bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fasciated Tiger-Heron Tigrisoma fasciatum
Authors: Kushlan James A , Hancock James A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
season (Stiles and Skutch 1989). It is May–August in most of its range but February–April in Panama.The tiger heron nests solitarily in trees above the water, especially in mangroves (Rhizophora). Nests are small to large platforms made of sticks, usually lined with leaves. They are placed on branches 4–15 m above the ground. Courtship is little understood in this species, and the displays reported have little context to them (Dickey and van Rossem 1938, Sutton et al. 1950, Wetmore 1965).
Comparative tests of evolutionary lability and rates using molecular phylogenies
Authors: Gittleman John L , Anderson C Gregory , Kot Mark , Hang Kwang Luh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Molecular phylogenies provide an estimate of the evolutionary history of extant taxa. If, for example, it is possible to reconstruct hierarchical changes in a clade within a given time frame, then evolutionary rates and lability can be estimated (Harvey et al. 1991, 1994). This is an important step in our understanding of the evolutionary process because previously we relied on measures taken from the fossil record thus restricting study to well-preserved traits. Via molecular phylogenies, it is now possible to trace evolutionary patterns in behavioural, ecological, or other poorly preserved traits. Here we shall test the idea that behavioural and ecological characters evolve at faster rates than morphological traits. Conceptually, our work parallels cladistic analyses of the origin, transitions, and historical (homology) constraints of behaviour and ecology (see for example Lauder 1986; Coddington 1988; de Queiroz and Wimberger 1993; Greene 1994; for review see Brooks and McLennan 1991). However, in contrast to that body of work, we examine continuous traits using statistical comparative methods and molecular phylogenies for measuring taxonomic divergence and rate. Using quantitative techniques may permit a broader comparative sweep (both in traits and taxa) for analysing evolutionary trends and, more importantly, may permit full use of the more precise nature (branch lengths and divergence times) of molecular phylogenies. We emphasize, however, that the present work is inherently descriptive, and not of a causal form.
Accurate crystal structure analysis by neutron diffraction
Authors: Jeffrey George A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Single-crystal neutron diffraction analysis is a long-established method of structure determination which is well documented in textbooks (Willis 1970; Brown and Forsyth 1973; Bacon 1975). Because a neutron-diffraction crystal structure analysis is a relatively expensive and time-consuming experiment, the method serves to complement the deficiencies of X-ray crystal structure analysis. The neutron scattering cross-sections of the atoms vary over a narrow range compared with the X-ray scattering factors, which increase with atomic numbers. Therefore, neutron diffraction is more effective for determining the atomic parameters of light atoms in molecules containing heavy atoms. This is particularly important in the study of hydrogen bonding, both in small molecules and in large biological macromolecules. It is also useful for distinguishing between atoms which are adjacent in the periodic table, where there is only a small proportional difference in the X-ray scattering factors.
Nature and reactivity of excited states and radicals
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When light (or any electromagnetic radiation) falls on a sample it may be transmitted, scattered or absorbed. If an atom or molecule is in the path of electromagnetic radiation of a range of frequencies certain energies will be absorbed, corresponding to the energy difference between two energy levels, i.e. at the resonant frequency—this applies whether the two levels are rotational, vibrational or electronic.
Biological measurements and fingerprints of radical and related damage
Authors: Symons M C R , Gutteridge J M C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The hydroxyl radical is far too reactive to be directly detected in vivo using present methodologies. Consequently, evidence of its biological existence is sought by indirect methods which assess patterns of damage characteristic of the hydroxyl radical. One of the most incriminating ‘calling cards’ the "OH radical leaves behind is its ability to hydroxylate aromatic molecules by the addition reaction (see Chapter 5).
Condensation
Authors: Whalley P B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Condensation can occur in two ways, as illustrated in Fig. 22.1. First there could be filmwise condensation, as in Fig. 22.l(a), where the condensate (that is the liquid formed when the vapour condenses) forms a continuous film on the solid surface. The latent heat released on condensation is conducted through this film from the interface where the condensation occurs and is removed through the wall. The other mechanism is drop wise condensation, shown in Fig. 22.l(b). In this case the condensate forms in drops which do not wet the solid surface well. The drops therefore do not form a continuous •film; instead they reach a certain critical size and then run off the surface. The surface is left dry and another drop can begin to form, rather like the formation of bubbles in nucleate boiling from a nucleation site. Because in drop wise condensation the vapour is in direct contact with the solid surface, the condensation heat transfer coefficients are significantly larger than in film wise condensation. However, dropwise condensation is difficult to promote reliably. Special surface coatings do give drop formation, but the effectiveness of such surface treatments decreases with time. The normal design practice is to assume that film wise condensation takes place.
Analysing the Screw
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the familiar rectangular Cartesian coordinate frame in three dimensions, a certain surface (or, to be precise, the coordinates of those points that lie on it) can be defined by writing a single condition f f (x, y, z) 0. When two such conditions are imposed, f 1 0 and f 2 0 , the points that satisfy both of them lie on the curve that is common to the two given surfaces. When both f 1 and f 2 are linear functions of x, y, and z, then both the surfaces are planes, and they intersect one another in a line. In many books dealing with algebraic geometry in three dimensions, a line is so defined, and then manipulated and developed through the medium of the planes used initially to define it.
Transformations for Coordinates that Locate a Rigid Body
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters most of our analyses have made use of a rectangular Cartesian coordinate frame. Since every robot comprises moving bodies, or links, a complete description of its relative displacements and force transfers can only be built by utilizing a succession of frames that continuously change in relative configuration. Often one frame is attached to or associated with each link, as indicated, for instance, for the robot in Fig. 1.8. To relate different displacements and forces, we need the means for transforming coordinates from one Cartesian frame to another.
In-parallel Actuation II: Combinations with Serial Devices
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now move towards a vast range of possible robot-structures that embody in-parallel actuation. We have already mentioned the centuries-old tripod in §8.1. Other newer designs with fewer than six actuators are less well known but are in current use (e.g. the fast light-weight ‘DELTA’ robot, §9.8.2). Applications to numerically controlled machining, welding, and precision riveting appear to be attracting increasing attention. And there still remains an unending list of potential structural forms for such robots; Merlet (2000) gives the most comprehensive description to date of those possibilities that have been identified and investigated.
Static Stability in Legged Vehicles
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we describe an application of screws to maintain automatically the static stability of legged vehicles and the impact of this stability on the coordination of displacements at the actuators in the individual legs. In Chapters 8 and 9, we presented other ways that the screw is used to coordinate displacements and velocities, but the relationship for static stability is distinctly different. There are also other interesting problems in controlling legged vehicles, such as the rules of gait. For a summary of the problems associated with controlling legged vehicles see Song and Waldron (1989).
Introduction
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of boiling and condensation under conditions of natural or forced convection is an extremely important one. The design of watertube and fire-tube boilers, pipe stills, water-cooled nuclear reactors, refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, heat pumps, petrochemical plant reboilers and condensers, surface condensers and many other major items of chemical and power plant is dependent upon a knowledge of the fluid dynamic and heat transfer processes occurring during convective boiling and condensation.
Empirical Treatments Of Two-Phase Flow
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘homogeneous’ model and the ‘separated flow’ model are the two most widely used and tested treatments of two-phase flow at present available. However, a large number of other empirical and semi-empirical methods have been suggested from time to time and a few of these approaches are outlined in the first half of this chapter. The most relevant and useful of these methods are those which attempt to model the particular hydrodynamic features of the flow and therefore the treatments are loosely grouped under the various flow patterns discussed in Chapter 1. Needless to say, these methods have to be used in conjunction with some method of defining the extent of the flow regime such as a flow pattern map.
Saturated Boiling Heat Transfer
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the present state of knowledge regarding the heat transfer characteristics of saturated forced convective boiling and evaporation will be discussed. Returning to Fig. 4.21, it can be seen that this covers the regions C and D, where nucleate boiling is occurring at the wall and where the flow pattern would be typically bubbly, slug, or low vapour velocity annular and regions E and F where there is no nucleation at the wall; this latter region is normally associated with annular flow.
Critical heat flux in forced convective flow—1. Vertical uniformly heated tubes
Authors: Collie John G , Eng F R S F , John R , Phil Thome D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The nature of the critical heat flux condition in forced convection was briefly discussed in Chapter 4 in the context of the boiling surface. Critical heat flux in pool boiling was also discussed in Chapter 4. This limiting condition forms a most important boundary when considering the performance of heat exchange equipment in which evaporation is occurring. The critical heat flux condition is characterized by a sharp reduction of the local heat transfer coefficient which results from the replacement of liquid by vapour adjacent to the heat transfer surface. For the case where the surface heat flux is the independent variable, the condition manifests itself as a sharp increase in surface temperature as the critical heat flux value is reached. Likewise, a considerably reduced heat flux will result when the condition is reached using a temperature-controlled heating surface.
Fundamentals of Robot Dynamics
Authors: Arimoto Suguru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, after a discussion of how difficult it is to explicate human dextrous motions in executing skilled tasks in terms of a theory of dynamics and control, the fundamentals of kinematics and dynamics of mechanical systems including robotic arms and hands are presented. The concepts of physical quantities such as momentum, force, torque, work, kinetic energy, and potential energy are introduced, by which Lagrange’s equation of motion is formalized. Hamilton’s principle plays a vital role in derivation of Lagrange’s equation and in assertion of the energy conservation law, which leads to the passivity of robot dynamics between torque inputs and velocity outputs.
Iterative Learning Control
Authors: Arimoto Suguru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A theory of iterative learning control for refinement of motions of robotic systems is presented, together with simulation results. It is shown that the passivity of such non-linear mechanical systems plays a key role in the ability to acquire a desired and skilled movement through repeated practice. This iterative learning scheme can be also applied to robot dynamics under holonomic tool tip constraint. When fluctuations and measurement noise exist, the introduction of a forgetting factor in the learning update law becomes crucial in the convergence of trajectory tracking errors.
Nonlinear Systems and State Constraints
Authors: Alamir Mazen , Barnard Guy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this paper, new sufficient conditions for the stability of Receding Horizon Control strategy [RHC] are proposed. Two versions of this strategy are considered. The first deals with finite horizon cost and a final constraint on the state vector. The second is defined with an infinite horizon cost with a restriction on the command vector to a finite dimensional space. The whole context in which the problem is defined is that of both regulation and tracking control based on a reference model.
Conversion Factors
Authors: Cook James L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a handy reference for students, teachers, and practitioners in engineering, physics, sciences, and technical subjects. More than 3500 conversion factors are given; these have been calculated from primary conversion factors agreed internationally. All conversion factors are given to the greatest accuracy possible up to ten significant figures. The conversion factors are grouped into unit types by areas of science, and range from angular acceleration to volume flow. An appendix of agreed primary conversion factors is given. Also of practical help are appendices of common mathematical and engineering formulae.
Primary conversion factors
Authors: Cook James L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By far the most coherent of these is the SI system and although the author has included units from all the above systems in this book, he would strongly recommend that the reader learns to use the SI system at all times. This book should help in that respect. Some definitions in this book differ slightly from those given in other references. The following notes have been compiled to clarify any differences that may concern the reader.
Numerical data
Authors: Cook James L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Density of water : 1000.0 kilograms/meter3 Viscosity of water (18 °C) : 0.001 newton seconds/meter2Heat capacity of water : 4.0 kilojoules/kilogram K Thermal conductivity of water : 0.6 watts/meter KLatent heat of boiling water : 2.0 mega joules/kilogram Latent heat of fusion of ice : 334.0 kilojoules/kilogram.
Mathematical formulae
Authors: Cook James L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The roots are real and distinct, real and equal, or complex according as b2 - 4ac is positive, zero, or negative respectively. The sum of the roots is -bf a; the product of the roots is The standard normal distribution is normal with mean 0 and variance 1.A distribution related to the normal is the lognormal: a random variable is distributed log normally if its natural logarithm is distributed normally-say, with mean µ and variance a2• In this case, the lognormal mean and variance are respectively.
Surfaces
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mapping of the plane into space is the most commonly used representation of a surface (Fig. 6.1). Surface points are described by the mapping P(u) where P is a point in space and u is a point on the plane. If a coordinate system C = (0, u, v) is chosen on the plane, then the surface is represented by the function P(u, v) of two real variables.
Sculptured surfaces machining on 5C milling machines
Authors: Marciniak Krzysztof 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On NC milling machines with a control unit of type SC a tool moves such that the direction of the rotation axis moves in space. A tool movement may be uniquely defined by the movement of a versor v on the tool axis and an arbitrarily chosen point C(t) on this axis (Fig. 12.1). An example of a SC machine tool structure is presented in Fig. 12.2. The trajectory shape depends upon the interpolators in the machine control unit (which are usually linear) but in practice any tool trajectory may be approximated by a polygon, so we may assume that any curve may represent a tool movement. A tool trajectory has to be calculated exactly, that is, approximately but within a tolerance of0.001 to 0.01 mm, and the tool feed rate may be calculated with an error of approximately So/o.
Basic Concepts
Authors: Woods L C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A substance in the gaseous state consists of an assembly of a vast number of microscopic particles that, excepting when they collide with each other, move freely and independently through the region of physical space available to them. The nature of the particles depends largely on the temperature of the assembly. At low temperatures, but above the critical value at which liquefaction can occur, they are molecules. At higher temperatures the molecules dissociate into atoms, and at still higher temperatures the atoms will become ions by shedding some of their electrons. The resulting assembly is termed a ‘ plasma’. Partially ionized plasmas consist of a mixture of neutral (i.e. uncharged) atoms, electrons, and ions, requiring at least three distinct species of microscopic particles to be included in a mathematical representation of their collective behaviour.
Intermediate Kinetic Theory
Authors: Woods L C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the elementary theory, the peculiar velocity c is treated as being a dependent variable. It depends on an initial value co chosen from the equilibrium distribution Jo, on the lapsed time since the last collision and on local temperature and fluid velocity gradients (see (3.40)). The procedure makes no use of the actual distribution function J, since Jo is entirely sufficient for averaging purposes. Details of the collisional process are suppressed by adopting relaxation times 71 and 72 for momentum and energy transfer. These times could be regarded as being a phenomenological input to the theory. However, if their dependence on an assumed molecular force law is required, then advanced kinetic theory is unavoidable. We shall present two forms of this theory in the following chapters.
Kinetic Theory For Magnetoplasmas
Authors: Woods L C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the basic assumptions of Boltzmann’s equation is that only binary collisions contribute to the collision integral, whereas in a plasma each particle is simultaneously interacting with the vast number of particles lying within a Debye distance. Most of these interactions result in very small deflections (see final paragraph of §6.3.3). From this description it would appear unlikely that Boltzmann’s equation has much relevance in plasma physics. In the first five sections of this chapter we shall introduce and apply a kinetic equation—known as the Fokker-Planck equation—which is usually considered to be more appropriate for plasmas, although in fact it can be deduced from Boltzmann’s equation by restricting the scattering angles to small values.
An Introduction to Ultrasonic Motors
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ultrasonic motor, invented in 1980, utilizes the piezoelectric effect in the ultrasonic frequency range to provide the motive force. (In conventional electric motors the motive force is electromagnetic). The result is a motor with unusually good low-speed high-torque and power-to-weight characteristics. It has already found applications in camera autofocus mechanisms, medical equipment subject to high magnetic fields, and motorized car accessories. Its applications will increase as designers become more familiar with its unique characteristics. This book is the result of a collaboration between the inventor and an expert in conventional electric motors: the result is an introduction to the general theory presented in a way that links it to conventional motor theory. It will be invaluable both to motor designers and to those who design with and use electric motors as an introduction to this important new invention.
The Piezoelectric Element And Vibrator
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical oscillations which takes place in the piezoelectric element can be separated into two areas of study. One is the study of piezoelectric material and its properties. The other is the mathematical treatment of the electrical-to-mechanical energy transformation. There is quite an extensive literature covering both of these aspects in detail: ref 1 and 2, for example, deal with piezoelectric materials, while ref 3 and 4 discuss the electromechanical energy transformation. We restrict our presentation to those topics which are necessary for our treatment of the ultrasonic motor, mostly summarizing the results achieved by early researchers. With regard to the treatment of the electrical-to-mechanical energy transformation, however, we shall make use of the equivalent circuit method, and relate it to the subject of friction as treated in Chapter 2.
Theory Of The Ultrasonic-Wave Motor
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ultrasonic wave motor was viewed as a major innovation compared with the wedge-type motor when it was announced, and it generated considerable interest in ultrasonic motors in general. In this chapter, the theory of flexural waves is first presented, then the mechanisms involved in generating thrust or torque from flexural waves are explained. The phenomenon of energy losses when electric power is converted to mechanical work is also discussed. In Chapter I, the concepts of standing waves and travelling waves were introduced, using waves generated in a stretched string. In the ultrasonic-wave motor, the waves are created by vibrations in a beam rather than a string. Before discussing waves in a beam, however, it will be useful first to gain an understanding of waves carried in a string. Consider a uniform string stretched along the x-axis (see Fig. 5.la) which is made to vibrate in they-direction (b). The behaviour of each point along the string can be determined by setting up and solving the appropriate equations of motion. Forces acting on a string segment are shown in Fig. 5.2.
Conceptual Overview
Authors: Zdravkovich M M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a fluid flows past a stationary body or, equivalently, when a body moves in a fluid at rest, aregion of disturbed flow is always formed around the body. The extent of the disturbed flow region is largely dependent on the shape, orientation, and size of the body, the velocity and viscosity of the fluid, and may be influenced by a wide variety of small disturbances.