bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction: Economic And Social Interpretation Of The First World War
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Here, in a few pages, is the gist of the book for readers in a hurry, but be warned-only the chapters that follow contain the whole story and every book says more than its author knows. Do not count on this summary alone. The First World War is often depicted as a great industrial war, fought by industrial methods. In fact, given a strong industrial capability on both sides, primary commodities were more decisive: food, industrial raw materials and that most primary of all commodities, people. Germany did not run out of rifles or shells. It suffered badly from shortages of food. Likewise the Allies: their agrarian resources decided the war. So not only a war of steel and gold, but a war of bread and potatoes.
Did Germany Really Starve?
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Not all nutritionists in Germany accepted Rubner ‘s authority, but his influence kept discord out of the post-war histories and official statements. The dissenting nutritionists revealed a reality more complex than the simplicities of patriotic scientists. When the Eltzbacher commission considered food requirements in 1914, it estimated that pre-war production and imports exceeded physiological needs by about 50 per cent. That ample margin was the source of the commission ‘s optimism. Its members failed to note that physiological need had been deduced from consumption estimates in the first place. This should have alerted the scientists to defects in their data. Perhaps the figures were dressed up a bit, since the group included Carl Ballod, the foremost critic of Germany ‘s food statistics.
‘Like Rats In A Trap ‘: British Urban Society And Overseas Opportunities
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Many Britons were unhappy with their country during the Edwardian period. More than 5 per cent of the population left for good between 1900 and 1914.1 The proportion of young adult single males who emigrated was much higher. The number of net migrants from the United Kingdom to the English-speaking countries was about 2.4 million.2 More than a million more emigrated and came back again.3 The previous chapters examined the countryside and showed how status affected motivation and economic performance. This chapter looks at the towns; the next two will examine some of the overseas alternatives.
Asian labour and white nationalism,1907-1914
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Exclusion was not merely the “dark side” of colonial societies.1 Rather, racism arose directly out of their virtues of democracy, civic equality and solidarity. It expressed these virtues and often confirmed and reinforced them. Democracy first. On the Pacific rim, manual workers transformed economic interest and popular prejudice into political action. Democracy elsewhere was still on trial, and in thrall to the middle and upper classes. Exclusion was a harbinger of mass politics. King ‘s political economy was populist in his preference for the smallholder over the large corporation. As an educated easterner he stopped short of the cruder forms of xenophobia, but accepted its democratic legitimacy.
Power And Plenty: Naval Mercantilism, 1905-1908
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Another strand in British blockade planning was the Anglo-German commercial rivalry, or rather, its perception by naval officers. This has to be stressed: commercial rivalry is not in itself a direct cause of war. It works through perceptions and minds. Naval officers had little direct experience of economic affairs, except as rentiers, in possession of portfolios of stocks and bonds. Likely as not, they acquired their economic ideas from the Press. For a decade, ever since the “Made in Germany” scare of 1896, the Press had regarded the rising economic power of Germany as a threat to British economic well-being. Whatever the finer points of analysis, the reality of the challenge was hard to deny.
The Atlantic Orientation: Hankey, Fisher And Esher
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Between 1910 and 1914 the doctrine that inspired the blockade project was this: the key to Britain’s security was not the balance of power on the continent, but the resources of English-speaking societies overseas. Not a “continental commitment” but an “Atlantic orientation”. The German challenge offered Britain a range of possible responses, from complete inactivity to massive intervention. The choice was partly a matter of judgement, partly a matter of values, partly a matter of temperament, if the three can be separated. As a serious strategic option, the Atlantic orientation was largely the creation of three unorthodox individuals: a junior staff officer, a retired Admiral and a gentleman of leisure’. The three were Captain Maurice Hankey, Admiral Jacky Fisher and the second Viscount Esher.
War Aims August 1914-April 1917
Authors: Stevenson David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It is time to probe more deeply the fundamental conflict into which the peripheral Powers were drawn. Despite escalating levels of violence, that conflict’s central feature was a military, political, and diplomatic impasse. Deadlock in military operations and the steadfastness of the political truces formed on the home fronts were complemented by a deepening incompatibility between the opposing coalitions’ war aims. Although the sacrifices that the war exacted were immensely greater than had been foreseen, the sacrifices entailed in compromise were still thought to exceed the price of fighting on. More precisely, Governments became entangled in a web of incremental commitment. The practical choice they faced was whether to launch the next offensive, or spurn the latest peace offer, in the knowledge that a few more weeks or months of effort might yield breakthrough and redeem the losses so far borne. And war deadened the sensibilities. It was easier to forfeit the second than the first 50,000 lives, especially if to do so might bring victory and not to do so would make certain that the casualties so far suffered were in vain. Only afterwards, with hindsight, could a later generation weigh the fruits of victory against their cumulative cost, and find them wanting.
Great Expectations
Authors: Phillips John A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
OF the many men and women in England who anxiously awaited the passage of the Great Reform Bill during the months of delay in 1831 and 1832, few had more reason to feel gratified by the country’s widespread, increasingly vociferous concern than Thomas Hardy, one of the founders of the London Corresponding Society in 1792. Hardy, the guiding force behind the growth of the Society, was arrested with four others on charges of high treason in 1794 and tried for his determination to discuss and promote parliamentary reform. Though Hardy’s trial began just ten days after the execution of a Scottish Jacobin, Thomas Erskine’s skill full defence and a sympathetic jury resulted in Hardy’s acquittal on Guy Fawkes Day, 1794 after a remarkable nine-day trial. Attorney General Sir John Scott’s nine hour opening statement was matched by an equally extreme three hour jury deliberation capped by the foreman fainting from the strain immediately after delivering the ‘not guilty’ verdict. Following these exceptionally protracted and intense proceedings, London dissolved into celebrations of Hardy, Erskine, the jurors, and what Londoners perceived as the triumph of English justice.
Reform Act or Reform Era?: Political Change in Shrewsbury and Northampton
Authors: Phillips John A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Few nineteenth-century towns were more diverse physically, socially, or economically than Shrewsbury and Northampton, yet both towns reveal an important aspect of Reform in the boroughs. The behaviour of voters in Maidstone and Colchester raised the possibility that the agitation for Reform may have been more influential than the Act itself. Elections in Shrewsbury and Northampton demonstrate the politicizing effects of popular agitation during the months of debate, delay, and dismay leading up to Reform. The provisions of the Reform Act affected political behaviour in both towns, but the politicization stemming from the excitement of 1831 played an even greater role in altering their political fabric.
The Townshends And The law
Authors: Moreton C E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Townshends lived in an intensely litigious age, one reason why Roger I flourished as a lawyer. But what of them as litigants? Of course, one family’s litigation cannot provide the basis for an extensive survey of the law in their period, ground which has in any case been well covered by scholars like Ives, but it offers some worth-while insights.
The Hammūdids
Authors: Wasserstein David J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Hammūdids are of importance here for several reasons. As has been seen, they functioned as successors to and as replacements of the Umayyads. Once their hour of glory in Cordoba was spent, they also fitted in to the overall political system of the fifth/eleventh century like the majority of the other lesser taifa rulers. And, most importantly, they functioned as the first and probably the most dangerous of the leaders of the various Berber attempts to establish a north African hegemony over Islamic Spain following the collapse of the caliphal-‘ āmirid regime. Although these attempts failed, they came close to success, and such a result would have changed radically the nature, and probably also the fate, of Islam in the peninsula.
Caliphs, Counter-Caliphs, and Counteifeit Caliphs: Hishām and ‘Abd Allāh on Taifa Coins
Authors: Wasserstein David J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The political changes of the period between the overthrow of the Mansūrids, in 399/1009, and the Almoravid intervention in al-Andalus, nearly a century later, are reflected in the coinages of the peninsula, at least so far as such coinages actually existed and have survived. Perhaps the most significant change, if only on the surface, was the decline and eventual disappearance of the institution of the caliphate, an event which is traditionally assigned to the year 422/1031. In the sphere of the coins, this date is marked by no new departure: the names and titles of people with caliphal pretensions appear on coins of well before this date, and they continue with scarcely any interruption or change to appear on them after this date.
Fundamentals: Population, Prices, and Agriculture
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In basic economic terms, the lives of most people were not much different in 1800 from what they had been 140 years before. The European economy remained overwhelmingly agricultural and the pattern of agriculture in most areas had hardly changed. Agricultural inertia was perhaps the basic economic fact of the period. Yet important changes had taken place, with wide ramifications. Certain areas had revolutionized their agriculture. The population of Europe was much larger in 1800 than in 1660. The cost of living had soared. Such changes made the details of people’s lives very different from those of their ancestors-even if individuals were scarcely aware of them.
A Doubtful Progress
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The greatest problem about the Enlightenment is to estimate its influence. Philosophes, most of them brilliant publicists, ostentatiously applauded measures of which they approved. It was easy to infer that they had brought them about. ‘Opinion governs the world,’ Voltaire proudly declared in 1766, ‘and in the end the philosophes govern men’s opinions.’ But the events claimed as successes by the Enlightenment were usually the product of complex circumstances in which the state of advanced opinion was only one strand: Not surprisingly, the results often fell far short of expectations. By the 1780s the philosophic tide had left few European intellectuals untouched, but the concrete achievements remained fragmentary. As Kant declared in 1784, it was the Age of Enlightenment, but not an enlightened age.
Executing ‘Social Others’
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As The Promptings Of Sympathy And Of Decorum Combined to muddy polite people’s feelings about execution, means of evad ing engagement with the terror of the condemned became more elabo rate, it seems. The previous chapter surveyed individuals’ unconscious strategies of evasion. This chapter and the next are about the capacity of the scaffold’s polite witnesses to economize in their responses to execu tions by means of social and political discriminations. They survey the constraints on sympathy which in a highly polarized society timelessly ensued from the social and hence emotional distances between the propertied classes and most victims of the law; these last so alien to elite understanding that it was next to impossible to identify with them.
Piety And Benevolence
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It Is Tempting To Yield To The Notion That Evangelical philanthropists were those most qualified to intrude a feeling of benevolence into the long debates on punishment. In narratives of ‘humanitarian’ change they have always got a better press than radicals. ‘.Almost uniformly . . . on the side of right,’ J. S. Mill said of them: the ‘vast gain, not only to humanity, but to the ends of penal justice, we owe to the philanthropists’. The titles of their biographies put them on the angels’ side too: Buxton the liberator, Fry the Quaker heroine or Lady of the prison, Clarkson the friend of slaves, Wilberforce the slaves’ champion, and so on. Such people were also vociferous in their own claims to represent opinion’s progress and reform’s advance. With their mounting attacks on plebeian and aristocratic vice, the slave trade, the treatment of the insane, and the inadequacies of popular education, the evangeli cal monopoly on virtue expanded enormously after 1790. So did their purchase on the nation’s upper ten thousand. There were great differ ences between moderates and extremists; but by the 1820s evangelical doctrines are said to provide ‘the most vivid insight into the “official mind” of the period’, not to mention into the reflexive piety of many thousands of middle and middling people. We know that they did much to mediate the long movement away from the stinking gaols of Howard’s era towards the intended cleanliness and efficiencies of the penitentiary.
Fabricating Opinion
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In February 1825 The Examiner Gave Its Usual Couple Of inches to the latest sentences at the Old Bailey. The paper found it less extraordinary that thirty men and women had been condemned to death than that the recorder of London had exhorted them ‘to prepare for that awful fate to which a jury of their countrymen, influenced by no other motives but those of a just regard for the laws of God and civi lized society, had doomed them’. Whereat the paper exploded: ‘The laws of God!-where, Mr Recorder, do you find the punishment of death is ordered in the Bible for theft and such offences? We had thought that the sacred law runs thus: “Whosoever sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed.” ‘ Although the paper then passed on smoothly to other matters, what impresses us here is that it was now able to affect a reflexive contempt for the capital law and its agents which was unthinkable a couple of decades before. What had also changed is indicated in its appropriation of a biblical reference to endorse the contempt. A couple of decades earlier those who deplored the capital code would have claimed the high moral ground by appeal ing to efficiency and reason. Now most would claim it through the lan guage of piety. A dozen and more years of evangelical agitation had shifted the terms of debate substantially.
The General Merchant
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When Dudley returned to London from Turkey he expanded the range and depth of his international trade and branched out into manufacturing and shipping. He continued to direct his business in the Levant from London through agents, such as Peter Deleau, John Darley, and Jacob Bouverie, who bought his ritomo cargoes, usually specializing in particular commodities, and performed for him the services which his old ragione had provided for its principals. After 1680, Montague took over the ragione in Constantinople and Dudley ceased to be an active partner. Judged by the struggle to balance the accounts, management of the business deteriorated. A consignment was shipped to Messina, ‘never minding how it got to England ‘ and the partners could not determine who in England had bought the return cargo.
Pre-Conquest Conditions Compared With Those On The Continent: A Sketch
Authors: Clarke Peter A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A Comparison of English conditions with those on the Continent could be extremely important in further illuminating conditions on either side of the Channel, but it is beyond the scope of this book to do more than indicate below some of the major areas of comparison. The nobility of England at the end of the Anglo-Saxon period seems to be similar in a number of ways to that of Germany at the end of the Millennium. It has been pointed out, for example, that whilst from the eleventh century it is possible to trace the descent of well-defined families of German nobles, before that time the nobility ‘had been composed of large groups, linked by descent ... but very loosely organized’. The difficulty of tracing family trees for even the wealthiest of the pre-Conquest landholders suggests that the English nobility may have formed a similar, somewhat ill-defined group as existed in Germany at a slightly earlier period. One of the methods used to build up family trees in Germany has been by studying the names of people remembered in the prayers of monks which were recorded in liber memoriales. The repetition of sequences of particular names, or of elements within these names, is taken to indicate that the groups represent particular kindreds. This suggests the possibility that in England too, personal nomenclature may provide a means of tracing family relationships.
The Pursuit of Victory in the First World War and the Aftermath
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It has long been unfashionable to write about the First World War in terms of victory and defeat. Military historians know there was a decisive outcome on the Western Front in 1918, and most have given credit to the Allied armies, and notably the British and Dominion forces, for the remarkably successful offensive operations which resulted in the armistice on 11 November.1 But for general students of the war winning and losing have been overshadowed by other considerations. Would the governments which so readily went to war in 1914 have done so had they been able to foresee its duration and terrible costs? Why was the conflict not ended sooner by a negotiated ‘peace without victory’? How did the comparatively modest, or at least specific, war aims of 1914 become the unlimited and vague ambitions of 1918? Above all, why did the peace settlements prove to be so brittle and ephemeral, making a mockery of the rhetoric of a ‘world safe for democracy’ and of ‘a war to end all wars’? It has consequently been difficult, even for military historians, to regard this conflict in Clausewitzian terms, that is as an instrument of policy used to secure specific objectives under political control and direction. On the contrary, its clumsy direction, appalling nature, confused ending, and short-lived results have made it a byword for incompetence and futility. While it will probably be impossible to over throw these widely held opinions, based as they are on hindsight, moral revulsion, and an assumption that things could have been done differently, the view advanced here is that the conflict was about important issues, that it was eventually ended by military means, and that, despite all the disappointments, victory was much preferable to defeat.
Repetitions of Motif and Image and their Possible Implications
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The art of the late Anglo-Saxon period (like that of any other era) was a fascinating mixture of novel elements and familiar ones, of variations and repetitions. Inevitably more attention has been devoted to the novelties and variations than to the traditions and repetitions. However, a just appreciation of the material, and, in particular, of the way it functioned, requires that it be considered as a whole, with as much attention being paid to the value and role of repetitions as to that of the innovations and variations. Certain decorative motifs appear to have been relatively ubiquitous, being repeated not only in individual media, but also from one medium to another, and this is precisely what we would expect. Because the phenomenon is commonplace and apparently inevitable, it tends to be taken for granted and almost disregarded; yet it remains an issue worth exploring; Why do closely similar ornamental designs appear time and time again, often in different contexts, and what does this tell us? The fact that certain figural subjects were particularly common, recurring in multiple versions at a given centre, and sometimes even on a single object, is equally worthy of our attention. Why was this the case? What was the relationship of the various depictions to each other? How did the multiplicity of images affect the viewer ‘s perception of them individually and collectively? Although some of the issues involved in the case of decorative motifs are also applicable to that of figural imagery, others are not.
Pictorial Narrative
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A seminal work published in the early 1960s focused attention on the twelfth century as a formative period in the development of pictorial narrative in England. The author, Otto Pacht raised the profile of narrative depiction {according to his definition) and offered numerous insights into the field as a whole, while in particular he explored and placed in perspective the work of the Master of the St Albans Psalter. This emphasis shed invaluable light on English manuscript art of the twelfth century and on the work of an outstanding individual. However, its side-effect was to minimize the importance of other modes of pictorial narrative and to divert attention from the role of pictorial narrative in earlier English art. Pächt was principally concerned with cycles rather than individual images; the themes on which he concentrated were the ways in which artists incorporated the element of time into their images and the influence of liturgical drama on art; and he was dismissive of alternative approaches and other issues. But the alternatives are equally deserving of attention. Some of the forms of narrative art essayed by late Anglo-Saxon artists were less sophisticated than those of the St Albans Psalter. They were essentially inherited rather than newly developed and they were not refined in response to contemporary liturgical drama, but they were nevertheless an important part of their visual language.