bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lingua Francas
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have already referred to the widespread illusion that views the world as divided, in isomorphic fashion, into countries and languages, with linguis tic frontiers corresponding to state and national frontiers. It is an illusion, for there is practically not one monolingual country and, conversely, languages are rarely confined to one country. We have seen (Chapter 3) that human beings were confronted by a multilingual world and the research into markets described in the preceding chapter has shown how people dealt with this multilingualism in their social practice. Through examples as different as Canton and Brazzaville, we found two general factors: the emergence of a lingua franca as a solution to the problems of communication; and, a fairly close parallel between markets and the wider sociological changes of society.
Language Policy and Planning: First Approach
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The five preceding chapters all, from different angles, touched on the same subject, that is, how speakers experience and manage multilingualism. We treated different topics (the family, markets, lingua francas) and we used different approaches (research by questionnaire or observation, description of languages, reconstruction of the history of languages through the study of documents). But, whatever the topic or approach, in every case the lesson of our analysis and research was the same: social relationships lie behind language relationships, and the linguistic phenomena we have described are the evidence for this. We are now going to leave the battlefield, the in vivo management of multilingualism and the relationships between languages to turn to the in vitro management of these problems, that is, the direct and deliberate intervention by those with political power into the domain of language.
Case Studies: The Management of Multilingualism
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter and those that follow, we shall describe a number of actual language policies, which will then provide us with a basis for discussion. We shall begin with language policies that had to deal with a substantial amount of multilingualism but which had no intention of reducing it to monolingualism. In the People’s Republic of China there are said to be about fifty different languages that can, for ease of exposition, be divided into two groups: Han languages and minority languages.
The War of Writing
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writing is the graphic representation of language, a means of preserving speech, and thus an instrument of second-degree communication. Surely, then, establishing an orthography is simply a technical matter? Given a language that is not transcribed, linguists can study its phonology and devise an alphabet which is as consistent as possible and best adapted to the language’s sounds. They then propose this alphabet to those who decide who, as they should, decide; next, manuals of literacy and pamphlets are printed. In short, we have the classic scenario of language planning as it might be imagined in theory. From this we might conclude that establishing an alphabet is something that is both technical and neutral. But this is not really the case and we shall see that the form taken by the graphic notation of a language can be an ideological and political issue.
Trench Warfare: The Case of French
Authors: Calvet Louis-Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of the international growth of the French language is already a long one, and if, following tradition, we admit that French has been spoken since the ninth century (the Strasbourg Oaths being the first written trace of the language), it is also well known that three or four centuries later French had spread widely through Europe and outside it. The Crusades certainly played an important role in the spread of the language both into other Romance countries and into the East (Armenia, Greece). The victory of William the Conqueror at Hastings in 1066 and the occupation of England that followed established French across the Channel.
The Inadequacy of English
Authors: McConchie R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is an easy assumption to make that languages progress, that their progress is steadily evolutionary, and that there are always increases in sophistication, flexibility, and subtlety. What is less readily grasped is that this evolution reflects the requirements of their nurturant societies. A changing society will have a changing language, but a static one would have a static language. Progress is, however, not always steady and predictable; thus it is not necessarily the case that this development may be detected equally at all stages of a language’s history.
Language and Authority
Authors: McConchie R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will discuss two aspects of authority in medical writings. The term, ‘authority’ may refer either to those linguistic standards upheld and appealed to in medical practice or terminology, or to a person or work whose status is regarded as for the most part beyond question. The two are obviously interlinked inasmuch as the authority of the ancients is also the authority of Latin, Greek, and, though to a decreasing extent in the postmedieval period, Arabic.
The Early Lexicographers: Elyot to Bullokar
Authors: McConchie R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thus far we have examined the users of this terminology and some of their actual practices. Although this study concentrates on the actual contextual use of the medical lexis, our understanding of where medical terminology fitted into the language of the sixteenth century may be furthered by looking at the dictionaries of the period, since it is the lexicographers who are the first-level codifiers and interpreters of the contemporary lexicon. Their prescriptive judgements and editorial decisions have affected what was recorded in their works and exactly how it was registered. It is not to be presumed that they were on the whole comprehensively descriptive, but, since medical terminology incorporates a significant peripheral element of the English lexicon, it makes an interesting test case for the practices of these lexicographers. It is frequently the case that we must learn from their omissions rather than from their inclusions.
Constructing Space in Kwaio (Solomon Islands)
Authors: Keesing Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In examining the linguistic construction of space in Kwaio, an Oceanic Austronesian language spoken on Malaita, Solomon Islands (Keesing 1975; 1985), I begin with a cautionary tale. A few years ago Charles Frake, a pioneer in linguistically sophisticated ethnography, told me about a paper that never got finished. Frake had been invited to contribute an essay to a Festschrift for Claude Levi-Strauss. He intended to write a structural analysis of spatial orientation among the Subanun of Mindanao. Having begun the analysis, Frake realized that the Subanun orientational system was basically the same as those of European languages-so he never finished the paper.
A Discourse Perspective: Understanding Full, Real Texts
Authors: Emmott Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are interested in the strategies people use when they read a text—a book chapter for an exam, or a story for their entertainment ... [In the laboratory] the usual redundancies on which these strategies rely have been removed from the text. Hence, the subject falls back on general problem-solving strategies and devises on the spot some procedure that works. The trouble is that this procedure may be entirely task specific and of no general interest as far as normal discourse processing is concerned ... We might be left with quite the wrong conclusions from such experiments (and give quite the wrong advice to educators, textbook writers, etc.) Studying sentences in isolation may tell us something, but it is also possible that it will mislead us.
Summary
Authors: Emmott Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The interpreter’s experience always has a clear dynamic aspect, to which our work has to pay close attention. We need to show, for example, that a text can create expectations in the reader’s mind at one point which it then satisfies or subverts at a later point ... In order to present the dynamic aspect ofa reader’s experience with a text, we have developed a method of text analysis which takes the text one segment at a time, asking ourselves at each point in this unrolling of the text something like, ‘Having read this far, what would [the reader] have figured out, or be puzzled by, or be expecting?’
Coming to Terms with the Past: Language and Nationalism in Russia and its Neighbours
Authors: Carmichael Cathie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A comprehensive account of the role of language in national identity in the former Soviet Union would require another book of comparable dimensions to this one. The territory is vast, and is home to a large number of ethnic groups, many distinguished from others at least in part by the use of distinct languages. It might be argued that, apart from the majority populations of the former Union republics, not many of these groups can be described as nations, at least in the sense which that term may have further to the west; the group may be very small, there may be little aspiration to autonomy or independence, the extent of a putative national territory might be highly debatable. An adequate treatment would nevertheless have to outline the characteristics of each group, and the circumstances of each group, which vary greatly, would have to be discussed.
On the ‘Art’ of Explanation
Authors: Berg Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This work largely grew out of a dissatisfaction with the way the term ‘explanation’ has been used in linguistics. The standard practice of scientific inquiry is the four-step procedure of identification, description, explanation and prediction. A particular phenomenon is first identified, then described, and then explained within a theoretical model which serves to derive predictions about other, hitherto unexplained phenomena. Scientific progress involves the formulation, testing, and reformulation of theoretical accounts. In generative linguistics, which may be regarded as one of the most, if not the most influential school of thought, the distinction between description and explanation is not generally respected. While generative linguists do not shy away from the term’explanation: they often use it either as a mere paraphrase of description or in a rather superficial sense. Let us take an example from a recent textbook on phonology. In a discussion of onset and coda structures in various languages, Goldsmith (1990) states that a greater number of phonological contrasts are usually accommodated in onset than in coda positions. For instance, many languages allow a contrast between voiced and voiceless consonants in prevocalic though not in postvocalic loci. Goldsmith accounts for this asymmetry by introducing the concept of’licensing’. He asserts that onset and coda segments are licensed by different ‘licensing agencies’, the former by a primary licenser (the syllable) and the latter by a secondary licenser (the coda itself). The greater restrictions on codas are’explained’ by their being less freely licensed. This is either a (tautological) restatement of the basic observation or the invocation of hard-to-justify assumptions whose ad hoc nature severely curtails their explanatory value.
Explanation from a Macrolinguistic Perspective
Authors: Berg Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the studies that will be reviewed below share a conviction that is more often tacitly assumed than overtly stated. This view is made explicit by Menn and Obler (1982: 3),who reason that the’explanation of linguistic phenomena must ultimately lie outside linguistics’ (emphasis mine). Similar opinions have been voiced by Bybee and Moder {1983), Hall (1992), Comrie (1993), and others. The fundamental insight implicit in this view is that nothing is self-explanatory. We cannot understand plants unless we acknowledge their ecological functions such as providing nutrition to animals and giving rise to photosynthesis, that is, unless we establish a link between trees and the sun for instance. What are the links that should be set up in the case of language? Ohala (1983) sees three and only three linkages which we may conveniently abbreviate as ‘the three m’s’—mind, matter, and manners. The first refers to the abstract psychological dimension, the second to the concrete dimension including anatomy and the neurosciences, and the third to the social and cultural dimension. This tripartite distinction is a very useful point of departure, even though it might be rather too coarse-grained. For example, neurophysiological processes need not impose the same constraints on language as anatomical traits. It is expedient therefore to look at a maximum of approaches individually so as to be in a better position to assess the relative contribution of each. In view of a certain overlap that exists between these approaches, it will not be possible to keep all of their effects neatly apart.
Language Change
Authors: Berg Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This part of the monograph presents an assessment of the impact that language processing makes upon language change. The procedure will be the same as in the previous part. As before, the order of the individual sections is from phonological to higher levels. To begin with, the most basic issue will be addressed. If the germ of language change lies in the psycholinguistic principles underlying speaking and listening—if, in other words, the key to diachrony is to be found within synchrony —we should expect the patterns of language change to mirror the patterns in speakers’ and listeners’ spontaneous behaviour. By ‘patterns’ is meant not only the classificatory system that is considered appropriate to the description of the data but also the more specific characteristics that can be observed. The term’behaviour’ also requires explication. Since our interest is in the dynamics of change and since change involves the deviation from a norm, it is instructive to study deviant processing events, i.e. those outputs which do not conform to the current norm. From the production perspective, these deviations are referred to as slips of the tongue, from the perception perspective, as slips of the ear. These psycholinguistic data therefore provide the starting-point for the majority of the analyses to follow.
Discussion
Authors: Berg Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is now time to put together the results of the empirical work that lies behind us, to produce an overview. Overall, 45 major analyses have been performed (21 synchronic, 21 diachronic, and 3 poetic). These major analyses may be divided into 83 sub analyses (41 synchronic, 42 diachronic). (Subdivisions of the poetic sections were not made.) None of the major analyses failed completely. The psycholinguistic predictions were borne out either in part or totally. Of the sub analyses, 79 (92 per cent) matched the predictions while 7 (8 per cent) did not. Even without a precise null hypothesis, there is no question that the obtained results cannot be attributed to chance. The overwhelming majority of analyses strongly support the following main conclusion: The structure of language is shaped by the properties of the mechanism which puts it to use.This link between the processor and the final product allows us to take the former as an explanation of the latter. Language is the way it is because it satisfies processing constraints in probabilistic fashion. Psycholinguistics thus qualifies as one likely1 approach to the explanation of linguistic structure.
Implications for Psycholinguistic Theory
Authors: Berg Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the major thrust of this work is a linguistic one, it may not be off the mark to touch briefly upon the psycholinguistic significance of the empirical findings. This excursion is justified by the assumed interactivity between linguistic structure and language processing. It was argued in Chapter 3 that in order to derive the’best’ predictions it is essential to rely upon the ‘best’ psycholinguistic theory. Which theory is the’best’ is, of course, a matter of dispute. The standard method of seeking confirmation (or disconfirmation) of a scientific theory is to adduce arguments from the domain to which the theory appertains. For instance, a psycholinguistic theory is built upon psycholinguistic considerations. This methodology is perfectly acceptable; however, there is no reason not to extend the argumentative basis to areas beyond the home domain and in so doing, broaden the coverage of the theory. Linguistic findings may thus be used to adjudicate between alternative psycholinguistic theories. Clearly, one psycholinguistic theory is superior to another when the linguistic data are compatible with the one but incompatible with the other.
Linking Relationships: The Textural Semiotic
Authors: McGregor William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we investigate the fourth and final semiotic, the textural semiotic, which groups together syntagmatic relationships which constitute signs of the linking type. We begin, in section 7.1, by discussing general attributes of these relationships, including their mediating role between grammar and discourse. Following this, section 7.2 discusses thematization, demonstrating how and why this phenomenon is best analysed as involving a linking relationship. Next, in section 7.3, we distinguish a class of clauses which are characterized by the fact that their only inherent grammatical relationship is a linking one (any other type of meaning they may exhibit is conveyed by lower ranking units), and which may thus be regarded as textural clauses. Sections 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, and 7.7 discuss, respectively, four very important linking relationships, namely reference, ellipsis, substitution, and conjunction. The final section of the chapter, section 7.8, discusses grammatical markers, including relators and category markers, these being linking items which function within the boundaries of grammatical units, specifying them as linguistic signs.
Grammar and Beyond
Authors: McGregor William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A fundamental assumption of SG, one which it shares with functional theories of language generally, is that grammar is not an autonomous system; it cannot be completely isolated in a module of its own, separate from other phenomena of human life. Interactions between what is internal to grammar and what is outside of it are multifarious and procede in both directions: from grammar outwards and from the outside world inwards. The internal organization of a language represents complex responses to the various functional needs which it serves, within the social, cognitive, and biological attributes of the human beings who speak it. At the same time, the internal organization oflanguage itself has various consequences to the ways it can be used, the uses to which it can be effectively put. For instance, its internal organization precludes its use as a vehicle for conveying instructions from a computer operating system to either the hardware or the software in a computer system.
The Nominal Strategy
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although predicate nominals are certainly not immune to takeover by the verbal or the locational strategy, they form a category which in many languages has its own encoding strategy. In such a case we will say that a language has a NOMINAL STRATEGY at its disposal. As it turns out, the nominal strategy manifests itself across languages in various different morphosyntactic ways. The forms which the nominal strategy may take will be explored in Sections 3.2-3.5. Following that, several explanatory issues regarding predicate nominal encoding can be formulated. In Section 3.7 I will develop the Principle of ldentity Pressure, which can be argued to provide an explanation of the unique typological characteristics of the nominal strategy.
Adjective-Switching
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the foregoing chapters we have concentrated on those languages in the sample which show consistency in their formal stratification of the domain of intransitive predication. These Single-Option Languages are confined to the selection of one single encoding pattern: each predicate category is either encoded by its prototypical strategy, or is taken over completely by some other strategy. However, as is shown by the frequency figures in Table (4.3), our sample also contains quite a few languages in which more than one encoding pattern is permitted. At first sight, this phenomenon of Pattern-Switching might be viewed as a ‘nuisance factor’, which blurs an otherwise clear picture. We will see, however, that pattern switching in itself constitutes a valuable body of data, which can be shown to be revealing as to the general principles which underlie the stratification of the domain.
Verb-Switching
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The frequency figures for C-languages given in Table (4.3) indicate that complete takeover of event predicates is very rare. Thus, there are hardly any languages in which the prototypical strategy for verb encoding is lacking totally. In contrast, cases of Verb-Switching, in which the encoding of predicative verbs is taken over partially by some nonverbal strategy, are much more common. Examples of locational and nominal verb-switching will be given in Section 7.2 and Section 7.3. Locational V-switching in particular turns out to occur widely. However, I will argue that not all instances of V-switching are equally relevant or interesting from a typological point of view. Therefore, Appendix B lists only a narrow subset of cases of V-switching-namely, those which constitute an instance of Merging. This notion will be defined in Section 7.4, and instances of the merging phenomenon will be presented in Section 7.5 to Section 7.7.
Adjectives and the Tensedness Parameter
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within the domain of intransitive predication, adjectives form an in-between category in two respects. In the semantic ‘topography’ of the domain, adjectives constitute a transitory category between nouns and verbs, in that they occupy an intermediate position on the Time Stability Hierarchy. From the point of view of formal encoding, adjectives can be said to be ambivalent as well. As we have established in the chapters of Part One, predicative adjectives form the only category in the domain for which there does not seem to be a prototypical encoding strategy. Thus, a simple, non-supported, encoding strategy is prototypically associated with predicative verbs; a nonverbal zero strategy prototypically occurs with predicative nouns; predicative locationals typically have a full nonverbal encoding; but for adjectives, no such prototypical association with some encoding strategy can be established. In other words, predicative adjectives never have an encoding strategy which is unique to them.
Tensed Languages
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a first stage in the empirical validation of the tensedness universals, we will consider those languages in which the nouny status of predicative adjectives is undisputed. If the tensedness universals are to be taken seriously, we should be able to demonstrate that these languages are tensed. The set of languages at issue here can be identified as the B-languages. These are the languages in the sample which can be said to be strictly or radically nouny: their predicative adjectives are nonverbally (and, in the typical case, nominally) encoded and do not allow for a verbal-nonverbal switch.