bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The effect of the carbon–bromine bond type on the limiting oxygen index. II—Polymethylmethacrylate and polystyrene
Authors: Ravey M. , Fischler Th. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractFurther evidence has been obtained to suggest that the fire retardation efficiencies of several organo‐bromine compounds, as measured by the limiting oxygen index method, are independent of the type of carbon‐bromine bond, depending almost entirely upon the bromine concentration. Linear regression analysis has confirmed the linearity of the relationship between the limiting oxygen index method and the bromine concentration. The fire retardation efficiency (as measured by the limiting oxygen index method) of the organo‐bromine compounds does, however, depend to a marked extent upon the substrate.
Smoke characteristics of tunnel wood fires
Authors: Lee Calvin K. , Singer Joseph M. , Cashdollar Kenneth L. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractCharacteristics of smoke particulates generated from a wood fire in a ventilated model tunnel were investigated using an in situ optical and a grid sampling technique. Volume‐to‐surface mean diameter and mass concentration of the smoke particles, and the transmission, optical density per unit length and particulate optical density of the smokeladen exhaust gas were obtained as a function of the burning process in the tunnel. It was found that high concentration of smoke (∼1 mg l−1) were rapidly generated as the fire changed from oxygen‐rich to fuel‐rich burning, resulting in fast obscuration of the passageway. The simultaneous generationof large amounts of smoke and high temperature carbon monoxide (∼8%) coupled with low transmission (∼1% though 0.5 m) represents and extremely hazardous situation in such a fire environment. Present measurements and others from current smoke testing chambers are compared and discussed.
The effect of halogenated fire extinguishants on the self‐ignition of polyolefins
Authors: Baillet C. , Delfosse L. , Antonik S. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe effect of halogen additives, containing bromine as one of the substituents (e.g. CF2CIBr, CF3Br), on the self‐ignition of polypropylene has been investigated. These compounds appear to promote self‐ignitionat low concentration and inhibit self‐ignition at high concentration when introduced into the oxidant gas. The lability of bromine is thought to influence the limiting concentration above which these additives act as inhibitors. By comparison with other systems of oxidation the authors propose an explanation an explanation in which HBr and Br' radical species are the only active entities in all cases.
Use of experimental materials to assess toxicological tests for rating polymeric materials under thermal stress
Authors: Anderson R. C. , Dierdorf J. , Stock M. F. , Matijak M. , Sawin R. , Alarie Y. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn order to evaluate the performance of the indices of toxicity which have been developed, thermal decomposition products of three polymers, polyvinylchloride, polychloroprene, and polycarbonate were tested for sensory irritation, physiological stress induction, and acute lethality. Each polymer has been contrasted with the same polymer containing 5% zinc ferrocyanide. The most irritating and the most stressful pyrolysis products were those from polyvinylchloride. The least irritation and stress were associated with polycarbonate decomposition products. The acute lethality for polychloroprene was higher than that of the other two polymers by a factor of 4. The addition of zinc ferrocyanide had a variable effect, depending on the polymer and the index of toxicity being evaluated. Sensory irritation was lessened by the presence of zinc ferrocyanide in polycarbonate. The sample weight required to cause death of 50% of the animals was reduced for the two hydrogen chloride‐generating polymers, polyvinylchloride and polychloroprene. However, the acute lethality of polycarbonate did not change with addition of zinc ferrocyanide. By itself, zinc ferrocyanide decomposed very slowly during heating, caused almost no irritation or stress, and no deaths.
Relationship between fire resistance and fire tolerance
Authors: Harmathy T. Z. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractMuch of the information accumulated on the fire resistance of ‘dividing’ elements can be utilized in the design of buildings for fire safety, if the fire tolerance values are converted into fire resistance. Three methods of conversion, one based on the concept of equal temperature‐time areas, the second on the concept of equal maximum temperatures, and the third, Law method, are critically examined and handy conversion tools presented. In the case of the ‘key’ elements of buildings, basing the fire safety design on fire resistance information is not recommended.
Post‐flashover compartment fires—application of a theoretical model
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Williamson Robert Brady 
Published: May 2005

AbstractNumerical solutions of the post‐flashover fire are considered and a computer program is presented. The solutions are compared with experiment and the sensitivity of the solutions to a number of variables is discussed. It is shown that increasing the ventilation may either increase or decrease fire intensity, and the importasnce of the ventilation controlled phase of the fire is discussed. Application of the model to calculate the expected time‐temperature history is illustrated and its significance is discussed. The deterministic approach is compared with a new method for calculating the most severe fire by letting one variable take any value between certain limits. The latter method is called pessimization. The significance for designers is noted.
Heat transfer from a buoyant smoke layer beneath a ceiling to a sprinkler spray. 2—an experiment
Authors: Morgan H. P. , Baines K. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractAn experiment is described which measures the heat transferred from a hot, flowing, buoyant gas layer in a mall, to a sprinkler spray. Interpolation techniques are described which allow for the large heat losses occurring within the apparatus (a large‐scale model mall). The results are compared with predictions based on the method developed in Part 1 and found to be consistently 150% of the predicted heat transfer rates. Given the assumptions required by the predictive calculations this is thought to be reasonable degree of agreement. The largest heat transfer rate to the one sprinkler spray in this experiment was 157 kW ± 38 kW.
On the role of KρC of room lining materials in the growth of room fires
Authors: Thomas P. H. , Bullen M. L. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe role of the product of the thermal properties of thermal conductivity and thermal capacity per unit volume in fire growth is explored in relation to a simple model of a room fire. The calculated differences between flashover times for two different lining materials are plausible; the main conclusion is to show that the flashover time depends on KρC in a weaker relationship than simple proportionality.
An apparatus for the determination of the ignition time of fabrics
Authors: Bernskiöld A. , Schultz B. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn this paper an apparatus is presented by means of which it is possible to measure the ignition time with a very high accuracy, namely 0.01 s. This apparatus has been developed not only for determining the ignition time of fabrics and end products such as curtains, garments, beds, upholstered chairs and toys, but also as an igniting source for use in studying the flame propagation. By using the apparatus it is possible to separate the burning phase from the ignition phase.
Faults in fire extinguishers
Authors: Emson I. C. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractSpecimens of dry powder, halogenated hydrocarobon and carbon dioxide extinguishers manufactured in 1972 were tested in that year as part of a monitoring scheme for fire extinguishers. Leakages and faults which prevented an extinguisher operating or might lead to it being discarded in a emergency are listed, and some of the other defects which were encountered are noted.
Toxic gas and smoke assessment studies on vinyl floor covering with the fire propagation test
Authors: Martin K. G. , Powell D. A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe Fire Propagation Test (BS 476 Part 6) has been used with the discharge of combustion products into a small test room, to provide a fire hazard assessment of some polyvinylchloride floor covering systems, and includes measurements of fire propagation, smoke, CO and HCI production. Particular attention has been given to the change in the HCI concentration of the Room atmosphere during the test and the influence of relative humidity and the nature of the surface linings of the room. The results have been discussed as a contribution to the understanding of the role of HCI in toxicity of fire atmospheres. Some approaches for improving further the reproducibility of the test method are indicated and support is given to the Japanese proposal that such a test be standardized to enable comparison of fire hazard potential of lining systems used in buildings.
Fire testing flat roofs and wall linings with point fire sources
Authors: Brein D. , Seeger P. G. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn the spring of 1977 seven real scale fire tests on flat roofs and wall linings were carried out with relatively small fire loads to simulate the early stages of a fire. Tests with large fire loads had already been performed. Five tests were carried out on insulated corrugated steel roof decks with a fire‐retardant EPS (expanded polystyrene) foam insulation of reduced flammability and one test with a non‐combustible mineral‐wool insulation. A seventh test was run to study the fire behaviour of corrugated asbestos cement roofs and wall linings with EPS foam insulations and fire loads of the same kind (wood cribs up to 200 kg) as before. The tests demonstrated both the advantages and the disadvantages of the different insulations for corrugated steel roof decks in case of fires before Flash‐over.
Carbonyl sulphide in fire gases
Authors: Tsuchiya Yoshio , Boulanger J. G. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe toxic gases released by combustion/pyrolysis of wool include CO, HCN and four compounds containing sulphur. Animal test data suggest that the toxicity of the sulphur compounds is significant. Wool was pyrolysed and the gases were analysed by GC‐MS. SO2 was the main sulphur‐containing gas produced by flaming combustion in an oxygen‐enriched atmosphere. In pyrolysis under various conditions COS was a major sulphur‐containing product. Although it is a highly toxic gas, COS has not so far been reported by workers engaged in the toxicity of fire gases. It is suggested that analysis of COS be included in the analytical toxicology of sulphur‐containing polymers.
Assessment of draft ISO radiant panel spread‐of‐flame test
Authors: Settle G. E. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA versatile radiant panel apparatus for studying flame propagation in materials used as interior finishes on floors, walls and ceilings is described. Comparative trials with this apparatus and other tests based on relatively very small sources of heat were made on a wide variety of floorcoverings. The results showed that fibre composition and specimen orientation have a marked effect on flame spread. Materials which gave favourable (low flame spread) results in the panel test also gave favourable results in the small heat source tests. On the other hand, some materials which gave favourable results in the small heat source tests gave unfavourable results in the panel test. It was concluded that although small heat source tests will continue to play an important role in flammability testing, the radiant panel test gives an additional assurance of the flame spread resistance of materials in general and should be strongly recommended for materials intended for high risk areas. The effects on flame spread in the panel test of various factors concerned for materials intended for high risk areas. The effects on flame spread in the panel test of various factors concerned with the structure and conditions of test specimens and the apparatus are discussed. A small modification of the radiant panel apparatus is described which enables it to be temporarily altered to simulate a standard French radiant panel test.
Australian fire statistics
Authors: Ramsay G. Caird 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis paper describes in some detail the sources of data on fires occurring in Australia with to their scope and reliability. Particular reference is made to the data published by the Fire Brigades Board of New South Wales for these are the most detailed and comprehensive published in Australia although limited to one State. Data are given on the number of fires, property loss, and deaths and injuries due to fires in Australia and on causes, occupancies, points of origin and extents of fires in New South Wales. Comparisons are made with United Kingdom and United States of America statistics where relevant data are available. In conclusion, some trends which indicate that better data should be available in the future are discussed.
Fire fatality study
Authors: Birky M. M. , Halpin B. M. , Caplan Y. H. , Fisher R. S. , McAllister J. M. , Dixon A. M. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractOver a six‐year period, 530 fire fatalities resulting from 398 fires were studied in the State of Maryland. The study had two major objectives: (1) to determine the specific cause of death by a detailed autopsy stud of fire victims, and (2) to determine the specific cause of fatality‐producing fire by an on‐the‐scene fire investigation. The fire fatality study was limited to residential fires and to fatalities that occurred within 6 h of the fire. The results of the toxicological analysis show that (1) 60% of the victims had a carboxyhemoglobin value greater than or equal to 50% carbon monoxide saturation, (2) an additional 20% had elevated carboxyhemoglobin with preexisting cardiovascular disease, (3) 11% of the victims had severe burns, (4) 9% were unexplained and (5) 40% of the victims had positive blood alcohol levels with 30% of these meeting the legal definition of intoxication (blood alcohol ≥0.1%). The fire investigations confirmed that the predominant fatal scenario is the cigarette ignition of upholstered furniture or bedding. This scenario accounted for 47% of the fires and 44% of the victims. Alcohol also appears to be significant factor in this scenario.
Burning characteristics of materials
Authors: Paul K. T. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe feasibility of using a dynamic, i.e. multivariable, test procedure instead of the more usual single point tests has been investigated by determining the limiting conditions for burning. The rate of burning and the limiting conditions for flaming and smoldering combustion have been determined over a range of temperatures and oxygen concentrations. Results show that the relative burning rates of materials and also their relative combustion thresholds can alter significantly with changes in the tests environment.
The early fire behaviour of combustible wall lining materials
Authors: Moulen A. W. , Grubits S. J. , Martin K. G. , Dowling V. P. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe development of the Australian Standard AS 1530 Part 3 ‘Test for Early Fire Hazard Properties of Materials’ from the study of the fire behavior of cellulosic wall linings in simulated room fires has been outlined. Similar studies for assessing a wider range of wall linings are now reported including various plastic facings applied to hardboard. Using similar parameters for ignitability, spread of flame, heat evolved and smoke developed, the behaviors of the linings in the standard test have been compared to the behavior in corner‐wall burns. Two methods of ignition were used for the burns; (a) timber cribs; and (b) impressed radiant heat with a pilot flame. The results are discussed in terms of the validity of the standard test as a multi‐parameter assessment of materials in a fire hazard situation. The test has been validated for the wider range of wall lining materials.
Current thinking and development in fire testing in Europe
Authors: Malhotra H. L. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe paper examines briefly the history of fire testing in the UK and outlines the current European position as exemplified by activities in the EEC member countries, the Scandinavian countries and Eastern Europe. The role of ISO and the changing approach to the development of fire tests is considered. The interactions amongst test developing bodies, regulatory authorities and the regional organizations concerned with harmonization are highlighted.
Comparative studies of the burning behaviour of textiles from polyester/cotton and pure cotton
Authors: Umbach K. H. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA test device consisting of an asbestos covered wooden cylinder was developed to study the burning behaviour of textiles relative to transmitted thermal energy and heat flux registered at 20 sensor points on the cylinder. In order to simulate a ‘line situation’ a reproducible procedure was used for igniting the fabrics at the hem edge by open flames. By linking known tolerance thresholds for second degree burn injuries in humans to the measured time patterns of transmitted thermal energy, the burning behaviour of a pure cotton twill, a 35/65% polyester‐cotton twill and a 65/35% polyester‐cotton twill was compared. All fabrics, which had no fire‐retardant finishes, were also tested in combination with cotton underwear and in some of the experiments they were soaked with an inflammable solvent before ignited. In contrast to customary opinions it could be shown that in apparel burn accidents without inflammable solvents fabrics made from polyester‐cotton blends are more advantageous with regard to the thermal energy transmitted to the skin of the wearer than fabrics made from cotton. Even when the burning clothes are soaked with an inflammable solvent, polyester‐cotton blends are practically not more disadvantageous than 100% cotton fabrics.
A closer look at cause and effect in fire fatalities—The role of toxic fumes
Authors: Punderson John O. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractMuch has been learned about fire from laboratory studies on fire gases, but the idea of using a laboratory toxicity test to rank or rate materials with respect to fire safety has not proved to be a fruitful concept. ‘Toxicity’ standards or specifications are not an effective defense against the threat of toxic fumes in fire for reasons which are fundamental to the nature of fire itself. As a matter of public policy on materials standards, by far the best way of reducing the threat of toxic fumes and all other fire threats is by control and regulation of those materials properties or performance aspects which permit the elimination or moderation of fire. Some of the concepts discussed in this paper run counter to commonly held assumptions, and they are put forth for the purpose of stimulating open public discussion on alternative approaches to improved decision‐making in fire safety.
Synergistic action of Sb2O3 with bromine‐containing flame retardant in polyolefins: 3—The relationship between certain combustion variables
Authors: Handa Takashi , Nagashima Toshiaki , Ebihara Naobumi 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe combustion of polypropylene flame‐retarded by the synergistic action between Sb2O3 and bromine‐containing flame retardants has been studied. From the relationship between a number of the variables, a parameter quantatively reflecting the flame retardant effect has been found. With the addition of flame retardant, the rate of weight loss, the CO and CO2 emission rates and heat release all decrease while smoke density increases. These effects were considered to depend on the concentration of HBr gas in the pyrolysates released into the gas phase (i.e., dWHBr/dW, HBr flux ensity), and the following equations were obtained:

η*(dW/dt)max, which approximately corresponds to the oxidation velocity of pyrolized hydrocarbon, is inversely proportional to the HBr flux density. As the conversion of CO to CO2 was almost independent of the amount of flame retardants added, the flame retardant effect of bromine‐containing flame retardants was considered to be a retardant effect of the initial oxidation reaction at the gas liquid interface. Moreover, η* is almost proportional to the combustion efficiency η, which was obtained from the heat release measured in the flaming region. The heat release is therefore considered to be governed by the HBr flux density.
Fire safety of soft furnishings—an overview
Authors: Sumi K. , D'Souza M. V. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe fire risk posed by soft furnishings such as bedding materials and upholstered furniture and the strategies being developed to reduce the number of fire‐related casualities are reviewed from a Canadian point of view. Statistics from Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom indicate that a substantial reduction in the number of fire deaths would be possible if the ability of assemblies of materials to resist ignition by smokers' materials, such as cigarettes and matches, could be improved. The post‐ignition performance of furnishings that results in generation of heat, smoke and toxic gases is also important from a safety point of view. A need exists for both full‐scale and small‐scale fire tests, and for mathematical modelling for present and future control strategies.
Oxidation and stabilization of hydrocarbon polymers: Relationships, new aspects and unsolved problems
Authors: Pospišil Jan 
Published: May 2005

AbstractOxidation processes involved in processing, atmospheric ageing and the pre‐burning stages of hydrocarbon polymers are outlined. Open problems based on up‐to‐date knowledge of the mechanisms of oxidation and stabilization processes are considered. Stabilizers used to assist processing and long‐term stability are transformed during their service‐time. Some of the products thus formed, as well as the products of polymer oxidation, should be considered as inherent impurities of polymers and play an active role in the degradation. Because of safety consideration, some of the products have to be protected also against catastrophic oxidation, i.e. burning. Significant changes in the mechanisms of degradation take place in the pre‐burning step in the phases of high temperature oxidation and oxidative pyrolysis. Fuller understanding of the mutual relationships in the mixtures of antioxidants and/or light stabilizers with flame‐retardants in lacking.
Lightweight fire protection of steel framed buildings: Comments on russian experience in use of light weight fire protection coverings for steel frame buildings
Authors: Yakovelv A. U. , Bushev V. P. , Levites F. A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractIn recent year, increased attention, linked to the use of new structural design criteria and materials, has been given to maintaining the integrity of buildings and structures exposed to fire. Structures are now designed using lighter structural shapes and consequently differ from earlier, more traditional buildings, in terms of their resistance to the effects of the high temperature of fire. Contemporary structures are less expensive. Advance in building construction technology also result in faster erection.
The thermo‐oxidative decomposition, ignition and burning of flame‐retarded polystyrenes
Authors: Masařík I. , Světlík J. , Horák Z. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe theromo‐oxidative decomposition, flash ignition and burning of high‐impact polystyrene containing the flame‐retardant system decabromodiphenyl oxide + antimony trioxide was investigated using the Setchkin apparatus combined with mass spectrometry. The time dependences of the release rate of the main products into the gas phase during decomposition and burning showed that the flame‐retardants markedly influence these processes. It was found that the retardants used exhibit an acceleration of the polymer degradation and that the efficiency of inhibition in the gas phase depends on the atomic ratio antimony: bromine.