bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Laser-Based Methods Of Temperature Measurement
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the advent of laser sources, laser spectroscopy developed as a novel diagnostic tool for studying temperature and species concentration in combustion and flow. Laser techniques are particularly promising when they are combined with modem sensors and computer analysis. Recent experimental demonstrations have shown the potential of Raman processes including spontaneous, resonant, coherent, and stimulated radiation, and of laser florescence techniques. The main applications have been to the study of laboratory flames. For example, the advent of UV lasers enabled the development of pulsed Raman imaging techniques which, in combination with gated multichannel detectors measure simultaneously the temperature and species concentration with adequate spatial and temporal resolution in a two-dimensional plane through the event. Planar imaging of the flame developing during spark-ignition engine combustion has also been successfully demonstrated using UV, Rayleigh, and fluorescence radiation.
Diamond-Indenter Cells
Authors: Eremets M I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
However, the traditional cell with one rounded cone and a plane is of interest, primarily because of simplicity of construction and importance for study of contact phenomena. This cell has narrower but important fields of application, such as the study of phase transitions, Fig.1.18. The presence of shear stresses in an ungasketed sample helps to localize the boundaries of phase diagrams as in the shear deformation cell, Chapter 5.
Infrared Spectroscopy
Authors: Eremets M I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is an immense field of study of low-energy excitation in matter. Primarily it is phonon, or vibrational, spectroscopy of solids and molecules. Low-energy electron states: impurity levels in semiconductors, interband transitions, cyclotron resonance, superconductor gap transitions, and many other phenomena, arc studied by IR spectroscopy.
Development of more highly intelligent products and systematization of nanotechnology
Authors: Taniguchi Norio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The highest precision fine processing of materials will soon be realized in mass production systems for highdensity 256 Mbit IC memories of ULSis, for which a minimum gate width of 0.25 µ,m with a scattering error width of 30 nm is required. Furthermore, the production yield rate is now said to reach several tens of per cent in 200 mm wafers. However, lately, logic ICs for microprocessors with a least gate width of 0.2 µ,m have become necessary for mass production of ULSis.
Latent Heat Transfer
Authors: Lock G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This beginning graduate text is the first comprehensive work on latent heat transfer. It covers all forms: evaporation, sublimation, melting, condensation, freezing, and deposition. The work has been designed to provide both insight and example for junior engineering graduate students. The three introductory chapters on the history and significance of thermodynamics and fluid mechanics are followed by self-contained treatments of solidification, fluidification, condensation, evaporation and boiling. Direct contact latent heat transfer is covered separately. The final chapter is devoted exclusively to worked examples. Emphasis throughout is placed on fundamentals which apply equally to industrial and environmental processes.
Direct Cont Act Processes
Authors: LOCK G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It will be recalled from Chapter 1 that there are many situations in which latent heat transfer may occur in the absence of a separating wall. Spray condensers, combustion chambers, and crystallizers are representative industrial examples. In an environmental context, pollution and water conservation have stimulated interest in such devices as the cooling tower and the cooling pond. Even wider is the traditional interest in latent heat found in the environmental disciplines of glaciology, meteorology, and oceanography. In any of these contexts the situation is essentially the same: two media, one hotter than the other, lie in intimate contact with each other. Phase change at the boundary between the media is then no longer influenced by an intervening wall with its characteristic ability to promote heterogeneous nucleation. In general, the media are not pure components, as when sea water freezes or water vapour condenses from the atmosphere. In certain circumstances, therefore, the exchange of latent heat produces concentration gradients at the common interface. The absence of an impermeable wall then implies diffusive mass transfer through and between the media.
The Effect Of Dissolved Elements And Inclusions On The Properties Of Metal Products
Authors: Simensen Christian J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metals have been in service for mankind since the early days of civilization. Tools were made from meteorites as far back as 10 000 BC, and copper was in use by the Sumerians in around 4500 BC. The use of light metals is of a much more recent date. The mass production of aluminium started in 1886 with the invention of the Hall-Heroult process, while magnesium was mass-produced only after World War I. The range of products is vast. Metals are in use in high technology environments in satellites and aircraft and in common products such as kitchenware, refrigerators, and vacuum cleaners. All these products have one thing in common: certain impurities are prohibited as they ruin the metal quality, while other elements are added in order to meet specific requirements. Some of the major effects of impurities on product quality are outlined in this chapter in order to emphasize the necessity of chemical control and refining of the solvent metal and additions.
Removal Of Dissolved Impurity Elements From Molten Metals
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Impurities are already present in the ores and raw materials used in the extractive metallurgical processes. Impurities and inclusions are also introduced from refractories and atmosphere during the production of the metal and even in the refining processes. Thus oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon often enter the molten metal and affect the mechanical properties of the cast metal.For many extractive processes it is not practical and economic to try to protect the melt from the environment. Instead, the impurities are removed in the final refining operations. Basically in the refining stages we reverse the transfer of impurities. For instance, hydrogen and nitrogen are eliminated by gas purging and vacuum treatment.
Solidification And Refining
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A worker in refining metallurgy is not only concerned with attaining the specified mean composition of his melt; he must also take into consideration what happens during solidification. Problems with the accumulation of impurities may force him to reduce impurities down to very low levels In the solidification of an alloy over a temperature range, there is a variation of solute in the growing solid dendrite from that first deposited until the transformation into solid of the final liquid. Within a scale determined by the dendrite arms spacing, this variation of composition is termed micro segregation. To describe segregation in this case one very often assumes that there is no diffusion in the solid. Then the assumption that there is complete mixing in the inter dendritic liquid and no mass flow in or out of the volume element leads to a simple conservation equation for the solute.
Refining And Recycling Metallurgy In The Future
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Refining metallurgy deals with the treatment of the extracted or recycled metal by purification and alloying. Traditionally, the refining metallurgist has had a good knowledge of extractive metallurgy and of the impurities present in the raw metal. Often there are problems with oxidation or evaporation of alloy additions that result in a low or variable yield. These problems must be solved and taken into account in the melt treatment.
Basic Principles Of Hot-Wire Anemometry
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the basic principles, which apply to most hot wire anemometer (HWA) applications. The topics discussed include heat transfer, the sensitivity coefficients of the hot-wire signal, the frequency response of a sensor operated in the Constant-Current (CC) and Constant Temperature (C7) modes, and the spatial resolution. These aspects con tribute significantly to the performance of a HWA system. To give an adequate description of these topics the presentation is somewhat mathematical, and it is recommended that readers who are new to HWA read Chapter 3, Introduction to Velocity Measurements, first.
Three-Component Velocity Measurements
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If only the mean-velocity components and the Reynolds stresses are required, multiposition techniques involving single normal (SN), single yawed (SY), or X probes can be applied. Related techniques and solution procedures for one-component, two-component and three-component mean velocity flow fields are described in Sections 6.1 and 6.2. For more detailed flow studies, simultaneous measurements of three velo city components of the velocity vector at a point can be carried out with a hot-wire probe containing three (or four) sensors. The techniques dis cussed in section 6.3 can be applied provided that the velocity vector remains within the approach octant defined by the three sensors.
Time-Series Analysis
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The output from a hot-wire anemometer (HWA) sensor will in general be a time-varying signal representing typically, a velocity component. Other measurable quantities include the vorticity, the temperature, the concentration in gas mixtures, etc. In a turbulent flow, the anemometer signal will be of a random nature, and a statistical description of the content of the signal is therefore necessary. In the early statistical turbulent-flow studies, much emphasis was placed on spectral analysis and statistics based on statistically independent samples. However, the development of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has caused a change of emphasis in much of the current experimental HWA work. As described in Chapter 1, the validation of CFD codes requires accurate measurements of the mean-velocity components and Reynolds stresses, and the measurement of these quantities and the related error estimates will therefore be described in some detail. Most contemporary experimental work is carried out using digital computers, and the corresponding evaluation procedures and problems are also highlighted in this chapter, which reflects the accumulated expertise in this field. Noticeable contributions include those by Bendat and Piersol (1966, 1971, 1986), Jenkins and Watts (1968), Lumley (1970), Tennekes and Lumley (1972), Van Atta (1974), Rabiner and Gold (1975), George eta/. (1978), Williams (1981), Castro (1989), and Tropea (1991). The author has particulary found presentations by Bendat and Piersol (1971, 1986) both clear and useful.
An Introduction To Transport Phenomena And Properties In Metallurgical Operations
Authors: Guthrie R I L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In today’s world of high-level competition, of technical competence, and of relatively low bulk-transportation costs, any company involved in chemical or metallurgical manufacturing must make maximum use of efficient processing operations. For engineers and researchers engaged in the development and operation of such practices, a knowledge of thermodynamics and process kinetics is essential.
Computational Projective Geometry, 1
Authors: Kanatani Kenichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a computational formalism that deals with collinearity of points and concurrency of lines on a 2-D plane from the standpoint of projective geometry. The image plane is regarded as a 2-D projective space, and points and lines are represented by unit vectors consisting of homogeneous coordinates, which we call N-vectors. Fundamental notions of projective geometry such as collineations, correlations, polarities, poles, polars, and conics are all reformulated as computational processes in terms of N-vectors. The camera rotation transformation, which will later play an important role, is defined as a special collineation resulting from rotation of the camera. The cross ratio is expressed in terms of N-vectors, and its invariance is proved with respect to general projective transformations, which include perspective projection. Then, one and two-dimensional projective coordinates based on cross ratios are introduced, and typical applications that take advantage of the perspective invariance of cross ratios are presented. Implications of harmonic ranges are also studied with regard to 3-D interpretation of scenes.
Translational Motion and Stereo
Authors: Kanatani Kenichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When observing a projection of rigidly moving space points, can we compute their 3-D structure and 3-D motion? This problem is known as shape from motion or structure from motion. In this chapter, we study translational motions by applying the concepts and formalisms developed in Chapters 2 and 3. In analysing 3-D translational motions, focuses of expansion plays the same role as vanishing points of parallel space lines. Introducing N-velocity, we show that the 3-D shape of a translating object can be reconstructed up to scale from two consecutive images. Displacing the camera also produces effective translational motion of objects relative to the camera, and the resulting image motion of points and lines reveals their 3-D geometries. This fact is known as motion parallax. We present a computational procedure for computing the 3-D geometry from a known camera displacement. To do this, we represent a space point by its N-vector and depth, and a space line by its N-vector and P-vector. Analysis of stereo is equivalent to motion parallax analysis: the trajectories of feature points and the focus of expansion correspond to the epipolars and the epipole, respectively. The depth map can be expressed in terms of the disparity map. Stereo with different camera orientations, or converging stereo, can also be formulated as general motion parallax.
Analysis of 3-D Rigid Motion
Authors: Kanatani Kenichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we study general 3-D rigid motion with special emphasis on the robustness of computation. The uniqueness of the solution is also an important issue. First, we study 3-D motion of a planar surface, which induces a collineation on the image plane. A noise robust least-squares scheme is presented for determining the collineation from both point correspondence and line correspondence. Then, we show that the 3-D surface position and motion can be computed analytically. For an object of general shape, the analysis is divided into two types: point correspondence analysis and line correspondence analysis. For point correspondence analysis, the problem is first formulated as nonlinear least-squares optimization, and then a noise robust analytical procedure is derived from the epipolar equation expressed in terms of the essential matrix. Line correspondence analysis is also formulated as nonlinear least-squares optimization, and then a noise robust analytical procedure is derived from the motion parallax equations expressed in terms of the essential tensor. In both cases, the "optimal resolution" introduced in Chapter 5 plays an essential role. Finally, we study ambiguities of 3-D interpretation. For point correspondence, multiple interpretations arise if and only if all feature points are on a special type of quadric surface called the critical surface. The condition for the critical surface to degenerate into two planar surfaces is also given. For line correspondence, ambiguities occur if and only if all feature lines are on a special type of algebraic set of dimension 2, called the critical line congruence.
Statistical Analysis of Geometric Computation, 1
Authors: Kanatani Kenichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to statistical analysis of errors involved in fundamental geometric computations. The covariance matrices of N-vectors of image points, image lines, and their joins and intersections are computed by introducing a realistic model of noise. Then, we determine the optimal weights for least squares and compute the covariance matrix of the resulting optimal estimate. The result is applied to edge fitting, computation of vanishing points and focuses of expansion, 3-D rotation fitting, and depth computation from stereo. In each problem, characteristic error behaviours are described in detail. We also show that least-squares solutions are in general statistically biased, and derive a scheme for unbiased estimation.
d,q Models for Solid State Power Converters
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For analysis of motor drives, it is sometimes convenient to characterize the inverter in the same framework as used for the induction motor, that is, in terms of a d,q,O components. As will be shown, the d,q orthogonal reference system also yields converter models which are useful apart from their convenience in combined machine-converter modeling. This is particularly evident when a complex vector d,q representation is employed and the value of such models becomes apparent in later discussion of, for example, current regulated inverters.
Field Weakening Operation
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have examined carefully how torque can be accurately controlled in an induction motor drive. However, we have made little mention of the demands of the load. Clearly the electromagnetic torque and load torque must be equal in magnitude and opposing in direction during steady state operation. In general we can separate loads into four categories, 1) constant speed, variable or constant torque loads, 2) adjustable speed, constant torque loads, 3) adjustable speed, variable torque loads and 4) variable speed, variable torque loads.
Soft computing applied to intelligent control of AC drives and UPS systems
Authors: Dote Yasuhiko , Hoft Richard G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human thinking has both logical and intuitive or subjective sides. The logical thinking side has been developed and utilized, resulting in present advanced Neumann type computers and expert systems such as hard computing. However, it is found that hard computing cannot give the solution of very complicated problems by itself. In order to cope with this difficulty; the human mind using intuitive and subjective thinking is realized as soft computing which includes neuro- (NN), fuzzy (FL), and chaos (CS) computing, genetic algo rithms (GA), and immune networks (IN). In this chapter soft computing (SC) is introduced to control and make advancements in AC drives and UPS systems. Some examples are also given to explain this technology.
How Material Proper Ties Influence Light
Authors: Solymar L , Webb D J , Grunnet-Jepsen A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2 we answered, in quite some detail, the question: how will the incident optical beams affect the material? In the present chapter we shall try to answer the complementary question: how will the changes in the material affect the optical beams? Let us briefly recapitulate what we have already said in Section 1.3. As a result of the input optical beams there will be a periodic electric field (static or slowly varying) in the photorefractive material. But the material posesses the crucial property, called the linear electro-optic effect, that an electric field E will cause a proportional change in the dielectric constant.
Storage
Authors: Solymar L , Webb D J , Grunnet-Jepsen A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Storage was the first application to be suggested for the photorefractive effect and continues to be a promising area for research to this day, as witnessed by the continual steady stream of papers on the subject (see for example the review articles by Pauliat and Roosen (1991) and Hesselink and Bashaw (1993)). The interest is due to the potentially huge amount of information that could be stored holographically in the volume of a photorefractive crystal. There seems to be a real possibility that storage devices based on this technology could be commercialized in the not too distant future.
Electromagnetics
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The electrical engineer is usually interested in the magnitude and distribution of flux density, B, together with related quantities such as magnetising force, H, and winding flux linkages, Φ. Solving for B requires consideration of two vector components, even in two dimensions. Thus, most (though not all) computational methods solve in terms of potentials, which in many practical cases are scalar quantities.
The importance of engineering judgement
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is hoped that the preceding chapters on the principles of modelling will have demonstrated the frequent need to make engineering judgements. Nevertheless experience has shown that there is a danger, particularly when computer packages are first used, of regarding the process of field solution as a well-defined, almost mechanical one. Consequently insufficient thought may be given to the sound formulation of the problem and to the interpretation of results. Hence a resume of the more important questions which should be considered when deciding the model is appropriate before moving on to the Case Studies of Part 3. Some points arising and some problems and possible approximations in modelling are discussed later.
Turbine-generator end-leakageields and losses
Authors: Reece A B J , Preston T W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The designer of turbine generators of high specific ratings needs a method of predicting the field distribution in the end region, the losses and reactance voltages it produces and the forces generated on conductors. The region is of complicated form and includes current-carrying conductors and a variety of materials. Figure 14. l shows a partially wound stator and Fig. 14.2 is a somewhat simplified longitudinal slice through a typical end region, with quantities and areas of special interest indicated.
Introduction
Authors: Hasegawa Akira , Kodama Yuji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Optical solitons in fibres attract interest from a wide area of science and technology. The mathematical properties of the model nonlinear SchrÖdinger equation, its integrability in the ideal case and its perturbative properties invite the interest of applied mathematicians. Among solitons which are now believed to exist in various areas of physics, chemistry, and biology, the optical soliton behaves the most ideally in that its behaviour can be described by mathematical models which take into account proper physical properties of fibres and applied perturbations such as amplification. This property is very effective in exploiting the soliton for engineering purposes in particular for applying it to ultra high speed optical communication.