bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Understanding
Authors: Lax Alistair J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are hundreds of different bacterial protein toxins. Early attempts to classify them relied on looking at the types of diseases that they caused. The neurotoxins (that caused problems linked to the nervous system) included botulinum and tetanus, but also diphtheria, which can induce nerve damage. Enterotoxins were those that caused enteritis, for example diarrhoea. Nowadays it is more common to catalogue toxins depending on how they work, although the older classification is still of use. Luckily toxins fall into just three main groups, so it is necessary only to grasp three general concepts. Each type of toxin can be likened to a different type of military campaign. Some toxins attack like a battalion of tanks, some (like diphtheria) hit behind the enemy front line to disable supply lines, while others still are more devious and attack vital communication systems to cause confusion and disarray.
Belief and Instinct in Hume’s First Enquiry
Authors: Bell Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of Part i of Section V of the Enquiry concerning Human Understanding Hume arrives at a conclusion about belief. This is an outcome of his investigation of probable reasoning, a central theme around which much of the work revolves. The sections which follow, about necessary connexion, liberty and necessity, miracles, divine providence, and scepticism, all depend on the arguments of Sections IV and V Part i. After stating the conclusion, Hume goes on in Section V Part ii to some ‘farther researches’ about the nature and causes of belief. But these further enquiries, we are told, are not needed for understanding subsequent arguments, and can be omitted by readers who have no taste for ‘the abstract sciences’ (E 47).
Thoughts on Rhythm
Authors: Scruton Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perceptual information must be assembled into comprehensible units if it is to guide us around the world. This is as true of the ear as of the eye; hence Gestalt principles operate in the auditory as in the visual sphere, though applied to temporal rather than spatial configurations (Bregman 1990; Gelfand 1998). Some philosophers might wish to speak of a ‘nonconceptual’ or ‘preconceptual’ unity in the auditory Gestalt — even of a nonconceptual content (Peacocke 1983: Ch.3). For the unities and wholes that we hear are, in the first instance, presented under no description. When, for example, a regular sequence of scale steps is interrupted by noises that mask individual pitches, we hear a continuous sequence, interrupted by foreground noise, rather than discontinuous sections of a scale.
Treatment options before IVF
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The publicity given to IVF in magazines and television programmes gives the impression that IVF is the only form of fertility treatment. However, many couples can become pregnant with simpler treatment. A good clinic will investigate each couple carefully and give advice according to their individual circumstances. In general, it is best to start with the simplest effective treatment, and if this does not succeed, to proceed to the more complex techniques of IVF.
Problems with ovulation and polycystic ovary syndrome
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anovulation means that you are either not releasing eggs (ovulating) or only releasing eggs sometimes. If you are not ovulating, periods are often irregular and there may be long gaps between them, perhaps lasting for 2 months or more. Alternatively, periods may occur more frequently than every 26 days. The period itself may be very light, perhaps little more than spotting of blood, lasting only a day or so. Another pattern sometimes seen is that the period may be very prolonged and last for more than 2 weeks.
Ovulation induction
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ovulation induction (OI), as the term suggests, is treatment for anovulation. Strictly speaking, OI is not actually a form of assisted reproduction as it is simply aiming to mimic the normal activity of the ovary, thereby allowing spontaneous pregnancy. There are various different treatment options for inducing ovulation, depending on the underlying problem. However, the aim of ovulation induction is always the same—to allow the release of one egg per treatment cycle.
In vitro fertilization (including ICSI and IVM)
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IVF stands for in vitro fertilization—joining the egg and sperm outside the body. It is often called ‘test-tube baby’ treatment. The first test-tube baby, Louise Brown, was born in Britain in 1978. This followed years of preparatory work by gynaecologist Patrick Steptoe and scientist Robert Edwards, who pioneered IVF despite opposition from the medical and scientific establishment and criticism that it was unethical to ‘create’ human life. However, over the last 30 years, IVF has become so successful and such a common form of treatment that at least one in 100 pregnancies in the UK are conceived this way. About 10 000 IVF babies have been born in the UK.
Adoption
Authors: Davies Melanie , Webber Lisa , Overton Caroline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are very few absolute requirements for the adopter, although a criminal record involving offences against children would exclude an individual from adopting a child. The interests of the child are always paramount, which includes finding a suitable placement within the minimal amount of time. The Adoption and Children Act 2002 has removed some of the previous restrictions for prospective adopters with the aim of enlarging the potential pool of adults who can provide a child with a loving and stable home.
Ecumenical Expressivism: The Best of Both Worlds?
Authors: Ridge Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Michael Smith ‘s thesis is about evaluative judgments, but he could just as easily be talking about normative judgments— judgments about reasons for action and judgments about what one ought to do. Indeed, on T. M. Scanlon ‘s intriguing ‘buck-passing ‘ account of evaluative judgment, evaluative judgment just is normative judgment in disguise. In what sense are normative judgments Janus-faced, though? In some respects, they seem like ordinary beliefs. We call them ‘beliefs ‘, as when we say things like, ‘Britney believes that she ought to spend more time at the tanning salon. ‘ We classify them as true or false. We sometimes think they constitute knowledge. They figure in apparently rational inferences. In other respects, though, normative judgments seem more like desires. Normative judgment is practical; it reliably guides action. Changes in normative view reliably track changes in motivation. We question the sincerity of someone who claims that she really ought to do something but shows no signs whatsoever of being motivated to do it, feel bad about not doing it, etc. Failure to act on one ‘s all things considered normative judgment is irrational. This contrasts with acting contrary to what one believes is required by merely conventional norms like those of etiquette.
Value and Autonomy in Kantian Ethics
Authors: Johnson Robert N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kantian ethics can at times appear to defend the position that there is a unique sort of value that plays a foundational role in morality. For instance, Kant ‘s most well-known work in ethics, the Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, begins by trying to establish that a good will is good ‘without qualification ‘ and then ends with a first statement of the fundamental principle that divides right from wrong, the Categorical Imperative. This presentation can make it seem as if Kant believes the authority carried by the Categorical Imperative is somehow supposed to be grounded in the value of a good will. Again, the humanity formulation of the Categorical Imperative, the formulation that tells us we must respect the humanity in ourselves and others by treating it as an end in itself, appears to allude to a special value possessed by some feature of persons, their humanity, and then explain the authority of moral obligation by way of that value. This extolling of the value of humanity and the dramatic refrain about the unique value of a good will both appear to portray Kant as telling us that moral reasoning consists of taking notice of the peculiar value that they possess which demands that we adjust our deliberation and actions in light of them. We appear to be told that the good will and humanity are bits of metaphysical glitter, jewels carrying their value around with them, and that this unique glitter is source of the authority of moral obligation.
Representation and Content in Some (Actual) Theories of Perception
Authors: Hatfield Gary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Philosophers of psychology have examined the use and legitimacy of such notions as “representation,” “content,” “computation,” and “inference” within a scientific psychology. While the resulting assessments have varied widely— from outright rejection of some or all of these notions (P. M. Churchland 1981; P. S. Churchland 1980; Stich 1983) to full vindication of their use (Fodor 1975; Pylyshyn 1984)— there has been agreement on the considerations deemed relevant for making an assessment.
Natural Language Syntax
Authors: Culicover Peter W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book, Peter Culicover introduces the analysis of natural language within the broader question of how language works - of how people use languages to configure words and morphemes in order to express meanings. He focuses both on the syntactic and morphosyntactic devices that languages use, and on the conceptual structures that correspond to particular aspects of linguistic form. He seeks to explain linguistic forms and in the process to show how these correspond with meanings. The book’s clear, step-by-step exposition is presented within the Simpler Syntax framework whose development has been led by the author and Ray Jackendoff over the last fifteen years. This integrates syntactic theory with the representation of conceptual structure and casts fresh light on the interface between syntax and semantics. It also enables elegant and economical analyses of natural language phenomena without recourse to such abstract devices as functional heads and uniform binary branching. Peter Culicover opens his account with an overview of the nature of language and the aims of its analysis. He then divides the book into parts devoted to syntactic categories, syntactic structure and argument structure, argument realization, unbounded dependencies, and clausal structure. He provides exercises, problems, and suggestions for further reading throughout the book.
Inflammatory bowel disease
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which includes ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, affects 1 person in every 400 in the UK. Between 6,000 and 12,000 new cases of colitis are diagnosed every year, and research shows that the number of people with Crohn's disease has been rising steadily. While there are numerous volumes covering the management of IBD aimed at clinicians and several volumes focusing on either ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease for patients, there are few volumes covering the full spectrum of IBD for patients, families and carers. This patient-centred guide covers all aspects of IBD including common symptoms, tests used to make a diagnosis, treatment and overall management of the condition. Providing up-to-date factual information, it is easy to read and allows quick access to key facts and helpful advice. With consideration given to new developments in the understanding and treatment of inflammation of the bowel, including complementary and alternative therapies, this book will help to improve the overall quality of life for all those affected by this chronic disease.
Surgery for inflammatory bowel disease
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ideally, surgery is performed electively. In other words, the surgery is planned and discussed in advance, the patient is admitted to hospital shortly before the operation and the surgery is performed on a predetermined date. However, sometimes surgery needs to be performed urgently (in other words within a few days) or as an emergency (within a few hours). Urgent or emergent operations are performed because delaying them would potentially endanger the patient ‘s health or even threaten their life.
Future and unproven treatments
Authors: Langmead Louise , Irving Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a constant stream of new treatments being developed for ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn ‘s disease. These include new drugs, drugs that exist already for treatment of other conditions, new medical devices, and other novel ideas, like swallowing parasites! Before treatments become widely available and are accepted by the medical world, and before governments and health insurers will pay for them, they have to be proven effective and safe in properly designed and executed clinical trials. This is for several reasons.
Clinical features of psoriatic arthritis
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psoriatic arthritis is defined as inflammatory arthritis associated with psoriasis, usually negative for rheumatoid factor. This statement essentially summarizes the clinical features of the psoriatic arthritis. The primary clinical feature is inflammatory arthritis; inflammatory arthritis presents with pain, swelling, stiffness, redness, and often reduction in mobility.
Radiological features of psoriatic arthritis
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imaging is an important tool in the assessment of patients with psoriatic arthritis. Imaging complements clinical assessment and helps in confirming the diagnosis as well as in determining the severity of psoriatic arthritis. The various modalities used in assessment of psoriatic arthritis include radiology (X-rays), ultrasound, computed tomography scan (CT scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and bone scan. The characteristic features of psoriatic arthritis seen with these radiological techniques are described here.
Non-drug therapy
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As with all chronic rheumatic conditions, treatment of psoriatic arthritis involves care by a multidisciplinary team. Although pharmacotherapy with drugs is the cornerstone of treatment of inflammatory arthritis such as psoriatic arthritis, non-drug therapy also plays a valuable role. Comprehensive care of a patient with psoriatic arthritis requires integrated drug and non-drug therapies and educational intervention. Non-drug therapy chiefly includes education, and physical and occupational therapy.
Drug therapy
Authors: Gladman Dafna D , Chandran Vinod 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pharmacotherapy or drug therapy is the cornerstone of management of psoriatic arthritis. Drug therapy depends on the severity and stage of the arthritis and the severity of skin disease. Patients should ideally be under the care of a team of health professionals comprising rheumatologists, dermatologists, physiotherapists, and occupational therapists. However, if the primary problem is skin disease and the arthritis is mild, the subject may be managed by a dermatologist after a complete assessment by a rheumatologist. Periodic assessment by a rheumatologist in such cases would be ideal. On the other hand, if the primary problem is joint disease, the rheumatologist should primarily manage the patient, with the dermatologist confirming the diagnosis of psoriasis and providing input if skin disease remains poorly controlled.
Validity, Paradox, and the Ideal of Deductive Logic
Authors: Hofweber Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are three basic ingredients that together give rise to the semantic paradoxes, and correspondingly there are three basic strategies for a straightforward solution to them. The first ingredient is a logic, like classical logic. This we can simply take as a set of inference rules associated with certain logically special expressions. The second is a truth predicate, or something like it, and some rules or schemas that are associated with it, say introduction and elimination rules, or the Tarski schema. The third ingredient is some other expressive resources that allow one to formulate one of the trouble inducing sentences, like the liar sentence, or the Curry conditional. Once we have these three we can derive contradictions and anything whatsoever using only the rules we have, with the help of the problematic sentences.
Pleasure’ S Pyrrhic Victory: An Intellectualist Reading Of The Philebus
Authors: Butler J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
scholars often suggest that in his late dialogues Plato becomes something like what Søren Kierkegaard calls the knight of infinite resignation. There is some ideal—be it rule by philosopher-king or the life of pure intellection—which is unattainable; as things stand, we are stuck with some second-best. The Stranger’s conclusion in the Statesman might be delivered with a sigh:
The Assimilation Of Sense To Sense-Object In Aristotle
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aristotle holds that acts of sense-perception crucially involve some kind of assimilation of the perceiver to the relevant sense object say, a red flag, or a fragrant lavender bush. It has for some time been highly controversial how he conceives of this kind of assimilation. According to some scholars, what he has in mind is an alteration or change in quality whereby the perceiver’s sense-organ in a straightforward way takes on the perceptible quality of the object that is being perceived. According to others, such assimilation just is becoming aware of the perceptible quality in question. On this view, the likeness between perceiver and sense-object in the act of perception depends on the fact that the perceptible form of the sense-object has in a certain way come to be present in the perceiver’s sense-organ.
No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism
Authors: Segvic Heda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Western philosophical tradition is deeply indebted to the figure of Socrates. The question ‘How should one live?’ has rightly been called ‘the Socratic question’. Socrates’ method of cross examining his interlocutors has often been seen as a paradigmatic form of philosophical enquiry, and his own life as an epitome of the philosophical life. What philosophers and non-philosophers alike have often found disappointing in Socrates is his intellectualism. A prominent complaint about Socratic intellectualism has been memorably recorded by Alexander Nehamas: ‘And George Grote both expressed the consensus of the ages and set the stage for modern
Some Logical Problems in Metaphysics Gamma
Authors: Wedin Michael v. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metaphysics I’ 4 opens with a reference to persons who (a) say (cpaai) that it is possible for the same thing to be and not to be and (b) hold things to be the case in just this way (v1roAaµ,(3avELV oihw,).1 Certain of the writers on nature are said to ‘make use of this thesis’ (xpwvrni Tl(J :\6yqi). The thesis in question is presumably (a), and so (b) probably adverts to specific claims that violate the principle of non-contradiction, claims of the sort Heraclitus and others are alleged to have made. Aristotle will have none of this, of course, and in I’ 4 he proceeds to hammer such views. So it might seem that the sole object of Aristotle’s attention is defence of the principle of non-contradiction (PNC) itself. This would be hardly surprising in the light of its vaunted status in the corpus as a whole. But in Metaphysics I’ he is, I believe, chiefly concerned
Plato on Knowledge and Forms
Authors: Fine Gail 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plato on Knowledge and Forms brings together a set of connected essays by Gail Fine, in her main area of research since the late 1970s: Plato’s metaphysics and epistemology. She discusses central issues in Plato’s metaphysics and epistemology, issues concerning the nature and extent of knowledge, and its relation to perception, sensibles, and forms; and issues concerning the nature of forms, such as whether they are universals or particulars, separate or immanent, and whether they are causes. A specially written introduction draws together the themes of the volume, which will reward the attention of anyone interested in Plato or in ancient metaphysics and epistemology.
Akrasia in the Republic: Does Plato Change his Mind?
Authors: Carone Gahriela Roxana 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The topic of ‘weakness of will’, or akrasia, has aroused a great deal of discussion in recent years, among both contemporary philosophers and interpreters of Plato, who identify the Socratic position in the Protagoras as an explicit denial that such a phenomenon actually occurs. Yet it seems to be a commonplac&lt;‘ even among the most renowned contemporary scholars to attribute to Plato, particularly in the Republic, a radical departure from the Socratic position expressed in the Protagoras.
Montgomery Belgion
Authors: Harding Jason 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In May 1996, Tom Paulin ‘turned’ on T. S. Eliot. The occasion was a review-article championing Anthony Julius’s controversial study T. S. Eliot, Anti-Semitism, and Literary Form; a work that sought to demonstrate that anti-Semitism was inseparable from, indeed constitutive of, Eliot’s art. The centrepiece of Paulin’s attack, published in the London Review of Books, was an apparently anonymous review of The Yellow Spot: The Outlawing of Half a Million Human Beings, a book publicizing the persecution of German Jews, which appeared among the Criterion’s ‘Shorter Notices’ in July 1936. In a lengthy discussion of the notice, Julius commented: ‘The review crawls with impatient distaste, wilfully refusing to do its subject justice.’
Past the Linguistic Turn?
Authors: Williamson Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘The linguistic turn’ has subsequently become a standard vague phrase for a diffuse event—some regard it as the event—in twentieth-century philosophy, one not con- fined to signed-up linguistic philosophers in Rorty’s sense. For those who took the turn, language was somehow the central theme of philosophy. There is an increasingly widespread sense that the linguistic turn is past. In this essay I ask how far the turn has been, or should be, reversed. Ayer traced his views back ultimately to the empiricism of Berkeley and Hume (1936: 11). His contrast between definitions of words and descriptions of objects is, roughly, the linguistic analogue of Hume’s contrast between relations of ideas and matters of fact.
Introduction
Authors: Schofield Malcolm 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is Plato our contemporary? Well, yes and no. When he philosophized about politics, he was thinking of the long-vanished Greek polis or ‘city-state’ of ancient Athens and Sparta. Democracy for him meant the direct participation of all adult male citizens in the decision-making processes of the popular assembly and the courts of justice, not the representative systems of today. The intensity of his obsession with political rhetoric as an inbred democratic disease is intelligible only against the background of an interpretation of fifthcentury Athenian imperialism and its downfall in the Peloponnesian War that he probably borrowed (not without twists of his own) from the historian Thucydides.