bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Manganese and Manganese Alloys
Authors: Matricardi Louis R. , Downing James 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Manganese minerals, pretreatment of manganese ores, and smelting processes are reviewed. The reduction of manganese ores and the production of high carbon ferromanganese and of silicomanganese are discussed as is the electrolytic production of manganese metal. The safety of ferromanganese production in electric furnaces is presented.
Manganese and manganese alloy production is closely tied to the steel industry. Many specialty steels contain significant quantities of manganese. Other important uses of manganese occur in the cast iron and aluminum industries where manganese metal is used as an alloy addition to aluminum that is used for beverage containers.
Manganese Compounds
Authors: Pisarczyk Kenneth 
Published: July 2004

AbstractManganese compounds are used commercially in the iron and steel industries, as a principal component of primary battery systems, and as oxidation reagents and catalysts. These compounds also find application in glassmaking and as fungicides, soft ferrite components, fertilizer, and pigments. Manganese exhibits oxidation states ranging from\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{-}}{\rm{III}}}$\end{document}to VII in its compounds, and many of the known phases of manganese dioxide correspond to variations in degree of stoichiometry. Compounds for each manganese valency are discussed. Emphasis is placed on the manufacture, properties, and uses of a variety of natural and synthetic manganese dioxides and of potassium permanganate.
Carboxylic Acids, Manufacture
Authors: Johnson R. W. , Daniels R. W. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Fatty acids are produced primarily from natural fats and oils such as tallow, coconut oil, and palm oil. Tall oil fatty acids are produced by the distillation of crude tall oil. Synthetic routes to fatty acids from petroleum are an important source and include catalytic oxidation of straight‐chain hydrocarbons as carried out in Eastern Europe, Russia, and China; carboxylation and oxidation of straight‐chain 1‐olefins; and oxidation of alcohols. Branched‐chain acids are produced from branched‐chain olefins via the oxo reaction.
Fatty acids are produced from natural fats and oils in essentially four steps or unit operations. Hydrolysis, the first step, is generally carried out by high temperature/pressure splitting. Glycerol is obtained as a by‐product. Second, solid or saturated fatty acids are separated from liquid or unsaturated fatty acids by solvent crystallization or by the hydrophilization process. Several newer methods of separation include adsorption and supercritical fluid extraction. The third step is hydrogenation, which converts unsaturated fatty acids into saturated fatty acids generally with the aid of a nickel catalyst. Finally, distillation is used to remove color and odor bodies and, when desired, to separate fatty acids into relatively pure materials such as lauric, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acids.
Mass Transfer
Authors: Chisti Yusuf 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Mass transport phenomena influence all kinds of processes, often controlling the rate, the yield, the product spectrum, and product recovery. This article details the mass transfer considerations in production and processing of chemicals. Fundamentals of mass transfer are discussed for gas–liquid, liquid–liquid, and solid–liquid systems. Methods for measurement of the overall gas–liquid volumetric mass transfer coefficient (

k
L
a
L

) are noted. Mass transport behavior is discussed for various kinds of reactors: laboratory shake flasks, vortex aerated devices, stirred tanks, bubble columns, airlift reactors, fluidized beds, packed beds, and other systems. Prediction and estimation of the various mass transfer coefficients are emphasized. Mass transfer within particles is treated as being relevant to adsorption, ion exchange, chromatographic separations, and heterogeneous catalysis. Mass transport in membrane processing is outlined.
Materials Reliability
Authors: Lamberson Leonard 
Published: July 2004

AbstractReliability is a parameter of design, such as a system's performance or load ratings, and is concerned with the length of failure‐free operation. It is difficult to conceptualize reliability as part of the usual design calculations. Further complications are the complexity of organizations needed to produce the large systems of today and the usual time and financial constraints on research and development. Reliability, as it relates to products or equipment, can be measured in various ways. Because it is a design parameter, it has to be addressed early in the design cycle. This article discusses terminology, models, and measurement of materials reliability.
Ceramics, Mechanical Properties, and Behavior
Authors: Glass S. Jill , Tandon Rajan 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCeramic materials present many advantages for structural applications, especially in extreme environments. Their high melting temperatures, high hardness, inertness, and relatively low densities make them attractive for many applications as replacements for metals and also as enablers for new technologies. For structural applications at low and modest temperatures, the design engineer is concerned about the load‐bearing capacity (stiffness, strength, and fracture toughness), the reliability (strength variability), and the time‐dependent strength (subcritical crack behavior). At elevated temperatures, time‐dependent deformation due to mechanisms such as creep is most important. In wear applications the hardness, toughness, and frictional properties are of interest. This chapter serves as an introduction to these topics. The mechanical properties of ceramics are important not only for the structural applications discussed, but also when these materials are used for electrical, optoelectronic, or biomedical applications.
Medical Diagnostic Reagents
Authors: Usmani Arthur M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPurified enzymes are widely used as medical diagnostic reagents for the measurement of analytes in urine, other body fluids such as serum and plasma, and even tissue. The enzymes and enzyme‐catalyzed reactions important to these analyses are presented, as are the means for monitoring these reactions. The reactions may be monitored utilizing optical or electrochemical techniques, employing biological indicators, dyes, or other mediators specially designed for the detection system.Dry chemistry technology employing all necessary reagents, including immobilized enzymes, in hydrogel films formed from suitable polymer is described. The formation of enzyme electrodes for biosensors is discussed. The redox chemistry relating to the diagnostic polymers and other reagents designed for use in this field is presented.
Membrane Technology
Authors: Baker Richard W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMembranes have gained an important place in chemical technology and are being used increasingly in a broad range of applications. The key property that is exploited in every application is the ability of a membrane to control the permeation of a chemical species in contact with it. This article provides a general overview of the entire membrane area. After a review of the historical development of membranes, the principal types of membrane are described briefly. The manufacture of the more important types of membrane and the packaging of membranes in modules to exploit their properties are discussed. The principal membrane applications, including microfiltration, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, pervaporation, gas separation, and controlled drug delivery are described. The particular focus is on the use of membranes to solve separation problems. More complete descriptions of some of the important specific applications of membranes are given elsewhere.
Mercury Compounds
Authors: Nowak Milton , Singer William 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The more widely used inorganic and organic mercury compounds are reviewed. Information as to methods of preparation, properties, and use of these compounds, as well as their current status with regard to U.S. Federal Government regulations, is given. Mercury compounds are used as preservatives and fungicides in coating compositions, as catalysts, as components in semiconductors, and as antiseptics.
The general toxicology of the various classes of mercury compounds is discussed. The methods of dealing with the safety hazards of producing and handling mercurials are also presented, as are the methods of removal of mercury from effluent liquids and gases.
Metal Treatments
Authors: Jackman Laurence A. , Ruiz Carlos N. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOperations performed on consolidated metals and alloys are referred to as metal treatments and are usually mechanical or thermal. Mechanical treatments involve changes in shape by forming or machining. Forming entails plastic deformation, which changes the metal microstructure. Plastic deformation can be imparted by hot or cold working. The amount of deformation that can be tolerated is established by workability testing. Primary forming operations convert cast ingots into wrought blooms, billets, bars, or slabs; secondary forming operations produce shapes. Machinability, which indicates the ease or difficulty with which a material can be machined to a given shape, is influenced by metallurgical factors in addition to machining parameters.In thermal treatments, heat is applied to alter structures and properties, as in annealing or in precipitation hardening, whereby substantial increases in strength can be achieved. Heat treatment of some metals such as steels involves an allotropic transformation. Surface treatments such as shot peening are sometimes used to enhance surface performance. Thermomechanical processing may also be employed. The metals treatment industry is continuously evaluating worker exposure and improving efficiency of treatment processes. Powder metallurgical processes for superalloys are described.
Metal Anodes
Authors: Liederbach Thomas A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIndustrial metal anodes can be classified into two groups: the anodes which facilitate a desired reaction, and those from which the product itself is evolved. Anodes can consist of one metal only or be of a conductive structure and carry a catalytic coating. Most technological and commercial advances have occurred in the field of coated metal anodes. Coated metal anodes have replaced the graphite anode in chlorine and sodium chlorate manufacture. Newer applications include cathodic protection systems, high speed electrogalvanizing, and copper foil production. Use of coated metal anodes has led to elimination of some environmental concerns in these industries.The specific morphology of metallic anode coatings and the condition of the substrate surface have great influence on successful performance. Operating performance is an optimization of anode life and operating voltage. This optimization influences anode structure design and takes into account anode resistance, configuration, and adaptability for recoating.
Methanol
Authors: English Alan , Rovner Jerry , Brown John , Davies Simon 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

English, Alan, and Rovner, Jerry (John Brown); Davies, Simon (Davy Process Technology). The physical and chemical properties of methanol (methyl alcohol), CH
3
OH, are summarized. The evolution of the current low pressure technology based on synthesis gas is presented. The mechanism and functionality of the methanol synthesis catalyst are discussed. Synthesis gas generation processes and feedstocks are described in detail, as are various methanol reactor configurations. The status of current research for future methanol processes, including direct oxidation routes, is summarized. Health and safety aspects of methanol storage and handling are discussed. Worldwide production and consumption data for 1992–1993 are given, together with corresponding end‐use methanol product specification requirements V.
Methyl Chloride
Authors: Holbrook Michael T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMethyl chloride is the simplest chlorinated hydrocarbon and occurs naturally in significant quantities. At ordinary temperatures and pressures it is a colorless gas with a very mild odor and a sweet taste. The principal methods of industrial preparation are methanol hydrochlorination and methane chlorination. Its primary use is in the production of silicone rubbers and as a general methylating agent. A growth rate of 30% is expected for the year 2003. Methyl chloride is regulated by a number of federal and state laws.
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Authors: Muthusamy Durai , Fisher Ian 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMethyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) (4‐methyl‐2‐pentanone) is an industrially important solvent and chemical intermediate. The properties, manufacturing technologies, uses, and health, safety, and environmental aspects of MIBK are discussed in this article.
Methacrylic Polymers
Authors: Slone Robert V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe commercially relevant and diverse chemistry of methacrylic ester polymers has encouraged their use in a remarkable variety of applications. Within this overview, particular attention is paid to the diversity of properties of methacrylic ester polymers and copolymers, the methods used to produce methacrylic ester polymers with specific properties, and the commercial applications of these materials.
Methylamines
Authors: Turcotte Michael G. , Hayes Kathryn S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMethylamines are derivatives of ammonia with one, two, or all three hydrogen atoms replaced by methyl groups. Amines with alkyl groups of 2‐6 carbons are known as aliphatic amines, and amines with still larger alkyl groups are known as fatty amines. Methylamines are soluble in various organic solvents. All have a strong fishy odor. Methylamines are toxic, colorless gases or compressed liquids. They are highly flammable. Methylamines can be prepared by a variety of methods. Commercial processes involve reaction of methanol with ammonia to form the corresponding mono‐, di‐, and tri‐methylamines. Methylamines are used as intermediates for the manufacture of solvents, agricultural chemicals, water treatment chemicals, pharmaceuticals, surfactants, rubber chemicals, and food/feed additives.
Mica
Authors: Tanner James T. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Micas, hydrous aluminum silicate minerals, are characterized by sheet or plant‐like structures and various physical properties. Micas of varying quality are used extensively in the building materials and electrical components industries. They are expected to play a larger role in specialty plastics and as a replacement for asbestos. A detailed description of the mineralogical, chemical, and physical properties of mica is given. Exploration, mining, beneficiation, and processing are also described. Testing methods for and specifications (chemical and physical) of mica products are listed. Mica markets (consumption and exports) are explored. Transportation, marketing, environmental regulations, health and safety factors, and future trends are discussed.
Microbial Polysaccharides
Authors: Cote Gregory L. , Ahlgren Jeffrey A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCote, Gregory L. and Ahlgren, Jeffrey A. (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture). Microbial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrate polymers produced by a variety of microorganisms. Those of commercial interest are generally produced extracellularly in substantial quantities. Commercial applications can be based on specific structural features or on physical properties. Applications based on physical properties include use as water‐soluble thickeners, gelling agents, and emulsion stabilizers. Applications based on specific structural features include the use of bacterial capsular antigens as vaccines, and the use of polysaccharides as metal complexants. Economically, the most important microbial polysaccharides are xanthan gum, dextran, and gellan. Others, such as pullulan, curdlan, and scleroglucan, are used less in the United States, but significant quantities are used overseas. Other microbial polysaccharides that show promise are bacterial cellulose, emulsan, liposan, levan, and succinoglucan. β‐D‐Glucans and sulfated polysaccharides are of interest as immunomodulators. Vol. 16, pp. 578–611, 372 refs. to November 1993.
Microbial and Viral Filtration
Authors: Aranha‐Creado Hazel , Oshima K. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSeveral physicochemical methods exist to ensure the safety of biological and biopharmaceutical products in manufacture. Whereas physical methods such as heat and radiation may be used, these are often not viable options owing to detrimental effects on product quality. For example, in the case of products that are heat labile or biochemically complex, these methods may result in alteration of the chemistry or function of the product, or random adsorption of key components. Filtration is the separation of particles from a fluid (liquid or gas) by passage of that fluid through a permeable medium. Sterile filtration ensures complete removal of viable organisms. Advances in membrane technology have resulted in the availability of filtrative devices for the removal of viruses in addition to bacteria. Thus membrane filtration is becoming increasingly the method of choice for sterilization of biologicals, especially when the product is heat labile, because the filtration process in inherently nondestructive.An overview of the general principles of filtration having specific application to bacterial and viral removal is given herein. The emphasis is on ensuring that the sterility and/or safety of biologicals and biopharmaceuticals be maintained.
Microwave Technology
Authors: Osepchuk John 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMicrowaves, in the central portion of the nonionizing spectral region of the electromagnetic spectrum, find use in chemical technology as a power source. Microwaves penetrate macroscopic objects further than other types of nonionizing radiation. Most of the applications of microwave technology are based on heating effects related to the dielectric properties of the various media. Consumer products are limited to microwave ovens which are used for cooking, reheating, and thawing foods.The frequency allocations for microwave technology and the basic principles for materials processing are described as are the components of microwave instrumentation, the requirements for radio‐frequency interference shielding, and the limitations in frequency exploitation. Applications related to food processing and various forms of food packaging are discussed. Microwave power sources also find use in ceramics processing, medicine and other biological applications, and have potential in such fields as thin‐film deposition and waste treatment.
Milk and Milk Products
Authors: Hall Carl W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractHall, Carl W. (Engineering Information Services). Milk from cows is a significant food source throughout the world. Milk provides food components to meet important nutritional needs of the human body. Vitamins, minerals, sugar, fat, and protein are contained in milk. The amount of these components in milk varies with the breed of animal, the particular animal, and with other species that produce milk. As a human food, care must be taken in the production and processing of milk and milk products to maintain quality. Contamination must be avoided. Appropriate temperature control must be provided to hold raw milk, process milk into beverage, process milk into its many products, and deliver quality products to the consumer. Changing consumer habits influence the kind and amount of products manufactured. Appropriate quality determinations and controls must be provided throughout the process to assure that safe, nutritious products are delivered to the consumer on an economical basis. Vol. 16, pp. 700–746, 53 refs. to June 1993.
Mineral Nutrients
Authors: Enig Mary G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe essential mineral nutrients are classified into two groups: the principal elements calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium; and the trace and ultratrace elements iron, fluorine, zinc, silicon, copper, boron, selenium, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, chromium, cobalt, tin, vanadium, and nickel. These minerals perform a wide variety of functions serving as components of bones and teeth (calcium, phosphorus, fluorine); as components of cellular membranes (phosphorus); as high energy compounds (phosphorus); as components of proteins and amino acids (sulfur); in maintaining the appropriate pH and water volume of the organism (sodium, potassium, chlorine); in regulating metabolic rate (iodine); as components of (or cofactors for) enzymes (copper, zinc, selenium, molybdenum, manganese, iron, magnesium, calcium); in formation of hemoglobin (iron, cobalt, copper); in prevention of dental caries (fluorine); and in maintaining the appropriate level of muscle and nerve excitability (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium). Information is included on body content, daily requirement, effects of excess, deficiency or faulty utilization, modes of absorption and excretion, metabolic functions and modes of action, food sources, and toxicities.
Minerals Recovery and Processing
Authors: Nagaraj D. R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Minerals recovery from the earth's crust and the subsequent processing of economic mineral deposits, ie, ores, constitutes a wide variety of steps. Taken together these represent one of the world's largest industries. Liberation of the value minerals from the ore matrix is a significant undertaking as is the disposal of the gangue materials or tailings once processing is complete. Materials handling is a significant problem in minerals processing as is process or plant control. Massive quantities of material, ie, ores, solvents, additives, and gangue, must be handled for separation procedures. Most mined ore undergoes size reduction, ie, grinding or crushing, and size separation and classification prior to minerals concentration.
Minerals separation or concentration methods may include ore sorting, gravity concentration, magnetic or electrostatic separations, flotation, or combinations of these methods, depending on the ore, the mineral, and economic considerations. These methods are described as are the various solid–liquid separation, ie, dewatering, procedures, which may include thickening, filtration, centrifugal dewatering, or thermal drying. The methods of choice for several minerals are given as examples.
Mixing and Blending
Authors: Hemrajani Ramesh R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Fluid mixing is a unit operation carried out to homogenize fluids in terms of concentrations, physical properties, and temperature, and create dispersions of mutually insoluble phases. It is frequently encountered in process industries such as petroleum, chemical, food, pharmaceutical, paper, and mining. Applications range from 0.01 m
3
reactors to 20,000 m
3
product storage tanks and continuous in‐line mixers. The fundamental mechanism of mixing involves physical movement of material between various parts of the whole mass by transmitting mechanical energy. Adequate mixing is a prerequisite for the success of chemical processes for minimizing investment and operating costs. In addition, chemical reactions with mass‐transfer limitation can be enhanced to provide high yields. Good mixing, therefore, plays a significant role in the profitability of the process industry.

Mixing systems are broadly divided into single‐phase systems involving miscible liquids; and multiphase systems such as solid–liquid, mutually insoluble liquids, and gas–liquid. Fundamental mixing concepts and suitable mixer types, design, and scale‐up issues for these mixing classes are discussed. The mixing equipment described includes agitated tanks, jets, static mixers, unique designs for powders and pastes, and devices for transferring heat. Blending of low and high viscosity liquids and suspension of sinking and floating solids are covered in more detail.