bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Participatory evaluations of trachoma control programmes in eight countries
Authors: Kuper Hannah , Solomon Anthony W. , Buchan John C. , Zondervan Marcia , Mabey David , Foster Allen 
Published: July 2005

SummaryObjectives  Trachoma is a major cause of blindness. The objective of this initiative was to conduct participatory process evaluations of the trachoma control programmes receiving support from the International Trachoma Initiative in eight countries.Methods  During each 2‐ to 4‐week evaluation we analysed information collected at the central, district and community level through interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, direct observation of trachoma control activities, and existing data.Results  Mapping and assessment of disease prevalence had been completed in four of eight countries. Integration of trachoma control activities into national planning and district‐level service provision varied. Intersectoral partnerships to implement the SAFE strategy (i.e. surgery, antibiotics, facial cleanliness and environmental change) were well established in a few countries. In all eight countries, the number of surgeries performed annually was insufficient; and quality of surgery was rarely monitored. Mass distribution of antibiotics was carried out well in extremely resource‐poor settings and good coverage was achieved, although the strategy for antibiotic distribution varied. Inadequate water and sanitation remained a major problem in all programme areas. Monitoring of programme activities was generally inadequate. The Morocco programme is an example from which lessons and processes can be learnt and adapted to other programme countries.Conclusions  Significant achievements have been made in implementing the SAFE strategy. Scaling up of activities to true national coverage should be planned and implemented provided the resources can be made available. Further standardization of how to assess, implement and monitor trachoma control activities will facilitate expansion of the programme.
Effectiveness of dengue control practices in household water containers in Northeast Thailand
Authors: Phuanukoonnon Suparat , Mueller Ivo , Bryan Joan H. 
Published: July 2005

SummaryObjective  To investigate the influence of larval control methods (using temephos, keeping fish and covering containers with lids), water use and weekly cleaning of containers on the presence of Aedes aegypti larvae in water‐storage containers in rural and urban households in Khon Kaen province.Method  Cross‐sectional questionnaire survey and larval survey covered 966 households and 5821 containers were inspected.Result  In rural and urban areas larval control was patchy and often ineffective. Consequently, the mosquito indices exceed the target indices for dengue control with the Breteau Indices of 201 and 113, and Container Indices of 25 and 28 in rural and urban areas, respectively. The containers most frequently infested with larvae were rectangular cement containers storing water for bathing (rural: 37.2%; urban: 35%) and flushing the toilets (rural: 35.7%; urban: 34.3%). Keeping fish [adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 0.08–0.16] was the most effective methods of control. Correctly covering containers with lids was similarly effective (AOR: 0.10–0.25) when used on jars for storing drinking water. However, frequent use of containers reduced the effectiveness of lids. Temephos was effective only in dragon jars in urban areas (AOR: 0.46) where a standard package of temephos were available. Weekly cleaning of containers was an effective method for larval control in most types of containers. A combination of control methods increased effectiveness.Conclusion  This study highlights the complex interaction of household water use and larval control practices as well as the importance of determining the most effective control measures compatible with water practices for implementing control promotion.
Needle stick injuries among nurses in sub‐Saharan Africa
Authors: Nsubuga Fredrich M. , Jaakkola Maritta S. 
Published: July 2005

SummaryObjectives  Despite a heavy burden of HIV/AIDS and other blood borne infections, few studies have investigated needle stick injuries in sub‐Saharan Africa. We conducted a cross‐sectional study at Mulago national referral hospital in Kampala, Uganda, to assess the occurrence and risk factors of needle stick injuries among nurses and midwives.Methods  A total of 526 nurses and midwives involved in the direct day‐to‐day management of patients answered a questionnaire inquiring about occurrence of needle stick injuries and about potential predictors, including work experience, work load, working habits, training, and risk behaviour.Results  A 57% of the nurses and midwives had experienced at least one needle stick injury in the last year. Only 18% had not experienced any such injury in their entire career. The rate of needle stick injuries was 4.2 per person‐year. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the most important risk factor for needle stick injuries was lack of training on such injuries (OR 5.72, 95% CI 3.41–9.62). Other important risk factors included working for more than 40 h/week (OR 1.90, 95% CI 1.20–3.31), recapping needles most of the time (OR 1.78, 95% CI 1.11–2.86), and not using gloves when handling needles (OR 1.91, 95% CI 1.10–3.32).Conclusions  The study showed a high rate of needle stick injuries among nurses and midwives working in Uganda. The strongest predictor for needle stick injuries was lack of training. Other important risk factors were related to long working hours, working habits, and experience.
No evidence of prolonged enterovirus excretion in HIV‐seropositive patients
Authors: Gouandjika‐Vasilache Ionela , Akoua‐Koffi Chantal , Begaud Evelyne , Dosseh Annick 
Published: July 2005

SummaryMutations frequently occur in oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) strains upon replication in the human intestine. These strains occasionally revert to being neurovirulent. The more prolonged the excretion of OPV, the higher the risk of reversion. OPV strains can be secreted for several months in humans presenting humoral immune system deficiencies. The duration of excretion of OPV strains or other enteroviruses in individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is unknown. We investigated whether HIV infection, which is very prevalent in the Central African Republic, causes prolonged excretion of enteroviruses and, in particular, of OPV strains in adults. We studied 28 HIV‐infected adults living with children who were immunized with OPV during national immunization days (NIDs). Blood samples were collected to confirm HIV status and to evaluate immunodeficiency before the NIDs. Stool samples for enterovirus isolation were also collected before the NIDs, between the two rounds of immunization and 2, 4 and 6 months after the second round of immunization. No poliovirus was isolated from any stool sample. Eight enteroviruses were isolated from eight adults (maximum one strain per patient). Enteroviruses were not more frequently isolated from severely immunodeficient patients. Thus, HIV‐infected adults do not appear to be at high risk of infection with OPV strains and the excretion of enteroviruses (and thus of polioviruses) does not seem to be prolonged in HIV‐infected adults.
Community‐based health insurance in developing countries: a study of its contribution to the performance of health financing systems
Authors: Carrin Guy , Waelkens Maria‐Pia , Criel Bart 
Published: July 2005

SummaryWe studied the potential of community‐based health insurance (CHI) to contribute to the performance of health financing systems. The international empirical evidence is analysed on the basis of the three health financing subfunctions as outlined in the World Health Report 2000: revenue collection, pooling of resources and purchasing of services. The evidence indicates that achievements of CHI in each of these subfunctions so far have been modest, although many CHI schemes still are relatively young and would need more time to develop. We present an overview of the main factors influencing the performance of CHI on these financing subfunctions and discuss a set of proposals to increase CHI performance. The proposals pertain to the demand for and the supply of health care in the community; to the technical, managerial and institutional set‐up of CHI; and to the rational use of subsidies.
Tuberculosis and HIV interaction in sub‐Saharan Africa: impact on patients and programmes; implications for policies
Authors: Maher Dermot , Harries Anthony , Getahun Haileyesus 
Published: July 2005

SummarySub‐Saharan Africa carries the overwhelming share of the global burden of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and of HIV‐associated tuberculosis (TB). The impact of HIV on TB patients and programmes has implications for TB control policies. The impact on patients includes the effect of HIV on diagnosis and on the patterns of HIV‐related TB, the response of HIV‐infected TB patients to TB treatment, the benefits of antiretroviral therapy (ART), and the quality and continuity of care for TB patients. The impact on national TB programmes (NTPs) includes increased case load, impaired NTP performance, increased need for access to ART and difficulties in reaching TB control targets. Implications for policies include the need to promote TB and HIV/AIDS programme collaboration, aimed at improving NTP performance (TB case‐finding and treatment outcomes), quality and continuity of care, and monitoring and interpretation of progress towards TB control targets. In order to provide the recommended international standard of care for TB patients, clinicians need to be aware of the impact of HIV on TB patients and programmes and the implications for the policies that provide the framework for this standard. Conversely, policy‐makers need to understand the impact of HIV on TB patients and programmes. This can help to ensure a firm evidence base for TB control policies aiming at the high standard of patient care that is at the heart of TB and HIV programmes.
Preferential embrittlement of graphitic schists during extensional unroofing in the Alps: the effect of fluid composition on rheology in low‐permeability rocks
Authors: SELVERSTONE J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractInterlayered graphitic and non‐graphitic schists from the Tauern Window, Eastern Alps, record contrasting mechanical behaviour during extensional exhumation. Graphitic schists contain mesoscale extension fractures, pervasive microcracks in garnet, and abundant secondary fluid inclusion planes; all three types of structures are oriented perpendicular to the stretching lineation. Crack spacings in garnet from graphitic samples are tightly clustered around a mean of 180 μm. Non‐graphitic schists have fewer and more randomly oriented microcracks and fluid inclusion planes and maintained strain compatibility via crystal plasticity. The presence or absence of graphite appears to have exerted a fundamental control on rheology during unroofing. Calculations for a model graphitic rock at 500 °C and fO2 = 10−24 MPa show that the equilibrium metamorphic fluid evolves from XCO2 = 0.07 to 0.38 during decompression from 700 to 400 MPa, in agreement with microcrack fluid inclusion data that show a change from XCO2 < 0.1 to 0.45 in graphitic samples over the same pressure interval. This compositional shift results in >60% expansion of the pore fluid during decompression. H2O‐rich fluid in non‐graphitic rocks expands <15% over the same pressure interval. The greater pore fluid expansion in low‐permeability graphitic horizons likely promoted tensile failure during unroofing. These results suggest that microcracking should be an inevitable consequence of decompression in many graphitic schists, whereas rocks that lack graphite are less likely to undergo microcracking. Microseismicity is predicted to be more common in graphitic than non‐graphitic rocks during unroofing of mountain belts.
The initiation and development of metamorphic foliation in the Otago Schist, Part 1: competitive oriented growth of white mica
Authors: STALLARD A. , SHELLEY D. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe 3D shape, size and orientation data for white mica grains sampled along two transects of increasing metamorphic grade in the Otago Schist, New Zealand, reveal that metamorphic foliation, as defined by mica shape‐preferred orientation (SPO), developed rapidly at sub‐greenschist facies conditions early in the deformation history. The onset of penetrative strain metamorphism is marked by the rapid elimination of poorly oriented large clastic mica in favour of numerous new smaller grains of contrasting composition, higher aspect ratios and a strong preferred orientation. The metamorphic mica is blade shaped with long axes defining the linear aspect of the foliation and intermediate axes a partial girdle about the lineation. Once initiated, foliation progressively intensified by an increase in the aspect ratio, size and alignment of grains, although highest grade samples within the chlorite zone record a decrease in aspect ratio and reduction in SPO strength despite continued increase in grain size. These trends are interpreted in terms of progressive competitive anisotropic growth of blade‐shaped grains so that the fastest growth directions and blade lengths tend to parallel the extension direction during deformation. The competitive nature of mica growth is indicated by the progressive increase in size and resultant decrease in number of metamorphic mica with increasing grade, from c. 1000 relatively small mica grains per square millimetre of thin section at lower grades, to c. 100 relatively large grains per square millimetre in higher grade samples. Reversal of SPO intensity and grain aspect ratio trends in higher grade samples may reflect a reduction in the strain rate or reduction in the deviatoric component of the stress field.
Reaction localization and softening of texturally hardened mylonites in a reactivated fault zone, central Argentina
Authors: WHITMEYER S. J. , WINTSCH R. P. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe Tres Arboles ductile fault zone in the Eastern Sierras Pampeanas, central Argentina, experienced multiple ductile deformation and faulting events that involved a variety of textural and reaction hardening and softening processes. Much of the fault zone is characterized by a (D2) ultramylonite, composed of fine‐grained biotite + plagioclase, that lacks a well‐defined preferred orientation. The D2 fabric consists of a strong network of intergrown and interlocking grains that show little textural evidence for dislocation or dissolution creep. These ultramylonites contain gneissic rock fragments and porphyroclasts of plagioclase, sillimanite and garnet inherited from the gneissic and migmatitic protolith (D1) of the hangingwall. The assemblage of garnet + sillimanite + biotite suggests that D1‐related fabrics developed under upper amphibolite facies conditions, and the persistence of biotite + garnet + sillimanite + plagioclase suggests that the ultramylonite of D2 developed under middle amphibolite facies conditions. Greenschist facies, mylonitic shear bands (D3) locally overprint D2 ultramylonites. Fine‐grained folia of muscovite + chlorite ± biotite truncate earlier biotite + plagioclase textures, and coarser‐grained muscovite partially replaces relic sillimanite grains. Anorthite content of shear band (D3) plagioclase is c. An30, distinct from D1 and D2 plagioclase (c. An35). The anorthite content of D3 plagioclase is consistent with a pervasive grain boundary fluid that facilitated partial replacement of plagioclase by muscovite. Biotite is partially replaced by muscovite and/or chlorite, particularly in areas of inferred high strain. Quartz precipitated in porphyroclast pressure shadows and ribbons that help define the mylonitic fabric. All D3 reactions require the introduction of H+ and/or H2O, indicating an open system, and typically result in a volume decrease. Syntectonic D3 muscovite + quartz + chlorite preferentially grew in an orientation favourable for strain localization, which produced a strong textural softening. Strain localization occurred only where reactions progressed with the infiltration of aqueous fluids, on a scale of hundreds of micrometre. Local fracturing and microseismicity may have induced reactivation of the fault zone and the initial introduction of fluids. However, the predominant greenschist facies deformation (D3) along discrete shear bands was primarily a consequence of the localization of replacement reactions in a partially open system.
Apparent oxygen isotope equilibrium during progressive foliation development and porphyroblast growth in metapelites: implications for stable isotope and conventional thermometry
Authors: BERG C. A. , MOECHER D. P. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe assumption of oxygen isotope and major element equilibrium during prograde metamorphism was tested using staurolite‐grade pelitic schists that have undergone sequential porphyroblast growth and multiple episodes of recrystallization of matrix minerals and foliation development. Textural relationships are used to infer a metamorphic history that involves garnet growth followed by staurolite growth, with each porphyroblast growth event followed by at least one period of recrystallization of matrix minerals. Conventional geothermobarometry using Qtz–Grt–Pl–Ms–Bt ± St equilibria yields peak P–T conditions of c. 625 °C at 9–11 kbar, consistent with KMnFMASH petrogenetic grid predictions for stability of the assemblage Grt + St + Bt. Qtz–Grt oxygen isotope fractionations yield apparent temperatures of c. 590 °C and Qtz–St fractionations yield an apparent temperature of c. 595 °C. Diffusional modelling indicates that quartz isotopic compositions were reset by c. 30 °C via retrograde isotopic diffusional exchange with micas. The isotopic temperatures appear to be in excellent agreement with one another, and suggest oxygen isotope equilibrium was attained between garnet and staurolite at c. 625 °C. However, the agreement of Qtz–Grt and Qtz–Str isotopic temperatures is not consistent with petrographic observations (garnet grew before staurolite) and petrogenetic grid constraints that predict that garnet grows over a temperature interval of c. 525–550 °C. Given that: (i) oxygen diffusion rates in staurolite and garnet are slow enough to render an individual porphyroblast effectively closed to exchange after it forms; and (ii) matrix minerals are able to exchange isotopes via recrystallization during each period of deformation; garnet and staurolite could not have simultaneously achieved oxygen isotope equilibrium with each other or with minerals in the recrystallized matrix. Thus, the Qtz–Grt fractionations, which yield apparent temperatures that are in apparent agreement with peak metamorphic temperature and apparent temperatures for Qtz–St fractionations, cannot be fractionations resulting from equilibrium isotopic exchange. Instead, they are apparent fractionations between porphyroblasts formed at different temperature and times in the prograde P–T–D path, and quartz that recrystallized and exchanged with micas and plagioclase during several phases of deformation.
The initiation and development of metamorphic foliation in the Otago Schist, Part 2: evidence from quartz grain‐shape data
Authors: STALLARD A. , SHELLEY D. , REDDY S. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractShape, size and orientation measurements of quartz grains sampled along two transects that cross zones of increasing metamorphic grade in the Otago Schist, New Zealand, reveal the role of quartz in the progressive development of metamorphic foliation. Sedimentary compaction and diagenesis contributed little to the formation of a shape‐preferred orientation (SPO) within the analysed samples. Metamorphic foliation was initiated at sub‐greenschist facies conditions as part of a composite S1‐bedding structure parallel to the axial planes of tight to isoclinal F1 folds. An important component of this foliation is a pronounced quartz SPO that formed dominantly by the effect of dissolution–precipitation creep on detrital grains in association with F1 strain. With increasing grade, the following trends are evident from the SPO data: (i) a progressive increase in the aspect ratio of grains in sections parallel to lineation, and the development of blade‐shaped grains; (ii) the early development of a strong shape preferred orientation so that blade lengths define the linear aspect of the foliation (lineation) and the intermediate axes of the blades define a partial girdle about the lineation; (iii) a slight thinning and reduction in volume of grains in the one transect; and (iv) an actual increase in thickness and volume in the survivor grains of the second transect. The highest‐grade samples, within the chlorite zone of the greenschist facies, record segregation into quartz‐ and mica‐rich layers. This segregation resulted largely from F2 crenulation and marks a key change in the distribution, deformation and SPO of the quartz grains. The contribution of quartz SPO to defining the foliation lessens as the previously discrete and aligned detrital quartz grains are replaced by aggregates and layers of dynamically recrystallized quartz grains of reduced aspect ratio and reduced alignment. Pressure solution now affects the margins of quartz‐rich layers rather than individual grains. In higher‐grade samples, therefore, the rock structure is characterized increasingly by segregation layering parallel to a foliation defined predominantly by mica SPO.
Goat meat acceptance in Japan: Current situation and future prospects
Authors: OZAWA Takeyuki , NISHITANI Jiro , ODAKE Sachiko , LOPEZ‐VILLALOBOS Nicolas , BLAIR Hugh T. 
Published: July 2005

ABSTRACTThree surveys and a sensory evaluation of goat meat were conducted in Japan to examine the current needs and future possibilities of goat meat consumption. The experimental results of the present study lead us to conclude the following: (i) improving the smell of goat meat and combining the sale of goat meat with recipes may increase goat meat demand among housewives; (ii) it seems to be difficult to disseminate Okinawa goat cuisine to non‐Okinawa residents because of the typical odor of goat meat, which is unlikely to be preferred by the public; (iii) the “chewiness” of goat meat is rated highly by young participants according to a sensory evaluation, and loin meat is rated highly compared with hind leg meat; and (iv) there is a rapidly increasing interest and a tremendous purchasing drive towards goat meat among university students. However, these facts call for further investigation of the goat meat demand in Japan. The following three further experiments are needed to solve this issue: (i) breeding to improve the taste of goat meat; (ii) expanding the marketing of goat meat combined with the invention of Japanese‐style goat recipes and tie‐in sales supermarkets; and (iii) implementing further sensory analyses to compare goat meat with other meat and carrying out market analysis in Japan.