bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The conceptual framework
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am a functionalist1 with a biologist’s *bias and with *conscious awareness of other disciplines. My approach to memory research is guided by the following tenets:(a) the function of the brain is to create and retain *internal representations of the world that could guide behaviour; (b) the function of *learning is to permit the adaptation of internal representations to a changing world (*memory is the retention of these adaptations over time); (c) learning and memory require neural *plasticity for their actualization; and (d) learning and memory are *system properties, made possible by the concerted operation of multiple *levels of the system.
Acetylcholine
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
learning and memory. As is the case with other neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, the physiological roles of Ache in brain should be judged not only by its independent activation of specific cellular receptors and their downstream intracellular signal transduction cascades, but also by its contribution to the activation and cross-talk of webs of signalling cascades induced by coactive sets of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators (* coincidence detector, *context). Similarly, at the circuit *level, the function of the cholinergic system must be assessed in the context of the concerted activity of multiple neurotransmission and neuromodulator pathways on the target circuit (Decker and McGaugh 1991).
Acquisition
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Multiple approaches are used to investigate the neurobiology of acquisition. Cellular physiology, neuropharmacology, neurochemistry, and molecular biology are all applied to dissect the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved. Candidate ‘cellular acquisition devices’ are *ion channels and membrane *recepduring the training (Wagner et al. 1998b). It is not yet known, however, which of the activated areas is indispensable for acquisition (*criterion), which area is causally related to the strength of the engram, and what are the specific roles of each of the areas in the encoding and registration of information in the first milliseconds and seconds after engraphy has been triggered.
Algorithm
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Begin at the beginning’, said the King of Hearts, ‘and go on till you come to the end: then stop’. He thus provided White Rabbit with an algorithm (Carroll 1865). The term ‘algorithm’ is derived from Latinization of the name of one of the most creative mathematician in medieval Islam, Al-Kwarizmi (780–c. 850; Boyer 1989; Colish 1997). In modern times algorithmic is a field fundamental to the science of computing (Harel 1987). In the neurosciences algorithms are encountered in multiple contexts (Marr 1982; Hinton 1989; Church land and Sejnowski 1992). One of these is in *models of biological learning.
Amnesia
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Amnesia is ‘forgetfulness’ in Greek (*mnemonics). The adverse effect of certain types of brain injury and mental trauma on memory was recognized long ago. But the systematic analysis of amnesia started only in the nineteenth century, with Ribot (1882) and Korsak off (1887). Till the introduction of *functional neuroimaging, the study of amnesia has been the only practical approach to the investigation of brain substrates of memory in humans. Some information could be also obtained from electrical stimulation of patients undergoing brain surgery, but this was very limited in scope and controversial in interpretation (*engram).
Amygdala
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The amygdala (alias the amygdaloidal or amygdalar complex), first described and named by the German anatomist Burdach in the early nineteenth century (Meyer 1971), is so called because in the primate brain its shape resembles an almond (amugdale-in Greek). About a dozen different nuclei and specialized cortical areas are currently discerned in the amygdala, and many intra- and extramygdalar connections have been identified (Amaral et al. 1992; Pitkanen et al. 1997; Swanson and Petrovich 1998; Aggleton 2000). Indeed, the heterogeneity of the nuclei, areas, and pathways raised some doubts whether ‘amygdala’ as a whole is a discrete anatomical entity in situ, or only an artificial construct of the human mind (e.g. Kirkpatrick 1996; Swanson and Petrovich 1998; de Olmos and Heimer 1999).
Anthropomorphism
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term is derived from Greek: ánthropo-s—human being, morphé—form. Anthropomorphism owes much to anthropocentricity, i.e. our *a priori inclination to regard ourselves as the centre of the universe and see the world through our *biased eyes. By doing so we probably hope to gain some illusory control over reality. Anthropomorphism is intensively and recurrently exemplified in ancient myths, literature, and art (e.g. Burkert 1985). Occasionally, it had also infiltrated other social activities: throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, horses and pigs were dragged to public trial because it was believed that they are *consciously aware of their own acts and hence are liable for them (Evans 1906).
Bias
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Frances Bacon, trusting that ‘the subtlety of nature is greater many times over than the subtlety of the senses and understanding’ (Bacon 1620), distinguished four 1994; *observational learning). In addition, multiple sources of bias stem from implicit interactions of the subject with the *context and the experimenter. In many behavioural experiments, the subject is actively involved more than the experimenter is inclined to admit. The subject pays attention to the experimental demands, could try to extract *cues about the objective of the test, reacts to involuntary signs emitted by the experimenter (*Clever Hans), and sometimes attempts to comply with a perceived goal (Pierce 1908).
Collective memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Discussion of collective memory is at the interface of psychology, sociology, and history (Halbwachs 1925; Pennebaker and Banasik 1997). Collective memory is unique among the types of memory covered in this book because it is not confined to an individual nervous system. Rather, at any given moment in time it is encoded in a distributed *system of individual brains in the relevant social group, as well as in elements of the contemporary *culture of that group (Bartlett 1932; Wertsch 1985; d’Andrade 1995; *context, *real-life memory).
CREB
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In technical terms, which will be explained below, CREB, CAMP-response element-binding protein, is a protein that modulates the transcription of genes with CAMP-response elements in their promoters. CREB is one of the most commonly used acronyms in neurobiology these days, and also one of the few words in the jargon of molecular biology that even experimental psychologists and computational neuroscientists might have encountered. And if they did n’t, they should. Because the more we advance our knowledge in molecular neurobiology, the more we realize that CREB plays a pivotal role in the response of neurons to external stimuli. CREB is a transcription factor.
Delay task
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Delay tasks were introduced into experimental psychology by Hunter (1913), who found that a variety of species can learn to respond to a light stimulus after a delay, which in his hands ranged from a few seconds in rats to about half an hour in children. The procedures were later refined by Yerkes and Yerkes (1928) in their investigation on mnemonic capabilities in the chimpanzee. Since then, a variety of delay tasks have been developed and proven highly useful in the measurement of short-term and *working memory, *recognition, and *recall.
Enigma
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Science is driven by the unknown as much as by the known, and therefore, noting enigmas is often as useful as listing facts (aînos, Greek for ‘fable’, aínigma, ‘to speak in riddles’). Below is a list of 10 enigmas of memory. Some refer to baffling concepts, others to technological shortcoming, and most to both. Although many investigators may agree with much of the choice, some may not. Scientific enigmas tend to reflect the *bias of their compiler. The reader is fully encouraged to expand or shrink the list unabashedly. But at least, it is a starting point.
Functional neuroimaging
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The search for the *engram is a mapping expedition. It requires *maps that chart both anatomy and function. Anatomy per se only rarely tells us what specific brain structures do. This is evident, by the way, from some neuroanatomical terms that mean only a fruit or a sea monster (e.g. *amygdala, *hippocampus). Surely if early anatomists would have known something about what these structures do, they would have called them by other names. Indeed, some idea on function could occasionally be obtained from tracing the connections between various sites, e.g. a pathway from the olfactory bulb to the piriform cortex does suggest that the latter deals with olfaction, not vision.
Hippocampus
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1587 the Italian anatomist Arantius introduced the term ‘hippocampus’ (seahorse) to describe ‘an elevation of white substance’ that rises at the base of the lateral ventricles (Lewis 1923). He wondered, however, whether ‘a white silk-worm’ (Bombyx) might provide a better description. Two centuries later, a spark of dubious imagination led to a new suggestion, ‘hippopotamus’. At about the same time, a structure in that same brain region also came to be called ‘ram’s horn’, or, ‘calculated to impress whoever hears it for the first time’ (ibid.), the ‘horns of Ammon’ (after the Egyptian deity Ammon, which was represented as a ram or a human form with a ram’s head).
Immediate early genes
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term immediate early gene (IEG) was borrowed from virology. During the infectious cycle, the viral proteins are expressed in an orderly programme, which involves immediate early, delayed early, and late proteins (Honess and Roizman 1974; Weinheimer and McKnight 1987). For example, in the virus Herpes simplex, products of IEGs are detectable at 1 h of infection, of delayed early genes at 3 h, and of *late response genes at 6–7 h (Weinheimer and McKnight 1987).
Insight
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some types of learning, such as the acquisition of *skill, progress gradually, through numerous repetitions. This is termed ‘incremental learning’, or ‘rote learning’ (Hebb 1949). In contrast, other types of learning, both in *real-life and in laboratory setting, occur abruptly, following a step function. Two examples are *flashbulb memory and *conditioned taste aversion. There is, however, a type of abrupt learning that differs from explain ‘insight’ by rather complex chaining of stimulus– response contingencies (Keller and Schoenfeld 1950; Bower and Hilgard 1981).
Internal representation
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Representation’ and ‘internal representation’ are used in multiple senses in philosophy, linguistics, and the cognitive sciences. The meaning of ‘internal representation’ as used here deserves, therefore, careful clarification, especially as it is ardently *reductionistic. Generally speaking, ‘representation’ is the expression of things in one language transformed into another. ‘Language’ is any set of symbols with rules for putting them together (Marr 1982). We are not engaged here, however, in the formal treatment of representations at large, but rather in the application of the concept to memory research.
Learning set
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The roots of ‘learning set’ can be traced back to the beginning of the twentieth century, to a group of psychologists at Würzburg University, Germany, known collectively as ‘The Würzburg School’. They pioneered experimental approaches to thought processes (Boring 1950). In the course of their investigation they noted that with proper preparation of a *subject for a mental task, upon the presentation of the stimulus the thoughts of the subject would run off automatically to perform the task.
Observational learning
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Whatever you see me do, do like-wise’, said Gid’on to his selected three hundred men, blew the shofar, waved the torch, and surprised the Midyanites in their camp (Judges 7: 17–22). He was a master demonstrator in an observational learning class. A lot of what we learn in our lifetime, from others we learn, frequently by observing a model and adapting its actions. In *real-life, the model is a conspecific; in the lab it could be an individual of another species or a behaving inanimate.1 This capability, to gain from the experience of others, clearly expands the behavioural repertoire of individuals much beyond the limits of their own innate (*a priori) responses and solo experience combined.
Persistence
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If we only abandon highly simplistic *metaphors of memory storage, such as ‘cabinet files’ or ‘computer disks’, ‘persistence’ (per-sistere, Latin for ‘to stand’) becomes a prominent *enigma of memory research. As memory is the retention of acquired information over time, persistence is clearly its central attribute. Generally speaking, there is a family of ‘persistence problems’. The *classic philosophical problem (definition 2 above) is also known in metaphysics as ‘The Ship of Theseus’: the ship of the mythical Greek hero was placed on display in Athens, and with time, parts of it were replaced, one by one, till none of the original remained.
Synapse
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘synapse’ (Greek for syn-haptein, ‘to make contact’) is commonly attributed to Sherrington (Foster and Sherrington 1897). It was actually proposed by Verrall, an expert on *classical drama, to replace syndesm (Greek for ‘chained together’), which was Sherrington’s first choice (Shepherd and Erulkar 1997). ‘Synapse’ was preferred because it was judged to yield a better adjectival form. It is left for the reader to judge whether ‘synaptic *plasticity’ indeed rhymes better than ‘syndesic plasticity’, but, in any case, it is too late for a change.
Taxonomy
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The tendency to categorize the world into ‘similar’ and ‘different’ is fundamental to human cognition. It underlies folk knowledge systems in orally-reliant societies as well as sophisticated taxonomies in science (Durkheim 1912; Levi-Strauss 1962; Smith and Medin 1981; Sokal 1985; Berlin 1992). It is shared to some degree even by species far remote from us on the phylogenetic scale (Giurfa et al. 1996). The term ‘taxonomy’ itself is, however, a newcomer to language: taxinomie, or taxonomie, was introduced in 1813 into French to denote classification of entities, and the discipline that deals with such classifications (from taxis nomie, meaning arrangement method in Greek; Le Maxidico 1996). It then found its way into English.
Zeitgeist
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Zeitgeist’ (German for ‘spirit of the time’) was introduced into intellectual dialectics by the Romanticism, the anti*classical cultural movement originating in late eighteenth century Europe that displayed heightened interest in nature, emotional expression, and imagination. In the beginning, the meaning of ‘zeitgeist’ ranged from a semi-mystical force that shapes human history (Hegel 1820) to an opinionated cultural world view (Goethe 1827). Its current meaning is conveyed by definition 2 above. Occasionally the use of the term in the exact and natural sciences is considered purple prose. But what should concern us here is not whether the term itself is trendy or not, but rather what the concept tells us about the way science is practised.
Biological roles of the MMPs
Authors: Woessner J Frederick , Nagase Hideaki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The contributions of MMPs to biological processes are difficult to assess. For the most part, our knowledge stems from correlations-that is, enzyme levels are high in a given situation and therefore are postulated to play an important role. The role cannot be proven by use of inhibitors, such as the natural TIMPs or the synthetic hydroxamates, because these do not, in general, inhibit only a single MMP. Moreover, we do not yet know any pathologies directly attributable to a mutation in one of the MMPs. It is not possible to survey the thousands of papers dealing with the biological roles of MMPs, so attention will be given to review articles in various areas of interest and these will be limited to the past three years only.
The Finite Element Method and its Reliability
Authors: Babuška Ivo , Strouboulis Theofanis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The finite element method is a numerical method widely used in engineering. Experience shows that unreliable computation can lead to very serious consequences. Hence reliability questions stand more and more at the forefront of engineering and theoretical interests. The present book presents the mathematical theory of the finite element method and focuses on the question of how reliable computed results really are. It addresses among other topics the local behaviour, errors caused by pollution, superconvergence, and optimal meshes. Many computational examples illustrate the importance of the theoretical conclusions for practical computations. Graduate students, lecturers, and researchers in mathematics, engineering, and scientific computation will benefit from the clear structure of the book, and will find this a very useful reference.
m-dissipative operators
Authors: Cazenave Thierry , Haraux Alain , Martel Yvan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout this chapter, X is a Banach space, endowed with the norm II 11-Remark 2.1.2. Note that a linear unbounded operator can be either bounded or not bounded. This somewhat strange terminology is in general use and should not lead to misunderstanding in our applications. Remark 2.1.5. In this chapter, a linear unbounded operator is just called an operator where there is no risk of confusion. As usual, we denote the pair (D, A) by A with D(A) = D, meaning the domain of A is D. Note, however, that when one defines an operator, it is absolutely necessary to define its domain.
The Schrödinger equation
Authors: Cazenave Thierry , Haraux Alain , Martel Yvan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Property (iv) above is a regularity result. As well as being interesting in its own right, this result will be indirectly useful in §7.6 (blow-up in finite time) and §7.7 (behaviour at infinity) to establish the fundamental identity (7.58).
Reduction of algebraic curves
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For a long time, we have known that the arithmetic of an algebraic variety V defined over a number field K is only well understood if we take into account its behavior modulo the finite and infinite places of K. The theory of reduction of varieties is concerned with the finite places. Crudely speaking, we extend V to a scheme V over the ring of integers OK of K, while trying to preserve as many good properties of Vas possible.
Revealed Preferences: Understanding the Theory of Epistemic Entrenchment
Authors: Rott Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion of the epistemic entrenchment has attracted quite some attention of philosophers, logicians and researchers in knowledge representation and reasoning.335 It was introduced, first under the name ‘epistemic importance’, by Peter Giirdenfors (1984, 1988). He specified two possible ‘origins’ of epistemic entrenchment: an information-theoretic approach and a paradigm approach. However, neither of these approaches squares well with the logical constraints which are placed on entrenchment relations in the later and more mature 1988 work of Giirdenfors and Makinson (1988). Although it has since then become well-known how epistemic entrenchment can be put to work technically, the problem of providing a systematic justification of the postulates for entrenchment relations is still in need of a systematic clarification. The present chapter offers a reconstructive solution to this problem which is faithful to the literal meaning of the term ‘entrenchment’. It is worth emphasizing that for most of the present chapter we shall reconstruct epistemic entrenchment from belief change or choice behaviour rather than use epistemic entrenchment for constructing belief changes. A ‘complementary’, more constructive approach has been the background of several proposals to extract entrenchment relations from other information structures336 which are surveyed in Rott (2000a).
Bright Birds
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A lot of the students attending my graduate-level course in the Museum of Zoology in Ann Arhor were interested in birds. The Bird Division of the museum \Vas we Unknown to university in the USA and Canada and the Michigan Graduate School consequently drew bird oriented people from all North America. Peter and Rosemary my colleagues in Biological Sciences who had joined the University of Michigan about a year I did, studied birds exclusively and were busy every year in the Northern Summer with their now-famous study of evolutionary ecology-the actual year-by-year evolution-of the finches of the Galapagos Islands .
Wind in the Baobabs
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Zoology and Psychology departments in Oxford are housed in one concrete block consisting of two wide tower buildings connected at ground level and then by two bridges on the third floor. From the air the two must look like rather rectangular ciliate protozoans in syzygy. This beautiful word, which was among the more mystical factors attracting me to biology when I was at school, has a meaning that is properly a secret amongst us biologists and no one who hasn’t suffered a three-year degree course is supposed either to understand or use it. I break the rules of secrecy briefly here, however, to tell you that it refers simply to a state of symmetrical copulation—each individual acting as donor and recipient at once (an enviable hedonic situation one would think, although our textbooks don’t emphasize this). Usually tubes are formed through which the partners exchange hereditary material.
Time Like a Dripping Tap
Authors: Hamilton W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Manuscripts stacked and waiting, tired editors, slow contributors to multiauthor volumes, finally, and not least, obtuse and sometimes malicious referees—all these combine to confuse the sequence of a scientist’s ideas as they proceed, via pencil or keyboard, to their printed form. The paper of this chapter is another example that is out of order not only in my sequence of thinking but also of writing. It was started after several versions of the chapter that follows it in this volume had been completed and had been rejected by more than one journal. It expresses some of the estrangement I was feeling through such unsuccess.