bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Medical Education
Authors: Robb-smith A h. T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The succession of new endowments which the University received in the late eighteenth century to support medical teaching-posts were the first such benefactions for over a century, and offered the hope that Oxford might reemerge as a major centre of medical education.’ As an immediate result, the number of medical graduates increased threefold in the last two decades of the eighteenth century. By the will of Dr Matthew Lee, who died in 1755, Christ Church received a benefaction to establish an anatomy lectureship. The first lecturer was appointed in 1767 and an anatomy school was opened in Christ Church in the following year. In 1770 the Radcliffe Infirmary was opened and, by a bequest of the Chancellor of the University, Lord Lichfield, who died in 1772, a clinical professorship was established. The establishment of facilities for clinical teaching provided the foundation for later developments and represented an early example of the practice of clinical teaching of medical students in hospital wards. And finally, the will of Dr George Aldrich, a graduate of Merton and practitioner in Nottingham, who died in 1797, endowed professorships in anatomy and physiology, the practice of medicine, and chemistry.
The Bodleian Library
Authors: PHILIP I G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his novel Crotchet Castle ( r 83 r) Thomas Love Peacock describes how a party of visitors walked about Oxford on a fine July day ‘to see the curiosities of architecture, painted windows, and undisturbed libraries’, and how the Reverend Doctor Folliottlaid a wager ‘that in all their perlustrations they would not find a man reading’. In reality the reverend doctor would not have run any risk in making such a wager on a fine day in the depth of long vacation, at least as far as the Bodleian was concerned, for the Library’s archives show that in r 83 r no books were ordered by any readers in that library between 29 June and 2 August, and the records of bookorders for the month of May, that is, in full term, do not evidence any great activity.1 The Bodleian ‘entry-books’, in which all requests for books were entered day by day, show that in May r 83 r books were ordered by readers on only eighteen days in the month, that on these eighteen days the average attendance of readers was between two and three, and that books ordered amounted, in total, to about three or four a day.
Reform and Expansion, 1854-1871
Authors: Harvie Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1859 Thomas Henry Huxley visited Oxford, courted by his friend George Rolleston. He had refused the new Linacre chair of Physiology, which he had helped to create, despite Rolleston’s blandishments; and he now wrote of Oxford, ‘I see much to admire and like; but I am more and more convinced that it would not suit me as a residence.
An Overview of Chinese Lexicographical Culture During The Period Of Exploration And Cultivation
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE period from the wei Dynasty (220–265) to the Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368) is a period of exploration and construction for Chinese lexicography. Prior to the western Han Dynasty, the prototype of lexicographical culture had already taken its form – major types of dictionary had appeared and the general styles and formats of dictionary compilation had begun to take shape and established. It is over the next span of about one millennium, that is, from the wei to the Yuan Dynasty, that dictionary making in China came into its of in in almost all its major respects, particularly in style and format, methodology, theorization and practice, and technological development; the preliminary foundations were laid for the formation and evolution of Chinese lexicographical culture with a strong Eastern flavour. From the FIei Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty, China experienced dramatic changes in social, political, economical, and cultural life.
The Development of Chinese Character Dictionaries
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fihether verified from a functional perspective and from the angle of dictionary format and style, Chinese character dictionaries under front an important stage of exploration and cultivation during the period from the FIei to the Yuan Dynasty. Nefi types of dictionaries emerged, new theories concerning dictionary compilation appeared, and new incentives for development materialized. All this formed a strong driving force for Chinese lexicography to progress and prosper. 11.1 the historical background In the period of the wei to the Southern and Northern Dynasty, what lay behind the development of Chinese character dictionaries was the codification of character variants, which was instrumental in the birth of ‘character model’ dictionaries. During the period of the wei to the Southern and Northern Dynasty, separatist regimes were set up nation wide, and Southern China was cut off from the North. The Social script was dropping out of use and the regular and running scripts were becoming more and more popular instead. Consequently, it was not uncommon for single characters to be written with wrong strokes or with several variants being used simultaneously, especially by ordinary people.
The Development of Chinese Fiord Dictionaries
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Betfieen the FIei and Yuan Dynasties, the Confucian classics and their studies continued to hold a uniquely significant position in China’s academic world. Consequently, Chinese dictionary compilation over this period still attached great importance to the exegetic explanations of Confucian classics, represented by such fiord dictionaries as The RectiFIed Interpretation of Five Classics, The Exegetic Interpretation of Classics, and The Broad Ready Guide. Starting from the time of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhism had become widespread within the Chinese territories, and the exegesis of Buddhist scriptures turned out to be another focus of dictionary compilation during this period, represented by Sounds and Meanings of All the Buddhist Scriptures and its sequel.
Rhyme Dictionaries – A Special Dictionary Type In Ancient China
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the field of lexicographical studies in China, rhyme books are likely to be considered book-like in characters, thus overlooking the features they share in common with language dictionaries. As the investigation into the attributes of rhyme books goes further, more and more scholars have come to the consensus that rhyme books, which later develop into rhyme dictionaries, should fall into the ‘dictionary’ category and be classified as one type of special dictionary. The most representative view of this school is expressed in the definition of 韵书 (rhyme dictionaries) in The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary (2002): ‘dictionaries of characters with the same rhymes or with the same pronunciations for writing literary composition in rhyme, such as The Dictionary of Rhymes, The Rhyme Dictionary, and The Central Plains Dictionary of Sounds and Rhymes, etc.’ Yong Heming (2003), according to the ‘subject domains’, classifies dictionaries into types – ‘general dictionary’ (普通词典) and ‘special dictionary’ (专门词 典 ). The latter can be further classified into ‘specialized dictionary’ (also ‘special-subject dictionary’) and ‘special-aspect dictionary’.
An Insight Into Chinese Lexicographical Culture In The Ming And Qing Dynasties
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Ming and Qing Dynasties were a special period in China’s social development, during which China saw great economic prosperity and weakness, political stability and turbulence, and domestic military troubles and foreign aggressions. During these two dynasties, Chinese lexicography also took on a new lease of life, having witnessed a surprisingly great variation in the type, scale, content, function, and compilation levels of dictionaries and an increasingly evident expansion in the social, cultural, and academic influence dictionaries exerted. All this highlights the distinctively conspicuous features of the evolution in dictionary compilation, research and style.
The Formation Of Chinese Fiord Dictionaries
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The character dictionaries in the Ming and Qing Dynasties occupy a significant position in the history of Chinese dictionary making. The period of the Ming and Qing Dynasties is also reckoned to be a crucial time for the development of Chinese fiord dictionaries. It is no exaggeration to say that Chinese lexicography in the twentieth century would not be as glorious and thriving without the attainments of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. fiord dictionaries in the Ming and Qing Dynasties consist of four major extensions – the derivatives of The Ready Guide, those of The Dictionary of Dialectal Fiords, dictionaries of exegetic interpretations and explanations, and special-aspect dictionaries (mainly dictionaries of function fiords and dictionaries of lexical expressions).
The Evolution And Formation Of Rhyme Dictionaries In The Ming And Qing Dynasties
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like pronouncing dictionaries, rhyme dictionaries fall into the special-aspect dictionary type in the ‘special dictionary’ category. Over the Ming and Qing Dynasties, rhyme dictionaries formed a relatively independent system, thus dealt with here in a separate chapter rather than together with other special dictionary types in the previous chapter. 19.1 the historical background in the ming and qing dynasties Since The Dictionary of Initial Consonants was compiled by Li Deng in the Three Kingdoms period, rhyme dictionaries have been compiled to standardize and discriminate speech sounds, and to assist literati in composing poems or fupoems. At the very beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Hong FIu Dictionary of Standard Rhymes was compiled. In the Preface, the author, Song Lian, mentioned his motivation for compilation:
The Origin And Emergence of Chinese Bilingual Lexicography
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Language is often assumed to be the carrier of a nation’s culture, and in a sense the dictionary can be said to be the carrier of language, as the dictionary describes and records language, which makes it possible for language elements to be preserved and transmitted from generation to generation. Modern linguists have to resort to ancient glossaries, wordbooks, vocabularies, dictionaries, and relevant literature to conduct research on ancient languages and their writing systems. The dictionary is traditionally considered the reference tool that provides information concerning fiord history, grammar, pragmatics, sense relations, and sense differentiation, in addition to the phonetics, orthography, and signification of language. All this reflects the main features most dictionaries share and is the epitome of the linguistic nature of the dictionary.
The Archetype And Evolution Of Chinese Bilingual Dictionaries
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Simultaneous with The One Thousand Sanskrit Character Glossary was a glossary of a simlar nature, which was entitled A Miscellaneous Collection of Sanskrit Terms (&lt;梵语杂名&gt;). It was written by a monk called Li Yan (利言), and the version currently available was made in 1732. Li Yan was born in the Kingdom of Guici (approximately present-day Xinjiang in Northwest China) and followed the Indian monk Fa Yue ( 法 月 ) to become a monk in his early years. He had a good memory and was familiar with mid-Asian languages, apart from Chinese and Sanskrit. He died sometime between 789 and 795. A Miscellaneous Collection of Sanskrit Terms was completed during his late years in Chang’an. It collected 1,221 headwords, and most of them were monosyllabic character entry fiords, with occasional bisyllabic headwords like 眼睫 (eyelid) and 指节(finger joints). It even included verb phrases like 上 马 (mount a horse) and 何 处 去 (where to go), which made it somewhat different from The One Thousand Sanskrit Character Glossary in style.
The Characteristics And Influence Of Early Chinese Bilingual Dictionaries
Authors: Yong Heming , Peng Jing 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE preaching of Buddhism is the main force behind the earliest Chinese bilingual dictionaries. Buddhist culture is a special part of Chinese culture, and Buddhism has exercised extensive and profound influence upon China and its neighbouring countries. Many Buddhist terms, such as 世 (fiorld), 实 际(reality), 平等(equality), 相对(relativity), and 绝对(absoluteness) have been in daily circulation in Chinese life, and many Sanskrit fiords and expressions, such as 魔(devil), 觉悟 (consciousness), 境界(vision), 大千世界(Great Chiliocosm, the boundless universe), 本来面目 (true nature), and 芸芸众生 (all living things) have come down to the present day through Buddhist glossaries and dictionaries, which in turn help to transmit Buddhist culture and forge exchanges and communication ties between nations.
Psychiatric Assisted Suicide
Authors: Warnock Mary , Macdonald Elisabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we consider a class of cases not very often mentioned in the context of euthanasia, namely requests for assisted death from those who suffer severe and recurrent mental illness. Such cases may present acute moral dilemmas for doctors and carers who have responsibility for the mentally ill. We hold that the problems raised should be acknowledged. But we do not believe that any solution to them is likely until there is greater clarity about the nature of mental illness, and about the suffering that some psychiatric patients may endure.
Human Life is Sacred
Authors: Warnock Mary , Macdonald Elisabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his evidence to the House of Lords Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, Professor Jonathan Glover, of the Centre of Medical Law and Ethics at King ‘s College London, said in his opening remarks: ‘The central argument against the Bill at the level of moral principle [is] the sanctity of human life, sometimes defended on religious grounds, but sometimes supported for quite secular reasons. ‘1 This remark can be generalized to cover not just Lord Joffe ‘s Bill, but any proposal for assisted dying of whatever kind.
Medical Views
Authors: Warnock Mary , Macdonald Elisabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The next two chapters will draw together a range of attitudes found among the medical and nursing professions in response to the complex issues at the end of patients ‘ lives. We will examine the concepts of killing and letting die, the doctrine of double effect, futility, and the role of training and conscience. In the next chapter we will look in greater clinical detail at assisted suicide, self-denial of food and ﬂuids, and euthanasia, and assess the position of palliative sedation in the ethical spectrum. We will also explore the emotional effect on physicians of participating in the ending of life. We will ﬁnally summarize our own conclusions for appropriate measures now.
Insulin: A force of magical activity
Authors: Tattersall Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the horrors of the First World War, the early 1920s were, as the historian E. H. Carr said, a time for ‘reconstruction, restoration and recovery’. A striking symbol of this new optimism was the long-awaited isolation of the internal secretion of the pancreas, described in a letter to The Times as ‘a force of magical activity’. The story of how insulin was discovered in Toronto in 1921 is well known, at least in a simplified outline. A young orthopaedic surgeon, Frederick Banting, reads an article on diabetes and has the idea that others have missed the anti-diabetic principle of the pancreas because it was digested by enzymes during the extraction process.
Adult-Onset Diabetes and Tablets at Last
Authors: Tattersall Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The debate described in Chapter 4 about whether good control prevented complications was understood to refer to those who developed diabetes in youth and were on insulin. They were greatly outnumbered by people who became diabetic after the age of 40, who until 1976 were called adult-onset or maturity-onset diabetics. They did get retinopathy and nephropathy, but their main problem was atherosclerosis. Two-thirds would die prematurely of heart attacks, and a striking finding was that women were equally affected; among non-diabetics heart attacks were four or five times more common in men, but in diabetes the sex ratio was equal.
At the Laboratory Bench
Authors: Tattersall Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the 1950s many countries including England, Germany, the USA, the Netherlands, and Canada had indigenous manufacturing industries producing the two most popular modified insulins, NPH and Lente. Most doctors thought these were satisfactory, and in 1954 a well-known American specialist begged the manufacturers to be cautious about adding more ‘to the present ample market’. No doctor asked for purer insulin preparations, but purification was the goal of insulin chemists, and became the Danish manufacturers’ trump card in increasing their market share.
The Pharmaceutical Era
Authors: Tattersall Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
have called this chapter ‘the pharmaceutical era’, because after 1980 treatment of diabetes came to be dominated by increasingly powerful drug companies. Between 1960 and 1980 no new insulins or drugs had been introduced, and the pharmaceutical industry seemed disinterested in diabetes. However, an increasing target population, especially in the USA, the largest and most profitable market, made them keen for a slice of the action. They also came to realize that they could set the agenda by advertising to, or ingratiating themselves with, prescribers. The concept of drug companies targeting opinion leaders was not new but became increasingly important in the last two decades of the twentieth century.
The Path to Commoditization
Authors: Susskind Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A running theme of this book is that a pair of related forces will fundamentally transform legal service in the coming decade and beyond. The first of the pair will be a market demand for increasing commoditization of legal services, while the second will be widespread uptake of information technology (IT). I explore the former in this chapter and turn to the latter in Chapters 3 and 4.
A word about terminology is needed at the outset. When most lawyers speak today about ‘commoditization’, they generally do so reluctantly and frequently do so through gritted teeth.
The Future for In-house Lawyers
Authors: Susskind Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is tempting to believe that law firms live at the centre of the legal universe: in most jurisdictions, the great majority of lawyers are indeed in private practice; many of the best known brands in the legal profession do belong to law firms; the largest of the firms undoubtedly receive considerable media attention; and it is law firms that tend to be the first port of call when serious legal advice is needed. But where do clients sit in the legal pecking order?
Access to Law and to Justice
Authors: Susskind Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of this book is devoted to the transformation of legal services that are delivered to a particular type of client—the substantial enterprise that is of sufficient scale and complexity to merit its own in-house legal department. But what about citizens, individuals, voters, consumers, regular people, who have no special access today to lawyers and legal services? Forget, for a while, the General Counsel with his or her team of perhaps hundreds of in-house lawyers.
Deliberative Turning from a Law-Science Cul-de-Sac: Speculations regarding Community Transgenic Regulation
Authors: Thayyil* Naveen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lawyers and scientists have at least this much in common: Both harbor the intellectual conceit that a well defined problem is not only a necessary, but almost a sufficient, condition for a successful solution. GMO regulation in the European Community (EC) has often been charecterized as illustrative of the difficult and vexed relationship between law, politics, and science. Effective regulation of transgenic agriculture, food, and feed is sought in furtherance of a plethora of objectives including Community harmonization in pursuit of the internal market, the non-discrimination principle in international trade law,
Rehabilitating the Definition of Waste: Is it Fully Recovered?
Authors: Lee* Robert G , Stokes** Elen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the words of Stephen Tromans, ‘waste policy should be simple ‘. Yet, questions surrounding the scope and implementation of the European Community (EC) waste regime rarely have straightforward answers. :is is particularly evident in the interpretation of Directive 2006/12/EC on Waste Framework (Waste Framework Directive). :e principal aim of the Waste Framework Directive in its original format in 1975 was to establish coherence amongst approaches to waste control across Member States. :e need to achieve consistency continues to underpin waste policy, and the amendment and consolidation of the Directive has only confirmed the importance of securing uniform understandings of ‘waste ‘ and waste management.
Export Credits for Sustainable Development?
Authors: Gehring* Markus W , Price** Kristin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A growing debate has emerged in recent years regarding the relationship between Export Credit Agencies (ECAs) and the global promotion of sustainable development principles and practices. As central components of the global finance architecture, ECAs provide a significant source of public finance and support for private investors conducting business abroad. :rough the granting of export credits, guaranteed loans, and various forms of risk insurance, ECAs promote the export of capital, goods, and services, notably to developing countries. In this More countries are becoming active in this area, see on the Chinese ECA, E. Suzuk, ‘Bi-Lateral Policy Orientation in the Multilateral Development Policy: A Challenge for the China Exim Bank
V.Nature Conservation
Authors: Molyneux* Candido Garcia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
:e year 2006 brought several interesting developments in the field of nature protection. Firstly, the European Commission (Commission) adopted a Decision on the completion of the biogeographical regions in which the Natura 2000 network is divided, even though this should have been done by 2004 at the latest. Secondly, it delivered a Communication on halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010. Despite the number of initiatives enshrined in the Communication, it is doubtful whether that objective will be attained bearing in mind the progressive loss of species and of habitats confirmed by successive reports delivered by almost all Community institutions. :e discussion regarding the adoption of the Financial Instrument for the Environment (LIFE+) also led to contentious debates in the European Parliament (EP).
The Organization of Policing In England And Wales, and the Regulation of Police Forces
Authors: Beggs John , Davies Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Regulation of the police is most readily understood at the level of failures by individual police officers. There are different regulations to address misconduct and performance, respectively, which are considered in detail in subsequent chapters of this book. Necessarily, however, there are layers of regulation above these, which are directed at controlling the conduct and performance of police forces, and those that act as chief officers of individual police forces. This involves considerations of efficiency, effectiveness, and the setting and achievement of strategic priorities.