bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The New Ideal: ‘To become what one is’
Authors: May Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aims of this concluding chapter of Part I are threefold: first, to summarize the conception of morality that Nietzsche repudiates; second, to propose that, of the various candidates for his new ideal, the one that is most consistent with his standard of ‘life-enhancement’ is to ‘become what one is’; and, third, to suggest that Nietzsche regards both his critique of morality and the new ethic he advances in its place as, in key respects, based on facts about what promotes or hinders (‘higher’) human flourishing-with the result that those who engage with Nietzsche’s philosophy cannot selectively ignore, with-out attempting to refute, certain elements that they may find distasteful, such as his conception of justice. In all three cases, I attempt to gather together the threads of previous chapters-in the first case, by highlighting the principal features of ‘morality’ that we have encountered in each chapter hitherto; in the second case, by reminding ourselves that any new Nietzschean ideal must be compatible with his three criteria of life-enhancement-a demand not met, I suggest, by either his doctrine of ‘Eternal Return’ or his conception of the ‘sovereign individual’ (or, indeed, of the ‘ Übermensch’); and, in the third case, by recalling the sense in which Nietzsche conceives of values as ‘objective’, and then tracing some disturbing consequences of a central Nietzschean hypothesis which we encountered in Chapter 3.1.2-namely, that creativity presupposes cruelty.
The Unconditional Value of Truth: An Assessment of Nietzsche’s Critique
Authors: May Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter attempted to set out the diverse elements of Nietzsche’s ‘experimental’ questioning of the value of truth. We saw that this critique of the value of truth in the name of the value of truth-this claim that we have been untruthful about the nature and value of our valuation of truth-is one of the most pioneering and powerful aspects of his philosophy. For it is very plausible that on a short-term calculus of utility, untruth is frequently more useful than truth, while on a long-term calculus of utility or, indeed, on the basis of ‘the character of existence’ as such, we simply cannot say Whether the greater advantage is on the side of the unconditionally mistrustful or of the unconditionally trusting’ or whether ‘injothing is needed more than the truth’ (GS, 344). Hence to suggest that the value of truth is unconditioned is simply to ‘affirm another world than the [real] world of life, nature, and history’ and thus ‘to negate ... this world’.
Nasal Vowel Evolution in Romance
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book provides a complete, comparative, nongallocentric account of nasality in all the Romance languages. It demonstrates the central role of nasality in the history of sound changes in the languages of southern Europe. In doing so, it assembles a large amount of important philological and linguistic data previously dispersed and difficult to access, and organizes it in a way that allows the author (and will allow the reader) to analyse it systematically. Two introductory chapters discuss general principles of nasality and Romance nasalization. Subsequent chapters are then devoted to each language. The author considers all the standard varieties and a substantial range of non-standard varieties, and identifies broad characteristics of vowel nasalization in Romance. In the final chapter he makes a clear bridge between the data-rich discussion of individual languages and the isolation of language universals. This is will be the standard work in its field for many years. It will be of central interest to linguists and philologists of Romance, as well as to those concerned more generally to understand the causes, patterns, and processes of sound change.
Language Diversity: Changes in Time
Authors: Nettle Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter examined the distribution of languages in space. The approach was to take a snapshot of languages at one point in time (the present day), and assume that the pattern observed was some sort of equilibrium. The assumption of equilibrium proved to be useful, in so far as the patterns we observed did, by and large, bear a systematic relationship to ecology and geography.
Plato (C.428–347 Bc)
Authors: Bostock David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The best known and most widely studied of all the ancient Greek philosophers. He was an Athenian, born into a noble family, and might have been expected to play a part in the politics of that city. But in fact he came under the influence of Socrates, who fired him with an enthusiasm for philosophy. When Socrates was condemned to death and executed in 399, Plato gave up all thought of a political career, and left Athens in disgust. It issaid that he then travelled to various places, includ ing Egypt, but we have no trustworthy information on this part of his life, until we come to his first visit to Italy and Sicily in 387. From that visit he returned to Athens, and soon after founded his Academy, just outside the city. This may be regarded as the first ‘university’. Apart from two further visits to Sicily, in 367 and 361, he remained at the Academy until hisdeath in 347.
Augustine (354–430)
Authors: Kirwan Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Saint, Bishop of Hippo Regius (now Annaba, Algeria), Doctor of the Western Church. His enormous influence on the doctrines of Western Christianity owes much to his skill and perseverance as a philosopher. In the history of philosophy itself he is a secondary figure, partly because he didn’t have the taste or leisure to acquire more than a scrappy knowledge of the 800-year tradition preceding him.
Thomas hobbes (1588–1679)
Authors: Gert Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
English philosopher, generally regarded as the founder of English moral and political philosophy. His most famous work is Leviathan (English edition 165r; Latin edition r668), but he published translations of Thucydides (1628) and Homer (1674–6) as well as a philosophical trilogy in Latin-De Corpore (1655), De Cive (1642; English translation, 1651). And De Homine (1658) covering logic, language, optics, human nature, law, and religion, as well as moral and political theory.
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)
Authors: Harrison Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
English philosopher who dreamed at a young age of founding a sect of philosophers called utilitarians and who lived to see his dream fulfilled. He also planned that his body when he died should be made into what he called an f auto-icon5 (that is, a representation of itself) so that it could be used as a monument to the founder of the sect. This intention was also fulfilled, so that to this day meetings of Benthamites sometimes take place in the actual presence of Bentham himself (who spends the rest of his time sitting in a glass box in University College London).
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)
Authors: Sprigge T L S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German philosopher of inherited independent means, who gained distinction only towards the end of his life as a result, partly, of the notice taken of him in the British utilitarian journal the Westminster Review. His mother, who thoroughly disliked her son for his gloomy outlook, ran a literary salon in Weimar, frequented by Goethe, and this led to a short period of intellectual friendship during Schopenhauer’s youth, as Goethe initially thought Schopenhauer’s philosophy relevant for his own theory of colours. Schopenhauer arrived at his general philosophical position very early and all his works are developments of the same basic initial ideas. His chief inspirations were Plato, Kant, and the Upanishads. He is, in fact, the first (and remains among the few) Western philosophers to have related his thought to Hindu and Buddhist ideas. However, his most distinctive contribution to philosophy is in his insistence that Will is more basic than thought in both man and nature.
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925)
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The founder of modern mathematical logic. As a logician and philosopher of logic he ranks with Aristotle; as a philosopher of mathematics he has had no peer throughout the history of the subject. After taking his doctorate in philosophy at Gottingen, he taught at the University of Jena from 1874 until his retirement in 1918; apart from his intellectual activity his life was uneventful and secluded. His work was little read in his lifetime, and for a long time his influence in philosophy was exercised mainly through the writings of others.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980)
Authors: Baldwin Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sartre’s oeuvre is a unique phenomenon. No other major philosopher has also been a major playwright, novelist, political theorist, and literary critic. It is still too early to judge which facet of Sartre’s extraordinary genius posterity will regard as the most important, but since his philosophy permeates his other works, its enduring interest is assured.
The Particularist’s Progress
Authors: Dancy Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many people seem willing to call themselves feminists with little idea of what they are committing themselves to. The same, in my experience, is true of particularism in the theory of moral reasons. There is a common suggestion that to be a particularist is, at the outset, only to admit that circumstances can make a difference. But if that were all that particularism amounted to, it would be uncontentious. In this chapter I lay out what I think one commits oneself to if one accepts the general claim that reasons are sensitive to context-a claim sometimes called holism in the theory of reasons, and of which moral particularism is merely one expression.
General Introduction
Authors: Eilan Naomi , McCarthy Rosaleen , Brewer Bill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of these introductory remarks is to explain something of the rationale for holding a joint philosophy and psychology workshop on spatial representation, most of the papers delivered at which are collected in this volume. In Part I we give a very general and somewhat philosophically oriented description of why we believe issues of spatial representation are so central to an understanding of the way the mind represents the external world, by describing four basic but abstract ingredients in our conception of an external spatial world which we believe the chapters in this volume help to articulate. In section II we give a very brief summary of some of the major problems, philosophical and psychological, raised and discussed in the chapters in each of the five parts of the book.
Words and Concepts in the Brain
Authors: Damasio Hanna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The goal of my work is the understanding of the neural basis for certain cognitive processes and for certain behaviors. The level at which I work is the large-scale system level in the primate brain, specifically, in the human brain. I am interested in events at other levels, as for instance at cellular level or at the level of microcircuitry, or at the purely cognitive level, all of which are obviously necessary to get to a complete understanding of mind and brain phenomena, but my work is about the large-scale system level and this is the subject of this chapter.
Motivations for the Markedness Model
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a number of themes which motivate the markedness model and which are current in research areas concerned with language in use. This model is an explanation accounting for speakers’ socio-psychological motivations when they engage in CS. It incorporates themes from a variety of disciplines, from the sociology of language (the ‘allocation paradigm’) to pragmatics (implicatures and intentional meaning) to social anthropology (transactions/negotiations) to linguistic anthropology (communicative competence). A common thread in all of these approaches is that participants ‘know’ (at some level) that they enter into conversation with similar expectations, whether about unmarked code choices or about unmarked communicative intentions. In addition, all approaches (with the possible exception of the ‘allocation paradigm’) have another common motif: they emphasize the speaker as a creative actor. They also all see linguistic choices as accomplishing more than the conveying of referential meaning.
Hobbes’s Conception of the State of Nature from 1640 to 1651: Evolution and Ambiguities
Authors: Tricaud Franqois 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The state of nature, seen as entailing a general state of war, is probably the most widely known of Hobbes’s concepts. And deservedly so, for not only is it the notion which is the main premiss of his whole ethical and political system, but it also became obligatory for later authors of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuric-s, when writing on similar topics, to begin their accounts from their version of the state of nature. But Hobbes’s natural state is none the clearer for all that. In this paper I shall try to show the hesitations, uncertainties, and alterations it undergoes in Hobbes’s different works, especially in the three political treatises: The Elemenis of Law (1640), De Give (1642), and Leviathan ( 165 I). That some parts of the text of De Give are no older than the 1647 edition will not be ignored.’ For the sake of brevity, chapter 14 of the first part of The Elements, chapter I of De Give, and chapter I 3 of Leviathan will occasionally be referred to as the ‘Natural State Chapters’.
F. M. Van helmont: his philosophical connections and the reception of his later cabbalistic philosophy
Authors: brown Stuart 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont was born at Vilvoorde in Brabant in 1614. His father was the famous medic and “chemist”, Jean-Baptiste van Helmont. When the father died in 1644, Francis Mercury signed over his inheritance and spent most of the rest of his life in Holland, Germany, or England. In a number of respects he deserves his reputation as the prototypical “scholar gypsy”,1 and it is perhaps not very meaningful to raise the question of which country he really belonged to. He spent many years in Germany, spoke German fluently, and was there when he died in 1699. But the Netherlands were his base, in so far as he had one; Dutch was his native language, and more of his books were published in Amsterdam than anywhere else, except perhaps in London. In his own person he epitomized the role of the Netherlands as the crossroads of north European culture in the seventeenth century. By 1677 he was already a link between Christian cabbalists in Germany and others in England. And, partly through his own travels and partly through his being in the Netherlands, he was a mutual acquaintance of two very different philosophers who themselves never met¬ Leibniz and Locke.
Editor’s Prologue
Authors: Klagge James C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The following papers grew out of a conference on ‘Methodological Approaches to Plato and his Dialogues’ organized by the Philosophy Department of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in March 1988. The conference covered only some of the possible methodological approaches to Plato, and the following papers represent only some of the viewpoints presented on that occasion. Nevertheless, the papers included here cover a diverse set of topics, such as ancient interpretations of Plato, Plato as a literary figure, Plato’s arguments and characters, and Plato’s use of the dialogue form. Though much Platonic research has been carried out by analytic philosophers, they have been relatively unconcerned to reflect on methodological issues. This volume shows some analytic philosophers and some classicists at work on this task.
Aristotle’S Criticisms Of Plato
Authors: Fine Gail 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In assessing Aristotle’s criticisms of Plato’s theory of Forms, we are often asked to choose between the horns of the following dilemma: either Aristotle interprets Plato correctly, in which case the theory of Forms is incoherent; or else the theory of Forms is invulnerable to his criticisms, in which case Aristotle simply misunderstands Plato. Both horns of this dilemma are unattractive. It would be unattractive to have to conclude that Plato's theory of Forms-a central part of his philosophy and one of the great metaphysical constructs in the history of philosophy-is incoherent; and it would also be unattractive to have to conclude that Aristotle misunderstood Plato, with whom, after all, he studied for nearly twenty years.
Analysing Plato’s Arguments: Plato And Platonism
Authors: Cohen S Marc , Keyt David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Does Plato have a philosophy? If so, what is it and how does he argue for it? Simple questions. But there are well-known obstacles standing in the way of their answer. First of all, Plato writes dialogues; and it is often unclear which character, if any, in a given dialogue speaks for Plato. Secondly, when a character in a dialogue advances a thesis, it is often unclear what the thesis is. And, finally, when a thesis is backed up by an argument, crucial premisses are often missing.
Is There a Semantics for Music?
Authors: Harré Rom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How do we succeed in making anything of a musical experience? I shall not tackle the question of how one picks out an auditory experience as music. Assuming that I am within the fuzzy boundary that demarcates music from all other auditory experiences, can any sense be made of the idea that the experience is in some way significant? Or points beyond itself? These questions can be animated by considering specific references such as the bird song in Beethoven’s ‘Pastoral’ Symphony; but they might be animated by something more general such as the theme of death in the second movement of Mahler’s Fourth. According to Mahler himself that theme is made manifest through the tuning of the solo violin. Who can doubt the cosmic significance of Bruckner’s Eighth Symphony? But what of these ‘significances’ and ‘references’? Couldn’t Mahler’s Fourth be a celebration of the Viennese tramcar network? (It is not hard to hear it that way once the idea has struck one!) And why should not Bruckner’s Eighth be heard to display the essence of the mass production of steel? What about all those marching feet in Shostakovich’s Seventh? Clearly there is something to be investigated here. I shall examine three attempts to characterize what it might be.
Theoretically Informed Listening
Authors: Debellis Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is the difference between Mrs Munt and Tibby that interests me, and with which this chapter will be concerned. Why should we, finding ourselves in the position of Mrs Munt, aspire to that of Tibby? What are the benefits to a listener of having a technical knowledge of music? It is of course a basic premiss of the programme of aesthetic education behind music appreciation classes that this sort of progress is worthwhile, but how and why is it so? This chapter will be concerned in particular with the cast on these issues rendered by recent discussions of the explanatory status of music theory. In recent years there has been revived debate over the nature of theory, its claim to being a scientific enterprise, and its role in shaping musical activity and experience. In my view these discussions have tended to polarize the functions of theory as explanatory on the one hand and as contributing to the listening experience on the other, and laid insufficient stress on the way those functions interact. I shall argue here that the value of hearing music in theoretical terms sometimes derives from their explanatory potential, and shall describe one way in which this can occur.
The Literary Form of the Sophist
Authors: Frede Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If one considers the literary form of the Sophist, one is primarily interested in what is characteristic of, or distinctive about, the literary form of this particular dialogue, as opposed to other Platonic dialogues. But this should not make us overlook the fact that the Sophist, first of all, is a dialogue, and that, in the case of the Sophist, there is something particularly puzzling about this. So I will first consider the question why Plato wrote the Sophist as a dialogue, and then turn to two other literary features of the text.
Space, Time, Shape, and Direction: Creative Discourse in the Timaeus
Authors: Osborne Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I explore the parallel between the shape of Timaeus’ discourse in Plato’s dialogue and the shape of the world that he describes. There is, plainly, an analogy between Timaeus’ act of describing a world in words and the demiurge’s task of making a world of matter. This analogy implies a parallel between language as a system of reproducing ideas in words, and the world, which reproduces reality in particular things. It becomes clear that authority lies not in the retelling of a truth already told, nor in the description of a world already made, but in the creation of a likeness in words of the eternal Forms. The Forms serve as paradigms both for the physical world created by the demiurge, and for the world in discourse created by Timaeus: his discourse gains its validity not from faithfulness to the way things appear, or the way particular things ‘actually happened’, but in virtue of its attempt to express in words a likeness of the perfect and eternal reality.
Phonological Change
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Classical historical linguistics started from the assumption that linguistic change originates first and foremost in speech-acts, and most often in unperceived phonetic distortion, which may eventually have cumulative effects. Recognition of regularity in sound change, only dimly perceived before the late eighteenth century, provided the boost for the take-off of the discipline. The regularity had not been obvious to observers while the word, and its meaning, remained for them the paramount linguistic unit: perceiving a patterned relationship between the more abstract and meaningless sound units within the word allowed the breakthrough toward a principled approach to language change. These sound-units (roughly equivalent to phonemes) were identified with the segments represented as letters in alphabetic transcription. It is possible that the discussion in early modern Europe about spelling reform (cf. 1.15), and the attempts to match graphy with pronunciation, made thinkers more conscious of the comparative autonomy of the phonological system from the lexico-semantic system of the language. Linguistics, as we now know it. was launched by the new interest in the perplexing interplay between sound and meaning, just as the study of history got its impetus largely from the new-found perception that institutions, like language, change over time.
The Communication of Divine Revelation
Authors: Hebblethwaite Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To say that a theology is perspectival is to acknowledge that it necessarily embodies a particular cultural approach to the world. To say that something has been ‘revealed’ does not imply that it escapes this necessity. Many believers assume that it does and some contemporary philosophers of religion support that assumption. But it is simply false to say, in the words of one such philosopher of religion, that ‘there are things that can be known to be “true without qualification” on the authority of a prophet who can be known to speak with the authority of God’, or, in the words of another, that ‘once one believes God has really revealed something, one is bound to believe it on simple authority’. Any revelation, real or otherwise, finds its expression in the context and the thought forms of some specific and contingent cultural tradition. All theology is in that sense perspectival. No manner of divine authorization can override that feature of the human situation.