bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Distribution of Pie Ablaut Grades
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even though the origins of ablaut (125-6) were necessarily phonological, by the earliest period reachable by the comparative method the distribution of different ablaut grades in PIE had been MORPHOLOGIZED, that is, a given form or class of forms was associated with a certain grade in PIE. This is particularly true of the distribution of e- vs. o-grades, since the distribution of full vs. zero grades was still to some extent phonological. As is to be expected when phonological alternations are captured by morphology, the system was never completely regular; indeed, it tended with time to became more regular rather than less, where the patterns remained clear at any rate. Thus, evidence points to a non-ablauting root “bhii- or “bhu- ‘become’; but various IE languages introduced full grades into the root in accord with the prevailing ablaut patterns: so Skt. bhavati ‘becomes’. No list of the morphological categories of the grades can be exhaustive or even completely accurate, since PIE was a language like any other and had forms that stood apart from the general patterns: aor. “ebhiit or “ebhuHt ‘became’ should have had a full grade in the root, but as mentioned above, it did not: G e&lt;f&gt;v, Ved. dbhiit. Pple. “gneHrt6- ‘known’ should have had a zero grade in the root, but did not: L notus, Ved. jniitd-. PIE “H2eg- ‘drive’ seems to have been stuck in e-grade, so to speak, as that is seen even in formations that nearly universally embody o-grade of the root, such as the PIE o-grade o-stem ending-accented agent noun;
STOP+ s
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
G -yp&i/;w fut. of -yp&&lt;pw ‘scratch’; &lt;phfy; ‘vein’ (gen. ¢&gt;..e/36&lt;;). L scnps’f (perf. of scr’fbo ‘scratch’); niips’f (perf. of niibo ‘marry’). Here, and likewise in the case of apical and dorsal stops + s, the general rule holds that before s a voiced stop becomes voiceless and a G aspirate becomes unaspirated. But in early Att. inscriptions, before the introduction of the Ion. alphabet, 1/; and were commonly denoted, not by IIE, KE, but by 4&gt;E, XE, as 4&gt;EE4&gt;IEMA (= i/; &lt;/&gt;tU/Lot ‘motion carried’), EaOXEEN (= el&gt;o eP ‘it met with approval’, aor. of lioKew), implying that the -u­ had some secondary aspirating effect on the preceding stop. Cf. also developments of the type TEXP1/ ‘craft’ &lt; “teksnii (230a).
Ehz-Stems. The Greek and Latin First Declension
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘first declensions’ of G and L continue the PIE eHrstems, sometimes known as the sena type (251a). In L as in PIE there was only one form-class so built, but the G first declension has five subtypes. One subtype, with nominative in -& (0&A.owacv. ‘sea’ for example), is historically unrelated to the others; it will be discussed in 268-9. The other four types all evolved from the single eHi-stem formation that underlies the L first declension. The difference, limited to Att., between the fem. xwpa and 71,µ types is phonological in origin (S4-5), a result of the Att. change of a to r, except after E, l, and P, whence the xwpcx subclass. The second major division in G is between the foregoing and the masculine -r,c;/-ac; nouns (267). The subdivision into -r,c; and -&.c; types has the same basis as the fem. 71,µ and xwpcx types, above. The features peculiar to this paradigm arose wholly within G. The eHrstems are found in all IE languages except Hitt., in which there is no trace of any distinctively feminine inflection in either nouns or pronouns. But in all other IE languages there is a close association between o-stems and what are traditionally known as a-stems. A suggestive similarity between the nom./acc.pl. of the o-stem NEUTERS in -a (“-eH2) and the nom. sg. of the a-stem feminines has long been remarked, a connection particularly suggestive because of the otherwise puzzling lack of an overt case marker “-s on the nom.sg. of the eHrstems.
Consonant Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The case endings proper are virmally the same for all kinds of cons. stems, but some details depend upon characteristics of the stem, and we distinguish different classes according to whether the stem ends in a stop, in a liquid or nasal (mostly r-stems and n-stems, respectively), or in -s-. Some widely-attested nouns that were ordinary consonant stems in PIE have undergone obscuring changes and merit individual treatment (323-9). The case endings as they apply to cons. stems in general will be given in connection with the stems in stops. Details peculiar to individual stem types will be mentioned as they come up. ACCENT AND GRADATION. There were originally several systems of accenmal shift between stem and ending, with vowel gradation (125) to match. These were substantially obscured by leveling even in the parent speech, as in the s-stems, but were maintained in monosyllabic stems and in the r- and n-stems, thought to be most faithfully reflected in Vedic. A somewhat speculative scheme has recently gained currency, though it has been around for several generations. The theory sorts root/stem/ ending alternations into four accenmal patterns. The theory can be grasped through its terminology:
Stem Formation and Declension Of Adjectives
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The principal type of adjective--o- and a-stems-is the same in G and L, but otherwise the adjective systems of the two languages evolved very differently from their common beginnings. G retains u-stem adjectives, which were lost in L; i-stem adjectives are abundant in L but rare in G. The PIE cons. stem adjectives (for example, the so-called comparative adjectives, 348-50) developed differently in L and G. Bahuvrihi (possessive compound) adjectives are common in G, but in L are practically limited to privative compounds like inermis ‘unarmed’ (arma), and numericals like trifaux ‘three-throated’. o- AND eHi-sTEM ADJECTIVES. In the commonest type of adjective the masc. and neut. are formed from an a-stem (258-61), the fem. from an eHi-stem (262-6), as G uo&lt;/&gt;or:; m. ‘skilled’, uo&lt;f&gt; f., uo&lt;f&gt;ov n.; L bonus m. ‘good’, bona f., bonum n.
Properties Of Number Systems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
PIE had words for 1 - IO (388-9) and ‘both’ (389.2B). The only re­ coverable form for ‘half’ is found in bahuvrihi compounds (389.1Bc). For the teens (II - 19, 390) there were additive combinations, with hesitation be­ tween phrases and compounds. The decads (391) were formed by what looks like derivation, but the formations were actually compounds originally. The hundreds (394-5) were phrases, as were the intervening numbers (such as 23, 59, or 120). There is evidence for one or more term for 1,000 (396), but for no higher number. The system is obviously decimal/ centesimal. Some have seen in the appearance here and there of terms for dozens, scores, and sixties what they call traces of a sexagesimal system. But such terms do not necessarily point to an earlier system: the English terms dozen and score, for example, are themselves both quite recent in the history of the language, not relics of anything ancient. The striking French deviations from a decimal scheme (as in soixante-douze ‘72’, quatre-vingts-quinze’95’-verbatim ‘sixty-twelve’ and ‘four-twenties-fifteen’) are wholly post-classical in their evolution, and pro­ vide no evidence for some earlier system.
Ordinal Numbers
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The PIE ordinals, except those for ‘first’ and ‘second’ (398.1-2), are derived from the cardinals. As in the case of the decads (391), the scheme was a simple one; but the relationship between the forms was disturbed by the action of sound laws, the analogy of the cardinals, and the analogy of adjacent ordinals, as remarked in 387. As is evident, PIE ordinals were o/ eH2-stem adjectives with a tonic stem-vowel and all else in the zero grade. The forms in this list marked with “““ are nowhere reflected as such. Expected “““too- was replaced by “triy6- already in the parent language,
Numerical Derivatives
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Multiplicatives. The term multiplicative is commonly applied to forms like G TPL’Tf’A.oix; (rpL’Tf’A.Oo&lt;;), L tn’plex, NE threefold ortn’ple. In their use they cover a variety of relations to the numeral, only some of which have distinctive formal types. In origin they are possessive compounds of words meaning ‘fold’, ‘ply’, and the like, and originally meant ‘consisting of three of the same thing’-’three’ here and in the following discussion will serve as the type-example--is seen in L triplex miirns ‘triple wall’, that is, a series of three walls, or NE triple play. For this kind of use there may be formally distinct types known as collectives, like NE threesome. An early figurative development was to ‘having three components’, as L triplex mundus ‘the threefold world’ of sky, land, and sea. Hence also ‘of three kinds’, a use shading off from the preceding, but one for which special formal types might develop, as LL tnflirius, NHG dreierlei. Furthermore, a group of three may be viewed as a single thing taken three times, such as ‘three times as much or as many’ in L duplex centurionf, triplex equitf ‘double [pay] to the centurion, triple [pay] to the knight’. This is the proportional use, for which there may also be distinctive formal types sometimes called proportionals. So Att. TPL71’A.&aw&lt;;, though TPL71’A.ov&lt;; is used in the same sense in most dialects and sometimes in Attic; L trip/us (properly; though triplex as in the example is also so used).
Prepositions
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A discussion of prepositions and their uses belongs to lexicon and syntax. But it may be noted here that a number of the G and L prepositions are historically related, even though in some cases their meanings have widely diverged. The parent language seems to have had fewer such elements than the daughters. Relationships between nouns were expressed by case markers, and nuances of verb-object relations were expressed though preverbs marking the verbs themselves. The latter were not necessarily literally attached to the verb, though, and especially when separated from the verb by intervening words might shade into something very much like our prepositions. The difference between preverbs and prepositions may be easily grasped in English. In the phrase look up, up is a preposition in a sentence like Edwin looked up the chimney; it is a particle (in effect, a preverb except that in English it follows the verb) in a sentence like Edwin looked up the address. It appears that the PIE forms directly ancestral to our prepositions were mainly like what is seen in look up (the address), that is, elements which altered the meaning of the action or state expressed by the verb. Such elements came to be reinterpreted as relating to the noun they are apparently in construction with.
The Present Classes in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Simple Thematic (449). The great majority are from roots of the e-series and in the e-grade. Thus &lt;f&gt;epw ‘carry’, Ae-yw ‘gather’, µevw ‘remain’, AEL1l”W ‘leave (over)’, &lt;/&gt;Eu-yw ‘flee’, rpe1!”w ‘turn’. Of the same type, but altered in appearance by loss of -f- are pew ‘flow’ from “hrewii (“srewoH2), 11”Aew ‘float; sail’ from “plewii. Laryngeal effects have obscured the kinship with this group of &.-yw ‘drive’ (“H2egoH2) and perh. oii0w ‘kindle’ (?”H2eydhoH2). 464. THE IOTA CLASSES. Greek presents a great variety of superficially distinct present stem-classes which in fact are all traceable to a single original formal type, the -f / o-stems. A number of functional types are represented here: primary (a diverse group, 456.1); denominative verbs (460, 462.1, the largest group); and “-f / o- elaborations of earlier (athematic) verb stems. The diversity in stem-forms, detailed in 465, is the result of the various phonetic changes of the second palatalization (198-207).
First Conjugation
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Italic 1st conj. comprises the most productive type of denominative, together with a few primary verbs (including some causative/frequentatives, 456.28). In addition to the types described below, there are a good number of composite ii-stems which arose by metanalysis, as -igiire, -fciire, -iniire, and the like. The great mass are denominatives answering to G -&w and reflecting the PIE ‘“-eH2-f / o- type (460), and originally based upon a-stems and eHz-stems, as dono ‘make a present of’ (donum), pugno ‘fight’ (pugnus ‘fist’), curo ‘take care of’ (cura). The numerous de-adjectivals are prevailingly factitive, as novo ‘renew’ (novus), solo ‘make solitary’ (solus). Already in the earliest known stages of L, such forms are freely based on stems of all kinds, not just o- and ii-stems: levo ‘raise up’ (levis, i-stem), laudo ‘praise’ (taus, laudis), nomino ‘name’ (nomen), genera ‘beget’ (genuseris).
Third Conjugation
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Simple Thematic class (449). This was the most productive type of late PIE verb formation; but in L the f / o-stems became the productive type, the simple thematics being a closed, relic class. But because simple thematics are fairly numerous in L, and include much basic vocabulary, their threatened status is not immediately obvious. Examples are !ego ‘gather’, tego ‘cover’, dico ‘point out, say’, duco ‘lead, conduct’, geIro ‘carry on’, and ago ‘impel’; deponent utor ‘use, enjoy’, sequor ‘follow’, and many others. RooT-PRESENTS (447) to roots originally ending in a laryngeal, namely..me!H- ‘grind’,..wemH1- ‘vomit’, and a collection of compounds based on the zero grade of” dheH,- ‘put’. (Two more, sonere and tonere, are known in classical L only as 1st conj. forms.) From “mellfsi, “mellfti and “wemlf,si, “wemlf,ti would come, first, “molas, “molat, “womas, “womat (cf. Ved. vdmiti), and by regular vowel weakening, attested molit, molis. The selfsame stems “mola-, “woma- underlie perf. moluf, vomuf &lt; “-a-wai (528), and pple. molitus, vomitus &lt; “-atos with leveled full grade (niitus ‘born’ (pres. niiscor) shows the original “fllH,tos type with the root in zero grade). The same process underlies the compounds of “dheH,-, such as condo ‘put together, found’, condis, condit &lt; “-Oo, “-Oas, “-Oat&lt; “-dhlf,-, pple. conditus. (See 488Ba.) Apart from the elimination of ablaut alternation, the convergence of these original root-presents on the simple
Latin Irregular Verbs
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The irregular verbs of L grammars are so designated because in large or small ways they do not conform to any of the four conjugations (elastic as that classification is). The usual reason for this is the survival of athematic forms of the root class, such as est ‘is’; or of the athem.opt. in -f­ (in L terms, the pres.subj.). Some of the irregular paradigms however are suppletive, that is, the full complement of inflected forms is made up from several partially defective paradigms, as sum, fuf, or faro, tuli. Lesser oddities, such as the apparently anit root in pple. litus ‘smeared’ vs. the presumably set form of the same root as seen in pres. lino, are not traditionally classed as irregularities, as they are lost amid the general chaos of the 3rd conj. principal parts. Also, verbs like taedet ‘makes disgusted with’, piget ‘is irk some’, and pluit ‘it is raining’, whose finite forms are limited to the 3rd pers., are not generally reckoned as irregular.
The Verb ‘Be’ In Greek and Latin
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because of its extreme idiosyncracy in both G and L, it is worth while to present an account of the whole paradigm of the verb ‘be’ separately; discussions of some of the components will also be found elsewhere, under the appropriate headings. In PIE-unlike G, L, and most attested IE languages-there was very little out of the ordinary about the verb ‘be’. The odder traits of the verb in G and L are the result, paradoxically, of the extreme conservatism of these forms. For example the OL subj. siem 1sg., sTmus rpl., sient 3Pl., unique to this verb, is actually the sole survivor in L of what was once the normal way of forming the optative stem to roots The two primary roots at stake both inflected as EVENTIVE verbs (4rn): “H1es-, which inflected as a present/imperfect; and “bhu- (or “bhuH-), which was aoristic. It is peculiar enough that these inherently stative verbs (‘be, exist’) inflect as eventives; more peculiar still is the existence of an aoristic paradigm, as the basic semantics of the verb would seem to preclude the very idea of a punctual eventive. The explanation seems to be that the original meaning of punctual (aorist) “bhu- was ‘become’, that is, ‘come into existence’. (This hints that the G ‘ingressive aorist’, 417, is an archaic trait, not a G innovation.)
Stative Verbs
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Pie Stative was formally different from the eventive (present/imperfect and aorist) types in most person endings, in the formation of the finite stem, and the participle. This is the paradigm traditionally known as the PERFECT TENSE. In fact it was neither perfective (completive) nor a tense: it was instead STATIVE, and tenseless (407 fn.). To begin with it was a formation limited to roots that were semantically appropriate, though not exhaustively: as mentioned in 410, roots with such palpably stative meanings as ‘sit’, ‘lie’, and ‘be’ were inflected in PIE as eventives. Unlike the interplay between punctual and durative senses of roots, most eventives are hard to see in a stative light (it is doubtful that ‘be in the state of killing’ or ‘be in the state of eating’ even make sense). But inherently stative notions can be recast as eventives, as in ‘have/take’, ‘know/ find out’, ‘be dead/die’. And of course what amount to derivational categor­ ies entail an eventive based on an inherently stative notion:
Optative
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As remarked in 533, the evidence from the earliest lnlr. texts suggests that the optative was not a mood correlative with the indicative and derived from inflected stems, but was itself an eventive stem per se, formed directly from the root like all stem-forming elements; and only in the evolution of the IE daughter languages did it become freely derivable from STEMS, including (though in some groups only) the stative (perfect) stems. Note that the use of ‘secondary endings’ in the optative (and the absence, in G and lnlr., of the augment, 441) implies no affinity with anterior tenses (the imperf. and aor.): the optative, being a conditional or irreales form, was neither real present (as marked by primary endings) nor real past (as marked by the augment). Its closest formal/functional yokefellow, in the sense of being marked with generic person endings, would have been the so-called injunctive (416). This is, once again, a grammatical rather than a pragmatic limitation: overtly preterital conditionals, like NE would have (written), are not only semantically coherent, they are widespread, and L for example did develop tense-marked optatives, as did Gmc.
Capital Intensity and TFP Convergence by Industry in Manufacturing, 1963–1985
Authors: Dollar David , Wolff Edward N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent work has demonstrated that the OECD countries have become more similar in terms of aggregate characteristics. This growing similarity is evident in the marked convergence of overall labor productivity among industrialized countries in the postwar period, as well as in the convergence of aggregate total factor productivity (TFP) and capital–labor ratios.1 A recent study of ours (Dollar and Wolff 1988) began the investigation of how this productivity convergence has been manifested in particular industries. We addressed two issues in particular: the extent to which shifts in employment from low value–added to high value–added activities in manufacturing have contributed to aggregate labor productivity convergence, and the extent to which there has been labor productivity convergence in individual industries.
Growing Up In medieval London
Authors: Hanawalt Barbara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Barbara Hanawalt’s acclaimed history The Ties That Bind first appeared, it was hailed for its unprecedented research and vivid re-creation of medieval life. David Levine, writing in The New York Times Book Review, called Hanawalt’s book “as stimulating for the questions it asks as for the answers it provides” and he concluded that “one comes away from this stimulating book with the same sense of wonder that Thomas Hardy’s Angel Clare felt [:] ‘The impressionable peasant leads a larger, fuller, more dramatic life than the pachydermatous king.’” Now, in Growing Up in Medieval London, Hanawalt again reveals the larger, fuller, more dramatic life of the common people, in this instance, the lives of children in London. Bringing together a wealth of evidence drawn from court records, literary sources, and books of advice, Hanawalt weaves a rich tapestry of the life of London youth during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Much of what she finds is eye opening. She shows for instance that--contrary to the belief of some historians--medieval adults did recognize and pay close attention to the various stages of childhood and adolescence. For instance, manuals on childrearing, such as “Rhodes’s Book of Nurture” or “Seager’s School of Virtue,” clearly reflect the value parents placed in laying the proper groundwork for a child’s future. Likewise, wardship cases reveal that in fact London laws granted orphans greater protection than do our own courts. Hanawalt also breaks ground with her innovative narrative style. To bring medieval childhood to life, she creates composite profiles, based on the experiences of real children, which provide a more vivid portrait than otherwise possible of the trials and tribulations of medieval youths at work and at play. We discover through these portraits that the road to adulthood was fraught with danger. We meet Alison the Bastard Heiress, whose guardians married her off to their apprentice in order to gain control of her inheritance. We learn how Joan Rawlyns of Aldenham thwarted an attempt to sell her into prostitution. And we hear the unfortunate story of William Raynold and Thomas Appleford, two mercer’s apprentices who found themselves forgotten by their senile master, and abused by his wife. These composite portraits, and many more, enrich our understanding of the many stages of life in the Middle Ages. Written by a leading historian of the Middle Ages, these pages evoke the color and drama of medieval life. Ranging from birth and baptism, to apprenticeship and adulthood, here is a myth-shattering, innovative work that illuminates the nature of childhood in the Middle Ages.