bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Laminated Materials, Glass
Authors: Nichols R. Terrell , Sowers Robert M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLaminated glass has been in use since the early twentieth century, beginning with automotive applications and expanding to applications in locations where strong, durable, transparent panels were required and hazards to life and injury were critical. Poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB), with suitable additives and plasticizers, has enjoyed the bulk of the market for interlayer material for use with glass. Relatively recently, other materials such as polyurethanes, acrylics, and polycarbonates have found applications as interlayer materials because of their respective properties. Types of applications, properties, and construction details of various laminates are presented, as well as fabrication techniques. Specifications are referenced that govern the use of laminated glass products in motor vehicles and in building construction. In addition to providing shatter resistance and improved security to conventional windows and viewing panels, laminated glass may also be used to provide unique colors, patterns, electromagnetic filtering/shielding, and electrical/electronic capabilities. Many of these applications are discussed in detail.
Lasers
Authors: Ready John F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article reviews the fundamentals and applications of laser technology. It includes a description of the basic principles of laser operation and a discussion of the unusual properties of laser light, which distinguish it from light emitted by conventional light sources, including collimation, narrow spectral linewidth, coherence, and focusability to small focal areas. It describes the most important types of available lasers and their properties, including gas lasers, solid‐state lasers, organic‐dye lasers, and semiconductor lasers. In addition, it describes newly emerging types of laser devices. It includes discussions of laser safety and of nonlinear optics. A significant portion of the article deals with uses of lasers, including material processing, measurement technology, holography, medical applications, communications, consumer products, spectroscopy, photochemistry, isotope separation, and laser‐assisted thermonuclear fusion.
Latex Technology
Authors: Gelbert Chester H. , Grady Michael C. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Latices are colloidal dispersions of discrete polymer particles, usually in an aqueous medium. Technology used to make and use latex involves many aspects of colloidal and polymer chemistry. This article reviews the fundamentals of emulsion polymerization, the techniques used to make most synthetic latices, general properties of latices, as well as colloidal and polymer compounding ingredients to convert latices into useful products, and discusses the wide variety of applications in which latices are used.
Lead Alloys
Authors: Prengaman R. David 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Lead, a soft, low melting point metal that has excellent corrosion resistance and ductility, is normally alloyed with other metals to improve its mechanical properties. The principal metals alloyed with lead are antimony, arsenic, calcium, copper, tin, tellurium, and silver. Minor alloying elements are cadmium, bismuth, selenium, indium, aluminum, and strontium.
Lead alloys are generally melted and cast into molds to produce useful shapes. The alloys are also rolled, extruded, and forged. The primary use for lead alloys is in the production of battery parts for lead–acid batteries. Smaller but significant uses are ammunition, cable sheathing, sheet for roofing and construction, insoluble anodes, solders, and special low melting point materials.
Lead and lead alloys, worldwide commodities, are toxic metals and must be handled with special care to prevent exposure. Lead is the most recycled metal. Over 50% of worldwide consumption is produced from recycled products. In the United States, virtually all lead alloy consumption is supplied from recycled lead, primarily used lead–acid batteries.
Leather‐Like Materials
Authors: Hioki Katsumi 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Many substitutes for leather have been proposed and have come into general use. Some leather products have been replaced by vinyl‐coated fabrics, and by urethane‐coated fabrics. Man‐made leathers have finally succeeded in simulating leather to such an extent that they are nearly identical in appearance and properties, thanks to their unique structure. Annual production reached more than 30 million m
2
in 1992 and is still growing due to high performance.
Leather
Authors: Thorstensen Thomas C. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Tanning and manufacture of leather utilize both natural and synthetic specialty chemicals. Chrome tanning of cattle hides is the most predominant method employed in modern tanning facilities, although vegetable tannins are often introduced once the preliminary tanning is accomplished. Tanning not only preserves a skin or hide, it also makes the resulting leather resistant to rewetting and to cracking from flexing. The structure and composition of the hide, together with the intended usage, dictate the appropriate treatment. The stepwise process of leather manufacture, including the processing of raw hides and the chemistry of both chrome tanning and leather dyeing, is discussed. The importance of treatment of tanning wastes is also emphasized.
Lime and Limestone
Authors: Oates Tony 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLimestone is a naturally occurring mineral that consists principally of calcium carbonate. It generally contains magnesium carbonate as a secondary component. Limestone is found in many forms and is classified in terms of its origin, chemical composition, structure, and geological formation. Deposits are distributed widely throughout the world.The lime and limestone industries have generated many traditional expressions. Definitions covering the most common terms are given. Physical and chemical properties of limestone vary so many of the properties discussed here are to be considered typical. Over 95% of limestone is produced by open‐cast quarrying. Limestone is a major mineral product. In most countries, the primary use of limestone is as crushed rock for construction and building mainly as an aggregate and filler. The manufacture of cement is the second largest use.Only a small proportion of limestone deposits has the necessary properties for the production of quicklime. The factors required for quicklime production are given. Production and processing of quicklime, ground quicklime, slaked lime, milk of lime, and lime putty are detailed. Lime products have many uses in, steel manufacture, chemical and food industries, industrial processes, building materials, environmental protection, and agriculture. Lime producers typically market a relatively large number of grades of lime.Most countries have their own standards for sampling, sample preparation, and testing. European, American, and British standards are given as examples.Calcium carbonate and calcium magnesium carbonate are nonhazardous substances. The main environmental issues associated with lime and limestone products are the noise and vibration from quarrying and energy use. Recycling and disposal issues are discussed.
Polyethylene, Linear Low Density
Authors: Kissin Yury V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLinear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) resins are polyethylene (PE) plastic materials with densities in the 0.915–0.925 g/cm3range. They are a family of semicrystalline ethylene copolymers with α‐olefins produced in catalytic polymerization reactions. A variety of resins described by the general term LLDPE differ one from another in several respects: the type of α‐olefin used for copolymerization with ethylene (mostly 1‐butene, 1‐hexene, 4‐methyl‐1‐pentene, and 1‐octene), the content of the α‐olefin in the copolymer (it varies from 1 to\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{\sim }}10{\hskip0.167em}{\hskip0.167em}{\rm{mol}}{\%}}$\end{document}for different resins), resin density and crystallinity, and compositional uniformity of the copolymers.LLDPE resins are produced in industry with several classes of catalysts: Ziegler catalysts based on titanium or vanadium compounds, Kaminsky and Dow catalysts utilizing metallocene complexes, and Phillips catalysts based on chromium oxides. These resins are manufactured either in gas‐phase, solution, or slurry polymerization processes.LLDPE is a significant commodity product with a worldwide manufacture volume in 1994 of around\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${13\times 10^{6}{\hskip0.167em}{\hskip0.167em}{\rm{tons}}}$\end{document}. Film is the largest application market for LLDPE resins; it is used to manufacture grocery sacks, trash bags, bags for merchandise packaging, garment, laundry, dry‐cleaning, and ice. LLDPE film is also used for nonpackaging applications such as industrial sheeting and agricultural mulch film. High clarity film produced with LLDPE resins manufactured with metallocene catalysts is used for food packaging and medical applications. Injection molding products, mostly for housewares, represent the second largest market for LLDPE. LLDPE resins are also used for blow molding (bottles, drums), for rotational molding (toys, large containers, tanks), for pipe and tubing, and for wire coating in electrical and telephone industry.
Extraction, Liquid–Liquid
Authors: Lo Teh C. , Baird Malcolm H. I. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLiquid‐liquid extraction, also known as solvent extracting, is a well‐established separation technique that depend on the unequal distribution of a solute between two immiscible liquids. The initial feed liquid containing the solute is brought into contact with a solvent which is selected to have a greater affinity for the solute. The partition of the solute can be enhanced by adding a chemical extractant to the solvent; this practice is widespread in the hydrometallurgical and nuclear industries. Most industrial extractors operate continuously with countercurrent flow of the two phases. In mixer‐settlers, the phases are contacted as a well‐agitated dispersion of drops, which are then sent to settling tanks for phase disengagement. In extraction columns, the dispersed drops move countercurrently against the flow of the second (continuous) phase. The physics, chemistry, and practice of extraction, with brief descriptions of important industrial extraction processes and equipment, are presented. Research on hydrodynamic aspects of process design such as axial mixing, drop dispersion, and coalescence is reviewed. New extraction techniques such as membrane extraction, supercritical exctraction, and two‐phase aqueous extraction are discussed.
Lithium and Lithium Compounds
Authors: Kamienski Conrad W. , McDonald Daniel P. , Stark Marshall W. , Papcun John R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLithium, an element of unique physical and chemical properties, is useful in a wide range of applications as the metal, as the lithium ion in inorganic salts, and as the more covalent species in inorganic compounds. The largest uses of lithium compounds are in traditional areas such as the preparation of glass, glass‐ceramics, and enamels; in aluminum cell broth; in the preparation of lithium greases; and as polymerization initiators. Lithium compounds are also employed as psychopharmacological agents and in organic synthesis, catalysis, absorption, air conditioning, photographic processing, and in batteries. The use of organic lithium compounds as industrial catalysts and the consumption of various lithium compounds in batteries are the most rapidly expanding markets.The various lithium mineral and brine resources are reviewed along with the processes for lithium extraction and recovery. Manufacturing processes, properties, health and safety factors, and applications for lithium metal and lithium compounds are discussed.
Amines, Lower Aliphatic Amines
Authors: Turcotte Michael G. , Hayes Kathryn S. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Lower aliphatic amines are derivatives of ammonia with one, two, or all three of the hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl groups of five carbons or less. Amines with higher alkyl groups are known as fatty amines. Amines are toxic, colorless gases or liquids, highly flammable, and have strong odors. Lower mol wt amines are water soluble and are sold as aqueous solutions and in pure form. Amines react with water and acids to form alkylammonium compounds analogous to ammonia. The base strengths in water of the primary, secondary, and tertiary amines and ammonia are essentially the same. The lower aliphatic amines are widely used as intermediates in the manufacture of medicinal, agricultural, textile, rubber, and plastic chemicals. Some commercially important alkylamines are methylamine, dimethylamine, ethylamine,
n
‐propylamine, isopropylamine, allylamine,
n
‐butylamine, isobutylamine,
sec
‐butylamine, ethyl‐
n
‐butylamine,
n
‐amylamine. The formation of salts with acids is the most characteristic reaction of amines. Alkylamine are corrosive to copper, copper‐containing alloys (brass), aluminum, zinc, zinc alloy, and galvanized surfaces. Lower aliphatic amines can be prepared by a variety of methods, using many different types of raw materials. By far the largest commercial applications involve the reaction of alcohol with ammonia to form the corresponding amines. Other methods are employed depending on the particular amine desired, raw material availability, and plant economics. The U. S. Department of Transportation requires labeling of all shipments of amines commensurate with the associated hazards. Alkylamines are toxic. Both the liquids and vapors can cause severe irritation to mucous membranes, eyes, and skin. Protective butyl rubber gloves, aprons, chemical face shields, and self‐contained breathing apparatus should be used by all personnel handling alkylamines.
Dendrimers, Luminescent
Authors: Balzani Vincenzo , Ceroni Paola , Maestri Mauro 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDendrimers are complex, yet well‐defined, macromolecular compounds exhibiting a high degree of constitutional order, with the possibility of containing selected chemical units in predetermined sites of their structure (core, branches, surface). Functional units can also be noncovalently hosted in the dynamic cavities of a dendrimer or associated at a dendrimer surface.Luminescent dendrimers are currently attracting much attention since coupling luminescence and dendrimer research can lead to new valuable functions such as light harvesting, sensing with signal amplification, energy and electron‐transfer processes, and shielding effects. In this article, we review recent advances in this field focusing our attention toward a few examples, namely: (a) dendrimers with a luminescent core; (b) dendrimers with luminescent units in the periphery; (c) dendrimers whose luminescence is governed by energy‐transfer processes; and (d) luminescent dendrimers hosting luminescent guests. We illustrate their luminescent properties in fluid solution, elucidating their structures and superstructures.
Machining Methods, Electrochemical
Authors: McGeough J. A. , Chen X. K. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMachining Methods, Electrochemical. Electrochemical machining (ECM), a metal removal process based on the laws of electrolysis, was developed for shaping high strength heat‐resistant alloys which are difficult to machine by conventional techniques. Using ECM techniques, hard metals can be shaped as reliably as soft ones and the rate of machining does not depend on hardness. Because the tool electrode used in the process does not wear, soft metals can be used as tools to form shapes on harder workpieces. Other applications include deburring, hole drilling, electrochemical grinding, and removal of fatigue cracks in steel structures. The working principles of ECM are described along with the types of electrolytes used. Parameters for various metals are discussed.
Magnesium Compounds
Authors: Kramer Deborah A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
A variety of magnesium compounds and minerals are found both in seawater and in the earth's crust. Commercial magnesium compounds are widely used in chemical processing, whether in the production of paper or rayon fiber, or as a catalyst, filler, flame retardant, alkaline material, stable coating for magnetic recording media, or wastewater or flue gas scrubber. Magnesium hydroxide is a common over‐the‐counter antacid and laxative. Additionally, the branch of synthetic organic chemistry known as Grignard reactions is based on magnesium compounds. Magnesium forms stable salts with most common anions, such as acetate, carbonate, the halides, hydroxide, oxide, and sulfide, as well as with some less common ones such as vanadates. Many magnesium alkyls are also known. The production, properties, economics, uses, safe handling, and analysis of the commercial magnesium compounds are described.
Magnetohydrodynamics
Authors: Kessler Robert 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMagnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation is possible when an electrically conducting fluid such as a hot ionized gas passes through a magnetic field under the appropriate conditions. In electric utility power generation, a magnetohydrodynamic generator is combined with a conventional steam turbine. The system is a combined cycle; the fuel of interest is typically pulverized coal. Environmental intrusion from MHD plants is projected to be minimal.The fundamentals and system components of MHD power generation are discussed, including the geometries of various MHD generators, types of electrodes and magnets used, materials of component construction, interfaces between the MHD generator and the steam turbine, effect of type of fuel utilized, and the efficiency and economic factors of proposed plants. Projects under development in the United States and around the world are presented.
Information Storage Materials, Magnetic
Authors: Lodder J. C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMagnetic recording is the storage of information achieved through changing the magnetization of a recording medium using a magnetic field generated by the recording head. At the end of the nineteenth century a start was made to use magnetism and magnetic media to store information. The first demonstration of magnetic recording was at the World's Fair in Paris in 1900. From this time on, the magnetic recording medium has gone through dramatic improvements. The steel wire was replaced in the early 1930s by small spherical Fe particles and later by cubic Fe3O4. Since then great improvements have been made by changing the material and the shape and size of the particle.In 1949, γ‐Fe2O3acicular particles with a length of 0.5 µm and an aspect ratio of 10 were used. Compact cassette tape made from CrO2particles was introduced in 1966. From the early 1950s thin magnetic films have been proposed as a magnetic recording medium. Since then extensive research has been carried out and many thin‐film media have been proposed made by electroless and electrodeposition, vacuum evaporation, and sputtering. At present many recording media are prepared by vacuum deposition technologies; mostly hard disk applications for magnetic recording as well as magnetooptic recording. Sony presented the first evaporated tape for video application in 1989. The so‐called ME tapes have also been made for audio applications. An enormous amount of research is being carried out on the new hard disk media, mostly produced by sputtering, in order to obtain high densities. Since 1977 much research has been carried out on media proposed for the application of perpendicular magnetic recording.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Magnesium
Authors: Papcun John R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Magnesium fluoride is a by‐product of the manufacture of metallic beryllium and uranium and is used as a flux in magnesium metallurgy and in the ceramics industry; it may also be used in the extraction of aluminum from arc‐furnace alloys with iron, silicon, titanium, and carbon. It finds application as a welding flux for aluminum, as well as for steel. Properties are described.
Maleic Anhydride, Maleic Acid, and Fumaric Acid
Authors: Felthouse Timothy R. , Burnett Joseph C. , Horrell Ben , Mummey Michael J. , Kuo Yeong‐Jen 
Published: July 2004

AbstractScientific and technological developments in the manufacture and use of maleic anhydride, maleic acid, and fumaric acid are reviewed over the past 20 years. Physical and chemical properties for these three chemicals are updated with literature citations when available. Key derivatives are summarized, including acid chlorides and reaction products of these chemicals formed from acylation, alkylation, amidation, concerted nonpolar reactions of various kinds, decomposition and decarboxylation, electrophilic addition, esterification, free‐radical reactions, Grignard‐type reactions, halogenation, hydration and dehydration, hydroformylation, isomerization, ligation‐to‐metal atoms, nucleophilic addition, oxidation, polymerization, reduction, and sulfonation. Manufacturing processes for maleic anhydride are described, including those using fixed‐ fluidized‐ and transport‐bed technologies for selective oxidation of butane. A survey is given of catalyst developments through the end of 2000. Regardless of the reactor type used, all catalysts producing maleic anhydride from butane consist of a vanadyl pyrophosphate phase, (VO)2P2O7. Details are presented on maleic anhydride and its two diacid isomers with respect to shipment, economic aspects, specifications, analytical and test methods, toxicology, and principal uses.
Malonic Acid and Derivatives
Authors: Pollak Peter , Romeder Gérard 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe focus of this article is the class of C3compounds with a central methylene group and terminal carboxylic acid, carboxylate, and nitrile functions. The high reactivity of the central methylene group, the reactivity of the acid, ester, and cyano functions, and the opportunity to build heterocycles make this class of compounds unique in the chemical synthesis. In particular the malonates, cyanoacetates, malonic acid and cyanoacetic acid, and malononitrile have all gained in importance in the life science, dyestuff, and polymer industry. This article provides general and useful technical and commercial information which can be used as a starting point for more in‐depth studies. Some other derivatives of less industrial importance are also covered.
Malts and Malting
Authors: Doncheck James A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The malting process consists of three key steps: steeping, whereby barley is moistened to about 45% moisture; germination, wherein rootlets (sprouts) and a stem (acrospire) emerge while enzymes are formed which alter the cellular structure and composition; and kilning, where barley is dried to preserve enzyme activity and to impart flavor. Nearly all of the malt produced is used to make beer.
Barley is grown in Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Montana, and other western States. Barley varieties are developed specifically for good malting and brewing traits. Less than 50% of the U.S. barley crop is converted into malt.
World malt production in 1992 was approximately 13 million metric tons and was growing at 3% per year; 1992 U.S. production was 2.2 million tons, with stagnant growth during the last few years. Large U.S. and Canadian producers are Ladish (Cargill), Anheuser Busch, Canada and Great Western Malting Companies, Rahr, Froedert (Grand Malteries Modern‐France), and Fleischmann‐Kurth (ADM). There is excess malting capacity, resulting in low margin commodity pricing. Production costs are approximately $225/t.