bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Touch
Authors: Klatzky Roberta L. , Lederman Susan J. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe modality of touch encompasses distinct cutaneous, kinesthetic, and haptic systems that are distinguished on the basis of the underlying neural inputs. The cutaneous receptors are embedded in the skin; the kinesthetic receptors lie in muscles, tendons, and joints; and the haptic system uses combined inputs from both. Topics in this chapter range from sensory phenomena, such as threshold‐level responses, to cognitive and memory processes associated with the haptic system. Haptic perception extracts properties of objects and surfaces that lead to recognition of objects. Material properties are highly accessible, relative to geometric properties, providing a contrast between haptics and vision. The haptic system provides a map of space within reach of the body that provides the basis for recognition of two‐dimensional patterns and outline drawings. The spatial map is subject to systematic distortion, particularly as a result of the movements used in exploration. Interactions between haptic and visual perception are described with respect to attention, representation, and memory. As do other modalities, the sense of touch gives rise to implicit and explicit forms of memory. The chapter concludes with applications of research on touch, including aids for the blind and deaf and virtual environments that provide haptic feedback.
Visual Perception of Objects
Authors: Palmer Stephen E. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractVisual perception of objects is discussed in terms of two major topics: the perceptual organization of images into hierarchical structures of scenes (containing groups, objects, and parts) and the identification of individual objects as instances of known meaningful categories (such as chairs, houses, and dogs). The major phenomena of perceptual organization are demonstrated and discussed, including grouping, region segmentation, figure‐ground perception, parsing, completion, part‐whole structure, and reference frames. Several important phenomena of object identification are also demonstrated and discussed, including categorical prototypes, basic level categories, perspective effects, orientational effects, and contextual effects. Two major types of theories of object identification are outlined—part‐based and view‐specific theories—both of which are examined for their effectiveness in understanding how visual categorization of objects might occur.
Speech Production and Perception
Authors: Fowler Carol A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe chapter reviews past and current theorizing and research in four related domains: phonological competence, phonological planning for speech production, speech production itself, and speech perception. Research and theorizing in these domains is conducted, for the most part, independently. However, in the chapter, I link the domains by means of the concept of parity. This is the idea that, for language use to serve its public communicative function, listeners characteristically have to perceive the language forms that speakers produce. This would be facilitated if language forms were the public actions that speakers produce when they talk, so that the forms are public, not private, components of the message. Achievement of parity is also fostered if the forms are preserved throughout a communicative exchange—if they are elements of lexical forms, units of phonological planning, units of action in speech production and units perceived by listeners. I suggest that recognition of the parity requirement may help investigators identify compatible theories in the domains of competence, planning production and perception.
Attention
Authors: Egeth Howard , Lamy Dominique 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The amount of information available to our senses greatly exceeds the information processing capacity of our brain. This chapter reviews what is known about how the selectivity of attention allows us to deal with this overload. One major focus of the chapter concerns the efficiency of selection. A discussion of early research that was driven by the question of whether selection was early or late in the information processing stream is followed by a more general consideration of the factors affecting the efficiency of attentional selectivity. The extensive evidence that selection of stimuli appears to be mediated by spatial location is reviewed, as well as more recent research suggesting that other bases for selection may be used. The other major focus of the chapter concerns the extent to which unattended portions of the visual field are processed. We consider here two general approaches to the study of “preattentive” processing: divided attention tasks in which preattentive processes may be performed in parallel with attention widely distributed over the visual field and dual task paradigms in which a preattentive task is one that can proceed when attention is presumably exhausted by some other task. We consider the implications of recent studies on change blindness, inattentional blindness, repetition blindness, and the attentional blink.
Conditioning and Learning
Authors: Miller Ralph R. , Grace Randolph C. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe empirical laws of Pavlovian conditioning are summarized for situations with two stimuli and for situations with more than two stimuli. Factors considered include stimulus salience, genetic and experiential predispositions, contiguity, stimulus similarity, contingency, mimetic and compensatory responding, and stimulus generalization. Also reviewed are the consequences of introducing a third stimulus, which include stimulus competition, interference, facilitation, and summation, as well as positive and negative mediation. At the theoretical level, the critical assumptions and variables of acquisition‐focused and performance‐focused models are examined with special attention to retrospective revaluation. Additionally, the basic laws of instrumental responding are summarized with attention to the law of effect, the three‐term contingency, and schedules of reinforcement. Associative structures underlying instrumental responding are also considered, as are hierarchical associations and incentive learning. Finally, a functional analysis of instrumental conditioning is provided with special attention to choice behavior and the matching law, as well as ecological and economic considerations.
Animal Memory and Cognition
Authors: Capaldi E. J. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractBehaviorism, a dominant movement in animal learning until about 1970, emphasized that the subject matter of psychology is behavior. Originating about 1970 was a concern with animal cognition, a movement that emphasized to a considerable extent laboratory investigations in animals of processes commonly attributed to humans such as serial learning, numerical processes, categorization, inference formation, rule learning, and language learning. This approach, which is very much alive at present, assumes that animal cognition is a less complex version of human cognition. Several other approaches to animal cognition, while not necessarily rejecting the view that animal and human cognition are similar in some respects, seek to identify learning and cognitive processes that may be unique to particular species. This approach, characteristic of, for example, evolutionary psychology, evolutionary biology and cognitive ethology, may employ in addition to laboratory investigations, an examination of behavior in the animals environmental niche. Examples of this approach would include communication in vervet monkeys, navigation over long distances in birds and other animals, social and other behavior in chimpanzees. Each of these broad approaches has something to contribute. On the one hand it is generally agreed that there are some processes common to a variety of species such as the sort of associative learning that occurs under Pavlovian conditioning. On the other hand, others forms of learning and cognition may be species typical, such as echolocation in bats and language learning in humans.
Sensory and Working Memory
Authors: Nairne James S. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractMemory researchers traditionally distinguish between two types of transient memory: Sensory memory and short‐term (or working) memory. Sensory memories are faithful, veridical, records of original events. They represent literal persistence—the same sensory event simply removed in time. Short‐term memories are the active, but analyzed, contents of mind—the stuff of conscious awareness. This chapter reviews the major empirical properties of sensory and short‐term memory and discusses the various methodologies that are used to study each. Sensory memories—measured through synchrony judgment tasks, backward masking techniques, or by the Sperling partial report task—last for only a few hundred milliseconds and may accrue as a simple by‐product of neural dynamics. Short‐term memories—measured through Brown‐Peterson distractor task and immediate serial recall—probably last for a second or two but can be maintained indefinitely through rehearsal. Traditional accounts of short‐term storage—e.g., the working memory model—have come under attack in recent years. Increasingly, researchers are concluding that remembering over the short‐term is cue‐driven, much like long‐term memory, and that simple notions of rehearsal and decay are unlikely to explain the particulars of short‐term forgetting.
Procedural Memory and Skill Acquisition
Authors: Johnson Addie 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter discusses the development, maintenance, and exercise of skilled behavior and the roles of explicit, declarative memory and implicit, procedural memory in the development of skill. The development of skill can be considered as a progression from a deliberative, declarative mode of processing to a more efficient, autonomous mode of processing in which performance is based on well‐learned associations. Progress has been made in understanding how perceptual‐motor and cognitive relations, skills, and proficiencies are acquired as a function of experience, and in understanding what sorts of experiences lead to the greatest improvements, retention, and transfer. Increasingly, research efforts have been devoted to understanding the role of attention in acquiring and exercising skill. The nature of the relationship between implicit and explicit learning remains a topic of debate. Some researchers suggest that implicit knowledge provides the basis for explicit knowledge, whereas others maintain that explicit knowledge is converted into procedural knowledge. Recent evidence suggests that implicit learning is independent of explicit learning, and that performance that is initially dominated by conscious mediation may come to rely on implicit knowledge developed as a result of task performance.
Language Comprehension and Production
Authors: Treiman Rebecca , Clifton Charles , Meyer Antje S. , Wurm Lee H. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter reviews current research and theory on the comprehension and production of language by fluent language users. The chapter focuses on core linguistic processes such as word recognition, the nature of the mental lexicon, the comprehension of sentences and discourse, and the generation of words and sentences in language production. In each area, we review research on spoken language processing and research on written language processing, highlighting the similarities and differences between the two modalities. Many of the studies reviewed in this chapter were carried out in English, but studies with other languages are also considered. Interwoven into the review of research findings is discussion of theoretical issues such as the debate between modular and interactive views of language processing, the balance between computation and storage, and the use of rules versus statistical patterns. The role of linguistics in the study of psycholinguistics is also addressed. The chapter concludes by pointing to the need for closer ties between work on language comprehension and work on language production and by outlining other directions for future research.
Reading
Authors: Rayner Keith , Pollatsek Alexander , Starr Matthew S. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter examines how words are identified — both in normal silent reading of text and in isolation — and how word identification affects the progress of eye movements through text. Contrary to some views, the data indicate reading is a process in which the eyes land on (i.e., fixate) a majority of words and only a narrow region of text (at most three words) is processed on a given fixation. There is clear evidence that the time to identify a word is affected both by its frequency in the language, by how well it is predicted by the prior context, and whether the word is semantically ambiguous. Furthermore, these variables affect both the time a word is fixated and whether it is skipped. There is also now clear evidence that coding words into sound codes is a normal part of word identification in reading and in isolation. It is argued that a model in which the progress of the eyes through text is largely driven by word encoding is reasonable, and that processes such as parsing and discourse integration may only intervene to control the eyes when a possible miscomputation has been detected.
Text Comprehension and Discourse Processing
Authors: Butcher Kirsten R. , Kintsch Walter 
Published: November 2003

AbstractHow do you comprehend language? What factors will influence your immediate understanding of what you hear or read? Will you remember the information in two weeks? Will you be able to use the information for another purpose? This chapter concerns all of these questions—more specifically it reviews what we know about comprehension, what we hope to know in the future, how we can improve or support comprehension, and how psychologists have attempted to model comprehension processes. Research has partially unraveled the complexity of comprehension processes; comprehension performance ultimately is determined by multiple factors internal and external to the individual. Internal variables range from the well‐studied influence of memory (especially short‐ and long‐term working memory) on comprehension to the more uncertain impact of a comprehender's goals and emotions. External variables also are diverse, ranging from the format or content of a printed text to contributions of other participants in conversation. Research on these factors has uncovered a variety of ways to support and improve comprehension; some aspects of comprehension even have been modeled with success. Although this chapter discusses the considerable knowledge that comprehension research has generated, it also discusses future challenges to developing a complete model of comprehension.
Concepts and Categorization
Authors: Goldstone Robert L. , Kersten Alan 
Published: November 2003

AbstractWhenever people think of an object as something (e.g. that Fido is a dog, a pet, or loyal), they are categorizing it using their internal concepts. A concept is a mental representation that allows different things to be treated equivalently for some purpose. People learn concepts to facilitate communication, to make useful predictions about their world, to create mental building blocks for expressing more sophisticated thoughts, and to form efficient representations for objects and situations. We discuss five approaches to how concepts are learned and represented: rules, prototypes, exemplars, category boundaries, and theories. Whereas some of these approaches leave the impression that concepts are isolated mental structures, connections between concepts are also critically important. We discuss connections between concepts and perception that link categorization to object recognition and serve to ground concepts in the world. Consistent with this connection, concepts and perceptual processes mutually influence one another. We also describe connections between concepts and language that allow concepts to subserve abstract communication, and for language needs to reciprocally affect concepts. Finally, we predict future directions for concept learning research, including formal computational modeling and educational applications.
Reasoning and Problem Solving
Authors: Leighton Jacqueline P. , Sternberg Robert J. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
In this chapter we present what is known about reasoning and problem solving, what is currently being done, and in what directions future conceptualizations, research, and practice are likely to proceed in the psychological literature. In our discussion, we attempt to clarify the distinction between reasoning and problem solving, present major theories of reasoning and problem solving, and emphasize the importance of background knowledge in both of these forms of thinking. In discussing the importance of knowledge in reasoning, for example, we offer evidence from studies of expert problem solving that illustrate the importance of background knowledge in facilitating the selection of strategies for successful performance. Moreover, we identify a recurring challenge for theories of reasoning and problem solving, namely, the frame problem (Dennett, 1990; Fodor, 1983). The frame problem involves deciding which beliefs from a multitude of different beliefs to consider when solving a task or when updating beliefs after an action has occurred. Finally, we conclude by suggesting that successful reasoning might be akin to expert problem solving—an iterative and systematic process of pattern detection and classification. Connectionist models can provide an avenue for investigating such a pattern classification account of reasoning.
Evolution: A Generative Source for Conceptualizing the Attributes of Personality
Authors: Millon Theodore 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis first of twocontextualchapters of the personality and social psychology volume relates to what we might term the “context of time;” the second chapter deals with what may best be thought of as the “context of space.” The initial chapter concerns the longitudinal, historical, orevolutionaryfoundations of the volume's topics, the second relates to the cross‐sectional, contemporaneous, orculturalbackground of its subjects.The present chapter details a rationale for employing evolutionary theory as a basis for explicating and generating a wide range of personality attributes; it seeks initially to characterize features that represent the essential aims of life or existence; secondly, the fundamental modes or ways in which living organisms adapt to their environments; third, the major strategies they employ to procreate and replicate their species; and finally, the informational sources toward which humans are oriented and the processes by which the knowledge they gain is transformed to construct cognition and abstract thought.Three polarities are proposed as psychological parallels for what are termed the universal principles of evolution, that is, functions that are found to be operative in all living organisms, namely, life preservation and life enhancement, ecological accommodation and ecological modification, and reproductive nurturance and reproductive propagation. A fourth set of polarities is proposed as a psychological framework for cognitive attributes that are notably, if not distinctively, operative in the human species, namely, choices between external vs. internal orientations, tangible vs. intangible dispositions, ideational vs. emotional preferences, and integrating vs. innovating biases.Numerous personality attributes are derived from the several polarities noted above, for example, danger‐avoidance, reward‐seeking, environmental‐mastery, constructive‐loving, affective‐preference, and imaginative‐bias.
Genetic Basis of Personality Structure
Authors: Livesley W. John , Jang Kerry L. , Vernon Philip A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter examines the potential contribution of behavior‐genetics to resolving some of the long‐standing problems regarding the phenotypic structure of personality. Despite the emergence of the five‐factor structure as the domain taxonomy of traits, problems remain concerning the number of higher‐order domains required to explicate individual differences and the contents of each domain. It is argued that evidence that all self‐report measures of personality have a substantial heritable component and that the phenotypic structure of personality closely resembles the underlying genetic architecture provide the basis for a ration approach to delineating the trait structure of personality. Etiological criteria offer a potentially more objective way to determine the structure and contents of domains to supplement traditional psychometric criteria based on phenotypic analyses. With this approach, each level of construct within the personality hierarchy would be determined on the basis of etiological rather than phenotypic analyses. Domains would be defined by traits that share the same etiology and each trait would consist of a genetically homogeneous set of behaviors.It is also argued that behavior‐genetic analyses can contribute not only to clarifying contents of domains but also to understanding the hierarchical structure adopted by most trait theories. The evidence suggests that that the genetic basis of personality is complex: multiple genetic dimensions contribute to personality phenotypes. These dimensions differ in breadth: some influence a single trait whereas others influence multiple phenotypically distinct but co‐varying traits. These broader genetic dimensions appear to exert a direct effect on traits rather than an indirect effect mediated through higher‐order entities. Although these findings require replication, they suggest that it is not necessary to postulate higher‐order latent constructs to explain trait covariation. That is, the higher‐order domains merely represent the pleiotropic action of genes and they are not distinct entities but rather heuristic devices to represent clusters of traits that covary because of a common genetic effect.
Psychodynamic Models of Personality
Authors: Bornstein Robert F. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter discusses the evolution of psychodynamic models of personality, and the place of these models within contemporary psychology. After reviewing the core assumptions of psychoanalysis—primacy of the unconscious, psychic causality, and the critical importance of early experiences—the basic elements of Freud's classical psychoanalytic theory are described, including the drive model, topographic model, psychosexual stage model, and structural model. Neo‐analytic theories, object relations theory, self‐psychology, and contemporary integrative psychodynamic frameworks are then discussed in relation to the classical psychoanalytic model. Common threads linking these disparate psychodynamic perspectives are highlighted, including personality processes and dynamics, insight and awareness, coping and defense, and normal and pathological functioning. Evolving psychoanalytic views of motivation, mental structure, and personality stability and change are emphasized. Finally, key issues in twenty‐first century psychoanalysis are discussed, including the importance of testing psychoanalytic hypotheses empirically, cognitive and developmental contributions to psychodynamic personality theory, recent developments in psychoanalytic health psychology, and the opportunities and challenges of neuroscience.