bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Barbarian Economy and Society
Authors: Elton Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the late fourth century AD various barbarian, in the sense of non-Roman, tribes lived on the borders of the Roman Empire in Europe. The orthodox view of these barbarians, partially rejected here, sees the small Germanic tribes known from the first century combining into large confederations in the third century. Thus the Bructeri, Chatti, etc., were replaced by the Franks on the lower Rhine. These Franks were distinct socially and politically from the Saxons to the east and the Alamanni to the south. On account of their size, these confederations posed a greater danger than their predecessors to the Roman Empire. Though the first wave of attacks in the third century was eventually defeated, continuing invasions in the fourth and fifth centuries inevitably overloaded the defences of the Empire. This allowed barbarian tribes to move into the Empire, a movement encouraged by pressure from the tribes further east, such as the Huns.
Conclusion
Authors: Elton Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book has covered the period 350-425, a period in which no one could imagine that the Roman Empire was in any danger of failing. Yet, only fifty years later, the Western Empire was tottering on the verge of collapse, and the last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476. This book has said much about how the Roman army worked before this, but does not attempt to explain the collapse.
Royal Women and the Achaemenid Court
Authors: Brosius Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Greek sources concentrate in their description of Achaemenid royal women on their activities at the court. The way the actions of these women were described shapes our understanding of their role at court, and the influence they might have had on the court. To what extent were their activities understood by the Greeks? Were they judged from a Greek point of view or did Greek writers see their actions in the context of the cultural background of the Persian court? It is crucial to examine the descriptions of the indi vidual actions of women since this will help us to clarify perceptions of the Persian court. We need to consider whether the Greek historical narrative used female figures in particular ways. Do the descriptions of women offered by these authors fall into patterns which would suggest women were assigned stereotypical roles for the sake of the narrative development?
Women and the Economy of Achaemenid Persia
Authors: Brosius Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Judging from the Greek sources the wealth of Achaemenid royal women was well known. Herodotus recalls that the Egyptian town Anthylla provided the king’s wife with shoes (2. 98. r). In Alcibiades l Plato refers to the vast amount of property owned by the mother of the Persian king, Amestris (Ale. l r21c-123cd). Xenophon mentions the estates of Parysatis in Syria from which she supplied the rebellious troops of her son Cyrus in his revolt against Artaxerxes II (an. I. 4. 9). It was also known that Parysatis owned villages in Media (an. 2. 4. 27; Lewis 1977: 22 and n. u3). Accordingly we have to assume that the peasants and craftsmen of these villages were officially in Parysatis’ service. When Parysatis was banned from the Persian court and moved lo Babylon, she presumably took up residence on her estates (Plut. Art. 19. 10).
Separation and Single Life
Authors: Arjava Antti 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen, the young age of Roman girls at marriage was typical of the Mediterranean family pattern. Consequently, extended youth, so characteristic of modern western society, was virtually non-existent in Rome; the girl left her childhood as she married. On the other hand, as mortality in general was high and especially as husbands were so much older, wives were often, and relatively early, widowed. The independence of married women may have varied in the course of history, and there were even more important differences between individual wives. The most essential distinction, how ever, has always been that between married and unmarried women. A wife has lived, at least to some extent, in the shadow of her husband. The end of the marriage—whether she wanted it or not—has usually led to a new autonomy and direct dealings with the rest of the society.
Sexual Relations outside Marriage
Authors: Arjava Antti 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Marriage is not the only way to satisfy sexual needs. However, for women it has usually been the only one which has been legally and morally accepted—except when they have been reserved for the common use of several men as prostitutes or slaves. In sexual morals the inequality of males and females appears most clearly. On this question the Christian church claimed to advocate a radically novel view. Its influence on late ancient society will be examined in the following sections.
Introduction: Chronologies and Cultural Change in Egypt
Authors: Shaw Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All history is clearly reliant on some form of chronological framework, and a great deal of time has been spent on the construction of such dating systems for ancient Egypt. Ever since the first Western-style history of Egypt was written by an Egyptian priest called Manetho in the third century BC, the ‘pharaonic period’, from c.3100 to 332 BC, has been divided into a number of periods known as ‘dynasties’, each consisting of a sequence of rulers, usually united by such factors as kinship or the location of their principal royal residence. This essentially political approach has served very well over the years as a way of dividing up Egyptian chronology into a series of convenient blocks, each with its own distinctive characteristics. It is, however, becoming increasingly difficult to reconcile this politically based chronology with the social and cultural changes revealed by excavations since the 1960s.
The Iconography of Roman Childhood
Authors: Rawson Beryl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Philippe Aries’s 1960 book on childhood in pre-Revolutionary France1 opened a new era in the historical study of children and childhood. His use of artistic representations of children was dramatically new, and his main thesis—that there had been no real concept of childhood before the seventeenth century—dominated the field for almost thirty years. Recently there have been reassessments of this thesis, but although later scholars have modified the thesis the importance of iconographic evidence is fully accepted (and the difficulties recognized).
The Organization of the Roman Army 60 BC-AD 200
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theme of this book is the behaviour and methods of operation of the Roman army. Later chapters will deal with the way the army moved on campaign, the strategy it adopted and how it fought the enemy in battle. If all these aspects are to be properly understood, it is first vital to examine the army’s organization, since this affected all of its activities. This chapter describes the development of the army’s unit structure during this period.
The Opposition
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The organization of the Roman army played a great part in determining its conduct on campaign. In the next chapter I shall discuss Roman strategy and methods of operation. It is important to remember the obvious fact that there must be at least two sides in any conflict. The organization and methods of operation of the armies of Rome’s enemies must have influenced the course of a campaign fought against them. We must study the military institutions of Rome’s opponents before we can hope to understand fully Roman strategy.1 During our period the Roman army fought against a great range of opponents, however, virtually no information has survived for many of these armies. I intend to discuss the armies of the three bestdocumented opponents that faced Rome in this period. These are the Germans, Gauls, and Parthians. The differences between the warfare of these peoples may suggest something of the overall variety of opponents faced by Rome.
The General’s Battle
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The principles of strategy and tactics, and the logistics of war are really absurdly simple: it is the actualities that make war so complicated and so difficult, and are usually neglected by historians. The primary purpose of any army is to defeat the enemy in battle. This is true, even if few of its soldiers ever experience battle directly. This section examines the nature of a battle in this period, and looks at the way in which the Roman army did, or did not, function on such occasions. The Roman army possessed a clearly defined hierarchy of officers, at the head of which was the general, who sought to control and co-ordinate the army during a battle. Potentially, this position enabled the general to influence the course of the fighting more than any other individual. This chapter discusses the role of the commander in determining the outcome of a battle.
The Unit’s Battle
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having looked at the battlefield role of the general and his immediate subordinates, in this chapter I shall examine the fighting from the perspective of the individual unit, the cohort or ala. There have been many studies of the unit tactics of the Roman army, often in conjunction with the examinations of generalship discussed in the last chapter. Delbriick attempted to explain in detail how the legion, based on the maniple and later the cohort, worked in battle, dealing with equipment, formations, and tactics.1 Other scholars have adopted a similar approach, whilst differing on the minutiae of these aspects.2 The ancient sources were often ambiguous or silent concerning points of minor tactics, allowing room for debate. Most scholars, such as Keppie, have assumed that ancient authors believed that their audience had full knowledge of these aspects of military practice, and so did not deal with it. They have not considered the possibility that ancient authors did not consider tactics to have been important.3 Von Domaszewski doubted that the battle tactics of the legions of the Principate could ever be reconstructed, given the lack of technical detail in the literary sources after Caesar.
The Individual’s Battle
Authors: Goldsworthy Adrian Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the vast majority of men the instincts of fear and self-preservation were naturally stronger than aggressive impulses. As a result, the formation of a unit was as much dictated by the need to prevent its members from running away from any perceived threat, as by the practical considerations of manreuvre and weapons. use. Other factors were also of great importance in allowing a soldier to cope with the stress of battle. Leadership, training, discipline, and esprit de corps could all have contributed to this. The morale of the soldier, which was the product of all these factors, as well as of those peculiar to the situation, was of crucial importance in determining how he behaved as an individual, and collectively as part of a unit. In many situations the actions of a very few individuals, be they the men who led the way and went forwards when an attack had stalled or the men who hacked their way into an enemy formation, could decide the result of an action. Therefore examination of the individual’s motivation is crucial to our understanding of a battle.1 However, few scholars have attempted to study the morale of the Roman army. MacMullen noted, in an article, that .an attempt to understand anything so romantic as the soul of a soldier has, I think, yet to be made..2 In the same article he discussed the importance of comradeship and esprit de corps in the motivation of legionaries. Otherwise scholars have largely ignored morale.
Theseus and the Suppliants
Authors: Mills Sophie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Euripides’ Suppliants, most explicitly of all the tragedies in which he appears, Theseus is presented as the representative of the city of Athens and as the mouthpiece for certain modes of thought and behaviour which belong to the idealized Athens of the encomia discussed in the previous chapter. After the failure of Polynices’ expedition against Thebes, in which the Seven against Thebes fell before the city walls, the Theban victors refused to allow their bodies to be buried, or to be returned to the Argives for burial. Thus the Argive king, Adrastus, comes to Theseus at the start of the play and asks him to help him retrieve them. Although at first Theseus refuses to do so, on the grounds that Adrastus’ expedition was grounded in his ill-counsel and impiety (Supp. I 10-249), his mother Aethra persuades him to change his mind by reminding him of his duty as an Athenian (Supp. 297-364). At this point, a herald from Thebes arrives: their encounter comprises a debate concerning the respective merits of tyranny and democracy (399-462), followed by an exposition of the rights and wrongs surrounding the burial of the dead (Supp. 465-563). Theseus is not cowed by the herald’s insistence that he should not interfere in what is not his business, and fulfils his promise to Adrastus by going off to fight the Thebans for the return of the dead. After anxious speculation from the chorus over the outcome of his expedition (Supp. 598-633), a messenger returns from the battlefield with the good news that Theseus has won the battle.
Taking the Woman’s Part: Gender and Scholarship on Love Elegy
Authors: Wyke Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a woman writes herself into the genre of Roman love elegy she appears to break the recognized conventions for its production, according to which woman is generally the mistress over whom the male ego has erotic and poetic mastery, the passive object of erotic desire not its active subject, the written not the writer. In discussing the elegiac poetry composed by Sulpicia, one means by which critics have expressed her extraordinary achievement has been to engender Roman love elegy. For Nick Lowe, Sulpicia’s unique intervention was to compose poetry on the subject of her own erotic experience in ‘an obstinately male genre’.
Meretrix Augusta: Messalina 1870s–1920s
Authors: Wyke Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A lustful empress reclines in a steaming bath. Sliding her hands up over her body—naked but for the ropes of pearls that dangle from her hair—she stares directly out of the cinema screen. A Roman soldier announces to her his love for a Christian girl, as she warns of the seductive pleasure revenge can bring. Next the beloved girl is seized and dragged away, while the empress smirks sadistically in extreme close-up. On her imperial command a gladiator vigorously twists his trident into another’s body, before Christian girl and Roman soldier walk serenely to their death through the corpse-strewn arena.
Entertaining Arguments: Terence, Adelphoe
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Terence is Latin Literature’s second author, from the generation after Plautus, and the only other Roman comedy-writer to survive. His work behaves itself, and, as we shall see, helps teach manners. Adelphoe, his most famous play, is well preserved, with an ancient commentary, no less, and authentic details about the occasion it was first written for, a day in the history of Rome we know remarkably well. The script acts out national celebration and commemoration of a major player in the extension of the empire east into the Greek sphere, delivering the best that Athenian theatre can offer to make a Roman funeral. Terence over determines the wake with both seriousness and guying of seriousness on-stage, together with a carefully orchestrated ambush of the audience. So Adelphoe points straight to the people and the issues at the heart of Rome, as this comic plot looks inside the city, within the structure of the domus, and turns the spotlight on the roles of paterfamilias and adulescens. Their interaction we can dub ‘education’, for the traditionalist ideology of Rome held fathers responsible for their sons, impressing the past on to posterity.
Who’s Counting?—Catullus by Numbers
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Roman Comedy played before the people as theatre classics, until their adoption by elite education. The second pair of poets of the Republic we can read wrote in the SOs: Lucretius’ philosophical epic hammering our lives of childish folly with reason survives in just one MS, vulnerable to propriety whether pagan or Christian; and some gentleman of Verona preserved the sole copy of his local hero’s miscellany of a hundred plus, more or less indecorous, poems: Catullus my friend across twenty centuries Anxious to complete your lechery before Christ came? More to the point: before the Caesars came—Cisalpine Verona would acquire Roman citizenship early in 49 when the territory of Italy was extended so that Julius couldn’t have just invaded his country by crossing the Rubicon. Catullus’ poetry crowds out the wide world of the lowering cosmopolis, Imperial Rome.
Horace, Odes 3.22 and the Life of Meaning: Stumbling and stampeding out of the woods, Blinking and screaming into the light, Snorting and gorging at the trough, Slashing and gouging at the death
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Montium custos nemorumque uirgo quae laborantis utero puellaster uocat(a) audis adimisque leto diua triformis imminens uillae tua pious esto quam per exactos ego laetus annos uerris obliquum meditantisictumsanguine donem.
Satire Writes Woman: Gendersong
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Satire is not ‘about’ women (or even ‘Woman’). But it is tied into social discourse on gender. If you ask me, feminism has it knocked into a cocked hat. In this introductory chapter, I will (satirically) plunge straight into disabling double-bind; the remaining three chapters of Part III will set about worming their way off the hook.
Be Alert (Your Country Needs Lerts): Horace, Satires 1. 91
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter returns to the triumviral traumas of the 30s, focusing on the last piece proper in Horace’s first poetry collection, Satires 1, just the retrospective epilogue to come. In this poem 9 (too lengthy to reproduce here), Horace writes down an anecdote starring Horace, which also releases a controlled ‘leak’ from the palace (of Octavian Caesar’s closest associate Maecenas); and leaves readers an ironical but pithy reflection on buttonholing and social climbing, as moral(ized) vademecum—the kit a networker needs to negotiate the bailing circuitry of power at Rome. This text, besides, composes a poetic (of ‘anti-aesthetic’ plebeian vigour adapting Callimachean angularity and litotes, not without paradox). But this is also programmed as Satire, made from the dia-logic-al exchange of sermo, the conversational interaction presented within the story. And in the political stake of its legibility are wagered the purchase of discourse and conversation analysis, pragmatics, narratology, new rhetoric, social semiotics, patronage theory, and a welter of cultural history concerns and techniques.
Homeric Epic: The Greeks and the Rational?
Authors: Hershkowitz Debra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Iliad 6, Glaucus tells the story of his ancestor Bellerophon, an exile who accomplished a series of labours and won a bride and a country.But when he too became hateful to all the gods, he wandered alone along the Alean plain, eating his heart out, avoiding the tracks of men. (II. 6.200-2)While the passage does not actually describe Bellerophon as mad, later on the Homeric1 Bellerophon becomes a paradigmatic example of the madman.
Writing and society in early Egypt
Authors: Baines John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Egyptian writing appeared first in the late fourth millennium BCE, evolving thereafter in stages, until in the later 2nd dynasty the script reached a more or less definitive structure that was applied in some contexts to the notation of continuous language. During this period of perhaps four hundred years, writing was a very limited instrument. It was used both in administration and in artistic display, but there is no reason to suppose that it was intended from the first to record texts in full syntactic form. This restricted form of writing was a vital means of communication for administration and for display within the inner elite, but its impact outside those spheres was probably indirect. Administration, writing, and representational art were three central, interlinked creations of a society that evolved rapidly into a state.
Introductory note
Authors: Baines John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The studies assembled in this part address two different styles of question. ‘Theories and universals of representation’ (Ch. 9) and ‘Colour terminology and colour classification’ (Ch. 11) review issues raised by salient features of Egyptian material high culture that are also significant for cross-cultural analysis. ‘Schäfer’s mottoes and the understanding of representation’ (Ch. 10) is a note on the history of scholarship that grew out of my work on Heinrich Schäfer and exemplifies the difficulties that western art historians—in this case including Schäfer himself—have had in approaching a tradition, like that of Egypt, that has different representational conventions.
Theories and universals of representation: Heinrich Schäfer and Egyptian art
Authors: Baines John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fundamental work on representation in Egyptian art is Heinrich Schäfer’s Von ägyptischer Kunst (English edition, Principles of Egyptian art). This solves, with outstanding success, many problems in the analysis of non-perspective pictorial representation. The book provides insights that affect the understanding of an enormous range of representational art, Egyptian or other; and this was the author’s intention, for he argued that his discoveries had important implications for the study of pictorial representation as such (xiii xxviii). These broader implications are significant for more general debates among art historians, of which many are reviewed by E. H.
Nikias and Athens
Authors: Rood Tim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our great historian—after devoting two immortal books to this expedition—after setting forth emphatically both the glory of its dawn and the wretchedness of its close, with a dramatic genius parallel to the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophokles—when he comes to recount the melancholy end of the two commanders, has no words to spare for Demosthenes (far the abler of the two, who perished by no fault of his own), but reserves his flowers to strew on the grave of Nikias, the author of the whole calamity.
Cruelty
Authors: Lintott Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous examination of violence in Roman tradition and law has provided a background against which personal attitudes can become more intelligible. It is time now to centre the inquiry on the individual and his relation to his present society and past history. Our direct knowledge of Roman attitudes in the Republic depends to a very great extent on the remarks of Cicero in his speeches, philosophical works, and letters, and on those of his correspondents. At best this can help us to conceive how the mind of an upper-class politician worked: about the man in the street we are reduced to very generalized inference. However, it is the mind of the politician that provides the ultimate answer to the problem of the fall of the Republic. For it was his will which was the origin of the most atrocious and politically dangerous violence. Yet he was no revolutionary in the sense of wishing to overturn comprehensively the old order; his contact with violence was not so close and continuous that brutalization of character was only to be expected; nor finally was he under the severe economic pressure which may make life seem cheap and of little consequence.