bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Basic Actions
Authors: Enç Berent 
Published: April 2005

AbstractEnç’s naturalistic foundationalism divides actions into two sub-categories, namely, basic acts and non-basic acts. This chapter develops this foundationalism into a causal theory of action, which has as its central thesis the proposition that an action consists of a behavioural output that is caused by the reasons the agent has for producing that behaviour, reasons that consist of the agent’s beliefs and desires. In other words, reasons feed into a computational process of deliberation, the causal consequence of which is the formation of an intention. The intention causes the behavioural output. On this thesis, actions are defined as changes in the world that are caused by natural events.
The Causal Theory Revisited
Authors: Enç Berent 
Published: April 2005

AbstractDevelops further the foundationalist causal theory of action introduced in Ch. 2. In particular, Enç develops an account of act individuation ingenious to his reductive view of action, which at the same time renders its main competitors, the family of theories that regards action as an irreducible part of rational action, implausible.
Autonomy, the Will, and Freedom
Authors: Enç Berent 
Published: April 2005

AbstractChapters 1 to 6 have developed and defended a naturalist and foundationalist causal theory of action. This chapter proposes to show that notions such as autonomy, voluntary acts, acting in accordance with one’s will, acting out of one’s free will, and freedom of agency do not require resources that presuppose anything about agents that is at odds with what the causal theorist admits.
Political Obligations
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: April 2005

AbstractProvides a full defence of a theory of political obligation on the basis of the principle of fairness (or fair play). The book responds to the most important objections and extends a theory-based on fairness into a developed ‘multiple principle’ theory of obligation. The ‘self-image of the state’ in regard to political obligations is explored through examination of judicial decisions in three different democratic countries, while the book also breaks new ground by studying attitudes towards political obligations, through the use of small focus groups.
Bringing the State Back In
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: April 2005

AbstractIn arguing for the need for the state, this chapter establishes factual parameters within which discussions of political obligations should be conducted. Certain theorists argue that political obligations are not necessary, that various non-state organizations could fulfil the functions commonly assigned to states. However, these theorists do not satisfactorily address questions concerning the provision of essential public goods. Through detailed analysis of numerous alternative mechanisms, libertarian, free-market solutions are found to be unable to provide all necessary public goods. Similarly, technical solutions to N-person prisoner's dilemma are unsuccessful, because of the special conditions they require. Non-state mechanisms, such as the protective associations familiar from Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia, are found to be unable to provide essential public goods, while the same is true of proposals based on a distinction between authority and legitimacy.
Alternative Supply and Alternative Preferences
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe most powerful objection to political obligations based on the principle of fairness concerns alternative supply of necessary public goods. According to this line of argument, if the subject prefers not to receive particular benefits from the state, then he need not incur obligations through their provision. However, as the discussion in Ch. 2 shows, for certain essential public goods, there is no alternative to state provision. Moreover, the fact that a subject prefers that goods be provided in a different form or by a mechanism other than the state is not ordinarily sufficient to dissolve obligations that they would otherwise incur.
Political Obligation and the Natural Duties of Justice
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: April 2005

AbstractIn recent years, certain theorists, most notably John Rawls, have attempted to establish general political obligations based on so-called ‘natural duties of justice’. However, because natural duties are of limited force, they cannot ground political obligations, which may well require significant sacrifice. Natural duty theories confront a dilemma: either they will not be sufficiently strong to ground obligations, or if they are, they will not be ‘natural’ duties. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls's argument for a natural duty to support the state is flawed by running together arguments from behind and outside the veil of ignorance. Properly developed, behind the veil of ignorance, such a natural duty to support the state would be seen to be actually a variant of the principle of fairness. Because natural duties cannot establish adequate theories on their own, they can play a role in theories of political obligation only by working in conjunction with other principles.
Reformist Consent and Political Obligation
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: April 2005

AbstractWith theories of political obligation based on consent now generally discredited because most people have not actually consented, certain theorists attempt to rescue consent by proposing mechanisms through which individuals could consent to government. Various mechanisms are examined, including ‘consent-or-leave’ and Michael Walzer's proposal that citizens who refuse to consent be allowed a lesser status, analogous to that of ‘resident aliens at home’. All these mechanisms confront insuperable difficulties concerning essential public goods. Because resident aliens at home will continue to receive public goods, the alternatives are that they be allowed to receive them cost-free or that they incur obligations, even though they explicitly refused to consent.
Popular Opinion
Authors: Klosko George 
Published: April 2005

AbstractExamines opinions of ordinary people in regard to political obligations through small focus groups. Under certain circumstances, the views of ordinary people can lend support to the particular theories to which they subscribe and increase burdens of justification for proponents of alternative theories. Responses of participants in ten focus groups indicate strong consensus on basic points. Participants strongly believe they have political obligations, although they make exceptions for particular laws, which seem to them to serve no real social purpose. They ground their obligations on benefits provided by the state, and strongly connect up their own requirements to obey the law with requirements that all other people behave similarly. The moral principle that appears to coincide most closely with their views is a variant of the principle of fairness.
Horizontal Accountability: The Legal Institutionalization of Mistrust
Authors: O'Donnell Guillermo 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter examines horizontal accountability (HA) in Latin American state agencies. It considers two main directions in which HA may come into play: the unlawful encroachment by one state agency upon the proper authority of another; and corruption, which consists of unlawful advantages that public officials obtain for themselves and/or their associates. It argues that when the responsibilities of HA exist in the law but the respective agencies are made ineffective by superior powers, the transgressions of these powers will be facilitated, and agencies will be discredited.
The Accountability Deficit in Latin America
Authors: Crisp Brian F. , Shugart Matthew Soberg 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter presents accountability as an inherently vertical relationship. It discusses the conflicts between vertical accountability, horizontal exchange, and superintendence in presidential systems. It is argued that the relations between agents of the state are a function of their connections to the ultimate principal — the citizenry. The proliferation of superintendence agencies may raise expectations that cannot be met without an overhaul of the institutions of vertical accountability in Latin America.
Legislative Oversight: Interests and Institutions in the United States and Argentina
Authors: Morgenstern Scott , Manzetti Luigi 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter examines how similar institutions in 19th century Latin America and the United States took different paths in terms of their fight against corruption and development of oversight institutions by the end of the 20th century. The divergent paths taken by these two countries resulted from differences in their legislatures’ motives and the courts’ willingness to check and counter executive action. A long continuous period of democratic rule is also essential to developing institutions and attacking corruption. While this occurred in the US, Argentina’s turbulent democratic experience stunted the development of a professional legislature capable of restraining executive abuses and corruption.
Societal and Horizontal Controls: Two Cases of a Fruitful Relationship
Authors: Smulovitz Catalina , Peruzzotti Enrique 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter examines the interactions between societal and horizontal mechanisms of accountability in Latin America. The analysis of two case studies shows that the activation of the horizontal mechanisms was possible due to pressures from below. The actions of individuals, associations, and the media transformed local and particular cases into issues on the public agenda. The constructed public issue, in turn, became a denunciation of the failure of horizontal mechanism of accountability, and a demand of their proper operation.
Meanings and Knowledge of Meaning
Authors: Schiffer Stephen 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Knowing what an expression means is neither knowing that it means such and such nor knowing how to do things with the expression; it is being in, or being apt to be in, a certain kind of language-processing state. The account of knowledge of meaning is seen to suggest that, strictly speaking, there are no such things as expression meanings. Whether or not that is so, there are things to which an expression must be related if it is to have meaning, and with an eye to David Kaplan’s characters, these things are called characters*. This leads to a critical discussion of two-dimensional semantics.
The Moral Demands of Affluence
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractHow much are we morally required to do to help people who aremuch worse off than us? On any credible moral outlook, other people’s pressing need for assistance can ground moral requirements on us to help them – requirements of beneficence.How far do those requirements extend? One way to think about this is by means of a simple analogy: an analogy between contributing to aid agencies’ efforts to help people at a distance and saving someone’s life yourself, directly. Part I of the book examines this analogy, discusses the problems with it, and argues that a version of it is defensible. This argument draws on an extended discussion of the nature of moral requirements of beneficence and fairness.This argument can seem to lead to an extremely demanding moral outlook – one that requires us to lead altruistically focused lives, and forbids practically all forms of personal fulfilment. Part II argues against this demanding view, on the grounds that it can be rejected from an appropriately impartial point of view. It only makes sense to accept that there are requirements of beneficence on the assumption that the non-altruistic interests around which our lives – rich and poor alike – are structured is not morally wrong to pursue.
An Argument from Beneficence
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe failure to save someone’s life directly is wrong because it is a failure of beneficence. The features that make it a failure of beneficence are also features of not helping people at a distance: they are present when the help we can give is indirect as well as when it is immediate. So not helping people at a distance is wrong too (although it is not necessarily as wrong). The methodological challenge of Ch.1 can be answered.
Objections to Aid
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractVarious arguments are often given for thinking that aid agencies do no overall good to the poor. The economic and political grounds for thinking this are surveyed in this chapter. It is argued that the claims needed for a cogent objection to humanitarian aid are too strong to be plausible. And even if they were right, they would at most show that we should be helping in some ways rather than others: they would not show that there is nothing we can do to help.
The Extreme Demand
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractHow far do the demands generated by the life-saving analogy extend? Although the requirement on me to give money to aid agencies is a requirement that I contribute to what we all ought to be doing, that does not mean that, when others are not complying, I am required to do no more than my ‘fair share’. Two further approaches to the life-saving analogy need to be considered: an iterative or an aggregative approach. A case can be given for favouring the iterative approach. But the conclusion to which this leads – the Extreme Demand – allows each of us to spend practically no time or money on sources of personal fulfilment.
Impartiality, Fairness, and Beneficence
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractShowing that the Extreme Demand can be rejected from an appropriately impartial point of view would constitute a decisive objection to it. This would undermine the case for thinking that it could be a demand of either fairness or beneficence. An ‘appropriately’ impartial point of view, for the purposes of this argument, is a point of view of impartial concern for other people’s interests.
The Rejection of the Extreme Demand
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractImportant personal goods – goods such as friendships and commitments to personal projects – are constituted by personal partiality. Such goods clearly ground requirements of beneficence – they supply the interests for the sake of which we should help other people. However, accepting this is not consistent with the Extreme Demand, which requires us to lead altruistically focused lives. So the Extreme Demand should be rejected.
Permission
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractHow far can the argument against the Extreme Demand be extended? If living one kind of life, or pursuing one kind of good, is better than the alternatives in a significant enough way to ground requirements of beneficence on others to help me, it cannot be wrong for me to refuse to forgo it to help others. Moreover, there are some kinds of lives, and some kinds of goods (‘commitment goods’), that are morally defensible even when there are alternatives that would be no worse for me. This generates neither an ultra-permissive nor an ultra-ascetic view.
Requirement
Authors: Cullity Garrett 
Published: April 2005

AbstractWe have an argument for rejecting an iterative but not an aggregative approach to the life-saving analogy. This means that, while Chs 7–9 show that certain forms of personal spending are morally defensible, the life-saving analogy still supplies us with grounds for thinking that other forms of personal spending are not. Some of the main practical implications of the resulting view are spelled out. The resulting view is not puritanical, but is still demanding in the constraints it places on living a morally good life.
Introduction
Authors: Alesina Alberto , Glaeser Edward 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis introductory chapter presents an overview of the topics discussed in this volume, which seeks to find an answer to why Americans are less willing than Europeans to redistribute from the rich to the poor. It discusses the economic, political, social, attitudinal, and historical differences between the United States and Europe. It argues that the differences between the two sides are deeply rooted in culture and attitude.
Redistribution in the United States and Europe: The Data
Authors: Alesina Alberto , Glaeser Edward 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter examines redistribution from the rich to the poor in the United States and Europe. It analyses macroeconomic variables on the spending side of the government budget, and specific redistributive programs. It considers the Luxembourg income study, which provides a survey of income sources for a sample of households in various countries. It argues that the poor are better treated in Europe than in the US.
Race and Redistribution
Authors: Alesina Alberto , Glaeser Edward 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter examines the link between heterogeneity and social welfare spending in the United States and Europe. It argues that the homogeneity in Europe has made it difficult for opponents of welfare to demonise the poor as being members of some hated minority. Thus, redistribution was easier and more natural. On the other hand, the highly heterogeneous society in the United States has made it easy for welfare opponents to use racial and ethnic divisions to attack redistribution.
The Ideology of Redistribution
Authors: Alesina Alberto , Glaeser Edward 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter examines the ideological beliefs of Americans and Europeans about poverty and income. Europeans are more likely to believe that the poor are trapped in poverty, and that their situation was due to forces beyond their control. Americans believe that the poor are not trapped in poverty, and that effort, rather than luck, determines income. It is argued that beliefs about poverty are not shaped by economic realities but by political realities in the United States and Europe.
Conclusions
Authors: Alesina Alberto , Glaeser Edward 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThis chapter presents some answers to the question: Why is the United States welfare state more limited than in Europe? It argues that the American welfare state did not develop as much as in Europe due to political institutions such as majoritarianism, federalism, and checks and balances. The impact of American ethnic heterogeneity, and different beliefs of Americans and European about the nature of poverty are also emphasised.
Science in Ancient Civilizations?
Authors: Lloyd Geoffrey 
Published: April 2005

AbstractEven though there was no equivalent to modern laboratory-based science in ancient societies, ancient investigators had analogous ambitions to those of today's scientists, so there is no need, on this score, to postulate a radical great divide between the ancient and the modern world. Ancient investigators sought to understand, explain, and predict natural phenomena, for example, in relation to what we call 'astronomy'. The historian's task is to investigate the form those ambitions took, what stimulated or inhibited their growth, and the roles played by individual innovation and institutional support in the developments that took place.
Carving Out Territories
Authors: Lloyd Geoffrey 
Published: April 2005

AbstractDifferent ancient civilizations, such as China, Babylonia, and Greece, entertained very different ideas about what, in the study of the heavens ('astronomy'), or of the human body ('biology' and 'medicine'), or of change ('physics'), should be the chief focus of interest and about how to go about the investigation. This study shows how important it is to pay due attention to the different routes that the early development of science has taken and to the differences in the aims, methods, and definitions of the subject matter that are found in ancient societies.
A Common Logic?
Authors: Lloyd Geoffrey 
Published: April 2005

AbstractDifferent systems of formal logic have been developed by philosophers since Aristotle. But the key difference within ancient societies and between them and modern ones lies not in any supposed difference in the formal logic employed or presupposed, but rather in the areas of informal logic and pragmatics, for example, in the variety of informal argument schemata used in rhetoric or in persuasion and in the degree of explicit interest shown in studying them. What have often been interpreted as breaches in the laws of non-contradiction or excluded middle should be seen as challenges to interpretation rather than as the first steps towards the formulation of an alternative formal logic.
The Questionability Of Belief
Authors: Lloyd Geoffrey 
Published: April 2005

AbstractFocusses on the circumstances and the manner in which the beliefs of individuals or groups or even of society in general can come to be challenged, taking ancient Greece and China as examples. Attacks on other people's opinions sometimes attempt to justify the claim certainty for the beliefs that were offered to replace them. One recurrent tactic in both societies is to claim that the beliefs criticized are a threat to political stability. The idea that opinions can be evaluated impersonally and objectively, irrespective of who holds them is expressed in Greece, but proved to be difficult to implement in practice, as Socrates' fate illustrates.
Styles Of Enquiry and the Question Of a Common Ontology
Authors: Lloyd Geoffrey 
Published: April 2005

AbstractDo Greek and Chinese cosmologies relate to different worlds or merely express various views concerning the same, one world? Different world views may be associated with different styles of enquiry, where a style is constituted by different key preoccupations, aims, or methodologies. If we make allowance for the multi-dimensional character of the phenomena to be explained, and for the different possible goals and methods of different investigators, we can steer a middle course between naive realism and outright relativism.
The Use and Abuse Of Classification
Authors: Lloyd Geoffrey 
Published: April 2005

AbstractAre natural kinds cross-cultural universals or the products of culture? An analysis of the assumptions that generally underlie these two points of view reveals the weak points of both. There is, for instance, no one correct taxonomy of animals or of plants to which all classifications should be thought to be aiming. Rather, reality is multi-dimensional. Classifications will vary according to the criteria selected, but given a particular criterion, there can be more, or less, accurate classifications. An examination of Greek and Chinese taxonomies illustrates the different perspectives adopted and throws light on the origins of doubts on the nature of species.
Universities: Their Histories and Responsibilities
Authors: Lloyd Geoffrey 
Published: April 2005

AbstractTraces the development of different ideals of higher education, in the West from the philosophical schools of ancient Greece, through the great late mediaeval universities, and in China from the imperial Academy founded in the Han period. The recommendation is that we ought to resist current attempts to commodify education and to counter the tendency to put the main emphasis on specialist vocational training. Rather, we need to recover more of the ancient Greek ideal of the value of higher education for its own sake.