bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
France
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Early French broadcasting was a mixed public and private system. After Liberation, it became solidly centralized by the government and a tool for its political control, especially under Presidents Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou. Only after 1974, under the more centrist Valery Giscard d’Estaing, was the state’s grip somewhat loosened. But it took a government of the left to create diversity, openness, and greater independence. When Fran&lt;;ois Mitterrand became president in 1981, French broadcasting consisted of three solidly government-dominated television networks and similarly centralized radio stations. In the next few years three television channels were added, one semipublic (Canal Plus) and two commercial (La Cinq and TV-6). In addition, hundreds of independent radio stations, many of them legalized pirates, were licensed, and a semi-independent regulatory agency was established. When the right returned to power in 1986, it went a step further and privatized the major public channel, TFl, and the media firm, Havas, which controlled both Canal Plus and influenced Luxembourg’s popular RTL station. After 1988, the Socialists continued the trend and strengthened the independence of regulatory supervision.
Switzerland
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After more than half a century of well-protected stability, Switzerland’s broadcast monopoly was cautiously opened in the 1980s, and it is likely to erode further. Radio goes back to 1922 and amateur radio clubs that evolved into cooperatives and eventually into companies such as the “Utilitas” organization. By 1926, every private station was operated in five major cities by associations (Saxer, 1986). Newspaper publishers, alarmed by the potential competition, succeeded in imposing restrictions on radio news. In 1931, after several years in which the Swiss confederate tradition contended with the need for centralized frequency regulation, the Swiss Broadcasting Company (SBC, in German, SRG, and in French, SSR), was created as an umbrella organization for the regional companies, whose number eventually grew to nine. It is subject to regulation by the Ministry of Transport and Energy.
Norway
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Norway, pluralism and localism combined to break up the state broadcast monopoly in radio and television. For a long time, this institution, Norsk Rikskringkasting (NRK), offered Norwegians high-quality but limited fare on one channel of each medium, both largely centralized in Oslo. Diversification began in 1981 with the licensing of noncommercial local broadcasting operations. At the same time, private cable operators started to carry more foreign satellite-delivered commercial channels. Challenged from two directions, broadcasting was opened. NRK remains by far the major broadcast institution, but without its past exclusivity.
Assessing the Discomfort
Authors: Demb Ada , Neubauer F -Friedrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Are boards failing? Are they incompetent? Can they be saved? Is improvement simply a matter of urging directors to do more, better? These are the questions we address in this book. In our experience, the majority of board members are intelligent people, sincerely attempting to carry an enormous responsibility-with varying degrees of success. The cause of the growing dissatisfaction is much more fundamental and far-reaching than the competence of individual board members: At this point in history, existing mechanisms for governing corporations are no longer adequate. The scale, complexity, importance, and risks of corporate activity have overrun our institutions.
Corporate Governance: Life space and Accountability
Authors: Demb Ada , Neubauer F -Friedrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Corporate governance has always been a matter of enforcing “accountability.” Initially, it was accountability to the merchants who financed the trading ships to the New World. In those years, the relationship was very direct and easily measured. Some continue to argue that accountability should only be expected where there is a direct legal relationship: companies and boards are accountable to the stockholders, and corporate governance is the exclusive responsibility of boards.1 This legalistic perspective fails to cope with the realities of the late twentieth century. The sheer scale of resources controlled and influenced by individual corporations has brought them into an implicit contract that defines accountability much more broadly. Employees, communities, even whole nations invest in corporations-directly and indirectly. More importantly, because people believe that companies are accountable to them and behave as if they were, in fact, they are.
Whose Responsibility: The Board or Management?
Authors: Demb Ada , Neubauer F -Friedrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A famous papal decision from medieval times that fundamentally influenced the course of European politics can be used to introduce this paradox. As the Roman Empire disintegrated, Germanic tribes filled the vacuum by creating their own states. The kingdom of the Franconians, covering the territory of present-day France, was ruled by the Merovingian dynasty. The caliber of their kings deteriorated markedly during the seventh and eighth centuries and the real power came to be exercised by their “major domo,” or palace mayor, who ran the kingdom and defended it against aggressors.
Forces of Centrifugalism
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These trends have a logical progression. At first the network expands because it makes economic and technical sense. Later it expands because it makes political sense. But as the network provider succeeds in providing full service to every household, it also undermines the foundation of its exclusivity. Most countries in the world are still in the phases of the cost-sharing or redistributory networks. In Europe, first stage countries are Portugal, Turkey, Greece, and the nations of Eastern Europe. All others have reached substantial universal penetration of telecommunications for a number of years, and it is here that the transformation of the network system has begun progressing toward its third stage, which the United States entered first, followed by Japan. Since there is a strong correlation of economic growth and telephone penetration (roughly an additional telephone per $50,000 GNP), countries with high economic growth are likely to progress rapidly through the first two stages. Eventually, through economic growth and the instabilities transmitted from the more advanced nations, many other countries will move into a pluralistic network environment and will be faced with the policy issues inherent in such a system.
The United Kingdom
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the years following nationalization, the telephone system developed only very slowly. In 1912, the first public automatic exchange was opened; in 1916 amplification for long distance service was introduced; the Strowger switching system was adopted in 1922 and remained the mainstay well into the 1980s (Foreman-Peck, 1985, pp. 215-28). Demands for network investment were made in 1920 by a Parliamentary Select Committee, the Telephone Development Association (formed in 1924), and the Liberal party. But the General Post Office, the Treasury, and the Union of Postal Workers (though not the technical unions) resisted change until a 1932 Act of Parliament demanded reorganization. An opposition group, the ‘‘Memorialists,’’ was formed to press for telecommunication reform. It had the support of 320 MPs. A commission was set up (the Bridgeman Inquiry) that recommended moderate change. But the Post Office maintained its inefficient structure; even in the face of a substandard system, the postmaster general declared that he could not see how additional capital could be more usefully spent.
France
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the 1980s, no West European government controlled telecommunications more comprehensively than France; French state organizations were the principal operators, developers, customers, export promoters, and, for a time, primary equipment producers. This statist role has a long history. Organized French communications date back to the thirteenth century, when the University of Paris operated a messenger service. In 1464, Louis XI established a government courier service system for official use, and by 1622, there were also regular postal routes for the public. In 1725, the government declared the entire transportation system, including postal service, to be the exclusive domain of the state. Since most private operators leased postal routes from the state, postal routes became a significant source of state revenues. In 1790, the transportation of persons and parcels, but not of letters, was partially liberalized. In 1794 (the third year of the Republic), interested parties were allowed to provide postal services, except for the delivery of letters and small packages.
Luxembourg
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Luxembourg’s tiny size and population seem to provide little incentive for new entrants. The country is active in international financial services, incorporations, television, satellites, and even shipping registration. Telecommunications is an important input for each of them. The PTT, under the supervision of the minister for transport, communications, and information, held the national service monopoly. It followed a policy of providing services compatible with those of neighboring countries. In contrast to Luxembourg’s minor role in telecommunications, its position in mass media transmission was far more significant. Here both the television company CLT and the broadcast satellite provider SES were at the forefront of Europe-wide change.
Austria
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Austria’s telecommunication system is a classic postal-industrial complex: a powerful PTT monopoly closely allied with labor unions and with a virtual cartel of private equipment firms known as the “Four Sisters.” Because large users are frequently state-owned firms or international organizations, little counterpressure exists. Telecommunications began in Austria in 1846, when a railroad company constructed a telegraph line from Vienna to a suburb and onward to the city of Briinn (Brno) for its evolving operational needs (Holcombe, 1911). Emperor Ferdinand quickly declared telegraphy a governmental monopoly, the Telegraphenregal, assigning the new technology solely for the service of the ratlroads and the state. His successor, Emperor Franz Joseph, cast the future of the telecommunications monopoly by his 1849 decree, which, among other things, permitted public access to the telegraph system.
Denmark
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Denmark’s telephone system is unusual in Europe insofar as it is a shared arrangement of several state-dominated organizations. An 1897 law established a government monopoly for Danish telephony, but concessions granted since then have transferred actual operations to several telephone companies. This structure was until 1990 remarkably similar to that of the United States after its AT&T divestiture: several regional companies offer local service, and a national carrier (the PTT, subsequently Telecom Denmark) provides national and international long-distance service. A separate body serves regulatory functions. This system contradicted traditional PTf tenets of unified structure, endto-end technical responsibility, and economies of scale.
Italy
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No European telecommunications system has been institutionally more complex than Italy’s. Through the 1980s, it was best described as a shared monopoly of five organizations. Two of these organizations are government administrations; the other three are nominally private groups. The state directly runs the State Agency for Telephone Services (ASST), which handles long-distance and European telephony, and the Post and Telecommunications Administration (PT), which handles telegraph and telex networks. The three other groups are Societa Italiana per l’Esercizio Telefonico (SIP), for local exchanges and some longdistance service; Italcable, for intercontinental service, and Telespazio, for satellite service, all of which are part of the state-dominated Societa Finanziaria Telefonica (STET) holding company. In theory, the system separates segments of network control as the AT&T divestiture did in the United States, and it reduces monopoly power. In practice, however, the system in its aggregate is an inflexible bureaucracy, with service problems for small and large users. There are few performance rivalries, but frequent jurisdictional and political disputes.
Brussels Takes On the Traditional System
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until recently, telecommunications matters were outside the jurisdiction of the European Community and its commission. The Commission’s first attempt in the 1960s to play a role in the field was unsuccessful. In 1978, Commissioner Count Davignon introduced a telematics initiative at the EC summit meeting in Dublin. There was little activity on this issue until 1983, when the commission accepted recommendations that it play a major role in the high-technology and information industries. It concluded that the nationally protected environment that fragmented European telecommunications was an important factor in Europe’s weak competitive position relative to the United States and Japan. This led to decisions that initiated the ESPRIT high-tech technology development program. Although ESPRIT excluded hard-core telecommunications, it laid the foundations for the RACE program that the commission established in 1985 specifically for. telecommunications. The EUREKA program, another Europewide support program, also grew from these beginnings. Davignon wanted to go considerably further and advocated a European telecommunications agency to enhance equipment production and service supply.
The Political Economy of ISDN
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Debates over narrowband ISDN mirror the key conflicts in the information sector. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the PTTs had failed to appreciate the potential of data communications, and much of equipment, packet switching, and so on, was developed outside the telephone industry and its traditional suppliers. For the PTTs, the threat was that the computer industry would reach standards that would be incompatible with the existing public or specialized networks and would instead accelerate the creation of private networks. Computer standards were the purview of the International Standards Organization, ISO, whereas telecommunications standards were those of the ITU’s CCITT, the Consultative Committee on International Telephony and Telegraphy. Though significant coordination between ISO and CCITT exists through Joint Technical Committee l (JTCl), there is also a built-in rivalry between administrations and private network operators. This is partly due to “forum shopping” by interested parties, with the computer community preferring ISO. Joint development of standards was undertaken through the JTC1.
Transborder Data Flows
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Impediments to the free flow of information predate the advent of electronic communications by centuries. From the earliest years of book printing, some published materials were prohibited from importation to other countries or jurisdictions for reasons of politics, religion, or economics. Written correspondence was often censored, although this practice had some limits because of its expense. The advent of wire-line communications gave individuals new means to communicate across borders, but it also provided states with a smaller number of entry channels that needed to be controlled. In the case of the telegraph, state employees handled each word of the messages, and often kept copies. Broadcasting proved harder to contain, since over-the-air messages could cross political boundaries with impunity. Some states deterred individuals from listening to unwelcome news from outside sources by making the activity a crime and by interfering with foreign broadcasting frequencies through electronic jamming.
Pluralist Network
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two basic forces shape change in today’s telecommunications networks in Europe and elsewhere: the integrative forces of technology that push towards ISDN and integrated broadband networks, raising barriers to entry; and the social and economic forces of pluralism, which move the network toward a decentralized and segmented federation of subnetworks. The tension between these forces is most pronounced on the front where they intersect: the rules of interconnection of the multiple hardware and software subnetworks and their access into the integrated whole. Such interconnection and access extend traditional common carrier principles from users to networks. In coming years, policymakers must structure ways in which network interconnection is granted, defined, policed, priced, and harmonized. Many questions must be resolved involving technical standards, national uniformity, and international collaboration.
The Pluralist Network
Authors: Noam Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the first part of this book, we analyzed the incentives and forces for centrifugalism in the previously all-encompassing network. We then turned to the various countries and issues to observe these centrifugal tendencies. Now, we close the circle and return to the nature of change. The incentives to group formation, discussed in the model of Chapter 3, can lead, where they are permitted to do so legally, to new “network associations.” It is a process that we called earlier the “tragedy of the common network,” because it is not its failing but rather its very success which undermined the public network. As we observed, the success of a communal network creates overexpansion, cost shifting, and the forces for particularism. For example, the largest of users increase their electronic communications to huge volumes, and their technical requirements are increasingly differentiated from those of average users.
The Essay in English: Readers and Writers in Dialogue
Authors: Heath Shirley Brice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a brief piece on “Talking vs. Conversation” published in a New York periodical of the early nineteenth century, an unknown writer linked facility in conversation with adeptness in writing essays. He reached back to Cicero for support of his claim and quoted the Roman orator’s “canons for conversation”: Almost apologetically, the Knickerbocker writer prefaced his summary of Cicero’s recommendations with the epigraph above that calls attention to both the “obviousness” of these rules and their ready applicability to everyday experiences.
The Origins of Dualism and the Rise of Subcontracting in Japanese Manufacturing Industries, 1900–1945
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Subcontracting in Japanese manufacturing industries cannot be separated from its historical context. As with any economic institution, it is a complex product of both idiosyncratic developments and common features of a capitalist society. The aim of this chapter is not to trace Japanese economic developments in general, but to examine the particular historical and socioeconomic conditions that determined why subcontracting in Japan developed as it did.1
The Transformation of Japanese Subcontracting, 1960–1990
Authors: Nishiguchi Toshihiro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The three decades after 1960 were among the most outstanding in Japan’s economic history, when its economy shifted from being second rate to becoming preeminent. In 1964 Japan joined the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), thereby signifying its status as a developed nation; by 1970 its gross national product (GNP) was second only to that of the United States in the free world; and by 1986 Japan’s GNP per capita surpassed that of the United States. During these decades, subcontracting in Japan flourished, despite receding dualistic indicators, while shifting from instrumental use to collaborative manufacturing.
Urban Women and the Emergence of Shopping
Authors: Abelson Elaine S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Women were part of the rising middle class in the second half of the nineteenth century, but, unlike their male counterparts, their role lacked an important degree of definition. It was often unclear just what it meant to be a middle-class woman. As domesticity expanded beyond the confines of the individual household and emphasis was increasingly placed on the new world of material possessions, shopping became woman’s work and woman’s recreation. Sanctioned by an older rhetoric of family, but taking place in a radically altered environment under the aegis of a changing value system, shopping and consumer spending emerged as an important component of urban middle-class identity in the decades after the Civil War. Women, who had been effectively excluded from significant economic activity, became, suddenly, central to that identity. The tensions engendered by the convergence of the old and the new become apparent when we examine women’s relation to the emerging culture of con sumer capitalism in detail.
Shoplifting Ladies
Authors: Abelson Elaine S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Kleptomaniac, Edwin S. Porter’s 1905 silent movie, gave powerful definition to the late nineteenth-century female shoplifter. Dealing directly with the pattern of relations that had developed within class, gender, and consumerism in America, Porter told the parallel but very different stories of the thefts committed by two women. The story is simple. A wealthy woman is arrested for shoplifting in Macy’s. In court the elegantly attired defendant is accompanied by her husband and a frock-coated lawyer. She is treated with sympathy and given a chair. The two men are treated with deference; they are obviously important. The Macy detectives who argue the case have no chance; the woman goes free over their strenuous objections. In the same courtroom, a poor woman who has stolen a loaf of bread for her starving children goes to jail. Justice, Porter says in this biting social commentary, is not blind, but blinded by money and power.
Tobacco Liability In The Courts
Authors: Schwartz Gary T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Surgeon General’s 1989 Report avoids any discussion of tobacco companies’ tort liability, explaining that “the lawsuits themselves are private matters, not public issues, and while there are public issues relevant to the lawsuits, the lack of a significant body of literature on the issues of interest precludes coverage of them” (U.S. DHHS, Surgeon General 1989, p. 472). This chapter seeks to offset the scholarly void to which the Surgeon General refers by identifying and discussing the responses of judges and juries to suits against the manufacturers of tobacco products (mainly cigarettes).
Prologue
Authors: Sherman Joe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I first drove into Spring Hill, Tennessee, in September 1986, four months after earthmovers had started peeling the loam off fields behind a six-columned Gone With the Wind style mansion a mile south of the village. Saturn, a wholly owned subsidiary of General Motors Corporation, had bought the mansion, called Haynes Haven, and a second mansion, Rippavilla, which sat across the road. Haynes Haven and Rippavilla anchored Saturn’s 2,450 acres and it was here that the biggest corporation in America was going to have a small-car showdown with the Japanese. General Motors was finally going to try to build a high-quality, low-cost car that Americans liked.