bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A New African Pluralism in International Criminal Law
Authors: Carlson Kerstin Bree 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
There is an ongoing disagreement in international criminal law (ICL) regarding sovereign immunity. International humanitarian law takes the possibility of challenging impunity as a central element of its mandate, in part because a fundamental norm of rule of law practice is that no one is above the law, and in part because leaders are those who arguably bear the greatest responsibility for the types of collective harms international humanitarian law would criminalize. This norm does not distinguish between sitting and former heads of state. Across Africa, however, there has been significant pushback regarding prosecuting sitting leaders for atrocity crimes. This has led to what is perhaps the central conflict defining ICL discourse today: a plurality of opinions regarding how sovereignty comports with state-sponsored atrocity crimes. The chapter examines the recent trial of deposed Chadian head of state Hissène Habré to consider questions of pluralism under ICL regarding sovereign immunity. Through a detailed analysis of the work and doctrinal content of the Habré trial, the chapter shows that while the Habré trial is celebrated as an example of bringing a former head of state to justice, the experience of the Habré trial does not change the balance as regards an African pluralism on the question of sovereign immunity.
The Advance of the Causal Revolution and Its Discontents
Authors: Schwartz Sharon , Prins Seth J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter interrogates the debates about how the Causal Revolution defined causal inference within epidemiology and its implications for the role of social phenomena as causes. It carefully defines what social phenomena are and why they pose a problem to the Potential Outcomes framework. It then analyzes the Potential Outcomes proponents’ suggested solutions to those problems and assesses their adequacy. The end of the chapter defines a missing causal concept in the Potential Outcomes framework—non-interventional counterfactuals with realized causal effects. This concept can be used to expand the applicability of the Potential Outcomes framework.
Toward a More Realist Causal Revolution
Authors: Schwartz Sharon , Prins Seth J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter examines five underlying and largely hidden premises embedded in the Potential Outcomes framework that realized causal effects destabilize. These are 1) how one knows about causation defines what causation is, 2) randomized trial effects are intervention effects, 3) numbers provide precise answers to causal questions, 4) epidemiologic theory is methodological theory, and 5) meaningful change happens in increments of well-defined interventions. Accommodating realized causal effects requires contrasting premises. These are 1) causation is not merely how one gains knowledge of it, 2) randomized trials do more than predict intervention effects, 3) numbers imperfectly represent concepts 4) understanding the world requires substantive theory as well as methodological theory, and 5) theories of change can be emancipatory and not only technocratic. This chapter describes a framework, derived from this analysis, that capitalizes on the strengths of the Causal Revolution but that is more compatible with causal analyses of social phenomena. It concludes with an applied example of what this framing might look like.
Hitler's Deserters
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
The Wehrmacht executed thousands of its own in World War II for desertion and “undermining the military spirit.” This study examines who these Wehrmacht deserters were, why they deserted, what punishment they could expect, and how German military justice operated. It argues that after World War I, the German military embraced the Dolchstoß legend and determined that if it ever went to war again, the military would punish deserters ruthlessly. This view, arrived at independently, accorded fully with that of Adolf Hitler. The study analyzes the challenges associated with hiding in the Third Reich, surrendering to the enemy, or crossing over into neutral Switzerland or Sweden. After World War II, Germans began a debate about how these deserters should be remembered (Vergangenheitsbewältigung) and whether they should be rehabilitated. The study analyzes the contested meaning attached to the Wehrmacht deserter in Germany from 1945 to the twenty-first century.
Putting a Face to the Numbers
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
The German military or Wehrmacht sentenced between 25,000 and 30,000 German military personnel to death in World War II. The vast majority of death sentences carried out involved the charge of desertion. This chapter puts a face to the statistics by telling the stories of four German deserters. Its purpose is to show that the motivations, methods, and outcomes of desertion from the Wehrmacht varied greatly, and that efforts to paint the picture of a typical deserter are misguided. While cases of group desertion occurred as the war ground on, most desertions were individual decisions. Delving into the circumstances, motives, and decisions of the individual is essential to understand why the soldier, sailor, or airman deserted.
Overall Contours
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
The German military was intent on deterring desertion during World War II. Understanding how the German military dealt with deserters reveals the interaction among consent, compliance, and coercion. This chapter asserts that the Wehrmacht executed over 15,000 of its own personnel during World War II on the charge of desertion. It discusses why it is impossible to provide a precise figure due to the loss and destruction of records and the resort to flying tribunals that kept no records. It grounds its analysis by explaining how desertion was defined in Germany’s military penal code (the Militärstrafgesetzbuch), how Hitler’s Order Imposing Extraordinary Wartime Laws and Penalties (the Kriegssonderstrafrechtsverordnung) expanded that definition, and how the German military justice apparatus functioned before and during World War II.
Deadly Blend
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
The Wehrmacht’s military justice system was not radicalized because of National Socialism but because it reflected lessons military commanders learned from their defeat in World War I. Even before Hitler’s ascent to power, the Weimar-era German military (the Reichswehr) had concluded that German military justice had been too lenient in World War I. Military officers and veterans embraced the myth that Germany had not been defeated in World War I but had been stabbed in the back (Dolchstoß legend) by revolutionaries, leftists, and Jews. They were determined that German military law should be applied more ruthlessly if Germany ever went to war again, a view that fully accorded with that of Adolf Hitler. The German Navy, traumatized by the experience of mutiny and revolution in 1917 and 1918, was particularly committed to squelching any signs of dissent.
Reasons for Desertion
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
Determining why some German soldiers chose to desert is less straightforward than one might think. Four distinct avenues of inquiry are available, each with its advantages and limitations. One can draw upon the documentation put together by the German military as it apprehended and tried deserters, one can examine the statements made by those deserters who managed to cross over into neutral states, one can scrutinize Allied interrogations of Wehrmacht deserters, and one can listen to the voices of German deserters who survived the war. Based on these sources, the reasons for desertion cited most frequently were fear of punishment, war weariness, ethnicity, homesickness, fear of injury or death, political opposition, moral reservations, and romantic concerns. Multiple causes interacted in generating the decision to desert from the Wehrmacht. Regardless of motivation, the Wehrmacht warned anyone contemplating desertion that the penalty for the crime was death.
Avenues of Desertion
Authors: Peifer Douglas Carl 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
Wehrmacht deserters sought to evade military duty by hiding in the Third Reich and occupied territories, by crossing over front lines and surrendering, or by seeking refuge in neutral territories. This chapter examines the risks, reception, and practicality of each of these options. Most deserters understood that hiding in the Reich or in occupied territories was possible for a short time, but that one’s chance of evading detection decreased the longer one was on the run. Many deserters dreamed of escaping to a neutral country, but German alliances and conquests had reduced the number of accessible neutral countries to two by mid-1941: Switzerland and Sweden. Swiss and Swedish policies toward German deserters evolved over time. Surrendering to the enemy posed its own risks, as did collaborating with them once one was a POW.
Stomp Off, Let's Go
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
Stomp Off, Let’s Go provides an overview of iconic trumpeter Louis Armstrong and his meteoric rise to fame. It examines Armstrong’s musical and personal development, including his initial trip to Chicago to join Joe “King” Oliver’s band, his first to New York to meet Fletcher Henderson, and his eventual return to Chicago. Moreover, Armstrong changed the course of music following his recordings with Hot Five and Hot Seven. Stomp Off, Let’s Go presents several snippets from the autobiography of Armstrong’s second wife, Lillian “Lil” Hardin Armstrong. The book, Stomp Off, Let’s Go explores Armstrong’s personal and professional relationships, while providing essential insights into how Armstrong evolved into one of America’s most beloved icons.
“A Firecracker Baby!”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter discusses the birth and early life of Louis Armstrong. It elaborates on the debate regarding Armstrong’s birthdate between August 4 and July 4 following the fiasco of his baptism. Louis Armstrong remembered so little of Jane Alley that he spent much of his adult life not knowing its actual name but romanticized the “Battlefield” aspect. The chapter then explains the struggle to untangle the family tree of Armstrong’s mother, Mary Estelle Albert. It reports that Armstrong connected his reunion with his mother to a time when New Orleans was ravaged by a major drought in the spring of 1906.
“Nothing Could Stop Him”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter looks into the musical influences on the young Louis Armstrong. He learned about phrasing from hearing cornetist Willie “Bunk” Johnson play, and he was gaining an appreciation for the repertoire of the Eagle Band. Many early histories of jazz overemphasized, romanticized, and borderline fetishized the role Storyville played in the development of New Orleans music. By 1912, Storyville was jumping with the sound of the ragtime bands, and that was most likely the year Armstrong spent a lot of time in the district delivering coal with Morris Karnofsky. Armstrong’s period of working with Karnofsky coincided with both the rise of ragtime bands in the red-light district and the rise of Joe Oliver as a cornetist of note.
“My Fairy God Father”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Louis Armstrong joining Kid Ory and Joe Oliver’s band. It starts with how Armstrong fell in love with a prostitute named Irene Jones. Almost overnight, he found himself in a serious relationship, living with an older woman, working multiple jobs, still supporting his mother, sister, and cousin, and now caring for an ailing girlfriend. The sounds of New Orleans music were originally spread across the country by Bill Johnson’s pioneering Original Creole Band during a series of high-profile vaudeville tours that began in 1914. Just as the Original Dixieland Jazz Band's popularity exploded, Armstrong and Joe Lindsey’s Brown Skin Jazz Band disbanded in the first part of 1917.
“The Hot Miss Lil”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter introduces the early life Miss Lil: Lillian Hardin, who worked as a pianist in Chicago. At the Jones Music Store, Lillian had quickly established herself as the “Jass Wonder Child,” playing everything from Bach to the previously forbidden “St. Louis Blues.” When Hardin was offered the opportunity to join Joe Oliver’s new band at the lavish Dreamland Café, she jumped at the chance. The chapter details her first meeting with Louis Armstrong and looks into her marriage with singer Jiimmie Johnson, which eventually fell apart. It then elaborates on how Mayann Armstrong, Louis's mother, brought Hardin and her son together as a couple.
“The World’s Greatest Jazz Cornetist”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter discusses the recognition of Louis Armstrong as the world’s greatest jazz cornetist. It highlights that the Dreamland Café was “considered the best black and tan club on the South Side” of Chicago and tells how Lillian Hardin Armstrong worked hard to bring her husband back home. Lillian worked to put up a sign at Dreamland Café declaring Armstrong as the world’s greatest jazz cornetist and drew many musicians to hear him play. The chapter also mentions Armstrong’s rocky relationship with Fletcher Henderson and his band. It explains how two songs changed the sound of jazz and American popular music, catapulting Armstrong to stardom and cementing his reputation as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century.
“I Got the Heebies”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter explains how the song “Heebie Jeebies” made Louis Armstrong a star. It focuses on the recording of the song by the Hot Five with Louis Armstrong. The group made history with the first song recorded that day, Spencer Williams’s “Georgia Grind,” which featured the first proper Louis and Lil Armstrong vocal on a record. The group also recorded “Heebie Jeebies,” written by Boyd Atkins, and Armstrong transformed his voice into an instrument for , swinging just as effortlessly as if he had been playing his trumpet. When OKeh released “Heebie Jeebies” at the beginning of May, it was an instantaneous hit.
“The Latest Novelty”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter explores how a tiny section of the South Side of Chicago became the capital of hot jazz in America. Louis Armstrong and King Joe Oliver blew music across the street from one another, and clarinetist Jimmie Noone at the Nest next door to the Plantation did the same thing. “Big Butter and Egg Man” became Armstrong’s biggest hit since “Heebie Jeebies” and was a smash at the Sunset. Moreover, Armstrong soon embraced an entirely different comedic character at the Vendome, breaking out the preacher impression he used to do at Elder Cosey’s church as a boy in New Orleans. The chapter observes that Armstrong had risen from sideman to leader and become a recording superstar in the process.
“Louis Had Changed the Whole World”
Authors: Riccardi Ricky 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter focuses on how Louis Armstrong changed the whole world. All of the records Armstrong made were “race records,” marketed squarely to African American audiences around the country. Musicians and singers picked up on Armstrong’s innovations and adjusted their styles accordingly, which is why the Hot Five and Hot Seven recordings remain so important today. Moreover, comedy had been a big part of his personality since he was a kid and it made him a star with Black audiences in Chicago, so it’s only fitting that his recording of “Tight Like This” includes a running gag. Armstrong’s innovations as a trumpeter and vocalist set the entire soundtrack of the 20th century in motion.
Introduction
Authors: Walker Paul 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
The Introduction sites The Well-Tempered Clavier in Bach’s biography and creative output and describes its contents, including both books. It also characterizes the book’s intended audience(s)—particularly nonspecialists and individuals who do not read musical notation—and enumerates the various ways in which it differs from other books on the topic. After a chapter-by-chapter description of the book’s contents, the Introduction closes with an extended consideration of the best ways to find recordings, either in physical format or from downloading or streaming services. Possibilities include the streaming service Naxos and YouTube videos, among others. The pluses and minuses of each are enumerated.
Context and Concepts
Authors: Walker Paul 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter traces the history of Bach’s teaching, notes his particular focus on fugue, and discusses how he may have come to prefer the joining of prelude and fugue, not common at the time, into one genre. Following a brief history of the prelude and its uses, the chapter then offers a technical description of how fugue works, including consideration of its origin in canonic writing of the late Middle Ages. Graphic and verbal analyses of two fugues from Bach’s collection illustrate structural possibilities. Next a brief history of the origin and establishment of tonal harmony sets up Bach’s use of twenty-four major and minor keys. To unpack the expression “well-tempered,” elementary fractions serve to explain the physics of music and the resulting need to “temper” the chromatic scale. The chapter concludes with consideration of the German word Clavier and the various possible keyboard instruments to which it could refer in both Bach’s day and our own.
Legacy, Part II
Authors: Walker Paul 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
Chapter 5 traces the history of public performance of The Well-Tempered Clavier from ca. 1800 to today. At first, complex music of this sort was spurned by the concert-going public, but in the second half of the nineteenth century interest began to grow, thanks in large part to the half century of advocacy shown by Clara Schumann. The first important performer to prefer performances on harpsichord was Wanda Landowska in the early twentieth century. By mid-century, Bach’s preludes and fugues could be heard in concert halls worldwide, and the collection’s most important performance legacy since that time has been established in the recording studio, for which it is particularly well suited. The chapter also incorporates an essay on the performance issues involved in presenting this music, including not just choice of instrument but also all kinds of interpretational decisions. Electronic and jazz-tinged performances close out the book.
Introduction: The First Encounter
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
The introduction describes the Pilgrims’ first encounter with the Nausets, one of the many Algonquian peoples of New England, and introduces the themes of the book. It explains that Puritan Christianity decisively shaped the colonization of New England from beginning to end. While the Puritans had good intentions toward the Indians, their efforts to evangelize and civilize Native Americans led them to dominate them instead. Allegiances were complicated, as many Indians cooperated with and supported the English, often becoming Christians, while Puritan leaders often criticized other colonists for their injustice and greed. Nevertheless, when war did break out, the English remained united and gained the decisive upper hand.
The Pilgrims
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter describes how the Pilgrims established their power in Plymouth by treaty, trade, and military force. The Pilgrims were separatists from the Church of England. They came to America to find religious freedom, expand English dominion, and establish Christ’s kingdom in new lands. Although many Pilgrims died during the first winter, the Wampanoag Indians, led by Ousamequin, made peace with them. With Wampanoag help, Plymouth gradually became stable. Upon learning of an apparent plot against Plymouth, Pilgrim forces launched a bloody preemptive strike against the Massachusett Indians.
The Puritans
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter describes how the Puritans established Massachusetts and how they defended the morality of colonization. The Puritans were Reformed Christians who wanted to purify the Church of England. They came to America to escape persecution, to establish a church and society modeled on biblical principles, to find economic opportunity, and to convert Indians to Christianity. Puritan leaders explained why colonization was justified and how Indians should be treated justly. After establishing Massachusetts Bay colony, they established peaceful relations with local Indians, but they often treated the Indians as subjects and feared Indian attacks.
War with the Pequots
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter describes how Massachusetts’s domineering treatment of the Pequots provoked the Pequot War. Following the Indian murders of two colonial traders, Massachusetts imposed heavy demands on the Narragansetts and launched a punitive military expedition against the Manisses and Pequots. The Pequots retaliated, and war spread to the lower Connecticut valley. Roger Williams intercedede with the Narragansetts, who signed a treaty with Massachusetts, though the colony was distracted by a tumultuous religious controversy.
Miantonomo
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter describes the fallout from the Pequot War and the growing alienation between the Narragansetts and the English. The war exacerbated the emerging rivalry between the Narragansetts and Mohegans, both of whom were just as eager as Massachusetts and Connecticut to reap land and captives as the spoils of war. Connecticut pressured Miantonomo and Uncas into signing the Treaty of Hartford, which banned the Pequots as a people and apportioned them to other Algonquian communities as captives. Massachusetts grappled with allegations that Miantonomo was attempting to lead an Algonquian uprising against the English. Such concerns led the Puritan colonies to form the United Colonies confederation. The United Colonies ultimately allowed Uncas and the Mohegans to kill
God, King, and Land
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter describes how the restoration of Charles II as king of England triggered bitter conflicts over land among the colonies. The colonies perceived the restoration as an opportunity to advance their ambitious land claims, including claims to Narragansett country and Rhode Island. They consistently advanced their claims on religious as well as legal grounds. The king dispatched royal commissioners to resolve the disputes. The royal commissioners frustrated the Puritan colonies by ruling in favor of Rhode Island and the Narragansetts at every turn. Nevertheless, the colonies resisted these decisions, leaving the future of Narragansett country in doubt.
Praying Towns
Authors: Tuininga Matthew J. 
Published: January 2025

Abstract
This chapter describes the unprecedented expansion of praying towns in New England. Numerous communities of Indians, especially Nipmucs, submitted to Massachusetts in exchange for protection from the Mohawks and Narragansetts. Daniel Gookin developed a plan to establish governments among these Indians, civilizing them, protecting their land, and educating and integrating them into English society. The number of praying towns in Massachusetts rose to fourteen. Other native communities, including Uncas’s Mohegans, received some Christian teaching, but eventually some turn away, alienated by English prejudice and power. Meanwhile, Puritan ministers warned colonists that God would judge them if they did not repent of their sins.