bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations
Authors: Stepan Alfred 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the course of our three conferences on redemocratization, the editors and I decided it would be useful to attempt to characterize in a systematic (but not ahistorical) manner the major alternative coalitional and institutional paths to redemocratization. What follows is a deliberate effort to use abstract analysis to highlight the political and policy implications of each path, taken by itself. We are of course painfully aware that no path to redemocratization is ever “taken by itself.” However, in our efforts to arrive at new synthetic interpretations of redemocratization as an integrated process, we want to avoid undertheorizing the question of the radically different paths available for redemocratization in the modem world and the fact that each path entails a predictable set of possibilities, problems, and constraints.
Arbitrage Chains
Authors: Dow James , Gorton Gary 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The efficiency of security prices depends upon arbitrage, that is, trading based upon knowledge that the price of an asset is different from its fundamental value. (Although the term ‘arbitrage,’ strictly speaking, refers to an entirely riskless speculation, we use the term in the broader sense common among practitioners.) For example, suppose an agent has private information about a high future dividend to be paid by a firm. If the current stock price does not reflect this information, then the agent can profit by buying the stock, if his purchase does not instantly raise the price, and holding it until the dividend is paid.
Why Do Companies Go Public? An Empirical Analysis
Authors: Pagano Marco , Panetta Fabio , Zingales Luigi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The decision to go public is one of the most important and least studied questions in corporate finance. Most corporate finance textbooks limit themselves to describing the institutional aspects of this decision, providing only a few remarks on its motivation. The conventional wisdom is that going public is simply a stage in the growth of a company. Although there is some truth in it, this ‘theory’ alone cannot explain the observed pattern of listings. Even in developed capital markets like the United States, some large companies—such as United Parcel Service or Bechtel—are not public.1 In other countries, like Germany and Italy, publicly traded companies are the exceptions rather than the rule, and quite a few private companies are much larger than the average publicly traded company. These cross-sectional and cross-country differences indicate that going public is not a stage that all companies eventually reach, but is a choice.
Financial System Architecture
Authors: Boot Arnoud W A , Thakor Anjan V 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A primary function of the financial system is to facilitate the transfer of resources from savers (‘surplus units’) to those who need funds (‘deficit units’). In a well designed financial system, resources are efficiently allocated. The question we address is, what is the configuration of such a financial system? In particular, we examine why bank lending and capital market financing coexist and the factors—such as regulation and the stage of economic development—that determine which dominates.
Optimal Debt Structure and the Number of Creditors
Authors: Bolton Patrick , Scharfstein David S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Much of corporate finance theory is devoted to understanding the trade-off between debt and equity financing. Yet it is striking that firms almost always resolve this trade-off by choosing debt over equity. From 1946 to 1987, debt issues accounted for 85 percent of all external financing and equity only 7 percent. Thus if one wants a theory of the composition of external financing, it may be more important to understand the structure of debt financing than the choice between debt and equity.
Information Sharing in Credit Markets
Authors: Pagano Marco , Jappelli Tullio 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A large body of literature on credit markets has shown that asymmetric information may prevent the efficient allocation of lending, leading to credit rationing (e.g., Jaffee and Russell (1976), Stiglitz and Weiss (1981)) or to a wedge between lending and borrowing rates (e.g., King (1986)). In this literature informational asymmetries are taken to be exogenous: lenders fail to observe some relevant characteristic or action of potential borrowers and have no way of learning about it. In some countries, however, lenders can improve their knowledge about new customers by exchanging information with other lenders through information brokers, generally known as ‘credit bureaus.’ The latter collect, file, and distribute the information voluntarily supplied by their members, and operate on the principle of reciprocity: lenders who do not provide data are denied access to the bureau’s files. In other countries, instead, these institutions do not exist.
Education and Literacy
Authors: Kingdon Geeta , Cassen Robert , McNay Kirsty , Visaria Leela 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The case for education requires little elaboration. Apart from its obvious intrinsic worth, education has powerful instrumental value, both in terms of increased individual productivity and in terms of the considerable social benefits of education such as lower fertility and child mortality. Moreover, literacy is an essential tool of self-defence, participation, and empowerment in a modern society (Drèze and Sen 2002). Thus, the centrality of education—at least of basic education—in bringing about eco-nomic and social change, is clear.
The Condition of the People
Authors: Cassen Robert , McNay Kirsty 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses the effects India’s development has had and will have on the quality of life of its people. Naturally there is some concentration on the way population growth has influenced these aspects of development; but it can be said at the outset that while population has been a factor in the unsatisfactory progress India has experienced in human welfare, it is only one among many, and not by any means a dominant one. One of the most pervasive findings of all our research is the large and in some cases growing inequalities in India, in several dimensions, and the threat that these will worsen. If one looks across India’s main states, one sees signifi-cant and sometimes widening discrepancies in income poverty and other social indicators, in demographic characteristics, and in economic growth. These discrepancies are reinforced by the situation of population groups: there is clear discrimination by gender, by caste and tribe, and by other groupings.
Modelling the Environment: The Production and Use of Energy
Authors: Anderson Dennis 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
By reference to the technologies and practices for the prevention and control of environmental damage, this chapter seeks to show why India may aspire to a greatly improved environment and a higher rate of economic growth. In fact, on account of the economic benefits of environmental improvement, which are likely to exceed the costs by an appreciable margin, India’s economic prospects would be improved. This conclusion is supported through an in-depth analysis of the economic and environmental problems arising from energy production and use, and evidence which shows that energy is not a special case.
Water
Authors: Vira Bhaskar , Iyer Ramaswamy , Cassen Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A particularly powerful impact of population growth is likely to be on future demand for water, because of the strong link between food demand and population numbers, and the fact that agriculture takes a very large share of India’s water supplies. However, a number of factors mediate the influence of population growth on resource availability and environmental quality. An important question is to try and assess how rising demand is going to be met. To answer the question, we have to look first at the overall supply of water and the factors affecting its availability and quality, the existing pattern of demand, and the factors that are likely to influence future water demand over the medium term. This chapter attempts to do just that.
Common Pool Resources: Current Status and Future Prospects
Authors: Vira Bhaskar 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In poor countries, CPRs1 make a valuable contribution to the sustainable livelihoods of rural populations. This includes the collection of fuelwood, fodder, crop wastes, cow dung, organic manure, small timber, and other products that are derived from the bark, seeds, flowers, and fruit of trees, as well as water for drinking, cooking, and irrigation, and local fisheries. The existence of imperfect factor markets results in an intimate link between the rural economy and its natural resource base. Inadequate rural employment opportunities, especially in the slack season, imply that the local commons can make substantial contributions to household incomes. Another important function of local CPRs is as insurance against uncertainty, in the absence of complete contingent markets.
Luxembourg
Authors: Spielmann* Dean 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg ratified the European Human Rights Convention and its Additional Protocol on 3 September 1953 following approval by Parliament, 1 in accordance with Article 37, paragraph of the Constitution. The Convention came into force through the deposit of this instrument of ratification-in this case the tenth. All the Additional Protocols have also been ratified by Luxembourg and form part of domestic law.
Portugal
Authors: Madureira João 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Six months after the approval of its democratic Constitution, Portugal signed the European Convention on Human Rights, on 22 November 1976, the same day it was admitted as a new member state of the Council of Europe. The Convention was approved for ratification by law 65/78 of 13 October 1978 and the ratification procedure was completed in 9 November the same year. In early 1979 Portugal recognized the competence of the Commission, under Articles 25 of the Convention and 6(2) of the Fourth Protocol, as well as the jurisdiction of the Court, in the light of Articles 46 of the Convention and 6(2) of the said Protocol.2 The text then approved included the modifications introduced by Protocols Nos. 2, 3, and 5, the ratification being extended to the First and Fourth Protocols to the Convention.
Switzerland
Authors: Borghi Marco 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When Switzerland joined the European Convention on Human Rights, it was with the same caution it has always displayed in subscribing to multilateral international commitments, particularly those setting up supranational organizations and communities. Anti-accession arguments cited neutrality, a fear of foreign judges, loss of sovereignty, and even the cost (!) of the Strasbourg institutions.’ It was not until 6 May 1963 that Switzerland joined the Council of Europe and, with this basic condition fulfilled, the federal authorities still had to embark upon an exceptional Convention accession procedure, whereby the Federal Council, despite being empowered to sign the agreement by itself, approached Parliament in December 1968 to ask its permission, failed to obtain it from one House, and only succeeded in December 1972. After the Federal Council signed and Parliament ratified, Switzerland was unable to deposit the instrument of ratification until 28 November 1974. Furthermore, the Federal Council only renewed the declaration on the ‘competence of the Commission’ within the meaning of Article 25 of the Convention for a period of three years.
The Development of State Pensions
Authors: Blake David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The earliest attempts by the state to guarantee a minimum standard of living at the subsistence level were the Poor Laws of 1597 and 1601 under the reign of Elizabeth I, which resulted from the threat to law and order caused by roaming bands of poor, starving people. Each local authority became responsible for collecting funds through a poor rate and for allocating poor-law relief to deserving individuals. Parts of the Poor Laws were still in operation until the National Assistance Act came into force in 1948.
The Basic State Pension Scheme, the Minimum Income Guarantee, and the Pension Credit
Authors: Blake David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The basic state pension (BSP) (also known as the social security retirement pension or simply the retirement pension) is based on the state pension scheme that was introduced by the 1975 Social Security Act and came into effect on 6 April 1978. The early legislation concerning the state pension schemes was consolidated in the Social Security Contributions and Benefits Act 1992 and the Social Security Administration Act 1992.
Pensions and Public Policy
Authors: Blake David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we examine some of the public-policy issues concerning pensions in the UK. The Conservative government that came into power in 1979 made some radical changes to the UK pensions scene. It was motivated by such factors as the desire to promote individual enterprise in a market economy and the desire to reduce the cost to the state of providing pensions. This trend was continued by the Labour government that came into power in 1997, although this government was also more concerned with helping poorer pensioners than were the preceding Conservative governments.
Pension-fund Management
Authors: Blake David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the functions of pension-fund managers. It examines the ways in which the fund managers of occupational pension schemes assess and execute the trustees’ portfolio preferences as expressed in the statement of investment principles (SIP) that is required by the 1995 Pensions Act. It also examines how the assets in personal pension schemes are managed. It then discusses the two main types of fund-management strategies, passive and active, particularly as they apply to share and bond portfolios. We also consider how to measure and assess pension-fund performance.
Pension-fund Investment Performance
Authors: Blake David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The measurement of the investment performance of occupational pension funds was not seriously undertaken in the UK until the beginning of the 1970s. It was not until then that the trustees of pension funds became sufficiently aware of the relative performance of different pension funds to begin to have their own performance measured in some systematic way. More recently personal pensions have come on to the scene, and their investment performance also has to be measured.
Introduction
Authors: Einaudi Luca 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book analyses a European debate on monetary unification, which took place in the 1860s. The debate was started in the first years of the Latin Monetary Union (LMU) formed by France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland in 1865 and later joined by Greece. After the formation of the LMU, and the subsequent French diplomatic offensive in favour of a common monetary system, an intense international discussion began over the creation of a ‘universal money’, with the ‘universal’ taken to consist of the ‘civilized world’, which was understood to mean Europe and the USA. Governments and economists considered monetary unification as being theoretically beneficial, although not necessarily in the form proposed by France. All European governments agreed to participate in an international monetary conference in Paris in 1867, which voted unanimously in favour of universal monetary unification coupled with a gold standard, the LMU-franc system, and decimalization of coinage.
The Political and Monetary Situation in Europe in 1865
Authors: Einaudi Luca 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1865 the prestige of the second Empire in Europe had reached its zenith. The French army had not been defeated since 1815 and was considered by most, especially by the French themselves, as the best in the world. Napoleon III regarded himself as the arbitrator of European conflicts and felt he could encourage Prussian ambitions to unite part of Germany one day and support Austrian resistance to such a plan on another occasion. Bismarck travelled across France to pay a respectful visit to Napoleon in Biarritz, and Moltke, who was to besiege and seize Paris, was still an obscure Prussian general. The events of years following 1865, marked by a French defeat in Mexico, by embarrassment over the Prussian victory against Austria in 1866, and by humiliation after the war of 1870-1 against Germany, showed that most of the ‘grandeur’ of lmperial France was only a delusion. The French army had not kept pace with Prussian military reforms and the inconsistency of Napoleonic policy produced its bitter fruits.
The Formation of the Latin Monetary Union and the International Monetary Conference of 1867
Authors: Einaudi Luca 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The name ‘Latin Monetary Union’ (LMU), universally attached to the Monetary Convention of 1865, was not attributed by the negotiators of the treaty. According to Parieu it was introduced by the British press (The Times and The Globe) in 1866 to stress the southern European character of the Union and its possible expansion to countries such as Spain, but not to Great Britain which was part of the Anglo-Saxon world.
Enthusiasm and Resistance to Union in Britain and Germany
Authors: Einaudi Luca 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The international debate on a common European coinage initiated by the formation of the Latin Monetary Union reached the United Kingdom as well as the Continent. The British attitude towards the French and Continental proposals for monetary unification was ambivalent, reflecting the desire to compete on equal terms without being excluded from a Continental monetary union but also the attempt to strengthen the pound as the key international currency. Although some early discussion on international coinage took place in England between 1853 and 1868, attention focused only with the Royal Commission of 1868, followed by the economist W. S. Jevons’s intervention. An important debate developed in 1869 when the Chancellor of the Exchequer Lowe decided to change governmental policy and look for an agreement with France.
Le Dreuff and History of Philosophy
Authors: * Genevieve Lloyd 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In some brief sections in the {Third Notebook’ of Hipparchia’s Choice Michele Le Dceuff distinguishes three ways of thinking of the relations between philosophy and history of philosophy. We can, she says, think of the philosophers themselves as knowing absolutely what they are saying, as having an absolute transparency to themselves: There is no ‘unthought’ to be explored in elucidating what they have said. It is a way of thinking of philosophy, she continues, that belongs with the idea of philosophy as ‘self founding and thus ‘a founding discourse.’ The aim of history of philosophy is then, say, ‘to understand Plato’s thought as well or almost as well as Plato did and, naturally, to explain it to the dear students who need a bit of a hand,’ correcting along the way the errors of earlier interpreters or those the beginner cannot fail to make. It is a familiar way of engaging in history of philosophy: The commentator positions herself at the speaking position of the author, stripping away the misinterpretations that have preceded her, to ofter a clear articulation of what the author really said.
Sorcerer Love: A Reading of Plato, Symposium, ‘Diotima’s Speech’
Authors: lrigaray* Luce 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the Symposium, the dialogue on love, when Socrates finishes speaking, he gives the floor to a woman: Diotima. She does not take part in these exchanges or in this meal among men. She is not there. She herself does not speak. Socrates reports or recounts her words. He praises her for her wisdom and her power and declares that she is his initiator or teacher when it comes to love, but she is not invited to teach or to eat. Unless she didn’t want to accept an invitation? But Socrates says nothing about that. And Diotima is not the only example of a woman whose wisdom, especially about love, is reported in her absence by a man.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural and Agricultural Policies in 1958
Authors: Chan Alfred L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For all Chinese officials, the Great Leap Forward emerged with the force of a hurricane that could not be resisted. While many top leaders were repeatedly badgered and humiliated, still others who were untainted were under tremendous pressure to prove themselves, or better still, jump on the Maoist bandwagon. This was the strategy followed by Tan Zhenlin, General Secretary of the Secretariat who was also in charge of agriculture. As to the more junior officials such as Wang Heshou, the Minister of Agriculture, there was little choice but to go with the flow. The GLF began in the agricultural sector, and the obsession during the Leap with maximizing agricultural production and rural institutional changes thrust agricultural officials and the Ministry of Agriculture (MA) into the limelight. The MA owed its enhanced power and responsibilities entirely to Mao and his special attention to rural and agricultural affairs, but the trade-off was that it had to perform and constantly improvise according to the numerous conflicting policy initiatives and multiple goals continuously being mooted by Mao throughout 1958. As in most of the ministries, the leaders of the MA were veteran revolutionaries, and the ethos of the MA was rooted in the traditional values of peasant mobilization and revolutionary changes.
Agricultural and Rural Policies in Guangdong, 1958
Authors: Chan Alfred L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Guangdong was a vanguard of the Leap in 1957/8, as its leaders had always been radical followers of Mao. Yet, nothing in the past could have prepared the province for the draconian measures of the Leap and the urges to change everything overnight. The Leap required the leadership to plunge into a bold social experiment, and to centralize direct control over the lives and daily routines of millions. It was totally uncharted territory. Why did the Leap policies appeal to the Guangdong leadership? How did it deal with the radical orientation and incessant demands for change? How did Tao Zhu and other leaders twist and steer the province into following their wills? In what manner were GLF policies implemented?
The Terror: Revolutionary Defence or Paranoia?
Authors: McPhee Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The central purpose of the Terror was to institute the emergency and draconian measures necessary at a time of military crisis. By the end of 1793, the threat of civil war and invasion had at least been countered. However, decrees were passed by the Convention and Committee of Public Safety which went well beyond national defence and revealed a Jacobin vision of a regenerated society worthy of the grandeur of the Enlightenment and the Revolution. This was to be created, for example, by a secular and republican education system and a national programme of social welfare.
Ending the Revolution, 1795-1799
Authors: McPhee Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Ten days after the overthrow of Robespierre on 9 Thermidor, Rose de Beauharnais was released from Les Carmes prison. Her husband Alexandre was not so fortunate: he had resigned from the army in August 1793, but was then tried on a charge of conspiracy with the enemy, and executed on 5 Thermidor. Rose, a woman of 31, was the daughter of the owner of a sugar plantation on the Caribbean island of Martinique; however, she had been pro-revolutionary, comfortable with being addressed as tu and citoyenne. Nevertheless, her name had made her suspect in the murderous spring of 1794.