bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Creation
Authors: Leeming David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Creation myths from several traditions – Zuni, Vedic, Christian, and Icelandic, for example – reveal several ways by which humans through the ages have attempted to identify themselves culturally in relation to what they have seen as the source of being. Ex Nihilo cosmogonies stress a central male creative sky power; earth‐centered cosmogonies see creation through the feminine metaphor of motherhood. Universalists and some scientists see a new vision of creation based on new scientific understandings. A literary example of a modernist approach to creation is Virginia Woolf's novel, To the Lighthouse.
Legacies and Transformations
Authors: Swenson Peter A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Concludes the book with a survey of trends in the areas of collective bargaining and social policy from the 1950s through the 1990s, and examines them in light of earlier analysis, in the U.S. and Sweden. It finds, for example, that dramatic changes starting in the 1970s and 1980s in labor‐management relations (the decline in unionism and collective bargaining in the U.S. and the decentralization of bargaining in Sweden) were more influenced by international market processes in the U.S. than in Sweden. It also finds that analysis of the ongoing realignment of capitalist and labor interests helps explain the late 20th century welfare state trends.
A Rational Agent
Authors: Bittner Rüdiger 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe chapter develops the main consequences the present conception of reasons for which people do things has for our status as rational agents. One is that rational agents only need an awareness of things going on around them and the ability to act in response to them, but no faculty of governing themselves. This does away with inner opposition and domination as well as with the restriction of rational agency to the human species. It also does away with activity as the core of agency: we are not masters over what we do for reasons; we do it, sensitive to what we encounter. Another consequence is that we are not, on the strength of being rational agents, subject to moral and other requirements, and that we do not therefore enjoy a special dignity: we are worldly creatures through and through.
Two Paradoxes of Evidence: Ravens and Grue
Authors: Achinstein Peter 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The concept of potential evidence defined in Ch. 8 is used to solve two powerful paradoxes of evidence: the ravens paradox, attributable to Carl G. Hempel, and the grue paradox, due to Nelson Goodman. The solutions offered are contrasted with those proposed by Hempel and Goodman themselves, and reasons are given for preferring the new solutions.
Old‐Age and New‐Age Holism
Authors: Achinstein Peter 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Evidential holism, espoused by Pierre Duhem and W.V. Quine, is the view that nothing can be evidence for or against an isolated hypothesis, but only for or against some group of hypotheses. The arguments of Duhem and Quine are examined and rejected. Another version of holism (”new‐age”), which requires that evidence for a hypothesis always be relativized to a set of hypotheses, is then critically evaluated using the concept of potential evidence.
Secular States in Crisis
Authors: Nasr Seyyed Vali Reza 
Published: October 2003

AbstractMalaysia and Pakistan sought to address their problems through economic growth and the management of ethnic tensions. Malaysia pursued the New Economic Policy (NEP) to favor Malay bumiputras (sons of the soil), and Pakistan, under a military government, pursued aggressive economic growth. However, these strategies did not resolve ethnic tensions as in Malaysia it did not alleviate the economic problems facing Malays, and in Pakistan it favored Punjab at the cost of other provinces, especially East Pakistan. Both states continued to experience serious challenges to their authorities in the form of racial tensions in Malaysia and the Bangladesh movement in Pakistan.
Nathan the Wise and Lessing's “Ideal of Humanity”
Authors: Yasukata Toshimasa 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Elucidates Lessing's ideal of humanity, the ideal that finds poetic and literary expression in Nathan the Wise. The parable of the three rings, the starting point for the plot that stands at the center of the entire work, offers a clue to Lessing's religious idea of humanity. We construe this famous parable as implying not only Lessing's attitude toward positive religions but also his view as to the meaning of the truth claim of a historical religion in this “interim” between the beginning and the end of history. It is observed that Lessing's idea of humanity as illustrated by this drama and by the parable in particular, is suffused with deep piety and a noble wisdom free of prejudice. The essence of Nathan's reason as illustrated in Act 4, Scene 7 suggests that the essential core of Lessingian reason is formed by a “believing reason” or “hearkening reason” which, fully aware of its own limitations, opens itself to the decrees of the reason‐transcending deity.
Radical Interpretation
Authors: McCarthy Timothy , McCarthy Timothy 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Lays out a general framework for radical interpretation, which the ensuing chapters apply, respectively, to the theory of reference and to the philosophy of logic. McCarthy's main claim is that a relatively modest set of constitutive principles of interpretation can serve to constrain the semantic description of the language and attitudes of an idealized agent or population in such a way as to resolve the indeterminacies of interpretation that naturally present themselves. The starting points of the discussion are the constraints on interpretation suggested by Davidson and Lewis, which are found to admit many incompatible semantic descriptions of a simple extensional language, if any at all. McCarthy then investigates some obstructions to extending this argument to languages involving certain modalities, resulting in a limited remedy for Quinean indeterminacies by a partial endorsement of the (modified) constraints on interpretation suggested by the aforementioned commentators. McCarthy finally proposes a further constraint on interpretation, satisfaction of what he calls the ‘Rigidity Condition’, which is argued to resolve all cases of referential indeterminacies that are distinctively Quinean (except for those that infect the interpretation of classical mathematics).
Nietzsche's Denial of Evil
Authors: Card Claudia 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter contests Nietzsche's account of the origin of the concept “evil” and its meanings, questioning his claims that the weak are more dishonest than the powerful, that the powerful are unlikely to hate victims, and that hatred is what motivates judgments of evil. Nietzsche argued in his Genealogy of Morality that judgments of evil originate in the perspectives of impotent, victimized masses; he found such judgments dishonest and dangerous to human vitality. This chapter argues, on the contrary, that the concept “evil” is not rooted in the dishonest envy of the weak but originates more plausibly with those who believe themselves to be entitled to decent treatment. Nietzsche's “slave values” are also better understood as values that masters naturally apply to slaves in interacting with them than as values originated by slaves, although some slaves may internalize them.
Kant's Theory of Radical Evil
Authors: Card Claudia 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
According to Kant, we become radically evil when we subordinate the moral law to our own self‐interest (prudence). He holds that we never do wrong for the sake of doing wrong but only for the sake of prudence or from inclinations to more limited goods. Kant neglects the existence of evil interests and desires, and offers a narrow view of possible immoral principles, overlooking principles of national chauvinism, for example, which need not even appear to be prudent. His neglect of suffering and harm to victims results in a theoretical failure to distinguish what is wrong with evils, such as murder and mayhem, from what is wrong with ordinary transgressions, such as petty theft. Although the sources of evil remain a mystery for Kant, Christine Korsgaard's analysis of normativity and Lorna Smith Benjamin's theory of social behavior suggest an answer to Kant's mystery, namely, that our practical principles (whether good or evil) are based on our wishes to be the kind of person who would be worthy of the love or esteem of someone who is (or was) important to us (someone who may be good or evil) and that our principles can change as we abandon those wishes.
Wheat and Tares
Authors: McKanan Dan 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Examines the rediscovery of imago dei theology by early nineteenth‐century liberal theologians, most especially William Ellery Channing and other Unitarians. This theology was fleshed out by such sentimental novelists as Catharine Sedgwick, Lydia Maria Child, Eliza Buckminster Lee, and Eliza Sigourney, particularly in their historical fiction on the Puritans. For these writers, Puritan violence against Native Americans and witches was rooted in a false theology that saw God's presence more in the violence of history than in the loving affections of individuals.
Epics of Ambivalence
Authors: McKanan Dan 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The novels of Harriet Beecher Stowe both epitomized and compromised the tradition of radical Christian liberalism. This chapter explores Stowe's ambivalent relationship to earlier reformers and sentimental authors, and then analyzes three models of power in her antislavery novels, Uncle Tom's Cabin and Dred. Her depiction of benevolent Quakers and loving mothers builds on the classic model of sentimentality, according to which humans can achieve power simply by identifying with one another. Her Christological interpretation of Uncle Tom and Little Eva, on the other hand, suggests that sacrificial death is the ultimate source of power. And her novels also hint that God will ultimately use apocalyptic power to overthrow slavery.
On the Passivity of the Passions (2001)
Authors: Solomon Robert C. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
It is commonly supposed that passions are passive, or, rather, that we are passive with regard to them. They happen to us. I argue that we are active with regard to our passions, and the notion of passivity is the product of a number of seemingly self‐evident but misleading observations and a number of wrong‐headed arguments.
Farewell to Christendom
Authors: Curry Thomas J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Protestantism abandoned Christendom by way of the First Amendment of the Bill of Rights, and Catholicism did the same in the Declaration of Religious Liberty of the Second Vatican Council. Because scholars have misinterpreted and manipulated the historical background of the meaning of the Free Exercise of Religion and Establishment of Religion, they have led legislators and judges back into the problem of Church and State that prevailed in Christendom, and that the Amendment solved. As a result, the Supreme Court's interpretation of the First Amendment has reached a point of deep confusion and crisis. Whereas the Amendment was intended to specify government's lack of jurisdiction in religion, modern interpretations of it have conferred upon government power to define the meaning of the Free Exercise of Religion, religious neutrality, and what aids or hinders religion. The way out of the present confusion lies in confining government to what is secular and forbidding it to make religious assessments and decisions. Examining the decisions of the Supreme Court, this work demonstrates that by reconnecting with the history of the First Amendment and approaching it as a limitation on the power of government, rather than as a grant to government to protect religious liberty, the courts can escape the crisis and confusion they are presently experiencing. Religious liberty is a natural right. Within the meaning of the First Amendment, the Free Exercise of Religion means freedom from government jurisdiction in religion, not a government guarantee to allow individuals to exercise the religion of their choice.
Setting the Context
Authors: Curry Thomas J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Outlines the extent to which modern scholars have strayed from an understanding of the history surrounding the First Amendment, and elevated logic over history. Instead of recognizing religious liberty as a “natural right,” and the Constitution as a limitation on government, they have interpreted the First Amendment as augmenting the power of government. This development has brought about what both James Madison and Alexander Hamilton especially feared.
The Continuing Emergence of Religious Liberty
Authors: Curry Thomas J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The enactment of the First Amendment did not automatically guarantee religious liberty. Americans came to see themselves as a Protestant Nation and enacted a de facto establishment of religion. The advent of Catholic immigrants provided the opposition and diversity needed to vindicate religious freedom. Historians have generally failed to recognize this development, and many of them continue to advocate an unhistorical nonpreferential establishment of religion, or to erroneously describe the Amendment as creating a “wall of separation” between Church and State.
The End of Christendom and the Role of the Courts
Authors: Curry Thomas J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Evaluates existing Church–State decisions from the point of view of the interpretation of the First Amendment as a single mandate against the exercise of government jurisdiction in religion. It deals with Church property disputes, government assistance to parochial schools, and government promotion of religion. It also examines claims for exemption for the sake of conscience and how the Court has dealt with these. It shows how the Court can bring its decisions into harmony with an historical understanding of the First Amendment and remedy the disparity that currently exists between the Court's reasoning and the actual decisions it makes.
The Specter of Speciesism
Authors: Waldau Paul 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is a study of the ways in which animals have been viewed in the Buddhist and Christian religious traditions. The concept of speciesism is used to explore basic questions about which animals, human or otherwise, were significant to early Buddhists and Christians. The volume also seeks to establish a general method of assessing religious traditions’ relationship to cultures’ and believers’ views of the living beings outside the human species. Focusing on language choices, science and other empirical data, ethics, and mechanisms of cultural transmission, the volume assesses the earliest strata of, first, Buddhist tradition and then Christian tradition. Drawing on scriptures and interpretive traditions in Christianity and Buddhism, the volume argues that decisions about human ethical responsibilities in each religion are deeply rooted in ancient understandings of the place of humans in the world and our relationships with other animals. Assessing the reasoning and discourse patterns about nonhuman animals, especially in light of new perspectives that have emerged in reliance on the patient observation of the lives of the more complicated of nonhuman animals (elephants, dolphins, whales, and the nonhuman great apes), the volume attempts to provide a foundation for open‐minded discussions about possible relations with life outside the human species.
The Christian Understanding of Other Animals
Authors: Waldau Paul 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
A general assessment of early Christian views, concentrating on the notions of dominion, stewardship, sacrifice, and the Greek‐inspired narrowing of rich and sometimes contradictory values regarding nonhuman animals that were part of the Hebrew view of the surrounding world inherited by the early Christians. Generally, the early tradition established a view regarding humans and other animals that still operates for many Christians today. This claim is that each and every member of the human species, by virtue of species membership alone, has a special, qualitatively superior ontological status relative to other animals. The tradition claims that it is eminently moral that the interests of any human animal prevail in virtually any nontrivial circumstance over the interests of any other animal. The notion of “speciesism” illuminates features of how mainstream Christianity has come to understand the place of other animals even though there are individuals and subtraditions exhibiting values that clearly do not fit the description “speciesist.”
Coming to Terms
Authors: Jenkins Philip 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter discusses the impact of demographic change (Southern population growth and Northern population decline) on the form of Christianity that is likely to be practiced in the future and points out that claims that the Southern churches have strayed from older definitions of Christianity are greatly exaggerated. However much Southern Christian types have diverged from older Christian orthodoxies, they have in almost all cases remained within recognizable Christian traditions. The first part of the chapter looks at various aspects of inculturation (interpreting the Christian proclamation in a form appropriate for particular cultures) in relation to determining what are the core beliefs and what are the cultural accidents of Christianity; these aspects include architecture, liturgy and religious language, changes in patterns of worship and their underlying beliefs, and the implications of the emphasis on popular belief and tradition for the veneration of the Virgin Mary in Southern Catholic communities. The second part of the chapter discusses patterns in the emerging Southern churches that go beyond familiar Christian traditions, even as far as a thinly disguised paganism, which is manifested in belief in spirits and spiritual powers (which have their strongest impact on terms of healing and miracles and exorcism) and the concept of spiritual welfare (confronting and defeating demonic forces). The third part of the chapter discusses the cultural conflict over literal interpretations of exorcism and spiritual healing in the Bible, the acceptance by the Southern churches of the Old and New Testaments as documents of immediate relevance, their emphasis on aspects of Christianity that have become unfamiliar, and their revival of ancient customs. Last, the Southern churches – the ‘new’ Christianity – are discussed in terms of their sectarian character, and how this is likely to change in the future as they grow and mature, and become more like the major churches.
God and the World
Authors: Jenkins Philip 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter discusses the implications of the very close association between church and state in the global South, which in some sense mirrors the lack of distinction between religion and ordinary life in medieval Europe, and contrast with the segregation of religion from everyday life in the West–the separation of church and state. The history of this close association is traced from colonial to the twentieth century, when Third World (Southern) churches came increasingly to be identified with the cause of reform or, frequently, revolution; differences are described in the liberation theologies adopted in the three Southern regions concerned –Latin America, Africa and Asia, where they took very different courses. Most of the rest of the chapter looks at the sorts of problems that are likely to arise in Christian nations where Christian political activism occurs: threats to a nation’s freedom, democracy, and constitution through the imposition of Christian regimes, uncritical support for new regimes supported by churches, violent acts by messianic, and prophetic, or apocalyptic groups; here, Latin America provides an example of many cases where religious change from Catholicism to Protestantism/Pentecostalism has led to instability. Last, the future implications and dangers of the clear hemispheric division between North and South in the role of religion in politics are outlined.
Asymptotic Explanation
Authors: Batterman Robert W. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter provides a fairly detailed discussion of the renormalization group account of the universality of critical phenomena. This discussion allows one to determine the distinctive features of asymptotic explanation in general. Two other, superficially quite different, explanatory accounts involving “intermediate asymptotics” are then discussed. It is argued that these different examples exhibit the same general asymptotic explanatory strategy – one that is ubiquitous in physics and applied mathematics. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the importance of stability considerations in the asymptotic explanations.
Emergence
Authors: Batterman Robert W. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter reviews the received view about emergence (to the extent that there is such a view). It argues that for at least some forms of emergence the important feature is the asymptotic nature of the relationship between the emergent properties and the lower level characterizing the components. It also argues that contrary to the received view, there can be emergent properties in situations in which there are no part/whole relationships. The example of the rainbow is discussed further in this context.
Establishment and Governance of the Antebellum Bank
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Bank chartering in early America was high‐stakes politics. Legislators were asked to create corporations with governance structures and corporate hierarchies that would be accountable and transparent, yet profitable. While the chartering system in some states was prone to corruption and rent‐seeking, corporate charters created firms that mitigated the principal‐agent problem. Internal structures aligned the incentives of shareholders and managers.
The Rise and Fall of the Suffolk System
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Suffolk Bank of Boston established a regional clearinghouse system known as the Suffolk system. Traditional interpretations of the system emphasize the benefits created by the system's clearing operations and effective coinsurance scheme. Although the system created such benefits, it did so by intimidating and coercing member banks. The system is analyzed using modern theories of networks, including membership externalities and appropriate pricing rules. Because the Suffolk Bank did not set efficient prices for its services, an alternative network was established and the system collapsed.
New York's Safety Fund System
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Economists and regulatory agencies justify deposit insurance because they consider banks unique among capitalist firms. Because banks hold highly idiosyncratic portfolios that are hard for outside monitors to value correctly, macroeconomic shocks that threaten the viability of individual banks can threaten the entire system. Although deposit insurance diminishes the threat of bank runs and, thereby, creates a social benefit, deposit insurance also generates potentially large costs, which provides a justification for regulatory oversight and regulation. Like most bank insurance schemes, the Safety Fund was prone to moral hazard, or excessive risk taking by member banks and adverse selection, wherein better banks left the system, leaving only high‐risk banks as members. The system collapsed after only a small number of failures because of poor oversight, moral hazard, adverse selection, regulatory forbearance, and an under‐funded insurance.