bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Drought
Authors: de Waal Alex 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Darfur was stricken by drought in the early 1980s. The drought was the most obvious and immediate cause of the famine. This was not merely a one or two years’ failure of the rains. In many parts of Darfur, the drought has been unremitting for a decade and more. At the same time, Darfur has suffered ecological degradation: the bare goz that rings El Fasher town, and the bleakness of Saiyah. In the years after 1978, Sudan was also plunged into a huge economic crisis. The commercial, monetized economy which had advanced into Darfur over the preceding decades was suddenly crippled and forced into retreat.
FDR and the Reshaping of Veterans’ Benefits, 1940–1943
Authors: Altschule Glenn C , Blumin Stuart M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As was the case in the longer history of veterans’ benefits, policy innovations and debates during and after World War II were closely bound up with evolving institutions in and out-side government and with a changing array of political forces. As we have seen, a number of new contexts framed the debate over benefits for veterans of World War I, chief among them the size and disrepute of the preexisting pension program for Civil War veterans. Still earlier programs had occasionally produced justifiable charges of corruption and fiscal irresponsibility, but these were largely forgotten in the post–Civil War era, when the political climate greatly favored the enactment of increasingly generous pension laws for Union veterans. From the World War I veterans’ point of view the saviors of the Union had succeeded all too well. Former doughboys who looked to their government for material recognition of their wartime sacrifice faced five straight presidential administrations determined to lower costs and deny the special claim of veterans upon the U.S. Treasury. Aided by allies in Congress, the veterans did win some battles, but many of them believed they had fared very poorly—and unfairly so—in comparison with those of earlier wars.
Overlooked GI Joe but not Joe College
Authors: Altschule Glenn C , Blumin Stuart M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There can be no doubt that our reverence for the GI Bill is shaped primarily by the college tuition and subsistence program examined in the previous two chapters. To many Americans, the GI Bill means the opening of college and the opportunities afforded by a college degree to men and women returning from the Good War. The higher-education provisions of the bill were indeed the keys to a prosperous middle-class life for large numbers of veterans and were a major force in the rapid postwar expansion of higher education that made college part of the life experience of vast numbers of young Americans, veterans and nonveterans alike, in subsequent generations. Nonetheless, it was not the chance to attend college that attracted the attention of most new veterans as they leafed through their VA booklets. Only a minority of them had finished high school before they went to war, and nearly 30 percent had only a pre–high school education.
Finding a Home the VA Mortgage
Authors: Altschule Glenn C , Blumin Stuart M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Buying a home was not the first priority of most veterans of World War II. Finding work or getting into college or some kind of job training—and in the meantime picking up mustering-out pay and perhaps that weekly or monthly readjustment allowance—came first even for large numbers of veterans eager to marry long-missed sweethearts or to return to brides and the “goodbye babies” many of the newlyweds of 1941 and 1942 had produced before the long and dangerous separation of war. College-bound veterans settled into dormitory rooms or makeshift married students’ housing for periods as long as four years and did not begin to look for a private home until a postcollege job was secured. Other former GIs, many of them still quite young, headed for parental homes, some bringing new wives or husbands with them, some joining wives and babies already living there throughout the war years. The war—and the Depression before it—had taught many American families how to share small living spaces in this way, and for large numbers of immigrant families, only now ready to produce their second generation of American-born children, this was a lesson that did not need learning. With some exceptions, returning veterans squeezed into living spaces not their own while they began to sort out a future that suddenly was. Two external conditions contributed to the continuation of this space squeeze beyond the immediate postwar period. The most important was an acute housing shortage that would take a number of years to alleviate. As we noted earlier, the numbers of new homes built in the United States declined precipitously during the early years of the Great Depression and fell off again during the war. Housing starts had actually started to drop as early as 1926; indeed, economic historians point to the reduction from 937,000 new homes in 1925 to only 509,000 in 1929 as a harbinger and even a significant cause of the misery to come.
Litigation Strategies
Authors: Rettig Richard A , Jacobson Peter D , Farquhar Cynthia M , Aubry Wade M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The second aspect of our legal analysis is a case study of litigation strategies. At its heart, the litigation reflected dramatically different moral, legal, and scientific views of the world. For patients with metastatic and high-risk breast cancer, high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation (HDC/ABMT) represented perhaps their only chance. Clinicians were divided: Breast cancer oncologists and bone marrow transplanters supported the procedure, while academic physicians wanted to wait for the results of clinical trials. For insurers, the procedure represented an unproven treatment that if used could actually adversely affect the patient’s quality of life and lifespan.
Entrepreneurial Oncology
Authors: Rettig Richard A , Jacobson Peter D , Farquhar Cynthia M , Aubry Wade M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the early 1990s, it became clear to many that the high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation (HDC/ABMT) procedure for breast cancer would diffuse rapidly into clinical practice. Increasing utilization might be slowed but not stopped by health insurers and health plans. Physicians claiming that the procedure represented standard of care, desperate patients persuaded that it was their best hope for cure, highly visible litigation in the courts, and media coverage of the drama associated with denials of coverage ensured that HDC/ABMT was well under way to becoming the treatment of choice for patients with metastatic and high-risk breast cancer. In this chapter, we examine national HDC/ABMT utilization data for the treatment of breast cancer. Then, in the context of the business of oncology, we analyze the effort of one for-profit corporation, Response Oncology, to provide the HDC/ABMT treatment in community settings. We also consider the provision of the procedure by not-for-profit oncology providers.
Dénouement
Authors: Rettig Richard A , Jacobson Peter D , Farquhar Cynthia M , Aubry Wade M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Utilization of high-dose chemotherapy with autologous bone marrow transplantation (HDC/ABMT) for breast cancer plummeted after the negative reports at the 1999 American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) meeting. The two U.S. trials reported by Stadtmauer and Peters influenced American clinical practice most strongly, but Scandinavian and French trial reports reinforced that effect. The Philadelphia trial had concluded that HDC/ABMT was no better than conventional treatment for metastatic breast cancer. William Peters, the foremost advocate for the procedure, had reported that it was no better for high-risk patients in overall survival. The Autologous Blood and Marrow Transplant Registry stopped indicating breast cancer in the total number of transplant procedures it counted. Response Oncology suffered revenue losses and steadily closed a number of its centers. Finally, some insurers acted on coverage policy to withdraw what had been extended earlier. In mid-February 2000, for example, Aetna/US HealthCare informed physicians that it would no longer reimburse HDC/ABMT treatments of breast cancer for its 1.6 million members (Kolata and Eichenwald 2000). Left unanswered, however, was how two South African trials, the first reported in 1995 and the other presented at the 1999 ASCO meeting, had produced positive results.
Four Big Problems
Authors: Sunstein Cass R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Colorado, deliberation made liberals more liberal on global warming, affirmative action, and civil unions for same-sex couples; it also made conservatives more conservative. At least one of these sets of shifts must have been wrong. For both liberals and conservatives, deliberation could not possibly have reflected full use of dispersed information. As we shall now see, deliberating groups typically suffer from four problems. They amplify the errors of their members. They do not elicit the information that their members have. They are subject to cascade effects, producing a situation in which the blind lead the blind. Finally, they show a tendency to group polarization, by which groups go to extremes. Each of these problems threatens to dash the hopes of those who want deliberating groups to take advantage of dispersed information. As a result, deliberation often fails to ensure that groups end up knowing what their members know; recall the cases of the CIA and NASA.
Perfect Markets and the “World of Truth”
Authors: Harford Tim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
You might not expect Jim Carrey films and economics to have much in common, but in fact there is much we can learn from the rubber-faced comedian. Consider the film, Liar, Liar, which tells the story of Fletcher Reede. As a result of his son’s birthday wish, Fletcher Reede finds that he is compelled to tell the truth for twenty-four hours. This is problematic for Fletcher because he is a lawyer—or a liar, as his son understands it—and hilarity predictably ensues as a horrified Fletcher incriminates himself by helplessly blurting out truthful answers to every question he is asked. They don’t make as much of a feel-good movie, but free markets are just like Fletcher Reede’s son—they force you to tell the truth. Yet while the results were humiliating for Jim Carrey’s character, we will discover that a world of truth leads to a perfectly efficient economy, one in which it is impossible to make someone better off without making someone else worse off.
Why Poor Countries Are Poor
Authors: Harford Tim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
They call Douala “the Armpit of Africa.” The description is perfect. Lodged neatly beneath the bulging shoulder of West Africa, the malaria-infested city of Douala is humid, unattractive, and it stinks. But if you live in Cameroon, Douala is where the action is. Cameroon is a very poor country indeed; the average Cameroonian is eight times poorer than the average citizen of the world and almost fifty times poorer than the typical American. In late 2001 I went to Douala to find out why.
Beer, Fries, and Globalization
Authors: Harford Tim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Once upon a time there was a prosperous trading city called Bruges, nestling on the Zwin estuary in what is now Belgium. Bruges grew up around a castle built in the late ninth century by the founder of the Duchy of Flanders. A century later Bruges was Flanders’s capital, and it began to grow wealthy as trade expanded across Northern Europe. Bruges was a center for the manufacturing of cloth, and ships sailed up the Zwin estuary to buy the fabric, bringing with them English cheese, wool, and minerals, Spanish wine, Russian furs, Danish pork, and silks and spices from the East, traded through the mighty Italian cities of Venice and Genoa. The queen of France herself visited Bruges in 1301 and is reported to have commented, “I thought I alone was queen, but I see that I have six hundred rivals here.”
Introduction
Authors: Leiner Frederick C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
IN 1762, when the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau famously began The Social Contract with the observation that man, who was born free, is everywhere in chains, the “chains” he referred to were the constraints imposed by living in a society with laws and government. His words might also have been taken literally, because almost everywhere in the eighteenth century, men were in chains. Slavery, or something akin to it, was a common feature of Rousseau’s world and had existed from time immemorial. The Hebrew Bible, the Christian New Testament, and the Muslim Koran all accepted slavery, albeit with restrictions to ameliorate its hardships. By the time Rousseau was writing, the transatlantic trade in black Africans had been a fixture for more than two hundred years and ultimately would ship ten to twelve million people in chains to the Americas. But slavery was not limited to blacks nor to the New World. In Russia, millions of serfs lived a brutish existence tied to the land and at the sufferance of their manorial lords until Tsar Alexander II freed them in 1861.
Unfinished Business
Authors: Leiner Frederick C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After Making His Treaty, Decatur and some of his officers and men went ashore to see the sights and scenes of Algiers. Norderling entertained four of the U.S. captains at dinner on July 2, and when Decatur went ashore, the Algerine authorities respectfully saluted him with five guns from the fort. But even with the American slaves now freed and safely aboard the squadron, the squalor of the European slaves working at the mole depressed the American sailors. One Venetian slave—“in most wretched condition” according to Peter Potter, with chains attached to his legs— managed to escape and jumped into one of the Guerriere’s liberty boats at the mole. The overseer with an armed party approached the American naval officer in charge at the landing and demanded the return of the slave. The officer, without orders, did not know what to do, and surely did not want to create an incident in a foreign and hostile port; he gave up the man, despite his screams and begging for help.
Higher-Level Overviews: Review Articles
Authors: Mann Thomas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Researchers are especially well advised to look for a particular type or subset of journal articles called review articles. These should not be confused with book reviews. Review articles are a “type of literature” unto themselves (see Chapter 15) in which an author tries systematically to read all the relevant literature on a subject, sometimes also to interview experts in the field, and then to organize, synthesize, and critically evaluate the range of information. His or her goal is to provide a state-of-the-art assessment of knowledge in the particular field, and sometimes to indicate areas that need further research. A literature review article is somewhat like an encyclopedia article in trying to present an overview of a subject, but there are two important differences: (1) a review article is usually written for specialists rather than lay people and so may assume familiarity with technical jargon; and (2) its bibliography will usually be exhaustive rather than selective or merely introductory. In other words, if you are doing serious research and can find a literaturereview article on your subject, you’re in great shape. The important point is that you have to look specifically for this type of literature; if you don’t focus your search, review articles can easily be overlooked or become lost in the retrieval of much larger sets of citations. There are several ways to focus your inquiries.
The Causes And Prevention Of Cancer Gaining Perspectives on the Management of Risk
Authors: Ames Bruce N , Gold Lois Swirsky 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Epidemiological studies have identified several factors that are likely to have a major effect on reducing rates of cancer: reduction of smoking, increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, and control of infections. Other factors include avoidance of intense sun exposure, increased physical activity, and reduced consumption of alcohol and possibly red meat. Humans can already reduce risks of many forms of cancer, and the potential for further reductions is great. In the United States cancer death rates for all cancers combined are decreasing if lung cancer-90 percent of which is due to smoking-is excluded from the analysis. In this chapter we review the latest research on the causes of cancer, show why much cancer is preventable, and offer a scientific perspective on the management of risk.The idea that traces of synthetic chemicals such as DDT are major contributors to human cancer is not supported by the evidence. Pollution appears to account for less than 1 percent of human cancer; yet public concern and resource allocation for chemical pollution are very high, in good part because standard risk assessment uses limited data from high-dose animal cancer tests. Scientists do those tests at the maximum tolerated dose of a substance, and the tests are typically misinterpreted to mean that low doses of synthetic chemicals and industrial pollutants are relevant to human cancer. About half the chemicals tested, whether synthetic or natural, are carcinogenic to rodents at such high doses.
Modeling Risk At Low Levels Of Exposure
Authors: Hendee William R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the case of ionizing radiation as an example of the evolution of risk assessment and its consequences. Ionizing radiation-from X-rays, from nuclear explosions, from uranium mines­ can cause cancer at high doses. That is clear from the Japanese populations exposed to the atomic bomb explosions in 1945. But it is another question altogether whether far lower doses are damaging. The answer to that question has great consequences. The chapter explores the history of scientific efforts to assess the risk of radiation and the gradual emergence of a “no-threshold model.” This says, in effect, that there may be danger in even very small doses of radiation. The danger is inferred by a straight-line, or linear, extrapolation from the evident risks at high doses. The consequences of the no-threshold model are high-cost efforts to limit radiation (for example, the hugely costly clean up of U.S. government nuclear weapons facilities) and the forgoing of some medical and other potential benefits from low-level radiation. Yet we do not know, and probably cannot know with certainty, whether low doses cause any damage at all. Numerous studies of humans exposed to low doses of radiation have failed to show any statistically significant adverse health effects.
Risk Assessment As An Indicator For Decision Making
Authors: Goldstein Bernard D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter seeks to bring the art of risk assessment into perspective. Risk assessment is neither a sure-fire scientific means of reaching correct regulatory decisions, nor a technique so seriously plagued by data imperfections and personal bias as to be useless. Risk assessment can be very valuable if its limitations are realized and it is not asked to do too much. Both critics and practitioners of risk assessment often present it as an abstruse cabalistic exercise of incredible complexity. Risk assessment is in fact a reasonably straightforward attempt to apply scientific principles to estimate endpoints of concern to policy makers and the public. As such, the tool is similar to commonly used economic indicators such as the unemployment level or the gross domestic product. Those economic indicators are not presented as absolutely true-in fact, they are frequently revised without any presentation of error bounds or other estimates of uncertainty. Rather they are measures that inform policy makers and the public, allow priority setting to occur, and provide the basis for an informed debate on policy matters. Any indicator that is to be used for decisions on complex issues must be performed according to guidelines that lay out a standard estimation approach so that the numbers are understandable in context and not open to partisan distortion by altering the estimation process.
The Founders: 1640-1670
Authors: Nagel Paul C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The story of Richard Lee, the family’s founder in Virginia, glows with success. His achievement was the sort many residents of seventeenth-century England yearned to duplicate. They peered across the Atlantic, drawn by hopes for wealth and eminence said to be found along the James River. Of course, there were other colonists whose careers are too easily ignored. For some, Virginia was a last hope, an outlet for desperation, while many had not even a choice in the matter. They often arrived in chains with no future except to toil for their betters. But of those who came freely, carrying ambition, talent, and industry, few who survived the New World’s rigors had the good luck that transformed Richard Lee from a Britisher of modest beginnings into a Virginian of highest standing.
The Partners: 1700-1750
Authors: Nagel Paul C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As he died, Richard the Scholar may have feared his male line faced extinction in Virginia. His eldest son Richard lived in England, while Philip, the second in line, had settled in Maryland. Daughter Ann was busy continuing the name of another Virginia family, the Fitzhughs. Son Francis, the physician, gave no promise of male offspring. This left only Thomas and Henry, whom their father must have looked upon as settled bachelors when they cared for him in his last days. After burying their parent, the pair continued with brother Richard’s consent to reside at Machodoc. Since the house had at least ten rooms, the two need not get in each other’s way. The younger, Henry, was more like his father, quiet and mostly devoted to home. The elder, Thomas, by the manner in which he combined materialist and political zeal, would be a reincarnation of his grandfather, Richard the Founder. Barely past twenty-one, Thomas Lee already held two lucrative posts, positions awarded to him through help from his father and his uncles. In 1712, when the elderly Richard wearied of responsibility as naval officer for the South Potomac district, one of six such offices in the colony, Governor Alexander Spotswood informed London: “I thought I could not better reward his [Richard’s] merit than by bestowing that employment upon his son.”
Romance in Philadelphia: 1760–1788
Authors: Nagel Paul C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Alice Lee Shippen happily received her youngest brother Arthur upon his arrival in America late in 1780. It seemed natural that he should seek her for consolation. Alice was the nearest to a mother Arthur could remember after the death of his parent, Hannah, in 1750. Even at age forty, a little boy peeped from Arthur’s correspondence with Alice. He would implore “dearest sister” to choose a wife for him, so long as the selection was “young, beautiful, and good.” On his return from Paris, Arthur took from his sister what he most needed: words of praise. Alice liked to say how much she admired her youngest brother “as the citizen and the patriot.” She spoke scathingly of the sinister “villains,” led by the despised Benjamin Franklin, who, she charged, had so cruelly mistreated Arthur. Another appeal of Alice’s household for Arthur was the comfort of hearing her husband Dr. William Shippen repeat a favorite refrain: “It matters not what the world will say.” Characteristically, Arthur had not been certain what he should say when, in October 1779, Congress had notified him that he was “at liberty to return to America.” As he prepared to sail home in 1780, one part of Arthur boasted that Congress “cannot disgrace a man who is shielded by innocence and evidence against every accusation.” He directed Richard Henry to begin a libel suit against Silas Deane, the damages to be 200,000 pounds. (The defendant fled out of reach to Europe.)