bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Joaquim Maria Machado De Assis
Authors: Gledson John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
0ne evening just lately, as I was coming back from town to Engenho Novo* on the Central line train, I met a young man from this neighborhood, whom I know by sight: enough to raise my hat to him. He greeted me, sat down next to me, started talking about the moon and ministerial comings and goings, and ended up reciting some of his verses. The journey was short, and it may be that the verses were not entirely bad. But it so happened that I was tired, and closed my eyes three or four times; enough for him to interrupt the reading and put his poems back in his pocket.
Sacred Trust: The Medieval Church as an Economic Firm
Authors: Ekelund Robert B , Hébert Robert F , Tollison Robert D , Anderson Gary M , Davidson Audrey B 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Church dominated society in the Middle Ages and functioned as a quasi-government, providing public and private goods. This book is the first to examine specific institutions in the Church in the Middle Ages in economic terms. Other books have argued generally that the Church either had a positive or negative effect on economic development. The authors of this book look more closely at the actual Church institutions and practices and describe how each functioned as a part of the larger economy of the time. They focus especially on marriage, usury, heresy, the crusades, and the monasteries. It is not their purpose to reject or impugn religious motives that may be advanced by theologians and historians. Their goal is to bring a fresh perspective to the role of institutions of the medieval Church in economic development.
Assessing Patients’ Capacities To Consent To Treatment
Authors: Grisso Thomas , Appelbaum Paul S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 4 we considered those circumstances in which a clinician might want to assess a patient’s capacities to consent to treatment. Here we describe how that assessment should be performed, including (1) who should undertake the task, (2) the components, and (3) steps that can be taken to improve patients’ performance.
Introduction
Authors: Dagger Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since at least the seventeenth century, the concept of rights has figured prominently in political debate, especially in the English-speaking parts of the world. It is no surprise, then, to find individuals and groups of almost every persuasion stating their cases nowadays in terms of rights. What is surprising is the growing reaction against these ubiquitous appeals to rights. According to a number of commentators, popular as well as scholarly, people have become too concerned with rights. In the United States in particular, they argue, we are caught in the grip of a crippling preoccupation with rights.
Creating and Dividing the Audience, 1640-60
Authors: Sommerville C John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the corantos delivered information from the edge of the known world it had not been difficult for government to break the news habit. Even when freed from restraint in 1638, the news industry, such as it was, did not revive. But things were different by the 1650s, after periodical news had held up a mirror to readers so that they could recognize themselves among the issues and the forces of the day. The Civil War created a need for periodical news that most times do not, and news gave the nation the means of facing the issue of social unity and social divisions. The effect, in dividing the nation, would linger into periods in which periodicals maintained the divisions, and when a communications revolution would produce a cultural revolution.
The Coffeehouse as a Periodical Medium, 1660–80
Authors: Sommerville C John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Rather than imagine that periodical news is primarily to provide information about the world, it is possible to see its job as starting the discussion necessary to create an authentic public opinion. If one takes that view, it would follow that accurate or important information-always problematical-is not absolutely necessary to its purpose. Its function could be well served even at a time when the news industry was at low tide, which was certainly the case during Restoration England. In the 1670s, with little more than the official London Gazette, the high-brow Philosophical Transactions, the skeletal London Bills of Mortality, and occasional political pamphlets to discuss, there was a vital cultural life and a rising political debate-all because of the opportunity to discuss things in periodic visits to one’s favorite coffeehouse. One did not have to visit every day, any more than one had to see a paper every day, to be shaped by the news consciousness fostered in those surroundings.
Living in a Permanent Revolution
Authors: Sommerville C John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Quotes like these make us wary of criticizing our news media and watchful of any threat to press freedom. Though we may rail against the bias of editors or incompetence of reporters, we seem unshaken in our conviction that news is vital and part of the natural order. One might, indeed, claim that our society is literally based on a communion in the news. On the other hand, we also have a feeling that modem societies are in some respects dysfunctional. We should consider connecting these two notions.One problem in our thinking is to assume that news means periodical news and a news industry. As we face a future in which news is likely to be more irregular and gathered to suit individual need, we can begin to gain a perspective on what the commodification of information has meant over the last four centuries. Has the significance or the truth of commercially produced news ranked as high as some other values? And how has the structure of periodical news, quite aside from its content, shaped our minds? For one can resist the ideas one encounters more easily than one can resist the form of the underlying discourse. In facing such questions, reviewing the origins of English journalism offers a fresh perspective. It may also help us to understand why the market for news seems to be declining, even as the industry matures.
The Church Viewed through Political and Clerical Lenses
Authors: Camp Roderic Ai 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Mexko passed through one of the most economically and politically dynamic stages of its development in the 1980s and 1990s. The Catholic Church and Catholicism were witnesses to, and active ingredients in, ongoing alterations in Mexican society. It is fortuitous that field research for this project began at this juncture, especially since no one would have predicted a newly formalized relationship between church and state in the mid-1980s.
Epidemiology: The Foundation of Public Health
Authors: Brownson Ross C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Epidemiology has a rich, yet relatively brief history in determining the underlying causes of numerous health conditions and in assessing the effectiveness of preventive strategies and technologies. In part because it is such a new science, epidemologists have focused much of their attention over the past few decades on the development and refinement of research methods; less emphasis has been placed on how to effectively apply epidemiologic principles to public health and health care.
Epidemiologic Issues in the Design of Community Intervention Trials
Authors: Koepsell Thomas D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If epidemiology is the branch of science that seeks to understand the determinants of disease occurrence in populations, and if one such determinant is the effectiveness of organized efforts to prevent disease and promote health (Terris 1992a), then evaluation of these programs is a form of applied epidemiology. This chapter concerns controlled evaluations of interventions aimed at entire communities in order to prevent disease or promote health. For present purposes, a community trial is defined as a study that involves at least one intervention site in which a community-wide health promotion or disease prevention program is implemented, and at least one control site without such an intervention that is studied concurrently, whether or not randomization is used to assign communities to treatment groups.
The Great Depression
Authors: Leuchtenburg William E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Among the many things the Great Depression tumbled upside down, not the least was the relationship between the United States and the rest of the world. For two centuries, Americans had cherished the belief that they had developed a unique civilization which must be safeguarded against the contaminations of Europe. The Wall Street crash of October 1929 reversed these historic roles: the plague of the Great Depression began in the United States and spread to other lands. Europe, which in the 192o’s had envied America its robust health, in the 193o’s watched nervously for any new signs of contagion from the New World. The disease took a far more violent form in the United States than in other countries. In nations such as France, the depression arrived later and was never so severe; unemployment, in particular, did not reach the appalling levels of joblessness in America.
Four Building Cultures in History
Authors: Davis Howard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The four building cultures described in this chapter—of the medieval city, Renaissance Florence, London in 1760, and New York in the 1890s—differ from the traditional village or the contemporary Third World informal settlement not only in the kinds of buildings that are produced but also in the much larger role that formal institutions play. This role increased over history, and as knowledge about building became more and more concentrated, the traditional locus of skill and design understanding began to disappear.
Changing Claims About Justice in Research: An Introduction and Overview
Authors: Kahn Jeffrey P , Mastroianni Anna C , Sugarman Jeremy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Patients with life-threatening, devastating diseases, perhaps most notably cancer and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), clamor for access to clinical trials.1 Federal policies governing research in the United States that once emphasized protecting subjects from dangerous research through such measures as informed consent and an assessment of risks and benefits of this research by institutional review boards (IRBs) now also promote access to clinical research. New requirements in these policies emphasize issues of selection of subject populations and the equitable distribution of the benefits and burdens of research participation across society.
Implementing Justice in a Changing Research Environment
Authors: Kahn Jeffrey P , Mastroianni Anna C , Sugarman Jeremy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When considered in aggregate, the cases and issues examined in this volume suggest that what justice requires varies among contexts. This is, in part, because the scope of concerns regarding justice is enlarging as the effects of medical research on the welfare of large numbers of people are increasing in significance. Moreover, the potential benefits of medical research make claims of competing interests for a fair share of these benefits quite relevant. As described in Chapter 9, the requirements of justice are increasingly the subject of public debate and scholarly controversy.
Social Construction of a Hate Crime Epidemic
Authors: Jacobs James B , Potter Kimberly 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It is widely believed that since the mid-1980s the United States has been experiencing a hate crime epidemic. This belief has been expressed over and over again by politicians, journalists, scholars, and spokespersons for racial, religious, gay and lesbian, and other advocacy groups. Leo McCarthy, lieutenant governor of California, declared that “[t]here is an epidemic of hate crimes and hate violence rising in California”;1 Mississippi State Senator Bill Minor warned, “this is the type of crime that easily spreads like an epidemic.”2 The District Attorney for St. Paul, Minnesota claimed that state and local governments faced a “massive increase in hate crimes.”3 A journalist for the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that “hate-motivated violence is spreading across the United States in 'epidemic’ proportions.”4 Dr. Arthur Caliandro, cochair of the religious group, Partnership of Faith, termed hate crimes “a virus that has turned into a disease that has grown into an epidemic.”5 A New Tork Times journalist characterized the incidence of hate crime as “rain[ing] down hard and heavy,” and as “a recent explosion.”6 The Boston Globe claimed that “incidents of racial and religious harassment or intimidation have skyrocketed.”7 An article in the National Law Journal characterized the 1990s as “the decade of hate—or at least, of hate crime.”
Doing Documentary Work
Authors: Coles Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Sitting in his study, William Carlos Williams once revealed to Robert Coles what he considered to be his greatest problem in writing a documentary about his patients in New Jersey. “When I’m there, sitting with those folks, listening and talking,” he said to Coles, “I’m part of that life, and I’m near it in my head, too.... Back here, sitting near this typewriter--its different. I’m a writer. I’m a doctor living in Rutherford who is describing ‘a world elsewhere.’” Williams captured the great difficulty in documentary writing--the gulf that separates the reality of the subject from the point of view of the observer . Now, in this thought-provoking volume, the renowned child psychiatrist Robert Coles, author of the Pulitzer Prize-winning Children in Crisis series, offers a penetrating look into the nature of documentary work. Utilizing the documentaries of writers, photographers, and others, Coles shows how their prose and pictures are influenced by the observers frame of reference: their social and educational background, personal morals, and political beliefs. He discusses literary documentaries: James Agee’s searching portrait of Depression-era tenant farmers, Let Us Now Praise Famous Men, and George Orwell’s passionate description of England’s coal-miners, The Road to Wigan Pier. Like many documentarians, Coles argues, Agee and Orwell did not try to be objective, but instead showered unadulterated praise on the “noble” poor and vituperative contempt on the more priviliged classes (including themselves) for “exploiting” these workers. Documentary photographs could be equally revealing about the observer. Coles analyses how famous photographers such as Walker Evans and Dorthea Lange edited and cropped their pictures to produce a desired effect. Even the shield of the camera could not hide the presence of the photographer. Coles also illuminates his points through his personal portraits of William Carlos Williams; Robert Moses, one of the leaders of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee during the 1960s; Erik H. Erikson, biographer of Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther; and others. Documentary work, Coles concludes, is more a narrative constructed by the observer than a true slice of reality. With the growth in popularity of films such as Ken Burns’s The Civil War and the controversial basketball documentary Hoop Dreams, the question of what is “real” in documentary work is more pressing than ever. Through revealing discussions with documentarians and insightful analysis of their work, complemented by dramatic black-and-white photographs from Lange and Evans, Doing Documentary Work will provoke the reader into reconsidering how fine the line is between truth and fiction. It is an invaluable resource for students of the documentary and anyone interested in this important genre.
Against Relativism
Authors: Macklin Ruth 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book provides an analysis of the debate surrounding the facts of cultural diversity, the charge of “ethical imperialism”, and the thesis that ethics must be viewed as relative to particular cultures or societies. Macklin examines the role of cultural traditions when used as a defense against critical ethical judgements. She explores key issues in health and medicine seen through the lens of cultural diversity: the physician-patient relationship, disclosing a diagnosis of fatal illness, informed consent, brain death and organ transplantation, rituals surrounding birth and death, female genital mutilation, sex selection of offspring, fertility regulation, and biomedical research involving human subjects. Among the conclusions she reaches are that ethical universals exist, but they should not be confused with ethical absolutes; and that the existence of ethical universals is compatible with a variety of culturally relative interpretations. Some rights related to medicine and healthcare ought to be considered human rights. Illustrative examples are drawn from the author’s experience serving on international ethical review committees and her travels to a dozen countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where she conducted educational workshops and carried out her own research.
The Universal Holiday
Authors: Prada Manuel González , Fornoff Frederick H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Christians celebrate the birth of a man who, without considering himself God, speaks in a way that they judge him divine: by calling himself the son of a father who probably does n’t exist, he comes to redeem us for a sin we surely did n’t commit. According to history or legend, that man let himself be crucified for us, but the sacrifice does n’t do much good, considering that today most of humanity is condemned for not knowing the Christian guru or his teaching. A savior who could have saved us from hunger, giving us a simple recipe for transforming pebbles into bread and water into milk, would have done more than Jesus Christ with all the sermons and so-called miracles of the Gospels. Today, revolutionaries greet tomorrow, the coming of an era in which the liberation of all oppressed peoples and the brotherhood of all races will be achieved.
Authority
Authors: Prada Manuel González , Fornoff Frederick H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
According to the ancients, almighty Zeus, when he took away man’s freedom, took half his virtue. Quite true. We lose the greatest and best of our being when we endure the humiliation of slavery; but what do we gain the moment we ascend the ladder of authority? Let’s pick the most inoffensive creature we can find, give him the tiniest particle of authority, and we’ll see how, instantaneously, as if touched by a magic wand, he’ll turn into an insolent and aggressive despot.
The First of May (1908a)
Authors: Prada Manuel González , Fornoff Frederick H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The strike in Iquique is proceeding just the opposite of what usually happens with movements of that sort when a conflict breaks out between workers and police. The first news is always exaggerated and events are characterized as a hecatomb, when in fact only a few people are slightly wounded or pushed around. In the current situation, the events that were communicated by telegraph a few hours after they happened were more serious and more brutal than what had been thought at first. It has been verified, beyond the slightest doubt, that more than a thousand peasants were killed by the soldiers without any threat or provocation on the part of the strikers.
Caporalismo (1914)
Authors: Prada Manuel González , Fornoff Frederick H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Mired in our mediocrity, which grows ever more intense and widespread, we should remember that individuals and nations acquire their value only through their moral elevation, and that no lofty feeling can germinate in a country resigned to the imposition of force and ruled by the doctrine of accepting conventional ideas. Where Cashibo thugs or African despots rule, there is only room for herds of mind less servants. In Peru today we put up with everything, and everything is sanctioned by virtue of being in effect for a few days: it does n’t take years or months for a Judas reconstituted into a Gil Blas to be transformed into a celebrity.
The Good Revolution
Authors: Prada Manuel González , Fornoff Frederick H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We condemn national revolutions because they impoverish us, dishonor us, bleed us, and turn us into savages. If in normal times the only guarantee of safety rests in the will of the satrap hunkered in his palace, during a civil war the law of Lynch prevails, applied to honest people by criminals. In cities like Lima and Callao, where the diplomatic corps keeps close watch on the actions of the government and exercises an ostensibly moderating restraint, there’s some pretense of respect for lives and property. But in the towns and villages of the interior, where they can operate in their own backyards and without fear of bothersome witnesses, no one is respected or treated with human decency.
Prison Before The Prison: The Ancient and Medieval Worlds
Authors: Peters Edward M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The prisons of the ancient world have disappeared. Those of late antiquity and medieval Europe have fallen into ruin, have been recycled into other uses, or have been preserved as museums, their varied history usually explained only in terms of modem concepts of penology. Like the buildings that once housed them, the sources for the early history of prisons are also lost, diverse, fragmentary, or otherwise difficult to interpret. The collaborative work of archaeologists, philologists, and historians has been required to illuminate the character of the Babylonian bit asiri and the “Great Prison” of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom. For the prisons of ancient Athens, we must tum to the Greek oratorical literature and the writings of Plato. For the prisons of the ancient He brews, we must consult the central Jewish religious text, the Bible. And if we want properly to understand these and other ancient and medieval prisons, we must approach them from a broad cultural perspective.
The Prison on The Continent: Europe, 1865-1965
Authors: Patricia O’Brien 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The penal institutions of a people should be, like all laws, the expression of its social state.” So spoke the French reformer Leon Faucher, who at mid-nineteenth century was intent on redesigning the French prison system to reflect the progress and achievements of his own society. Prisons were expected to change and develop in accord with democratic and moral principles of equity, fairness, and improvement. As an institution, the modern prison system has always been porous, permeated by political cultural assumptions and social values. The history of prisons in Europe from 1865 to 1965 is, therefore, a story of continual change that parallels the changing cultural, economic, political, and social realities of modern states. Moreover, as earlier chapters have demonstrated, the prison was also the product of pressure to reform existing methods of punishment and to find a more enlightened, humane, and effective answer to punishing crime.
Wayward Sisters: The Prison for Women
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Fear not! I do not exact vengeance for evil, but compel you to be good. My hand is stem, but my heart is kind.
Thus read the motto over the entrance to the first prison built for women: the Spinhuis, opened in 1645 in Amsterdam, Holland. The Spinhuis (so called because inmates were employed mainly in spinning for the Dutch textile industry) was a model institution admired far and wide. People traveled to Amsterdam specifically to visit this, “the big gest sight of the city.” At first it held only poor, “disrespectful” women and girls, but within a few years it had established cells for women who could not “be kept to their duties by parents or husbands” and separate dormitories for prisoners, drunks, prostitutes, and “for those whipped in public.”