bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sample preparation, sample environment and radiological safety
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because the neutron is electrically neutral, it penetrates most substances readily. The exceptions are hydrogenous materials and strongly absorbing materials, such as cadmium, gadolinium and boron. This penetrability not only means that the true internal microscopic behaviour of a solid or liquid can be probed but also that a sample under study can be held within bulky sample environments (e.g. cryostats, furnaces, pressure cells or reaction vessels) and, with properly collimated beam geometries, still give good quality data. For this reason neutrons are capable of exploring a wide range of thermodynamic variables. Temperatures from mK to thousands of degrees centigrade; pressures from mbars to Mbars; magnetic fields of 15 Tesla or higher; chemical reaction processes involving reaction vessels at elevated temperatures with gas overpressures; and kinetic processes such as extrusion, flow and shear: all these variables are accessible to neutron scattering.
Magnetohydrodynamic description of plasma
Authors: Dendy R O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far, we have based our study of plasmas on the single particle dynamics of the constituent electrons and ions. We have used these dynamics as the basis for a dielectric description of the plasma. This approach has been very effective. The understanding of any physical system is aided by knowledge of its normal modes, and the dielectric approach has enabled us to formulate the normal modes of plasmas over a very wide range of frequencies. In Section 3.4, we studied normal modes with phase velocity VA defined by eqn (3.82), whose frequencies w lie well below the lowest characteristic single particle frequency, the ion cyclotron frequency Wei· Two features of these modes suggest that an alternative approach to low frequency plasma behaviour might be fruitful.
Hopping Conduction And Related Phenomena
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hopping conduction is a well-known mode of conduction in various classes of less conductive materials. We have mentioned in Chapter 3 that hopping conduction is observed in doped semiconductors for low donor concentrations. By hopping is meant a conduction process in which localized electrons jump quantum mechanically from states to states.
Interacting electrons in the quantum Hall regime—the fractional quantum Hall effect
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen that the application of a strong magnetic field makes the one onebody electronic states very singular in the two-dimensional (2D) electron system. When electron-electron interactions commence, the ground state of the system becomes a novel quantum state, which is another manifestation of the peculiarities of 2D systems in magnetic fields. The first indication of the drastic quantization was found experimentally when Tsui and coworkers (Tsui et al. 1982b) observed a strange phenomenon in the quantized Hall effect in a GaAs-AlGaA,s system in 1982 (Fig. 10.1).
Dynamical Properties Of Smectics And Columnar Phases
Authors: Gennes P G De , Prost J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 5 we saw that the long-wavelength, low-frequency behaviour of nematics could be described by a continuum theory. Here we consider the equivalent approach for smectics and columnar phases. We use the general framework constructed by Martin, Parodi, and Pershan [1] since it allows the use of the same presentation for all systems. The hydrodynamics of smectics was first discussed in reference 2 and of columnar phases in reference 3 (reference 4 for the biaxial case).
Electrostatic interaction between different parts of an MIS structure and its influence on charge carrier transport
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When electric current flows through the bulk of a uniform semiconductor, the electric charges involved are not linked by any electrostatic interaction with the charges outside the semiconductor and they are uniformly distributed in the bulk. Quite a different situation takes places in MIS structures. Here the carriers in the subsurface layer of the semiconductor are linked by an electrostatic interaction with the charges at the gate, and this effect changes the charge carrier concentration along the direction of current flow in the semiconductor, the longitudinal component of the field strength, and gives rise to a diffusion component in the current. In the case of the inversion channel of an MIS transistor, in addition to the electrostatic interaction between the semiconductor and the gate, another interaction between the inversion channel and the depletion layer must be taken into account, because it also causes such effects.
Polymers in Solution
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The result of a collaboration between a theoretician and an experimentalist, this book is devoted to the static properties of flexible polymers in solution. It presents the vast progress made by both theory and experiment in recent years. Despite the variety in the chemical composition and physical properties of long polymer chains, when in solution they show a universality in their behaviour. On the experimental side, the use of photon and neutron scattering has led to a better understanding, while the use of computer simulation has also produced interesting results. This work is the result of a collaboration between a theoretician and an experimentalist, who have both worked for many years on polymer solutions.
General Description of Long Chains, Universality, Critical Phenomena, and Scaling Laws
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The application of universality principles and the use of scaling laws in physics, particularly in the field of polymers has been developing gradually, say from I 950 to I 980. These notions have been introduced In order to describe random scale¬ invariant systems, whose importance had been recognized earlier. The manner in which this problem arose, appears clearly in the following text, taken from the introduction to the book The Aroms by Jean Perrin (1913).
Mathematical Models of Chains: Sta Tic Proper Ties
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though the static properties of polymers in solution are now quite well-known, only a small fraction of them has been proved in a perfectly rigorous manner. We owe the main results, concerning numbers of chains to the British mathematician Hammersley who studied the problem around 1960, and some refinements are due to Kesten (1963). These are summarized below in a modified form.
Standard Continuous Model and Perturbation Calculations
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The interactions existing between segments of the same polymer or different polymers modify the properties of the system in a manner which can be treated by perturbation. The perturbation expansions that are used to study polymer solutions are generalizations of the Ursell-Mayer-Yvon expansions which apply to gas theory. This technique has been developed from 1972 onwards, especially in the United States and in Japan. The expansions start from a model. The most simple and common one is the famous continuous model which will be described in this chapter in great detail.
Partially Attractive Chains: Theoretical Results
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the temperature of a polymer solution diminishes, the attractive longrange forces become more efficient than the hard-core repulsive forces. At a temperature TFrecognized by Paul Flory in 1942, attractions and repulsions compensate. In this case, for a temperature slightly smaller than TF, the solution separates into two phases and this phenomenon is called demixtion.
Introduction
Authors: Chakrabarti Bikas K , Gilles Benguigui L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If one applies tensile stress on a solid, the solid elongates and gets strained. The stress (σ) - strain (ε) relation is linear for small stresses (Hooke’s law) after which nonlinearity appears, in some cases. Finally at a critical stress εf, depending on the material, amount of disorder and the specimen size etc., the solid breaks into pieces; fracture occurs. In the case of brittle solids, the fracture occurs immediately after the Hookean linear region, and consequently the linear elastic theory can be applied to study the essentially nonlinear and irreversible static fracture properties of brittle solids (Lawn and Wilshaw 1975, Thomson 1986, Evans and Zok 1986).
The Centre for Reviews and Dissemination
Authors: Sowden Amanda , Glanville Julie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we outline the role of the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination (CRD) in providing evidence about the effects of interventions not only in health care but also in public health. In particular, we discuss certain methodological challenges posed by the complexity of public health interventions for the process of systematic review of evidence. We also highlight the general underdeveloped nature of the evidence base on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of public health inventions and the need for investment in rigorous evaluation to address this gap.
The Centre For Evidence-Based Public Health Policy: part of the ESRC Evidence Network
Authors: Petticrew M , Whitehead M , Bambra C , Egan M , Graham H , Macintyre S , McDermott E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The belief that health-care decisions should be informed by rigorous scientific reviews of the existing evidence is now relatively uncontentious. Interest in such ‘evidence-based’ approaches to decision-making has also spread rapidly beyond the world of health care to many other aspects of social policy, and we can now find references to evidence-based housing, policing, probation, social policy, transport, education defence, and social virtual centre, which began work in 2001, is a collaboration between researchers at three locations.
Social beliefs about gender differences
Authors: Breakwell Glynis M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion of ‘social beliefs’ is fraught with ambiguity. It has a siren quality which lures the brave into efforts after definition and comparisons with other problematic concepts such as attitudes, public opinion, social cognitions, social representations, conceptual schemata, or ideology.
Suffice it to say that for the purpose of this paper it is assumed that social beliefs are commonly held interpretations of socially important phenomena. They are what some others in this volume have termed ‘widespread beliefs’.
Any socially important phenomenon will have more than one set of social beliefs encircling it, since more than one group of interests will attach to it. Social beliefs are created within an intergroup context. They come into being because a group wishes to delineate the meaning or establish the ‘facts’ about a phenomenon. This erection of meaning and interpretation is self-serving, it will suit the interests and purposes of the group concerned. Each group has its own set of social beliefs organized into systems which justify its action, specify its identity, and serve its interests. Consequently, the greater the number of groups for whom a social phenomenon is relevant, the greater will be the variety and complexity of the social beliefs surrounding it. This becomes patently obvious in examining social beliefs about gender differences.
Medial premotor cortex (SMA) (area 6)
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter considered voluntary movements made in response to some prompt. The monkey pulls the lever when the red light appears; the patient salutes when the examiner commands. In both cases the act that is appropriate depends on the context, and the context is some event in the world. We may say that the individual ‘reacts’.
Ventral prefrontal cortex (areas 11, 12, 13, and 14)
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are few if any connections to the superior colliculi from the ventral convexity and orbital surface (Catsman-Berrevoets et al. 1979; Pries 1984). The ventral cortex connects instead to the amygdala and hypothalamus. Electrical stimulation of the postero-medial orbital cortex (areas B and 14) (Fig. 6.3, p.125) produces a variety of autonomic responses in monkeys (Kaada 1960). These include changes in blood pressure, decreased gastric motility, pupillary dilatation, piloerection, and alterations in respiration.
Basal ganglia
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It might be thought that if the animal is to make the correct choice, the prefrontal cortex must access the limb mechanisms of motor cortex. If that was so, we might expect lesions of the motor cortex itself to impair performance on these tasks, but we know that they do not. Pribrnm et al. 0 955) studied two monkeys with radical bilateral ablations of motor cortex. The monkeys were not trained until they were much recovered. They learned the DR task in 210 and 270 trials: the mean for .’35 unoperated monkeys that had been tested in the same laboratory was 375 t1ials.
Thought and voluntary action
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
H is time to forget monkeys and their search for peanuts. There are other goals in life. This chapter takes us from the selection of pictures in the laboratory to Lhc choice of shops and restaurants in everyday life. In many laboratory tests, patients are required to choose between items. Like the monkeys, the subjects search for the correct item in an external array. It may be a picture or word, as on the subject-ordered task (Petrides and Milner 1982), or a card in a particular location, as on the spatial associative task (Petrides 1985).
Music and consumer behaviour
Authors: North Adrian C , Hargreaves David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The commercial and industrial uses of music (see Bruner 1990; Gardner 1985a) account for billions of dollars worldwide, involved with such diverse activities as honouring royalty payments for using music in TV advertisements, installing music systems in shops, or promoting new pop music records and CDs. Given the frequency with which people are exposed to music on the radio or in shops or television advertisements, it is possible to argue that such commercial uses constitute one of the principal sources of our everyday exposure to music in the Western world. This remains the case despite the existence of pressure groups such as Pipedown in the UK, and arguments that commercial uses of music may have negative effects (e.g. Englis and Pennell 1994), be less appropriate than silence (Olsen 1994), and at times constitute noise pollution (cf. Hopkins 1994).
Theory of mind and autism: a fifteen year review
Authors: Baron-Cohen Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a danger when something gets discussed too much, its importance gets overlooked. ‘Theory of mind’ as a topic in developmental psychology may be facing that danger. Fifteen years ago, the topic was relatively under-researched, and its arrival into science opened a floodgate of research, much of which has been summarized in a number of influential books (Astington 1994; Astington et al. 1988; Baron-Cohen 1995; Baron-Cohen et al. 19936; Mitchell and Lewis 1995; Moore and Dunham 1996; Perner 1991; Wellman 1990; Whiten 1991). Fifteen years later, the field is that much more mature, and many of the relevant findings from normal development are summarized in the chapter by Wellman, this volume (Chapter 2). But readers should be on their guard not to consider the topic any less important today: a theory of mind remains one of the quintessential abilities that makes us human (Whiten 1993). By theory of mind we mean being able to infer the full range of mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions, imagination, emotions, etc.) that cause action. In brief, to be able to reflect on the contents of one’s own and other’s minds.
Introduction
Authors: Rolls Edmund T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What motivates us to work for particular rewards such as food when we are hungry, or water when we are thirsty? How do these motivational control systems operate to ensure that we eat approximately the correct amount of food to maintain our body weight or to replenish our thirst? What factors account for the over-eating and obesity which some humans show? The issues of what motivation is, and how it is controlled, are introduced in this chapter.
Pharmacology and neurochemistry of reward, and neural output systems for reward
Authors: Rolls Edmund T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is well established that pharmacological manipulations of the catecholamine transmitters in the brain (dopamine and noradrenaline) alter self-stimulation rate (see Rolls 1975). For example, amphetamine, which enhances the release of dopamine and noradrenaline from axon terminals at synapses, increases hypothalamic self-stimulation rate. Drugs which reduce catecholamine levels (e.g. a-methyl-p-tyrosine) or which block catecholamine receptors (e.g. the ‘neuroleptic’ or ‘anti-psychotic’ drugs chlorpromazine, haloperidol, and spiroperidol) reduce self-stimulation rates. These catecholamine systems have been teased apart, and it is now clear that dopamine and not noradrenaline is involved in brain-stimulation reward (Section 6.2), but that dopamine is involved in brain-stimulation reward at only some sites (Section 6.3.1).
When Food Kills
Authors: Pennington T Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 'food scare' concept took on new meaning in 1996, which opened with variant CJD emerging as the human form of BSE, and closed with Britain's worst E.coli O157 outbreak in central Scotland. As people died, so did trust in government and science. This book tells the story of these events, what led up to them, and what has happened since. It breaks new ground by dissecting these tragedies alongside catastrophes like Aberfan, Piper Alpha, Chernobyl, and the worst ever railway accidents in Ireland and Britain (Armagh and Quintinshill), as well as classical outbreaks of botulism, typhoid, E.coli O157 and Salmonella food poisoning. Britain's ability to win Nobel prizes marches with a propensity to have disasters. The book explains why, demonstrating failures in policy making, failures in the application of science, and failing inspectorates. A unique feature of this book is its breadth since it covers history, politics and law as well as science. It also makes some fascinating connections, like those between 1930's nuclear physics, E.coli, and molecular biology, and the links between manslaughter in 19th century mental hospitals, syphilis, the Nobel Prize, and the prospects for successfully treating variant CJD. Royal murderers, vaccine research in Auschwitz and Buchenwald, and the race to develop the atom bomb appear as well. For the general reader its non-technical but authoritative account of the science behind these tragedies, its critical appraisal of how the government responded to them, its coverage of public inquiries and its analysis of risk will be informative and stimulating. Scientists will find its approach to the prion theory and the origins of BSE challenging and controversial. Policy makers will find not only diagnoses of what went wrong in the past, but remedies ror the future.
Adaptive FEM
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discretization of the physical region and the representation of the wave function by piecewise polynomials generate errors both of which are intrinsic to the finite element procedure. Since its inception, it has been recognized that a successful application of the finite element method (FEM) requires estimating these errors and developing approaches to minimize them. In Chapters 1-3, it was shown that the FEM is a variational method in which better results can be obtained by the use of more elements and also through the use of higher order interpolation functions. However, no attempt was made to optimize the methods so as to provide a systematic approach for improving the results. We had implicitly assumed that the refinements in the FEM lead to convergence towards the exact results. In this chapter, we provide error estimates for the finite element solutions, derive convergence properties of the FEM, and develop schemes for automating the optimization procedure. There are several approaches to improving results obtained from the FEM, and here we will describe their essentials.
Applications in atomic physics
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An externally applied perturbation can provide information about the structure of energy levels in a quantum mechanical system. The investigation of the effect of an external magnetic field on the energy levels of the hydrogen atom, the simplest of atoms, has fascinated each generation of theoretical physicists in the last century. There is a long history in the literature of attempts at solving this problem by perturbative and variational methods.-s The problem is of such interest because of its relevance to astronomy and astrophysics, atomic physics, solid state spectroscopy, and the more recent exploration of quantum chaos exhibited by hydrogenic states with large Rydberg number n.
Quantum wires
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ability to confine electrons spatially in a controlled way in layered semiconductor hetero structures has led to the observation of remarkable new optical and transport properties in such structures. Consequences of 1 D confinement in planar layered structures and the resultant quantized energy levels have been explored in great detail over the past two decades. In 1980, Sakaki considered theoretically the consequences of growing hetero structures which would confine electrons in two dimensions, the 2D quantum well or the quantum well wire (QWW). Since then, control over growth at an atomic level has allowed the construction of such hetero structures. As in 1D confinement, the principal effect is to profoundly change the energy spectra of electrons which in turn influence the optical and transport properties of the composite material.
The boundary element method
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The boundary element method (BEM) is based on an integral equation formulation for the solution of differential equations. As we have seen in the context of the finite element method (FEM), analytical methods become cumbersome when the geometrical shape of the physical domain is complex or when the boundary conditions (BCs) for the physical property being calculated are complicated. If there are inhomogeneous terms in the differential equation, they lead to a "particular integral" which is difficult to evaluate in a direct analytical manner. In general, inhomogeneous terms in the differential equation are treated by the method of Green’s function. A somewhat lengthy, but self-contained, exposition in Appendix C introduces the essential ideas of the Green’s function technique. We show below that by using Green’s theorem of vector calculus we can convert the differential equation under consideration into an integral equation on the boundary of the physical region. The discretization of the boundary integral leads to self-consistency conditions for the solution at the boundary. Once the solution at the boundary is obtained, the construction of the solution in the interior region proceeds in a straightforward manner. Thus the BEM employs the discretization of only the boundary, and not the interior of the physical region. This is a distinct advantage over the FEM, in which the entire physical region is discretized, which in turn leads to fairly large global matrices. The "reduction in dimensionality" associated with the BEM gives rise to global matrices of much fewer dimensions.