoint and introduced the term ‘rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis, type I’ (subsequently condensed to ‘rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis’, ‘RPGN’) for patients with nephritis who developed renal failure within weeks or months. Most patients with RPGN were shown to have crescentic nephritis and were thought to have severe poststreptococcal disease.
Immediate medical and nursing needs
Authors: Nash Julie , Appleton Richard , Rowland Bridget , Saltmarsh Jane , Sellars Julie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to identify and discuss the more common immediate nursing and medical issues, and needs of the brain-injured child (and his family), following the acute resuscitation period and on transfer to the neuro-rehabilitation ward. The chapter also outlines and discusses the importance of play as an integral component of the rehabilitation process.
Physical (motor and functional) difficulties
Authors: Weston Juliet , Kinley Eileen , Hughes Bronwen , Fishwick Sue 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the gross and fine motor rehabilitation which is aimed at maximizing the child’s functional independence. It focuses on the role of physiotherapy and occupational therapy in the early, and intermediate rehabilitation as well as the long - term management. It is important to stress that the identification of any physical difficulties and the subsequent approach and methods employed to treat them are almost invariably multi disciplinary, involving not only physiotherapy and occupational therapy but also ward nursing staff and play specialists.
Managing feeding and swallowing problems in the brain--injured child
Authors: McMahon Siobhan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The child with a severe brain injury who has required ventilatory support will have been nourished by enteral or parenteral (intravenous) feeding. For the minority of children who have to remain on the intensive care unit for some time and require prolonged intravenous feeding, their metabolic response and nutritional status are crucial: this is clearly an important issue but falls outside the remit of this chapter, and is well reviewed by Roberts (1995). Fortunately the vast majority of children with brain injuries do not require long-term ventilatory support, intensive care, or prolonged intravenous (‘total parenteral’) nutrition. As the child is weaned from the ventilator and begins to show signs of arousal, the reintroduction of oral feeding is often viewed as the next important step in the child’s recovery.
Non-imaging radionuclide investigations
Authors: Elliott AT , Hilditch TE 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some 12% of nuclear medicine investigations carried out in the UK do not involve imaging and, although being replaced by methods not involving the use of radioactivity, a number of laboratory tests still utilize radioimmunoassay. The counting of samples is a neglected area and the aim of this chapter is to cover the essentials of this topic in addition to describing the actual investigations.
Data processing
Authors: Middleton Gordon W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The standard gamma camera image, despite undergoing significant digital processing designed to improve the detector performance, has several shortcomings which were discussed in Chapter 1. For example a major weakness is that one cannot attempt to quantify the uptake of a radiopharmaceutical by a specific organ by simply viewing the image. In this chapter the emphasis is on the post-acquisition digital image processing which can be performed in order to improve image quality and to extract additional information from an image or a series of images. There are four principal areas in which such image manipulations are of particular value:
The radiopharmacy
Authors: Doherty James , Graham David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a little under 25 years, radiopharmacy has become firmly established as a specialist branch of the hospital pharmaceutical service in the UK, Europe, and the USA. This specialist pharmacy service is an integral part of the multidisciplinary team providing nuclear medicine services. Radiopharmacies have tended to develop in two patterns: one where each nuclear medicine facility has its own radiopharmacy, the other where a number of nuclear medicine facilities are supplied by a centralized radiopharmacy. In this chapter we shall describe the principles of radiopharmacy design together with what we believe to be the principles of good radiopharmaceutical practice.
Radiation protection
Authors: Dendy P P , Goldstone, KE , Barber R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with a problem that has direct implications for every other chapter in the book - namely that ionizing radiation, even at very low doses, is potentially capable of causing serious and lasting biological damage. If this were not so, the stringent measures that have to be taken to limit the amount of radioactivity administered to the patient, and thereby the radiation dose, would be unnecessary. Indeed they would be undesirable since the key factor limiting radionuclide image quality is the very low count density that results from the strict protocols of dose limitation.
The cardiovascular system
Authors: Walton S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The heart is a relatively small, irregularly shaped organ. Although under resting conditions it remains in the same position relative to the chest wall from one heart beat to another, increased diaphragmatic excursion, particularly that associated with exercise, can result in marked displacement within the thorax. During each cardiac cycle the heart indulges in a complex routine of contraction, rotation, translation, and relaxation, which results in marked changes of shape and position. It is inhomogeneous, consisting of four major blood pools surrounded by myocardium of varying thickness; only that surrounding the left ventricle is sufficiently substantial to permit reliable imaging under normal conditions. The heart lies eccentrically within the thorax surrounded by tissues of different density and, therefore, different capacity to absorb and to scatter radiation.
The lung
Authors: Gray H W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lungs are the principal organs of the respiratory system. They function as a gas exchange unit to facilitate uptake of oxygen and elimination of carbon dioxide from the blood as it traverses the pulmonary capillaries. The techniques of nuclear medicine provide a window through which the normal function of lung (physiology) and abnormal function resulting from disease processes (pathology) can be studied. This view of lung function assists the diagnosis of venous thromboembolism (pulmonary embolism) from chronic obstructive or parenchymal lung disease and permits assessment of the blood-gas barrier.
How many disease concepts of alcoholism are there?
Authors: Heather Nick , Robertson Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter we traced the development of the disease view of alcoholism from its origins in the late eighteenth century to the present day. We saw that the chief motivation behind the rediscovery of the idea that alcoholism is a disease, which took place after the repeal of Prohibition in the United States, was the hope that the suffering alcoholic would thereby obtain a better deal from a largely ignorant and uncaring society. We also saw that this idea soon acquired some degree of professional and academic respectability through its endorsement by sections of the medical profession and other interested scientists.
Some practical implications
Authors: Heather Nick , Robertson Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No one theory is absolutely true for all time. Newtonian physics appeared to explain most physical phenomena satisfactorily until Einstein developed the theory of relativity. For most situations on earth, however, Newton’s theory of physics allows us to make accurate predictions about space, time, and motion, and is still useful within clear limits. If it is their usefulness which distinguishes good theories from bad in the physical sciences, then in the behavioural sciences, like psychology, this is even more true. The touchstone for evaluating the new paradigm of problem drinking must be how useful it is in understanding and predicting the behaviour of problem drinkers, as well as in suggesting effective means for solving their problems.
Natural History and Factors Affecting the Progression of Human Renal Diseases
Authors: Locatelli Francesco , Vecchio Lucia Del 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Following renal injury, a progressive deterioration in renal function generally occurs, regardless of the nature of the original nephropathy. In some patients, the disease process responsible for the initial renal injury may remain active throughout the progression of renal failure. However, in the majority of cases, renal failure progresses after a well-defined initiating process has remitted spontaneously or has been therapeutically controlled.
Natural history and prognosis of chronic primary glomerulonephritis
Authors: D’Amico Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the various idiopathic glomerulonephritides with a chronic course and a potential progression toward renal failure, four major types, on which we will focus our attention in this chapter, have been identified because of their distinctive morphological and clinical features: Numerous studies have been performed in these last 30years in different geographical areas, to try to define the natural history and prognosis of these diseases, but the results have been conflicting, because many factors, that we will briefly analyze, may influence the clinical course and be responsible for completely different outcomes in different patients with the same clinicomorphological type of GN.
Outcome and interventions in chronic renal disease: evidence from adequately designed clinical trials and meta-analysis
Authors: Swan Suzanne K , Kasiske Bertram L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Treatment of glomerular diseases constitutes a significant portion of the practice of clinical nephrology. Yet, a paucity of knowledge and experience concerning the treatment of glomerular diseases often results in a confused therapeutic decision-making process. Conducting clinical trials in patients with primary glomerular disease, however, has become increasingly difficult in recent years. Nephrology practice has been steadily moving from tertiary care centers into private, multi-specialty, outpatient clinics. As a result, within a given practice, it is no longer possible to identify adequate numbers of patients with a specific renal disease for which experimental protocols can be applied. Further, clinical trials conducted in tertiary care centers or government-funded research institutions in the past often used protocols that would be difficult to implement in community-based practice today. Additionally, the natural history of a specific glomerular disease may be so variable that formulation of a rational therapeutic approach is precluded. This is particularly true when the only published data are from small, short-term studies that are neither randomized nor controlled, and did not carry out risk stratification. The relative absence of sound risk/benefit data from long-term trials has only served to widen the gap between therapeutic ‘nihilists ‘ and ‘enthusiasts ‘ as described in a recent editorial [l].
Epidemiology of type 2 diabetes and diabetic nephropathy in different ethnicities
Authors: Ismail Nuhad , Cornell Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The assessment of prevalence and incidence type 2 diabetes is made difficult by differing sampling methodology, diagnostic criteria used in community studies, and target populations. For example, all minorities in the United States (African-Americans, Hispanics, Native Americans, Asian, and Pacific Islanders), except natives of Alaska, have a prevalence of type 2 diabetes that is two to six times greater than that of white populations (Carter et al. 1996).
Genetics of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes
Authors: Schmidt Susanne , Ritz Eberhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hypertension is an important risk factor for development and progression of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. The role of hypertension differs in type l and type 2 diabetes. In type l diabetes, hypertension usually develops with the onset of diabetic nephropathy. However, in type 2 diabetes, hypertension frequently precedes the onset of diabetes.
Clinical renal findings in incipient type 2 diabetes
Authors: Fioretto Paola , Saller Alois , Vestra Michele Dalla , Mauer Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Type 2 diabetes has a less benign renal prognosis than thought in the past. The incidence of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in patients with type 2 diabetes has dramatically increased in the United States, in Europe, and in Japan. Worldwide, the increasing prevalence of type 2 diabetes-will certainly lead to an increase in the number of patients with type 2 diabetes developing ESRD. The cost of haemodialysis amounts to US$50 000-100 000 per person per year. These considerations justify intense efforts to implement: (l) early detection of type 2 diabetes; (2) adequate treatment to prevent initiation and progression of diabetic nephropathy;(3) intensive research in this field. In this chapter, we shall focus on renal findings and associated clinical characteristics in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients with an emphasis on items which may help to improve renal prognosis.
Vision and hearing problems in later life
Authors: Iliffe Steve , Drennan Vari 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Visual impairment is common amongst older people and increases with advancing age. In community-based surveys of older people undertaken in the United Kingdom, visual acuity of less than 6/12 has been found in around 2% of subjects aged 65-74, and around 20% of subjects aged 75 and over. This level of visual acuity is below the UK driving requirements. Larger surveys have been performed in the United States, and similar trends are seen there. Cataract and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) are the commonest causes of this visual loss, producing 63% and 20% of loss respectively in people aged 65 and over in a UK community survey.1 Macular degeneration, with its bilateral clouding of central vision, is a particularly disabling impairment, affecting nearly one in five of those aged 85 or more. Glaucoma is relatively uncommon, occuring in 7% of people in the same survey, but is the leading cause of acquired blindness.
Cardiovascular disease and stroke
Authors: Iliffe Steve , Drennan Vari 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are four target areas in cardiovascular disease as it affects older people where the evidence base for intervention is good enough to warrant a systematic approach to case-finding and case management. They are: identifying all individuals with left ventricular failure and initiating ACE inhibitor therapy. The evidence supporting the use of ACE inhibitors in reducing mortality and morbidity from ventricular failure is good, with reduction in hospital admissions. Ventricular failure is over diagnosed clinically and requires echocardiography for reliable diagnosis. Reducing the mortality from stroke and myocardial infarctions (Mis) through better blood pressure control may increase the number of patients entering this diagnostic group (see below).
Optimal care of the pediatric patients with end-stage renal disease
Authors: Broyer Michel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pediatric patients should not be considered as adults but of small size. Of course, the physician must take into account the size of children but the goal, ,When taking care of these patients, is to achieve normal growth and development in order to bring children and adolescents to adulthood in the best possible status.
Today, in this age-group, dialysis is not considered an optimal approach, since it often seriously affects the overall quality of life. All efforts are now made to succeed pre-emptive transplantation before the time dialysis may be needed, or before the functional end of a first or second graft.
Breast lumps
Authors: Stonebridge Peter , Smith David , Duncan Lesley , Thompson Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter contents
Chapter contents
It is important to find out any relationship to the menstrual period in patients with breast lumps/breast pain.
Breast pain related to periods is called cyclical mastalgia and is quite common. Breast pain is usually benign: 80% of patients can be treated by simple reassurance.
Examination should include both breasts and also check for any surrounding palpable lymph nodes (in the axilla and supraclavicular). This girl probably has benign lumpy changes responding to the hormonal cycle. Breast lumps that change with the hormonal cycle are usually benign.
Sampling and observational studies.
Authors: Bland Martin , Peacock Janet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A census is a count of a population, where every member of the population is studied. For many purposes this is impractical so we use a sample. We want the sample to be representative, i.e. to have the same characteristics as the population. To achieve representativeness, we must not allow the subjects’ own characteristics to affect whether they are included in the sample. We allow chance to select the sample, giving each subject the same probability of being selected. We can use random number tables to do this. We need a sampling frame, a list of the population, from which to sample. In medical research access to subjects is often difficult and several different, non-random designs are used.
Probability
Authors: Bland Martin , Peacock Janet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Probability is the proportion of occasions on which an event would happen if the circumstances were repeated indefinitely. It lies between 0.0 and 1.0, inclusive. A different way of presenting probability is odds, the probability of the event divided by the probability that the event does not occur. If we have a set of all possible events which are mutually exclusive (i.e. if one occurs then the others cannot occur) then their probabilities form a probability distribution. The sum of the probabilities is one. These probabilities can be summarized using the mean and variance of the distribution.
Antenatal problems
Authors: Neuberg Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The majority of pregnant women will experience some minor ‘nuisance’ problems which can certainly reduce their sense of well-being. Many women will simply put up with these, being reluctant to appear to be making a fuss. An important role of every professional involved in antenatal care is to ensure that patients should never feel that they are wasting anybody’s time by seeking reassurance, even if the problem proves to be only a trivial one. Sometimes it isn’t. It is to be hoped the information given to them at the booking clinic, whether at the GP’s surgery or the consultant unit, will encourage them always to seek medical advice.
Diagnosis
Authors: Ebrahim Shah , Harwood Rowan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diagnoses provide medical explanations for health problems and define specific curative, palliative, and preventative treatments and enable prognoses to be given. Diagnosis gives both the patient and the doctor a certain security associated with this knowledge, and a means of communicating the nature of the problem succinctly. The use of ‘stroke’ as a diagnostic term is not straightforward. Strokes are caused by thrombosis, embolus, or haemorrhage. Not all patients who present with signs and symptoms of hemiplegia have had a stroke, however. The nomenclature used to describe patients can lead to problems, in particular, calling strokes ‘cerebrovascular accidents’ or CVAs. The implication is that, given hemiplegia, a stroke has occurred and no other pathological processes need to be ruled out. The terms ‘right’ or ‘left’ CVA can also cause confusion because they may refer to the side of the lesion or the side of the signs.
Severity
Authors: Ebrahim Shah , Harwood Rowan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The severity of disease can be described in many different ways, ranging from the patient’s perception, the amount of physiological disturbance, and the consequent disability and handicap caused, to the burden for society (Stein et al. 1987). The severity of a stroke may be assessed in terms of the amount of brain damaged (e.g. size of the lesion found on CT), the extent of any arterial lesion(s) demonstrated on angiography, or the function of the brain (by positron emission tomography (PET) scanning, or presence of symptoms and signs of decompensation). Alternatively, the severity of a stroke may be measured by the distance walked in a fixed time, the ability to climb stairs, or the ability for self-care. From a social perspective, severity may be measured by impact on work, enjoyment of usual sex life, and social engagement. The pathological differences between types of stroke and the alternative ways of assessing severity make a simple answer to the question ‘Is it a bad stroke?’ difficult.
Rehabilitation
Authors: Ebrahim Shah , Harwood Rowan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rehabilitation is ‘about the tertiary response to insult or disease’ (Goodwill and Chamberlain 1988), so is concerned with the prevention of complications of disease. The effects and complications of stroke are discussed in Chapter 14, but rehabilitation is about more than prevention of complications. It is concerned with reablement (the restoration to former abilities and rights) and resettlement (the use of new or prosthetic environments). The World Health Organization defines rehabilitation as ‘the combined and coordinated use of medical, social, educational and vocational measures for training or retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability’. Using this definition, a case could be made for everyone, sick or well, receiving their share of ‘rehabilitation’!