bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Amino acid composition of proteins and the genetic code
Authors: Osawa Syozo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Constraints that affect the amino acid composition of proteins include the composition of the genetic code, the relation of amino acid sequence and content to function, the existence of variable and conserved regions, and the presence of GC/ AT-pressure in the genome (see below). Some proteins, e.g. the histones, evolve much more slowly than others, e.g. fibrinopeptides. Near-neutral amino acid changes are found in variable regions of proteins and are more common in rapidly evolving proteins.
Epilogue
Authors: Osawa Syozo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In general, it may be best to keep theories of evolution of the code as close as possible to existing experimental findings and flexible enough to accommodate future discoveries. It is unlikely that some mathematical solution will be found to explain, in a single tour de force, the nature of the code, although efforts to achieve this are numerous. The early evolution of the genetic code has been the subject of speculation. Theories to explain it are numerous; some of these are aesthetically pleasing but cannot be verified. This chapter endeavours to discuss those with some experimental support.
Territoriality
Authors: Grant James WA 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When competing for resources, animals commonly defend access to the resource or its means of production by attempting to exclude others from specific areas. Like other animals, fish often defend food, shelter, mates, nest sites, spawning sites and offspring (Noakes 1978). The importance of such territorial behaviour in the lives of many fishes is obvious to anyone that has snorkelled on a coral reef or kept cichlids in an aquarium. One of the classical model systems of early ethology was the male stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, pugnaciously defending its nest (Lorenz 1952). Nevertheless, this rich natural history is often overwhelmed in general reviews of territoriality by the extensive bird literature, which seems to have dominated this field ever since Howard’s (1920) book on ‘Territory in bird life’.
Evading predators
Authors: Godin Jean-Guy J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Predation is known to affect the behaviour, morphology and life history of prey animals, as well as their populations and communities, over both evolutionary and ecological time scales (reviewed in Endler 1986, 1991, 1995; Sih 1987; Lima and Dill 1990; Milinski 1993; Persson et al., Chapter 12). Predation events typically follow a sequence of consecutive conditional stages, namely, prey encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation (capture) and consumption (Endler 1986, 1991; Lima and Dill 1990; see also Fig. 7.1 in Smith, Chapter 7). An individual’s risk of predation can thus be defined as its probability of being eaten by a predator during some discrete time period. This can be expressed as P (death) = 1 - exp ( - α d T), where a is the prey’s rate of encounter with predators while vulnerable, d the probability of death given an encounter, and T the time spent vulnerable to an encounter (Lima and Dill 1990). Predators vary widely in their ability to detect, capture and consume prey, while prey vary in their ability to detect, avoid and escape predators (Curio 1976; Vermeij 1982; Sih 1987; Lima and Dill 1990; Endler 1991; Fuiman and Magurran 1994; Reimchen 1994; Smith, Chapter 7). Such variation in the risk of predation determines the potential for the evolution of antipredator defences in prey (Vermeij 1982; Reimchen 1994).
Mating systems and sex allocation
Authors: Berglund Anders 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Genes that do not endow their possessors with the capacity to reproduce successfully (i.e. produce offspring that in turn survive to reproduce) will eventually be lost. It is therefore of paramount importance to all organisms to reproduce successfully. The objective of this chapter is to review the multitude of ways through which mating can be achieved in fishes: under what circumstances can we for instance expect promiscuity, polygamy, monogamy, iteroparity, semelparity, alternative strategies, sex change, simultaneous hermaphroditism or asexual reproduction? In the first part of the chapter I deal with mating systems. Fishes are a highly diverse taxonomic group and therefore ideally suited for discussing such systems in relation to partners (i.e. polygamy versus monogamy) and to time (i.e. breeding cycles, and semelparity versus iteroparity).
Flexibility in fish behaviour: consequences at the population and community levels
Authors: Persson Lennart , Diehl Sebastian , Eklöv Peter , Christensen Bent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Flexible behaviour of organisms in response to food resources and predators has been a major topic in ecology during the last decade (Lima and Dill 1990; Persson and Diehl 1990; Werner 1992; see also Kramer et al., Chapter 3; Grant, Chapter 4; Hart, Chapter 5; Hughes, Chapter 6; Smith, Chapter 7; Godin, Chapter 8; Sargent, Chapter 11). The purpose of this chapter is to review current theoretical and empirical knowledge of the consequences of flexible behaviour for population and community processes in fishes. Understanding these consequences is important for both population and community ecologists and behavioural ecologists, because the behaviour of individuals influences population- and community-level processes, and vice versa.
Introduction: cell proliferation and carcinogenesis
Authors: Pusztai L , Cooper K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The size of any cell population within a multicellular organism is strictly controlled by the balance of complex signals which stimulate or inhibit the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of cells. Disturbances in the intra- and extracellular events that regulate these cellular functions may result in changes of the number of cells in a particular tissue. Such changes very often underlie pathological events. Reduction in the number of cells is often presented as involution, atrophy or hypoplasia of the tissue. An abnormal increase of cell number may result in hyperplasia or neoplasia.
The role of cytokines in tumour progression
Authors: Naylor M S , Balkwill F R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cytokines make up the fourth major class of soluble intercellular signalling mole cules alongside hormones, neurotransmitters, and prostaglandins/leukotrienes. They possess a number of common features despite the variety of molecular structures and properties. Cytokines are all polypeptides of low molecular weight (generally less than 80 kDa) that bind to high affinity cell surface receptors and cause changes in macromoleculer synthesis in target cells. Cytokines may act in a paracrine, autocrine (including intracellular autocrine loops), and juxtacrine manner (i.e., cytokines expressed on the surface of one cell may affect specific receptors on adjacent cells) at picomolar concentrations, leading to alterations in cell behaviour. Most cytokines are pleiotropic and have multiple biological activities regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and cell death. Their production in vivo is normally transient and tightly controlled. They are produced by more than one cell type, have overlapping biological activities, and generally act over short distances. Most mammalian cells secrete a range of cytokines and respond to a variety of these molecules (Table 5.1). Cytokines are thought to co-ordinate local tissue organization. This effect is ensured by the short half-life of these molecules in the extracellular space, and by their association with extracellular matrix elements and various binding proteins.
Abnormal growth factor networks in neoplasia
Authors: Tahara E , Yasui W , Yokozaki H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human tumours often exhibit aberrant expression or genetic alterations of growth factors and their receptors (Table 6.1), that may confer growth autonomy or interfere with programmed cell death by autocrine, paracrine, and juxtacrine mechanisms. A number of growth factors, receptors, and protein kinases involved in growth factor-induced signalling are encoded by proto-oncogenes (1, 2). Tumour progression and invasion are thought to require the accumulation of multiple growth factor anomalies (3).
The potential application and limitation of cytokine/ growth factor manipulation in cancer therapy
Authors: Okada M , Kishimoto T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many cytokines/growth factors and their receptors have been identified and characterized at the molecular level. Studies with recombinant cytokines and their monoclonal antibodies have revealed that most cytokines are pleiotropic and have overlapping activities (redundancy). The production of cytokines by recombinant DNA technology has facilitated assessment of their in vivo therapeutic potential, and led to renewed hope for an immunotherapeutic solution to cancer. Some cytokines either singly or in combination, have already shown promise in animal and clinical trials. Systemic cytokine toxicity has been the major con straint on this type of therapy, since most cytokines function pleiotropically, exhibiting a wide range of biological effects on cells. To maximize the therapeutic potential of cytokines against cancer, novel models of cytokine gene therapy has been investigated. This method strongly induces local antitumour immune responses while causing minimal systemic toxicity. The antitumour effect of these cytokines is exerted by the activation of cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), macrophages or eosinophils, although direct inhibitory effect on the proliferation of tumour cells by some cytokines has been demonstrated.
Hormonal regulation of cancer cell growth
Authors: Wasan H , Waxman J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest recorded observations of breast cancer were made by Hippocrates around 400 BC, who attributed its origin to the cessation of menstruation. In 1889, Schinzinger proposed a link between ovarian function and breast cancer and 5 years later Beatson demonstrated the palliative effect of oophorectomy in breast cancer (1). Furthermore, in 1896, White demonstrated the benefits of castration for prostate cancer (2). Between 1905 and 1935, the principal steroid and polypeptide hormones in these phenomena were identified. Experimentation in animal models of hormone-dependent cancer began in 1932 when Lacassagne induced mammary tumours in mice with oestrone benzoate (1). Modern hormonal manipulation began in 1941 when Huggins and Hodges treated patients with prostatic cancer with the non-steroidal oestrogen analogue, diethylstilboestrol, 6 years after the compound was synthesized by Dodds (3, 4).
Retinoids in neoplasia
Authors: Ross S A , Chen L -C , Dar Wi Che N , De Luca L M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The realization of the importance of retinoids as regulators of growth and differentiation came first to nutritionists, when the stunted growth of vitamin A-deficient animals was observed (1), and then to pathologists, when squamous metaplasia of mucociliary epithelia was reported to occur in the vitamin A deficient rat (2). With the recent finding that retinoids function as transcriptional regulators by binding to nuclear receptors, this field has become the realm of much molecular biological investigation. In the light of this recent interest, several discoveries directly relevant to neoplastic diseases will be highlighted in this chapter.
Cell differentiation and its role in carcinogenesis and therapy
Authors: Rifkind R A , Michaeli J , Richon V M , Kiyo Kawa H , Busquets X , Leng L , Marks P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although current evidence points to the conclusion that the molecular basis of carcinogenesis consists of a complex set of changes in gene expression involving cellular proto-oncogenes, suppressor genes, and other elements of the inter- and intracellular signalling apparatus, it is also clear that at a broader level neoplastic disease is characterized by an acquired inappropriate relationship between the rates of cellular proliferation and differentiation. A common definition, that cancer cells have experienced a blockade to normal differentiation within the developmental lineage of the organ of tumour origin, is probably overly simplistic. Almost all tumours contain a proportion of cells expressing some features characteristic of the differentiated tissue of derivation (1–3), and there is ample evidence that neoplastic transformation per se does not destroy the potential for the expression of differentiated characteristics, under certain natural as well as experimental conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Cook Christopher D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The definition of ‘aquatic’ used in this book remains the same as presented by Cook (1990). Vascular aquatic plants are interpreted as all Pteridophytina (ferns and fern allies) and Spermatophytina (seed-bearing plants) whose photosynthetically active parts are permanently or, at least, for several months each year partly or wholly submerged in water or which float on the surface of water. The definition of a wetland plant is rather more difficult and perhaps potentially dangerous to the future of wetlands; recent legislation in the USA defines a wetland as a place where 80 per cent or more of the plants growing there are wetland plants. The subject of what a wetland is and what a wetland plant is has been reviewed by Gopal (1990) for India and Tiner (1991) for the USA.
Anaerobic prokaryotes: competition and syntrophy
Authors: Fenchel Tom , Finlay Bland J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most obvious impact of fermentation in the contemporary world is on human and animal nutrition. The community of fermenting microbes living in the forestomach of herbivorous mammals is completely responsible for decomposing grass and other plant material to the fatty acids on which the host depends for growth; and wood-eating termites would find life impossible without fermenting microbes providing the same service in their hindguts. The direct exploitation by man of fermentation processes has also had a long history in most human cultures (e.g. the production of yoghurt and cheese, and the production of wine and other alcoholic beverages). Free-living fermenting microbes are also important on a global scale; especially in the anoxic strata of marine and freshwater sediments, where fermenters provide the substrates (e.g. H2 and volatile fatty acids) used by methanogens and sulphate-reducing bacteria (producing methane and hydrogen sulphide respectively).
The structure of anaerobic communities
Authors: Fenchel Tom , Finlay Bland J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To animal and plant ecologists the term community structure means the description of ecological systems in terms of interactions (such as prey-predator relations, competition and mutualism) between species populations. Regarding microbial communities, the basic properties of syntrophic interactions and the competition for substrates between pairs of species has already been discussed in Sections 2.1-2.3 and 3.4. In microbial ecology, an additional approach has been to consider functional groups (rather than individual species) as the basic units of the communities.
Invasion of competing species
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have focused our attention on the spread of an invading species without referring to its effects on the pre-existing ecosystem. In reality, however, an invading species will always interact with the resident species, often in the form of predation (including host-parasite interaction) or competition, at times even resulting in the extinction of the resident species. In this chapter, we look at the case when an invading species is in competition with a resident species for habitat or food, and examine how the range boundary between the invading and resident species will shift as the invasion proceeds. There are three possible strategies whereby an invading species can persist: (1) it takes over the resident species' habitat through direct competition; (2) competition with the resident species is not so aggressive that it coexists with the resident species after establishment; (3) even though competitively weak, it survives by moving into open spaces that arise either occasionally or periodically.
The incredible birds of paradise —an introduction
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Beehler Bruce M , Cooper William T , Mcguire Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we provide a concise introduction to the bird of paradise family Paradisaeidae and also highlight the range of issues and topics that will appear in much greater detail in the chapters and species accounts that follow. This introductory discussion largely parallels that of Chapters 2-8, but touches only on the main points of interest about the group, its biology, and its history of discovery and study. In this manner the reader can gain a quick overview of the contents of this book, which will allow a focused followup on particular topics of interest.
Nesting biology and parental care
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Beehler Bruce M , Cooper William T , Mcguire Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The nesting biology of the birds of paradise has not been reviewed previously, in large part due to limited knowledge of the subject. Notwithstanding the fact that the greatest ornithologists of their time eagerly encouraged collectors to seek out the nests and eggs of birds of paradise, few were found until the twentieth century. When Bowdler Sharpe wrote his monograph (1891-8) on the birds of paradise and bowerbirds, all he could include on the nesting biology of the former group were brief descriptions of the nest and eggs of four species and the eggs of two additional ones. Nothing was known of the incubation and nestling periods, parental care, nestling diet, or growth and development of even a single species (Table 6.1).
Overview
Authors: Lawton John H , Barbault Robert , Combes Claude , Gregory Richard D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imagine an internationally renowned museum, housing priceless objects, that does not know what they are, or in which rooms most of them are stored, has no acquisition strategy, and only a ramshackled and makeshift restoration and conservation programme. It is, of course, unthinkable! Unthinkable at least in the world of art, but not in the natural world. It is a disgrace that we still have only the haziest notion of how many species there are on earth, how they are distributed, and how to ensure the survival of most of them into the twenty-second century and beyond, in the face of relentless and rapidly expanding human pressures.
Zoogeography
Authors: Hayward P J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The bryozoan collections of the Belgica Expedition were the first strictly Antarctic samples to be made available for specialist study. Their importance was fully appreciated by A.W. Waters (1904), who considered that they demonstrated the existence of a highly distinctive Antarctic fauna that would prove to be very much more diverse than these first collections showed. In his discussion of geographical distributions Waters (1904) brusquely disposed of the bipolar theory of distribution, applied to Bryozoa by Pfeffer (1890), and remarked that Pfeffer’s material consisted of just 18 species, of Subantarctic rather than Antarctic origin, which were anyway probably incorrectly identified. The first systematic treatment of Antarctic bryozoan distribution patterns was that of Hastings (1943), who carefully distinguished between the Antarctic and Subantarctic realms, and assigned the islands of the Southern Ocean to one or other of the two on hydrological and faunistic grounds. She tabulated the distribution of 60 species and varieties of (mostly) Buguloidea represented in the Discovery collections, including 17 that had occurred only at abyssal depths. Only seven of these taxa were collected from both Antarctic and Subantarctic localities, and of these only Caberea darwinii achieved a wide geographical distribution in both realms. Hastings (1943) noted the faunal similarities between the deep outer Patagonian Shelf and the Antarctic peninsula, which appeared to support one prevalent view for the origins of the Antarctic fauna as a whole. Another opinion, that the Antarctic fauna arose through the immigration of ancestral stocks from abyssal habitats (Levinsen 1917), was not favoured by the Discovery results.
Key to Genera of Antarctic Cheilostolviatida
Authors: Hayward P J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Colony form unique (Fig. 7): consisting of a closely encrusting, branching, stolonal portion, swollen at regular intervals, with a slender, erect cylinder, 0.5-1.5 mm long, bearing a terminal frontal membrane, rising from each swelling ........................................... Aetea.
Asymmetry, Developmental Stability, and Evolution
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why does nature love symmetry? In this up-to-date review of symmetry and its evolutionary implications, Anders M/oller and John Swaddle argue that symmetry is related to genetic stability and fitness and that symmetric individuals appear to have quantifiable and significant advantages over their asymmetric counterparts. In contrast, asymmetry, a common measure of developmental instability, is the result of environmental or genetic disruptions of developmental processes, such as pollutants, competition, parasitism, inbreeding, genetic mutation, and hybridization. M/oller and Swaddle maintain that deviations from morphological symmetry are important factors in social or sexual situations: animals may be able to use symmetry as an honest indication of quality when assessing potential mates or competitors. This comprehensive review of the literature on developmental stability will be important reading for students and researchers in the fields of ecology, evolutionary biology, genetics, and animal behavior.
Developmental instability and performance
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Swaddle John P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we review the evidence that links asymmetry with decreased performance, particularly in relation to locomotion. In other words, we investigate the functional costs of asymmetry. We start by explaining why symmetry is the ideal phenotypic expression in many cases of performance (section 7.2). This is because symmetry keeps a body in a state of stable equilibrium, whereas asymmetry disrupts this state and so requires energy to maintain the status quo. This expense of energy may reduce overall performance and hence decrease efficiency; the reduction in performance does not just relate to locomotor performance but also any other costly activity which will be in a trade-off for energetic resources (e.g. growth, reproduction, immune defence).
Inclusive fitness and sex allocation
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An important point in understanding the function and evolution of social insects lies in understanding how the workers can increase their own fitness.. In the first chapter we already learnt that workers can play an active role in the evolution of social life, and when doing this they can run into conflicts with the queens, at least in the eusocial Hymenoptera. In order to study the role played by different parties in the conflicts, we have to quantify their evolutionary successes and this is done using the inclusive fitness. An individual can increase its inclusive fitness either directly by producing its own offspring or indirectly by helping a relative to reproduce. The inclusive fitness of an individual depends on the number of offspring raised, on the genetic relatednesses and the reproductive values of the offspring produced, and on the mating successes of females and males in the population.