bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Mughal Empire, Bengal, and the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Curley David L. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Mid-twentieth-century Indian historians blamed the break-up of the Mughal Empire on high land taxes and peasant rebellions or the unchecked growth in claims on the imperial treasury. Later revisionist history has argued that many autonomous regional states emerged in the context of newly buoyant regional economies rather than in fiscal crisis. Bengal in the first half of the eighteenth century has been a key example for this argument. Historians have cited growing Dutch and English textile exports as the stimulus for increased trade in a highly monetized commercial economy. Counterarguments suggest systemic barriers to growth in the larger context of Bengal’s “old regime” agrarian economy. A second revisionist argument discards the colonial idea of “decadence.” Using vernacular histories and literature, historians have argued that in eighteenth-century Bengal both “Muslim” and “Hindu” religious identities were being consolidated in a creative and dialogic process. Bengal is important in this context, because it is one of only two regions where there was a long-term process of converting the peasants to Islam. Local mosques, schools, and shrines of pirs supported by tax-free land grants were key institutions in the process of conversion, as were new vernacular texts, and translations of authoritative Islamic texts. A “Hindu” identity also was becoming more common through support for Brahman scholars, priests, and temple worship, and for similar texts and translations, while some common sentiments, especially about proper gender roles for women and about good rulers, and some marginal spaces for common worship, were also preserved.
Aramaic Legal Language from Palmyrene Monumental Inscriptions
Authors: Cussini Eleonora 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This contribution investigates Palmyrene legal language in the framework of the Aramaic legal tradition. The chapter readdresses the issue of sale of immovable properties at Palmyra and the formulation of the original contracts. The analysis focuses on the extant monumental inscriptions, including new evidence from the Palmyrene epigraphic corpus. Key formulas recording sale of funerary properties and the provisions regarding inheritance and easements are examined in an effort to reconstruct sections of the original contracts, which were written on perishable writing material, such as parchment and perhaps also on papyrus, and to reconstruct study the language of sale at Palmyra. Although these original contracts have not survived, elements of Palmyrene legal language are embedded in extant funerary inscriptions, and additional legal terms can be gleaned from other Palmyrene inscriptions as well.
Palmyrene Coinage
Authors: Kristensen Nathalia Breintoft 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the Palmyrene coinage, both those coins locally struck in Palmyra and circulated within the city and those coins minted in Antioch and Alexandria but issued under the authority of Palmyra’s queen Zenobia in the name of herself and her son Wahballath after her conquest of Egypt and subsequent rebellion against Rome. While the former type was meant to circulate locally within Palmyra, the latter was intended to circulate widely in the newly founded Kingdom of Palmyra and the Roman East. The two types of coinage are widely different and were intended for different audiences and will not be treated as a Palmyrene unity. The two types are considered separately in this chapter.
Urban Layout and Public Space
Authors: Intagliata Emanuele E. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Although the origin of Palmyra goes back to at least the Bronze Age, it is from the Hellenistic period that archaeological evidence from this site becomes more frequent. The process of monumentalization of the settlement peaked between the first and third centuries, when the majority of the public monuments known at this site were constructed. The aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with a brief overview of some of the most important public monuments of Palmyra before and after the events of 272–273 that brought the settlement to its knees. These include the agora complex, the theatre, the amphitheatre, colonnaded streets (with a specific focus on the Great Colonnade), and marketplaces.
The Fortifications and Military Architecture of Palmyra
Authors: Juchniewicz Karol 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses current issues concerning the Palmyra fortifications as well as the overall military architecture of the city. The city walls have seen their share of discussion and controversy regarding their chronology. In this chapter, chronological aspects of particular sections of the defensive works are addressed. The prevailing view on this issue, regarding the fortifications of Palmyra as the work of Diocletian, later rebuilt by Justinian, is presented and challenged by new research based on the analysis of the archaeological material and the study of the architecture and masonry of the military structures. The new approach proposes that the fortifications were constructed by Aurelian and rebuilt by Diocletian.
Built for Eternity
Authors: Henning Agnes 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Extending around the ancient oasis city, the necropoleis of Palmyra feature over four hundred built funerary monuments that were used as family tombs. Three basic tomb types have been identified: tower tombs, hypogea, and temple tombs. On the basis of surviving foundation texts in reference to a foundation date, it may be observed that the tower tombs represent the oldest monument group, dating to the end of the first century bc. In the course of the first century ad, tower tombs and hypogea were built simultaneously. Whereas the underground burial monuments continued into the second and third centuries ad, the temple tombs replaced the towers around the mid-second century ad. Generally, the funerary monuments of Palmyra show that, over the course of their three-hundred-year history, the families’ desire to represent themselves increased steadily, which also caused increasingly elaborate furnishing of the tombs. The mode of representation was similar in all tomb types.
Public Sculptures from Palmyra
Authors: Wielgosz-Rondolino Dagmara 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Like many Graeco-Roman cities of the East, Palmyra expressed its own civic, communal, and political identity through inscriptions and sculptures set up in public. Hundreds of public statues, known mainly through their inscriptions, provide significant evidence that contributes to the knowledge of Palmyrene society. Along with written record of Palmyra’s past, these works of art preserve a collective memory of a city where statues of living and deceased individuals stood together and were important elements of the city’s public landscape. The honorific statues, made of various materials such as limestone, bronze, and marble, decorated streets, squares, and other public spaces in Palmyra, creating an impressive sculptural panorama in the middle of the desert.
Wall Paintings and Stucco Work in Palmyrene Funerary Hypogea
Authors: Eristov Hélène , Vibert-Guigue Claude , Blanc Nicole 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
In the four necropoleis of Palmyra, only six tombs have revealed paintings and stuccoes. Unlike sculpted decoration, a wall plaster is fragile and very sensitive to humidity and abrasion; consequently, little remains of these features in Palmyra. The tombs with paintings and stuccoes extant are those of the Three Brothers, of Zabad’ateh and Neša, of Hairan, of Atenatan, of Dionysus, and of Abd’Astor. Scholarly knowledge of these tombs is based mainly on old publications because only two tombs were visible in 2011. Their figurative iconography (portraits, myths, Victories) and their architectural, animal, and vegetal decoration are inspired by traditional local elements and Graeco-Roman references.
Palmyra and the Military
Authors: Intagliata Emanuele E. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Palmyra was more than a caravan city. Throughout the Roman period, it served as an important recruitment centre for auxiliary units to the Roman legions. Palmyrenes were exceptionally skilled archers and riders, swelling the ranks of the Roman army in auxiliary alae, numeri, and cohorts of sagittarii (archers) and dromedarii (camel riders). In late antiquity, Palmyra maintained its function as a recruitment centre, but its military importance grew considerably after the strengthening of the eastern frontier under the reign of Diocletian, when a monumental camp, the so-called Camp of Diocletian, was constructed within its urban perimeter. This chapter will briefly explore the relation between Palmyra and the military in the Roman and Late Antique periods.
Palmyra in Late Antique and Medieval Times
Authors: Kowalski Slawomir P. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The fall of Zenobia introduced a new period in the history of Palmyra. After its capture by the army of the Emperor Aurelian, the city under the Tetrarchy became a military base within the framework of the reorganized defences of the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire. Palmyra, strongly under the influence of the state authorities, became a typical provincial town of the region. It lost its local identity, with Greek remaining the only official language, outside the military context where Latin was formally dominant. The conquest by the Muslim army marks another significant change. Palmyra was no longer a frontier military base but became a centre for local trade and the tribal stronghold of the ruling Umayyad dynasty. Later in the Middle Ages Palmyra was reduced to a fortified settlement within the enclosure of the Bēl temple. The process of change is discussed in reference to historical and archaeological evidence according to the major factors of the military presence and the subsequent influence of Christianity and Islam.
The History and Current Status of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality
Authors: Hood Ralph W. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Religion and spirituality were major concerns of the early American psychologists. Many of the early psychologists sought to give reductionist explanations for both religion and spiritual phenomena as they sought to dissociate psychology from the popular cultural association of psychology with parapsychology and spiritualism. William James was the most notable exception, insisting on the possible ontological reality of both religious and psychic phenomena. Psychoanalysis influenced by the French medical tradition continued exploring religion, with Sigmund Freud offering an explanation of religion first simply as an illusion but finally as a mass delusion, thereby linking religion and madness. As American psychology sought to emulate the German tradition of experimental psychology within the limits of natural science, interest in religion waned. The reemergence of a psychology of religion came in the 1960s, partly influenced by interim concerns with prejudice and cognitive dissonance theory, both of which had a marginal concern with religion. The cultural unrest of the 1960s rekindled interest in new religious movements and psychedelic states of consciousness, both of which fueled the psychology of religion. The field is now well established with a division in the American Psychological Association and an APA journal. However, two psychologies have emerged. One committed to naturalism and the other to a postmaterialist psychology, each with radical different ontological assumptions and criteria for appropriate methods.
Counseling and Psychotherapy Within and Across Faith Traditions
Authors: McMinn Mark R. , Neff Megan Anna , Snow Kimberly N. , Schollars Nicholas 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter begins with general considerations for religiously and spiritually oriented psychotherapy, including the importance of seeing religion and spirituality as dimensions of cultural diversity, considering clients’ welfare and autonomy, and maintaining competence. Four types of religious and spiritual intervention approaches are then discussed: assimilative, accommodative, collaborative, and emergent. Assimilative approaches introduce spiritual interventions or considerations into a standard psychotherapy approach. Accommodative approaches involve adapting a standard psychotherapy regimen to include religious or spiritual matters. Collaborative approaches entail a mental health professional and religious leader working in tandem for the sake of clients’ welfare. Emergent approaches are innovative, new developments that have not yet been fully established. Next, specific issues related to counseling within (when the client and counselor share the same beliefs) and across (when the client and counselor hold differing beliefs) faith traditions are offered. The chapter concludes with some thoughts regarding future directions of religious and spiritual interventions in counseling and psychotherapy.
Spirituality and Recovery From Psychosis and Serious Mental Disorders
Authors: Lukoff David , Hall Will 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter summarizes theory, research, and treatment regarding spirituality and recovery from psychotic disorders and severe mental disorders. The incorporation of spirituality into the recovery model was initiated by patients/consumers starting in the 1970s and has become widely accepted in the United States and around the world. Research shows the generally beneficial effects of spirituality on health, including mental health problems; surveys document the role that spiritual beliefs and practices play in many who are recovering from psychosis and severe disorders and the importance of religious coping for people facing serious mental health problems. Some successful therapeutic approaches for integrating spirituality into recovery are discussed.
Consciousness, Spirituality, and Postmaterialist Science
Authors: Schwartz Gary E. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Consciousness and spirituality are inherently experiential processes. The definition of “spirituality” ranges from (a) personal opinions regarding the meaning of life and being part of something greater, through (b) experiences of transcendental states and oneness, to (c) beliefs regarding the existence of spirit, life after death, reincarnation, angels and guides, and some sort of omnipresent infinite intelligence and power. Academic psychology has typically taken a materialistic view toward consciousness and spirituality; both are interpreted as neurobiological processes shaped by genetics and developmental and cultural factors. However, as reviewed in this chapter, contemporary consciousness research provides emerging proof-of-concept evidence suggesting that (a) mind is separate from brain, (b) spirit and soul are comparable to energy and information that persist in the vacuum of space, (c) people can receive intuitive information that is accurate and useful in their individual and collective lives, (d) physical and psychological health can be fostered by active loving spiritual processes, and (e) contemporary technology can be developed to enable practical communication with spirit. The evidence points toward the emergence of a postmaterialist paradigm in psychology and science in general.
Progress in Physics and Psychological Science Affects the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality
Authors: Worthington Everett L. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter argues that general culture is strongly influenced by three assumptions that have derived from modern science. These include the following: (1) big numbers in time and space make anything thought to be statistically possible to eventually be thought of as likely; (2) optimism that this will eventuate in progress; and (3) life is all about relationships. The main implication of these assumptions is that the psychology of religion will soon become the psychology of religion and spirituality. Based on a review of quantum mechanics and cosmology (with brief forays into biology and psychology), there are five types of spirituality: (a) religious spirituality, (b) human spirituality, (c) nature or environment spirituality, (d) cosmos spirituality (or transcendent spirituality), and (e) self-spirituality. Each of these is defined in terms of close or intimate connection or relationship with a different object, and each has been formed primarily by the wonder, awe, and lack of determinancy found in different fields of study—theology, psychological science, biological science, and physics, respectively—and life being fundamentally probabilistic at the core. The chapter speculates on the future of the field of psychology of religion and spirituality, identifying four points: there is still room for new researchers, the field is increasingly relational, it is probabilistic, and it will still have room for religion.
The Digitalization of Permanent Missions to International Organizations
Authors: Bouchard Caroline 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the factors that shape the digitalization of the permanent missions established by member states at the headquarters of international organizations. It discusses how digital technologies influence behaviours, patterns of use, procedures, and norms in these entities’ diplomatic activities (negotiations, networking, public diplomacy). It also considers the use of digital tools by permanent missions in their daily work. The chapter focuses on the case of the permanent missions to the United Nations (UN) in New York. These missions resemble traditional embassies in their organizational design, but function in the UN system, a complex environment guided by specific rules of procedures and norms of interaction. The chapter suggests that domestic, regional, and international factors affect the digitalization of permanent missions to the UN. It highlights that this process has not been a uniform experience and that the digital divide and exclusion continue to be challenging for the UN diplomatic community.
Virtual Diplomatic Summitry
Authors: Hedling Elsa 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the rise of virtual diplomatic summitry and situates it in the digitalization of diplomacy. Virtual diplomatic summitry refers to the diplomatic summit meetings that are conducted through technologies for virtual interaction, such as video-conferencing tools, and that take place partly or completely in virtual venues. Virtualization has been embraced as a solution to sustain institutionalized routines of summitry in the face of disruptions. However, some researchers challenge the adoption of digital tools and use of virtual interaction, arguing that digitalization in this form may result in lost nuances, risk interpersonal relationships, and influence positions of power—all of which are imperative to high-levelled diplomacy. Diplomatic summitry has changed in character and constellation over time and the rise of virtual summits therefore warrants a rethinking of its future role and form in diplomacy. A relational perspective is proposed that focuses on the entangled role of virtualization and digitalization in diplomacy and can inform future analyses of virtual diplomatic summitry alongside and in combination with other forms of diplomatic practice.
Digital Diplomacy and Non-Governmental and Transnational Organizations
Authors: McConnell Fiona , Manby Alex 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers how digital diplomacy is being reworked by three kinds of ‘new’ diplomatic actors: non-governmental organizations (NGOs), transnational advocacy networks (TANs), and diaspora organizations. In doing so, the chapter advances the following four arguments. First, the digitalization of diplomacy is inextricably tied to the pluralization of diplomacy, such that digital technologies have facilitated an expansion in the number of non-state actors operating at a global level and offer new opportunities for the forging of polylateral diplomatic relationships. Second, without the same codes of conduct to adhere to as state diplomats, these actors are often more flexible, creative, and innovative in their use of digital technologies and must therefore be taken seriously as pioneers in digital diplomacy. Third, the digital diplomatic sphere is also increasingly riven with hierarchies and inequalities. Non-governmental and transnational organizations face significant cybersecurity risks and reduced access to digital connectivity, technology, and support. Thus, the shift to online modes of diplomacy should not be celebrated uncritically. Fourth, focusing on non-state actors requires alternative conceptual lenses to those currently employed in scholarship on digital diplomacy. In particular, scholarship from digital geography which advocates for the use of a spatial lens, in addition to theoretical approaches which are attentive to everyday performances and encounters, are well-placed to analyse how non-governmental and transnational organizations navigate both the challenges and opportunities of digital diplomacy.
The North–South Divide, The Digital Agenda, and Digital Diplomacy
Authors: Heine Jorge , Prado Lallande Juan Pablo 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
In the digital age, few issues are as significant as the one of who controls the Internet. Yet diplomats have largely ignored Cyberspace as a domain for diplomatic activity, choosing to focus instead solely on the use of digital tools for diplomatic purposes. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the issue of Internet governance and related digital matters from the perspective of the North–South divide. Topics include those of Internet freedom vs government control; the international political economy of Internet governance; the clashes between the United States and Chinese telecom company Huawei; the different ways these clashes have played out in one specific area of the Global South, namely Latin America; and the manner in which Brazil has coped with the issue of electronic spying and Internet governance. It also analyses the case of the Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA), an initiative of three small countries that has broken new ground.
International Geopolitics and Digital Games in the Nationalist Agenda of Great Powers
Authors: Moreno Cantano Antonio César 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines how different countries are using video games as part of their strategies of digital cultural diplomacy and nationalist reaffirmation. This techno-nationalism, with a strong propagandistic and geopolitical component, makes this format an object of study of relevance for a better understanding of the social sciences in the twenty-first century. Video games are a powerful tool for propagating ideas and influencing others by appealing to perception. This is one of the reasons for the growing interest of different state agents and international actors in boosting their production and regulating their role in global governance, as they involve diplomatic, propagandistic, and nationalistic elements. This chapter will provide examples of this dynamic, which reaffirm the political character of video games, in countries such as China, India, or Pakistan. The chapter is set within the theoretical framework of the emotional turn in international relations as well as the importance of visual geopolitics.