bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Response shift: you know it ‘s there but how do you capture it? Challenges for the next phase of research
Authors: Schwartz Carolyn , Sprangers Mirjam , Fayers Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Health is not a given. Whether confronted with sudden or gradual changes in health, individuals must accommodate and adapt to these changed conditions. There is an increasing recognition that when people experience changes in health, they may change their internal standards, their values, and/or their conceptualization of health-related quality of life (HRQoL).These ‘response shifts ‘ make comparisons over time difficult to interpret. For example, in the context of treatment evaluations, response shifts may attenuate estimates of treatment effects if patients adapt to treatment toxicities or disease progression over time. Consequently, patient adaptation to treatment toxicities or to improvements in health may result
Preference-Based Measures: Utility And Quality-Adjusted Life Years
Authors: Feeny David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Preference-based measures are playing an increasingly important role in the assessment of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) as an outcome measure in clinical trials and other studies, in supporting decision analyses, and in supporting economic evaluations and health technology assessments of screening, prevention, and treatment interventions. The chapter will discuss the conceptual foundations of preference-based measures, describe the two basic approaches to preference-based measurement, summarize evidence on reliability, construct validity, responsiveness (longitudinal construct validity), and predictive validity, and briefly describe selected applications.
An introduction to basics
Authors: Macdonald Elisabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Good communication between medical staff and patient is important because it forms the basis of all future health-care transactions. Communication needs to be patient centred and informative. It needs to promote trust and confidence between participants of equal status. Good communication is important to avoid the harm that could ensue in terms of patient dissatisfaction, non-adherence to the advice given, psychological damage, physical harm, litigation or even death. Beneficial effects have been demonstrated on health outcomes and not only patients but health-care workers also benefit from a satisfactory exchange.
Loss and Grief in School Communities
Authors: Rowling Louise 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past decade or so, global terrorism and violence have become part of the everyday lives of individuals, communities, and nation states, not only because of the exposure given to events by the global media coverage, but also due to the targeting of previously ‘safe’ environments such as: workplaces, social gatherings in clubs and hotels, and schools. A critical point in terms of potential impact on people in this exposure is the intimacy in the reporting of these tragic events.
Appendix to Chapter 4 Clinical epidemiology. What it can and cannot tell us
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Statistical techniques have been developed and refined to help detect the causes of human disease. Since these techniques were first applied to infectious diseases, this medical discipline is called epidemiology, a term originally referring to its application to epidemic diseases such as smallpox, plague, and so on. Epidemiology attempts to relate the occurrence of disease in a given population to some common factor. Early examples include the relation of cholera to consumption of infected drinking water, and the association of some forms of lung cancer with cigarette smoking.
Most epidemiological studies are either retrospective or prospective. In the former, patients with a particular disease are studied to identify aspects of their lifestyle that may be common to them all. By contrast, prospective studies examine a population and see what happens to the individuals with time. An example would be measuring the level of selenium in the blood of 5000 patients and then following them to see which developed cancer or heart disease.
Appendix to Chapter 5 Human phagocytes: useful dealers of death and destruction
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The production of O2• ™ and H202 by some types of white blood cell is one example of a useful role for these oxygen-derived species, but it can become a source of tissue damage if their production is too widespread or goes on for too long.
Human blood contains large numbers of neutrophils (about 2.5 —7.5 million per ml in healthy subjects), amoeba-like white blood cells whose function is to recognize, engulf, and destroy foreign organisms, such as bacteria and viruses (Figure Al). This process of engulfment is called phagocytosis, and cells which can do it are often called phagocytes. Indeed, infection usually causes a rise in the ‘ white blood cell count’ (number of cells per ml of blood) as the body mobilizes more of these cells to fight the infection.
Resource Allocation
Authors: Green Stephen A , Bloch Sidney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of society’s most demanding responsibilities is its need to determine how to allocate resources in order to provide necessary services and promote discretionary projects. The task, which requires broad-based agreement on social needs and procedures for establishing the level of support each activity receives, is complicated by pluralistic preferences. People feel differently, for example, about whether resources should be weighted towards health, environmental or military activities, opinions that reflect their values regarding what constitutes right and wrong in the balance of social priorities. Resource allocation is, therefore, a process of moral deliberation, and this section specifically explores the significance of this ethical issue to psychiatry.
Bacterial structure and physiology
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most bacteria are either spherical (coccus) or rod-shaped (bacillus), and are usually arranged in a manner characteristic of the genus, growing either singly, in clusters or in chains. The dimensions of a bacterium are typically in the order of 1 μm (Fig. 2.1). As described in the previous chapter, bacteria are typical prokaryotes. Most bacteria can be divided into one of two types, Gram-positive and Gram-negative, by means of the Gram stain, which is summarized in Fig. 2.2. Although developed empirically by Christian Gram, a Danish microbiologist, in the 1880s as a convenient method for classifying bacteria, it also gives a great deal of information on the structure of the bacterial cell envelope.
Bacterial genetics and molecular biology
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Genes are the elements of the hereditary material of living cells that carry the information to code for all the necessary components and reactions of life. At cell division the genes are replicated and a copy goes to each daughter cell. It was not until the 1950s that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was recognized as being the substance of genes. During the past half century the subject of molecular biology has developed into a major discipline, underpinning many of the other fields of biology and medicine. Molecular biology had its roots in bacteriology, and many of the continuing advances in the subject still depend on bacteria. Molecular biology is a vast and rapidly developing subject, much of which is beyond the scope of this book. This chapter will give a brief introduction to the basics of the subject, describe some of the important aspects of bacterial molecular genetics, and demonstrate some of the uses to which molecular biological techniques are being directed.
Immunization
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The introduction of immunization against infectious disease has been one of the most successful developments in medicine. It was pioneered at the end of the eighteenth century by Edward Jenner to prevent smallpox and due to the remarkable success of world-wide vaccination programmes in the latter half of the twentieth century, the disease has been totally eradicated from the planet. The aim of immunization is to produce protection for the population against natural clinical infection with pathogenic micro-organisms by means of a range of artificial and safe procedures. Immunization is only one of the measures that are available to control infectious disease and its efficacy and cost must be assessed against other forms of protection, for example safe water supply and sewage disposal, a high standard of food hygiene, good socio-economic living conditions, as well as organized surveillance of infectious disease with early detection and prompt treatment and prevention. The mortality and morbidity of a number of infectious diseases have been dramatically reduced by immunization, while many others are not currently amenable to control by specific vaccines.
Respiratory tract infections
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although inhaled air contains many particles, including micro-organisms, the host defence mechanisms in the respiratory tract frequently prevent infection. However, if there are large numbers of pathogenic organisms within the inspired air or if the host defences are compromised, then infection may ensue. There are ‘professional invaders’ which can infect healthy respiratory mucosa, for example Streptococcus pyogenes. In addition, there are ‘secondary invaders’ which only infect if the host defences are weakened, for example Pneumocystis jiroveci in AIDS patients. Respiratory tract infections may be caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, or fungi and are important in dentistry because the causative agents may be spread through respiratory and oral fluids. Thus, both patients and the dental team are exposed to these microbes during treatment, particularly when splatter and aerosols are generated.
Dental caries
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dental caries can be thought of as a chronic infection of enamel or dentine in which the microbial agents are members of the normal commensal flora. Lesions result from the demineralization of enamel or dentine by acids produced by plaque micro-organisms as they metabolize dietary carbohydrates. Once the surface layer of enamel has been lost, the infection invariably progresses via dentine, with the pulp becoming firstly inflamed and later necrotic. Dental caries occurs in all Western countries but there is an uneven distribution of decay in the population. For example, in Scotland towards the end of the twentieth century all of the decayed teeth were found in 54% of children and more than half of the untreated caries was present in just 10% of children. In less developed countries where changes in diet, especially with respect to carbohydrate content, have occurred, the prevalence is rising.
Infections of the pulp, periapical tissues and bone of the jaw
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As discussed in previous chapters, bacteria are responsible for both dental caries and periodontal diseases. Extension of these diseases commonly causes infection in the adjacent tissues, notably the pulp, periapical area and oro-facial soft tissues. More rarely, infection may become established in the bone of the jaw to cause osteomyelitis. These infections, which are usually acute and are among the most common seen by dentists, will be covered in this chapter. Inflammation of the pulp (pulpitis) may follow exposure to a range of irritants. These include thermal, mechanical or chemical stimuli, in addition to micro-organisms which are the focus of this chapter. Since the pulp is enclosed within the hard tissues of the tooth, it is unable to expand during the acute inflammatory phase of pulpitis, with a resultant rise in internal pressure. This not only results in severe pain but also impairs the circulation within the inflamed pulp, which may cause pulpal necrosis and subsequent periapical disease. The possible outcomes are illustrated in Fig. 25.1. Whilst the most common cause of pulpal necrosis is dental caries, others include accidental trauma to the tooth, exposure of the pulp during instrumentation and spread of infection from a deep periodontal pocket.
Stroke
Authors: Cramer Steven C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Stroke remains a major source of morbidity and mortality. Approximately 1 in 15 deaths in the US is attributable to stroke, making this the third leading cause of death after heart disease and cancer. However, approximately 85% of patients survive the stroke, living an average of seven years thereafter. Most are left with significant disability. Stroke can affect any aspect of brain function. The nature of post-stroke deficits can vary widely, as can severity. In the weeks and months following a stroke, most patients show spontaneous improvement in behaviours affected by stroke. However, this recovery is highly variable and generally incomplete. As a result, stroke is the leading cause of adult disability in the US and many other countries. A number of investigations have examined the brain events that underlie spontaneous recovery of function after stroke. The majority has focussed on motor or language recovery. A number of brain mapping techniques has been used to investigate recovery, each with its relative strengths. FMRI has been the tool for many of these, given its good temporal and excellent spatial resolution.
Antibody-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (ADEPT)
Authors: Sharma Surinder K , Bagshawe Kenneth D , Begent Richard H J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conventional cancer chemotherapeutic agents lack selectivity and in the past effort has mainly been focused on high-dose systemic chemotherapy, which tried to balance minimal adverse effects to normal tissues with maximal antitumour activity. To achieve selectivity, the focus since the 1960s has been to search for substances that differentiate malignant tumours from normal tissue. These biochemical factors that characterise specific types of cancer are known as tumour-associated antigens or tumour markers. The most widely studied tumour-associated antigen is carcinoembryonic antigen or CEA (Gold and Freedman 1975) that is overexpressed in almost all cancers of the colon and several others. Although the tumour-associated antigens are not specific for cancer, they are sufficiently overexpressed in many cancers to allow localisation of antibodies directed against them (Begent et al. 1980; Goldenberg et al. 1978; Mach et al. 1974) and targeted cancer therapy has emerged as a novel approach in the treatment of both haematological and solid tumours (Carter 2001; Stern and Herrmann 2005).
Individualising cancer therapy
Authors: Lim Wan-Teck , McLeod Howard L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cancer is a complex disease with variable phenotypes determined by different genes. Aside from curative surgery in the early stages of cancer, treatment of advanced cancer includes cytotoxics, biologics, or radiation. These modalities affect both tumour and normal tissue, leaving in its wake significant toxicity. The benefits of cytotoxic drugs are determined to different extents by patient biology, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and by tumour biology. In patients with advanced disease, where the goal is palliative and not curative, the best modern therapies still only benefit the minority in terms of improving response rates and survival and the disease ultimately relapses in a short period of time. This is compounded by toxicity of varying degrees experienced by patients resulting in a low risk-benefit ratio.
Ethical rehabilitation practice
Authors: McGrath Joanna Collicutt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On p. 47 I stated that the aim of rehabilitation is to support the person with acquired brain injury (ABI) in establishing a new sense of identity continuous with, but not stuck in, the past, while managing the medical complications, pain, and emotional distress that arise during the process. Background or setting conditions can sustain and nurture the sort of good, and thus ethical, practice that is necessary for this process. This chapter begins with a brief consideration of these conditions before moving on to specify detailed guidelines under each of the ethical practice principles generated in Chapter 4.
A heuristic for managing ethical dilemmas
Authors: McGrath Joanna Collicutt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this short chapter I present a simple checklist to help manage the sorts of ethical dilemmas that arise in acquired brain injury rehabilitation. The check- list is summarized in Figure 6.1. While it is basically a list of consecutive actions, there are some feedback loops. These indicate that decisions and actions need constant monitoring in relation to both their immediate consequences and the moral principles that generated them in the first place (see discussion on pp. 67 and 71–72).
Introduction pathology
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pathology is the study of disease and therefore forms a central part of medicine. A sound knowledge of the pathology of a disease allows the clinician to understand its symptoms and signs, potential complications, the basis of its treatment, and its likely course.
Pathology has a language of its own and it is necessary to familiarize yourself with some of the common terms used when discussing diseases.
Inflammation
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Inflammationis the body’s response to cellular injury. It serves to dilute and remove injurious agents and trigger healing of the damaged tissue. Although inflammation is intended to be a protective response, it may also be harmful when inappropriately activated.
Inflammation is elicited by any form of cellular damage including infection, physical injury, chemical injury, and ischaemia. Be careful not to equate inflammation with infection. Whilst infection is often accompanied by inflammation, there are many diseases characterized by inflammation which are not caused by infection, such as autoimmune diseases, and even some infectious diseases where inflammation is absent, e.g. variant Creutzfeldt–Jacob disease.
Neoplasia
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A neoplasm is an abnormal mass of tissue which shows uncoordinated growth and serves no useful purpose. The word neoplasm literally means ‘new growth’ and is often used synonymously with the word tumour which simply means ‘swelling’.
Malignant neoplasms are also called cancers. Cancer is a major cause of morbidity and mortality across the world. Currently in the UK, one in three people will be diagnosed with cancer during their lifetime. One in five of these will die as a result of the cancer. As cancer is more common with increasing age, the ageing population means that cancer will become even more common.
Cardiovascular disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An adequate blood supply is vital for every organ and tissue in the body. The main role of the cardiovascular system is to continuously deliver oxygenated blood and remove deoxygenated blood from the tissues. Diseases of the cardiovascular system are the most common causes of death in the Western world, and most can be distilled down to two basic problems:
Gastrointestinal disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter concerns itself with diseases of the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus managed by gastroenterologists and gastrointestinal surgeons. Diseases of the accessory organs of the gastrointestinal tract such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas come under the remit of other specialties and are dealt with in Chapters 9 and 19.
The oesophagus is a muscular tube lined by squamous epithelium which connects the pharynx to the stomach. Its function is to transport food and liquid to the stomach, and to ensure that gastric contents do not regurgitate back up. This is achieved through a complex mechanism which coordinates peristaltic contractions with intermittent relaxation of the lower oesophageal sphincter.
Multisystem disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are a group of diseases whose effects cannot easily be assigned to any one particular organ system. Many of these so-called ‘multisystem’ diseases are immunologically mediated and often produce prolonged non-specific symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and fever, together with symptoms related to a variety of different organ systems. Multisystem diseases may therefore present to a number of specialties including rheumatology, dermatology, nephrology, and haematology.
Pronunciation Guide
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An important feature of German speech is the phenomenon known as the glottal stop (as heard, for example, in Cockney wa’er for water-or indeed sometimes in standard English speech, reinforcing a stressed vowel: he I 15 lying!). It occurs before vowels in initial position or following a prefix as well as at the junction of compounds in which the second element begins with a vowel, e.g.
Prepositions
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For detailed treatment of individual prepositions see pp. 117-154. Prepositions in German govern particular cases: accusative (e.g. für for, ohne without), genitive (e.g. trotz in spite of, während during) or dative (e.g. aus out of, from, mit with). Some prepositions govern two cases accusative and dative-depending on circumstances.
Word Formation
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chen (Pl. Same), N. Diminutive suffix (making the noun neuter and usually causing the stem-vowel to be mutated where possible), e.g. das Lämmchen little lamb (Lamm lamb); nouns in -e and -en lose these endings before -chen, e.g. das Schürzchen little apron (Schürze apron), das F#x00E4;dchen little thread (Faden thread).
Rich and Poor
Authors: Daunton Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In their preface to the 1851 census, George Graham and Horace Mann were confident that Britain could escape from the ‘stationary state’. The world of Malthus, Mill, and Engels was giving way to new possibilities, not only because the ‘hare’ of population became much slower but also because the ‘tortoise’ of resources put on a spurt of growth. Much higher levels of GNP per capita now became possible, breaking through the limits of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.