bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Discussing Hymns: The State of the Art
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Considers the traditional view of hymns as second‐rate literature, and the neglect of them by most literary critics, apart from Donald Davie and Lionel Adey. Hymns have been thought of as belonging to the church, rather than to the world. Church critics have not helped by concentrating on content and function in worship. There is a need to understand the form of hymns, and the inseparable nature of form and content (Bakhtin).
The Seventeenth‐Century Anglican Tradition
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The development of hymns in the ‘Anglican’ tradition, as opposed to the dominant Puritanism of the time is discussed. The work of John Cosin, Samuel Crossman and John Mason is reviewed. The morning and evening hymns of Thomas Ken, Tate and Brady's metrical psalms (the ‘New Version’) are also discussed.
The Journey to Zion: Puritan Psalms and Hymns
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The continuity of the metrical psalm tradition in writers such as William Barton and Francis Rous is reviewed. The metrical psalms of John Milton, the beginnings of hymn singing under the Baptist Benjamin Keach, the poems of Richard Baxter and John Bunyan, and the hymns of Joseph Stennett are also discussed.
Victorian Women Hymn‐Writers
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses the woman writer, and hymn writing as an acceptable occupation for women; the character of this writing, and examples of it from Charlotte Elliott, Sarah Flower Adams, and Cecil Frances Alexander; Frances Ridley Harvergal and her enthusiasm. Also talks about Dora Greenwell and the single woman; Anna Laetitia Waring; the Brontë sisters.; Christina Rossetti.
The Coronation: Reflections on the Allegiance of the Clergy
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The coronation ceremony of Louis XVI in 1775, described in detail, illustrates the sacred character of the French monarchy and the interdependence of Church and State. The multitudinous official ceremonies of the ancien régime, notably the Te Deums, celebrating victories and happy events in the royal family, and the intercessionary processions ordered by the clergy, made the same points. But the criticism of the ceremony by lawyers and anticlericals indicates the continuing debates about the role of the Church in relation to the restraints differentiating the absolute monarchy from despotism. Throughout the eighteenth century, the lawyers in the Parlements had disputed with clerical spokesmen over whether the Parlements or the Church constituted the principal intermediary power between king and people. The Church defended its rights and privileges on traditional grounds, but some writers also made unconvincing attempts to justify them with arguments based on Enlightenment principles.
The General Assemblies of the Clergy and Clerical Taxation
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The general assemblies of the clergy, dominated by the bishops, voted taxation to the crown, presented remonstrances to the king, and also (in the absence of a general council of the church) made doctrinal and disciplinary pronouncements. The assemblies effectively upheld the privileges of the clergy, aided by an efficient bureaucracy created for the collection of taxes. The occasion of granting supply allowed the presentation of the grievances of the Gallican Church arising from the complex and often unjust system of the assessment of the tax burden. Debates about taxation were endless; provinces annexed to the kingdom since 1561 enjoyed a different tax regime; arguments were constant about the array of minor taxes owed in certain circumstances; and some institutions built up heavy tax arrears. Lay complaints about clerical exemption from ‘ordinary’ taxation were constant and vocal, but overall assessments of the amount of tax paid by the Church reveals a considerable increase in the course of the century.
The Bishops: Aristocratic Vocations
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Bishops were appointed by the crown, and the vast majority were drawn from the aristocracy. Connections at court were very useful for those seeking appointments, while noble families would place one of their younger sons in the Church. Young noblemen destined for ecclesiastical careers had to qualify themselves for selection by pursuing university studies at the Sorbonne to the grade of licence, often supplemented by study at the seminary of St Sulpice, and then by serving an apprenticeship in diocesan administration as a grand vicaire.
Collaborators of the Curé
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Most curés, especially in rural areas, were poorly housed in presbyteries provided by the parish, but enjoyed the indispensable aid of a housekeeper. In larger parishes he may have had the help of one or more vicaires, but there were no general rules governing this. Supernumerary priests known as prêtres habitués were to be found everywhere, either as individuals or organized in small communities, but their existence was increasingly seen as an abuse by the church authorities, and their numbers declined steadily over the century.
The Religious Vocation and Social Usefulness: Men
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Monastic houses were valued for the employment they provided, which could be of vital importance in poor regions, while monks had time to pursue all manner of interests, which could be of social utility. Other functions included the provision of charity and the running of hospitals and maisons de force. The collèges of the teaching orders educated the sons of nobles and bourgeois, with the Oratorians and Doctrinaires replacing the Jesuits in the leading role, while in the later eighteenth century, individual religious set up pensionnats for less well‐off boys. The Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes provided a unique blend of vocationally orientated education combined with strict religious orthodoxy.
Abbés
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The word ‘abbé’ was extended to cover nominal churchmen, with the tonsure as a minimum clerical qualification, who held abbatial revenues in commendam, or in an even wider sense, to designate clerics living off the Church without working for it. In the novels, correspondence, and memoirs of the age these abbés on the margins of the Church became a stereotype of dubious and opportunistic adventurers. Some, especially those hanging around the royal court, fitted the stereotype, while many others used the leisure provided by their sinecures, or else built on their meagre incomes by publishing literary works of all kinds. In so doing, some prominent abbés made noteworthy contributions to Enlightenment thought, while others defended Catholic doctrine against Enlightened attacks.
Sermons
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The people of eighteenth‐century France could attend ‘sermons innumerable’, not only at religious festivals but also for every civic and national occasion. An abundance of technical advice and models to follow were available to preachers, imposing length and structure and suggesting how to fulfil the needs and desires of audiences, using sermons written out in advance and learnt by heart. It was agreed that the reign of Louis XIV had been the great age of the sermon, making a direct appeal to the heart, but the eighteenth century did not produce great orators to rival those of the late seventeenth. As the century wore on, the principal tendency came to be to concentrate on questions of morality and humanitarian generosity, reflecting both the influence of the Enlightenment and of the Counter‐Reformation desire to bring conduct into line with belief.
Confraternities
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The multitude of confraternities of different kinds, particularly numerous in the South, bound people together both for religious purposes and for cooperation and sociability, and their ‘picturesque diversity’ was such that it baffles generalization. Trade guilds were religious as well as secular organizations but tending to become more secular. The standard types of confraternity found in most parishes would include a sort of vestry guild taking care of the liturgical requirements of the church, one confraternity dedicated to collecting money for charitable purposes, and another, a devotional one, concerned with preparation for death. The Pénitents of southern France were a special case, ostensibly devoted to the disciplining of life in preparation for death, but in practice organizations of sociability and fellowship. The reforming clergy considered the confraternity type of organization ideal as an instrument for evangelism and moral improvement, as is shown most notably by the secret organization known as the ‘Aa’ and by the Jesuit lay congregations.
Sexual Passion
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Clerical moralists looked upon sexual desire as the most dangerous of the passions, and most continued to preach an impractical and repressive rigorism throughout the eighteenth century. Their hatred of prostitution was ‘uncompromising and relentless’; an attitude shared in theory by the secular authorities, though in practice straightforward repression was impossible and prostitution was regulated and controlled, often by unofficial means. A shift in attitude is discernible in the Church's dealing with prostitutes, moving from the mere imposition of penance towards attempts at reform. The attitude of casuists to premarital sex was again theoretically severe. Illegitimacy rate rose during the century, but remained low outside the major cities as a result of social pressures as much as religious indoctrination. Clerical distrust of sexual desire extended to relationships within marriage, with much repetition of advice of the most austere kind. However, contraception, mostly by coitus interruptus, spread widely, starting among the elite and in the towns, and more liberal attitudes were beginning to become more prevalent in the late eighteenth century.
The Fall of the Jesuits
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The events leading to the expulsion of the Jesuits from France in 1765 took place against the background of a rising tide of public hostility to the Society of Jesus. Their traditional enemies within the Church joined with Enlightenment thinkers and a broad swathe of public opinion to accuse them of an unlimited will to power. They were accused of complicity in Damiens's attempt on the king's life; their relatively relaxed moral teachings were seen as an attempt to gain influence among the elite; and the financial misdeeds of father Lavalette in the West Indies provided the parlement of Paris with a line of attack. As the provincial parlements joined in the attack, the crown and the Jesuits’ friends in the Church failed to defend them properly. The suppression of the order in France was not as brutal as the earlier expulsion from Portugal and many ex‐Jesuits found comfortable niches in society. Once the Jansenists had overcome the Jesuits, they lost their own relevance on the political and religious scene: by expelling the Jesuits, the Jansenists ‘defined themselves out of existence’.
The Huguenots: The Great Persecution
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses the erosion of the rights of the Calvinist minority in seventeenth‐century France, setting the scene for Church and State policy and the struggle for toleration in the eighteenth century. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV in 1685 was the culmination of a long process of harassment of the Huguenots and restriction of their rights. They had to face the persistent ill will of fanatical Catholics, including lawyers; the Church consistently called for harsh measures; and the crown resorted to all manner of chicanery to obtain conversions. The revocation damaged France economically and the country lost population. It bequeathed to the eighteenth century large numbers of insincere converts of Catholicism, with many remaining Protestants in their hearts and others drifting towards having no religion at all.
The Political Role of the Bishops
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
As the crisis of the ancien régime developed amidst plans to reform the parlous condition of state finances, bishops were called upon to play a political role in the various assemblies called to vote money for the crown. The Assembly of the Gallican Church in 1785 was preoccupied above all with the preservation of clerical fiscal privileges, while in the Assembly of Notables of 1787, the 15 bishops coordinated opposition to the money‐raising schemes of the director‐general of finances, Calonne. When Calonne was replaced by the archbishop of Toulouse, Loménie de Brienne, the new director‐general promised to uphold the clergy's privileges but proposed wide‐ranging new taxes, meeting universal opposition. Bishops presided over the provincial assemblies that were supposed to vote the new taxes, but could do little to overcome the opposition. The Assemblies of the Clergy continued to defend their privileges while also claiming to ‘speak for the nation’ in affirming the traditional limits on royal power and calling for regular sessions to oversee expenditure. When Loménie de Brienne's decision to call an Estates General opened up a Pandora's Box of complaints and ideas, the bishops presiding at provincial Estates could do nothing to control events.
The Revolt of the Curés
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
As the only members of the clerical estate in regular contact with the people, many curés throughout the eighteenth century had protested against social injustice and of the abuses of nobles, of the monopolists, and others who obstructed the proper distribution of food to the poor. They also had their own grievances within the Church, demanding a greater say in diocesan affairs, and raising issues, which by mid‐century had moved from theory to practicalities involving the persecution of Jansenists and the parlous financial condition of ordinary parish priests. In the cahiers de doléance and Estates General of 1789, radical curés joined in the attack on aristocratic privilege, and their requests for justice for themselves gained the support of lay propagandists. Curés elected to the Estates General, took a major part in debates and came to consider themselves as ‘members of the First Order where the interests of the Gallican Church were concerned, and of the Third when the interests of the nation were at stake’.
English Works of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester
Authors: Fisher John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
John Fisher (1469–1535), appointed bishop of Rochester by Henry VII, was one of the most distinguished churchmen and humanists of the early sixteenth century and Reformation period. A friend of Erasmus’, he introduced the study of Greek and Hebrew to the University of Cambridge, of which he was Chancellor, and was beheaded by Henry VIII for his opposition to the Act of Supremacy. He was a notable preacher and author of the first sermon‐sequence to be printed in English. This edition contains introductions and a critical commentary to the English writings of the last 15 years of Fisher's life, including his two anti‐Lutheran sermons, pastoral sermons, and devotional works composed while he was a prisoner in the Tower of London.
Valuing and Prostituting Women: Equality and Mary Magdalene
Authors: Brown David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Challenges two common modern positions on past treatments of women within the Christian tradition, that sexual equality is already present in the New Testament and that attitudes in the later Church, typified by Mary Magdalene as the representative sinner, represented a decline. In place of the former an alternative approach to the justification of sexual equality is canvassed, while many positive features in the western composite figure of Mary Magdalene are noted.
Heaven and the Defeat of the Beast: Social Aspects of Discipleship
Authors: Brown David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first part of the chapter considers some of the positive reasons why heaven as a present reality came to supplement and even supplant eschatology as a purely future concept. Thereafter, consideration is given to the question of why, if modern Christianity is right to discount the idea of hell as a place of eternal punishment, it nonetheless was allowed by God to survive in Christian consciousness for so long. In seeking an answer, the rituals of death, the invention of purgatory, and images of Satan and the Last Judgement are explored at some length, the discussion concluding with note being taken of how the contrasting images of Leviathan and of the Unicorn also contributed to this overall picture.
Mary and Virgin Promise
Authors: Brown David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Two competing ways of understanding Mary's role are observed in the New Testament, one of her as a purely passive instrument of promise and the other (more hidden) as a struggling disciple. The doctrine of the immaculate conception is seen as the illegitimate culmination of the former trend and that of the assumption as an appropriate terminus of the latter. A number of secondary themes are also explored, such as the impact of inadequate christologies (both ancient and modern) and the use of virginity to effect freedom for women.
Universal Salvation
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis monograph examines the claim that ultimately all people will be saved––i.e. that hell will not be eternal and that God will be ‘all in all’ (1 Cor. 15:28). Many Christians have expressed some form of this belief in universal salvation (sometimes known as universalism, or the apokatastasis), despite the fact that it has rarely been regarded as fully orthodox. The book focuses on the concept of universal salvation in the theology of the fourth‐century Cappadocian Father Gregory of Nyssa and the twentieth‐century Jesuit theologian Karl Rahner. It undertakes detailed studies of eschatology (theology of the ‘last things’) in Gregory's and Rahner's thought, paying particular attention to their contrasting cultural and intellectual contexts: Gregory was educated in rhetoric and in the philosophy of late antiquity (particularly platonism); Rahner was influenced both by Thomism and by later philosophers such as Kant, Maréchal, and Heidegger. Given the two theologians’ contrasting worldviews, this book asks whether their ideas of universal salvation are fundamentally the same––and whether universalism can be regarded as a genuinely Christian idea. It concludes that although Rahner expressed a hope that all will be saved and Gregory asserted universalism more confidently, both men base their convictions on a profound and orthodox Christian belief in the all‐encompassing love of God, which has come to fruition in Jesus Christ and is witnessed to in Scripture. The book's final chapter also compares how each theologian deals with the difficult issues raised by the idea of universal salvation, such as human freedom, punishment, and divine justice. It concludes that while Gregory's answers are sometimes clearer, Rahner's are more nuanced and have a subtlety that fits better with scientific discoveries about human nature, the mind and the development of the world. Finally, the book analyses the differences in the two ideas of universal salvation, asks whether one can speak of a ‘tradition’ of universalism in Christianity and reflects more broadly on the causes of development of Christian doctrine.
The Consummation of an Individual History of Freedom
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter aims to explain Rahner's complex idea of the perfection, or consummation of the human individual. He stresses that it has two aspects: immanent consummation (individuals determine their fate through human freedom and decision) and transcendent consummation (the transforming grace of God). Paradoxically, he tries to collapse the distinctions between these two aspects (which seems to point to universalism and leads to his controversial notion known as ‘anonymous Christianity’) whilst still maintaining the possibility of humans rejecting God. The chapter explores how Rahner links his philosophical analysis of human perfection to the classical Christian doctrines of heaven and hell. Similarly, his discussion of the possibility of making decisions for or against God after death is connected with the concepts of indulgences and purgatory.
The Consummation of the World's History of Freedom
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter recapitulates some of the themes of Ch. 6––decision, freedom, grace––at the collective rather than the individual level. This involves examining what Karl Rahner means by individual, the body, and the unity of human nature. The question of to what extent humanity as a whole can be said to make a free decision for God leads to reflection on the nature of the collective Christian task in working towards a world of greater peace, justice, and love. Rahner distinguishes this task from worldly ideologies and utopianianism, by emphasizing that humans are only at most co‐creators of the future world with God. The chapter concludes by connecting these ideas with Rahner's notions of resurrection, the beatific vision, and the parousia.
Comparison and Assessment
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In answer to the question ‘will all be saved?’, the final chapter suggests a third possible idea of universalist hope that lies between Gregory's predictive and Rahner's paradoxical ideas of hope. In response to the question ‘how will all be saved?’, it compares the two theologians’ views on how one's current life affects one's destiny with God, focussing on the concepts of philosophia and sunergeia (in Gregory), and decision and immanent/transcendent consummation (in Rahner); their views on freedom are then compared. It is suggested that despite their many differences in expression and content, Gregory and Rahner present an idea of universal salvation that is fundamentally similar, and is genuinely coherent with orthodox Christianity. The chapter concludes that while Gregory's answers to the problems of universalism are sometimes clearer and although his concept of hope is more logical, Rahner's eschatology is more nuanced and has a subtlety that fits better with scientific discoveries about human nature, the mind, and the development of the world. Finally, the differences between Gregory and Rahner are assessed in terms of the development of Christian doctrine and the creative role of the theologian, and some suggestions are made as to the future of the idea of universal salvation.
Liberalism Divided
Authors: Freeden Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This book explores liberalism in Britain from 1914 to 1939. It looks at the impact of the war and post-war period on liberalist thought. It contends that major British socialist thinkers such as Laski and Tawney were at times within the left-liberal tradition, while the Labour party hosted left-liberal beliefs in terms of personnel and ideas. It discusses the success of the Liberal Summer School in the 1920s, and role of liberalism in buttressing democracy in the 1930s.
The Worker as Citizen
Authors: Freeden Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter examines the impact of the post-war period on British liberal thought. Two characteristics of liberal social thought emerged from the war: the decreased amount of time and energy devoted to concrete proposals, and an emphasis on the role and importance of the industrial sphere as a prime arena for maintaining social well-being. This shift in focus resulted in two central and interconnected themes of inter-war liberalism: the place of the worker in a modern industrial society, and the rediscovery of the importance of power in the body politic.