bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Fruin W. Mark 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The introduction discusses the rapid development of Japan's economy in the twentieth century and introduces firm‐level structural and strategic complements to it. Late development and an emphasis on technology acquisition, it is argued, result in competitive strategies and cooperative structures uniting factory, firm, and the interfirm network. The different sections look at the context of the Japanese enterprise system, compare it with other systems worldwide, analyse the important role of the highly successful corporation in modern Japan, and discuss the implications of the Japanese corporation for traditional firm theory and as a global business model.
History and the Logic of Interdependence
Authors: Fruin W. Mark 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter analyses the interorganizational model of factory, firm, and interfirm network in Japan that is at the heart of book. The argument stresses the need for specialization at the factory level, given the overwhelming emphasis on rapid technology transfer from the West, and the concomitant narrow scope of technology‐based firms. Interfirm networks provided the breadth of functions and resources needed by firms to grow rapidly.
Inventing the Enterprise System
Authors: Fruin W. Mark 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter looks at the emerging modern enterprises of early twentieth‐century Japan and divides them into three main categories: zaibatsu firms (national enterprises) formed in large part by the devolution of government‐founded businesses (accounts are given of the four main groups before 1945 – Mitsui, Sumimoto, Mitsubishi, and Yasuda); independent urban enterprises that harnessed economies of scale and scope based on the technologies of the day, such as Hattori Seiko, Takeda Chemical Industries, and Kirin Beer; and independent rural firms such as Onoda Cement and Noda Shoyu, which grew on the basis of both city and countryside demand. The attributes of each type are discussed. The nearly universal separation of production and distribution in early twentieth‐century Japanese enterprises is discussed in relation to the development of trading companies and enterprises of scope and scale.
Defining the Enterprise System
Authors: Fruin W. Mark 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the inter‐war years in Japan and argues that the focal factories, unitary, specialized firms, and interfirm networks that fully define the Japanese enterprise system appeared at this time. As a result, when Japan recovered economically after the Pacific War, the business organizations of the post‐war era not surprisingly mirrored those of the pre‐war period. The different sections of the chapter look at large modern corporations from 1918 to 1954 (their size and organizational complexity, evolving structures, and strategies), present a typology of inter‐war enterprises (using the same three categories as ch. 4 – zaibatsu, independent urban, independent rural firms), and look towards the emergence of large, modern enterprises.
Advancing the Enterprise System
Authors: Fruin W. Mark 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter looks at the evolving enterprise system from the 1950s to the 1980s. It argues that the inter‐organizational model of focal factories, unitary firms, and interfirm networks remained the dominant industrial organization model in spite of significant changes in industrial relations, ownership, government policies, and sources of technology. The different sections of the chapter look at large modern corporations from 1954 to 1987, social transformation and shop‐floor reformation, the adaptive as opposed to the innovative enterprise, structural change, and the post‐war strategy of Matsushita and Hitachi, organizational interdependence (enterprise groups) in post‐war Japan (the six main types of interfirm groupings, and new enterprise groups), the utility of interfirm networks, and the modern corporation and enterprise system.
Inequality Reexamined
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAmartya Sen revisits the issues tackled in his previous seminal work, ‘On Economic Inequality’, first published in 1973 and expanded in 1997, and provides new analyses and insights in this crucial area. The book brings together and develops some of the most important themes of Sen's work over the last decade. He notes that the difference between virtually all contemporary ethical approaches to social arrangements lies not in whether they all demand equality of something, but in what sort of equality they propound. Any claim to equality must take account of the diversity of human beings and their characteristics. Sen argues that we should be concerned with people's capabilities rather than either their resources or their welfare. He also looks at some types of inequalities that have not yet been studied as systematically as inequalities of class and wealth have been. These include, inter alia, the important issue of gender inequality.
Introduction Questions and Themes
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe introduction to the book discusses the fact that the idea of equality is confronted by two different types of diversities: (1) the basic heterogeneity (diversity) of human beings, and (2) the multiplicity of variables in terms of which equality can be judged. This book is concerned with both these diversities, and also, specifically, with the relation between the two. The heterogeneity of people leads to divergences in the assessment of equality in terms of the choice of different focal variables (income, wealth, etc.), which in the language of economics, are called ‘space’. It is pointed out that ethical theories that reject equality in terms of one variable or space, may endorse it in terms of another. After a preamble on these matters, the introduction gives an outline of the content of the rest of the book.
Equality of What?
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe two central issues in the ethical analysis of equality—‘Why equality?’ and ‘Equality of what?’ are addressed. It is noted that ethical plausibility is hard to achieve unless everyone is given equal consideration in some space (or variable) that is important in the ethical theory under consideration. In addition, it is difficult to see how an ethical theory can have general social plausibility without extending equal consideration to all at some level. However, it is argued that the question of ‘why equality’ is not a central issue in differentiating standard theories, since they are all egalitarian in terms of some space or variable; rather, it is ‘equality of what’ that is the important issue. The different theories give different answers to the question, ‘equality of what’ that are distinguishable in principle and involve conceptual different approaches, but whose practical force depends on the empirical importance of the relevant human heterogeneities that make equality in one space diverge from that in another.
Freedom, Achievement and Resources
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractOne of the aspects of inequality assessment that has received less attention than it deserves relates to the distinction between achievement and the freedom to achieve. The nature, reach, and relevance of that distinction between achievement and freedom are briefly discussed here, making use of conceptual grounds for discrimination as well as analytical procedures used in modem economics. The different sections of the chapter are freedom and choice; real income, opportunities, and selection; and freedom distinguished from resources.
Functionings and Capability
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter identifies, develops, and defends a particular choice of space and its use in terms of freedom to achieve. A person's capability to achieve functionings that he or she has reason to value provides a general approach to the evaluation of social arrangements, and this yields a particular way of viewing the assessment of equality and inequality. The functionings included can vary from most elementary ones, such as being well nourished, avoiding escapable morbidity and premature mortality, etc. to quite complex and sophisticated achievements, such as having self‐respect, being able to take part in the life of the community, and so on. The selection and weighting of different functionings influence the assessment of the capability to achieve various alternative functioning bundles.
Freedom, Agency and Well‐Being
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe concentration on the freedom to achieve and not just on the level of achievement raises some deep questions about the connection between the appraisal of the alternative achievements and the value of the freedom to achieve them, which are addressed in this chapter. Even the freedom‐based perspective must pay particular attention to the nature and value of the actual achievements, and inequalities in achievement can throw light on inequalities in the respective freedoms enjoyed. This recognition requires rejection of rules of freedom assessment such as the counting of the number of alternatives in the ’range of choice’, but more constructively, it suggests practical ways of using observable data regarding achievements to get a partial but significant view of the freedoms enjoyed by different persons. In this context, the difference between well‐being objectives and the other objectives that a person may have are discussed. This difference not only leads to some plurality within the idea of freedom itself but also has important implications for the divergence between the perspective of achievements and that of freedoms.
Justice and Capability
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter first addresses the informational bases of justice. It then goes on to discuss and give a critique of the Rawlsian theory of justice as fairness, which is regarded by Rawls himself as a political conception. The assessment of justice is discussed in terms of distribution of primary goods (which include rights, liberties and opportunities, income and wealth, and the social bases of self‐respect), and in terms of capabilities (the freedoms enjoyed by people to choose lives that they value). The last part of the chapter addresses the issue of human diversity in the Rawlsian theory of justice as fairness.
Welfare Economics and Inequality
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAfter a preamble on the choice of space (variable) and evaluative purpose, the matter of whether a person's position in terms of achievement should be judged positively (as level of achievement reached) or negatively (in terms of shortfall compared with possible maximal achievement) is addressed. It is noted that the welfare economics literature on inequality has typically overlooked human diversity in terms of this maximum potential. The rest of the chapter examines and contrasts the evaluation of inequality in terms of (1) justice and (2) welfare.
Poverty and Affluence
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIf poverty is seen as the deprivation of some minimum fulfilment of elementary capabilities, it becomes easier to understand why it has both an absolute and a relative aspect. These considerations are important in dealing with poverty in any country (rich or poor), but are particularly relevant in understanding the nature of poverty in richer countries, which is addressed in this chapter. The persistence of poverty in otherwise affluent countries is an apparently puzzling phenomenon that is beginning to get serious attention in contemporary debates, and it is argued here that the understanding and the remedying of this problem can both be helped by explicit consideration of the relation between deprivations in different spaces, especially between incomes and the capability to lead secure and worthwhile lives.
Class, Gender and Other Groups
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe relevance of the capability perspective is discussed in the context of differences in class, gender, and other social features. Human diversity is shown, once again, to play a crucial part in strengthening the significance of the informational departure in moving from the spaces of incomes, opportunities, happiness, primary goods, etc. to taking direct note of the achievement of functionings and the capability to achieve them. The capability perspective is more sensitive than utility‐based approaches to problems of entrenched deprivation, which can lead to defensive adjustment of desires and expectations (thereby distorting the metric of utilities). It can also be fairer in dealing directly with freedoms rather than concentrating on the means of freedoms. These differences are significant in assessing inequality and injustice across the barriers of class, gender, and other social divisions.
The Demands of Equality
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

AbstractSome of the general points that have emerged from the analysis of inequality presented in the rest of the book are reviewed and assessed. Particular concern is given to the interrelations between the methodological and substantive issues. The different sections of the chapter are questions of equality; equality, space, and [human] diversity; plurality, incompleteness, and evaluation; data, observations, and effective freedoms; aggregation, egalitarianism, and efficiency; alternative defences of inequality; incentives, diversity, and egalitarianism; on equality as a social concern; responsibility and fairness; and capability, freedom, and motivations.
Co‐Operation and Co‐Ordination
Authors: Kay John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractA firm is viewed as a set of relationships among its stakeholders and between itself and other firms. Game theory is used as a stylized way of discussing issues of cooperation through the ‘Prisoner's Dilemma’, of coordination through the ‘Battle of the Sexes’, and of differentiation through the game of ‘Chicken’. Strategic commitment is seen as a means of gaining by limiting one's own options.
Architecture
Authors: Kay John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract‘Architecture’ is introduced as the first of the three primary sources of distinctive capabilities and it refers to a network of relationship contracts within, or around, the firm. It can be subdivided into internal architecture (relationships with employees), external architecture (relationships with their suppliers and customers) and networks (relationships among a group of firms engaged in related activities). It adds value by helping create organizational knowledge and routines that enable the company to respond flexibly to changing circumstances and allows easy exchange of information. Note that such capabilities can only add value in a long‐term context, which penalizes opportunistic behaviour.
Strategic Assets
Authors: Kay John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCertain competitive advantages are based not on the distinctive capabilities of firms but on their dominance or market position. These are the ‘Strategic Assets’ of the company and can broadly be separated into three main types. Natural Monopolies occur in markets that cannot accommodate more than one firm, Sunk Costs can prevent entry by resulting in a different cost structure between the incumbent and potential entrants, while Market Restrictions such as licences and regulation can further deter entry. These are different from distinctive capabilities in that they could be acquired by any company facing similar circumstances.
Pricing and Positioning, 1
Authors: Kay John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe type of the competitive market in which firms operate will depend on the implicit rules that govern the behaviour of the companies. When there are long‐term relational contracts, there is the opportunity for prices to reflect the value of products to the customers as well as the cost of the product. Accordingly, the less stable the competitive environment, the greater the degree to which prices will be determined by cost rather than value.
The Nation
Authors: Kay John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExplains the relation between competitive advantage in the firm and competitive advantage in the national economy. In the context of a free market system, the former can lead to the other, given that inequality of information, externalities, and the existence of natural or strategic monopolies are absent. The basic sources of competitive advantage of nations are similar to the sources of competitive advantage for firms, i.e. sustainable and appropriate distinctive capabilities of architecture reputation and innovation.
A Brief History of Business Strategy
Authors: Kay John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter describes the evolution of business strategy. It begins with the 1960s perspective in which strategy was largely equated with corporate planning; the 1970s see an emphasis on diversification and portfolio planning. The 1980s and 1990s are characterized by a focus on core competencies and the development of less analytic, more people‐oriented approaches to management. The still dominant rational approach to strategy is explained and its criticisms discussed. However, it is argued that these criticisms are based on a wish‐driven view of strategy and is not as relevant to a strategy rooted in the distinctive capabilities of the individual firm.
The Politics of Multiculturalism
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

AbstractBegins by distinguishing various forms of cultural pluralism, which can sometimes be conflated under the label of ‘multiculturalism’, distinguishing, in particular, between ‘multination’ states possessing national minorities and ‘polyethnic’ states possessing ethnic groups. It then provides a typology of the different sorts of minority rights that ethnic and national groups may demand. In particular, it distinguishes between three types of group‐differentiated collective rights—rights of self‐government (involving the delegation of powers of government, often within a federal structure), polyethnic rights (involving financial support and legal protection for certain practices associated with particular ethnic or religious groups), and special representation rights (guaranteeing representation of minority groups within the central institutions of the larger state). It concludes with examples of each type from various countries, and explores some key differences between them regarding their institutional embodiment and constitutional protection.
Individual Rights and Collective Rights
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

AbstractInvestigates the connection between collective rights and individual rights, and challenges the liberal hypothesis that there is an inherent conflict between the two. It argues the need to distinguish between two meanings of ‘collective rights’, which can refer either to the right of a group to limit the liberties of members in the interest of group solidarity or purity (internal restrictions), or the right of a group to limit the powers of a majority to curtail the interests of minorities (external protections). It argues that the latter need not conflict with individual liberty, and indeed that what distinguishes a liberal theory of minority rights is precisely that it accepts some external protections for ethnic groups and national minorities while being very sceptical of internal restrictions.
Freedom and Culture
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

AbstractBegins by explaining how individual freedom is intimately tied up with membership of certain types of societal culture, and why it is important that minority groups should have their own cultures. It then discusses whether immigrant groups should be given the rights and resources necessary to sustain a distinct societal culture, and how liberals should respond to cultures that are illiberal. It aims to show that the liberal value of freedom of choice has certain cultural preconditions, and that issues of cultural membership must accordingly be incorporated into liberal principles. This provides a context for the discussion in the next chapter, about how group‐differentiated minority rights fit within a larger theory of liberal justice.
Justice and Minority Rights
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExplores the main arguments in favour of group‐differentiated rights for ethnic groups and national minorities. In particular, it distinguishes between equality‐based arguments, which aim to show that the minority is facing some sort of unfair disadvantage that can be rectified by a group‐differentiated right, and various history‐based arguments, which aim to show that the minority has some historical claim to the group‐differentiated right, based on prior sovereignty, treaties, or some other historical agreement or precedent. It also considers arguments that appeal to the intrinsic value of cultural diversity, and how these relate to both the equality‐based and history‐based arguments.
Ensuring a Voice for Minorities
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAddresses issues of political representation, particularly, proposals to guarantee seats in the central legislature for members of certain ethnic or national minority groups. It discusses some of the practical and theoretical difficulties raised by such proposals, and considers alternative ways of ensuring a voice for minorities in political decision‐making. It also discusses the tension between self‐government rights (demanding that power be delegated from central government to the minority community) and representative rights (demanding guaranteed representation for the community within central government).
Toleration and Its Limits
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses how liberals should respond to situations in which a minority demands the right to restrict the basic civil and political liberties of its own members, in violation of the liberal commitment to individual autonomy, which it does not share. Does it follow that liberal states should impose liberal norms on liberal minorities? This raises complicated issues about the meaning of tolerance and its limits. The chapter discusses the relationship between the values of tolerance and individual autonomy within liberal theory, and outlines some of the factors that need to be taken into account in evaluating the legitimacy of imposing liberal values on illiberal minorities.
The Ties That Bind
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAddresses the concern that group‐differentiated rights for minority cultures will inhibit the development of a shared identity necessary for a stable social order. There is a common worry that group‐differentiated citizenship encourages groups to focus on their differences, rather than their shared purposes and interests. Citizenship is supposed to perform an integrative function, but can it do so if it implies no common legal or political identity? The chapter argues that representation and polyethnic rights are consistent with the integration of minority groups, and may indeed assist it. Self‐government rights, on the other hand do pose a serious threat to social unity, since they encourage the national minority to view itself as distinct. However, to deny self‐government can also threaten social unity by encouraging secession. This means that the identification of the bases of social unity in multinational states is one of the most pressing theoretical issues facing liberalism today.
Conclusion
Authors: Kymlicka Will 
Published: October 2003

AbstractLiberal thinking on minority rights has too often been guilty of ethno‐centric assumptions, or of over‐generalization from particular cases, or of conflating political expedience with moral principle. If liberalism is to have any chance of taking root in newly emerging democracies, it must explicitly address, and find a theoretical accommodation for, the needs and aspirations of ethnic and national minorities.