bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Sorites Slippery Slope Argument
Authors: Walton Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many logic textbooks do not mention the slippery slope argument at all. Of those that do, the majority cite the causal type of slippery slope argument and classify it a fallacy (or a tricky argument that can be fallacious). These texts identify the slippery slope fallacy with the causal type of slippery slope argument. A few texts treat the slippery slope fallacy as an argument essentially having to do with the use of vague terms in reasoning, and these texts generally bring in the ancient sorites or bald man argument as related to the problem. Two texts in particular, Scriven (1976) and Fogelin (1987), have taken some useful steps in indicating how the paradox of the sorites argument is related to the practical problem of dealing with slippery slope fallacies in contexts where reasoning with a key vague term is evidently the source of the problem.
The Precedent Slippery Slope Argument
Authors: Walton Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Policies and rules admit of exceptions in exceptional cases. They have an inherent vagueness of application similar to the vagueness of words and phrases. Slippery slope argumentation can arise in disputes about exceptions to rules, where an arguer presses for consistency between his own case and one that has already been conceded as an exception to the rule. A man is clocked at fifty-six miles per hour by a radar detection unit of the highway patrol in a fifty-five mile per hour speed limit zone. He argues to the patrolman that he should not get a ticket because the difference in speed of one mile per hour is insignificant: ‘After all, it’s really arbitrary that the agreed-upon speed limit is fifty-five rather than fifty-six isn’t it? It’s just because fifty-five is a round number that it is chosen as the limit.
The Full Slippery Slope Argument
Authors: Walton Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The full or combined slippery slope argument, introduced in Chapter 1. 2, is similar in many points of comparison to the three other kinds of slippery slope argument. Indeed, it combines all three. But in so doing, it is typically a much more complex kind of argumentation which requires a good deal of evidence to properly support. It has been used with notable frequency in recent ethical controversies, particularly on subjects in medical ethics like euthanasia, as indicated in cases 1.3, 1.4, and 1.5.
Some Content is Narrow
Authors: Jackson Frank , Pettit Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One way to defend narrow content is to produce a sentence of the form ‘S believes that P’, and show that this sentence is true of S if and only if it is true of any duplicate from the skin in, any doppelganger, of S. Notoriously, this is hard to do. Twin Earth examples are pervasive. Another way to defend narrow content is to show that only a narrow notion can play the causal explanatory role we require of content in a properly scientific psychology or cognitive science. Notoriously, this is hard to do. The considerations—methodological solipsism, the principle of autonomy, or whatever—invoked to show that a broad notion of content cannot play the required causal explanatory role are open to serious objection. Moreover, this approach is not an argument for the existence of narrow content as such. It is an argument that content had better be narrow.
Socrates’ Defense, Part II (24b3-30cl)
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From 24b3 to 28a4 Socrates elects to reply to the ‘later’ accusers by interrogating one of them, Meletus, the officia1 author of the indictment against him. This interrogation has been the source of a good deal of puzzlement, for during the interrogation Meletus seems to be ill-prepared to defend his own charges coherently. To some, this is a decisive sign that the entire interlude is largely, if not wholly, invented by Plato to discredit Socrates’ prosecutors as inept and unprincipled. Other readers see the interrogation as showing that neither Socrates nor Meletus takes the formal charges as the real motive for the prosecution.
Bayle, locke, and the metaphysics of toleration
Authors: Lennon Thomas m. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An argument against the toleration of dissenting (and therefore presumptively false) beliefs is that they not only upset the common interest, but also run contrary to the individual interest of those holding them. The argument is found, in one form or other, in a long tradition beginning with Plato and extending through much of the history of religious strife to various totalitarian regimes of our own time. The most cogent version of the argument is based on a theory of human nature, of what it is essentially to be human. The familiar linkage goes as follows. To know the good is to do the good, because doing the good is always in one’s interest; because of what we are, doing the good satisfies our essential needs. Thus the importance of, and the justification for, constraining the individual’s beliefs about the good. An intuitive illustration of the argument can be extracted from Book I of The republic: it is wrong to return a borrowed knife to a crazed owner, because to do so would be contrary to his interest; but beliefs can be more harmful than knives, and no less care should be taken with them.
Character And Meaning In Plato’s Hippias Minor
Authors: Blundell Mary Whitlock 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
That Plato attached serious philosophical importance to literary character is well known. He returned time and again to the heroic figures of poetry, evincing a deep concern with the enormous cultural influence they exerted through education and other public institutions, such as festivals. He ardently resisted not only this influence, but the way it was inculcated through what seemed to him mindless emotional identification without real understanding (cf. Rep. 605 c- 6o6 o). An integral part ofhis ethical mission was to come to terms with this pervasive influence. To this end he employed various strategies, of which the censorship proposed in the Republic is only the most obvious.
Editor’S Afterword: Platonic Scholars And Other Wishful Thinkers
Authors: Smith Nicholas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No doubt anyone reading this collection has, at some time or other and in some form or other, been asked the following question: How on earth could there be anything more to say about philosophers who have been studied ceaselessly for nearly two and a half millennia? (In what follows, I shall call this ‘The Inevitable Question’, for the sake of brevity.) The easiest answer to this question scholars can offer to nonscholars is to say that each generation of scholars must reinterpret the Greeks in terms that are accessible to their own generation, and hence, that our discoveries are often simply discoveries of ways to make yet another generation appreciate the wisdom of the ancients.
Musical Standards as Function of Musical Accomplishment
Authors: Ross James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Typically, human practices that are aimed at excellence have regulations, principles, procedures, customs, rules, and other routines for ‘how to do it’—some with very great force and others that belong to beginners or intermediate stages but give way in maturity—that, with other factors, make a framework against which competence and excellence can be discerned. Thus, fingering, bowing, intonation, metre, rhythm, accent, breathing, phrasing, drive, intensity, stance, and indeterminately many other physical conditions with which musicians deliberately, or with practised elections, make perceptually discriminable features of the sound, are elements of objective competence and of measurable objective excellence. Excellence is understood here as competence developed to certainty, ease, sensitivity, and musicality.
Consciousness and Knowledge
Authors: Mohanty Jitendra Nath 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Philosophical reflection has to begin with the data of experience. A major part of these data is constituted by the way we ordinarily talk about ourselves and about our world. Such common linguistic usage (lokavyavahāra), though not the final court of appeal for philosophical theories, is certainly a sure starting-point, if supplemented by the reports of introspection of ordinary men about their own experiences (loka-pratīti)).
Indian Theories of Truth: Their Common Framework
Authors: Mohanty Jitendra Nath 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I want to begin by reflecting not on some one or other amongst the theories of truth (prāmānya) in Indian philosophy, but rather on that common framework which encompasses them all, or perhaps the most important amongst them, or on that common horizon within which these theories and their mutual dialogues have moved. Taken separately, there are, in the large spectrum of the Indian philosophies, theories that exhibit remarkable affinities to the major Western theories of truth. Thus the Nyaya theory of truth is a sort of correspondence theory, the Mimǡmsǡ a sort of self-evidence theory, and the Buddhist a sort of pragmatic theory. There are theories, such as the Nyaya, which combine a correspondence theory of the nature of truth with a sort of coherence theory and a sort of ]Pragmatic theory of the test of truth. Some others, like the Mimamsa, question the very distinction between the nature and the test of truth. Comparative philosophy, bent on tagging theories on to theories, promises to be a rewarding enterprise.
Historical Development of Tok Pisin
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I set the scene for the emergence of Tok Pisin, which has its roots in European economic interests in the Pacific. The features accompanying the spread of Tok Pisin as a lingua franca, and later that of English, are similar to those which Fishman, Cooper, and Conrad (1977) have identified as associated with the spread of languages of wider communication elsewhere, e.g. imposition of military rule and extended period of military authority, linguistic diversity among the indigenous population, missionization, and material incentives associated with the learning of the language (see also Mazrui and Zirimu 1978 on the interaction of Church and State interests in the spread of Swahili). Here I will show how the labour trade and the plantation setting, in particular, were conducive to the spread of Melanesian Pidgin, as was the establishment of missions, where Tok Pisin was used as a lingua franca in teaching literacy. I deal also with its stabilization, expansion, standardization as a written language, and its role in Papua New Guinea today.
Language, Education, and Development: from Pre-Colonial days to Post-Colonial Society
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Colonial rule transformed traditional communities from their small-scale agricultural subsistence base into a society which today has most of the hallmarks of the social and political inequalities associated with stratification in modern developed countries. A crucial shift in the balance of linguistic power among the indigenous languages was occasioned by the introduction of Tok Pisin and English and was part of this process of transformation. Many people who had never previously co-operated among themselves obtained a new unifying factor after the Europeans’ arrival, namely, the desire for their material culture, or Kago. (Kago is a term used in Tok Pisin to refer to European goods.) Tok Pisin was needed in contacts with Europeans in order to gain access to their goods and technology. Then later, with the dramatic introduction of English, increased access to schooling, and the availability of better jobs requiring knowledge of English, Tok Pisin became less useful and the linguistic ecology was again disrupted. This occurred in the context of a change-over from a hierarchically structured colonial society to a more socially mobile post-colonial one in which English-medium schooling became more widely accessible.
Tok Pisin i go we? (Where is Tok Pisin going?)
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have taken the title of this chapter from a collection of papers (McElhanon 1975b) given at the conference at which linguists debated the status of Tok Pisin. I noted in Chapter 1 that the question of where Tok Pisin is going cannot be addressed without also asking where Papua New Guinea is going. Given the complex of social, cultural, and political variables which transformed the linguistic ecology of pre-contact Papua New Guinea to its modern state, it is unrealistic to expect that a change in language policy alone can undo the effects of colonial strategics of development. Due to the late introduction of European imperialism in the south-west Pacific, the end of the colonial era has been correspondingly late by comparison with other parts of the world. In that respect it is instructive to look for parallels between what is happening in Papua New Guinea and elsewhere, such as Africa and the Caribbean, where decolonization has a longer history. In this chapter I will look at the debate on language policy with specific reference to attempts to increase the status of Tok Pisin.
Politeness: Cross-cultural Perspectives
Authors: Sifianou Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of Brown and Levinson’s concerns has been the :,earch for universals in language usage. Extensive parallels across unrelated languages have convinced them that, in spite of cultural peculiarities, there are universal linguistic properties. The issue of universality in language is quite controversial and seems to be related to earlier considerations concerning the relationship of language, thought, and culture. Sapir and Whorf strongly advocated this interrelationship and the uniqueness and distinctiveness of each language on which the ‘real world’ or culture is built. This thesis c.:ime to be widely known as the ‘Sapir-Whorf hypothesis’, or ‘linguistic relativity’.1 Hymes (1966: u6) presents a different version of ‘linguistic relativity’ when he says that ‘cultural values and beliefs are in part constitutive of linguistic relativity,’ whereas for Whorf it was the structure of language which in part determined thought and culture.
Perceptions of Politeness
Authors: Sifianou Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘We speak with our vocal organs, but we converse with our entire bodies’ (Hudson, 1980: 134, quoting Abercrombie). Thus, politeness cannot be limited to form and is not restricted to the linguistic medium. There are linguistic/verbal as well as non-linguistic/nonverbal norms of politeness. Informative communication is mainly verbal, whereas rapport communication involves much non-verbal behaviour as well. Emotive communication, as Arndt and Janney (1985: 282) call it, ‘involves complexly interrelated verbal, vocal and kinesic activities’. These non-vocal manifestations complement the verbal manifestations in order to satisfy emotional nee-ds which appear to be basic in communication. Politeness, in a broad sense, is what is behind this concern for our emotional needs and those of the other person.
Lëtzebuergesch And Its Competitors: Language Contact In Luxembourg Today
Authors: Hoffmann Jean-Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not difficult to argue that Luxembourg is ‘a linguistic melting pot’. Multilingualism in the present-day grand duchy is virtually a matter of inheritance. In the ‘Old’ Luxembourg which existed until 1839 (see Map 1.2), German and French language communities had been taken into separate account by the administration since at least the time of John the Blind’s decree of 1340 formally recognizing a quartier allemand and a quartier wallon. ‘New’ Luxembourg (see Map 1.3) differs only in that the French which is used as one of the official administrative languages and which exists in harmony with standard German and the Lëtzebuergesch substratum, no longer has any group of indigenous speakers left among the native population (see Section 2.r.2). Indeed, with regard to both French and standard German, natives of the grand duchy then as now use only one form of speech in communication with their fellow citizens, namely their own mother tongue, Lëtzebuergesch, and while both French and standard German continue as languages of school and government administration, in many spheres of private and public life the use of Lëtzebuergesch, particularly in written form, has expanded over the course of the last twenty years. It is therefore no longer a rarity to find Lëtzebuergesch being used for obituaries, commercial advertisements, shop signs, street furniture, or on the sides of commercial vehicles.
Textual Varieties Of Lëtzebuergesch
Authors: Hoffmann Fernand 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The passage below is taken from a speech given in the House of Deputies on 18 April 1992 by Edouard Juncker (Christian Social Democrats). It features a highly elaborated code, difficult both in spoken and written form, and to the average Luxembourger perhaps even unintelligible. The hypotactic ordering is totally alien to Lëtzebuergesch and has been borrowed from standard German.
Language Contact and Contact Languages in Native North America
Authors: Drechsel Emanuel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a distinctive culture area of native North America, the Southeast extended from the Atlantic Coast into the Prairies (including the lower Mississippi River valley) and from the Potomac and Ohio Rivers to the. Gulf Coast (including Florida), and was distinguished by a linguistic diversity surpassed only by the Northwest Coast and native California (see Crawford 1975a: 74 and Haas 1971: 44; 1973: 1,210). For this area, linguistic research has documented five separate language families plus several language isolates, both unrelated and distantly related:
History
Authors: Drechsel Emanuel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A prime concern of historical research has been how to identify Mobilian Jargon in historical records or ethnographies other than by linguistic and specifically morphosyntactic characteristics. The basic means would appear to be names used in designating the pidgin; but this conclusion has proven unreliable due to the diversity and non-exclusivity of names for Mobilian Jargon, some of which could refer at the same time to the native language of a people or the people themselves or might yet have some other reference.
Introduction
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is an ample supply of books, new and old, on the history of the French language, in all the major languages of the world. The basic facts are common currency, and introductory textbooks, detailed manuals, and research monographs abound. Along with English, which shares with French a good part of its history, French is probably one of the best documented languages in the world. Its history seems to hold few secrets: modern theorists seeking examples of phenomena to illustrate their theories usually turn to works that are fifty, a hundred, years old for their data. Usually they are not disappointed in the accuracy and exhaustiveness of older research, even though they seek to supplement the data in the public domain with new examination.
Sociolinguistic History of French
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Language must play an important role in social history: many historical works introduce linguistic evidence, especially concerning lexicon, to illustrate le changes in social attitudes and institutions. The other side of the coin is that cultural changes can be more or less directly reflected in language change. Indeed it can be claimed that all language change, as distinct perhaps from linguistic change, must be triggered by changes in the community in which the language is spoken.
Processes of Linguistic Change
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have distinguished between language change and linguistic change, as between the history of a language and historical linguistics. In Part I, I have concentrated on language change .‘when a community changes its language. This I would maintain is virtually always a type of language shift. That is, the community has shifted its norm, so that a previously unprestigious, or even foreign, set of variants becomes accepted by the tone-setting section of the community. At the extreme, other variants, that were previously acceptable, fall into disuse. Such loss would constitute complete change: in fact, total loss of a variant is quite rare when the community retains a consciousness of its past, either through folk-memory or in the shape of texts. In order for such loss to occur, we must assume some social upheaval, which leads to a break with tradition.
Semantic Change
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All human language has meaning, in the simple sense that its speakers mean something by what they say. It is usually recognized that whatever language they use they can, if they wish, mean the same thing. The semantic potentialities of language are common to all human beings, though they may be expressed differently in different languages. So how can we talk of ‘change of meaning’ or semantic change? In using this term are we saying that the same linguistic expression means one thing at one time, and another at a different time? Or is it, rather, that different speakers, either contemporaneously or successively, employ the same expression to mean different things? This latter dilemma is something most of us are very familiar with: indeed, in everyday conversational exchanges. we often have the feeling that we are talking at cross purposes, not getting our meaning across to our interlocutors, nor grasping what they are getting at. How, we wonder, can we understand what others mean when they speak? Perhaps we never do completely. But in general, for practical purposes, we get the message accurately enough, making use, as we do, of reference to shared beliefs, to common culture, to context, and to non-linguistic signals of various sorts.
Syntactic Change
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Linguists differ about what phenomena should be treated under the heading of syntax. Traditionally, in Romance studies, it is preferred to link morphology and syntax closely together, as morphosyntax, which covers the categorial status, syntactic use, and semantic value of morphological forms. For some, syntax is virtually synonymous with the ordering of elements within a sentence, the syntactic unit: in the Saussurean tradition, this is largely a matter for parole, the surface realization of the underlying system, langue, which 1s seen as the object of linguistics. So much depends on individual choice and on pragmatic factors that some deny the validity of the sentence as a unit of linguistic organization, preferring instead to study the utterance, a fleeting and spontaneous expression of discourse. From a diachronic point of view, it has also been maintained that syntax is frozen discourse, a product of literacy or planned speech parallel to the view of morphology as fossilized syntax.
Imagination and the Schematism
Authors: Gibbons Sarah L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kant considers the Schematism part of the ‘transcendental doctrine of judgment’ in which he ‘will treat of the sensible condition under which alone pure concepts of understanding can be employed’ (A 136 / B 175). Although the Schematism is billed as an element of a doctrine of judgement, its primary debt seems to be to the analysis of imagination in the Transcendental Deduction rather than to any of the earlier descriptions of judgement. In articulating a doctrine of judgement, Kant intends to consider aspects of judgement other than its logical forms, or even the role of the categories in making possible the judgement of an object in general described in the Transcendental Deduction. The Schematism turns our focus away from the nature and role of the categories as forms of unity in judgement to the problem of how it is possible to apply them to material that is sensibly intuited.