Incidence of and Risk Factors for Arthrogenic Muscle Inhibition in Acute Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries: A Cross-Sectional Study and Analysis of Associated Factors From the SANTI Study Group
Authors: Sonnery-Cottet Bertrand , Hopper Graeme P. , Gousopoulos Lampros , Pioger Charles , Vieira Thais Dutra , Thaunat Mathieu , Fayard Jean-Marie , Freychet Benjamin , Cavaignac Etienne , Saithna Adnan 
Published: January 2024

Background: Arthrogenic muscle inhibition (AMI) is a process in which neural inhibition after injury or surgery to the knee results in quadriceps activation failure and knee extension deficit. Purpose: To determine the incidence and spectrum of the severity of AMI after acute anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury using the Sonnery-Cottet classification, to determine the interobserver reliability of the classification system, and to investigate potential important factors associated with AMI after ACL injury. Study Design: Case-control study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Consecutive patients who had an acute ACL injury between October 2021 and February 2022 were considered for study inclusion. Eligible patients underwent a standardized physical examination at their first outpatient appointment. This included an assessment of quadriceps inhibition, identification of any extension deficits, and grading of AMI and its reversibility according to the Sonnery-Cottet classification. Results: A total of 300 consecutive patients with acute ACL ruptures were prospectively enrolled in the study. Of them, 170 patients (56.7%) had AMI. Patients evaluated with AMI showed a significantly inferior Lysholm score, International Knee Documentation Committee score, Simple Knee Value, and Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score than patients without AMI ( P < .0001). Multivariate analysis revealed that the presence of effusion, concomitant injuries, and high pain scores were associated with a significantly greater risk of AMI. Additional associations with the presence of AMI included a short duration between injury and evaluation, the use of crutches, and using a pillow as a support at night. In contrast, a previous ACL injury was associated with significantly lower odds of developing AMI (OR, 0.025; 95% CI, 0-0.2; P = .014). Among the 170 patients with AMI, 135 patients (79%) showed a resolution of their inhibition at the end of the consultation after application of simple exercises; the remaining 35 patients required specific rehabilitation. Interobserver reliability of the classification system was almost perfect (95% CI, 0.86-0.99). Conclusion: AMI occurs in over half of patients with acute ACL injuries. When it occurs, it is easily reversible in the majority of patients with simple exercises targeted at abolishing AMI. The presence of “red flags” should increase the index of suspicion for the presence of AMI, and these include the presence of an effusion, high pain scores, a short time between injury and evaluation, multiligament injuries, the use of crutches, and using a pillow as a support at night. Patients with a history of ipsilateral or contralateral ACL injury are at a significantly lower risk of AMI than those with a first-time ACL injury.