bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fluorinated Aliphatic Compounds
Authors: Smart Bruce E. , Fernandez Richard E. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The physical, chemical, and toxicological properties of perfluorocarbons (PFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and bromo‐ or iodofluorinated derivatives are reviewed. The principal methods for their manufacture, including cobalt trifluoride or electrochemical fluorinations, and liquid‐ or vapor‐phase additions and halogen exchanges with hydrofluoric acid are discussed. The diverse commercial uses of fluorinated aliphatics are described with particular emphasis on the primary high volume markets for refrigerants, foam‐blowing agents, propellants, and cleaning agents. The ozone‐depleting potentials of chlorodifluoromethane (HCFC‐22) and the CFCs traditionally used in these markets including fluorotrichloromethane (CFC‐11), dichlorodifluoromethane (CFC‐12), 1,1,2‐trichlorotrifluoromethane (CFC‐113), 1,2‐dichlorotetrafluoroethane (CFC‐114), and chloropentafluoroethane (CFC‐115), and those of the principal brominated materials used as fire extinguishants, bromotrifluoromethane (H‐13B1) and bromochlorodifluoromethane (H‐12B1), are discussed. The impact of the Montreal Protocol on internationally regulating the manufacture of ozone‐depleting materials, especially CFCs, and the industry's progress in developing suitable replacements are reviewed. The properties of the CFCs are compared to those of their leading replacement candidates including 1,1,1,2‐tetrafluoroethane (HFC‐134a), pentafluoroethane (HFC‐125), 1,1‐dichloro‐2,2,2‐trifluoroethane (HCFC‐123), 1‐chloro‐1,2,2,2‐tetrafluoroethane (HCFC‐124), 1,1‐dichloro‐1‐fluoroethane (HCFC‐141b), 1‐chloro‐1,1‐difluoroethane (HCFC‐142b), 1,1‐dichloro‐2,2,3,3,3‐penta‐ fluoropropane (HCFC‐225ca), and 1,3‐dichloro‐1,1,2,2,3‐pentafluoropropane (HCFC‐225cb).
Fluorescent Pigments (Daylight)
Authors: Streitel Steven G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDaylight‐fluorescent pigments are luminescent materials that require no artificially generated energy to reflect colored light and to give off fluorescent light. Fluorescent pigments are composed of dyed organic polymers that are formulated to be solvents for the fluorescence dyestuff. In contrast to ordinary colors, light emitted from a fluorescent color adds to the light returned by simple reflection to give the glow characteristic of daylight‐fluorescent materials.History of fluorescent dyestuffs, theory of fluorescence, methods of manufacturing, economic aspects, uses of fluorescent colors, and commercial properties of fluorescent pigments and colorants, and health and safety factors are discussed.
Foams
Authors: Durian Douglas J. , Weitz David A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFoam is a nonequilibrium dispersion of gas bubbles in a relatively smaller volume of liquid containing surface‐active molecules. Foams that are relatively stable can be thought of as a form of condensed matter both solid‐like in being able to resist shear elastically, and liquid‐like in being able to flow and deform into arbitrary shapes. In this article, the extent to which the macroscopic stability and rheology of liquid‐based foams can be understood in terms of the underlying structure and dynamics of the constituent gas bubbles and liquid films, and their ultimate origin in terms of the physical chemistry of surface‐active molecules preferentially adsorbed at the gas‐ liquid interfaces are reviewed. Existing measurement techniques and survey applications in which custom foams play an important role are also discussed.
Food Packaging
Authors: Brody Aaron L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe primary purpose of food packaging is to protect food against environmental contaminants. Each food category, eg, ambient temperature, shelf stable, frozen, or chilled, has different requirements. Generally, product processing must be integrated with the package to optimize shelf‐life objective. Thus canned foods are both heated and hermetically sealed to exclude microbiological recontamination; dry foods are sealed against moisture access; frozen foods must be maintained at low temperatures and protected against moisture loss; and chilled foods are refrigerated while controlling the transmission of both moisture and air.The most widely used packaging materials are paper and paperboard employed mostly in distribution channels. Second are metals; aluminum for cans to contain vacuum packaged foods dominates in this category. Glass has been declining as a package material because of weight, relative fragility, and high energy consumption. Plastic materials constitute only about 10% of the mass of package materials, but contain proportionately larger amount of food because of low densities. A variety of plastic materials is used for packaging depending on the food requirements, eg, polyethylenes, polyesters, polypropylenes, polystyrenes, nylons, poly(vinyl chlorides), etc. Among the structures employed are extrusion and injection blow‐molded bottles, and cast or blown films. High gas barrier plastics are coated, coextruded, or laminated to structural plastics to enhance properties.
Food Toxicants, Naturally Occurring
Authors: Hoskins Fred H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractToxicants, substances which threaten the normal function of the body when ingested, occur naturally in some foods. Proteinaceous enzyme inhibitors are among the most widely distributed food toxicants, whereas phytoalexins, vasoactive amines, psychoactive alkaloids, oligosaccharides, nutrient chelates, mycotoxins, various antinutrients, and potential mutagens and carcinogens may also be encountered. However, acute intoxication from food toxicants is rare owing to the dilution effect of a normal and varied diet.
Forensic Chemistry
Authors: Fisher Barry A. J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractForensic chemistry, the application of chemistry to the law, is used to assist courts in the interpretation of the relevancy of scientific findings obtained from the examination of physical evidence, most of which is organic in nature. Chemical forensic testing, which may involve forensic toxicology, identification of solid drug samples, or trace analysis by means of modern instrumental analysis techniques, is described.In forensic toxicology, samples from a biological source are screened to confirm the presence of alcohol or drugs. Immunoassays combined with chromatographic techniques are most often employed. Solid‐dose drug samples are first subjected to the older spot and microcrystalline tests. Common drugs of abuse are discussed.Trace evidence, a generic term for microscopic physical evidence, may be examined by various microscopic techniques. Photography and high intensity light sources are also important analytic tools.Forensic serology, the characterization of blood and other biological materials, is also presented. Species origin and blood and DNA typing are discussed.
Forensic Chemistry
Authors: Rowe Walter F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractForensic chemistry, the application of chemistry to the law, is used to assist courts in the interpretation of the relevancy of scientific findings obtained from the examination of physical evidence, most of which is organic in nature. Chemical forensic testing, which may involve forensic toxicology, identification of solid drug samples, or trace analysis by means of modern instrumental analysis techniques, is described.In forensic toxicology, samples from a biological source are screened to confirm the presence of alcohol or drugs. Immunoassays combined with chromatographic techniques are most often employed. Solid‐dose drug samples are first subjected to the older spot and microcrystalline tests. Common drugs of abuse are discussed.Trace evidence, a generic term for microscopic physical evidence, may be examined by various microscopic techniques. Photography and high intensity light sources are also important analytic tools.Forensic serology, the characterization of blood and other biological materials, is also presented. Species origin and blood and DNA typing are discussed.
Formamide
Authors: Höhn A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractForm‐ amide is a hygroscopic liquid, freely miscible with water and lower alcohols but virtually insoluble in all aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. It decomposes thermally either to ammonia and carbon monoxide or to hydrocyanic acid and water. Owing to its bifunctionality, it is a highly reactive molecule, but it became industrially important only after the development of high pressure production technology. There are only three producers of formamide, which mainly is manufactured either by direct synthesis from carbon monoxide and ammonia or, more importantly, in a two‐stage process by reaction of methyl formate with ammonia. It is used as an intermediate by the chemical industry, eg, for producing hydrocyanic acid, heterocyclic compounds, pharmaceuticals, crop protection agents, and pesticides. It is also used as a solvent for resins and plasticizers. Formamide is neither explosive nor spontaneously flammable in air. It exhibits no particular acute toxicity. Precautions include avoidance of prolonged inhalation of vapors or contact of the liquid with skin or eyes.
Fracture Mechanics
Authors: Crouch Barry A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe concepts of fracture mechanics, a methodology which characterizes the resistance of a material to crack propagation, are described, beginning with the stresses around the tip of a crack in an elastic material. An alternative approach based on the energy available to grow a crack is also discussed. The complications arising from plastic yielding at the crack tip in real materials are described, together with the testing restrictions required to ensure a valid experimental measurement of fracture toughness. Linear elastic fracture mechanics or elastic‐plastic fracture mechanics may be appropriate, depending on the extent of plastic yielding in the test material. The application of fracture mechanics to fatigue crack growth, impact loading, and dynamic crack propagation problems is briefly reviewed. Design considerations for crack stability and lifetime prediction in cyclic loading are also considered.
Initiators, Free‐Radical
Authors: Myers Terry N. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMost commercial free‐radical applications employ initiators such as peroxides and azo compounds. Lesser amounts of carbon–carbon initiators and photoinitiators and high‐energy ionizing radiation are also used commercially to generate free radicals. The chemical initiators are substances possessing labile oxygen–oxygen, carbon–nitrogen, or carbon–carbon covalent bonds that under certain thermal, chemical, or photochemical conditions undergo homolytic scission of the labile bond to produce free radicals. The free radicals produced are useful in many industrial chain reactions, eg, halogenations, additions to carbon–carbon double bonds, polymerizations of vinyl monomers, grafting reactions, curing of rubbers and unsaturated polymers, cross‐linking of polyolefins, modification of polyolefins, and reactive processing.In this article free‐radical initiator decomposition pathways are reviewed. Initiator reactivity is related to chemical structure and to first‐order decomposition parameters such as temperature, frequency factor, and activation energy. Reactivity of derived free radicals is also related to structure and to the occurrence of secondary reactions such as β‐scission and induced decomposition. The energy and the chemical properties of the free radicals determine commercial utility; thus the interrelation of initiators, their kinetics, and the radicals produced provide guidelines for initiator selection.
Fruit Juices
Authors: Shaw Philip E. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
In 1993, frozen concentrated fruit juice for manufacturing was the principal juice product of international commerce. Consumers have demanded more ready‐to‐serve juice products, especially chilled single‐strength juices. Commercial aseptic packaging of single‐strength juices and juice drinks worldwide permits packaging in soft plastic packages that can be stored at higher temperatures for convenience and economy for the consumer. Raw materials are selected for suitability for juice production, except for apple juice production which still uses much cull fruit. Variety and maturity are important factors affecting suitability for juice production. When a range of varieties is available, blends are used to achieve uniformity of flavor. Fruit grown in a warmer climate and having a high sugar (content may be mixed with fruit from a cooler region to achieve a desired sugar‐acid balance. This sugar–acid ratio is based on °Brix readings, ie, wt % sugar, obtained with a refractometer, and on total acidity obtained by titration. Juice factories frequently employ field persons to advise growers on the application of sprays to the growing crops so that residues on harvested fruit are within prescribed limits. Payment for raw materials is frequently based on specifications that are either official government grades or stated market standards. Official graders may be employed to test each load.
There are many steps in the production of fruit juices. citrus tough peel must be kept separate from the juice during extraction. Deciduous fruits are crushed whole and the juice is then separated from the pulp, peel, and seeds, usually in a pressing operation. Pineapple juice has been the most popular tropical fruit juice consumed in the U.S. for many years. It has long been a by‐product of the pineapple canning industry. The production and sale of other tropical fruit juices has more recently received significant attention. Many tropical fruit juices are too pulpy or have harsh or exotic flavors which make 100% juice products unacceptable to most U.S. consumers. They are more acceptable as nectars containing 25–50% juice or as blended fruit drinks where their strong flavors are diluted or modified. In most markets fruit juice must be 100% juice and contain no additives. Commonly, a juice drink contains 10% fruit juice, which usually is a blend of several fruits. Consumption in the fruit drink/nectar market varies widely from country to country. In all significant markets orange juice predominates. In the United States apple juice is second, followed by grape and then grapefruit juice.
Fuel Cells
Authors: Larminie James 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Fuel cells are devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy and heat. This article begins by describing the operating principles of fuel cells, their construction, and the main problems currently limiting their commercial success. The thermodynamics of fuel cell systems is discussed, and also the effect of parameters such as pressure and temperature on cell voltage. Their use in conjunction with gas turbines is also addressed, and it is shown that this is a particularly advantageious way of operating. An overview of the main sources of losses in fuel cells is given.
Several different types of fuel cell are explained. This article divides them into six categories: the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), the direct methanol fuel cell (PEMFC), the alkaline fuel cell (AFC), the phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), the molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and finally the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). In all cases except one it is the electrolyte that distinguishes the different types. The special features, advantages, disadvantages, operating temperature, electrode and electrolyte construction, typical applications and fuels used are described for each of these six types of fuel cell.
Biomass Energy
Authors: Paisley Mark A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEnergy from biomass is increasing throughout the world as concerns relative to energy supply and environmental impacts grow. Biomass is an underutilized, renewable resource that can potentially replace fossil fuels as the primary energy supply. Historically, biomass has merely been used for heating. Today's developing energy technologies are broadening the uses of biomass well beyond simple combustion for heating. The flexibility of biomass as an input to conversion processes provides the ability to generate a wide range of energy products. These products include ethanol, fuel gas, steam, electric power, bio‐diesel, and, through synthesis applications, a suite of chemical intermediates and products. Technologies being developed or adapted for use with biomass feedstocks include gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic digestion, and advanced fermentation from lignocellulosics. This article provides an overview of each of these technologies and their potential uses as a part of the world's energy supply.
Fuels from Waste
Authors: Tillman David A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

FUELS FROM WASTE
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A significant number and variety of organic wastes are combusted in energy recovery systems including municipal solid waste (MSW), various forms of refuse‐derived fuel produced from MSW, and municipal sewage sludge; bark and other wood wastes from sawmills and other forest industry operations; spent pulping liquor from chemical pulp mills such as kraft and sulfite mills; wastewater treatment solids or sludges from pulp and paper operations; agribusiness wastes, methane‐rich gases generated from municipal waste landfills; industrial trash and specific wastes such as demolition debris, broken pallets, unrecyclable paper wastes, and related materials; off‐gases from pulp mills and chemical manufacturers; incinerable hazardous wastes generated regularly as a function of production processes; and a broad range of other specific specialty wastes. The practice of incinerating these materials has become increasingly prevalent in order to accomplish disposal in a cost‐effective, environmentally sensitive manner. Combustion of such wastes reduces the volume of material which must be disposed of in a landfill, reduces the airborne emissions resulting from plant operations and landfill operations, and permits some economic benefit through energy recovery.

The technologies used to combust wastes depend on the form and location of components to be burned. Critical concerns associated with energy generation from wastes include fuel composition characteristics; combustion characteristics; formation and control of airborne emissions including both criteria pollutants and air toxics, eg, trace metals; and the characteristics of bottom and flyash generated from waste combustion.
Because fuels from combustible organic wastes have long been economic in specific industries such as pulp mills, sawmills, sugar mills or factories, and other biomass processing operations, and because municipal waste‐to‐energy is becoming increasingly cost effective, these systems are continuing to be installed. The typical industrial system is used either to generate process steam or to generate both electricity and steam in a cogeneration application.
Furan Derivatives
Authors: Kottke R. H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFuran is a 5‐membered heterocyclic, oxygen‐containing, unsaturated ring compound. From a chemical perspective it is the basic ring structure found in a whole class of industrially significant products. The furan nucleus is also found in a large number of biologically active materials. Compounds containing the furan ring (as well as the tetrahydrofuran ring) are usually referred to as furans. From a manufacturing standpoint, however, furfural is the feedstock from which all of the commercial furan derivatives are derived, as it the easiest and least expensive to manufacture. Furan is produced from furfural commercially by decarbonylation; loss of carbon monoxide from furfural gives furan directly. Tetrahydrofuran is the saturated analogue containing no double bonds. This article is limited primarily to simple furans in which the nucleus occurs as a free monocycle, and, in general, does not include compounds in which the furan ring is fused to another ring. Tetrahydrofuran is produced commercially from furfural by decarbonylation followed by hydrogenation; it is also produced by several different methods from other raw materials.Furfural and furfuryl alcohol are specialty solvents. They also are reactive solvents and contribute low viscosity to resin formulations. Thermosetting resins containing furfural and/or furfuryl alcohol “furan resins” demonstrate specialty properties including corrosion resistance, high carbon yield, stability at elevated temperature, low fire hazard, and excellent physical strength. These properties are of industrial importance in making foundry molds and cores, fiberglass composites, mortars, cements, plastic insulation foams, refractory mixes, high carbon composites, and aggregate binders, among others.
Fusion Energy
Authors: Ellis William R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAs far as is known, nuclear fusion is the primary source of energy in the universe. It occurs when the nuclei of lighter elements, such as hydrogen, are fused together at extremely high temperatures and pressure to form heavier elements, such as helium. Whereas practical methods for harnessing fusion reactions and realizing the potential of this energy source have been sought since the 1950s, achieving the benefits of power from fusion has proved to be a difficult, long‐term challenge.Fusion is widely held to be the ultimate resource for the world's long‐term energy needs. The fuel reserves for fusion are virtually limitless and available to all countries. Fusion fuels can be extracted from water. Fusion promises to be an energy source which is potentially safe and environmentally benign. Radiological and proliferation hazards are much smaller than for fission power plants. The atmospheric impact is negligible compared to fossil fuels, and adverse impacts on the Earth's ecological and geophysical processes are smaller than for large‐scale renewable energy sources. The economics and costs of fusion power plants are still being studied, but appear comparable to those for other medium‐ and long‐term energy sources. The promise of affordable essentially unlimited supplies of clean, safe energy, free of political boundaries, has motivated a world‐wide research effort to develop this energy resource.The reactions of deuterium, tritium, and helium‐3,3He, having nuclear charges of 1, 1, and 2, respectively, are the easiest to initiate. These have the highest fusion reaction probabilities and the lowest reactant energies. Two diverse technical approaches to fusion power, magnetic confinement fusion, also known as magnetic fusion energy (MFE) and inertial confinement fusion, also known as inertial fusion energy (IFE) are being pursued worldwide. These form the basis of a large number of fusion research programs. Fusion energy research is also the primary avenue for the development of plasma physics as a scientific discipline.