bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Standards of Professional Behaviour and The Initial Handling of a Report
Authors: Beggs John , Davies Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As Figure 4.1 demonstrated, the process applied to a particular allegation is sub- ject to a number of variables. At its most simple level, contingent on the statutory classification of the underlying event under Pt 3 of Sch 3 to the Police Reform Act 2002, the initial handling may be the responsibility (as ‘appropriate authority’) of either the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC), if under Sch 3, or the affected officer’s force, if not.
Investigations Under Schedule 3 of the 2002 Act and the 2008 Conduct Regulations
Authors: Beggs John , Davies Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are, effectively, parallel regimes for investigating complaints or conduct matters under Pt 3 of the Police (Conduct) Regulations 2008 and (coinciden-tally) Pt 3 of Sch 3 to the Police Reform Act 2002. Before reviewing them, it is helpful to take an overview of the regime. There is a high degree of integration between the respective provisions, and those of the Police (Performance) Regulations 2008. From the perspective of the officer concerned, the practical point of convergence arises at the service of the notice of investigation under either reg 14A of the Police (Complaint and Misconduct) Regulations 2004 (Sch 3 investigations) or reg 15 of the 2008 Conduct Regulations (non-Sch 3 matters).
China
Authors: Xusheng Yang , Ting Wang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to the Property Rights Law of People’s Republic of China (Property Rights Law), promulgated on 16 March 2007 and effective as of 1 October 2007, account receivables may be pledged. It was the fi rst time the term ‘account receivables’ was mentioned in a legal context, however, detailed interpretation of it is absent. The People’s Bank of China (PBOC) formulated the Measures for the Registration of Pledge Receivables (the Measures) under the authority of Article 228 of the Property Rights Law.
India
Authors: Jayesh H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Almost all branches of civil law in India (except personal law) are based on the English common law. The Indian Contract Act 1872 (the Contract Act), codifi es the law of contract but the provisions of the Contract Act are not exhaustive.1 Although the Contract Act is largely based on common law, where there is a specifi c statutory provision, the courts must apply the provisions of that statute (interpreted by the higher courts in India).
Japan
Authors: Oshida Takuya 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘receivables’ means, for the purpose of this article, the right of a person to claim against another for the payment of money in the context of a particular relationship. With respect to secured fi nancing transactions in Japan, real estate fi nuancing is considered to be the traditional method of fi nancing, whereas the taking of a security interest over receivables, while certainly used in practice, has been recognized until recently, not as a traditional method of fi nancing, but as a method of acquiring collateral primarily in order to obtain information on the borrower (the borrower) for the purpose of continuously monitoring its business. This is because (i) receivables (particularly future receivables) which fl uctuate on a day-to-day basis are generally diffi cult to specifi cally and legally identify, (ii) valuation of receivables can be problematic as debtors of the borrower (the borrower’s debtors) assert against the right-holders any defences they may have against the borrower (eg those under a statute of limitations, set-off, payment, etc), and (iii) receivables may not be fully recoverable (depending on the creditworthiness of each relevant borrower’s debtor).
Poland
Authors: Butkiewicz Dr Ewa , Wojdyło Krzysztof 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no official definition of receivable stipulated in the legal acts being in force in Poland although many legal acts refer to this term. Instead of an offi cial legal defi - nition, such a defi nition was created by doctrine. According to the most commonly used defi nition, a receivable is understood as a right of a creditor to satisfy its specifi c interest through specifi c behaviour of a debtor.1 In the context of this publication, the issue of defi nition of the scope of a receivable is also of a crucial nature.
Singapore
Authors: Chan Andrew , Seng1 Tay Yong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘receivables’ is usually used to describe debts owed to (and therefore ‘receivable’ by) an enterprise. While it does not have a precise legal defi nition,3 it should include but is not limited to ‘book debt’ and connotes all monetary obligations owed to a business in Singapore underpinning its cash fl ow. Some examples of receivables are rent issuing from land or personal property, freight,6 and bank loans. Many receivables would qualify as ‘book debts’. ‘Book debts’ have been defi ned as debts arising in the ordinary course of business of a trader as would normally be entered in properly kept books of a company engaged in a business of that kind whether or not in fact entered.
Spain
Authors: García-Ochoa Mayor David , Martín Pedro Ravina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Under Spanish law, there is a general principle which states that the rights in rem that may serve as security for the obligations of a debtor are those expressly set out in the law, and cannot be created by the parties on a ‘freedom of contract’ basis. The possibility of taking security over a credit right (or receivable) is not expressly set out in the Spanish Civil Code (the CC), but on movable goods generally.
Switzerland
Authors: Pfenninger Markus , Gimmel Rahel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pursuant to Swiss law, book debts or receivables are monetary claims that are not certifi cated in a negotiable instrument. The practising lawyer, however, when requested to draft a security agreement over certain assets held or deposited with a fi nancial institution (securities), often fi nds itself in the diffi cult position that the most obvious question directed to the type of security to be secured is the most diffi cult to be answered. Accordingly, it is advisable that in all instances due diligence is applied to ensure that a book debt in fact is a book debt and not merely a notation (eg in an account statement) of a debt security, understood here for the purposes of this article, as the physical document that is necessary and indispensable as proof of the holder’s rights under the securities and a prerequisite for the exercise of those rights. The issue is of particular importance as security over monetary claims or certifi cated securities is subject to different statutory provisions as contained in Swiss substantive laws as well as in Swiss confl ict-of-laws principles. The following discussion is about security over book debts (in the context of this article referred to as ‘receivables’ or ‘claim’) and does not address claims which are evidenced in a negotiable instrument (ie certifi cated securities), which generally can be transferred only by means of the transfer of the certifi cate, in certain cases to be accompanied by a written endorsement on the certifi cate.
The Republic of Türkiye
Authors: Çankaya Gözde , Kolay Ali Can , Sözen Tunç 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term receivables is not specifi cally defi ned under Turkish law. In its most basic form, a receivable is money or property that a person has earned through trade or other means, yet has not collected. Such a receivable is a right that can enable a person to enforce someone to give, do, or prevent from doing something now or in the future. Taking a security is mainly about increasing the likelihood of getting repaid. There are many ways to do this but most rely on giving a secured creditor a direct recourse to a borrower’s assets (such as receivables) in case of default. Advantages of taking a security include avoiding the need for litigation, ensuring priority over other creditors, and accelerating the recovery of the debt. In terms of priority, taking a prior ranking security not only facilitates the application of assets against unpaid debts, it also prevents other creditors from getting ahead in the enforcement of such security. The secured creditor creates priority for itself over unsecured creditors and over lower ranking secured creditors. The creditors, under a security over receivables, are ranked according to the date of creation of the security. Under Turkish law there are two ways of taking security over receivables, namely a pledge over receivables and assignment of receivables. Although in practice these are similar in the way that they are applied and show other similarities, we explain them in detail separately.
Talking with children and young people
Authors: Fertleman Caroline , Washer Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Talking with children can sometimes present difficulties for medical students for several reasons. Many students may have had little, if any, experience with children. Although there is now a trend to expand medical school entry to more mature students, still very few medical students are themselves parents. Without that experience, it can be difficult to identify with parents and with how parents feel when their child is ill. This chapter will therefore begin by discussing parental anxiety and how best to talk with worried parents. It will then follow the development of children from preschool age through to adolescence, and discuss the different communication issues that arise for children of different ages. Talking with very sick children is a particularly challenging aspect of paediatric practice. The subject of breaking bad news and of talking about dying (with adults) are dealt with in Chapter 15 of this book, although it is unlikely that anyone but a senior doctor would have to break very bad news to a child or to his or her parents. Therefore, this chapter will focus on the communication skills that medical.
Powers and Duty of Care
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When trustees are considering the exercise of their powers, whether administrative or dispositive, they need to take various considerations into account. The impact of not doing so is discussed more fully in relation to the Hastings-Bass principle.1 Advisors to trustees also need to be able to provide confident advice to their clients as to the width of the powers and the restrictions on them and as to the considerations which they should take into account when exercising them. It is not, of course, the role of the advisor to tell the trustees how to exercise their powers, but to caution them if they appear to be exercising them in a manner which is inappropriate.
Tax in The Administration of Estates
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen in the chapter dealing with tax advice in the course of drafting a will, it is a rare estate that on its devolution on the personal representative (PR) does not have any tax consequences. Indeed, if completion of the reduced account due in respect of an excluded estate (that is, one the value of which falls within the excepted estate limit at the date of the deceased’s death) is included within the definition of a ̒tax consequence̓ then no estate will be tax consequence free.
Tax and Trusts
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of the taxation of trusts is a notoriously complex one. This chapter does not seek to give a step by step guide to the subject, for which reference should be made to specialist works,1 but rather seeks to set out the duty of the professional trustee, or the professional advisor to the lay trustee, as well as to give a broad overview of the functioning of the three most important taxation regimes— inheritance, capital gains and income—and to point out common pitfalls in their application and how to avoid them.
Tax Advice During The Lifetime Of The Client
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Where a solicitor’s retainer is squarely within the tax planning realm, that is the instructions are centred on minimizing a present or future tax liability so that the transactions carried out will be incidental to that aim, the solicitor’s duty in relation to tax advice is clear: the provision of such advice is the purpose for which he has been instructed. The duty is less clear though, when a solicitor is instructed in a transaction that is not primarily directed at tax, but that has tax consequences.
Limitation
Authors: Frost Martyn , Reed Penelope , Baxter Mark , Neuberger Lord 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most common defences which is raised in professional negligence cases is that the claim is statute barred. Limitation has become a thorny issue. The practitioner can no longer (if indeed he was ever justified in doing so) destroy his files after six years and breathe a huge sigh of relief. There is a far longer period during which claims can be made.
Multiple Parties and Multiple Contracts in International Arbitration
Authors: Hanotiau Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given the increasing number and complexity of commercial transactions, national and international groups of companies, and the fact that for financial, tax, or other commercial reasons, there is not always a connection between the individual(s) or company(ies) that has (have) signed the agreement and those that perform it, international arbitrators and national courts are more and more often confronted with the issue of whether an arbitration agreement concluded by one individual or company may be extended or imputed to non-signatory individuals, companies, or states as additional claimants or defendants.
Markets, Firms, and Institutions
Authors: Preda Alex 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While markets are connected to and make an impact upon many social institutions (witness here family life, local communities, or government, among others), the modern institution to which markets are connected (and sometimes opposed to) comes from the economic domain as well: the firm. Firms and corporations are nothing new, their role and influence in economic and social life having already been noticed by classical sociologists; in his analysis of capital, Karl Marx ([1872] 2002, p. 706) argued that the accumulation of capital required not only the socialization of work (through increased division of labour) but also the concentration of the means of production, meaning, among others, changes in the size of enterprises and in their ownership structure.
The Theory and Reality of the European Coal and Steel Community (2007)
Authors: Alter Karen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
European integration began in 1950 with the Schuman Plan, which launched the ECSC. The Schuman Plan was designed to alleviate concerns that Germany’s dominance in coal and steel could be used to harm European reconstruction efforts or to build another war machine. Jean Monnet, the Plan’s chief architect, also wanted to shore up the French planning process for reconstruction by Europeanizing the technocratic planning approach. Most supporters of the ECSC project expected integration to expand beyond coal and steel, and hoped that it would serve as a first step toward deeper European integration.
Who Are the ‘Masters of the Treaty’?: European Governments and the European Court of Justice (1998)
Authors: Alter Karen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Few contest that the European Court of Justice (ECJ) is an unusually influential international court. The Court can declare illegal European Union (EU) laws and national laws that violate the Treaty of Rome in areas traditionally considered to be purely the prerogative of national governments, including social policy, gender equality, industrial relations, and competition policy; and its decisions are respected. Nevertheless, there is significant disagreement about the extent of the Court’s political autonomy from member states and the extent to which it can decide cases against their interests.
The European Union’s Legal System and Domestic Policy: Spillover or Backlash? (2000)
Authors: Alter Karen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The legal system of the European Union (EU) offers domestic actors a powerful tool to influence national policy. European law can be drawn on by private litigants in national courts to challenge national policies. These challenges can be sent by national judges to the European Court of Justice (ECJ), which instructs national courts to apply European law instead of national law, or to interpret national law in a way compatible with European law. Combining victories in front of the ECJ with political mobilization and pressure, litigants and groups have used the European legal system to force their governments to change national policies.
Banana Splits: Nested and Overlapping Regimes in the Transatlantic Banana Trade Dispute (2006)
Authors: Alter Karen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Advanced industrial democracies belong to a plethora of international institutions. Either individually or collectively, they are members of universal organizations (UN agencies), regional blocs (e.g. the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)), and issue-specific institutions (e.g. the World Trade Organization (WTO), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Health Organization (WHO)). These international institutions can be nested within each other or overlap with each other, sometimes leading to conflicting commitments for their member states. How do the nesting and overlapping of international institutions complicate the strategies of national decision-makers? Does the nested/overlapping nature of international commitments in itself generate a distinct kind of politics?
The Business Model For Manufacturers’ Brands
Authors: Bell Dick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Brands are unique products, differentiated from their competitors and thus not directly substitutable. Brands, through marketing, appeal directly to the consumer or purchaser and thus reach over the retail trade. The process of marketing, involving product development, advertising, and distribution, results in manufacturers’ brands incurring a high level of non-variable cost. A consequence is that brand profit rises disproportionately to an increase in sales value and similarly falls by a greater percentage following a reduction in sales. The development of manufacturers’ brands was in its heyday when the process of retail distribution was atomistic. Today, in the early 21st century, there is an oligopolistic structure of retailing where each chain positions itself as a retail brand and a champion of the consumer. In most countries of Europe, grocery retailing is dominated by four or five chains, and a clash of the titans now exists between large retailers such as Tesco, Carrefour, and Rewe, and multinational manufacturers such as Unilever, Nestlé, and Proctor and Gamble. Distribution of manufacturers’ brands is no longer determined solely by an eager sales force, nor by high levels of consumer sale. Retail selling space is controlled with military precision by large retailers using category management techniques. The large retail chain offers alternatives to the manufacturers’ brands in the form of their private label products and can refuse to stock, or de-list, components of the manufacturers’ brands. Sudden changes in the range stocked by an oligopolistic retailer, particularly when unforeseen, can significantly affect the sales and consequentially the profit, of the brand of a manufacturer.
Private Labels and Branded Goods: Consumers’ ‘Horrors’ and ‘Heroes’
Authors: Dobson Paul W , Chakraborty* Ratula 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Private label and manufacturer branded goods compete for shelf space and the attentions of consumers. They may have much in common but they can have very different impacts on supplier and retailer competition and ultimately on consumer welfare. This chapter considers the different sides to private labels and branded goods, examining how each type can affect competition in a positive or harmful way. From the consumer’s perspective, the exercise of market power may stifle competition and restrict consumer choice. Different types of brand or private label ‘horrors’ are considered, where the respective market power of brand producers and retailers can be used in a way that is detrimental to competition and consumer welfare. Equally, though, branded goods and private labels can have a countervailing capacity to stem or neutralize market power and enrich choice with new, innovative products, such that each in their own way have the ability to extend and encourage greater competition and thereby offer important consumer benefits. The chapter considers how and when these goods support effective competition, illustrating the different types of brand and private label ‘heroes’ that can promote competition and choice to the benefit of consumers. The chapter closes by considering the shape of future competition in light of relentlessly increasing retail concentration and the growing power of large retailers, with possible implications for consumer sovereignty.
Retailer and Private Labels: Asymmetry of Information, In-Store Competition and the Control of Shelf Space
Authors: Kuipers* Pieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until a couple of decades ago the grocery retailer’s primary business was to be the intermediary between branded firms and consumers in a market where competition in fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) essentially occurred between branded manufacturers. Their other key role was (and still is) the distribution of goods from their central depots to all their shops. However, large-scale retailing has moved beyond this traditional role of making branded manufacturers and consumers meet. Retailers increasingly come into direct competition with their suppliers when stocking own-label products. These products (also referred to as private labels (PLs)) are in fact fast becoming the largest in-store competitor. The PL is often the number-two, or even the number-one product in a category. PL shares of 50 per cent or higher are not unusual and on the increase. In a number of product categories in some countries the PL is often without any competitor inside many stores.
Retail Consolidation: The Implications of Mergers And Buying Alliances
Authors: Ratliff* John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The object of this paper is to outline the typical considerations which competition regulators have in relation to mergers (and acquisitions) and buying alliances in the retail sector. The author’s principal reference is EC Competition law, although reference is also made to UK competition law. Private label is part of those typical considerations, but not usually the central one. The perspective offered is that of a legal practitioner, who is necessarily led to look at both sides. The aim here is, as far as possible, to set out the main principles based on experience, rather than offering a detailed survey of the case law or the very extensive literature on such issues. The plan of this chapter is to deal first with mergers (Section B), then buying alliances (Section C), then comment on consolidation of these two aspects (Section D). The most recurrent themes in the author’s view are then highlighted (Section E), with finally some conclusions (Section F).