bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Poverty and the Pursuit of Learning: Poor Scholars in Seventeenth-Century Aberdeen
Authors: Vance Shona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Poor Scholars in Reformation Scotland
It has been convincingly argued by James Cameron that the ideas of Continental educational reformers-of Gouvea at Bordeaux, Baduel in Nimes, Sturm in Strasbourg, Cordier in Lausanne, Calvin in Geneva and, most of all, of Martin Bucer-were highly influential in the formation of Scottish reformed educational initiatives in the later sixteenth century.’ A fundamental tenet of the educational plans set before the Scottish Reformation Parliament of 1560 was that all, regardless of means, should be enabled to serve the commonwealth according to their ability. It was laid as a duty upon those in power to ensure that poverty was not allowed to hinder the fulfilment of academic potential. These views were given expression in the first Book of Discipline, a document drawn up by reforming ministers at the behest of the Parliament with a view to laying the foundations of a new, Protestant society in Scotland. The three main areas of interest were the structuring and regulation of the religious life of the populace, the provision of the poor, and the establishment of clear educational structures to provide for the religious and secular needs of church and commonwealth. With regard to the education of the poor, the Book decreed.
Theology and Philosophy at the English College, Douai: A Handlist of Sources
Authors: Sharratt Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The English College was founded at Douai in the Spanish Netherlands in 1568, principally to prepare Roman Catholic men to work as priests in the hostile England and Wales of Elizabeth I. Douai was chosen because of its proximity to England and because it had a university which was founded in 1562. Apart from a temporary relocation to Rheims (1578-94), the College found the Spanish Netherlands a congenial haven. When Douai was brought under French rule in 1667, there was no interruption in the College’s work. French hospitality lasted until Britain and France went to war in the aftermath of the French Revolution. After its forced closure, the work of the College continued in England.
The Evolution And Economics Of Auction Sales
Authors: Frsa Brian W Harvey , Llb Franklin Meisel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is perhaps surprising that there is no comprehensive definition of an auction in English statute law. The reason is, no doubt, that since no single statute deals with both the civil and criminal aspects of auction sales in their entirety, it has never been necessary to attempt a statutory definition. Such statutes as do relate to the topic may refer to the necessity of ‘competitive bidding’ (see Mock Auctions Act 1961) or may refer purely to a particular feature of auction sales, such as the general rule that the offer is made by the bidder and accepted by the auctioneer when he signifies his acceptance by fall of the hammer (see Sale of Goods Act 1979, s 57(2), Appendix 2). For present purposes, as satisfactory a definition as any is to be found in Halsbury: ‘An auction is a manner of selling or letting property by bids, usually to the highest bidder by public competition’.
The Rights Of An Auctioneer
Authors: Frsa Brian W Harvey , Llb Franklin Meisel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An auctioneer has a number of rights which may be exercised against the vendor, the most important being his right to be paid for his work. Also of significance is his right to be indemnified in respect of any losses or liabilities incurred in performing his mandate. An auctioneer has other subsidiary rights, such as his right to a lien over the property of his principal, which may be exercised to enforce his right to remuneration. We shall deal with these in turn. The right to remuneration includes both the right to agreed commission and, rarer in these days of more or less standardized forms of contract, the right to be paid a reasonable sum where the contract is silent as to the commission to be paid or where the work done is outside that provided for by the contract (a quantum meruit).Whether the auctioneer is entitled to his commission will depend upon the terms of his contract. It is necessary to determine, firstly, what are the conditions upon satisfaction of which the contract provides that commission is payable and, secondly, whether they have been satisfied. The first element involves a legal question, and the second a factual one.
Sales Of Land By Auction Or Tender
Authors: Frsa Brian W Harvey , Llb Franklin Meisel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sale of land by auction poses quite different problems of law and practice to those arising in chattel sales. This is partly because a sale of land which is commenced by an auction has to be dovetailed into standard conveyancing practice. Conveyancing practice involves far more careful preliminary enquiries and, usually, much more attention to the details of the description, than in the case of an auction of chattels. The preliminary decision as to whether to sell land by auction or otherwise involves economic criteria which are outlined in chapter 1. Common cases are sales of investment ‘ground rents’ (ie the reversion on long leases), commercial property the value of which has to be realized because of liquidation or some other economic imperative and domestic property repossessed by mortgagees or needing realization because it is the house of an employee relocated by his employer. And where the market is booming (which tends to happen cyclically) an auction may be the only way of establishing and obtaining in hand the market value of a popular property. Further, as remarked at the beginning of this book, auctions tend to work best when the total payable on the day by the buyer is the hammer price and no more.
Equal Treatment
Authors: Gordon Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In EC law the general principle of equality, equal treatment, or non-discrimination, means that ‘similar situations should not be treated differently and that different situations should not be treated identically unless such differentiation is objectively justified’. Essentially, the principle gives protection against arbitrary treatment. The principle has application in many different contexts. As its starting point it operates—as the citation suggests—in a formal sense. But its more concrete expression is reflected in procedural protections, specific Treaty rights (most notably Article 12 (ex 6) EC) and in particular substantive status areas such as prohibitions on sex, race, and age discrimination, EU citizenship protections, and prevention of arbitrary treatment in relation to fundamental economic freedoms.
Due Process
Authors: Gordon Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no Treaty provision conferring the right to a hearing or, indeed, to most of the rights encompassed by what are now regarded as EC administrative law requirements of due process. However, such rights have become well established under the general rubric of ‘the rights of the defence’. In general terms, the EC expression ‘the rights of the defence’ equates to natural justice in domestic judicial review. As so often, however, there are differences—sometimes significant—between the protections accorded by the two doctrines. Importantly, too, there is (as with natural justice) equivalent protection, in most instances, to both sides as opposed merely to the defence.
Proportionality
Authors: Gordon Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Proportionality, as one of the general principles of EC law, may be relied on in domestic public law proceedings where issues arise as to (either or both) the legality of EC measures and of national measures (including administrative acts and omissions) intended to implement or derogate from EC law. The exercise required to be undertaken by the Administrative Court or other national court potentially involves (depending on the context) both interpretation of EC and domestic legislative measures (including Treaty provisions) and—where necessary—applying the legislation as interpreted to the legality of administrative decision-making.
Free Movement Of Persons And Citizenship
Authors: Gordon Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far as the Treaty is concerned, there is no single right of economic free movement. There are, however, a cluster of specific EC rights and prohibitions against unjustified restrictions on freedom of movement/establishment in different contexts that, in broad economic terms, have the potential for affecting trade between Member States. In each case the pattern is similar. On the one hand the Treaty prohibits restrictions on relevant freedom of movement and, on the other hand, the Treaty permits restrictions that the State is able to justify by resort to specific and enunciated criteria. The structure is broadly similar to that for certain qualified ECHR rights as, for example, the right to respect for privacy enshrined in Article 8(1) ECHR with the power of interference on specific grounds contained in Article 8(2).
The Commercial Freedoms
Authors: Gordon Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The EC rights in respect of the free movement of persons, discussed in Chapter 16, are pre-dominantly non-commercial in nature. In contrast to this, the EC freedoms considered here have primarily commercial effect. Of particular importance in the commercial arena—and frequently raising public law issues before the Administrative Court and other Treaty permits restrictions that the State is able to justify by resort to specific and enunciated criteria. The structure is broadly similar to that for certain qualified ECHR rights as, for example, the right to respect for privacy enshrined in Article 8(1) ECHR with the power of interference on specific grounds contained in Article 8(2).
Introduction
Authors: Dudbridge Glen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1575 the Spanish Augustinian friar Martn de Rada (1533–78) spent two months in Fujian as head of a mission which we now regard as one of the significant early contacts between Europe and China. At one point in his report on the visit, commenting on those whom the Chinese ‘revere as saints’, he noted that ‘the one whom they honour most is a woman called Quanyin, daughter of a king called Tonçou, who led a solitary life and a holy one after her fashion’. He had heard a legend of Guanyin which we find set out at greater length by one of the military officers in his party, Miguel de Loarca: Quanim . . . was daughter of the king Tzitzonbon, who had three daughters, and married off two of them.
The Didache and the Writings that later formed the New Testament
Authors: Tuckett Christopher M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since its discovery in 1873, the Didache has been a source of intense scholarly debate about a number of issues, including its date, the use of the ‘Two Ways’ tradition, early Christian liturgical—especially eucharistic—practice, and the nature of developing ecclesiastical hierarchy in the early church. Among these issues of debate has always been the question of the relationship of the Didache to the writings of (what became) the New Testament. The text of the Didache shows a number of striking parallels with some parts of other NT texts, and the vast majority of these parallels involve material appearing in the synoptic gospels. Parallels between the Didache and other parts of the NT are generally thought to be rather slight. Such parallels as exist are discussed below. But interest in this general topic (of the relationship between the Didache and the NT) has always focused primarily on the parallels that exist between the Didache and the synoptic gospels.2 However, before discussing the parallels in detail, some preliminary observations and comments are in order.
2 Clement and the Writings that later formed the New Testament
Authors: Tuckett Christopher M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The so-called Second Letter of Clement to the Corinthians is usually described as a homily (apparently based primarily on Isa. 54. 1; see 2 Clem. 2. 1–3), for the implied author states that someone is reading the text aloud (19. 1) and clearly suggests that those whom the reader addresses are gathered in the context of worship (17. 3).1 There is no epistolary framework, and the association of the title with 1 Clement comes about from its transmission with that letter, although the fact that they circulated together does suggest that there was some perception of a link between these texts at least by the Wfifth century, when both were included in the Codex Alexandrinus. There they follow Revelation, but are apparently considered part of the New Testament.2 It has been suggested that 2 Clement was known to Eusebius (EH 3. 38. 4), but the fact that it is not a letter makes this identiffcation uncertain. The only secure conclusions that may be reached are that its author, date, and place of composition are unknown, although there is critical consensus that it should be placed somewhere around the first half or the middle of the second century. One argument often used in support of putting it towards the middle rather than the beginning of the second century is its apparent use of a range of the writings later included in the New Testament, including the synoptic gospels to which the letter may refer as ‘scripture’ (2. 4; cf. 8. 5; 14. 2).
The Shepherd of Hermas and the Writings that later formed the New Testament
Authors: Verheyden Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problem
The Shepherd of Hermas is by far the longest among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, but it is widely regarded as the least rewarding for the question that concerns us here. That question can be described most generally as looking for evidence that the author of the Shepherd knew and made use of one or another of the writings that will afterwards be included in the New Testament, or at least realised for some such material he uses that it has its origin in these writings. Hermas has not been very helpful in addressing this question. He hardly tells us anything about himself or his work that is directly relevant or useful for our purpose. He presents himself as a member of the Christian community in Rome, or of one such community.
Introduction And Overview
Authors: Gregory Andrew F , Tuckett Christopher M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The First modern editor to refer to a collection of early Christian writings as the Apostolic Fathers appears to have been J. Comelier, whose edition was published in 1672. The most recent is Bart D. Ehrman, a contributor to this collection, whose Greek–English edition in the Loeb Classical Library replaces the original and much-used Loeb volumes produced by Kitsap Lake. Lists of those who are included in the conventional but largely arbitrary collection known as the ‘Apostolic Fathers’ do vary slightly (Ehrman takes a more inclusive approach than both Lake and the Oxford Committee),1 but included in The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers and in Trajectories through the New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers are treatments of the central texts in this category, as found also in the 1905 volumes, The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers: the Didache, 1 Clement, 2 Clement, the letters of Ignatius, Polycarp’s Letter to the Philippians, the Letter of Barnabas, and the Shepherd of Hermas. Also included in the second of these 2005 volumes is the Martyrdom of Polycarp, which the Oxford Committee did not consider.
Gospels And Gospel Traditions In The Second Century
Authors: Koester Helmut 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the time of the publication of The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers,1 the four canonical gospels ruled supreme as the almost exclusive source for the knowledge of Jesus’ words and deeds. In some respect, interest in the study of the gospel quotations in the Apostolic Fathers was dictated by the quest for the dating of these gospels: if the dates of the writing of the Apostolic Fathers could be ascertained, their gospel quotations could be used as terminus ante quem for the writing of the New Testament gospels.
Following In Paul’s Footsteps: Mimesis And Power In Ignatius Of Antioch
Authors: Reis David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although it is now a commonplace to acknowledge Ignatius’ debt to Pauline thought, scholars continue to debate the precise nature of this relationship. The paucity of direct quotations from the apostle might suggest that Ignatius was not familiar with a collection of letters, and at most had access to one or two. Yet the existence of quotations is not the sine qua non for establishing a relationship between authors, and many studies have recognized that the allusions and ‘echoes’ to Paul demonstrate that Ignatius made use of Pauline ideas at the conceptual level.1 This realization has unfortunately led to a certain methodological untidiness, as scholars search for a vocabulary for assessing Ignatius’ ‘Paulinisms’.2 Recent studies on the art of mimesis, however, have provided a tool that is particularly well suited for evaluating the complex relationship between Ignatius and Paul. Rather than focusing on the existence of direct quotations to establish links between authors, they have instead emphasized the method advised by the ancient rhetoricians.
The Martyrdom of Polycarp and the New Testament Passion Narratives
Authors: Holmes Michael W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A surprising feature of the Martyrdom of Polycarp, a document that explicitly declares its intention to describe a ‘martyrdom in accord with the gospel’ (Mart. Pol. 1. 1; cf. 19. 1), is that nowhere in the course of its narrative does it ever quote a gospel or a saying of Jesus. At the same time, there are numerous apparent parallels and allusions to gospel tradition, which in the opinion of many provide the key to understanding Polycarp’s martyrdom as an imitation of the passion of Jesus. This unusual circumstance—the seemingly central role of gospel parallels in a document that never cites a gospel—calls for further investigation. I propose to look Wrst at the relationship (if any) between the Martyrdom of Polycarp and the gospels,1 and second at the relationship between the meaning of a martyrdom ‘according to the gospel’ and the parallels with the gospel tradition, and its signiWcance for understanding the Martyrdom.
The Invention of Human Rights in the Community
Authors: Williams Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The failure of existing analyses to grasp the extent of the incoherence in human rights policies as well as its long-term significance is quite startling. Despite the rich vein of subject matter and the interdisciplinary attention paid separately to both human rights and the Community we are still faced by a relatively underplayed hand when it comes to considering the two topics together. Specifically, as suggested in the previous chapter, the attempts to explain the current condition are highly limited in their scope. A more intrusive examination is therefore sorely needed.
In order to provide such an investigation we need to return to some fundamental questions. Why did the notion of human rights come to be embraced as a part of the Community’s project in the first place?
Ces grands privilèges: The Symbolic Use of Written Documents in the Foundation and Institutionalization Processes of Medieval Universities*
Authors: Weber Christoph Friedrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1909, the University of Leipzig celebrated the 500th anniversary of its foundation with a monumental ceremony. On 30 July, the medieval beginnings, originating from a 1409 discessio of parts of the University of Prague, were depicted in a ‘historical pageant’. (Figs. 1–2) On Augustus Square, students in gowns and costumes in a style imagined as medieval German—and supplied by the Berlin-based company ‘Germania’ that obviously specialised in patriotic celebrations—marched down a lane formed by guests of honour. The headgear of the spectators—spiked helmets, hats of student societies, and top hats—confirmed their identity as representatives of the respective elites of Wilhelminian society.
The Beginning of Higher Education in Political Economy in Milan and Modena: Cesare Beccaria, Alfonso Longo, Agostino Paradisi
Authors: Rother* Wolfgang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This study investigates the early years of academic instruction in political economy. This academic discipline emerged as the early-modern territorial state, facing expanding market conditions, moved beyond administration of the national budget into the sphere of an economic policy. The forerunner of political economy, the oeconomica of the early university canon, had been anchored in the pseudo Aristotelian work of the same name. Taught with the ethica or philosophia moralis and the politica as part of philosophia practica, it already had politics inherent to the economy. However, as the changing economic conditions of the modern age necessitated professional administration of state economies, economy became detached from practical philosophy. Chairs specifically dedicated to the discipline were founded. The titles of the first of these chairs demonstrate that their holders adopted a cameralist remit, addressing administration of state finances. The German professorships were now described as oeconomische, Policey-und Cameral-Wissenschaft.
Formation of Family Relationships
Authors: Douglas Gillian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The legal recognition of family relationships can be seen as serving one basic purpose. This is to enable the state to identify particular relationships to which it can attach certain legal consequences. The question then arises as to why the state might wish to do this. It might be argued that it facilitates state control over people’s individual choices and preferences. On a more pragmatic level, it makes it easier to organize the necessary functions of the state if it is relatively straightforward to determine who is legally linked to whom. For example, financial support obligations can be imposed on and enforced against those deemed by law to be ‘related’.
Rights and Responsibilities within the Family
Authors: Douglas Gillian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How far the law should be used to lay down norms of behaviour for family members to follow in their relationships with each other causes problems for liberal societies. First, there is the problem of the public/ private divide. In classic liberal thinking, as noted in Chapter 1, the family belongs to the private sphere and the mark of a free society is the reluctance of the state to interfere in that sphere. On that basis, it might be argued that the law should not be used as a tool to regulate family relationships because to do so is to undermine people’s freedom and to restrict how they choose to live their private lives. Secondly, are not family relationships marked out from others by their altruism? Family relationships depend upon the ‘higher’ motivations and feelings of love, care, and affection rather than upon self-advancement and obligation. Within our families at least, we can ‘be ourselves’ and can show unconditional love to those around us without having to be coerced by the state into fulfilling our obligations to each other.