bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Peace and War: 1797-1801
Authors: McGrew Roderick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though domestic questions dominated the first year of Paul’s reign foreign policy was never far from his mind. When he came to the throne, the drama of the first coalition against revolutionary France was in its last act. Prussia, never an enthusiastic participant, had withdrawn in 1795 to take up what proved to be an unshakeable neutrality. Britain and Austria soldiered on though without much hope until Catherine dispatched an auxiliary force of 60,000 men to support her beleaguered allies. Though firm in her determination not to interfere with the internal situation in France (this was not a crusade to overthrow the republic), she believed that a victory for the monarchists was essential to stem the spread of revolutionary influence.
The End of the Beginning
Authors: McGrew Roderick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 7 November (os) 1800, Paul had ruled Russia for precisely four years. During that time, he had reorganized the empire’s governing institutions to fit his conception of a centralized, chain-of-command administration; he had imposed his authoritarian values on the court and the country; he had reshaped the army to conform with the Frederickian example he admired; he had attacked budget deficits, foreign debt, and currency problems, and having identified revolutionary subversion as the major issue of the day, he had built barriers against foreign influences while instituting comprehensive controls on thought and social behaviour.
The Company 1929–1960
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is not primarily a company history, nor is it a study of the growth of a firm. Its function is to describe the interaction between a European merchant firm and its customers and suppliers in Africa and elsewhere. Yet to understand both ends of this relationship it is essential to have a grasp of the character of UAC as a business enterprise and what may be called the corporate ‘mind’ of the company.
Sidelines: Shipping and Plantations
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main focus of UAC’s activities was always West Africa and the greater part of its profits came from trading or investing there. It is for this reason that most of this book concentrates on that region and these activities. Yet UAC was born a conglomerate and it remained one until the rationalization of the 1980s. Some of its activities that lay outside West Africa or were not integral with the trading role were of limited importance. Others-notably, its shipping (both ocean and river transport) and plantations-were of considerable significance. Not to provide some account of at least the more important of these ‘sidelines’ would be to give an oversimplified picture of UAC; yet they do not fit easily into the central narrative of this book, nor with the chronological divisions, which are determined by the West African theme.
Imports, Industry, and Politics
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
War and its aftermath inevitably affected the merchandise trade to Africa as much as the produce trade. Shortages both of imported goods and shipping led again to import licensing, price-fixing, and attempts at import-substitution by local manufacture. The longer-term consequences also were profound, but they were different. Import-licensing did not lead to permanent state control of merchandising, though under quite different circumstances most African states were to resort to it a couple of decades later. The two most important direct consequences of wartime shortages were industrialization and political agitation leading to the transfer of power. In this chapter the trading activities of the merchants during the war will be described briefly in Section I and their role in import-substituting industry in Section II. Section III will examine the role of UAC in the political struggles of the Gold Coast in 1947-8, which some would regard as the real starting-point of West African decolonization.
UAC and African Politics
Authors: Fieldhouse D K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are no neat, self-contained time periods in history which can be encapsulated in single titles or by unitary themes. From one standpoint the decade which began with the political independence of most of Black Africa in about 1960 and ended with the start of the oil crisis in 1973 was the classical period of post-colonial economic growth for most of the continent. According to World Bank statistics, the weighted average annual rate of growth of GDP between 1960 and 1970 for SubSaharan Africa was 3.8 per cent, with generally very favourable indicators for key areas such as investment, infrastructure, and industry. For firms such as UAC this was also the period when, in many territories, the transition from general trader and produce-buyer to provider of technical goods and services and manufacturer was virtually completed. By the early 1970s it could reasonably have been assumed that UAC, along with its traditional competitors such as SCOA, CF AO, Holts, and PZ (with all of which, in fact, relations were much more cordial than ever before) had adapted itself successfully to the radically new conditions of post-colonial Africa and that it had an assured and profitable future there.
Other Forms of Royal Control
Authors: Tibble Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The crown could manipulate the nobility on the broadest political level through the creation of new seigneuries and the natural reversion of lordships to the king. These were not the only means of control, however; other methods, often more subtle, could also be employed, which would have had an important cumulative effect and would have impinged directly on the day-to-day running of every seigneury in the kingdom.
Religious Life
Authors: Bartlett Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like most religions, medieval Christianity designated certain persons, places, objects, and times as holy. They were to be treated with special reverence and were exempt from many of the normal rules that applied to the mundane. The Church possessed an extensive repertoire of rituals designed to set aside people, buildings, and objects in this way. In his service book a twelfth-century bishop had directions not only for ordaining clerics and dedicating churches but also for consecrating bells, candles, church ornaments, branches for distribution on Palm Sunday; salt for use in baptism, a pilgrim’s staft a knight’s sword, and the fire and water used for trial by ordeal.
The Course of Life
Authors: Bartlett Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although there were no effective artificial restraints on fertility in this period, the standard of nutrition and health probably meant that more women were naturally infertile than today. The desire for a child was as deeply felt then as now. The risks of childbirth and childhood were far greater. It was strongly suggested that women who expected to give birth should have water at hand, not for medicinal purposes, but to baptize the child if it seemed about to die. Unbaptized children went to hell. Pregnant women were urged to make their confession in good time, ‘lest they be suddenly taken by surprise and have no access to a priest when they would’.
The Environment
Authors: Prestwich Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Life was hard in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Most men and women lived in cold, damp, uncomfortable, and unhygienic dwellings. They were at the mercy of the weather, and were exposed to a range of unpleasant and sometimes fatal diseases. Even good harvests were poor by the standards of more recent periods. Both the achievements of the period and the disasters need to be set against this physical backcloth. In 1289 there was a great storm, which caused widespread Wooding and battered down the standing corn, ruining the harvest. That, for the St Albans chronicler William Rishanger, marked the end of good weather.
An Élite of Grace: The Spanish Bishops in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Lannon Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Twentieth-century Spanish bishops owed and still owe their most characteristic and enduring influence to their traditional role as leaders of dioceses within the Roman Catholic Church. The pivotal position between the diocesan faithful and the ultimate ecclesiastical authority in Rome was established by episcopal consecration. It could be enhanced by a man’s gifts of leadership and—for much of the century—by political office, but the pivot remained consecration and appointment to a particular see. In the course of this century, however, the Spanish hierarchy has also emerged as an organized élite with both the means and the will to act collectively in national politics. Internal ecclesiastical factors, including more frequent communication between bishops, improved bureaucratic resources, and new ideas about how the episcopacy should function, contributed decisively to this new phenomenon. It seems that the bishops acquired the group consciousness, coherence, and common will to action often identified as necessary by the major classical theorists of effective élite formation. Often they intervened dramatically and controversially in national policies.
The Political Mobilization of Landowners in the Province of Badajoz, 1931-1933
Authors: Rees Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The proclamation of the Republic found landowners socially isolated and politically vulnerable in the countryside of Badajoz. Their position in rural society was based on the control of a system of great estates (latifundios) which had been consolidated by the purchase of lands, beginning with the ecclesiastical and civil disentailments of the 1830s and 1850s. Concentration of ownership led to some 26.6 per cent of the total area of the province, 32.5 per cent of the cultivated area, accumulating in the hands of only 400 persons. The families they came from, mainly of bourgeois origins but also including some powerful nobles, were at the heart of a pattern of provincial landownership in which just 1.74 per cent of all those owning rural property had control over the use of 61.94 per cent of available land. These large landowners (latifundistas) relied on the labour of the majority of rural society to work the estates, some 80,000 families in 1930, who were either landless or held insufficient property to support themselves. This rural work-force was divided into a majority of jornaleros (day labourers), who lived a precarious and dependent existence working the latifundios, and a less numerous group of yunteros (labourers with teams of ploughing mules or oxen), perhaps 30 per cent of the total, some of whom sharecropped the parcels of land allocated to them by landowners.
Anarchists in Government: A Paradox of the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939
Authors: Bolloten Burnett , Esenwein George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of all the European upheavals of the twentieth century, the Spanish Civil War and Revolution stands out as a milestone in the history of the European left. This is because it was the first time that so many diverse ideological movements were simultaneously engaged in a common struggle against the forces of the right. This joint effort was beset with problems, since the various leftist groups held fundamentally divergent views, not only with regard to their respective interpretations of the war but also in their overall aims. For the Stalinist Partido Comunista de España (PCE), the war was a contest between Fascism and democracy, whereas for the Marxists of the Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista (POUM), and the anarcho-syndicalists of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI), Spain’s classic revolutionaries, the war was a revolutionary struggle of the working classes against the bourgeoisie.
Élites in Search of Masses: The Traditionalist Communion and the Carlist Party, 1937-1982
Authors: Blinkhorn Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nine months after the start of the Spanish Civil War, on 19 April 1937, General Franco announced the arbitrary creation of Nationalist Spain’s single party. The principal components of the Falange Española Tradicionalistay delas JONS, later more generally known as the Movimiento, were the two main mass parties of the pre-war extreme right, the Fascist Falange and the Carlist Comunión Tradicionalista. In officially extinguishing Carlism as an independent force, Franco was dealing with no ordinary political party. Whereas the Falange and the other leading organizations of the pre-Unification Spanish right—the Catholic—conservative CEDA and the rival monarchist party, Renovación Española-were creations of the 1930s, the Traditionalist Communion was heir to a century of history.
Decay, Division, and the Defence of Dictatorship: The Military and Politics, 1939-1975
Authors: Preston Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, General Mola stated that ‘the reconstruction of Spain on a new basis is the exclusive task of the military, a task which corresponds to us by right, because it is the desire of the nation and because we have an exact concept of our power to do so’. Mola’s brutal statement could not have more clearly revealed the arrogance typical of certain parts of the military establishment. The idea that the nation’s political destiny lay in the hands of soldiers was a commonplace of military ideology. Moreover, it was a belief readily accepted by the beleaguered upper and middle classes. They turned to the army in 1936 precisely because of their confidence that the military conception of the national destiny was such as to guarantee the defence of oligarchical privileges and middle-class social, economic, and religious interests.
On Visitation
Authors: Fincham Kenneth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Each bishop listened to the balanced cadences of this charge as the archbishop handed him a Bible in the concluding moments of his consecration to the episcopal office.1 His first and most important opportunity to pursue this pastoral ideal was on visitation. A bishop was canonically required to visit his diocese, preferably in person, within a year of his appointment to a see, and to revisit it at regular, usually triennial, intervals. The episcopal visitation contained significant judicial, administrative and pastoral features as the bishop toured his diocese, ‘uprooting vice and planting virtue’*, in the words of Archbishop Abbot,2 and familiarizing himself with its population and temper. It was an occasion, too, for the diocese to judge whether a bishop was more intent on fleecing or feeding his flock.
Ecclesiastical Justice
Authors: Fincham Kenneth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So wrote Archbishop Bancroft in the course of a lengthy letter of July 1 6 1O to the episcopate of the southern province. ‘We may’, he added, ‘noe longer to our utter discreditt leave theise abuses unreformed.‘1 This was the third call in nine years for tighter episcopal control over diocesan officials.2 No one doubted that delegation was the hallmark of any diocesan administration, in view of the extensive size of many English dioceses and the very varied roles that the episcopate were expected to fulfil, including commissioners of the peace, preachers, lords of Parliament and provincial agents of the Crown. The procedures of the diocesan courts had evolved to function smoothly in the absence of the bishop, for whom the canons of 1604 reserved only the formal act of ejecting a minister from his benefice.
The New Urbanism: Building the Convivial City
Authors: Ley David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is Plantagenate Days, 1980s style, at Hazelton Lanes. Here in Toronto’s Yorkville, the site of coffee houses, street artists and hippy communes fifteen years before, is a maze of designer stores crowned by luxury condo miniums. Across Avenue Road from the renovated professional homes of the Annex, Yorkville is now a place of consumption with style in mid-town Toronto, a tangle of galleries, French restaurants and boutiques that it would be boorish to call trendy.
Epidemics as Diffusion Waves
Authors: Haggett Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this opening lecture, I wish both to pose and to try to answer three questions. First, what do geographers mean by diffusion waves and why is it a deserving topic for research? Second, what are epidemics and how can an understanding of diffusion concepts help to understand them? Third, how can we build usable models of the way in which epidemics move through geographical space? These basic questions form the foundations from which we go on to explore specific examples of geographical work on epidemics (Lecture 2) and to enquire how geographical work can throw light on the emergence and spread of new diseases (Lecture 3). Finally, in the fourth lecture, we turn to the practical questions of whether geographical concepts have any part to play in the containment of epidemic diseases.
A Place Apart
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Place Apart offers a rich and reflective representation of Iceland and Icelanders today. Kirsten Hastrup draws upon extensive first-hand research, but also upon her original theory of what anthropology is and should be, which this book exemplifies. In two previous books she studied the processes and patterns which shaped Icelandic society from medieval times to the nineteenth century; now she brings this historical study up to date by drawing out the dominant themes in present-day Icelandic self-understanding. In many ways Icelanders' sustained image of themselves as a singular people in the world refracts the actual social reality. The image tends to favour particular interpretations of history as well as particular social groups, as Hastrup shows through analyses of tradition and ideology, landscape and memory, community and honour. She investigates the ways in which everyday life is informed by a living tradition and a stress on the historical depth and cultural uniqueness of this place apart. The result is a renewed sense of the texture of the Icelandic world, seen not as a static and prescriptive culture, but rather as a space within which Icelanders are suspended between modernity and consciousness of the antiquity of Icelandic values, between presentness and pastness.
Prelude
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imagine yourself suddenly set down surrounded by all your gear, alone on a subarctic coast, while the bus which has dropped you drives away on the dirt road out of sight, and you stand there like a misplaced Malinowski, whose ‘arrival story’ from tropical Trobrianders (1922: 4) I am here adapting to my own experience of arriving at one of my Icelandic fieldsites, a farm situated on a narrow strip of farm land on the south-eastern coast of Iceland.
Time: Uchronia
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have reached a point where we may generalize some of the dominant themes in the Icelandic world, as they relate to time, space, and people, seen also as forceful elements in the contexture of that world as lived. Regarding time, the ambition is to discuss some of the ways in which time and history are salient features in social life and discourse. I am not primarily concerned with matters of classification or ways of explicitly conceptualizing time; my focus is on the role played by Icelandic views of past and present in practice. In other words, the idea is to show how an implicit historical consciousness embraces current notions of selfhood and collective identity.
Cultural Diversity
Authors: Widlok Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When doing ethnographic field research, apparently simple questions about the subjects of one’s research easily become complex matters. What are these people called? Where do they live? How many of them are there? Consequently this account of social relations among the Hai‖om of northern Namibia has to begin with an overview of the problems of delimiting the scope of the study, the field of research, and the groups and areas discussed. The State and its administrators, and in Namibia’s past this also included State-employed ethnologists, have a vested interest in these processes of delimitation. This chapter therefore assesses past research on the Hai‖om and other people classified as ‘Bushmen’, research which also reflects the cultural diversity of the investigators and administrators. At the same time I contextualize my own efforts to come up with an adequate nomenclature, an appropriate selection with regard to the number of people I decided to work with, and an informed delimitation of my field research area.
Creating Name and Kin Relations
Authors: Widlok Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the previous chapter has shown, continuity and change in Hai‖om camps are only inadequately captured by ideal-type settlement layouts. The same applies to the analysis of Hai‖om kinship relations, which are insufficiently summarized on the basis of genealogical kin diagrams. While kin diagrams allow some comparison with other Khoisan systems of relationship terms, it is only in combination with case material that a more comprehensive and adequate description of the practices of establishing common ground is achieved. Such a description has to include reference not only to kin terminology and marriage preferences, but also to personal names and other modes of establishing links, identities, and boundaries. Gift-exchange and sharing access to land are important aspects of Hai‖om social relations which have been largely neglected so far.
Continuity
Authors: Galton Antony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have had cause to refer to continuity on numerous occasions throughout the preceding chapters; it is now time to tum the focus of our attention on to this topic.
Continuity was an important topic in ancient Greek philosophy, and Aristotle in particular had a great deal to say about it; see White 1992 for a detailed discussion. The distinction between the continuous and the discrete can be applied to any of our key notions of space, time, matter, and change.
The Socialist Transformation of Society
Authors: Sneath David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From 1948 to 1956 the territory of what became the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region (IMAR) was enlarged as the new communist administration reassembled the regions of Inner Mongolia that earlier Chinese governments had placed under separate provincial administrations. Wherever he could, Ulanhu arranged for the inclusion of neighbouring districts with significant Mongolian populations. During the Civil War Ulanhu’s diplomatic efforts to construct and expand the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Movement had allowed the communists to extend the areas under their control in the north-east. The reward for this was to be some sort of autonomous status for Mongolian regions. In 1948, after the incorporation of the areas administered by the EMAG, Ulanhu’s Inner Mongolian autonomous administration included the regions of Shilingol, Chahar, Nonni-Muren, Hinggan, and Hulun Buir.1 In May 1949 two further leagues were included-Jirem and Juu Ud. The capital of Inner Mongolia was moved from Kalgan in the East to Kueisui in 1952, close to Ulanhu’s own home district, and the city’s Chinese name was changed to a Mongolian one-Hohhot.3 Ulanhu was able to persuade the Party leadership to extend the territory of the new Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region still further. In 1954 the province of Suiyuan was incorporated into the IMAR and the next year part of Jehol was also added.