bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction to the Glaubenslehre and on the Glaubenslehre
Authors: Pedersen Daniel 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter outlines some of the main topics and themes found in the Introduction to the Glaubenslehre (i.e. The Christian Faith) and Schleiermacher’s Letters to Lücke. These include many of the most central and controversial terms Schleiermacher uses, terms such as piety, feeling, immediacy, and more. Following Schleiermacher’s own claims in the Letters, I offer an explicitly Christian theological interpretation of the Introduction that, contrary to the way this material is often taught and read, strongly recommends reading the Introduction through the body of The Christian Faith, and reading both together as a recognizably theological work supplemented by philosophy when useful, rather than the other way around.
The Christian Faith as Liberal Theology
Authors: Wyman Walter E. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
It is sometimes claimed that Schleiermacher’s The Christian Faith is liberal theology. What does that claim actually mean? What is the overarching vision of this theology, and is it a liberal vision? This chapter addresses these two questions. It argues the thesis that Schleiermacher’s liberalism is characterized by his revision of traditional doctrines to be consistent with natural science, historical research, and its cultural context. A distinctive method, conceptuality, and historical consciousness are constitutive of the revisionism of the work, and its orientation to supernaturalism is a critical issue. While Schleiermacher’s theology has been criticized from both conservative and liberal perspectives, the chapter concludes by suggesting that from the perspective of two centuries later Schleiermacher’s revisionism did not go far enough.
Person and Work of Christ
Authors: Junker-Kenny Maureen 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Schleiermacher’s theory of Christ as the archetype of God-consciousness, developed in the framework of his implementation of the anthropological turn in theology, is analyzed in four steps: (1) the first edition’s outline of the consequences of the essence definition of Christianity in the Introduction for a conception of “natural heresies,” and the material dogmatics’ critique of the inherited substance ontological categories, to be replaced by terms expressing the unity of the Redeemer; (2) the key critique by F. C. Baur that an “ideal Christ” takes the place of a historical account of Jesus Christ in the New Testament; (3) the corrections of the second edition highlighting his “total impression” and his function for the perfection of creation; and (4) ongoing questions on the insight into God provided by his historical appearance and on the reasons and consequences of the decisive step of uniting creation and redemption into one single divine decree.
Christian Ethics
Authors: Brandt James M. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This essay considers Friedrich Schleiermacher’s Christian Ethics, identifying how its achievement is comparable to the better-known Christian Faith. The latter work is regarded as inaugurating modern Protestant theology. Christian Ethics, at once distinctively Christian and consonant with modern critical and historical consciousness, similarly transcends contemporaneous options in ethics. Grounded in the pious apprehension of redemption in Christ, Christian Ethics describes the life of the church and its engagement with the larger society and culture. Christian Ethics completes Schleiermacher’s theological system, setting forth the actions that constitute the ongoing manifestation of Christ through the church as it lives toward the Reign of God.
On Religion
Authors: Korsch Dietrich 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Schleiermacher’s On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers of 1799 is a unique milestone in the history of modern theology, and this for two reasons. First, the book makes “religion”—as a phenomenon of life, not of doctrine—the field of theological discourse. And second, in “religion” there is an immediate access to reality in general, which also founds philosophical investigations of the competence of reason. Schleiermacher argues for this using the rhetorical style of Enlightenment rationality, pursuing the Enlightenment’s aims of deepening insight into the function of reason and of broadening its competence for understanding the world. Schleiermacher’s notion of religion also opens the space for the empirical study of religion.
Spinoza
Authors: Ellsiepen Christof 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter offers an overview and analysis of Schleiermacher’s encounter with Spinoza’s thought. It first gives an introduction to Schleiermacher’s engagement with Spinoza (1). Through the correspondence between Jacobi and Mendelssohn, Schleiermacher learned about Spinoza with a focus on the metaphysical problem of individuation. Through combining Kant’s critical transcendentalism with Spinoza’s concept of oneness and infinity Schleiermacher sought to create a coherent Spinozism and developed a systematic approach influenced by Spinoza (2). The third section outlines Spinozistic traits in some of Schleiermacher’s mature works (3), beginning with the reflection of the Spinozistic approach to the individuation problem in the early theory of religion in Speeches (3.1). The concept of religion as Anschauung des Universums is then interpreted against the backdrop of these Spinoza studies. The final section interprets the claim of the correlation of God and World in the lectures on Dialectic as a systematic line back to Spinoza’s system (3.2).
Schleiermacher and Mediating Theology
Authors: Aubert Annette G. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines Friedrich Schleiermacher’s relationship with the mediating theology movement that emerged from German universities. The chapter begins with a discussion of mediation as a core concept in Schleiermacher’s modern theology agenda, followed by an explanation of how his scientific-theological system offered a new method for doing theology at the modern university and provided a foundation for analyzing various religious topics. These efforts achieved further success due to the support he received from his students, who formed a “mediating school” beginning in the 1820s, and who applied ideas from philosophy, historicism, and science to their theological mediating project. The list of authors who built on Schleiermacher’s system in their historical, theological, and encyclopedic works includes Isaak Dorner, Karl Hagenbach, Johann Peter Lange, Carl Ullmann, Friedrich Lücke, Carl Nitzsch, August Neander, August Tholuck, August Twesten, Richard Rothe, and Alexander Schweitzer. Individually and collectively, they reconfigured Schleiermacher’s original mediating theology.
Schleiermacher and Protestant Liberalism
Authors: von Scheliha Arnulf 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
While Schleiermacher is often labeled as the founder of liberal Protestant theology, the relationship between his own theological vision and the successive forms of modern Protestant liberalism proves more complex. This chapter examines the dimensions and limits of Schleiermacher’s influence on Protestant liberalism, a developing tradition that at once reflects distinctive features of his theology yet also extends beyond these. It first considers specific features of Schleiermacher’s approach that have endured in this liberal theological tradition. It next indicates Protestant liberalism’s primary nineteenth-century representatives, most notably Richard Rothe and Albrecht Ritschl. It then explores the reappraisal of this tradition at the beginning of the twentieth century by Adolf von Harnack and Ernst Troeltsch. Finally, it takes up contemporary perspectives and considers the resurgent interest and international growth of Protestant liberalism from the mid-twentieth century onward.
Schleiermacher, Neo-Orthodoxy, and Dialectical Theology
Authors: Jones Paul Dafydd 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins by delineating and rejecting neo-orthodoxy as a paradigm for understanding twentieth-century theology, while granting that the category reveals something of the character of mid-century Anglophone scholarship. It then shows that, if one were to take this paradigm seriously, Schleiermacher would be best read as an ally, not an opponent. The chapter next considers dialectical theology. Focusing on the work of Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann in the 1920s, I show that Schleiermacher anticipates key dimensions of their theological programs, even as those programs put his thought under valuable pressure. Finally, I offer remarks on how best to approach Christian theology in the West after Schleiermacher.
Schleiermacher’s Influence on Roman Catholic Theology
Authors: Kaplan Grant 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Taking up the subject of Schleiermacher’s influence on Catholic theology, this chapter focuses on Schleiermacher’s profound and lasting influence on two of his contemporaries, Johann Sebastian Drey and Johann Adam Möhler. It selects these two figures both on the basis of their stature in Catholic theology and the importance of Schleiermacher’s thought on their own development. Although Schleiermacher’s influence seems undeniable, for nearly two hundred years scholars have contested the weight and consequence of this influence. This chapter weighs those arguments, from their first appearance in the 1820s and 1830s, through the groundbreaking work by Max Seckler on Drey. The chapter also identifies the Catholic Tübingen School, to which both Drey and Möhler belonged, as a precursor of the ressourcement theology that would impact the course of twentieth-century theology in general, and the Second Vatican Council in particular. The chapter concludes by examining Schleiermacher’s influence on Karl Rahner, and an important attempt by Francis Fiorenza to chart Schleiermacher’s impact on theological method in Catholic circles.
Constructive Theology
Authors: Poe Shelli M. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates that early in the history of the Workgroup on Constructive Theology, its members drew on the inheritance of modern theology left to them by Schleiermacher. Within a decade of the Workgroup’s founding, prominent liberation theologians and scholars substantially influenced by liberation theology began to identify as constructive theologians and/or join the Workgroup. Wittingly or unwittingly, they offer doctrinal approaches and content that were prefigured in Schleiermacher’s theology. This chapter first offers a brief overview of the Workgroup on Constructive Theology, focusing on its roots in liberal and liberation theologies. Then it turns to the relationship between Schleiermacher and constructive theology, demonstrating the ways in which Schleiermacher’s work prepares the ground for methodological and doctrinal proposals and trends we now find in liberation theology.
Gender
Authors: Jackson Ravenscroft Ruth 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter offers a theological engagement with Schleiermacher’s theorization of gender. It argues that the sexist and heterosexist assumptions underpinning the dimorphic approach to gender that pervades his ethics and politics can be unsettled and challenged by aspects of his theological thought. The chapter begins with a critical survey of the understanding of gender Schleiermacher offers in his ethics. It then suggests some resources for unravelling the sexist principles at play in his wider ethical thought, before culminating in an exploration of two important facets of his theology: his expression of divine transcendence (i.e. God is beyond all differences of sex and gender), and his understanding of the God-World relationship underpinned by divine transcendence. In contrast to the narrow perspectives on gender we find in Schleiermacher’s ethics, his theological account of the God-World relationship is shown to have promise for facilitating a more open conception of human relationality and difference.
Schleiermacher and the Philosophy of Culture
Authors: Gräb Wilhelm 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Against the background of prominent cultural philosophical drafts of the early twentieth century (Simmel, Cassirer), this chapter shows why Schleiermacher’s contributions to a philosophy of culture still deserve attention today. Schleiermacher’s Philosophical Ethics in particular is an interesting and still sustainable cultural-philosophical draft. The profiling of Schleiermacher’s philosophy of culture in the context of his time shows the comparison with Rousseau, Kant, Herder, and Hegel. The singularity of Schleiermacher’s cultural philosophy lies in the fact that it is complemented by a cultural theology that presents the practice of a good life, supported by the Christian spirit, within modern culture. At the end, a critical discussion of this statement highlights the impulses Schleiermacher still gives to both a critical diagnosis and a practical treatment of the crisis of modern culture.
Schelling and Steffens
Authors: Purvis Zachary 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers Friedrich Schleiermacher in proximity to two important contemporaries: the philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775–1854) and the natural philosopher, mineralogist, and theologian Henrik (Henrich) Steffens (1773–1845). Schleiermacher was distant and distrusting with Schelling, but they shared commonalities that informed Schleiermacher’s labors. Steffens, Schelling’s disciple, initially enjoyed a close relationship with Schleiermacher as young professors at the University of Halle. He contributed to Schleiermacher’s scholarly development, before becoming estranged. This chapter argues that the intellectual lines of influence among these three cannot be divorced from their personal connections.
“Domestic Disputes” in the Kantian Heritage
Authors: Dierken Jörg 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Schleiermacher and Hegel both developed systems of thought that left their marks in nearly all areas of humanities and which share characteristics due to their Kantian heritage basic affinities. Notwithstanding, they are often perceived as antipodes. Without questioning the differences between their conceptions, however, also substantial similarities can be found. The complex relation between the two authors will be examined regarding their understanding of religion and Christianity, with a special focus on subject theory and social philosophy. In this perspective, the differences between Schleiermacher and Hegel are not be interpreted as an exclusive alternative but as an expression of a plurality that is intrinsic to reason.
Schleiermacher and the University of Berlin
Authors: Zachhuber Johannes 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the unique connection between Schleiermacher and the University of Berlin by considering two interlocking aspects of this relationship. On the one hand, Schleiermacher played a major part in the foundation of this institution; on the other hand, his work from 1810 was inextricably intertwined with his professional role as a university teacher and administrator. Beginning from a description of the context in which the foundation of the university took place, the chapter considers Schleiermacher’s contribution both to the wider debate about university reform and the more specific question of the future of university theology. It then turns to the ways in which Schleiermacher’s activity from 1810 was shaped by his professional duties as a university teacher. It is argued that Schleiermacher strove to embody the professorial ideal envisioned in his theoretical writings about the university.
Adjectives
Authors: Beck David 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The lexical class of adjective is in many ways ideal for the typological study of parts-of-speech systems across languages. It is neither as common or consistent as the classes of noun and verb, which are found in virtually every language, nor are adjectives as language specifically idiosyncratic as adverbs or ideophones. In many languages, they represent a flexible class, filling secondary syntactic roles more typical of other parts of speech, while in others the typical role of adjective, adnominal modification, can be served by other kinds of word. Depending on the language, and the linguist who describes it, adjectives can be either present or absent, mono- or polyfunctional, or belong to an open or closed class, all key areas for understanding the typology of lexical classification.
Adpositions
Authors: Herce Borja 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Adpositions are words which typically take a noun phrase as their complement and mark its semantic (e.g. spatial, temporal) or grammatical role within the clause. Although adpositional systems are highly variable and not universal, they often constitute a relatively small word class whose members are usually among the most frequent words in a language. Adpositions tend to share many properties with (and are often diachronically derived from) other word classes such as verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These properties make adpositions particularly relevant for research into the nature of word classes and linguistic categorization. On the one hand, their high token frequency makes it possible for different adpositions to have quite different grammatical properties. On the other hand, their close synchronic and diachronic links to other word classes make the boundaries of adpositions blurry and permeable. This chapter will reflect on these issues by looking at the grammatical properties of adpositions in Hungarian, Basque, German, and Spanish, among others.
Interjections
Authors: Dingemanse Mark 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
No class of words has a better claim to universality than interjections. At the same time, no category has more variable content than this one, traditionally the catch-all basket for linguistic items that bear a complicated relation to sentential syntax. Interjections are a mirror reflecting methodological and theoretical assumptions more than a coherent linguistic category that affords unitary treatment. This chapter focuses on linguistic items that typically function as free-standing utterances, and on some of the conceptual, methodological, and theoretical questions generated by such items. A key move is to study these items in the context of conversational sequences, rather than as a mere sideshow to sentences. This makes visible how some of the most frequent interjections streamline everyday language use and scaffold complex language. Approaching interjections in terms of their sequential positions and interactional functions has the potential to reveal and explain patterns of universality and diversity in interjections.
Word Classes in Egyptian, Semitic, and Cushitic (Afroasiatic)
Authors: Oréal Elsa , Vanhove Martine 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the word classes in Ancient Egyptian, Semitic, and Cushitic languages. It illustrates different scenarios in the make-up and evolution of word categories, which focuses on verbs, nouns, and adjectives. Afroasiatic provides linguists with a wealth of documentation that shows the fluidity of some word categories on a long-term scale. The chapter elaborates on the history of Afroasiatic phylum languages that showcased strong divergences and similarities among different languages, referring to the growing dispute about the exact number of living Afroasiatic languages. It also highlights other categories playing an important role in the grammaticalization of verbs.
Word Classes in Indo-European Languages
Authors: Ramat Paolo 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The chapter sketches the history of linguistic–philosophical discussions on word classes in the Western tradition, linked in modern times to the typological discussion on the universality of some categories, and introduces the categories that may be reconstructed for (Proto)Indo-European and their continuation to modern Indo-European languages. The chapter aims to show the breaks and/or the uninterrupted tradition from the reconstructed starting point up to the contemporary state of the art. The following word classes are presented: Nouns and the various morphological means (mainly suffixes) used to form Nouns, Adjectives, and Participles, Verbs with their derivations, Adverbs, and Adpositions, Articles, Determinatives, and Demonstratives are considered as a hyperclass of noun modifiers. Different types of pronouns are also discussed, which show a clear Indo-European basis, as well as Conjunctions.
Word Classes in Classical Chinese
Authors: Bisang Walter 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Parts of speech in Classical Chinese as it is transmitted through philosophical and historical texts between the 5th and the 3rd centuries bc have been a challenge for Chinese linguistics both in the East and in the West. While most Western approaches describe Classical Chinese in terms of word-class flexibility, current research in China clearly opts for word-class determination in the lexicon. The chapter describes and compares both perspectives as they were developed on the basis of Chinese characters and their use in syntax. The chapter also sketches a potential scenario of how to combine current reconstructions of Old Chinese morphology with the findings from character-based studies of word-class flexibility in Classical Chinese.
Word Classes in Maweti–Guarani Languages
Authors: Rose Françoise 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses how Maweti–Guaraní languages challenge the definition of major word classes. The relation between major word classes and syntactic/discourse functions is rather flexible throughout this group of languages. The first issue is the blurred distinction between nouns and verbs, as many nouns can function as predicates without any derivational morphology and with almost all the ‘verbal’ morphology. The second issue is the classification of descriptive roots (expressing qualities, i.e. with ‘adjectival’ meaning) as either nouns, verbs, or adjectives. Once we apply clear syntactic and morphological criteria to classify parts of speech, it becomes clear that most Maweti–Guaraní languages have three major lexical word classes, i.e. nouns, verbs, and postpositions, and that these share some morphological and structural properties, involving a much debated ‘relational prefix’. Minor word classes that are often discussed in grammars of Maweti–Guaraní languages are adverbs, ideophones, interjections, and particles.
Word Classes in Psycholinguistics
Authors: Ibbotson Paul 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Psycholinguistics is concerned with how word classes are produced, comprehended, and acquired by the mind and brain. To that end, psycholinguists attempt to show not only that theoretical frameworks adequately describe word classes, but they are also predictive of how people use them. This chapter discusses word classes as a specific solution to a general problem of behavioural prediction; the extent to which word classes are different from other linguistic and non-linguistic classes; the representational structure of word classes and how they are constructed in development; how thought shapes word classes and word classes are shaped by thought; and finally how word classes have been used as a test case for the universality or otherwise of linguistic categories themselves. The conclusion is that, while the utility of forming a word class remains universal—behavioural prediction—and the processes that form them psychologically similar, the content of those classes is best understood as an invitation to share a perspective on something meaningful and specific to the culture from which language emerges.