bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Denitrification
Authors: Groffman Peter M , Holland Elisabeth A , Myrold David D , Robertson G Philip , Zou Xiaoming 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Denitrification is the reduction of the nitrogen oxides, nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-), to the gases nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (NzO), and dinitrogen (N2). The process is carried out mainly by facultative anaerobes, i.e., organisms that normally use oxygen (02) to accept electrons during respiration but in its absence can use nitrogen oxides as electron acceptors. Most denitrifying bacteria are heterotrophs, using organic carbon compounds as a source of energy. Denitrification is important in ecosystems for several reasons. First, removal of inorganic nitrogen by denitrification can influence the productivity of plants because their growth is frequently limited by nitrogen (Vitousek and Howarth 1991). Second, denitrification is important to water quality. Nitrate is a federally listed drinking water pollutant (Keeney 1987) and is an agent of eutrophication in marine ecosystems (Ryther and Dunstan 1971). Denitrification in soils, wetlands, streams, and groundwater can prevent movement of NO-3 from intensive upland land uses into aquatic ecosystems.
Modal Questions
Authors: Chafe Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN A WELL-KNOWN PASSAGE FROM THE second part of his treatise Die Kunstdes reinen Satzes in der Musik, Johann Philipp Kirnberger, addressing the question of setting the Lutheran chorales in major-minor versus modal style, cites his former teacher, J. S. Bach, as having deemed “the method of composing according to the old church modes as necessarY:’ Presumably, Kirnberger’s calling Bach “the most sensitive of the newer composers” in this passage refers particularly to this ability.1
Bach’s Reflection on the Past
Authors: Chafe Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ONE OF THE QUALITIES WE ASSOCIATE most with Bach’s work in general is that which Theodor W. Adorno called his “genius of meditation”—that is, his ability to take something given, whether a chorale melody, a traditional form or style, or an instrumental idiom, texture, or device, and to think it through in a manner that is both mindful of tradition and transforming of its expressive capacity.1 Nowhere is this ability to link (Bukofzer might have said to “fuse”) past and present more evident than in Bach’s response to the Lutheran chorale tradition.2 Not content merely to cultivate the various chorale prelude types he inherited from his German forebears, Bach, as we know, reinterpreted those types, from the simplest chorale harmonizations to the most elaborately conceived chorale fantasias, in seemingly endless ways. With the aid of a unique harmonic sensibility—the quality Kirnberger seems to have meant in his calling Bach the “most sensitive of the newer composers”—Bach created settings of the utmost harmonic daring (such as the chorale “Es ist genung” that ends Cantata 60) as well as others in which subtlety is the key issue, especially with regard to the modal qualities of the melodies themselves.3 And an achievement that is insufficiently recognized in this regard is the extent to which Bach was capable not just of deriving highly individual harmonic qualities from the traditional chorale melodies but also of extending the tonal qualities of the melodies to the movement sequences of entire cantatas. The latter quality almost always involves his perceiving a link between the tonal characteristics of a given melody and the theological intent of its text and then elaborating that link in terms of the musico-allegorical design of the work as a whole. Although there are many chorales in which the matchup of text and melody offers little of interest, especially in the area of modal-tonal qualities, there are also many in which it offers a great deal to anyone with Bach’s sensitivity to detail.
“Du Sollt Gott, deinen Herren, lieben”
Authors: Chafe Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
OWING TO ITS PROMINENT NUMEROLOGICAL and canonic features, most of which involve the melody of the chorale “Dies sind die heil’gen zehn Gebot;” the opening chorus of Cantata 77 has been the object of musicological attention for many years, whereas the remaining movements have not.1 Bach, as is well known, set forth the melody associated with Luther’s chorale as a canon in augmentation between the uppermost and lowermost instruments of the orchestra, the tromba da tirarsi and the basso continua, the former in D Mixolydian (beginning from the pitch d”) and moving basically in quarter notes and the latter in G Mixolydian (beginning from G) and featuring half-note motion. As described in the preceding chapter, Bach divides the melody into five rather than four or six phrases, beginning the fifth phrase at the point where the third degree of the Mixolydian scale is flattened, from f# to fl” in the trumpet and B to m in the basso continua. This aspect of the movement not only separates the melodic ascent from d” to g” (G to c) from the remainder of the final phrase, so that its identity as a unit common to phrases 1, 2, and 4 is all the clearer but also provides the numerological basis for the augmentation canon between trumpet and continua, whose ten phrases undoubtedly symbolize the Ten Commandments.
Common Morality and Kant’s Enlightenment Project
Authors: Donagan Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is there any prospect that all societies and cultures in the world will one day accept he same morality? No. Is there any prospect that their mores or ways of living will become much more alike? Yes, provided that the socialist and ‘‘third world’’ societies adopt market systems of economics, as it now appears that they will. How can societies have much the same mores and yet not the same morality? The thinkers of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, who laid the foundations of twentieth-century social and political science, were in a position also to lay the foundations for an adequate twentieth-century moral philosophy because they saw that the answer to this question must throw light not only on what morality is, but also on how its content is determined. Whether they did what they could have done, however, is disputed. Adam Smith’s admirers do not contend that his Theory of the Moral Sentiments has the authority of his Wealth of Nations. And although not a few philosophers maintain that the greatest of the Enlightenment philosophers, Immanuel Kant, not only correctly identified the foundation of morality in his pioneering Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten but also demonstrated in his late and uneven Metaphysik der Sitten the structure of the specific moral systems that can be built on that foundation, others deny it.
Explanation in Science and in History
Authors: Hempel Carl G , Fetzer James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the diverse factors that have encouraged and sustained scientific inquiry through its long history are two pervasive human concerns which provide, I think, the basic motivation for all scientific research. One of these if man’s persistent desire to improve his strateigc position in the world by means of dependable methods for predicting and, whenever possible, controlling the events that occur in it. The extent to which science has been able to satisfy this urge is reflected impressively in the vast and steadily widening range of its technological applications. But besides this practical concern, there is a second basic motivation for the scientific quest, namely, man’s insatiable intellectual curiosity, his deep concern to know the world he lives in, and to explain, and thus to understand, the unending flow of phenomena it presents to him.
Valuation and Objectivity in Science
Authors: Hempel Carl G , Fetzer James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The role of valuation in scientific research has been widely discussed in the methodological and philosophical literature. The interest in the problem stems to a large extent from the concern that value-dependence would jeopardize the objectivity of science. This concern is clearly reflected, for example, in Max Weber’s influential writings on the subject. In my essay, I propose to consider principally some aspects of the problem which have come into prominence more recently. A discussion of these issues can contribute, I think, to clarifying the cognitive status of the methodology of science and, more generally, of epistemology. The question of value-independence can be and has been raised concerning two quite different aspects of science, namely (1) the actual research behavior of scientists, and (2) the methodological standards for the critical appraisal and possibly the justification of scientific assertions and procedures.
Hempel and the Vienna Circle
Authors: Friedman Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I first met Hempel when I was an undergraduate at Queens College. Hempel had taught there in the years 1940–48, as his first regular position at an American University, and he had now returned (I believe it was in the academic year 1967–68) for a period of two weeks as a Distinguished Visitor. I had just become seriously interested in the philosophy of science, and I vividly remember the sense of profound excitement I felt while attending the variety of talks, seminars, and discussions Hempel held during this visit. His clarity and acuity of mind, wideranging knowledge and interests, and singular kindness and enthusiasm were exhilarating, and I resolved then and there to apply for graduate study at Princeton, where Hempel taught from 1955 until 1975. I attended Princeton in the years 1969-72 and took several inspiring seminars from Hempel. I remember one, in particular, when Hempel was working out his ideas on the problem of “provisoes,” where we in attendance were simply enthralled by the experience of witnessing a major philosopher fundamentally change his mind, and in the most open and relaxed way imaginable, about a central question of philosophical methodology that had essentially shaped much of his previous work. This experience left an indelible stamp on my own attitudes toward the subject.
Hempel and the Problem of Provisos
Authors: Suppe Frederick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Carl G. Hempel retired from Princeton in 1973. In 1977 he became University Professor of Philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh.1 Around that time he widely read papers in which he argued that deductive-nomological explanations were not logically valid deductions because they involved unstated ceteris paribus conditions, or as he called them, “provisos.” Many of us who heard these presentations marveled how in his later years Hempel was systematically calling into question his earlier work on explanation, theories, and the like. We took it as a mark of an intellectual integrity Hempel shared with Carnap where getting things right was paramount.
Explanation in History
Authors: Oray William H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Hempel’s now celebrated essay “The Function of General Laws in History” appeared in 1942, English-speaking philosophy of history was in a somnolent state. There was not much to point to beyond the early volumes of Toynbee’s Study of History, a chapter in Oakeshott’s Experience and its Modes. an early work on relativism by Mandelbaum entitled The Problem of Historical Knowledqe. and Collingwood’s Autobiography.1 Nor did a critical examination of historical knowledge and inquiry have much place in English-speaking philosophy on a longer time-scale. One had to go back through Mill’s observations on the social studies generally to Hume’s Essays to find any English philosopher treating history as a subject of much philosophical interest. What theory of history there was came mainly from historians—Carl Becker and Charles Beard, for example—and its level of philosophical sophistication was not very high. Soon after the end of the Second World War, however, the situation was very different. There was a proliferation of articles and then books on the subject, most of them in the analytic idiom; and by 1960, a new journal, History and Theory, was needed to accommodate and monitor the burgeoning discussion. Nothing does more to explain this enormous change than Hempel’s article and its reception, especially after its inclusion in a popular anthology by Feigl and Sellars in 1949, and another by Patrick Gardiner ten years later. This single, short piece of writing, on a single problem, by a philosopher who, although already a formidable presence in the philosophy of the physical sciences, gave little indication, either then or later, of being much interested in history for its own sake, nevertheless seized and held the attention of a sizeable group of philosophers and their students for more than a generation. It was a remarkable achievement.
VII
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
He was a first-class bully and braggart, arrogant, quicktempered, and fast as a whip in his capoeira movements. Though he must have been in his thirties, he looked barely twenty years old. His arms and legs were graceful; his neck was lithe but strong. He was n’ t muscular so much as sinewy. His thin mustache, curly and insolent, shone with his barber’ s perfumed brilliantine, while his mass of curly hair, jet black and parted in the middle so that it covered part of his face, stuck out beneath the straw hat he had cocked at a rakish angle over his left ear.
XII
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pombinha leapt up and ran home. Where she had been lying, the grass was stained with blood. Her mother stood over a washtub. Calling out to her, the girl headed straight for number fifteen. Once they were both inside, she silently lifted her skirts and showed Dona Isabel the stain. “It’ s come?’ ‘ the old woman asked excitedly. The girl nodded, blushing happily. The washerwoman’ s eyes filled with tears. “Praise the Lord!” she exclaimed, falling to her knees and raising her hands and face heavenward. Then she threw her arms around Pombinha’s legs, kissing her belly again and again. She even kissed the blood-that blessed blood that opened new vistas and assured their future, that good blood that had fallen from heaven like rain upon drought-parched land.
XVI
Authors: Azevedo Aluísio , Rosenthal David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Piedade de Jesus was still waiting for Jeronimo. Sitting impatiently outside her door, she had heard a clock strike eight, eight-thirty, nine, nine-thirty. “Mother of God, what could have happened?” For her husband, who was still unwell, had rushed out into the cool night air as soon as he had finished supper. What could have made him stay away so long? It was n’ t like him to act so foolish! “Ten o’ clock. 0 Lord Jesus Christ, help me!” She went to the front gate and asked if anyone had seen Jeronimo. No one had spotted him. She walked to the corner; a weary silence greeted her, like a yawning remnant of that Sunday afternoon.
Transcendentalism
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transcendentalist movement is generally recognized to be the first major watershed in American literary and intellectual history. Pioneered by Emerson, Thoreau, Orestes Brownson, Margaret Fuller, and Bronson Alcott (among others), Transcendentalism provided a springboard for the first distinctly American forays into intellectual culture: religion and religious reform, philosophy, literature, ecology, and spiritualism. This new collection, edited by eminent American literature scholar Joel Myerson, is the first anthology of the period to appear in over fifty years. Transcendentalism: A Reader draws together in their entirety the essential writings of the Transcendentalist group during its most active period, 1836-1844. It includes the major publications of the Dial, the writings on democratic and social reform, the early poetry, nature writings, and all of Emerson's major essays, as well as an informative introduction and annotations by Myerson.
Sampson Reed: Observations on the Growth of the Mind (1826)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
REED’s book would go through numerous editions, the last in 1889, making it one of the most valuable statements of Swedenborgianism for the period. It contains ideas about the correspondences between the heavenly and the physical worlds (the invisible and the visible), the ability of the mind to create and fix reality, education as an unfolding of innate abilities rather than being the sum of learned knowledge, the role of the poet, and biblical interpretation. It also shows how the world grows through organic means (form follows function), how language begins and is used, and how spiritualism differs from materialism. Although much of this pamphlet can be seen as a template for many of the Transcendentalist ideas that followed, Reed disassociated himself from the movement in his preface to the 1838 edition of Observations, calling it “the product of man’s own brain; and when the human mind has been compelled to relax its grip on sensualism, and the philosophy based on the senses, it may first be expected to take refuge here.”
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature(1836)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
EMERSON’S BOOK WAS published at exactly the right time. The British Romantic poets—especially Wordsworth—had been publishing works in which they had changed the natural world from something to be observed at a distance to a force in which the poet (as representative of the reader) was a participant observer. Nature, in other words, was less a spectacle to be seen than it was a text to be read, and the ideal reader was one whose emotions were fully in sympathy with the natural world. Also, as the miracles controversy began to heat up, Emerson’s view of nature as something that was explainable and also useful as a guide became a welcome contrast to the conservative Unitarian view of inexplicable natural occurrences that could only be interpreted by credentialed ministers for the less informed and privileged masses.
Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Divinity School Address” (1838)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
EMERSON TOLD HIS audience at the Phi Beta Kappa Society a year earlier that Harvard College had not taught them well; now he makes the same accusation against the teachers of the graduates of the Divinity School. He speaks forcefully about how “one mind is everywhere” (or “unity in va-riety”), how evil is not an active force in the world (“Good is positive. Evil is merely privative, not absolute. It is like cold, which is the privation of heat”), and how religion can be received intuitively. He complains of the “historical Christianity” that has made a “demigod” of Christ by exaggerating His person and not paying attention to His teachings, and has ignored humankind’s “Moral Nature,” and he urges his audience to “rekindle the smouldering, nigh quenched fire on the altar” by using the Sabbath more wisely and to reinvigorate the art of preaching by making it less dependent on the memory and more about the preacher imparting his soul.
Henry Ware, Jr., The Personality of the Deity (1838)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
HENRY WARE, JR. (1794-1843) was Emerson’s predecessor at the Second Church in Boston, and his sermon shortly after Emerson’s Divinity School Address is far more measured—and typical—than is Norton’s response (which has, unfortunately, been used to characterize the general Unitarian reaction).
“Levi Blodgett” [Theodore Parker], The Previous Question between Mr. Andrews Norton and His Alumni (1840)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IF EMERSON AND WARE engaged in civilized dialogue about their philosophical and ecclesiastical differences, then two old adversaries, Norton and Ripley, did not. As had happened with their differences over Martineau’s book in 1836, they now engaged each other over issues of authority, interpretation, and philosophy in a series of five pamphlets containing over five hundred pages of densely argued (and annotated) theological matters. Norton fired the opening salvo with his response to Emerson’s Divinity School Address, delivered, appropriately, on the same occasion as Emerson had spoken, though this time the speaker was not invited by the students, as his title makes clear: A Discourse on the Latest Form of Infidelity, Delivered at the Request of the Association of the Alumni of the Cambridge Theological School, on the 19th of July, 1839 (1839). Norton’s argument was simple: “Nothing is left that can be called Christianity, if its miraculous character be denied.”
Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, “Woman” from “The Conversations of Margaret Fuller” (Spring 1840)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
SARAH MARGARET FULLER (1810–1850) was the most important woman in the Transcendentalist movement. An intellectual, teacher, conversationalist, editor, feminist, author, translator, and social critic, she went on from Boston to New York in 1844, where she was the literary critic for the New-York Tribune, and then to Europe, ending in Italy, where she participated in the Revolution of 1848, as well as met her future husband, Giovanni Ossoli. When she returned to America in 1850 with her husband and son, their ship went aground off Fire Island, New York, and all perished. The Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli (1852), written and compiled by William Henry Channing, James Freeman Clarke, and Emerson, is a classic example of a woman’s life being refashioned for gendered reasons, as the editors created a “Margaret” who was more religiously orthodox and socially acceptable than they perceived the real Fuller to be.
Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The Editors to the Reader” (July 1840)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
FULLER HAD DRAFTED the original introduction to the Dial, but Emerson thought it “forestalls objection; it bows, though a little haughtily, to all the company; it is not quite confirmed in its own purpose,” and he was concerned about Fuller’s “early preparation for defence & anticipation of enemies,” warning: “Don’t cry before you are hurt.” After volunteering co help revise it, along with Fuller and Ripley, he ended up writing the whole introduction himself. This essay, like nearly all the contributions to the Dial—and most other contemporary journals—was unsigned.
A. Bronson Alcott, from “Orphic Sayings” (July 1840 and other dates)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
LCOTT’S “Orphic Sayings” was the most ridiculed contribution to the Dial, and its unfortunate appearance in the first issue (and the publication of more of them in January 1841) was used by many reviewers to characterize the entire periodical through its four-year run. In addition to numerous parodies, typical comments included descriptions of them by the Boston Daily Evening Mercantile Journal as the “quintessence of folly and extravagance—affected, mystical, bombastic—and, in some instances, puerile,” and by the Boston Post as “a train of fifteen railroad cars with one passenger.”
Theodore Tarker: A Discourse of the Transient and Permanent in Christianity; Preached at the Ordination of Mr. Charles C. Shackford, in the Hawes Place Church in Boston, May 19, 1841 (1841)
Authors: Myerson Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IF EMERSON’S Divinity School Address sidesteps a direct confrontation with the conservative Unitarians over the miracles question on their narrow theological grounds by preaching the doctrine of the infinitude of the individual and the need for the minister to translate spirit into action through preaching, then Parker takes up the challenge for a theological debate and approaches it directly. Both Emerson and Parker argue that the generations following Christ have come to worship the image of Christ more than they have his teachings, and that one reason for this is the increasingly repressive and hierarchical administrative structure of the church.