bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Marine Stock Enhancement Techniques
Authors: Davis Jana 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe United Nations estimates that as many as 75% of the world's fishery stocks are fully exploited, severely depleted, or overexploited and are therefore not eligible for further exploitation to meet growing demands for fishery products. Due to the pressure on fishery populations, several management techniques have been developed. Traditional fishery management seeks to limit the catch of wild fishery stocks. Aquaculture activities, increasing in number, aim to raise aquatic food organisms in captivity. Stock enhancement techniques have been developed to bolster population sizes in the wild, either by providing habitat for habitat‐limited populations or by providing hatchery‐raised juveniles for recruitment‐limited populations. The latter form of stock enhancement has been controversial for a variety of reasons, including viability and health of hatchery‐raised organisms. In addition, success of stock enhancement efforts is often difficult to quantify. Evaluation of this management technique requires laborious efforts to follow hatchery‐raised organisms over time and develop knowledge about wild con‐specifics.Despite the controversy and difficulty in assessing the success of stock enhancement programs, stock enhancement may be a required step in the management of species or stocks that are extremely depleted.
Marine Colloids
Authors: Santschi Peter H. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAquatic colloids, nanoparticles and macromolecules in the 1 nm to 1 µm size range, are characterized by large interfacial energies and scatter light. Colloids are most often separated from seawater through ultrafiltration. They are characterized by physical techniques, such as diffusion, permeation, or light scattering, and can be imaged by atomic force and electron microscopy. Chemically, they are composed mostly of organic macromolecules, which make up 20–30% of marine dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Marine colloidal organic matter (COM) contains biologically resistant heteropolycondensations, such as humic‐type molecules (geopolymers), and products of carbon fixation and consumption such as exopolymeric substances (EPS) excreted by microorganisms. Both geopolymers and biopolymers are amphiphilic with charged and uncharged groups, and contain strong metal‐binding ligands, rendering them metal‐ and radionuclide sequestering agents. Therefore, colloids in the ocean can act as vectors of metal and radionuclide removal and of solubilization, depending on the biomolecule, as well as modifiers of metal bioavailability in delicately balanced marine ecosystems. In addition, marine colloids are also important in their response to global change, as they enhance the sinking flux of carbon, and thus, play a role in global carbon cycling.
The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level
Authors: Jevrejeva S. , Holgate S. , Woodworth P. L. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Since 1933, the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) has been responsible for the collection, publication, analysis and interpretation of sea level data from the global network of tide gauges. It is based at the Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory (POL). The PSMSL is a member of the Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical Data Analysis Services (FAGS) established by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). The mission of the PSMSL is to provide the community with a full Service for the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of sea level data. Aside from its central role of operation of the global sea level data bank, the PSMSL provides advice to tide gauge operators and analysts. It occupies a central management role in the development of the Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS).
The Role of Oceans in the Global Cycles of Climatically‐Active Trace‐Gases
Authors: Upstill‐Goddard Robert C. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The contributions to global warming and atmospheric chemistry made by several atmospheric trace gases with significant marine sources and/or sinks are summarized. Of these, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, dimethyl sulphide, and carbonyl sulphide are discussed in more detail. For CO
2
, the global partitioning of anthropogenic emissions is reviewed briefly, and the physical and biological mechanisms by which CO
2
is processed and transported into the ocean interior are discussed. Uncertainties in the global source estimates of methane and nitrous oxide are reviewed briefly. For these gases, and for dimethyl sulphide and carbonyl sulphide, the principal biological and/or biologically related processes driving their marine cycling and the major sites of their production and/or consumption in marine waters are reviewed.
Major Ions in Seawater
Authors: Angelis Marie De 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Seawater
contains all of the natural elements. However, its composition is dominated by relatively few ionic species. These species, which comprise >99.8% of the mass of the total dissolved salts in the ocean, are known as the major ions and are defined as dissolved species having a concentration in seawater of >1 mg kg
−1
(1 ppm). Na
+
and Cl
−
alone account for 86% of all dissolved chemical species in seawater.

The source of Cl
−
, and most anions in seawater, is
outgassing
of the Earth's interior, or
volcanic emissions
. The majority of the major cations are derived from the effects of continental weathering and are delivered to the ocean via rivers. The gross composition of seawater is the result of the partitioning of elements between continental rock and seawater over geologic time. The major ions represent the more soluble elements, which have preferentially partitioned into seawater.
Water Waves
Authors: Liang Nai Kuang 
Published: July 2005

AbstractA water wave is a variation in the elevation of the water surface in an ocean, sea, or lake. It influences beach morphology, maritime structures, and human activities very much. Different water waves are distinguished by their wavelengths. Tides, tsunamis, and wind waves are well‐known water waves. The wind wave has the shortest wavelength among the three water waves. During the Second World War, a wind wave forecasting scheme was developed for Normandy landing operations. Modern ocean wave modeling is based on the energy balance equation. Because the wind varies tremendously, a typhoon or hurricane may generate huge waves. This storm usually causes disasters.As the typhoon is still far away, the swell may arrive, because the swell energy usually propagates faster than the typhoon moves. The swell height if enhanced, as the typhoon approaches a station. This is the same as the well‐known Doppler effect. There were cases when swell heights were larger than those inside the typhoon because the moving velocity was close to the group velocity of the swell.
The Ocean in Climate
Authors: Sarachik Edward S. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Earth's present climate is intrinsically affected by the ocean—the climate without the ocean would be different in many essential ways: Without the evaporation of water from the sea surface, the hydrological cycle would be different; without ocean heat transport and uptake, the temperature distribution of the globe would be different; and without the biota in the ocean, the total amount of carbon in the atmosphere would be many time its current value. Yet, while we may appreciate the role of the ocean in climate, the difficulty and expense of making measurements below the ocean's surface has rendered the vast volume of the ocean a sort of
mare incognita
. Why is the ocean so important in Earth's climate, and which of its properties are of special significance for climate? How have we learned about the ocean and its role in climate, and what more do we need to know?
Coastal Water Pollutants
Authors: Kumar Upadhyayula V. K. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractDomestic sewage and industrial wastes, dissolved or suspended in water, are conveniently disposed of by running them, either untreated or after partial treatment, directly into coastal embayments and estuaries or into open coastal waters. Because of the increase in population density, causing a shift from individual septic systems to local collection networks and centralized treatment plants, the use of the marine environment as a dump for liquid waste is increasing at an even faster rate than that of the population growth of the coastal regions.The sea has seemed a natural dumping ground for waste materials, but we now know that this is not acceptable practice in many cases. Some of the kinds of wastes man has disposed of in the sea or might consider disposing of include domestic sewage, industrial wastes, radioactive wastes, heat, agricultural drainage, brines from saline water conversion or chemical recovery plants, and insoluble junk. However, a first principle is that if such wastes are mixed with sufficiently large quantities of seawater, their undesirable qualities will be diluted to unobjectionably low levels. The problem then reduces to one of dilution and that of possible reconcentration to objectionable or dangerous levels, generally by biological agencies.Thus this article is mainly oriented toward three basic issuestypes and forms of pollutants that coastal waters receiveassessment of receiving waterseffect of pollutants on coastal habitat.
Larvae and Small Species of Polychaetes in Marine Toxicological Testing
Authors: Qiu Jian‐Wen , Wong Ming Hung 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Polychaetes have been widely used as bioassay organisms in acute, chronic, and life‐cycle tests since the 1960s to examine the toxicity of metals, sediment, sediment pore water, municipal effluents, petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, and other synthetic organic chemicals. In total, 49 polychaete species have been used in bioassays, of which most are small species that are available from laboratory culture. Relatively few studies have used polychaete larvae as bioassay organisms, although they are usually at least an order more sensitive than the adults of the same species. This entry provides a brief introduction of the commonly used polychaete species and types of bioassays, as well as some general conclusions about the bioassay results.
Coagulation and Flocculation
Authors: Exall Kirsten 
Published: July 2005

AbstractCoagulants and flocculants are commonly used in the destabilization and aggregation of suspended solids during water and wastewater treatment. Both inorganic salts and organic polymers may be used as coagulants, and various synthetic and natural organic polymers are applied as flocculants. Organic matter is quite well removed during coagulation, although it often requires a higher coagulant dosage. Other factors that influence the effectiveness of coagulants and flocculants are pH, temperature, mixing conditions and other ions present in the water. In order to maximize efficiency of contaminant removal while minimizing residuals, careful coagulant or flocculant dose selection and control are essential.
Ion Exchange and Inorganic Adsorption
Authors: Kadirvelu K. , Goel Jyotsna 
Published: July 2005

AbstractIon exchange and adsorption are two physical processes that have been effectively applied for inorganic ion removal. The presence of inorganic ions in water is of major concern for water quality because they can interfere with legitimate use of water for various applications. Inorganic ions, particularly heavy metals, are seriously questionable because of their toxicity and threat to human life and the environment.This article highlights these two processes by defining their use, factors affecting them, and involved process mechanism. Factors affecting the adsorption and ion exchange processes, such as adsorbent nature, its chemistry, solution pH, presence of foreign ions, and temperature, have been enumerated with findings of various available research studies. Adsorption capacities of various adsorbents for inorganic ions have been summarized and compared. Various physicochemical properties of adsorbents used for inorganic ion removal has also been provided for better understanding of the adsorption mechanism involved. This article also presented an insight into the combined mechanism of two processes, which concludes both the processes as a unified one. Functional groups of various ion exchangers are used for inorganic ion removal. A review of potential adsorbents for inorganic removal is also presented.
Analysis of Aqueous Solutions Using Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (
ESI
MS
)
Authors: Henderson William 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI MS) is a powerful analytical technique that can be used to analyze species dissolved in aqueous (and other) solutions. The technique operates by spraying a solution of the compound to be analyzed through a charged metal capillary, producing a spray of charged liquid droplets. These are then evaporated producing gas phase ions that undergo mass analysis. Any species that is ionic, or can generate a charged adduct by oxidation, protonation, deprotonation, and so on is potentially analyzable by ESI MS. Numerous applications of the technique in the analysis of biochemical and chemical substances in aqueous solutions have been developed.
Solubility of Chemicals in Water
Authors: Yaws Carl L. , Narasimhan Prasad K. , Lou Helen H. , Pike Ralph W. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Correlations are presented for the solubility of chemicals in water. A wide variety of compounds are covered—alcohols, ketones, ethers, aldehydes, acids, acetates, amines, monochloroalkanes, and monobromoalkanes. The new correlation provides reliable solubility values down to very low concentrations (parts per million range). The correlation is based on the boiling point of the compound. The correlation and experimental data are in favorable agreement. The results are useful in process engineering for wastewater minimization.
Solubility of Hydrocarbons in Salt Water
Authors: Yaws Carl L. , Narasimhan Prasad K. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Correlations for variation of water solubility with salt concentration are presented for hydrocarbons. The results for solubility in salt water are applicable to the complete range of salt concentrations, including water without salt (
X
= 0) to water saturated with salt (
X
= 358, 700 ppm(wt)). The correlation and experimental results are in favorable agreement. The results are provided in an easy to use tabulation which is especially applicable to rapid engineering usage with the personal computer or hand calculator.
Adsorption Capacity of Activated Carbon for Water Purification
Authors: Yaws Carl L. , Narasimhan Prasad K. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Adsorption on activated carbon is an effective method for water purification. In this article, results for the adsorption capacity of activated carbon for removing organic chemicals from water are presented for a wide variety of substances—alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, acetates, benzenes, chloroalkanes, chloro‐olefins, and bromoalkanes. The results use the adsorption capacity as a function of the adsorption potential of the chemical in the aqueous liquid. The correlation constants are displayed in an easy to use tabular format that is especially applicable to rapid engineering usage. Correlation results and experimental data are in favorable agreement.
Environmental Photochemistry in Surface Waters
Authors: Young Mark A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Photochemistry in surface waters is an important environmental process, inextricably linked to global geochemical cycles, climate, and biological activity. A wide variety of chromophores reside in natural waters and exhibit significant spectral overlap with the available incident solar flux. Potential chromophores can include dissolved organic material, inorganic nitrate and nitrite ions, metal complexes, colloidal minerals, and various small molecules. Photoexcitation of these chromophores leads to the generation of a range of reactive radical and ionic intermediates that then subsequently react with biogenic and anthropogenic material present in the water system. Possible intermediates include superoxide, singlet oxygen, hydroxyl and peroxyl radicals, redox active metal centers, and organic radical cations. In many surface waters, reactive intermediates are photoproduced with sufficient rates to influence, or even dictate, the lifetime and chemical fate of pollutants, the concentration and availability of critical nutrients and substrates for biogenic processes, and the residence time of carbon in the hydrosphere. The chromophoric starting material is itself degraded in the process, which can significantly influence the optical properties of the surface water as well as the photochemical activity. A brief description of the important species and processes that play a role in environmental photochemistry in surface waters is provided, along with some estimates of relative importance.
Distilled Water
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water is never pure in nature. It normally contains some salts and minerals in solution and even bacteria and pollutants. Most of these substances, salts and minerals, in particular come from rocks and soils with which the water has been in contact. All these impurities make water useless for some purposes. It must be cleaned of pollutants and bacteria for human consumption, for instance. But for some other uses, even salts and minerals are dangerous. At home, in our vapor iron, water should be free of calcium carbonate that forms a layer on the heating resistor and eventually breaks it. The easiest method of purification is distillation, during which water is heated until it turns into vapor. The vapor is then collected on a cold surface, where it condenses. Because salts and other impurities do not vaporize, they normally remain in the boiling solution. Distilled water is never perfectly pure, because there are substances with nearly the same boiling point as that of water and some liquid droplets can be carried by the steam. Nevertheless, distilled water can be 99.9% pure and, if needed, can be distilled a second time. Distillation is very efficient in removing heavy metals, radionuclides, and solid particles, and it kills bacteria and viruses.
Infiltration and Soil Moisture Processes
Authors: Houser Paul R. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractInfiltrationis the process of water entry from surface sources such as rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation into the soil. The infiltration process is a component in the overall unsaturatedredistributionprocess that results insoil moistureavailability for use by vegetation transpiration, exfiltration (or evaporation) processes, chemical transport, and groundwater recharge. Soil moisture, in turn, controls the partitioning of subsequent precipitation into infiltration and runoff, and the partitioning of available energy between sensible and latent heat flux.Because of the importance of soil moisture on multiple processes, its definition can be elusive; however, it is most often described as moisture in the unsaturated surface layers (first 1 to 2 m) of soil that can interact with the atmosphere through evapotranspiration and precipitation.
Hydration
Authors: Koh Carolyn Ann 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Hydration
can be defined as the process by which water is added to produce a
hydrate
. The process is reversible: that is, water can be reextracted from the hydrate. Hydration to form a hydrate can occur when water (
solvent
) interacts with
solute
molecules to form a solution, which involves
hydrophobic hydration
. Hydration of nonpolar molecules and salts and hydrophobic hydration have been studied in detail over the last couple of decades using computer simulation and theory. Recently, microscopic tools such as neutron diffraction with H/D isotopic substitution have been applied to study hydration of nonpolar molecules and salts.
Isotopes
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number,
Z
, but different atomic weight,
A
. Different isotopes, therefore, have the same chemical but different physical properties, such as melting and boiling point. The name isotope means “at the same place” and comes from the periodic table, where different isotopes of the same element are at the same place. The scientific way of labeling isotopes reflects this. They have the symbol of the corresponding element, but followed by a hyphen and the number of nucleons (neutrons and protons) of the isotope. So, C‐12 is the normal carbon (six protons and six neutrons) and C‐14 is a heavy unstable isotope (six protons and eight neutrons).
Partitioning and Bioavailability
Authors: Philp Jim , Stainsby Fiona , Dunbar Sandra 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAs soon as a chemical is spilled it becomes a pollutant, but the fate of that pollutant depends to a large degree on its chemistry, which determines how it will partition to various “compartments,” or phases, of the environment. This idea is enshrined in risk‐based strategies for assessing contaminated land and water. In many cases a contaminant spill on land quickly becomes a water pollution issue, be it surface or groundwater. As many countries are heavily reliant on groundwater as a source of potable water, investigating the fate of pollutants is an essential prerequisite to any remedial action plan for contaminant cleanup.Partitioning is governed by some fundamental properties of chemicals, but partitioning should be viewed in relation to the toxicity of the chemical in question and its degradability in the various environmental compartments. In this article, the important properties of chemicals that relate to partitioning are examined, and the theory is reinforced by example. The examples chosen are benzene, phenol, and some chlorinated phenols. All of these compounds are important industrial chemicals.Bioavailability is a simple concept, but practically it is a complex issue that remains to be resolved. The bioavailability concept is also enshrined in the risk assessment approach to contaminated land and water. If a pollutant is present in soil or water in high concentration, but is not available to the biota, then surely it presents minimal risk. Regardless of the apparent simplicity of the concept, there is great urgency to find methods for quantifying bioavailability. Some approaches to solving this quandary are discussed.
Antimony in Aquatic Systems
Authors: Filella Montserrat 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAntimony is a naturally occurring element. It belongs to group 15 of the periodic table of the elements. Antimony can exist in a variety of oxidation states (−III, 0, III, V) but it is mainly found in two oxidation states (III and V) in environmental, biological, and geochemical samples. Although antimony was already known to the ancients, it is still often overlooked, both as an element of environmental concern and as a subject for study, probably because of its lower abundance and the relative insolubility of most of its compounds. This is reflected in the poor standard of existing data on the behavior of antimony in natural waters. However, interest in the study of this element seems to be growing and an increasing number of papers on the subject are being published. A useful series of comprehensive reviews on antimony in the environment has recently been published (1, 2).
Sorption Kinetics
Authors: Karapantsios Th.D. , Loukidou M.X. , Matis K.A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSorption is, by definition, a general term describing the attachment of charged species (such as toxic metal ions) from a solution to a coexisting solid surface. Sorption kinetics may be controlled by several independent processes that can act in series or in parallel. These processes fall in one of the following general categories:bulk diffusion,external mass transfer (film diffusion),chemical reaction (chemisorption), andintraparticle diffusion.Kinetic analyses allow estimating sorption rates and also lead to suitable rate expressions characteristic of possible reaction mechanisms.