bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dyes, Natural
Authors: Cofrancesco A. J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
With Perkin's syntheses of Mauve in 1856, the age‐old usage of natural dyes for textiles and foods greatly diminished. However, scientific interest in natural dyes continued. In 1868, the first laboratory synthesis of a natural dye, alizarin, was accomplished, followed by the manufacture of the dye. Later, indigotin was synthesized and ultimately manufactured. The structure of many other natural dyes was determined and verified by synthesis: anthraquinones, naphthoquinones, flavones, anthocyaniddins, and others. In the field of anthraquinones, some remarkable discoveries were reported: laccaic acid was shown to be a mixture of acids, and the wrong structure had been assigned to carminic and kermisic acid. The correct structure of the latter was established using the newly developed regiospecific method of synthesis. The structure of Tyrian Purple was determined and the dye synthesized. Much later, the precursors of the dye were isolated and identified.
Since the early 1970s there has been a renewal of interest in natural dyes for use as food colorants. This was prompted mainly by FDA's deletion of certain synthetic dyes used for coloring foods. Some natural dyes are on FDA's list of approved dyes for coloring foods. However, their range of color is limited, so that other sources of natural dyes have been investigated. Among these was the red beet whose color is due primarily to a red dye and a small amount of a yellow dye. Both were isolated and synthesized and found to have unique chemical structures. By a suitable modification of the chlorophyll molecule, a useful food dye has been obtained.
Dyes and Dye Intermediates
Authors: Gregory Peter 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe chemistry, technology, and applications of dyes and dye intermediates are discussed. Dyes are classified both by chemical structure and usage, and dye nomenclature is explained. The more important dye classes, such as azo dyes, are covered in detail. For example, azo/hydrazone tautomerism, which is of vital importance both theoretically and commercially, is covered. Dye intermediates are discussed in depth. These fall conveniently into aromatic carbocyclic intermediates and aromatic heterocyclic intermediates. The chemistry of these systems is discussed, such as electrophilic and nucleophilic substitution, and the different synthetic strategies for the carbocyclic and heterocyclic intermediates exemplified. The unit processes, such as nitration and sulfonation, are discussed in some detail. Equipment and manufacture of dyes and dye intermediates are dealt with, as are economic aspects. Health and safety aspects, including toxicology and registration of dyes, and environmental factors, such as treatment of dye effluent, are also covered.
Dyes, Anthraquinone
Authors: Hattori Makoto 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe history and current situation of the anthraquinone dye industry, and basic chemistry of anthraquinone compounds (color and structure, and general method of synthesis) are discussed. The manufacturing processes of key intermediates are illustrated both on the basis of industrial importance and advances in research and development. Emphasis is placed on process improvements in view of environmental issues.The properties and the preparation of anthraquinone dyes are discussed according to dye type: reactive dyes (bromamine acid derivatives with sulfatoethylsulfonyl, chlorotriazine, and other heterocyclic functional group), disperse dyes (1‐amino‐4‐hydroxy‐anthraquinones, 1,4‐diaminoanthraquinone‐2,3‐dicarboxyimides, 1,4,5,8‐substituted anthraquinones, 1,4‐diaminoanthraquinones, andN‐substituted‐1‐amino‐4‐hydroxyanthraquinones), acid dyes (bromamine acid derivatives and quinizarin derivatives), vat dyes (benzanthrones, indanthrones, anthrimides, anthrimidocarbazoles, acylaminoanthraquinones, anthraquinoneazoles, anthraquinone acridones, anthrapyrimidines, and other highly condensed ring systems), and mordant dyes. Advances in functional dyes related to the electronics industry are also presented. Health and safety information is presented.
Dyes, Environmental Chemistry
Authors: Freeman Harold S. , Reife Abraham 
Published: July 2004

AbstractFew would argue against the suggestion thatcoloris the number one factor in our decision to purchase a particular item, whether that item is an article of clothing, an automobile, or a dish of gelatin in the salad section of a cafeteria. While each of the aforementioned items contains a synthetic dye, extremely few of us are aware of what has taken place behind the scenes to ensure the safety of workers and consumers who are exposed to synthetic dyes. In some cases, the companies involved in the manufacture or use of dyes have not only been required by regulatory agencies to remove unsafe products from the marketplace but also to discontinue a manufacturing practice deemed unsafe. With the latter point in mind, this article covers recent developments associated with the environmental chemistry of dyes in industrial operations. Emphasis is placed on investigations pertaining to effluent treatment methods, pollution prevention, and product stewardship. It is anticipated that the contents of this chapter will prove helpful in the design of environmentally friendly dyes and in training students and other future workers in this important field.
Dyes, Sensitizing
Authors: Sturmer David M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSpectral sensitizing dyes extend the responses of imaging materials to blue, green, red, and near infrared wavelengths. The most useful classes of dyes for photographic (silver halide) imaging are cyanine and merocyanine dyes, which provide excellent spectral sensitizing efficiencies, highly color‐selective (narrow, aggregated) absorption bands, and suitable solubility for handling during manufacturing and photographic development. Extensive industrial libraries of these compounds provide well‐tested synthetic pathways that are useful in tailoring dye structures for other applications. Electrophotography utilizes thiapyrylium dyes, squaraine dyes (analogs of merocyanines), or phthalocyanines to spectrally sensitize photohole conduction in colorless organic polymers. Red and infrared spectrally sensitized chemical reactions in medicine (eg, photodynamic therapy) use long‐wavelength dyes of the merocyanine, phthalocyanine, and hematoporphyrin classes. Spectral sensitizers from several dye classes either sensitize photochemical reactions or cause material degradation, especially those that interact to give high yields of singlet oxygen.
Electroseparations, Electrodialysis
Authors: McRae Wayne A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectrodialysis, a process in which ions are moved across a membrane from one solution to another under the influence of an electric current, is primariy used in the production of potable and ultrapure water. This electroseparation process is also often employed in hybrid processes to remove electrolytic and other components from seawater, industrial effluents, or other water sources. Electrodialysis uses direct current, metal electrodes and highly ion‐selective membranes. The membranes are composed of ion‐exchange resin materials.
Packaging, Electronic Materials
Authors: Pecht Michael , Prabhu Asohk 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
One of the largest and most pervasive industries, the electronics industry has rapidly progressed in response to the customers' demands for diverse functions, lower costs, and higher performance and reliability. This article presents an overview, along with their important characteristics and properties, of the key materials used in electronics. Included in the discussion are semiconductor, substrate, attachment, case, lead, solder, metallization, wire, tape‐automated bonding, printed wire board, conformal coating, connector, and cable and flex circuit materials.
Conducting Polymers
Authors: Foot Peter J. S. , Kaiser Alan B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article gives an overview of the field of electrically conducting organic polymers. The first major section describes the synthesis of the various types of conjugated conducting polymer as well as conducting polymer blends and composites. This is followed by a discussion of the redox doping required to form charge carriers, the optical properties of the polymers, and the electrical conduction properties of metallic and semiconducting polymers. A short section is devoted to the stability of different conducting polymers. The final section outlines some of the principal applications of these polymers, including electromagnetic shielding and charge dissipation, corrosion‐inhibiting paints, composite materials, charge‐storage batteries, actuators, chemical and biochemical sensors, gas separation membranes, electrochromism, polymer LEDs, laser diodes and photovoltaic cells, and plastic electronics.
Electrophoresis
Authors: Rudge Scott 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectrophoresis is a separation technique that is most often applied to the analysis of biological and other polymeric samples. The principles, modes of operation, separation matrices, detection techniques, and equipment for the various electrophoresis techniques are presented. The three principal modes of electrophoresis, zone electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing, and isotachophoresis, are discussed, as are the advantages of the principal matrices in which electrophoresis is performed, including agarose, polyacrylamide, paper, capillaries, and flowing buffers. Specific examples of techniques such as immunochemical reaction, two‐dimensional techniques, and blotting are given.
Electronic Materials
Authors: Yablonovitch Eli 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Electronic materials are formed primarily from exquisitely pure Group 13, 14, and 15 (III, IV, and V) elements and alloys. These semiconductor crystals can be regarded as giant covalent molecules having weak electron‐atom interactions that result in long‐lived excited states. Historically germanium and silicon, and more recently the III‐V semiconductors, have been utilized. The progress in solid‐state electronics has been paced by the ability to produce ultrapure materials and to control the chemical bonding of these materials, particularly at surfaces and interfaces. Techniques such as molecular beam epitaxy and organometallic chemical vapor deposition are employed in the fabrication of these materials.
Elfamycins
Authors: Maehr H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe elfamycins are so named because they exhibit antimicrobial activity through the inhibition of protein biosynthesis via binding to theelongationfactor Tu. Known elfamycins include aurodox, C44H62N2O12; kirromycin, C43H60N2O12; azdimycin, efrotomycin, C59H88N2O20; dihydromocimycin, C43H62N2O12; heneicomycin, C44H62N2O11; kirrothricin, C44H64N2O10; factumycin, C44H62N2O10; MSD A63A, L681,217, C36H53N1O10; SB22484, factor 3, C41H56N2O11; SB22484, factor 4, C42H58N2O11; phenelfamycin A, C51H71N1O15; phenelfamycin B, C61H71N1O15; phenelfamycin C, C58H83N1O18; phenelfamycin D, C58H83N1O18; phenelfamycin E, C65H95N1O21; phenelfamycin F, C65H95N1O21; unphenelfamycin, C43H65N1O14; LL‐E19020α, C65H95N1O21; LL‐E19020β, C65H95N1O21; UK‐69,753, C58H86N2O18; andN‐demethylefrotomycin, C58H86N2O20. These antibiotics are distinguished by low mammalian toxicity, narrow‐range antimicrobial activity, and positive effects on feed utilization and growth promotion in farm animals. Elfamycins are natural products. Aurodox and efrotomycin have been synthesized chemically. Elfamycins are slightly acidic and soluble in most polar organic solvents, and the alkali and ammonium salts are water‐soluble. Elfamycins block bacterial protein biosynthesis at the level of elongation factor Tu (EF‐Tu). Elfamycins have similarin vitroantimicrobial spectra and the activity againstMoraxella, Pasteurella, Yersinia, Haemophilus, Streptococcus, Corynebacterium,andNeisseriaappears to be common. Elfamycins, in general, enhance the growth of farm animals. Efrotomycin is being developed as a growth‐promoting agent for swine. The potential usefulness of elfamycins as growth promotors and feed‐conversion enhancers is now generally recognized. Low original fermentation yields and difficulties in yield improvements discouraged early attempts to develop aurodox and mocimycin (kirromycin) commercially. A development program for efrotomycin, however, is ongoing. Some of the newer elfamycins, such as the LL‐E19020 pair, are considerably more active growth promotors than aurodox or mocimycin, pointing toward a second generation of elfamycins.
Energy Management
Authors: Steinmeyer Dan 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChemical production uses approximately 20% of industrial energy. Energy costs are split roughly equally between electricity, fuel, and feedstock. Long‐term energy efficiency improvement is driven by broad technological progress, eg, computer simulation and better alloys for gas turbines. The measure of value for an energy flow is the fraction that can be converted to work. A focus on work potential defines what is theoretically possible and pinpoints losses. The biggest loss typically occurs in combustion.The steam system is the integrating energy system in most chemical plants. Two components are steam turbines, for which higher efficiency is the goal, and steam traps for which the goal is higher reliability. The other energy systems are electrical, cooling water, and refrigeration. The largest portion of the electricity used in a chemical plant is for electric motor drives for pumps and compressors. The principal concern for cooling water systems is that water chemistry be controlled to avoid corrosion and fowling.Energy management concerns the tradeoff between capital and energy costs throughout process areas such as distillation, drying, evaporation, and insulation. Energy efficiency offers a unique opportunity for continuous improvement because of the ease of measurement.
Engineering Thermoplastics
Authors: Garbassi Fabio , Po Riccardo 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe aim of this article is to provide a first key of access to engineering polymers. For each of the materials reported, we develop a short history; the chemical structure, CAS Registry Number of the neat resin; the industrial production methods; physical, thermal, mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties; processing technologies; and finally their main applications are discussed. Because property values can vary greatly, representative figures are reported mostly from the commercial data sheets compiled by producers; these data are available online and are continuously updated.The following polymers are considered: cyclic olefin copolymers, syndiotactic polystyrene, acetal resins (polyoxymethylene), polyester resins [ie, poly(ethylene terephthalate), poly(butylene terephthalate), and poly(ethylene naphthalate), polyarylates, liquid‐crystal polymers, poly(phenylene ether), polycarbonate, aliphatic and aromatic polyketones, acrylic resins, poly(phenylene sulfide), polysulfones, styrene copolymers, aliphatic and aromatic polyamide resins, polyimides, polyamide imide, polyphthalamide, polyetherimide and fluoropolymers [poly(tetrafluoroethylene), ethylene‐tetrafluoroethylene copolymers, fluorinated ethylene–propylene copolymers, perfluorovinylether–tetrafluoroethylene copolymers]. In addition to individual consideration of the materials used, some of the main properties are compared on the frame of interpolymer competition.
Enzyme Inhibitors
Authors: Whiteley Chris G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis literature review reports on the current status of enzyme inhibition from the measurement of inhibitor parameters and enzyme–inhibitor design to enzyme engineering and homology modeling. It provides a brief introduction into the use of inhibitors from the purpose of development of new drugs to the impact of molecular engineering, nanomedicine, and nanotechnology. Computer‐assisted enzyme‐inhibitor design remains the most powerful approach for the generation of the structures of potential new drugs. There is presentation of a number of algorithms of computer software packages describing the enzyme's active site and the potential binding of inhibitor ligands. Appropriately, well‐established relationships such as QSAR–CoMFA (Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship–Comparitive Molecular Field Analysis), CoMISA (Comparative Molecular Shape Indices Analysis), and EDDFA (Electron Density‐Derived Field Analysis) are presented in order to show that fundamental biological principles are still very much in use in computer assisted design of inhibitors. This report also offers advantages and disadvantages of many, though not all, commercial software packages that have potential for use in inhibitor design. Finally, prospects are given for the use of texture mapping, evolutionary computing or genetic function algorithms in the creative design of new inhibitors and drugs.
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Authors: Pugsley Thomas A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEpinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA) belong to a class of compounds known as catecholamines. A number of physical and chemical properties of E and NE, together with analytical techniques used to measure these amines and their metabolites, are reviewed. E was originally isolated from bovine adrenal glands; however, E and related compounds are now synthesized commercially from the starting material, catechol. The biosynthesis, storage, release, and the termination of action of catecholamines by re‐uptake into the presynaptic neuron that released the amine, plus mechanisms involved in regulating levels of amines in the nerve terminals, are reviewed. By virtue of functional and molecular biology studies, at least 15 subtypes of catecholamine receptors have been identified. In most cases, these physically distinct subtypes each have important second messengers and pharmacological consequences that are summarized. Catecholamines and related compounds exhibit a wide diversity of physiological functions, and thus are involved therapeutically in a wide range of uses both in the peripheral and central nervous system.
Esterification
Authors: Aslam Mohammad , Torrence G. Paull , Zey Edward G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis discussion of esterification covers both the theoretical and practical implications of the technology. The kinetics and mechanism of esterification of carboxylic acids with alcohols are reviewed, along with factors affecting and methods for bringing about the completion of reaction. Several technical examples of esterification are given to demonstrate how the theory is applied. These examples include discussions of batch, continuous, and vapor‐phase processes.Methods for synthesizing esters from other compounds, such as acid anhydrides, acid chlorides, amides, nitriles, unsaturated hydrocarbons, ethers, aldehydes, and ketones are outlined. Numerous references and techniques are described.The process of esterification is also approached from the aspect of physical properties and characteristics. For example, a discussion on the synthesis of low, medium, and high boiling esters is given. Also, esterification techniques regarding difficulty esterifiable acids and ester interchange are described.
Esters, Organic
Authors: Sakamuri Raj 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article gives relevant information related to carboxylic esters including nomenclature, physical and chemical properties, occurrence and preparation, analysis, health and safety issues, handling regulations, and commercial uses.Chemical reactions of esters discussed are hydrolysis (both catalyzed and uncatalyzed), transesterification, ammonolysis, aminolysis, reduction (catalytic and stoichiometric), enolate reactions, Grignard and related reactions, acyloin condensation, pyrolysis, substitution, alkylation, and rearrangement.Analytical methods for characterization of esters including spectroscopy are presented. Aspects of health, safety, and handling of esters are discussed in relation to their reactivity, flash point, autoignition temperature, toxicity data, and permissible exposure limits.Uses of esters in areas such as solvents, plasticizers, resins, plastics, coatings, lubricants, perfumes, flavors, cosmetics, soap, surface active agents, medicinals, herbicides, pesticides, and photoresists are described.
Hormones, Estrogens and Antiestrogens
Authors: Guo J. Z. , Hahn D. W. , Wachter M. P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEstrogens are a group of naturally occurring steroid sex hormones which are characterized by their ability to induce estrus (ovulation) in the female mammal. This article provides a general background and update on the status of steroidal and nonsteroidal estrogens. In addition, the chemistry and clinical applications of steroidal and nonsteroidal antiestrogens, which were developed in recent years, are included. The emphasis on this area has focused on the goal of discovering synthetic antiestrogens devoid of estrogen agonist activity. Representative studies, which have attempted to delineate the mechanism of action for estrogens and antiestrogens, based on binding studies, molecular modeling strategies, or the like, have also been highlighted. An overview of the pharmacology of estrogens is presented with a particular emphasis on receptor‐mediated molecular events. Contraception, hormone replacement, and chemotherapy are the three primary therapeutic applications for estrogens. A table listing principal preparations of estrogens for hormone replacement therapy is also included.
Ethylene‐Acrylic Elastomers
Authors: Wu Yun‐Tai , McBride Edward 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Ethylene–acrylic elastomers are copolymers of ethylene, methyl acrylate, and a cure site monomer. They have been commercially available for over 25 years under the trade name Vamac. A family of dipolymers is now available which does not contain the cure site monomer and is cured with peroxides. Cured compounds made from Ethylene–acrylic elastomers have an excellent combination of good heat resistance, good fluid resistance in engine oils and automatic transmission fluids, and good low temperature properties. These compounds perform well in automotive applications such as hoses, gaskets, torsional dampers, and various other parts.
Exhaust Control, Automotive
Authors: Mooney John J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAutomotive exhaust gas composition depends on the fuel, the air‐fuel ratio, and on engine type, wear, temperature, etc. Exhaust control systems must be versatile enough to oxidize unburned fuel and partial oxidation products such as carbon monoxide, yet reduce nitrogen oxides, at both engine start‐up and during sustained engine operation. Emission control systems consist of a catalytic converter for the oxidation‐reduction of exhaust gases in conjunction with a fuel ignition system and oxygen sensor to regulate the air‐fuel ratio. Exhaust for both gasoline and alternative fuels is discussed.
Expectorants, Antitussives, and Related Agents
Authors: Paul David B. , Dobberstein Robert H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractExpectorants enhance the projection of respiratory tract fluid and thus facilitate the mobilization and discharge of bronchial secretions. Stimulant expectorants increase respiratory tract secretion by a direct effect on the bronchial secretory cells, and sedative expectorants act by gastric reflex stimulation. Classes of expectorants discussed include quaiacols, volatile oils, iodides and other inorganic compounds, and miscellaneous natural products.Mucolytics reduce the viscosity of tenacious and purulent mucus, thus facilitating removal. Some agents discussed that chemically depolymerize certain components of mucus include trypsin, other proteolytic enzymes, andcis‐4‐hydroxymethyl‐2‐iodomethyl‐1,3‐dioxolane.Antitussives control excessive coughing. A brief description of the cough reflex is presented. Centrally active antitussives, both narcotic and nonnarcotic, as well as peripherally active antitussives are presented and discussed.