bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The procedural interpretation
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writing down clauses is a process of defining relations. On what grounds does such a process deserve to be called programming rather than merely defining? Arguably, it becomes a programming process when-and only when-the particular composition of the clauses reflects a particular way of solving the queries posed to them. One way of confen-ing such a property upon clauses is to assign to them a procedural interpretation. Under such an interpretation clauses acquire procedural significance, complementing the definitional (or declarative) significance confened upon them by their logical interpretation. By providing an interpretation which reflects the computational machinery used for problem solving we acquire a basis on which to choose computationally-effective clauses; without it, our programs’ efficacies would be subject wholly to the mercy of our (unintelligent) interpreter. A computational interpretation is the essential difference between a logic and a computational logic.
Partial evaluation of programs
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In general, a program caters for a multitude of cases; we know that the execution of a most-general query to a relation will extract from the program all the possible cases covered by that relation. Sometimes, however, we are interested only in particular queries-or in particular classes of query-which make more specialized uses of the program. Under this assumption it is generally more efficient to specialize the program itself before executing the queries, so that it will not waste time considering cases that can no longer arise. The standard technique for specializing a program in this way is partial evaluation. As an example, consider this simple program for testing whether a list L is (strictly) ordered:3
The closed-world assumption
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given any sentence-set P, the closed-world assumption is the assumption that P determines all the knowledge there is to be had about the relations named in our language. Thus, if we consider any proposition q about such a relation then q is taken to be true exactly when P implies q, but is otherwise taken to be false. Consider an example from daily life. Whenever I walk to my local sweet-shop I assume that I will not be waylaid by a tiger, since if tigers roamed my neigh bourhood then I would surely be already aware of it. The proposition that tigers lie in wait for me is not implied by anything I know about my local world and so I take it to be false, thereby permitting me to visit the sweet-shop without trepidation. It is not, of course, always appropriate to apply the closed-world assumption. For example, I know that I might well be waylaid on the way to the sweet-shop by my children demanding their pocket money. It would be unreasonable for me to tell them that I had brought no small change with me owing to an assumption that they would never ask me for any. In deciding to take some small change with me I apply the open-world assumption, according to which the proposition that my children will be lying in wait for me when I set out to the shop is not necessarily false.
Program completion in propositional logic
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The completion of a program P is a particular set of sentences which we denote by Comp(P). In some texts you will find it called instead the completed database of P and denoted there by CDB(P).
Like the construction CW A(P), the completion provides a consequence­oriented meaning for default inference under the closed-world assumption. Unlike CW A(P), however, it can be written down more-or-less directly and is consistent for all well-structured programs. In general it is also a more economical construction in that it implies, but does not necessarily declare, various negative propositions which CW A(P) would have to declare explicitly. In the case of propositional logic the construction is particularly simple:
Mathematical characterization of finite failure
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theme 46 established that, for any definite program P, there exists a particularly simple way of constructing its success set SS(P) using the Tp function: starting with the bottom element ¢ in our lattice of interpretations, repeated application of this function generates a monotonically-increasing chain
It so happens that there is a somewhat similar method of constructing the finite failure set FF(P). In order to appreciate its rationale it is useful to understand clearly the process by which a ground query ?q finitely fails from a definite program P. In particular we need to consider the depth within which the failure occurs.
The simplest way for ?q to fail finitely is for there to be no clause in P whose heading unifies with q-equivalently, for there to be no clause in G(P) having q as its heading. In this case the failure is said to occur within depth k=l. Relative to the given program P there may be many atoms qEB(P) for which this is so. The set of all such atoms is denoted by FF(P, 1) and can be characterized very easily using the
Termination analysis
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Termination analysis focuses on questions about the finiteness or otherwise of computations. There are a number of contexts in which analysis of this kind can be useful. Perhaps the most familiar of these is where a program interpreter is equipped with a loop-detector whose purpose is to recognize and/or bypass loops (infinite computations). We hinted at another use in the previous Theme, where loop-detection was implicit in a demonstration that a tree was infinitely failed and hence that two programs were computationally equivalent.
Despite its obvious importance, termination analysis has for a long time been a relatively neglected subject amongst logic programming researchers, in contrast to the large body of knowledge about termination already developed for other programming formalisms. It is not clear why this is so, although it could be argued that the logic programmers have been preoccupied with supposedly more exciting issues. The last few years have nevertheless seen a considerable increase in interest, leading to a variety of proposed methods of analysis. It would, however, be premature here to attempt a state-of-the-art summary. In particular, the space available in this Theme permits only a brief excursion into the subject.
Inverting the Resolution Principle
Authors: Muggleton S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this paper we describe the current status of an ongoing research project investigating a novel form of Machine Learning in which the learner’s vocabulary is enriched by the machine suggesting useful new descriptive terms for the user to accept or reject. An algorithm called Duce has been shown to be effective along these lines in developing and extending propositional theories within a chess endgame domain and a diagnostic domain of neuro-psychology. By showing that Duce’s trans formational operators are based on reversing the steps of a resolution proof we show that Duce’s learning method is sufficient for learning any propositional theory.
Combinatory Logic
Authors: Hankin Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The λ.-calculus was invented in a historical period which was very active for Mathematical Logic. Inspired by Hilbert, many mathematicians were trying to capture the notion of effective calculability. Within the space of ten years the λ.-calculus, Recursive Function Theory and Turing Machines were all invented. This chapter presents an equally important calculus from that era: Combinatory Logic. We start by introducing the notation and basic theory. All of the theory that we have developed for the λ.-calculus could be recast for Combinatory Logic. Rather than do that we briefly summarise the key results. In the second section we consider the relationship between Combinatory Logic and the λ.-calculus in more detail. The final topic in this chapter concerns the notion of a basis: the identification of a set of (λ.-)terms from which all of the terms can be generated using only application.
Regulation of Human Cognition and its Growth
Authors: Trevarthen C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I will present a psychobiologist’s view, citing three directions of research that have been fruitful in the past 25 years. Unlike technical structures which are constructed from without, living organisms grow from within. Cells dividing from the fertilized egg receive their genes and interact under the regulation of gene-produced molecules that determine the cells’ cohesivness, mobility, multiplication, and capacity to survive in competition for essential substances. Messenger molecules pass between cells, changing gene transcription and directing populations of cells towards different life functions in specialized organs. Out of the undifferentiated multicellular mass an integrated individual forms—in the case of an animal, a perceptuomotor individual that will displace, orient, search, and choose objects, making selective use of the environment to maintain and develop its adaptive activities and structure. These activities are formed in a nervous system that carries nerve cell action potentials throughout the body. Molecular messengers (neurohormones), related to those that pattern gene expression, are transmitted at synapses to target cells, to control the intensity and selectivity of behaviour, patterning the animal’s motivation.
On dealing with dynamic utility of learned knowledge
Authors: Suwa Masaki , Motoda Hiroshi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cost-effective utility of learned knowledge consists of two parts; the cumulative matching costs of testing to apply the knowledge in problems and the cumulative speed-up effects its application has on problem-solving time. To evaluate these two factors correctly, measuring dynamic utility of learned knowledge when it is actually applied to problems is required. In that scheme, however, since the utility value of knowledge is in general negative before its application brings about speed-up effects in some problems, we encounter a new issue. What kind of strategy should be taken to retain and/or discard knowledge with currently negative utility value during a training session? This is important because it determines the available set of knowledge to be provided for the subsequent problem in each stage within a training session. The strategy taken greatly affects not only the problem-solving costs incurred in a training session but also the kind of knowledge that gains a positive estimation at the end of the training session and thus will be provided for a test session. This issue is crucial especially in situations where there are strong interactions of co-existing knowledge during a training session.
Learning Logic Programs and Regularities from Examples by Inductive Inference
Authors: Akiba S , Sato T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although these regularities expressed in terms of clauses cannot be part of logic programs, they are expected to play an important role in program understanding and optimization. Researchers, however, do not seem to have shown enough interest in their discovery. Actually, most ILP systems do not seek clauses beyond logic programs (Kijsirikul et al. 1992a, 1992b; Muggleton and Feng 1990; Shapiro 1982).
Legal responsibility and causation
Authors: Good J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Convincing explications are quoted for the degrees to which an event F tends to be necessary, or sufficient, for a later one E, and are called the necessitivity or necessitude ( Qnec) and sufficientivity or sufficitude ( Qsuf) of F for E. They pertain to ethical responsibility. Formulaic relationships between Qnec, Qsuf, W (weight of evidence), and probability, are mentioned thus gluing the concepts together. (Hence causal networks≈probability networks.) Their legal interpretations are considered. An explication for ‘legal responsibility’ is mentioned, and is a plausible explication of the degree to which Factually (physically) caused E.
Personalized mail agent using inductive logic programming
Authors: Mizoguchi Fumio , Ohwada Hayato 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper describes an inductive logic programming method to design a personalized E-mail agent (PMAIL). ln this approach, a profile is acquired from a user’s mail, including characteristics such as category, priority and preference. After saving the user’s mail handling behavior, PMAIL progressively produces logical rules that characterize new mails and provide the users with prior knowledge of the mail’s character. Since these rules are comprehensive and readable, PMAIL has the advantage of explicit interaction for personal service. The competence of PMAIL depends upon the performance of the induced rules; therefore we have undertaken an empirical study which introduces a variety of performance measures, such as predictive accuracy. In this study, we show how PMAIL’s learning parameters affect its performance and how induced rules are applied to enhance achieving its task. The present study indicates the expressive and potential power of inductive logic programming towards realizing personalized systems.
Debugging for a declarative programming language
Authors: Lloyd J W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper investigates debugging in declarative programming languages, concentrating specifically on the integrated functional and logic programming language Escher. The Escher language has types and modules, higher-order and meta-programming facilities, and declarative input/output. It also has a collection of system modules, providing numerous operations on standard data types such as integers, lists, characters, strings, sets, and programs.
After a brief introduction to the Escher language, a framework for declaratively debugging Escher programs is presented and an implementation of this framework is illustrated by an example. The paper concludes with a discussion of the practicalities of declarative debugging and some open problems.
The Turing-Wilkinson lecture series on the Automatic Computing Engine*
Authors: Copeland B Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On l October 1945 Turing was appointed to the newly-formed Mathematics Division of the National Physical Laboratory, his brief to design an electronic stored-program digital computer. The lectures published here, given by Turing and his assistant J.H. Wilkinson in December 1946-February 1947, add substantially to our knowledge of Turing’s design. The lectures detail the evolution of the design from Version V of early 1946 through Version VI to Version VII.
On 8 December 1943, the world’s first large-scale special-purpose electronic digital computer came into operation, at the Government Code and Cypher School, Bletchley Park, England.
Repairs to Turing’s Universal Computing Machine
Authors: Davies D W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem, published by the London Mathematical Society in 1937, must be one of the most important and influential papers in the history of mathematical logic. It resolved the decision problem posed by Hilbert, gave an intuitive yet precise definition of computability and anticipated the stored-program computer which is central to today’s technology.
Its author, the young Alan Turing, was to become one of the World War II codebreakers, using electronic calculators to speed up the running of his algorithms and then one of the first builders and programmers of stored-program machines. His work on artificial intelligence and morphogenesis was remarkable for its foresight.
The biological analogy
Authors: Louw Eric , Duffy Neil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘virus’ immediately suggests a biological analogy for the phenomenon of computer viruses. Many authors have recognized the striking resemblances between biological and computer viruses. However, nobody has so far provided anything better than a superficial discussion of these similarities. This may stem from an excusably poor grasp of biological phenomena amongst computer scientists. Be that as it may, the section that follows will attempt to show that the analogy is worth pursuing, and that biology may offer some important insights into the future of computer viruses in particular, and of information technology in general.
A New Technique: Truth Value Sets As Signs
Authors: Hahnle Reiner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As before stated we defer the discussion of first-order logics until the next chapter and deal only with propositional logics in the present one. Moreover, we assume that the languages under consideration contain no 0-place connectives. These are possible to accommodate, although they make the definitions unnecessarily complicated. We sketch what must be changed at the end of Section 4.3.
Uniform Notation Regained: Regular Logics
Authors: Hahnle Reiner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two of the questions that were raised at the end of Chapter 3 are still open, namely the problem of introducing satisfactory quantifier rules, and the classification problem for many-valued tableau rules. The sets-as-signs notion from the preceding chapter, while answering the other two questions, also posed some new problems, namely the theoretically vast number of signs and the non-trivial computation of rules. The last problem has been alleviated in Section 4.5, but the need for FM tools seems to be unjustified for relatively simple logics.
The classification of Appendicularia
Authors: Fenaux R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Classification of Appendicularia (Tunicata). History and Current State (Fenaux, 1993) may be consulted for a more extended and detailed account of the classification, and its historical development, than is possible in this chapter. The keys for determination given here follow the principles explained by Lohmann and Biickmann (1926) and revised by Lohmann in 1933-1934, with additions and modifications. For the Oikopleuridae they are primarily based on the structure of the digestive tract, but for the Fritillariidae on very diverse criteria. For these reasons, and particularly for the Fritillariidae, numerous characters must be used to determine the species. Because they are particularly fragile, appendicularians are frequently determined with difficulty. Problems with collection and preservation techniques are responsible for much of this difficulty (Fenaux, 1976a), but even with living or perfectly preserved specimens, there may be some doubt of the exact determination, for several main reasons.
Monitoring butterfly movements
Authors: Shreeve Tim G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whereas the success of a mated adult female depends on its ability to locate and use appropriate egg-laying sites, that of a male depends on its ability to find and mate with fertile females. To fulfil these functions adults must use resources in the habitat, such as food and roosting sites, and in the process of doing so maintain an adequate heat budget to be active as well as to avoid predators. Thus, the area occupied by a population of adults must consist of at least four functional categories of habitat: mating areas, egg-laying areas, foraging areas, and refuges or roosting sites.
Egg Size
Authors: Lank David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Egg production by females appears to be the rate-limiting step in Snow Goose reproduction. This chapter focuses on the phenotypic and genetic patterns of egg size variation in the Snow Geese of La Pérouse Bay and develops a model to account for them. Snow Geese are under strong directional selection for larger clutch size, and nutrient reserves, mainly accumulated during the spring migration, determine in large part the number of eggs laid (Ankney and Macinnes 1978). If birds are allocating limited nutrient reserves to egg production, one might imagine that egg size as well as clutch size would be affected. By adjusting egg size, a fixed amount of reserves could be apportioned either to x eggs of a certain size, x − 1 larger eggs, or x + 1 smaller eggs. In theory, then, birds could increase their clutch size, as favoured by selection, without changing the proportion of their reserves allocated to reproduction, by laying smaller eggs. On the other hand, smaller eggs might produce smaller goslings with a lower chance of survival, at least in some years (Ankney and Bisset 1976). ⩖ hat do our data from Snow Geese show
Synthesis and conclusions
Authors: Lank David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
About half a century ago, biologists reached a broad consensus that four fundamental processes could account for evolutionary change within populations. Natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift, and the generation of new variability through mutation were recognized as the major processes moulding the genetic variation of populations. Since that consensus, ecological geneticists and others have tried to determine precisely how these sources of genetic stability and change have interacted to determine the current evolutionary status of populations and might operate in the future to determine the trajectory of particular populations in their environments. The long term goal of these studies has been to generate robust statements about the relative importance or domains of evolutionary processes in nature, and to suggest and test refinements to theoretical population genetics models which predict how evolution should proceed under particular conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shetland 1988, a balmy April morning. The Sound in front of me was like a sheet of blue silk, with just the distant murmur of moving water as a reminder that there were tides here. Miles away across the huge expanse of sea lay Yell, with its gently curving outline of low yellow hills. I could hear the crooning of a raft of eider ducks, and a gannet hurried past: a scene close to perfection.
Spatial organization, holts, and habitat
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In carnivores, more than in most other mammals, there is a large variety of spacing patterns, of many different social systems and dispersions—but there are also similarities. Almost all carnivores are territorial, defending an area against others of the same species (Ewer 1973), even if only against particular categories of conspecifics. Usually such an area has a clear and well-defined border, and the ‘owner’ reinforces territorial claims with aggression, and scent marks of some kind. In many species such territories are inhabited by almost totally solitary individuals, but there are also group-living carnivores, living in small, tight packs, or in widely dispersed groups, defending the borders of their own group territory against other packs, or clans, or prides, or whatever their group system is called. In short, we recognize a simple distinction between group-living and solitary species (Sandell 1989).
The Zebra Finch
Authors: Zann Richard A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Australian Zebra Finch is widely used by researchers and teachers in many scientific disciplines where it is the preferred subject for investigations ranging from anatomy and physiology to behavioural development and evolutionary ecology. This monograph is the first to synthesize the information on this colourful species that has accumulated during the past thirty years. It summarizes and integrates much of the laboratory work and places it in the context of the biology of the animals in the wild, with an emphasis on behaviour and ecology. This leads to a detailed understanding of Zebra Finch adaptations and life history that will further enhance the value of the species for researchers and students in behaviour, ecology, and other fields. Aviculturists who keep these attractive birds will also find much of interest in this book.