bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Amino acids, peptides, and proteins
Authors: Bensasson R v. , Land E J , Truscott T G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Increasing interest in the photo- and radiation chemistry of proteins is due to: the effects of irradiation on food proteins (see, for example, Swallow 1991); the increasing recognition of radical induced biochemical injury via reactions with proteins (Willson et al. 1985); the recognition of the role of electron transfer reactions involving intramolecular processes in proteins (see, for example, McLendon 1988; Prutz et al. 1989) and the application of Marcus theory to such electron transfer processes (see, for example, Bertrand 1991, Faraggi and Klapper 1991 and references given in Section 6.8); studies of two photon absorption processes (see, for example, Nikogosyan and Gorner 1992); a more detailed understanding of protein conformations and dynamics probed by tryptophan triplet (Geacintov and Brenner 1989); photo-deligandation in haem proteins, see, for example, Hochstrasser and Johnson 1988; Frauenfelder etal. 1991; the role of a tyrosyl residue in re-reducing the oxidized chlorophyll special pairs in photosystem 2 of photosynthesis (P680—see Chapter 7) and subsequently oxidizing the manganese cluster (see, for example, Mathis etal. 1989); and crosslinking of DNA to proteins (see, for example, Simic and Dizdaroglu 1985) Nearly half the dry weight of living material is composed of protein (from ‘proteios’ meaning, in Greek, of the first rank). Many thousands of protein structures have now been established and the role of proteins and enzymes extends to nearly all biological processes.
The World of Physical Chemistry
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book might have been entitled ‘A History of Physical Chemistry’, which to some extent it is. I am not, however, a historian, and my object has been somewhat different from that of a historian. I wanted primarily to give scientists some insight into how one important branch of physical science has developed. At the same time I have tried to write the book in such a way that historians of science who are not also scientists may find the book useful, even though they may well want to skip over some of the early material with which they will be familiar, and perhaps some of the more mathematical parts.A science like physical chemistry is not necessarily best taught in the first instance by a purely historical approach. A historical approach to science does, however, have important uses. For one thing, the teaching of science can be more effective if the teacher has some knowledge of its history. An account of some personal incident that occurred during the course of scientific work can greatly arouse the interest of students. I have found, for instance, that the story of Arrhenius’s difficulties with his Ph.D. examiners always seems to go down well with students, and seems to make them think that electrolytic dissociation is perhaps not such a dull subject after all.
The Chemical Synthesis of Peptides
Authors: Jones John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Peptides have diverse applications and potential in medicine: the regulation of fertility; the control of pain; the stimulation of growth; the therapy of cancer, cardiovascular problems, connective tissue diseases, digestive disorders, mental illness, and infections by microbial or viral agents. The preparation of such compounds by manipulating biological systems (genetic engineering) is an increasingly sophisticated art, but each case requires developmental work, and the approach is at present almost powerless with structural types unknown to Nature. Chemical synthesis, on the other hand, is in principle applicable to any target, and is likely to remain very important in the peptide area for the forseeable future. At the present time the output of the primary literature on the subject is nearly a thousand publications a year, and increasing relentlessly. The term peptide is interpreted liberally, as embracing not only conventional sequences of up to a few dozen proteinogenic amino acids but also extending to protein-scale molecules and structures comprising other residues or unusual features, for example cyclopeptides and conjugated peptides. Emphasis throughout is on the chemical principles behind the more important methods, which are treated within a modern mechanistic framework and illustrated with carefully selected case studies. This book provides a critical, concise, and up-to-date survey of the area. It is aimed principally at the graduate level, especially for those starting in the field, but it should also be of interest to experienced practitioners and advanced undergraduates.
Introduction
Authors: Gray Peter , Scott Stephen K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a book about chemical kinetics--not necessarily the most familiar aspects of that subject, but nevertheless the various phenomena to be described arise primarily because reactions occur at finite rates, and different reactions may occur at different rates. Before proceeding along our kinetics course, however, it is worth while examining what information we can gain from thermodynamics. For most of us, the familiar aspects of thermodynamics are those dealing with systems at chemical equilibrium. Then we can ‘use’ concepts such as enthalpy and entropy to place strong restrictions on the final equilibrium composition attained from a given set of initial reactant concentrations.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Ernst Richard R , Bodenhausen Geoffrey , Wokaun Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After its successful application in physics, chemistry, and molecular biology, NMR is now beginning to play a vital role in the field of clinical medicine. Many fruitful applications have emerged, like investigations of whole tissue in vitro and in vivo to trace out biological processes. But the most promising application of NMR in medicine is the non-invasive imaging of entire biological organisms. The first experimental demonstration of the feasibility of macroscopic imaging by NMR was given by Lauterbur in 1972 (10.1, 10.2). The use of NMR for investigations of the human body, particularly for cancer detection, was advocated first by Damadian (10.3, 10.4).
Coupled systems
Authors: Scott Stephen K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter we looked at the range of behaviour exhibited by chemical systems exposed to some periodic external input. A related experimental arrangement is that in which one or more reactors are coupled together in some way. Then oscillations in one or more of the individual units might provide a periodic stimulus to the others. In this case, however, there is an extra subtlety as the other units can ‘fight back in the sense that their response will also influence the first.
The Belousov-Zhabotinskii and other solution-phase reactions
Authors: Scott Stephen K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Belousov-Zhabotinskii reactions is relatively widely known for its long trains of oscillations in closed vessels (Belousov 1951, 1958; Zhabotinskii 1964a,b, 1985; Zhabotinskii 1987; Zhabotinskii et al. 1982). Although there has been much recent debate about some detailed aspects, the basic mechanism appears to be well established. A relatively simple model, the ‘Oregonator’, has proven remarkably successful at reproducing and predicting the observed behaviour in a wide range of experimental situations, even with independently determined rate data. We will return to mechanistic and modelling questions below, after introducing the experimental phenomena: comprehensive accounts of such issues as bromide ion control, the role of the catalyst, values of the rate constants, etc. can be found in the multiauthor work edited by Field and Burger (1985) or the recent papers by Field and Forsterling (1986), Noyes (1986), Ruoff et al. (1988), and Noyes et al. (1989). Here, we concentrate on the behaviour in well-stirred flow reactors (CSTRs).
Gas-phase reactions
Authors: Scott Stephen K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The existence of oscillations and the potential for chaotic behaviour in gas-phase reactions have received a much less widespread coverage than their solution-phase counterparts. An introduction to this topic can be found in Gray and Scott (1985), Griffiths (1985a), and in the companion to this book (Gray and Scott 1990). Recent reviews have also been given by Griffiths (1985b, 1986) and Griffiths and Scott (1987).
Reaction of alkynes with organometallic reagents
Authors: Negishi Ei-Ichi , Choueiry Daniele 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hydrometallation and carbometallation may be defined as additions of hydrogen-metal and carbon-metal bonds, respectively, to carbon-carbon multiple bonds. Of interest here are those involving alkynes (Scheme 7.1). Such addition reactions can be syn-, anti-, and non-stereoselective.
Summary of alkene syntheses
Authors: Westwell Andrew D , Williams Jonathan M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Each previous chapter in this book has been devoted to particular methods for the synthesis of alkenes, and has included experimental protocols which provide details for the preparation of alkenes. These chapters have broadly been arranged into the types of starting material which are required. There have been alkene syntheses from two components, from single C-C bonds, from triple C-C bonds, and from other alkenes.
Pressure determination
Authors: Holzapfel W B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern methods of pressure measurement began as early as 1643 with the development of the mercury-column manometer by Torricelli, which are still used in some antique domestic barometers. The unit 1 Torr = 1 mmHg = 133.322 Pa (by definition exact) is a reminder of this almost outdated technique.
Electrophoresis of proteins under high hydrostatic pressures
Authors: Masson Patrick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Elevated pressures can induce functional and structural alterations of proteins. The effects of pressure are governed by Le Chatelier’s principle. According to this principle, an increase in pressure favours processes which reduce the overall volume of the system, and conversely increases in pressure inhibit processes which increase the volume. The effects of pressure on proteins depend on the relative contribution of the intramolecular forces which determine their stability and functions. Ionic interactions and hydrophobic interactions are disrupted by pressure. On the other hand, stacking interactions between aromatic rings and charge-transfer interactions are reinforced by pressure. Hydrogen bonds are almost insensitive to pressure. Thus, pressure acts on the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins. The extent and the reversibility, or irreversibility, of pressure effects depend on the pressure range, the rate of compression, and the duration of exposure to increased pressures. These effects are also influenced by other environmental parameters, such as the temperature, the pH, the solvent, and the composition of the medium.
Thia oxa-thia and aza-thia crowns
Authors: Parker David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The synthesis of macrocyclic thia crown ethers dates back long before the first reports of the synthesis of Pedersen’s oxa crown ethers. Back in 1920, Ray1 reported the synthesis of 1,4,7-trithiacyclononane, 1, which is also known by the acronym [9]-S3, involving reaction of potassium hydrogen sulfide with dibromoethane. In 1934, Meadow and Reid described the isolation of 1,4,7,10,13,16-hexathiacyclooctadecane ([18]-S6), 2, albeit in a yield of 1.7%. It has also been appreciated for some time that in order to avoid undesirable oligomerisations, the co-cyclisation of an acyclic dithiol with an alkyl dihalide should be carried out under conditions of high dilution. Workers at Kodak, for example, described in 1961 the synthesis of [18]-S204, 3, in a 59% yield by working at high dilution in ethanol.
Crown ethers
Authors: Amabilino David B , Preece Jon A , Fraser Stoddart J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Crown ethers are perhaps the most widely used family of host compounds in supramolecular chemistry-the chemistry of the non-covalent bond. The fortuitous discovery of the macrocyclic polyethers by Pedersen in 1967 laid the foundation for an exhaustive study of their preparation and complexing abilities, primarily with metal cations but also with neutral and even anionic species.5 Moreover, the metal ions which are complexed by crown ethers can also be utilised as templates for their formation.
Calixarenes
Authors: Arduini Arturo , Casnati Alessandro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term calix[n]arenes indicates a class of phenolic metacyclophanes derived from the condensation of phenols and aldehydes. The name was coined by Gutsche and derives from the Latin ‘calix’ because of the vase-like structure that these macrocycles assume when all the aromatic rings are oriented in the same direction. The bracketed number indicates the number of aromatic rings and hence defines the size of the macrocycle. To identify the phenol from which the calixarene is derived, the para substituent is designated by name.
Transition metal-tern plated formation of [2]-catenanes and [2]-rotaxanes
Authors: Chambron J -C , Chardon-Noblat S , Dietrich-Buchecker C O , Heitz V , Sauvage J -P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Catenanes and rotaxanes have been considered together for decades although the topologically different nature of each system has been clearly stated only in a limited number of discussions. These molecules are made up of two components kept together by a mechanical link: in a catenane, two macrocycles are interlocked, whereas in a rotaxane a macrocycle is threaded on to a dumbbell-shaped molecular component whose stoppers are large enough so as to prevent unthreading of the ring (Fig. 9.1). Topologically speaking, catenanes are non-planar molecules, since they cannot be represented in a plane without two crossings at least. On the contrary, rotaxanes are planar molecules: it is easy to imagine the stretching of the chemical bonds of the ring so as to allow the blocking groups to pass through the ring and thus to obtain the cyclic and linear fragments separately.
The evolution of organic compounds
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The designation ‘organic’, carrying its original sense of ‘life’ chemistry, has a broad meaning still centrally based on the element carbon in association with H, N and 0, in both synthetic and degradative reactions. However, included under this heading today, with the chemistry of these four light elements, is some of the chemistry associated with heavier non-metals and that of some metals, when it overlaps with organometallic chemistry. Due to the diversity of organic chemistry, summarising it (especially in relation to life) is an awesome task, but it is necessary to do so in order to uncover some special principles of element association with carbon. It also leads forward to biological chemistry in the development of life, a combination of organic with much inorganic chemistry. Organic chemistry with inorganic chemistry is not simply linked to biological chemistry however, since this requires a much wider vision and an organisational ingredient which we leave until Chapters 10-13. In essence we have to show in this chapter the myriad ways of putting together several of each of the atoms C, H, N and O using single, double and triple bonds, as well as including S, P, Se and halogens in some compounds, the ways in which synthesis can be managed, and the ensuing properties of the resultant compounds. This would not be a problem peculiar to these elements but for the fact that, while the organic compounds of carbon are thermodynamically unstable (Fig. 9.1), they are kinetically stable in oxygen (air) and water for long periods, which gives them their particular importance in living systems and subsequently in some of man’s industries.
Organisation in advanced organi•sms
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 12 we have shown that the development of organisms from 3 to 1 x 109 years ago caused an increasing dioxygen partial pressure and gradually changed the availability of many elements on Earth. Many organisms themselves then altered and/or adjusted their uptake and incorporation mechanisms for elements and so became analytically different in a changed environment (Fig. 13 .1). These changes in element use led eventually to a massive development of life in the form of multicellular aerobic organisms. The fact that many of these organisms could build hard mineral structures has left us with a remarkably good fossil record about them but only dating from less than 1 x 109 years ago (Figs 12.6 and 12. 7). The evolutionary development of the chemistry was matched by changes in the shape and function of single cells and also by the appearance within multicellular shaped organisms of a diversity of differentiated cells (Fig. 13 .1 ). Internally and externally, cells increased the complexity of their compartments, and even new oxygen-utilising organelles, mitochondria, were incorporated. Later, within multicellular differentiated systems, similar cells came together to form interactive large organs. Continuously, the survival of complicated species increased, but these higher organisms also became increasingly reliant on lower organisms thus generating ecosystems of co-operative biological chemistry.
Man’s selection of the chemical elements
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before we begin to look at the remarkable changes in the natural selection of the chemical elements brought about by man we need to see the purpose of his activity, which is largely feeding, protection and comfort, which includes pleasure. Man is a relatively long-living animal of about 100 years lifespan. Once he had become sufficiently successful as a reproducing species (genotypic isolation through strong internal protection) expanding over the Earth to a considerable degree, his survival strength evolved rapidly through phenotypic protection (Table 14.1). Protection in biological systems involves the internal chemical systems and external physical and chemical armoury, but clearly the internal systems are not readily altered, although man has begun to approach such alterations (Section 14.8). It need not be thought that any special development, for example self-conscious reflection, that man possesses was required to start him building up many external forms of phenotypic protection any more than that these were required for initial basic internal protection-both protection forms exist in lower animal species. Thus, the internal immune system has a long evolution in even lower animals and parallel protection exists in plants. As far as external protection is concerned, where genotypic expression and phenotypic development may become confused, it is enough to remember that some molluscs live in rock holes, silk worms build cocoons, and termites, birds and fish produce mud houses and mould clays with straw (nests), to give just a few examples. Furthermore, a central feature of the internal and external systems of advanced animals is group communication, which strengthens their organisation and hence protection.
The evolving natural selection of the chemical elements and the senses
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book we have analysed the natural selection of the chemical elements in the three physical states of matter and in particular chemical combinations in an effort to understand all the material objects we see around us. By natural selection we mean selection based upon different driving influences, all ultimately due to atomic structure, which fall under four headings: Selection through the equilibrium distribution of atoms between given states of matter and in chemical combinations, that is, due to the maximum affinities between elements and generated combinations of elements in molecules and in other assemblies (see Table 16.1 and Chapters 2-6 and 8).
Carboxy group modifications𠄔 synthesis of a homochiral ketone derived from L-tryptophan
Authors: Merchant Kevin j. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 119311 von Euler and Gaddum11 isolated a chemical from equine brain extracts which they called 𠄘substance P𠄙. Substance P was subsequently discovered to be a short peptide2with the sequence Arg-Pro-Lys-Pro-Gln-GlnPhe-Phe-Gly-Leu-Met-NH2. Substance P has been implicated in a variety of disease states including rheumatoid arthritis3, migraine headaches4 and asthma5 and is also associated with the transmission of pain signals.6 A substance P antagonist might therefore be of great therapeutic value. The tryptophan-derived ketone (Scheme 7.11) developed from a screening lead in our laboratories has been shown to be a potent substance P antagonist.𠄙 To provide material for extensive structure activity studies a reliable route to multi-gram quantities of the active S enantiomer of the parent amino ketone had to be developed. In this chapter the evolution of the synthetic strategy and full practical details of the route developed will be discussed.
Benzophenone Schiff bases of a-amino acid esters as electrophiles. Addition of Grignard reagents and alkyllithiums to produce threo-amino alcohols and amino polyols
Authors: Polt Robin l. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since their introduction by M. J. O𠄙Donnell in the late 11970s, benzophenone Schiff bases have become increasingly useful as chiral intermediates for the enantioselective synthesis of unnatural amino acids. These sterically hindered Schiff bases (O𠄙Donnell𠄙s Schiff bases) are particularly convenient because of their good thermal stability, enhanced tolerance of moisture, stability during chromatography over silica gel, and their tendency to crystallize. As a protecting group, the benzophenone Schiff base is extremely versatile. The imine bond can be hydrolysed by use of a variety of acidic conditions, hydrogeno lysed at atmospheric pressures with Pd-C as catalyst, or may be reduced with metal hydrides (cf. LiAlH4, NaBH4 or NaH3BCN) to provide N-benzhydryl protected amines. (cf. Fig. 9.11) All these cleavage reactions proceed in excellent yield.
Perturbation Theory Of Intermolecular Forces At Long Range
Authors: Stone A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because intermolecular forces are relatively weak, it is natural to describe them using perturbation theory. If the molecules are far enough apart that the overlap between their wavefunctions can be ignored, the theory becomes relatively simple, so we will study this case first. It was first treated by London (1930a, 1937), and has been re-formulated by others since then (Margenau 1939, Longuet-Higgins 1956, Buckingham 1967).
Linear dichroism of small molecules
Authors: Rodger Alison , Norden Bengt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
LD spectra are quickly measured and usually easy to interpret. However, not many research groups use LD because the equipment required for orienting samples is not currently commercially available. An aim in this book is to show that establishing LD facilities is fairly straightforward and that the effort is well recompensed by the data that can be collected.
Analysis of circular dichroism: magnetic dipole allowed transitions and magnetic CD
Authors: Rodger Alison , Norden Bengt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of this chapter is devoted to the CD of magnetic dipole allowed (mda)/ electric dipole forbidden (edf) transitions. In the final section we shall also briefly examine the CD induced into electric dipole allowed (eda)/magnetic dipole forbidden (mdf) transitions by a permanent magnetic field: the so-called magnetic CD or MCD. The mechanisms giving rise to the CD of mda transitions and to MCD are quite different, but they naturally fit together since, in addition to their similar titles, both techniques often enable transitions whose existence is undetected or merely suspected in a normal absorption spectrum to be identified.