bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Nose
Authors: Cohen M Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Formation of the nose is entirely dependent on development of the forebrain. Any insult that prevents the brain’s frontal development may disturb the anatomy of the nose. Nasal develop- ment first becomes evident histologically as thickenings of ectoderm, called olfactory placodes, by 26 days postfertilization (stage 12). The placodes are normally widely spaced on the anterolateral aspect of the frontal prominence (Fig. 11-1). The placodes become distinc- tive topographically by invaginating to form the nasal pits. With the rapid expansion of the forebrain, the nasal pits appear to converge toward the anterior midline. The lateral rims of the nasal pits (the nasolateral processes) fuse with the maxillary processes, forming the alae nasi.
Teeth
Authors: D’Souza Rena N , Kapadia, Hitesh , Vieira Alexandre R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The presence of a complete and functional dentition is critical to the overall health and well-being of an individual. In fact, the size, shape, color, and alignment of teeth are determining characteristics of facial expression and impart uniqueness to each human. Individuals who lack a full complement of teeth as a result of disease, trauma, or genetic disorders often endure emotional hardship due to compromised facial aesthetics. Costly and sometimes complex dental care is needed to restore normal structure and function to dentition. Since teeth are critical for the proper mastication of complex food substances, inefficient grinding compromises digetion by salivary enzymes and may result in digestive problems. As seen in older individuals who have lost teeth to periodontal disease or dental caries, speech is often affected, as is vertical dimension and facial aesthetics.
Neuromuscular Systems Brain
Authors: Hunter Alasdair G W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The anatomy of the developing central nervous system (CNS) dominates embryonic topography in much the same way that function of the mature CNS dominates postnatal actions and behavior. The CNS is represented initially as an ectodermal plate, stretching the length of the dorsum of the embryonic disc. The margins of the plate become elevated during developmental stages 8–9 (days 18–20) and eventually roll into a tube during devel- opmental stages 10–12 (days 22–26). Closure of the tube begins at the level of the third somite and progresses bidirectionally from that point. The brain develops from the neural tube rostral to somite 4 and the spinal cord caudal to this level.
Spinal Cord
Authors: Hunter Alasdair G W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lower end of the spinal cord is held by one or more of a number of tethering mechanisms that are most often associated with various forms of occult spinal dysraphism (OSD) (Fig. 17-1). In most cases the termination of the spinal cord is below the nor- mal level for age and it is frequently associated with a short and thickened filum terminale. The normal level of the end of the spinal cord within the spine varies during development. During the first trimester it occupies the entire length of the spinal canal, but by 6 months gestation it terminates at L3-L4, and at birth it is at L2-L3. It ends at the adult L1-L2 position by age 3 months. However, there is variation.
Muscle
Authors: Hall Judith G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Muscle is a quite unique organ within the body. It has the ability to produce movement and force in response to both internal and external stimuli. Changes in muscle mass and func-tion have major influences on the structure of other tissues and organ systems during fetal life as well as throughout infancy and childhood. The volume and weight of muscle are related to its use postnatally; however, muscle normally represents about 55% of body weight. Muscle size is dynamic and can atrophy or hyper- trophy depending on use. Muscle represents one of the largest and most distributed tissues in the body. Muscle tissue can have a variety of disturbances in its formation and morphogenesis, which lead to primary and secondary congenital anomalies.
Hands and Feet
Authors: Everman David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Malformations of the hands and feet have been extensively described and characterized, in large part because they oc- cur commonly and are easily visualized by patients, family mem- bers, and physicians alike. The major categories of hand and foot malformations include short digits (brachydactyly), extra digits (polydactyly), fused digits (syndactyly), and deficient digits (oligodactyly). As with other types of malformations, hand and foot anomalies occur either in isolation or as a component feature of numerous syndromes. Many hand and foot malformations are heritable, often manifesting as isolated traits that are transmitted infamilies through many generations. In such instances, affected persons may not seek medical attention for the malformations them- selves, simply considering them to be the normal hands or feet for the family.
Small and Large Intestines
Authors: Passarge Eberhard , Stevenson Roger E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The enteric system takes form between post fertilization weeks 4 and 16. In the embryonic disc stage, the future enteric system is represented by the portion of the yolk sac that lies parallel and in contact with the ectodermal plate (Fig. 25-1). The tubular nature of the enteric system becomes apparent during the 4th week of embryogenesis (stages 10–13) as a portion of the yolk sac becomes folded inside the embryonic mass.
Urogenital Tract
Authors: Evans Jane A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The urinary system consists of kidneys, which excrete urine, and the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra, which collect it. Development of the urinary tract is closely related to that of the reproductive system. Both derive from intermediate mesoderm that extends along the entire length of the dorsal body wall of the embryo. During folding of the embryo in the horizontal plane, the intermediate mesoderm is carried ventrally away from the somites to form a longitudinal ridge on either side of the primitive paired aorta. This urogenital ridge has both a urinary component, the nephrogenic cord, and a genital component, the gonadal ridge. There are three successive sets of kidneys formed during human development.
Japanese Men’s Linguistic Stereotypes and Realities: Conversations from the Kansai and Kanto Regions
Authors: Sreetharan Cindi Sturtz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is very little empirical research into how men of any society use language at the everyday, local level (but see Coates 2003; Johnson & Meinhof 1997). This is certainly true in the Japanese case. The lack of investigation into Japanese men in general and their language use in particular may give the impression that any Japanese man on the street can stand as representative of the generic Japanese male and that the language style he uses is both known and normatively spoken by all Japanese men.
Saramaccan and Haitian as Young Grammars The Pitfalls of Syntactocentrism in Creole Genesis Research
Authors: Mcwhorter John h. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous three chapters I have argued that creoles are a synchronically identifiable class of grammar (chapter 1), are delineable as less complex than older languages because of their youth (chapter 2), and tend very strongly to reproduce their source languages’ structures in Jess complex renditions (chapter 3). Predictably, this framework has elicited rebuttals. Lefebvre (2001) considers her Relexificationist model to account for the contrast between creoles and their lexifiers better than my hypothesis does. DeGraff (1999b, 2001) argues that creoles differ from their lexifiers mostly in predictable structural concomitants of loss of inflection and that to propose any contrast in complexity between older languages and creoles is epistemologically flawed and even sociologically suspect. Arends (2001) supposes that creoles only appear “simpler” than older languages because of a lack of detailed grammatical work on them to date.
What Happened to English?
Authors: Mcwhorter John h. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since linguistic investigations as early as Paul (1880), it has been well known that simplification and complexification have complementary roles in the evolution of grammars. I argue in this chapter that in the emergence of Modern English, simplification dominated complexification to a greater extent than in any other Germanic language. Specifically, I claim that at a certain point in English’s history, simplification dominated in a fashion suggesting a socio historical factor hindering the full trans mission of the grammar across generations.
Strange Bedfellows Recovering the Origins of Black English
Authors: Mcwhorter John h. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It always strikes me how difficult it is to answer a question I am often asked by students, professors, the media, and members of the general public: Where did Black English come from? The responsible scholar acquainted with the issues can only answer this question after a game swallow and a pause for gathering one’s thoughts, because the origins of Black English have been hotly contested for thirty years now.
The Paleobiology of the Pavlovian People
Authors: Trinkaus Erik , Svoboda Jiří A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is primary descriptive volume on the most important paleontological site for research into the emergence of humans, the development of a modern pattern of hunting and gathering societies in the Middle Upper Paleolithic Era. Erik Trinkhaus is among the most distinguished paleoanthropologists and a member of the National Academy. Svoboda is the project leader on the Pavlovian site.
Employees and Corporate Governance
Authors: O’Sullivan Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Corporate governance is concerned with the institutions that influence how control over resource allocation is exercised in business corporations: who exercises control, what allocation decisions they make, and who benefits from these decisions. What do we mean when we speak of employee representation in corporate governance? In this chapter, I view employees as having a role in corporate governance when they have some voice in decision-making processes that affect how resources within the corporate enterprise are allocated. Moreover, I am concerned only with situations in which employees’ influence over corporate activity is institutionalized, whether through formal requirements, informal norms, or both, so that employees’ role in governance is not at the discretion of any other group in the economy (such as shareholders).
The Wealth of English
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the number of speakers who learn it as a first or second language, and in its range of uses and adaptability to general and specific tasks, English is the world’s most important language today. It is the mother tongue of several hundred million people. Its rich verbal art, great works in science and scholarship, and major role in international commerce and culture have made English the most frequently taught second language in the world.
Polysemy and Semantic Change
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have been mostly concerned with changes in the form of morphemes. In this chapter we turn to shifts in their meanings. If our goal is to understand a word’s meaning by recognizing its components, then mastering polysemy— variation in meaning—is just as important as mastering allomorph, variation in form.
Markets for Agents: Fund Management
Authors: Ross Stephen A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the period from the 1970s through the 1990s, the financial markets of the United States and of the world became institutionalized. By some estimates, over this period of time, the ownership of assets has reversed from one in which individuals held approximately 75% of the assets and institutions held 25% to one in which institutional ownership is now approximately 75%. While this has occasioned much discussion in the popular press, it is probably fair to say that the response in the academic community has been one of indifference.
and Realized Returns
Authors: Rubinstein Mark , Jackwerth Jens 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Standard equilibrium models in financial economics are, in their essential nature, ways of determining state-contingent prices: the price today of a dollar to be received at only a specific date in the future and given a specific description of the state of the economy at that time. If there are no riskless arbitrage opportunities, each of these prices is positive. The sum of the state-contingent prices for dollars received at a single date over all possible states is the current price of a dollar received for sure at that date. This is one divided by the current riskless return for that date. Therefore, multiplying the state-contingent prices by this return converts them into a probability measure over the states, which financial economists call riskneutral probabilities (figure 6.1). This chapter is largely about ways of recovering these probabilities from the current riskless return, the currently observed prices of traded assets, and the current prices of traded derivtives on those assets.
A Theory Of International Agreements
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conventional international lawyers’ wisdom about treaties is uncomplicated. When a state enters an agreement that evinces an intent to be governed by international law, it puts itself under an international law obligation to comply with the agreement. The legalization of the agreement, on this view, creates a special obligation beyond that which is created by a mere nonlegal agreement. This special obligation is usually captured by the pacta sunt servanda doctrine: “Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith” (Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 26).
Human Rights
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
International human rights law regulates the way states treat individuals under their control. The modern multilateral human rights regime consists primarily of treaties regulating genocide (1951), racial discrimination (1969), civil and political rights (1976), economic, social, and cultural rights (1976), discrimination against women (1981), torture (1987), and the rights of children (1990). (There are also various regional human rights treaties.) Each party to these treaties promises other signatories to protect the human rights of individuals under its control. The treaties also create various monitoring mechanisms that aim to promote compliance. As Table 4.1 shows, the vast majority of states have ratified most of these important human rights treaties.
International Trade
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyzes prominent treaty regimes governing international trade. We begin with the bilateral treaty regime that arose in the nineteenth century. We explain how this regime’s distinctive features are best explained by our theory of international law and how its failures inﬂuenced the design of the great twentieth-century multilateral treaty regime, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization. GATT/WTO poses a challenge to our account of international law, for, according to conventional wisdom, it provides the basis for multilateral trade cooperation. As we shall see, however, the elements of GATT/WTO that have ﬂourished generally solve coordination problems, not multilateral prisoner’s dilemmas. The international trade rules that were designed to solve multilateral prisoner’s dilemmas have failed. GATT/WTO might be best described as an effort to use bilateral means to solve a multilateral problem; its limitations can be traced to this mismatch between means and ends.
As an American popular constitutionalism, circa 2004
Authors: Kramer Larry D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present Court’s activism is best understood as the latest instance of a recurring pattern in American politics. For more than two centuries, every reaffirmation of popular constitutionalism has predictably been followed by efforts to restore or enlarge judicial authority. In each instance, a supposedly tamed Court slowly extended its reach, usually starting with small steps, then quickening the pace as its confidence grew in response to public acceptance or indifference. In each instance, the Justices eventually went too far, seeking to control matters at the heart of contemporary politics and precipitating a confrontation with the political branches that called upon Americans to decide yet again whether judges should have so much say over their lives.
Equity Market: The Capital Asset Pricing Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the heart of financial theory is the study of the time value of money in relation to the risk premium. If we lived in a world without risk, much of finance would be reduced to the bookkeeping of cash flows, paying taxes, distributing profits, covering expenses, and reporting returns. In other words, the study of finance would be better described as accounting. However, we do live in a world where risk changes the time value of money. Individuals grapple with the risks of capital investments and ventures with one fundamental preference in mind: the value of$1.00 should be more today than it will be tomorrow; a $1.00 certain payment should worth more than a $1.00 uncertain payment. But exactly how much more is the question that fuels financial research.
Bond Markets: The Bond Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Financial sectors are directly affected by the interest rate. As described by the dis counted cash flow model in chapter 1, the present-value concept depends on the market interest rate level. Bond markets, stock markets, futures and forward markets, and commodity markets are all affected by the interest rate level. Interest rates are also important to the real sector of the economy. They affect the levels at which people consume or invest. If we all prefer to save more for the future and consume less today, interest rates will fall. Interest rates are also related to the economy’s productivity. If the economy is productive and has a high rate of return for providing goods and services that we can consume in the future, we will be more likely to invest, sacrificing today’s consumption for tomorrow’s enjoyment. Thus the interest rate would rise, reflecting the productivity of the economy.
Interest Rate Derivatives: Interest Rate Models
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are many examples of interest rate derivatives that are actively traded in over-the counter markets and in organized exchanges. Caps, floors, Treasury bond options, Treasury bond futures options, Eurodollar futures options, and swaptions are just some examples of this important class of derivatives in financial markets. They are classified as “interest rate derivatives” because their stochastic movements are directly related to the interest rate movements in a way that is analogous to the stock option price that moves in step with the underlying stock price.
Exotic Options: Bellman’s Optimization, the Filtration Model, and the n-Factor Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters we have covered vanilla options regarding two main risk sources: stock price and interest rates. Specifically, we have considered European call and put options. These options, while simple in their terms and conditions, capture the salient features of an option. And the sources of risks that we have described enable us to understand a broad range of risk sources and how they affect option values and characteristics. The previous chapters have provided the principles behind the option pricing and the framework to analyze options we need to make the transition from theory to practical applications.
Financial Institutions” Liabilities: Required Option Adjusted Spread
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Financial institutions are issuers of a broad range of financial contracts. Banks” savings, such as time deposits and savings accounts, are examples of financial contracts. Property and casualty insurers” financial products may include auto insurance and workers” compensation insurance. Life insurer’s policies, such as term insurance and whole life insurance, are also examples of financial contracts. Corporations are obligated to pay benefits to retired employees. They are often called the “liabilities.” These are only some examples of financial contracts that financial institutions sell to customers to raise funds. They sell these financial contracts and invest the proceeds, deriving profits from the spread (returns of the investments net of the funding costs). These contracts are different from the corporate debt of financial institutions because they are not capital market securities; they have no active markets and no transaction prices except at issuance. They are similar to private placements, an arrangement made between a seller and a buyer. Their designs are often specific to their issuers, and they are also subject to different regulations on financial disclosure and management. Of course, these liabilities also have their own risk drivers. For example, the deposit accounts have withdrawal risks; property and casualty insurance carries general insurance risks; life products have mortality risks. These specific risk sources are also important in defining the characteristics of these liabilities.
Early Development Economics 2: Historical Perspectives
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Insofar as the development process is a matter of the long run, and LDCs are latecomers to development, it was natural to look to history for lessons of development. Examination of the growth experience of a variety of countries first concentrated on trends in population and national out-put. It also incorporates an examination of analytics. The demographic transition was identified as a prominent feature during the transformation of a society from a traditional to a modernized society. Societies pass from a phase of low population growth in which both birth and death rates are high, through a phase of rapid population growth in which modernization causes decreases in mortality, and then, after a lag, to a mature phase in which both birth and death rates are low and population growth is again moderate (Notestein 1953). The construct of the demographic transition raised questions about the causal relation between industrialization and the decline in mortality and fertility. The causes and timing were subject to various interpretations—with different policy implications for population control.
An Unfinished Biography
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fifty years on, the subject of economic development is very different from the pioneering time when Arthur Lewis walked down that road in Bangkok and threw away the neoclassical assumption of a fixed supply of labor. Two generations of economists have been responsible for the subsequent evolution of the subject in various dimensions. Other assumptions of the neoclassical competitive equilibrium model have been dropped, especially the imperfect information paradigm.