bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Carotid angiography in patients with subcortical ischaemia
Authors: Kappelle L J , Gijn J van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since direct puncture of the carotid artery and injection of sodium iodide was introduced by Moniz in 1927 (Moniz 1940), angiographic techniques have been replaced by much safer procedures. Nowadays, intra-arterial digital subtraction angiography (IDSA), performed via the femoral artery, is the most informative method to visualize the cervico-cranial vasculature. Unfortunately, this procedure is associated with a 1 per cent overall incidence of neurological deficit and a 0.5 per cent incidence of persistent neurological deficit or death (Grzyska et al. 1990, Hankey et al. 1990, Heiserman et al. 1994, Derdeyn et al. 1995). During the last years, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) and spiral computed tomography (CT) angiography have been introduced (Marks 1996, Neumann Haeflin et al. 2000). These methods are safe and, therefore, are being used more and more for visualization of the arteries in the neck and the intracranial arteries (Magarelli et al. 1998). To date, there are no studies comparing ISDA with MRA or spiral CT angiography in patients with subcortical infarcts.
About lacunes
Authors: Millikan C H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said in rather a scornful tone, ‘it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more or less.’ ‘The question is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you can make words mean so many different things.’ The word ‘lacune’ (dictionary definition—cavity, pit, hole, lake) exemplifies the inaccuracy presumed in Alice’s comment! Bogousslavsky (1991a) wrote that the term ‘lacunar infarct’ is used for a least six different things. Phrases such as ‘lacunar syndrome’, ‘lacunar stroke’, ‘lacunar dementia’, or ‘lacunar infarction’ have become meaningless. The only common denominator found in the literature for the definition of lacune, whether used by a pathologist, clinician, or radiologist, is that it is small (Millikan and Futrell 1990). Faulty understanding of the fact that the size of the lesion is small has led C.M. Fisher (1991) to completely ignore the writings of Walter C. Alvarez about ‘little strokes’ (Alvarez 1946, 1948, 1955a,b). Beginning in 1946, Alvarez wrote extensively concerning what he referred to as ‘little strokes, brief strokes, silent strokes, transient ischaemic attacks, and so on’.
Lacunar syndromes—are they still worth diagnosing?
Authors: Bamford J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past, the clinically defined lacunar syndromes (LACS) have been central to the debate about the importance of lacunar stroke. Nevertheless, the concept that a significant subgroup of strokes may be distinguished primarily by clinical means has always seemed to rest uncomfortably in the minds of many physicians, perhaps reflecting the increasing tendency in most branches of medicine to highlight the fallibility of clinical assessments, while being less critically accepting of the results of investigative techniques. Indeed, C.M. Fisher who, through his seminal clinico- pathological papers in the 1960s brought the issue of lacunar stroke into mainstream clinical practice, wrote that ‘... MRI has made dependence on clinical detail more or less obsolete’ (Fisher 1991).
Thalamic infarcts
Authors: Freitas G R de , Bogousslavsky J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infarcts restricted to the thalamus account for 11 per cent of vertebrobasilar infarcts, and the thalamus is involved in 27 per cent of vertebrobasilar infarcts (Bogousslavsky et al. 1988b). While the thalamus is involved in about one-third of patients with basilar artery occlusion (Labauge et al. 1981), 10–20 per cent of patients with embolism distal to the middle third of the basilar artery may have isolated thalamic infarcts (Goto et al. 1979, Fisher 1986).
MRI changes as a risk factor for intracerebral haemorrhage
Authors: Fazekas F , Roob G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Small vessel disease is not only a frequent cause of ischaemic cerebral tissue damage with lacunar infarcts and leukoaraiosis but is also associated with a greater tendency for rupturing vessel walls and subsequent bleeding into the brain parenchyma. This aetiology of intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) has been documented primarily for hypertensive small artery disease (Cole and Yates 1967, 1968, Fisher 1971, 1972). Vessel wall changes consistent with fibrinoid necrosis due to impaired endothelial transport of plasma proteins and vessel wall fibrosis have been found in regions of hypertensive ICH, and in some instances pathologists also observed outpouchings of the arterioles (Cole and Yates 1968, Fisher 1972).
Oxford Textbook of Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Therapy
Authors: Grahame-Smith D G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Pharmacology and Drug Therapy continues to provide medical students and clinicians with a unique insight into why drugs have their therapeutic effects, by presenting the basic pharmacological principles of pharmacology as they affect the patient. An understanding of these clinical pharmacological principles is essential for rational, safe, effective, and economical prescribing. The text shows how knowledge of the scientific basis of drug action is applied in a clinical context to devise the most effective treatments for disease and to maximize the therapeutic effects of the drugs being used. This new edition includes an appraisal of the value of evidence-based medicine and a greater discussion of issues in genetics. There are specialist contributors for areas of infectious disease, gastrointestinal disorders, blood disorders, general anaesthesia, cancer chemotherapy, and immunosuppression. The revision also includes updates to both the pharmacopoeia and the drug therapy section to reflect new developments in both available drugs and ineir their use.
Placebos
Authors: Grahame-Smith D G , Aronson J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest known medical definition of ‘placebo’ (from the Latin word meaning ‘I shall please’ or ‘I shall be popular’) is found in George Motherby’s New Medical Dictionary (second edition, 1785): ‘a commonplace method or medicine’, a definition that does not suggest the modern meaning of the word. However, in Robert Hooper’s Medical Dictionary (1811), it was defined as ‘any medicine adapted more to please than benefit the patient’. This suggests that a change in meaning took place at about the start of the 19th century. Since then, the concept has broadened further.
Synaesthete extraordinaire?
Authors: Harrison John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cognitive revolution, or more precisely the cognitive renaissance, allowed psychologists the luxury of once again discussing what is interesting about psychology, those unseen but suspected cognitive skills. A second renaissance occurred at about the same time, the rebirth of neuropsychology, another branch of the broad church of psychology, though the cause of neuropsychology’s death was very different to that of cognitive psychology. More on this later. The science of synaesthesia discussed in this chapter shares much in common with the methodology of neuropsychology, a similarity described in the next section.
The closet door opens
Authors: Harrison John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As an undergraduate I had the good fortune to be placed at the Institute of Psychiatry in London’s Denmark Hill, located close to the Maudsley Hospital, a centre known and respected throughout the world. I also had the excellent good fortune to be supervised by Dr Laura Goldstein, a clinical psychologist whose guidance and supervision during that summer proved invaluable. My lowly student status meant that I could not, for insurance reasons, test patients. I would therefore not get the chance to gain first hand experience of psychological testing. However, Laura found a means by which I could gain experience of testing, chiefly as a result of some research conducted by her office mate, Dr Simon Baron-Cohen.
Pathology and theory
Authors: Harrison John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of Chapter 1, in which I outlined the theory of synaesthesia proposed in Synaesthesia: Classic and Contemporary Readings, I promised to describe and evaluate other theories that have been posited by various individuals during the last hundred years. In previous chapters, especially Chapters 2 and 3, it was suggested that there is evidence to suppose that certain brain injuries and diseases are capable of causing synaesthesic states. A number of these reports contain theories on the genesis of acquired synaesthesias, and the overlap between pathology and theory suggests that they be dealt with in the same chapter.
From romantic neurology to the ISA
Authors: Harrison John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last decade or so the synaesthesia story has come a long way, and many of the comments and claims made in the classical literature have been tested and largely found to be true. As a result of this renaissance of interest there are now several research groups around the world examining synaesthesia and related conditions. In this last chapter some of the work that is being carried out is discussed. Increased interest in the condition is valuable, as there is still a great deal about synaesthesia that requires explanation. In this final chapter some of the issues that require further investigation are summarized. Considerable text is devoted to one issue in particular, a solution for which even now eludes me after more than ten years of contemplation and research. It is simply this: what is it like to have synaesthesia? Before launching into these issues, let us take stock and summarize what we now know about the condition.
Ben Franklin Stilled the Waves
Authors: Tanford Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Benjamin Franklin, the 18th-century American statesman and scientist, watched the calming effect of a drop of oil on the waves and ripples of a London pond, he was observing what Pliny the Elder and generations of seafarers had done before him. Franklin, though, was the first to wonder exactly what was happening to the oil, and to investigate this strange phenomenon. Following Franklin ‘s lead, a motley crowd of scientists over the next two centuries and more chose to investigate the nature of atoms and molecules through the interaction of fluid membranes. They included Lord Rayleigh, an altruistic English Lord, Agnes Pockels, who conducted experiments in her kitchen and became one of the earliest women to make lasting contributions to science, the renowned Dutch pediatrician Evert Gorter, and Irving Langmuir, one of America ‘s greatest industrial scientists. Building on Franklin ‘s original experiments, their work has culminated in the discovery of the structure of cell membranes, research that continues to bear fruit today. Ben Franklin Stilled the Waves is far more than the story of oil on water; it is a voyage into the very nature of science and its place in our history.
The Early Christian Community
Authors: Chadwick Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest Christian communities were marked out by their allegiance to Jesus of Nazareth. They believed that in his teaching and life, God had 'visited his people' and sent a prophet and more than a prophet, an example and teacher of the way of truth and righteousness surpassing John the Baptist; the 'Messiah' or anointed leader of ancient expectation.
From Rome to the Barbarian Kingdoms (330-700)
Authors: Markus Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If one were writing the history of W estem Europe in the period from about 330 to about 700 AD, there would, inevitably, be two major themes. The first would tell of the late Roman empire and its fate after the reorganization by the Emperors Diocletian and Constantine, until mo!it of its W estem provinces were superseded by barbarian kingdoms.
The West: The Age of Conversion (700-1050)
Authors: Mayr-Harting Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The period which here concerns us is not notable for great theologians, great popes, or great heretics. The Christian achievement turns less on individual geniuses than in any other period of remotely comparable length in the history of this ever fermenting religion. The Emperor Charlemagne (768-814) is said to have lamented to the leader of his court school, the York man Alcuin, that he had not twelve learned men like Jerome or Augustine.
The Late Medieval Church and its Reformation 1400-1600
Authors: Collinson Patrick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past is another country. Where, apart from libraries and archives, should the historian of late medieval religion travel in order to understand with that understanding which is sight, hearing, and sensation the meaning of the Christianity which we have lost, what it once meant to be religious? The answer must be 'nowhere'. But twentieth-century India might help.
Enlightenment: Secular and Christian (1600-1800)
Authors: McManners John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The two centuries preceding the French revolution were marked by the growing secularization of West European society, culture, and thought. It was not just a change from a 'Christian' to a 'secular' order. Indeed, Jean Delumeau has argued that medieval life was 'Christian' only in so far as every secular passion and inspiration had to be expressed in Christian forms; take away compulsion, routine, impractical renunciation of the world, magical beliefs, and fear·of hell, and there was less true Christian belief and conduct in medieval times than now.
The Expansion of Christianity (1500-1800)
Authors: McManners John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
BY the year 1800, Christianity girdled the globe from China to Peru. Yet three hundred years earlier, it had been the religion of Europe alone, hemmed in on the east by militant Islam, to the south by the desert, to the north by barren tundra, and to the west by the great ocean. Islam ruled in the land where Christ had been born and crucified. It had swept away the Christian communities of the North African coast, and its pressures were driving the Monophysite Copes of Egypt to convert to the Prophet; the sister Coptic church in Ethiopia survived only because of its wild remoteness in the mountains. In the Sudan, where Christianity had once been dominant, the faith of the Qur'an now prevailed.
Africa
Authors: Hinchliff Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until after the Second World War histories of Africa had a tendency to treat the continent as though it were simply a setting for the actions of white men (and a few white women). This was because they were written, for the most part by people of European stock who had been taught that history should be based on parliamentary reports, Civil Service minutes, and the private correspondence of those who possessed power and influence.
Asia
Authors: Kenneth  , Ballhatchet Helen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of Christianity in Asia during the nineteenth century and much of the twentieth was dominated by the growth of missionary activity. This activity built on what had gone before, but there were two new factors. One of these was the emergence of Protestant missions as a significant force; the other was the development in the West of military, technological, and commercial capabilities which were clearly superior to anything in Asia.
What Christians Believe
Authors: Wiles Maurice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quot homincs, tot sentcntiae: there arc as many opinions as there are people. It is tempting to adapt the old adage and say that there are as many beliefs as there are Christians. In one sense that is true. For beliefis a personal matter, and each of us believes in his or her own unique way. But belief is also a communal matter. We do not invent or develop our beliefs on our own. We draw upon the beliefs of the community to which we belong for both the substance and the form of our believing.
Meningitis
Authors: Bannister Sir Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infection through the bloodstream. Sometimes meningitis is the only or the principal manifestation of a bacteraemia, as in meningococcal meningitis and some cases of pneumococcal meningitis, or the infection of the meninges may be secondary to focal infection elsewhere in the body, for example, pneumonia, empyema, osteomyelitis, enteric fever, etc. Tuberculous meningitis may be part of a general miliary dissemination of the infection. Sometimes meningitis is secondary to a blood-borne infection that first settles in the brain, as in the case of metastatic cerebral abscess or tuberculoma. It is probable that the infection is blood-borne in most cases of meningitis caused by a virus.
Syphilis of the nervous system
Authors: Bannister Sir Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neurosyphilis was becoming an uncommon disease after the introduction of penicillin but recently there has been an increased incidence in parts of the United States and possibly other countries as a result of promiscuity in urban societies, in particular among male homosexuals. Only a small proportion—perhaps 10 per cent—of persons infected with the Treponema pallidum subsequently show evidence that the organism has invaded the nervous system. However, 30 per cent of patients with secondary syphilis have an abnormal cerebrospinal fluid. This may occur as early as during the secondary stage. Early invasion of the nervous system may be followed by an asymptomatic period of several years while the infection remains dormant. On both clinical and pathological grounds, a distinction must be made between two groups of tertiary manifestations of neurosyphilis, one of which is known as meningovascular, or cerebrospinal syphilis, the other, which comprises tabes dorsalis and general paresis, being distinguished as parenchymatous syphilis.
Toxic and deficiency disorders
Authors: Bannister Sir Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In starvation and malabsorption neurological symptoms and signs may be caused by a wide variety of deficiencies. In addition to lack of vitamins, there may be a lack of glucose and minerals, particularly calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, or iron. The relationship of dietary deficiency to toxic factors is sometimes complex. For example, excessive cyanide intake from foods or from smoking may play a part in the production of the neurological symptoms of ‘tobacco’ amblyopia and Leber’s optic atrophy, because vitamin Bu is concerned in the detoxication of cyanide. Cyanide may also play a role in the production of neurological symptoms in vitamin B12 neuropathy. In some neurological syndromes found in the tropics it is difficult to separate dietary factors and the effects of certain chronic inflammatory diseases, such as syphilis.
Silver Spoons and Golden Genes: Talent Differentials and Distributive Justice
Authors: Steiner Hillel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To set the context for the argument I want to advance, it may be helpful to say a few general words about both distributive justice and talents. Distributive justice is concerned with judgements about who should get what and who should give what. But it is not concerned with all such judgements. Rather, only those gettings and givings which are thought to be justifiably enforceable fall within its domain. And while this may cover quite a lot of morally desirable interpersonal transfers, most persons would regard it as not exhausting them.
The Natural World
Authors: Briggs Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Elizabethans inherited the notion that the universe consisted of a complex but ultimately ordered and stable ladder of existence, harmonious and benevolent to human beings, since it had been designed specifically for them. Any shortcomings were due to human, rather than to divine agency. Sir Thomas Elyot ‘s Boke named the Governour (1531) makes the case for God ‘s tidiness in its first chapter: Behold also the order that God hath put generally in all his creatures, beginning at the most inferior or base, and ascending upward ... so that every kind of trees, herbs, birds, beasts and fishes, beside their diversity of forms, have (as who sayeth) a peculiar disposition appropered unto them by God their creator; so that in everything is order, and without order may be nothing stable or permanent; and it may not be called order, except [unless] it do contain in it degrees, high and base, according to the merit or estimation of the thing that is ordered. (Book I, ch. i) Thus a highly hierarchical and graduated society imagined the universe in its own image, and, as Elyot ‘s emphasis on order suggests, the order supposed to be visible in the natural world was then used as an argument to defend the stratified social structure. The elaborate ramifications of the ordered universe might even be used as evidence that the social system, as it had evolved, was essential or even inevitable.
The Theatre
Authors: Briggs Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of the age ‘s many forms of representation, drama was the most vital, fully responsive both to general human emotions and experiences and to the particular pressures, ideas, philosophies, and attitudes of the day. Though audiences, as well as their language, culture, and religion, have altered substantially, Renaissance plays are still performed and enjoyed today. Their vigour was largely due to their commercial character: the need to please London audiences allowed the drama to reflect contemporary problems and behaviour with few constraints, and freed it from voicing establishment views (unlike the literature that sought for court patronage), so that it could respond to wider and, on occasion, more critical or subversive social forces. There was a price to be paid for such freedom: the Lord Chamberlain, through the Revels Office, imposed censorship on plays, and this might range from the excision of a few words to cutting passages and scenes, and sometimes to the suppression of an entire play, as seems to have happened in the case of Sir Thomas More (1595), where the ‘Evil May Day ‘ riot of apprentices against aliens was too topical to be acceptable to the Master of the Revels.
Fidelio First Performance of the Fifth Symphony Second Journey to Holland Mahler as Diplomat The Third Symphony in Leipzigand Vienna (August-December 1904)
Authors: Louis De La Grange Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mahler’S summer holidays with his family in Maiernigg invariably ended with his returning alone to Vienna, leaving Alma and the children to enjoy further weeks away from the hustle and bustle of the capital. These separations always gave rise to a stream of letters or postcards from Mahler to Alma. There is no trace of such correspondence at the end of the summer of 1904. For once, therefore, Alma must have returned at the same time as her husband. He no doubt wanted to have her by his side while he was preparing two major events scheduled to take place in the early autumn-the new production of Fidelio, and the first performance of his Fifth Symphony in Cologne, rehearsals for which were to begin in Vienna. Fidelio was for Mahler the finest work in the entire repertory. He devoted all his strength and ‘recreative’ genius to this ‘opera of operas’, and had set the date of the premiere to coincide with the Emperor’s name day celebrations on 4 October.