bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Victims, Informal Negotiations, and Prosecution Options
Authors: King Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the unfolding drama of most property crime prosecutions the central role was played by the victim. As the foreign observer Cottu noted in 1820, ‘The right of prosecution ... is placed entirely in the hands of the offended party, who becomes ⃛ the sole arbiter of the fate of the offender, and can ⃛ either prosecute him with the utmost rigour of the law, or soften a part of its severity against him, by modifying the form of the indictment, or even pardon him altogether, by omitting to prefer any complaint against him.’ Between 1740 and 1820 officials only took responsibility for prosecutions involving property appropriation in very exceptional circumstances, such as major coining or forgery cases.1 It was the victim who provided the momentum, the driving force that moved a dispute towards a trial in the major courts. If the victim refused to react, the judicial system remained inert and ineffective. If the victim chose to take on the expensive, time-consuming, and often complex task of organizing the detection, arrest, and possible committal of the offender, he (or occasionally she) found that an array of discretionary powers fell into his hands. Despite the technical legal restraints designed to limit his discretion, in practice the victim had immense freedom of manoeuvre. Ifhe decided to call the process to a halt by making a settlement or applying informal sanctions, it was rarely possible to prevent him. Even after the committal proceedings, at which the magistrates decided whether or not to imprison the accused awaiting trial, prosecutors remained highly influential. Some undermined the trial process completely by failing to appear, while many influenced the verdict and final sentence by the type of charge they brought, by the way they brought it, and by petitioning the trial authorities for a particular outcome. The first chapter of this section on pretrial processes therefore focuses on the victims and their decisions—their initial reactions, their detection methods, their negotiations with suspects, and finally the choices they made between the committal proceedings and the trial. Chapters 3 and 4 then explore the assistance available to victims and the role of committal proceedings and of the summary courts.
Magistrates and Summary Courts
Authors: King Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the assistance he or she sometimes received from others, it was the victim who decided whether or not to move the accused on to the next stage of the judicial process by taking him before a Justice of the Peace. The magistrates themselves rarely influenced this decision. Most eighteenth-century JPs were not directly concerned with the detection of offenders. A few diligent magistrates did sometimes involve themselves in advertising and apprehending suspects but such men were exceptional.
The Offenders: Property Crime and Life-Cycle Change
Authors: King Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Who was accused of property theft in the eighteenth-century courts? The evidence available is often minimal and summary offences are particularly difficult to contextualize for that reason, but by the 1780s new recording practices in the major courts enable a dimension previously neglected by historians to be analysed. That dimension is the life-cycle. Modern criminologists implicitly assume that most offenders are juveniles or young adults and this pattern has been confirmed by self-report studies and longitudinal surveys as well as by the statistics on prosecuted offenders; but although the early nineteenth-century rise of juvenile delinquency has been studied, eighteenth-century historians have yet to examine in detail the relationship between crime and life-cycle change.1 By focusing initially on the age structure of the accused, and by relating this evidence both to the experiences of certain key groups across the life-cycle, and to contemporary attitudes towards the regulation of different age ranges, this chapter will use that relationship as the core of a discussion of both male and female offenders. It will then assess more traditional concerns about the social status and the professional or casual nature of offenders, before drawing together all these threads in order to reassess historians’ traditional emphasis on the importance of severe economic hardship as an explanation of changing patterns of recorded crime. In doing so it will also explore the ways in which the vulnerability of different subgroups to formal prosecution was the product of the interaction between two forces-the selection policies used by victims, magistrates, etc., and the differing levels of appropriation indulged in by the offenders themselves.
Pardoning Policies: The Good Mind and the Bad
Authors: King Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most conditional pardons were granted by the circuit judges at the end of the assizes before they moved on to the next county, and some clues about the criteria they used can be gleaned from the ways that hanging rates differed by offence, gender, and age (Chapter 8). However, they were not required to record their reasons for making these decisions and they very rarely did so, making it difficult to assess the impact of other aspects of these cases on pardoning decisions. Fortunately some of the prisoners who were not granted immediate reprieves petitioned the King for a pardon through the Secretary of State, and whenever a petition was received the trial judge was immediately asked to send a written report of the case. The many petitions, supporting letters, and judges’ reports that have survived from this process offer a rare window into the minds of the decision-makers, but even though the late eighteenth-century archive lacks the depth of documentation Gatrell found by the 1820s, these are complex documents that need to be treated with care. The judges’ reports were hidden transcripts, written in private between powerful people who did not expect the powerless prisoner ever to see their correspondence. The petitions, by contrast, are public transcripts written by the powerless to the powerful. Their language was therefore deferential, needful, tactical, or just plain desperate. Unlike the French, and usually murderrelated, petitions recently analysed by Natalie Zemon Davis, the English petitions very rarely contained carefully crafted narratives retelling the story of the prisoner’s crime in detail.
Conclusion: Law and Social Relations, 1740–1820
Authors: King Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The legal institutions of the eighteenth century were complex and full of ambiguities. Although for the sake of brevity historians often use phrases such as ‘the legitimacy of the law’ and ‘popular attitudes to the law’, the law was not, of course, as monolithic as this implies. The law held different meanings for different people and its pluralistic nature meant that each individual or social group might have a range of often contradictory experiences of legal institutions. There were important regional differences—between London and the provinces, for example, or between areas that had easy access to the different types of court and areas that did not. More important, the administration of the law was multifaceted. The punishments it imposed and the social groups that mobilized it changed fundamentally according to the type of offence being dealt with. For example, even the limited research so far published indicates that the laws relating to assault were extensively mobilized by the labouring poor, as were the opportunities offered by the summary courts to appeal for relief, to obtain unpaid wages, or to resolve a variety of other disputes. Given that a substantial number of labourers also brought theft prosecutions to the courts, it is clear that the eighteenth-century poor did not meet the law only as criminal sanction. However, it is equally apparent that in this period the criminal justice system did not process the central category of offenders focused on in this study—those who had appropriated others’ property—in an impartial or neutral way.
The Model and the Men
Authors: Fincham Kenneth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘And who is sufficient for these things?’1 Jacobeans often applied this Pauline lament to the episcopal office. Bishop Lancelot Andrewes even had the phrase engraved on his seal,2 so daunting was the prevalent theory of episcopal government. The exemplar was the ‘apostolic’ or ‘primitive’ bishop, outlined in the pastoral epistles of St Paul, and embellished by the early Fathers. It was an image of great potency in early Stuart England, as the model for the Jacobean episcopate to imitate and against which to be judged by contemporaries. Although the pastoral ideal had been the common currency of Christendom for centuries, its features were brought out and sharpened in humanist writings in the early sixteenth century.3
Times Past and Present
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Icelandic, saga means both story and history. It is literally what is ‘said’ about previous events, periods, or people. Telling makes history. The Icelandic sagas are stories of different historical veracity, but the point is that in the concept of saga, story and history are one. In my conversations with Icelanders the notion would often be incurred in relating particular events, and although obviously the Icelanders are perfectly capable of distinguishing between truth and lie, this distinction is of less moment in the telling of the past than one would think. Knowledge (Jrcedi) is neutral in relation to the distinction between truth and lie: one’s learning may be somewhat wanting or wrong, but no lie; lies are made by people speaking against better knowledge (Sorensen 1993: 38). And that is the point; in telling what they know, or what they have been told, the Icelanders share what is ‘said’ with each other—and with the anthropologist. The story contains the knowledge of history and more often than not it is prefaced by a sagt er (‘it is said’), or if the content is less certain: munnmeelin segja (‘legend says’, or ‘speech goes’).
Why Kinship?
Authors: Edwards Jeanette 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
MY original interest in carrying out anthropological fieldwork in the Lancashire town of Bacup was to study ‘communication between providers and users of services’. Given a diet of arid, turgid, and unpeopled kinship systems as an undergraduate student, I imagined kinship was the least of my interests, and was not, I have to admit, looking for it. But I was looking for social class; convinced I would find miscommunication at the interface of what I then crudely conceptualized as middle-class service-providers and their working-class clientele. In 1987 and 1988, many Bacup residents seemed keen to talk about services, particularly with reference to local government. The already diminished manufacturing industry in the region was shrinking further and the weekly local newspaper reported, in almost every edition, the closure of one small business after another with its attendant job losses. There was little building going on in the town: a few new houses were being constructed but with private rather than state sponsorship; they were said to be affordable only by middle-class commuters moving to Bacup from ‘the city’.
Rural Reform and the Post-Collective Period
Authors: Sneath David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Introduction: China’s Economic Reforms
The third plenum of the eleventh Central Committee of the CCP, held in December 1978, saw the beginning of a new departure in the history of the Communist administration of China. The Maoist vision of the economy was replaced by Deng Xiaoping’s pragmatic policies for modernization. The Central Committee lessened direct Party control of the economy, and increased the power of the heads of the work units. Discussion began as to the reform of the People’s Communes, with the aim of increasing material incentives for good work. Reformers such as Chen Yun (and later Zhao Ziyang) emphasized’ the principle of distribution according to work’1 and in 1979 the Rural Responsibility System was approved, the first step towards decollectivization.
Order and Disorder in Melanesian Religion
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The contrasting modalities of codification and dissemination in Papua New Guinea, explored in the last chapter, raise issues at the heart of a long-standing debate about religious ‘order’ in Melanesia. The major differences between missionary Christianity and indigenous fertility cults bring to prominence a contrast between, on the one hand, relatively coherent, integrated, widely shared, and stable doctrinal systems and, on the other, comparatively unconnected, poorly shared, and innovative local cults. Arguably, this contrast has been obscured by a tendency for at least some anthropologists to envisage all Melanesian religions as doctrinal systems.
Coping with Uncertainty: Adaptive Responses to Drought and Livestock Disease in the Northern Kalahari
Authors: Hitchcock Robert K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An enduring but in many ways unfortunate image of Africa is that of a mal nourished child sitting in the sand at the edge of a refugee camp set in a bleak desert landscape. All too often, Africa is characterized as a kind of basket case, a continent beset by drought, famine, disease, and civil conflict (Kaplan 1996). Less attention tends to be paid in the media to African success stories, to the diverse and ingenious strategies used by communities, families, and individuals to cope with uncertainty and reduce risk, and to the innovative programmers employed by African governments and non-government organizations to predict, plan for, manage, and assess the impacts of changes in their socio-economic and environmental situations.
Drought as a Revelatory Crisis Revisited: An Exploration of Shifting Entitlements and Hierarchies
Authors: Solway Jacqueline S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his analysis of the domestic mode of production Sahlins (1972: 124, 143) refers to a revelatory crisis as one of the few occasions outside of an ‘act of ethnographic will’ that exposes to the observer the central contradiction in that mode of production. The drought in southern Africa that occurred in Botswana in varying waves of intensity between 1979 and 1987 constituted such a revelatory crisis.’ It precipitated the interruption of socio economic patterns to a degree sufficient to lay bare contradictions in the existing order that had been latent or contained prior to the drought.
Syllabic Phonology
Authors: Odden David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kimatuumbi has many rules relating to syllable structure, especially rules which conflate sequences of vowels. The first section of this chapter investigates syllable readjustments and compensatory lengthening, and the second considers other areas of Kimatuumbi grammar where prosodic structure is relevant. A nonlinear account of these phenomena provides an insightful explanation for compensatory lengthening, and allows a perspicuous statement of the rule for the language game Chaanchú úigu. Section 4.3 considers principles of syllabification for Kimatuumbi, and the final section investigates two word-internal rules of vowel shortening.
The Phonology Of Portuguese
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Portuguese emerged from vulgar Latin during the course of the third century. Influential in its development were successive invasions by Germanic peoples, Visigoths, and Moors, the latter of whom were finally evicted in the thirteenth century. As a consequence of the newly-independent kingdoms imperial achievements, Portuguese is the national language of Brazil and the official language of several African countries. Maria Helena Mateus and Ernesto dAndrade present a broad description and comparative analysis of the phonetics and phonology of European and Brazilian Portuguese. They begin by introducing the history of Portuguese and its principal varieties. Chapter 2 describes the phonetic characteristics of consonants, vowels, and glides, and Chapter 3 looks at prosodic structure. Chapters 4 and 5 present the general characteristics of Portuguese nominal and verbal systems, the former considering inflectional and the latter derivational processes. Chapter 6 examines stress, main, secondary, and echo, and Chapter 7 describes phonological processes that are not related to the morphological structure of the word, including the peculiar process of nazalization. The authors deploy current theoretical models to explain the rich variety of Portuguese phonology and interrelated aspects of morphology. This is by far the most comprehensive account of the subject to have appeared in English, and the most up-to-date in any language.
Collected Papers
Authors: Evans Gareth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume contains thirteen papers, including two previously unpublished, by Gareth Evans, a brilliant philosopher who died in 1980 at the age of 34. The treatments of problems about language are here informed by a lively sense of interconnections with issues in metaphysics and the problem of mind, and some of the papers are primarly directed to problems in these fields. Anyone who is concerned with the central questions of philosophy will be interested in this collection.
Literacy in a Pidgin Vernacular
Authors: Charpentier Jean-Michel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 1953 Unesco monograph reflects the ambivalence of the time towards pidgin languages. On the one hand, pidgins do not appear at all in Appendix r, a ‘Tentative Classification of the Languages Spoken in the World Today’ (Unesco 1953: 139-43); on the other, pidgin appears among the terms defined at the beginning of the report of the meeting of specialists (held in 1951): ‘a language which has arisen as the result of contact between peoples of different languages, usually formed from a mixing of the languages’ (ibid. 46), and one of the seven case histories deals with ‘The Problem of “Pidgin” in the Trust Territory of New Guinea’ (ibid. 103-15). The tentative classification is organized by divisions into main stocks and families, a model based on the genetic metaphor with common ancestors for the different families; such a view excludes in principle the presence of ‘hybrid’ languages.
Motivations and Attitudes Influencing Vernacular Literacy: Four African Assessments
Authors: Fasold Ralph w. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the 1953 Unesco report was published, it was largely taken for granted that literacy was generally desirable; the central argument of the report was that initial literacy instruction in the mother tongue was the most efficient way to achieve it. As Weinstein (1987) points out, the Unesco report was written from a particular ideological point of view. He points out that most of the thirteen members of the committee had a long-standing interest in non-European languages and many had previously been advocates of minority languages in education and literacy. Weinstein is careful to note that there is nothing wrong with an orientation in favour of such ideals as the development of non-European languages or linguistic self-determination or the preservation of cultural and linguistic pluralism or the psychological and educational well-being of the individual child. The Unesco committee expressed a sincere and reasonable point of view that its members held consistently both before and after publication of the report. One should simply be aware that a certain unquestioned ideological framework is assumed in the report and much subsequent discussion. With some forty years of hindsight it is clear that the psycholinguistic efficiency factor assumed in the report is not the only force operating on the success or failure of vernacular literacy programmes; in fact, it seems not to be even a major one.
Aristotle’s Definitions of Psuche
Authors: Ackrill J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In spite of the doubt he expresses as to the possibility or usefulness of giving a general definition of psucheē, Aristotle does offer such a definition in De Anima 11. 1; indeed, he offers three. In this essay I wish to develop (in a simple, or even simpleminded, way) a main difficulty his formulae seem to involve, and to enquire into the root of the difficulty.
Aristotle on Action
Authors: Ackrill J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aristotle’s statements about action and choice seem to involve serious inconsistencies–and on topics central to ethics and to his Ethics. Here are some samples. Aristotle holds that when we choose to do something, we always choose with a view to some end, for the sake of something; but he also insists that a man who does a virtuous act is not doing it virtuously–is not displaying virtue–unless he has chosen it ‘for itself’.Actions are done for the sake of other things, and things we can do are not themselves the ends with a view to which we do them; yet action (praxis) differs from production (poiesis), according to Aristotle, precisely because it is its own end. In recommending the theoretical life, Aristotle says that whereas contemplation ‘aims at no end beyond itself’, fine actions do ‘aim at some end and are not desirable for their own sake’; but in recommending the life of action, he says that doing noble and good deeds is a thing desirable for its own sake, and that ‘those activities are desirable in themselves from which nothing is sought beyond the activity’.Passages like these suggest two problems.
Sentences and Clauses
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This first chapter on syntax asks a central question: what are the appropriate analytical units for the syntax of spontaneous spoken language? This important question has received different answers: either the same units apply as in the syntactic analysis of written language or a different but overlapping set is required. The position defended here is that the sentence should be regarded as a low-level discourse unit of written language, that clauses and phrases are units of both spoken and written language, and that sequences of clauses in spoken language may form clause complexes. The last section of the chapter argues that much spontaneous language does not even have a syntactic structure in which phrases combine into clauses or clauses into integrated clause complexes. Rather, the structure consists of blocks of syntax with little or no syntactic linkage and requiring from the listener a larger than usual exercise of inference based on contextual and world knowledge.
Noun Phrases: Complexity and Configuration
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Another property that varies between spontaneous spoken language and written language is the structure and complexity of phrases. This observation is not new. For Russian Sirotinina (1974: 79–80) establishes a scale of genres going from formal written language through academic spoken discourse, literary discourse, and informal letters to conversation. She observes that as one moves along the scale from formal writing to spontaneous speech the number of full nouns diminishes as does the number of adjectives. For full nouns she cites figures of 386 per 1,000 words in formal writing but only 142 in conversation; and for adjectives, 152 per 1,000 words in formal writing but only 39 in conversation. Krasil’nikova (1990: 20) also mentions the lack of complex and combined phrases but notes additional properties of NPs in spontaneous spoken Russian; typically only the final noun in an NP has a case affix, and in frequent phrasal combinations of words the case of the first word spreads to the other words (Krasil’nikova 1990: 31).