bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The New Poor Law and the Aged Poor
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What changed with the coming of the New Poor Law, the reform of the Poor Law which occurred following the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834? Some historians believe very little, others that it became increasingly severe. Such differences arise mainly because research has been focused upon different geographical areas or different groups of poor people. Able-bodied men were treated more punitively than before; this was a major purpose of the change. The effect upon old people, who were still the largest single group of paupers has been more contested and was probably more mixed. Exploration of the practical implementation of the New Poor Law can tell us much about the lives of poorer old people and about how they were perceived by others.
Loca Sanctorum: The Significance of Place in the Study of the Saints
Authors: Thacker Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Loca sanctorum: the phrase occurs repeatedly in the study of the saints, a reminder that sanctity and place are ineluctably linked. All saints are in a sense local if they have had a physical existence and an identifiable place of burial or a site with which (for whatever reason) they have been strongly associated. But while all saints are local, some are more intensely local than others. We may distinguish degrees of localness, from the universal saints of the Bible through national, regional, and multi local patrons, to the truly local figure venerated in but a single place. In this book, we shall have occasion to consider most if not all of these categories, but the main focus will be on the last two or three. The paper that follows traces the role of place in the cult of the saints in Western Europe from its origins until the eighth century. In this period, Christians developed an extraordinary need to identify with a particular spiritual patron, active among them in a special way and potent in intervening with their God on their behalf. Such patrons confirmed their presence through some physical token or memoria, most notably their corporeal remains.
Constructing Cults in Early Medieval France: Local Saints and Churches in Burgundy and the Auvergne 400-1000
Authors: Wood Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The spiritual landscape of Western Europe abounds in saint cults. Yet in origin the region could not claim to be a Christian Holy Land— the events of the New Testament had for the most part taken place far to the east, only reaching Italy in the histories of Peter and Paul. True, persecution subsequently hit the western provinces of the Roman Empire, and Rome in particular came to boast the tombs of many martyrs, although the impact of the Great Persecution of 303-11 was overwhelmingly eastern. This did not stop the fourth-century Spaniard Prudentius from celebrating the martyrs of his native country. Gaul may have had to wait a little while before the earliest of its martyr-acts, whether authentic or invented, were set down in writing: the Vita S. Symphoriani, for instance, is usually dated to the fifth century, and the Passio Acaunensium Martyrumwas composed by the fifth-century bishop Eucherius of Lyon. At the same time, the fabrication or elaboration of the legends of seven missionaries came to play a vital role in the episcopal competition for status which raged in fifth-century Gaul, while in Burgundy
The Enshrinement of Local Saints in Francia and England
Authors: Crook John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cult of saints in the early middle ages found visible and tangible expression above all in the veneration of the bodily (usually skeletal) remains, ‘ relics’, left behind on earth by men and women who had suffered death for their Christian beliefs (martyrs) or who had led particularly holy lives (confessors). From the very earliest days of the organized church the practice exercised a significant influence on the architectural design and the internal arrangement of ecclesiastical buildings housing such relics. In this chapter these influences are examined in the early medieval West, and more particularly in Merovingian and Carolingian Francia. First, however, we should take a brief look at the Roman background to these developments. The earliest arrangement for the veneration of saintly relics consisted of a memorial structure (memoriaor tropaion) over the body of the saint; and in this respect, the early cults were essentially local, linked with the saint’s grave. Such monuments were soon enclosed within churches, with the high altar still ideally located directly over the grave, although in some cases the terrain made this impossible.
Scottish Saints and National Identities in the Early Middle Ages
Authors: Clancy Thomas Owen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his extraordinary and contemporary—though highly fabulous—account of the death of Somerled in the battle of Renfrew in 1164, the clerk William attributes the Hebridean leader’s end to the prayers of the ecclesiastical community of Glasgow and the intervention of St Kentigern. It closes on this gorily triumphal note: A cleric hacked off the head of the wretched leader Somerled, and placed it into Bishop Herbert’s outstretched hands. He said, ‘The Scottish saints are surely to be praised!’ yet wept as his custom was, to see the head of his enemy. And to blessed Kentigern he attributed the victory, so keep you his memory always, and that fittingly.
The State of the Union
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The British Isles were and are divided not only by St George’s Channel and the Irish Sea, but also by long-standing cultural, economic, ethnic, and religious differences. Hence the formal political unity of England, Wales, and Scotland after 1707 hardly obliterated local loyalties, let alone created an immediate sense of British nationhood. But besides constituting perhaps the largest free trade area in the world, the Union was sustained by a common language and Protestant religion, factors conspicuous in their absence from the essentially colonial relationship between Britain and Ireland.
Internal Security and External Defence, 1932-1939
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
De Valera’s peaceful installation as president of the executive council on 9 March 1932 was a watershed in Irish politics. He was elected as head of a minority government supported by the Labour party, a constraint for which he may on reflection have been grateful. The transfer of power took place through the relatively dignified medium of a vote in Dail Eireann. The process was the antithesis of what many on both sides of the civil war divide had anticipated: there was no shooting, no rioting, and surprisingly little overt rancour or triumphalism. Despite its sympathy with the militant republican movement, Fianna Fail had become an essentially constitutional party. Despite the bitterness of its defeat and its fears for the future, Cumann na nGaedheal remained one.
External Defence and Security, 1939-1945
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
De Valera had three principal assets in the autumn of 1939. The first was his firm policy of staying out of a European war, and his concomitant public pledge not to allow Britain’s interests to be harmed from Irish territory. This formulation gave him the flexibility which he needed to steer his way through the hazards which confronted him. It not only underlined neutrality, but placed it in a context where British strategic concerns were nevertheless openly acknowledged, and to some extent discreetly addressed from the beginning of the war. This was aided by the timely solution of the question of British diplomatic representation in Dublin through the appointment of Sir John Maffey and the establishment of the British Representative’s Office in the first week of the war, an arrangement which proved invaluable to both governments. De Valera stuck to the letter of the deal hammered out in 1938. The British, who were to find themselves faced with circumstances unimagined when they had relinquished their rights to the treaty ports, came very close to breaking their part of that bargain.
Model Mothers
Authors: Marks Lara V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first scholarly study to focus on Jewish women's experience of childbirth and infant care. In late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Britain there was deep concern about the perceived physical and military deterioration of the nation, reflected in the diminishing birth rate, persistently high infant mortality, and the poor health of the working class, revealed by army recruitment. Many medical practitioners and politicians believed that Jewish mothers were `model mothers' whose exemplary care of their children offered a solution to these problems. Lara Marks assesses the extent to which the stereotype of Jewish mothers reflected the reality of their experience in East London between 1870 and 1939. Not only did they have to cope with extreme poverty, but as newly arrived immigrants had to deal with linguistic and cultural barriers, as well as the unfamiliarity of local medical facilities. Nevertheless, as Dr Marks shows, Jewish mothers and their infants had clearly indicated by the remarkably low rate of Jewish infant mortality, and she examines the reasons for this. Model Mothers makes important contributions to our knowledge of maternal and infant care in this period and to our understanding of the interactions between ethnicity and health-care.
The Kingdom of France 900—1100
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The area considered in this chapter is more or less that contained in what came to be known as the kingdom of France. After a brief period when its kings secured part of the middle kingdom, the boundaries of the western kingdom seem to have remained much the same from the treaty of Verdun until the thirteenth century. I shall occasionally refer to areas outside the kingdom, like the areas east of the Rhone that now form part of France or parts of the Low Countries that lay just within the empire. Inconsistent as this may be, I do it partly because pieces of evidence from those areas sometimes provide particularly tempting illustrations of conditions that I suspect were also found within the kingdom and partly because I am aware that by focusing on the kingdoms of France and Germany I am squeezing out the borderlands between them. Partly too I have put in some references here because French historiography has, quite understandably, tended to work within the boundaries of modern France. As a result, information about these areas has contributed to the picture of feudo-vassalic institutions associated with France
Introduction Economic Systems and State Finance
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The title of this book in itself introduces a substantial historiographical debate. If the term ‘systems’ alludes to the modem concept of systems theory with its own methodology, which may have some useful applications for the financial historian, the phrase ‘economic systems’ refers to the observable fact that at no stage was the European economy a single economic system before the end of the ancien regime. France, for example, was a kingdom with several regional economies which were radically different one from another, and poorly integrated with each other; attempts to remove internal customs barriers before 1789 largely failed. These regional economic systems were in tum related to other regional economies in Europe. To speak of a west European economy or economic ‘system’, let alone a world economy, is therefore to misrepresent the historical reality. Before c.1800 there could only be European economic systems and world economic systems with a tenuous relationship between them.
The West European Monarchies in the Later Middle Ages
Authors: Ormrod W M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
lt is widely acknowledged that ‘modem’ fiscal systems can be said to have emerged at the point when the ‘private’ resourc s of the ruling power were exceeded in value by the ‘public’ revenues derived from a system of general taxation. In the European context, this is normally expressed as the transition from the ‘domain state’ (fiscalit é d’ État)to the ‘tax state’ (fiscalit é d’ État). Several generations of scholars have identified the first signs of the transition in thirteenth- and fourteenth-century England and France; indeed, Jean-Philippe Genet has used the example of these two realms between 1290 and 1360 to create a model not only for the fiscal, but also the political, juridical and cultural development of the early modem state. In a specifically fiscal context, it must be emphasized that the example of the centralizing monarchy extending its range and developing new modes of extraction provided only one of the possible avenues for state development in late medieval Europe: some of the alternatives are discussed in other chapters of this volume. However, the present contribution aims not so much to challenge the model developed by Genet and others, but to test its validity over a rather wider geographical range and in a more precise statistical context than has hitherto been attempted.
Expenditure
Authors: Komer Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone wishing to express an opinion on the finances of the early modem state should reflect on the obligations of that state. Its first task, according to Fernand Braudel, was ‘to secure obedience, to gain for itself the monopoly of the use of force in a given society, neutralizing all the possible challenges inside it and replacing them with what Max Weber called “legitimate violence”‘. Its second task was to control and organize economic life, the circulation of goods, and to establish the material and legal infrastructure to facilitate the proper workings of production and exchange. The third and final task of the state was to play a part in cultural and spiritual life, by keeping watch over, and channelling, ideas and intellectual movements. Yet when writing of the obligations and budget of the state, Braudel described the latter as an intrusive Leviathan which sought to procure the ever-increasing financial resources required to achieve the objectives it set itself. He pointed out one constant feature--that expenditure generally outran revenues, with the result that borrowing was always necessary.
The Fiscal Burden
Authors: Gelabert Juan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historians who have studied the fiscal burden of a particular locality during a given period have usually been content to offer figures which represent the tax burden as accurately as possible by means of a wide variety of indexes. Rarely has much attention been paid to the underlying issues and the reasons why such figures differ so much from one place to another; why direct taxation predominated in some places while indirect taxes were the rule in others (Chapter 13); or why some systems were successful at raising money while others failed. Without completely disregarding quantitative data, the aim of this chapter is to address these issues, and to offer some suggestions towards an understanding as to why discussion of the fiscal burden ought not to be reduced simply to the calculation of a per capita fiscal burden, the lot of the ‘average taxpayer’, even within a particular country. There are various contributing factors which created the disparities in the tax burden on taxpayers in different countries. Leaving aside the question of the differential increase in state expenditure (Chapter 12), the aim is to focus on a geography of the tax burden in early modem Europe, something which Jean Bodin had already envisaged in the later sixteenth century.
Hierarchy and Jurisdiction: Models in Medieval Canon Law
Authors: Padoa-Schioppa Antonio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No one wishing to throw light on the models that have influenced the for mation of the modern state can ignore the medieval Western Church, both in its own institutional elements and in the theoretical development that unvaryingly accompanied historical events. One aspect of this evolution which is particularly important for an understanding of the origins of the modern European state is the concentration of decision-making power and the pyramidal structure of ecclesi astical organization, culminating in the Pope and the Roman Curia.
Issues at Stake in the Development of the State: Devising and Drafting the Law in Fourteenth-Century France
Authors: Rigaudiere Albert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the extended fourteenth century, which ran from the reign of Philip the Fair (1285-1314) to that of Charles VI (1380-1422), legists and theoreticians writ ing in support of the monarchy were agreed that in France the institution of monarchy, born of the achievements of the reign of Louis IX (St Louis) and freed once and for all from the imperial yoke, had recovered its power to legislate.1 Such legislative power, an integral part of nascent sovereignty, was not distinguished from the other powers which the late eighteenth century, with its love of clarity and rigour, was to distinguish as executive.judicial, and legislative. For this reason, it is better to use more neutral expressions, such as ‘normative power’ or ‘edictal power’. Such expressions, in contrast with the doctrines of the philosophers and jurists of the Enlightenment, define the medieval reality of a monarchy constantly compelled to reassert its ability to make decisions, an ability whose recognition was most difficult to ensure.
The Legal Instruments of Power and the State in Early Modern England
Authors: Holmes Clive 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The early modern period in England provides two major themes for the historian of the relationship between the legal instruments of power and the ori gin of the modern state. First, the period sees the continued development of the theoretical and practical supremacy of the Common Law and the central courts at Westminster over alternative, chiefly local, jurisdictions and customary rules-the theme emphasized by Dr Brand. That supremacy had to be in some measure reasserted following the weakening of all central institutions during the fifteenth century. It also had to adjust in response to the new social circumstances of the early modern period: to the growing complexity of economic transactions and the development of a national market, which multiplied civil litigation; to population growth, social polarization, and the appearance of a rural proletariat, which placed significantly enhanced burdens on the criminal and administrative agencies. Second, the period saw the redefinition of the relationship oflegal insti tutions to the monarchy and to Parliament, most apparent in the great constitu tional crises of the1640s and in1688-9. As Dr Brand has shown, the central courts of medieval England were essentially the king’s. Monarchs claimed the right to do justice to their subjects in an increasing range of disputes; this power they deputed to institutions that they established, and which were staffed by their nominees.
Cities, Bourgeoisies, and States
Authors: Isaacs Ann Katherine , Prak Maarten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The bourgeoisie is one of those historical phenomena that seems to be omnipresent in crucial developments of the European past, and at the same time eludes serious analysis by historians and other social scientists.1 As one of them summarized the problem three decades ago: ‘The trouble with the middle class is that it is always rising ‘. Even though the bourgeoisie ‘s destiny seems obviously enough the age of modernity, and its origins were surely to be found in the medieval town, the intermediate stages proved to be extremely hard to chart: somehow the bourgeoisie failed to appear at almost every rendezvous planned by its academic pursuers. With the destruction of the Industrial Revolution as a unifying concept, and the by now unanimous opinion that, whatever it may have been, the French Revolution was definitely not a bourgeois revolution, the last landmarks have disappeared.
Norms and values in the european cit y, 1300–1800
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In what follows, only a rough definition of the terms ‘norm’ and ‘value’ will be attempted. Whereas a legal historian can consider the oldest kind of norm to be that of form,a sociologist like Talcott Parsons conceives social actions as striving towards conformity with norms, and sees norms as generalized patterns of expectations, which can be legitimized by values on a higher level.Norms and values can be thought of as essentially one, as in the old idea of an eternal, immutable law, in which justice and laws, norms and absolute values coincide; conversely, formal legal norms and material justice can be seen as diametrically opposed if they cannot be harmonized by aequitas—summa ius, summa inuria.
Lord Melbourne 1779—1848
Authors: Mitchell L G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lord Melbourne was Prime Minister of England from 1834-1841. As mentor and father-figure to the young Queen Victoria, he exerted considerable influence over the first few years of her reign. He was a man to whom career success came rather late - he was forty-eight years old before he held any major governmental office. In a profound way, his character and thinking had already been determined by experiences outside politics - particularly by his Whig social background and his disastrous marriage to Lady Caroline Lamb. In this, the first biography for twenty years, Leslie Mitchell uses the Melbourne family papers to explore the man behind a politician at the heart of early Victorian politics. William Lamb, the second Viscount Melbourne, might have held office earlier had it not been for his marriage to Lady Caroline Ponsonby, whose scandalous public affaires (including one with Byron), preceded a descent into madness and separation from her husband. Her death in 1828 freed Melbourne to take up the career which was almost his birthright. His views and subsequent political rise and survival in high office (almost by accident rather than design), reveal much about the nature of Whig politics - operating as an extension of family relationships and the expression of the shared values of an élite. As Prime Minister, Melbourne became the closest adviser and father figure to the new queen, who was only eighteen years old at her accession in 1837. Her rejection of Melbourne on her marriage to Prince Albert was abrupt and devastating, and Melbourne never really recovered from it. He became a marginalized figure, out of step with the demands of a fast-changing, newly industrialized world. In this fascinating account, Leslie Mitchell fully explores the private and public life of a man destined for high office and greatly influenced by the women in his life.
Feminism and the Rights of Woman
Authors: Caine Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The demand for the Rights of Woman in the late eighteenth century provided the basis and the framework for modern feminism. In Britain its emergence was closely bound up with the broad range of social and economic changes brought by industrialization and urbanization in the later eighteenth century, the expansion in wealth and power of the middle class, and the new emphasis on individualism and economic independence which accompanied it. But it was the political upheaval of the French Revolution and the debates about political rights and citizenship which surrounded it that brought the first extensive discussion of women’s emancipation, the central concern of modern feminism.