bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Xenophobic Violence and Ethnic Conflict at the Local Level: Lessons from the Scandinavian Experience
Authors: Björgo Tore 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Violent attacks against asylum seekers and labour migrants increasingly became considered a serious problem in Scandinavia during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Several local communities in Sweden and Norway in particular came into focus as strongholds for racist groups and their violent activities. However, these attacks gave rise to widely different interpretations. Some regarded the violence as expressions of racism and xenophobia, orchestrated by far-right organizations. Others saw the violence as a ‘natural response’ from locals who felt they are being swarmed by unwanted aliens, and that the violent outbursts indicated that the population’s ‘natural threshold’ for assimilating foreigners has been exceeded. Still others considered the violent incidents as ‘boyish tricks and drunken pranks’, carried out by the usual local trouble makers. Obviously, these divergent interpretations provided frameworks for highly different types of responses to the violence.
Moving Social Security towards Fully Funded Schemes: Who Pays the Cost?
Authors: Rofman Rafael P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Analysing the costs involved in social security reforms is not an easy task. In theory, assessing the cost of closing down a balanced pay-as-you-go system and replacing it with a pure fully funded one should be simple because it requires only an estimation of the expenditures necessary to continue paying benefits to older retirees and eventually to compensate those workers who contributed to the pay-as-you-go system. Most reforms, however, aim to replace pay-as-you go schemes made seriously unstable by deficits and other problems with multipillar systems, which include elements of both pay-as-you-go and fully funded schemes. In addition, most reforms include some measures that improve the performance of the systems, such as increasing contribution tax rates or raising minimum ages for retirement. These changes should not be confused with introducing a fully funded scheme, for they could be applied without modifying the basic pay-as-you-go scheme of the old systems. In that sense, it is necessary to disentangle the effects of these corrective measures from those of creating a new, fully funded system.
The Political Economy of Two Chilean Pension Systems
Authors: Valdés-Prieto Salvador 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The latest wave of reforms of mandatory pension systems has included shifts away from the pay-as-you-go financing method towards partial or full funding. This is not the first time that funding has been attempted. Many pension systems started in the first quarter of this century were partially or fully funded. The provident funds created in ex-British colonies in the 1950s and 1960s also attempted funding. One new aspect of the most recent wave of reforms is that they have privatized pension provision. Examples are found in Chile (1981), Switzerland (1985), the United Kingdom (1988), Australia (1986 and 1992), Peru (1993), and Argentina (1994). In this chapter I link privatization to the political economy of pension systems.
Pension policy is a creation of the state, not a market phenomenon. In addition, I argue that political analysis is more important in pension economics than in other areas of economic policy. The reason is that pension institutions must function suitably over a time horizon that spans six or more decades, a period long enough for the state itself to experience profound changes. Therefore, the optimal pension policy appears to be a function, first and foremost, of the stability of a country’s political regime.
Financial Intermediation, Transfers, and Commitment: Do Banks Crowd out Private Insurance Arrangements in Low-Income Rural Areas?
Authors: Foster Andrew D , Rosenzweig Mark R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
An important feature of countries that have not experienced sustained economic development is that a large proportion of their populations participates in informal institutional arrangements to provide services that in developed countries are furnished by formal institutions. One important service is the provision of income insurance. It is also thought that the performance of informal institutions in underdeveloped areas is constrained by the absence of formal contracts and a legal system that could serve to enforce compliance. In particular, the absence of these features of developed environments creates significant barriers to trade across time and states of the world by reducing the ability of parties to commit to certain actions and thus results in inefficient allocations.
Introduction The Contemporary Debate about Nuclear Weapons
Authors: Baylis John , O’neill Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since the end of the cold war nuclear weapons have receded somewhat in the policy debates between the United States, Russia, and China. The process of relegation began with the 1987 INF Treaty banning ground-based theatre nuclear weapons in Europe, which was followed in 1991 with an agreement between President Bush and President Gorbachev to eliminate shorter range, tactical nuclear weapons. The START I and II Agreements were also signed in 1990 and 1993 respectively, which, if fully implemented, will reduce the number of American and Russian strategic weapons from around 20,000 to 3,500 on each side by 2007. Other recent positive developments have included the May 1994 decision by the United States and Russia to stop targeting each other’s territory (although not to take their strategic missiles off alert), the indefinite extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1995 and the signing of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in September 1996 after nearly thirty years of sporadic negotiations.
To Confuse Ourselves: Nuclear Fallacies
Authors: Gray Colin S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter is designed to filter judgements broadly on nuclear ideas and policy. So much of the professional literature today barely lifts its level of concern from the weeds of the erstwhile marshes of southern Iraq, or ventures beyond the containing walls of nuclear reactors, that major effort is required to escape capture by technical and diplomatic detail and local context. This author is concerned lest these early years of the second nuclear age (understood as the years since the ending of the cold war in 1989-91) should be squandered by a transnational, extended Western defence community which is not equipped theoretically to understand the strategic history that is to hand, let alone the strategic history that may be.
The South Asian Nuclear Challenge
Authors: Thakur Ramesh 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The tit-for-tat nuclear tests of May in south Asia destroyed the Indian summer of complacency induced by the indefinite extension of the nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in May 1995 and the adoption of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in September 1996. Not only did the ‘in your face’ tests represent the first substantial breach in the non-proliferation regime established by the NPT in 1968; they also called into question the tools avail able to great powers for protecting their hegemonic political status, and the modalities for converting international community norms into enforceable regimes.
The Elimination of Nuclear Weapons
Authors: MccGwire Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Is it desirable? Is it feasible? The case for eliminating nuclear weapons requires a ‘yes’ to both questions. In practice, the focus of the first question needs to be sharpened to ask ‘Is it preferable?’. The subjects for comparison are the likely outcomes over time of alternative courses of action: (1) persist with existing policies; or (2) adopt the ‘firm and serious policy goal’ of a nuclear-weapons free (NWF) world. Neither course of action is risk-free. It is therefore mis leading to differentiate between traditionalists and eliminators by saying the former are ‘realists’. The latter’s view of international relations is equally, if not more jaundiced.
Population, Poverty, and Subsistence in China, 1700-2000*
Authors: Lee James Z , Feng Wang , Bozhong With Li 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Yet it must be owed that notwithstanding the great sobriety and industry of the inhabitants of China, the prodigious number of them occasions a great deal of misery. There are some so poor that being unable to supply their children with common necessaries they expose them in the street, especially when the mothers fall sick or want milk to nourish them; so that these little innocents are in some sense condemned to death as soon as they begin to live.
Methods and Livelihoods
Authors: Ellis Frank 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This and the next chapter are concerned with appropriate methods for investigating livelihoods, in the context of applying the livelihoods approach to rural projects and policies. First, in this chapter, a general discussion of alternative methods for discovering important attributes of livelihoods is provided, focusing in particular on the activity and income dimension of livelihoods in accordance with the diversity theme of the book as a whole. Second, in the next chapter, a case-study of implementing a combined participatory and small sample survey approach to discovering livelihood attributes in three villages in Tanzania is presented.
Livelihoods, Diversification, and Policies
Authors: Ellis Frank 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book sets out a livelihoods approach to rural poverty reduction, and locates this framework in a larger context of dimensions of the development process, such as poverty, gender and the environment that concern re searchers, policy makers and development practitioners in rural development. The book is not a practical guide to implementing the livelihoods approach; however, many of the points it raises and the examples used to illustrate those points, provide insights into the key components that should feature in applications of the framework. A central theme running throughout the book is that of livelihood diversification; in other words, the observation that poor rural families tend to adopt survival strategies composed of a diverse portfolio of activities that cut across orthodox economic sectors and transcend the rural-urban divide.
The Volume and Structure of Trade
Authors: Rivera-Batiz Luis A , Oliva Maria-A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The framework developed by Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin assumes that countries have the same technologies. Specialization and trade are determined by relative factor abundances. Consider two countries trading capital intensive and labor intensive manufactures. The country that is relatively more capital abundant, in the sense of featuring a greater endowment of capital per worker, is predicted to export capital- intensive manufactures and import labor-intensive manufactures. The idea is that, in a scenario with no trade, the relatively abundant factor earns a low rental rate in relation to other factor. There are thus incentives to specialize and export the product that uses the relatively abundant factor more intensively while importing the product that uses the relatively scarce factor more intensively. The relative factor abundance theory, or simply the factor abundance theory, is useful in explaining a significant part of word trade. For instance, the exchange of US manufactures for Venezuelan oil can be explained by the fact that skilled labor is relatively abundant in the United States while oil is relatively abundant in Venezuela.
Innovation, Research, and Learning
Authors: Rivera-Batiz Luis A , Oliva Maria-A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What determines the level of technological sophistication and the rate of technological change in an economy? A more advanced technology can be developed by research and development spending and evolve by learning-by-doing productivity gains. Research and development (R&D) refers to investments in the production of new scientific know- ledge and knowledge directed towards a practical application or commercial objective. R&D can lead to the production of new and better products and the development of new and improved production processes. Learning-by-doing is new knowledge and improvement of skills acquired through repeated experience in the production process. Technologies developed by others can be transferred by purchase or licensing. They can also generate externalities (spillovers) resulting from the interaction between innovators and non innovators and from copying and adaptation of existing technologies.
Dumping, Market Access, and Sanctions
Authors: Rivera-Batiz Luis A , Oliva Maria-A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Exporters incur in dumping when they charge unfair or abnormally low prices abroad. Antidumping laws seek to eliminate these practices. If the targeted firms fail to increase prices or to reduce sales, the imposition of antidumping duties corrects the price distortion. Antidumping activity, the most important form of contingent protection and a major source of trade friction, proliferated in the 1980s and 1990s. The number of antidumping petitions filed by General Agreement Tariffs and Trade (GATT) members surged from about 100 cases in the 1960s to about 1600 in the 1980s and over 2200 in the 1990s. The proliferation of antidumping investigations stems from their use as a protectionist tool in a world where traditional protection instruments have lost their force because tariff barriers are relatively low and quotas are on their way out. In contrast with traditional forms of protection, antidumping duties are temporary measures, selective in terms of target, discretionary in application, based on administrative decisions rather than legislation and are not transparent. These features also characterize other forms of contingent protection. These include countervailing duties intending to counter foreign subsidies and escape clauses allowing the imposition of temporary duties to protect domestic firms from fair but still disrupting market penetration by foreign firms.
The Development of Studies of the Japanese Economy in the United States: A Personal Odyssey
Authors: Patrick Hugh 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is essentially a personal reminiscence rather than a comprehensive or objective evaluation of the development of the study of the Japanese economy in the United States since the end of the Second World War. As such, it reflects my own research odyssey. It is weighted more heavily toward the earlier years and most of the people mentioned are those active when the field was first developing in the 1950s and early 1960s – that is, my generation and our teachers. (It is a pleasure to note that many of us are still active. I apologize to those not mentioned, as well as those mentioned but not described adequately.) The expository style is deliberately informal. After all, I am writing about friends.
The Role of Gender Context in Shaping Reproductive Behaviour in Nigeria
Authors: Kritz Mary M , Makinwa-Adebusoye Paulina , Gurak Douglas T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Several studies carried out in the Asian region support the claim that reproductive behaviour varies across communities and other geographic areas that differ in gender systems. Morgan and Niraula (1995), for instance, studied two Nepalese communities that differ in levels of women’s autonomy and found that women living in a village where women’s autonomy was high had lower demand for children and higher contraceptive use than women living in a village where women’s autonomy was low. Son preference was also stronger in the low autonomy village. Balk (1994) looked at the effect of several indicators of women’s social status on fertility in two regions of Bangladesh that differed in gender systems and found that two indicators— women’s physical mobility and household authority—had strong effects on fertility in the region where women’s autonomy was high but none in the region where it was low. Dyson and Moore (1983) showed that the demographic transition was more advanced in Southern India, a region of relatively high gender equity, but remained at an earlier stage in Northern India where gender equity is lower.
Sustainable Growth in Open Economies
Authors: Bretschger Lucas , Egli Hannes 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
International environmental economics can be conducted both in a static and in a dynamic mode. This chapter introduces the dynamic approach view. We analyze the impact of international trade and the natural environment on long term economic development. In the literature, there are hardly any contribu tions which cover environmental economics, trade, and growth at the same time. Most of the papers in this field concentrate either on the interaction between (i) international trade and the environment (see Chapters 2-4),
(ii) economic growth and the environment or (iii) trade and economic growth. To obtain a comprehensive view of the intersection of all three issues, we proceed in the following manner. In the first section, we focus on economic growth and the natural environment by introducing the most important concept in this field: sustainability. Section 9.2 demonstrates how endogenous growth theory identifies sustainable development paths. We present the pre dictions of different growth models, which also portray changes in the natural environment.
From the cold war to cooperative security: an overview
Authors: Lachowski Zdzislaw 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the 1980s CBMs and CSBMs were extensively discussed and analysed in numerous publications.11 With the end of the cold war, interest in measures to enhance security and stability and in other instruments of arms control dwindled as their applicability to the new risks and challenges emerging in Europe became moot. Nevertheless, the search for new measures, mechanisms and other approaches has continued.
Regional CSBMs
Authors: Lachowski Zdzislaw 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since the end of the cold war the focus of CSBMs in Europe has shifted towards specific European regions, which is where the main challenges to peace and stability have arisen. The CSCF/OSCE participating states have always been aware that such challenges would present themselves, but finding the best way to utilize CSBMs to address the problem of regional crises and conflicts has nonetheless been difficult. The formidable obstacle was the fear of fragmentizing, and thus undermining, European security. The Balkan crisis and the break up in the early 1990s of two federative states-the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia-demonstrated both the relative inadequacy of traditional CSRMs and the need for solutions below the pan-European level. New measures were clearly needed to meet the challenges arising from the changes in Europe.
Inspiring the non-European CSBM debate
Authors: Lachowski Zdzislaw 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The normalization of military relations in Europe has not been adequately paralleled by similar steps in other regions of the world. The successive generations of confidence- (and security-) building measures were tailored to the specific context of a divided Europe and its specific post-cold ,war context. The experience of some non-European regions seems to prove the exclusivity rather than the universality of European CSHMs.42’ Various attempts to utilize them in other politico-military contexts have yielded mixed results. In the Association of South-Fast Asian Nations (ASFAN) region and Latin America. military CBMs have been agreed within packages of broader, loose confidence-enhancing steps, and the political and military authorities have endeavoured to test more and more of them. In Central Asia CSBM and arms control agreements were reached in 1996-97 by the ‘Shanghai Five’ (China and Russia plus three Central Asian states).
Theory, evidence, and the labour market
Authors: Backhouse Roger E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
At one level these two papers (chs. 5 and 6) are very different indeed, but it is possible to discern strong similarities. They both accept (as too obvious to need documenting) that macroeconomics is generally based on the premiss that the labour market can be analysed as a perfectly competitive market in which individual agents maximize utility and wages rise or fall according to whether excess demand for labour is positive or negative. They both provide a methodological critique of what they see as the prevailing orthodoxy. Ferri’s (ch. 5) critique is theoretical. He argues that the Phillips curve should be viewed as an equation describing the operation of the whole system, not as a single component of a macromodel (as a reduced form rather than a structural equation). Oswald and Trostel (ch. 6), on the other hand, argue that the competitive model is inconsistent with well-established facts about the labour market.
New Keynesian macroeconomics: general discussion
Authors: Blaug Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Huw Dixon: The view I am trying to put forward here is not that empirical evidence has nothing to do with it. In fact, what Blaug finally articulated at the end of his talk was very much my view-it drops into the background. But I still think that there is a problem. If there was agreement on a set of stylized facts, that would be great, but people can just ignore things. They can say, ‘OK, there may be these imperfections, but they are very small. They don’t really matter.’ How do you know whether a particular imperfection is important or not? I agree with you entirely. I think imperfect competition does matter but others say it doesn’t and they write down models which don’t have any imperfections at all-no involuntary unemployment and so on-and they think that these are quite adequate to explain things. They are interested in other evidence.
‘Born Pious, Literary, and Legal’1 Lord Coleridge’s Criticisms in Law and Literature
Authors: Geary Ray 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Any consideration of the career of Lord Chief Justice Coleridge invokes a mystery. Why, despite all his achievements, was that career not deemed to have been a success? His obituary in The Times offered only a grudging appreciation of his accomplishments. When his friends referred to him they constantly felt the need to apologize on his behalf, and one summary of his career opined that, ‘posterity will probably with difficulty understand his importance in his own day’. In fact on any consideration of his achievements alone the opposite view is more aptly the case. As a lawyer Coleridge was one of the most prominent barristers of his day; he was an important liberal politician, he held high political office as Solicitor-General and then Attorney-General, and he occupied the position of Lord Chief Justice of England. He was involved in many of the leading cases of his day, either as counsel or judge, and in the latter capacity delivered judgments that are still leading authorities today.
Governing Bodies, Tempering Tongues: Elizabeth Barton and Tudor Treason
Authors: Polito Mary 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the fall of 1533, Elizabeth Barton, a nun and well-known mystic and prophet, was brought to the tower of London for interrogation about certain prophecies of political significance. In particular, she had prophesied that the king’s divorce and remarriage to Anne Boleyn would be his doom, that one month after such an event, the king (Henry VIII) would be king no more. The month safely come and gone, the king sought a case of high treason against her under the Treason Statute of 1352.