bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
V
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The valence bond theory (VB theory) was the first quantum mechanical theory of the chemical °bond when it was proposed by Walter Reitler and Fritz London in 1927, and was substantially developed by John Slater and Linus Pauling in the 1930s. It drew heavily on °Lewis’s concept of a covalent bond as a shared electron pair. The theory makes the perfect pairing approximation, in which it is supposed that structures with electrons paired in all possible ways dominate the wavefunction of the molecule. The overall wavefunction is a °superposition of all possible perfectly paired canonical structures, with those of lowest energy making the main contribution. In the context of valence bond theory, the superposition is interpreted as a °resonance of the contributing structures.
W
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Walsh diagram is a °correlation diagram that portrays the variation in the orbital energies of a molecule as its shape is changed (typically as a bond angle is changed). By selecting the bond angle that results in the lowest total energy (which is approximated by the sum of the orbital energies) it is possible to predict the likely shape of the molecule from the occupation of its orbitals. It is also possible, from the changes in the populations of the orbitals, to predict how the shape will change when the molecule is electronically excited. The diagrams were first presented by A. D. Walsh in a classic series of papers that occupied a large part of one issue of the Journal of the Chemical Society in 1953. The H2A molecule will serve as an illustration of the general case.
X
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths of the order of 100 pm and less (see °electromagnetic spectrum). A principal terrestrial source of X-rays is the bombardment of metals with high-energy electrons. X-rays are also a component of synchrotron radiation, the radiation emitted by electrons that are constrained to travel in a circular path at high speed. The radiation produced by electron bombardment consists of two components (Fig. X.l). The continuous background, which is known as Bremsstrahlung (from the German words for ‘brake’ and ‘ray’), is formed as the electrons decelerate as they plunge into the metal. Superimposed on the Bremsstrahlung are the sharp lines of the metal’s X-ray spectrum.
Z
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Zeeman effect is the splitting of spectral lines into several components by a strong magnetic field. In the normal Zeeman effect, which is shown by atoms without electron spin, each line is split into three. In the more common anomalous Zeeman effect, which is shown by atoms with non-zero spin, the line structure is more complicated. The effect was first observed by the Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943) in 1896.
Bragg reflection profile shape in X-ray powder diffraction patterns
Authors: Suortti P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The factors influencing the observed reflection profile shape are divided into two categories: external and internal (intrinsic) or instrument factors, and sample effects (see e.g. Chapters 7 and 8). The instrument factors include the distributions of position, direction, wavelength, and polarization of the incident beam, the transformation of these distributions at the sample due to non-ideal geometry, and recording by the analyser/detector. For a well-characterized instrument, these factors are known, and the external profile shape function can be calculated by ray-tracing. Various methods of calculation are presented. In this chapter, the sample effects are divided into those affecting the Bragg reflections and those contributing to the background. The incoherent part of the background is calculated from the known incident X-ray flux and composition of the sample, and is subtracted from the measured pattern. The remaining part, Bragg plus thermal diffuse scattering (TDS), is the observed pattern used in the Rietveld refinement. These components can be separated from each other by modelling TDS with a function which describes the fluctuations of scattering from acoustic phonons, and various possibilities are discussed below.
Some Elementary Pdfs
Authors: Shmueli Uri , Weiss George H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As has been pointed out in the previous chapter, much of the theory of crystallographic statistics is concerned with the construction of both approximate and exact pdfs for the structure factor. Before we embark on a more systematic exposition of existing approaches to the calculation of these pdfs, it is instructive to present some examples of the use of probability theory in deriving exact, although possibly not easily computable, pdfs for use in intensity statistics. We will reduce these exact results to their limiting forms as the number of atoms in the unit cell becomes large and the scattering factors are not too dissimilar. We include in this chapter a brief discussion of the analogy between problems of crystallographic statistics and some aspects of the theory of random walks.
Introduction
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interest in h.f. waves in ionized gases was first motivated by ionospheric and astrophysical observations, and to a lesser extent by the behaviour of electrical discharges. Since about 1950, the effort to understand the properties of plasma waves has been greatly boosted by the needs for supplementary heating of fusion oriented plasmas, and has developed into an essential part of plasma physics.
Linear Wave-Particle Interactions
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Collisionless absorption of h.f. power is a remarkable property of hot plasmas, and it is of great theoretical interest to understand how it occurs. It also has practical importance, since the possibility of selective dissipation and thermalisation of h.f. waves with the appropriate frequency, phase velocity, and polarization is at the very origin of interest in huff plasma heating. We now turn to examine in more detail this aspect of plasma-wave interactions.
Collisionless Stochasticity
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To study the propagation of huff waves in a plasma it is imperative to take into account the collective response of all charged particles described by the dielectric tensor. Determining the motion of a test particle in a ‘prescribed’ huff field, however, is also a meaningful problem, and its solution is often very useful for a deeper understanding of wave-particle interactions. Thus in Section 35, by considering the motion of a charged particle in the potential of a plane electrostatic wave, we were able to clarify under which conditions collisions justify the linearization of the Vlahos equation. In this and the next two sections the single-particle point of view will be pursued further. We will show that collisions are not the only mechanism which can décor relate the motion of a charged particle with respect to a wave: the simultaneous presence of different periodicities in the force experienced by the particle leads, under appropriate conditions, to a stochastization of the motion even in the absence of collisions, and greatly amplifies the effects of collisions when they are present.
Non Linear Effects Associated with H.F. Heating
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 37 we have argued that the linear theory of wave propagation has a very broad domain of applicability. It is nevertheless true that the kinetic equations governing the response of a plasma to h.f. fields are nonlinear, and the concept of linear Eigen modes is only an approximate one. Under appropriate circumstances, therefore, nonlinearities associated with the propagation of h.f. waves in plasmas can lead to new and important effects. In this chapter we will briefly indicate how such effects can be described.
The Physics of Fluid Turbulence
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since 1960, the study of turbulence has been enhanced by developments in areas such as laser anemometry, powerful computers, digital data processing, and theoretical methods from quantum physics. Turbulence is the archetypal, non-linear, non-equilibrium problem of statistical physics; the fundamental problems of turbulence are still unsolved, but there is growing interest in their solution. This book aims to look at fluid turbulence from the point of view of engineering science and physics to produce an integrated treatise on the nature of the physics of fluid turbulence as a universal phenomenon with a universal behaviour. As these topics are almost exclusively theoretical, the closing chapters of the book may be seen as attempting to restore a balance by dealing with some of the more practical aspects of the subject, while at the same time illustrating the amazing diversity of physical phenomena which has emerged from experimental studies of turbulence over the last few years. It is designed for those who are new to the subject and also for those familiar with the more traditional branches of the study of turbulence but not with the usages of quantum physics.
Collisionless Flows
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the absence of intermolecular collisions, collisionless flow fields are formed by the superimposition of several classes of molecule. These classes could be separate streams with different temperatures and with a :relative velocity between them, or a freestream and the reflected molecules from a surface. In most cases, these separate classes will each conform to an equilibrium or Maxwellian distribution. The superimposition may be such that the whole or only part of the distributions contribute to the region of interest in the collisionless flow.
Soil Behaviour in Earthquake Geotechnics
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The behavior of the ground is crucial to the stability of structures during earthquake conditions. Our understanding of this behavior depends on a knowledge of soil dynamics and the deformation of soils during these catastrophic events. This book provides a comprehensive study of this subject, presenting much of the valuable material accumulated by Japanese researchers over recent years. The author covers theory, laboratory tests, and findings from the field, providing helpful guidance for civil engineers undertaking the critical task of protecting structures in vulnerable zones.
Axial Dispersion
Authors: Pratt H R C , Stevens G W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The treatment in the previous chapter relates specifically to pure plug flow, which in practice occurs only in extractors such as discrete-stage mixer-settlers and perforated plate columns where phase separation is virtually complete between stages. Other contactor types suffer adversely in performance from non-uniform flows in the continuous, and sometimes the dispersed phase; these are referred to collectively as axial dispersion and require the more advanced treatment described in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Lock G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At any given moment, huge amounts of thermal energy leave the earth’s surface to be carried upwards by natural convection. In this process, energy is transported by bulk motion of the fluid within which it is temporarily stored. Typically, the process is much more effective than thermal conduction which relies on diffusive molecular interactions. The latter take place at molecular velocities which hover around the velocity of sound; but molecular motion is omnidirectional and thus creates no net energy flux in any particular direction unless the temperature, and hence the sonic velocity, varies in that direction. Convective velocities, on the other hand, are frequently much less than the sonic velocity but arise in circumstances where they are essentially unidirectional; moreover, they are capable of producing large vertical energy fluxes in the presence of small vertical temperature gradients. This distinction between the microscopic and macroscopic manifestations of molecular energy flux is at the root of many natural phenomena observed in the atmosphere, the oceans, and the core of the earth.
Nano-grating or one-dimensional scaling systems: diffraction gratings
Authors: Taniguchi Norio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The diffraction grating is a typical product for which nanotechnology plays a significant role in its fabrication and evaluation. It is an optical element with extremely fine parallel grooves on a flat or concave optical surface. The groove shape on a mechanically ruled grating is usually triangular, as shown in Fig. 4.l.l, and the spacing of the grooves u ranges from submicrometre to a few tens of micrometres, depending on the wavelength range in which the grating is to be used.
Introduction
Authors: LOCK G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For thousands of years, humankind has been aware of changes in phase but has not always understood them. In prehistoric times, primitive people watched lava solidify, ice melt, water evaporate, and rain fall; with the dawn of civilization, the extensive use of fire provided the opportunity to observe and experiment with many boiling and melting phenomena. Most significant, perhaps, was the discovery of metals whose value and wide spread use, in coinage and weaponry, led to the inevitable observation that different metals require a different ‘heat’ to melt them. But since the idea of ‘heat’ was (and remained) obscure and confused, and the scientific method itself was not widely recognized until the seventeenth century, it is not surprising that terms such as ‘melting point’ and ‘latent heat’ were unknown until modern times.
Solidification And Fluidification
Authors: LOCK G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Solidification is defined as the process in which a fluid is transformed into a solid; fluidification is the reverse process. Since fluids take two basic forms, there are four principal phase change processes: solid+ liquid, known as melting, and solid+ vapour, known as sublimation, are both examples of fluidification; liquid+ solid, known as freezing, and vapour+ solid, known as deposition, are the two solidification processes. The solid+ solid transformation completes the list of commonly encountered latent heat transfer processes involving solid phases.
Evaporation
Authors: LOCK G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will consider various forms of evaporation, covering both bipartitioned and dispersed systems. We may easily anticipate some of the non-dimensional groups which affect evaporation rates: for example, the ratio of sensible to latent heat, the Jakob number. To begin with, we limit ourselves to situations in which evaporation is essentially the inverse of condensation, thus permitting the use of ideas and results presented in the previous chapter. In particular, we will consider the classical Nusselt problem with condensation replaced by evaporation at the interface.
Worked Examples
Authors: LOCK G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fundamentals are the core of this book. Even so, it is often helpful to illustrate their use through application. The exercises at the end of each chapter provide the student with the opportunity to test his or her understanding and at the same time gain a sense of the physical magnitudes likely to be encountered in practice. This chapter is an extension of the same learning process. It is designed as a series of fully worked examples in which theoretical ideas are developed and applied to real situations. In some circumstances, a precise computational scheme is necessary to provide an accurate prediction of temperature, heat flux, etc; in others, an order of magnitude estimate suffices. This provides a mix of situations, some quantitative but ideal and some qualitative but real.
Plasma Etching Fundamentals and Applications
Authors: Sugawara M , Stansficld Barry L , Handa S , Fujita K , Watanabe S , Tsukamoto T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The focus of this book is the remarkable advances in understanding of low pressure RF (radio frequency) glow discharges. A basic analytical theory and plasma physics are explained. Plasma diagnostics are also covered before the practicalities of etcher use are explored.
Properties Of The Various Metals, Impurity Content, And Refining
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Partly as a background and a framework for the other chapters a very brief and introductory presentation is given in this chapter of the various metals, their physical properties, how they are extracted, and how this affects the content of impurities and inclusions. The aim has certainly not been to produce a handbook but rather to outline the problems, point out properties of interest to workers in refining, and to encourage a general systematic approach that applies to any metal. The review is based on the periodic table of the elements (see Table 2.13). Metals are included because of their commercial importance or, as in the case of the alkali metals, because they can be used to illustrate some important problems or principles in refining. When an element is not dealt with, it is hoped that the position in the periodic table will give an indication of the impurities and problems that will be encountered in purification.
Dispersive non-linear pulse phenomena in guiding circuits
Authors: Shvartsburg A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physical basis non-linear regimes of signal transmission by means of guided systems is the overlapping of some fields of non-linear optics, electrodynamics of bounded systems, and communication theory. The non-linear optical effects point out the physical mechanism of rebuilding of amplitude and spectral envelopes, phase, and the polarization of powerful wave pulses. The mode structure of travelling waves, typical of guided systems, determines the energetic characteristics and spatial scales of such rebuilding. The application of non-linear processes to the coding, transmission and receiving of signals is discussed in the framework of communication theory.
Dimensional Analysis And Reactor Design
Authors: Guthrie R I L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It becomes apparent at an early stage in one’s career as an engineer that purely theoretical analyses rarely produce completely correct solutions to the problems set by real systems. For example, the detailed perf9rmance of many metallurgical and chemical reactors of the type mentioned in Chapter 1 would defy analytical solution. While it may be desirable to have a complete mathematical solution describing gas, steel and slag flows in a basic oxygen furnace, together with associated chemical reactions, the task would be difficult for even the most sophisticated of mathematical models. The problem is certainly not amenable to analytical solution. It is clear that alternative approaches are needed in the analysis of such problems.
Geometric Computation for Machine Vision
Authors: Kanatani Kenichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Machine vision is the study of how to build intelligent machines which can understand the environment by vision. Among many existing books on this subject, this book is unique in that the entire volume is devoted to computational problems, which most books do not deal with. One of the main subjects of this book is the mathematics underlying all vision problems - projective geometry, in particular. Since projective geometry has been developed by mathematicians without any regard to machine vision applications, our first attempt is to `tune' it into the form applicable to machine vision problems. The resulting formulation is termed computational projective geometry and applied to 3-D shape analysis, camera calibration, road scene analysis, 3-D motion analysis, optical flow analysis, and conic image analysis. A salient characteristic of machine vision problems is that data are not necessarily accurate. Hence, computational procedures defined by using exact relationships may break down if blindly applied to inaccurate data. In this book, special emphasis is put on robustness, which means that the computed result is not only exact when the data are accurate but also is expected to give a good approximation in the prescence of noise. The analysis of how the computation is affected by the inaccuracy of the data is also crucial. Statistical analysis of computations based on image data is also one of the main subjects of this book.
Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control
Authors: Vas Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first comprehensive book on sensor less high performance a.c. drives. It is essential reading for anyone interested in acquiring a solid background on sensor less torque-controlled drives. It presents a detailed and unified treatment of sensor less vector-controlled and direct-torque controlled drive systems. It also discusses the applications of artificial intelligence to drives. Where possible, space vector theory is used and emphasis is laid on detailed mathematical and physical analysis. Sensorless drive schemes for different types of permanent magnet synchronous motors, synchronous reluctance motors, and induction motors are also presented. These include more than twenty vector drives e.g. five types of MRAS-based vector drives, and eleven types of direct-torque-controlled (DTC) drives, e.g. the ABB DTC drive. However, torque-controlled switched reluctance motor drives are also discussed due to their emerging importance. The book also covers various drive applications using artificial intelligence (fuzzy logic, neural networks, fuzzy-neural networks) and AI-based modelling of electrical machines. Finally, self-commissioning techniques are also discussed. This is a comprehensive thoroughly up-to-date, and self-contained book suitable for students at various levels, teachers, and industrial readership. Peter Vas is a Professor at the Department of Engineering at the University of Aberdeen, UK, where he is also the Head of the Intelligent Motion Control Group. His previous books published by Oxford University Press are extensively used worldwide.
Introduction to torque-controlled drives
Authors: Vas Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past, d.c. motors were used extensively in areas where variable-speed operation was required, since their flux and torque could be controlled easily by the field and armature current. In particular, the separately excited d.c. motor has been used mainly for applications where there was a requirement of fast response and four-quadrant operation with high performance near zero speed. However, d.c. motors have certain disadvantages, which are due to the existence of the commutator and the brushes. That is, they require periodic maintenance; they cannot be used in explosive or corrosive environments and they have limited commutator capability under high-speed, high-voltage operational conditions. These problems can be overcome by the application of alternating-current motors, which can have simple and rugged structure, high maintainability and economy; they are also robust and immune to heavy overloading. Their small dimension compared with d.c. motors allows a.c. motors to be designed with substantially higher output ratings for low weight and low rotating mass.