bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Lagrangian Transportation Problem Relaxation Method For Solving Problem A Of L. V. Kantorovich
Authors: Thompson Gerald L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The remarkable seminal paper [1] by Leonid Kantorovich was first published in Russia in 1939, but 21 years passed before it was translated into English and published in Management Science. Even then many of the important contributions of the paper have been overlooked, at least in the Western literature. The purposes of this chapter is to review the contributions of the paper in the light of later developments in mathematical programming and operations research. Emphasis will be placed on the first problem stated in [1].
Some Numerical and Practical Problems in Linear Programming
Authors: Hollatz Horst 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first birth of linear programming was in 1939. L. V. Kantorovich [1] worked on mathematical applications in economics and found a method for solving a class of production planning models written as linear programming problems. The second birth of linear programming was in 1946. G. B. Dantzig [2] devised the simplex method for solving general linear programming problems, which is now the commonly used method. It is possible to solve problems with thousands of variables and constraints in reasonable time with this method, although the worst-case behavior of the simplex method was shown in 1972 by V. Klee and G. J. Minty [3] to be exponential. Ten years later K. H. Borgwardt showed that the average-case behavior of the simplex method is polynomial [4].
Combinatorial Optimization: Accuracy Versus Complexity And Stability
Authors: Leifman Lev J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We present our ideas using the example of optimal scheduling under resource constraints, which is one of the best-known problems of combinatorial optimization. It is a “certified” NP-complete problem, so its exact solution is possible only in a few very special cases; any real-life scheduling problem admits only approximate solution by heuristic methods. We consider a network G(X; U), which is a finite acyclic digraph with sets X and U of vertices (events) and arcs (activities), respectively. To simplify the presentation, we assume that all activities use a single kind of resources (to consider the real-life case of several kinds of resources, we would need to make only technical changes without introducing any new principles).
Fields Of Convex Polyhedra And The Pareto-Smale Optimum
Authors: Vershik A M , Chernyakov A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of extremal problems has always been closely connected with analysis and geometry. In the 1930s and 1940s this connection was developed in the fundamental papers of L. V. Kantorovich, where the ideas of duality, developed in the functional analysis of those years, were successfully applied in the theory of nonclassical extremal problems. The main domain of analysis that, at present, interacts with the contemporary theory of extremal problems, theory of games, and mathematical economics, is global analysis and, in particular, singularity theory. (We note that the actual models used in these domains have given rise to new problems of global analysis, the theory of multivalued mappings, etc.)
Introduction: The Governmental Process in Cities
Authors: Svara James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cities in the United States are under increasing pressure to find effective ways to meet their problems and respond to the needs of citizens. With diminishing outside assistance, officials in city government are challenged to determine the purpose and direction of their government and to generate the resources to carry out their mission. They must not only find more revenues locally to address their problems, they must also discover the resources within themselves to give leadership to their city, provide quality services,. and manage shrinking budgets with greater efficiency.
Councils: Counterweight Versus Senior Partner
Authors: Svara James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The city council links the people with government in a variety of ways. Members of the city council fill the representational function in city government. They speak for and make decisions on behalf of the citizens of the community, committing the body politic to certain courses of action. Derived from representation is the legislative function. “Lawmaking” defined broadly consists of policy leadership, enactment of ordinances and resolutions, debate, criticism, and investigation. By implication, there is a third function common to legislative bodies controlling the executive.
Administrators: Servants, Knaves, or Responsible Professionals?
Authors: Svara James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The final group of officials to consider are those who occupy appointed positions as administrators in local government. Administrators-managers, professionals, and highly skilled staff--in government have substantial influence over policy both through the recommendations they make and through their decisions about distributing services and implementing policy, their manipulation of information and expertise, and their discretion in the discharge of their duties. Administrators also determine how productively the resources of city government--staff, funds, equipment, property-are applied to accomplishing the city’s purposes.
Cultural Similarities and Variations in Guided Participation
Authors: Rogoff Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most research on the zone of proximal development, scaffolding, and adult child interaction has involved middle-class parents and children in North America and Europe. How, then, do the interactional processes observed in research with such samples relate to the broader spectrum of child-rearing practices around the world? How do observations made in nonindustrial societies or in other cultural communities in Europe or America compare and extend the theory? My use of the term culture indicates the organized and common practices of particular communities in which children live ( which may differ from those of children’s nations).
Explanations of Cognitive Development Through Social Interaction: Vygotsky and Piaget
Authors: Rogoff Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Part III discusses speculations and research on the role of social interaction in the cognitive development of individual children. What do children gain from social interaction, and under what circumstances? What aspects of social interaction contribute to children’s advances? What is the significance of variations in social interaction, such as whether partners are adults or peers, the extent of their expertise, their authority or equality relative to the children, and the extent to which partners share in decision making? Are there differences in the role of social interaction depending on the age of the child? These questions were addressed by Vygotsky and by Piaget, and they came to rather different conclusions.
Social Psychology as Social Instincts
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While publications before 1908 dealt with social-psychological topics, the origin of American social psychology is commonly associated with the publication of two introductory textbooks in 1908-Edward Ross’s Social Psychology: An Outline and a Source Book, and William McDougall’s Introduction to Social Psychology. These books are radically different in their scope and subject matter, and each represents a very different approach to the discipline. Ross’s book reflects the sociological perspective and stresses the influence of imitation and invention.
Social Psychology as Social Interaction
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although British and French social theories were major influences in the development of social psychology in America, these perspectives were considerably modified to fit the new milieu when they crossed the Atlantic. However, there were also currents of thought that were inherently rooted in the American experience. Unlike Europe, where the individual’s place in the social order was more a product of birth than opportunity, people in America were assumed to be active agents with unlimited physical and social potential striving to establish their identity and master their environment.
Group Processes
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1924, Floyd All port distinguished psychological social psychology from the socio logical approach by stating that The study of groups is, in fact, the province of the special science of sociology. While the social psychologist studies the individual in the group, the sociologist deals with the group as a whole. He dis cusses its formation, solidarity, continuity, and change. (p. 10) If this distinction had been accepted, it might have served as a useful division of labor, but social trends during the 1930s brought the study of small groups into the forefront and eventually into the domain of psychology. For a short period after World War II, the study of groups was the major area of social psychology, surpassing the study of attitudes as the most researched topic.
Cognitive Social Psychology
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, American psychology underwent what has subsequently become known as the “cognitive revolution” (e.g., Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956; Miller, Galanter, & Pri bram, 1960; Neisser, 1967). Although many major psychologists, such as Gordon All port, Edward C. Tolman, and Kurt Lewin, maintained a cognitive perspective even during the heyday of behaviorism, cognitive psychology came to be seen as the most useful and most legitimate approach to psychology in general. While interpretations vary about the specific nature of this revolution, there is a consensus that psychology shifted away from a preoccupation with overt behavior toward a perspective that at tempts to explain behavior in terms of mental processes, such as attention, memory, masoning, and information processing (see Baars, 1986; Gergen, 1989a; Kessel & Bevan, 1985).
Postmodernism
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of an alternative social psychology occurred within the context of the radical politics and liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s (see Hen riques, Hollway, Unwin, Venn, & Walker dine, 1984). It began with a call for a social psychology that was relevant to people’s lives and was applicable to the pressing social problems confronting contemporary culture. It also included a critique of established theory and practice and the political message that traditional social psychology, by its uncritical acceptance of existing social relations, tends to promote and maintain the status quo.
Experimental Tests of the Evolutionary Theory of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two ways to test a scientific theory: test its assumptions or test its predictions, corollaries, and consequences. The latter is preferable, since it effectively tests not only the assumptions of a theory, but also the cogency of the deductive reasoning used to derive the theory’s corollaries once its assumptions were adopted. This chapter begins with experimental tests of those assumptions of the evolutionary theory of aging that can be regarded as specific to the theory and empirically contingent. Some of the empirically contingent assumptions of the theory are general to a vast range of biological research and will not receive any attention here.
Comparative Biology of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The comparative method is the classical basis for testing evolutionary hypotheses concerning natural selection. One need look no farther than Darwin’s (1859) Origin of Species for ample illustration of this point. And the comparative method continues to be used by evolutionary biologists in the present day, although now with a profound increase in sophistication (e.g., Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1979; Huey, 1987). Nonetheless, comparative biological reasoning has come under considerable attack (e.g., Gould and Lewontin, 1979), especially its frequent, blithe assumption of adaptive excellence, if not perfection. On the other hand, it would be inconceivable for biologists, particularly evolutionary biologists, to treat all patterns of interspecific differentiation as if natural selection need not have played any material role.
An Evolutionary Perspective on Organismal Theories of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physiological mechanisms of aging have been the primary focus of gerontological research. Up until the late 1970s, the study of these mechanisms usually proceeded as if knowledge of such mechanisms were all that was required to understand aging fully (vide Comfort, 1979). In this respect, gerontology was typical of much reductionist physiological research. But unlike other physiological research, the field of gerontology could not use the concept of “function,” which provides the implicit underpinning of most physiological investigations. On the other hand, the concept of “pathology,” which might at first seem an appropriate replacement for function, could hardly be stretched to cover the dramatic association between reproduction and aging in semelparous salmon and monocarpic plants, as indeed the discomfort of gerontologists with such cases illustrates (e.g., Kirkwood and Cremer, 1982).
An Evolutionary Perspective on Cellular and Molecular Theories of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter cellular and molecular theories of aging will be evaluated in terms of evolutionary research on aging. Again, this will not constitute a review of such theories simply on their own merits, as their proponents would have them judged. Rather, the intent is to evaluate theoretical proposals and salient experimental results within the framework developed in Chapters 1-5. Most important, this framework is incompatible with the idea that there can be any such thing as an absolute physiological cause of aging. An additional point that should be made is that a huge amount of empirical material in cellular and molecular gerontology has little theoretical significance, at least at present.
The Prepresidential Eisenhower
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The convictions and preferences Eisenhower brought to the White House derived from his reflections during a long and varied prepresidential career. With much broader experience in military and foreign affairs than any twentiethcentury U.S. president, he developed strong opinions about the meaning of national security and how best to achieve it, the hierarchy of American interests and the threats to them, the requisites of national and international leadership, the nature of war, and even the future of civilization. As a consequence, he shared many of the fundamental premises of the Truman administration, in which he was actively involved. But, as foreshadowed in the previous chapter, he disagreed sharply with others, and was personally frustrated by the short-comings in consistency and implementation. Eisenhower’s preexisting beliefs and core values provided a framework for but did not determine the New Look strategy. He instituted, managed, and responded to a policy-making process that drew heavily on his bureaucratic expertise and ensured consideration of situational factors-both foreign and domestic. What Eisenhower believed prior to becoming president, nevertheless, and what he felt and thought influenced how he interpreted the world around him and acted to shape it.
The Sino-Soviet Threat
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eisenhower would have conducted a reappraisal of the Sino-Soviet threat even if Stalin had lived. As already discussed, he had formed definite views about the Soviet Union over the years before taking office. Stalin’s death in March, however, broadened the range of questions. Would his successors modify Stalin’s objectives and methods? How would the growing Soviet nuclear stockpile affect the military threat? How serious were other aspects, such as subversion and political warfare? What were the vulnerabilities of the Soviet bloc? The questions were examined in intelligence estimates, the Jackson Report on psychological warfare, the Solarium exercise, conferences of U.S. ambassadors, reports of Soviet experts (especially Bohlen), and meetings of the NSC Planning Board. In seven months, this process produced the consensus on the threat from the Soviet bloc embodied in NSC 162/2.
The Eisenhower Legacy
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The decade of the 1950s was a formative period for U.S. security policy, when the strategic context of the cold war was transformed by the coming of mutual nuclear plenty. Truman’s last three years in office were preoccupied with this prospect and its implications, and Eisenhower’s entire tenure with adjusting to its emergence under new Soviet leaders. The response of President Truman to the prospective Soviet nuclear capacity, as embodied in NSC 68, was a major reappraisal of the Soviet threat, U.S. objectives to counter it, and appropriate means of pursuing them. Its growing nuclear capability, NSC 68 argued, would embolden the Soviet Union to take much greater risks in executing its expansionist “design”; by 1954 (later 1953) its capacity for a crippling surprise nuclear attack was expected to make that a year of peak danger. To counter this threat the U.S. objective had to be to achieve before that time preponderant power through a massive U.S. and NATO military buildup, especially in conventional forces; the purpose was not only to deter or defeat Soviet aggression but also to induce retraction or “rollback” of Soviet power and a basic change in the Soviet system. The analysis of NSC 68 seemed to be vindicated by the Korean mvas10n.
Role of Prefrontal Cortex in Delay Tasks: Evidence from Reversible Lesion and Unit Recording in the Monkey
Authors: Fuster Joaquin M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a well-established fact that the prefrontal cortex plays a critical role in the temporal organization of behavior, that is, in the order and timing of behavioral acts. It is not clear, however, precisely what that role is. A plausible hypothesis is that it has to do with what I have called the mediation of cross-temporal contingencies (Fuster, 1985), in other words, the integration of behavior in accord with sensory information that is not present at the time of the action: Information that was present in the recent past, or information that is expected to be present in the near future.
The Contribution of Frontal Lobe Lesions to the Neurobehavioral Outcome of Closed Head Injury
Authors: Levin Harveys. , Goldstein Felicia C , Williams, David H , Eisenberg Howard M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physical proximity of the sphenoid wing to the orbitofrontal region and marked shearing effects in this area (Holbourn, 1943) predispose the frontal lobes to focal lesions after closed head injury (CHI). Utilizing a contusion index that reflects the size and depth of contusions, Adams and coworkers (1980) studied the brains of 151 patients who sustained fatal injuries. As depicted in Table 17-1, the index values were largest for the frontal lobes, followed closely by the temporal lobes.
Superconductivity
Authors: Isihara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fascinating phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered by Kamer-lingh Onnes in 1911 when mercury was cooled to around 4 K. That was a long time ago, but the basic mechanism for superconductivity started unfolding only in the 1950s. Finally, in 1957 Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer gave a satisfactory explanation for this phenomenon. However, the discovery of an unusually high-Tc. superconductor by Bednorz and Muller in 1986 has caused a complete change of the general view on superconductivity because it is no longer limited only to very low temperatures. It is even more fascinating than previously thought, and its industrial application is now conceivable.
Liquid Crystals
Authors: Isihara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been known since approximately one hundred years ago that certain liquids exhibit peculiar crystal-like anisotropy while maintaining fluidity. They are called liquid crystals although they are not crystals but rather anisotropic liquids. Today some thousands of liquid crystals have been identified. They are liquids, either molten or dissolved, consisting of anisotropic molecules with various orientational or spatial ordering. Due to the presence of several new phases that are between solids and liquids and to relations with phase transitions in other systems, they are attracting strong attention. In addition, their temperature-or field-sensitive phase changes are utilized industrially for display devices.
Controversies in retrospect
Authors: Mayr Ernst 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No one who has not witnessed it himself can imagine the confusion and dissension that characterized the views of the evolutionists in the pre­ Synthesis period. That we ever got out of this confusion, and that the major step happened so rapidly during the so-called Evolutionary Synthesis, seems almost a miracle. In order to place on record how one pre-Synthesis evolutionist became modernized, the editors of Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology suggested to me that I should present ‘a somewhat autobiographical account of how and why your views were formed and changed during your career, and how your own experience and ideas reflect the changes in evolutionary biology during this time.
The War Escalates
Authors: Harrison Selig S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Andropov’s search for a diplomatic escape from Afghanistan was paralleled by a policy of resisting military escalation. Two leading military historians who differ concerning many aspects of the war, David C. Isby and Mark Urban, agree that his objective was to minimize casualties and to scale down operations while seeking a negotiated settlement. The mission of Soviet forces during the Andropov period was limited to holding key urban centers, maintaining the channels of communication between them, and interdicting resistance supply lines from base camps in Pakistan. The truce in the Pansjer valley had made this mission easier by allowing unimpeded access for military units and supply caravans to Kabul. In contrast to the two major division-level offensives of 1982 in the Pansjer region and in Herat, Soviet offensives during 1983 were confined to battalion and regiment-level attacks, accompanied by the scattered aerial bombing of resistance strongholds. Andropov continued to resist escalation following the collapse of the Geneva negotiations in June. However, the resistance groups, encouraged by stepped up aid from Washington and Islamabad, soon launched an offensive of their own that gained in intensity as the year progressed. The impact of the offensive was limited, but the prospect of increasingly well-equipped resistance operations led to accelerating pressures in Moscow for a reappraisal of Soviet policy.