bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Electrolyte emergencies
Authors: Trigonis Russell A. , Ellender Timothy J. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hyperkalemia is a well-described life-threatening pathology that is seen frequently in the emergency department. Its diagnosis and treatment are essential skills for emergency medicine providers. Once the diagnosis is established with laboratory findings in the appropriate clinical context, treatment should be initiated in a rapid fashion. The tenets of management involve stabilization of the cardiac membrane with calcium, shifting of potassium intracellularly with insulin and beta-agonists, and finally, elimination with diuretics or hemodialysis. Understanding the mechanisms of these agents as well as recognizing their appropriate dosing, is essential to the emergency medicine physician. Failure to promptly treat this condition can cause fatal, preventable arrythmias.
Synaptic Properties of Thalamic and Prethalamic Inputs
Authors: Varela Carmen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter reviews key functional properties of thalamic inputs at the synaptic level. How thalamic synapses operate, what intracellular molecular cascades they control, and how they regulate their strength are basic questions to understand how information is dynamically integrated and processed in thalamocortical networks. The chapter covers the general types of receptors (ionotropic, metabotropic) and short-term plasticity properties that characterize thalamic synapses. The characteristics of thalamic synapses have been studied more extensively in glutamatergic inputs compared to other neurotransmitter systems, in sensory compared to cognitive regions of the thalamus, and in rodents more than in other species. Therefore, this review will reflect the more established results from the large body of work on glutamatergic inputs in sensory areas of the rodent thalamus and will discuss other inputs and higher order areas more broadly.
Anatomical and Physiological Basis for the Flow of Thalamocortical Inputs across the Layers of the Primary Sensory Cortex
Authors: Oberlaender Marcel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All areas of the cerebral cortex receive inputs from and project back to the thalamus. Thalamocortical axons project to all cortical layers, where they can form synaptic connections with diverse types of both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. This chapter introduces some of the basic anatomical and physiological properties that characterize each of the 10 major excitatory cell types of the cerebral cortex, and reviews how these cell type-specific properties shape the flow sensory-evoked thalamocortical inputs across cortical layers. Based on these considerations at cellular and cell type levels, the chapter discusses previous and current views of the cortical circuit architecture that underlies the processing and the transformation of thalamocortical input into corticothalamic output. This chapter thereby provides a starting framework for the subsequent chapters that focus more deeply on excitatory and inhibitory neurons and their firing properties during different behaviors, synaptic dynamics, dynamic receptive fields, and neuromodulation.
The Evolving Concept of Cortical Hierarchy
Authors: Vezoli Julien , Hou Yujie , Kennedy Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion of hierarchy in the brain finds its roots in the work of neurologists of the 19th century. In the mid-20th century, modern concepts of hierarchy crystallized around feedforward processing and the phenomena of the receptive field, which shaped much of what is known about the physiology of the brain. The subsequent discovery of the regularities of anatomical tract tracing data led to the construction of large-scale models of the cortex, which, along with top-down contextual effects, raised the mystery of the role of feedback anatomical connections, which in numerous instances outnumber feedforward connections. In the past few years, the synergistic functions of feedforward and feedback processing have taken center stage as the raison d’être of cortical hierarchy and are thought to hold the key to a deeper understanding of cortical function.
Attention and Thalamocortical Interactions
Authors: Kastner Sabine , Usrey W. Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Selective attention is a cognitive process that serves to improve the detection and discrimination of attended stimuli and to decrease the reaction time for appropriate behavior. Because attention is a limited resource, the allocation of attention must be flexible and under cognitive control. Past efforts to understand attention and its allocation have focused primarily on the cerebral cortex alone where attention generally increases the responsiveness of cortical neurons to visual stimuli; however, growing evidence indicates that subcortical structures, including the thalamus, play a significant role. This chapter is focused on thalamocortical network interactions involving the lateral geniculate nucleus and the pulvinar and their role in selective attention.
The Mediodorsal Thalamus and Decision-Making
Authors: Halassa Michael M. , Saalmann Yuri B. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the prefrontal cortex is known to be critical for high-level cognition, classical and contemporary studies indicate that it does not do so in isolation. Instead, prefrontal function is reliant on interactions with an extended network that includes subcortical partners. Chief among these partners is the mediodorsal thalamus. This chapter reviews the role of the mediodorsal-prefrontal network in decision-making. The authors first provide an overview of decision-making and its multiple domains, including perceptual, value-based, and memory-guided decision-making. Distinct prefrontal areas are engaged in different aspects of these cognitive operations, which surprisingly share common computational features. They highlight work suggesting that the mediodorsal thalamus supports task-relevant cortical activity within and across prefrontal regions via operations such as signal compression. The chapter ends by providing a road map to future research extending these scientific insights and applying them to therapeutics relevant to neurological and psychiatric disorders.
Mechanisms Underlying the Refinement of the Retinogeniculate Synapse
Authors: Chen Chinfei 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Essential for normal neurological function is the proper formation of neuronal circuits. This process starts with mapping of presynaptic neurons to the proposed postsynaptic partners. In some areas of the brain, initial mapping is precise to the specific postsynaptic cell. In others, like sensory inputs onto primary thalamus, initial targeting of presynaptic axons is broad, followed by synapse pruning and strengthening. This process of modification of the initial connection is referred to as developmental synapse refinement or remodeling. The retinogeniculate synapse, the connection between retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and thalamocortical (TC) neurons in primary visual thalamus, has been a powerful experimental system for identifying and understanding the cellular, circuit, and molecular mechanisms underlying developmental refinement. This chapter reviews the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying postnatal development that lead to the mature thalamic circuit for sensory processing in the mammalian central nervous system.
Development of Corticothalamic Projections
Authors: Guido William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the recent advances and current understanding of the development of corticothalamic projections. These projections arise from subpopulations of cortical neurons that reside in layers V and VI. Distinct in their pattern of thalamic innervation and function, descending projections from layers 5 and 6 also exhibit somewhat different developmental plans. The chapter focuses on their origin, cell fate, axon guidance, and layer-specific targeting of thalamic nuclei. The author also explores the impact that corticothalamic projections have on the development and plasticity of other major ascending tracts, including the thalamocortical and retinogeniculate pathways.
The Coevolution of the Neocortex and Dorsal Thalamus in Mammals
Authors: Halley Andrew C. , Krubitzer Leah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Coevolution of the mammalian neocortex and dorsal thalamus occurs within the broader context of diverse mammalian bodies, behavior, lifestyles, and environmental context, the latter of which is composed of unique, complex patterns of sensory stimuli which must be transduced and interpreted by the brain. Natural selection targets behavior and modifies sensory systems to process incoming patterns of input and generate adaptive behavior for a given context. The dorsal thalamus is the primary source of sensory input to the neocortex, and it plays a central role in integrating information from the neocortex to shape motor output. This chapter examines the coevolution of the dorsal thalamus and neocortex in mammals, focusing on studies that have characterized the relative size of primary sensory cortical fields and nuclei of the thalamus that provide their primary inputs. Because most data on scaling of the cortex and thalamus come from work on the visual system, the authors use examples from this system (dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, pulvinar complex, and primary visual cortex) to demonstrate how species vary in thalamocortical organization more generally. Finally, they consider several theories that propose why thalamocortical relationships vary across lineages.
Evolution and Development of Thalamocortical Relationships
Authors: Molnár Zoltán , Bandiera Sara , Clowry Gavin J. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evolution and development of the mammalian cerebral cortex and thalamus are closely linked. All cerebral cortical areas have reciprocal connections with the respective nuclei of the thalamus. These connections start forming at early stages of development and therefore they reciprocally influence each other. To reach the cortex, thalamocortical projections cross through regions of the forebrain that had very substantial modifications during evolution, and these changes are reflected in their development. The thalamic projections cross the region of pallial subpallial boundary (PSPB) using interactions between early corticofugal projections and a transient cell population in the internal capsule. At the time that thalamic projections arrive at the cortex, the relative maturity of the thalamus and cortex varies in marsupials, rodents, carnivores, and primates. Recent observations in macaque and human suggests that the thalamic projections arrive at the cortex very early and interact not only with subplate neurons, but also with some of the cortical progenitor populations in the germinal zone. These early interactions could shape the proportions of area-specific cortical circuits. The choreography of corticothalamic innervation of the thalamus follows a specific algorithm and is sensitive to alterations in the sensory input. These allocations of layer 6 and layer 5 projections can change after early sensory deprivations. This chapter compares the development and plasticity of these elaborate pathways in various species, including humans.
How the LGN Forwards Retinal Information to the Cortex
Authors: Sommer Friedrich T. , Hirsch Judith A. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) edits retinal input—ganglion cells fire faster than relay cells do. To describe how editing across the retinogeniculate synapse changes the structure and content of visual information cortex receives, this chapter turns to a concept from statistics called “thinning,” in which one point process (e.g., a spike train) is transformed to another solely by removing points. For example, this statistical framework reveals how information encoded by pairs of retinal impulses is recoded as single thalamic spikes that extract novel temporal features of the stimulus, and also how relay cells are able to capture the fine timing in retinal spike trains to relay information about spatial context.
Contribution of Thalamocortical Loops to the Development, Persistence, and Complications of Alcohol Use Disorder
Authors: Pitel Anne Lise , Segobin Shailendra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is associated with episodic memory impairments, executive dysfunction, and craving. These cognitive and behavioral alterations are related to brain abnormalities in 3 thalamocortical loops involving different thalamic nuclei. First, when AUD is combined with thiamine deficiency, the anterior nuclei are especially affected, leading to severe dysfunction within the Papez circuit and to the development of Korsakoff’s syndrome (KS). Although episodic memory disorders occur in AUD patients without KS, the specific relationships between the anterior nuclei integrity and episodic memory performance have received little attention in AUD and KS patients. Second, chronic and excessive alcohol consumption also results in dysfunction of the frontocerebellar circuit that theoretically includes the mediodorsal nuclei. Altered executive abilities and motor disorders associated with this system can thus be observed both in AUD patients with and without KS. In AUD, these executive deficits contribute to the persistence of drinking behaviors, hamper psychosocial treatment, and favor relapse. Third, craving, the irrepressible urge to consume a substance or engage in an activity, is now a central feature of AUD and is hypothesized to be subserved by a thalamo-insular circuit involving the ventromedial nuclei of the thalamus. Alterations to several thalamocortical loops thus contribute to the development, persistence, and complications of AUD. The literature reviewed shows a clear involvement of different thalamic nuclei in components of AUD functional sequelae.
Psychosis across persons 2: Poverty, trauma, and sociodevelopment
Authors: Gayer-Anderson Charlotte , Beards Stephanie , Reininghaus Ulrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter critically reviews current research on, and models of, the aetiology of psychosis, paying particular attention to the limited research on social risk factors in settings beyond the Global North. It poses two key questions: What is known about socioenvironmental risk factors for psychosis in the Global South, and how does this depart from the knowledge base in the Global North? What is the value and the methodological and logistical challenges of extending research to more diverse settings where the distribution of risk factors differs (e.g. poverty, trauma, substance use, and so on)? It is important to note that the integrated aetiological model sketched in this chapter was developed mostly based on research from North America, Europe, and Australia. This chapter aims to assess how these ideas may need to be modified in light of research from the Global South.
Psychosis across persons 4: Course and outcome
Authors: Burns Jonathan K. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent research has indicated that there is considerable heterogeneity in the course and outcome of psychosis related to many factors including gender, age of onset, exposure to treatment, and socioeconomic and geographic context, challenging old assumptions and demonstrating the need for more coordination in international research to improve our understanding of the long-term pattern and consequences of psychotic illness. This chapter provides an overview of the current literature and draws conclusion on course, outcome, and recovery within a multidimensional framework. It describes how the comparison of functional outcome across studies is challenging, in part due to the heterogeneity of methods and measures adopted, but also because functional outcome is highly context-dependent and defined variably in different social and cultural settings.
Psychoses and mental health services in mainland China
Authors: Xiao Shuiyuan , Niu Lu 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a brief overview of the epidemiology of psychotic disorders and the provision of mental healthcare, with a focus on the general profile of individuals with psychotic disorders, in mainland China. This includes how individuals with psychotic disorders live in the sociocultural context and how they are cared for. Psychotic disorders impose a huge economic burden on both families and society in China. By using the health records of two psychiatric hospitals and a prevalence-based bottom-up approach, it is estimated that the average total annual costs of mental disorders in China increased from USD $1,094.8 per patient in 2005 to USD $3,665.4 in 2013, and from $21.0 billion to $88.8 billion for the whole society.
Concepts and prevalence of intellectual disability across cultures
Authors: Bertelli Marco O. , Cook Elen , Michael Dasari 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conceptualization of intellectual disability/disorders of intellectual development (ID/DID) has changed considerably across time. In the last decade, difficulties in defining and placing ID/DID have sparked a more intense scientific debate than ever before, which includes two main approaches, one focusing on disability as characterized by significant impairment of intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour, and the other proposing a multidimensional polynomial-polysemic definition to be accorded to specific classificatory contexts. The concept of ID/DID varies greatly from one country to another, as well as from one cultural setting to the next within the same country. Culture and context are two intertwined fundamental concepts that have a big impact on estimating prevalence, planning, and delivering effective health and social services. In wealthy nations such as Denmark, the prevalence of ID/DID is reported to be less than 1%, while it can reach 3–4% in low- and middle-income countries. Research in high-income countries yielded very consistent rates, but rates in low- and middle-income countries are more variable, owing to methodological problems and greater risk exposure variance. However, comparing prevalence is difficult because of the enormous differences in how ID/DID is conceptualized, economic and societal variables, diagnostic criteria applied, and methodologies used to identify ID/DID. Although prevalence rates in different countries and contexts cannot reveal cultural differences in ID/DID conceptualization or the dynamics of the disablement process, these figures can be used to improve policymaking and advocacy as well as raise awareness of the relationship between societies and their citizens with ID/DID.
Neurodevelopmental disorders in people with intellectual disability across cultures
Authors: Shankar Rohit , Barrett Mary , Kommu John Vijay Sagar , Biswas Asit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Culture is a constantly evolving shared pattern of customs, ideas, and behaviours by a particular society. Culture refers to the characteristics passed between generations which distinguish one society from another. It is a dynamic, active state of being and therefore subject to change and will evolve over time. Culture can have a significant influence on health and social outcomes particularly in approaches to disability. It can affect understanding of a disability, management options, and relationships with professional caregivers. Perspectives on disability can hinge on the differing cultural values of social interdependence and individual autonomy. Personal and environmental factors, including culture, share a complex relationship with functional capabilities and participation. Some cultures emphasize social relationships rather than a person’s cognitive abilities thus providing fluctuation on societal expectations of an individual’s overall competence. It is important for care providers for people with neurodevelopmental conditions to be intimately aware of cross-cultural challenges which influence care delivery. This chapter provides an oversight of how different cultures can influence care and management of people with neurodevelopmental conditions.
Perception of intellectual disability across cultures
Authors: Gangavati Shweta , Hewage Chandanie G. , Nayar Arjun , Chaturvedi Santosh K. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Culture is an amalgamation of religious beliefs, societal practices, educational and socioeconomic factors, and other influences that shape people’s thoughts and behaviours. Time and place are historically the two key factors influencing the culture. The impact of the internet through access to information from around the globe has increased over the last two decades. In this chapter, the authors attempt to explore the perception of intellectual disability (ID) across cultures using the frameworks of time period, religion, socioeconomics, and geo-ethnic groups. In addition, the influence of the media, particularly digital media, is also explored. The key themes relating to the perception of ID are explored as relevant to healthcare workers, policymakers, and educationalists. Improved awareness of the variability of how people with ID are perceived across different cultures, enables better planning and delivery of care for this most vulnerable population.
Safeguarding the rights of people with intellectual disability across cultures
Authors: Sahadevan Sreeja , Mukherji Kamalika , Kuttichirayil Thomas John , Takon Inyang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rights of people with intellectual disability (ID) across the world have not been prioritized by the mainstream society in many cultural groups. Culture plays an important role in determining the vulnerability to abuse among people with ID. The statistics on the neglect, discrimination, and abuse towards people with ID is often underestimated. Safeguarding, which refers to the ways and means by which society protects the vulnerable, therefore is of paramount importance. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD) led to a global awareness of disability inclusion in international, regional, and national development alongside the promotion of the full integration of disabled people in societies. Cultural competence of the professionals in the assessment for safeguarding is key in identifying any violations to the rights and there is a long way forward beyond the UN CRPD guidelines in protecting the rights of people with ID across cultures.
Models of healthcare provision
Authors: Roy Ashok , Jesu Amala , Mendis Jayan , Bakhiet Aisha M. , Roy Meera 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter looks at the existing models of healthcare for people with intellectual disability (ID) across different parts of the world. The recognition and prevalence of ID is influenced heavily by the societal perception and awareness of ID as a developmental condition. While developed countries have better awareness and better availability of state-funded services that can provide support, the low- and middle-income (LAMI) countries rely on non-governmental organizations and extended family to provide support for people with ID. Some developing countries have proposed innovative models utilizing available resources. However, further research is needed to examine the long-term sustainability of these models of care. It is striking that people with ID have poor access to healthcare provision wherever they live, with the gap being much wider in developing and LAMI countries.