bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Content and Context of Peer Assessment
Authors: Arnold Louise , Stern David Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the current climate of clinical medical education, medical teachers have less time to spend in direct contact with students and residents. Thus, opportunities for learners to demonstrate a wide variety of professional and unprofessional behaviors are more likely to occur among peers who spend more time with one another and work closely together as a team. Moreover, the professional behaviors of responsibility, effective communication, interprofessional respect, thoroughness, and altruism either have a direct impact on peers or reflect values that peers might be able to infer and observe more easily from the actions of their counterparts than would faculty or other supervisors.
An Overview of the Implicit Genome
Authors: Caporale Lynn Helena 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most analyses assume that genomes are to be read as linear text, much as a sequence of nucleotides can be translated into a sequence of amino acids by looking in a table. However, information can evolve in genomes with distinct forms of representation, such as in the structure of DNA or RNA and the relationship between nucleotide sequences. Such information has importance to biology yet is largely unexpected and unexplored. As described in this volume, much of this information, through mechanisms ranging from alternative splicing of RNA to the generation of bacterial coat protein diversity, affects the probability of distinct types of alterations in the nucleic acid sequence. Some genomic DNA sequences affect genome stability, handling, and organization, with implications for the robustness of lineages over evolutionary time. The examples reviewed in this volume, taken from a broad range of biological organisms, both extend our view of the nature of information encoded within genomes and deepen our appreciation of the power of natural selection, through which this information, in its various forms, has emerged.
The Role of Repeat Sequences in Bacterial Genetic Adaptation to Stress
Authors: Rocha Eduardo P C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because stress is a major component of the life history of living species, many mechanisms have been created to deal with it. Even though stress is often unpredictable, it may be overcome by mechanisms allowing the generation of genetic variability upon which natural selection can act. As a result, recent work has been aimed at identifying the elements and the mechanisms allowing the generation of such genetic variability. Among these, repeated sequences have a prominent role. Bacteria can evolve very quickly through intrachromosomal recombination between repeats, which increases significantly in times of stress. In this chapter, the instabilities produced by repeats in genes of stress response and what results from it are described. While some of these instabilities lead to deletion of genetic material, the loss of this information is not irreversible as mechanisms have evolved that facilitate its recovery. The resulting genetic variability allows the fast adaptation of bacterial populations to stresses, such as host defenses, or to toxic agents, such as antibiotics.
Immunoglobulin Recombination Signal Sequences: Somatic and Evolutionary Functions
Authors: Hsu Ellen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vertebrates defend themselves against the onslaught of a vast and evolving array of pathogens by drawing from a vast antibody repertoire that is encoded by somatically generated DNA sequences. This diversity can be achieved because it is implied, rather than explicity encoded, in the germline genome. This chapter describes our current understanding of the rules by which this diversity of immunoglobulin combining sites is created in B lymphocytes.
Regulated and Unregulated Recombination of G-rich Genomic Regions
Authors: Maizels Nancy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the surprises emerging from genomic sequencing has been the unevenness of the genomic landscape. Even simple features, like base composition, strand bias, and identity and density of repetitive elements, are nonuniformly distributed among chromosomes and along specific chromosomes. The unevenness of the genome can be seen either as reflecting the dictates of biological function, or as a curious characteristic without biological rationale. The more we learn about mechanisms responsible for genomic maintenance and evolution, the less accidental genomic sequence appears to be, and even simple sequence motifs become informative about function.
Life without God: Some Personal Costs
Authors: Farrell Daniel M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I‘m damned if I know where I got the idea, but there it was, as clear and firm in my five-year-old mind as any idea could possibly be: all I had to do to get to heaven was somehow get into our parish church when no one else was around, climb up onto the high altar, open the door to the tabernacle, which seemed to me to be the focal point of the Mass (it didn’t occur to me that doing this might be difficult), enter (on my hands and knees, since it looked just big enough to admit me in that posture), and slowly make my way, still on hands and knees, to heaven. (I never worried, for some reason, that it might take a very long time to get there.) I was not a stupid child: it puzzled me, intensely, that no one else seemed ever to have thought of this easy route to our common goal—family and friends weren’t gradually disappearing, at any rate, as one might have expected, had they known what I thought I knew—and this in turn made me worry that there must be something problematical about my plan. But for the life of me I couldn’t think what it was, and so I bided my time, confident that it would not be long before I would be with God and our Lord, his Son, in heaven.
Mere Stranger
Authors: Belzer Marvin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We sang a simple song in Sunday School when I was five or six years old: Into my heart, into my heart, come into my heart, Lord Jesus It made perfect sense to invite Jesus into my heart. I knew my heart was located roughly in the middle of my chest. Inviting Jesus there had palpable effects— pleasant physical sensations and emotions in that part of my body–warm, open, and peaceful feelings. By the time I was eight or nine years old, I had a sense of taking responsibility for myself when there was a message in church about sin and the need for repentance. I accepted my own sinful nature and my need to be forgiven. Sometimes there were specific sins to repent (and I would always be on the lookout for flaws
Reasonable Religious Disagreements
Authors: Feldman Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A few years ago I co-taught a course called “Rationality, Relativism, and Religion” to undergraduates majoring in either philosophy or religion. Many of the students, especially the religion majors, displayed a pleasantly tolerant attitude. Although a wide variety of different religious views were represented in the class, and the students disagreed with one another about many religious issues, almost all the students had a great deal of respect for the views of the others. They “agreed to disagree” and concluded that “reasonable people can disagree” about the issues under discussion. In large part, the point of this essay is to explore exactly what this respectful and tolerant attitude can sensibly amount to. The issue to be discussed is a general one, applying to disagreements in many areas other than religion. However, I will focus here on religious disagreement.
If God Is Dead, Is Everything Permitted?
Authors: Anderson Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the Institute for Creation Research Museum in Santee, California, visitors begin their tour by viewing a plaque displaying the “tree of evolutionism,” which, it is said (following Matt. 7:18), “bears only corrupt fruits.” The “evil tree” of evolution is a stock metaphor among proponents of the literal truth of the biblical story of creation. In different versions, it represents evolutionary theory as leading to abortion, suicide, homosexuality, the drug culture, hard rock, alcohol, “dirty books,” sex education, alcoholism, crime, government regulation, inflation, racism, Nazism, communism, terrorism, socialism, moral relativism, secularism, feminism, and humanism, among other phenomena regarded as evil. The roots of the evil tree grow in the soil of “unbelief,” which nourishes the tree with “sin.” The base of its trunk represents “no God”—that is, atheism.
Josephine Lang
Authors: Krebs Harald , Krebs Sharon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Josephine Lang (1815-80) was one of the most gifted, respected, prolific, and widely published song composers of the nineteenth century, yet her life and works have remained virtually unknown. Now, this carefully researched, compelling, and poignant study recognizes the composer for her remarkable accomplishments. Based on years of study of unpublished letters, musical autographs, reviews, and the autobiographical poetry of Lang’s husband, Reinhold Köstlin, the biographical portions of the book offer a stunning portrait of the composer as a woman and an artist. In-depth musical analyses interwoven with the biography will be illuminating to scholars and to musicians of all skill levels. The analyses reveal Lang’s sensitivity to her chosen poetic texts, as well as the validity of her claim that her songs were her diary; the authors demonstrate that many of the songs are directly connected to the events of Lang’s life. The analyses are illustrated by an abundance of musical examples, including a number of complete songs. A companion CD, on which the authors have recorded 30 songs by Lang, complements the text.
Genomics, Functional Genomics, and Epigenetics: Relevance to Mental Retardation
Authors: Smith Moyra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we will consider how information obtained through genomic analysis will continue to impact research into the etiology of developmental delay and mental retardation. A genome is defined as the total genetic information present in an organism. The human genome has been almost completely sequenced through research conducted as part of the Human Genome Project. The next phase of genomic analysis will involve research on functional genomics and analysis of factors that control gene expression. This will include identification of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence elements that may be located at some distance from the genes they control. It will also include analysis of the complete array of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) transcripts that are derived from a particular gene (The Transcriptome Project) and definition of the proteins that are translated from these transcripts (The Proteome Project). Other research efforts under way include in-depth analysis of the relationship between variations in expression of specific genes and the metabolic state of the cell or organism (Metabolomics).
Toll-Like Receptor Genes
Authors: Beutler Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A total of 10 Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are encoded in the human genome, while 12 TLRs are encoded in the mouse genome, and perhaps different numbers in other mammalian genomes. These paralogous proteins (i.e., proteins that diverged from an ancestral sequence to form a clade within a single species) represent the principal sensors of microbial infections in the mammalian host. They discriminate between self and nonself and are ultimately responsible for most of the alterations in host physiology that occur during infection. Hence, fever, shock, metabolic disturbances, and indeed, most phenomena that occur during severe infections are ultimately traceable to the TLRs, but so are most beneficial aspects of the host immune response.
Metal Transport Genes
Authors: Marquis Jean-Francois , Forbes John R , Canonne-Hergaux Francois , Horth Cynthia , Gros Philippe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Susceptibility to infections, with respect to initial onset, progression, and ultimate outcome of disease, is influenced by a number of factors, including pathogenencoded virulence determinants, the genetic makeup of the host, and environmental factors that can modulate the expression of both. The laboratory mouse has been a valuable model for the genetic analysis of host susceptibility determinants and pathogen-encoded virulence factors. The discovery of a mutation in a macrophage-specific metal transporter that causes susceptibility to infection by several unrelated intracellular pathogens has suggested that metal deprivation is a critical mechanism by which macrophages restrict replication of intracellular pathogens. Likewise, the observation that pathogens possess a number of metal acquisition systems, some of which are essential for virulence in vivo, has confirmed the critical importance of divalent metals in the outcome of host–pathogen interaction. Metals may be required for the basic metabolic activity necessary for expression of intracellular survival strategies, including the modulation of phagosome maturation, and=or may be required for the activity of microbial enzymes essential for detoxification of the phagosomal environment. This review discusses two families of mammalian metal transporters expressed in macrophages, Nramp (Slc11a1, Slc11a2) and ferroportin (Slc40a1), and the possible roles these proteins play in the antimicrobial properties of these cells. Recent studies characterizing the biochemical content of bacterial phagosomes formed in macrophages, and the transcriptional responses of bacteria exposed to this environment are also reviewed.
Immune Deficiency Disorders
Authors: Schroeder Harry W , McNicholl Janet M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
More than 100 primary immunodeficiency syndromes are currently recognized (Rosen, 2001; Glanzmann & Riniker, 1950; Bruton, 1952; Ochs et al, 1999; Buckley, 2002; Conley, 1999). The majority of these disorders result from single gene defects that affect the function of one or more components of the immune system, which includes B cells, T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, phagocytes, complement, and other elements of innate immune system. The presenting complaint is typically a history of recurrent infection, often early in life. Useful Web sites with information on genetic aspects of immunodeficiencies include the Human Gene Mutation Database (www.hgmd.cf.ac.uk) and the Online Mendelian Inheritance of Man database (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov=entrez). Other links can be found at these Web sites and at other sites listed in appendix 1.
Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Infection
Authors: Yee Leland J , Thursz Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infection with the hepatitis B or hepatitis C viruses may result in a number of different outcomes, ranging from asymptomatic self-limited (‘‘acute’’) infection to persistent (‘‘chronic’’) infection with liver cirrhosis, liver failure, or hepatocellular carcinoma. Therapeutic intervention in patients with persistent viral infection may lead to complete resolution of the infection and the associated liver disease, may fail, or may even exacerbate the liver disease. While it is clear that environmental and viral variables play an important role in determining some of these outcomes, it is also evident that host genetic background is a major factor particularly in determining which individuals develop persistent infection.
Candidate Neuronal Circuits
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric disorders are now clearly viewed as brain disorders, psychiatrists do not spend a lot of time thinking about the brain in the same way that neurologists think about the brain or cardiologists think about the heart. This is understandable to some extent in that we have not understood much about the brain until recent decades.
When Does Schizophrenia Begin?
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While the hallucinations, delusions, and other symptoms of schizophrenia begin in most patients by the end of adolescence or early adulthood, there is evidence to suggest that the illness actually begins long before this. This chapter will review some of the observations leading us to believe that schizophrenia arises from defects in early brain development in the womb or in later brain development perhaps involving cortical pruning at adolescence. Some of the arguments for an early neurodevelopmental origin will be reviewed, followed by a discussion of likely locations for the defect and some of the possible causes.
Clues from Drugs That Affect Dopamine, Glutamate, and Other Neurotransmitters
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although it is difficult to imagine a time when dopamine was not associated with schizophrenia, our understanding of dopamine’s role in the disorder is relatively new. Most of the fundamental work on the metabolism of norepinephrine and dopamine was done in the 1950s. About this time, the first amino acid neurotransmitter, GABA, was discovered, followed by glutamate. But it was not until 1976 that it was demonstrated that the relative potencies antipsychotic medication were directly related to their ability to block dopamine receptors (Snyder, 2002).
Some Clues from Psychophysiology
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the age of brain imaging, we sometimes forget the insights of investigators who carefully applied the technology of their day. Not long after Kraepelin described dementia praecox, Diefendorf and Dodge (1908) described eye movement abnormalities in these patients. This chapter will look at some findings from studies of eye movements, as well as studies of olfaction, electroencephalography (EEG), and event-related potentials (ERP). More recent innovations such as magnetoencephalography (MEG) will also be considered in this section because of the similarities to EEG.
Imaging Brain Structure in Living Patients
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is usually assumed that structural brain-imaging studies began with the computerized tomography (CT) studies in the 1970s but this is not the case. Almost 50 years before this, pneumoencephalography was used to outline the ventricular system and cortex with X-rays of the head after air had been injected into the lumbar subarachnoid space (Dandy, 1919). These studies demonstrated enlarged lateral and third ventricles as well as cortical sulci atrophy, which to some extent correlated with poor outcome (Haug, 1962; Jacobi and Winkler, 1927). However, the technique was somewhat invasive and difficult to use in psychiatric patients, so it was not until the development of CT that brain structure was examined systematically in schizophrenia.
Imaging Brain Chemistry and the Question of Neuronal Degeneration
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in neuronal degeneration in schizophrenia (Deutsch et al., 2001; Keshavan, 1999; Knoll et al., 1998; Miller, 1989; Woods, 1998). This is not surprising, as marked deterioration in functioning led Kraepelin to separate dementia praecox from the manic-depressive psychoses. In fact, marked deterioration in social and occupational functioning remains a key criterion for schizophrenia in the DSM-IV. It is a difficult and all-too-common experience for a clinician to watch a patient deteriorate more and more with each breakdown until they are no longer the same person. In my own practice, I have watched high-functioning accountants, lawyers, and doctors become totally disabled and, in some cases, become chronic inpatients, incapable of relating to others in the community.
Pieces of the Puzzle: Likely Components of the Final Common Pathway
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Have the brain imagers joined the neuropathologists and molecular biologists in the graveyard? One could conclude that this is indeed the case from the meta-analyses of both structural and functional findings in schizophrenic patients. Why do we see so many different patterns of findings in patients who presumably suffer from the same disorder? If there is a final common pathway, why do all patients not have the same findings? These are not easy questions to answer. Part of the answer has to be that multiple regions are affected in schizophrenia and these regions are interconnected in functional circuits. Damage to any part of the circuit would cause the entire circuit to fail.
Early Models of the Final Common Pathway I. Disconnection and Coordination
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is clear from the previous chapter that many brain regions are involved in schizophrenia. This chapter and Chapter 12 will examine some of the early attempts to put the clues together into a coherent whole, just as Harvey did when he realized that with venous valves, blood flowed not away from but back to the liver, thus raising the possibility of a circulatory system. Models that involve disconnection and coordination of information processing will be considered in this chapter, and the next chapter will examine models that depend on basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits.
Do the Models Fit with What We Know about Schizophrenia?
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite often conflicting data, we have learned a lot about schizophrenia since Kraepelin’s description of the condition over a hundred years ago. There is considerable evidence that something goes wrong early in brain development. We are still arguing about whether dopamine receptors are increased or not, but there is agreement that there is dopaminergic hyperresponsivity. There seems to be some consensus that glutamate might be involved because patients given NMDA blockers experience an exacerbation of their symptoms.
1800-1846
Authors: Ellis Katharine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The story of early music performance in nineteenth-century France has no clear beginning. Instead, it arises from eighteenth-century traditions that persisted despite changing ideologies brought by the Revolution, the Empire, the Restoration, and the July Monarchy. The new century saw a small number of works between 2 5 and 65 years old by Pergolesi, Durante, Jommelli, Rousseau, and Rameau (the latter heavily diluted)-survive the turmoil of the 1790s and achieve a place in the repertories of Paris’s leading musical institutions: the recently opened Conservatoire, the concerts spirituels, and the Opera.
Realism and Empiricism The Key Question
Authors: Salmon Wesley C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is our chief inheritance from logical positivism? The answer is simple— logical empiricism. Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach were two of the most prominent early exponents of logical empiricism. Indeed, the volume de- voted to Carnap in The Library of Living Philosophers (Schilpp 1963) was originally planned as a volume on logical empiricism, which would have dealt with Carnap and Reichenbach. This plan had to be abandoned because of Reichenbach’s untimely death in 1953. Given the degree to which formal logic has flourished in the twentieth century, I think we can say that the logical part—at least the deductive logical part—of logical empiricism is alive and well. The empiricism part is another story, and that is what I intend to discuss in this chapter.