bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Alcohol: intoxication and detoxification
Authors: Emsley John , Fell Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On New Year’s Day millions of people suffer the symptoms of their body’s intolerance of what it regards as too much of a toxin: alcohol. The collection of symptoms they experience-the throbbing headache, the feeling of nausea, even vomiting and diarrhoea—are all typical responses to an excess of a material that the body wishes to be rid of. Our attitude to alcohol is ambivalent: we are prepared to accept the punishment of a hangover because we enjoy the effects that alcohol has on us.
Science, Chauvinism and Bigotry
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no national science, Anton Chekhov said, any more than there are national multiplication tables, for national science is no longer science. Today the baleful incursions of chauvinism that Chekhov had in mind seem to have abated, or to have yielded to ideologies of a different stripe, racial, religious or feminist. Fringe movements (which have done more damage in the humanities than in science) have sought to diminish the achievements of the past and the science of today by denying it any validity outside the confines of a white, Caucasian and predominantly male hierarchy. The proponents of these views have not gone so far as to suggest explicitly that the speed of light would be slower, or the number of bases per turn of a DNA helix greater, had the measurements been made by Africans, say, or by women, but their dialectic merges into the ‘cognitive relativism’, promulgated by a fashionable school of (mainly French) philosophers. It takes as an axiom that, so far from progressing by successive approximations towards a better understanding of the world, the results of scientific inquiry are nothing more than artificial constructs, wholly dependent on the social milieu. This doctrine emerges from a seemingly wilful ignorance of science, verging on obscurantism, and it is strongly reminiscent, as will be seen, of the style of discourse favoured by leaders of totalitarian societies, in their insistence that science must reflect the tenets of the prevailing political system.
Nature Nurtured: the Rise and Fall of Eugenics
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eugenics, literally good birth, entered the language in the nineteenth century, with the dawn of genetics as a quantitative science. August Weismann in Germany had developed the germ plasm theory: the hereditary material of the offspring was carried in the parents’ germ cells (p. 64), which were shielded from external influences, so that no environmental pressures could impose themselves on the genetic material. The idea that all human attributes, physical, intellectual and moral, were entirely, or at least primarily, heritable exerted a powerful appeal to many intelligent people, despite the weakness of the argument. As in other instances of pathological science, the flaws in the evidence on which the theory was based were overwhelmed by the wish that it should be true. Those who upheld the universal dominance of nature over nurture were, or felt themselves to be, intelligent, moral and free of the biologically deleterious traits that they eagerly sought out in others. In many cases eugenic doctrine was allied to a belief in the superiority of one race over all others and the conviction that its genetic purity must be maintained and protected. Certainly not all the early adherents of eugenics were malign, and many were dismayed by the consequences when eugenic measures were put into practice. Enthusiasts for eugenics ranged in their political allegiance from the extreme left (Prince Kropotkin was one) to the fascist right.
Maintenance of egg temperature
Authors: Turner J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contact incubation of eggs is one of the most conspicuous features of avian biology. Its purpose is the maintenance of a warm and steady egg temperature, and during incubation, the parent bird undergoes remarkable changes in its behaviour and physiology, all seemingly directed to meeting this need. For example, the pectoral skin of incubating birds, commonly the female, but in some instances the male as well, develops into a fleshy and well-vascularised brood patch, naked of feathers (White and Kinney 1974; Grant 1982; T0ienet al. 1986; Chapter 8). While incubating, the brood patch is pressed against one surface of the egg, warming it, a process known as contact incubation. The transfer of heat into the egg is regulated through adjustments to both blood flow through the brood patch and heat production by the parent, mediated through temperature sensors in the skin of the brood patch (Collias 1964; White and Kinney 1974; Midtgardet al. 1985; Chapter 8). Likewise, many birds construct nests to insulate the eggs against losses of heat from their exposed surfaces. In some instances, the nest completely encloses the egg in its protective environment, although many nests are cup--shaped, open at the top to accommodate the parent whilst it sits on the eggs (Collias 1964; Grant 1982; Skowron and Kern 1984; Chapter 2). Many birds are steady incubators, sitting on the eggs without interruption from the completion of the clutch to hatching. However, many are intermittent incubators, leaving the nest periodically during the day to feed or defend the territory around the nest. These absences seem timed to limit the extent to which the eggs cool during the absence: in colder conditions, the absences are shorter, while warmer conditions are correlated with longer absences (Turner 1994a; Chapters 6 and 15).
Mathematics
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Graphs are used to represent pictorially or clarify a relationship between two variables, say x and y, or t and function (t). If x and y are related by the linear equation y = mx + c, then the graphical relationship is a straight line as in Fig. 1.1, where m is the slope, a constant value for a straight line and c is the value of y when x = 0. Figure 1.2 shows the relationship when m and c take negative values. Note that if c = 0, the line passes through the origin, 0, of the x and y axes.
Pulse oximetry
Authors: Magee Patrick , Tooley Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pulse oximeter is a device for non-invasive, continuous measurement of oxygen saturation. As such it is arguably one of the most important intra-operative monitors at the disposal of anaesthetists. Although the device measures oxygen saturation of arterial blood, which is the physiological end point of interest, it is not a replacement for monitoring all the events that may lead to hypoxaemia; in other words it does not replace an oxygen analyser at the common gas outlet of the anaesthetic machine.
Cast Surveying
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Surveying is an essential step in the design and construction of partial dentures. The surveying instrument draws lines on a cast so that the dentist can be sure that no rigid part of a partial denture lies in an undercut in relation to the path of insertion and removal of the appliance. An undercut is the area below the greatest diameter of a tooth, similar to the area below an overhanging cliff edge (arrowed). We must also find where to put clasps to hold the denture in place and how to make the prosthesis blend naturally with the tissues by avoiding unsightly gaps where the denture and tissues meet.
Refining The Design
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a denture design is complete, it is time to step back and look at it anew. Every step might have been followed to the best advantage but is the final denture really satisfactory from the view of aesthetics, interplay of the elements of indirect retention and indirect support, and freedom from interferences with the tongue and other tissues? Review the complete design and make any necessary adjustments.
Patient Histories And Assessment
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The state of the residual dentition is a good initial indicator of the past oral care. There may have been tooth loss which then initiated an improvement in self care. There may be records of past professional care, to add to the assessment of existing periodontal and restorative conditions. Present and previous denture experience is also important, and may provide useful evidence for the design of replacement(s). A design may be repeated if it has proved successful, and if no damage can be observed.
Which teeth to replace? Design sequence
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not always an advantage to replace all missing teeth. The question of whether to replace missing teeth is considered. It is not always necessary or appropriate to replace all missing teeth. The importance of replacement could be said to diminish posteriorly, and on occasions it may be preferable to avoid denture provision altogether, but here are some guidelines:
Designing for Kennedy class IV dentures
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As originally defined, this classification of missing teeth constitutes the need for a single anterior saddle, technically crossing the mid-line. The classification includes, however, a range of possibilities. At one extreme, missing central incisors would require a short saddle, while at the other extreme a large saddle would be needed if, for instance, only molars were retained (bilaterally).
New partial dentures for residual dentition in poor condition
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
You will be confronted, from time to time, by the patient whose remaining natural dentition is in poor condition, often as a consequence of neglect of self care and professional help. Existing partial dentures may have contributed to the deterioration. The first step is to instigate such remedial care as the patient will accept. On occasions, you will be surprised by the patient ‘s response, for instance the prospect of being rendered edentulous may lead to a remarkable transformation in the patient ‘s attitude towards dental care. Oral hygiene instruction, periodontal treatment and tooth restoration may rectify the situation, and you may then be able to follow in full the principles presented in the chapters of Section 2.
Partial dentures in conjunction with crowns
Authors: Tyson K W , Yemm R , Scott B J J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Consideration is given to the situation where teeth may require crowning and the advantages that this can give when designing a partial denture are discussed. As discussed in Section 2, provision of a partial denture should not be embarked upon in isolation from other aspects of dental care, as teeth may need to be restored as an integral part of treatment. The dental history and examination will give the dentist the necessary information as to which teeth require attention. A treatment plan would usually be formulated which would involve the restoration of any carious teeth or failing restorations before the partial denture is constructed.
The effectiveness of retrieval from memory
Authors: Shiffrin Richard M , Steyvers Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘rational models’ has connotations almost too numerous to list, including internal consistency of a model’s assumptions, consistency of data with a model’s predictions, matching of the model’s predictions to the demands imposed by the environment and its probabilistic structure and pay-offs, and logical consistency of a model’s decision structure. In this chapter we focus on ‘optimality’, in particular, optimality of retrieval from memory. In an absolute sense, we ask whether retrieval is as optimal, efficient, and effective as possible, given the way in which information has been stored in memory. This question may not be well defined or easy to answer. In a relative sense, we ask whether retrieval in different tasks and of different types of information operates with different levels of optimality, effectiveness, and efficiency. Such questions are of course highly model dependent, but by keeping the assumptions as simple as possible, it may be possible to obtain answers that generalize to quite a wide range of potential models.
Optimal performance and exemplar models of classification
Authors: Nosofsky Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For nearly 20 years, exemplar models have stood among the leading formal models of perceptual categorization (e.g. Medin and Schaffer, 1978; Nosofsky, 1984; Hintzman, 1986; Krushcke, 1992; Estes, 1994). According to these models, people represent categories by storing individual exemplars of categories in memory, and classify objects according to how similar they are to the exemplars of the alternative categories. Exemplar models have provided excellent accounts of a wide variety of categorization phenomena, including effects of prototypes, category size, within- and between-category similarity, individual item frequency, and rule complexity.
The role of hypervigilance in the experience of pain
Authors: Damme Stefaan Van , Crombez Geert , Eccleston, Christopher , Roelofs Jeffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The role of fear of pain in the experience of pain is well-documented in research with clinical and healthy samples. An increased level of pain-related fear is associated with more intense pain (McCracken et al. 1996), more avoidance of activity (Crombez et al. 1998c ; Waddell 1998), and greater functional impairments (McCracken et al. 1993; Crombez et al. 1999b). Several authors have also argued that fear of pain induces a hypervigilance for pain or other somatic sensations (Eccleston and Crombez 1999; Aldrich et al. 2000; Vlaeyen and Linton 2000). Hypervigilance for pain, or overalertness for pain, has been understood in different ways. In this chapter we examine the concept of hypervigilance to pain in normal and clinical pain samples.
Pain-Related Fear
Authors: Hadjistavropoulos Heather D , Kowalyk Kristine M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As evidenced by this volume, pain-related fear has become an important and widely researched topic within the field of psychology and pain. The importance of helping patients overcome pain-related fear cannot be overemphasized. Successful treatment for chronic pain consistently shows that resolution of fear is key to success and reductions in pain-related fear predict improved treatment outcomes (McCracken and Gross 1998). Despite the increasing amount of research on the topic of pain-related fear, relatively little attention has been given to the patient–therapist relationship among patients faced with significant pain-related fear.
The blood–brain barrier: its structure and function
Authors: Banks William A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) originated with experiments conducted at the end of the nineteenth century (Bradbury 1979). These experiments showed that some dyes would only stain the brain after direct administration into the central nervous system (CNS) but not after systemic administration. Controversy surrounded the interpretation of these and related findings. Paul Ehrlich concluded that dyes that did not stain the brain after systemic administration simply lacked an affinity for brain tissue. He bolstered his argument with the observation that light microscopy showed no differences between the capillary beds of the CNS and peripheral tissues. Lewandowsky took an opposing view, arguing that the cerebral capillaries had the ability to exclude blood-borne substances from the brain.
The blood–brain barrier: monocyte and viral entry into the brain
Authors: Nottet Hans S L M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The neuropathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection can be divided into three stages with regard to the blood–brain barrier (BBB). The first phase is characterized by an early invasion of the brain by HIV-1 followed by a clinically relatively long stable period of time in which the BBB is unaffected. The second phase is clinically manifested by the occurrence of HIV-associated dementia (HAD) whereby the BBB is immune-activated allowing facilitated infiltration of monocyte/macrophages (M/M) into the central nervous system (CNS). This phase can last from a few months to years. The third phase is the end-stage of HAD and is characterized by a massive infiltration of M/M into the CNS through a damaged BBB.
The feline immunodeflciency virus model of HIV-1-associated neurological disease
Authors: Meeker Rick B , Bragg D Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Animal models continue to be valuable tools in the ongoing efforts to understand the mechanisms of HIV-1-associated dementia (HAD). The increasing importance of examining the central nervous system (CNS) in lentivirus-infected hosts at all stages of disease has been highlighted by multiple observations including: (1) the recognition that neuroinvasion most probably occurs soon after the initial systemic infection; (2) the possibility that neuropathogenesis may begin early during asymptomatic stages of disease; and (3) the potential for virus to be compartmentalized within the CNS, thereby giving rise to protected reservoirs and novel isolates. In addition, it remains equally critical that in vivo studies be complemented with appropriate neural cell culture systems in which the signal transduction events underlying viral replication and neurotoxicity can be identified.
Myopathies associated with HIV-1: clinical and pathological manifestations
Authors: Fox Kenneth A , Morgello, Susan , Simpson David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The skeletal muscle disorders associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection are myriad (Snider et al. 1983; Dalakas et al. 1986a, 1990; Lange et al. 1988; Simpson and Bender 1988; Illa et al. 1991; Simpson et al. 1993a; Gherardi 1994). Myopathy may be the presenting symptom of HIV disease (Dalakas et al. 1986a). Since multiple pathologies may coexist in the same patient, muscle disease may be masked by concomitant central nervous system (CNS) disorders such as dementia, focal brain lesions, myelopathy, or peripheral neuropathy. Furthermore, the insidious progression of most neuromuscular complications may be overlooked in advanced stages of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), when wasting and other complications dominate the clinical picture. Prompt recognition of neuromuscular disease is important in HIV-infected patients, as therapy may dramatically improve the patient’s quality of life.
Evoked potentials
Authors: Iragui Vicente J , Olichney John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) often affects both the central and peripheral nervous systems via a variety of mechanisms. Although HIV infection predisposes to opportunistic infections, the neurological impairments are due in many patients to the direct effects of HIV in the central and peripheral nervous systems. However, the early stages of involvement of the nervous system are often not associated with overt neurological manifestations, and the patient may remain asymptomatic or present only subtle neurological dysfunction.
The effects of antiretroviral therapy on viral and nonviral markers in cerebrospinal fluid
Authors: Letendre Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Potent antiretroviral therapy has improved the survival of people infected with HIV by reducing HIV replication and improving cell-mediated immunity. These direct benefits have led to reductions in the incidence of many HIV-related complications, including HIV-associated dementia (HAD; Sacktor et al. 2001). Other chapters in this text have reviewed the associations between HAD and markers of disease progression. The objective of this chapter is to expand on these chapters by reviewing research findings on the effects of antiretroviral drugs on viral and non-viral markers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This chapter will not address the effects of antiretrovirals on neuropsychological, neuroimaging, or autopsy findings.
The Confluence of Ideas in 1936
Authors: Gandy Robin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Abstract
This paper seeks to explain the almost simultaneous appearance in 1936 of several independent characterizations of the notion of effective calculability. It traces the history of that notion from Babbage’s work in the l 830’s to the planning of electronic digital computers in the l 940’s. Particular attention is paid to the history of decision problems and to the significance of Turing’s work.
Structure
Authors: Koppel Moshe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the universal Turing machine’s contribution to technology has been immeasurable, its contribution to the formalization and understanding of the most fundamental philosophical ideas may ultimately be regarded as the more profound and significant. According to Church’s thesis, the universal Turing machine (UTM) represents the limit of computational power and thus can serve as a formal foundation for theories of computability and complexity.
The Semantics of Entailment 0
Authors: Meyer Robert K , Mares Edwin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The system NR of relevant implication with modality was proposed in Meyer (1968) to combine the system R of relevant implication with the modal logic S4. This motivated a definition of entailment, in something like the sense of Anderson and Belnap (1975), as strict relevant implication. While NR exactly captures the entailment of certain fragments of the system E of entailment _ in particular, the pure calculus E → of entailment _ it was shown in Maksimova (1973) that there is a non-theorem of E which is provable on NR translation.
Tutorial on Linear Logic
Authors: Troelstra A S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this tutorial we present a very elementary introduction to linear logic, consisting of a description of the system, a sketch of cut-elimination, a discussion of the relationship with intuitionistic logic (embedding theorems), a sketch of completeness for algebraic semantics, and some remarks on the computational interpretation. From a technical point of view linear logic appears as a refinement of ordinary logic; in a sequential formulation in Gentzen-style this is obtained by omitting the rules of contraction and weakening (thinning); afterwards weakening and contraction are reintroduced for specific formulas with help of special operators storage (!) and costorag (?).
Preliminary Remarks
Authors: Ranta Aarne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this book is to show how constructive type theory, in the form developed by Per Martin-Löf, helps us to understand the structure of natural language. The study of similar questions within simple (=classical) type theory was inaugurated by Frege and given a standard of technical detail by Montague. The point of shifting to constructive type theory is not in the constructivist criticism against classical reasoning, but in the positive observation that constructive type theory has new things to say. Some of the problems to which grammars based on classical type theory have not found satisfactory solutions will be shown to require precisely these new things. These problems appear in a simple form in what is known, since Geach, as donkey sentences. But they are repeated in other guises, for example, in the functioning of tenses, and in a larger scale, such as in the progressive structure of texts, and in the significance of context in communication.
An Outline of Phanerozoic Biogeography
Authors: Hallam Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general acceptance of plate tectonics and continental drift by the early 1970s galvanized the study of biogeography from the evolution of multicellular life to the present day. However, until now the accumulated information has been widely scattered in the literature; this book is the first to synthesize the results of over two decades of prolific research into a clear concise format accessible to students of geology, geography, and biology and their teachers.