bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lewis acid-assisted anionic polymerizations for synthesis of polymers with controlled molecular weights
Authors: Aida Takuzo , Takeuchi Daisuke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike some naturally occurring macromolecules such as enzymes, synthetic polymers, except those obtained by stepwise approach, are of broad molecular weight distributions (MWD). In other words, they are mixtures of macro molecules with different molecular weights. Since ‘molecular weight’ is an essential factor affecting fundamental properties of polymer materials, it is important to develop a method for the synthesis of a polymer with a desired molecular weight with a narrow MWD.
Solubilities of involatile substances
Authors: Clifford Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the behaviour and prediction of the solubility of compounds of higher molar mass, often solids, in supercritical fluids. The solubility of relatively large molecules in supercritical fluids is an important topic, which has been the subject of a large number of experimental and theoretical studies. Good data on solubilities are important in designing supercritical fluid processes, particularly supercritical fluid fractionation, as described in Chapter 6. This topic is a constituent part of the subject of Chapter 2, but has been separated because of its importance. It is difficult to make good predictions of solubilities in supercritical fluids from molecular properties in the absence of any experimental data (Johnston et al. 1989), although some success has been achieved for non-polar molecules in some cases and theoretical efforts are continuing. The basic problem is that there is a logarithmic relationship between the solubility and the energies in the systems, so that errors in pre diction of the latter have a large effect on solubility predictions.
Preparation of organic conductors
Authors: Ogura Fumio , Takimiya Kazuo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the striking discovery of the charge-transfer (CT) complex of tetrathiafulvalene (TTF, 1) and 7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ, 2) as the first synthetic metal, the development of novel electron donors and acceptors and the synthesis of organic metals and superconductors from them have aroused great interest among not only organic chemists but also scientists in many other interdisciplinary areas.
Introduction
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The tropical Indo-Pacific ocean has recently been considered as the ‘largest eco­logical system on earth’ extending from the eastern tropical Pacific to the east wast of Africa (Sheppard et al. 1992). This vast area contains much of the world’s marine biodiversity including a wide range of marine and coastal environment, that support it.
The Ecology of the Indonesian seas
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and between the Asian and Australian continents, the seas of the Indonesian Archipelago have a significant role in global weather patterns and oceanic circulation. The dynamic interplay between geological, physical, chemical, and biological processes, past and present, has given rise to one of the most diverse marine regions on the planet. The exceptional marine and coastal ecosystem diversity of the Indonesian archipelago provides hundreds of habitats that support thousands of species. This treasure-trove of marine biodiversity has sustained the people of the archipelago for thousands of years. Population growth and socio-economic development place many of these resources at increasing risk of overexploitation. Using maps and numerous illustrations, The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas describes the complex and ecologically vulnerable coastal and marine ecosystems of the region in rich detail. Discussion of development, resource use and ecologically sustainable management plans is also incorporated. The first step towards sustainable use of marine and coastal resources, this book will be a valuable tool for ecologists, marine biologists, resource managers, government planners, and all those with an interest in the ecology of the region. Bound in two parts, of which this is the second, The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas is part of The Ecology of Indonesia Series.
Introduction
Authors: Katsuki T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oxidation is an electron transfer reaction from a substrate to a reagent which is called as oxidant. Even if limited to organic reactions, a wide variety of reactions, such as hydroxylation, epoxidation, dihydroxylation, aziridination, hydroxyamination, halogenation, etc., are classified into oxidation reactions. As the names of each reaction indicate, these reactions are related to the functionalization of the substrates. For example, hydroxylation of alkanes produces alcohols and epoxidation and dihydroxylation of alkenes affords epoxides and dials, respectively. In addition to this, most oxidation reactions endow oxidized carbon(s) with chirality (Eqs 1—3). Newly introduced oxygen functionalities can be transformed stereospecifically into various other useful functional groups. Thus, stereocontrolled oxidation reactions are valuable and potent tools for the synthesis of optically active and functionalized compounds. For these reasons, much effort has long been devoted to the study of asymmetric oxidation. This book starts with a brief review of the development of stereocontrol in oxidation reactions and the following chapters are devoted to the practical approaches to various asymmetric oxidation reactions.
Oxidation of carbonyl compounds
Authors: Bolm, C , Luong T K K , Beckmann O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1899, Baeyer and Villiger investigated reactions of ketones with Caro’s reagent, peroxomonosulfuric acid, and they observed a previously unknown transformation: an oxygen atom was inserted into the C—C bond αto the carbonyl group, affording esters and lactones. Later, for this new type of oxidation the term ‘Baeyer–Villiger reaction’ was coined. Various peroxy compounds such as peracids, hydrogen peroxide, and alkyl peroxides can be used as oxidants yielding esters and lactones from acyclic and cyclic ketones, respectively. Acids, bases, enzymes (see Chapter 5, Section 5.3 for biological Baeyer–Villiger reaction), and metal-containing reagents catalyse Baeyer–Villiger reactions. As to the mechanism of the Baeyer–Villiger reaction of ketones with organic peracids, a two-step process originally proposed by Criegee is generally accepted: the first step is a reversible proton-catalysed addition of the peroxy compound to the ketone carbonyl affording an intermediate tetrahedral peroxyhemiketal. The following, in most cases, rate-determining step involves the migration of one of the two substituents to the next oxygen atom, simultaneous 0—0 bond cleavage and release of the acid moiety.
Distribution, habitats and conservation status
Authors: Payne Robert B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cuckoos occur around the world in tropical and temperate regions. More species live in the Old World (n = 109) than in the New World (n = 32). The northernmost cuckoos (Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus, Oriental Cuckoo C. optatus, Indian Cuckoo C. micropterus, Asian Lesser Cuckoo C. polio cephalus) occur in northern Europe and Russia in summer.They are migrant brood-parasites that lay in the nests of migrant Palearctic songbirds and then winter in the tropics, sometimes crossing the equator and even passing over the Indian Ocean from Asia to Africa. In the New World the two species (Yellow billed Cuckoo, Black-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus ery thropthalmus) that breed in the United States and Canada are mainly warm-weather birds that spend most of the year in the New World tropics. No cuckoo species occurs regularly and breeds in both the Old World and the New World, although vagrants from northeastern Asia (Common Cuckoo and Oriental Cuckoo) turn up in the Alaskan archi pelago and northern Alaska in migration season, and vagrant Black-billed Cuckoos and Yellow-billed Cuckoos from northeastern North America show up in many years in Europe from Iceland to Italy.
Breeding biology and life histories
Authors: Payne Robert B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The breeding behavior of cuckoos ranges from solitary pairs, to social groups that breed coopera tively, to brood parasitism. Cuckoos are altricial, and the young hatch and remain in the nest in a nearly helpless state, unable to feed themselves, and are completely dependent on their parents or their fos ter parents to provide care and to feed them. The adult females vary from providing parental care to their young in their nest, to the absence of both nest-building behavior and parental care in the brood-parasitic cuckoos. The adult males take on the life style of their females, and some males even provide more parental care than their mates. Among nesting cuckoos, many are secretive and solitary and live alone or in breeding pairs. In con trast, the communally nesting anis and Guira Cuckoos are conspicuous and social birds, living in the same social group both in the breeding season and also when they are not breeding.
Combinatorial synthesis
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Combinatorial chemistry has its earliest origins in solid phase peptide synthesis. Merrifield’s Nobel Prize-winning invention depended on the use of consistent and reliable reaction conditions for peptide couplings, and the use of a polymeric solid phase to permit the simple separation of products from reagents (Merrifield 1963). The solid phase techniques have been greatly refined over the years to allow the creation of essentially any peptide molecule in a consistently high yield. In the mid 1980s, several academic teams realized that so reliable and consistent were the synthetic reactions, that the same conditions could be used to make many peptides simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. In this way, productivity could be enhanced, and the discovery of peptide epitopes responsible for protein recognition and binding could be accelerated. In particular, Houghten’s use of ‘tea-bags’ as porous containers for solid phase resin beads, allowed the same peptide coupling step to be applied to many beads simultaneously irrespective of the sequence already attached to the bead (Houghten 1985). However, the mix and split procedure, first described by Furka (Furka et al.1988), and used shortly after by Houghten (Houghten et al.1991) and Lam (Lam et al.1991), allowed huge numbers of peptides to be made in a very few number of chemical steps, and combinatorial chemistry was born.
Other solid phases
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike the synthesis of compound libraries on resin beads, the use of other solid phases such as multipoint and laminar solid phases can be generally described as spatially addressable combinatorial methods. Usually, the compounds made on these supports are discrete, single, and made simultaneously by an efficient combinatorial method. During screening, the library will yield information instantly on individual components, the identity of the compounds being determined by their spatial position within the library array. This is not to say that resin bead-based synthesis cannot be used for a spatially addressable library. In fact these methods of making single compounds in a spatially addressable form using resin samples in discrete tubes or positions in a 96-well micro titre block are gaining in popularity.
Solution phase library synthesis
Authors: Terrett Nicholas K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of this book has so far described the synthesis of combinatorial libraries on solid phase. The benefit of preparing libraries on resin beads has been explained as offering advantages in handling, especially where there is a need to separate excess reagents from the reaction products attached to the resin. In most cases a simple filtration effects a rapid purification, and the products are ready for further synthetic transformation. But it should be remembered that using solid phase chemistry brings several disadvantages as well. Clearly the range of chemistry available on solid phase, although rapidly growing, is limited. Furthermore, it is much more difficult to monitor the progress of reactions when the substrate and product are attached to solid phase. Although methods are rapidly being developed to increase the range of solid phase chemistry, and there is an increasing use of IR and NMR techniques to characterize compounds whilst still attached to the solid phase, it is not inappropriate to ask whether all these difficulties could be simply avoided in the first place by using solution phase chemistry to prepare combinatorial libraries.
The Barton decarboxylation and related reactions
Authors: Zard Samir Z 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The carboxylic acid functional group is ubiquitous in nature, and the possibility of manipulating it using radical chemistry opens tremendous synthetic opportunities. It was known from the work of Kolbe in the middle of the nineteenth century that the electrolysis of carboxylic acid salts gave alkanes which seemed to arise from the joining of two of the alkyl groups of the starting carboxylic acid (Scheme 5.1). This reaction proceeds through an acyloxyl (also called carboxylic) radical which under goes loss of Co2.
Atom and group transfer reactions
Authors: Zard Samir Z 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The accidental discovery by Kharasch and his students of the dramatic effect of oxygen or peroxides on the course of the addition of hydrogen bromide to olefins (cf. Scheme 1.4) is an important watershed in the history of radical chemistry, not only because it established conclusively the role of free radicals as reactive intermediates in solution, but also because this early example of a chain process is the prototype for a large number of exceedingly useful reactions (reviews: Stacey and Harris 1963; Walling and Huyser 1963; Sosnovsky 1964). In fact, many of the radical reactions of organo-tin, -germanium, and -silicon hydrides that we have seen in the earlier chapters may be viewed as particular cases of the ‘Kharasch-type’ atom or, more generally, group transfer process.
Applications of the Wittig reaction in the synthesis of heterocyclic and carbocyclic compounds
Authors: Schobert Rainer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since its discovery, the Wittig olefination reaction has been widely used in organic synthesis for the construction of olefinic double bonds from various types of carbonyl functionalities (aldehydes, ketones, esters, amides, etc.) and phosphorus ylides of different reactivity. Although the mechanism of this important C=C bond forming process is still under debate, insights into the principles governing its regio- and stereoselectivity are now sufficiently deep, to allow for it, to be harnessed reliably in retrosynthetic strategies. From the early days of ‘Wittig chemistry’, its possible application to the formation of cyclic target structures attracted considerable interest and consequently, access to a host of carbocyclic as well as of heterocyclic compounds has been opened by this reaction. In the following brief overview only such applications are to be mentioned where the Wittig reaction makes for the actual ring closure step in an intramolecular process, thus reactions which merely lead to precursors of the cyclization step proper are excluded. Likewise, non-Wittig-type cyclizations involving phosphorus ylides such as cycloadditions between acyl ylides and azides to give 1,2,3-triazoles will not be considered here. SN2-type ring-closure reactions of ω -halo-ylides belong to the same category; nonetheless, one example of their use towards the synthesis of small ring systems with exocylic double bond is given in Section 2.1 (Scheme 1).
Preparation and reactions of iminophosphoranes and their synthetic applications in the aza-Wittig reaction
Authors: Mike Southern J , O’Neil Ian A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Iminophosphoranes (IMPs) were first reported by Staudinger and Meyer in 1919. Initially, they were treated as little more than chemical curiosities, and it is only in the past three or four decades that their synthetic potential has been realized. IMPs consist of a phosphorus–nitrogen double bond and are isoelectronic with the phosphoranes employed in the Wittig reaction, although, in the case of IMPs, it is more accurate to depict the nitrogen–phosphorus bond as double rather than as an ylide (Scheme 1). This makes the IMPs more stable and less basic than the corresponding Wittig reagents, which exhibit more ylide-like character.
Introduction
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Spectacular advances in all disciplines of science have been realised in recent years and our understanding of many biological processes has continued to improve as the full implications of new discoveries have become appreciated. However, many questions which probe the depth of this understanding remain unanswered. For example, some questions of therapeutic importance include: why are some tumour cells able to migrate from their original cancerous site and produce further tumours at secondary sites? Are there any unusual properties of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which explain why AIDS is so difficult to treat? How do bacteria, viruses and toxins evade the body’s immune system and initiate infective processes? If we could answer questions such as these we would undoubtedly improve our ability to treat such life-threatening diseases, which have defied effective therapy for many years. Many scientists now believe that carbohydrates may provide the missing clues to these puzzling questions. Over the past few years there has been a resurgence of interest in carbohydrate chemistry and biochemistry, and this reflects the important roles which carbohydrates play within biological systems. Thus carbohydrates which have traditionally been merely associated with energy storage and skeletal components are now being associated with a wider range of biological processes within all living systems.
Human genetic diversity and disease susceptibility
Authors: Bodmer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The emphasis in my paper is on the sources of genetic variation in human populations, and its implications. Where does the genetic variation come from? Why is it there? What maintains it in populations? I aim to relate these questions to the variation in populations which has been the subject of previous chapters, and also to include some discussion on mutation which is the ultimate origin of variation between genes in any population.
Getting the Message
Authors: Solymar Laszlo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past century has seen developments in communications technology probably unrivalled in any other field of human activity. Significant advances are made every year, and both our work and leisure activities are critically influenced by these developments. Getting the message explores the fascinating history of communications, starting with ancient civilisations, the Greeks and Romans, then leading through the development of the electric telegraph, and up to the present day with email and cellular phones. The technology is explained in a particularly simple and accessible way, and themes from politics, economics, and society weave in and out of the scientific ideas. The book concludes with a look at the possible future of communications, the new developments to come, and the implications these will have for our everyday lives. Lavishly illustrated, and including many original illustrations that show just how these new developments were received in their time, the book presents an informative and highly entertaining introduction to the field of communications.
Influence of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient on Performance of Plate Heat Exchangers
Authors: Mehrabian M A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The advantages of plate heat exchangers are their versatility and simplicity of construction (clamped plates interleaved with gaskets). Inlet and outlet ports, controlled by the gaskets, allow hot and cold fluids to flow in alternate channels. In liquid-liquid heat exchangers [I] the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, varies with temperature and thus with length of the exchanger, so the calculation of heat transfer by use of Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) may lead to errors.
Introduction: organisms, sediments, and water movements
Authors: Little Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During winter, the intertidal mudflats of the Chesapeake Bay, a large estuarine system on the east coast of North America, are crowded with wading birds. Dunlin (Calidris alpma), dowitchers (Limnodromus spp.), and oystercatchers (Haematopus spp.) accumulate in large feeding flocks. Meanwhile, mudflats in the Severn estuary, in southwest England, are visited by up to 2000 curlew (Numenius arcata), 2000 redshank (Tringa totanus), and 50 000 dunlin. As well as these mobile armies, the richness of the habitats is emphasized by the extensive fringing salt marshes, where cordgrasses (Spartina spp.) dominate meadows that are flooded by sea water at high spring tides. These salt marshes are some of the most productive areas in the world, vying with tropical rain forests and coral reefs for the highest rates at which carbon is fixed.
Estuarine ecosystems
Authors: Little Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters we have emphasized the variety of habitats within estuaries. These habitats do not, of course, exist in isolation, but interact with each other, both physically and biologically. For example, mangroves and salt marshes provide organic detritus that may fuel food webs on adjacent flats, while fish and crustaceans move backwards and forwards between the mudflats and the marshes. Indeed, fish may spend much of their time outside estuarine areas, providing a link with the open sea.
Uses and abuses: human impacts and counter-measures
Authors: Little Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because of their strategic position, offering sites for river crossings, harbours, and industries of many sorts, estuaries have become a focus for large proportions of the world’s population. In the USA, the Chesapeake Bay has cities such as Richmond, Washington, and Baltimore at the head of its tributary subestuaries. In Britain, London and its docks dominate the Thames estuary, and more than 30% of the population lives around estuaries. In Australia, 60% of the population is concentrated in cities on the edge of estuaries.