bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Epistemology and Belief Change
Authors: Rott Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From a philosophical point of view. AI and computer science are rather sloppy when speaking of knowledge. What they mean by ‘knowledge base’, ‘knowledge system’, and ‘knowledge representation’ does not refer to what is commonly meant by ‘knowledge’. It is widely agreed that if we know rather than just believe that ϕ, then ϕ must be true and our belief that ϕ is true must have some sort of justification. Neither truth nor justification is presupposed or guaranteed when computer scientists use the above-mentioned terms. I do not mean to suggest that this mistake has serious consequences in practice. For the purposes of the information sciences, it seems perfectly harmless to commit this kind of inaccuracy. But philosophers, and in particular epistemologists, must not be allowed to confuse epistemic and doxastic concepts. It is rather their duty to clarify the subtle interconnections between knowledge and belief. Evidently, this is a formidable task and cannot be achieved in the present book; I shall not develop an epistemological theory of my own. I take as given a particular theory of knowledge that has gained much respect recently, namely the one of Keith Lehrer as elaborated in his 1990 book Theory of Know/edge. Based mainly on Lehrer’s work, the purpose of the present chapter is to show that a proper understanding of knowledge does not only require an understanding of belief simpliciter, but in addition a thorough understanding of the dynamics of belief.
Foundational Belief Change Using Nonmonotonic Inference
Authors: Rott Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we study ways of making the direct mode of belief revision (Section 3.4.1) more concrete. We start with two quite straightforward ideas. One may either treat the items of an information base as infallible, come what may, or one may see to it that the information base is always cleared of contradictions. Assume that the theory K has been generated from a (flat, unprioritized) belief base H with the help of an inference relation Inf. Then the first method puts K * ϕ to be Inf(H ⋃ {ϕ}), while the second method puts it to be Inf(H *o ϕ ) where *o signifies full meet base revision (a method of consistently ‘adding’ϕ to H that will be explained in due course). While logically well-behaved, the first idea fails with the crucial condition of Consistency Preservation. The second idea turns out to be logically rather ill-behaved. A more decisive objection against using it, however, will be found in the fact that this method allows defaults to override explicit beliefs.
A General Concept of Practical Rationality: Constraints for Coherent Choice
Authors: Rott Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This remainder of this book consists of a single extended argument. It is an argument concerning the unity of theoretical and practical reason. I am going to argue that practical reason is the more comprehensive concept. I am not contending that practical reason dominates or even enslaves theoretical reason. There will be no conflict or rivalry between the two in what follows.
Ghosts of the Museum
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sex is an intellectual problem for some of us but a personal one for us all The intellectual problem has affected me much only since, in the mid-I 960s, I first understood kin selection and sex ratio, but from then on it became my main scientific preoccupation, as will be seen in this volume. The personal one, of course, had been with me for very much longer, since puberty or perhaps ever since there arose those early Oedipal feelings about my parents-sexual love for my mother, jealousy and resentment against my father.
Messing the Plotter
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Long before I had finished my share of the writing of the paper of the last chapter I was already working on other models. Many were tried before I came to those selected for the publication of the chapter. I mathemarized them as far as I could and then used simulation on the Michigan main computer, accessing it either from a huge cave, like room called NUBS in the basement of the herbarium (our nearest-neighbour building) or, h1ter, from a smc1llcr terminal room in my own floor of the Museum of Zoology. NUBS had firebrats plus a spectrum of dazed, earnest, and sometimes frighteningly expert freshmen.
Unequal Cousins
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In my first years at Ann Arbor I was invited to many campuses and more occasionally was invited abroad. Almost always I wanted to accept bur nor for the honour or the discussion of ideas, instead more for the prospect of seeing new landscapes and new natural history. It was also interesting, I admit, even within America, to see new local ways and new styles of people but these differences did not seem to me great. l noticed them but they were far less exciting for me than the differences in natural history. As for the towns I wasn’t thrilled by those either; species of shade trees in the streets were usually the best novelries from my point of view. Otherwise it was mostly the same high blocb, the and intersecting planes, and the same high human pretensions. Steel, concrete, polished granite, aluminium, glass: then the same statues tempting you nor even to read the name.
‘Sex itself’
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The scientific Dahlem Workshop. are a series with a long post World War ll tradition in West Berlin. They exist upon generous German funding via donors, foundations, and the Berlin City Senate. Conferees see them as a chance to spend a week with people they know, or know of, in distant places, to share ideas, hear the latest jokes and gossip, and to hive a hardworking yet costless parry. It was one of the meetings in 1982 that gave me my first visit to Berlin and it was to this conference I provided the paper of this chapter. It had as its subject ‘The Population Biology of Infectious.
Man of the Sand-dune Tel
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The papers of this chapter and the next relate to Israel. The young and ancient nation has been as important a contributor to modern evolutionary theory as it has to modern fanaticism, with the two (plus many other scientific achievements) making a curious mix in the present-day country, like milk with creosote. The evolutionary side, which I regard as the milk element because more useful to most people and allergenic only for a few, makes it unsurprising that an important evolutionary symposium was held in Israel in 1986. The paper of Chapter 8 was my contribution to the symposium. That chapter will come back to the creosote streak as a tangential issue of my experience there (fanaticism, of course, had no part in the symposium itself).
Bishop Wykeham on Evolution
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The trip to Israel of the last chapter was made while I was still living in the USA, About this time Sir Richard Southwood alerted me to a vacancy for a Royal Society Research Professor in Britain. I applied, was offered the post, and shortly I moved with my family to Oxford. There had been a similar chance to return to Britain a few years previously but, although I went so far as to visit England to discuss the idea, I did not pursue it. Too many of my family were in phases of schooling that made the change inadvisable and perhaps also I was too contented in my work in Ann Arbor.
The Three Queens
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The protracted states of submission and revision undergone by the paper of this chapter have been mentioned several times already, I told how the paper eventually was accepted and that, in spite of what seemed the contrary opinions of so many, I rank it as the most important of my papers in this volume. After this, what remains? Still a lot. More needs to be said of the crucial roles of my coauthors and more also of the mistier roles of the various unknown opponents; then there is the load that slowly piled on my mind about why parasite coevolution in general should be so underestimated and the sex idea based on them so resisted; also how I think the notions of this paper and the opposition they generated have all fared since it was published. Lastly I would like to explain, though most of this will come in the next chapter, how the biological fuss about sex has affected me—the way the light shed by my solution has changed my view of life and of our human future.
Uccello/Othello
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was not long after Marlene Zuk and I published our paper in Science about parasites and sexual selection (Chapter 6) that my idea about the cardinal in the snowy Nichols Arboretum began to change. Originally I thought of any male cardinal’s song in the way, I suppose, everyone else did—or at least I thought the way other biologists did, Non-biologists usually think that birds sing simply for joy.
Projective Geometry of Two Dimensions
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall continue to omit explicit reference to the ground field K whenever, as is usually the case, we wish to take the complex field as ground field. We shall also fix our attention from now on upon one particular 82, supposed fixed once and for all, which we call the projective plane; and the elements of this system will be called the points of the plane. Our task is to study the projective properties of this projective plane 82, and to introduce formal equivalents of the familiar notions that find a place in elementary projective geometry. Much of the theory can be derived from the single notion of linear dependence of points, which we now define.
Linear Systems of Quadrics
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE theory of linear systems of quadrics, as we might expect, is very similar to the corresponding theory for conics but more complicated. In this chapter we shall present the theory in outline only, introducing the main ideas but not going into detailed discussion of all possible special cases. We deal first with the two ℛ systems, the pencil of loci and the range of envelopes, and then we say something about the ℛ linear system, or net, of quadric loci.
Linear Transformations of Space
Authors: Semple J G , Kneebone G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As in the case of plane collineations, we can show that a given collineation transforms any range of points or pencil of planes into a homographically related range or pencil, and that it transforms any projectively generated manifold-for example a quadric or a twisted cubic-into another manifold of the same kind.
Non-steady motion problems in two dimensions. I
Authors: Hill R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now consider problems in which the stress and velocity at any fixed point are varying from moment to moment. To begin with, we restrict our attention to problems where the plastic region develops in such a way that the entire configuration remains geometrically similar. We have already encountered two examples, namely the expansion of a cylindrical or a spherical cavity from zero radius in an infinite medium; when the configuration at any moment is scaled down to a constant cavity radius the same distribution of stress is obtained. Other examples are the indenting of the plane surface of a semi-infinite block by a conical or pyramidal punch. For geometrical similarity it is necessary that the distortion should be initiated at a point or along a line, and that the specimen should be infinite in at least one dimension. Although either condition precludes the exact realization of similarity in practice, it is easily attained within experimental error. For example, Vickers pyramid hardness is observed to be effectively independent of the applied load, provided the specimen is large compared with the diameter and depth of the impression, and provided the impression is large compared with the grain size and the radius of curvature of the tip of the cone.
Non-steady motion problems in two dimensions. II
Authors: Hill R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We turn now to two-dimensional problems in which, for simplicity, it is necessary to restrict the analysis of the state of stress to the initial part of the loading path, when the total strain is still small. It will be assumed, in fact, that all changes in the external dimensions of the body are negligible, so far as the boundary conditions are concerned. The plastic strains being small, it is generally inaccurate, even for a calculation of the stress distribution, to suppose that the material is plastic-rigid; however, it will be shown that in certain circumstances the stress is independent of the value of Young’s modulus. We shall therefore carry out the analysis for a plastic-elastic material, and assume only that it has been pre-strained to a degree such that the work-hardening is negligible in the range of strain under consideration. When such a body is continuously loaded from a stress-free state the plastic and elastic components of the strain are at first comparable.
Miscellaneous Topics
Authors: Hill R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the process of deep-drawing, a thin circular blank is formed into a cylindrical cup, open at the top and closed at the base. The blank is placed over a die with a circular aperture and rounded lip (Fig. 78a); usually a blank-holder is employed to minimize crinkling. † A punch is forced down on to the blank, drawing the outer annulus over the die to make the wall of the cup. Among the variables are the radius of the lip, the shape of the punch, the lubrication, the clearance between punch and die and between blank-holder and die. ‡ The following analysis is restricted to a calculation of the stress and strain in the outer annulus of the blank while it is being drawn radially towards the lip of the die.
Fundamental Notions
Authors: Jeffreys Harold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fundamental problem of scientific progress, and a fundamental one of everyday life, is that of learning from experience. Knowledge obtained in this way is partly merely description of what we have already observed, but part consists of making inferences from past experience to predict future experience. This part may be called generalization or induction. It is the most important part; events that are merely described and have no apparent relation to others may as well be forgotten, and in fact usually are. The theory of learning in general is the branch of logic known as epistemology. A few illustrations will indicate the scope of induction.
Direct Probabilities
Authors: Jeffreys Harold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
where by the likelihood we understand the probability that the observations should have occurred, given the hypothesis and the previous knowledge. The prior probability of the hypothesis has nothing to do with the observations immediately under discussion, though it may depend on previous observations. Consequently the whole of the information contained in the observations that is relevant to the posterior probabilities of different hypotheses is summed up in the values that they give to the likelihood. In addition, if the observations are to tell us much that we do not know already, the likelihood will have to vary much more between different hypotheses than the prior probability does. Special attention is therefore needed to the discussion of the probabilities of sets of observations given the hypotheses.
General Questions
Authors: Jeffreys Harold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the present books on statistics, and of the longer papers in journals, include a careful disclaimer that the authors propose to use inverse probability, and emphasize its lack of logical foundation, which is supposed to have been repeatedly pointed out. In fact the continued mention of a principle that everybody is completely convinced is nonsense recalls the saying of the Queen in Hamlet: ‘The lady doth protest too much, methinks.’ Unfortunately some people that have examined the question have not been so convinced, and they include such first-rate logicians as W. E. Johnson, C. D. Broad, and F. P. Ramsey.
A Space-Time of Sufficient Generality
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The black-hole solutions of general relativity are static and spherically symmetric (as the Schwarzschild and the Reissner-Nordstrom solutions are) or stationary and axisymmetric (as the Kerr and the Kerr-Newman solutions are). The perturbed state of these solutions, which are of equal concern to us, will be neither stationary nor axisymmetric. As a basis for the treatment of the various problems that are suggested in these latter contexts, it will be convenient to have on hand the Einstein and the Maxwell equations in a space-time of sufficient generality which will encompass the different situations we shall encounter in the course of our study. In this chapter, we shall consider a space-time which appears to have the requisite generality; and we shall provide expressions for the basic tensors which will enable us to write down, without any ado, the relevant equations appropriate to the different contexts.
The Gravitational Perturbations of the Kerr Black-Hole
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to the theory of the gravitational perturbations of the Kerr black-hole. The subject is one of considerable complexity; and, in spite of the length of this chapter, the account, in large parts, is hardly more than an outline. When the Kerr black-hole is gravitationally perturbed, by the incidence of gravitational waves, for example, the quantities which vanish in the stationary state will, in general, cease to vanish and will become quantities of the first order of smallness; and the quantities which are finite in the stationary state will, likewise, experience first-order changes.
Spin -½Particles In Kerr Geometry
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Considerations pertaining to the propagation of waves in Kerr geometry have so far been restricted to electromagnetic waves and gravitational waves-both massless and of integral spins (one and two). We now turn to a consideration of fields of spin-½, both massive and massless, such as the electrons and the two component neutrinos. On the mathematical side, the interest in these fields derives principally from the separability of Dirac’s equation in Kerr geometry. And on the physical side, the interest derives from the lack of super-radiance exhibited by the spin-½ waves.
Other Solutions; Other Methods
Authors: Chandrasekhar S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The treatment of the spin-½ particles in the last chapter concludes our study of the Schwarzschild and the Kerr solutions—the digression into the Reissner-Nordstrom solution in Chapter 5 was largely dictated by the consideration that its study enables a deeper understanding of the Schwarzschild solution and provides a convenient bridge to the Kerr solution. On these accounts, one might have thought that the Kerr-Newman solution—which stands in the same relation to the Kerr solution as the Reissner-Nordstrom solution to the Schwarzschild solution-will enable a similar deeper understanding of the Kerr solution. While the derivation of the Kerr-Newman solution (in §110) along the lines of the Kerr solution (in §54) does provide some useful generalizations of the underlying concepts, it does not appear that the methods developed in Chapter 9 for the treatment of the gravitational perturbations of the Kerr black-hole can be extended in any natural way to the treatment of the coupled electromagnetic and gravitational perturbations of the Kerr-Newman black-hole.
Spherical harmonics
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
J 28.] The mathematical theory of spherical harmonics has been made the subject of several special treatises. The Handbuch &lt;ler Kuge(functionen of Dr. E. Heine, which is the most elaborate work on the subject, has now (1878) reached a second edition in two volumes, and Dr. F. Neumann has published his Beitrage zur Theorie der Kugelfunctfonen (Leipzig, Teubner, 1878).
Electrostatic instruments
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Electrostatic I nstrurnents.
The instruments which we have to consider at present may be divided into the following classes:
(1) Electrical machines for the production and augmentation of electrificat.ion.
(2) Multipliers, for increasing electrification in a known ratio.
(3) Electrometers, for the measurement of electric potentials and charges.
Ferromagnetism and diamagnetism explained by molecular currents
Authors: Maxwell James Clerk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen (art. 380) that the action of magnets on one another can be accurately represented by the attractions and repulsions of an imaginary substance called ‘magnetic matter.’ we have shewn the reasons why we must not suppose this magnetic matter to move from one part of a magnet to another through a sensible distance, as at first sight it appears to do when we magnetize a bar, and we were led to poisson’s hypothesis that the magnetic matter is strictly confined to single molecules of the magnetic substance, so that a magnetized molecule is one in which the opposite kinds of magnetic matter are more or less separated towards opposite poles of the molecule, but so that no part of either can ever be actually separated from the molecule (art.430)
Grafting modalities onto substructural implication systems
Authors: Gabbay Dov M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When logical systems are used to formalise some application area, they may require the addition of modality to the language for a variety of reasons: to cater for changes of the system in time, or perhaps for the dependency of the system on the context, or even to bring metalevel notions into the object level. Be the reasons and motivations what they may, we must develop the logical capability of incorporating modalities into these systems, so adding a new dimension which can explicitly and naturally account for ‘accessibility ‘ relations involved in the processes that are being modelled.
An Isolated Case?
Authors: Schilthuizen Menno 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Charles Darwin first set foot on the Galapagos Islands, in September 1835, they must have seemed like paradise to him. He had spent the austral winter braving snowstorms and earthquakes in the barren mountains of the Andes, so the 26-year-old naturalist must have welcomed the tropical flora and fauna that the oceanic archipelago offered to him. In the five weeks that he and the crew of HMS Beagle spent there, Darwin took to unbounded collecting and experimentation. He was fascinated by the extreme tameness of the birds. In his report he wrote: ‘A gun is here almost superfluous; for with the muzzle, I pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree.’ The sea iguana appalled him on account of its being ‘hideous-looking’, ‘stupid’, and ‘sluggish’, and he even spent some time repeatedly hurling a particularly unlucky individual into the waves to see if it would eventually flee to sea (it never did, but doggedly kept returning to the shore).
Seductive Theories
Authors: Schilthuizen Menno 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The male lyrebird of south-eastern Australia is as baroque as birds get. In the breeding season, it clears a circular mound of forest floor, and proceeds to put on its world-famous performance. It brings forward its two, long, lyre-shaped tail feathers and lowers them over its head, which is then completely obscured by the lacy fan of exceedingly delicate feathers in between. But the best part is yet to come: the concert.