bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Perceptual Influences of Extraretinal Signals for Normal Eye Movements and Infantile Nystagmus
Authors: Bedell Harold E , Tong Jianliang , Patel, Saumil S , White Janis M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The involuntary eye movements in patients with infantile Nystagmus (IN) generate rapid to-and-fro motion of the retinal image, which has the potential to produce oscillopsia and the perception of motion smear. In normal subjects, extraretinal signals can neurally “cancel” the retinal image motion that occurs during eye movements and can reduce the extent of perceived motion smear. Previous studies indicate that extraretinal signals also contribute to perceived stability in subjects with IN. In addition to “canceling” the to-and-fro motion of the retinal image, extraretinal signals also partly compensate for changes in retinal-image orientation that occur during the torsional component of IN. We show that extraretinal signals reduce perceived motion smear in subjects with IN, preferentially for relative target motion in the opposite direction of slow-phase eye movements. A possible mechanism for the reduction of perceived motion smear is a decrease in the duration of the temporal impulse response function during eye movements. Temporal contrast sensitivities measured in normal observers, and subjects with IN are consistent with this possibility. Although extraretinal eye movement signals have similar influences on perceived stability and clarity in normal observers and subjects with IN, the characteristics of the operative neural mechanisms may not be identical.
Internal and External Influences on Foveation and Perception in Infantile Nystagmus Syndrome
Authors: Abel Larry A , Malesic Linda 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Infantile nystagmus syndrome (INS) is a disorder that is influenced by a range of both internal and external factors, more so than many other disturbances of vision. Manipulation of stimulus characteristics such as contrast have been shown to provoke oscillopsia a perception of environmental motion often said to be absent in INS. Rapidly flickering stimuli can also lead to multiply perceived images. Some internal factors, such as variability with gaze position, have been well documented. Others, such as exacerbation with visual effort, are widely described but have rarely been formally studied. In one study that did examine this, the expected relationship was not found, but subjects’ comments suggested that an absence of motivation may have been contributory. Although case reports have shown that stress or anxiety can exacerbate INS and provoke oscillopsia, systematic studies have been lacking. Similarly, changes in visual function or ocular alignment in adulthood may decrease foveation and elicit oscillopsia in nystagmus patients who were previously free of this symptom. Future models of INS should incorporate modulatory inputs from the limbic system that represent motivational or stress-related influences, as well as limits on the functioning of the mechanisms that compensate for retinal-image motion and thus suppress oscillopsia.
Genetics and Pharmacological Treatment of Nystagmus: A Review of the Literature and Recent Findings
Authors: Gottlob Irene 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
New developments in genetics and pharmacological treatment of nystagmus are reviewed in this chapter. While cases of nystagmus are frequently sporadic, kindreds in which nystagmus segregated as an autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or X-linked trait have been reported. Of these, X-linked pedigrees are the most frequent. By linkage analysis, the major X-linked locus for nystagmus, NYS1, was localized to chromosome Xq26-q27. Linkage analysis and DNA-sequence analysis performed in 26 families with idiopathic congenital nystagmus (ICN) led to the detection of a novel gene named FERM domain containing 7, FRMD7 , at Xq26.2 in which we have identified 22 different mutations. Mutations in the FRMD7 gene encode a previously unidentified member of the protein 4.1 superfamily. Several drugs have been used to treat acquired nystagmus; however, pharmacological treatment has so far not been used in congenital nystagmus. A randomized study showed that memantine (up to 40 mg) and gabapentin (up to 2400 mg) can significantly improve visual acuity in ICN and reduce nystagmus in ICN and in nystagmus associated to ocular disease.
The Complement Hypothesis to Explain Preferential Involvement of Extraocular Muscle in Myasthenia Gravis
Authors: Kaminski Henry J , Zhou Yuefang , Soltys, Jindrich , Kusner Linda L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a neuromuscular transmission disorder caused by antibody-mediated complement injury to the neuromuscular junction (NMJ).1-3 The resultant damage to the NMJ leads to loss of acetylcholine receptors (AChR) and simplification of the postsynaptic architecture.Patients with MG demonstrate a distinct predilection for involvement of extraocular muscle (EOM). While the authors have, in previous reviews, presented arguments for functional and physiological reasons as to why this might be the case,5,6 in this chapter we present mounting evidence that a low level of complement-inhibitory proteins may be the predominant contributor to the differential involvement of EOM by MG. If correct, this contention has significant therapeutic ramifications. Complement inhibitors are being evaluated in human trials, and their application to MG in general, and its ocular complications in particular, may be of significant benefit to patients. This chapter provides a brief review of the pathophysiology of MG, followed by a discussion of possible explanations for the differential involvement of EOM by MG. The authors then present their observations to support the “complement hypothesis” as an explanation for the propensity of EOM manifestations produced by MG.
Divergence Insufficiency Associated with Hereditary Spinocerebellar Ataxia
Authors: Morrison David G , Donahue, Sean P , Lavin Patrick J M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Unfortunately, the terms divergence insufficiency (DI) and divergence paralysis (DP) are used interchangeably, despite the fact that the definition of “paralysis” is “the complete loss of function of one or more muscle groups.” In 1935, Brucedistinguished between “divergence insufficiency,” in which otherwise healthy patients develop sudden-onset esotropia at distance, and “divergence paralysis,” which is associated with underlying neurological diseases. DI can be distinguished from DP, which occurs as a result of bilateral abducens palsies in patients with severe head injuries, intracranial hypertension from other causes, intracranial hypotension, brainstem tumors, craniocervical junction abnormalities, and Fisher’s syndrome.Patients with DP usually have bilateral abduction defects, horizontal diplopia at distance, and quantitatively slowed abducting saccades. Occasionally, DI can be difficult to distinguish from DP, particularly in those patients recovering from DP who go through a phase during which the esotropia becomes comitant with full ductions, mimicking DI; however, abducting saccades are quantitatively slowed.
Prologue
Authors: Post David G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If the explorer of the past is wise, he will . . . attack his subject in unexpected places; he will fall upon the flank and the rear; he will shoot a sudden revealing searchlight into obscure recesses, hitherto undivined. He will row out over the great ocean of material, and lower down into it, here and there, a little bucket, which will bring up to the light of day some characteristic specimen, from those far depths, to be examined with a careful curiosity.
Language I
Authors: Post David G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Remember agar, from high school biology class? Agar is the name given to the class of disgusting nutrient-rich gelatinous slops (consisting mostly of simple sugars) used in laboratories throughout the world as a medium for growing bacteria and other microbial organisms. Put some agar into a dish and leave it out on the windowsill overnight, and in the morning you ‘ll have a dazzling stew of dozens of different kinds of microbes that have fallen out of the air and into the soup and started multiplying.
The TCP/IP network is like that—it ‘s an agar, not for growing the little bits of code we call microbes but for growing the little bits of code we call computer applications and computer languages.
Hungary: Trends in Hungarian E-Commerce Taxation and Administration
Authors: Servigny Jacques Bernard de , Erdős Szabolcs 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter aims to provide a general overview of current tendencies in Hungary toward e-commerce and an Internet-friendly taxation environment, as well as their underlying legal framework. The authors wish to outline the major electronic procedures available in Hungary for taxation purposes, and to provide the reader with some insight from a Hungarian taxation perspective into a few typical transactions that are carried out by electronic means.
Colombia: Value-Added Tax on Online Content
Authors: Gomez Carmen Sanabria 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The analysis of value-added tax (VAT) on online content is relevant for two reasons. First, e-commerce has and will continue to have a tremendous growth during the coming years, especially direct e-commerce or online commerce, with the online supply of intangible products expected to have the greatest growth. Second, an increase in e-commerce results in a decrease in tax collection derived therefrom, to such a point that it has been said that the main tax problem originated from the online supply is the decrease of tax collection, especially regarding VAT. This decrease in tax collection is caused by existing difficulties, such as qualification of the revenues obtained, as well as the difficulty in controlling the operations carried out through the use of e-mail and the Internet.
Turkey: Development of E-Commerce Legislation and Taxation of Revenues from Online Content in Turkey
Authors: MIavioğu Orhan Yavuz , Ulusakarya Onur 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Activities such as production, presentation, sales, insurance, distribution, and payment of goods and services are possible via computer networks with e-commerce. E-commerce presents major physical differences from conventional commerce, and therefore many arguments have been raised regarding the problems of regulating and taxing e-commerce under the old commercial and tax regimes applicable.
United States: Sales and Use Taxation of Telecommunications Services Including Voice-Over Internet Protocol
Authors: Carpenter Raymond P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The sales and use tax on telephone calls and telecommunications services provides significant tax revenues for state, county, and municipal governments to fund infrastructure projects and other general revenue obligations. The value of this tax as a revenue source can be illustrated by the fact that some states that do not impose a sales tax on general retail transactions in the state impose a special sales tax on telecommunications services. Some states that do impose a general sales tax impose a special sales tax with a higher tax rate on telecommunications services. As a result, governmental entities become very concerned when new technology is introduced that threatens to erode the base of telephone calls or telecommunications services subject to tax in their jurisdictions. The advent of voice communication over Internet technology is the latest innovation in the manner in which telecommunications services are provided to a broad range of customers. This technology and the next generation of technological change (Wi-Fi, for example) will challenge the ability of governments to continue to capture these transactions in their jurisdictions and may well see reductions in the amount of tax revenues that can be expected from these types of services.
United States: E-Commerce Tax Administration and Compliance
Authors: Duke J Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Electronic commerce (e-commerce) presents unique tax problems under the U.S. Internal Revenue Code (I.R.C.) but traditional tax laws can be applied to e-commerce transactions in most cases. Tax issues, as well as tax compliance issues, include Some form of verifiable digital identification (ID) must be presented when the identity of a party to a transaction is required. One ID system uses trusted intermediaries to issue verified digital IDs. The intermediary identifies the identity of the person seeking the digital ID, and, once verified, the digital ID is issued in a form that can be independently verified and is not subject to tampering. The U.S. Treasury anticipates the use of digital IDs that will permit tax returns to be filed electronically. Congress passed a law requiring the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to develop such a system.
1Introductory overview: Ankylosing spondylitis
Authors: Khan Muhammad Asim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic systemic inflammatory disease that shows a predilection for involvement of the axial skeleton: the sacroiliac joints, vertebral column, chest wall, and hip and shoulder girdles (Fig. 1.1).1–3 Its name is derived from the Greek angkylos, meaning “bent” (but now it has come to imply fusion), and spondylos, meaning “spinal vertebrae.” It is the predominant member or prototype and often the main outcome of a family of related diseases termed the spondyloarthropathies (SpA), a group of overlapping inflammatory rheumatologic diseases that show a tendency for inflammation of the axial skeleton, entheses (bony insertions of ligaments and tendons; singular is enthesis), and peripheral joints.4,5 They may also involve extraskeletal structures such as the eyes, skin, gut, and genitourinary tract.
Genetic Technologies and Medicine Privacy, Identity, And Informed Consent
Authors: Hanen Marsha 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the roughly ten years since the announcement of the sequencing of the human genome, we have seen an increasing number of articles in the popular press reporting various medically related genetic breakthroughs. In recent months, we have heard claims that scientists have found a gene contributing to Alzheimer’s disease, a gene for spina bifida, and a gene related to long-term memory recall, among others. There are genetic tests for certain cancers, which are, in some cases, highly controversial. Companies aim to match the genetic makeup of individuals with pharmaceutical nutrient formulations—nutraceuticals—to enhance health and ward off disease, leading to assertions that the science of nutrigenomics is the way of the future. And we have the announcement of the sequencing of Craig Venter’s personal genome, together with urgings that others do the same, so as to create a massive augmentation of the research database. In light of all this, it is understandable if people believe that the ability to tailor medical treatment to each individual is with us already.
Identity Cards and Identity Romanticism
Authors: Froomkin A Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
“National ID cards” are scare words in the United States, in England, and to a degree throughout the common-law world. If the instinctively negative reaction to ID cards were only an American phenomenon, one might dismiss it as yet another example of American exceptionalism—or, perhaps, another example of the U.S. failure to learn from foreign experience. But this powerful popular distaste for government-issued ID cards is not limited to the U.S. Similar and powerful reactions are found in England, Australia, and Canada. Indeed, in 2000, one could say that only four common-law countries had adopted ID cards in peacetime: Cyprus, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore. Meanwhile, however, ID cards are a routine and often uninteresting fact of life in the democracies of the civil-law world. That difference deserves exploration. (Some might argue that ID cards are inescapable, and that even the U.S. has them although it does not admit it, but this makes the difference in popular attitudes even more difficult to understand.) This chapter suggests that the U.S. hostility to ID cards is based on a romantic vision of free movement, and that the English view is tied to a related concept of “the rights of Englishmen.” I then suggest that these views distract from the real issues raised by contemporary national ID plans in the common and civil-law worlds. Today’s issues, I suggest, involve a complex set of data protection issues that have little to do with romantic stories of cowboys and motorists talking back to policemen, and a great deal to do with data storage and access.
Life in the Fish Bowl Feminist Interrogations of Webcamming
Authors: Bailey Jane 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Inspired by, among other things, a coffee pot and a fishbowl, on April 14, 1996, Jennifer Ringley launched Jennicam. In a self-described “social experiment,” whose diverse objectives included connecting with family and friends and challenging mainstream media images of women with “perfect hair and perfect friends,” regularly refreshed still images of Ringley’s home were uploaded to Thanks to Lisa Feinberg, Bridget McIlveen, and Sharon Marcushamer for their wonderful research and editorial assistance on this chapter, as well as to the students whose opinions and ideas have been inspirational in this and other projects, including Julie Shugarman, Louisa Garib, Brad Jenkins, Rafael Texidor Torres, and José Laguarta Ramirez. Thanks also to an anonymous peer reviewer and to my colleagues on the ID Trail project—George Tomlinson, Mary O’Donoghue, Shoshana Magnet, Ian Kerr, and Michael Froomkin for their extremely insightful commentary and suggestions on earlier versions of this chapter. All errors, of course, remain my own.
Ubiquitous Computing, Spatiality, And the Construction of Identity: Directions For Policy Response
Authors: Phillips David J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues that ubiquitous computing has the potential to profoundly affect our ability to inhabit and create our identities. Thus the infrastructure of ubiquitous computing—the symbiotic interrelations of laws, techniques, economic arrangements, and cultural practices that structure its use—is a profoundly important object of public policy.
Pentecostalism: Holy Spirit Empowerment and Politics
Authors: Swindle Stephen M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
More than half a billion people throughout the world adhere to Pentecostalism in some form, and today the movement is often referred to as the “third force” of Christendom, with Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Adherents can be found in almost every traditional denomination, they are widespread in the emerging nondenominational congregations, and some subset of them ascribe to almost every other Christian doctrine that we have. In addition, though its expansion in the United States has been significant, Pentecostalism has enjoyed its widest popularity and most explosive growth overseas. Understanding how this pervasiveness and diversity will affect the role of the church in modern politics is therefore essential.
Introduction
Authors: Mcgeough Kevin M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Something about Roman civilization still captivates people today. North Americans and Europeans frequently encounter images of ancient Rome or images derived from Roman times. Everybody knows what a gladiator is and most people can recognize Roman images without having had formal education on the topic. Most people know that Julius Caesar was a famous Roman leader, even if they do not know much about Roman history per se. As any History Channel viewer could attest, documentaries abound on the subject of Rome. Likewise, movies about Rome have been popular since the days of the silent film. The success of the recent film Gladiator is further proof that films about the Roman era still appeal to a broad audience. There is probably no single reason that Roman civilization has remained a popular topic, but it is worth identifying the aspects of Roman civilization that have seemed relevant in modern times.
Historical and Chronological Setting
Authors: Mcgeough Kevin M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The history of research on Rome cannot be understood as the development of one discipline. From its earliest days, Roman scholarship has been multidisciplinary, involving philology, literary studies, archaeology, and many other methods of analysis. The vast amount of evidence available for the study of Rome, as well as the fact that Roman civilization was never lost or forgotten, has meant that many methods have developed for using the vast amount of available information. What follows is an overview of the main themes in the history of Roman research, from the dissolution of Rome to the present.
Social Organization and Social Structure
Authors: Mcgeough Kevin M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Geographic organization and social organization are often thought of as two distinct categories. But in actual practice, these two types of organization, although manifested differently, are closely related. This discussion of Roman social history begins, then, with an acknowledgment of the important role of the physical environment in the way people interacted with one another. Certainly for the Romans, the nature of a person’s everyday life was directly related to the particular kind of region or settlement in which they lived. There is a lot of evidence on this subject, archaeological and literary, that can help reconstruct the internal, physical organization of Roman society.
Introduction
Authors: Guthrie Graeme 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We begin this book the way we will end it—by discussing three case studies that demonstrate the range of problems to which real options analysis can be applied. In the first one, a land owner needs to decide when to harvest a forest. The owner has considerable flexibility regarding the harvest date. Timber prices are highly volatile, so if the owner can get the harvest timing right there is potential to add considerable value to the forest. The second case considers the problem of whether, and how, to develop a natural gas field. Completing the process will be expensive and time consuming, and most of the development expenditure cannot be recovered if the project is abandoned prior to completion. The developer’s problem is complicated by the volatility of natural gas prices and the uncertainty surrounding the actual development time required. The developer needs to decide when to begin developing the field and, once development is underway, whether to continue. In the third case, the owner of an ethanol plant confronted by falling ethanol prices and rising corn prices is considering temporarily suspending production, mothballing the plant, or shutting it down permanently. While suspending production can reduce losses in the short run, mothballing the plant will reduce them further—but at the cost of making it more difficult to resume production when market conditions improve. The owner needs to decide how long to wait before mothballing the plant, and then how long to wait before reactivating it in the future.
Valuing Single-period Cash Flows
Authors: Guthrie Graeme 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the valuation approach that is used throughout the remainder of the book. By the time we have finished working through its contents we will be able to estimate the market value of a risky cash flow that will be received after one period of time elapses. In the next chapter we see how to use this approach to value a stream of cash flows that will be received in many future periods. Then, in Chapter 5, we modify the approach so that we can simultaneously calculate the market value and identify policies that maximize the market value. For now, though, we focus on the simplest case of valuing a cash flow to be received one period in the future.