bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sound in Water
Authors: Marrin D. L. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAs an elastic medium, water transmits sound as longitudinal waves that propagate along a path defined by the compression and subsequent relaxation of adjacent water molecules. Because water is a denser medium than air, water transmits sound waves faster and more efficiently than air. Underwater environments (e.g., oceans, lakes) are characterized by a spectrum of sound frequencies and intensities produced by geologic, meteorologic, biological, and anthropogenic sources. Naturally produced sounds vary in frequency from the high‐pitched clicks and whistles of dolphins to the very low‐pitched (often inaudible) rumblings of earthquakes and hurricanes. Man‐made underwater sounds include everything from communication signals and ship propellers to the high‐intensity audible tones produced by active sonar and acoustic thermography technologies. The behavior of oceanic sound is quite complex as a result of the manner in which it is reflected, adsorbed, scattered, and entrained by surface and bottom features, as well as by laterally extensive water layers that are stratified according to temperature and salinity.
Urban Runoff
Authors: Scholz Miklas 
Published: July 2005

AbstractUrban runoff comprises the stormwater runoff from urban areas such as roads and roofs. Road and car park runoff is often more contaminated with heavy metals and organic matter than roof runoff. Runoff is usually collected in gully pots that require regular cleaning. Stormwater pipes transfer urban runoff either directly to watercourses or to sustainable urban drainage systems (also called best management practice in the United States) such as ponds or wetlands. However, urban runoff is frequently treated only by silt traps that need to be cleaned regularly. This chapter highlights the main areas in urban runoff research and contain general background information supported by case studies.
Culvert Design
Authors: Fang Xing 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
A culvert is a conduit placed under a road to convey surface water from one side to another. Culvert design involves both hydraulic and structural design. Culvert design involves selection of the type of culvert and size to pass the design discharge without overtopping of the road and without erosion on either end of the culvert. With consideration of the site data, a designer should establish allowable outlet velocity and maximum allowable headwater depth. The most common shapes for culverts are circular, elliptical, box, and arch. Common culvert materials include concrete (reinforced and nonreinforced), smooth and corrugated steel, aluminum, and plastic. Two types of flow controls are in culverts: inlet control and outlet control. Culvert design typically requires complex hydraulic calculations to appropriately incorporate energy losses caused by entrance, friction, and exit. Application of computer software is recommended for culvert design.
Water from Saturated River Sediment— Sand Abstraction
Authors: Hussey Stephen W. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water is available in the saturated sediment of sand‐filled rivers. The removal of water from this sediment is known as sand abstraction. Despite the terminology, it is not the removal of sand but of water from a surface dry, seasonal river where the water is retained in the sediment, not abstraction of water from a flowing river.
Wherever there is erosion of land within the catchment area of a river, soil, sand, or gravel is carried into the river channel. The river becomes silted with sediment retained in depressions in the riverbed, behind rocks, and where the slope of the river is sufficiently low for sediment to be deposited rather than washed away.
In arid and semiarid areas, the sediment that accrues is often coarse grained, and, as the river basin drains, water is retained in the sediment in useable quantities. In spite of the intermittent flow of seasonal rivers, as the rivers drain and dry out, water is held in the sediment.
Water Hyacinth—The World's Most Problematic Weed
Authors: Williams Adrian E. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractInvasive aquatic weeds have spread throughout the world's waterways as a result of anthropogenic activities. The most problematic species is water hyacinth. With the potential to double in biomass in a matter of days and the ability to migrate easily because of its free‐floating vegetative form, it can successfully colonize new habitats, form dense mats along shorelines, and displace native vegetation. In doing so, it effects ecological processes within lakes and rivers and ultimately decreases biodiversity. Moreover, for human populations living around such waterbodies, it reduces access to and quality of available drinking and irrigation water, prevents fishermen from making a living, clogs water intakes at hydroelectric dams, increases vector‐borne diseases, and generally leads to an increase in human suffering. Cultural eutrophication of lakes is also a major problem around the world, which can amplify the problem of water hyacinth. Methods to manage water hyacinth are available, which include physical, chemical, and biological forms of control. However, for the long‐term sustainability of systems, including the control of water hyacinth, only improved land, air, and watershed management can provide the solution to reducing eutrophication and the potential of water hyacinth outbreaks.
Water Turbine
Authors: Fang Xing 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water turbine is a rotary machine to convert the power of flowing water into usable electronic or mechanical power, and it is one of the cleanest producers of electric power. Water turbines are mostly used for hydropower generation, which typically requires a construction of a dam to form a reservoir. Water turbines are divided into two groups: impulse turbines and reaction turbines, according to their hydraulics action. The impulse turbine is used for high‐head hydropower installation; for example, available head for turbine is greater than 1500 ft. The specific speed of a turbine characterizes the turbine's shape and performance, and it is the main criterion to select the correct turbine type for matching a specific hydropower development. The region of a turbine runner where cavitations are most likely to occur is on the downstream side of the turbine impeller blades.
Watershed Management for Environmental Quality and Food Security
Authors: Shrivastava G. S. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

An awareness of the link among watershed management, environmental quality, and food security is essential for promoting actions, which are necessary for ensuring the sustainability of life on earth. Moreover, this link is based on interactions among soil, water, vegetation, and wildlife in a watershed. Thus, it is not surprising that neglect, or destruction, of watersheds often create difficult socioeconomic circumstances or even incredible poverty. Therefore, watersheds need to be managed in a thoughtful manner, and in this regard, the following issues,
inter alia
, may be considered particularly important: preservation of biodiversity; provision of instream flow in rivers; ecological impact of ecotourism; and the impact of virtual water, embedded in global grain imports, on the pace of socioeconomic reform needed for improving watershed management. This article briefly highlights these issues and concludes that ultimately it is either science and sustainability or crisis and conflict in the sphere of watershed management.
Eutrophication (Excessive Fertilization)
Authors: Lee G. Fred , Jones‐Lee Anne 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Excessive fertilization (eutrophication) of lakes and reservoirs is recognized as one of the most important causes of water quality impairment of lakes, reservoirs, and some streams, rivers, and nearshore marine waters. Driven by excessive input of nitrogen and phosphorus, eutrophication is characterized by the presence of sufficient planktonic and attached algae and/or water weeds to impair the use of water for domestic water supply (tastes and odors, shortened filter runs, THM precursors, etc.), recreation, and fisheries (decline in coldwater fisheries, fish kills). The control of excessive fertilization requires an understanding of the loading of nutrients, nutrient availability, and the quantification of the relationship between nutrient load and eutrophication response for the waterbody of concern. Simple concentration‐based standards are unreliable for effective eutrophication control. The Vollenweider–OECD eutrophication modeling approach, as amplified by the authors, can develop and evaluate nutrient control options and estimate the change in eutrophication‐related water quality that could be achieved for the control program for a given lake or reservoir.
Land Surface Modeling
Authors: Liang Xu 
Published: July 2005

AbstractLand surface modeling consists of developing and applying computational models that integrate complicated hydrologic and physical processes that occur at the land surface, between the land surface and the atmosphere, and within the soil column. A land surface model or macroscale hydrologic model, as these types of models are called, has two important characteristics: (a) it considers processes related to both the energy and water budgets and their interactions, and (b) it operates over relatively large spatial domains with short temporal scales. Depending on their complexity, these models generally include representations for some or all of the following major physical processes:Snow and snowmeltFrozen soilInfiltrationSurface runoffSubsurface runoff (e.g., flows from unsaturated and/or saturated zones)Evaporation and transpirationVegetation dynamicsProcesses related to the energy budget (e.g., radiation, sensible heat flux, ground heat flux, etc.)The above processes are interconnected and constrained by the available water and energy. Evapotranspiration links the energy and water aspects of a land surface model together. Soil moisture and surface temperature relate various different physical, hydrological, and biogeochemical processes to one another.
Regulated Rivers
Authors: Petts Geoffrey 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The regulation of river flows by dams and reservoirs has been fundamental to the advancement of civilization, and as dryland development continues, river regulation for water supply and power production continues to be central to economic growth. However, river ecosystems have evolved to become adapted to the natural pattern of flow variability from season to season and from year to year. Flow regulation has had dramatic impacts on both running‐water and floodplain ecosystems, resulting in major changes in biodiversity and to fisheries.
Environmental Flows
Authors: Petts Geoffrey 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe management of river flows to protect river and floodplain ecosystems has become a major focus of interest to both scientists and managers. Species of animals and plants within and along rivers have evolved in response to the natural flow regime. “Environmental flows” refer to the full range of flows, including minimum flows to be maintained during low‐flow seasons and overbank flows for floodplain inundation. Environmental flows must be assessed for the sustainable management of regulated rivers and those impacted by water abstractions.
Microbiology of Lotic Aggregates and Biofilms
Authors: Strauss Eric A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe diverse and abundant microbial communities present in aggregates and biofilms of flowing water systems are important for organic matter processing, nutrient cycling, and the transfer of energy among trophic levels. Aggregates (free‐floating particulate matter and associated microorganisms) and biofilms (thin slime layers present on surfaces and substrates) are present in most aquatic systems, but the physical stresses exerted by flowing water maintain aggregates at smaller sizes and cause biofilms to be more dense and more stable than their counterparts in nonflowing systems. Both aggregates and biofilms contain microbially produced exopolymers that bind their contents together and assist in the capture of additional nutrients, organic matter, and other microorganisms. The density of bacterial cells and rates of bacterial activity are typically greater in aggregates and biofilms compared with bacterial density and activity in the surrounding water. This high microbial activity can lead to chemical and biological gradients, especially within biofilms, that are particularly important for cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon. Specialized and often colorful biofilms dominated by unique groups of microorganisms can develop in certain environments exhibiting specific chemical and physical conditions.
Modeling Trace Metal Speciation in Natural Water Systems
Authors: Filella Montserrat 
Published: July 2005

AbstractTrace metal speciation is often studied by applying an analytical methodology. An alternative method is based on the prediction of the distribution of chemical species by using computer modeling techniques. This approach involves solving multiple simultaneous equations, some of which describe the competing chemical equilibria and others mass balance relationships, and requires the input of data on the total level of cations, anions, and ligand species present and equilibrium constant values for all possible interactions between the various species. The approach is not new. However, today the technique is potentially more readily available because of advances in computer technology, and speciation modeling can now be considered a routine tool in many fields. In this chapter, the main aspects of thermodynamic speciation modeling are described. The reader progresses from fundamental concepts, such as the idea of chemical component or the presentation of the well established adsorption models used to describe trace metal sorption on solid phases, to the discussion of the limitations imposed by the need of additional and reliable thermodynamic data and the difficulties involved in obtaining a rigorous thermodynamic description of the complexing properties of natural organic matter.
Floods
Authors: Jennings Steven , Gruntfest Eve 
Published: July 2005

AbstractStreams are linear water features that flow under the impetus of gravity. The amount of water contained in a stream is usually regulated by contributions of groundwater and surface runoff to the stream channel (Zaslavsky and Sinai, 1981; Knighton, 1998). Much of the time water in a stream flows within the confines of its channel. When inputs of water increase sufficiently, stream discharge leaves the stream channel and covers all or parts of the adjacent floodplain. Since the floodplain surface is usually a virtually flat surface and near the elevation of the stream channel, water can easily spread over the floodplain once water exceeds the elevation of the stream's banks. Most floods develop over a period of days or months as discharge increases gradually (Hirschboeck, 1987, 1988). Flash floods by contrast occur suddenly with little warning and are of short duration. Semiarid and arid areas are likely to experience flash floods (Reid and Frostick, 1987; Hassan, 1990). Flooding is not always associated directly with stream channels. Flooding occurs any time when water covers a surface that is normally not under water. Flooding can occur in coastal areas, low lying areas with poor drainage, or locations with inadequate urban drainage systems.
Floodplain
Authors: Tompkins Mark R. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The term
floodplain
has a range of physically and ecologically based definitions, in addition to a regulatory (i.e., flood control) definition. From the physical perspective, floodplains are a component of the dimensions and geometry of river channels, which as a whole reflect the runoff and sediment load they carry. Floodplains have been defined as the relatively flat level floor formed of sediment deposits, which extends from the edge of the channel to the valley walls. Nanson and Croke define floodplains more precisely as “the largely horizontally‐bedded alluvial landform adjacent to a channel, separated from the channel by banks, and built of sediment transported by the present flow‐regime.” They identify lateral point bar accretion, overbank vertical accretion, and braid‐channel accretion as the dominant floodplain forming processes in their genetic floodplain classification based on stream power and sediment texture.
Flood Prevention
Authors: Simonovic Slobodan P. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAlthough people cannot do much about floods, they can influence the nature and extent of flood losses. The latter can be achieved through flood management policies and programs. The first section of this contribution describes some of the causes of flooding in order to provide insight into why some flood protection and response polices might succeed in one area but fail in another. Since natural flood mechanisms exist and socioeconomic conditions vary throughout the world, a mix of responses is necessary to effectively deal with the flood problem. The second section of this contribution describes the nature of some specific flood protection activities. In this manner, the need for effective flood management is demonstrated.
Forests and Wetlands
Authors: Endreny Theodore A. , Bridger Emera 
Published: July 2005

AbstractForests and wetlands are landscape features that play integral roles in the hydrological cycle. Within the landscape, forests and wetlands are inextricably linked. Wetlands may exist within forest ecosystems, or wetland ecosystems can be characterized as “forested.” This article will outline the characteristics of both forests and wetlands and some implications for water resource management.
Great Lakes
Authors: Endreny Theodore A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario comprise the five interior freshwater lakes that extend across a total area of 244,000 km
2
(0.16% of world land area), occupy parts of six states and two provinces in two nations, and contain nearly 20% of the world's freshwater supply. Glaciers, although frozen, are the only contiguous surface freshwater volume that contains more freshwater; they were the geologic forces that carved these lakes and the surrounding drainage area from the Precambrian rocks and overlying marine deposits from earlier inland seas that are now rocks classified by their Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian periods. The current Pleistocene Epoch of glacier activity, whose vertical heights were 2 km, compressed and scoured the area during numerous advances and retreats. During each icesheet retreat, the ice‐excavated lake basins were filled by meltwater, and the absence of ice overload burden triggered areas of earth uplift and the creation of drainage outlets.
Hydraulics of Pressurized Flow
Authors: Fang Xing 
Published: July 2005

AbstractHydraulics is a branch of fluid mechanics specifically dealing with water as a major fluid in many engineering systems. It is safe to consider water as an incompressible fluid for typical engineering applications. Pressurized flow usually refers to the flow in closed conduits. Hydraulics of pressurized flow involves three basic equations: continuity, energy, and momentum equations. Head loss is important in hydraulics of pressurized flow regardless of system design or flow analysis. Darcy‐Weisbach and Hazen and Williams equations typically estimate friction head loss. The friction factor depends on Reynolds number and relative roughness of the pipe. Total head loss includes friction head loss caused by fluid viscosity and local head losses at changes in the cross section, bends, and various pipe fittings. A pump provides energy head to, and a water turbine takes energy head from, the pipe system.
Instream Flow Methods
Authors: Loganathan G. V. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAbstract The competing and increasing demands for water pose a formidable challenge for efficient management of instream flows. The offstream demands should in general be satisfied separately. The same instream flow satisfies all the instream flow demands and therefore its determination should be based on the largest of the demands. The demands need not be in the form of flow alone; there may be specific depth and velocity requirements. Methods of estimating minimum instream flow are discussed. They broadly fall into two categories, namely, threshold flow methods to guarantee releases for most of the time; and physically based methods addressing specific aspects of the demands.
Interception
Authors: Savenije Hubert H.G. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractInterception is a key process in hydrology that is receiving relatively little attention. It is the first process of the hydrological cycle that a raindrop experiences after falling from the sky, and hence, all subsequent processes depend on it. Neglect of the interception process can lead to serious modeling mistakes. Interception is defined as the evaporative process that feeds moisture back to the atmosphere shortly after the rainfall has ceased (within approximately 1 day). It is the evaporation from all surfaces that have been moistened by precipitation, including leaves, soil, mulch, rock, paved, and build‐up surfaces. Evaporation from interception can amount to a considerable part of all terrestrial evaporation, depending on the climate and region. The interception process behaves differently at different time scales. Formulas are presented for the computation of interception at short, daily, and monthly time scales.
Lakes—Discharges To
Authors: Phoenix Laurel 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Lakes have suffered from a long history of receiving pollutants from various sources. These pollutants degrade water quality, with implications for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as for a variety of issues for human populations dependent on that water and those ecosystems. The degree to which these pollutants degrade the lake depends on the amount and types of pollutants as well as the physical characteristics of the lake. For an introductory overview of how discharges to lakes are harmful, the pollutant sources and how pollutants are transported into the lake are described. The physical characteristics that determine the assimilative capacity of a lake are then covered. Finally, the effects that different pollutants have on lakes and their dependent ecosystems are explained as well as the ramifications for aquatic species, birds, wildlife, and humans.
Bioaccumulation
Authors: Lin Zhi‐Qing 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Bioaccumulation is a process by which a chemical from the environment accumulates in an organism's body over time. It results from mass equilibrium where the uptake of a chemical into the body of an organism exceeds the elimination of the chemical from the body. Bioaccumulation occurs when there is a concentration increase of the chemical in the tissues of an organism. When the concentration of a chemical becomes higher in an organism than in the environment, the bioaccumulation process is specifically termed bioconcentration. Distribution of an accumulated chemical in an organism varies significantly among tissues/organs, species, and chemicals. One of the important environmental concerns of bioaccumulation is biomagnification, whereby the concentration of a chemical increases at each higher trophic level through a food chain. Biomagnification can result in a concentration increase between two trophic levels of two to three orders of magnitude. The term bioaccumulation is sometimes also used to refer to the total amount of a chemical accumulated in the body of an organism.