bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘This Unique and Peerless Specimen’: The Reputation of the OED
Authors: Bailey Richard w. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imperialism, profit, and philology had, by the mid-nineteenth century, become important ingredients of British lexicography-often prioritized in that order. In his Imperial Lexicon of the English Language (1852), John Boag made the first of these explicit in describing his two-volume work: It is called ‘the Imperial Lexicon of the English language,’ because the Anglo-Saxon speech is not now, as formerly, the instrument of thought and medium of intercourse of the English nation only; it is spoken in every latitude of the globe; it is displacing every older tongue found prevailing in those countries where it has taken root; in a few years it will be the native tongue of more people than the whole of Europe will contain; and whilst, therefore, the complete collection and arrangement of its words becomes truly an English Lexicon, it does so in a sense of prospective usefulness so comprehensive as to be fitly expressed by the word ‘Imperial’. (1852: 3) Such sentiments had become commonplace. In 1846 an anonymous pamphleteer in Manchester had declared that ‘in the literary combat for supremacy, it is, there-fore, England against the world’. The following year John Bradshaw was even more convinced of the imperial mission of English: ‘it clearly shows the God of providence has a hand in doing it’ (quoted with other examples in Bailey 1991: 106-9).
Introduction
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is concerned with the linguistic description of the so-called ‘prosodic’ features of speech, which are generally taken to include length, accent and stress, tone, intonation, and potentially a few others. The description and the definition of these features have always been something of a problem for linguists; for many years, and especially in the formative period of modern linguistic theory in the second quarter of the twentieth century, the study of these features suffered from relative neglect. With some exceptions, phonological descriptions were based primarily on ‘segments’-vowels and consonants-and prosodic features were either ignored or forced into an inappropriate segmental mould. In recent years this imbalance has been redressed, and several phonological theories are now available which are not merely more sympathetic to prosodic features but are even largely based upon them. However, it remains the case that there is no universal consensus among philologists about either the nature of prosodic features themselves or the general framework for their description, and it is difficult to obtain a clear picture of the field as a whole. The purpose of this book is to examine the nature of these features, and to consider some of the principles on which such a framework can be based.
Prosodic Structure
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters we have looked in some detail at individual prosodic features, principally length, accent, tone, and intonation, though others, such as rhythm, have also been considered, and we have examined the ways in which these features can be systematized phonologically. Each feature has been dis cussed largely in its own terms, as an independent prosodic system, taking account of its individual phonetic and phonological properties, and the means of specifying them.
Who Should Know about My HIV Positivity and Why?
Authors: Häyry Heta 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose that I am HIV positive, in other words, that my blood contains traceable antibodies to the human immunodeficiency virus, which in its turn is the causative agent of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome, AIDS. Suppose, further, that so far I am unaware of the fact, and so is everybody else. The questions that I propose to answer in this chapter are: ‘Who should know about my HIV positivity?’, and ‘Why?’
Deciding How to Decide
Authors: Velleman J David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By “deciding how to decide,” I mean using practical reasoning to regulate one’s principles of practical reasoning. David Gauthier has suggested that deciding how to decide is something that every rational agent does. Whether or not we agree with Gauthier about agents in general, we might think that his suggestion applies well enough to many of us moral philosophers. We assess rival principles of practical reasoning, which tell us how to choose among actions; and assessing how to choose among actions certainly sounds like deciding how to decide. One of my goals in this essay is to argue, in opposition to Gauthier, that assessing rival principles of practical reasoning is a job for theoretical rather than practical reasoning. How to decide is something that we discover rather than decide.
Socratic Perplexity and the Nature of Philosophy
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gareth Matthews suggests that we can better understand the nature of philosophical inquiry if we recognize the central role played by perplexity. The seminal representation of philosophical perplexity is in Plato's dialogues; Matthews invites us to view this as a response to something inherently problematic in the basic notions that philosophy deals with. He examines the intriguing shifts in Plato's attitude to perplexity and suggests that this development may be seen as an archetypal pattern that philosophers follow even today. So it is that one may be won over to philosophy in the first place by the example of a Socratic teacher who displays an uncanny gift at getting one perplexed about something one thought one understood perfectly well. Later, however, wanting like Plato to move beyond perplexity to produce philosophical 'results', one may be chagrined to discover that one's very best attempt to develop a philosophical theory induces its own perplexity. Then, like late Plato and like Aristotle, the philosopher may seek to 'normalize' perplexity in a way that both allows for progress and yet respects the peculiarly baffling character of philosophical questions.
Shared Perplexity: The Self-Stinging Stingray
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plato’S dialogue Meno opens with a question from Meno about whether virtue can be taught. Socrates replies that, far from knowing whether or not virtue can be taught, he doesn’t even know what virtue is (71a). There follows this characteristic avowal of what is called ‘Socratic ignorance’:
Perplexity and Methodology in Aristotle
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2 we saw that Aristotle thinks philosophy begins in perplexity. More particularly, he thinks it begins in the astonished recognition that there is some basic perplexity we don’t know how to deal with. He seems to have thought that the perplexities that set off the first philosophers, that is, the first Western philosophers, were puzzles about the universe. What about perplexity in Aristotle’s own philosophy? What role does it play there? Does it play any continuing role at all?
Ethical Explorations
Authors: Skorupski John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
John Skorupski develops in these essays a distinctive and systematic moral philosophy, examining fundamental questions in ethics, and then applying the results to issues of culture and politics. The first three parts of the book focus on central ethical concepts: reasons, the good, and morality. Skorupski examines normative claims about what we have reason to think, feel, or do. He then presents a conception of the good which differs significantly from the utilitarianism of Mill while maintaining its important insights. Drawing on Kant and Hegel, his account of morality relates it to autonomy and the emotions involved in blame and recognition. The final part of the book is a liberal critique of the forms of liberalism which dominate contemporary culture. Ethical Explorations firmly links liberal politics to its ethical ideal, and links that ideal to modern morality and modern ideas of the good.
Neutral versus Relative: Philosophical Utilitarianism and Practical Reason
Authors: Skorupski John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first part of this essay (Sections 2-5) examines the distinction between ‘neutral’ and ‘relative’ reasons, a distinction which plays a role in a number of the essays in this book. A special case of it, which has been much discussed, is the distinction between agent-neutral and agent-relative reasons. It is quite common at the moment to make ‘agent neutrality’ a necessary condition of an ethical position called ‘consequentialism’ and to contrast that with ‘deontology’, which is held to be ‘agent relative’.1 Both these tendencies, I shall argue, regrettably obscure useful distinctions. This will prompt us to consider the contrast between deontological and teleological ethics more widely, and also to consider that much abused term, ‘utilitarianism’.
The Post-Modern Hume: Ernest Gellner’s ‘Enlightenment Fundamentalism’
Authors: Skorupski John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sceptical doubt, both with respect to reason and the senses, is a malady, which can never be radically cur’d, but must return upon us every moment, however we may chace it away, and sometimes may seem entirely free from it. ‘Tis impossible upon any system to defend either our understanding or senses; and we but expose them farther when we endeavour to justify them in that manner. As the sceptical doubt arises naturally from a profound and intense reflection on those subjects, it always encreases, the farther we carry our reflections, whether in opposition or conformity to it. Carelessness and in-attention alone can afford us any remedy. For this reason I rely entirely upon them; and take it for granted, whatever may be the reader’s opinion at this present moment, that an hour hence he will be persuaded there is both an external and internal world.
Body, Soul, and Nerves: Epicurus, Herophilus, Erasistratus, the Stoics, and Galen
Authors: Staden Heinrich Von 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is striking that polarities such as corporeal-incorporeal, mortal immortal, matter-form, transient-eternal, and generated-ungenerated—all of which are deployed to draw lines of demarcation between body and soul from the classical period to later antiquity—are not central to the more influential early Hellenistic theories of body and soul. Despite their radically divergent versions of the world and of human beings, Epicurus, many Stoics, and the more significant early Hellenistic physicians share a constellation of convictions concerning soul and body which is not receptive to boundary lines of such a kind (even if some features of their beliefs continue to resonate with those of their precursors).
Loan Phonology: Perception, Salience, the Lexicon and OT
Authors: Jacobs Haike , Gussenhoven Carlos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unless they are treated as exceptions, loanwords whose phonological stucture does not fit into the phonology of the borrowing language need to be adapted to it. Rule-based accounts of the adaptation (or ‘nativisation’) of loanwords are typically confronted with the duplication problem (Kenstowicz and Kisseberth 1977: 136). This situation arises when a rule needs to be added to the grammar which duplicates a morpheme structure constraint, of which the sole function is to adapt loanwords to the native phonological system. As has been argued by Yip (1993), a constraint-based theory like Optimality Theory (OT) does not have to add extra rules to account for the nativisation of loan words. Rather, the adaptation ought to follow from the constraint ranking of the borrowing language.
Optimal Syntax
Authors: Bresnan Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most OT syntax work to date has taken the OUTPUT to consist of representational simulations of transformational derivations using chains and traces (e.g. Grimshaw 1997; Legendre, Smolensky, and Wilson 1998; Grimshaw and Samek-Lodovici 1998).2 The purpose of these notes is to show that there may be advantages, both conceptual and empirical, to adopting a more radically nonderivational theory of GEN, based on a parallel correspondence theory of syntactic structures.
The Universal Constraint Set: Convention, not Fact
Authors: Ellison T Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All languages make the same phonological generalizations. This is the remarkable claim of Optimality Theory (OT). In early generative phonology (Chomsky and Halle 1968), phonological generalizations were expressed by ordered rewrite rules. Each language, however, required its own set of rules as well as its own ordering. Later, under specification phonology (Archangeli and Pulleyblank 1989, 1994) emphasized default rules. Universal tendencies in the rules were apparent, but characterizing all languages with a single set of rules remained an unreachable dream.
Learning Phonology: Genetic Algorithms and Yoruba Tongue—Root Harmony
Authors: Pulleyblank Douglas , Turkel William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents an implementation of a genetic algorithm which acquires the constraint rankings of an Optimality-theoretic grammar. The chapter begins by sketching the structure of a grammar within Optimality Theory, goes on to outline the nature of an acquisition model employing genetic algorithms, and finally, applies genetic algorithms to Optimality Theory, using as a case study the acquisition of tongue-root harmony systems. The basic structure of a phonological grammar in Optimality Theory is established by the appropriate ranking of a universally determined set of violable constraints. This structure is well suited for an acquisition model based on genetic algorithms, a form of evolution that occurs on a computer. In a genetic algorithm, a problem of some sort is encoded in the form of strings of symbols. In the case of an Optimality-theoretic grammar, each such string of symbols directly corresponds to a ranked set of constraints. A population of these strings (ranked constraint sets) is randomly generated, each corresponding to a possible grammar. The goodness (or ‘fitness’) of each of the strings is then assessed for how well it describes the sort of data encountered. The fitness of most of the randomly generated strings will be very poor—especially if the search space is large—but some strings are better than others.
The Latin Background
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our starting point for tracing the history of vowel nasalization lies in the ancestor of the various Romance languages and dialects, Latin. Clearly, knowledge of the pronunciation of a language form which is no longer used by native speakers can never be complete, so that any conclusions drawn on the characteristics of Latin speech must be somewhat tentative. As regards more delicate features of pronunciation, such as vowel nasality, for which no special written symbolization existed, the tentativeness must be even greater. However, from the information which is available there are some indications to suggest that vowels may well have been significantly affected by nasality at various stages of the history of Latin.
Sardinian and Corsican
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The islands of Sardinia and Corsica have undergone rather special linguistic evolution. Sardinia fell under Roman control comparatively early, from 238 BC, but after a lengthy period of romanization lasting two centuries which established the use of Latin, the island remained socially and linguistically somewhat isolated. The result has been that a distinctive and often archaic form of Romance has developed. As far as vowel evolution is concerned, the long/short vowel-length contrast in Latin has been lost but without the qualitative adaptations of short vowels which are commonly found elsewhere in Romance.
Romanian (Balkan Romance)
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the Balkans, two forms of Romance survived up to modern times. These are Romanian and Dalmatian. Romanian is spoken by about 25 million people and is conventionally divided up into four main sub-groups: (a) Daco-romanian (DR), which is spoken in the state of Romania by over 20 million people and divided regionally into a number of sub-types, notably Transylvanian (north and west), Moldavian (north-east and east), and Wallachian (south), the standard language being a cultivated variety of Wallachian based on the usage of Bucharest; (b) Istro-romanian (IR) which is closely linked to western types of DR and only split off at some stage before the end of the thirteenth century as a result of the westward migration of its speakers to what used to be north western Yugoslavia; (c) Aromanian (AR) which is spoken by up to half a million people living mainly in migrant pastoral communities in northern Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, and former Yugoslavia; (d) Megleno-romanian (MR) which is a variant of AR used by a small community living north of the Gulf of Salonica.
Conclusion: Retrospect and Prospects
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The picture which has emerged from our review of Romance nasal vowel evolution has been a varied one. That there should be variation is of course predictable given that the developments which have been considered extend over a span of two thousand years and relate to a vast geographical area encompassing a host of separate communities. Yet it is possible to detect certain common characteristics for vowel nasalization in Romance in a similar way to what Chen (1972a, 1975) has sought to do for Chinese dialects. A number of shared characteristics have in fact presented themselves fairly clearly in the course of our coverage. Some of these may be directly compared with patterns of nasalization identified by linguists working on data from outside Romance also. In this way, our findings will serve to confirm or qualify claims that these patterns may have general validity in language. Others, however, are less readily reconciled with general assumptions which have been made about vowel nasalization and signal areas where further investigation is needed. In this final chapter these broader issues are considered as we briefly evaluate the data which have emerged from our review.
Prescriptivism
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ETHICAL theories (in the sense of theories about the meaning and logical properties of moral terms) fall into two main classes: descriptivist and non-descriptivist (SOE 3. 4). According to the former. moral words like ‘good’ and ‘wrong’ resemble ordinary descriptive words like ‘red’ and ‘rectangular’ in this respect, that their meaning and their application conditions are firmly linked. so that to change either is to change the other. Victims of the ‘descriptive fallacy’ (Austin 1961: 234; 1962: 3) think that the same has to be true of all words; but this has been shown not to he the case. Imperatives are the obvious counterexample. Prescriptivists took their cue from an observation about these. The application conditions of imperatives clearly vary independently of their meaning. If I tell someone to shut the door and you tell him not to, we may still he meaning the same by the imperative ‘Shut the door’, which I affirm and you negate.
Internalism And Externalism In Ethics
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the face of it (though I am not an expert in the theory of meaning) this dispute does not look too dillkult to resolve. if we distinguish between speaker’s meaning and meaning in a language. The speaker’s meaning may be what would be more correctly expressed by saying ‘I have a pain in my thigh similar to what one has when one has arthritis in a joint’, or possibly ‘I have arthritis in one end of my thigh, namely in my hip’: the meaning in the language is such that what he says, taken literally, is a self-contradiction. But I shall not be concerned with this dispute. In ethics, the dispute between internalizes and externalists has been formulated in different ways, and some of the differences are very important. I shall myself use the terms in the following way.
Methods Of Bioethics: Some Defective Proposals
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As to being true, that is not so difficult. Most philosophical truths are fairly obvious, though people obscure them by their inability or unwil1ingness to express themselves clearly. The difficult thing is to grasp the whole truth. If you take a bunch of supposedly divergent theories on almost any philosophical question, you will find in each of them some points which are right, and some which are wrong. Those who criticize these theories often rightly attack the points that are wrong, but do not see that not everything in a theory is wrong: it also, usually, has hold of important truths. So, in putting forward their own opposing theories, these philosophers discard the good with the bad, denying truths that their victims had grasped. So they too land themselves in a mixture of truth and error. The difficult thing. as I said, is to grasp the whole truth. This entails carefully disentangling the truths from the errors in all the theories one studies. It is the mark of the good philosopher to be able to do this.
A Utilitarian Approach To Ethics
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A consequentialist is somebody who thinks that what determine the moral quality of an action (that is, determine whether it is right or wrong) are its consequences. An action is the making of some difference to what happens-to the history of the world. If I make no difference to what happens. I have done no action. In the widest sense, even if I do nothing (do not move a finger), I have done an action (what is sometimes called an act of omission). It made a difference to the history of the world that I did nothing. We are, in other words, responsible for what we fail to do as well as for what we actively do. I can of course he blamed for doing nothing: someone might say ‘You were to blame for not saving the life of the patient when you could have’.Suppose. then, that my gun is pointing at somebody and I pull the trigger, and he dies. We say ‘I have killed him’. Killing him was what I did-my act. If I did wrong. what made it wrong was the consequence of my pulling the trigger, namely that I killed him. In the light of this example. it is hard to see how people can deny that consequences. in this sense, are relevant to moral judgements about actions.
Karl Marx (1818–1883)
Authors: Wood Allen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Radical social theorist and organizer of the working class, whose .thought is widely regarded as the chief inspiration for all forms of modern social radicalism. Born 5 May 1818 in the Rhenish city of Trier, Karl Heinrich Marx was son of a successful Jewish lawyer of conservative political views who converted to Christianity in 1824. He studied law at the University of Bonn in 1835 and at the University of Berlin in 1836, changing his course of study in that year to philosophy, under the influence of Ludwig Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, and the Young Hegelian movement. Marx completed his doctorate in philosophy in 1841.
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938)
Authors: Inwood M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German philosopher who was the founder, and a skilful practitioner, of phenomenology. His early works, On the Concept of Number (1887) and Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891), were marked by psychologism, the attempt to base logic and arithmetic on psychology. The concept of plurality, for example, was explained in terms of our mental act of combining different contents of consciousness into one representation, of, for example, seeing distinct people as a single group. Influenced in part by Frege’s criticism, Husserl abandoned this view, and in his Logical Investigations (1900-1; tr. London, 1970) argued that logic is not reducible to psychology. For example, the statement: