bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The changes that took place in American religious life during the late twentieth century were, in some important respects, unprecedented. As the U.S. became hospitable to virtually all the religions of the world, more religious switching and experimenting occurred than ever before. In other respects, the enthusiasm for spirituality in this period was similar to previous Great Awakenings that have marked American religious history in the past. This concluding chapter compares the transformation of American religion in the late twentieth century to previous awakenings, suggesting that the impetus to spiritual expansion can be traced back through the American Transcendentalists to the New England Puritans and their influential role in shaping American culture.
“And the Shout of a King Is Amongst Us”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Gathering as a sect in England in the 1650s, Quakers believed that each person had a “light within,” illuminating not only his own evil but also available as an inner Christ to lead him to God's will. Obedience to God's principles ensured access to continuing revelation and to the possibility of approaching perfection and dwelling in the Kingdom of God on earth. Quakers emphasized some of God's principles and termed them “testimonies.” Although Quakers believed that God instituted worldly government in order to be a “terror to evil‐doers” and a “praise to them that do well,” non‐Quakers mistrusted them and subjected them to strenuous persecution and suffering.
“A Killinge Instrument We May Neither Forme, Nor Beare”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Quakers renounced war, killing, and the use of weapons – a set of principles of nonviolence that they termed the peace testimony. Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the English Quaker leadership enunciated the peace testimony on behalf of the collective body of Quakers in two documents: the “Declaration and Information” and the “Declaration of 1660.” Early English Quakers grounded their peace principles in biblical texts, especially the admonition to love one's enemies. They relied upon this spirit of the gospel wherein the purity of one's motives was as essential as one's behavior. The early peace testimony rested on the foundation of maintaining the purity of one's soul in order to remain in the Kingdom of God; later, the emphasis would shift to a concern for the victims of violence and to an interest in worldly justice.
“Fire at the Mast”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
From the beginning, early English Quakers were working out how to put principles into practice, and their observances were diverse. Some participated in military activities wholeheartedly; others such as Thomas Lurting and Edward Coxere found it necessary to declare that they would no longer bear arms; still others, like Henry Pitman, responded to violence and persecution in complicated ways. The dominant histories of the peace testimony tend to simplify this diversity among early Quakers, and adopt one of two competing interpretations. The more traditional interpretation is that the peace testimony was inherent in Quaker spirituality and was observed before 1660, from the earliest times; in reconciling this pietistic theory with conflicting evidence, proponents minimize or “define out” those Quakers who bore arms or were violent. The second interpretation is that the peace testimony arose in the Declarations of 1660 as a strategic reaction to the violent uprising of other sects; proponents of this pragmatic theory see the testimony as politically self‐protective and downplay both the prior practice of peace principles and the spirituality of the testimony.
“Bold Boyes and Blasphemers”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Social and geographical context influenced the developing peace testimony. In England, early Quakers were outside the established order; in contrast, when they made their way into the wilds of Carolina, they represented societal order itself and Pennsylvania Quakers were dominant and confident. When Quakers arrived in New England in 1656, they represented a threat to the Puritan order; persecution and military service obligations challenged the peace testimony. Everywhere Quakers made use of their sufferings, both spiritually and as a practical tactic, keeping careful records of them. In a time when “carnal weapons” could be both actual and metaphorical, principles of peace could be at once complex, confused, and conscientious.
“The Habitation of the Hunted‐Christ”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Rhode Island was a sanctuary for Quakers and others because of its freedom from civil enforcement of religion and its tradition of religious liberty. In 1672, a group of English Quakers including one of the founders of Quakerism, George Fox, visited Rhode Island. Fox preached and organized vigorously, strengthening the structure of Quaker meetings, taming the extreme individualism of Quaker belief, and establishing a system of internal discipline to temper individual revelation. In 1672 also, Quakers came to dominate the Rhode Island government, to Fox's delight. The duties of Quaker governors created new tensions with the requirements of the peace testimony.
“Times of Motion and Danger”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Indian unrest and French and Dutch invasion scares threatened New England in 1667, 1671, and 1673. As colonies reacted to these dangers, there were no differences attributable to pacifism between non‐Quaker governments in Rhode Island, Plymouth, and Massachusetts Bay and Quaker government in Rhode Island; all governments made haphazard, tentative, localized, and inadequate provisions for defense. None called upon the king for aid; all called councils of war, mounted an occasional great gun, set watches, negotiated with the Indians. An occasional individual Quaker demonstrated scruples against one measure or another. One major exception to the absence of pacifist evidence was the legislation passed by the Rhode Island Quaker government, the Exemption of 1673, the first formal legislative provision for conscientious exemption.
“Fighting Against the Minde of God”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In an emergency session responding to the Dutch recapture of New York, the Rhode Island General Assembly enacted the 1673 Exemption, exempting any self‐identified pacifist from military service on the basis of conscience. It provided, too, for alternative service, but it also excused those for whom even alternative service would violate their consciences. The legislature, expressing local conditions, traditions, and needs, gave several arguments to support its excusing those unable to fight or train for reasons of conscience. The justifications pointed to Rhode Island's own liberty of conscience; then pointed to the Hebrew scripture, wherein God excused certain classes of people from fighting in his wars. The legislature cited the example of the king, who also did not require all to fight, and referred to other “implied” arguments.
“Sin and Flesh”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In 1675, King Philip's War – a war redolent of sin and flesh – broke out in New England between English settlers and Indians. All of the antagonists in this war saw each other as sinners: the Puritans blamed Quakers for drawing the wrath of God upon them in the form of angry Indians; the Quakers blamed Puritans for persecuting fellow Christians; the Indians felt the English had abused them in multiple ways; the English saw the Indians as Godless, and so as sinners as well. As for flesh, the physical costs of war were devastating: the Indians suffered massive losses of population, and 12 English towns were utterly destroyed. The major leaders when war erupted were King Philip of the Wampanoags, Canonchet of the Narragansetts, the Quaker Governor William Coddington of Rhode Island, Governors John Leverett of Massachusetts Bay, Josiah Winslow of Plymouth, and John Winthrop Jr. of Connecticut. Quakers dominated the Rhode Island government and sent Quaker John Easton to negotiate with Philip in a failed effort to forestall hostilities.
“Midnight Shrieks and Soul‐Amazing Moanes”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
When open hostilities began near Plymouth and the Plymouth governor requested help from Rhode Island, the Quaker government agreed to blockade a peninsula and trap Philip's troops. This openly partisan military action was only the first of many ways in which Rhode Island participated in the war notwithstanding the sizable Quaker presence in the government. Rhode Island housed and provisioned Massachusetts and Plymouth troops; their troops fought at Nipsachuck; they bought arms from Boston and stored ammunition for Plymouth; and the government transported Massachusetts and Plymouth troops to the largest battle of the war, the Great Swamp Fight, and sheltered English casualties. But participation remained local: no colony‐wide commander was appointed, no colony‐wide army formed.
“A Bulit out of Everi Bush”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The local towns of Warwick and Providence showed resentment toward the Rhode Island central government for its failure to adequately protect them. Both towns were destroyed in the spring of 1676; the Quaker colony government then reconsidered and appointed a captain for the colony as a whole, and set up a garrison in Providence. The Quaker governor signed the commission for Captain Cranston, and for the captain of the garrison. In June 1676, the legislature modified the 1673 Exemption: conscientious objectors would now have to pay fines in lieu of military service; the Exemption was fully restored in October. In August 1676, just after the death of King Philip, the Rhode Island government court‐ martialed four Indians and sentenced them to execution.
“The Rectification of the Heart”
Authors: Weddle Meredith Baldwin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Beyond soldiering, individual Quakers faced other issues relevant to the peace testimony, such as self‐defense and offering sanctuary to others. To seek protection in a garrison house, for example, raised several questions: might it betray a lack of faith in God's protection; should one go in armed, or unarmed; as a site of potential violence, should one avoid it altogether? The records show a range of behavior, from Nathaniel Sylvester's scrupulous avoidance of garrison houses to William Coddington's contorted legalism. Would offering sanctuary to wounded English soldiers be a loving act, or would it be an unconscionable support of military activity? The peace testimony, with the exception of the Rhode Island Testimony, did not appear in disciplinary admonitions until the 1690s among New England Quakers, suggesting that its parameters were too unsettled, its complexities too great.
Religious Criticism
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Lays out a theoretical orientation that allows Friesen to compare the evidence for the imperial cult institutions of mainstream society with a visionary religious text like Revelation, which was produced by a marginal group in society. The chapter begins with a review of critiques of modernity found in the work of three scholars of religion – Mircea Eliade, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, and Charles Long. The chapter then draws on the comparative model of Lawrence E. Sullivan, which describes cosmogony, cosmology, human maturation, and eschatology as the four cornerstones of religious systems. This phenomenological method is amended by the incorporation of Edward Said's concept of contrapuntal interpretation of history and society.
Provincial Imperial Cults of Asia Under Augustus and Tiberius
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Examines three imperial cult institutions sponsored by the Roman province of Asia during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. These provincial imperial cult institutions are the temple of Rome and Augustus built at Pergamon (c.27 b.c.e.); the new provincial calendar proposed by the Roman proconsul Paullus Fabius Maximus around 9 b.c.e.; and the temple of Tiberius, Livia, and the Roman Senate at Smyrna (26 c.e.).
Provincial Cults from Gaius to Domitian
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Completes the survey begun in the previous chapter by discussing the abortive attempt to establish a provincial imperial cult for Gaius (Caligula) at Miletus around 40 c.e.; changes in the organization of high priests and high priestesses of Asia; and the temple of the Sebasteion at Ephesus under Domitian (89–90 c.e.). The survey demonstrates that provincial imperial cult institutions enforced new spatial and temporal perspectives that were focused on Rome and the Roman emperors. These provincial cults also helped establish a new imperial discourse within the province of Asia. They were crucial cosmological symbols that supported Roman imperialism and defined an evolving provincial identity.
Municipal Imperial Cults
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Synthesizes the existing evidence for municipal imperial cults in the cities of Asia (Ephesos, Priene, Miletos, Sardis, Pergamon). An examination of imperial cults in temple settings and those without temples shows that municipal imperial cults permeated city life and were more attuned to local piety. In comparison with provincial imperial cults, the municipal institutions were more variegated in their formats and in the objects of worship. There was more incorporation of imperial figures into the cults of other deities, more assimilation of imperial figures to specific deities, and a different standard for the language of divinization.
Municipal Imperial Cults
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Closer scrutiny of two well‐documented temples adds nuance to the survey in the preceding chapter. The Sebasteion at Aphrodisias and the Augusteion at Ephesos show the diversity that is included in the concept “municipal imperial cults.” These cults were part of a new discursive practice in Asia that allowed novel and creative representations of civic identities within the Roman imperial system. They presented the imperial cosmology in a vernacular mode.
Imperial Cults as Religion
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The four components of Lawrence E. Sullivan's comparative model allow us to summarize the role that imperial cults played in the polytheistic religious systems of Asia. Imperial cults had some influence on cosmogony and human maturation. Their major contribution, however, was to cosmology. These cults articulated an imperialist elaboration of Greco‐Roman religious life that made Roman rule seem normal, or at least inevitable. This strong commitment to the longevity of Roman imperialism resulted in an absurd eschatology, which could not represent an end to Roman rule. This fundamental flaw in the religion of imperial cults created the matrix within which Revelation's critique of Roman rule could take root.
Revelation in Space and Time
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses the date and time when Revelation was written, and then considers the role of imperial cults in the generation of the text. The main argument concludes that Revelation was not written against alleged imperial cult excesses under Nero or Domitian; the evidence for imperial cults from Asia shows that these were not aberrant periods. Rather, Revelation should be interpreted as a critique of the dominant imperial discourse for which mainstream imperial cults were a crucial manifestation.
Centering Reality
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Revelation of John contains an overwhelming eschatology that produced an inherently unstable cosmology. According to John, space and time were not centered around Rome and the emperors. Rather, space was centered around the heavenly throne and time around worship. Worship directed people toward the absent throne as they awaited a new heaven and a new earth, when God would abandon heaven and dwell among humans. In contrast to the work of Leonard L. Thompson, Friesen concludes that Revelation spoke about the Roman world, but Revelation's weak cosmology could not speak on behalf of the Roman world.
Communities Worshipping Humans
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The author of Revelation promoted a particular view of church life. John described the churches as a divine kingdom chosen from the peoples of the earth. The most important leaders were, according to John, the 12 apostles of bygone days and the past and present prophets. In these communities, human maturation involved gender relations that were less discriminatory than those evinced by many other early Christian texts. Apocalyptic personhood also included a renunciation of violence. Outsiders lived in a society characterized by profound deception and dramatic inequality in the distribution of wealth.
Worship and Authority
Authors: Friesen Steven J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The cosmogony of Revelation manifests two strategies similar to those employed in imperial cults for the emperor. In both cases, the human is connected to a high God(s) of the tradition and the human is portrayed as the founder of a new reality. Revelation claimed legitimacy, however, by describing imperial authority as a deceptive, demonic imitation. The imperial cosmology is castigated as an exploitative economy in which the wealthy and powerful live a life of arrogance and affluence that is based on violence. The kingdom of God and his Christ, on the other hand, was a community of suffering and endurance that would be vindicated in the end if they remained faithful.
A Controversial Spirit
Authors: Mulder Philip N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists in the American South competed divisively with each other during the First and Second Great Awakenings, establishing a spirited evangelical presence in the region, but left wanting a common religious influence that would fulfill ecumenical ideals. Presbyterians and Baptists set the tone by subordinating New Light techniques to their denominational traditions, the Presbyterians countering the novelties of the revivals with their long‐standing emphasis on education and decorum, and the Baptists demanding that converts be judged by their knowledge of core doctrines. The two Calvinist denominations successfully limited the innovative Methodists, who had hoped to transcend the others’ sectarian spirit with piety and ecumenism – the very definition of the New Light. Methodists were absorbed into the arguments over denominational differences, and all the groups turned their aggressiveness toward each other as the Anglican Church, formerly their target of mutual dissent, disintegrated during the American Revolution. Left to encounter each other during outdoor preaching, camp meetings, and neighborhood discussions, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists became obsessed with their own debates over proper religion and the acceptable measure of New Light piety. In their polities, beliefs, rituals, and conversions, these churches, led by the Baptists, defined evangelicalism as a controversial spirit, with the New Light ideal of the Methodists falling into the rivalry of denominationalism.
Good Reasons to Believe
Authors: Mulder Philip N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Although the Great Awakening temporarily split Presbyterians into Old Side and New Side, moderation prevailed as Presbyterians tamed the New Light with their traditional emphases on clerical training, education, and theological and ecclesiastical balance. Ministers like Samuel Davies exemplified temperateness as they worked to promote religious warmth – not heat – in conversion, at the same time wresting toleration from the Anglican Church. Presbyterians concentrated their efforts within their own ethnic communities in the Shenandoah Valley and southern Piedmont, expecting potential converts to be attracted to their system and communion seasons.
Experimental Religion
Authors: Mulder Philip N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Francis Asbury imposed a rigorous discipline and strict episcopacy on early American Methodists, and he envisioned a universal faith that would overwhelm the sectarian spirit that he saw prevalent in Baptist and Presbyterian churches. Following the precedents of Methodist founder John Wesley, Asbury promoted an experiential religion and holiness, accepting individual expressiveness in conversion, but demanding complete commitment from participants who were expected to pursue an ideal of perfection. They received support in class and society meetings where they could share concerns, shortcomings, and successes, and they could find models of their ideals in the selfless work of circuit riders whose example of openness and effort would trump particularity and smug complacency, Methodists hoped.
Sowing and Reaping
Authors: Mulder Philip N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
With the Revolutionary trauma and Anglican Church swept away, Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists could turn their full attention to each other as they competed for converts and ascendancy in the religiously free nation. The insular Presbyterians and Baptists struggled to keep pace with the Methodists by experimenting with some of their tactics, including warm, extemporaneous preaching, lively music, and itinerancy, yet ultimately they relied on their traditional distinctions in appeals for converts. Methodists forged ahead with their universal designs and waves of quarterly and annual meetings that fostered outdoor preaching events and camp meetings, but as they encountered their competitors, they had to define their distinctive message, and, doing so, they addressed their Calvinist rivals on the enemies’ terms: the controversial spirit that the Methodists had hoped to convert.
Choosing God's People
Authors: Mulder Philip N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Laity in the audiences and congregations embraced the message of the preachers all too well during the Great Awakenings. Accounts show that men, women, Anglo‐, and African‐Americans accepted not only the general need for salvation, but also the denominations’ prescriptions for conversion. True conversion required selecting the particular beliefs of one denomination and specifically rejecting those of the others. The reborn had to turn away from false churches and teachings just as they cast aside their sinfulness. Choice, the celebrated feature of evangelical religion, emboldened laity and helped the democratization of American Christianity, but it also assured that a spirit of distinction would hover over the quarreling faithful of the South. Baptists’ oppositional religion steadily displaced Methodists’ universal faith.