bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Old People and their Families
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a mystery how so many poor people survived so far into old age on the resources described so far. It is improbable that paid work, charity and poor relief on the scale known to be available, however ‘packaged’, could have provided for the survival of most poor old people. Some historians have suggested that support from the family might have filled the gap. Non-historians often take for granted that the family must have been the mainstay of older people in pre-industrial England. On the other hand, historians of the family have created conflicting images of the relationships of old people with their families, and historians of household structure have asserted that younger people had little obligation to support their elders.
The Campaign for Old-Age Pensions
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Not all old people were poor—some were wealthy and powerful—but many were very poor in the later nineteenth century when poverty in old age was defined as a social problem more distinctively than before. Increasingly state pensions were demanded as the solution to this problem. This discourse about aged poverty contributed to the construction of a definition of old age which was to be influential throughout the twentieth century: the ‘old-age pensioner’ emerged as the archetypical older person.
The ‘Menace’ of an Ageing Population, the 1920s to 1950s
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The British birth-rate started to fall from the later nineteenth century. One outcome was a change in the age structure of the population and the beginning of a dramatic long-run increase in the proportion of older people. Old people became more numerous, in absolute and relative terms, over the twentieth century. Decline in the birth-rate was not accompanied by rising mortality among older age groups, indeed rather the reverse, hence British society was ‘older’ in the inter-war years than it had been since the mid-eighteenth century. The percentage of the population of Great Britain composed of males over 65 and females over 60 was 6.2 in 1901, 9.6 in 1931, 12 in 1941, 13.5 in 1951, and the rise continued thereafter. Also the labour force was ageing. The percentage of the 15 to 65 age group (the bulk of people of working age) who were over age 40, had been 35 in the mid-nineteenth century and was 45 in 1947. Britain was undergoing a decisive shift from a predominantly youthful age structure in the mid-nineteenth century to a predominantly older one. The fact of this shift and the realization that its economic and social implications were likely to be profound were gradually recognized and discussed.
Inventing Geriatric Medicine
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One response to the growing proportion of older people in twentieth-century societies has been greater attention to their health. Interest in the (ill) health of older people has a very long history1 but it was always a marginal and unfashionable enterprise among medical specialists, and by the early twentieth century both medical understanding of older people and capacity to cure their ailments remained severely limited as, indeed, did the capacities of most medical specialisms.
The Making of a Local Saint
Authors: Thacker Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 695Seaxburh, abbess of Ely, took an important decision. She ordered that the bones of her predecessor, Æthelthryth, who had died sixteen years earlier, be raised from their resting-place in the nuns’ cemetery and placed in the abbey church in a new shrine (locellus). Brethren from the monastery, ordered to go out and search for blocks of stone from which to make this sepulchre, returned with a sarcophagus beautifully made of white marble, which they had found outside the walls of the deserted Roman fortress of Grantchester. These preliminaries accomplished, the abbess proceeded to the solemn ceremony of raising the body. A tent was erected over the burialplace, and the whole congregation of the double monastery, divided into choirs of men and women, stood around it chanting psalms. The abbess and a few companions went inside and the onlookers heard a loud cry: ‘Sit glorianomini Domini’. The abbess in the act of raising her predecessor’s remains had discovered them to be incorrupt. Shortly afterwards the entrance to the tent was opened, a doctor was called, and Æthelthryth was seen lying on a bed like one asleep, the linen clothes in which her body had been wrapped as fresh and intact as on the day that they had first covered her body. The nuns washed the corpse, wrapped it in new robes, carried it to the church, and placed it within the new sarcophagus which the brethren had brought from Grantchester.
Universal and Local Saints in Anglo-Saxon England
Authors: Cubitt Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although contemporary writers regarded all saints as sharing one life, that of Christ, saints and their cults were not uniform or unchanging phenomena. Rather they were complex and variable features of early medieval society in which they held a central place. Saints’ cults functioned in different ways for different communities and interest groups. This paper will explore the cult of local saints in Anglo-Saxon England and its relation to that of universal saints. This distinction immediately raises a problem of definition. What was a universal saint? There is no simple opposition between universal and local saints: even so widely venerated a saint as Peter acted as the local patron of Rome. The transfer of relics from one church to another transplanted the cult of a saint local to one place to another. For the purposes of this essay, I have defined a universal saint as one whose cult transcended regional boundaries and exclusive monastic affiliations and was widely celebrated throughout the early medieval West.
A Handlist of Anglo-Saxon Saints
Authors: Blair John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a preliminary list of saints whose principal cult sites are known to have existed, or can reasonably be inferred to have existed, in pre-Conquest England. It does not claim to be more than a first step towards what should eventually be a book-length work, and its main purpose is to provide some foundation for the arguments offered in Chapter 13 above. No attempt is made to give full biographies or bibliographies for major figures; the saints most fully treated here are on the whole the obscure or previously unknown ones, for whom no ready means of reference exists. Welsh, Cornish, and Continental saints are omitted, even if they appear in the resting-place lists, except when their principal relics are known to have been imported into England before 1066. Also omitted are cults of major figures, for instance archbishops of Canterbury or people mentioned by Bede, which have no pre-Conquest evidence and are best interpreted as late extrapolations from historical sources. Names in both these categories which occur in any of the resting-place lists are included in a summary list at the end, which therefore provides, in conjunction with the main catalogue, a complete index to the lists. Like wise omitted are English saints (e.g. Willibald or the Hewalds) whose careers were abroad and whose shrines and cult sites were outside England. Obscure saints with Anglo-Saxon names known only from late or anecdotal sources (e.g. St Ælfgar of Selwood Forest) are, however, included: this may bring in some ghost figures, but it seems better to be as inclusive as possible in the hope of further evidence coming to light. However, the names of saints for whom, or for whose cults, there is no explicit evidence before 1066 are printed in italics, to signal their hypothetical status.
Local Saints and Place-Names in Cornwall
Authors: Padel O J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Why do so many place-names contain the names of unheard-of saints?’ is a question asked by visitors to any Celtic region, including Cornwall. Attempting to answer the question raises important issues concerning differences between Celtic- and English-speaking areas in matters such as settlement-patterns and the conversion to Christianity. It would be impossible to deal fully with these issues within the scope of one article. The aim here is, by examining closely one Celtic area, Cornwall, to draw attention to these differences between Celtic- and English-speaking areas, and to suggest a partial answer to why the differences exist. The topic of saints and placenames has previously been studied by scholars in various disciplines, most thoroughly perhaps in Brittany by Largillière in the 1920s; but his discussion is by now somewhat dated, so the time is right for another look, and for placing the particular problems of one Celtic area before scholars in other fields.
Albion Ascendant
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between the restoration of Charles II and the battle of Waterloo, England gradually emerged as the core nation of the most formidable superpower the world had yet seen. Wilfrid Prest investigates this remarkable transformation from domestic instability and external weakness to global, economic, and military predominance. Geographically, the main focus is on England and Wales, but Prest also analyses the broader British context, discussing the role played by Ireland and Scotland, as well as the interrelations between England, Europe, and the wider world. He examines the lives of ordinary people as well as the ruling elite, and explores the distinctive nature of women's experiences, allowing the voices of the past to speak directly to the modern reader. The result is a lively, up-to-date, and comprehensive overview of Britain's 'long eighteenth century'. It will remain a standard text on the subject for many years to come.
Defending Ireland
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is the first to draw together the various strands of Irish national security policy and practice in a single chronological study, from independence in 1922 right up to the present day. Dr O'Halpin analyses the rapid emergence of a complex external security policy combining an absolute commitment to military neutrality and independent defence with close co-operation with Britain over issues of joint concern such as security and immigration. He traces the development of the army and police force in the new Irish state; and examines the state's reaction to the enduring republican threat, casting fresh light on how far the state was willing to put key constitutional protections into abeyance in its conflict with the republican movement. The book also examines the clandestine intelligence activities of belligerent powers during the Second World War, documenting the growth of the state's close wartime security understandings with the Allied powers, and the evolution of Cold War links with MI5 and the CIA. It investigates the evolution of post-war defence policy, and the activities of the defence forces in relation to the Northern Ireland crisis, as well as in their primary tasks of defending the state from external aggression and of contributing to UN peace-keeping operations. Dr O'Halpin highlights continuities as well as innovations in state security policy as the obligations and opportunities of European Union membership grate more and more against the absolutist rhetoric of neutrality. This book is essential reading for anyone wishing to understand the development of the Irish state in the twentieth century.
The Man And His Books
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
That such an unlikely figure as Surtees ever became a novelist is largely ascribable to the fact that he was born a younger son and remained in that inauspicious state for the first twenty-six years of his life. He came of an old but not particularly wealthy family of small landowners in County Durham, another branch of which had produced his namesake and cousin, the well-known antiquarian and local historian. His name and local connections provided him therefore with a more spacious background than his actual prospects seemed likely to perpetuate. Like many a thrifty squire’s son he was educated locally, first at a small private school in the neighbourhood, and then for one year at Durham Grammar School. At the age of 14 his formal schooling came to an end. He thus escaped one of the worst misfortunes that could have befallen a future novelist-six or seven years unrelenting subjection to the mechanical grind of Latin and Greek which passed for education in the great public schools and the two ancient universities of England at that time. Whatever else can be said of Surtees’ style, it is free from the ponderousness and rotundity which characterize the prose of most formally educated mid-Victorians.
Morals
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1856 Lady Charlotte Schreiber received a letter from her 21-year-old son who had just sat his final degree examination at Cambridge. It announced that he was going to Paris for a few days with some friends. ‘God grant,’ she wrote anxiously in her journal, ‘he come out safe from that hotbed of iniquity.’ In all probability, like most mothers, she was thinking of sexual iniquity; and with over 50,000 prostitutes registered there in 1854, there was some foundation for her opinion of the French capital. Any doubts about the equal claims of London, however, must have been extinguished by the publication in 1862 of the fourth volume of Mayhew’s London Labour and the London Poor, which dealt with prostitutes, thieves and swindlers, and beggars. The section on the first of these categories, written mainly by one of Mayhew’s collaborators, the journalist Bracebridge Hemyng, was by far the largest of the three.
Popular Attitudes
Authors: Zweiniger-Bargielowska Ina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reduction of consumption was the most important consequence of the war for the civilian population alongside air raids, evacuation and disruption of family life. In contrast with air raids or evacuation, rationing and shortages affected everybody, and the end of the war did not put an end to austerity, which persisted until the early 1950s. Drawing on a range of contemporary surveys, this chapter shows that attitudes to rationing and austerity varied depending on the policy as well as between social groups. The austerity policy was generally accepted as a necessary sacrifice for the war effort and fair shares were popular, although the public was not always convinced that a particular scheme was fair. At times there was widespread discontent, especially with regard to certain aspects of food policy, but generally morale was maintained during the war. The continuation and, indeed, intensification of austerity after the war, in the face of expectations of improved consumption engendered by victory, depressed morale and contributed to growing disaffection with the Attlee government while the Conservative critique of austerity was instrumental to the party’s recovery after 1945.
Conclusion
Authors: Zweiniger-Bargielowska Ina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rationing, austerity and fair shares were essential components of the British war effort and post-war reconstruction. The policy was the principal means by which the government facilitated the dramatic reduction of civilian consumption and reallocation of resources for mobilization in a total war. Rationing and controls were never just a straightforward response to scarcity but comprised a major element of external and internal economic policy which, after the war, came to be associated with a distinctive ideological perspective. Domestic austerity was a response to balance of payments constraints both during and after the war by economizing on imports, especially from the dollar area, as well as contributing to the export drive. Simultaneously, rationing and controls of and subsidies on basic goods were an integral element of anti-inflationary policy under full employment. Over and above these policy objectives, ideological considerations came to the fore after 1945.
Fiefs And Vassals
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fiefs and Vassals sets out to change our view of the medieval world. It offers a fundamental challenge to orthodox conceptions of feudalism. Susan Reynolds argues that the concepts of the fief and of vassalage, as understood by historians of medieval Europe, were constructed by post-medieval scholars from the works of medieval academic lawyers and that they provide a bad guide to the realities of medieval society. The rules of the late medieval law-books did not derive from earlier relations between lords and their warriors; in so far as they derived from anything before the twelfth century it was from practices developed by great churches to safeguard their property. Both in detail and in general, however, they were not a direct reflection of social values at any time. This is a radical new examination of social relations within the noble class and between lords and their vassals, the distillation of wide-ranging research by a leading medieval historian. It will revolutionize the way we think of the Middle Ages.
The Problem of Feudalism
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Feudalism, to any members of the general public who ever refer to it, stands for almost any hierarchical and oppressive system. Bosses or landlords who bully their employees or tenants are being feudal. If they bully them fiercely they are worse: they are positively medieval. Medieval historians may dislike this hostile sidelight on their period but they are not on the whole much more precise in their use of the words feudal and feudalism. As E. A. R. Brown and C. van de Kieft both pointed out independently in 1974, feudalism can mean a lot of different things. A good many medievalists have, however, continued to maintain that, whatever the difficulties of describing medieval society in general as feudal, there is a narrow, technical, more precise sense to feudalism which retains its utility. This is characterized by such words as ‘the system of feudal and vassal institutions’, les liens feoédo-vassaliques, i rapporti feudo-vassallatici, or das Lehnswesen, for which I shall use the rather ugly and clumsy, but convenient, expressions feudo-vassalic relations or feudo-vassalic institutions.
Fiefs and Medieval Property Relations
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This section, like that on the concept of vassalage in the last chapter, is not a statement of what I believe but of what I take to be the general view taken by those who write about fiefs. As I explained more fully at the beginning of chapter 2, it must be read with that in mind. References to vassals, and in particular to fiefholders as vassals, that appear to ignore the arguments of that chapter are made here because the historians whose views I am trying to summarize very often refer to fiefholders as vassals .
Gaul and the Kingdom of the Franks
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the time of the Merovingians, ideas and norms about property seem to have been fairly similar all over Gaul. Everywhere the basic form of landed property was what Levy called ‘private ownership’, and there now seems no reason to suppose that the barbarian invaders of Gaul had recently been converted to this from more primitive and communal ideas. The traditional belief that Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths progressed at different rates from ‘Germanic’ clan property towards absolute ownership according to their degree of Romanization rests on little but a priori and outworn theories of social evolution. Roman forms and traditions survived better in the south than the north, but to judge from the law-codes the chief difference between the laws of property in different parts of Gaul, apart from differences in terminology and procedures of litigation, may have been in the rules of inheritance. In practice, even when those who had to resolve disputes were agreed about the appropriate code to follow and knew what it said, they may well have found that it did not cover their case. The varying drift of local custom, subject to all the pressures of power and influence, must have created many more haphazard variations, whether cases were decided by what people at the time may have called Roman law or whether they followed what historians call barbarian law. None of these variations affects the fundamental ideas and norms about the landed property held by nobles and other free persons.
England
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since Sir Henry Spelman used the words of French feudists, backed by what was in the circumstances an impressive amount of genuine medieval evidence, to explain ‘the original, growth, propagation and condition of feuds and tenures by knight-service, in England’, ideas about feudalism in England have been derived from ideas of feudalism in France and yet, paradoxically, have been different from them in several ways. Deep-rooted traditions of linguistic and pseudo-racial nationalism have fostered the belief that feudalism came to England from France as a result of the Norman Conquest, yet attention here has always been focused on military service and the rights of kings over those who held their land directly from them, both of which, as I have argued, seem hard to find in anything like comparable form in France. One reason why the paradox has not attracted more critical thought is that these phenomena were very early on incorporated into the general model of non-Marxist feudalism, so that those who started from the model and were primarily—or only—interested in England naturally took them for granted, just as those who were primarily interested in France took for granted the contrasting situation there. The model has obscured the evidence for historians both sides of the Channel. Another reason is that since the twelfth century the peculiar development of English law has discouraged English lawyers and legal historians from looking at all closely at other countries.
The Emergence and Consolidation of the ‘Tax State’. The Sixteenth Century
Authors: Schulze Winfried 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The early modem period is crucial for the development of modem structures of political organization and their legitimation: this seems to be a truism after so much research emphasis on national history, and rather less on comparative research. In nearly all political units the power of the centre was enhanced, marginalizing the regions and localities. Although there were specific differences within each ‘national’ development, there were also a great number of similarities in the processes of historical change. Indeed, by viewing historical change as a series of processes which do not fit a tidy model of periodization we can study parallel historical phenomena which interrelated in the process of change. Such an approach facilitates comparative research, even if the separate ‘national’ cases retain their own chronological distinctiveness.
I. The Finances of the Austrian Monarchy and the Italian States
Authors: Capra Carlo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The emergence of the Austrian monarchy as a great power is one of the central features of European history in the decades around 1700. After the Turks were routed under the walls of Vienna in 1683, the whole of Hungary and Transylvania was subjected to Habsburg rule, and the frontier with the Ottoman empire was pushed further south with the conquest of Belgrade and the Banat in 1718. Meanwhile, the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713-14 had left Austria in possession of modem Belgium, the duchies of Milan and Mantua and the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, the last to be exchanged for Sicily in 1720. In less than forty years, the Habsburg territories had more than doubled in extent, while their overall population had grown from some 7 to over 18 million inhabitants.