bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Representing Phrase Structure
Authors: Adger David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter introduced the idea that the syntactic operation Merge combines lexical items into larger syntactic objects, and then combines these into larger objects still, giving rise to complex hierarchical structure. In the current chapter, we will see that the hierarchical structures we met in the last chapter are organized into phrases, and that this organization derives from their selectional properties. We will concentrate on one of the most important aspects of sentence structure, the structure built up around the verb. We will see that verb phrases arise from the interaction between the selectional properties of the verb, and the way that phrase structure is built up through syntactic operations.
Functional Categories 1—TP
Authors: Adger David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of our initial primary aims was to characterize the notion of sentence in I-language terms. We are now in a position to do this: we know that sentences consist of constituents, which may be embedded within each other, and which bear 0-relations, selectional relations, and modification relations to each other; we know that these constituents are characterized by features that are projected from the lexical items which head them, and we have developed in some detail a view of the particular elements that go into making up 𝓋P.
Locality
Authors: Adger David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we explore the behaviour of wh-movement yet further. We will see that, although wh-movement may, in certain circumstances, move a phrase to an apparently unbounded distance away from its launching site, this movement always involves a number of short local steps, rather than a single long leap. This idea builds on the observations we made about complementizer alternations in Gaelic in that last chapter. We will introduce the idea that a syntactic derivation takes place in small chunks, called phases, and see how this approach forces wh-movement to take place in small steps. We will then explore to what extent the notion of phase can explain some traditional constraints on wh-movement, usually called island constraints. clause to the higher specifier of CP, ‘skipping’ the potential lower specifier of CP position.
Language, world, and cognitive processing
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The view that utterances are interpretable in terms of a wider cognitive structure is supported by the following consideration. We are faced with two related questions. First, we wonder how humans with a finite equipment of systematic means manage to achieve a meaningful interpretation with respect to an infinite variety of situations that differ qualitatively and quantitatively in myriads of ways. Secondly, we wonder how humans with a limited, finite set of cognitive means manage not only to interpret and judge an infinite welter of different real situations, but also to conjure up or imagine all kinds of situations that are not real and often could not even be real. The first question is not, or only very partially, answered by repeating the standard adage of linguistics, namely that it is possible to generate an infinite number of different sentences by means of a limited set of grammatical rules and lexical items. When one takes the point of view of Semantic Syntax, it is immediately evident that this standard answer fails to satisfy. For in this theory, grammar, though itself finite, takes as input an infinite set of possible Semantic Analyses. But even if one considers a grammar to be a primitive algorithm that generates an infinite set of sentences with the help of purely syntactic formation rules from an initial symbol, i.e. really from ‘nothing’, still the first question would not be answered. For that question is about the fact that the infinite set of well-formed sentence types does not stand in a one-one relation with the infinite set of situations in which the tokens of these sentence types are interpreted.
Serial verb constructions †
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a curious fact in linguistics that terms sometimes gain even wide currency without there being available anything more than a vague and intuitive idea of the they are meant to cover. A typical case in point is the term serial verb construction (SVC), which has been around at least since Stewart (1963), preceded by Voorhoeve’s (1957) coinage verbal chain. Welmers (1973: 366-80) devotes fourteen large pages to SVCs without providing anything like a definition, as he himself explicitly admits (p. 366):
Serialization has attracted the attention of a number of graduate students in linguistics in recent years, and several unpublished papers have been written on the subject from the viewpoint of transformational-generative grammar. All of the writers agree that an adequate treatment is perhaps impossible within the framework of current grammatical models. None of the writers has been entirely satisfied with his own treatment of the subject. I will not presume to suggest a competing treatment, but will outline the data from some languages in as clear and systematic a way as possible.
Since 1973, the situation has not essentially changed, though several attempts have been made at getting closer to a proper definition of SVCs, the most notable being Sebba (1987). In fact, the situation with SVCs is not all that different from what is found with ideophones, the sound-symbolic forms frequently found in African and other languages. Welmers, again, writes (1973: 459-60):
The question of Predicate Clefting in the Indian Ocean Creoles †
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is a modest one. It aims first at clarifying some of the notions and the terminology used in the literature on Predicate Clefting (henceforth PC), and, secondly, at an application of the now sharpened notion of PC to the much debated question of whether the French-based Indian Ocean Creoles, in particular Mauritian Creole, Seselwa (Seychelles Creole), and the Creole of Rodrigues, do or do not have PC. The answer is that they apparently had one or two highly restricted (and now obsolete) constructions that are reminiscent of PC. This evidence is on a par with the extremely tenuous case for serial verb constructions in the same languages, and points to what may have been a very weak West African (Kwa) substrate influence due to the fact that around the middle of the eighteenth century Kwa speakers formed just over 10 per cent of the total slave population.
Governing Great Cities
Authors: Pimlott Ben , Rao Nirmala 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The assumption behind the creation of the Mayor and Assembly was, and is, that London can ‘learn’ from other cities and that a new model can be grafted onto London without undue regard for its governmental history. Given the record of London’s arrangements, the case for striking out in a new direction, making use of examples drawn from elsewhere, is a clear one. The validity of the assumption, however, depends on the answer to a question: can successful experiments elsewhere be translated into a British context, or do they depend on local traditions and circumstances?
London’s Crimewatch
Authors: Pimlott Ben , Rao Nirmala 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Crime was second only to transport as an issue facing the new Authority. Indeed, if US city government was the model for London, reports of crime reduction were a major reason. Thus, two major features of the Greater London Authority Act were the creation of a Metropolitan Police Authority to establish ‘a strong and effective partnership between the police, local authorities and local communities’, and the transfer of power to it from the Home Secretary. According to the Act, the Mayor appoints Assembly members to twelve of the 23 seats on the MPA, and through this means may influence police policy and practice. The long history of attempts to place the Metropolitan Police under the control of a Greater London Authority, how ever, suggested that this could become a problematic relationship, while policing remained the public service least comfortable with accountability through local government structures. The Mayor was to be concerned with crime reduction, a prominent electoral issue.
The University and Modernity: A History of the Present
Authors: Delanty Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I offer an interpretation of the current situation of the university by means of a sketch of a historical sociology of the university (Delanty 1998, 2001). Such a ‘history of the present’ will allow us to see the university as a reflection of the major social transformations of modernity with regard to the institutional organization of the sciences, cultural production, the polity, and the mode of production. From this perspective, there is not one dominant model of modernity but rather there are several, for modernity is a site of tensions and contradictions (Amason 1991). This leads to a view of the university as a site where many of these contradictions are expressed, for instance, the conflicts between cosmopolitanism and national culture, universalism and particularism, secularism and religion, modernity and tradition, power and culture, intellectuals and experts, democracy and knowledge.
Rehearsal for the Revolution
Authors: Noble David F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All discussion of distance education these days invariably turns into a discussion of technology, an endless meditation on the wonders of computer-mediated instruction. Identified with a revolution in technology, distance education has thereby assumed the aura of innovation and the appearance of a revolution itself, a bold departure from tradition, a signal step toward a preordained and radically transformed higher educational future. In the face of such a seemingly inexorable technology-driven destiny and the seductive enchantment of technological transcendence, sceptics are silenced and all questions are begged. But we pay a price for this technological fetishism, which so dominates and delimits discussion. For it prevents us from perceiving the more fundamental significance of today’s drive for distance education, which, at bottom, is not really about technology, nor is it anything new. We have been here before.
Managerial compensation
Authors: Gugler Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Managerial compensation potentially aligns shareholder and manager interests by maintaining a dose relationship between pay and performance. Managerial compensation is a hotly debated issue, particularly in US corporate governance, since the last two decades have witnessed an explosion in the level of managerial pay. For instance, Hall and Liebman (1997) find that total compensation of the mean CEO in a sample of the largest US firms increased by 209 per cent from 1980 to 1994.
Phonation: A Third Basic Component
Authors: Catford J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2, we established the existence of two basic components of speech production: initiation and articulation.These essential components can be formally defined as follows: Initiation: a bellows-like, or piston-like, movement of an organ, that generates positive or negative air pressure adjacent to it in the vocal tract and thus initiates an egressive (outgoing) or ingressive (ingoing) flow of air. Articulation: an organic posture or movement—most commonly in the mouth-that modulates the initiatory airflow in such a way as to generate a sound of some specific type.
Articulation: Stricture Types
Authors: Catford J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We turn now to the third basic component of speech production— articulation. As we have seen, initiation sets up an air-stream in the vocal tract. For sounds with an air-stream flowing through the larynx, phonation imparts a general modulation to the sound, making it voiceless, voiced, whispered . . . etc. The important function of articulation is to impose upon the (unphonated or phonated) air-stream a final ‘shaping’, as it were, so as to generate a sound of specific type and quality.
Vowels: Introduction
Authors: Catford J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 6 (p. 116) we partially distinguished between consonants and vowels on the basis of their different functions, marginal and central, in the structure of syllables. For general phonetic purposes, however, that distinction is inadequate. There are, for instance, certainly syllabic central units that we would prefer not to describe as vowels: for example the syllabic trilled [r] that forms the syllable centre in Czech words like [krk] ‘neck’ or [prst] ‘finger’, not to mention syllabic [l] and [n] in English middle and button.
Prosodic Features
Authors: Catford J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Up to now we have been looking at speech-sounds as isolated phenomena. In reality, of course, spoken sounds occur strung together, one after the other. More precisely, speech is a continuum; a continuous flux of initiatory, phonatory, and articulatory states and movements, constantly changing, often overlapping and interpenetrating and influencing each other. When we look at isolated sounds we are artificially cutting up that flowing chain of events into a series of segments or segmental sounds, as we sometimes call the speech-sounds that we isolate out of the continuum.
The Nature of the Right
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Freedom of expression is often said to be essential to the operation of democracy. It is sometimes claimed that freedom of expression establishes a market place of ideas which promotes the search for truth; or that free speech ensures individual development and self fulfilment and is, for example, to be derived from the right to human dignity and to equality of concern and respect. However, the most persuasive vindication of freedom of expression is that it secures the right of the citizen to participate in the democratic process. Both the House of Lords and the Supreme Court of Canada have said that expression enjoys special protection on all three grounds.
The Birth, Rise, and Restructuring of the Military Business Complex, 1985-1998
Authors: Cheung Tai Ming 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Deng Xiaoping assumed power in 1978, he quickly launched an ambitious programme of economic development and opening up to the outside world. The top goals were the modernization of agriculture, industry, and science and technology. National defence, which had dominated government spending priorities throughout the 1960s and 1970s, was relegated to secondary importance and military budgets began to be trimmed back.
The PLA’s poor performance in a border war against Vietnam in early 1979 added to its budgetary woes. At an enlarged CMC conference in March 1980, Deng pressed for a far-reaching overhaul and streamlining of what he described as a bloated and inefl1cient army, noting that this would generate major savings that could be ploughed into economic development. Deng was able to persuade defence chiefs to undertake a comprehensive review of the country’s military posture, although he was careful to continue to adhere to Mao Zedong’s doctrine of People’s War.
The Relationship Between Finance and Industry in Britain
Authors: Collins Michael , Baker Mae 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the decades before 1914, the City of London was the premier international financial centre and Britain’s banks were amongst the largest and most stable in the world. British institutions played a dominant role in the supply of worldwide financial services such as monetary remittances and insurance, and in the provision of both short- and long-term capital for the burgeoning international economy. The chief means of international credit (‘the bill on London’) was denominated in sterling, drawn on London-based merchant banks such as Rothschilds and Barings, and sustained at a high level of liquidity because of the active, competitive market underpinned by the London discount houses.
Trends in Commercial Bank Liabilities and Assets, 1860–1913
Authors: Collins Michael , Baker Mae 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents historical data on the general compos1t10n of the liabilities and assets of the commercial banks of England and Wales. This is a critical starting point in our assessment of actual bank practice in the light of the historical, international, and conceptual debates presented in earlier chapters. In general terms, it is necessary to establish both the sources of bank funds (as shown in their balance sheet liabilities) and where those resources were employed (balance sheet assets). To this end, estimates of the composition of bank assets and liabilities are presented and the most important long-term changes over the 1860–1913 period are discussed. Particular attention is focused on changes in bank capital ratios, liquidity, investments, and advances. These provide an important indicator both of the extent to which the commercial banks were committed to financing the non-bank private sector and of the extent to which their behaviour was consistent with the model of transaction banking outlined in the previous chapter.
Conversion
Authors: Weir Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Property is either tangible or intangible, fixed or moveable, depending on the answer to the lawyer’s almost childlike questions (1) can you touch it? (2) can you move it? Tort, as one would expect, is mainly concerned with the physical, the tangible, that is, land and goods, not debts and shares. Trespass and negligence protect both land and goods, nuisance only the former, and the tort of conversion only the latter. Trespass and conversion are alike in that both are in the business of protecting rights, with the result that neither requires the defendant to have acted unreasonably, but the rights they protect differ: to put it bluntly—the qualifications come shortly—trespass protects possession and conversion protects ownership.
Damages
Authors: Weir Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most victims of torts want money, indeed, as much money as they can get. In the old days they had to go to the courts of common law, which, rather like post offices, could issue nothing but money orders, requiring the defendant to pay his debt or come up with damages. Those who wanted an order of a different kind, such as an injunction to stop noise or smells, had to go to a court of equity. Nowadays all courts can issue any order: in particular, they can order a defendant to hand over a specific chattel, or grant a temporary injunction pending the final determination of rights and wrongs, provided the claimant undertakes to pay compensation if its issuance later proves to have been unjustified. Nevertheless, damages remain the order of the day in tort cases where claimants are complaining of harm already suffered. In fact, even when what they really want is to have a wrong put an end to, they may be fobbed off with damages. In such a case damages are just a sop, not really compensation.
National Private International Law And International Instruments
Authors: Siehr Kurt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the last fifty years many Fu ropean countries enacted national statutes on private international bw (PIL).1 So did several countries in the Americas,2 in Africa,3 and Asia.4 Some of these statutes on private international law are very comprehemive consisting of 200 or almost 200 sections covering the law of international civil procedure (juri dicrion, recognition of foreign judgments) and provisions on the applicable law. Other enactments are considerably shorter and are laconic leaving many problems to be answered by the courts. This codification movement can be compared with the situation one hundred years before when the codification of private law in civil codes also led to legislation on private international law. Does this codification trend indicate that private international law becomes petrified in national statutes and thereby sacrifice international dimensions to domestic peculiarities and traditions? I shall try to show that the answer to my questions is for from being affirmative. Many national rules are shaped according to international models, in particular to international convenrions. This hidden harrnonization can be demonstrated on various levels of different intenmy.
Cosmopolitan Harm Conventions
Authors: Linklater Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cosmopolitanism seemed to fall on hard times in the 1980s and 1990s in large part because of a major development within social and political theory in which every moral and political universal and all grand historical narratives were treated with suspicion. It is arguable that those who challenged universal doctrines and ideals—postmodern or post-structural writers—assumed a moral universal in their own work when they defended the rights of the culturally different. It is clear too that many who challenged universalism were not opposed to all its forms but rather to particular varieties in the West, which rested on pernicious distinctions between the advanced and backward peoples. They were concerned about the forms of power that had been created by certain forms of universalistic thinking. But their own universalistic commitments are evident in arguments for a universal speech community and for a new international citizenry (for further discussion, see Linklater 1998).
A New Time Discipline: Managing Virtual Work Environments
Authors: Lee Heejin , Liebenau Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the most part, we live under a regime of temporality that has its origins in the early to mid-eighteenth century (Thompson 1967), but there is evidence that this is changing. Even beyond the actual experiences of those who seal foreign contracts over their mobile telephones, the virtual work environment provides us with the opportunity to experiment with new forms of time discipline. In particular, much can be learned from the extension of concepts of the multiple and qualitative notions of times (Whipp 1987; Glennie and Thrift 1996), in contrast to rigid concepts of time discipline based on clock time.
Economics and Identity
Authors: Akerlof George A , Kranton Rachele. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper introduces identity-a person’s sense of self-into economic analysis. Identity can account for many phenomena that current economics cannot well explain. It can comfortably resolve, for example, why some women oppose ‘women’s rights,’ as seen in microcosm when Betty Friedan was ostracized by fellow suburban housewives for writing The Feminine Mystique. Other problems such as ethnic and racial conflict, discrimination, intractable labor disputes, and separatist politics all invite an identity-based analysis.
The Economics of Illusion*
Authors: Akerlof George A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a common view that economic theory takes preferences as given while other social sciences-anthropology, psychology, and sociology-are concerned with the nature and formation of those preferences. For example, Debreu describes preferences as abstractly as possible in terms of mathematical axioms (1959, p. 54) while Evans­ Pritchard describes preferences as concretely as possible in terms of the Nuers ’ love of cattle (I 940, pp. 16-50}. But this popular dichotomy misses the point that these other social sciences are mainly concerned with how people differently conceptualize. A conceptualization concerns more than preferences; it also concerns biased uses of information.
General Principles Under The Convention
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Special meaning. The concept of autonomous meaning as a rule for interpreting international treaties was extensively discussed by the House of Lords in R v Secretary of State for the Home Department, exp Adan [200 l] 2 WLR 143 (in the context of analysing the Geneva Convention and Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) (Cmd 9171) and (1967) (Cmnd 3906)).