bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chapter 9: The Third Exception to RCP; Future Singular Assertions
Authors: Whitaker C. W. A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The third class of exceptions introduces the famous Sea‐battle paradox, which is normally studied in isolation from the rest of the treatise. By approaching this chapter in its context, however, a new understanding of it emerges. If RCP is upheld for future contingents, Aristotle argues, then there are true statements about undecided future events, and (as a consequence of his definition of truth) if statements about the future are already true, then things will necessarily be the way the statements say they will be. Fatalism thus results. Nothing is gained by claiming predictions are not true, he says (for in this case there would be no future at all). A subtle solution is adopted, which involves acknowledging RCP but modifying it: one member of a pair of future singular assertions is true and the other false, but it is not settled in advance which is which. This chapter does not involve, as has been supposed, a modification of the Principle of Bivalence, which lays down that every assertion is either true or false.
Chapter 12: Modal Assertions
Authors: Whitaker C. W. A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Aristotle now turns his attention to assertions involving the ideas of necessity and possibility, and examines how they should be arranged into their correct contradictory pairs. Here, he argues, the contradictory is formed not (as in other cases) by negating the copula ’is’, which unites subject and predicate, but by negating the modal word instead. Being becomes a kind of 'subject’, and the modal words are ’additions’ or copulas, thus establishing an interesting parity between the modal and non‐modal classes of assertion.
Rationalizing Persisting Opposition
Authors: Goodin Robert E. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is the last of four chapters on belief democracy, and discusses how to rationalize persistent opposition in the light of Wollheim's paradox (how can you vote one way, and then immediately accept the majority verdict in favour of the opposite view, when voting the first way is seen as asserting that it is true and acceding to the majority verdict is seen as accepting that the opposite is true), and Bayesian considerations that make it utterly irrational for anyone ever to continue disagreeing once everyone has voted. The first section demonstrates that none of the easy and obvious ways of extending (modifying) the Bayesian framework rationalize majoritarianism without derationalizing ongoing opposition. Next, various ways of moving beyond Bayes to overcome the paradox of persisting opposition are put forward; these include repudiating Bayesian reasoning altogether, assuming that disagreement betokens unreliability, assuming that smaller groups are inherently more reliable, and assuming that each election is different; none of these produce the required result. Finally, political arguments are put forward more explicitly to see whether they can rationalize ongoing opposition; these include the crucial role of opposition in democratic politics, proceduralism, denying propositional content, biased perception, strategic voting, segmented information pools, and different interests. In the light of what has been presented overall, the author puts forward his own explanation, which suggests that what is wrong with Bayesian models that ask us to update our beliefs in the light of others’ votes is that those votes mix facts and values, and only one of these (others’ assessments of the facts) can reasonably be taken into account in updating our beliefs; thus, it is the epistemic power of majorities when dealing with shared facts that underwrites the rationality of majority rule, but their lack of epistemic authority when it comes to matters of evaluations that underwrites the rationality of persisting opposition.
Broadness
Authors: Williamson Timothy 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThat knowing is a mental state is inconsistent with internalism, the claim that whether one is in a given mental state depends only on what is going on inside one's head, for the truth of what one knows may involve the external environment. More familiar kinds of externalism in the philosophy of mind have concerned the content of a mental state; the present view extends externalism to the propositional attitudes to those contents. Attempts to extract belief or rational belief as the internalist, purely mental core of knowledge are refuted. The causal efficacy of knowing is upheld by a consideration of cases in which our best causal explanation of an extended action appeals to knowing rather than believing.
Evidence
Authors: Williamson Timothy 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter argues that one's total evidence is simply one's total knowledge. Evidence is primarily relevant to evaluating propositions of whose truth values one is ignorant. Since knowledge is not to be analysed in terms of justification, there is no circularity in using knowledge to analyse justification by evidence. Thus, the attempt to reorient epistemology towards justification rather than knowledge is a mistake. The need for evidence to be propositional is emphasized by consideration of its role in falsification, inference to the best explanation, and Bayesian confirmation.
Demonstration and Definition: Aristotle's Positive Views inPosterior AnalyticsΒ.8–10 and Β.16–18
Authors: Charles David 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAristotle seeks to resolve the problems raised in Posterior Analytics B.3–7 by arguing that our practices of definition and explanation are interdependent. It is not possible to define kinds without appeal to their causal structure, nor is it possible to single out the relevant causal structure without appeal to what is required for good definition. This is why Aristotle holds that the answer to the questions, ‘What is F?’ and ‘Why is F as it is?’ are the same. Neither definition nor explanation can be completed without assistance from the other.
Aristotle's Essentialism
Authors: Charles David 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAristotle's account of essences is distinct from that offered by Platonists (who do not give such a central role to causal explanation) and by scientific realists (for whom definitions are solely dependent on real‐world patterns of causal explanation). Further, while Aristotle's essences are part of the fabric of reality, they can be grasped only by those with certain definitional and explanatory practices. Thus, his account differs from (amongst others) that of the Platonist (for whom essences can be discovered by any mind, independently of its definitional practices). Standard criticisms of Aristotle's essentialism (such as those that are to be found in the writings of John Locke or W.V.O. Quine) are, I argue, misdirected against a Platonist Aristotle of legend and do not successfully engage with Aristotle's own account.
Institutions and Morality: An Economist's Appraisal
Authors: Hamlin Alan 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Here, Alan Hamlin revisits some of his earlier work on the moral basis, scope, and evaluation of markets, and extends his analysis to a global setting by considering both the international market place and its institutional foundations. His key questions are how does the changing form and extended geographical radius of the market (for goods, services, information, and capital) affect the morality of the market and other institutions of global capitalism, and how should these considerations influence the debate on the design of the political landscape? Hamlin believes that an evolutionary, bottom‐up, and multicultural approach towards achieving more responsible and sustainable global capitalism offers the best promise, and that an upgrading of virtue to allow for moral motivations, and a more meaningful dissemination and exchange of this virtue across national boundaries (rather than the ‘economize on virtue’ market approach), is an essential prerequisite to building a more integrated global society.
The Challenge of Global Capitalism: A Christian Perspective
Authors: Griffiths Brian 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Brian Griffiths sets out his interpretation of the Christian attitude and response to global capitalism. After identifying the foundations of a Christian perspective, viz. the nature of the world God created, the covenants, the moral law of the Old Testament, and the Incarnation, Griffiths identifies six distinctive components of an acceptable global economy. He then goes on to distinguish between the Christian viewpoint and that of liberal economists who tend to regard the market (as one of the critical institutions of capitalism) as an autonomous entity and independent of any reference to morality; he has little sympathy for those theologians who view capitalism ’as powered by the unremitting stimulation of covetousness’, and indeed, as a Christian, he strongly defends the moral legitimacy of the concept of private ownership, and the freedom of individuals and firms to do business in the market place. At the same time, Griffiths is in no doubt that without a vigorous and clearly enunciated moral framework that embraces Christian values, the risks of extreme poverty, social injustice, and exclusivity, and the threat to the environment (the three downsides of the present state of capitalism discussed in the chapter) will remain. Finally, he avers that individual Christians and the Christian church bear a major responsibility for advocating and promulgating their beliefs and opinions, and also for cooperating with other religious persuasions, to identify ways of upgrading the moral ecology of the constituent institutions of global capitalism.
The Challenge of Global Capitalism: An Islamic Perspective
Authors: Ahmad Khurshid 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Khurshid Ahmad takes a critical view of the endemic qualities of global capitalism, which, he argues, even if it were to become more socially responsible and inclusive, would not be comfortably embraced by the Muslim world, because of its underpinning moral ethos and hegemonic character. He explains that this is partly because it contains and expresses values and behavioural norms that are specific to its historical and cultural context, and partly because it does not sufficiently endorse the ethical virtues the Islamic religion believes are essential to the well‐being of mankind. In this context, Ahmad gives an outline of the Islamic approach to economics. He submits that the global economy and society are too fractured and lacking in homogeneity to admit any one model of wealth creation and distribution. However, he believes that, with tolerance and understanding, it is possible for Western and Islamic‐style economic systems to exist side by side, with each retaining its own unique characteristics, so that the global society would be a matrix in which different cultures and systems can coexist.
A Universal Culture of Human Rights and Freedom's Habits: Caritapolis
Authors: Novak Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Michael Novak addresses some broad issues relating to culture, basic human values, and globalization, and how these affect both individuals and institutions as societies are transforming themselves within the framework of global capitalism (GC). In identifying the political, economic, and cultural attributes of GC, he argues that its success and acceptability depend on a supportive moral ecology, the ingredients of which he describes at some length. Novak believes that we are currently experiencing a crisis in moral ecology both at an individual and societal level; he cites as evidence, the cult of excessive self‐interest in the market place, the emphasis on power and vested interests in politics, and the widespread expression of relativism and subjectivity in culture. He then discusses four cardinal virtues, which he believes must be embraced by individuals and institutions engaged in, or influencing, the character of global economic activity, viz. cultural humility, truth, respect for human dignity and solidarity; at the same time, he believes that to reach a socially acceptable global vision, it is not necessary, nor indeed desirable, to work for univocal moral principles. The chapter concludes by referring to the Earthly City described by St Augustine in The City of God, and elaborates a modern version, which he terms ‘Caritapolis’, the City of Communion.
On the Political Relevance of Global Civil Society
Authors: Falk Richard 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Richard Falk considers the changing role of civil society as an institution influencing the form and content of global capitalism (GC), particularly its goals and values. This is a critical chapter, which, after placing the whole range of NGO (non‐governmental organization) functions within a historical context, acknowledges that, as values and aspirations change, new demands are made on the organizations comprising these institutions. The implications of GC are given especial attention: how far, and in what respects, are NGOs (including global NGOs) twenty‐first century moral guardians (cf. governments and markets); and/or to what extent do they need to be injected with a new or reconfigured code of behaviour suitable to the particular needs of the global economy? Falk believes that global civil society has an important role to play in influencing the course and content of global capitalism, and its underlying ethical ethos. He particularly favours a globalization‐from‐below approach, which he believes provides a useful counter‐force to the globalization‐from‐above approach practised by large firms and governments; in elaborating this view, he makes the case for a normative democracy––which reconnects politicians with moral purpose and values. He then goes on to identify the components of normative democracy, and argues that most of these can best be served not by globalization‐from‐above mechanisms, but rather by those of civil society as it redefines its role as mediating between the logic of capitalism and the priorities of peoples.
Germany: The Mixed‐Member System as a Political Compromise
Authors: Scarrow Susan E. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDescribes how the German mixed‐member electoral system arose, and shows how it developed both from interest‐based bargaining and from more widely shared concerns about political stability. Some of the features that are most characteristic of the current German arrangements—including giving citizens two ballots and the legal threshold set at 5% of the national vote—were absent in West Germany's first electoral law. These points were incorporated into the German law as the result of partisan struggles, contests whose outcomes were shaped by the shifting contours of West Germany's evolving party system. In other words, although the circumstances of total regime collapse and temporary occupation created rare opportunities to develop a political consensus for principled experimentation with new institutional designs, the German ‘model’ was as much an ad hoc creation as it was the product of theoretically inspired engineering. The different sections of the chapter are: Electoral Systems in the Federal Republic of Germany; The Origins of Germany's Mixed‐Member System; The 1949 Law—and the 1953 and 1956 laws; The German Electoral System Since 1956; and Conclusion: Accidentally Inventing a Model?
The Political Consequences of Germany's Mixed‐Member System: Personalization at the Grass Roots?
Authors: Klingemann Hans‐Dieter , Wessels Bernhard 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAddresses the question of the relevance the German mixed‐member electoral system has for the party system and for candidate vote, and argues that the mixed‐member electoral system does indeed live up to its German moniker of ‘personalized proportional representation’, in that it provides at once individualized representation of geographic constituencies and proportionality. The analysis proceeds in four steps and discusses the impact of the electoral system on the interparty and intraparty dimensions. The first two sections deal with the impact of the electoral system (a) on the party system, and (b) on voting behavior, with special attention to ticket‐splitting. The third and fourth sections deal with (a) candidate selection and opportunity structures as shaped by the electoral system and the parties, and (b) the likelihood of a district performance‐based personal vote for members of parliament. Concludes with a confrontation of the normative expectations of the founding fathers and empirical reality and speculates about the future of the German party system.
School Choice and Social Justice
Authors: Brighouse Harry 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Defends a theory of social justice for education from within an egalitarian version of liberalism. The theory involves a strong commitment to educational equality, and to the idea that children's rights include a right to personal autonomy. The book argues that school reform must always be evaluated from the perspective of social justice and applies the theory, in particular, to school choice proposals. It looks at the parental choice schemes in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and in England and Wales, and argues that they fall short of the requirements of justice, but that not all such schemes must do so. It elaborates an abstract voucher scheme that would combine choice with justice, and offers ways by which actual choice‐based reform can be modified to meet the requirements of justice.
Industrial Innovation and Sustainability—Conflicts and Coherence
Authors: Meyer‐Krahmer Frieder 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
First gives an outline of the two prevailing views on the possibilities for solving the conflict between sustainable development and technological innovation – the sceptical and the optimistic. It goes on to discuss three possible paths that industrial technological innovation can take towards environmental sustainability: more extensive use of environmentally acceptable alternatives (the traditional model), the closing and materials cycles and the integration of product policy and product use. The remaining sections of the chapter discuss sustainability and learning – the innovation strategies of firms, technology policy and environmental sustainability, and the role of regional, national, and international policies. It is concluded that an innovation policy for sustainability is still far from being conceptualized.
Organizational Innovation in European Firms: A Critical Overview of the Survey Evidence
Authors: Coriat Benjamin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an initial synthetic analysis of the lessons to be drawn from the study of the diffusion of organizational innovations in European firms. This study is based on four major nationwide surveys that were carried out, respectively, in Germany, UK, Denmark, and France. Attention is focused on the following three series of problems: (1) the identification and nature of organizational innovations, as they stand out from the various surveys; (2) an evaluation of the scope, levels, and modes of the diffusion of organizational innovations in the European firms; and (3) some preliminary findings as regards the appraising and measuring of the performances that can be directly linked to the dissemination of innovations. In the final section, reflections are offered on the results themselves as well as on the means used to pursue the investigation on the various themes dealt with in the present study.
Innovation Policy—A Systemic Approach
Authors: Edquist Charles 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Many innovations arise spontaneously as a result of the market mechanism and the actions of capitalist firms, but some, especially the more radical ones, require public intervention. The first part of this chapter discusses when such policy interventions might be necessary and why. The next section discusses selectivity in innovation policy. The last (main) section of the chapter discusses the general and specific policy implications of the new ‘system of innovation’ (SI) approach; this studies innovations as an endogenous part of the economy and has emerged only in the last decade or so. An SI can be defined as encompassing all the important factors that influence the development, diffusion, and use of innovations, as well as the relations between these factors, which can be studied in a national, regional, or sectoral context.
The Need for New Perspectives in European Commission Innovation Policy
Authors: Sharp Margaret 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Considers the policy implications of the perspectives on socio–economic development in Europe opened up by work done on the globalized learning economy. It raises questions, first, about what sort of policies are needed, second, about the current focus of innovation policies in Europe, and, finally, about the changes in policy needed to face up to the challenges of the next two decades. It draws upon the research summarized in Bengt‐Åke Lundvall's and Susannah Borrás's volume The Globalising Learning Economy (1998) and also on research on industrial policy currently underway in the European Commission's Targeted Socio–Economic Research (TSER) project, ‘Science, Technology and Broad Industrial Policy’ (SOEl‐CT97‐1053), and on the author's own work on the EU's research and technological development (RTD) policies summarized in the book published in 1998 with John Peterson (Peterson and Sharp, 1998).
Difficulties for the Levels Conception
Authors: Heil John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractProblems arising from the idea that reality comprises levels of being are discussed. These include the problem of causal relevance (How could higher‐level properties be relevant to the production of higher‐ or lower‐level effects?) and the problem of inter‐level relations (If higher‐level properties have lower‐level realizers, what is the resulting ontological picture?).
A History of Philosophy in America
Authors: Kuklick Bruce 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
I have been selective in my emphases rather than encyclopaedic and exhaustive. In focusing on American philosophy, the book makes implicit claims about thought and life related to a peculiar western polity and the US, by the nineteenth century. The study of the history of philosophy finally requires complex judgements of quality, which are both questionable and necessary. I have depicted student–teacher relations, conventions of argument, and constellations of problems that endure over generations; and the cultural setting and institutional connections that make up an enterprise of philosophy. I have described traditions of thought and the intentions of thinkers within a social matrix. The book divides naturally into three substantive parts: the first covers the eighteenth and most of the nineteenth centuries, and focuses on religious disputation; the second, from 1865–1930 on pragmatism, an influential American contribution to western ideas; the third, from 1910–2000, on professional philosophy in America, more secular and institutionalized. The thinkers covered include Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Horace Bushnell, Charles Peirce, Josiah Royce, William James, John Dewey, C.I. Lewis, Wilfrid Sellars, Thomas Kuhn, Richard Rorty. The most important theme of the book is the long circuitous march from a religious to a secular vision of the universe. A subsidiary theme concerns social and political philosophy, the crux of Ch. 2.