bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Preventing Extremism
Authors: Sunstein Cass R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose that a nation seeks to prevent (unjustified) extremism. What might it do? I consider three possible answers here. The first, favored by many conservatives, is traditionalism. The second involves consequentialism. The third, prominent in the American founding, involves checks and balances; a system of freedom of expression and a diversity of views are part and parcel of that idea. We can associate these three responses with three people: Edmund Burke, Jeremy Bentham, and James Madison. I devote the most attention here to checks and balances, because that approach seems most interesting and most productive both in ordinary life and in the political domain.
Hamdan and the Military Commissions Act of 2006
Authors: Sulmasy Glenn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The military commissions as ordered by the president in November of 2001, and modified to a limited degree by the Pentagon, remained in place during the following five years. The “detainees” were still held at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and public support for the commissions continued to erode. Although several successful challenges to parts of the commissions occurred in federal district courts, circuit courts, and even the Supreme Court in Rasul and Hamdi, the holdings did not directly impact the military tribunals themselves. That all changed with the case of Salim Hamdan. By the spring of 2006, not a single military tribunal had been conducted at Guatanamo. Over 700 detainees remained on the naval base in the Guantanamo Bay Detention Center in a state of legal limbo; many of them had been detained without charge since 2001 or early 2002. The military commissions, while still “operating,” remained bogged down in civil litigation, and the political branches were still unwilling to commit to any real “change.” International criticism of the tribunals increased dramatically throughout 2005 and 2006. Although used throughout U.S. history and lawful in most respects, the current military commissions had not been implemented well.
Emersonian Transitions
Authors: Zakaras Alex 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though Emerson was susceptible to acute despair about the moral, political, and intellectual condition of American citizens, he is more often remembered for his optimism about their capacity to be something more than docile. Drawing on his more expansive essays, this chapter traces a tentative trajectory from docility to individuality. For Emerson, this trajectory begins in private life. It begins, specifically, with the disruption of complacent, habitual perception and belief by means of aesthetic receptivity, friendship, and conversation, and by the private cultivation of certain habits of mind that awaken us from complacency and help us discover our capacity for self-authorship. In chapter six, I show that Emerson thinks these habits of mind indispensable to responsible citizenship. The present chapter is, however, devoted mostly to private disruptions, culminating in the private activity of responsibility-taking. Readers interested only in an explicit treatment of Emerson’s theory of citizenship should therefore skip to the next chapter.
The Burdens of Citizenship
Authors: Zakaras Alex 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This conclusion has three parts. In the first, I attempt a more systematic treatment of the idea of complicity, using elements drawn from my readings of Emerson and Mill. Second, I respond to the suggestion, defended by some of the most eloquent interpreters of individuality, that individuality is, in fact, inimical to political participation and association. In doing so, I try to further clarify the relationship between individuality and political engagement. Finally, I return to three important objections—concerning elitism, neutrality, and civic solidarity—that deserve more focused attention.
I have argued that citizens of democratic societies find themselves complicit in the injustices committed by their governments. I have also described individuality as a way of extricating oneself from such complicity. But what exactly does “complicity” mean? To say that I am complicit in the actions of another is, first of all, to say that I am an accomplice in those actions. It is to say, more importantly, that I share responsibility for those actions. An analysis of complicity begins, therefore, with the idea of responsibility itself. How, then, do I become responsible? And how serious is the moral and political responsibility incurred through democratic complicity? This book has already suggested answers to these questions; my intention here is to try to develop these answers somewhat more systematically.
How Innovation Occurs
Authors: Patry William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
American economist Robert Solow, who won the Nobel Prize in 1987 for his work on growth models, calculated that approximately four-fifths of the growth in output per worker in the United States is attributable to technological progress. The figure is higher now as much of Solow’s work covered the decades before his award. Viviane Reding, European Commissioner for Information Society and Media stated in a November 2008 speech that information and communication technology (ICT) is
shaped by educational, professional, and social crises: The History of Law Student Pro Bono Service
Authors: Adcock Cynthia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first formal law school pro bono program1 was created in 1987 when the faculty of Tulane Law School, led by Dean John Kramer, instituted a pro bono graduation requirement of 20 hours. But law student pro bono service is much older. Law students have provided free legal assistance to the poor for over 100 years, very often for no credit or pay. The first recorded volunteer law student group dedicated to helping the poor was a law club at the University of Pennsylvania, which created a “legal aid dispensary” in 1893 (Reed 1928:217). “Modern” legal education was less than 20 years old.
Antecedents
Authors: Malumian Nicolas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It must be pointed out again that the modern-day Latin American trust is based on U.S. trust law, which in turn is derived from English law. Furthermore, as we examine in this chapter, the English trust derived, directly or indirectly, from the Roman fideicommissum and the fiducia. Therefore, the study of trusts must commence with the Roman antecedents. The antecedents provide elements to understand the nature and characteristics of the Latin American trust.
Securitization in Latin America
Authors: Malumian Nicolas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given the voluminous amount of material that exists with respect to securitization in general, especially in the United States, this chapter will concentrate on the aspects or the subjects that are relevant to Latin America. You will find a brief explanation of many aspects from a Latin American perspective. The countries with the most experience are Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina (in order of importance), although there are securitizations in all Latin America.
Types of Latin American Trusts
Authors: Malumian Nicolas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The trust is a flexible concept of changeable characteristics. Although the U.S. law has no special classification of trusts, it permits different forms that lend themselves to classification. Scholars distinguished between discretionary trusts, participation trusts, active and passive trusts, express trusts, implicit trusts, executed trusts, resulting trust, and constructive trusts, among others. The classification made in Latin America by scholars and by the statutes and regulations is different from the one in the United States. A description of the different kinds of trusts in Latin America and their particular characteristics follow.
Thoreau’s Pencil
Authors: Baron Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One defender of the pencil against the encroaching computer is Bill Henderson. Henderson is no countercultural terrorist hermit like Ted Kaczynski. He is a mainstream literary figure, director of the Pushcart Press, which showcases some of the best American contemporary short stories, essays, and poems. Yet Henderson has a problem with technology: he doesn’t like computers. In 1993 Henderson founded the Lead Pencil Club, a place where like-minded people could express their dislike of the new technology and celebrate the good old ways of writing.
Everyone’s an Author
Authors: Baron Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reading and writing may be two of the basic three Rs in American education, but schools have always emphasized reading over writing, no doubt because there have always been more consumers than creators of text, more readers than writers. But thanks to the internet, that gap may be narrowing dramati- cally. Each new stage in the history of writing technologies tends to expand the authors club, and the digital explosion seems to have opened that guild up to something approaching universal membership, at least so far as the universe of computer users goes. On the internet, everyone’s an author, every scrap of prose a publication.
Interrogation and Treatment of Detainees in the Global War on Terror
Authors: Jackson Dick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interrogation is at the core of the legal debates regarding the al Qaeda and Taliban members detained by the U.S. government after the inception of the Global War on Terror (GWOT) in October 2001. The desire to obtain timely and accurate intelligence from captured terrorists drove the discussion, from the fall of 2001 to late 2008, when Supreme Court cases, legislation, and policy developments restored specific law of war standards to the U.S. military’s treatment and interrogation of detainees. In the interim, the military (with substantial policy direction from the leadership of the U.S. Department of Defense, the U.S. Department of Justice’s office of Legal Counsel [OLC], and the White House) essentially abandoned its long-standing reliance on law of war treaties and principles applicable to international armed conflict as the base-line for the treatment of detained terrorists, in favor of a narrowly drawn legal position that allowed the U.S. government to selectively use aggressive interrogation and treatment techniques that did not comport with the time-tested law of war standards traditionally applied by the military to all of its detainees. Although the change in approach to the application of the law of war was resisted at every level by the military legal community, some of the aggressive interrogation and treatment techniques adopted for these terrorists were able to migrate to the field and resulted in mistreatment of detainees in several instances [despite the efforts of many Judge Advocates in the chain of command]. It is only in the last three years that those standards of treatment have been restored and reinforced for military personnel engaged in GWOT.
Incarnational Social Thought in its Intellectual Context
Authors: Hilton Boyd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have considered incarnational theology entirely from an internalist point of view, as though it were merely a rebound off an earlier eschatology. But it was also one aspect of a mid-century doctrine of positivist liberalism whose main ethos, so far from being religious, was by implication secular. It may be helpful to consider this wider intellectual context, however sketchily, approaching it from scientific, philosophical, and literary angles in turn. In so doing, it will be necessary to rely extensively on the researches of the many scholars who have recently tackled this multi-faceted, mid-century phenomenon.
Gladstonian Liberalism: the Last Days of Atonement
Authors: Hilton Boyd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No one was more distressed by the eclipse of Bishop Butler than William Gladstone. He is alleged to have fulminated at the time of the Oxford University Commission that dropping Butler from the syllabus would be worse than the loss of four colleges, though he did not specify which ones. Gladstone had, of course, been reared an evangelical, but had suffered a reaction at Oxford, where he was dismayed by the extremism of the St Ebbes set under Bulteel. Like many other sons of evangelical businessmen coming of age round about 1830, he detested the growing influence of the pentecostalists and prophesiers, and he considered evangelicalism’s scope for ‘private judgment’ altogether too anarchical-too ‘individualising’ — for a period of revolutionary alarms. He not only ceased to be an evangelical, but became a lifelong and devoted member of its antithesis, the High Church. Yet for all his attachment to the historic and corporate Church as an institution, he clung fervently to the central tenets of moderate evangelicals: providence, sin, conversion, conscience, Atonement, salvation, and Judgment. Moreover, they were to inform his entire approach to political action.
Evidence of Inception Ceremonies in the Twelfth-Century Schools of Paris*
Authors: Spatz Nancy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inception ceremony, the act by which a new master joined the guild or universitas of masters, is an integral part of the history of the origins of the University of Paris. Rashdall based his account of the rise of the university on the guild of masters’ gradual development from an informal fellowship of men with common professional interests into a full-fledged legal corporation, a corporation modelled after other professional guilds and religious confraternities. An examination of two incidences of early incep-tion ceremonies, the inceptions of Gerald of Wales in law in 1179, and Stephen Langton in theology c.1180, will prove the existence of the guild of masters prior to the de jure incorporation of the university in the thirteenth century.
The Educational Organization of the Augustinian Canons in England and Wales, and their University Life at Oxford, 1325–1448
Authors: Forde Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the major orders of the late medieval Church, the educational organization for the Carmelite Friars and the Regular Canons of the Rule of St Augustine (the Austin Canons)2 alone remains largely unstudied. This study considers the latter of these two. Although the focus here falls primarily on those Austin Canons who were educated at the University of Oxford, it will be necessary to place this in the context of various other elements in the Canons’ education, namely their novitiate training, almonry schools, and libraries. We shall also outline how the Order attempted to enforce the various statutes relating to higher education and how it endeavoured to maintain and improve standards.
Spain from 1931 to the Present
Authors: Balfour Sebastian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The proclamation of the Second Republic on 14 April 1931 was greeted with jubilation in the streets and squares of Spain. The new regime ushered in the first genuine democracy in Spain. In a country hitherto ruled by an oligarchy of notables, a privileged and largely intolerant clergy and an oppressive military establishment, the Republic promised modernity and social justice. Its supporters had high expectations. For the landless labourers of the South, it augured much-needed agrarian reform that would redistribute land and raise their pitiful living standards. For industrial and service workers, it promised better wages, union rights, and more bargaining power. For many others, the Republic meant sweeping social and cultural reform: it would extend rights to minorities, recognize the claims for autonomy of historic regions, educate and empower ordinary people.
The History of Government From the Earliest Times
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No one has hitherto had the breadth of imagination and intellectual boldness to describe and analyse government throughout recorded history and throughout the world. This unique study of government is the culmination of the work of the late S. E. Finer, one of the leading political scientists of the twentieth century. Ranging over 5,000 years, from the Sumerian city state to the modern European nation state, five themes emerge: state-building, military formats, belief systems, social stratification, and timespan. The three volumes examine both representative and exceptional polities, and focus on political elites of different types. Empires, Monarchies, and the Modern State (Books Four and Five) opens with Tokugawa Japan and thence reviews the evidence of Ch'ing, Ottoman, and Mughal Empires, before turning to facets of the re-creation, `modernization', and transplantation of the European state model. It concludes with the synoptic review of `Pathways to the Modern State'. Professor Finer's cogent descriptive analysis offers both an invaluable reference resource and an exhilarating journey across time and space.
Alliance Cohesion And Peaceful Change In Nato
Authors: Tuschhoff Christian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nearly a decade after German unification and the demise of the Soviet Union, it has become commonplace to note that NATO has not disappeared as a result of these fundamental changes in the European balance of power, notwithstanding the predictions of neo-realist scholars.1 Less attention has been paid, however, to the failure of neo-realist theory to account for NATO’s cohesion during the cold war despite the rise of German power in the 1950s and 1960s. Alliances have often broken apart because the balance of power within them altered, but this pattern of alignment and realign ment changed after the Second World War. Although the balance of power shifted from core NATO members France and Great Britain to a newer member, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), NATO not only per sisted but its cohesion grew and its mutual defence commitments were strengthened.2
Beyond the Frontiers: Karl Bryullov and Aleksandr Ivanov
Authors: Gray Rosalind P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tropinin, Venetsianov, and the majority of Venetsianov’s students never travelled abroad. However, ever since 1716, when Peter the Great had first dispatched fourteen young Russians to Italy and Holland to study their respective arts and crafts, Russian artists had frequently been sent to Europe as part of their education. Initially the system was erratic, with artists being selected and sent at the whim of the Tsar or another member of the Imperial family. However, the procedure became more routine when the Academy of Arts began to award travel scholarships to the winners of the annual gold medal competition.
History of Universities
Authors: McLaughlin R Emmet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Volume IX of History of Universities contains the customary mix of learned articles, book reviews, conference reports, and bibliographical information, which makes this annual publication such an indispensable tool for the historian of higher education. The present volume carries a wide range of articles which cover the early history of Europe's universities, as well as their later development. As usual, the authors and contributors are drawn from all parts of the western world, giving the yearbook a decidedly international flavour. Of particular note is the article by the American historian of theology, R. Emmet McLaughlin, on the role of the medieval university in preparing the ground for the Reformation.
The King and the Court
Authors: Harriss Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The advice books presented the ideal of royal governance from the viewpoint of subjects. They postulated a ruler whose political will was attuned—through nurture and counsel—to the common good of the realm. Yet in practice the king had a will and interests of his own, which were not necessarily in harmony with those of his subjects. The tensions between the king’s private and public capacities often came to the fore in the context of the royal household and court, which was at once his domestic environment, the arena for the display of majesty, and the channel for his political will. In the broad perspective of state formation the late medieval court was in transition from the small, mobile, military household of the earlier Middle Ages to the hierarchical palace establishments of the later ‘Court Society’, which constituted the hub of the absolutist state. In our period such linear development is less discernible than the court’s reﬂection, chameleon-like, of the character and policy of each monarch. While its prime purpose was to exalt the king’s majesty through ritual and magniﬁcence, it could at times epitomize chivalric prowess, religious piety, and political harmony, or indulgence, scandal, and faction. It both implemented and manipulated the king’s will. I shall consider in turn its domestic organization and ﬁnance, its function as the source of royal governance, and its role as a religious and cultural centre.
English Dictionaries for Foreign Learners: A History
Authors: Cowie A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first history of dictionaries of English for foreign learners, from their origins in Japan and East Asia in the 1920s to the computerized compilations of the present. Monolingual dictionaries for foreign speakers were a revolutionary development at their outset, and now represent a coming-together of intellectual, technological and commercial forces almost unequalled in book publishing. As the author shows, the early history of EFL dictionaries was research-driven, arising directly from research in linguistic theory and language pedagogy; now it is user-driven, determined by what users require or are thought to require. The pioneering dictionaries were the work of individuals. Current dictionaries are the products of huge databases manipulated by sophisticated processing, as publishers strive to share an immense and constantly growing global market. The book has both a thematic and a chronological structure. Three chapters describe the historical sequence over a period of some sixty years. These alternate with chapters dealing with phraseology, computers and corpus linguistics, and research into dictionary users and uses - three subjects central to the development of ELT dictionaries over the last thirty years. Dr Cowie examines the way in which availability of massive computing power has transformed the recording and analysis of current speech, and shows how the growth of research into the users and uses of dictionaries has led to developments both in ELT lexicography and method. This readable and non-technical account is directed both at professionals in applied linguistics and English language teaching, and at lexicographers, but it will interest and fascinate everyone concerned with the analysis of English and faced with the challenge of recording of the subtelties of its grammar and meaning.