bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Application Of Competition Law
Authors: Cameron Peter Duncanson 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The application of competition law in the energy sector has been largely shaped by the sector-specific legislation adopted between 1997 and 2003. Prior to the adoption of the first Electricity and Gas Directives, there were relatively few instances of competition law being actively applied in the energy sector. Once the first Directives were adopted, competition policy had to be adapted to meet the specific challenges presented by the initial phase of a long-term transition to a liberalized market in energy. It became important to identify the precise areas in which competition law could be used to greatest effect in support of this process, and tested in specific cases.
Cross-Border Mergers And Acquisitions
Authors: Cameron Peter Duncanson 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The internal market legislation has triggered a significant increase in cross-border over the last decade. Between 1998 and 2003 there were about 135 merger and acquisition transactions in the EU electricity and gas sector, of which about one-third was cross-border and two-thirds had a national dimension. This figure has continued to increase since then (see Table 14.1). Indeed, between 2000 and 2005 there was a 75 per cent increase in the number of cross-border mergers in the energy sector which fell within the Commission’s merger control jurisdiction. In the first half of 2006 there were ten alone, three more than in the whole of 2005.
Management Control Systems and the Crafting of Strategy: A Practice-Based View
Authors: Ahrens Thomas , Chapman Christopher S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Managing their relationships with customers is a vital capability of organizations. Even though the role of accounting and management control systems (MCS) in this process has long been conceptualized under the label of strategic management accounting (Simmonds 1981, 1982), recent studies found it difficult to trace the influence of this concept on strategic organizational practices (Tomkins and Carr 1996, Guilding et al. 2000; Roslender and Hart 2003). This chapter draws on practice theory as a way of understanding the strategic potential of MCS. It focuses specifically on the day-to-day uses of MCS for the management of customer relationships in head office (HO) and local units.
GIs and Tommies
Authors: Reynolds David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Winston Churchill once observed that ‘there is only one thing worse than fighting with allies, and that is fighting without them’.1 The history of warfare is replete with examples of his maxim, from the days of the Athenian League, through the wars of Marlborough and the coalitions against Napoleon. The Anglo-American alliance of 1941–45 provides particularly rich evidence of the difficulty of harmonizing the interests, objectives, and methods of two sovereign states.
Churchill, Stalin, and the ‘Iron Curtain’
Authors: Reynolds David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Churchill’s speech at Fulton, Missouri, on 5 March 1946 is perhaps the most celebrated of his long and distinguished oratorical career. The claim that ‘an iron curtain’ had descended across the Continent echoed around the world, becoming one of the most famous and influential soundbites of the Cold War. It also created an enduring image of Churchill as Cold Warrior that has obscured the complexity of his thinking on relations with the Soviet Union.
Power and Superpower
Authors: Reynolds David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The emergence of the United States as a ‘superpower’ was a phenomenon of the mid-twentieth century, yet it had been predicted long before. Perhaps the most distinguished prophet was Alexis de Tocqueville in 1835, who concluded the first volume of Democracy in America with the forecast that one day the United States and Russia would each ‘hold in its hands the destinies of half the world’. But many others spoke in the same vein. In 1866, for instance, de Tocqueville’s compatriot, the economist Michel Chevalier, urged Europe to unify in the face of the ‘political colossus that has been created on the other side of the Atlantic’ and foresaw future armed conflict between the two continents.
A ‘Special Relationship’
Authors: Reynolds David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A fortnight after Pearl Harbor, Winston Churchill arrived in the United States. For much of his three-week visit he stayed in the White House itself, engaged in lengthy and informal conversations with the President. On one occasion, so the story goes, Roosevelt was wheeled into his guest’s room only to discover Churchill emerging from the bath—wet, glowing, and completely naked. Disconcerted, FDR made as if to withdraw, but Churchill waved him back. ‘
Detention and Bail
Authors: Kotzeva Anna , Murray Lucy , QC Robin Tam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we shall see, the powers to detail immigrants are drafted in wide terms. There is no statutory presumption in favour of bail in the immigration legislation, nor are there express statutory time limits on the period of detention. However, limits to the powers to detain are implied by statute and have been construed narrowly by the courts. The powers to detain are also limited by Home Office policy and human rights law. The courts have recognised the fundamental right to liberty and have set down clear markers on the limits of the power to detain.
Understanding The Fourth Gospel
Authors: Ashton John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this fully revised new edition of a pioneering study of John's gospel, John Ashton explores fresh topics and takes account of the latest scholarly debates. Ashton argues first that the thought-world of the gospel is Jewish, not Greek, and secondly that the text is many-layered, not simple, and composed over an extended period as the evangelist responded to the changing situation of the community he was addressing. Ashton seeks to provide new and coherent answers to what Rudolf Bultmann called the two great riddles of the gospel: its position in the development of Christian thought and its central or governing idea. In arguing that the first of these should be concerned rather with Jewish thought Ashton offers a partial answer to the most important and fascinating of all the questions confronted by New Testament scholarship: how did Christianity emerge from Judaism? Bultmann's second riddle is exegetical, and concerns the message of the book. Ashton's answer highlights a generally neglected feature of the gospel's concept of revelation: its debt to Jewish apocalyptic.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Authors: Novosel Barbara , Salihovice Nedzida 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For a thorough understanding of the financial markets in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) and their applicable regulations, it is important to understand the structure and the history of the country as a whole, as well as the development of its financial institutions. The signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace (GFAP) between the Republic of BiH, the Republic of Croatia and the Republic of Yugoslavia, which was initiated in Dayton, Ohio in the United States of America (US) on 21 November 1995 and signed in Paris, France on 14 December 1995, ended the conflict in BiH which had been happening since 1992. The GFAP fundamentally established the state structures and the legal system of BiH. Upon signing the GFAP, the country was administratively divided into two distinct governing entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and the Republic of Srpska (RS), both of which are commonly referred to as the ‘entities’ of BiH. Each of these entities is further subdivided into different configurations with local authorities having varying degrees of decision-making power.
Croatia
Authors: Juric Sanja , Cukman Stefanija 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Harmonization with the EU directives and the EU accession process in 2006 and in 2007 resulted in substantial amendments to the financial sector and other related legislation in the country. The characteristics of the Croatian market, still dominated by the transition processes, have also led to novel legislative solutions. The legislative reform resulted in the new Leasing Act, the Credit Unions Act and the Investment Promotion Act being enacted, and the existing Banking Act, the Securities Market Act and the Foreign Exchange Act being amended. The financial sector of the Republic of Croatia is bank-dominated, while capital markets and insurance form a significantly smaller part of the market. However, the proportionate representation of banks within the financial sector as a whole is gradually decreasing. There are currently five major banking groups in the market with foreign banks holding 91% of all banking assets in Croatia. The Croatian National Bank (CNB) oversees the banking sector. A deposit insurance scheme (established in 1997) and a credit register (established in 2006) enhance the stability of the banking system. The latter started with credit records of natural persons and will eventually be expanded to legal entities.
Cyprus
Authors: Kilikitas Marinella , Neocleous Elias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cyprus is among the world’s smallest countries in terms of area and population but it is one of the world’s major financial and business centres. Cyprus is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa, it is a member of the EU and has a mature and transparent legal system and world class professional and financial services. Another reason for Cyprus’s success is its modern, business-friendly tax regime, which conforms to the EU Code of Conduct and the EU rules on business taxation and provides modern, low-tax regime planning opportunities. Cyprus has long been an international trading centre, hosting financial institutions based in Europe, the Middle East and farther afield. Membership of the EU in 2004 removed many of the restrictions such as exchange control and limitation on foreign holdings that had previously existed.
France
Authors: Henry Brice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The French financial services industry is one of the leading financial services industries within the EU. Since the second half of the 1990s, the French banking and financial services sector continued to consolidate and adapt, reflected in a further decline in the number of credit institutions (821 at the end of 2006 compared with 855 at the end of 2005). The banking sector has seen the progressive liberalization and disengagement of the French state and the creation of groups of European or international scope. In terms of own funds, six groups are classified in the first 50 groups in the world and dominate France’s banking system, with Crédit Agricole being the sixth largest worldwide and. Moreover, for investment banking activities, the two groups, Banque Populaire and Caisse d’ Epargne, merged to form one of the largest banking groups within the EU.
Guernsey
Authors: Cheong Sean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Guernsey is one of the leading international finance centres. Guernsey is independent from the United Kingdom (UK) in legislative and fiscal matters and is not part of the European Union (EU). It has a history of political stability and good governance and has enacted financial services legislation that is upto date, workable and in compliance with international standards. It is not on the OECD list of uncooperative tax havens. There is no capital, value added or inheritance tax in Guernsey, nor any stamp or document duty except in respect of Guernsey property and a half percent duty on authorized share capital up to a maximum of GBP 5,000. As of 1 January 2008, individuals pay income tax at the rate of 20%, with a new 0% corporation tax coming into force for both domestic and overseas companies.
Hungary
Authors: Andreko Csilla 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From 1989 to 1992 Hungary experienced a fundamental change from being a centrally governed system to becoming a free market economy based on private ownership and the rule of law. This came as a result of widespread privatization and the injection of foreign capital, mainly from the European Union (EU) and the United States (US). Hungary is still relatively poor, as the following figures indicate: GDP per person is less than 50%, while inflation is more than double that compared to the average EU member state. The banking sector dominates the financial system, with more than 70% of all the assets held by the financial sector being concentrated in credit institutions. Banks are key owners in the non-bank financial system. Most of the other financial institutions (investment funds, insurance companies, and pension funds) are owned by the banks or insurance companies or belong to the same financial group.
Beyond the dichotomoy of universalism and difference: Four responses to cultural diversity
Authors: Patten Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When political theorists discuss cultural diversity, they often operate with a basic dichotomy. ey argue that institutional responses to diversity can be either “integrationist” or “accommodationist” in character: that institutional responses can be based on either a model of “universal” citizenship or one of “differentiated” citizenship.
Motor Fuel Taxation And Regional Development: Economic, Environmental And Legal Aspects
Authors: England Richard W , Carlson* Rachel E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Without doubt, the motor vehicle is central to daily life in the United States. In 2003, the nation’s fleet of autos, trucks, and buses numbered 231.4 million. There was nearly one auto for every two Americans. In order to service this vehicle fleet, governments at the federal, state, and local levels had constructed 3.97 million miles of public roads by 2003, almost 23.7 per cent of that mileage in urban regions (FHWA, Tables MV-1 and VM-1). This enormous fleet of vehicles and extensive network of streets and highways permits an unprecedented degree of mobility in the contemporary United States. In 2003, vehicles logged 2.89 trillion miles of travel, the equivalent of more than 6 million round trips between our planet and its moon. Along the way, those vehicles burned 169.6 billion US gallons of gasoline and diesel fuels (FHWA, Table MF-21). Mobility of people and freight carries a high price tag, however. In 2001, the private cost of operating an automobile (fuel, depreciation, maintenance, etc) ranged from 20 to 50 cents per mile (Harrington and McConnell, 2003: 21). Of greater relevance to this study are the numerous external costs associated with the nation’s dependence on motor vehicles to transport drivers, passengers, and cargo. Soil and groundwater contamination from leaking fuel storage tanks is a widespread problem, for example. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2005) has confirmed nearly 449 thousand leaks from underground tanks.1
Towards Systemic Legal Conflict: Article 6(2)(C) of the EU Directive on Biotechnological Inventions
Authors: Plomer* Aurora 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patents on human embryonic stem cells could potentially be excluded under the EU Directive on Biotechnological Inventions either because they fall under the specific prohibition in Article 6(2)(c) or because they contravene the general moral exclusion clause in Article 6(1). Chapter 7 argued that the test to be applied to determine the scope of exclusion of the specific prohibition in Article 6(2)(c) is not primarily a moral, but a definitional test. By contrast, this chapter analyses the scope of application of the general moral exclusion clause in Article 6(1) whereby inventions are unpatentable if contrary to order public or morality.
Human Dignity, Human Rights, and Article 6(1) of the EU Directive on Biotechnological Inventions
Authors: Plomer* Aurora 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patents on human embryonic stem cells could potentially be excluded under the EU Directive on Biotechnological Inventions either because they fall under the specific prohibition in Article 6(2)(c) or because they contravene the general moral exclusion clause in Article 6(1).
A Transnational Institution Confronted with a Single Jurisdiction Model: Guidance for the Epo’ s Implementation of the Directive from a Private International Law Perspective
Authors: Torremans* Paul L C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Directive may be an instrument of EU law but its impact is essentially harmonization of and changes to national domestic law. The result of its implementation is a national law that is implemented by national courts in a domestic setting. Any intervention of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) is limited to a preliminary opinion that interprets the Directive and that is then applied under an interpretation of the national domestic law by the national court that referred the question to the European Court of Justice.
Making nanostructures: top down
Authors: Lindsay S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is about the conventional techniques used to produce nanostructures. The dominant use of nanostructures in manufacturing is, of course, in the electronics industry. This has driven the development of technology at a remarkable rate. In 1965, Gorden Moore, the founder of Intel, observed that the number of transistors in integrated circuits was doubling every 18 months. Plots of the growth of computer technology show this exponential growth over long periods and in any measure (number of transistors per unit area, calculations per second, etc.). For example, the author, Ray Kurzweil, has constructed a log-linear plot of the number of computations per second per $1000 of computer cost. It is an almost perfect straight line when plotted with available data from the year 1900 to the year 2000. This exponential growth is often referred to as Moore’s Law. Though hardly a law of physics, it certainly captures a robust feature of rapid technology development. As a consequence of this breakneck pace of development, it is highly likely that this chapter about technology will become dated rapidly. The best that can be done is to give a snapshot of some of the tools available at the time of writing. It would be a mistake to think that many of the limitations discussed here will still apply in a few years.
Stern and Gerlach Observe Spatial Quantization (1922)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Stern–Gerlach experiment is described or at least mentioned in practically every textbook on modern physics and its result is presented as clear proof for the spin of the electron. However, spin was unknown at the time of experiment and also not discovered on the basis of its outcome. The reason for Stern to propose and undertake the experiment was the wish to test Sommerfeld’s idea of spatial quantization.
Dirac’s Mechanics of q Numbers (1925)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The celebrated three-men paper, which gave the first extensive account of the new quantum mechanics, started by Heisenberg in the summer of 1925, appeared in print in February 1926 (see Episode 37). On its first page it contains a note added in proof : ‘In a paper by P. Dirac [1] which has appeared in the meantime independently some of the results [in the Born–Jordan paper and in the three-men paper] and new conclusions drawn from the theory have been given.’ How did it happen that in the short time available an unknown outsider could have done independent and new work?
Fermi–Dirac Statistics – Yet Another Way of Counting (1926)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fermi [1,2] is one of the towering figures in twentieth-century physics. He made important contributions to both theoretical and experimental physics. In fact, being a theoretician essentially by self-training, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for experimental work. His first outstanding achievement was the discovery of another way of counting in statistical physics which, like the way of Bose and Einstein, was able to explain the third law of thermodynamics.
Fermi was born in Rome. His father was a railway employee from the north of Italy, his mother a school teacher from the south. Both Enrico Fermi and his brother Giulio, older by one year, were exceptionally bright children, very close to each other. Together they built electrical motors and other complicated toys. Completely unexpectedly, when only fourteen, Guilio died in a seemingly trivial operation on an abscess in his throat. This tragedy forever changed the atmosphere in the Fermi household to deep depression. Fermi began to study a lot by himself using second-hand books, some of them in Latin, which he bought from his meagre pocket money. In school, he found a lifelong friend with a similar inclination towards science, Persico . Later, they became the first two professors of theoretical physics in Italy. A colleague of Fermi’s father, Adolfo Amidei, was an engineer with a university degree. He lent Fermi one of his own mathematics books and when he found that Fermi had studied it within a few weeks and solved all the problems posed there he decided that Fermi was a prodigy. He set up a rather careful plan for Fermi’s studies in mathematics as prerequisite for physics, which already then was Fermi’s primary interest, and advised him to learn German (not taught in school) so that he could read more scientific literature. Following another advice by Amidei, Fermi took part in a competition for a fellowship at the Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa, which had been founded by Napoleon and had become something like an elite college attached to the university. He passed first and, beginning in 1918, he studied in Pisa where he obtained his Ph.D.
Heisenberg on Nuclear Forces: Isospin (1932)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until 1932, Heisenberg was convinced that quantum mechanics was insufficient to describe the atomic nucleus just as classical physics had been insufficient to describe the atom. Indeed, experimental results on nuclei seemed to contradict quantum mechanics. In Episode 46 we mentioned the problem of ‘wrong statistics’ and its cure through Pauli’s neutrino hypothesis. But Pauli himself was not too sure and published about the neutrino only in 1933. Before the discovery of the neutron the nucleus was considered to consist of protons and electrons.
The Proton Displays an ‘Anomalous’ Magnetic Moment (1933)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We told in Episode 30 that Stern, at the end of 1921, had moved to Rostock, a small town on the Baltic Sea, while the Stern–Gerlach experiment was completed. There he had been appointed associate professor. He was accompanied by Estermann , who worked closely with Stern until the latter’s retirement. Already the following year Stern was offered a chair of physical chemistry and the directorship of an institute still to be erected at the recently founded university in Hamburg.
Cherenkov Radiation Discovered (1934) and Explained (1937)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end 1917, a young Russian soldier was taken prisoner by a German unit. Sergei Vavilov [1–3] had been a physicist before the war and had worked under Lebedev in Moscow. As fate had it, the officer interrogating him was a physicist, too. They discussed physics for most of the night and, as morning drew near, Vavilov was helped by his German colleague to make his escape. On returning to Moscow, he found that his father, a textile merchant, had lost his fortune and emigrated. But he and his brother Nikolai, a biologist, decided to stay. Vavilov worked in the Physics and Biophysics Institute in Moscow, mainly on luminescence, and taught at Moscow University. In 1932 he was made the youngest full member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. By the same year, while retaining his chair in Moscow, he became head of research of the Optical Institute and of a department of the Physico-Mathematical Institute of the Academy, both in Leningrad.