bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The lower critical dimension
Authors: Binney J J , Dowrick N J , Fisher A J , Newman M E J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In §§3.2 and 3.3 we saw that both the Ising model and the spherical model have a lower critical dimension, dLC: the highest dimension at and below which the model is incapable of displaying long-range order. In §3.2 we understood physically why this was so for the Ising model: the size and thus the energy of an interface between two domains of n mutually aligned spins decreases with the dimension d, and when d is diminished to the entropy increase associated with increasing the number of such domains outweighs the energetic cost of extra interfaces, no matter how low the temperature is (providing it exceeds zero). In this chapter we study this phenomenon, especially the dependence of dLC on the dimensionality D of the order parameter ϕ, in the context of the Landau-Ginzburg model.
Storage and handling of liquefied gases
Authors: White Guy K , Meeson Philip J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a question of taste or age whether you use the term ‘dewar’ or not for storage vessels made of various materials and of various shapes. Whatever the case we should remember the seminal contribution of Sir James Dewar in 1898 with his evacuated and silvered glass vessel. This allowed him to produce a visible quantity of liquid hydrogen for the first time. It still seems appropriate to call glass cryogen containers ‘dewars’ but for metal and plastic containers it is a matter of choice. Efficient long-term storage has always been important for liquid oxygen on the industrial scale. Now this extends to other gases which are either industrially important or used in lengthy measurements. Important factors in storage are the difference in temperature of the cryogen and its surroundings as well as the latent heat of vaporization.
Below 0.3 K
Authors: White Guy K , Meeson Philip J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lighter isotope of helium, 3He, has the lowest boiling point of any liquid, being 3.19 K. As described in Chapter 7, by reducing the vapour pressure temperatures below this may be realized by simple evaporative cooling. With the best available pumps in use this temperature is close to 0.25 K. Clearly rather different cooling techniques must be used below this. There are two main types of refrigerator in use in this regime: the dilution refrigerator and the adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator using nuclear magnetic moments. The latter remains primarily of research laboratory construction due to its limited commercial viability. In contrast the construction of dilution refrigerators has moved progressively from the research laboratory to the commercial arena, to the extent that only specialists researching the optimal operation of such machines would now consider building their own device. There are other types of refrigerator in use in this temperature regime, mostly for specific or unusual needs and of often largely historical interest. These are dealt with at the end of this chapter. We shall concentrate for the most part on how to make use of a dilution refrigerator, and on the construction and use of adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators.
Other techniques
Authors: White Guy K , Meeson Philip J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earlier chapters should have made obvious the importance of high vacua in reaching and maintaining low temperatures. The present chapter discusses the main types of vacuum pumps, vacuum gauges and sealing techniques. More details of their role in small and large systems-cryogenic and otherwise-can be found in the many textbooks on vacuum technology (e.g. Dushman 1962; Yarwood 1967; Holland et al. 1974; Roth 1982). At low temperatures, the cryogen itself is a source of pumping-cryopumping. However, low temperatures present another problem, namely the brittle nature of the seals which are used at normal temperatures. Many rubber gasket or rubber O-ring seals are no longer practicable for vacuum-tight assemblies at low temperatures, witness the Challenger disaster. In Section 10.3 of this chapter a brief account is given of soft-metal O-ring seals and some low-melting-point solders which are useful in making vacuumtight joints which can be cooled and can also be ‘broken’ and remade fairly readily. Some other type of vacuum seals and cements as well as the use of metal-glass seals at low temperatures are described later in the chapter.
Order and disorder in spin systems
Authors: Krauth Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we approach the statistical mechanics and computational physics of the rising model, which has inspired generations of physicists. This archetypal physical system undergoes an order-disorder phase transition. The rising model shares this transition and many other properties with more complicated models which cannot be analyzed so well. The first focus of this chapter is on enumeration, which applies to the rising model because of its finite number of configurations, even though this number grows exponentially with the lattice size. We shall enumerate the spin configurations, and also the loop configurations of the rising model’s high-temperature expansion, which can be summed for very large and even infinite lattices, leading to Onsager’s analytic solution in two dimensions.
Entropic forces
Authors: Krauth Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the present chapter, we revisit classical entropic models, where all configurations have the same probability. This sight is familiar from the hard-core systems of Chapter 2, where we struggled with the foundations of statistical mechanics, and reached a basic understanding of molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo algorithms. At present, we are more in terested in describing entropic forces, which dominate many effects in soft condensed matter (the physics of biological systems, colloids, and polymers) and are also of fundamental interest in the context of order disorder transitions in quantum mechanical electronic systems. The chapter begins with a complete mathematical and algorithmic solution of the problem of one-dimensional hard spheres (the “random clothes-pins” model) and leads us to a discussion of the Asakura-Oosawa depletion interaction, one of the fundamental forces in nature, at least in the realm of biological systems, colloids, and polymers.
The evolutionary psychology of human physical attraction and attractiveness
Authors: Thornhill Randy , Gangestad Steven W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human physical attractiveness research recently has become a topic surrounded by fanfare, both in the public realm and the scientific circle. Findings about the topic, discovered from hypotheses inspired by the evolutionary approach, have been showcased in numerous television productions worldwide, and in other media channels. The media attention reveals that many people are interested in their preoccupation with looks and the findings are providing them access to its basis, both the physical traits assessed and the evolutionary function of aesthetic judgments. Moreover, the findings promise to place attractiveness research among the major success stories of cognitive science.
Combined Operations
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1941 the BBC began a weekly radio programme called the Brains Trust. It was to prove popular and uplifting to a nation straining to resist the Nazis. The undoubted star was ‘Professor’ Cyril load, the head of Birkbeck’s philosophy department, but not in fact a professor of the University. To give himself time to answer a question, he would invariably start with the gambit, ‘It all depends what you mean by. . .’ Bernal was another regular member of the Trust, and was valued, amongst other qualities, as being a match for the populist load. The Brains Trust on 7th December 1941 comprised load, Bernal, Cyril Connolly (the essayist), a clergyman and a naval commander. Sage was in his element. The first question about the Aurora Borealis, from a twelve-year-old boy, was naturally his to answer. The next, ‘What service does the speculator on the Stock Exchange render to the community?’ found no takers and so Bernal offered an opinion. After giving a textbook economics answer on competitive markets arriving at the ideal value of a security ‘by a mystical concourse of wills’, he went on to say that he did not believe a word of it: the speculator was either gambling or attempting to corner the market.
The Physical Basis Of Life
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even in the darkest days of World War Two, the BBC adhered to Lord Reith’s maxim of informing, educating and entertaining the public. In March 1942, as part of a series ‘Science lifts the veil’, Sir William Bragg interviewed Sage about ‘The problem of the origin of life’. It had been Bragg who arranged for Bernal to give a series of lectures on ‘The molecular architecture of biological systems’ at the Royal Institution in 1938, and the broadcast was to some extent a summary of those talks. Bernal again referred to the gap between the molecular world studied by biochemists and the larger objects that could be seen under the microscope – the gap in which most structures important for life exist. In addition to the ultracentrifuge and X-ray diffraction, there was by 1942 a new tool for exploring the gap: the electron microscope. Bernal explained how the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) that he studied by X-ray diffraction had now been visualized directly by electron microscopy (he tactfully omitted to mention that this work took place in Berlin).
Mathematical Models in Applied Mechanics
Authors: Tayler A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This textbook demonstrates the power of mathematics in solving practical, scientific, and technical problems through mathematical modelling techniques. It has been designed specifically for final year undergraduate and graduate students, and springs from the author's extensive teaching experience. The text is combined with twenty-one carefully ordered problems taken from real situations, and students are encouraged to develop the skill of constructing their own models of new situations.
Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: the emergence of a synthetic ecological framework
Authors: Naeem s. , Loreau M , lnchausti P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Earth’s biota is not a passive epiphenomenon of Earth’s physical conditions and geochemical processes. Through the collective metabolic and growth activities of its trillions of organisms, Earth’s biota moves hundreds of thousands of tons of elements and compounds between the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere every year. It is this bio geochemical activity that determines soil fertility, air and water quality, and the habitability of eco systems, biomes, and ultimately the Earth itself (Lovelock 1979; Butcher et al. 1992; Schlesinger 1997). Indeed, biogeochernistry makes Earth a unique planet in the solar system (Ernst 2000).
Plant diversity and composition: effects on productivity and nutrient dynamics of experimental grasslands
Authors: Tilman D , Knops J , Wedin D , Reich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are few times in science when as many novel hypotheses are developed as when new results challenge an existing paradigm. Such was the case when, by 1997, recent studies suggested links between diversity and ecosystem processes (e.g. Frank and McNaughton 1991; McNaughton 1993; Dodd et al. 1994; Naeem et al. 1994a, 1995; Tilman and Downing 1994; Tilman et al. 1996, 1997a; Hooper and Vitousek 1997; Naeem and Li 1997). Some of the major conclusions of the preceding two decades-its paradigms-had been that diversity was controlled by disturbance and productivity, and that ecosystem functioning was controlled by the traits of the dominant resident species.
Multi-trophic dynamics and ecosystem processes
Authors: Raffaelli D , Putten W H van der , Persson L , Wardle D A , Petchey O L , Koricheva J , Heijden M van der , Mikola J , Kennedy T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is axiomatic in ecology that the dynamics of one set of species cannot be understood without reference to the dynamics of other species and processes. For instance, biodiversity loss within a trophic level is likely to impact on species at other levels, whether directly through changes in competitive and consumer-resource interactions, or indirectly via changes in ecosystem processes (Fig. 13.1). Such interactions imply that predicting the consequences of biodiversity loss for ecosystem processes will be difficult, especially when, as is often the case, there are simultaneous reductions in diversity at more than one trophic level.
Species diversity, functional diversity, and ecosystem functioning
Authors: Hooper D U , Solan M , Symstad A , áz S Di , Gessner M O , Buchmann N , Degrange V , Grime P , Hulot F , Mermillod-Blondin F , Roy J , Spehn E , Peer L van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Experiments assessing the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning initially aimed at establishing whether such relationships exist (e.g. Naeem et al. 1995; Tilman et al. 1996; Jonsson and Malmqvist 2000; Engelhardt and Ritchie 2001). These phenomenological studies were useful for helping to identify patterns and articulate further questions. However, using species richness as a simple mea sure of biotic diversity, as they did, had no explicit explanatory power: ecosystem level processes are affected by the functional characteristics of organ isms involved, rather than by taxonomic identity (Odum 1969; Pugh 1980; Grime 1988).
Measurement of Nuclear Moments
Authors: Castel B , Towner I S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Methods of measuring nuclear moments in most cases depend on the interaction of the nuclear moment with either an applied external magnetic field or with internal atomic or molecular fields. As a consequence the experimental investigation determines a product of the moment and the magnetic field strength at the nucleus. Thus the extraction of one part, say the nuclear moment, requires detailed knowledge of the counterpart in the product, the field strength. When the field at the nucleus is an externally applied field then there is little uncertainty in knowing its strength and the moment is determined with good accuracy. The nuclear magnetic resonance technique, to be discussed in Section 2.2, is an example of such a case.
Isovector Electric GRs
Authors: Harakeh M N , van der Woude A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter an overview will be presented of the isovector GRs built on the ground state of nuclei, the giant dipole resonance being the oldest and best known one. Macroscopically these resonances can be understood as out-of- phase vibrations of neutrons against protons (polarisation modes). They are characterised by the quantum numbers ΔT = 1, ΔS = 0 and ΔL = 0, 1, As discussed in Chapter 3, ΔT = 1, ΔS = 0 transitions can be excited either by γabsorption (or emission) and inelastic hadron scattering with ΔT3 = 0 or by specific charge-exchange reactions with ΔT3 = ±1. Compared with isoscalar transitions, the new feature is that isovector excitations, which involve the isospin operator τ, when induced in a nucleus with a ground-state isospin (T, T3) -≠- 0, give rise to an (isospin) splitting of the observed strength. This is schematically indicated in Fig. 5.1.
Enzyme Inhibitors as Drugs: From Design to the Clinic
Authors: Luscombe D K , Tucker M , Pepper C J , Nicholls P J , Sandler M , Smith H J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Characterization of the biochemical pathways involved in many of the physiological activities which take place within the cell, and their relevance to disease processes, has resulted in the development of a number of clinically useful drugs which owe their effectiveness to the ability to inhibit a specific enzyme. This particular approach to the development of new therapeutic agents has gathered momentum over the past decade, not least because it offers a means of increasing the selectivity of a substance for a particular target site. It should be stressed that, once an enzyme system involved in disease has been identified, the design of a suitable inhibitor is a lengthy procedure. It is likely to be at least 10 years before a substance identified as a potentially useful enzyme inhibitor in the laboratory will reach the clinic and establish itself as a useful therapeutic agent. During this period, steps are taken to ensure that a drug is designed which will not only elicit the desired clinical response, but will be relatively free of sideeffects and lack toxicity. The aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with an overview of many of the factors that have to be considered when developing a drug for clinical use. Attention is focused on factors influencing drug absorption, distribution, and elimination, the problems associated with drug stereoisomerism, and finally a brief outline of the toxicity tests that are required to demonstrate drug safety.
Computer-aided Molecular Design of Enzyme Inhibitors
Authors: Slater A M , Timms D , Wilkinson A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historically, inhibitors of enzymes have been discovered by random screening or designed by analogy with elements of the enzyme ‘s catalytic pathway. Thus inhibitors based on substrates, transition states, and products have been produced by a procedure that relies on an understanding of the enzyme mechanism, together with some innovative chemical thinking. Molecular modelling techniques can significantly enhance this process, and in addition they provide the opportunity to aid the discovery of completely novel inhibitors.
In most instances, the chemist starts with a lead compound discovered via the more conventional methodology referred to above. If the inhibitor is required to function as a drug, there will usually be a need to modify this compound to achieve a desired profile of some form. This may involve attempts to find a compound of higher intrinsic inhibitory potency or increased selectivity. Additionally, physical and chemical properties may need modification to attain compounds that are, for example, orally active or which have better in vivo activity or reduced toxic side-effects.
Wave Properties of the Neutron and Types of Interaction
Authors: Alexandrov Yu. A , Drozdova T F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discovery of the neutron in 1932 has undoubtedly had the most profound consequences. With this discovery began the era of nuclear physics in which quick advances gave birth in the middle of this century to nuclear technology and modern particle physics. Since then much has been learned about the neutron. Its interaction with nuclei is rather well studied (the construction of nuclear reactors would be impossible without this). The mass, spin, and magnetic moment of the neutron have been determined, and the knowledge of these, as well as the absence of an electric charge, have made the neutron a most convenient tool for research, for example, in condensed matter physics. Recent studies have made it possible to develop an idea of the neutron’s structure, in which the neutron appears as a particle of complex structure: at least its behaviour on interaction with matter differs from that of a point-like particle.
The Neutron and Gravity
Authors: Alexandrov Yu. A , Drozdova T F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general assertion that acceleration due to gravity is a universal constant for all matter has been supported by the extremely precise measurements of Eötvös et al. and more recently by the substantially improved measurements of Roll et al.and then of Braginski and Panov.The latter established that there was no difference in the ratios of gravitational to inertial mass for aluminium and platinum to within 0.9 × 10-12 (at the 95 per cent confidence level). By comparing the free fall of microscopic PbCl (neutron-proton ratio R = 1.45) and copper (R = 1.19) it may be concluded that neutrons and protons in nuclei experience the same gravitational accelerations to within about 2 × 10-9 g f. A measurement by Esterman et al.[68] demonstrated an identical gravitational acceleration of free caesium and potassium atoms in atomic beams. The universality of the acceleration due to gravity was confirmed by the measurements reported by Witte born and Fairbank[69] on the observation of the free fall of electrons and by the well-known experiments with photons performed by Pound and Rebka.
Electric Dipole Moment of the Neutron
Authors: Alexandrov Yu. A , Drozdova T F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The existence of the electric dipole moment (EDM) of elementary particles (particularly of the neutron) is associated with their symmetry properties. The discovery of parity violation has aroused a special interest in discrete transformations: charge conjugation (C), inversion of coordinates (P), and time reversal (T). Detailed reviews on the problem are given in Refs 218 and 219. A charge conjugation operation means the replacement of all particles by their antiparticles. A charged or a not truly neutral particle transforms into another, for example an electron into a positron. A truly neutral particle (e.g. a photon or a n° meson) transforms into itself. Each transformation implies a quantum mechanical quantity, which either reverses or preserves its sign. The charge conjugation reverses the sign of the charge (electronic, baryonic, leptonic) of the particle (Q → −Q), magnetic moment (μ → −μ), magnetic field strength (H → −H), and electric field strength (ℰ → −ℰ), but preserves the sign of the momentum (p → p) and spin (σ → σ). An experimentally observed particle-antiparticle symmetry reveals itself in the requirement of the invariant of physical laws under charge conjugation (C): if a certain physical process occurs in nature, the physical process in which the particles have been replaced by antiparticles occurs with the same probability (the law of C parity conservation). Up to 1956 the above formulated law was believed to hold for any interactions of any physical objects. In 1956 the breakdown of invariance under charge conjugation in weak interactions was discovered. For example, the free neutrino was found to be polarized in the opposite direction to its momentum and antineutrino in the direction of the momentum. The charge conjugation operation applied to the neutrino (or antineutrino) leads to a situation having no place in nature.
Lattice vibrations in semiconductors
Authors: Balkanski M , Wallis R F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An important source of deviations from periodicity in a crystal is the displacement of an atom from its equilibrium position. These deviations arise naturally from the thermal energy of the atoms. If the crystal is in a stable configuration, the displacement of an atom leads to a force that tends to restore the atom to its equilibrium position. However, the kinetic energy of the atom causes it to overshoot the latter. As a result the atom vibrates about its equilibrium position. The forces of interaction between atoms couple the atomic vibrations together, giving rise to lattice vibrations.
Heterostructures: electronic states
Authors: Balkanski M , Wallis R F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding three chapters we have considered junctions formed by taking a single semiconductor and doping adjacent parts of the sample with two different types of impurities, one acceptor and the other donor. We now consider junctions in which the p- and n-type parts are different semiconductors. These junctions have some properties that are similar to those of homojunctions, but other properties that are quite unique.