bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Concentrated ferromagnetic alloys
Authors: Hicks Trevor J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis of defect scattering from concentrated ferromagnetic alloys is much more complicated than for dilute alloys. The effects of the defects now overlap so that they are no longer independent. There are a number of ways of dealing with this. Firstly, one can treat an alloy of one composition as a distribution of identical superposing defects. This is the early linear model of Marshall (1968). However, it is rarely the case that the defects do superpose in the sense that the addition of an extra impurity atom would add another identical defect. Normally the amplitude and extent of the defect in the moment distribution changes with composition. The defects obtained by this sort of analysis are thus an average for each particular composition. The linear model can be modified by including a correction to the effect of one impurity atom by the presence of a second (Balcar and Marshall 1968) but then the extension to triples and beyond becomes cumbersome. Some progress can be made by modelling the way in which the overlap of the effects of impurity atoms may be nonlinear. This is done in the magnetic environment model which is discussed in detail later in this chapter.
Amorphous magnets
Authors: Hicks Trevor J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Atomically glassy alloys are one further step away from regularity in materials. The magnetic systems which have been discussed are at least regular in the underlying lattice. The randomness has been restricted to the occupancy of the sites of the regular lattice. Amorphous materials have no regular lattice although it must be said that all practical amorphous materials show strong preferences for particular atomic distances. In terms of diffraction patterns this means that although there are no Bragg peaks the scattering is strongly structured.
Nonresonant inelastic X-ray scattering: Regime of core-electron excitation (X-ray Raman scattering)
Authors: Schülke Winfried 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2 we utilized the basic relation between the double differential scattering cross-section and excitations in the scattering system, as given in equation (2.3) only by considering excitations of the valence electron systems of condensed matter. We will now examine inelastic scattering processes connected with excitations of core-electrons from closed shells into unoccupied states about which we want to learn by this type of spectroscopy. In this case we will speak, for more historical reasons, of non-resonant X-ray Raman scattering or spectroscopy, or still more briefly of X-ray Raman scattering or spectroscopy (XRS), if mixing up with resonant X-ray Raman scattering is not to be suspected.
Quasicrystals
Authors: Janot C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1984 physicists discovered a monster in the world of crystallography, a structure that appeared to contain five-fold symmetry axes, which cannot exist in strictly periodic structures. Such quasi-periodic structures became known as quasicrystals. A previously formulated theory in terms of higher dimensional space groups was applied to them and new alloy phases were prepared which exhibited the properties expected from this model more closely. Thus many of the early controversies were dissolved. This primer provides a descriptive approach to the subject for those coming to it for the first time. The various practical, experimental, and theoretical topics are dealt with in an accessible style. The book is completed by problem sets and there is a computer program that generates a Penrose lattice.
High-dimensional crystallography
Authors: Janot C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As illustrated in Chapter 1, 3-dim quasiperiodic structures can be defined and constructed as 3-dim irrational cuts of objects which are periodically distributed in an n-dim space (n 〉 3). From the experimental point of view (cf. Chapter 2), a quasicrystal is simply an arrangement of atoms which, in diffraction experiments, produces infinitely sharp (δ-function) Bragg peaks in a pattern which exhibits over all ‘forbidden’ symmetry. These diffraction patterns must be treated as for regular 3-dim crystals in a systematic crystallographic description of the quasicrystals. As such, the crystallography of quasicrystals, or quasi crystallography for short, is simply high-dimensional crystallography with a generalization of the concept of space groups.
Where are the atoms?
Authors: Janot C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now that we have discussed the existence of quasi periodicity and its representation by n-dim periodic structures, we must give practical examples of structure determination and try to understand how to think of the quasi crystal in our 3-dim world. We must repeat here the crucial difference between the description of a regular 3-dim crystal in terms of a unit cell plus an atomic basis and quasi crystals. In a regular crystal, one can always describe the structure as a stacking of ‘unit cells’, all of which are decorated with atoms in an identical manner. The quasi crystal can be envisioned in the same way, when described in its n-dim periodic aspect. That is, we associate a basis with each unit cell in n-dim, and repeat this motif for all cells.
Introduction
Authors: Binney J J , Dowrick N J , Fisher A J , Newman M E J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The phase transitions of H2O are matters of everyday experience: the boiling of water in a kettle; the formation of frost on clear winter nights; the melting of ice-cubes in a fizzy drink. Water turns into vapour, vapour into ice. ice into water. Life without the endless movement of H2O from one phase to another would be a sorry thing. Furthermore, since the earliest times the phase changes of substances other than H2O have been of the greatest technological (and therefore cultural and political) significance: the founding of metals to make swords, ploughshares and printer’s type; the evaporation and condensation of ammonia in refrigerators; the evaporation of petroleum distillates in carburettors—to name but a few that were important by the end of the nineteenth century. Phase transitions are central to life on Earth and understanding them is one of the prime tasks of condensed-matter physicists. This book seeks to contribute to that understanding by discussing a small but particularly interesting subset of all phase transitions, the ‘continuous’ ones.
Real-space renormalization
Authors: Binney J J , Dowrick N J , Fisher A J , Newman M E J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until the early 1970s all calculations of critical exponents were made either by exactly solving a model for its thermodynamic properties and then examining its behaviour in the critical regime (as with the Ising model in one and two dimensions) or by direct numerical simulations (as with the three-dimensional Ising model) or by extrapolation from approximate solutions which become invalid in the vicinity of a phase transition (high-temperature expansions, for example). However, in a now-famous paper published in 1966, Kadanoff presented arguments which, he maintained, would allow one to simplify calculations in the critical regime to the point at which critical exponents could be extracted, without ever working out the partition function for the problem. However, though Kadanoff’s ideas showed great physical intuition about the processes giving rise to critical phenomena, they lacked the mathematical precision which might have given one faith in his results.
The Landau-Ginzburg model
Authors: Binney J J , Dowrick N J , Fisher A J , Newman M E J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the rest of this book is devoted to study of the Landau-Ginzburg model. We devote so much space to this model because it is a kind of ‘metamodel’—it captures the essence of many of the models we have discussed, and elucidates how their behaviour near a critical point depends (i) on the dimensionality d of the underlying lattice, and (ii) on the dimensionality D of the order parameter. A toy such as the Landau-Ginzburg model that allows one to vary d and D with a minimum of fuss (and even make them non-integer!) reveals just how much phase transitions depend on D and d, and how little on the underlying lattice.
Renormalization
Authors: Binney J J , Dowrick N J , Fisher A J , Newman M E J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 7 we introduced the Landau-Ginzburg ‘metamoder of phase transitions. The model’s partition function takes the form of a functional integral which cannot be done exactly. So in the last chapter we expressed this integral as an infinite series of functional integrals that can be reduced to ordinary multi-dimensional integrals. To keep track of these integrals we associated with each a Feynman diagram and used these diagrams to classify the integrals by the number of integrations or ‘loops’ each involves.
Physical properties of solids
Authors: White Guy K , Meeson Philip J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From earlier chapters we see that some properties of materials are particularly important in designing and making cryogenic equipment. Properties such as thermal conductivity (whether high or low), compatibility of thermal expansion with other materials, need for low magnetic susceptibility, mechanical strength and weight can be crucial. Whatever other data are required, we also need an estimate of heat capacity (and enthalpy) to calculate cooling requirements. In this chapter we discuss some of these properties and tabulate representative data (see Appendix B). The brief account of the underlying physics of each property should help the readers to understand and select materials and data appropriate to their needs, whether they be graduate students in physics, or engineers or biologists who have not done a course in solid state physics. For example, it is important to recognize when selecting copper wire for a heat link at low temperatures, that its effective conductivity at 10 K may differ by a factor of 1000 depending on the grade of copper.
Evolutionary ecology: natural selection in freshwater systems
Authors: Lampert Winfried 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Evolutionary biology studies how organisms evolve on the molecular, genomic, and organismic level. It looks at the origin and maintenance of genetic variability, the mechanisms leading to changing gene frequencies by chance or selection, and the constraints inhibiting this process. Evolutionary ecology studies why organisms evolve. It identifies the biotic and abiotic environmental factors that drive natural selection. Textbooks view evolutionary ecology from two sides, either as an approach to general ecology (i.e. explaining ecology with evolutionary ideas) or as a subdiscipline of evolutionary biology (i.e. explaining evolution by the ecological framework).
Allopatric speciation: not so simple after all
Authors: Schilthuizen Menno , Scott Bronwen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Speciation, the evolutionary event in which one ancestral species splits into two or more daughter species, is a central subject in evolutionary biology. Despite this (or possibly because of this), the subject has been fraught with controversies, conflicts, and misunderstandings. To some extent, this unrest is the result of the difficulties of delineating what is meant by the term “species,” because, by definition, the species concept determines which events are considered crucial in speciation.
J. D. Bernal
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
J. D. Bernal, known as ‘Sage’, was an extraordinary man and multifaceted character. A scientist of dazzling intellectual ability and a leading figure in the development of X-ray crystallography, he was a polymath, a fervent Marxist, and much admired worldwide. Although he himself never won a Nobel Prize, several of his distinguished students went on to do so, including Dorothy Hodgkin, Max Perutz, and Aaron Klug. Andrew Brown has had unprecedented access to Bernal’s papers and diaries, and this biography includes previously unpublished material on Bernal’s role during the Second World War. Bernal not only changed the course of science, but was witness to (and often a participant in) historical events (the Easter Rebellion, the Great Strike, the anti-fascist movement and pacifist causes, civil defence, RAF bombing strategy, the planning for D-Day, post-war rebuilding, and nuclear weapons). One of the few men familiar with Downing Street, the White House and the Kremlin, he left fascinating accounts of Churchill, Stalin, Mao Zedong, Louis Mountbatten and Picasso, as well as the century’s greatest scientists. Brown’s compelling account covers all aspects of Bernal’s brilliant, colourful, and Bohemian life, and introduces this towering figure of early 20th century science to a wide audience.
A Long Way To Go
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The newest and grandest liner in the White Star fleet, Celtic, sailed from Queenstown harbour without fanfare. She cut through the grey waves, rounding the Head of Kinsale as the late November sun slipped beneath the Atlantic Ocean. The coastline of southern Ireland became a faint black line, and the little boy who had been watching it intently turned to his mother and inquired, ‘Mammy, we will go back now?’ She replied, in French, ‘No, Desmond, they must go on to America, they won’t turn back now.’ ‘Not even for you, Mammy?’ Unlike most of the passengers, Elizabeth Bernal was not sailing away to seek a life in the New World. Her own mother, who was born into a land-owning Protestant family in County Antrim, had been taken to the United States as a child. She subsequently met and married a man in the small town of Knoxville, Illinois, but was soon widowed. The local Presbyterian minister, the Reverend William Young Miller, whose family came from New England, befriended her, and they married. Elizabeth (Bessie), one of their six children, was born in 1869. When her father retired from the ministry in 1883, he moved the family west to the new city of San Jose in California.
Bohemian Crystallographer
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While his two-year effort to develop a quantitative analysis of the 230 space groups cost Bernal the first-class honours degree he coveted, the resulting thesis, ‘On the analytic theory of point group systems’, launched his career as a scientist. Without a first-class degree in physics, there was little prospect of being taken on as a research student in the Cavendish Laboratory, and even if Sage had managed to take a first, it is difficult to see how he would have satisfied Sir Ernest Rutherford’s edict that no communist propaganda would be tolerated in the laboratory. Nor would Bernal’s interest in the physics of crystals and his idea to use discoveries in that Weld as the keys to unlock the secrets of chemical structure have met with any degree of comprehension or sympathy in Rutherford’s department, where the major goal was to advance understanding about the atomic nucleus. In Rutherford’s robust view, scientific work aiming to establish the relative positions of atoms in space rather than to dissect the miniscule aggregation of electric charge and mass at each atom’s core would probably have been regarded as a branch of geography rather than physics.
The Shadow Of The Hawk’s Wings
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
About the time Hitler was grasping control of Germany in 1933, students in an Oxford Union debate passed what Churchill later described as ‘their ever-shameful resolution’ that ‘This House refuses in any circumstances to fight for King and Country.’ Yet those Oxford undergraduates were more in tune with the national mood than was Churchill, a brooding backbencher. Peace and national security were not seen by most as mutually exclusive goals, and there was no appetite for militarism in a country still trying to expunge the raw memories of the previous war. The Prime Minister himself was putting the final touches to ‘The MacDonald Plan’ to be presented to the Geneva Disarmament Conference. There was a widespread feeling, artfully exploited by the Nazi Party, that the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 had been unfair to the extent that it was now threatening the stability of Europe, and that the restitution of equal rights to Germany would enhance the prospects of security for all nations.
Rebuilding
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bernal’s wartime contact with Birkbeck College was slight and somewhat peevish. Breams Buildings had closed after being hit by incendiary bombs in September 1940, but reopened the following month, with lectures being given at weekends rather than in the evenings. Lewis Simons became acting head of the Physics Department, and in March 1941 word reached Sage that he had sacked Mr Reggie Dobb, the senior laboratory technician. Bernal immediately wrote a letter of protest, but the dismissal was upheld on the basis that staff numbers needed to be reduced. Sage then decided that since the College was in operation at weekends only, he should take up the reins again (this was at the time he was starting to work at Bomber Command). After several Faculty meetings, a compromise was reached whereby Mr Dobb would be re-employed, perhaps on a part time basis, when conditions improved. Eventually, he was rehired for four days per week, and Sage asked the College to pay him for a full week ‘to lay the last ghosts of a controversy’. H. Gordon Jackson, the Acting Master, complained to Sage, asking ‘Where is this to stop?’ Sage’s response was judged by the College administration to be ‘a complete travesty of the facts’.
Peace At Any Price?
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The hunger for peace is most ravenous in the aftermath of war. The British public, many of whom could remember the First World War – the war to end all war – emerged from the Second World War weary from privations but thankful to have survived. Their suffering did not compare with that of the Poles or the Soviets or indeed the citizens of the two countries subjected to the most ferocious bombing campaigns – Germany and Japan. Modern warfare was no longer confined to the armed forces, and as one of the Chiefs of Staff remarked to Bernal, by the end of WW2, weapons determined strategy: strategy no longer dictated weapons. The new spectre of the atom bomb, as Bernal said at the time, ‘implicitly changed the whole existence of man in this universe’. While conceding that ‘the immediate effects, however horrible, have been decisive in ending the war’ Bernal suggested that ‘the possibilities of further destructive use are in every man’s mind’. Bernal had more reason than most to worry about such a catastrophe from his involvement in the revision of the Tizard report, with its analysis of a nuclear exchange between the UK and the USSR.
History And The Origins Of Life
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bernal’s friends were among the most important science writers of their time. Restricting the group to those who worked in England, and leaving aside C.P. Snow and J.G. Crowther who lived by their pens, they were remarkable for the range, quality and volume of their collective output. Haldane inherited H.G. Wells’ mantle as the best popular writer about science, but even he could not match the sales of Lancelot Hogben whose Mathematics for the Million: A Popular Self-Educator is estimated to have sold over half a million copies during its four editions. The doyen of the set was Joseph Needham, who abandoned his own career as an embryologist during the Second World War and devoted the remainder of his life to a landmark study of China, concentrating on the history of scientific development and the influence played by Chinese religion, politics and customs. Over a period of forty years, Needham published successive volumes of Science and Civilization in China, the early numbers of which were eagerly read, and often reviewed, by Sage. Needham came to believe that the predominance of Chinese science and technology for Wfteen hundred years and its subsequent eclipse by European science from the seventeenth century onwards could be understood only in terms of differences between the social and economic systems of China and the West – an historical approach stimulated by his conversations with Bernal in Cambridge before the war.
Peacebroking
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Just as the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan acted as the immediate stimulus for the disarmament movement after the war, the US thermonuclear weapon test at Bikini atoll on 1st March 1954 re-ignited global fear. The device, fuelled by lithium and an isotope of hydrogen, was at least one thousand times more powerful than the fission bomb dropped on Hiroshima. Its yield was also three times bigger than the Americans expected, because the scientists who developed it at Los Alamos had overlooked an important nuclear fusion reaction. The underwater explosion vaporized much of the atoll and caked the crew of the Japanese fishing boat, Lucky Dragon, with radioactive fallout though they were 80 miles away, outside the exclusion zone. The test had been preceded by the announcement of a new strategic policy of ‘massive retaliation’ by the US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, in January.
Order And Disorder
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both at home and abroad, Sage had close contacts with a wide range of scientists, reflecting the diversity of his own interests and the interdisciplinary nature of X-ray crystallography. He was an inspirational figure to colleagues everywhere – Linderstro’m Lang, who was the protein chemist in charge of the outstanding Carlsberg Laboratory in Copenhagen, told Perutz, ‘When Bernal comes to see me, I feel that my research is really worthwhile.’ Given how much time and effort Bernal spent as an unpaid consultant in science and technology to countries like China, India, and Russia in the 1950s, it would have been understandable if he had no enthusiasm left for the same role at home. He had, after all, written The Social Function of Science to stimulate others to think about the way science contributed to the British economy and way of life; he had done his best to revitalize research in England after the war, both at Birkbeck and by his frequent visits and talks at other universities. At the start of 1956, when he was still unable to persuade the university authorities that a separate department of crystallography needed to be established at Birkbeck, he decided it was time to review the whole issue of how scientific research was funded and organized in Britain. He sent out a memorandum to two hundred of the country’s leading scientists, politicians and university administrators. In his preamble, he made it clear that he was concentrating on the future of pure scientific research rather than on the subsequent economic and social application of scientific discoveries.
Problem Formulation
Authors: Tayler A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Applied Mechanics is mathematics applied to those problem areas of science which arise from continuum considerations. Thus a macroscopic rather than an atomic or quantum view of the phenomena is adopted and attention directed to those areas in which observations or experiments are reproducible, and measured data are available in some form. The objective is to construct a mathematical simulation, or model, of a given scientific phenomenon, which agrees with existing measurements to within a specified accuracy and can be used with confidence to predict future observations and behaviour.