bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Civil Enthusiasm in A Tale of a Tub
Authors: Noggle James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Swift uses sublime discourse skeptically in A Tale of a Tub (1704) to characterize the failure of human subjects to arrogate transcendent authority in many contexts: “The Establishment of New Empires by Conquest: The Advance and Progress of New Schemes in Philosophy; and the contriving, as well as the propagating of New Religions.”1 Under these headings fall Dissenting enthusiasm and Roman Catholic authoritarianism, tyrannies of monarchs and the crowd, literary criticism blinded by archaic philological minutiae or the taste of the moment, and dogmatic philosophy ancient and modern. The sublime works in the Tale as a rubric under which to put a diversity of pretensions—thus its first French translator calls it Le Conte de Tonneau Contenant tout ce que les Arts, & les Sciences Ont de plus Sublime, Et de plus Mysterieux (1720). The range of targets at which Tale directs its antidogmatic humor indicates its participation in what Richard Kroll has called “a remarkably coherent if plural cultural reorganization”2 in the period, in which “neoclassical discourse fragmented the claims of dissent by appealing to sceptical modes” (78). Swift, like others of various political persuasions, questions dogma to move the culture beyond the violent ideological battles of the seventeenth century.
The Public Universe An Essay on Man and the Limits of the Sublime Tradition
Authors: Noggle James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The philosophical contradiction most often seen in An Essay On Man is the principal one that theories of the sublime typically seek to resolve, and the Essay’s failure to satisfy its readers on the point accounts to some degree for their sense of its deficiencies both philosophical and poetic.1 The Essay insists on its confinement to the sphere of “Man”—“His knowledge measur’d to his state and place, / His time a moment, and a point his space” (Epistle I, 71–2)—yet adopts a perspective transcending this sphere to make our limitation to it seem providentially “right” (I, 294). From its early readers2 to today; critics have seized on this as the Essay’s main philosophical outrage, stated incisively by A. D. Nuttall: “If we maintain that man is unable to conceive anything beyond his own sphere, and make that limitation of conception a principal element in our low estimate of man, the view in question can consistently be put only by a being with supernatural powers of insight. Man, so limited, would never know that he is limited.”3 The Essay at once renounces and arrogates supernatural, godlike authority to justify the universe’s order, and its doing one seems strangely identical to its doing the other.
Denouement: The Living Clock
Authors: Palmer John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the years biologists exploring the terra incognita of organismic timekeeping have had some successes; I can thus introduce much of what is known about the living clock’s escapement. First, a bit of historical perspective.
I first got interested in rhythms when, as a student, I stumbled upon my first example. As a beginning animal physiology student (the hot field back in those days) I had learned all about homeostasis, the name for the fact that warm-blooded animals are able to maintain an internal constancy of chemical-reaction rates even in changing external environmental conditions. An example would be our ability to keep a fairly even body temperature during cool spring weather and hot summers. The constancy of the milieu intérieur was championed by no less than the great French, nineteenth-century biologist Claude Bernard, a man now referred to by many as the father of physiology and experimental medicine.
Thymbra 546B.C
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 612 B.C., the Assyrian Empire, which had dominated and terrorized the land from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean since the middle of the eighth century, was overthrown. In that year, two subservient populations, the Babylonians and the Medes, joined forces and captured the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. In che wake of that victory, the empire was divided between the victors: Nabopolassar of Babylon ruled che southern half, and Cyarxes of Media ruled the northern. Media was originally the region char today encompasses northwestern Iran along the southern bank of the Caspian Sea into Armenia. Under Cyarxes, Median power was stretched westward to the frontiers of Asia Minor and eastward almost to Afghanistan. Cyarxes died in 585 B.C., the year char he and the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor agreed that the border between their territories would be the Halys River. Cyarxes was succeeded by Ascyages, who apparenrly was quite a tyrant and who alienated the Median aristocracy by depending on religious advisors for his policy formulation.
Marathon c. 21 September 490 B.C
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the fifth century B.C., Persia owned an empire that stretched from India to the Mediterranean. Begun two generations earlier by Cyrus the Great, the Persian Empire at this point was under the control of Darius. Darius had been the architect of the campaigns that stretched the empire to its current limits, and he seemed constantly to be hungry for more land. The Persian Empire acquired lands by conquest and then incorporated the captured nations into the established Persian administration. Thus, the army that the empire fielded was made up of a wide range of races with a variety of military talents. Ar its core, the Persian military depended on the original populations of the empire, the Medes and the Persians. These were the best trained and equipped troops, as well as the most highly motivated. These two populations also provided the officers that commanded the other troops brought in via conquest. By the start of the fifth century, they were a seemingly unbeatable force, for no enemy had been able to withstand their might.
Ipsus Spring 310 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Legend has it that, when Alexander the Great lay dying in June 323 B.C., one of his subordi­nates asked who was to inherit his empire. The response was: “the strongest.” The largest em­pire the world had yet known, stretching from Greece to the borders of India, could in reality only be held together by a man of Alexander’s vision, and few men in history rise anywhere near that level. Alexander’s only natural heir was an infant who, along with his mother Roxanne, was soon killed. Thus began the struggle to determine which of Alexander’s subordinates could prove himself strongest.
Fairly quickly four men rose to serious contention. In Egypt, Ptolemy was Alexander’s governor. He had the immense wealth of Egypt upon which to draw (vital for hiring Macedonian troops, the core of any successful army). He also had Alexander’s body, which he acquired through some trickery in order to bury it at the shrine of Amon where Alexander was supposedly named a god. Unfortunately for him, Ptolemy lacked the bold temperament necessary to gamble for really high stakes. In Macedon itself was Antipacer, left behind to maintain control over the homeland and Greece during Alexander’s campaigns. Antipater soon died, however, and was succeeded by his son Cassander.
Actium 2 September 31 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the assassination of Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 B.C., two men positioned themselves to assume the mantle of government in Rome. The first was Marcus Antonius, or Mark Antony, a successful general and protege of Caesar. Antonius was popular with the army and had the support of a number of senators. The other was Caius Julius Caesar Octavian us, who had been adopted by Julius Caesar and named in his will as heir.
Badr 15March 624
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early seventh century, a young man of the city of Mecca began having visions and hear­ing voices, both of which he took to be divinely inspired. Although he was illiterate, in the visions he was able to absorb the writing on a quilt that was being pressed upon him, thus having the words imprinted on his heart. These words became the verses of the Koran, the holy book of lslam. Mohammed attempted to share his experiences with his fellow citizens of Mecca, but met opposition. At the time, Mecca was a key trading center in Arabia, halfway between Christian and Jewish trade centers and affected by both, economically and socially. When Mohammed’s teachings criticized some of the business practices of Meccan merchants, led by the ruling clan of Quraysh, they put pressure on his clan to silence him. The clan leader, Mohammed’s uncle Abu Talib, refused to com­ply; in return, his clan was subjected to economic boycott. As time passed, more direct threats were leveled against Mohammed.
Manzikert 1071
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the middle of the eleventh century A.O., the Byzantine Empire was well past its prime, although still a force with which to be reckoned. A series of weak and shorterm emperors and empresses had frittered away the empire’s wealth while ignoring its frontiers and defenses. Although the Byzantine army, which trained and fought upon proven standards, was probably the best organized army of its day, it was irregularly led and the quality of its recruits had dropped markedly. The manuals Strategicon from the sixth century and Tactica from the early tenth century were the bases of a workable and working military philosophy, but the sturdy Anatolian peasant upon which the empire had long depended for its soldiery was no longer providing the core of the army. Foreign recruits or mercenaries made up the majority of the army. Although some of these were outstanding fighters, such as the Varangian Guard, few were tied to the empire in any way but monetary. Only the lack of an organized rival kept the Byzantine army the premiere force of the time, and the tenuous nature of the force’s composition meant that it could not really stand to be seriously challenged or badly commanded.
Crecy 26 August 1346
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When French King Charles IV died without a male heir in 1327, the ruling line of Capet came to an end. Although English King Edward III was a more direct descendant, he at first conceded the throne to the favorite of the French nobility, Philip Valois. He paid homage to him as Philip VI in return for a guarantee of continued English possession of the Duchy of Acquitaine, just north of the Pyrenees and that had come into English possession when Eleanor of Acquitaine married English King Henry II in the previous century. By 1340, however, Edward changed his mind and decided to lay claim to the French throne. By this time, the English and French had begun fighting what came to be called the Hundred Years’ War (actually intermittent fighting between 1337 and 1453). The reasons for war were the AngloFrench rivalry over the wool trade centered in Flanders, as well as French support for Scottish rebellions against England.
Constantinople February-May 1453
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Constantine the Great established the city of Constantinople as his capital in 323, he occupied the former city of Byzantium, which had controlled for centuries the straits separating Asia and Europe. The Sea of Marmora is flanked northeast and southwest by the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, two narrow passages that link the Mediterranean and the Black Seas. Unless one plans to go completely around the Black Sea, the only way from Europe into Asia Minor is across one of those straits, and Byzantium/Constantinople/Istanbul has therefore been an extremely strategic possession for both land and naval warfare, as well as over land and maritime trade.
Panipat 21 April 1526
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The roots of Babur’s invasion of northern India in the 1520s lay in his ancestor Timur the Lame, better known to history as Tamurlane. In his destructive career, Timur had devastated every land he could, reaching from the Black Sea to India, which he looted in 1398. He left little in the way of an empire, for his actions focused more on pillage rhan long-term conquest. Thus, any claims of his heirs to Timur’s lands was pretty tenuous. A century after Timur’s death, Babur attempted to assert his right to rule from Timur’s fabled capital of Samarkand. Babur’s father was Turkish and his morher was Mongol; his people came to be called Moghul, from the Arabic word for Mongol.
Lepanto 7 October 1571
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the late fifteenth century, Spain was the dominant power in Europe. The wealth garnered from the Spanish colonies in the Americas was the foundation of its military might, and the fact that Charles I of Spain was also ruler of the Holy Roman Empire meant that Spain controlled much of western Europe. This included the Netherlands and Austria, along with claims to lands on the Italian peninsula. Charles saw the Roman Catholic faith as the glue to hold all this together, but he had his share of rivals. Catholic France had no desire to see Charles further empowered as the champion of the Catholic Church, and Pope Clement VII feared anyone with sufficient political power to challenge his authority. Further, France also had claims to Italian possessions that contradicted Spain’s. Thus, Pope Clement sought to challenge Charles by organizing his rivals into the Holy League of Cognac, but this was defeated in May 1527 when Charles’s forces captured and sacked Rome. After bribing his main naval competitor, Genoa, Charles gained control of the western Mediterranean as well. In 1530, Charles forced Pope Clement to recognize him both as Holy Roman Emperor and king of Italy.
Breitenfeld 17 September 1631
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg became the law of the Holy Roman Empire, territory that included modern-day Germany, Holland, Belgium, Austria, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic. The ruling Hapsburg dynasty was divided into two branches, one in Austria and the other in Spain, each with its own responsibilities and territories. The Augsburg declaration was an attempt to defuse the rampant religious and political feuding in central Europe, especially in the Germanic principalities. It stated that each prince had the power to decide for his province what its official religion would be. Thus, Catholic and Lutheran provinces were officially recognized; the growing Calvinist denomination, however, was not. The Peace of Augsburg worked for several decades, but by the early 1600s religious alliances became more and more political. A clash between Protestant and Catholic states was inevitable.
Shanhaikuan 28May 1644
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Manchus were a Mongol population living in northern Manchuria and were descended from the Jurchen Mongols that had invaded China and established the Ch’in dynasty in the twelfth century. After the fall of the Yiian dynasty begun by Kubilai Khan, the Manchus were tributaries to the subsequent Ming dynasty (established in 1368). The Mings oversaw a period of great culture as well as military success in Chinese history, but, as is the nature of empires, later rulers spent more time enjoying their wealth and power than seeing to the business of ruling the country. By the early l 600s, the Mings were subjected to a fairly regular series of rebellions. The Manchus had remained loyal until 1582, when two Manchu officials serving the Ming government, Giocangga and his son Taksi, died in a civil disturbance. Taksi’s son was Nurhachi, and he was determined to avenge his father and grandfather’s death while establishing his people as the next rulers of China. Nurhachi realized that at the time the power disparity between the Manchus and Ming was too great to overcome, so he remained the loyal servant while slowly increasing his influence through marriage and military exploits. Starting in 1599, Nurhachi began campaigning against rival Manchu chieftains and succeeded in gathering almost all of the factions into his camp through conquest or diplomacy. By 1609, he was sufficiently powerful that the Ming government dealt with him as ruler of Manchuria, allowing him local autonomy. Nurhachi organized a system of districts that provided military organization as well as the beginnings of a governmental structure.
Naseby 14June 1645
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since the War of the Roses (1455-1485), the government of England had remained remarkably stable. The king ruled, if not absolutely, then certainly with little restriction on his power. This was possible because he was granted a comfortable income via tariffs and the produce of royally held property. With such an income, taxes were minimal, and the successive monarchs had no need to summon Parliament. As long as they ruled with a minimum of wisdom and did not exceed their incomes, the population was happy. For almost two centuries this was the case, but royal ambitions in the early seventeenth century began to stretch the royal bank accounts, and Parliament needed to be summoned to provide extra monies.
Prophetstown (Tippecanoe) 1 November 1811
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first English settlement that survived on North American soil was at Jamestown, founded in 1607, on the coast of what is now the state of Virginia. Several earlier attempts to found colonies failed, mainly because of the colonists’ lack of foresight in bringing sufficient supplies to last through the harsh American winters. Raised on stories of the fabulous wealth that the Spanish had been looting from Central America since the end of the fifteenth century, the English expected to find the same gold available in North America.
Leipzig (Battle Of The Nations) 16-18 October 1813
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After Napoleon’s disastrous retreat from Russia at the end of 1812, during which he lost the bulk of the half-million-soldier army with which he invaded, no one in Europe expected him to recover so quickly. He reached Paris well before the news of the Russian fiasco and was able to immediately build another army by robbing future conscription rolls. That meant that most of the enrollees in the new Grande Armee were barely of military age, but they were nonetheless enthusiastic. Napoleon transferred some veterans out of Spain to stiffen the ranks with experienced fighters and then marched east toward the countries that he had long dominated and who were now organizing against him.
San Jacinto 21 April 1836
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mexico won its independence from Spain in the early 1820s and, desiring to have sufficient population in case of a return of Spanish armies, advertised in the United States for immigrants who could occupy the lightly populated north-eastern province of Texas. Spanish and then Mexican immigration to the area had been unsuccessful because of the aggressive Comanches, so American settlers could not only hold the ground against a potential Spanish invasion but could act as a buffer against the Comanches for the 4,000 Mexican settlers. American settlers led by Stephen F. Austin began arriving in 1823; by 1830, some 20,000 had moved to Texas. At that point, the Mexican government closed the borders, but over the next 3 years another I 0,000 Americans entered Texas illegally, establishing a practice followed to this day (although from a different direction).
Telelkebir 13 September 1882
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Egypt was a key part of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century. It gave Turkey, the base of that empire, control over the Middle East and the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Turkey needed all the help it could get, for it was, and had been, a fading power since its naval defeat at the battle of Lepanto in 1571. By the middle of the 1800s, Turkey was regarded throughout the western world as “the sick man of Europe,” grimly hanging on to possessions in the Balkans and beating back periodic Russian attempts to gain control over the Bosporus.
Warsaw J6-25August 1920
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Through its history Poland has been both a region and a nation, often occupied by more powerful neighbors, even more often overrun by one enemy or another bent either on conquering the Poles or passing through on the way to meet another enemy. Like Palestine, Alsace/Lorraine, or a number of other formitously placed pieces of land located near too many rivals, Poland has known more than its fair share of war. In the late eighteenth century, the nation of Poland was divided three times (1772, 1793, 1795) between Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary. Overbearing policies imposed by the occupying powers fruitlessly attempted to break Polish spirit, and in the wake of World War I, circumstances seemed right for the Poles to reassert their nationalism. Germany and Russia had fought across Polish territory for almost 4 years, but Russia’s withdrawal from the war after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, followed by Germany’s defeat in November of that year, gave the Poles a stellar opportunity to not only reestablish a nation but to possibly expand their traditional borders and exact a little revenge for more than a century of brutal occupation.
Okinawa I April-22june 1945
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the U.S. landings at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands in August 1942, the offensives had not stopped. Douglas MacArthur commanded army forces that drove the Japanese from the western Solomons and New Guinea, and then he took aim at the Philippines in September 1944. The Marines had followed a different path toward Japan, capturing scattered Japanese strongholds in an island hopping campaign. That strategy of capturing a few key islands to dominate those surrounding them gave the Americans firm bases to maintain a steady advance through the central Pacific. As MacArthur’s forces were assaulting the Philippines, Marine forces under the command of Admiral Chester Nimitz were consolidating the Marianas. This meant that long-range Boeing B-29 craft could take the war to the home islands with incendiary attacks that destroyed Japanese war production. In February, Americans landed at lwo Jima in the Bonin Islands. Ac chat point, army forces and Marines joined together co merge the two paths at Okinawa.
Israel’s War Of Independence 14 May 1948-7January 1949
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For almost 2,000 years, the Jews had been without a homeland, the Diaspora beginning in the first century A.D. during Roman occupation. Not until the end of the nineteenth century was the concept of reestablishing a Jewish homeland seriously considered, and organizations dedicated to Zionism (the founding of a Jewish state in the land the Jews had occupied in biblical times) began to blossom in Europe. This was sparked by the publication of The Jewish State,by Austrian journalist Theodore Herzl. Acting through European philanthropists such as Baron de Rothschild, agents bought up some 100,000 acres of land from absentee Arab landlords by 1914, by which time some 60,000 Jews had moved to Palestine. They did so not only in response to Herzl’s book but to escape pogroms in eastern Europe.