bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Zeeman and Lorentz – A First Glimpse at the Electron (1896)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1896 a young Dutch physicist, Pieter Zeeman , submitted a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Amsterdam [1]. In the introductory paragraph he writes: Several years ago … it occurred to me whether the light of a flame if submitted to the action of magnetism would perhaps undergo any change.
Nernst and the Third Theorem of Thermodynamics (1905)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Walther Nernst [1] belongs to the small group of scientists, who, in the twentieth century, excelled in both experiment and theory. In 1905 he postulated his new heat law, a theorem in thermodynamics, i.e., in classical physics. It turned out soon, however, that there is a close relation between that theorem and quantum theory. When Nernst discovered his heat law he had just become professor of physical chemistry at the University of Berlin. He had moved there from Göttingen where he had held the same position. Being particularly successful in applying the laws of thermodynamics to chemical and electrochemical reactions he was one of the founders of his field. Generations of students and young researchers grew up with his textbook Theoretical Chemistry, From the Point of View of Avogadro’s Rule and of Thermodynamics [2]. He had also made an invention by which he had become a wealthy man. His electric lamp, the Nernst lamp, produced bright white light. Unlike the light bulb of Edison it glowed in normal air and needed no vacuum.
Jean Perrin and Molecular Reality (1909)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the end of the nineteenth century, the existence of atoms and molecules was accepted by most scientists. However, atoms were still invisible to the human eye and remained so for decades. It was Perrin [1,2], who, through careful experiments and quantitative analysis of visible phenomena, not only overcame the resistance of the last doubting scientists but also convinced the general public of, as he called it, ‘la réalité moleculaire’.
Bragg Scattering
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One day at the end of 1885 William Henry Bragg [1], a twenty-three year old mathematician who had graduated the previous year, was on his way to attend a lecture in Cambridge. He met the lecturer, J. J. Thomson, in King’s Parade and they talked about a vacant professorship in Australia. Bragg was advised by Thomson to apply and shortly afterwards got the position since the electors of the new professor in the distant colony did their work in London. Later Bragg wrote [1]: I was Professor of Mathematics and Physics. I had never learnt any of the latter, nor worked at the Cavendish except for a couple of terms after I had taken my degree, it was supposed by the electors that I would probably pick up enough as I went along to perform my duties at the Adelaide University …
Structuring data, part 1
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In any managerial situation we can assume that there is some understanding of what it is that needs to be managed: employees, budgets, customers, production processes, and so on. We would say that these are the entities of our particular management domain. When we design information systems to support the management of these entities, we must first seek to obtain a more precise understanding of them. The techniques that allow us to do so are the focus of this chapter and the next.
Introduction
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce some general concepts of statistical mechanics and phase transitions, in order to give a rapid overview of the different topics of the subject and their physical relevance. For the sake of clarity and simplicity, we will focus our attention on magnetic systems but it should be stressed that the concepts discussed here are of a more general nature and can be applied to other systems as well. We will analyze, in particular, the significant role played by the correlation length in the phase transitions and the important properties of universality observed in those phenomena. As we will see, near a phase transition the thermodynamic quantities of a system present an anomalous power law behavior, parameterized by a set of critical exponents.
One-dimensional Systems
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we present several approaches to get the exact solution of the onedimensional Ising model. As already mentioned, the one-dimensional case does not present a phase transition at a finite value of the temperature. However we will show that the origin T = B = 0 of the phase diagram may nevertheless be regarded as a critical point: by using appropriate variables, one can define the set of critical exponents and verify that the scaling relations are indeed satisfied.
Transfer Matrix of the Two-dimensional Ising Model
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we study the solution of the two-dimensional Ising model by means of the transfer matrix. Unlike the methods discussed in the previous chapter, the transfer matrix approach has greater generality and can used to solve exactly other two-dimensional models. Even if the general ideas behind this approach have been explained in Chapter 2 by means of the one-dimensional case, their application to the two-dimensional cases requires more powerful and sophisticated mathematical tools: for instance, the study the eigenvalues of the transfer matrix in the Ising model for T = Tcneeds to employ elliptic functions. The same is also true for other models. In order to present in the simplest possible way the main lines of this method, in the following we focus attention only on the solution of the model at T = Tcbecause this case can be analyzed in terms of simple trigonometric functions.
S-Matrix Theory
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we present the S-matrix theory of two-dimensional integrable models. This leads, in particular, to the exact spectrum of the massive excitations away from the critical point. From a mathematical point of view, the two-dimensional nature of the systems and their integrability are the crucial features that lead to important simplifications of the formalism and its successful application. It is worth mentioning that, initially developed to overcome the obstacles encountered by quantum field theory in dealing with the strong interactions of the hadronic particles1 (such as protons, neutrons, or pions), the S-matrix has achieved its most beautiful intellectual triumph in the analysis of the two-dimensional statistical models away from criticality, particularly when they are described by integrable theories. These significant developments have been pioneered by A.B. Zamolodochikov.
Form Factors and Correlation Functions
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the fundamental problems of statistical mechanics and its quantum field theory formulation is the characterization of the order parameters and the computation of their correlation functions. Besides the intrinsic interest of this problem, the correlation functions are the key quantities in the determination of the universal ratios of the renormalization group and therefore they can have direct experimental confirmation (see Chapter 8). In general, the computation of correlation functions is a difficult task, usually achieved with partial success through perturbative methods.
Non-Integrable Aspects
Authors: Mussardo Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The integrable quantum field theories analyzed in the previous chapters provide the exact solution of many statistical models away from the critical point. Despite the elegance and the undeniable success of these methods, the generic situation that occurs in statistical physics is that of non-integrable dynamics: many interesting statistical models fall within this class and therefore it would be highly desirable to develop an appropriate formalism to deal with the lack of integrability. This task is notoriously difficult for the rich phenomenology that arises when the dynamics are not integrable: there are decays and production scattering processes, confinement phenomena and nucleation of false vacua, resonance peaks in the cross-sections, etc.
General Overview of International Efforts to Combat the Financing of Terrorism
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Preventing terrorists and terrorist organizations from funding their activities and planned attacks is an essential component of any successful global counterterrorism campaign. Targeting the finances of terrorists and terrorist organizations can provide vital intelligence information concerning their activities and insight on how to formulate policies that deny terrorists access to funds and restrict their ability to function. By using methods of financial investigation, it has become possible to identify and profile suspects, link addresses, storage facilities, and methods of communication. Further more financial investigations can reveal travel and spending patterns, valuable information on recruitment methods and operational strategies, as well as areas of vulnerability in terrorist organizations.
Alternative Remittance Systems
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 6 examined the international framework dealing with the financing of terrorism and money laundering, in particular the responses by the UN and other bodies such as the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) to counter such financing, and the obligation on States to ensure that they had in place the necessary legislative framework to investigate and prosecute such activities. It must be said at the outset that, to date, there have been no prosecutions specifically relating to financing of terrorism offences—they are generally part of a case and may, if at all, be the subject of specific charges. The US practice is to proceed with charges of material support to capture such conduct or proceed with charges under revenue laws. Therefore, the extensive efforts of the international community have been largely focused on building the intelligence picture by studying and examining the methodology and typology of the financing aspect through Financial Intelligence Units (FIUs) in order that trends can be identified and responses developed—this is particularly the case with the alternative remittance systems.
International Cooperation
Authors: Sambei Arvinder , Plessis Anton du , Polaine Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The adoption of UNSCR 1373 on 28 September 2001 gave an impetus never before seen to counter-terrorism measures generally and to international cooperation in particular. Adopted under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, UNSCR 1373 imposes a number of obligations on Member States. Importantly for the purposes of the discussion below, although it was adopted in response to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, the measures it sets forth are expressed in a much broader way and, arguably, seek to set new international norms in relation to counter-terrorism cooperation between States.
The Bloch–Boltzmann theory of electronic transport
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Boltzmann equation is at the heart of the semiclassical Bloch–Boltzmann theory of electronic transport in solids. The kinetic theory of gases based on the Boltzmann equation, originally developed for dilute classical gases, has since been applied successfully to the electron gas in metals and in semiconductors, despite of the fact that this latter gas is neither classical (except in non-degenerate semiconductors) nor dilute.
The Schrödinger equation
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In quantum mechanics the dynamics is described by the Schrödinger equation. We first discuss the general properties of the Schrödinger equation and then proceed to illustrate how the quantum mechanical laws introduced in the previous chapter work in concrete physical situations. Both the bound-state problems and scattering processes are analyzed, mainly through various examples of one-dimensional systems.
Symmetry and statistics
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two concepts, of fundamental importance to quantum mechanics, will be discussed in this chapter. The first is that of symmetry. Even though the concept of symmetry is familiar in a wide range of natural sciences, the way symmetry constrains the consequences of quantum mechanics is rather subtle and, at the same time, far-reaching. The second is the symmetry property of the states under the exchange of two identical particles. Identical particles with a half-integer spin (fermions) obey the Fermi–Dirac statistics: the wave functions are totally antisymmetric under the exchange of the particles. Identical particles with an integer spin (bosons) are instead subject to the Bose–Einstein statistics. Their wave functions are totally symmetric.
Some finer points of quantum mechanics
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a wide freedom in the way states and dynamical variables are described in quantum mechanics; the physical results must be independent of the particular language used, called the representation. A somewhat similar arbitrariness in the choice of language also exists in classical mechanics, such as the wide class of possible choices of canonical variables, which are related to each other by canonical transformations. However, the possibility of using different representations according to the problem considered appears to have much more profound consequences and implications in quantum mechanics.
The semi-classical approximation
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we study the limit ħ → 0 of quantum mechanics. The passage from quantum mechanics to classical mechanics involves precisely this limit, and the approximation schemes developed for small ħ are known as the semi-classical approximation. The semi-classical approximation has a predecessor: the so-called old quantum theory. Many of the questions concerning the connection between the quantum and classical mechanics were already raised during the years of foundation of quantum mechanics, 1900–1927, but satisfactory answers have not always been obtained.
Probability and measurement
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall discuss these and related questions. We shall summarize what is well established and what has been clarified in the last several decades concerning these issues, trying to distinguish as clearly as possible different issues which are all called the “measurement problem”, and in each case, making an effort to clarify as sharply as possible the nature of the problem.
Land Use, Congestion, And Urban Management
Authors: Majocchi Alberto , Zatti Andrea 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the main environmental problems faced by human beings relates to the use of land. Land is a scarce good, especially in areas with high population densities due to an advanced degree of industrialization. The price of land is generally determined in the market through the interplay between demand and supply, but the environmental impact—and the opportunity costs—of an excessive use is disregarded, with the ensuing excessive use of a precious good. Hence, regulations are needed to rule this market and internalize the external costs linked to the use of land.
The scarcity of land is growing around the world owing to two main driving factors:
The Fiscal And Regulatory Challenges Of Managing Sinks, With A Focus On Australia
Authors: Blazey Patricia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1994, after various international meetings determined the danger that rising greenhouse gas emissions posed to the world’s climate, the United Nations (UN) incorporated the role that forests could play in absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2) into the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Article 4.1(d) calls for international cooperation to: ‘Promote sustainable management and promote and cooperate in the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including biomass, forests and oceans as well as other terrestrial coastal and marine ecosystems.’
Environmental Fiscal Reform—Differences And Similarities Between Developed And Developing Countries, Based On A Case Study Of The Current Situation In Sri Lanka
Authors: Speck Stefan , Datta Anjan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of an environmental fi scal/tax reform (EFR/ETR) has been on the political agenda for more than 15 years in Europe and several European countries have implemented such reforms. However, these reform proposals are not limited to European countries, but may also be implemented in transition or developing countries as stated in recent reports published by international organizations, such as the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the World Bank. Although the underlying concept may show some similarities when implemented in developed and developing countries, the actual reasons for implementing may differ. This concept is re?ected in the socalled ‘tax shifting programs’ in developed countries as compared to the situation in developing countries, where the key underlying reason is to raise revenues which can then be used for infrastructure investment in water and sanitation as well as to support poverty reduction programs.
How The German Patient Followed The Doctor’S Orders: Political Economy Lessons From Implementing Market-Based Instruments In Germany
Authors: Rudolph Sven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How the Patient followed the doctor’s order’,2 was the issue addressed by Robert Hahn in 1989, referring to a situation in which even after two decades of well-meaning advice by economists, environmental policy largely remained command-and-control-based. Since then, concepts of environmental economists have, on the one hand, become more sophisticated and more practice- oriented, and economists have been continuing to emphasize the merits of environmental taxes and emission trading. On the other hand, the spread of market-based instruments in practical use cannot be ignored.
The Impact Of Fiscal Policies And Market-Based Instruments For Environmental Management: Experiences From Uganda
Authors: Kaggwa Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Uganda’s national development strategy aims at transforming the country into a modern industrial, knowledge-based economy in the medium- to long-term. The planned engine of growth and economic transformation is value addition through agro-processing in line with the country’s vast agricultural and natural-resource potential. The other emerging key growth sectors include hydropower generation, the newly discovered oil and gas extraction, and development of information communication technology (ICT). Clearly, Uganda’s competitive advantage lies within the natural-resources sector and the country’s development in the present and foreseeable future is based on the prudent use and management of its rich but declining natural-resource base.
The double-valued representations of the 32 point groups and the 230 space groups
Authors: Bradley C J , Cracknell A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In section 2.1 the representation 𝒟1{R(β, α, γ)} of the 3-dimensional rotation group, 0(3), was considered, where I was assumed to be an integer. The basis of this representation is the vector whose components are the spherical harmonics . The irreducible representations of the point groups which were listed in Chapter 2, see Tables 2.2 and 2.3, can be thought of as being obtained from these representations by subduction, that is, by restricting the representation 𝒟1{R(β, α, γ)} to the elements of a point group, see under Theorem 4.1.5. This was done, for instance, by Bethe (1929). These representations of the point groups are called the single-valued representations of the point groups since they are derived from the representations 𝒟1{R(β, α, γ)} of the 3-dimensional rotation group, where l is an integer, which are themselves single-valued (that is, with one matrix representative for each operator).
Women’s Rights
Authors: Petersen Carole J. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the relationship between constitutionalism and the rights of women in East Asia, focusing on Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. These four jurisdictions provide a useful case study as they all have constitutions with equality clauses and their legal systems allow for judicial review. Yet women continue to be under-represented in leadership positions, in both the public and private sectors. The case study demonstrates that judicial review has had only limited impact in Japan, partly because the judiciary has applied a weak standard of review and has not looked to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) for guidance when interpreting Japan’s constitution. In contrast, in South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, judges have applied a stricter standard of review and have been more willing to apply international norms as a guide to interpreting their constitutions.
Macau
Authors: Cardinal Paulo , Pessanha Luís 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a primer on Macau’s historical background, examines Macau’s constitutional system (including constitutional texts, case law, and de facto elements), and highlights several questions and challenges for the future. The Macau SAR was established in December 1999 through the return of Macau’s sovereignty to the People’s Republic of China after four and a half centuries of Portuguese administration. This transfer of sovereignty was set forth in the 1987 Joint Declaration. The Basic Law is the fundamental law of Macau and serves as the lato sensu or functional constitution. It sets out terms for Macau’s political system, autonomy, protection of fundamental rights, and regulation of economic and social issues. The “One Country, Two Systems” framework that structures Macau’s constitutional system has the necessary elements to work well so long as the framework is applied in good faith. Whether—and to what extent—relevant actors maintain fidelity to that framework in coming years remains to be seen.