bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Metalevel features 1n the object level: modal and temporal logic programming III
Authors: Gabbay* D M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There exist several translations of modal and temporal logic into the classical predicate calculus. These translations are used not only as conceptual reductions of these logics into classical logic but also as computational reductions into (sometimes the Horn clause fragment of) classical logic. Through these reductions, classical logic is playing the role of a metalanguage. Although this role is intuitively clear, there is a lack of proper analysis of the language - metalanguage capabilities of classical logic - and there is a need for a general for a framework for clarifying the notion of what we might call object language implementation of metalanguage concepts. This need is not restricted to logic. The phenomenon of implementing or interpreting one language in another is widespread in computing.
Negation and linear completion *
Authors: Cerritot Serenella 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reasons motivating our choice of linear logic over classical or intuitionistic logic to study the problem of the semantics of logic programs may be explained as follows.
Classical logic is not always useful to describe the declarative content of a program because there are situations where we need a commutation of the connectives with provability which classical logic does not provide: typically, the classical provability of A V B does not imply that either A is provable or Bis provable. Below, we illustrate this by means of an example (Example 1).
Supplementary texts
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many books have been published on the subjects of logic programming, Prolog and sundry topics relating to them. Most of them are tutorial guides to Prolog programming in the context of artificial intelligence applications such as expert systems. They vary widely both in their degree of sophistication and in the extent to which they acknowledge and exploit underlying logical principles.
Itemized below are a few books selected according to their appropriateness as supplementary material for this course. None of them is strictly necessary to the course, but each of them can contribute usefully to the assimilation of the material presented.
More language definitions
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A literal is either an atomic formula or a negated atomic formula, as in theseThe first kind is called a positive literal and the second kind is called a negative literal.
The use of the word atom in many Edinburgh Prolog texts refers there to what we are calling a constant, not to what we are calling an atomic formula; this confusion of terminology is the fault of certain-persons-who­shall-not-be-named who sought to import LISP terminology into Prolog.
Elements of model theory
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Model theory provides one way of attributing meaning to any given sentence of logic. Informally, the basic idea is to associate the sentence with some truthvalued statement about a chosen domain, a process known as interpretation. The domain is simply any set of our choice, for instance the set of natural numbers. Whatever truth-value that statement has is then bestowed upon the sentence.
Useful equivalences and implications
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we know that two sentences are (logically) equivalent we know that they have identical meaning, since they must share the same models. There are many contexts in which we wish to derive new sentences from given sentences in such a way as to preserve meaning. In the course of program transformation, for example, the intention is often to improve either the program’s structure or its performance, but without altering the veracity of the statements it makes about the problem domain. The latter requirement can be enforced by transforming the program only into some equivalent one.
Promises And Problems
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the metrics of the Software Science model, cyclamate complexity, and information flow in more detail. These are selected on the basis of their popularity within the software engineering literature, and the significance of the claims made by their progenitors. Claimed benefits are summarized. Each metric is then made the subject of an in–depth critique and all are found wanting. The important point made by this chapter is that this is not due to mischance, but is indicative of deeper problems of methodology employed in the field of software metrics. The preceding chapter has provided an introduction to the area of software metrics and has, at the same time, outlined some of the major problems of the subject. The aim of this chapter is to look at three widely used metrics and use them as examples to illustrate more fully these problems. The first metric – or rather family of metrics – is that derived from Halstead’s Software Science which is almost certainly the widest studied and ‘validated’ metric. Of the three metrics examined in this chapter this has, over the last ten years, been the recipient of most criticism; we summarize these criticisms here.
Models, Theories, And Metrics
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The preceding two chapters have described major problems that afflict the software metrics area. These can be directly ascribed to inadequate theories and a lack of attention to the modelling process. This chapter first examines the main concepts of measurement theory; looks at the relationship between measurement and modelling; and then describes the difficult subject of model evaluation. It concludes with an examination of some of the attempts to remedy problems in software metrication based on measurement theory and axiomatic descriptions. They are found wanting. The analysis of developments in software metrics in the two preceding chapters suggests that measurement is understood and applied on a very informal basis. In particular, Chapters 2 and 3 have demonstrated that software metrologists have a rather weak notion of modelling which, as a consequence, has profound implications upon progress within the whole subject area. The justification for the use of metrics as an adjunct to software development has tended to run along the following lines.
Learning Optimal Chess Strategies
Authors: Bain M , Muggleton S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Move-perfect databases for chess endgames can be constructed by full-width backup from won positions. Complete tabulations are available for certain endgames, such as King and Rook against King (KRK), which contain optimal depth-to-win information. Previous work has applied decision-tree learning to construct rules for the classification of positions from such databases as won or not won, but with limited success. The current work takes an Inductive Logic Programming approach, using methods of generalization in first-order logic and specialization by predicate invention. Results are given on learning rules from example black-to-move KRK positions which are won-for-white in a fixed number of moves.
A Comparative Study of Classification Algorithms: Statistical, Machine Learning and Neural Network
Authors: King R D , Henery R , Feng C , Sutherland A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of the Stat Log project is to compare the performance of statistical, machine learning, and neural network algorithms, on large real world problems. This paper describes the completed work on classification in the Stat Log project. Classification is here defined to be the problem, given a set of multivariate data with assigned classes, of estimating the probability from a set of attributes describing a new example sampled from the same source that it has a pre-defined class. We gathered together a representative collection of algorithms from statistics (Naive Bayes, K-nearest Neighbour, Kernel density, Linear discriminant, Quadratic discriminant, Logistic regression, Projection pursuit, Bayesian networks), machine learning (CART, C4.5, NewID, AC2, CAL5, CN2, ITrule —only propositional symbolic algorithms were considered), and neural networks (Backpropagation, Radial basis functions, Kohonen). We then applied these algorithms to eight large real world classification problems: four from image analysis, two from medicine, and one each from engineering and finance. Our results are still provisional, but we can draw a number of tentative conclusions about the applicability of particular algorithms to particular database types. For example: we found that K-nearest Neighbour can perform well on complex image analysis problems if the attributes are properly scaled, but it is very slow; machine learning algorithms are very fast and robust to non-Normal features of databases, but may be out-performed if particular distribution assumptions hold. We additionally found that many classification algorithms need to be extended to deal better with cost functions (problems where the classes have an ordered relationship are a special case of this).
A framework for behavioural cloning
Authors: Bain Michael , Sammut Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper describes recent experiments in automatically constructing reactive agents. The method used is behavioural cloning, where the logged data from skilled, human operators are input to an induction program which outputs a control strategy for a complex control task. Initial studies were able to successfully construct such behavioural clones, but suffered from several drawbacks, namely, that the clones were brittle and difficult to understand. Current research is aimed at solving these problems by learning in a framework where there is a separation between an agent’s goals and its knowledge of how to achieve them.
The cladistic biogeography of salps and pyrosomas
Authors: Van Soest R W M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The biogeography of salps and pyrosomas has so far been treated only by the classical approach of tabulating individual distributions, combining them into a limited number of inferred areas of endemism, and comparing these with abiotic parameters such as temperature and ocean current patterns (Van Soest, 1975, 1979; Van der Spoel and Heyman, 1983). This ecological approach emphasizes salp and pyrosoma recent ecology, ignoring the historical causes underlying the distribution patterns. However, it cannot answer such questions as: why are there no Arctic salp species?; where and when did the (sub)Antarctic species arise?; why are so many tax.a restricted to the Indo-West Pacific? Such questions might perhaps be answered by inferring possible scenarios for the observed distribution patterns from the geological history of the oceans (e.g. Van Soest, 1975). However, although this approach may work well in certain land and freshwater areas and much less well in benthic marine areas, in the pelagic environment it is virtually useless since there are great uncertainties about palaeoecology and palaeocurrent patterns earlier than the Pleistocene.
Eggs and egg-laying
Authors: Porter Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For success, a female butterfly must develop eggs, mate, and then place those eggs in sites where there is the greatest likelihood of larval success. This involves complex physiological and behavioural processes. Eggs have their origin in undifferentiated cell masses, or germinal buds, which are formed in the development of the embryo. These cells remain dormant throughout the life of the larva and begin to proliferate during the pupal stage. Upon emergence, many species of butterfly will already have a major part of their egg load fully developed and ready to be fertilized. In other species the process of egg growth will not begin until the female has had the opportunity to feed.
Avoidance, concealment, and defence
Authors: Brakefield Paul M , Thomas Tim G Shreeve with Jeremy A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fluctuations in abundance are a regular feature of butterfly populations. Most of these changes can be related either to the performance of egg-laying females (chapter 3) or to survival at each stage of the life cycle (chapter 4). Every stage differs in size, form, location, mobility, duration, and usually in its season of occurrence. Because of these differences each offers a different reward to a specific type of natural enemy, and presents it with particular problems of finding and handling. The different life stages, therefore, have different enemies. Those of the earliest stages tend to be arthropod predators and parasitoids, whereas later, larger and often more mobile stages tend to be difficult for these small enemies to handle. In contrast, vertebrate predators are not usually the major enemies of eggs and small larvae because they offer small reward to these consumers compared to the energetic cost of finding them. They tend to be the most important enemies of the larger stages. Predators and parasitoids can be divided into two major groups: generalists, which use many types of food, and specialists, which attack particular species or groups of related species. All life stages of butterflies are vulnerable to both types of enemy.
Reproductive structure and reproductive roles in colonies of eusocial insects
Authors: Keller Laurent , Vargo Edward L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Variation in the number of queens in colonies of social insects has become a subject of growing interest among sociobiologists. The increased concern with colony queen number is partly due to the discovery that multiple queen (polygynous) colonies are more common than previously recognized, especially among ants, in which polygyny may be the predominant social structure (Buschinger 1974; Rissing and Pollock 1988; Frumhoff and Ward 1992). More importantly, the mounting interest in polygyny stems from the realization that the origin and subsequent evolution of polygynous colonies from their presumed single-queen (monogynous) ancestors is an evolutionary enigma (Holldobler and Wilson 1977; Nonacs 1988), presenting many of the same theoretical challenges as does the origin and maintenance of eusociality (see Ross 1988a, 1989). For this reason, Rosengren and Pamila (1983) referred to the evolution of polygynous societies from monogynous ancestors as ‘sociality evolving a second time’. Thus research into the origin and evolution of polygyny and eusociality are highly complementary, with insights gained into one situation likely to shed light on the other.
Wild Otters
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wild Otters answers the need for an up-to-date, scientifically-oriented introduction to the Lutra lutra species. Based in part on the author's extensive field observations, the book provides a superb basis for active conservation management of a species faced with an increasingly hostile environment. Topics include social organization and behavior, food and foraging strategies, ecological information on their main prey fish, problems of energetics and thermo-insulation, population structure, mortality and reproduction, and the impact of humans. Packed with illustrations and photographs, Wild Otters is perfect for students and researchers in ecology, conservation, zoology, and animal behavior.
Thermo-insulation of otters in the sea and fresh water
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

abstract
Even when swimming in cold water body temperature is maintained around 38 °C, although otters experience cooling rates of about 2.3 °C hr1. Body temperature increases prior to submersion, and animals leave the water at approximately overall mean body temperature. Differences in water temperature had no discernible effect on body temperature, or on time spent swimming. For thermo-insulation otters rely almost entirely on their fur and air trapped inside it, and fur maintenance (grooming, rolling) is described and compared with that of some other species. The most elaborate fur maintenance is found in the sea otter. When Lutra is living in the sea it is dependent on pools of fresh water for furmaintenance; often these pools are found deep inside the holts. Thus, the distribution of otters along sea coasts is dependent upon the distribution of fresh water.
Synthesis: some generalizations and speculations
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter draws together the observations and conclusions on foraging, habitat requirements, social and spatial organization, and population characteristics. It is suggested that the main problems of otter populations and survival are due to the species’ extreme specialization, to an existence in an almost linear habitat, foraging for difficult prey (involving a prolonged learning period), in an energetically very hostile environment which is also highly sensitive to pollution. Otter densities per unit of suitable habitat are comparable with those of other similar-sized carnivores, but numbers in populations are low because of habitat scarcity.
Otters, man, and conservation
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Otters are protected by law in many countries, but some persecution still continues, and a few types of traps are described. The motivation for persecution is that the animals may cause damage to fishing gear, and they may take a large proportion of the production of commercially valuable fish populations. The skins of several otter species are still being traded. Nevertheless, persecution is unlikely to threaten otter populations in Europe, but there is more concern for tropical species. The threats to otters as perceived by observers in countries world-wide are quantified; the most commonly mentioned hazard is habitat destruction, with pollution recorded as a second cause in Europe, and persecution elsewhere. Declining prey populations are a likely major hazard, and conservation management should aim at preserving whole ecosystems, focusing on fish populations, in which otters as top predators play an important and high-profile role. Pollution is likely to be an important determinant of survival of otter populations, in conjunction with food availability, but there is still much uncertainty about which compounds are most important; the case against mercury and PCBs is discussed. Important habitat components, as the foci for conservation management, are freshwater pools and streams along coasts, and islands, reed beds, and bank vegetation inland. Overall, the need for an ecosystem approach is emphasized, rather than a single-species otter conservation policy.
Whither Tropical Rain Forest
Authors: Aiken S Robert , Leigh Colin H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Environmental change is an enduring facet of human history. Vegetation, soils, fauna, water, climate, landforms—in short, all the major components of the biosphere—have been profoundly altered by human agency. In the mid-latitudes, for example, cultivated landscapes and urban systems sprawl over regions where once great forests held sway. Little of the natural vegetation remains. Now the most complex and luxuriant of all forest types is under attack, both from within and from without. Viewed from a historical perspective, the onslaught is only the most recent phase in a long and concerted effort by humans to extend the horizons of the forest frontier.
Introduction
Authors: Okada T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the paper entitled ‘Formation of endoderm from ectoderm in Cordylophora (freshwater hydra) ’, Zwilling (1963) began his introduction by raising the problem of transdifferentiation with the very broad, but explicit statement quoted above. The subject of this monograph is stated in this quotation without any ambiguity. Simply, we are asking whether or not the result of cell differentiation is flexible, and can be altered to express the phenotype of another cell type. If we define cell differentiation as an irreversible process, the question itself will be logically self-contradictory. Nevertheless, a growing volume of information suggests the occurrence of a switch after differentiation from one cell type into another.
Are dormant genes in differentiated cells activated?
Authors: Okada T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Essential requirements for the occurrence of transdifferentiation are: (1) a given differentiated cell should contain surplus genes which may be used for the differentiation of other cells types but not its own; and (2) these dormant and unused genes should have the potential of being activated in particular conditions. The current consensus view of the theory of cell differentiation holds all that varieties of specified cell type are generally equivalent in their genomic constitution. Although gene recombination or gene amplification before terminal differentiation occurs in certain systems, the differentiation of major cell types during development should occur without an accompanying alteration of the genomic composition (Gurdon 1974; Davidson 1986; Maclean and Hall 1987). Thus, most differentiated cells retain a number of silent genes, which have neither been used for the differentiation nor for the maintenance of the differentiated state in normal conditions.
Transdifferentiation in cell culture conditions
Authors: Okada T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In theory, Zwilling was correct in considering the clonal culture of single cells with distinct differentiated phenotypes in order to demonstrate cellular transdifferentiation unequivocally. His hope was first realized by Eguchi and Okada (1973) who studied the clonal culture of cells of retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) of chicken embryos. The reason why the first successful demonstration of transdifferentiation of eye tissues in cell culture came from chicken embryos, and not from newts whose remarkable eye regeneration has a long history of research, was simply because reliable cell cultures for newt cells had not been devised at that time. On the other hand, a survey of early literature, based on sporadic reports of regeneration in situ and in organ culture, suggested to us the developmental flexibility of differentiated eye tissues of chicken embryos (see Chapter 6.3). There were two premises for conducting clonal cell culture of RPE cells to demonstrate their transdifferentiation.
An introduction to symbiosis
Authors: Douglas A E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘symbiosis’ derives from the Greek for living together, but no definition of symbiosis is universally accepted. The difficulties can be appreciated by considering three associations. 1. Schistosoma is a parasitic trematode worm. The adult worm lives in blood vessels of mammals and birds. Humans are host to three species, S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. haematobium, and people with schistosomiasis have a variety of debilitating symptoms, including lassitude and diarrhoea. The World Health Organization has estimated that in 1990 200 million people were infected. 2. Many flowering plants are pollinated by insects. The insect transfers pollen as it visits plants to feed on nectar (as for most butterflies) or nectar and pollen (e.g. honeybees). 3. Aphids are insects which feed on the phloem sap of plants. They require bacteria of the genus Buchnera, which are contained within special aphid cells in the body cavity. If the bacteria are eliminated from the aphid (using antibiotics), the aphids fail to grow properly and they die without producing any offspring.
Symbiosis As A Source Of Novel Metabolic Capabilities
Authors: Douglas A E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As considered in Chapter 1, eukaryotes have obtained access to a number of metabolic capabilities through symbiosis. The principal associations are listed in Table 1.3. In this chapter, they are described in terms of the metabolic capability acquired: photosynthesis and chemosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, the synthesis of vitamins and essential amino acids, methanogenesis, cellulose degradation, and luminescence.