bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dictionary
Authors: Bachmann Talis , Breitmeyer Bruno , men Haluk Ög˘ 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A very large class of figures (images, drawings), each of which permits two (or sometimes more) alternative perceptual interpretations. At any one time of observing such figures, only one of the alternative interpretations dominates the observer’s awareness. Typically, because the alternative perceptual interpretations alternate in the observer’s conscious mind, ambiguous figures are often called reversible figures. The well-known examples of ambiguous figures have been introduced by Louis-Albert Necker (“Necker cube,” 1832) (see Figure 1, left panel), Heinrich Schröder (staircase, 1858), Edwin Boring (W. E. Hill’s “My wife and my mother-in-law,” 1915, introduced 1930) (see Figure 1, middle panel), Joseph Jastrow (“Duck-rabbit,” 1900), B. Bugelsky and D. Alampay (“Rat-man,” 1961) (see Figure 1, right panel), Gerald Fisher (“Man-female,” 1967), and others. Many famous artists have created astonishingly intriguing examples of pictorial ambiguity in their pictures (e.g., Arcimboldo, Salvador Dali, Maurits Cornelis Escher).
Science Policy and Reacting to a Challenge
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Extinction is inevitable: More than 99 percent of the species that ever lived on Earth are extinct. Until the late 20th century, we relied mainly on paleontologists to uncover the causes, but the accelerating modern loss of biodiversity affords more chances than scientists working with modern species would like to learn about extinction. For amphibians in particular, we are in the midst of an opportunity to study the biology of extinction across an entire vertebrate class, using the sophisticated methods of modern science. But because we are only just beginning to identify the causes of declines and even extinctions, what should we do?
Hamish McCallum from the University of Queensland (now at the University of Tasmania) and Menna Jones at the University of Tasmania study the emerging wildlife disease called Tasmanian devil facial tumor disease (DFTD). They raised a similar question about how to proceed if knowledge about the causes of population declines is imperfect. They see DFTD “as a case study of the wider issue of how to manage an emerging disease threat that poses a serious conservation threat: how should you proceed when you know very little?” They go on to point out how the need to make decisions in the face of uncertainty is a question common to many ecological problems. But deferring decisions while waiting for better information often incurs costs and the added burden that control may be tougher or impossible if a pathogen becomes established. Which actions are appropriate to take despite incomplete information?
Leaping between Mysteries
Authors: Collins James P , Crump Martha L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern science attempts to bring clarity and context to issues that change rapidly, and at times unexpectedly. The decline and extinction of amphibian populations made people wonder: What species were involved? Where? When? And most of all, why? Major magazines and newspapers covered the story—on page one. In an effort to place what was happening in context, scientists reported what they knew and guessed at why. Reviews summarized what was known, but mostly what was not. After nearly 2 decades of research, we are in a better position to state what we know and what we do not know. The story of amphibian declines now has a context; its dimensions are clearer, and the problem is better defined.
Some amphibian population declines and extinctions can be explained as the effects of introduced exotic species, commercial use, or land use change acting alone or in combination. We understand these causes increasingly well for two reasons. First, their role in changing numbers of individuals and species in a region has acted for hundreds of years on a wide range of amphibians, other animals, and plants. Second, each acts in a direct or relatively direct way. Imagine a marsh with a population of frogs that call each year when breeding. Fill the wetland for a housing development or agriculture, and the calling will stop. Or, imagine are that destroys the only population of a plant or animal species. The action is direct, the species is gone, and the cause is clear.
The Pleasure Center
Authors: Kringelbach Morten L . 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many people believe that pleasure and desire are obstacles to reasonable and intelligent behavior. In The Pleasure Center, Morten Kringelbach reveals that what we desire, what pleases us--in fact, our most base, animalistic tendencies—are actually very important sources of information. They motivate us for a good reason. And understanding that reason, taking that reason into account, and harnessing and directing that reason, can make us much more rational and effective people. In exploring the many facets of pleasure, desire and emotion, Kringelbach takes us through the whole spectrum of human experience, such as how emotion fuels our interest in things, allowing us to pay attention and learn. He investigates the reward systems of the brain and sheds light on some of the most interesting new discoveries about pleasure and desire. Kringelbach concludes that if we understand and accept how pleasure and desire arise in the complex interaction between the brain’s activity and our own experiences, we can discover what helps us enjoy life, enabling us to make better decisions and, ultimately, lead happier lives.
Epidemiology and Impact of Traumatic Brain Injury
Authors: Mccrea Michael A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to eventually put mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) into proper perspective, it is important to first paint the broader picture of the significance of all-severity traumatic brain injury (TBI). TBI is one of the most significant public health problems facing the United States and other industrialized countries around the world. Every year, TBI is a leading cause of death and disability among young people. National estimates of TBI in the United States range anywhere from 1.4 million to 3 million brain injuries per year, de- pending on the study and methods used to define and include cases. In 2003, there were an estimated 1,224,000 hospital emergency department visits, 290,000 hospitalizations, and 51,000 deaths resulting from TBI, all of which sum to a total of 1,565,000 hospital-treated TBIs that year. Given changes in hospitalization patterns over the past two decades, fewer and fewer mild and moderate TBI patients are hospitalized, with more triaged in the emergency department or treated in ambulatory/outpatient settings, so the true incidence of all-severity TBI is severely underestimated.
Neuroimaging in MTBI
Authors: Mccrea Michael A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps the most elusive exercise in the science of MTBI has been the con- tinual pursuit of ‘‘objective’’ findings to demonstrate either underlying structural or functional abnormalities as markers of traumatic injury. The emergency management of MTBI typically centers on the decision to perform a head CT scan because of its utility in detecting hemorrhagic lesions and other structural injury that may require neurosurgical intervention or more acute triage. Therein lies the dilemma: while CT scans have great value in detecting neurosurgical emergencies, they also have the poorest sensitivity in detecting underlying abnormalities associated with milder forms of brain injury, including MTBI. The absence of focal findings on a CT scan is often incorrectly and inappropriately equated with a complete lack or nonexistence of brain injury, which then creates confusion among health care providers that often follows patients throughout their clinical management after injury. There is a continual pursuit in the neurosciences to develop imaging tech- niques sensitive to detecting structural and functional abnormalities following milder forms of brain injury, even in the absence of traumatic abnormalities on head CT scan.
MMPI-2 Content Indicators in Evaluating Therapy Patients
Authors: Butcher James N , Perry Julia N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The traditional interpretive approach for MMPI scales and profile codes involves the application of empirical correlates to scale scores and patterns. These empirically derived behaviors provide a solid basis for clinical description and prediction of behavior from the individual’s self-report. The major strengths of this approach lie in the extensive external validation of the MMPI scales and profile codes; they provide valid and reliable test correlates that can confidently be applied to a broad range of treatment cases. One disadvantage to the MMPI empirical scale approach is that the heterogeneous item content of the scales makes face valid or intuitive interpretative statements difficult at times. In other words, items that empirically separate groups or prove themselves to be valid predictors may not “hang together” or be intuitively related to what the patient tells the therapist. The empirical correlates of the clinical scales, with rather heterogeneous content, may not be as intuitively understandable as are interpretations that are based on content-homogeneous scales.
Conditioned Reinforcement and the Specialized Role of Corticolimbic Circuits in the Pursuit of Happiness and Other More Specific Rewards
Authors: Burke Kathryn A , Franz Theresa , Miller Danielle , Schoenbaum Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Normal behavior is guided by both primary reinforcers (such as food, drugs, sex, etc.) and secondary or conditioned reinforcers. Conditioned reinforcers are cues that have been repeatedly paired with primary rewards such that they acquire the ability to support behavior even in the absence of those primary rewards (Mackintosh, 1974). Our everyday lives are filled with examples of conditioned reinforcers that drive our behavior.
Hedonics: The Cognitive–Motivational Interface
Authors: Dickinson Anthony , Balleine Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From a biological perspective, understanding the function of mentality is compromised by the fact that it operates at a number of degrees removed from the ultimate evolutionary criterion of reproductive fitness. In other words, the biology of the mental is always filtered through the medium of behavior, a dislocation that immediately raises the issue of why evolution has bothered with the mental. If behavior is all that matters, why are we all not just Cartesian beast machines, simply performing the behavior required to get our genes into the next generation without an accompanying pageant being played out in the phenomenal theater of the conscious mind? This issue is raised most acutely in the case of hedonic and affective experience, which not only has phenomenal qualities but also carries strong motivational imperatives
On the Nature and Function of Pleasure
Authors: Frijda Nico H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pleasure is a fundamental notion in the description and explanation of emotion. Some investigators consider it, together with pain, as their core: All emotions can be regarded as variants of pleasure or pain, and with variations in activation (Russell,2003). Also, human striving is often said to follow the “pleasure principle”: all striving would aim at obtaining pleasure or at decreasing pain. But what is pleasure? It is sometimes considered ineffable—impossible to be described in words. Yet, it evidently contains su0cient cues to enable children to learn using the word systematically.
The Pleasure of Taste, Flavor, and Food
Authors: Veldhuizen Maria G , Rudenga Kristin J , Small Dana M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Food is an important sensory pleasure. The aim of this chapter is to outline what is currently known about the neural basis for the hedonic representation of taste and favor in lean healthy humans. The word “taste” is often used to describe the sensation of food in the mouth. However, what we colloquially refer to as “taste” is more accurately labeled “Qavor,” which is the unitary perception that results from the integration of multiple distinct sensory inputs, including taste, smell, and oral somatosensation (Small and Prescott, 2005).
Sexual Pleasure
Authors: Komisaruk Barry R , Whipple Beverly , Beyer Carlos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
That is, the origin of the word, “pleasure” has a common root with the word, “like.” This is schematized in Figure 10.1. What pleases us (i.e., what we like—what suits us) is that which gives us pleasure. There is a commonality between pleasure and a match (a fit) with what we like. Thus, there is a commonality between likeness, in the sense of similarity on the one hand, and liking, as in pleasure, on the other. (In the diagram, the transition is eased by the concept of Getting ends together:[a0nity– liking], which produces a smooth[uninterrupted, flat] surface.) Placer in Spanish means “pleasure.”
The Pleasure of Music
Authors: Vuust Peter , Kringelbach Morten L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As shown in this book, many pleasures are shared between species, but there are clearly species-specific routes to this pleasure. When asked about which of the pleasures of life they would miss the most, most people consistently rate music as one of the most important, yet the ability to derive pleasure from music listening and performance would appear to be a trait that is unique to humans. While other animals are clearly capable of hearing the sounds that make up music, they appear unable to take pleasure in music (McDermott and Hauser, 2007).
“The Reborn Athens”
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Here is how in 1919 Golgi remembered the situation of the University of Pavia at the time of his enrollment in the Medical School. At the end of the 18th century, in a period in which, thanks to the names of Malpighi (the founder of microscopic anatomy), Morgagni (the true creator of scientific medicine grounded in pathological anatomy), Spallanzani (who, working with the methods of chemistry and physics, founded experimental biology), Fontana (author of fundamental discoveries on the structure and function of nerves), Galvani (who triumphantly inaugurated electrobiology), Volta (who changed physics), and of many other eminent scientists, the scientific-biological movement in Italy was not inferior [to] that in other countries and the Italians could withstand comparison with the foreigners, proudly and with head held high. Actually I would rather maintain that the Italians could boast of a supremacy. But unfortunately, for circumstances that cannot be analyzed here, around the middle of the past century the conditions of the Italian universities—this assertion is not mine—were in total decline. The University of Pavia was not an exception! In this University, where Spallanzani had made immortal discoveries and created experimental biology, Physiology was taught theoretically .. . without a laboratory! In the field of Clinical and Pathological Medicine, the most abstruse vitalism dominated, and strange to say, it was proclaimed the necessity to oppose foreign medicine, which was based on the analytical observation of pathological phenomena, oblivious that the so-called foreign medicine was born in Italy, and had as its foundation the master Morgagni! It was in such a period of dramatic battles over the direction to take—which however were seminal for the renewal of our School—that I enrolled in this medical school, with no other aspiration than to acquire my professional diploma in a timely manner.
The Histological Path To The Secrets Of The Brain
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of 1860 the idea of national unification was running through Italian intellectual circles like an electrical current. It was as if history, long compressed, was erupting under an irresistible pressure, and all watched in astonishment the precipitous unfolding of events. In March, plebiscites in Parma, Modena, and Tuscany approved annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia, which until then consisted of Piedmont, Liguria, and Sardinia. In May, Giuseppe Garibaldi launched the Spedizione dei Mille (Expedition of the Thousand), taking by storm Sicily and then, in September, Naples. In a matter of few months the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies melted away and ceased to be an autonomous political entity. At the end of the year the parliament of the Kingdom of Sardinia was dissolved to allow for the election of a national parliament.
Like A Tree In The Forest
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Golgi’s life in Abbiategrasso was culturally isolated except for temporary relief in the form of letters from Bizzozero and Manfredi. These important relationships kept Golgi’s interest in histology alive and gave him a feeling that the university was nearby. Thanks to Bizzozero, he had been able to maintain for a few months an official appointment at the University as a member of one of the many commissioni d’esame (examining panels that assigned grades at the end of each course).
The Malaria Of The Polemics
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During 1886 Golgi continued to be obsessed with his studies on malaria. In the spring, four patients with tertian malaria were admitted in his ward. He was also allowed to study a patient admitted in the ward directed by the pathologist Alberto Riva. [1] Golgi was now able to demonstrate that the biological cycle of the parasites in the red cells of these patients “takes place between two bouts, that is in two days, whereas the pigmented bodies of the quartan complete their cycle in three days.” [2] He also demonstrated that some forms of quotidian could be explained by two independent cycles caused by two different strains of Plasmodium that were out of phase by one day, and that the biological cycles of the tertian and of the quartan (Golgi’s cycle) were morphologically different, allowing a differential diagnosis for the two forms. He also hinted at the idea that the two forms of malaria might be caused by two different microorganisms. Finally, he confirmed the “presence of pigmented bodies within the white cells” and proposed that the process of phagocytosis could play a role in the spontaneous termination of the infection.
Challenging the American Conscience, Re-Imagining American Identity
Authors: Scott Lynn Orilla 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
James Baldwin’s writing and his role as a public intellectual from 1957 through the early 1970s must be understood within the context of the racial struggle at the center of American life. Baldwin’s fifteen-year engagement with the black freedom struggle as it evolved from civil rights to Black Power raises some key questions: What was the relationship between his role as a movement “spokesman” and his vocation as a (literary) writer? How did Baldwin represent the movement in his writing and how did that experience impact his writing over time? I put the word spokesman in quotation marks to acknowledge that Baldwin disavowed the term, preferring to call himself a “witness,” so as not to presume to speak for others. However, the term spokesman accurately describes Baldwin’s role by 1963 as a highly visible black intellectual whose opinions were widely sought out and publicized.
Psychopathy
Authors: Hare Robert D , Neumann Craig S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The modern conception of psychopathy is the result of several hundred years of clinical investigation by European and North American psychiatrists and psychologists (Berrios, 1996; Cleckley, 1941, 1976; Hervé, 2007a; Millon, Simonsen, Birket-Smith, & Davis, 1998). In North America the writings of Arieti (1967), Karpman (1961), and McCord and McCord (1964), among others, and the case-studies of Cleckley (1941, 1976) were particularly important for providing detailed clinical descriptions of psychopathy as well as speculations and theories concerning the nature of the disorder.
Borderline Personality Disorder
Authors: Paris Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) describes a clinical syndrome commonly seen in practice (Zimmerman, Rothschild, & Chelminski, 2005). The most characteristic symptom is chronic suicidality (Paris, 2002), with recurrent overdoses and selfmutilation. In association with suicidal actions, patients with BPD suffer from unstable mood a wide range of impulsive actions, and troubled relationships.
Duty
Authors: Irvine William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen, the Stoics advise us to seek tranquility. They realized, however, that this recommendation is not, by itself, very helpful, so they went on to offer guidance on how best to attain tranquility. They advise us, to begin with, to practice the psychological techniques described in part 2 of this book. They also offer advice on specific aspects of daily living. They counsel us, for example, not to seek fame and fortune, since doing so will likely disrupt our tranquility. They warn us to be careful in choosing our associates; other people, after all, have the power to shatter our tranquility—if we let them. They go on to offer advice on how to deal with insults, anger, grief, exile, old age, and even on the circumstances under which we should have sex.
Grief
Authors: Irvine William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most parents, on learning of the death of a child, will be emotionally devastated. They will weep, perhaps for days on end, and they will be unable to go about their daily routine for a time. Long after the death, they might experience grief flashbacks; their eyes might well up, for example, on seeing a picture of their child. And how will a Stoic respond to the death of a child? One might imagine that he will respond with no response at all, that he will suppress whatever feelings he might be having or, better still, that he will have trained himself not to grieve.
Practicing Stoicism
Authors: Irvine William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I will end this book by sharing some of the insights I have gained in my practice of Stoicism. In particular, I will offer advice on how individuals wishing to try Stoicism as their philosophy of life can derive the maximum benefit from the trial with the minimum effort and frustration. I will also describe some of the surprises, as well as some of the delights, that lie in store for would-be Stoics.
Introduction
Authors: Scioli Anthony , Biller Henry B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens artfully recreated the chaos that was London and Paris at the end of the eighteenth century. On the verge of entering a new era of violent uncertainty, the masses found themselves pitching back and forth between the zenith of hope and the nadir of despair.
It was the best of times [and] the worst of times ... it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness ... we had everything before us, we had nothing before us.
Today we live in a world that is equally volatile. Indeed, if you look at the front page of any newspaper or tune in to any newscast, you would be justified in feeling that we live in the worst of times: rampant crime, disenfranchised masses, abject poverty, plunging stock markets, endless wars, devastating natural disasters—all these and much more confront us regularly with their messages of doom and misery. We may weep over or curse the state of our unfriendly, unstable, damaged world, but we otherwise seem powerless to do much about improving it or the state of our lives.