bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Microorganisms and Macromanagement: Beadle’s Return to Caltech
Authors: Kay Lily E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1937 Beadle’s path-breaking investigations, which began at Caltech in 1934 with Ephrussi, inched on uneventfully. Beadle had just moved from Harvard to Stanford and was looking for a “biochemist to work on hormone-like substances that are concerned with eye pigments in Drosophila.”; Against the advice of his academic elders at the University of Wisconsin, Edward Tatum accepted Beadle’s offer, foregoing the safer and more lucrative research in dairy microbiology in favor of the challenge of biochemical genetics. Given the wide chasm separating the two disciplines, attracting biochemists to genetics was no easy task; the move would entail professional risks. Beadle recalled that one day as Edward Tatum’s father, the prominent Wisconsin pharmacologist Arthur Tatum, was visiting the laboratory he called him aside to tell him he was concerned about the professional future of his son. “Here you have him [Tatum Jr.] in a position in which he is neither a pure biochemist nor a bona fide geneticist,” the senior Tatum observed, expressing his fear that his son “will find no appropriate opportunity in either one.”
The Analysis of Inorganic and Organic Surfaces by Ionization of Desorbed Neutrals with Untuned Ultraviolet (UV) and Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV) Lasers
Authors: Becker Christopher H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with surface chemical analysis and material analysis with both lateral and in depth spatial resolution. The approach in this work, as with all of the work described in this book, is based on mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry has played a very honored role in the history of modern science. It is a tremendously powerful and general tool, still playing a vital role in fields from atomic physics to biochemical analysis to coal pyrolysis to the thermodynamics of inorganic substances. Mass spectrometry, fundamentally, is a vacuum-based technique performed on gaseous ions. When considering material surfaces, it is necessary to address the problem of how to produce gaseous ions from surfaces in a way that is characteristic of that material.
Laser Micro Mass Spectrometry for Direct Analysis of Coal Macerals
Authors: Morelli John J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physical nature of coal has long been examined on a microscale; however, examination of the microchemistry of coal is a more recent development. The microchemical nature of inorganic (minerals) and organic (macerals) components of coal is fundamental to understanding coalification processes. Several techniques such as electron spin resonance, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, Curie-point pyrolysis mass spectrometry, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy6 are used to obtain structural information on bulk coal.
Cognitive Constraints on Empirical Concepts
Authors: Kitcher Patricia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning I claimed that denying the transcendental psychology of the Critique has two harmful effects. Kant scholars must try to interpret a difficult text without engaging one of its central themes. By this point I hope to have shown that taking transcendental psychology seriously does not lead to embarrassment. Rather, it allows us to make better sense of the Aesthetic ‘s doctrine that space is the form of outer sense, better sense of the complex role of the principle of apperception in the Deduction, better sense of the argument for the indispensability of the categories, and better sense of the critique of Rational Psychology.
Classes of Abundant Genetic Variation
Authors: Mitton Jeffry B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For more than three decades, population geneticists have been using molecular techniques to estimate the levels of genetic variation in populations. Fisheries biologists (Frydenberg et al. 1965; Sick 1961, 1965a, b) and human geneticists (Allison 1955, 1964; Boyer 1961; Fildes and Parr 1963; Hopkinson, Spencer, and Harris 1964; Pauling et al. 1949; Robson and Harris 1965; Spencer, Hopkinson and Harris 1964) used electrophoresis to describe population structure before Johnson et al. (1966a, b), Harris (1966), and Lewontin and Hubby (1966) first used electrophoretic surveys of proteins to estimate levels of genetic variation. Electrophoretic analyses of more than 3,000 species showed the percentage range of polymorphic loci to be from zero to 100%, with a mean between 33 and 50% (Brown 1979; Hamrick and Godt 1990; Hamrick, Mitton, and Linhart 1979; Johnson 1976; Nevo 1978; Nevo, Beiles, and Ben-Shlomo 1984; Powell 1975; Selander 1976; see chapter 9). Two concerns, however, have haunted the use of electrophoresis to estimate genetic variability—accuracy and generality.
Class and the Strategies of Sympathy
Authors: Lang Amy Schrager 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1851 the North American Review published a series of articles on political economy written by Francis Bowen, editor of the Review from 1843 until 1854 and, later, Alvord Professor of Natural Religion, Moral Philosophy, and Civil Polity at Harvard University. “There is a danger,” Bowen wrote, “from which no civilized community is entirely free, lest the several classes of its society should nourish mutual jealousy and hatred, which may finally break out into open hostilities, under the mistaken opinion that their interests are opposite, and that one or more of them possess an undue advantage, which they are always ready to exercise by oppressing the others.”1 In the particular case of the United States, Bowen insisted, this mistaken opinion could only be held by those who failed to appreciate the “peculiar mobility” of American society. Today’s pauper was, after all, tomorrow’s merchant-”the man who labored for another last year,” Abraham Lincoln declared, “this year labors for him self, and next year he will hire others to labor for him.”
Before Being or Not-Being Was: Logos and Logic Among the Preplatonics
Authors: Swearingen C Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When neither Being nor Not-being was Nor atmosphere, nor firmament, nor what is beyond. What did it encompass? Where? In whose protection? What was water, the deep, unfathomable? Neither death nor immortality was there then. No sign of night or day. That One breathed, windless, by its own energy: Nought else existed then. In the beginning was darkness swathed in darkness; All this was but unmanifested water. Whatever was, the One, coming into being, Hidden by the Void, Was generated by the power of heat.
The Resolutions of the Difficulties
Authors: Meinwald Constance C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now that we have come to a satisfactory understanding of the second part of the Parmenides, we are in a position to consider the question of the relation between the two parts of the dialogue. In chapter l, I conceded that we could not take Parmcnides’ remarks as guaranteeing that the dialectical exercise would yield solutions to the famous problems of the immature Socrates—thc exercise could be merely preparatory. Nevertheless it seems indisputable that if the developments of the second part of the dialogue do provide a respond to the problems, that is the response that will have been Plato’s. Thus the purpose of the present chapter is to access whether the exercise in which we have been engaging gives us resources relevant to the famous difficulties. But before turning to detailed consideration of the particular arguments, let us consider the situation in a general way.
Expert Opinion in Practice
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Expert opinion has been used in a more or less systematic way in many fields. This chapter discusses uses in the aerospace program, in military intelligence, in nuclear energy, and in policy analysis. The latter field is extremely broad and contains many methodologies that are only marginally related to the central theme of this book, namely the representation and use of expert uncertainty. Techniques such as time series analysis and regression analysis have been extensively used in economic forecasting, for example, but cannot be called methodologies for using expert opinion. Hence, the items chosen from the general field of policy analysis will focus on expert opinion and will not constitute a representative sample from this very wide field.
Probabilistic Thinking
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the general problem of representing reasoning under uncertainty. The introduction of artificial intelligence systems, or expert systems, for modeling scientific reasoning under uncertainty on computers has made this a problem of great practical importance. The first section is devoted to “thinking” in general, and attempts to show why and how probabilistic thinking differs from ordinary logical inference. The second and main section of this chapter discusses developments in artificial intelligence relating to the representation of reasoning under uncertainty.
Heuristics and Biases
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When called upon to estimate probabilities or determine degrees of belief, people do not usually perform mental calculations, but rely instead on various rules of thumb. Such rules are called heuristics. Heuristics may be adequate for everyday life, but they can lead to predictable errors. The word “error” must be used gingerly in this context, since a degree of belief is subjective. By error we shall mean either a violation of the axioms of probability, or an estimate that is not really in accord with the subject’s beliefs and that he/she would want to correct if the matter were brought to his/her attention.
Building Rational Consensus
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The foregoing four chapters have explored a very wide range of subjects, all connected with the use of expert opinion in science. Part II is devoted to assembling the mathematical modeling tools that will be needed in Part III. Before embarking on mathematical modeling, it is useful to gather some conclusions from the previous chapters and to form a preliminary picture of what we would like to accomplish in Part III. Chapter 1 ended with a question, what does it mean to represent uncertainty adequately for purposes of science? We shall not answer this question here. Rather, we return to the fundamental aim of science and derive some general principles that a methodology for using expert opinion in science should satisfy. At the same time, we review the existing practice, as it has evolved, and determine whether science’s fundamental aims are presently being served.
Savage’s Normative Decision Theory
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
L. J. Savage’s Foundations of Statistics appeared in 1954 and provided a powerful synthesis of many ideas surrounding uncertainty and the interpretation of probability. In particular, he linked the problem of representing uncertainty with the problem of representing rational preference and modeling rational decision. He showed that rational preference can be uniquely decomposed into subjective probability and (affine unique) utility.
Projects and the Nature of Ethics
Authors: Lomasky Loren E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was argued in Chapter 2 that the standing of human beings as project pursuers is a fact so portentous that any account of morality that explicitly or implicitly denies that project pursuers have reason to be partial to their own abiding commitments is thereby disqualified as an adequate moral theory for beings like us. It follows, then, that a wide range of ethical theorizing, most notably utilitarianism in its various guises, but also numerous other incarnations of the Foil, is fundamentally deficient. The critique was negative, clearing away unqualified pretenders but not itself nominating an acceptable candidate. That latter task remains.
Beyond Basic Rights
Authors: Lomasky Loren E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rights occupy a strategic position within the overall structure of moral theory, responding as they do to the fundamental separateness of persons and their projects and to the incommensurability of personal value among individuals. However, fidelity to the demands of rights is by no means the whole of what makes for moral rightness-an action can be in accord with rights but yet be manifestly wrong-so the theory of rights finds its place within deontic theory of what we ought and ought not to do. Deontology is in tum embedded in axiology, the study of what (actions or states of affairs) has value. That is, respect for rights is a subclass of the right, and the Theory of the Right is incomplete unless accompanied by the Theory of the Good.
It Does Not Suit Man’S Nature To Live Without Law
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now that we have given a general account of moral matters in the previous book, and of the most frequently used terms (whose random insertion into our system would have interrupted its flow), we must focus more directly on our intended object by asking, first of all, whether it was appropriate for man to pass through this life without any law. This will make it clear why the Good and Great Creator did not bestow on man the freedom to do whatever pleases him, or to act according to the vagaries of impulse, without being accountable to any law, rule, or necessity. For since God gave man a will, namely, a faculty of turning himself by a sort of internal impulse toward those things that seem to suit him, and away from those that displease him (a will, moreover, which cannot be compelled), one may certainly wonder whether it did not befit God’s goodness to allow man an undiminished and unimpeded use of that flexible faculty. For why did He give man a flexible will if He then demanded that it follow definite rules? Just as fetters render useless the mobility of our limbs, so it seems that the freedom of our will also amounts to nothing if we can will many things that we ought necessarily to omit and reject many that we ought necessarily to undertake.
Computer-Aided Sperm Analysis and Sperm Kinematics
Authors: Mortimer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are several commercial systems using digital image analysis technology for the automated analysis of sperm concentration, sperm motility, and sperm movement characteristics. This new area of andrology has come to be known as computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA) (Boyers et al., 1989). Occasionally, CASA is used to mean computer-assisted semen analysis, or the alternative acronym CASMA (computer-aided/assisted/automated sperm motility analysis) may be seen.
Who Are “The Philosophers of the Future”?: A Reading of Beyond Good and Evil
Authors: Nehamas Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though it is one of Nietzsche’s most popular and most widely read books, Beyond Good and Evil remains, in structure and content (if we can provisionally distinguish between them), a work of dazzling obscurity. Two reasons make this oxymoron appropriate. In a very elementary sense, we still do not know how to read this book. We simply do not understand its structure, its narrative line. Indeed, we do not even know whether it has any narrative line at all. And the reason why, which is also precisely the reason why the structure of Beyond Good and Evil still remains obscure, is the sheer brilliance, the dazzle, of many of the two hundred and ninety-six sections of which (along with its preface and “Aftersong”) the work consists.
The Problem of Heredity
Authors: Darden Lindley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A discussion of the origin of Mendelism cannot start by following the reasoning that led Mendel and others to the important early discoveries in Mendelism; few historical records exist to provide evidence about such discoveries. This is not a historical account of how any person actually discovered what came to be called “Mendel’s first law.” It is not an exercise in trying to rethink the thoughts of Mendel or some other historical person.
The Molecular Basis of Mendelian Disease
Authors: Ostrer Harry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our understanding of the molecular basis of genetic disease was developed by identifying mutations in genes that showed Mendelian transmission and the effects of these mutations on the encoded polypeptides. Thus we learned that disease occurs when an anatomic or physiological system is disrupted in such a way that the individual cannot mount a sufficient compensatory response. Initially it was thought that all mutations knocked out the functions of a gene. Subsequently, it was learned that mutations may alter the stability of the gene product or confer novel functions on that product. The molecular basis of genetic disease instructs not only on the functions of genes but also on the mechanisms by which genetic variation occurs and on the physiology of the system that is disrupted.
Deviations From The Mendelian Paradigm
Authors: Ostrer Harry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The familial transmission of color blindness in humans demonstrates that Mendel’s laws are insufficient to explain the genetics of this condition in humans. Typically, the color-blind individual is born to unaffected parents, and on aver age, one-quarter of the offspring in these families have the condition. The uninformed observer might conclude that color blindness is a recessive condition based on the ratio of 3:1 for affected to unaffected. Yet the same observer would be hard-pressed to fit a model of autosomal recessive inheritance based on its occurrence only in male offspring and the presence of the same condition in the transmitting mother’s brothers and maternal uncles. In some families, hemophilia A is transmitted along with color blindness. When confronted with this problem, Bell and Haldane concluded (correctly) that the genes for the two traits were linked.
Sex Chromosome Transmission
Authors: Ostrer Harry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sex-linked transmission was the first exception to Mendel’s rules to be identified in humans. In his work with sex-limited transmission, Wilson identified two key features. First, males and females have different sex chromosome constitutions; thus, the mechanism of sex determination is genetically mediated and demonstrates a paternal origin effect. Second, X-linked traits in males demonstrate a maternal origin effect in their transmission. The third feature of the story, inactivation of one of the X chromosomes in the somatic cells of females, resulting in the equivalent expression of X-linked genes in the somatic cells of males and females, was identified half a century later by Mary Lyon.2 Other features of sex chromosome transmission were discovered only in recent years.
Genomic Imprinting
Authors: Ostrer Harry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Certain genes demonstrate a parent-of-origin effect in their expression. This parent-of-origin effect occurs because these genes are modified during their transmission via oocytes or spermatocytes. The process of germ cell-specific modification of a gene is known as genomic imprinting, a term that was coined by Helen Crouse. In 1960, she described the phenomenon in this way. A chromosome which passes through the male germ line will acquire an “imprint” which will result in behavior exactly opposite to the “imprint” conferred of the same chromo some by the female germ line. In other words, the “imprint” a chromosome bears is unrelated to the genie constitution of the chromosome and is determined only by the sex of the germ line through which the chromosome has been inherited.
DNA Evolution
Authors: Gillespie John H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen, our interest in the evolution of protein sequences tends to be focused on locus-specific examples. The evolution of insulin in the hys-tricomorph rodents, for example, has little in common with the evolution of hemoglobin in Riippell’s griffon. We can discuss one without making reference to the other. By contrast, when discussing the evolution of DNA, we tend to focus on properties that hold for much or all of the genome. The distinction will be evident in the contrasting approaches of this chapter and the previous one. Implicit in our new approach is a belief that most nu cleotide substitutions that do not change amino acids (silent substitutions) are the product of similar evolutionary processes no matter which locus is involved. Many workers believe, for example, that the evolution of silent sites and noncoding DNA is driven solely by the interaction of drift and mutation.
Selection Theories
Authors: Gillespie John H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this, the final chapter, I will present a theory of molecular evolution and polymorphism based on the combined forces of natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation. The theory is intended to apply to amino acid variation, although it may eventually be extended to include silent variation as well. Before jumping in, I will summarize some of the evidence that created the need for such a theory.
The Disease of Young Women
Authors: Silverstein Brett , Perlick Deborah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the 1970s, psychologists, psychiatrists, and the general public became increasingly aware of forms of disordered eating that appeared new. Obesity and overeating had been well known for many years, but not until the late 1960s, or so it seemed, did significant numbers of women exhibit the self-starvation of anorexia. A few more years had to pass before the syndrome of bingeing alternating with purgeing, referred to as bulimarexia, or bulimia for short, was recognized. Mental health professionals were intrigued-and perhaps even a little bit shocked-by what seemed to be the sudden increase in cases of what had been considered a “curiosity and a rarity.” Modem industrial societies place a great deal of emphasis on novelty, newness, originality. This is particularly true of the United States, the center of much recent medical research, with its short history and its pride in not being tainted by the old fashioned, feudal roots of Europe and Asia. To most of the general public, and to many professionals involved in studying or treating eating disorders, anorexia and bulimia were new phenomena. This is true despite the outbreak of self-starvation among young women that occurred during the 1920s, a period experienced by millions of Americans alive today.
Logical Atomisms: Modal and Nonmodal
Authors: Bradley Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ludwig Wittgenstein and Bertrand Russell are commonly referred to as “logical atomists”. True, the term was not Wittgenstein’s; it was Russell who coined it. But the doctrines that Russell used it to label, those set forth in his 1918 lectures entitled “The Philosophy of Logical Atomism”, were ones that he claimed had originated with Wittgenstein.
Emily Dickinson and the Wicked Sisters
Authors: Erkkila Betsy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“What if the ‘goods’ refused to go to market?” asks Luce Irigaray in “Des marchandises entre elles” ( “Female Commodities Among Themselves”). Reflecting on the use of women as objects of mediation, exchange, and transference between men in a patriarchal and ultimately homosexual economy, Irigaray wonders: “What if they maintained among themselves ‘another’ kind of trade?” (Marks and de Courtivron 110). Emily Dickinson’s interaction with a select circle of women friends was her means of refusing to go to market. Getting the goods together in a separate community of female language and desire, Dickinson sought to maintain among women another kind of trade. Dickinson’s community of women included her sister, Lavinia, and her sister-in-law, Susan Gilbert; her childhood friends Abiah Root, Abby Wood, Emily Fowler Ford, and Jane Humphrey; and later her friend Elizabeth Holland and her cousins Louise and Frances Norcross. Complementing the written “correspondence” that she carried on with her women friends, Dickinson also located herself within a tradition of literary women that included the Bronte sisters, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and George Eliot.