bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Scientific Life of Maria Göppert-Mayer
Authors: Masters Barry R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reprinted with permission from Optics & Photonics News , 11(9) , 38–41, (2000). Researcher and educator Maria Göppert-Mayer, winner of the 1963 Nobel Prize in physics for her work on the nuclear shell model, loved science and learning. That love sustained her through the difficulties she encountered in pursuing her profession, including relocation from Europe to America prior to the war years and never being granted a full-time salaried academic position until she was 53 years old. A study of Maria Göppert-Mayer’s life reveals insights into the influence of her parents on her education and achievements, as well as into the role of her mentors, physicists James Franck and Edward Teller, on her professional development. Göppert-Mayer’s doctoral thesis, published in 1931, predicted multiphoton excitation processes and servedas a precursor to the development of multiphoton excitation microscopy.
An Optical Design Primer for Nonlinear Optical Microscopes
Authors: Peter T C So , Kim Daekeun 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nonlinear microscopes can operate based on contrast mechanisms such as fluorescence, harmonic generation, or coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering. The microscope optical design should be adapted for each mode of contrast. Furthermore, the optical configuration of the microscope should be optimized for a given biological application. This chapter describes the basic design considerations of nonlinear optical microscopes. Specifically, this chapter will predominately focus on fluorescence-based systems, since they are most widely used. The instrument considerations specific to the other contrast mechanisms will be addressed in later chapters.
Image Formation in Multiphoton Fluorescence Microscopy∗
Authors: Gu Min 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is dedicated to image formation in multiphoton fluorescence microscopy. In particular, the comparison of image formation is based on the three-dimensional intensity point spread function (IPSF), the three-dimensional optical transfer function (OTF), and axial and transverse image resolution for thin and thick objects.
Since its inception, confocal scanning microscopy has become a widely used and important tool in many fields, including biology, biochemistry, chemistry, physics, and industrial inspection (1–6). One of the main advantages in confocal microscopy is its ability of three-dimensional (3-D) imaging of a thick object. Because of the 3-D imaging property in confocal scanning microscopy, confocal fluorescence microscopy was achieved in the same period as confocal bright-field microscopy. Under the illumination of intermediate power, one incident photon can be absorbed in the sample under inspection to excite the electron transition from the ground state to an excited state. The excited electron returns to the ground state by radiating fluorescence light. The energy of the radiated fluorescence photon is slightly less than the incident one due to the nonradiation relaxation during the downward transition, and the corresponding microscopy in which the fluorescence light is imaged is termed single-photon (1-p) fluorescence microscopy.
Second-Harmonic Generation Imaging Microscopy of Structural Protein Arrays in Tissue
Authors: Campagnola Paul J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past several years, second-harmonic generation (SHG) has emerged as a powerful nonlinear optical contrast mechanism for biological imaging applications. SHG is a coherent processwhere two lower-energy photonsare up-converted to exactly twice the incident frequency (or half the wavelength). This effect was first demonstrated by Kleinman (Kleinman, 1962) in crystalline quartz in 1962, where thisadvance wasmade possible with the invention of the ruby laser. Since that discovery, SHG in uni-axial birefringent crystals has been exploited to frequency double pulsed lasers to obtain shorter wavelengths, thereby producing multiple colors from a single source. SHG from interfaces was later discovered by Bloembergen in 1968 and rapidly became a versatile spectroscopic tool to study chemical and physical processes at air–solid, air– liquid, and liquid–liquid interfaces (for reviews, see Eisenthal, 1996; Shen, 1989). The first integration of SHG and optical microscopy was achieved in 1974 by Hellwarth and coworkers, who used SHG as an imaging tool to visualize the microscopic crystal structure in polycrystalline ZnSe (Hellwarth & Christensen, 1974). Sheppard then implemented the method on a scanning microscope in 1977 (Sheppard et al., 1977).
Two-Photon Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy
Authors: Pabit Suzette , Berland Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With advances in high-sensitivity fluorescence microscopy, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and related fluctuation spectroscopy methods have become important and practical research tools that allow researchers to investigate the chemical and physical properties of biomolecules in a variety of complex environments (Bacia & Schwille, 2003; Chen et al., 2001; Hess et al., 2002; Krichevsky & Bonnet, 2002; Muller et al., 2003; Rigler & Elson, 2001; Schwille, 2001; Thompson et al., 2002; Webb, 2001). Specifically, fluctuation spectroscopy measurements can provide quantitative information about mobility, concentration, interactions, chemical kinetics, and physical dynamics of biomolecules both in vitro and within living cells and tissues, and the various FCS methods are being increasingly applied in many new biomedical research areas. This chapter provides an introduction to FCS, focusing primarily on the basic theoretical and experimental considerations involved in FCS measurements and analysis. Several different classes of FCS applications are also introduced to provide an overview of some key FCS capabilities.
Applications of Nonlinear Intravital Microscopy in Tumor Biology
Authors: Jain Rakesh K , Booth Michael F , Padera Timothy P , Munn Lance L , Fukumura, Dai , Brown Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past few decades have produced a wealth of information about the molecular underpinnings ofcancer. Various genes associated with oncogenesis and tumor angiogenesis have been identified, and this has led to the development of a wide variety of therapeutic agents. As we enter the post-genomic era, the grand challenges remaining in tumor biology are (i) to discover the relationships between the expression of novel genes and their function in an intact organism and (ii) to deliver newly discovered therapeutics to their targets in vivo in optimal quantities (Jain et al., 2002).
Interactions between Entomopathogenic Fungi and Arthropod Natural Enemies
Authors: Furlong Michael J , Pell Judith K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In both natural and agricultural ecosystems, complex multitrophic interactions involving herbivores, predators, parasitoids, and pathogens contribute to arthropod community structure. Studies of the individual relationships among insects and their predators, parasitoids, and pathogenic microorganisms are many and varied, and several represent landmarks in the theory and understanding of population ecology and biological control (Bellows and Hassell 1999). It is common for a herbivore to be exploited by a number of different natural enemies that will interact directly and indirectly not only with each other but also with the herbivore. However, until relatively recently, studies examining the interrelationships between phylogenetically distinct organisms, such as arthropod and pathogen natural enemies utilizing the same insect resource, were uncommon (Hochberg and Lawton 1990; Rosenheim et al. 1995). Only a limited number of these studies have considered interactions between arthro­ pod natural enemies and entomopathogenic fungi (Brooks 1993; Roy and Pell 2000).
Genetic Variation
Authors: Wayne Marta L , Miyamoto Michael M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Genetic variation provides the underpinning of modern biological thought. From evolutionary biologists studying finches in the field, to drug development in the pharmaceutical industry; from the developmental geneticists trying to understand the body plan of a mouse, to the researchers investigating the genetic basis for alcoholism; genetic variation gives us a handhold on the phenotype, which is otherwise a complex and slippery construct. Phenotypes are produced by genes, the environment, and the interaction between genes and the environment. There are few phenotypes for which variation occurring in nature is entirely environmental. However, beyond a conviction that organisms must ultimately be the products of their genes, it is very difficult to justify such a statement. This is in part because we still cannot describe the complete genotype-phenotype map for any but the simplest traits. Regardless, genetic variation has been found for virtually every trait ever examined, suggesting that genetic variation as a cause of phenotypic variation is likely to be rampant.
Gene Genealogies
Authors: Rosenberg Noah A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Genetic variation at a locus among extant individuals can be viewed as the result of mutations on a scaffold of genetic relationships-a gene genealogy. Because patterns of genetic variation contain much information about phenomena such as hybridization, migration, species divergence, and changes in population size, an understanding of gene genealogies is helpful for the application of genetic variation to inference about evolutionary processes. As we will see, gene genealogies, which underlie numerous statistical methods for population genetic analysis, are useful in diverse areas of genetics and evolutionary biology, ranging from phylogenetics to genetic mapping.
Genetic Architecture of Quantitative Variation
Authors: Cheverud James M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The genetic architecture of quantitative variation plays an important role in evolutionary processes for complex traits. There are two aspects of the genetic architecture of quantitative variation that need to be considered. First, there is the genetic architecture of the quantitative traits themselves, including: (1)the number of loci that affect trait variation; (2)the typical size of genotypic effects; (3) whether alleles at a single locus display dominance interactions; (4) whether alleles at multiple loci engage in epistatic interactions; and (5) the range and pleiotropic patterns of gene effects. These features describe the genetic architecture of a trait and are specified in quantitative genetic theory by the genotypic values at a locus or set of loci (Falconer & Mackay 1996). Genotypic values are simply the mean phenotypic value of individuals carrying a specified genotype (see Box 19.1). These genotypic value definitions do not involve allele frequencies. The second aspect of the genetic architecture of quantitative variation is the genotype and allele frequencies at the loci in question. Genotypic values and allele frequencies are combined to define the population genie values that in turn specify the components of genetic variation and, hence, help to determine the response to evolutionary forces such as selection and genetic drift (Box 19.2; Falconer & Mackay 1996). It is through its manifold effects on heritable genetic variation that genetic architecture impacts evolutionary processes.
Social Selection
Authors: Frank Steven A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Individuals sometimes give up their own resources to benefit their neighbors. Such altruistic traits posed a difficulty for the original Darwinian formulation of natural selection, which emphasized the spread of individually advantageous characters. So how have altruistic traits become common in some populations? This is an important question because a purely individualistic world would look very different from the one that we see. With no altruism, there would be no multicellularity with specialized nonreproductive tissues, no social insects with specialized worker castes, and nothing at all like complex human societies.
Natural Hybridization
Authors: Arnold Michael L , Burke John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The focus of this chapter is natural hybridization, that is the natural interbreeding of individuals from wild populations that can be distinguished on the basis of one or more heritable characters (Harrison 1990; Arnold 1997). Over the years, the evolutionary importance of natural hybridization has been a topic of considerable debate. Indeed, the potential outcomes ascribed to natural hybridization range from the extinction of one or both hybridizing taxa to the formation of new species (reviewed in Arnold 1997; see also Box 26.1).
fX174 et al., the Microviridae
Authors: Fane Bentley A , Brentlinger karie L , Burch april D , chen Min , Hafenstein Susan , moore Erica , Novak, Christopher R , uchiyama Asako 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sometime in the 1920s, a plaque was placed in a test tube labeled #174. It must have had a certain luster. Since then that phage has challenged genetic, biochemical, and biophysical dogmas. From the very beginning, it was unique. It was unusually tiny, readily passing through the smallest of ultrafilters. Sertic and Bulgakov (111) used its size to define a ‘‘race’’: race X (ten). Hence the name became fX174. The first electron micrographs revealed a small, isometric particle without an elaborate, and to some unseemly, tail structure. As the study of molecular biology progressed, the particle refused to behave. Its genome was singlestranded DNA (117), not a double stranded molecule. Although the data used to draw the first genetic maps were accurate, revealing the existence of the overlapping reading frames, the cistrons were arranged in an orderly and linear manner (12). However, when the genome was sequenced (1, 107) the raw data were proved correct. This complex genetic arrangement was so unexpected that many suspected an extraterrestrial origin. As the New York Times reported the theory (127), an advanced race engineered fX174 and disseminated it into the cosmos where it would ‘‘persist until the evolution of intelligent life and finally of investigators interested in the genetics of phage.’’ Attempts were made to find the hidden message in the genome, a holy truth or grail, maybe directions to an inhabited planet; however, none was uncovered. Perhaps the only aspect of fX174 that lends itself to science fiction is its name.
The Listeria Bacteriophages
Authors: calendar Martin J Loessner richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bacterial viruses specific for the genus Listeria were discovered almost 60 years ago (57), and were early reported for their usefulness in phage typing (61) of isolates of the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes (65). In the following years, phage typing of Listeria isolates has proven to be a very useful method, and led to the isolation of more than 400 phages for L. monocytogenes, L. ivanovii, and the nonpathogenic species L. innocua, L. seeligeri, and L. welshimeri (5, 9, 16, 19, 22, 25, 26, 31^33, 48^51, 53, 55, 63). To date, no phages infecting organisms of the species L. grayi have been found. This chapter briefly summarizes our present knowledge on Listeria phages, and gives an overview on their general and particular properties, with respect to both the basic science and the various practical applications.
Introduction:Organizing the Tools and Methods of Affective Science
Authors: Coan James A , Allen John J B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Affective science—the scientific study of emotion and emotion-related processes—is now a mature domain of inquiry, with its own standardized measures, induction procedures, data analytic challenges, subdisciplines, core theoretical debates, and so on. Though long associated with psychology, researchers in the affective sciences can now be found in a variety of disciplines. Psychologists, biologists, sociologists, geneticists, neuroscientists, ethologists, economists, behavioral ecologists, and even physicians each contribute their specific expertise like pieces of a puzzle, because emotions distribute their echoes and effects at every one of these levels and more.
Emotion Elicited by Primary Reinforcers and Following Stimulus-Reinforcement Association Learning
Authors: Rolls Edmund T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What are emotions? Why do we have emotions? What are the rules by which emotion operates? What are the brain mechanisms of emotion, and how can disorders of emotion be understood? What motivates us to work for particular rewards, such as food when we are hungry or water when we are thirsty? How do these motivational control systems operate to ensure that we eat approximately the correct amount of food to maintain our body weight or to replenish our thirst? What factors account for the overeating and obesity that some humans show? Why is the brain built to include reward and punishment systems, rather than in some other way? In this chapter I describe an approach to these issues that leads to ways based on fundamental principles to investigate emotions by using and understanding the processing of primary (unlearned) reinforcers and how learning of associations of other stimuli to these primary reinforcers occurs. I pay special attention to analyses of the operation of these systems in nonhuman primates, because of their close relevance to understanding the function of these reward-andpunishment systems in humans.
Emotion Elicitation with Neurological Patients
Authors: Levenson Robert W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a set of issues and methods related to studying emotional functioning in neurological patients. It incorporates discussions of the advantages and disadvantages of two primary paradigms for studying neural substrates of human emotion (patient studies and activation studies); the importance of studying multiple emotion processes, emotion types, and emotion response systems; and the details of specific elicitation methods (along with modifications that may be necessary for use with patients). Throughout, there is a recounting of “lessons learned,” based on our own experience taking methods that we had developed and used over several decades for studying emotion in normal individuals and adapting them to study patients suffering from focal lesions (e.g., orbitofrontal lesions), congenital brain damage (e.g., Moebius syndrome), and neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., frontotemporal lobar degeneration, Alzheimer’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis).
Assessing Positive and Negative Affect via Self-Report
Authors: Gray Elizabeth K , Watson David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Affect plays a central role in human experience, providing the ongoing hedonic tone that colors the everyday lives of individuals. Not surprisingly, therefore, affect occupies an equally prominent role in the psychological and social science literature. As such, a number of different approaches exist for assessing mood and emotion. This chapter focuses on outlining and describing a variety of self-report measures that are available to affect researchers. In outlining the available means for measuring affect, we must address two central issues. First, we must be clear about the definitions of affect, emotion, and mood that will be used within this chapter. The constructs of mood and emotion are similar in that they both refer to feeling states that can be broadly characterized as pleasant or unpleasant (i.e., as positive or negative) and that reflect what is happening within the organism (Parkinson, Totterdell, Brinner, & Reynolds, 1996). It is also widely believed that they contain some common components and are controlled by similar processes (Clark & Watson, 1999; Parkinson et al., 1996).
Observer-Based Measurement of Facial Expression with the Facial Action Coding System
Authors: Cohn Jeffrey F , Ambadar Zara , Ekman Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Facial expression has been a focus of emotion research for over a hundred years (Darwin, 1872/1998). It is central to several leading theories of emotion (Ekman, 1992; Izard, 1977; Tomkins, 1962) and has been the focus of at times heated debate about issues in emotion science (Ekman, 1973, 1993; Fridlund, 1992; Russell, 1994). Facial expression figures prominently in research on almost every aspect of emotion, including psychophysiology (Levenson, Ekman, & Friesen, 1990), neural bases (Calder et al., 1996; Davidson, Ekman, Saron, Senulis, & Friesen, 1990), development (Malatesta, Culver, Tesman, & Shephard, 1989; Matias & Cohn, 1993), perception (Ambadar, Schooler, & Cohn, 2005), social processes (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1992; Hess & Kirouac, 2000), and emotion disorder (Kaiser, 2002; Sloan, Straussa, Quirka, & Sajatovic, 1997), to name a few.
Measuring Emotion-Related Vocal Acoustics
Authors: Owren Michael J , Bachorowski Jo-Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent years have seen great advances in digital-audio technology, making it much easier to incorporate work with sound as a routine component of emotions research. Where there once were, for instance, only a few programs available for sound analysis, synthesis, and editing, there now are many. These developments present unparalleled opportunities for investigating how human emotion may be reflected in both verbal and nonverbal vocal behavior. However, acoustics work is nonetheless a challenging endeavor, for it requires both care and some specialized knowledge in order to apply the analysis tools effectively. The purpose of this chapter is, therefore, to present basic information about analyzing human vocal acoustics for the purpose of extracting correlates of affect-related states, with particular emphasis on avoiding some of the fundamental errors that can occur.
The Specific Affect Coding System (SPAFF)
Authors: Coan James A , Gottman John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1989, Gottman and Krokoff introduced the Specific Affect Coding System (SPAFF) for the purpose of systematically observing affective behavior in the context of marital conflict. The original SPAFF conferred a host of advantages over earlier “microanalytic” coding strategies, the primary innovation being the ability to code affect at the construct level instead of at the level of extremely discrete bits of behavior, such as specific gestures or facial movements (Gottman, McCoy, Coan, & Collier, 1995).
In Search of the Holy Grail of Senescence
Authors: Olshansky S Jay , Carnes Bruce A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why is the average duration of life 1000 days for most strains of mice, 5000 days for beagle dogs, and 29,000 days for humans? Why is the risk of death extraordinarily high at birth for most forms of life, followed by a notable decline in age¬ specific mortality until puberty and then an exponential increase from sexual maturity throughout most of the remaining life span? Why are the bodies that carry the immortal genetic instructions not themselves immortal? These and other related questions about life, death, and the duration of life have not only occupied the minds of the greatest thinkers of every era, but have led to countless efforts to combat aging and forestall death (Gruman, 1966).