bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Public Provision
Authors: Cameron Cecily , QC Elizabeth-Anne Gumbel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the major issues in the assessment of damages in cases of serious injury is the extent to which specially adapted accommodation, care, and other services will be available through state services. There is then the issue as to whether the claimant is entitled to choose private provision rather than accept state provision and to force the defendant to pay the full cost of private provision. The difference between damages assessed on the basis that a claimant will remain in an NHS Hospital or local authority residential home for the rest of their lives and damages assessed on the basis that the claimant will live in their own home and be provided with privately funded 24-hour nursing care can be many millions of pounds.
Belgium
Authors: Verdood Bert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the characteristics of Belgian financial services regulation is the assimilation between performing a licensable activity and the offer to perform a licensable activity. There is no specific regime for solicitation of business of banking, insurance and investment services activities from customers in Belgium. Solicitation of business in respect of financial services will in most cases be considered as the provision of the financial service itself and trigger licensing requirements. This assimilation is provided for in some Basic Laws, such as the Basic Law on credit institutions.
Bulgaria
Authors: Bebove Nikolay 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bulgaria became a member of the European Union, together with Romania, on 1 January 2007. This most important milestone in the country’s post-Communism history was both a remarkable and longawaited success, warmly welcomed by the vast majority of Bulgarians whether living in the country or those who left the country (mainly for Western Europe and the US) but who kept ties with it (through relatives, business counterparts, and others). It was unfortunately tainted to an extent by concerns that the reforms were not complete, on that date, in such important areas as combating corruption and organized crime, and the defects in the working of the judiciary. To counterbalance these relative failures, economic indicators have been improving steadily since the big inflation crisis and sovereign debt default of 1996 and 1997: trends in increase in foreign investments have been sustainable, against the background of a stable macroeconomic climate, propelled above all by monetary stability (with the Bulgarian currency, the Lev, pegged, under the auspices of and strict scrutiny by the IMF, to the euro). GDP growth in 2007 stood at 6.2%, year-on-year (data given by the National Statistical Institute), a figure similar to that in the preceding five years. Positively, in the middle of 2007 there are, finally, signs that the dealing with the problem areas might also be showing some progress; in particular, the working of the public prosecution system seems to have improved. However, such signs are still meek compared with expectations and, regrettably, scandals and failures involving the police, the public prosecution, the customs, and other authorities remain frequent in the first half of 2008. Critical remarks by the European Commission and a displeased civil society in the country are expected to force the government and the political class as a whole to finally work towards making major improvements in such problem areas.
Czech Republic
Authors: Kotab Petr , Vozehova Lucie , Safka Jiri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Following the ‘velvet revolution’ at the end of 1989, the financial market, as an inseparable part of the market economy, began to develop in the Czech Republic after an era characterized by a totalitarian regime based around a centrally planned economy. It was the changes both at a political and economic level that evoked the dramatic development of the financial sector. This encompassed the capital market as well as the money market. During the early 1990s the financial sector was affected by the lengthy privatization process of major banks and the considerable degree of risk of loans granted by—at that time—partly or wholly stateowned banks. The following period from the second half of the 1990s and the early 2000s was therefore focused on the completion of the privatization of the banking sector—the ‘purification ‘ of banks—by transferring their bad assets to the state, and the implementation of more prudent banking regulation exercised by the Czech National Bank.
Denmark
Authors: Jensen Michael Steen , Andreasen Charlotte Fredborg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The regulation of the Danish financial sector emerged in the latter parts of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. The regulation was, however, in the beginning fragmented and characterized by a sharp division of both of the responsibilities between the individual regulatory authorities and the scope of application of the individual regulatory acts. The supervision of the financial sector was based on the principle that each financial activity, such as banking and insurance, should not only be regulated by separate acts, but also by separate supervisory authorities. The regulation of the financial sector was, furthermore, based on a very strict division of which activities could be carried out by the same company or group of companies. The concept of a financial conglomerate had yet to be introduced in Denmark.
Germany
Authors: Behrends Okko Hendrik , Becker Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Regulation of the financial sector in Germany can be broken down into banking, securities and insurance regulation. In 2002, the main regulatory authorities responsible for these sectors were merged into one: the Federal Financial Services Supervisory Authority/ ‘BaFin’. However, the substantive provisions are still contained in separate legislation and the BaFin is also divided into three directorates dealing with banking, securities and insurance supervision.
Iceland
Authors: Ólafsdóttir Ragnheiður M , Thorlacius Guðmundur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Icelandic financial market is broadly in line with those of other European countries, especially the Nordic countries and, as such, has developed tremendously in the last fifteen years. Since the early 1980s the government’s aim has been to deregulate and foster market forces in different areas, eg price determination, currency transactions, credit and state ownership of banks. During the 1980s and early 1990s the government’s role in the financial market changed from being a direct participant to setting general rules and maintaining a supervisory role. This has taken place through privatization of banks, freedom in capital flows and abolishing of exchange controls, etc. Iceland has been a member of the European Economic Area (EEA) since 1994. Its close relationship with the European Union (EU) and participation in the single market have had a huge effect on commerce, financial markets and regulation. Through its membership of the EEA, Iceland has adopted numerous directives and regulations relating to commerce, competition and financial markets and has implemented the same basic liberal rules regarding unrestricted movement of goods, labour, services and capital as the EU.
Isle Of Man
Authors: Verardi Nick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Isle of Man is centrally located in the Irish Sea between England and Ireland. It is a self-governing dependency of the British Crown forming part of the British Isles but it is not part of the United Kingdom. The Island enjoys a relationship with the UK government which enables it to operate independently with regard to internal Island-related matters, yet be represented by the UK government in relation to external matters. The Isle of Man has the oldest continuous Parliament in the world, called Tynwald, which oversees the Island’s internal administration, fiscal and social policies and legislates for the Island in these areas, subject to receiving Royal Assent from the UK. This relationship enables the Island to diversify from practices in the UK and to operate regimes designed specifically to enhance favourable treatment of the Island’s residents and investors in the Island. The Isle of Man has an excellent offshore reputation and a respected financial stability which is maintained by rigorous regulation and supervision of financial institutions and services in operation on the Island.
Italy
Authors: Daviddi Paolo , Ricci Francesca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The financial market comprises three main activities: banking, finance and insurance. In Italy, these sectors are governed separately and supervised by different authorities. Briefly, banks and financial intermediaries are controlled by the Italian Central Bank (Bank of Italy), listed companies and, in relation to certain issues, financial intermediaries are regulated by the National Commission for Listed Companies and Stock Exchange (CONSOB) and insurance companies are governed by the Istituto per la Vigilanza sulle Assicurazioni Private e di Interesse Collettivo (ISVAP). Each body exercises its authority by selecting, admitting, monitoring and eliminating operators from the sector for which it is responsible.
Jersey
Authors: Grace William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jersey’s population of 89,300 includes some 12,000 professionally trained workers within the finance industry, accounting for nearly 60% of GDP. The size of Jersey’s financial services industry is illustrated by the most recent quarterly report issued by Jersey Finance, the representative trade body for the financial services industry in Jersey, which records bank deposits of some GBP 219.5bn and the value of collective investment funds at some GBP 221bn. Prior to 1998, there was no overriding regulatory framework in place in Jersey. Regulatory and supervisory functions in Jersey were undertaken by the Financial Services Department (FSD), the executive arm of the Finance and Economics Committee (Committee) of the States of Jersey (NB the States is Jersey’s Parliament). The FSD’s powers were complemented by discrete pieces of legislation in relation to some financial services. As Jersey experienced continued financial growth in the 1990s, it became clear that a regulatory framework under an independent regulator needed to be implemented in order to guarantee wide-ranging and effective supervision of the financial services industry.
Latvia
Authors: Lisenoka Eleonora , Pikelis Egons 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are currently 21 banks and four branch offices of foreign banks providing banking services in the Republic of Latvia, as well as credit institutions or their branch offices registered in other countries of the European Economic Area which have filed applications with the Financial and Capital Markets Commission to provide services in Latvia. There are also three electronic money institutions and three money market funds registered with the Bank of Latvia. According to data from the Financial and Capital Markets Commission, at the end of 2006, 68.8% of the paid-up share capital of Latvian banks was owned by foreign shareholders. Foreign shareholders held more than 50% of the paid-up share capital in 11 banks.
Lithuania
Authors: Reciunas Gedminas , Stasevicius Giedrius 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the restoration of independence on 11 March 1990, Lithuania started to create a private, owner- ship-based financial services industry. The current financial market consisting of the three main sectors—banking, capital markets and insurance—was traditionally dominated by banking, that is, the activities of banks and the credit market played a significant role in comparison to those of the capital markets. However, the past few years have seen a remarkable growth in the Lithuanian economy as well as successful pension and other legislative reforms which have allowed the capital markets to become an increasingly important part of the Lithuanian financial industry.
Republic of Moldova
Authors: Burac Victor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The financial services market is an important area of development of the Republic of Moldova (the RM), therefore the regulation of this market is of major interest to the RM’s public regulatory bodies. Such regulation is provided for through a wide range of normative acts, which may be classified as primary legislation (which includes laws (constitutional, organic and ordinary) and decisions approved by the legislative authority—the Parliament of Moldova (the PoM), as well as the decisions of the executive authority—the decrees of the President and the decisions of the government of Moldova (the GoM)); and subordinate legislation (which includes normative acts approved and enacted by central public administration authorities such as the Ministry of Finance (the MF), National Bank of Moldova (the NBM) and the National Commission on Financial Market (the NCFM)). The extent of the regulatory powers of the aforementioned public authorities is described at paras 27.77–27.124 below.
Montenegro
Authors: Adamovic Jelena 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Montenegro was one of the six Republics that formed the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). After the breakdown of SFRY in 1991, Serbia and Montenegro formed a new federal state—the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY). Political turmoil and isolation from the world during the 1990s have led to the severe collapse of the FRY economy. For this reason the general trend of liberalization of the economy during the early stages of the transition towards a market economy experienced many obstacles. Until the 1990s, most companies in Montenegro were organized as public (state-owned). Their privatization started in 1989, in accordance with the federal laws existing at the time. The Montenegrin Parliament enacted the Montenegrin Privatization Law in June 1996. Amendments to this Law were enacted in February 1999 and are still in force. In compliance with these amendments, the privatization process was undertaken by the issue of free privatization vouchers under the Mass Voucher Privatization (MVP) programme and through direct sale via public tenders, auctions and offers to strategic investors. MVP enabled all adult citizens to become owners and to trade with vouchers and it led towards the development of the capital market and financial institutions and to a more efficient economy.
Poland
Authors: Namiotkiewicz Grzegorz , Stosio Andrzej 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Polish financial services market is regulated around three fundamental areas: banking services market, capital market and insurance market (including the pension insurance market). Pursuant to new regulations, the structure of the Polish financial market was reorganized. The overall purpose of the supervisory structures and mechanisms was the protection of interests of the clients who entrusted their moneys to financial institutions. For the purposes of transparency and uniformity, the Polish financial market is supervised by one supervisory authority common for banking, insurance and financial sectors. The process of integration of financial supervision, after several years of debate, began in 2002 through the integration of the insurance and pension markets. The specialized supervisory authorities—the State Office for Insurance Supervision and the Office for Supervision over Pension Funds—were abolished and the Insurance and Pension Funds Supervisory Commission (KNUiFE) was created.
Russia
Authors: Gutbrod Max , Kushner Victoria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The financial services industry in Russia has developed substantially in recent years. The rapid growth of the Russian economy, largely determined by a favourable situation in the world markets for raw materials (oil, metals) is one of the key factors for the industry growth. The Russian government’s tax and currency liberalization efforts have improved the investment environment of the industry. Another source is the growing trust of international investors in Russia, its economy and its market, which is reflected in the fact that Russia has obtained international investment-grade credit ratings. As at February 2008, the total number of institutional and private investors trading on the Russian stock exchanges exceeded 400,000. For comparison purposes, as at 18 October 2006 the number of investors was 234,628. However, the sector still experiences some of the shortcomings typical for a developing economy. The industry is underdeveloped and afflicted by a number of ongoing structural and cultural flaws that need to be remedied before it can develop further and reach a stage of maturity.
Spain
Authors: Mata Fernando de la , Tarragona Laia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past 20 years have been of crucial importance for the regulatory framework of Spain’s financial serv- ices industry. The Spanish financial system has become integrated into the international financial mar- kets through a series of regulatory reforms, allowing it to become more liberalized, efficient and flexible. One of the key factors contributing to this internationalization was undoubtedly Spain’s admission to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1986 and subsequently the implementation of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). The construction of the single market ensured that some crucial reforms in Spain became compulsory. Spain has become increasingly attractive for foreign capital, which has triggered an economic boom in the country. In addition, being a part of the euro area has been another step towards economic growth. Membership of the EMU has led to fewer transaction costs and related expenses for companies with international operations, facilitated cross-border trade in Europe and also increased the opportunities for foreign investors in the member states ‘ national markets.
Arab Republic of Egypt
Authors: Ross Timothy N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In relation to the banking sector, the Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) is the regulator in respect of all banking operations. The CBE is an independent public sector entity and reports directly to the President of the Republic. The Egyptian Insurance Supervisory Authority (EISA) is the main regulatory authority over the insurance sector while the Higher Insurance Council sets out the general insurance policy directives as well as the means to implement them. The Capital Markets Authority (CMA) and the Cairo and the Cairo and Alexandria Stock Exchange (CASE) are the main regulators of securities activities.
Qatar
Authors: Ross Timothy N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) was set up in early 2005 by virtue of law number 7 of 2005 (QFC Law). Although the QFC is not a free zone, thus being an onshore jurisdiction, it is an independent jurisdiction parallel to that of Qatar. In this sense, the QFC has its own civil and commercial laws that are based on common law best practices and very different to the laws of Qatar. Therefore, the answers to the questions below will cover both the Qatari and QFC legal systems.
Losses in Translation
Authors: Bradley Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two kinds of translation intervene between the artworks of the past and those of the present day. The first is the transformation of ancient objects through the antiquities trade. Once they are taken out of their original contexts the yenter a new domain in which their associations are ignored and their visual appearance changes them into works of art. The second translation is where they provide a model for contemporary artists who may be equally unconcerned with the primary roles of those objects.
Regulation of Clinical Trials
Authors: Hudson Dr Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the UK, when the licensing provisions of the Medicines Act 1968 came into force in 1971, they required the supplier of a medicinal product to apply for a Clinical Trial Certificate (CTC) before testing a new product in patients. Under the Medicines Act 1968, a doctor or dentist was considered to be carrying out a clinical trial if he administered a medicinal product primarily to determine what effect it had.1 The applicant had to provide detailed pharmaceutical and toxicological information about the new drug, and the Licensing Authority (LA), with the advice of the Committee on Safety of Medicines (CSM) granted the CTC if appropriate, having assessed the new compound and concluded that it did not involve a serious risk to the trial subject.
Criminal Liability
Authors: Asif Jalil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the main areas of potential exposure to criminal liability for those involved in the production and supply of medicines when there is a serious adverse effect on the user of the medicine (or anyone else). There are a number of possible offences that may be relevant depending on the nature of the effect or the conduct involved, from criminal charges of murder downwards. This chapter also addresses the provisions of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 concerning controlled drugs, and deals with the regulatory offences that may also be committed. However, it does not seek to deal with criminal procedure or evidence.
Building the Defences
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In February 1929, Pauline Lasin, who lived at Manville, New Jersey, became a widow. She was 37 and the mother of six small children. Pauline’s husband, John, who for a decade had worked for Johns- Manville, had died of asbestosis. The family was Ukrainian and Pauline Lasin was left with no way of supporting her children. Soon after her husband’s death, she was approached by a lawyer who encouraged her to file a claim against Johns-Manville for $40,000.During the preliminary hearings Johns-Manville mounted its standard defence.
The Chrysotile Defence
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In reviewing the science it is important to remember that asbestos is such a toxic material that even relatively trivial exposure can result in serious or fatal injury. For that reason, one might have expected physicians and allied scientists to have led the campaigns against the mineral and against the companies that produced it. Yet, as we shall see, not only was the medical profession’s reaction to the asbestos hazard often feeble, but scientists have also been among the industry’s most strident defenders.
Pushing Asbestos in the Developing World
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During most of the twentieth century, asbestos mined in economically depressed regions was used to manufacture products in the industrial heartlands of the North. Although the Canadian mines were to some extent an exception, Quebec is one of Canada’s poorest provinces and the men and women employed at Thetford were amongst the mostvulnerable of Canadian workers. Over the past three decades that pattern has changed. Today asbestos manufacture is concentrated in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where a wide range of cheap and durable products are made.