bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The importance of siege warfare in the twelfth century manifests itself in the political and military history of the period. As commentators have noted, sometimes in exasperation, much of the military activity of the age revolved around fortifications. In such an environment an ability to conduct and endure siege operations was fundamental. Blockade and attrition were the staples of siege warfare in this period as in most others. Many fortifications were stormed in onslaughts in which the number and ardour of attackers were paramount. Yet some positions were taken by assaults based on complex machinery which overcame stone and personnel defences. On one hand, castles and cities were either captured or compelled to seek a negotiated surrender. On the other, the failure of a major attack and the destruction of large and expensive siege engines on occasion brought an end to the siege.
Siege Operations In The Establishment Of Norman Authority In Italy And Sicily
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The establishment of Norman authority in southern Italy and Sicily was one of the age’s great military and political achievements, rivalling the creation of the crusader states in its significance for the Mediterranean. Norman military endeavours included much siege warfare conducted against Muslim, Byzantine, and Italian fortifications and urban centres. While the region’s terrain and political divisions affected patterns of siege warfare, the techniques employed were also influenced by the military resources available to Norman commanders. However different the strategic context, Norman siege operations may be compared with major undertakings in other areas of the Mediterranean. Although many sieges of the Norman establishment occurred before the First Crusade, they merit discussion in order to identify patterns of conflict. At the least such an examination will provide an example of Latin siegecraft in the Mediterranean before the twelfth century and perhaps underscore some of the distinctive characteristics of operations in the Levant. Moreover, it will set the stage for one of the twelfth century’s great practitioners of siege warfare, Roger II.
Cities And Siege Warfare: Lombardy In The Twelfth Century
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far in this study urban communities have been the objectives of besiegers and have seldom engaged in offensive operations, except in seaborne expeditions along the shores of the Mediterranean. An examination of warfare in twelfth-century Lombardy permits us to view siege warfare waged by inland cities against one another. The forces which generated the urban growth of the later eleventh and twelfth centuries also fuelled conflicts between the nascent city-states of the Po valley. When these conflicts became armed, they involved considerable siege operations against cities and their outlying fortifications as well as raiding and harassment.
Seaborne Siege Warfare: The Italian Maritime States And Latin Expansion
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout this study we have observed the importance of ltalian maritime forces and individual engineers in Latin siege warfare. Having examined siege warfare from the perspective of Latin states and rulers, it is appropriate to shift our focus to the arsenals and counting houses of the Italian maritime republics. In so doing we may not only assess the importance ofltalian maritime powers in Latin siege warfare, but also develop an understanding of Latin expansion in the twelfth¬century Mediterranean.
Introduction
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This study is concerned principally with that frontier where the worlds of business and politics collide. Specifically, it seeks to explore the objectives and strategies of protectionist businessmen, and the organizations through which they were pursued, in a period during which conflict over the tariff was a dominant theme of British politics. It is not, essentially, concerned with the question of whether there was an economically valid case for some measure of Tariff Reform in the period between 1900 and 1932. Nevertheless, it would seem useful to start with a discussion of that question. Protectionists are often dismissed simply as ‘rent-seekers’, the success of their policies seen as inimical to the wider public good. But to approach the historical record with such stylized preconceptions both obscures and distorts. The Tariff Reformers recognized truths and tendencies to which their adversaries were blind. Even if we conclude that their prescriptions were misguided, inappropriate, or worse, we will at least have located their concerns within the longer-run pattern of British economic development.
The Establishment of the Tariff Commission
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the autumn of 190_3, Chamberlain was in close consultation with three men who were to be central figures in the Commission’s operation. Sir Vincent Caillard, the financial director of Vickers, was already known as the author of three articles in the National Review advocating imperial unity through preference. Sir Arthur Pearson was chairman of the TRL Executive and, as proprietor of the Daify Express, had run an energetic campaign which centred around the higher level of employment to be gained from Tariff Reform. Henry Chaplin, whose extravagance lost him his Lincolnshire estate of Blankney in the 1890s, remained throughout the remainder of his colourful life the leading spokesman of the agricultural interest in Parliament. For him, Tariff Reform was merely a resumption of the Fair Trade agitation of the 1880s after a brief flirtation with bimetallism. Reminiscing on the foundation of the Tariff Commission in 1917, all three spoke of a formative meeting with Hewins at Caillard’s rooms in Half Moon Street. Pearson’s claim, on that occasion, to have been ‘mainly instrumental in, or responsible for, its foundation’ was exaggerated, though he did play an important role in early finance. Rather, the surviving evidence supports Hewins’ claim, made in his autobiography, that he was the initiator.
The Outer Courts of the Temple
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the debate on the Import Duties Bill in February 1932, Clement Attlee likened Neville Chamberlain to the ‘chief priest’ at the sacrifice of Free Trade, sitting flanked by his new acolytes, Runciman and Sir John Simon. ‘The real prophets of the new era,’ he observed sardonically, referring to Croft and Amery, ‘have to be content with the outer courts of the temple.’’ As the world toppled into depression after 1929, the last resistance to protectionism within the British business community crumbled. Croft’s backbench forces now dominated the Conservative Party. Yet, as ever, business waited upon politics. And politics sought a way in which protection might be introduced as a national policy in political rhetoric a policy to unite and not divide, but in the eyes of the cynical or the calculating, a policy for which the Conservatives could not be held solely responsible.
Preparing for Self.-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In tackling the problems relating to the creation of Northern Ireland, and in making preparations for the establishment of self-government, Clark had to work from scratch. His efforts to build a suitable administrative service for Northern Ireland were further handicapped in that the existing all-Ireland system was bureaucratic, cumbersome, and quite unsuited to modem needs. Consequently, it did not provide Clark with a sound basis on which to work nor could it simply be conveniently divided into two parts to serve the new governments. Among the more important measures which Clark carried out in anticipation of the administrative separation of Northern Ireland was the drafting of a scheme for a civil service. Before devising the scheme, he and his staff sought, through an exhausting series of meetings in January 1921, the opinion and advice of civil servants m Dublin and London. By 7 February 1921 he was able to forward to Sir James Craig a detailed scheme for the organization of ministries, with an accompanying staff-chart for the proposed Northern Ireland government and administration. At Craig’s request a copy of the draft scheme was passed to Adam Duffin, chairman of Belfast Chamber of Commerce, for his comments.
Preserving Self-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The treaty for securing a political settlement signed on 6 December 1921 by the British Government and Sinn Fein outraged Ulster unionists. They were particularly alarmed by the provisions for a Boundary Commission to modify the border between Northern Ireland and the new Irish Free State. Just as the treaty created an expectation among nationalists ‘that Northern Ireland would soon disappear and a notion that its territory was a legitimate target for seizure’, so it ‘heightened apprehensions among Unionists, particularly those living in border areas, who were alarmed to the point of panic at the possibility of being transferred to the Free State’.
Modes Of Popular Dissent
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There was clearly a major difference between the Third Reich and the GDR in this respect. The Third Reich was at least in origin carried on a tidal wave of enthusiasm which, even if never characteristic of a majority of the population, was sufficiently widespread and genuine to provide Nazism with a basis of popular support never enjoyed to such an extent by the communist regime in the GDR. The early years of the Third Reich were, moreover, characterized by improvements in living standards for many sectors of the population, combined with a return to full employment, a restoration of a degree of national pride, and a sense of movement upwards and onwards. At least among significant sections of the population these trends, combined with a carefully tended presentation of Hitler as the charismatic Fuhrer, did much to provide a real basis of support for the regime. There was nevertheless a significant proportion of the population in Nazi Germany who, right from the start, were characterized rather by degrees of disgruntlement, grumbling, and partial or sporadic nonconformity.
Introduction
Authors: Brown Alison 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is high time to re-evaluate the Renaissance. Everyone agrees that the Burckhardtian paradigm is outmoded, with its emphasis on individualism and progress and-far worse in the eyes of some-its bold attempt to characterize the period as a whole. But without Burckhardt’s belief in a unifying Zeitgeist, it has been difficult to find an alternative and less deterministic way of discussing Renaissance culture in its historical context. As a result, Renaissance studies have gone in many different directions, so that art, music, literature, and history are now normally treated as separate disciplines. The period itself has become progressively indistinct, overlapped on one side by the later Middle Ages, which it is claimed anticipated Renaissance individualism and artistic culture, and on the other by the early mod ern period, with its scientific discoveries and inventions. At the same time as these local frontier disputes have been taking place, the barbarians have been foregathering to assault the foundations of this highbrow territory in the name of ‘the New History’: history from below, quantitative history, history of the body-and of the silent voices missing from traditional history.
Individuals and Families as Patrons of Culture in Quattrocento Florence
Authors: Kent F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to the late Felix Gilbert, a number of recent English speaking historians of Renaissance Florence have written ‘books on Florence without the Renaissance’. ‘One must wish’, Gilbert added, ‘it will not be entirely forgotten that what originally brought scholars into the Florentine archives was the quest for an explanation and understanding of the unique achievements of Florence’s culture’.1 While a number of the archival scholars to whom Gilbert refers in fact had other, rich and perfectly legitimate concerns, his implied reproach still has the power to discomfort those of us raised, so to speak, on Jacob Burckhardt. And there have been other critics who have found wanting the synthesizing abilities, not to say cultural sensibilities, of the archive-obsessed. Barbara Diefendorf, referring specifically to historians of the family, has asked ‘if it is possible to establish a relationship and not just a mere juxtaposition between family culture and Renaissance culture.
The Republic’s Two Bodies: Body Metaphors in Italian Renaissance Political Thought
Authors: Najemy John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
AT the centre of a whole series of Renaissance cultural myths including some political ones—lies a particular and famous image of the human body: stately, proportioned, elegant, prominently visible but always decorous, a dream of idealized beauty that, by some curious irony, is often classified under the rubric of naturalistic representation. The Renaissance celebrated the harmony, order, and dignity of the human body in terms that owed much to the ancient Greek analogy of man and the universe as well as to Biblical notions of the similitude of God and man. ‘What harmony of limbs, what shapeliness of features, what figure, what face could be or even be thought of as more beautiful than the human?’ wrote Giannozzo Manetti in book I (‘On the Distinguished Attributes of the Human Body’) of his On the Dignity and Excellence of Man.
Introduction
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Soon after the accession of George II, in 1730, a small club of local men sat drinking in the snug parlour of a Westminster alehouse, gathered together to learn mathematics, so that ‘by their mutual assistance and indefatigable industry they are now become masters of logarithmical arithmetic and some of them greatly advanced in algebra’. The sanctity’s aim, along with drinking and socializing, was collective improvement-for it was ‘a fundamental rule of this society not to conceal any new improvement from another member before tackling mathematics they had taught themselves trench. In Scotland, at the small town of Culross on the north bank of the Forth, the brethren of a bee-keeping club, a group of town tradesmen, met every fortnight from the 1750s to hear discourses about bees and to discuss the movement of their hives, their business leavened by a quarterly dinner of fish and bread and butter. About the same time on the other side of the Atlantic, at the port town of Annapolis, with its elegant wooden houses by the dock, an expatriate Scotsman, Alexander Hamilton, offered in his ‘History of the Ancient and 1-Ionourablc Tuesday Club’ a delicious mock-heroic, politically satirical, account of club meetings there, replete with the speeches, sallies, scuffles, songs, and ceremonies, as well as the wit and wisdom of members, mostly gentlemen, merchants, and professional men.
Membership
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Joseph Farmer, merchant and member of a Liverpool club in George Ill’s reign, had ‘little types, on bigger than the other, long nose, thin lantern jaws, bare upper lips, mouth from ear to car resembling a shark’s . his visage long and narrow’. Most of his colleagues were little better, one distinguished by a ‘hottcntot complexion’, others ‘inexpressibly odd and ugly’ or with ‘no upper teeth’; many seem to have had dental problems. Such were the members of the eponymous Ugly face Club, for which the entrance qualification was to be a bachelor with ‘something odd, remarkable, droll, or out of the way in his fiz’. Apart from this facial eccentricity, however, the membership was fairly typical of many eighteenth-century societies.
Benefit Clubs
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1801 Sir Frederick Eden estimated that there were 7,200 friendly societies in England and Wales, with about 648,000 members. Two years later poor law returns to Parliament recorded 9,672 societies and more than 704,000 participants. These figures almost certainly underestimate the incidence of clubs and scale of membership. Even so, they suggest that about 40 per cent of the working population in London were members of a friendly society, while at Oldham in Lancashire half the adult male inhabitants belonged to the town’s fifteen clubs, and the position was similar in South Wales. Moreover, unlike most other types of voluntary association, which were almost wholly based in towns, a growing number of box clubs sprang up in the English and Welsh countryside.1 Over the border in Scotland nearly 400 friendly societies had been registered by 1800 (again a serious under-count), major clusters occurring in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, but clubs also appearing in lesser towns and some Lowland villages. Already in 1779 Glasgow’s eighty or so clubs claimed to represent 12,000 members, and in 1800 the eighteen societies at Dumfries had over 2,000 brethren. In contrast, Ireland returned only seven societies at the end of the century, the incidence probably affected by the political upheavals in the country, as well as by growing economic problems; in 1831 the figure was a more respectable 281 clubs, although getting on for half were concentrated in the Dublin area.
Conclusion
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The argument of this book has been that the early modern period saw the origin of a major new form of social institution in the British world, one which borrowed ideas and practices from other organizations-medieval fraternities, trade gilds, foreign academies, Protestant sects, other types of new-style public shoaling-but which was sui generis: an invention of the pre-industrial era. Primarily secular in format and voluntary in concept, clubs and suicides catered for a growing plurality of interests, with stages of activity in particular areas-propelled by fashion, competition, commercialism, and specialization. The Stuart preoccupation with leisure activity was overlaid in the eighteenth century by a new stress on public and personal improvement which, in turn, was complemented towards the end of the century by a growing stress on moral and social reform.
The Aged Landless Poor: Work and Welfare in Medieval and Early Modern England
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Possession of land enabled older people to try to control and plan their later lives in medieval and early modern England. The landless poor in all age groups and at all times found it much harder to patch together a living Their numbers grew in the century of population increase and land shortage which preceded the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century; the steady rise was resumed in the mid-sixteenth century. Since the poor leave fewest records behind, we know even less about them than about the better off in medieval England. But their strategies for survival, driven by necessity, appear to have changed little over the centuries and information about them becomes less scanty over time. The poor of medieval and early modern England, and indeed in the nineteenth century and into the twentieth, struggled in an “economy of makeshifts’, that is, they patched together whatever resources they could gather, in ever-shifting combinations: paid work when possible, growing food, use of common rights, help from family, friends, charity, poor relief, debt and begging. The struggle grew harder with advancing age and the components of the economy of each individual shifted gradually from dependence upon work to reliance on the help of others. Some lost the battle. Old people died of neglect and starvation, such as the “old stranger’ found dead of cold and exposure in a cowshed in 1362.
Martyrs and Local Saints in Late Antique Britain
Authors: Sharpe Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
St Alban of Verulamium is the only Romano-British martyr whose cult certainly continued after the Roman period in an enclave of British Christians. His basilica was later adopted by Anglo-Saxons, who preserved the cult in what became one of the major monasteries of medieval England. The Roman town of Verulamium has produced archaeological evidence from the last decades of the fifth century that has been seen as ‘a remarkable testimony to the survival of craftsmanship, engineering practice, and Roman habits of life’. As the decayed Roman town was finally abandoned, a new town started to grow up near the martyrial church across the valley, a pattern of development with noteworthy Continental parallels. And eventually the place took its name from the saint. Continuity of this kind is nowhere else so well attested in Britain. One response to that may be to regard St Albans as a site whose unique history should be attributed to the rare phenomenon of a martyr cult. Another is to suppose that such sites might have been recognized elsewhere, if the traces of post-Roman activity in lowland Britain had not been masked or even removed during the Anglo-Saxon period. A martyr Sixtus, for example, was still venerated at a now unknown location in southern Britain until Augustine of Canterbury suppressed the cult.
Settlement Deferred
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The monarchy’s reinstatement in 1660 was far from inevitable. In modern parliamentary democracies oppositions proverbially do not win elections: governments lose them. Likewise the Stuart restoration would not have occurred if the various anti-royalist forces had been able to overcome their mutual antagonisms and combine against the common enemy. But Oliver Cromwell’s death in September 1658 removed the one person capable of both controlling the military and managing the parliamentary republicans. An officers’ coup six months later, which effectively deposed his son Richard from the Protectorship, plunged the country into prolonged political chaos, with army factions and civilian politicians struggling for ascendancy. Even so, Sir George Booth’s attempted royalist uprising in August 1659 attracted little support outside his native Cheshire, and was easily crushed by a combination of professional troops and county militias.
The Last French Wars, 1793-1815
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the powerful loyalist reaction against French revolutionaries and their English sympathizers, France’s actual declaration of war on I February 1793 evoked widespread misgivings. Thecultivated Sussex clergyman Thomas Twining (1735-1804), an anti-democrat who professed disgust at Gallic atrocities (that ‘ferocious and butcherly mob’), nevertheless questioned the necessity of hostilities and feared their outcome, correctly predicting that ‘war will unite the French nation’.1 In this respect Twining endorsed the views of Fox, who steadfastly maintained that for all their faults the French people were defending liberty against monarchical despotism, and hence should be treated as allies, not enemies. The underlying implication, that Robespierre posed less of a threat than George III, led inevitably to the disintegration of the Foxite Whigs, although it was not until mid-1794 that Portland formally brought his depleted parliamentary following intocoalition with Pitt.