bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Geology and Geological History
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Northern Melanesia’s avifauna has been molded by the physical and biological environment in which it has evolved. Part I introduces that environment, beginning in this chapter with a brief account of Northern Melanesia’s geology; Chapters 2-4 describe in turn its climate, its habitats and vegetation, and its terrestrial vertebrates other than birds. To understand how birds reached and evolved on Northern Melanesian islands, we need first to understand how and when the islands formed, whether their configurations and locations in the past differed from those at present, and whether the islands have ever been joined to continents or to each other. Hence this chapter will summarize aspects of Northern Melanesian geology important for interpreting the avifauna—especially plate tectonic history, volcanism and rocks, and recent land bridges.
Habitats and Vegetation
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce Northern Melanesia’s major habitat types and the taxonomic composition of its vegetation. Northern Melanesian vegetation is discussed in de tail by Whitmore (1966, 1969a, 1974, 1981, 1984), Scott et al. (1967), Percival and Womersley (1975), Cain and Galbraith (1956), Schodde (1977), and Lees et al. (1991), from whom the following account is derived. The climax vegetation in most of Northern Melanesia is rainforest. There is no natural savanna like that in South New Guinea, and no extensive areas of natural grassland, which is confined to small marshes, edges of streams and lakes, and (on New Britain and Guadalcanal) rain shadow areas. However, even under natural conditions much of the forest is in a subclimax state because of frequent deforestation by earthquakes, landslides, volcanism, and, especially in the Solomons, cyclones.
Distributional Ecology
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we analyze two distributional characteristics of each Northern Melanesian bird species in terms of the four ecological and evolutionary characteristics introduced in the two preceding chapters. The distributional characteristics analyzed are the total number of Northern Melanesian islands that each species occupies, and the range of areas or species richnesses of the islands that each species occupies. Both characteristics vary greatly among species. The number of tabulated Northern Melanesian islands (i.e., those tabulated in appendix 1) that each species occupies, which we abbreviate as i, ranges from 1 to 69 islands. The value of i is 1 for the 26 species confined in Northern Melanesia to a single island. i is 64-69 for the most widely distributed species, the pigeon Caloenas nicobarica, the heron Egretta sacra, and the mound-builder Megapodius freycinet, occurring in Northern Melanesia on 64, 67, and 69 islands, respectively. How can we account for this great variation in i (listed for each species in appendix 5)? This variation is related especially to variation in habitat preference and vagility, and also to variation in level of endemism. Let us begin with the relation between i and habitat.
Completed Speciation
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ultimate step in the process of geographic speciation consists of one allospecies invading the range of a sister allospecies. The result is geographical overlap (sympatry) of two species, both of which descended directly from the same ancestral species. We can identify 19 Northern Melanesian species pairs that appear to exemplify stages in this process. Collectively, these and other species pairs constitute a series of snapshots permitting one to reconstruct the completion of speciation. The series begins with the 35 superspecies, already discussed in the preceding chapter, that are represented in Northern Melanesia by two or more morphologically similar allospecies with completely allopatric distributions. The next stage consists of pairs of two former allospecies whose ranges are still largely allopatric but which now overlap in a small zone of sympatry. In further stages, the zone of sympatry becomes extensive, although each species still retains some zone of allopatry. In the final stage, the geographic range of one species has been completely overrun by its sister species, so that the former no longer retains any zone of allopatry. This progression from allopatric to sympatric distributions is accompanied by evolution of progressively greater morphological differences between the sister species.
Pairwise Differentiation Index
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The endemism index discussed in chapter 25 analyzes the entire avifauna of a particular island. In effect, it compares that avifauna with the avifaunas of all other islands. The endemism level for a particular species population on the given island is taken as the lowest level of differentiation found when the population is compared to related populations on any other island. That is, if for a certain species on island A there is a population on some other island B that is differentiated only at the level of weak subspecies from the population on island A, the endemism level of that species on island A is taken as only that of a weak subspecies, even if the population on island A differs at the level of megasubspecies or allospecies from related populations on all other islands. The pairwise differentiation index considered in this chapter differs in two respects from the endemism index considered in chapter 25. First, the analysis in the present chapter is confined to a particular pair of islands. If some species X is represented by different megasubspecies on two islands, then the differentiation level for that species is taken as megasubspecies, even though the populations of each island in turn may be subspecifically identical to the populations on some other islands. Second, the analysis is confined to those species (zoogeographic species, including superspecies) actually shared between the two islands and ignores species. absent from one of the islands. For those shared species (not the entire avifauna), we calculated the average level of differentiation by the same formula used to calculate the endemism index (eq. 25.1).
lnterarchipelagal Barriers
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until now, we have assumed that Northern Melanesia is a zoogeographic region distinct from the New Guinea region to the west and from the Santa Cruz and New Hebrides archipelagoes to the east. We have also assumed that the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Archipelago constitute distinct zoogeographic subregions of Northern Melanesia. In the present chapter we evaluate the barriers that divide these archipelagoes and that justify these zoogeographic definitions. We begin by comparing the Northern Melanesian avifauna as a whole with the avifauna of the adjacent part of New Guinea, Northeast New Guinea. We already compared the family compositions of these two avifaunas in chapter 8. The gap separating Northeast New Guinea from Northern Melanesia is about 48 km to the nearest Bismarck islands (Umboi and Long) and 636 km to the nearest Solomon island (Bougainville).
Differential Extinction and Species Occurrences on Fragmented Pleistocene Islands
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The preceding chapter considered the development of geographic variation on modern islands derived by fragmentation of a former single Pleistocene island. In this chapter we ask, how uniform are such modern fragments of a single Pleistocene island in their species composition? For flightless mammals, it is obvious that answers to that question yield insights into differential extinction resulting from habitat fragmentation. For example, the large islands of the Sunda Shelf (Borneo, Sumatra, and Java) support not only volant birds and bats, and rodents easily carried overwater by rafting, but also large, flightless mammals such as rhinoceroses, tigers, orangutans, and gibbons. Alfred Russel Wallace (1892) recognized that those large mammals had walked out to the Greater Sunda Islands at Pleistocene times of low sea level, when the islands were part of the Asian mainland. Today, those mammals are nonuni- formly distributed on the Greater Sunda Islands. For instance, orang-utans occur on Sumatra and Borneo but not on Java, while tigers occur on Java and Sumatra but not on Borneo. However, fossil evidence proves that most of the modern distributional gaps were filled in the Pleistocene (e.g., orang-utans formerly occurred on Java, and tigers on Borneo; Hoojier in Terborgh 1974). That is, the modern patchy distributions result from differential extinction, not from patchy overwater colonization. The primary determinant of long-term survival for Greater Sundan mammals was population size: populations on small islands and populations of species living at low density were especially prone to extinction (Terborgh 1974, Diamond 1984f).
Choosing Appropriate Repertoire
Authors: Mabry Sharon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historically, contemporary music has been considered by many singers to have a musical language that is difficult to fathom and places unrealistic demands on the voice. Music of the period has been lumped together into one impenetrable category. This may have occurred because singers are generally unfamiliar with the repertoire, having heard only a few pieces that seemed to bear out their worst fears. Some of this literature certainly contains dissonance, angular melodic lines, and mathematical concepts of construction.
Vocal Coloration
Authors: Mabry Sharon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When contemplating the musical output of the last one hundred years, no issue is more compelling than that of the composer’s aesthetic intent. This aesthetic intent, as it relates to vocal interpretation, involves the coloristic expression of pitches and any text applied to them. Paramount in this relationship of the voice to interpretation is the establishment of a vocal tone color appropriate for the projection of any dramatic import inherent in the text and its setting. Since the music varies considerably in construction, aesthetic ideals, and use of the voice, no single interpretative approach can or should be used when considering how to realize individual works from the period.
Research at Cambridge 1947-1955
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mitchell’s experimental reSE&gt;arch work at Cambridge, although productive, was relatively undistinguished. Of rather greater interest were his initial theoretical writings, but even theSf’ might be lightly passtcd over if they were not seen in the light of his later achievements. The Cambridge period was not one of academic success for Mitchell; it was, rather, a time when ideas began to take root in his mind, ideas whose great potential he himself could scarcely have foreseen at that time. But for the brilliance of the Edinburgh and early Glynn periods, much of his work such as his first thesis might be passed off as of a dilettante nature. lndeed, the first thesis for his Ph.D. was referred (rejected but could be resubmitted after revision). But the Cambridge research period is of great interest because it sowed seeds for his later creativity. Mitchell’s promise does SE&gt;em to have been appreciated by some of his contemporaries, particularly Marjory Stephenson and also David Keilin. CE’ftainly some regarded him as a very clever scientist, but othE’fs were less CE’ftain. In the end, the department did not offer him a pe’rmanent position.
Edinburgh: 1955–1963
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Probably the most creative period in Mitchell's life was the years spent in Edinburgh from 1955 to 1963. It was here that the ideas on vectorial metabolism took a defined form and the expression of Mitchell's concept of the fluctoid, although rarely referred to, achieved its full expression in his philosophy of living systems. While the notion of vectorial metabolism did not greatly influence his contemporaries, it was the specific application of these ideas to the problem of oxidative phosphorylation that did.
Epilogue Mitchell and Glynn
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the time of Mitchell’s death a number of the obituaries and appreciations attempted to express the special quality of both Mitchell as a pnson and his approach to, and achievements in, science. Keith Garlid, who was with Mitchell during his last days, wrote, “My senSE’ of impending loss was continually interrupted by joyful memories of his generous and youthful spirit Pete was not afraid of death and was grateful for having lived such a full and happy life. “
Introduction To Rhythms and Clocks
Authors: Palmer John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I stood on the famous cast-iron Clifton suspension bridge—built in 1845 by Isambard Kingdom Brunel—looking down on the River Avon. A newcomer to this part of southern England would never suspect that the river below was the terminus of the same quaint, willow-tree margined stream that flows though Shakespeare’s Stratford. Here, where it empties into the Bristol Channel, it is (or hopefully was, the year was 1962) a highly polluted, turbid effluent from upstream humanity. Another difference is that this stretch of the river experiences the second highest tidal exchange on earth: something like 43 feet depending on the day of the month. As I stared down from my lofty overlook, standing in the exact spot where modern bungee jumping would be born in 1979—with the mini-car traffic barely missing my backsides—I watched the tide recede. Its exit first exposed a miasmatic black mud on each side of the ever-narrowing channel of water. Next the stench of the ooze wafted up to me. Eventually, this channel, that a few hours earlier was deep enough to allow large oceangoing vessels to pass along to the city of Bristol just upstream, was now only a few feet wide.
Rhythms In Shore Dwellers
Authors: Palmer John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now let’s leave the world of life in water droplets and turn to animals, all that can be seen with the naked eye. We started on the seashore in the first chapter; now we return there again.
A rather common crab inhabiting the intertidal zone (that margin of the shoreline that is washed by the tides, in most places twice per day) is the fiddler crab (above). The males of the species have, on their attack end, two claws: a major one that is as large as the body of the animal and a tiny one. The large one is used for macho activities, while the puny one is used like chopsticks for eating.
Some Animal Rhythms
Authors: Palmer John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before science corrected a seventeenth-century interpretation of an everyday observation, people, using their eyes and noses, adopted one of the more believable hypotheses of the day: Life arose spontaneously from decaying meat. This seemed obvious: Meat left on the kitchen counter, or even more conspicuously if left outside in the sun, was soon teeming with disgusting white crawling worms (actually fly larvae). The conventional wisdom of seeing is believing (a sententious dictum that usually makes good sense) produced the spontaneous generation hypothesis. i.e. life arising from nothingness However, Francesco Redi destroyed this verisimilitude by performing one of the most inexpensive experiments ever done in the history of science: All it required was a piece of almost spoiled meat placed in a mayonnaise jar whose opening was covered with a cheesecloth rag. He left this scientific apparatus sitting in his lab where the meat soon stunk to the high heavens, but no white worms appeared on it. Instead, the worms arose spontaneously on the diaphanous cover. Wisely, Redi did not conclude that all life arose from cheesecloth! What had happened was that flies could not reach the malodorous meat in the jar so in desperation they just laid their eggs on the protective netting cap.
Jerusalem 9 June-18 July 1099
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The latter part of the eleventh century saw the occurrence of two major struggles, one dealing with the Catholic Church in Europe and one with the Byzantine Empire. In Europe, the pope was trying to beat back a challenge by the Holy Roman Emperor as to which would reign supreme in both European politics and religion. Although officially protector of the church, the Holy Roman Emperor at times assumed the role of dictator, attempting to name the pope as well as lower-ranking officials in the Catholic Church hierarchy. Thus, the pope was looking for something to increase his prestige in the eyes of European nobility. In the Byzantine Empire, the Seljuk Turks, who had been gradually consolidating their power through the Middle East, scored a major victory over theweakening Byzantines at the battleof Manzikert in 1071.
Granada June-December 1491
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Iberian Peninsula has long been the site of conflict as well as a source of warriors. Iberian mercenaries composed the bulk of the Carthaginian army, and, after Rome defeated Carthage and occupied the peninsula in the wake of the Second Punic War (late third century B.C.), it drew on the population there as well. Roman culture dominated what came to be called Spain until the fourth century A.O., when the Romans were defeated by the invading Vandals, who
moved on through to North Africa.
Tenochtitlan 26 May-13 August 1521
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of Central America was dominated by the Toltec peoples until their mysterious disappearance about A.O. 1200. The power vacuum that followed, was coincident with the arrival of nomadic tribes from the north, One of themmcame to be known as Aztecs, or People from Aztlan, an unknown region to the north. They drifted into the valley of central Mexico and became subject to whatever power was able to achieve temporary hegemony. The Aztecs ultimately settled on the western side of Lake Texcoco, where they began to adapt themselves to the already established practice of building “floating gardens” of built-up silt. Here they established the city of Tenochtitlan in the middle of the fourteenth century. A second city, Tlatelolco, was built by a second Aztec faction. The two cities put themselves under the protection of rival powers: Tenochtitlan under Culhuacan, Tlatelolco under the Tepanecs.
Poltava 28June 1109
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sweden had expanded from a Scandinavian power to a major force in European politics because of the statecraft and military genius of Gustavus Adolphus. He died in 1632 at the battle of Leutzen in the Thirty Years’ War and was succeeded by Charles X. Charles expanded on Gustavus’s strong performance by taking Sweden to its greatest limits and power by 1655. During the First Northern War, Charles defeated Poland and Denmark, but the war ended with his death in 1660. Peace lasted for four decades, until the reign of Charles XII, when Poland began showing its traditional restlessness under foreign dominance. In 1700, Polish King Augustus II organized the Northern Union, made up of Poland, Denmark, and Russia. Russia was the most enthusiastic supporter of the Union, not because it desired Polish liberation but because Czar Peter I wanted his country to supplant Sweden as the dominant Baltic power.
Quebec 13 September 1759
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, England began to seriously pursue a policy of colonization in North America. Unlike the Spanish who went to the New World mainly for conquest and riches, the English primarily went to North America to escape a variety of problems at home, mostly poverty and religious persecution. The English colonies along the eastern coast of North America were slow in growing, but were strong enough to divert most potential rivals elsewhere. The French, slightly behind the English in their pursuit of colonies, went to the remaining open region of North America, Canada. There the only resource that the French could exploit were furs. Unlike the Spanish or the English, whose attitudes toward the American Indian population were cavalier at best, the French saw the Indians as a source of supply.
Jena/Auerstädt 14 October 1806
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1805, Napoleon was at the height of his power and talent. Although unable to launch his proposed invasion of Great Britain that year, he employed the army set aside for that purpose in the two battles that best showed his genius: Ulm and Austerlitz. Austrian General Mack was so swiftly surrounded at Ulm (20 October 1805) that he had no choice but to surrender before giving battle; at Austerlitz (2 December 1805), Napoleon’s army crushed a combined Austro-Russian force. The alliance between Russia and Austria was dissolved at that point, but the fact that Prussia had been urged to join it and had hesitated certainly contributed to the outcome at Austerlitz. Prussian King Frederick William Ill vacillated in the months preceding the battle, unsure if Austria would conclude a separate peace after he joined Austria and Russia.
Gettysburg 1-3 July 1863
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since Robert E. Lee took command of Confederate forces in June 1862, he had engineered an unbroken string of defensive victories. He had failed to obtain vitally needed foreign aid by being turned back (at Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg, Maryland) from a major incursion into Union territory in September 1862, but still his mystique grew with each successive Union general’s failure to defeat him on his home ground. Although Lee was successfully defending Confederate territory from Union invasion, his army was suffering severe supply shortages. Therefore, in June 1863, Lee was determined to try again to attack Union territory. He hoped primarily to live off the production of Northern farms and factories for a time, giving his Virginia base time to recover some of its agricultural output. Strategically, he hoped that by creating havoc in Pennsylvania by pillaging the countryside and disrupting rail traffic he could aid the nascent peace movement in the North, thereby weakening President Abraham Lincoln’s government. Finally, Lee had faint hopes of once again interesting European countries in the Confederate cause. Diplomats in European capitals had intimated that a Confederate victory in the North would prove the viability of their military, a necessary condition.
Science and Reality
Authors: Alcock John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sociobiologists believe that they possess the means to gain real understanding about the adaptive significance of behavioral traits. The discipline’s foundation, Darwinian natural selection theory, has an internal logic that is unassailable. The theory can be used to produce hypotheses that are subjected to the same process of evaluation used by all members of the scientific community. Scientists everywhere feel confident that this process yields valid conclusions about what causes things to happen in the natural world.
Not everyone, however, is so confident of the objective nature of the scientific approach. Indeed, in recent years critics of science have arisen, largely within the academic community, critics who go by the labels of cultural relativist, postmodernist, or social constructivist and who advance a spectrum of counterviews and counterconclusions. For our purposes I shall assign these observers of science in general and sociobiology in particular to one of two camps: the hard cultural relativists and the soft cultural relativists.