bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Status, Issues, and Implications
Authors: Weiskrantz Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Leaving aside for the moment the question of D.B.’s verbal commentaries, and restricting ourselves to the objectively determined capacities, we can summarize D.B.’s discriminative skills as follows: He can detect and locate stimuli in his impaired field by pointing or, less well, by eye movements. He appears to be differentially sensitive to detection per se as compared to shape discrimination, in contrast to his performance in the intact, normal half-field. He can discriminate the orientation of a grating in the frontal plane, with an accuracy that is surprisingly good (a difference of about 10° at a position 45° distant from the fixation point, which is approximately his capacity at that eccentricity in his good half-field). He can discriminate movement from stationary stimuli. Detection does not appear to be based on a special sensitivity to transient onset or offset properties of the stimulus events, because he can discriminate presence vs. absence even with a very slow rise time. His detection of a grating allows one, by varying spatial frequency, to measure his visual acuity; it is inferior to that of the intact field but quite creditable (2.6 cycles/degree at 30° eccentricity). His ability to discriminate orientation may be the basis of his skill in discriminating simple shapes, such as X vs. O, because he is poor at distinguishing between squares and rectangles matched in flux and also at other discriminations in which orientation differences are small or non-existent. On the other hand, he is excellent at discriminating squares from rectangles, where the principal cue is orientation.
Dynamic Programming
Authors: Roff Derek A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many, if not most, traits display phenotypic plasticity, that is, the phenotypic expression of the trait is contingent on the environment. In some cases, such as adult morphology, the development of the trait is determined in part by the environment but does not vary once the trait is established. On the other hand, other traits, particularly behavioral traits, may be extremely labile. For example, foraging, oviposition, migration, and parental allocation decisions are all traits that are typically state-dependent. The techniques presented in Chapter 2 may be used to analyze such models in some cases (e.g., Scenario 12, which examined the relationship between propagule size and age), but more frequently a dynamic programming approach is required, or is at least more efficient. For detailed discussions on dynamic programming, see Mangel and Clark (1988), Houston and McNamara (1999), and Clark and Mangel (2000). To illustrate the method I shall use the patch-foraging model described by Mangel and Clark (1988). As in the previous chapters I shall set the scenario both in general terms and then with specific mathematical functions. MATLAB code is provided at the end of the chapter.
Laboratory fermenters
Authors: Irvine Thomas S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The vast majority of industrial fermentation companies have at least a research and development section dedicated to laboratory fermentation. These laboratories are used for pure research for new products, screening for new fermentation cultures, developing new raw materials for fermentation, process trouble-shooting, and scale-up. Examples are to be found in the pharmaceutical industry where new antibiotics are developed, in the brewing industry, or in the food industry where new fermented foods such as protein substitutes are developed.
pH, dissolved oxygen and related sensors
Authors: Halling Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The growth and behaviour of cells in a fermenter are obviously much dependent on the chemical composition of the environment that surrounds them in the culture medium. Knowledge of chemical concentrations is therefore of great value in understanding the course of the fermentation and their control may be necessary for reproducible operation. Clearly instruments that can continuously monitor chemical characteristics of the broth are desirable, but very few reliable sensors that can be directly inserted into the broth are available. (A major problem is the requirement to survive heat sterilization.) The probes that are available, to measure pH and dissolved oxygen, are thus of great importance. The pH often tends to vary during culture growth and its control is usually desirable. Equally, too low levels of dissolved oxygen are a frequent cause of poor performance in aerobic fermentations. Hence both these probes would normally be considered essential for any use of fermenters other than routine growth of cells to a defined recipe (and even there they would provide a useful check!). In very low-oxygen or anaerobic cultures, the redox probe may be useful instead of a dissolved oxygen sensor. Most of the hints and tips in this chapter are given without citation. This does not imply that they are my own original discoveries. The majority have been passed on to me at various times by friends and colleagues who work with fermenters-the way most of us have learned the practice of laboratory fermentation. In many cases I cannot remember who told me, and in most I do not know who originated the idea. However, I would like to record my thanks to a series of friends and colleagues who have been generous with their time and knowledge, particularly in University College London, Unilever Research, PHLS Parton Laboratory and here at Strathclyde. I hope in turn that in the future this chapter can help some of those starting out in the fermentation game.
Instrumentation and control
Authors: Dusseljee Peter J B , Feijen Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Laboratory fermenters are used for fermentation process research and for fundamental microbiological research. The main goal of this research is to acquire the characteristics of a given fermentation process and/or microorganism. These characteristics are derived from monitored process variables and biochemical and physicochemical analyses. The research objective will determine the essential process variables to be monitored and/or controlled and the necessary analytical measurements to be performed. These introductory remarks implicity determine the demands for instrumentation and control of a laboratory fermenter. This chapter is concerned with the elaboration and the practical realization of these demands.
Peptide hormone purification
Authors: Mclean C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Peptide and polypeptide hormones are purified in order to provide information about their physical and chemical properties, to obtain sufficient amounts of pure hormone for further studies or because they are not available in a synthetic or biosynthetic form. Classically, hormones are synthesized by specific organs, and these tissues remain the primary source, e.g. the pituitary gland (1). However, improvements in the sensitivity and specificity of assay systems have resulted in the localization of various hormones in tissues not previously associated with those hormones. Apart from these known sources there are potential sources such as tumours and more obvious possibilities such as blood and urine.
The in vitro bioassay of peptide hormones
Authors: Robertson W R , Bidey S P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The laboratory determination of peptide hormones in biological fluids has become an indispensable guide to endocrine function in Experimental and Clinical Medicine, and has been dependent upon the development of two distinct forms of hormone measurement, i.e. immunoassay and bioassay. However, much of our understanding of polypeptide hormone physiology has arisen directly from the development of a new generation of kit-based immunoassay techniques, which are capable of measuring the concentration of hormones in serum and other biological fluids with a high level of sensitivity and precision. Despite this the immunoassay of serum hormones has indicated levels which are inappropriate in a number of clinical situations (1, 2), whereas a determination of the biological activity of the hormone (i.e. by bioassay) correlates more closely with the observed clinical state. Such observations have led to a resurgence of interest in the further development of biological assays and such techniques continue to assume fundamental importance in modern investigative endocrinology, in addition to their classical role in the estimation of the potency of hormones for use as International Reference Preparations.
Radiotracers in lipid analysis
Authors: Taylor Colin G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Radiolabelled organic compounds may be detected at very low levels and quantified easily and accurately; the most common radionuclides used for such labelling being 14C, tritium (3H), 32P, and 35S. Species labelled with these nuclides have found extensive use in studies of chemical and biochemical pathways including those involving lipids. Forty years ago, radiochemical techniques played an important part in the elucidation of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the common biochemical path for the oxidation of fuel molecules. By labelling carboxylic acids and their esters with 14C in specific positions, steps in the cycle were defined and it was also demonstrated that certain symmetric molecules (prochiral ones) such as citric acid, when bound to a substrate, may react asymmetrically to form optically active (chiral) molecules (1). In one early application of radiotracers to lipid analysis, microgram amounts of fatty acids were first separated by paper chromatography and then converted to their radiocobalt salts by treatment of the chromatogram with a solution containing 6°Co. The acids were located and measured by counting separate pieces of the chromatogram and the separated fractions were finally treated with Wij’s iodine containing 1311 to obtain iodine values by measurement of activity (2).
Geminiviruses (wheat dwarf virus)
Authors: Mullineaux Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Episomal (i.e. autonomously replicating) vectors derived from animal DNA viral sequences, and which can be maintained either transiently or permanently in cultured cells, are widely used in studies of transcriptional regulation in animals. The geminiviruses are a group of plant DNA viruses (for reviews see refs 1 and 2) from which episomal vectors for plant cells could be developed. Three properties of these viruses are relevant for vector development.
Fungi
Authors: Clarkson John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotic microbes which depend on a saprophytic, mutualistic, or parasitic mode of existence. Plant pathogenic fungi represent the most economically important group of microbial pathogens and can be divided into two broad categories on the basis of their nutritional relationship with the host (1). Necrotrophs usually cause extensive tissue damage and derive their nutrition from dead or dying cells. These fungi are able to grow, and often complete their life cycle, in axenic culture on simple laboratory media. Because they are capable of a purely saprophytic existence they are referred to as facultative necrotrophs but it is doubtful that this capacity for saprotrophy is fully expressed in the wild, as many pathogens persist as resting structures in the absence of a susceptible host. Biotrophs have a more subtle relationship with their hosts, deriving nutrients from living host cells and often causing only minor tissue damage in early infection. They include the downy and powdery mildews, rusts, and smuts and represent many of the most commercially significant pathogens. Structural adaptation to this mode of nutrition is typified by the formation of haustoria specialized hyphae which penetrate the host cell wall and invaginate the plasma membrane. Although all these pathogens are ecologically obligate biotrophs, the haploid sporidial stage of smut fungi can be readily cultured on simple laboratory media and limited axenic growth of some rusts is possible (2). Some fungi, such as Phytophthora infestans and Colletotrichurn lindernuthianurn exhibit a short biotrophic phase of development prior to obtaining nutrients necrotrophically and are referred to as hemibiotrophs.
Gene transformation in plant pathogenic fungi
Authors: Hargreaves John , Turner Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gene transformation of filamentous fungi is a relatively new but rapidly developing area (1). The first report of DNA-mediated transformation of a filamentous fungus was with Neurospora crassa (2) and was soon followed by the demonstration of gene transfer in another ascomycete, Aspergillus nidulans (3, 4). Since then a number of genes have been isolated by expression from these and other fungi, and molecular genetic techniques are now being extended to a wide range of commercially and agriculturally important fungal species. This chapter aims to provide a guide for the development of transformation systems for plant pathogenic fungi. Emphasis is placed on (a) choice of genes as selectable markers, (b) development of cloning vectors, and (c) procedures used to make fungal cells permeable to large DNA molecules.
Nematodes
Authors: Atkinson Howard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plant parasitic nematodes are either ecto-or endoparasites of plants with the majority of species attacking roots. They develop from an egg, through four juvenile stages (Jl-14), to a mature adult in a lifecycle lasting from a few weeks to several months. Most species are less than 2 mm in length and use a hollow stylet both to pierce plant cell walls and to withdraw cell contents. Only the stylet is inserted by ectoparasites whereas endoparasites either migrate intracellularly using the stylet to perforate cell walls or they move bodily between cells. Some endoparasites migrate short distances before feeding whereas others move continually or rely on host growth to assist their distribution within the plant.
The polymerase chain reaction
Authors: Mcpherson Michael J , Oliver, Richard J , Gurr Sarah Jane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), now a key tool in molecular biology, provides a rapid and powerful technique for the in vitro amplification of DNA sequences (see refs 1-3 for reviews). The PCR is now routinely used for gene cloning, analysis, and manipulation in many molecular biology laboratories. It has also found wide application in medicine; including diagnosis of genetic disease, mutational analysis, forensic pathology, and is proving important in such programmes as the mapping and sequencing of the human genome. The PCR has great potential for the study of plant-pathogen interactions in facilitating both gene cloning and genome analysis. Indeed, in biotrophic interactions where the host-pathogen interface is restricted to a small number of specialized cells, the PCR may provide the only mechanism for the investigation of changes in gene expression.
Distinguishing between multiple calcium channel types
Authors: Nowycky Martha C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of electrophysiological techniques to distinguish unique pathways for ion flow across biological membranes dates back to the pioneering work of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz. They successfully defined the changes in conductance which underlie action potentials and postulated the existence of independent, discrete channels for rapid Na+ influx and a slightly delayed K+ efflux.
Stability properties of microbial populations
Authors: Bazin M , Gray S , Rashit E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The stability of a dynamic system is a measure of its capacity to resist perturbation. In this chapter we are concerned with what happens to microbial populations after they have been perturbed. The sorts of perturbation we discuss include changes in environmental variables, such as the rate of nutrient supply to a population or the concentration of the food supplied. Ecosystems can also be perturbed by adding or subtracting species from them. We treat such situations in theoretical terms by approximating the population dynamics of microbial ecosystems with sets of differential equations, the solution of which can be characterised in mathematical terms. We begin by considering the stability properties of the Monod function applied to a single-species population in chemostat culture and then discuss two multispecies systems. The first of these is a simple predator-prey interaction in repeated fed-batch culture. We then review two problems in general ecology, and outline ways in which theoretical methods and experiments with microorganisms have been used to study them.
PCR in genetic diagnosis
Authors: Ivinson Adrian J , Taylor Graham R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The PCR has revolutionized the way genetic diagnosis can be performed. Previously, the diagnosis of many genetic diseases involved taking a 10- or 20 ml blood sample followed by a lengthy protocol over a minimum of four or five days to produce an autoradiograph displaying the results. With the PCR it is possible in many cases (see Table 1) to perform the same test in less than 10 h starting from samples as innocuous as a mouthwash or a pinprick blood spot (1, 2). This advance is of importance to any diagnostic laboratory both in terms of streamlining the experimental aspect of the work and improving the service offered to the patient.
Detection of deletions and point mutations
Authors: Rossiter Belinda J F , Grompe Markus , Caskey C Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many human disorders result from the disruption of a single gene by mutation. In some genetic diseases, such as sickle cell anaemia, the same mutation is found in many individuals and can be detected by relatively simple screening methods. In other genetic disorders, such as those resulting from defective X-linked genes, mutations are heterogeneous and therefore require different, scanning, approaches for their detection.
Genome amplification using primers directed to interspersed repetitive sequences (IRS-PCR)
Authors: Ledbetter Susan A , Nelson David L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has revolutionized the isolation and analysis of specific nucleic acid fragments from a wide variety of sources (1). However, application of the PCR to isolate and analyse a particular DNA region has required knowledge of DNA sequences flanking the region of interest. This limits amplification to regions of known DNA sequence. We sought to amplify human DNA of unknown sequence specifically from somatic cell hybrids retaining human chromosome fragments in rodent cell backgrounds. This allows the isolation and characterization of sequences from specific human regions retained in hybrids, obviating the requirement for cloned DNA libraries and isolation of human clones through the use of human-specific repeat sequence probes (2). It also allows the characterization of hybrid cell lines for quantity and quality of the human sequences retained.
Hybridomas: production and selection
Authors: Harbour Colin , Fletcher Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first monoclonal antibody (mAb) that we produced immobilized a motile suspension of the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium. It was an exhilarating moment when, almost immediately following the addition of our mouse mAb to a highly motile culture of bacteria, we witnessed the rapid cessation of motility. Ten years on, and after the production of hundreds of different mAbs, it is still an exciting moment when a new antibody specificity is detected. The major aim of this chapter is to ensure that the reader can share in a similar feeling of genuine achievement. The generation of mAbs can be an expensive, extremely labour-intensive, and often frustrating task but, providing the immunized mouse has produced antibodies to the chosen antigen, mAbs should be generated using the protocols we describe. We have found, however, that the production of stable cell lines producing human mAbs is much more difficult than in the mouse system. Thus, although the protocols described have proved successful, it is much more difficult to succeed in the production of human rather than mouse mAbs.
Monitoring and control of bi ore actors
Authors: Kilburn Douglas G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The increased commercial demand for proteins produced in animal cell cultures has highlighted the need for better, more economical production methods. Experience in the fermentation industry indicates that the performance of a biological process can often be vastly improved by a better understanding of the influence of environmental factors on cell productivity. A considerable expertise has been built up on methods to regulate the culture environment. These methods have been applied to mammalian culture with considerable success. New methods have been develped for high-intensity culture which achieve cell concentrations in bioreactors up to two orders of magnitude higher than the maximum seen in flask cultures. These high cell concentrations are totally dependent on the maintenance of a controlled culture environment. This chapter outlines the monitoring and control procedures which are most frequently used in mammalian cell bioreactors. The technology has been adapted from the process control systems commonly used for microbial cultures (Figure I). The terminology used to describe these standard methods of process control is summarized in Table 1.
Fibronectin and fibronectin fragments
Authors: Akiyama Steven K , Yamada Kenneth M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The adhesive glycoprotein fibronectin has provided an important model system for investigating mechanisms of cell-adhesive interactions. Fibronectin binds to a number of biological macromolecules including heparin, collagen, fibrin, and cell surface receptors. These binding activities are contained in distinct, protease-resistant domains that can be released from the intact molecule by proteolysis and purified by chromatographic techniques. Although studies are often carried out using intact fibronectin, it is often necessary to use purified fragments of defined binding activities in order to derive molecular mechanisms (1, 2).
Structural analysis of glycosaminoglyeans
Authors: Lyon. J E Turnbull M , Gallagher J T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Glycosaminoglycans (GA Gs) are negatively-charged polysaccharides of differing degrees of complexity which are ubiquitous components of the extracellular matrix and plasma membranes. The GAG chains are largely made up of a repeat disaccharide unit which consists of an amino sugar and a hexuronic acid (Hex A), the exception being keratan sulphate (KS) in which galactose (Gal) replaces Hex A (Table I). The disaccharides may be substituted with ester or amino-linked sulfate groups and the numbers of disaccharides per chain can vary enormously. from about 15 in keratan sulphates, to 50-200 in heparan sulphates/ chondroitin sulphates and over 4000 in hyaluronate (HA). HA has a uniform primary structure and is composed entirely of N-acetylated disaccharides (GlcNAc 13 1,4 GlcA) which are not sulfated. At the opposite extreme are the heparan sulfates (HS) in which differential sulfation and variations in the Hex A isomers (glucuronate, GlcA or iduronate, IdoA) produce complex domains which represent a considerable problem in qualitative structural analysis.
NMR Studies Of Protein— Ligand Interactions
Authors: Feeney J , Birdsall B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the last few years there has been an increasing interest in studying interactions between proteins and other molecules in solution. Such non-covalent interactions are of crucial importance in many molecular recognition processes in biology, typical examples being found in complexes of enzymes with substrates and inhibitors, of drugs with their receptors, and of transcription factors with DNA duplexes.