bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Reserve Army: Women and the Drug Market
Authors: Maher Lisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within the street-level drug economy in Bush wick, options for income generation can be located within three distinct, yet overlap ping and inter-dependent spheres: drug-business hustles, non-drug hustles, and sex work. Drug-business hustles (Johnson et al., 1985) form the ‘core ‘ or primary labour market, and non-drug hustles and sex work constitute a ‘periphery ‘ or secondary labour market. Women are virtually absent from the drug business, under-represented in non drug hustles and grossly over-represented in sex work. In this chapter I focus on opportunities for income generation arising out of drug business hustles, while the next two chapters examine non-drug hustles and sex work.Drug-business hustles refer to the transfer of goods and/or services directly related to the distribution and consumption of illicit drugs.1 In Bush wick, drug-business hustles are further distinguished by their location within a structural framework or organization: in theory at least, they offer the prospect of advancement and a potential ‘career ‘ path. Non-drug hustles are defined as acts of income generation which, while they may provide revenue for the drug economy, are not directly related to distributing and selling drugs.
Intersectionalities: Gender-Race-Class
Authors: Maher Lisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Opportunities for labour-market participation in the informal economy are not empty slots waiting to be filled by those with the requisite skill. As we have seen, who fills these slots and how certain slots come to be associated with a particular status influences the creation and maintenance of employment hierarchies and social hierarchies more generally. But little is known about the ways in which multiple dimensions of identity1 interact to produce divisions of labour and, in particular, how convergences of race/ethnicity and sex/gender con tribute to labour-market segmentation.Labour-market segmentation and labour process theories have typically focused on class. The economic determinism inherent in these analyses has tended to eclipse the role of other dimensions of social stratification such as sex/gender, race/ethnicity, age, and immigrant status in accounting for the over-representation of certain groups among the ranks of what has been described as an ‘industrial reserve army of labor ‘ (Bravermann, 1975).
The Reproduction of Inequalities
Authors: Maher Lisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The women portrayed in this book are part of a highly visible and heavily stigmatized population. They are among the poorest and most exploited of workers in the drug economy. Their lives are anchored in a complex geography which to outsiders presents as a ‘stark tableau of pathology and vice ‘ (Stansell, 1982:321). These women live and labour by their wits in a world marked by violence, victimization, and mutual exploitation. While they have ‘chosen ‘ sex work, they have not done so under conditions of their own choosing. Their choices are neither those of ‘equal competitors in an open market with equal opportunities to invest in human capital and advance in the labour market ‘ nor those of ‘deranged isolated individuals ‘ (Sullivan, 1989:247). Rather, they are choices shaped by a collective consciousness in which gendered and raced meanings of ‘crime as work ‘ form an integral part of the habitus (Bourdieu, 1977) of street level drug users.1 These schemata of ‘perception, appreciation and action ‘ (Wacquant, 1992:16) serve both to condition and to contextualize their criminal agencies.
Regional Protection of Human Rights: The Inter-American Achievement
Authors: Harris David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The substantive guarantee of the inter-American system for the protection of human rights is found in the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man 1948 and the American Convention on Human Rights 1969. The supervisory institutions are the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the American Court of Human Rights. The system is a creature of the OAS, whose 1948 Statute contains references to human rights and whose political organs play a part in the operation of the system.
The Protection of Indigenous Rights in the Inter-American System
Authors: Hannum Hurst 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Indigenous, native, or tribal peoples exist in every region of the world, but they are perhaps most visible—and have become most politically active in the Americas. Indeed, the European settlement of the Western Hemisphere and resulting displacement and marginalization of the peoples living on the continent at the time has become a classic example of colonization. Today, approximately 400 indigenous groups of varying sizes remain in the Americas, comprising more than 30 million people—roughly 10 per cent of the population of the entire continent.
Procedural Shortcomings in the Defense of Human Rights: An Inequality of Arms
Authors: Vivanco Jose Miguel , Bhansali* lisa l. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the transitions to democracy that have taken place over the past fifteen years, grave human rights violations continue to occur in Latin America and the Caribbean. Further most democratically-elected, civilian governments have failed to establish accountability for past and present violations; in fact, the region’s judiciaries are in crisis, and impunity is too often the norm for human rights violations and common crimes alike. Given this reality, a regional system of human rights protection is more needed than ever.
Policing The Risk Society
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this provocative new book, Richard Ericson and Kevin Haggerty contend that the police have become information brokers to institutions such as insurance companies and health and welfare organizations that operate based on a knowledge of risk. In turn, these institutions influence the ways that police officers think and act. A critical review of existing research reveals the need to study police interaction with institutions as well as individuals. These institutions are part of an emerging "risk society" where knowledge of risk is used to control danger. The authors examine different aspects of police involvement; the use of surveillance technologies and the collection of data on securities, careers and different social, ethnic, age and gender groups. They conclude by looking at how police organizations have been forced to develop new communications rules and technologies to meet external demands for knowledge of risk. This is the first book in this field to include detailed evidence of some of the central tenets of the risk society. It also includes a sophisticated examination of the risk society theory that will advance readers' knowledge considerably. With this book, the authors revolutionize the study of policing, and their work will impact heavily on scholars in criminology, social theory, and communications as well as policing and the public.
Community Policing and Risk Communications
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The community policing model provides a rationale and a justification for the policing of risk society. Community policing rejects previous models of policing, including militarism (order maintenance), legalism (law enforcement), and professionalism (public service). In community policing the police are expected to work with local institutions and organizations to help them look after their own risk management.
Risk Institutions
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Risk discourse is a product of institutions. Risks exist only in institutional knowledge about them. Each institution strives to freeze risks in time in the hope of creating a sense of structure and coherence about them and of making them more understandable and certain. To know a risk is to know how an institution classifies and establishes what the risk means and how it is to be responded to. To know an institution is to know how it selects and defines risks in ways that support and stabilize the institution.
Risk and Social Change
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Risk society is not the result of abrupt change. Rather, chance has been subject to taming processes over a long period (Hacking 1990). For our purposes, however, it is not fruitful to try to pinpoint the origins of risk society with regard to time, place, and cause. Instead we will look more generally at some of the antecedents of the contemporary emphasis on bureaucratic surveillance and risk management.
Tracing Territories
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A defining characteristic of the state is its claim to a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its territory. Despite risk society ‘s fragmented sources of institutional power, the state remains dominant in matters of internal territorial security and in the use of force required to sustain such security. Although some of the state ‘s fiscal and knowledge based forms of power are rivalled by globalizing institutions in the private sector, the state still claims territorial monopolies: ‘All modern states have a more or less successful monopoly of control of the means of violence within their own territories. No matter how great their economic power, industrial corporations are not military organizations (as some of them were during the colonial period), and they cannot establish themselves as political/legal entities which rule a given territorial area ‘ (Giddens 1990: 71).
Securities
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Policing the risk society involves policing forms of risk that transcend space and time. In Part IV we consider risks to securities, careers, and identities as nonterritorial dimensions of risk society that the police participate in.
In this chapter we examine how the police help to manage risks to securities. Securities are symbolic instruments - financial instruments, certificates of ownership, credentials, and so on - that attest to credit, ownership, identity, and achievements. Securities give assurance of the fulfilment of obligations and guarantee against the risk of loss. Securities contribute to the foundation of trust that is essential for the routine flow of institutional relations. The police are an important part of how institutions establish trust and efficiency through their security instruments.
Careers
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People ‘s life-course careers are managed by institutions responsible for insurance, education, employment, welfare, sport, criminal justice, health, and finance. These institutions register accomplishments and failures, credentials and demerits, routines and accidents, experienced throughout the life-course. This knowledge is used to profile careers and to etch them into the institutional class structure of risk society. Class is constructed in terms of groups of people who share a particular institutional classification: high school graduates, recipients of $5,000 lines of credit, Alzheimer ‘s patients, people with criminal records, and so on. These classes exist as definitional sets for institutional purposes, not as communities that share a self-defined common interest.
Knowledge Risk Management
Authors: Ericson Richard V , Haggerty Kevin D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The police face the risk of having their organization overwhelmed by both externally derived risk criteria and the sheer volume of knowledge work. They have a strong sense of organizational risk and insecurity because of external demands for knowledge; a perpetual feeling of having insufficient knowledge; and a reflexive awareness that there are always systemic faults that can be corrected through better communication rules, formats, and technologies. As Manning (1982: 122) observes, organizations are ‘resources for conceptualizing, assessing and coping strategically with perceived threats from the posited environment and in many respects therefore are political entities. ‘
The Chimera of Social Integration
Authors: Murphy W T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the course of elaborating his attractive and influential sociology of practice, Pierre Bourdieu sends certain echoes through the self-styled interpretive sections of the social science community: But the contemporary reality is more complicated than this, and the kinds of concerns with proof which taxed Weber3 are concerns which today engender ambivalence. In endless revisionist sociologies, there is a vacuous or gestural plea to restore the perspective of agency (while at the same time seeking to preserve the distinct identity of sociology from, say, history). Yet in many respects this has become a moorless rhetoric, outside the academic disciplines and the mass media which ‘individualize’ many phenomena and thereby exhibit their own inner tension between the simulated immediacy of presentation which individualization permits and the quantitative (and deeply sociological) variables which come into play in assessing their success--sales, viewing figures, and all the other market indicators with which we are now familiar.
Introduction
Authors: Scope A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This monograph examines the legal regulation of the use during international armed conflict of naval weapons systems. It is concerned with the regulation of the employment of violent means of coercion, i.e. with ius in hello. There is no discussion, therefore, of ius ad helium or of the appropriate scope of self defence and associated questions. Nor does the work address the issue of whether the law of war subsists in the era of the Charter of the United Nations.Finally, there is no consideration of the potential use of naval weapons in United Nations or United Nations-authorized peace-keeping or peace enforcement operations as such.
Naval Mines
Authors: Farragut Admiral David G , Navy US 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Due to the stealth by which they each operate and the general absence of accountability on the open ocean, it is difficult to ascertain whether naval mines or submarines have caused the greatest loss of life at sea and destruction of ships since the tum of the century. Beyond doubt, mines are the naval weapon which have been produced in the largest number4 and which have been dispersed over the widest area. In this century, they have been used in virtually all conflicts having a naval theatre of operations, from the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 to the Iraq-Kuwait War of 1990-91. Naval mines also played a vital role in the planning for, and deterrence of, conflict between NATO and the Soviet Union.
Anti-Ship Missiles
Authors: Booth Ken 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anti-ship missiles are the primary weapon of modern strike/surface naval warfare. That is, they are the weapon of choice by which an attack is carried out against a ship on the surface of the sea. An anti-ship missile attack may be launched from the shore, from aircraft (including helicopters), from submarines or from other surface ships. In 1991 it was reported that seventy-one countries possessed anti-ship missiles. This number will have since increased, particularly as Russia seeks to earn foreign hard currency through the sale of sophisticated anti-ship missiles. Seventeen countries produce anti-ship missiles. While the number of types of anti-ship missiles is difficult to determine, there are certainly over fifty.
Conclusions
Authors: Schachter Oscar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The necessities of choice, the normative complexities of the law, the inadequacies of precedent and the great diversity of facts make it impossible to assume that the objective facts of prior State practice or the words of treaties will be enough for decisions when States differ substantially on the law. Specific conclusions pertaining to the regulation of the particular weapons system follow the analysis of the contemporary law in the relevant chapters of this monograph. Here a more encompassing and cohesive attempt is made to synthesize from those specifics so as to draw conclusions, albeit at times tentatively, that may be appropriate to naval weapons systems and the contemporary law of war viewed as a functioning whole.
Inadmissibility RatiOne Temporis
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
24.Time limits According to Article II of the Statute of the Tribunal:No … application shall be admissible, except under exceptional circumstances as decided by the Tribunal, unless … the application is filed within ninety days after … receipt of notice, after the applicant has exhausted all the remedies available within the Bank group, that the relief asked for … will not be granted. Regarding pension cases, Rule 22 of the Rules of the Tribunal provides that: Where an application is brought against a decision of the Pension Benefits Administration Committee of the Bank, the time limits prescribed in Article II of the Statute are reckoned from the date of the communication of the contested decision to the party concerned.
Discretionary Power
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
General i.72. The Tribunal recalls, of course, the distinction drawn in Gyamfi, WBAT Reports, Decision No. 28 [1986], between disciplinary actions and actions involving managerial discretion including, in particular, performance evaluation. In respect of the latter, ‘The final decision in this respect rests with the Respondent as long as the exercise of discretion is not discriminatory, improperly motivated, based on error of fact or otherwise tainted by abuse of power’ (paragraph 40). It is not, therefore, for the Tribunal to substitute its discretion for that of management in deciding the extent to which, if at all, the copper salvage episode could properly have an effect upon the Applicant’s performance rating and associated salary increase as determined by reference to managerial, in contrast to disciplinary, considerations.
Substantive Irregularity
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Abuse of discretion i.29. The Applicant also contends that the Respondent’s salary action in 1990 is an impermissible abuse of discretion. The alleged abuse is expressed in terms particular to the circumstances of the Applicant’s case and starts from the premise that the Applicant was deprived of rights ‘which had been secured prior to the adoption of the new salary administration arrangements’ or of rights which were the subject of ‘specific promises’. The Tribunal is unable to identify the specific promises which the Applicant thus invokes. As already stated in paragraph 26 above, the undertakings given to him in 1985 and 1986 were expressly stated to be limited to two years; and the memoranda of 1988 and 1989 cannot be interpreted in the way which the Applicant asserts.
Performance
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Evaluation i.34. Several contentions of the Applicant in this regard are not justified. In particular, the record does not support the suggestion that the Respondent intended to punish the Applicant for having made complaints. With respect to the Applicant’s contention that the management of his Department was in disarray, there is no evidence that, even if this were a fair characterization of conditions within his department, this undermined the validity of his performance evaluations. Such evaluations were generally done in due course and the delays that took place cannot in themselves be considered as constituting a procedural irregularity. It should be noted, furthermore, that a proper evaluation does not require that every person related to the Applicant’s work should be consulted.38…. The fact that the management was not satisfied with the Applicant’s performance is well established and the pertinent evaluations do not depart from applicable Staff Rules. The record does not provide any evidence that discretion might have been abused in this regard.
Recruitment
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Tribunal is of the view that the right to be considered for a regular appointment is not a fundamental or an essential element of the terms of employment of the Applicant. The reason is that any employee of the Bank who chooses to leave with a separation package is hardly likely to be anticipating reemployment or the conditions that the Bank would place upon such reemployment. That is particularly true in a case such as this, when the Applicant’s reemployment as a consultant took place some four years after she left the Bank, and when her reemployment was initiated by inquiries from the Bank rather than from her. The circumstances and terms under which a departing staff member is to be reemployed are too peripheral, speculative and remote to be regarded as fundamental and essential elements of his or her terms of employment.
Fixed-Term Contract
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Expectancy i.39. The financial treatment given to the Applicant was not unfair because an ex-gratia payment covering the balance of his fixed-term appointment was offered and later combined with Special Leave. The Bank also paid the Applicant for the time worked on Special Leave. It follows that the Applicant did not suffer undue financial hardship in terms of what he could have reason ably expected under a three-year fixed-term con tract.
Termination
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Redundancy i.35. The Tribunal does not accept the Applicant’s argument that his Bank service was terminated by virtue of redundancy. There are two kinds of appointments: one for an indefinite term and the other for a definite term. In the case of an appointment for a definite term, Staff Rule 7.01, paragraph 3.01, provides that it shall expire on the completion of the term, as specified in the staff member’s letter of appointment, as possibly amended. The Applicant’s letter of appointment, dated March 1, 1987, made him a ‘formal offer of a fixed-term appointment for a period of two (2) years’ and explicitly stated in the very first paragraph that ‘A fixed-term contract is not subject to automatic extension’.
Miscellaneous
Authors: Amerasinghe C F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
39. Nor does the Tribunal accept the argument that the Applicant’s right of privacy was compromised by the fact that his PPR was considered when disciplinary measures were taken. Performance reviews are intended to serve institutional objectives and, particularly, the improvement of performance so as to achieve the goals of the organization. In this regard, while the PPR may be protected by confidentiality, it cannot be considered a document protected by the right of privacy in the context of the Respondent’s disciplinary decisions. The Respondent will have the corresponding obligation of not allowing any misuse of such confidential information, for example by protecting the Applicant from having a PPR disclosed to third parties, but this is not alleged to have happened in this case.
Legal Aid Reform in France and the Republic of Ireland in the 1990s*
Authors: Cousins Mel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The comparative study of legal aid schemes has tended to focus on ‘leaders’ (i.e. those countries with more extensive legal aid schemes) and to ignore the ‘laggards’. Cappelletti’s study of legal aid, for example, was based on the assumption that the development of legal aid was tied to the modernisation of societies. Accordingly, those countries which did not have extensive legal aid schemes were seen as ‘Anachronisms in the Modem World’ (Cappelletti, Gordley and Johnson, 1975).