bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Silica induced cell damage and the protective effect of aluminium complexes
Authors: Kui Wang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Silicosis develops when the invading silica particles attack alveolar macrophagocytes, inducing cell damage. The lysosome membrane can be considered as the main target in the first stage of attack. Recently, Japanese and Russian scientists have postulated that the damage is mediated by free radicals which cause lipid peroxidation of the biomembranes and release of lysosomic enzymes. We have demonstrated that living cells respond to an exogenous substance as a multiple target system. Different target molecules are confined to different compartments. Owing to the compartmentalization of reactants, the reactions involved are localized and interrelated, leading to a sequence of events.
Determination of sub-ppm quantities of tin and distribution of tin in biological organisms
Authors: Chiba’’ Momoko , Shinohara Atsuko , Ujiie Chika 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The determination of tin in biological materials was investigated by using a flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A detection limit of 0.04 ng Sn could be achieved by ashing, reduction of coexisting Fe(III) to Fe(II), MIBK extraction, and AAS. When the organotin compound, tributyltin chloride, was administered to mice, large amounts of tin were found in the brains and only small amounts in the bones. On the other hand, when an identical dose of an inorganic compound such as stannous chloride was administered, large amounts were found in the bones and bone marrow cells and only small amounts in the brains.
Tin(IV) oxide-based materials. Surface chemistry, catalysis, and gas sensing
Authors: Harrison P G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tin(IV) oxide and mixed Sn―M―O oxides have emerged as a very important class of materials with many areas of commercial application. This success has been founded not only upon empirically accrued information but also on fundamental chemical data. This article is intended to give an overview of the present state of the art in this area of tin chemistry from the chemical reactions which occur at the oxide-gas interface to the role of such materials in heterogeneous catalysis and in solid-state gassensing devices.
Theoretical models for ‘unusual’ coordination at silicon
Authors: Korkin Anatoli A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the chemistry of silicon compounds, the labels ‘usual’ and ‘unusual’ that are used to describe the coordination of silicon are sometimes not explicit enough, and when we discuss the structures and properties of these compounds, we compare them, as a rule, with the carbon analogues. The threecoordinate doubly-bonded silicon molecules, for example, are considered ‘unusual’ because they are very reactive compared to ethenes. The violation of the octet rule and the formation of higher-than-four coordinate molecules are also ‘unusual’ in carbon chemistry, whereas it is well known that silicon forms many stable five- and six-coordinate compounds.
Studies on tris(phenyldimethylsilylmethyl)tin derivatives
Authors: Qinglan Xie , Jing Li , Zhiqiang Yang , Diankun, Zhang , Jitao Wang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With many drug molecules, the replacement of a carbon atom with a silicon atom is known to lead to a lowering of toxicity and a prolonged manifestation of the physiological effect. ‘Torque’, an acaricide developed by Shell in the 1970s, has the formula [(PhMe CCH)3Sn]2O. This acaricide has been derivatized to the (PhMe ECH)3SnX (X = Cl, ½O; E = C, Si) compounds, whose biological properties show that the silyl analogue of Torque was equally effective. By using [(PhMe SiCH)3Sn]2O (silyl-Torque) and (PhMe SiCH hSnCl as starting reagents, we have synthesized a series of tris(phenyldimethylsilylmethyl)aryloxy- and aklyloxyacetates [eqn (47.1)], arylcarboxylates [eqn (47.2)], and dithiophosphates [eqn (47.3)].
Cleavage of some βarylethyltriethylstannanes by aqueous methanolic perchloric acid
Authors: Attar-Bashi Moayad T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The acid catalysed exchange of hydrogen between the proton of trifluoroacetic acid and the methyl hydrogens of toluene and other methylarenes is a well documented reaction. In the acid cleavage studies of (Me SnC)Ar compounds, the trimethylstannylmethyl Me SnCH group behaves somewhat like the methyl group in that it releases Me Sn group with protic acids. For the reaction with benzyltrimethylstannane, the reaction is believed to be favoured by hyperconjugative stabilization of the Wheland intermediate and the delocalization of the positive charge onto the tin atom.
Reactions of sterically hindered organotin compounds
Authors: Brown Paul , Molloy, Kieran C , Mahon Mary F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Synthetic routes to sterically hindered organotins are discussed, with emphasis on some of the less expected products formed during reactions of molecules containing either the tristrimethylsilylmethyl or sterically substituted aryl ligands. The synthesis and structures of ring and cage compounds containing both O and S are presented, and the way such combinations can be used to tailor lattice structure are discussed.
The growth of the physical sciences
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a strong link between modern physical chemistry and the ancient science of mechanics. From the time of the ancient Greeks, who devoted much attention to mechanics, until the middle of the nineteenth century, progress in the physical sciences was to a large extent progress in the understanding of mechanical principles. The scope of mechanics is very wide. It deals with the motions of bodies ranging in size from massive stars to sub microscopic particles. It has application to the biological sciences and to engineering. It forms a basis for the kinetic theory of gases, for thermodynamics, and for molecular statistics. Even when quantum mechanics was introduced it by no means superseded classical mechanics, which still applies satisfactorily to all but sub microscopic particles.
Thermodynamics
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The word ‘thermo–dynamic’ was first used in 1849 in a paper presented by William Thomson (1824–1907) to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Thomson was then a young professor of natural philosophy at the University of Glasgow, where he was to remain for over half a century. Later he was created Baron Kelvin of Largs, and although all his thermodynamic work was clone as Professor William Thomson it seems best to refer to him as Kelvin, if only to avoid confusion with various other Thomsons, Thomsens and Thompsons who worked in similar areas of research. When he wrote his 1849 paper Kelvin had been grappling for a few years with the ideas presented in a remarkable book which had been published in 1824 by Sadi Carnot, and with a paper by Chaperon that had appeared in 1834. Carnot’s book, which can be said to have inspired the whole subject of thermodynamics, was concerned with the performance of heat engines, and Kelvin was one of the first to appreciate its great importance. Carnot had based his treatment on the concept that heat is an ‘imponderable fluid’, but by 1849 Kelvin was just beginning to realize, mainly because of the work of James Prescott Joule, that heat is instead a form of energy. The idea was developing in Kelvin’s mind that in heat engines, such as the steam engines that were being used more and more, there is actually a conversion of heat into another form of energy, mechanical work. His word ‘thermo–dynamic’ was invented by him to refer to processes of this kind, and today we define thermodynamics as the science that deals with the interconversion of heat and work and all its applications.
Kinetic theory and statistical mechanics
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The kinetic theory of gases also played an important role in the development of physical chemistry. This theory, which evolved over a period of many decades, is concerned with understanding the behaviour of gases in terms of molecular motions. In its more advanced formulations the theory developed into statistical mechanics, which treats the properties of matter in a comprehensive way. Not match progress could be made with the kinetic theory of gases until the pressure–volume–temperature relationships had become established and until more was known about the nature of atoms. The gas laws were only properly understood by the middle of the nineteenth century, the final stumbling block being the problem of determining relative atomic masses. Kinetic theory and thermodynamics developed at the same time, through the efforts of many of the same investigators, and there was strong mutual support between the two subjects. Before the kinetic theory is discussed it will be useful to give brief accounts of the gas laws and of the development of ideas about the atomic nature of matter.
Chemical spectroscopy
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the nineteenth century it became increasingly clear that spectroscopy has important chemical applications. Substances could often be identified by their spectra, and later in the century spectroscopy played an important role in the discovery of new elements. Spectra also provided valuable information about the nature of atoms and molecules, although sorting out the evidence was unexpectedly difficult–indeed impossible until the quantization of energy had been recognized. Some of the more important contributions to spectroscopy, especially in its chemical aspects, are listed in Table 6.1.
Electrochemistry
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electrochemistry, concerned with the relationship between electricity and chemical properties, is a particularly important branch of physical chemistry, having a special significance for the rise of physical chemistry. The work in electrochemistry that was done in the 1880s by three men who were often known, sometimes derisively, as die loner–theIonists–played an especially important role in causing physical chemistry to become recognized as a separate and important branch of chemistry. The three men, van’t Hoff, Ostwald and Arrhenius, made important contributions also in other aspects of physical chemistry, particularly chemical kinetics, and were actively involved in the launching of the first journal devoted exclusively to physical chemistry, the Zeitschrifi fůr physikalische Chemie.The major achievements in electrochemistry are summarized in Table 7.1.The existence of what came to be called electricity was known to the ancient Greeks. Thales of Miletus (c.636–c.546 BC), statesman, mathematician, philosopher and engineer, made many important contributions to knowledge, and discovered that amber, when rubbed, acquires the property of attracting small pieces of pith or cork. Many centuries later William Gilbert (1540–1603) extended these observations, showing that other substances, such as glass and sulphur, show the same attracting properties when rubbed.
Chemical kinetics
Authors: Laidler Keith J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Today the study of the rates of chemical reactions, and of the factors on which they depend, is usually referred to as ‘ chemical kinetics’. The expression ‘ chemical dynamics’ is now applied to an important branch of chemical kinetics that is concerned with the details of the individual chemical events that occur during the course of a chemical reaction. There has been a change of meaning, since in the last century what we now call chemical kinetics was usually called chemical dynamics, which referred also to the study of matter at equilibrium. Ostwald, for example, in his 1904 Faraday Lecture, defined chemical dynamics as ‘ the theory of the progress of chemical reactions and the theory of chemical equilibrium’, and a similar definition was given by van’t Hoff in his Lectures 011 Theoretical and Physical Chemistry(1899–1900).Hardly any quantitative studies of the rates of chemical reactions were made until the latter part of the eighteenth century. In 1777 Karl Friedrich Wenzel (1740–1793), the Director of the foundries at Freiburg, described some measurements of the rates of solution of metals in acids but gave no details, merely saying that the rate increased with increasing concentration of acid. In 1818 the French chemist Louis Jacques The nard (1777–1857) described some studies of the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, a substance he had just discovered. The nard was a chemist of great distinction but like most other chemists of his time his main interest was in the isolation of new elements and compounds, and to him rate measurements were not of great interest or significance.
Introduction To Dilute Poly Atomic Gases
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Köhler Walter E , Kuščer Ivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present chapter discusses the ways in which gases of rotating molecules differ from monatomic gases and indicates the consequences that such differences have for the formulation of a valid kinetic theory of polyatomic gases and the description of nonequilibrium phenomena. The material presented here is intended to provide a general overview of the subject matter appearing in the following eight chapters, and is meant to place in perspective a number of developments that have taken place in the kinetic theory of dilute polyatomic gases.
Monolayer Physics
Authors: Bruch L W , Cole Milton W , Zaremba Eugene 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘In the structure of matter there can be no fundamental distinction between chemical and physical forces: it has been customary to call a force chemical, when it is more familiar to chemists, and to call the same force physical, when the physicist discovers an explanation of it.’ I. Langmuir, Phenomena, Atoms, and Molecules (Philosophical Library, NY, 1950) p.60 ‘ a (chemical] bond does not exist at all: it is a most convenient fiction... both to theoretical and experimental chemists.’ C. Coulson, quoted on p.261 of From Chemical Philosophy to Theoretical Chemistry, Mary Jo Nye (U. California, Berkeley, 1994)
General introduction
Authors: Jones John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The proteins are natural polymers which are assembled under nucleic acid control from a menu comprising nineteen L-a-amino acids of general structure 1 and the ‘imino’ acid L-proline (2): see Table 1.1. Amide or ‘peptide’ bonds link the building blocks, giving macromolecules (3) with ‘polypeptide’ backbones and pendant side-chains containing a variety of simple functionalities according to the amino acids selected.
α-Carboxy-protection
Authors: Jones John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With respect to acylation, the amino groups of amino acids and peptides are considerably more nucleophilic than their carboxy groups are. It follows that amino acids and peptides with unprotected carboxy groups can be used for peptide bond formation, if separately preactivated carboxy components are employed. Many reactions of this kind have been carried out successfully, but a policy of maximal protection is often adopted even when it is not strictly essential, because of solubility advantages, product isolation, and so forth.
A Utoca Tal Ysis In Well-Stirred Open Systems: The Isothermal Cstr
Authors: Gray Peter , Scott Stephen K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sort of experiment which we have been considering so far involves the classic ‘closed vessel’. The term ‘closed’ is used here in its thermodynamic sense, i.e. there is no exchange of matter and, in particular, no inflow of fresh reactants, rather than implying that the vessel has a lid on it. Thus we may have been talking about a bulb of reacting gas closed by a tap or an ordinary beaker containing various solutions mixed together. Because such experiments are easiest to set up, most of the early work in oscillatory reaction kinetics was done in this way.
One-Dimensional Fourier Spectroscopy
Authors: Ernst Richard R , Bodenhausen Geoffrey , Wokaun Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The advantages of Fourier spectroscopy over conventional slow-passage methods are well known. Although sensitivity was the primary objective for the introduction of Fourier techniques in 1965 (4.1,4.2), it is the versatility of time-domain experiments which explains the extraordinary development of modern NMR spectroscopy. On the one hand, Fourier spectroscopy allows the direct study of time-dependent phenomena such as relaxation and exchange processes. On the other hand, pulse experiments can easily be extended to incorporate polarization and coherence transfer. The separation of excitation and detection in distinct time intervals is of importance for many experiments and leads naturally to the segmentation of time in two-dimensional Fourier spectroscopy. In comparison with CW methods, Fourier spectroscopy has the additional advantage of circumventing lineshape distortions associated with fast sweeping and saturation.
The Collisionless Regime
Authors: Mccourt Frederick R W , Beenakker Jan J M , Kohler Walter E , Kuscer Ivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As in Chapters 15 to 18, our attention will be focussed on phenomena related to molecular angular momentum. The behaviour of monatomic gases is well understood and has been described previously in several of the monographs mentioned in the introduction to Chapter 15. The presence of internal energy makes it necessary to take into account the accommodation of internal energy in collisions with the wall, but this introduces no essentially new phenomena in the kinetic theory. A different situation is encountered when molecular angular momentum is considered.
Shift Correlation Spectroscopy
Authors: Goldman Maurice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shift correlation Spectroscopy is one of the most important methods of 2D NMR spectroscopy. Its purpose is to correlate the chemical shifts of spins between which there exists an indirect interaction, that is which belong to the same molecule and are not too far apart. It is usually referred to under the generic name of COSY (for Correlation SpectroscopY). As for J spectroscopy, it exists in two versions: homonuclear and heteronuclear. Although the excitation sequence is remarkably simple, especially in the homonuclear version, the theoretical calculations turn out to be among the most complex of all 2D methods, and they can be carried out only through the density matrix formalism.
Semiclassical Inversion Methods
Authors: Child M S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The semiclassical inversion of experimental data exploits the dependence of quantization conditions, expectation values, and various interference effects on phase integrals that contain explicit reference to the underlying potential energy function. Such phase integrals are amenable to an elegant Abelian transformation that allows one to extract the classical turning points at any chosen energy. Hence the resulting energy-dependent turning points may be used to define the required potential function.
Higher order cyanocuprates
Authors: Lipshutz Bruce H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Higher order (HO) cyanocuprates, stoichiometrically represented as ‘R2Cu(CN)Li2’, are distinctly different from the analogous lower order (LO) or Gilman cuprates R2CuLi by virtue of two distinguishing features: (1) they are believed to be copper(I) dianionic species, implying that three ligands are bound to a copper(I) centre; and (2) they contain a cyano group, which presumably imparts the required π-acidity to the lower order cyanocuprate RCu(CN)Li such that another equivalent of an organolithium can be accepted by the copper centre to afford [R2Cu(CN)2–2Li+]. Although there are reports on non-cyano-containing higher order cuprates, written according to the general formula ‘R3CuLi2’ relatively few synthetic uses of these have appeared to date. On the other hand, higher order cyanocuprates continue to evolve,1b, displaying unique properties including, as examples: (1) their ability to effect transmetallations with other organometallic species (see later); and (2) their ability to form kinetic reagents at low temperatures which lead via their oxidation to unsymmetrical biaryls with excellent selectivities.
Mechanistic studies of organocopper reactions
Authors: Smith R A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many different types of organocopper reagents have been used in organic synthetic procedures and the variety of reactions observed is also extensive. This synthetic efficiency has naturally promoted further extension and refinement and has also generated the inevitable questions regarding the mechanisms of these reactions. Mechanistic investigations in this area have therefore been undertaken for some considerable time and are aimed at rationalizing and directing further synthetic developments as well as increasing fundamental knowledge of a set of chemical reaction processes. It should be noted that the chemical behaviour of one type of organocopper reagent is sometimes very different from that of another reagent, and also organocopper reagents often react differently in different solvents. Hence, for practical application to a desired transformation it is often necessary to examine several types of organocopper reagents under different reaction conditions in order to attain the optimum reaction efficiency. The wide variation in the types of organocopper reagents and reaction conditions successfully used in synthesis creates many opportunities for mechanistic investigation. However, in many cases reaction parameters uncovered for one reaction-reagent combination may not be applicable to another, apparently related, system.
Maximum entropy, likelihood ranking and the phase problem in single crystal, powder diffraction and electron microscopy
Authors: Gilmore Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Maximum entropy is a tool of Bayesian statistics, and thus is built around Bayes’ Theorem. In its simplest form, this theorem states that given two eventsE andF: where p( . ) denotes probability. The three components of this equation are termed the posterior, the prior and the likelihood respectively. In a Bayesian approach to statistics one first defines one's prior knowledge (How often do you start a scientific experiment with no prior knowledge i.e. a uniform prior?); likelihood is then used to consult the experimental data, and the two used to produce a posterior probability which reflects modifications to the prior which arise from the data.
Challenges in incommensurate and quasi-crystals
Authors: Paciorek W A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quasi-periodic structure analysis is now a reasonably well established branch of crystallography. Indeed, quasi-crystallography can celebrate its 20th anniversary in 1992. Twenty years ago, during the 9th International Crystallography Conference in Kyoto, two contributions of prime importance were presented. In the first, P. M. de Wolff described the incommensurate phase of Na2CO3 using a higher dimensional space group. During the same session, A Janner presented the symmetry analysis of a vibrating crystal, using entirely the same formalism. This was the starting point for this new, rapidly developing field.
Salt-bridge interactions in the crystal structures of some biologically active alkaloid salts
Authors: Oleksyn B J , Kowalik J T , Serda P , Śliwiński J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the moment when scientists became interested in the relationship between structure and activity of biologically important compounds, especially drugs, crystallographers have interpreted molecular shapes and dimensions from the viewpoint of the interactions between these molecules and their more or less known target systems in living organisms.