bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comparing Two Groups
Authors: Wilcox Rand R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapters 6 and 7 described how to make inferences about the population mean, and other measures of location, associated with a single population of individuals or things. This chapter extends these methods to situations where the goal is to compare two groups. For example, Table 2.1 reports data from a study on changes in cholesterol levels when participants take an experimental drug. But of fundamental interest is how the changes compare to individuals who receive a placebo instead. Example 4 in section 6.2 described an experiment on the effect of ozone on weight gain among rats. The two groups in this study consisted of rats living in an ozone environment and ones that lived in an ozone-free environment.
Declining Amphibian Populations and the Biodiversity Crisis
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conservation biologists, ecologists, and evolutionary biologists focus on the world’s biodiversity. Biodiversity is a buzzword, but what does it really mean? Introduced a couple of decades ago, the term has since taken on numerous definitions, some more biological than political, some more political than biological. To most nonbiologists and many biologists, biodiversity means the number of kinds of living organisms, or species richness. In this sense, an area with 800 species of butter3ies has higher biodiversity than an area with 100 species.
The concept is much more than simply number of species, however. Reed Noss and Allen Cooperrider, leading conservation biologists and independent consultants, offered the following working de.nition of biodiversity: “Biodiversity is the variety of life and its processes. It includes the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that keep them functioning, yet ever changing and adapting.” Thus, loss of biodiversity is more than the loss of species. It is also the loss of genetic and ecosystem diversity, the alteration of structure, and the disruption of ecological and evolutionary processes.
Rallying Around The Issue of Amphibian Declines
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although amphibian populations declined or disappeared before and during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, it was not until the First World Congress of Herpetology, held in Canterbury, England, in September 1989, that investigators began to suspect the extent of the losses. Almost 1400 delegates from 60 countries attended this congress. Participants presented a few papers addressing declines, but informal conversations in staircases, halls, meeting rooms, and pubs crystallized awareness of the bigger problem. Herpetologist after herpetologist shared stories of losing his or her study populations. Many were shocked to discover their stories were not unique. Amphibian populations 3uctuate widely, so many of us had assumed that it was just a matter of time until weather conditions improved and “our” animals would bounce back. No need to panic; no need to publish about declines or disappearances. Just wait it out.
That is also what one of us (MLC) had assumed. Marty, then at the University of Florida, had recently lost her study populations of golden toads (Bufo periglenes) and harlequin frogs (Atelopus varius) from Monteverde, Costa Rica.
Contaminants, Global Change, and Emerging Infectious Diseases
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the late 1980s and 1990s, we were hearing reports of some amphibian species going extinct in only a few years; the search for the answer to the question, Why are they gone? was becoming paramount. But as we have seen already, the reality in science, as in any good detective novel, is complicated.
In the last chapter, we learned that historical explanations point to such causes as competition with exotic, introduced species or predation by the same; harvesting of wild animals for food or pets; and changes in land use. These mechanisms accounted for most of the damage to amphibian populations for much of the 20th century, and even today. These historical causes also typically leave clues—some as obvious as the mark of a chainsaw— from which an investigation can begin.
However, at least some of the amphibian declines and extinctions in the late 20th century left few, if any, clues. Animals went missing in national parks and nature reserves, where obvious causes such as habitat destruction did not apply; somehow, habitat protection, historically the best way to ensure a species’ survival, was failing to safeguard some amphibians.
Unraveling The Mystery
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We ended the last chapter with a brief description of an emerging disease caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a pathogen associated with many amphibian population declines around the world. Whether Bd is the direct and only cause of certain declines, whether it acts only when catalyzed by or associated with some other environmental factor, or whether it comes into play only when amphibians are stressed will be discussed in chapter 7. The answer differs among species and geographical locations.
Our current understanding of the chytrid scenario results from more than a decade’s worth of “detective work” by scientists worldwide. These scientists have diverse expertise, from ecology to pathology. They have used various methodologies, including empirical work and .field observations of amphibians, laboratory and field experiments, rigorous hypothesis testing, and searching for correlations between factors. Each scientist built on previous work by others, either expanding a line of investigation or proposing alternative ideas.
Amphibian Chytrid Fungus as a Cause of Declines and Extinctions
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In ecology or conservation biology textbooks, infectious disease is usually discussed as a stressor that can cause a population to decrease but eventually recover, or perhaps stabilize at a smaller size after an epidemic. Rarely is infectious disease discussed as a primary cause of extinction. A well known exception is chestnut blight in the northeastern United States: An introduced fungus eliminated American chestnuts as major forest trees in urban and native landscapes, although even in this case the species did not become extinct. American chestnuts can still be found, but the species is no longer a dominant canopy tree.
The chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is regularly associated with amphibian declines and extinctions.
New Approaches to Doing Science and Conservation
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Late in the 20th century, the historical and modern forces that cause population declines and extinctions converged on amphibian species in ways that accelerated population and species losses in frogs and salamanders. As mentioned in chapter 1, recent analyses by Kim Roelants and colleagues at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and by Malcolm McCallum at Texas A&M University reached similar conclusions using different methods: The late 20th century extinction rate for amphibians is between 200 and 2700 times greater than the extinction rate for the class Amphibia over the last 350 million years. The fact that amphibians disappeared in protected areas such as nature reserves, which by definition humans “reserve” for protecting species and conserving biodiversity, drew the world’s attention to the general importance of explaining these losses, because they signaled that habitat restrictions alone could not protect amphibians, or, probably, other organisms. Cornelia Dean, a reporter for the New York Times, wrote: “Conservation organizations that work to preserve biologically rich landscapes are confronting a painful realization: In an era of climate change, many of their efforts may be insufficient or beside the point.” At least for amphibians, “conservation as usual” was not working, which raised the general question: What constitutes a nature reserve at the start of the 21st century? In some cases, a reserve of last resort is a zoo, aquarium, or other conservation facility—but more about that possibility in the next chapter.
Interventions for Positively Reinforced School Refusal Behavior
Authors: Kearney Christopher A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eevie is a 7-year-old girl who often refuses school because she wants to stay home with a parent. She commonly screams on the playground before school, wrapping herself tightly around her mother’s legs or running back to the car. Eevie does attend class if a parent is in the school building, so Eevie’s mother has taken a leave of absence from work to serve as a parent volunteer at her daughter’s elementary school. Eevie also insists that her mother eat lunch with her in the school cafeteria and that her mother be at her classroom at exactly 3:15 p.m. to take her home. Eevie also commonly refuses to attend play dates or birthday parties if one of her parents cannot be there.
Computing Minds
Authors: Edelman Shimon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Arguments i outlined in the preceding chapter suggest that minds are best explained in computational terms. To persuade you that the quest for such an explanation is worth our while, I must now show that the chain of explanatory reasoning connecting the proposed theory of the mind to computation is sound, and that the concept of computation itself is solid and intuitive enough to anchor that reasoning in the bedrock of empirical knowledge and, indeed, common sense. The three successive links in the chain of explanation that I am setting out to forge can be conveniently cast in the form of three tightly interwoven observations, as illustrated in Figure 2.1 on the next page. I propose to explain the nature of minds in terms of the function of brains, brain function in terms of computation, and computation itself in terms of principled manipulation of representations. The opening observation — “minds are what brains do” (a quip by Marvin Minsky, a co-founder of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory) — leads naturally to the next question: “what is it that brains do?”
The Astonishing Hypothesis
Authors: Edelman Shimon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A mind is a terrible thing to explain. Francis Crick wrote in 1994 that the hypothesis that the mind can be understood in terms of the brain — the central idea in McCulloch’s EXPERIMENTAL EPISTEMOLOGY project — was still “so alien to the ideas of most people today that it can truly be called astonishing”: The Astonishing Hypothesis is that “You,” your joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, your sense of personal identity and free will, are in fact no more than the behavior of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules.
Language
Authors: Edelman Shimon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Language, as Ludwig Wittgenstein famously argued, is a kind of game that people play. Had the “meme” meme evolved prior to the writing of Philosophical Investigations, Wittgenstein might have noted that, being essentially memetic, language is also a kind of game that plays people. Being thrust at a tender age into a community of inveterate players, we learn by observing, listening, and interacting with others, all the time literally playing it by ear, without any explicit instruction. Within a span of a few years, we become experts ourselves, yet the individual games we play — determined by the symbiotic memeplexes we host — remain pliable, being influenced by the games of our interlocutors, and influencing those in turn. In this chapter, I sketch a framework for thinking about language that unifies and computationally substantiates what to date has been a loose collection of maverick philosophical insights, trail-blazing psychological studies, and unorthodox linguistic theories. The opportunity for unification will be afforded by looking at language from the single most pertinent perspective: that of a human baby. This developmental perspective is the most pertinent one because it encompasses the emergence of the totality of an individual’s knowledge of language from an initial state whose only empirically warranted characterization is “profound ignorance.”
Being No One
Authors: Edelman Shimon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Contrast to the kind of REFLEXIVE SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS afforded to humans by looking into the mirror of language, there exists in all of us a more primeval awareness. To the extent that they maintain a model of the world that surrounds them, and themselves as being part of it, all sentient beings share this latter capacity. In the present chapter, I lay out a computational explanation both of this elemental PHENOMENAL EXPERIENCE, and of consciousness grounded in reflection and narrative. The unifying concept will be that of ACCESS among representations — those maintained internally, as well as “that vast external memory, the external environment itself” (Reitman et al., 1978, p.72).
Consciousness: Artificial Pleasures And Desires in Other Bodies?
Authors: Kringelbach Morten L . 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When John Steinbeck described consciousness as a tragic miracle, he meant that although our sophisticated under- standing and awareness of what is happening in the present and what is likely to happen in the future gives us the freedom to make choices and follow our desires, we also know that we will not live forever. That is, we are all aware, on some level, that we are living a tragedy, in that sooner or later we will have to leave everything that gives meaning to our lives. In the face of this reality, however, most of us remain full of optimism, continuing to form and nurture the relationships and interests that create the tragedy.
Our subjective experience is perhaps the defining characteristic of consciousness. As we have seen, several brain regions are possible candidates for mediating this experience. The orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insular cortex, and ventral striatum have been clearly implicated in the hedonic networks that contribute to shaping our behavior and our subjective experience.
Learning: Emotions and Thoughts
Authors: Kringelbach Morten L . 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When I was a young boy, my grandfather took me for long walks on the beach. Among the pebbles at the edge of the ocean were many fossils, including thunderstones. These are fossils of extinct animals in the squid family that lived in the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. They can be difficult to discern among the pebbles, so it requires training and concentration to find them. They are sufficiently common along Danish beaches so that, unlike the less common amber, they hold no monetary value. Nevertheless, I desired them for their long semitransparent golden shape and for the pleasure of the hunt. My grandfather was an expert in finding thunderstones and one of my greatest ambitions was to become as skilled.
Learning is commonly associated with lessons and class- rooms. But Oscar Wilde was right to point out that nothing that is worth knowing can be taught. Collecting thunder- stones is not a subject in any school I know of. To learn it, I needed only plenty of time and motivation, which are some of the most important elements for learning. Other ones include a certain amount of talent and a good portion of luck. Desire and pleasure are central for learning. They are involved in the possible causes for poor mathematical abilities, stuttering, and dyslexia.
Future Considerations: Where Do We Go From Here?
Authors: Kringelbach Morten L . 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As shown in this book, the pleasure center of the brain is not a center that one can visit to extract more pleasure. Rather it is a complex entity consisting of a republic of connected brain regions, whose activity changes dynamically over time and is seldom fully available for conscious introspection. Neuroscience can help to uncover this constant maelstrom of brain activity. Our journey to the pleasure center is therefore not foremost an exploration of consciousness as such but perhaps rather an exploration of the nonconscious brain processes which lead to choices and actions—and even pleasure.
Pleasure, desire, and happiness coexist in consciousness. We can ask people how they are consciously experiencing their pleasure and contentment at any given time. But their answers are not necessarily informative, since we are not particularly skilled at decoding our subjective states and nonconscious brain activity. There can be huge differences between how we say we should feel and how we do feel.
Eight Stories Up
Authors: Lezine Dequincy A , Brent David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a book for adolescents who have contemplated suicide, or who may be at risk for doing so. As a teenager, author DeQuincy Lezine was one of the many young people each year who attempt suicide. Instead, he sought psychiatric help and went on to found the first ever campus-based chapter of the Suicide Prevention Action Network USA. In Eight Stories Up, Lezine discusses his own struggles with suicidal thoughts and provides valuable information that young people need, such as how to find professional help, what types of problems and illnesses may lead to suicidal behaviours, available therapies, and how to cope at home and at school.
Getting Help
Authors: Lezine Dequincy A , Brent David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As I look back on my life in Los Angeles, I recall that, even before I went to college, people around me knew that something might be wrong. I was sent to counseling on and off throughout junior high and high school, and I hated it. I thought therapists were just paid strangers who wanted to pry into my private life. I simply refused to believe I needed their help, and I refused to talk. The various school psychologists and therapists that I was sent to over the years barely register in my memory as a result. Unfortunately, in therapy, if you say nothing, you get nothing. Maybe if I’d given therapy a chance when I was younger, then I could have avoided my suicidal crisis. Perhaps if I had had some way to build up my coping resources in my early teen years, then I wouldn’t have found myself in a life-threatening situation during college. I don’t know, but if I had it to do over again, knowing what I do now, I’d try.
Recovery
Authors: Lezine Dequincy A , Brent David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In my first session with Dr. O, I had promised to stay alive at least until our next session the following week, and I fully intended to keep my word. That did not mean, though, that I immediately stopped thinking about suicide. In fact, you already know about some of what happened over the next few weeks: the planning for my jump, the writing of my suicide note, and the sending of those e-mails to friends, in which I desperately tried to convince them that suicide was my best option. I planned to kill myself on Friday, December 1. I had an appointment with Dr. O. where I could fulfill my promise to tell her before I died. It was also my brother’s birthday, which just seemed to complete the circle of life. Then on Monday evening, November 27, 1995, Campus Police and Security arrived to escort me out of the computer lab from where I was sending those e-mails. I was taken to a nearby private psychiatric hospital the next day.
Taste, Disgust, and Value: Taste Aversion Learning and Outcome Encoding in Instrumental Conditioning
Authors: Balleine Bernard W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Taste aversion learning, the demonstration that pairing a taste with illness reduces the willingness of animals to consume substances containing that taste, has been shrouded in controversy since its first description about four decades ago. As is well documented elsewhere in this book, reports of robust learning despite long delays between taste and illness, of biological constraints on learning, and of potentiation rather than competition between elements of a compound for association with illness were met with a degree of skepticism when first reported and yet, or perhaps because of this, taste aversion learning has become one of the more thoroughly researched areas of learning in its own right. Just as importantly, the taste aversion paradigm has proven to be a useful tool in the investigation of a variety of other learning processes. This chapter discusses two cases in which taste aversion learning has been used in this way to understand the associative structure of instrumental conditioning; indeed, it was through the use of this procedure that the first and most important evidence that animals can encode the consequences of their actions emerged. Furthermore, using this procedure, it has been established that instrumental performance is not just determined by the association between an action and the outcome but is also a product of the incentive value of the outcome.
Hormonal Modulation of Conditioned Taste Avoidance: The Role of Estradiol
Authors: Chambers Kathleen C , Hintiryan Houri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hormones are organic compounds that when released into the bloodstream can affect target tissues at long distances from the site of synthesis. They are synthesized and released by secretory cells in the body and brain and those hormones secreted by cells in the body can affect brain function either directly or indirectly through their action on target tissues outside the brain. Although hormones can play an essential role in the display of various behaviors, such as testosterone in male rodent sexual behavior, their role in conditioned taste avoidance (CTA) apparently is modulatory. The study of three different hormones, testosterone, adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH), and vasopressin, has revealed that their modulatory influence is both varied and complex. The most striking modulatory effect of these hormones is on the expression of extinction (for reviews see the following: Chambers, 1985; Chambers & Hayes, 2005; Chambers, Yuan, Brownson, & Wang, 1997; Smotherman, 1985). This influence is dependent on whether the hormone is present during the acquisition or extinction processes, on the interaction of the hormone with other hormonal systems, and on whether the circulatory levels of the hormone are high or low.
Taste Aversions in Pregnancy
Authors: Bayley Tracy M , Dye Louise , Hill Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pregnancy is a time that is commonly associated with both food aversions and food cravings. Indeed, there is now substantial research literature characterizing these experiences. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an over-view of these findings and to summarize the explanations proposed. Data from three new studies, two of which are prospective in design, looking at the relationship between nausea and food aversions are also presented. Together, this research provides support for learned associations between food exposure, pregnancy nausea and sickness, and food aversions.
Privacy and Confidentiality
Authors: Bush Shane S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ability of patients to communicate openly and honestly has traditionally been a fundamental component of psychological treatment. In psychotherapy, patients must be confident that their most sensitive and deeply held thoughts and feelings can be safely divulged. However, patient willingness to disclose information that could become a source of embarrassment or result in other harmful consequences is as important for neuropsychological evaluations as it is for treatment. The ability of neuropsychologists to obtain accurate and complete patient information is essential for diagnostic accuracy and clinical decision making.