bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Intercalation Reactions of Layered Compounds
Authors: Jacobson Allan J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Intercalation reactions are reactions of solids in which a guest molecule or ion is inserted into a solid lattice without major rearrangement of the solid structure. Unlike normal solid state processes, intercalation reactions do not involve extensive bond breaking and consequently require special chemical and structural features in order to occur. In particular, intercalation requires that the host lattice has a strong covalent network of atoms which remains unchanged on reaction and that there are vacant sites in the structure which are interconnected and of suitable size to permit diffusion of the guest species into the solid. Reactions may occur near ambient temperature but, in general, the reaction temperature needs to be sufficiently high to ensure reasonable diffusivities of the guest molecules or ions, but not so high that rearrangements of the strong bonds in the structure occur. The requirement that part of the solid structure remains unchanged on reaction implies that intercalation compounds will often be metastable phases.
Atoms In Chemistry
Authors: Bader Richard F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chemistry is the study of the properties of substances and their transformations. Since substances are identified and distinguished one from another by the elements they contain and since the properties of each element are determined by the atoms unique to that element, chemistry is the study of matter at the atomic level. The realization of this fact by Dalton in 1807 marked the birth of chemistry as a branch of science. Dalton’s atomic hypothesis accounted for the existence of the observed relative combining weights of the elements and predicted a new relationship among them, the law of multiple proportions. Dalton did not simply resurrect the Greek idea of atoms; he postulated that atoms retained their identity even when in chemical combination with other atoms—that atoms exist in molecules. As a result of the work of van’t Hoff and Le Bel in 1874 the geometrical aspect of molecular structure was incorporated into the hypothesis by postulating the existence of preferred geometrical arrangements of bonds terminating at a single atom. Before the close of his century, there had evolved from Dalton’s atomic hypothesis the concept of molecular structure—that a molecule is a collection of atoms linked by a network of bonds, the bonds imparting the structure.
Calixarene chemistry: an overview
Authors: David Gutsche C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The chemistry of the calixarenes is abundantly described in a pair of current books1 as well as in chapters in several recent books devoted to macrocyclic systems.2 Rather than adding another detailed essay to this group of pub lished works, the present chapter provides a more qualitative overview of the field. Readers interested in fuller and more quantitative accounts should consult one or another of the sources cited in references 1 and 2.
Structural aspects of organic clathrates in relation to molecular recognition
Authors: Goldberg Israel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Research activity in the field of clathrate inclusion chemistry has increased remarkably in recent years. New approaches to the systematic design of novel clathrate-forming host compounds have been reported, those leading to selective interaction between hosts and different classes of guest molecule attracting particular attention. In fact, a large number of successful applications to molecular separation processes which are based on clathrate formation are already known, and many others are anticipated in the near future. This continuously growing excitement has been documented in many original papers and proceedings of international conferences as well as in several review articles.
The Meaning of Quantum Theory
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book the author looks at the continuing debate about the meaning of quantum theory. The historical development of the theory is traced from the turn of the century through to the 1930’s, and the famous debate between Niels Bohr and Albert Einstein. The book examines in detail the arguments that quantum theory is incomplete, as made by Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen; the development of Bell's theorem; and crucial experimental tests performed in the early 1980’s. Alternative interpretations - pilot waves, quantum gravity, consciousness, many worlds, and God - are described in the closing chapter. This book is aimed at graduate and senior undergraduate students of physics and chemistry taking quantum chemistry or quantum theory courses, and other scientists interested in the subject.
What does it mean?
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The strange behaviour of photons described at the end of the last chapter immediately raises all sorts of questions about the meaning of quantum theory. We might be encouraged to look for this meaning by going back to the theory’s mathematical structure: perhaps by trying to find out how we might better interpret some of its elements. However, it is a central argument of this book that, no matter where we look, we are always led back to philosophy. At first sight, this might seem to be an odd thing to claim. After all, modern textbooks on quantum physics and chemistry rarely (if ever) discuss philosophy. We accept that the behaviour of photons is strange, but surely it is something that we can at least study experimentally-do we need philosophy in these circumstances? But this is the whole point. Quantum theory directly challenges our understanding of the nature of the fundamental particles and the process of measurement, and we cannot go forward unless we adopt some kind of interpretation. As we will see, this interpretation has to be based on some philosophical position.
Unusual subvalent compounds of germanium, tin, and lead
Authors: Lappert Michael F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thermally stable heavy main Group 14 element analogues of carbenes of type MX (M = Si, Ge, Sn, or Pb) are now widely known (except for Si). For MX, the group X, if monodentate, must be bulky so that oligo- or polymerization is avoided. In 1976 we showed that for the case of X = R = CH(SiMe)z the tin compound existed as a metal-metal bonded dimer (RSn)z. More details were published in 1986, when the structure of the analogous germanium compound (R Geh was revealed and MO calculations were presented.
Selective synthesis of biologically active amino alcohols via allylic tin compounds
Authors: Yamamoto Y oshinori 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Lewis acid-mediated reaction of acyliminium ions with -y-oxygensubstituted allyltin compounds affords the amino alcohol in good yields. High diastereoselectivity is realized in some reactions, and the procedure can be applied to the synthesis of (±)-statine. The a- or the -y-amino acid derivatives can be prepared with high regioselectivity from diethylazo dicarboxylate and tin- or germanium-masked dienolates.
Effects of two triorganotin(IV) compounds on rubberwood biodeterioration
Authors: Kuthubutheen A J , Salahudin Y , Das V G Kumar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rubberwood stakes impregnated separately with two tributyltin compounds, tributyltin N,N-dimethyldithiocarbamylacetate (TDTC) and tributyltin methanesulphonate (TBMS), were used in exposure trials above, on and below the ground in a forest environment over a period of twelve months. The loss in dry weight of the stakes impregnated with TDTC and TBMS was found to be, respectively, 35 and 75 per cent that of the untreated control stakes. The weight Joss of the TDTC-treated stakes was considerably retarded during the first six months of exposure whereas for the control stakes, the bulk of weight Joss occurred during this period. No decrease in the C: N ratio was apparent for the TDTC-treated stakes that were exposed above ground during the twelve months whereas the C:N ratio of the untreated stakes was reduced by as much as 23 percent.
Oxide and nitrided oxide grown on silicon at low temperature
Authors: Daud Alias , Hirose Masataka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An efficient low-temperature technique is necessary in the fabrication of sub-micron VLSI devices in order to minimize problems such as substrate webpage, dopant redistribution, and defect generation that are associated with conventional high-temperature techniques. The oxidation of silicon to thin silicon dioxide films is presently carried out at temperatures around 1000°C. The oxidation rate under a dry oxygen atmosphere is extremely low at temperatures below 800°C, however, and the resulting silicon-silicon dioxide interfaces are unsuitable for practical applications. Nitridation techniques have been extensively developed, and insulating films possessing high resistance against alkali-metal ion migration, dielectric-breakdown strength, and radiation hardness have been prepared.
Quantum chemistry
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the beginning of the twentieth century most scientists were satisfied that their basic problems were solved, all that remained being to fill in a few details. The principles of mechanics had been well worked out, heat was understood to be a mode of motion, and light to have wave properties. Some difficulties did, of course, remain, and were referred to in a lecture given by Lord Kelvin at the Royal Institution on 27 April 1900:The beauty and clearness of the dynamical theory, which asserts heat and light to be modes of motion, is at present obscured by two clouds. I. The first ... involves the question, How could the earth move through an elastic solid, such as essentially is the aluminiferous ether? II. The second is the Maxwell– Boltzmann doctrine of partition of energy.In referring to the partition of energy Kelvin had in mind the problem of interpreting the specific heats of gases and of solids. Here the belief in the equipartition of energy, which Maxwell and Boltzmann seemed to have estab¬lished beyond any doubt, was leading to the wrong answers (Section 5.3). Another difficulty, not mentioned here by Kelvin, was the interpretation of the spectra of atoms and molecules. The fact that spectral lines appear only at particular wavelengths had never been given an adequate explanation; some of the ideas put forward were mentioned in Section 6.5, and they were obviously inadequate.
Polymer Phase Diagrams
Authors: Koningsveld R , Stockmayer W H , Nies E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Polymeric materials include plastics, gels, synthetic fibres, and rubbers. They are all-important both in industry and in daily life. Unlike liquid water, ice, or sugar solution, polymers are not homogeneous. They are said to consist of two or more phases, and their production and processing, as well as their properties and uses, depend on an understanding of the transitions that take place between these phases. Over the last two decades, phase diagrams of considerably complexity have begun to appear in the polymer literature. Phase transitions occur abundantly in polymer production and processing, are often encountered in poymer research, or are instrumental in laboratory methods of polymer characterization. This new textbook uses fundamental principles to classify phase separation phenomena in polymer systems, and describes simple molecular models explaining the observed behaviour. It supplies insight in the reading and construction of complex phase diagrams, as well as an understanding of the relationships that must exist between different phase transitions. Containing hundreds of diagrams, exercises at chapter ends, and several useful appendices, this text should be useful for anyone teaching or studying a course in polymer science.
Modelling partial miscibility and solid/liquid equilibrium
Authors: Koningsveld R , Stockmayer W H , Nies E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the basic thermodynamic principles of phase equilibrium have been known for over a century, comprehensive phase diagrams like that of Bakhuis Roozeboom are still not known in detail for many systems. If data are available over limited ranges of the state variables, extrapolations based on the appropriate thermodynamic equations, as presented in the foregoing chapters, may be used to extend the range and predictive power of such diagrams. In general, the reliability of such extrapolations may be rather low, but it can be greatly enhanced with the aid of suitable molecular models. In this text we cannot offer a complete description of such models, but we shall describe some of the simplest approaches which are useful in at least a semi-quantitative way. Details of such calculations are shown for a few examples in Appendix 2.
Thermal dissociation reactions
Authors: Mukaiyama Teruaki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a urea is heated in an aqueous alkaline solution, dissociation occurs to give an amine and an isocyanine; the isocyanine further reacts with water to decompose into an amine and carbon dioxide, as shown in eqn (1.1)-(1.3). My first project was to investigate the mechanism of this dissociation reaction. While trying to devise a method to measure the rate of the dissociation, we found that when this reaction was carried out in carboxylic acid as solvent, the isocyanine reacted immediately with the carboxylic acid to give a carboxylic amide along with the evolution of carbon dioxide. Therefore, we decided to follow the dissociation reaction by measuring the amount of carbon dioxide that had evolved from the reaction. The equipment necessary for this experiment was simply a constant-temperature bath, a gas burette, and a stop-watch.
New synthetic reactions based on organosulfur compounds
Authors: Mukaiyama Teruaki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters, we have discussed the deoxygenation reaction, the new type of ring-opening polymerization, and the dehydrative condensation via oxidation--reduction process. These reactions have been developed based on the consideration that trivalent phosphorus compounds are readily oxidized into pentavalent phosphorus compounds, with simul-taneous reduction of organic compounds.
The stereoselective synthesis of carbohydrate0073
Authors: Mukaiyama Teruaki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, our work in the area of asymmetric synthesis was described, where the concept of ‘synthetic control’ served to realize the regulation of absolute stereochemistry in organic reactions. In this chapter, an account of our efforts to achieve control over relative stereochemistry in organic reactions will be given, aimed at the synthesis of carbohydrates. My interest in carbohydrates had been initiated while working on glycosylation reactions using the onium salts of aza-aromatics. A new research programme does not suddenly come about without any experience in that topic. It is often suggested strongly by the facts observed during previous experiments.
Experimental Systems 2: Gas-Phase Reactions
Authors: Gray Peter , Scott Stephen K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although solution-phase reactions have been more extensively studied, and certainly more widely publicized, a number of spontaneous reactions in the gas phase also provide exemplary oscillators. Here we look at three of the simplest oxidation processes: those of hydrogen, of carbon monoxide, and of acetaldehyde (ethanal). After careful study of this chapter the reader should be able to.
Chemical Chaos
Authors: Scott Stephen K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chaos theory challenges fundamental ideas in all areas of science, and many of the best examples arise in chemistry. Reactions can become unrepeatable and unpredictable, even though they remain governed by traditional rate equations. Despite the complex appearance of the overall behaviour, the underlying mechanisms are quite simple, and the basic building blocks for chaos - nonlinearity and feedback - both occur quite naturally in chemical systems. Chaos does not appear suddenly or at random, but is created through one of a small number of highly ordered sequences of increasing complexity. These sequences are comprised of qualitative changes in behaviour or `bifurcations'. This valuable account of chemical chaos reviews both theory and experiment, emphasising the simple features that combine to produce `order within disorder'. The author begins by revealing the links between chemical kinetics and the interdisciplinary subject of dynamical systems. Various bifurcation sequences are then introduced through representative model schemes, with the emphasis on generality and simplicity. Chaos arises in both conventional chemical reactions and forced or coupled systems, and both are considered here. Various experimental and diagnostic techniques to test for chaos are then described, and the remaining chapters review experimental studies in a wide range of chemical and biochemical systems.
Asymmetric Synthesis
Authors: Procter Garry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book covers a wide range of reactions which are of importance in the asymmetric synthesis of organic compounds. The principles of asymmetric additions to carbonyls, enolate alkylation, aldol reactions, additions to C-C double bonds, reduction and oxidation, rearrangements, and hydrolysis/ esterification reactions are covered, and selected examples used to illustrated the various topics. Numerous references to original literature should be of ues to organic chemists interested in the area of asymmetric synthesis.
Additions to C-C double bonds
Authors: Procter Garry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Additions to C-C double bonds represent an important general area for asymmetric synthesis, not Jeast because several chiral centres can be established in a single reaction. One of the most thoroughly studied class of reactions of this type is the Diels-Alder reaction and related 4+2 cycloadditions. In its most general form the Diets-Alder reaction involves three important components, the dienophile, the diene, and the catalyst. The last is not always necessary, but it is often difficult to achieve high levels of stereoselectivity without the help of a Lewis acid catalyst. In addition to increasing the rate of reaction, the catalyst usually improves the regioselectivity and stereoselectivity of the cycloaddition. A detailed discussion of the mechanism of Diels-Alder reactions, and related theory, is not within the scope of this volume. Nevertheless. a much simplified brief outline follows, in order to aid understanding of the models that have been proposed to account for the stereochemical outcome of the reactions which will be discussed.
Reduction and oxidation
Authors: Procter Garry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Asymmetric hydrogenation has been studied intensively for a relatively long time. In its usual form the reaction involves the addition of hydrogen to a double bond in the presence of a transition metal catalyst and a chiral, notacemic ligand. As with many enantioselective reactions which involve catalysis, a substrate, ligand, metal atom, and stoichiometric reagent are all involved in the transition state of the rate determining step. A typical catalytic cycle for asymmetric hydrogenation is shown schematically in Fig. 7.1.
Rearrangements
Authors: Procter Garry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The two main areas which will be considered in this chapter are sigmatropic reammgements and alkene isomerizations. There are numerous examples of the application of these two classes of reaction to the asymmetric synthesis of organic compounds, and in both cases a limited selection of examples will be presented in order to illustrate the principles and applications of these methods. Of most importance in asymmetric synthesis are 2,3. and 3,3-sigmatropic rearrangements typified by the Wittig and Claisen rearrangements respectively (Fig. 8.1). Taking these two as typical examples of their classes, some of the important general features of these reactions will be considered before specific examples of their use in asymmetric synthesis are discussed.
Conjugate addition–enolate-trapping
reactions
Authors: Suzuki M , Noyori R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Enolate anions are one of the most widely used nucleophilic species in organic synthesis. Organocopper conjugate addition to α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds generates in situ metal enolates under mild conditions with the incorporation of an organic group to the β-position. Therefore, the organocopper-mediated reaction followed by the regioselective enolate trapping provides an extremely powerful tool for controlled construction of organic frameworks (see Scheme 9.1). The organocopper reagents commonly used for this tandem reaction can be divided into four general classes: (1) Grignard reagents plus catalytic amounts of copper salts (RMgX + cat. CuX; X = Cl, Br, or I); (2) complexed mono-organocopper compounds (RCu complexed with phosphine, phosphite, or sulfide ligand); (3) homocuprates or mixed cuprates [MCuR2, MCuRR1, or MCuR(Z); M = Li or MgX, Z = C≡CPr or CN]; and (4) higher order cuprates [Li2CuR2(CN) or Li2CuRR1(CN)]. Homocuprates and higher order cuprates also include silylcuprates [Li2Cu(SiR3)2(CN)], stannylcuprates [Li2CuSnMe3(2-thienyl)(CN)], and aminocuprates ﹛LiCu[NSiMe3(CH2Ph)]2 and Li2Cu[NSiMe3(CH2Ph)2(CN)﹜. Although the combination of Grignard reagents and copper catalysts is often the first choice, lithium diorganocuprates and higher order cuprates have been used more widely in view of the higher efficiency, selectivity, and reproducibility of the conjugate addition reactions and the enhanced reactivity of the resulting enolate intermediates.
The Sonogashira Cu-Pd-catalysed alkyne coupling reaction
Authors: Campbell I B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Carbon–carbon bond-forming reactions are of crucial importance to the practising organic chemist. In particular, those which are technically simple, efficient, high-yielding, and which tolerate a wide variety of functional groups are of special use. One such reaction is the Sonogashira copper–palladium-catalysed coupling of terminal alkynes with aromatic and vinyl halides. The general forms of the reaction are given in eqns (1) and (2).
Kinetic and thermodynamic measurements
Authors: Magde Douglas , Van Eldik Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the use of high pressures in the elucidation of the reaction mechanisms that govern chemical and biochemical processes near ambient conditions. In general, it is preferable that such investigations do not change the internal properties of molecules, but only perturb the molecules and their interactions by the minimum amount needed to measure the effect on their kinetic and thermodynamic behaviour. Since liquids are not very compressible, and solids are even less so, this modest aim still requires pressures up to 200 or 300 MPa. Over the past two decades, methods have been developed which allow virtually any kinetic or thermodynamic measurement to be performed at such pressures. The goal has been to devise instruments and procedures in which the rates or concentrations are measured in exactly the same manner as they are at ambient conditions. Protocols for such standard procedures are not included here. In order to permit coverage of the wide range of methods now available, we emphasize those aspects unique to operation at high pressures, including the selection or construction of a suitable apparatus, the choice of reaction conditions, the display of the pressure dependence of the data, and the interpretation of such data.
‘In situ’ crystallization techniques
Authors: Boese Roland , Nussbaumer Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of the chemical bond has been much influenced by the structures that have been determined of certain key molecules. Single crystal X-ray diffraction is the most powerful and most widespread tool for determination of molecular structures, but it has a major disadvantage: the requirement of single crystals from samples which may be liquid or even gaseous at ambient conditions. Consequently, attempts were made quite early to grow crystals at low temperatures.