bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Variability in the Mating Systems of Parasitic Birds
Authors: Barnard Phoebe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Brood parasitic birds are perplexing creatures in many ways. Evolutionarily, their strategy of reproductive freeloading has been highly successful. Many species, such as some of the cowbirds (Icterinae), have combined a strategy of generalist parasitism with a behavioral plasticity that has allowed them to expand their range greatly in historic times. Parasites and their hosts also make intriguing studies in coevolution (Rothstein, 1990), as explored by other contributors to this book. Obligate brood parasitism, like other types of parasitism, has profound consequences for the evolutionary ecology of parasites. Reproduction often dominates the lives of nonparasitic birds, and the establishment of pair bonds, building of nests, and raising of young to independence are demanding and energetically costly tasks. Parasitic birds, of course, are freed from many of these constraints. Therefore, we should expect that parasitism is a pivotal strategy that in­fluences many other aspects of a bird’s behavior and ecology.
Density-Dependent lntraspecific Nest Parasitism and Anti-Parasite Behavior in the Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica
Authors: M0ller Anders P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most fascinating recent discoveries of behavioral ecology is that the behavior of conspecifics is variable and can consist of several distinct entities, or strategies. Intraspecific nest parasitism, where individual females lay eggs in the nests of other females without caring for the offspring, is one such strategy. The alternative strategy is ordinary reproduction during which individuals only lay eggs in their own nest and care for their own offspring. Individuals may either adopt a fixed strategy or play different strategies at different times. Nest parasitism of conspecifics has been found to be relatively common in a large number of different bird species, and individuals may adopt a parasitic as well as a parental strategy (reviews in Yom-Tov 1980; Andersson 1984; Rohwer and Freeman 1989; Petrie and MS’iller 1991).
Major Unanswered Questions in the Study of Avian Brood Parasitism
Authors: Rothstein Stephen I , Robinson Scott K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We emphasized in chapter 1 that the heuristic nature of brood parasitism is one of the features that make it such an attractive phenomenon for research. Therefore, it is fitting to end this book with a brief section on major questions. Some of these questions have already been noted, at least implicitly, by various authors or by us in chapter 1, but restating them here in explicit terms will make them more identifiable and, we hope, better help to direct future research on parasitic birds. The 16 questions listed below are not the only “big” questions as regards brood parasitism but they are the important questions whose answers are the most uncertain.
R
Authors: Bunson Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ra’djedef third king (2528–2520 b.c.) of the 4th Dynasty of ancient Egypt, the son of khufu and one of his lesser wives. It is believed that Ra’djedef murdered his brother, Prince kewab, who was the rightful heir to the throne. He did bury Khufu, however, and presided over his mortuary rites. He married Queen hetepheres ii, the widow of Kewab, and his chief wife was Kentetenka. Ra’djedef’s reign ended abruptly. His pyramid was discovered at abu rowash.
Generalized Distances and Generalized Projections
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of the algorithms that we study in this book employ projections onto convex sets in order to achieve either feasibility or optimization. A projection of a given point onto a convex set is defined as another point which has two properties. First, it belongs to the set onto which the projection operation is performed and, second, it renders a minimal value to the distance between the given point and any point of the set. If the Euclidean distance II x -y II is used in this context then the projection is called a metric projection. But it turns out to be very useful to employ additionalmeans to measure the “distance” between the vectors x and y. The main purpose of this chapter is to present a theory of generalized distances and generalized projections, which include the classic metric projections as a special case. These generalized distances and projections were first proposed by Bregman in 1967, from whose work the specific, more focused version given here was subsequently developed.
Iterative Algorithms for Linearly Constrained Optimization Problems
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss mainly row-action methods. Their distinctive feature is that they are iterative procedures which, without making any changes to the original constraints matrix A, use the rows of A one at a time. Such methods appear in several areas of applications, and have demonstrated effectiveness for problems with large and sparse matrices that do not have any detectable or usable sparsity pattern, apart from a high degree of sparsity.We present row-action methods for handling huge and sparse systems (with numbers of unknowns, equations, or inequalities in the range of hundreds of thousands), and examine linear and nonlinear systems of equalities or inequalities. In describing many different row-action methods together, in a coherent presentation, we have two aims in mind: To facilitate cross-fertilization be tween various fields of applications where row-action methods are or could be used, and to pave the way for better insight into their mathematical nature. The row-action methods for linearly constrained optimization are treated in a unified manner within the framework of generalized Bregman distances and generalized projections (see Chapter 2).
The Inverse Problem in Radiation Therapy Treatment Planning
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce the problem of therapy treatment planning in radiation oncology. There are some good reasons to construct a fully discretized model of this problem, to which we can apply the various row action algorithms and block-iterative methods discussed in earlier chapters. We will explain our reasons and also present some computational results. Radiation therapy maintains a prominent place in the treatment of neoplastic lesions (tumors). Over the past ninety years, medical experience and laboratory studies have established the principles whereby radiation can be used as an effective modality for oncological treatment.
Decompositions for Parallel Computing
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the parallel implementation of several of the algorithms developed earlier whose structure-often in conjunction with that of the application-makes them suitable for decomposition into independent tasks. The decomposition is sometimes facilitated by the structure of the mathematical algorithm; simultaneous and block-iterative algorithms (as characterized in Section 1.3) are natural candidates for parallel computations. Sometimes the decomposition is facilitated by the structure of the problem, such as in image reconstruction where we can partition a discretized image into domains that are reconstructed independent of each other. In order to implement a parallel algorithm we must first partition its operations, or the problem data, into independent tasks that can be mapped on multiple processors (see also Section 1.2). That is, we must partition the operations of the algorithm into sets of independent operations that can proceed concurrently, or we must partition the problem data into blocks of data without interdependencies, so that multiple blocks can be processed in parallel. This is called task partitioning. Once a partition has been determined the tasks must be assigned to one or more processors for execution; this is known as the problem of task scheduling. Finally it may be necessary to impose some ordering to task execution and specify when information must be exchanged among the processors performing different tasks in order to guarantee correctness of the results. This is known as task synchronization.
Images, Models, and Propositional Representations
Authors: Johnson-laird Philip N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How many sorts of mental representation are there? One answer is: none. Mental representations according to this view are figments in the minds of cognitive psychologists. They do not really exist. Versions of this view—or at least of views suspiciously close to it—have been held by followers of Heidegger, by Behaviorists, by Gibsonians, by advocates of “situated action,” and by a further chorus of philosophical skeptics. There are a priori arguments to the contrary—dreams, hallucinations, vivid images, and even figments in the minds of cognitive scientists all suggest that there are mental representations, and in some of these cases, ironically, representations that do not correspond to anything in the world. On a different tack, any attempt to construct computer models of perception seems bound to postulate representations—e.g., the sequence from the gray-level array to three-dimensional models of the world proposed by the late David Marr (1982). These arguments fail to convince resolute defenders of the skeptical position. Like solipsists, they seem impervious to any case to the contrary, theoretical or empirical.
W
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WALLIA (d. 418 A.D.) King of the VISIGOTHS from 415 to 418 and the leader who was responsible for their settlement in Roman territory. In September of 415, the Visigoth monarch ATHAULF was stabbed to death and replaced by Singeric, a cruel and brief-reigning usurper. Singeric was also slain, after only a week, and an election was held to find a legitimate successor. The Visigoths chose a little known warrior, Wallia, who was selected because of his desire to have nothing to do with ROME, ironic given his subsequent actions. Wallia first restored Galla PLACIDIA, Athaulf’s Roman widow, to her rightful position of respect within the Visigoth community, making up for the harsh treatment meted out to her by Singeric. The most pressing problem, however, was securing the site of a permanent Visigothic settlement. Spain, their current home, was overcrowded and blockaded by the Roman navy. When ships designed to carry the Visigoths to AFRICA were wrecked in a storm, Wallia looked northward to Gaul and began negotiations with the Roman government, resulting in a treaty in 416 between Wallia and CONSTANTIUS 111. The Visigoths pledged to serve as clients or federates of Rome, which meant making war upon the VANDALS, Suebi and ALANS in Spain. In return the Visigoths received massive amounts of badly needed com and, ultimately, permission to take up residence in Gallia Aquitania and large sections of GALLIA NARBONENSIS as well. Over the next year, Wallia waged relentless war upon the barbarians in Spain and was so successful that by 418 the Visigoths were able to move into Gaul, according to their agreement with the Romans. This was Wallia’s legacy, for he died in 418. He was succeeded by Theoderic I, a grandson of ALARIC.
Ecological Experiments with Model Systems The Ecotron Facility in Context
Authors: Lawton John H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Experimental ecology is not something you have to do in the field. Indeed, many experiments are both easier and less expensive to do in a laboratory. But by definition, laboratory experiments are less natural and more artificial than field experiments. There is therefore a trade-off between experimental tractability and ecological realism whenever ecologists do experiments in the laboratory. But as I hope to show in this chapter, that trade-off will often be worth making, not as a substitute for fieldwork, but as one of several powerful approaches to understanding and predicting the behavior of ecological systems, ranging from mathematical models, through analysis of large-scale data sets, to laboratory and field manipulation experiments. All have their place in an ecologist’s armory.
Experimental Approaches to Studying the Population Dynamics and Evolution of Microorganisms
Authors: Mongold J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theoretical ecology has provided clear, unambiguous formulations of many of the questions with which ecologists are concerned (reviewed in Roughgarden et al. 1989). Experimental tests of theory in ecology and evolutionary biology have increased in recent decades (for reviews see Stearns 1982, Hairston 1991), yet much of this body of theory remains untested, and there is still a great need for experimental verification (Kareiva 1989). The call for more experimentation in ecology, however, has focused mainly on field experiments (Hairston 1991). Laboratory experiments are sometimes criticized on the grounds that they involve oversimplified environments and utilize organisms whose field relationships are poorly understood. Unfortunately, the richness of field studies comes at the cost of experimental ease and control. Expense, labor, and physical constraints can make it difficult or impossible to obtain sufficient replication for strong statistical inference (Hurlbert 1984). This problem is intensified by the very complexity that makes field experiments so attractive. Uncontrollable vaiiation in weather, habitat quality, abundance of predators, or other aspects of the environment frequently confounds the interpretation of results (see Endler 1986 for a discussion of some of the difficulties to be faced). Laboratory microcosms are, of course, restricted environments, and one must be careful to avoid overgeneralization of conclusions from such studies. The same must be said, however, of a study of a single pond or stretch of streambed. Thus, one must always weigh the costs and benefits of experimental control versus generality (see Morin, this volume, for a discussion of these issues). A multilevel approach achieved by an increased use of laboratory models to complement field observations could be very profitable for the field of ecology.
The Motivation for and Context of Experiments in Ecology
Authors: Wootton Timothy , Pfister Catherine A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past three decades, experimentation in ecology has become increasingly common (Connell 1972, 1983; Paine 1977; Schoener 1983; Hairston 1989). The experimental method has provided ecologists with a technique for examining the origins of pattern and the role of various processes in natural systems. As experimentation has proliferated in ecology, specific prescriptions for the design and implementation of experiments have emerged (e.g., Bender et al. 1984, Hurlburt 1984, Underwood 1986, Hairston 1989, Underwood and Petraitis 1993, Wootton 1994b). While there is merit in prescribing rigorous requirements for the design of experiments, it should not be carried out so as to limit the range of possible experimental approaches that can be usefully applied. For this reason, it is helpful to keep in mind the varied uses of experiments in ecology. In this chapter, we examine what we consider to be the three primary motivations for the use of experiments in ecology, illustrating them with examples drawn both from our work and from the wider literature. We then discuss how different philosophical approaches and different questions of interest in ecology call for different types of (equally valid) experimental designs and advocate applying experiments in an integrated program of ecological study.
The Logic, Value, and Necessity of Grounding Experiments in Reality An Essential Link in the Inferential Chain Back to Nature
Authors: Bernardo Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Experiments are an essential part of, and serve multiple roles in, ecological research (Lawton, this volume; Morin, this volume; Wooten and Pfister, this volume). In addition, experiments vary in their levels of realism, in their intimacy with natural variation, and in the sophistication of their designs along these continua. However, all appropriately replicated experiments share the key property of involving directed (intentional) manipulations of one or more supposed causal variables with the expressed purpose of estimating the impact of those manipulations upon one or more focal variables. It is from this purposeful manipulation of hypothesized causal factors that experiments derive their property of allowing unambiguous partitioning of trait variance among putative causes. This property is the unique contribution that experiments make to ecological and evolutionary inference, and it is the reason that many ecologists consider experiments indispensable in any inferential chain that hypothesizes causation.
Landscape Ecology of Transformed Neotropical Environments
Authors: Carroll C Ronald , Kane Deborah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The American tropics contain slightly more than half of the world’ s tropical moist forests (Somner, 1976), but these forests are being rapidly converted to other land uses. Between 1980 and 1990, 32 countries in Latin America lost approximately 830,000 square kilometers of forest area for an annual deforestation rate of 0.9 percent (FAO, 1990b). Central America is losing approximately 3,400 square kilometers of lowland and montane forest each year (Nations and Komer, 1983). Much of the early deforestation that followed European contact occurred during the 19th century with the ex pansion of rubber plantations in Brazil and the spread of cattle ranching throughout the American tropics.
Aquatic Ecosystem Deterioration in Latin America and the Caribbean
Authors: Scatena Catherine M Pringle Frederick N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On a global scale, the most serious aquatic pollution problems are found in rapidly developing countries (Meybeck, Chapman, and Helmer, 1989). Here, pollutants that gradually appeared in industrialized regions over the passage of a century or more are rapidly building up in the compressed time span of decades (Boon, 1992). Pollution has emerged as a significant and alarming feature of many water bodies in Latin America and the Caribbean during the last 30 years. The control of water pollution is consequently a major challenge for water management in many areas of the region (UN ECLAC, 1990c).
Globalization, Population Growth, and Agroforestry in Mesoamerica: Perspectives for the 21st Century
Authors: Szott Lawrence T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mesoamerican farmers face three especially important challenges. (1) The globalization of markets may negatively affect demand and prices for their products. (2) They must increase production to provide for a growing population. (3) At the same time, farmers need to maintain environmental resources that provide the basis for agricultural production and the well-being of both urban and rural dwellers. These forces are likely to change production systems, resource use, and patterns of human settlement and activities irrevocably in the coming years.
Challenges to Sustainability: The Central American Shrimp Mariculture Industry
Authors: Stonich Susan C , Bort John R , Ovares Luis L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sustainable agriculture movement was originally centered mainly on environmental conservation, farm level production, and short-term economic strategies. Later, the movement’ s concerns expanded to encompass broader social, economic, and policy issues (Allen et al., 1992, 1993; Allen and Sachs, 1993; Allen and Van Dusen, 1990; Altieri, 1988). The risks and benefits to different interest groups and stakeholders in the food and agricultural system, defined by divisions of race, ethnicity, gender, and class, were analyzed. Social, economic and environmental justice were promoted. For example, The Asilomar Declaration for Sustainable Development called for agriculture to build and support healthy rural communities (Committee for Sustainable Agriculture, 1990).
Using Evolution as a Tool for Controlling Infectious Diseases
Authors: Ewald Paul W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At first glance it may seem surprising that the integration of evolution with the health sciences is occurring at the end of the twentieth century, a century and a half after Darwin provided the framework for understanding the “why” questions of biology. The health sciences, after all, are essentially applied areas of biology with a focus on the well-being of individuals of one species. A peek below the surface, however, resolves this paradox. The health sciences have been quick to incorporate areas of biology as soon as the first clear-cut example of an effective intervention is demonstrated. Within a decade of Jenner’s demonstration of an effective vaccine against smallpox in 1796, vaccination was accepted as a viable part of the medical arsenal, and has been so now for nearly for two centuries. The demonstration of penicillin’s effectiveness quickly transformed chemical therapy from an intervention of questionable value or even ridicule into a mainstay of modern medicine. The improved recovery of patients in response to disinfection of surgical tools, the surgical environment, and the patient prior to surgery led to a similarly rapid adoption of disinfection procedures. Interventions that prevent or cure disease through the treatment of individuals are especially prone to be rapidly accepted because effectiveness can be readily observed. A person who was vaccinated against smallpox did not develop smallpox. A person who was treated with penicillin before the emergence of antibiotic resistance rapidly recovered from an otherwise serious disease. Because the benefits of such treatments were readily observable, the health sciences almost immediately recognized the importance of the biological disciplines that fostered these interventions in their primitive and modern phases-namely, cell biology, microbiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology.
Human Evolution, Low Back Pain, and Dual-Level Control
Authors: Anderson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Ubiquity of Back Pain “Oh, my aching back!” is a cry familiar to everyone, and for good reason. From 18% to 26% of the general population in urban industrial societies will be experiencing low back pain (LBP) at any one moment in time (the point prevalence rate). Each year, as much as 45% of a population may experience an attack of LBP (the annual prevalence rate). The lifetime prevalence of LBP in urban industrial societies ranges from 50% to 80%. That is, at one time or another, from half to three-quarters of all men and women are likely to experience at least one episode of back pain severe enough to incapacitate them for up to a month. It is not clear that lifetime prevalence is lower in smallscale or less technologically developed societies, as some have stated (Fahrni, 1976). The evidence on that point is equivocal (Anderson, 1987). Most sufferers recover, but 2% or 3% of those afflicted in any society do not fully recover. They continue to experience back pain as a chronic and more or less incapacitating affliction. Almost all of the LBP that creates these remarkable prevalence rates is mechanical in origin, as will be explained below (Allan and Waddell, 1989, Anderson, 1992; Frymoyer, 1990; Papageorgiou and Rigby, 1991).
What Darwinian Medicine Offers Psychiatry
Authors: Nesse Randolph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the late 1970s, psychiatry has accumulated an enormous, base of knowledge and remarkably effective new treatments. Despite this new knowledge, however, fundamental disagreements persist about the very nature of psychopathology. While the need for a “bio-psycho-social model” of mental disorders is widely acknowledged, psychiatry remains split into factions, some that emphasize genetic/physiological factors and others that focus on life events and psychological mechanisms. Some emphasize that mental disorders are “diseases like all others” while others decry this “medical model” and insist that many mental disorders can only be understood in their social context.