bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Judicial Supremacy as Orthodoxy
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To the general public, even the educated public, constitutional law consists of various cases that wend their way to the U.S. Supreme Court, which periodically decides the meaning of the Constitution and communicates that fact to a waiting nation. Advocates of this model occasionally acknowledge that Congress, the President, and the states may participate in constitutional debate at earlier stages, but those activities are considered subordinate and given junior varsity status. According to this account, the authoritative and final voice, regardless of content and reasoning, belongs to the Court.
Who Participates?
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the Court interprets the Constitution it has plenty of company. Congress, the White House, government agencies, interest groups, the general public, and the states are all legitimate players. Before a case is ever considered, Congress or the states must enact a law or the executive branch must promulgate a regulation. Once a case is in court, the states, the Justice Department, and congressional coalitions, sometimes as parties to the case and sometimes as amici curiae (“friends of the court”), press their views on the judiciary. After a decision is issued, elected government may seek to expand or limit the holding with a number of techniques, including subsequent statutory action, creative interpretation and enforcement (to the point of nonenforcement), or nullifying the ruling through constitutional amendment. If a court lacks jurisdiction to decide a constitutional issue, the resolution of the dispute is left entirely to elected government.
Transparency and a Dialogue with the Customer
Authors: Barabba Vincent P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Formerly, it was thought that the seller knew more than the customer about a product and its price. By bringing together all its knowledge about individual customers, the seller also knew more about the behavior of customers than did any one customer. The seller could reach large numbers of customers at the same time through mass media, efficiently and effectively. GM and other large manufacturers helped create this paradigm and took full advantage of this condition. Chapter 2 pointed out that, in a world in which future behavior was somewhat predictable, a firm could take full advantage of economies of scale by designing, developing, producing, and selling products in accordance with estimates of future demand.
Solving a Complex Problem Averting Unintended Consequences
Authors: Barabba Vincent P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In addition to learning how to better use information in product decisions, GM was also learning how to do the same in the manner in which it marketed its vehicles. This chapter addresses a situation in which the decision makers shared a reasonably consistent view of the problem, but their understanding of the complexity and the manner in which the problem interacted with other aspects of the business, particularly over the longer term, required a significantly different problem solving approach.
Challenging Our Critical Assumptions
Authors: Barabba Vincent P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although there are other definitions of the word assumption, defining the term is not the purpose of this chapter. Instead, the purpose is to make clear the importance of revealing, challenging, and making explicit critical assumptions underlying plans and decisions. Choosing from among alternative courses of action that have different impacts on interested and involved parties is often hampered by conflicts between equally competent individuals and organizations trying to do what is #x201C;right:· When these conflicts arise, it usually stems from one of two conditions. In the first condition, people have different views of the explicit underlying assumptions supporting estimates of current and future market conditions. Conflicts of this sort are actually healthy and beneficial to any type of decision making. Skillful interpretation of what is known and an open discussion around differences are the hallmarks of high-quality decision making.
Leveraging Knowledge Across the Enterprise
Authors: Barabba Vincent P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most companies and institutions in one way or another organize around functional #x201C;silos,#x201D; such as marketing, finance, manufacturing, and engineering. Generally, this type of organizational structure has one #x201C;silo,#x201D; or group of people, determine what it thinks customers want; another group designs the product; other separate groups handle the engineering, manufacturing, and promotion; and still other groups sell and service the product and determine the terms of trade.
In Markets We Trust
Authors: Frankel Tamar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The world is a market. The vision of the world as a market and the vision of relationships as exchanges are useful views for many situations. But in the past few decades, the market and exchange images have overshadowed and subsumed all other views of the world and all other kinds of relationships. The Supreme Court has spoken of the market for ideas;1 Roberta Romano wrote about the market for corporate laws.2 Daniel A. Farber and Phillip P. Frickey discussed the market among legislators.3 I wrote about a market for power.4 Robert C. Elickson examined the market for social norms;5 and Richard A. Posner analyzed the market for babies.6 The word “product” includes trust services and is used to emphasize what is sold rather than what and how it is produced. Thus, consumers are offered financial products, trust products, and legal products—or “legal commodities,” as one of the courses for practicing lawyers on how to make money described what lawyers do.
William Cobbett and the Politics of Personality
Authors: Daniel Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the first issue of his new daily newspaper, Porcupine’s Gazette, published in March 1797, William Cobbett called on his rival Benjamin Franklin Bache to observe a political truce. In the future, Cobbett promised, he would “avoid all personality whatever” in his discussion of politics, provided that Bache agreed to do the same. “I do not wish to fill my paper with personal satire and abuse,” he wrote:
Our readers, especially those of this city, know already every thing that is worth knowing about you and I. Nothing that we can say will alter their opinions of us; and as for altering our opinions of one another, that is a thing not to be thought of. It is therefore useless, my dear Bache, to say any more about the matter. Let us disappoint them; let us walk arm in arm: many a couple, even of different sex, do this, and at the same time like one another no better than we do.
As regular readers of Porcupine’s Gazette knew, this conciliatory gesture was simply another installment in a long-running feud between the two newspaper editors. But Bache was not the only object of Cobbett’s mockery. Cobbett’s tongue-in-cheek invitation also satirized the conventional pieties of American journalism, in particular the expressions of editorial impartiality and respectability that appeared in the inaugural issues of most newspapers.
To Cobbett, such pious intentions were trite and hypocritical. But his mockery of them was inspired by more than outraged honesty. Such commonplace statements of political impartiality and editorial decency expressed an ideal of “impersonality” that was deeply embedded in American print culture and remained highly influential throughout the 1790s.
Introduction
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a sustained argument purporting to show that Noam Chomsky’s latest version of his linguistic theory, recently published as The Minimalist Program (MP) (Chomsky 1995), though presented as the crowning achievement of the Chomskyan version of generative grammar, is in fact the clearest possible demonstration that that version is fundamentally flawed. The MP is not so much the crowning achievement as the undoing of the development started by Chomsky during the late 1960s, when he decided to dissociate himself from what was then the natural continuation of the new paradigm of transformational generative grammar.
The Mechanism of the MP under Scrutiny
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What does the MP actually look like? It is useful to distinguish the actual grammatical machinery from what Chomsky himself calls “the guiding ideas” of the MP (1995:219)—that is, its wider conceptual, philosophical, and methodological embedding. The latter, as has been said, is discussed in later chapters of this book. Yet one should have at least a global idea of the guiding ideas before investigating the actual machinery of the grammar.
What Is Conceptually Necessary about the MP?
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now come to the question of what conceptual motivation for the random-generator position taken in the MP could be provided. Recall that the random-generator position entails the random generation of sentences. In minimalist terms this means that syntax is regarded as a random generator of sentential structures, each consisting of a pair (SA,PR) in such a way that SA (semantic analysis) and PR (phonological representation) are instructions to “external” systems of semantic interpretation and phonetic realization, respectively. (For a flowchart representation of this model of grammatical description, see fig. 6.3 later in this chapter.)
Race
Authors: Rosen Jeffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the Civil War, the Reconstruction Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, promising all United States citizens equal civil (but not political) rights; in practice, however, these rights were denied or abridged by state laws and practice for nearly a hundred years and didn’t begin to become meaningfully available to African Americans until after the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The framers and ratifiers of the Fourteenth Amendment expected that civil rights would be defined and enforced primarily by Congress, not the courts; but the courts high-handedly insisted on their own supremacy, denying Congress the right to interpret civil rights more expansively.
George F. Kennan and the Strategy of Containment
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kennan’s abrupt transition from career diplomat to Cold War strategist grew out of more than just an “outrageous encumberment of the telegraphic process.”1 By the time the “long telegram” had won him the reputation of being the government’s foremost Soviet expert, there was already in his writing and thinking a depth of strategic vision—a knack for seeing relationships between objectives and capabilities, aspirations and interests, long-term and short-term priorities—rarely found in harried bureaucracies. It was this quality that commended him to Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal, a man of similar concerns, as the ideal “deputy for foreign affairs” at the newly established National War College in Washington, the nation’s first institution devoted to the study of political-military affairs at the highest level. Kennan’s success there in turn attracted the attention of George C. Marshall, who, upon becoming Secretary of State early in 1947, resolved to impart greater coherence to American diplomacy by organizing a “Policy Planning Staff,” charged with “formulating and developing... long-term programs for the achievement of U.S. foreign policy objectives.” In May of that year, Kennan left the war college to become the staff’s first director.2 His place in Washington was by that time unique.
Eisenhower, Dulles, and the New Look
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dwight D. Eisenhower did not run for president in 1952 out of any burning sense of dissatisfaction with the Truman administration’s approach to containment. With the single exception of its China policy, about which he had had private reservations, Eisenhower had supported each of the administration’s major diplomatic and strategic initiatives; indeed, since February 1951 he himself had been responsible for implementing its European strategy as NATO Supreme Commander. The general’s reasons for allowing his name to be placed before the 1952 Republican national convention had more to do with his determination to keep the nomination out of the hands of Robert A. Taft, whom Eisenhower regarded as an isolationist; his concern over Truman’s domestic programs, which he thought were leading to socialism; and his belief that survival of the two-party system required an end to twenty years of Democratic rule.
Kennedy, Johnson, and Flexible Response
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
John F. Kennedy attached even greater importance than usual to the task of putting “distance” between himself and his predecessor. His campaign critique of the previous administration had been no hasty accommodation to the requirements of winning a nomination, as Eisenhower’s had been in 1952. The Massachusetts senator had articulated the basic elements of his position well before the Los Angeles convention in July 1960.1 Nor were his criticisms aimed at gaining the support of a particular wing of the Democratic party, as Eisenhower had sought to do with the Republicans eight years earlier. Most Democrats shared Kennedy’s reservations about the existing administration’s conduct of foreign and national security affairs, as did a fair number of prominent Republicans.2 Mixed with this uneasiness over past policies was a “generational” imperative, symbolized vividly in the transfer of power from the oldest elected president to the youngest: there was somehow the feeling that the promise—indeed the legitimacy— of a new generation of national leadership would be called into question if its programs were not made to differ visibly and substantially from what had gone before.
The Invention of Interest
Authors: Loans Sumerian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first literate culture in world history originated in the southernmost part of modern Iraq, the region usually called southern Mesopotamia or Babylonia when its ancient history is discussed. After a long evolution starting in the fifth millennium B.C., when people first developed irrigation agriculture enabling them to settle year-round, true cities grew up in the late fourth millennium, around the year 3200. Relatively large populations-their exact size is hard to estimate but they must have amounted to tens of thousands in each case came to reside together in the same places. Such dense concentrations of people required the control of the surrounding agricultural land in order to guarantee food supplies. In southern Iraq ecological niches with different resources adjoin one another: fertile agricultural fields irrigated by nearby rivers, large grazing areas in the steppe, and rich fishing grounds in the marshes. In order to increase productivity, people became specialized in their labor (farming, herding, fishing), while in the urban centers professional groups emerged that did not engage in food production at all but worked purely in crafts manufacture and the like. The loss of economic self-sufficiency meant families needed to exchange products. In this world of exchange two indispensable elements developed: writing and credit.
From Tallies and Chirographs to Franklin’s Printing Press at Passy:The Evolution of the Technology of Financial Claims
Authors: Goetzmann William N , Williams Laura 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the process of reading and interpreting financial documents, it is easy to ignore their physical, technical nature as financial instruments. True, documents like printed share certificates or handwritten bonds have considerable textual information explaining their use, but their primary feature is that they physically represent the legal claims of their owners. Consider, for example, the 500-franc 3 percent bearer bond issued in 1879 by the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez. It is historically and economically important because it was used to finance the construction of the Suez Canal. The graphic design for the bond shows an aerial view of the proposed canal, Egyptian archaeological scenes, and stylized representations of the commodities the shareholders hope to ship through the new waterway: a mallet, pick, shovel, gear, and compass from Europe and America; ivory, textiles, and agricultural goods from Asia and Africa. As important as the text and the graphics, however, are the bond’s technical features. The panel (or face) in the upper right of the document specifies the obligation and describes the right of the holder of the security: a semiannual payment of 7 francs 50 on the first of March and the first of September each year until 1934, and a reimbursement of the 500-franc capital by way of annual drawings over the next fifty years.
Venture Shares of the Dutch East India Company
Authors: Neal Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origin of modern stock exchanges that specialize in creating and sustaining secondary mar kets in corporate securities goes back to the formation of the Dutch East India Company in the year 1602. In March of that year, the States General of the United Provinces of the Netherlands adopted a charter that created the Verenigde Nederlandsche Geoctroy eerde Oostindische Compagnie (United Netherlands Chartered East India Company, thereafter referred to as the VOC). There can be no doubt this was a political de cision designed to aid the finances of the Netherlands in the midst of what turned out to the Eighty Years War against Spain, an ongoing military and naval effort that spawned many other financial innovations as well over the period of that conflict, 1572-1648. By 1688, when the Dutch joined forces with the English under the lead ership of William III, Prince of Orange, there was an active, sophisticated trade in the shares of the VOC carried on within the precincts of the Amsterdam Exchange by a specialized group of brokers, dealers, and speculators. Joseph Penso de la Vega, one of the Sephardic Jewish elite of Amsterdam that were to be so useful to William of Orange in helping to finance his ever more expensive military campaigns, described eloquently in Confusion de confusiones the operations of the Amsterdam stock ex change in 1688.
Perpetuities in the Stream of History:A Paying Instrument from the Golden Age of Dutch Finance
Authors: Goetzmann William M , Rouwenhorst K Geert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1323 Count William of Holland sent his army into the town of Mijdrecht, located in the Diocese of Utrecht, to expell its population and burn down the city. The dikes protecting the low land from the water of the Lek River had broken twice in 1321 and 1322, flooding not only Utrecht but also a large portion of William’s territory. When repeated appeals to the Bishop of Utrecht to make the necessary repairs failed, William resorted to military force to convince his neighbors to sign a charter regulating the upkeep of the waterworks around the Lek in Utrecht. The agreement between Holland and Utrecht marked a reorganization of the Lekdijk-college, one of the oldest water boards in the Netherlands.1 While their exact timing is disputed by historians,2 these events illustrate why water boards are among the oldest public institutions of the Netherlands: flood plains of rivers rarely coincide with state borders, and water management calls for organizations that transcend jurisdictions.
Adrenoleukodystrophy
Authors: Mcgovern Margaret M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An 11-year-old Caucasian male was referred for evaluation of deteriorating school performance and the recent onset of ataxic (i.e., wide-based and unsteady) gait. He had been previously diagnosed with attention deficit disorder and had been treated with Ritalin for the past 3 years. There was no history of trauma or infection. He came to attention after his fifth grade teacher noted that his handwriting skills had declined noticeably from the end of fourth grade, and that there was a general decline in his cognitive abilities, including difficulties with mathematical calculations. In addition, his mother reported that he was having difficulty reading, had become clumsy, and was displaying behavioral changes.
Orthostatic tremor (“shaky legs syndrome”)
Authors: Uitti Dr. Ryan J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patient’s complaint illustrates the scope of the differential diagnosis of “unsteadiness.” Shaking restricted to the legs is an unusual complaint, and unsteadiness does not typically dissipate with walking or movement. Patients with Parkinson’s disease usually note tremor or akathisia in the legs only while at rest when sitting or lying. Patients with essential tremor may complain of tremulousness and unsteadiness in the legs with action but typically have accompanying tremor in the arms, head and neck, or voice. In contrast, the worst unsteadiness and shaking in this patient with orthostatic tremor occurred while he was standing in place, as in line at the bank or grocery store. Often, a patient with orthostatic tremor may not report “shaking” but rather a sense of unpleasant, “vibratory” unsteadiness, further contributing to the diagnostic challenge. This patient’s history of sleep attacks and cataplexy also suggests a diagnosis of narcolepsy, although this is seemingly unrelated to the chief complaint.
Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF) presenting after cerebral venous sinus thrombosis
Authors: Brown Dr. Robert D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The positional tinnitus and bruit suggested the diagnosis of DAVF developing as a complication of sagittal sinus thrombosis. The magnetic resonance angiogram and venogram demonstrated very slow flow in the right transverse and sigmoid sinuses. There were enlarged veins in the right jugular foramen. Cerebral angiography demonstrated a large DAVF in the right jugular foramen (Figure). The arterial supply was complex and included feeders from a large anomalous branch of the cervical internal carotid artery and branches from the ascending pharyngeal, posterior auricular, right occipital, and vertebral arteries.
α-Lipoprotein deficiency (Tangier disease)
Authors: Dyck Dr. Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patient has late-onset Tangier disease, a rare, autosomal recessively inherited, multisystem disorder, presenting neurologically as a primary axonal degeneration of unmyelinated (dorsal root and sympathetic) fibers, small (Aσ) and large (Aαβ) sensory fibers, and motor fibers, especially of the bulbar, cervical, and thoracic levels (Figure). Tangier disease was first described in 1960 in children from Tangier Island (Virginia) in the Chesapeake Bay. Their removed tonsils contained macrophages with excessive cholesterol esters. The increased cholesterol deposition was linked to extremely low levels of serum highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. The molecular genetic defect that explains the clinical disorder is due to mutations in both alleles encoding a lipid transporter called “ABCA1.” A related lipid disorder, familial HDL deficiency (also called “familial hypoalph-alipoproteinemia”[FHA]), occurs in persons who have one normal and one mutant allele encoding ABCA1.