bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mechanism of Latent Image Formation
Authors: Tani Tadaaki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As shown in Fig. 3 in Chapter 1, the photographic process is composed of the capture of incident light by silver halide emulsion grains (sensing), formation of latent image centers on the silver halide grains (memory), and image formation by the catalytic action of the latent image centers for the reduction of silver halide grains to silver (display). It was first suggested by Sheppard, Trivelli, and Loveland1 in 1925 and is now accepted that a latent image center is an aggregate of silver atoms. Therefore, it is important that the mechanism of photographic sensitivity explain the concentration principle by which a silver aggregate is photolytically formed as a latent image center on a silver halide grain.
Spectral Sensitization
Authors: Tani Tadaaki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As described in Chapter 1, the ability to form color images is one of the most important properties of photosensitive materials. In order to form color images, photosensitive materials are required to be sensitive to the three primary colors, that is, blue, green, and red. As described in Chapter 3, silver halide itself absorbs ultraviolet and blue light, and is thus sensitive only to blue light in the visible region. Spectral sensitization was discovered by Vogel1 in 1873 and is now widely used to render silver halides sensitive to wavelengths longer than that of blue light, such as green, red, and infrared, by use of sensitizing dyes that absorb light in these spectral regions.
Getting the Lay of the Land: Introducing North American Native Grasslands
Authors: Anthony joern , Keeler kathleen H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The expected catastrophic extinction of species (already under way in many places) will alter the planet’s biological diversity so profoundly that, at the known rate of extinction, it will take millions of years to recover. Yet few ecologists study extinction. Indeed, very little ecology deals with any processes that last more than a few years, involve more than a handful of species, and cover an area of more than a few hectares. The temporal, spatial and organizational scales of most ecological studies are such that one can read entire issues of major journals and see no hint of impending catastrophe. The problems that ecologists face are so large; how do we contemplate processes that last longer than our research careers and that involve more species than we can count, over areas far too large for conventional experiments? The problems are also complex; understanding ecological processes at these large scales is far more of an intellectual challenge than is the stupefying tedious sequence of the human genome. The problems are also more important. With complete certainty, I predict that human genomes will be around in fifty years to sequence; with somewhat Jess certainty, I predict that there will be ten billion of them, dying from many causes each of which is orders of magnitude more important than the genetic causes the human genome sequencing will uncover. If we do not understand ecological processes better than at present, these ten billion humans will be destroying our planet more rapidly than we are now.
Introduction: Form and Content,Philosophy and Literature
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How should one write, what words should one select, what forms and structures and organization, if one is pursuing understanding? (Which is to say, if one is, in that sense, a philosopher?) Sometimes this is taken to be a trivial and uninteresting question. I shall claim that it is not. Style itself makes its claims, expresses its own sense of what matters. Literary form is not separable from philosophical content, but is, itself, a part of content―an integral part, then, of the search for and the statement of truth.
Migration, Movement, and Other Spatiotemporal Considerations
Authors: Quinn II Terrance J , Deriso Richard B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many fish populations exhibit migration or movement during some phase of their life histories. Migration is considered to be consistent, directional movement of some component of a population. Movement refers more generally to any change in the location of individuals in a population. Migrations may be seasonal, such as movement from summer feeding grounds to winter spawning areas, as for Pacific halibut. Or migrations may be annual or longer, such as the movement of young fish from nursery areas to areas where adults are found. Homing of salmon to natal streams after some years in the marine environment is the best known example. For species where eggs and larvae drift far from spawning grounds, compensatory movement is clearly needed to maintain population viability. We use the terms movement and migration interchangeably and leave the specification of terms to the interpretation of data from a given population. Mathematically, consistency in movement can be handled by making movement parameters constant over some time dimension.
Main Routes and Carriers
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During 1936 Hans Krebs was only one of a number of biochemists who directed their attention at problems closely connected with the intermediate stages of oxidative carbohydrate metabolism. The work of Szent-Gyorgyi’s school was stimulating a great deal of interest, particularly in the role of the C4 dicarboxylic acids in tissue respiration. Early in the year, for example, Guy Greville, a former associate of Frank Dickens now at the Courtauld Institute of Biochemistry in London, undertook a “critical study of Szent-Gyorgyi’s theory.” To acquaint himself with the methods behind it, Greville worked in Szent-Gyorgyi’s laboratory in Szeged. On his return Greville confirmed some of the experimental results of the Szeged group, but raised questions about the conditions under which some of them were obtained, and concluded that “the establishing of Szent-Gyorgyi’s theory will be very difficult.” At Cambridge, Frederick J. Stare and Carl A. Baumann in the Molteno Institute confirmed that catalytic quantities of fumaric acid “preserve” the respiration of pigeon breast and pig heart muscle. In the Biochemistry Department, Jean M. Innes also began experiments intended to test Szent-Gyorgyi’s conclusions. Krebs knew Stare, and must have kept in touch with these developments during his visits to Cambridge.
Reflections
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like the ornithine cycle, the citric acid cycle was not a revolutionary discovery. It conformed to all the accepted methodological rules for establishing intermediate metabolic reactions. It incorporated as essential substrates substances that had long been considered central to cellular respiration, and it relied upon general types of reactions-dehydrogenations, dehydrations and hydrations, decarboxylations, and dismutations-that comprised the standard repertoire invoked in metabolic reaction mechanisms. The more novel intermediates supplied by Martius were still connected by analogy to the previously known ones. Nor was the cyclic pattern novel.
Approaches for Measuring Inequality
Authors: Temkin Larry S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of chapter 2, I observed that once we see what the notion of inequality involves, we may come to think it as either largely inconsistent and severely limited, or complex, multifaceted, and partially incomplete. Even if we ultimately decide that the notion of inequality is “merely” complex rather than inconsistent, as I have been assuming since chapter 2, its practical significance will be fairly minor unless we are generally able to compare situations regarding inequality. After all, it can be of little consequence that we regard inequality as bad, if we can’t usually tell whether one situation’s inequality is worse than another’s. Eventually, therefore, the egalitarian would like to arrive at a measure that would enable her to accurately compare situations regarding inequality. In this chapter, I examine some measures of inequality economists have offered. In doing this, I note some significant parallels, as well as points of disagreement, between my work and theirs. I then offer my own suggestion for how one might best proceed if one wants to capture accurately a complex notion like inequality.
Conclusion
Authors: Temkin Larry S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let me conclude this book by summarizing the first nine chapters; reconsidering the charge that the notion of inequality is inconsistent; discussing some possible practical implications; and commenting, a final time, on the plausibility of my individualistic approach to inequality.
Chapter 1 was mainly introductory. It provided an overview of the book and introduced a slew of preliminary comments. I acknowledged that in many cases my terminology, presuppositions, and methodology were controversial, but begged the reader’s patience and indulgence. Moreover, I claimed that “since even mistaken views can be illuminating, there is reason to hope this book’s approach will shed light on the nature of inequality even for those rejecting its central tenets.” I trust I was not being unduly optimistic. Although this book is no doubt filled with questionable assumptions, shaky arguments, and controversial conclusions, I believe it raises and illuminates many issues about the notion of inequality.
Self-Organization and Adaptation in Complex Systems
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eighteenth-century science, following the Newtonian revolution, has been characterized as developing the sciences of organized simplicity, nineteenth-century science, via statistical mechanics, as focusing on disorganized complexity, and twentieth- and twenty-first-century science as confronting organized complexity. Nowhere is this confrontation so stark as in biology. Nowhere are new conceptual tools so deeply needed. In this chapter, I describe some of those tools.
Self-Deception: The Paradox of Belief
Authors: Mele Alfred R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although incontinent believing has received scant attention in the literature, quite the reverse is true of self-deception. A great many attempts have been made in recent years to purge self-deception of paradox. Ironically, these efforts often make the phenomenon much more difficult to understand than we have reason to believe it to be. This chapter and the next address two interrelated paradoxes. The first-which is often regarded as the paradox of self-deception-is directly concerned with what the self-deceived person believes and with the possibility of his believing what he (apparently) does. The second, examined in Chapter 10, focuses on the process or activity of self-deception.
Foundational Ways
Authors: Feferman Solomon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this century mathematicians have become conscious of the unity and structure of their subject to an unprecedented extent. Early on, logic offered grand claims to explain this and to rescue mathematics from its “crisis,” which if it threatened one, seemed to threaten all. Global views about the nature of mathematics were propounded. These then took hold of foundational discussions to such an extent that the logical foundation of mathematics is currently thought of only in terms of such grand positions: logicism, formalism, platonism, and constructivism. They are all rather tired-looking now, if not suffering from senescence and still more basic ills. Long since, most mathematicians have given up worrying about the crises and gone about their daily affairs, attending to logical hygiene only as needed. If asked, they will say they are really formalists, or that Zermelo Fraenkel meets their needs, or whatever.
Gödel’s Life and Work
Authors: Feferman Solomon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kurt Godel’s striking fundamental results in the decade 1929 through 1939 transformed mathematical logic and established him as the most important logician of the twentieth century. His work influenced practically all subsequent developments in the subject as well as all further thought about the foundations of mathematics. The results that made Godel famous are the completeness of first-order logic, the incompleteness of axiomatic systems containing number theory, and finally, the consistency of the Axiom of Choice and the Continuum Hypothesis with the other axioms of set theory. During the same decade he made other less dramatic but still significant contributions to logic, including the work on the decision problem, intuitionism, and notions of computability.
Kurt Godel: Conviction and Caution
Authors: Feferman Solomon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the course of preparing an introductory chapter on Godel for a comprehensive edition of his works,* I was struck by the great contrast between the deep platonistic convictions which Godel held concerning the objective basis of mathematics and the special caution that he exercised in revealing those convictions. Godel said that he had arrived at a position of philosophical realism early in his university years, and he credited his enormous successes in mathematical logic during the 1930s almost entirely to his holding this point of view.1 Yet there is hardly a word throughout that period giving any indication of his attitude; indeed, the first open expression of it came only in 1944. I was led to seek the reasons for his guarded disposition and to speculate on whether it might have affected his work and choice of problems, especially whether there were things that he refrained from doing in consequence. In particular, it seemed to me that he could well have been more centrally involved in the development of the fundamental concepts of modern logic-truth and computability-than he was; in fact his role turned out to be peripheral in both cases.
Introductory Note to Godel’s 1933 Lecture
Authors: Feferman Solomon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This rich and, in certain respects, remarkable article is drawn from the handwritten text for an invited lecture which Godel delivered ( under the same title) to a meeting of the Mathematical Association of America, held jointly with the American Mathematical Society in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 29-30 December 1933. A report of the meeting is in the American Mathematical Monthly (vol. 41, 1934, p. 123-131). According to that report, Godel’s paper was supposed to appear in a later issue of the Monthly. However, we have no evidence that the paper was ever actually prepared for publication, let alone submitted.
Introduction
Authors: Castle Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If I may start with a paradox: the crucial essay in this volume, containing articles I have published over the past ten years about eighteenth century English literature and culture, is not to be found in the table of contents. It isn’t to be found there, I’m chagrined to say, because I didn’t write it. I refer to Sigmund Freud’s magnificent, troubling, and inspired essay of 1919, “The ‘Un canny.”‘ It’s not here and yet-like an optical illusion, or one of those strange retinal “ghosts” that seem to float up in space after one stares too long at a word or line of type-Freud’s essay haunts this volume, its magus-pages everywhere inter leaving with my own. For after ten years, I discover, it is precisely Freud’s unsettling, unflinching meditation on the problem of enlightenment-so profound in its implications-that most deeply shapes my own thinking about the eighteenth century and links the various essays in this book, one to one another. How so? one may ask. The essays here were not written in concert, nor did I have “The ‘Uncanny”‘ in mind (though I had certainly read it) when I began working on them over a decade ago. It is true, I find now, that I cite Freud’s essay-fleetingly-in my title-piece, “The Female Thermometer” from 1986, and in an essay on Ann Radcliffe’s Gothic fiction from 1989.
Rights, Claimants, and Beneficiaries
Authors: Lyons David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To have a right, Bentham held, is to be the beneficiary of another’s duty or obligation. This theory, one of the more attractive and plausible suggestions about the nature of rights, appears supported by innumerable cases. It is reflected in the notion common to laymen, lawyers, and philosophers that someone with a right is on the advantageous side of a legal or moral relation. It promises to explain why rights are such valuable and important commodities. And it seems bolstered by a variety of facts, for example, that compensation or reparation is often required, and might always be required, when one’s rights are violated or infringed. But Bentham’s theory has been criticized, most notably by H.L.A. Hart, and it is not now, I think, very widely or seriously entertained.
Mill’s Theory of Morality
Authors: Lyons David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many have assumed that utilitarianism requires one always to “maximize utility,” regarding any other way of acting as wrong. This “actutilitarian” doctrine has been criticized for imagining duties where none exist while ignoring special obligations that we bear towards other persons. In recent years, however, “rule-utilitarian” theories have said we should judge acts by reference to useful rules, which might account for special obligations and not require one to maximize utility. These developments have influenced our understanding of the classical utilitarians.
Mill’s Theory of Justice
Authors: Lyons David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is time we reconsidered the relations between justice and utilitarianism.1 Thanks to a convergence of political and philosophical development, interest in political philosophy and the problem of justice is greater than it has been for many years. Significant contributions have recently been made to the field.2 But our understanding of the political face of utilitarianism is, by contrast, rather crude. By reexamining Mill’s theory, I shall try in this essay to help us gain a better grasp upon the utilitarian view of justice.
Utility and Rights
Authors: Lyons David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two notions concerning the relation of rights to utilitarianism seem widely accepted, by both utilitarians and their critics. The first is that utilitarianism is hostile to the idea of moral rights. The second is that utilitarianism is capable of providing a normative theory about legal and other institutional rights. This chapter chiefly concerns the second thesis, and argues against it. But it also says something about the first. In previous writings I have challenged the first thesis, but here I shall suggest that it is sound. The upshot is that utilitarianism has a great deal of trouble accommodating rights.
Problems of the Self
Authors: Van Cleve James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kant thinks that these arguments must inevitably fail (as would arguments on the other side). Their conclusions would be synthetic and a priori, and he believes that synthetic a priori knowledge is to be had only of propositions about objects of possible experience. Yet the self, Kant believes in company with Hume, is not an object of possible experience. We may refer to it in our thoughts, but we have no intuition of it and hence no knowledge of its nature. “It is obvious,” he says, “that in attaching ”; to our thoughts we designate the subject of inherence only transcendentally, without noting in it any quality whatsoever-in fact, without knowing anything of it either by direct acquaintance or otherwise [zu kennen, oder zu wissen]” (A355).
Rational Theology
Authors: Van Cleve James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kant tells us that there are exactly three ways of proving the existence of God by speculative reason. In the first, we begin from “determinate experience and the specific constitution of the world” and ascend from there to a supreme cause. “The world presents to us so immeasurable a stage of variety, order, purposiveness, and beauty” (A622/B650) that we may infer a sublime and wise cause (A625/B654). This is the physico-theological proof or argument from design. In the second, we begin from indeterminate experience or “experience of existence in general” and proceed once again to a cause. Here it does not matter what the world is like, but only that it exists; if the cosmos consisted of nothing but a speck of dust, we would still need to posit a cause for it. This is the cosmological proof.
Law and Truth
Authors: Patterson Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patterson applies the modern debate between Realism and Anti-realism to the question of the nature of law. Starting from the question ‘What is legal knowledge?’ he examines the answers provided by the principal comtemporary theories of jurisprudence, concluding that they are all inextricably bound uo with the nature of justification. He concludes with a novel aaccount of legal knowledge as pragmatism.
Legal Formalism: On the Immanent Rationality of Law
Authors: Patterson Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Formalism is the most maligned contemporary approach to jurisprudence. Yet, after countless dismissals, formalism survives. One explanation for its survival is that, at some level, it appeals to our deepest intuitions about law. If anything is to be ordered, structured, or internally coherent, law should be a prime candidate. But if there is a structure to law—a form—what is it? If the law embodies a certain form, an intelligible order, is the order there to be found or is it we who put it there? These are some of the questions at issue in the formalist approach.
Ernest Weinrib’s defense oflegal formalism is the most sophisticated articulation of a formalist jurisprudence in the literature. The central claim of Weinrib’s argument lies in the primacy of what he refers to as immanent intelligibility. Weinrib believes that the only way to maintain the dichotomy between law and politics is to understand law on its own terms or, as he puts it, “from the internal point ofview.” Fundamental to Weinrib’s argument for formalism is his belief that an enterprise such as law can (indeed, must) be understood strictly on its own terms.
Moral Realism and Truth in Law
Authors: Patterson Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As noted in the introduction, realism—explaining truth by resort to something that transcends a particular enterprise—is a widely defended philosophical position. One finds the fullest convergence between realist philosophers and realist lawyers with respect to a certain picture of truth. The central question for realists is “What is it that makes our (moral or legal) beliefs true?” For moral philosophers and lawyers of a realist orientation, the answer is the same: facts. Of course, once one claims there is some fact of the matter about a moral or legal proposition, then one must ask what it is that makes the proposition in question true or false. Realists of whatever stripe or discipline are united in the opinion that whatever renders a claim true, it is not a belief. Beliefs, realists argue, make nothing true (or false). This point is often made in the form of the assertion that the truth of propositions is “mind independent.”
Legal Positivism
Authors: Patterson Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Legal positivism is a theory about the nature of law and legal institutions. Apropos of the present study, positivism is also a theory about the truth conditions for propositions of law. The focus of this chapter will be on the work of the most important legal positivist of the twentieth century, H. L. A. Hart. In his most celebrated work, The Concept of Law, Hart advances both an account of the idea of a legal system as well as a theory of adjudication. The present chapter focuses on Hart’s theory of law, with particular emphasis on a central feature of his jurisprudence, the rule ofrecognition. Hart embraces a truth-conditional account of legal propositions. The rule of recognition is the source for the criteria for evaluating the truth status of propositions of law. For the present study, this is the most important aspect of Hart’s jurisprudence.