bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Laryngeal Features And Consonant Shifts
Authors: Vaux Bert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter contributes to our knowledge of the laryngeal features involved in voicing and aspiration through an investigation of the phonological behavior of voiced and aspirated consonants, paying particular attention to the voiced aspirates found in the Armenian dialect of New Julfa. Some of the theoretical claims that emerge from my investigation include the idea that nasal voicing is constrained by a marking statement governing occurrences of the configuration [+nasal, +spread glottis]; that aspiration can induce voicing; that voiceless but not voiced fricatives are [+spread glottis]; that the reasons behind the development of the Armenian voiced aspirates may be related to the ones that give rise to the distribution of voicing and aspiration in English; and that the consonant shifts found in Armenian dialects and modem Indic languages are properly viewed as the results of the various repair strategies proposed by Calabrese (1988).
Introduction
Authors: Willis Dayid W E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of word order in Welsh is one of the greatest puzzles in the study of the historical syntax of the language. In its simplest terms, the puzzle is as follows. In Modem Welsh, the unmarked main clause word order is Vero–Subject–Object (VSO). In Middle Welsh, on the other hand, the verb-initial order is not common. The unmarked pattern is that known to traditional Welsh grammarians as the ‘abnormal sentence’ (brawddeg annormal), in which some element precedes the verb, resulting in orders such as Subject–Verb–Object (SVO), Object–Verb–Subject (OVS), Adverb–Verb–Subject–Objectand so on. When we go back further, however, to Old Welsh, the Modern Welsh pattern apparently re-emerges: VSO is once again dominant. The question that arises is: can the language really have moved away from VSO and back again in the course of a thousand years? This is the puzzle that I consider in this book, in particular, the second part–whether (and if so how) Welsh word order moved back to VSO in the transition from Middle to Modern Welsh. In doing so, I shall use a Government and Binding (GB) (Principles and Parameters) framework to trace the development of Welsh word order from the fourteenth to the early nineteenth century. A number of related issues that have been overlooked in the substantial literature on the subject seem to have considerable relevance to this question, in particular the development of the subject pronoun system, the emergence of a system of affirmative main-clause complementizers in Modern Welsh (the ‘pre-sentential particles’), and patterns of clausal coordination.
Syntactic Change
Authors: Willis Dayid W E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the central concerns of any linguist looking at historical change must be the cause or causes of linguistic change. What aspect of the structure of a language or the environment in which it is spoken allowed a given change to take place? This is the Actuation Problem, formulated in Weinreich, Labov, and Herzog (1968: 102) as ‘Why do changes in a structural feature take place in a particular language at a given time, but not in other languages with the same feature, or in the same language at other times?’ Actuation is essentially an internal linguistic question. It is concerned with changes in the formal structures of language, specifically in linguistic competence. These changes may be influenced by performance during language acquisition. With syntactic change, the answer to why a change takes place typically involves such notions as structural ambiguity or external factors, such as phonological erosion.
The Loss of Verb-Second
Authors: Willis Dayid W E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The V2-system described in Chapters 3 and 4 began to break down in Late Middle Welsh. Some aspects of this have already been noted, in particular, exceptions to the V2-rule with subject pronouns and the affirmative complementizer fe. In this chapter other sources of the loss of the V2-ru1e are examined. Particular attention will be paid to the role of language acquisition in this process. This chapter begins with an examination of how V2-systems, and the Middle Welsh V2-system in particular, may be acquired. It is subsequently argued that, during the period when topicalization was lost, the three typical V2-structures—SVO, AdvVSO, and OVS —ceased to be acquired as a single, unified V2-phenomenon. In so far as these orders were replicated in successive generations of speakers, they were generated using grammatical rules unconnected with verb-second. The V2-parameter was thus reset to a negative value and V2 was Jost from the grammar. Textual evidence suggests that this change does indeed show the characteristics usually associated with parametric change. In particular, sudden changes in the output of the grammar are manifested—in this case, the sudden innovation of unmarked VSO, and the obsolescence of a number of minor syntactic structures.
Metaphysics A 1
Authors: Frede Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scholars nowadays tend to agree that Metaphysics A originally was written by Aristotle as an independent treatise, just as it seems fairly obvious that originally the books Zand H were written as the beginning of a new, independent treatise, rather than as a continuation of a series of books beginning with Metaphysics A. In any case, this is the assumption which I presuppose in my discussion of A 1, but which also is shared by the authors of the remaining essays in this volume. It is yet a further question whether A was integrated by Aristotle himself or only by a later editor into the collection of writings which came to be known as the ‘Metaphysics’.
Metaphysics A 4
Authors: Crubellier Michel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
And if we inquire what are the principles or elements of substances and relations and qualities-whether they are the same or different, clearly, since these things are said in several senses, there are &lt;principles and causes1&gt; for each &lt;kind&gt;,2 and when these senses are distinguished, the &lt;causes&gt; are not the same but different, except in a special sense. They are in a special sense the same, i.e. by analogy, because matter, form, privation, and the moving cause are common to all things; and the causes of substances may be treated as causes of all things in this &lt;other&gt; special sense, that when they are removed all things are removed; further, that which is first in respect of fulfilment &lt;is the cause of all things&gt;.
The Phonology of Norwegian
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A the end of the fourteenth century, Norway, having previously been an independent kingdom, became by conquest a province of Denmark and remained so for three centuries. In1814, as part of the fall-out from the Napoleonic wars, the country became a largely independent nation within the monarchy of Sweden. By this time, however, Danish had become the language of government, commerce, and education, as well as of the middle and upper classes. Nationalistic Norwegians sought to reestablish native identity by creating and promulgating a new language based partly on rural dialects and partly on Old Norse. The upper and middle classes sought to retain a form of Norwegian close to Danish that would be intelligible to themselves and to their neighbours in Sweden and Denmark. The controversy has gone on ever since. One result is that the standard dictionaries of Norwegian ignore pronunciation, for no version can be counted as 'received'. Another is that there has been considerable variety and change in Norwe
Syllable Structure
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the principles by which segments are grouped into the basic prosodic constituent type, syllables, will be discussed. Section 5.1 will be devoted to syllable structure in general. In Section 5.1.1, the prosodic hierarchy and its relationship with morphological structure will be discussed. Approaches to syllable structure will be taken up in Section 5.1.2, while the topic of Section 5.1.3 is the representation of quantity and syllable weight. Section 5.1.4 deals with the Sonority Hierarchy and how sonority determines intrasyllabic phonotactics. The structure of surface syllables is the topic of Section 5.2. In Sections 5.3 and 5.4 the rules that are needed to account for syllabification in UEN are discussed. Core sy11abification rules in the sense of Clements (1990), which are needed to derive the structure that is necessary for stress assignment, are discussed in Section 5.3. In Section 5.4 the language specific syl1abification rules will be stated which must be assumed in order to account for exhaustive syllabification of any morphologically well-formed string. Prosodic structure above the syllable will be discussed in Chapters 6.3 and 7.3.
Cyclic Stress Assignment
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is divided into two main sections where different aspects of the interaction between morphology and stress assignment are discussed. Section 7.2 is concerned with cyclic application of the Main Stress Rule (MSR), while the subject of Section 7.3 wil1 be stress demotion in compounds. An important assumption in many versions of Lexical Phonology has been that the lexicon can be divided into even more sublevels than the two assumed in Chapter 4.1, the cyclic and the postcyclic (or word) level. These levels are usually morphologically defined, such as the difference often assumed in analyses of English between two levels which are defined by the set of non-native, stress-affecting derivational suffixes, and the set of native, stress-neutral derivational suffixes respectively.
Khotet’ [to want] and its Synonyms: Notes about Words
Authors: Apresjan Juri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Academician V. V. Vinogradov’s book, The History of Words (Vinogradov 1994), is remarkable in being essentially an extended illustration of two programmatic theses which are formulated in the introductory essay: ‘The structure of a language is determined by the interaction of its grammar and lexis’ (Vinogradov 1994: 5). Moreover the grammar of a language is constantly being lexicalized (note the idea of the breakdown of the once unified copula verb byt’ [to be] into the independent words est’, byt’, sut’, sushchii, bude, originally parts of byt’), and its lexis grammaticalized (for example, because the meaning of a word is shaped by, among other things, ‘its function in a sentence’). ‘Just as it is customary to speak of the grammatical structure of a language, so we should speak of its lexical structure’, and of the ‘lexical system’ characteristic of any given period in the development of that language (Vinogradov 1994: 5). The lexical system of a language as a whole is composed of smaller lexical systems—of ‘semantically dosed’ series of words. The elements of these series are united by shared meanings and are therefore subject to the action of the same historical processes.
Fungu la nne Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sounds represented by the letters b, d, g, and j as normally pronounced in Swahili are different from English. In Swahili there is a momentary sucking in of breath for the production of these sounds. (In phonetic terms, they are implosives.) What happens is that the vocal cords come together closing the glottis, at the same time as, say, the tips come together for a ‘b’. Then the glottis is lowered, causing rarefaction of the air between the glottis and the lips. Then when the lips part for the ‘b’, air enters the vocal tract from the outside. This makes a rather ‘hollow’ sound. The following face diagrams show the sequence of movement (imagine a head cut in two, front to back).
Fungu la tisa Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The letter e in Swahili normally represents a vowel sound similar to the first part of the vowel in the English word ‘grey. This vowel in English (Received Pronunciation) is actually a diphthong, i.e. the vowel starts with an ‘e’ quality and moves to an ‘i’ quality. If you say it slowly you should be able to hear the change of sound. In the following Swahili words, try to imitate the speaker, avoiding a final T sound, especially when the vowel is final in the word.
Fungu la kumi na mbili Kupika chai — Making tea
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The imperative verb (singular) is simply the ‘stem’, i.e. without the ku— infinitive prefix. So kupika ‘to cook, cooking’ has imperative pika! ‘cook!’. Exceptions are verbs with one—syllable stems, such as —/a ‘eat’, —nywa ‘drink’. The imperative of these verbs normally keeps the ku— prefix for the sake of somewhere to put the stress. There is also a plural form of the imperative, consisting of the ‘root’ (‘stem’ minus final vowel, e.g. —pik—) plus —eni, e.g. pikeni! ‘cook ye!’, ‘you—all cook!’, kuleni, ‘eat’ pl.
Fungu la kumi na tatu Kununua mahindi — Buying maize
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Note various words for place: hapa ‘here’ (occurred in Unit 3). hapa hapa ‘right here’, ‘just in this spot’; pale — ‘there’, In that spot’; penginepo— ‘somewhere else’, ‘in another place’; huko ‘over there’. These words and others will be dealt with more fully later.
Fungu la kumi na nne Sokoni — At the market Matamshi ya kiarabu — Arabic—type Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If possible, with a friend practise buying and selling, using anything to hand — real goods, or pebbles etc. to represent them. The goods should first be laid out neatly in piles, or singly in front of the seller.
The Phonology of Hungarian
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first comprehensive account of the phonology of Hungarian to have been published in English. Hungarian is a Uralic (Finno-Ugric) language. It is unlike other European languages, and atypical among the members of the Uralic family. The lexicon reflects the country's history, with the earliest layers of loanwords coming from Iranian, various Turkic and Slavonic languages, and German. The book is divided into three parts. Part I introduces the general features of the language and its major dialects. Part II examines its vowel and consonant systems, and its phonotactics (syllable structure constraints, transsyllabic constraints, and morpheme structure constraints). In Part III the authors describe the phonological processes that vowels, consonants, and syllables undergo and/or trigger. They provide a new analysis of vowel harmony, as well as discussions of palatalization, voice assimilation, and processes targetting nasals and liquids. The final chapters of the work are devoted to processes conditioned by syllable structure, and to surface phenomena. The book concludes with a full list of references and a comprehensive index. The authors have framed their discussions within a rule-based, non-linear framework to achieve optimum accessibility and concision. Their authoritative account of the sound-system of this unique language will interest phonologists and their advanced students throughout the world.
Ingredients
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen, the reformers’ overriding desire was to get rid of Arabic and Persian borrowings, even if the proposed replacements were equally non-Turkish: hudut [A] ‘frontier’ was dislodged by sintr [G] (sýnurori), millet [A] ‘nation’ by ulus [M], şehir [P] ‘city’ by the Sogdian kent ‘small town, village’, isttlah [A] ‘technical term’ by terim [F]. But at least these were natural-born words. This chapter discusses the more noteworthy suffixes used, even invented, in the creation of Öztürkçe. The squeamish reader may find some of what follows disturbing.
The Socio-Linguistics of Old Jerusalem: Jewish Languages in the Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THIS chapter will look in particular at the status of the three major Jewish languages spoken in Jerusalem in the nineteenth century. As background, we will first sketch the make-up of the Jewish population of the city in I 881, choosing that year to take advantage of the detailed description provided by Luncz (1882) in his first year-book, originally prepared to answer a set of questions posed by the Board of Deputies of British Jews in 1876.
Leaving aside the Karaites, a small Jewish sect which rejected Talmudic Judaism, Luncz divided the Jewish population into Sephardim and Ashkenazim: the former were subdivided into Sephardim proper, who spoke Judaco-Spanish, and Moghrabim, who spoke Arabic; the latter differed from the Sephardim, he said, by ritual and by the fact that they spoke Judaeo-German.
Language Learning
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE Old City is manifestly multilingual. As Chapter I has shown, close to half of the population in our sample, of whatever age, Vas reported to know at least one other language besides a mother tongue, a fifth of tl1c total was said to know two other languages, and a quarter was claimed to know three or more languages. The task of this chapter is to help to account for that knowledge by showing how these languages were learned.
Essays On Bioethics
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For this collection, R. M. Hare has selected the best of his writings on medical ethics and related topics. Its chief theoretical interest lies in its synthesis between utilitarian and Kantian ethics, which are shown to have the same practical consequences. The main practical thesis in the book is that we can harm possible people by preventing them from becoming actual people. This thesis, if understood and accepted, would radically alter the terms of the public debate about embryo experimentation and population policy, and (perhaps surprisingly) support a fairly liberal view on abortion. There are also general introductions to medical and psychiatric ethics, and essays on the concept of health, the morality of experimentation on children, health care policy, free will, and vegetarianism.
Abortion and the Golden Rule
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
10.1 If philosophers are going to apply ethical theory successfully to practical issues, they must first have a theory. This may seem obvious; but they often proceed as if it were not so. A philosopher’s chief contribution to a practical issue should be to show us which are good and which are bad arguments; and to do this he has to have some way of telling one from the other. Moral philosophy therefore needs a basis in philosophical logic—the logic of the moral concepts. But we find, for example, Professor Judith Jarvis Thomson, in an article on abortion (1971) which has been justly praised for the ingenuity and liveliness of her examples, proceeding as if this were not necessary at all. She simply parades the examples before us and asks what we would say about them. But how do we know whether what we feel inclined to say has any secure ground? May we not feel inclined to say it just because of the way we were brought up to think? And was this necessarily the right way? It is highly diverting to watch the encounter in the same volume between her and Mr John Finnis (1973), who, being a devout Roman Catholic, has intuitions which differ from hers (and mine) in the wildest fashion. I just do not know how to tell whether Mr Finnis is on safe ground when he claims that suicide is ‘a paradigm case of an action that is always wrong’; nor Professor Thomson when she makes the no doubt more popular claim that we have a right to decide what happens in and to our own bodies.
The Abnormal Child Moral Dilemmas of Doctors and Parents
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
12.1 Like most of the papers in this volume, this is an attempt to apply ethical theory to a particular moral problem. The theory, outlined in r.6 f. and more fully set out in MT, is of a sort that can be described as both Kantian and utilitarian (see 15.2 and refs., H 1993a). It asks what are the interests (or as Kant might put it, the rational ends) of the parties affected, and then seeks prescriptions which we are prepared to universalize to all similar cases, and which will maximally satisfy these interests or fulfil these ends. The particular problem to be addressed is that which faces doctors and parents when a grossly defective child is born, or is expected to be born.
Orthography and Punctuation
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aspects of language change we have described so far in this book are only to a limited extent subject to the control of language planners. So far as pronunciation, stress, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary are concerned, language planning is largely a matter of assessing the changes that have already occurred and of deciding to what extent the codified standard should be adjusted to keep up to date. It is really a question of resolving conflict between standard and non-standard. Orthographical change is a different thing entirely, however, for orthographical change occurs exclusively through planning.
What Makes Choices Rational?
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
MY aim in writing this paper is to ask help in the laying of a pair of ghosts who continue to haunt moral philosophy. Their names are ‘objectivism’ and ‘subjectivism’; but the second sometimes assumes the name of ‘relativism’. I have long been convinced that the supposed battles between these two have no real substance; but for all that, they go on confusing many moral philosophers. It would be a great benefit to our profession if somebody could put an end to the confusion once for all; but it has proved harder than might have been hoped, and that is my excuse for trying again. The confusion nearly always arises when moral philosophers discuss either what they term the ‘objectivity’ or what they term the ‘rationality’ of moral judgements. The first of these words would be best abandoned altogether, because the introduction of either it or its supposed opposite ‘subjectivity’ into ethical discussion seldom does anything except spread darkness. These two words ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ are properly applied to different sorts of fact: objective facts are facts which hold independently of the states of mind etc. of subjects (e.g. of a perceiver or the maker of a moral judgement); subjective facts are facts about the state of mind of such a person, including facts about the relation (e.g. a causal one) in which some object stands to that state of mind. There was a time when moral philosophers disputed whether moral judgements were statements of objective fact or whether they were statements of subjective fact. The terms had a use in this dispute.
The Structure of Ethics and Morals
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I MUST start by saying what I think is the object of the enterprise called moral philosophy. It is to find a way of thinking better—that is, more rationally—about moral questions. The first step towards this is: Understand the questions you are asking. That might seem obvious; but hardly anybody tries to do it. We have to understand what we mean by expressions like ‘I ought’. And to understand the meaning of a word like this involves understanding its logical properties, or in other words what it implies or what saying it commits us to. Then, if we find that we cannot accept what it commits us to, we shall have to give up saying it. And that is what moral argument essentially is. Ethics, the study of moral argument, is thus a branch of logic. This is one of the levels of thinking that are the concern of the moral philosopher. The others are about more substantial questions; but this first one, the logical or, as it is sometimes called, metaethical level is the foundation of the others.