bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lutherans and Jews: Routine Intolerance
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Lutherans of Alsace lived under a special regime guaranteeing their rights imposed when the province was incorporated into France in 1660–61. Louis XIV had nevertheless pursued a policy of conversion through inducements and penalization, and his regulations remained in force after his death, though the will for concerted enforcement died away. The real damage to Lutheranism in Alsace was done by a continuing ban on the immigration of non‐Catholics to the province. The Sephardic Jews of the Bordeaux area were well on their way to acceptance in local society and looked upon kindly by the government, but the Ashkenazim of Alsace, mostly miserably poor, suffered from discriminatory legislation and rural anti‐Semitism. The Jews in the papal enclaves of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin enjoyed the right to practice their religion but lived in a state of permanent inferiority. The case for religious toleration, including for the Jews, was made by Enlightenment thinkers and a small minority of churchmen and lawyers, but there is little evidence of public support for their emancipation.
Towards a Grudging Toleration, 1774–1789
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
By the beginning of Louis XVI's reign the Huguenots of the Desert had come to see themselves as loyal subjects of the French king, and many of the Catholic parish clergy acquiesced in a ‘patchwork pattern of edgy toleration, at the mercy of events and the vagaries of malicious or fanatical individuals’. At the beginning of his reign, Louis announced his intention to enforce the anti‐Protestant laws properly, but soon realized that this was both unpopular and impractical. The proponents of toleration, led by the parlement of Paris, gradually gained the upper hand, despite the continuing opposition of the Church establishment. The issue of civil marriage was the main bone of contention, while supporters of tolerance cited foreign examples. The royal edict of toleration in 1787 was a grudging document, maintaining Protestants as second‐class citizens and ‘did little more than end the fiction that there were no Protestants in France’.
Pattern and Particular: Saint and Novel
Authors: Brown David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In the first part of the chapter, attention is given to the various ways in which the cult of the saints helped bridge the gap between Christ and the individual disciple seeking to imitate Christ, with problems of metaphysical, spatial, and temporal distance all noted and discussed. The reason why fictional saints became so popular is then explored in relation to medieval treatments of Margaret of Antioch and Catherine of Alexandria. Attention is drawn to parallels with some important aspects of modern novel writing.
Universal Perfection
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter analyses different sorts of evidence for the claim that Gregory of Nyssa asserted that all people would be saved. First, it notes those places where Gregory appears to state this belief directly (usually commenting on a verse from Scripture). Second, it argues that Gregory's concept of divine punishment implicitly assumes that such punishment is reformative and will eventually save all people. Third, it examines two arguments used explicitly by Gregory: that all evil will eventually cease to exist, and that human nature was created as a whole, was saved by Christ as a whole, and will be perfected as a whole. The chapter concludes by claiming that there is a place for human free will in Gregory's concept of universal salvation (at least before death), because of the complementary roles played by divine teaching/human learning and divine punishment/human purification.
The War on Liberalism
Authors: Freeden Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter examines impact of World War I on British liberal thought. It is argued that the war caused liberal thinkers to stretch the limits of liberal theory to a point where mutual responsibility, social welfare, and common ends staked claims equal to, or prior to, the liberty of the individual. The issue of conscription, the reassessment of liberals’ views of the state as an idea and an institution, and British liberal thinkers’ attack on Idealism are discussed.
Has Government by Committee Lost the Public's Confidence?
Authors: Wallace William 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The European Communities were built around a series of committees. The central tension was between the Council of Ministers and its substructure of intergovernmental committees and the European Commission and its committees of experts. The resulting ‘comitology’ sought to replace conflicts of national interest by functional consensus. While this type of decision‐making facilitates business interest group influence, it reduces that of parliaments and political parties. As controversial issues increasingly supplement technical ones, committee government is decreasingly sustainable in a multi‐level political system.
Laying the Foundations
Authors: Banton Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Most states saw accession to the Convention as a matter of foreign policy. Many perceived it as a way of demonstrating their anti‐apartheid credentials, with but few implications for their internal affairs. In its first eight years, CERD had to concentrate upon establishing the novel reporting regime, upon tutoring state delegations as to the nature of their new obligations, and on agreeing some boundaries to the Committee's mandate.
Regulation in Government: Tools, Characteristics, and Behaviour
Authors: Hood Christopher , Scott Colin , James Oliver , Jones George , Travers Tony 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExplores three interrelated themes: the tools and approaches regulators used to do their job; the extent to which regulation of government resembled regulation of business; and the extent to which regulatory behaviour and style were linked to the relational distance between the regulators and those they regulate. It argues that while there is no single style of regulation in government, the tools and approaches used by the regulators cut across the different institutional forms taken by the regulators.
Stability Analysis of the Walras–Leontief System
Authors: Morishima Michio 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with the stability of the mixed Walras–Leontief general‐equilibrium system, to which a conventional analysis of stability of equilibrium is applied. The use of this method may be justified by the Walrasian device of tâtonnement, or by making the assumptions that consumption goods and raw materials are perishable and not used more than once, and that capital goods are not subject to purchase and sale, only their services being traded on the market. No redistribution of durable goods occurs among individuals throughout the whole process of trading and pricing. However, a note to Ch. 2 shows that a pure exchange equilibrium is stable under some fairly reasonable assumptions, even if transactions of durable goods and, therefore, redistributions of the stocks of goods take place in the midst of pricing. The chapter also explores the laws of comparative statics that can be established for the Walras–Leontief system.
Towards More Disaggregated Models
Authors: Morishima Michio 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Returns to the neoclassical model where the full employment of resources and labour is automatically attained and the Rule of Profitability and the Rule of Free Goods control behaviour of activities and prices. The previous two‐good model (consumption and capital good) is complicated to include many kinds of commodities, and it is found that the neoclassical analysis of stability of long‐run equilibrium is not necessarily the same. The stability criterion may be different from model to model if the capital‐good industry is divided into many sectors, although it is shown that it is still valid in models with many consumption goods and one capital good. This means the two‐sector model is inadequate to explain the actual process of capital accumulation, so an approach with merits over the Walrasian‐type analysis is offered, which starts on the road to more disaggregated general equilibrium models. The different sections of the chapter discuss the case of many consumption goods, the finding that that heterogeneity of consumption goods does not affect the stability criterion, the finding that many capital goods may lead to the possibility of ‘stability–instability’, the generalized Leontief model, the shift in the saving function from the ‘uniclass’ to the Cambridge type (the Golden Equilibrium), and the dual stability–instability theorem.
Equilibrium Growth (II) Hicks‐Malinvaud Trajectories
Authors: Morishima Michio 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Devoted to establishing the existence of competitive equilibrium paths of various orders, and looks in particular at the Hicks–Malinvaud equilibrium growth path. The different sections cover temporary equilibrium and its conditions (the Lindahl–Hicks sequence of temporary equilibria), the responses of entrepreneurs and the custodian in a pseudo‐economy, the proof of existence of a temporary equilibrium, the non‐singularity and non‐triviality of the equilibrium, savings equals investment in the ‘ex ante’ and the ‘ex post’ sense, equilibrium of order T and its existence and non‐triviality, perfect foresight of the future and eternal equilibrium.
Equilibrium Growth. (III) Normative Properties
Authors: Morishima Michio 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Devoted to establishing the optimality of competitive equilibrium paths of various orders. So far three kinds of equilibrium growth paths have been discussed in the book: the Cassel–von Neumann path of balanced growth, the Lindahl–Hicks sequence of temporary equilibria, and the Hicks–Malinvaud perfect equilibrium over time. These are now examined for efficiency and optimality. Each of them is compared with any other in succession. The different sections of the chapter discuss definitions of efficiency and Pareto optimality, short‐run efficiency of temporary equilibrium and long‐run efficiency of full equilibrium, Pareto optimality of the Lindahl–Hicks and the Hicks–Malinvaud path, Farkas’ theorem of linear inequalities, the fact that shadow prices associated with a Pareto optimum obey the rules of competitive pricing, the conditions that should be satisfied in order for a given point of Pareto optimum to be a competitive equilibrium, and the Golden Rule of Accumulation.
Dynamics and Interdependence
Authors: Hendry David F. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractWhen two time series are integrated but not causally related, conventional tests reject up to 80% under the null, at a 5% nominal level. This ‘nonsense regressions’ phenomenon is analysed, and detrending is shown not to solve the problem. Integrated variables that are connected are cointegrated. Since dynamics and cross‐variable interdependence interact, both sequential and conditional factorizations of data‐density functions are needed.
Dynamic Systems
Authors: Hendry David F. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Linear dynamic systems are formulated for stationary and integrated data processes. Both open and closed systems are noted. General‐to‐specific modelling of the joint data‐density function is reviewed. A typology of linear dynamic systems is developed, extending that for individual dynamic equations. Alternative models of systems are derived from three operations on systems, namely, contemporaneous and intertemporal transforms, and conditioning. Methods for analysing econometric systems are discussed.
UK Monetary Policy Since 1971
Authors: Dow J. C. R. , Saville I. D. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIs a short description of monetary policy since 1971. It provides a brief overview of the monetary controls that will form the basis of the next few chapters. It then has a summary of the basic policies undertaken by Heath, Wilson, Callaghan, and Thatcher, and the major events that influenced monetary policy.
The von Neumann Model as a Chaotic Attractor
Authors: Goodwin Richard M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Teases out parallels in the thinking of von Neumann and Marx. Goodwin presents a simplified version of the von Neumann model removing the assumption of infinite labour supply. The resulting non‐linear difference system shows endogenously erratic behaviour with cyclical output growth. In the long run, this system ceases to oscillate and another model is proposed to circumvent this problem. For low parameter values, the model has a fixed point; for moderate values, it has a limit cycle; and for higher values, a chaotic attractor is observed.
Recollections and Documents
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter presents Hicks's personal ‘Keynesian Revolution’ which pre-dates 1936. The route by which he reached his semi-Keynesian ideas, such as those expressed in his ‘Suggestion for simplifying the theory of money’ (written in 1934 and published in Economica in February 1935), are even now of interest. This route can be related to the tracks which have been followed by much more recent writers such as Patinkin and Leijonhufvud.
The Disaster Point in Risk Theory
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In the paper on Portfolio Selection, printed in Critical Essays in Monetary Theory, Hicks followed what has become the conventional approach, supposing that the ‘prospect’ of each available investment could be expressed in terms of the first two moments of a probability distribution (e, s). There is also a passage, in that same paper, in which Hicks examined the alternative ‘Bernouillian’ approach to risk-bearing; an approach which has the obvious merit that it imposes no restriction upon the ‘shape’ of the prospect, as does the (e, s) approach, at least in effect. He nevertheless rejected that approach, not on account of its adherence to ‘cardinal utility’ but for another reason. In the particular case of a linear marginal utility function — the only case where it is easy to build a bridge between the (e, s) theory and the Bernouillian theory, so that either approach is applicable — absurd results are obtained. This chapter gives the Bernouillian approach some further consideration.
The True Index
Authors: Afriat S. N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is the second of five chapters about the cost of living problem and price indices, a typical area for what is understood as choice theory. It discusses the price index, which is associated with a narrow concept of the cost of living problem, is important for both theory and practice, has a long history and large literature, and is now quite an elaborate theory. An outline of the main ideas is given, touching upon history only where points are encountered directly, and bringing in theorems discursively and without proof; William Fleetwood, Irving Fisher, and S. S. Byushgens stand out from the past in the account, with the writings of J. R. Hicks, R. G. D. Allen and Paul Samuelson forming a background. The ‘true index’ of the chapter title is an early vague term that later acquired the meaning dealt with here. The nine sections are: the cost of living; the price index; formulae, and Fisher's Tests (and Ideal Index); the Paasche–Laspeyres interval; existence test; theory and practice; many periods; price levels; and Fisher's formula.
The Four‐Point Formula
Authors: Afriat S. N. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is the fourth of five chapters about the cost of living problem and price indices, a typical area for what is understood as choice theory. Together with the previous and next chapters it discusses theoretical matters arising from the finding of S. S. Byushgens (1925) that Irving Fisher's ‘Ideal Index’ is exact if demand is governed by a homogeneous quadratic utility. specifically, it addresses the four‐point formula. the eight sections of the chapter are: median multipliers and levels; centre locus; linear purchasing power; critical locations; elliptical case; hyperbolic case; parabolic limits; and demonstration: Fisher's data.
The Market
Authors: Afriat S. N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is the third of six chapters on the logic of price. It deals with the phenomenon of the market, and starts with a discourse on the ‘logic of price’ and a critique of the supply and demand theory. The considerations are taken further with reference to a very simple but none the less adequate linear market model, with an appeal to theorems about distribution matrices known from the theory of Markov processes; a further treatment, without the linearity, involves the KKM lemma. Global stability for a loosely defined tâtonnement is demonstrated from a convergence of infinite products of distribution matrices, analogous to the familiar convergence of powers. The nine sections of the chapter are: the logic of price; supply and demand; price formation; market functions; intercept and slope; linear markets; tâtonnement; continuous markets; and uniqueness and stability.
Optimal Programming
Authors: Afriat S. N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is the first of five chapters on optimal programming (the typical mathematics of economics) and related issues as related to choice making. It introduces the general ideas of optimal programming in economic terms, with reference to the programming problem of a firm. A theorem is proved that is basic to the entire subject, and requires no special assumptions about the programming functions. The ten sections of the chapter are: bounds, limits and maxima; programming problem of a firm; optimal programming theorem; input–output; output limit function; support gradients and marginal values; complementarity; shadow price decentralization; proof of the theorem; and Lagrange multipliers.
Minimum Paths
Authors: Afriat S. N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is the fourth of five chapters on optimal programming (the typical mathematics of economics) and related issues as related to choice making, and discusses minimum paths. The eleven sections of the chapter are: connection costs; perpetuum mobile impossible; the triangle inequality; routes; scales; extension theorem; the lp [linear programming] formula; flow argument; elementary decomposition; ford and fulkerson; and shortest path algorithm in basic.
Metamorphosis: John Law the Economist
Authors: Murphy Antoin E. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDiscusses Law's first writing on economic issues, the Essay on a Land Bank. His introduction of the paradox of value and the concept of demand. His use of supply and demand analysis. His introduction of the term ‘the demand for money’ and his analysis of inflation in a demand‐for‐money–supply‐of‐money‐framework.
Consumption and Distribution
Authors: Kornai János 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The material living conditions of citizens under a classical socialist system are considered. The first part of the chapter looks at consumption, material welfare, and economic security, and compares these under socialist and capitalist systems to the detriment of the socialist system. The second part examines the distribution of money income and material welfare among the various groups in society, again contrasting socialist and capitalist systems. Explanations are then advanced for the real inequality of distribution in welfare shown for the classical socialist system, and tendencies towards equalization and differentiation are discussed.
Market Socialism
Authors: Kornai János 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter discusses the phenomenon of market socialism in the state sector. The practical changes involved in this constitute one of the major tendencies in the move away from classical socialism. Aspects addressed are ideological antecedents; the application of market socialism in selected socialist countries (Yugoslavia, Hungary, China, Poland, Vietnam, and the Soviet Union); alternative strategies for deregulation; the firm's vertical dependence; the softness and hardness of budget constraint, and the firm's responsiveness to prices; the affinity between public ownership and bureaucratic coordination; horizontal relations of firms in public ownership; the relative proportions of bureaucratic and market coordination, and the interactions between them; and the relation between publicly owned firms and the private sector.
Macro Tensions
Authors: Kornai János 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Changes in the macroeconomy can be observed in countries undergoing reforms of classical socialism, and can result in tensions if the economy has shifted appreciably from classical towards market socialism. These changes occurred most conspicuously in Poland in the 1980s, and the resulting insolvable contradictions have been called the ‘Polish Syndrome’. The macroeconomic analysis of the changes presented here addresses employment and wages; growth and investment; the state budget and fiscal policy; and the credit system and monetary policy. Two sections then review the macrotensions in the reform economy and their combined effects (1) in interlocking shortage and inflation in internal economic relations, and (2) on foreign trade and debt; the triple relation between shortage, inflation, and indebtedness, and then addressed. Lastly, the effect of the reform processes and macrotensions is assessed on the standard of living.
Private International Capital Flows in Europe in the Inter‐War Period
Authors: Feinstein Charles H. , Watson Katherine 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Explores the nature, scale, and direction of the massive flows of international capital to and from Europe in the inter‐war period. The authors present new data on the movements of international capital as measured by balance of payments statistics for each of the main lenders and borrowers in all parts of the world. These global estimates for all creditors and all debtors ought, in principle, to agree, but there was a substantial discrepancy between them, particularly in the 1930s. The authors suggest that one major explanation for this is the enormous flight of capital from Europe, evading exchange controls and other restrictions on the free movement of funds. On the basis of these new estimates, they discuss the reasons for, and effects of, the huge movements of long‐term and short‐term capital.
Polish Banking in the Inter‐War Period
Authors: Landau Zbigniew , Morawski Wojciech 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The principal trend in the development of the banking system in Poland in the years between the wars was a gradual decrease in the importance of private banking and an enhanced role for the state banks. This process was not the result of a deliberate government policy, but reflected the weakness of private Polish capital and the unwillingness of foreign capital to make large investments in a country situated between Germany and the Soviet Union. The great economic crisis was unusually protracted in Poland, continuing from 1929 until 1935, and this, together with the rapid outflow of foreign capital, severely affected the private banks. The government lacked the resources to assist any but the most important private banks, and many of the smaller ones collapsed.
Money and Banking in the Irish Free State, 1921–1939
Authors: Ó Gráda Cormac 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The years following the creation of an independent Irish Free State were a formative period for the Irish banking system. The Bank of Ireland adapted slowly but effectively to the new situation, but it needed the prospect of the Second World War for the Bank to switch its full loyalty to the country, and for the commercial banks to acknowledge that an Irish central bank might have a useful role to play. It was generally accepted that the Irish banks’ links with London, and the commitment to maintain parity with the sterling, ruled out an independent monetary policy. This argument was reinforced by the virtual absence of a domestic money or capital market, and only the first tentative steps in the development of such markets were made during the inter‐war period.