bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Obligations of Surgeons to Non-Physician Team Members and Trainees
Authors: Purtilo Ruth , Shaw Byers W , Arnold Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A New Yorker cartoon depicts several surgeons and other members of the operating team hovering over a shrouded clump amidst a clutter of lights, machines, and other paraphernalia of the operating suite. The perplexed chief surgeon says, to the nurse ‘‘I give up-where’s the patient?’’ A Gary Larson cartoon shows a body part flying through the air from the direction of a patient’s open incision. A member of the surgical team, agape with astonishment, shouts, ‘‘Watch where that thing lands ... we may need it later!’’ A popular film, ‘‘The Doctor,’’ opens with an operating team scene: the ruptured aorta having been repaired successfully, Dr. McKee leads the team across the suite in a dance to the radio’s blaring, ‘‘Let’s Get Drunk and Screw!’’ Only Nancy, the chief nurse, and the object of surgeon McKee’s constant needling and harassment, is not amused. Such stereotypes of the surgeon’s role on the team are further fed today by popular television serials such as ‘‘E.R.,’’ in which the ‘‘real action’’ of medicine often is portrayed as beginning only when the surgeon (or an inexperienced student or resident posing as a surgeon) arrives on the scene wielding a scalpel and creating an ad hoc surgical team by barking orders to everyone in sight. Although it is not the purpose of this chapter to explore why surgeons are the brunt of so much stereotyping, some of the recurring themes are instructive for our examination of the obligations of surgeons to team members.
Conventions and Conversions, or, Why Is Nationalism Sometimes So Nasty?
Authors: Goodin Robert E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the terms dominating contemporary social and political philosophy, nationalists are paradigmatic communitarians and liberals paradigmatic cosmopolitans.I Nationalists, like communitarians more generally, emphasize the various and nefarious ways in which individuals are embedded within particular communities—communities constituted in turn by self-consciously shared identities, defined in terms of race or place or history or religion or whatever. Liberals, like cosmopolitans more generally, emphasize what is common across all those communities-universal standards and a shared humanity.
The Politics of Difference
Authors: Walzer Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I will begin, like a good professor, by making a couple of distinctions. I am not going to focus in this essay (except at the very end) on the toleration of eccentric or dissident individuals in civil society or even in the state. Individual rights may well lie at the root of every sort of toleration, but I am interested in those rights primarily when they are exercised in common (in the course of voluntary association or religious worship or cultural expression) or when they are claimed by groups on behalf of their members. Eccentric individuals, solitary in their differences, are fairly easy to tolerate, and at the same time social repugnance for and resistance to eccentricity, while certainly unattractive, are not terribly dangerous. The stakes are much higher when we turn to eccentric and dissident groups.
National Identity and Respect among Nations
Authors: Mckim Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is useful to distinguish two aspects of our concept of a nation, each of which seems to dominate in different contexts, although neither of which is ever entirely absent. First, there is a cultural aspect. A nation is a group that shares characteristics such as a way of life, language, and religion. In general, the characteristics I have in mind are roughly those that are distinctive of what Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz call an “encompassing group:’ Associated with each such group are various forms of life, types of activity, occupations, pursuits, and relationships. Such groups typically have their distinctive cuisines, architectural styles, literary and artistic traditions, music, customs, dress, ceremonies, holidays, et cetera. The tastes, values, moral code, and options of individuals growing up within the group are affected by its culture to a significant degree. The members of such a group enjoy an ease of association and feel at home with each other, are linked by bonds of fellow feeling, and share an understanding of much of their experience just as they share much of their outlook on life and on a broad array of issues. Part of what makes such a cultural group exist typically is the fact that the people who constitute it have a sense that they are a distinct group.
Development
Authors: Caplin William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A number of the most important full-movement forms sonata, sonata-rondo, and concerto-include a central section traditionally termed development.1 Like other formal labels employed in this study, development can refer to both a particular section of a movement and a distinct formal function. As a formal unit, a development stands between an exposition and a recapitulation. As a formal function, a development generates the greatest degree of tonal and phrase-structural instability in the movement and thus motivates a restoration of stability (to be accomplished by the recapitulation).
Recapitulation
Authors: Caplin William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The full-movement sonata form and its allied forms (concerto, sonata-rondo, and sonata without development) contain a recapitulation, a large section that brings back, usually in modified form, an earlier exposition. The recapitulation functions to resolve the principal tonal and melodic processes left incomplete in earlier sections and to provide symmetry and balance to the overall form by restating the melodic-motivic material of the exposition.
Minuet/Trio Form
Authors: Caplin William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The minuet is the premier dance type of the classical period. Whereas many instrumental works of the baroque contain a wide variety of dance movements-allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue, bourree, gavotte, to name the most popular-only the minuet survived the major style shift of the mid-eighteenth century to become incorporated into classical instrumental cycles. Like baroque practice, the classical minuet movement pairs together two different minuets. The second is traditionally termed trio, although the labels “Minuet II” or “alternativo” are found now and then. The trio contrasts with the first minuet in a variety of ways, such as melodicmotivic content, rhythmic configurations, and texture. Most trios reside in the same key as the first minuet but frequently shift into the opposite mode or change to a related tonality.
Introduction
Authors: Vision Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The topic of perception has never drifted far from philosophical consciousness, but it turned obsessive with the seventeenth-eighteenth-century ascendancy, first, of epistemology and then, more particularly, of idea empiricism. It is difficult to find a prominent philosopher of that period who did not have much to say about the nature of perception or its objects. Even Spinoza, who held sensory information in lower esteem than virtually all his contemporaries did, shows inordinate concern for explaining the senses. In one, perhaps attenuated, sense this book has its roots in the preoccupations of that philosophical era. It was then that the causal theory of perception (CTP) became a heated topic of controversy. A central aim here is to defend, elaborate, and clarify (though not necessarily in that order) that theory for visual perception. But it is as important to distinguish the present approach from work in the aforementioned tradition as it is to trace its origins within it.
The Generation of Perceptual Belief
Authors: Vision Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may seem that the exposition so far has deprived perception of any of its traditional significance. In chapter 1, the focal conceptual issue (and the role of a causal component) was sharply distinguished from direct inquiries into perception’s contribution to knowledge. This places to one side a central motive epistemologists have had for the study of perception. The past few chapters have rejected a popular explanation for the close relation between perceptual episodes and belief, that is, the doctrine that perceptual experience is subsumed under belief or belief inclination. This puts yet a larger gap between the present treatment of perception and the topic of perceptual knowledge with which it had formerly been joined. Moreover, my examination of cognitivism has concluded that we cannot use the most straightforward way of showing how a single thing might serve as a content both of a perception and of a belief. Hitherto, cognitivism had been a common assumption on which doxasticism was erected. Finally, although an intimate connection between perceptual episodes and the generation of beliefs has been remarked, very little has been done to clarify that relationship. Thus far, one might complain, all the action takes place in a black box. Indeed, to this point, efforts have been bent almost exclusively toward blocking the most direct avenue for explaining how their crucial interaction comes about.
A Second Face of Death
Authors: Clark William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The death of a myocardial cell described in the last chaptercaused by starvation, and by suffocation from lack of oxygen-was an ugly death: violent, chaotic, disorderly. That kind of death happens as a result of accident or mischance, and is called necrosis. It is the way death comes to fragile cells inside the body when the delicately balanced conditions for maintaining life veer too far off center. It is also the way cells die when they are poisoned, for example by one of the many toxins released by bacteria and other pathogenic microorganisms. Necrotic cell death is usually accompanied by wholesale destruction of the internal parts of the cell, by the gushing in of extracellular water and the ripping open of the cell membrane. The macrophages that come in to clean up the dead and dying cells trigger the deposition of scar tissue that makes it difficult for healthy cells to move into the damaged area and replace lost cellular functions. Scar tissue is a useful response to damage in many parts of the body; it promotes healing and keeps tissue from losing its shape. But it cannot help a heart beat or a brain think.
From Sex to Death: The Puzzle of Senescence
Authors: Clark William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Senescence is the clock that marks our passage through life; if we escape all other forms of death, when this clock runs down we die. But if the death of an organism can ultimately be accounted for by the deaths of individual cells, then what does senescence mean at the cellular level? How does a cell grow old? When a cell dies as a result of senescence, how does it die? We have said that among all the cells in the body, only germ cells retain the potential for immortality; only germ cells are able to reset the senescence clock. How do they do this? These are among the most important questions in the study of aging, and are of great interest to cell and molecular biologists as well.
The Revival of Greek Scepticism in the Sixteenth Century
Authors: Popkin Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Information about ancient scepticism became available to Renaissance thinkers principally through three sources: the writings of Sextus Empiricus, the sceptical works of Cicero, and the account of the ancient sceptical movements in Diogenes Laertius’ Lives of Eminent Philosophers. To fully appreciate the impact of scepticism on Renaissance thought, one would need studies of when these sources became available, where, to whom, and what reactions they produced. Charles B. Schmitt has done this with Cicero’s Academica, giving a thorough picture of its impact from the late Middle Ages to the end of the sixteenth century. Schmitt has found that the Latin term “scepticus,” which gave birth to the French “sceptique” and the English “sceptic,” appears first in the Latin translation of Diogenes of 1430 and in two unidentifiable Latin translations of Sextus from a century earlier.
Herbert of Cherbury and Jean de Silhon
Authors: Popkin Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neither Herbert of Cherbury nor Jean de Silhon appreciated sufficiently the extent to which the nouveau pyrrhonisme had undermined the foundations of human knowledge. But each saw that it had to be dealt with, and dealt with in a new way. The former proposed an elaborate method to discover truth; the latter tried to present some fundamental truths that could not be doubted. And, as the greatest of the opponents of scepticism, René Descartes, saw, each failed in a crucial way because he failed to comprehend the basic problem at issue.
Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1583–1648), was ambassador to France from 1618 until 1624, where he came in contact with both the current of sceptical ideas and the attempts being made to counteract it. It is likely that at this time, he also came to know Mersenne, who is thought to have translated Herbert’s book into French, and Gassendi, to whom he is known to have presented a copy of his work. He was also friendly with the diplomat Diodati, who was a member of the Tétrade, the society of libertins érudits. While Herbert was in Paris, he showed his manuscript to Grotius, who was familiar with the writings of Sextus Empiricus.
Some Spiritual and Religious Answers to Scepticism and Descartes
Authors: Popkin Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the same time that Descartes had been seeking complete certainty regarding basic philosophical truths, some religious contemporaries were seeking the same kind of certitude with regard to religious truths. Some of these people interacted with Descartes while he was alive and continued developing their answers to Cartesianism and scepticism later on.
A little vignette has come down to us of a discussion between Descartes and the Scottish Protestant minister John Dury. They met at a tea of the Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia and the Palatine in The Hague in 1634. Descartes is presented as explaining to Dury that he, Descartes, was seeking the basis for all certainty in mathematics.
The New Sceptics
Authors: Popkin Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Toward the end of the seventeenth century some new sceptical writers appeared challenging the many philosophies, old and new, with the sceptical weapons of antiquity. Simon Foucher, Pierre-Daniel Huet, and Pierre Bayle attacked the new philosophies of Descartes, Spinoza, Malebranche, Leibniz, Locke, and others. Some of their argumentation has become an important contribution to Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment thought. In this chapter I will deal with Foucher and Huet, and in the final chapter I will turn to Pierre Bayle, the master sceptic.
Foucher (1644–96) was born in Dijon, the son of a merchant. He studied there and then took a degree in theology at the Sorbonne. He was made honorary canon of the Cathedral of Dijon, a title that he used throughout his life. He became involved with the Paris Cartesians, and it is said that he was asked to give the funeral oration for René Descartes when the great philosopher’s body was transferred to Paris for burial in holy French soil.
Moeritheres, Mastodonts,and Mammoths Elephant Evolution in Action
Authors: Sukumar Raman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evolution of elephants and related forms, collectively known as the pro boscideans, is one of the better-recorded tales of mammalian evolution. Since its origin in the late Paleocene Epoch, about 60 million years (My) ago, the order Proboscidea witnessed a spectacular radiation until the end of the Pleistocene Epoch, about 10,000 years ago. The evolutionary course of the proboscideans, marked by an overall increase in body size, also took many seemingly bizarre paths, including extreme dwarfism and morphologies (seen from the fossil record) that only the most daring paleontologist could have otherwise imagined (fig. 1.1). There are many examples of parallel and convergent evolution. During this period, the proboscideans occupied almost every continental habitat type, including swamps, tundra, boreal forests, deserts, savannas, tropical forests, river basins, and high mountains. With the exception of Australia and Antarctica, fossil proboscideans have been found in every continent. Adaptations in anatomy and physiology of the proboscideans were obviously as diverse as the spread of habitats they occupied.
Forests, Fires, and Grasslands The Impact of Elephants on Their Habitats
Authors: Sukumar Raman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not surprising that the largest terrestrial animals can make a tremendous impact on their habitats through their feeding activities. Imagine an elephant clan moving through a wooded savanna at an ecological density of 10 animals per square kilometer, each individual having a fresh forage requirement of up to 10% of its body weight each day. With an average individual weight of 1,800 kg, this elephant clan would consume 1,800 kg of vegetation each day from each square kilometer of habitat. Another 1,200 kg of vegetation would be wasted in the process. A 200-strong elephant clan would thus remove 60 tonnes of vegetation each day or 21,900 tonnes each year over a 20 km land scape. Even if such a high elephant density is seasonal and unlikely to be sustained over the year, an average density only a third the seasonal figure would still remove a considerable biomass of woody vegetation over large landscapes.
Biological Interests Questioning the Mental State Theory of Welfare
Authors: Varner Gary E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
MANY ETHICISTS assume that having desires is not only a sufficient but also a necessary condition for having interests. This is implicit in William James’s statement that the “only possible reason there can be why any phenomenon ought to exist is that such a phenomenon actually is desired” {1948, p. 73). In saying this, James commits himself to the belief that an entity that, like a plant,1 lacks desires can never be of direct moral significance. It can never count for anything in itself but can at most be of instrumental value insofar as its existence satisfies the desires of other beings. Feinberg explicitly argues that an interest, however the concept is finally to be analyzed, presupposes at least rudimentary cognitive equipment. Interests are compounded out of desires and aims, both of which presuppose something like belief, or cognitive awareness. (1974, p. 52) So, he concludes, “mindless creatures have no interests of their own” (p. 53).
Rituals of Inclusion and Exclusion: Hierarchy and Marginalization in Medieval London
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most approaches to studying marginalization in medieval society have been too rigid and have failed to fully appreciate the nuances, the rituals, and the processes that were involved in creating marginals. The dominant approach has been a legalistic one that foregrounds hierarchy as the power that excluded the undesirables and made law its tool in enforcing the exclusion. Marginals have been seen as poor, of low status, and as lawbreakers. Bronislaw Geremek added a social dimension to this argument in his study of the low life of late medieval Paris by looking at marginals as a class. They were not only people and groups who fell outside the social and economic or the legal and political mainstream, but also formed an underclass with rendezvous in taverns and other gathering places. Contemporaries described them as “of no account” or “not of good fame.” Such a definition contains a structural limitation, for it presumes that only the social outcasts will be marginalized. In this essay “marginalization” moves beyond a “lower class” and suggests, instead, processes that elevate people in rank and also temporarily or permanently exclude them from their social rank.
The Power of Word and Symbol: Conflict Resolution in Late Medieval London
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have long known that in medieval Europe adjudication in court was but one alternative for resolving disputes, for arriving at a determination of guilt or innocence, or for assessing the extent of damages or culpability. We have known that participants in disputes initiated compromises and that officials sometimes preferred to mediate or arbitrate rather than to try cases. What has been elusive are the mechanisms for those alternative means of conflict resolution and the extent to which they were a part of the normal practice of social relations. Usually the records laconically state that there has been a love day or that the parties have paid a fine to have a concord. In contrast, the records of medieval London, both municipal and guild, permit a full analysis of the alternatives to adjudication and the role that compromise or atonement played in resolving conflict when fines and capital or corporal punishment were either inadequate or inappropriate to the offense. While London had a complete legal apparatus including coroners, sheriffs, ward moots, and a variety of mayor’s courts, informal arbitration and mediation existed alongside these formal means of dispute resolution. This study begins to explore some of the compelling reasons for the popularity of out-of-court settlements; the types of cases that could most effectively be resolved by these means; and the necessity, in a society that still expected and honored oral traditions, of public symbols and words that indicated an end to the dispute.
Fur-Collar Crime: The Pattern of Crime among the Fourteenth-Century English Nobility
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The criminal behavior of the upper classes in society has occasioned social comment for centuries. Robber barons is a term that has been applied as readily to the medieval nobles who used their castles to extort money from the countryside as to the railroad magnates of the nineteenth century. Illegal activities among the upper classes have provoked discussion because they are distinct from the crimes of other classes. Usually upper-class criminals commit crimes that are related to their control of wealth and power and that often go unpunished or are inadequately punished because their prominence in politics and the economy makes it difficult for governments to prosecute. The nature of contemporary upper-class crime was sociologically analyzed by Edwin H. Sutherland in his study, White Collar Crime. As Sutherland defined it, white-collar crime was “crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation.” In Sutherland’s study the crimes that fell within this group were violations of federal trade laws and fair employment practices and mismanagement of corporation finances. Such areas of criminal activity are obviously not applicable to the upper classes of the Middle Ages but, if allowances are made for differences in occupation between a modern executive and a medieval noble, the concept of white-collar crime may prove useful in forming a more general understanding of the pattern of crime among the elite power groups.