bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lexical vs Grammatical Words
Authors: Boye Kasper 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to the distinction between lexical and grammatical words. It gives an overview of features that are characteristic of the two types of words. It discusses the differences between the lexical–grammatical distinction and related distinctions between content and function words, and open- and closed-class words. It goes through a number of definitions of the lexical–grammatical distinction. It also discusses to which extent word classes like nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, and adpositions are homogeneous with respect to the distinction. Finally, it considers similarities between the lexical–grammatical distinction and word–class distinctions with special focus on the notions of structured complexity and division of labour, and in relation to holophrases.
Word Classes and Gradience
Authors: Keizer Evelien 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
For a long time, word classes (and categories in general) were assumed to be well delineated, distinguishable on the basis of well-defined features, and with strict boundaries between them. In the course of the twentieth century, this classical view of categorization came to be challenged, first in philosophy and psychology, and subsequently also in linguistics. What emerged was a gradience approach to categorization, which also affected the way linguists looked at word classes. After a brief introduction, the chapter sketches the background against which this alternative view on linguistic categorization developed. The chapter then presents some of the most important evidence (synchronic and diachronic) for the existence of gradience within and between word classes. The chapter ends with a brief overview of how linguists from different linguistic backgrounds have dealt with the non-discrete nature of word classes, the kinds of definitions they have provided, and the explanations they have offered for the gradience observed.
Word Classes in Lexical Functional Grammar
Authors: Dalrymple Mary , Toivonen Ida 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on word classes in Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG). LFG assumes that word order and phrasal constituency are modelled at a syntactic level called constituent structure. The inventory of word classes that most LFG analyses assume includes the distinction between projecting and nonprojecting categories. The chapter explores the featural decomposition of category labels, citing how word classes are composed of more primitive features that allow generalizations across classes, which allows explicit constraints on how lexical and functional categories interact. It also elaborates on the concept of lexical sharing and the theory of mixed category, while also considering the difference between projecting and nonprojecting categories.
Word-Class Systems and Other Grammatical Properties
Authors: Foley William A. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores how and to what degree languages have word classes and the parameters of variation. The two minor classes, adjectives and adpositions, can vary from very large lexical inventories to very small or even null ones, and have unique properties or be subsumed into the major classes, nouns and verbs. Cross-linguistically, each of the two major word classes seems to be specialized for a different linguistic function, argumenthood for nouns and predication for verbs. But how much is this specialization built into the grammatical organization of a given language? The greater the degree of specialization is lexically built in, the stricter a noun–verb distinction holds for a language. But clearly this degree of specialization is highly variable, and so our grammatical models need a more typologically nuanced view of the noun–verb distinction, the outlines of which this chapter develops.
Nouns
Authors: Rijkhoff Jan 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter investigates the word-class Noun from a cross-linguistic perspective. Since nouns can be used to talk about many different things, ranging from concrete objects (cup, car) to very abstract entities (objection, trapezium, courage) and anything in between (game, wedding), the chapter will mostly focus on nouns with the widest cross-linguistic distribution: nouns used to talk about spatial entities, in particular physical objects. Nouns will be classified on the basis of the semantic features Shape and Homogeneity, resulting in six distinct nominal subcategories (Seinsarten): singular object nouns, collective nouns, and set nouns (which can be counted directly), as well as sort nouns, mass nouns, and general nouns (which need a special construction when numerated). Additionally, the chapter will pay attention to the prominent role of Shape in lexical semantics, and nouns (attested in numerous languages) that do not seem to be specified for the count vs mass distinction.
Irish English Corpus Linguistics
Authors: O’Keeffe Anne 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys the development, evolution, and application of corpus linguistics to the study of Irish English. It notes that, while there are only two Irish English corpora, there are many corpus linguists creating and using small specialized corpora to gain both pragmatic and sociolinguistic insights into language use, especially in the context of spoken data. These include work on family and other intimate discourse; advertising; teacher and classroom discourse; Irish literature; and media discourse and Irish immigrant letters. The point is made that most studies hitherto have focused on single-word or discourse features, using a form-to-function approach. Using empirical data from the Limerick Corpus of Irish English, the chapter exemplifies how a function-to-form approaches can also be used to move beyond single item focus. The chapter asserts that corpus research on pragmatics in Irish English is flourishing and that, in the process, it appears to be helping to shape corpus pragmatics as a methodology.
Irish English in the Media
Authors: Walshe Shane 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the use of Irish English (IrE) across a broad range of media, as well as its role and reception therein. Beginning with traditional outlets, such as the printed press, radio, television and cinema, the discussion then turns to IrE in new media, particularly blogs, YouTube videos, and social media. In addition to offering an overview of scholarship on the variety in the various fields, the chapter also presents the author’s previously unpublished research into the use of Gaelic loanwords in the lexicon of Irish newspapers, as well as an examination of the features used to index Irish identity in the American animated series The Simpsons and Family Guy. The chapter concludes by offering suggestions for further investigation and calling, in particular, for more research on IrE in Northern Irish media, a field that has received scant attention to date.
Dublin English and Third-Wave Sociolinguistics
Authors: Schulte Marion 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Sociolinguistic research on Dublin English is a vibrant field that has led to a large number of interesting studies and important insights in various areas. A particular focus has been placed on phonetic and phonological variation and its connection with social factors, but studies also investigate the lexical and grammatical choices speakers make, as well as issues surrounding language perception and multilingualism. This chapter summarizes existing studies in these areas. It also points out topics that have so far received comparatively little attention with regard to Dublin English, including the study of language use in the media and suprasegmental and paralinguistic aspects. Recent third-wave sociolinguistic investigations complement first- and second-wave studies by considering micro-social variation and connecting this with the macro-social factors identified previously.
Discourse-Pragmatic Markers in Irish English
Authors: P. Amador-Moreno Carolina 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Discourse-pragmatic variation has until recently tended to be left out of the domain of Irish English, where studies of lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological features have traditionally dominated. The pragmatic perspective was a tendency in varietal research in general, and the research focusing on this interface has been very productive since. The study of discourse-pragmatic markers in Irish English has been part of the pragmatics research agenda since the need to focus on variational pragmatics was identified, and has become one of the most fertile grounds within the area. This chapter presents an overview of what has been covered in the last fifteen years. A number of discourse-pragmatic markers is then comprehensively examined and explained. Although some of the discourse-pragmatic markers that can be found in Irish English are not unique to this variety, their use in the Irish context provides interesting insights into the pragmatic work that they do as part of it.
The Spread of Irish English
Authors: Hickey Raymond 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
From the beginning of the English colonial period in the early seventeenth century Irish emigration to overseas locations figured prominently. The reasons for emigration were various: deportation, the search for religious freedom, but above all the escape from oppressive economic conditions. Emigration from Ireland can be broken down into different periods, with early input to the Caribbean during its Homestead Phase (first decades of the seventeenth century) followed by major Ulster Scots input to North America in the eighteenth century and large-scale emigration by southern Irish in the nineteenth century during the Great Famine and immediately afterwards. This was to both North America and to Britain, with an influence on the formation of new dialects in both these regions. This chapter examines features of overseas varieties, and considers whether Irish sources are likely given what is known of group status and contact and the mixing of different ethnicities.
The Language of Nineteenth-Century Irish Immigrants to New Zealand
Authors: Bonness Dania Jovanna 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The Irish constituted the third largest group of the British-born founder population in New Zealand. Nevertheless, only few characteristic Irish English features seem to have survived in the colony. Letters that these settlers sent home to Ireland can provide evidence of language variation in early New Zealand English, while theoretical frameworks for the development of postcolonial languages, such as Trudgill’s New-Dialect Formation Model or Schneider’s Dynamic Model, can help us understand the different stages in the development of this variety. This chapter investigates characteristic Irish English features, in particular irregular article use and the indefinite anterior perfective, among early Irish settlers and their colonial-born children in light of Trudgill’s and Schneider’s predictions regarding the development of New Zealand English. Such real-time studies can provide a micro-perspective of the stages described in these models, and reveal how language really varied within single families.
The History of English in Ireland, 1200–1800
Authors: Hickey Raymond 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Contact between Irish and English began in the late twelfth century with the coming of the Normans who arrived in the south-east of Ireland, along with some English who settled in the towns of the east coast. The French-speaking Normans came in contact with Irish, especially in the countryside, with the English residing in the towns. The relationship of English and Irish varied in later centuries, with the latter remaining the dominant language for some time. During the Elizabethan period and afterwards, English emerged clearly as the superstrate and has remained so ever since, with the linguistic effects of contact seen most clearly in the language shift which was virtually complete by the late nineteenth century. This chapter provides the necessary historical and demographical background to understand the shift, and offers discussions of key linguistic factors operating during this process.
Irish Sign Language: Ireland’s Third Language
Authors: Mohr Susanne , Leeson Lorraine 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Irish Sign Language (ISL) is the third official language of the Republic of Ireland and was formally recognized in 2017. In Ireland, there are about 5,000 users of ISL, including deaf, hard-of-hearing people, and their family and friends. This chapter elaborates on the history of ISL, its typological affiliation, and some structural features, as well as contact with one of the surrounding spoken languages, i.e. Irish English (IrE), and lack thereof with the other ambient spoken language, i.e. Irish. In doing so, the chapter discusses salient language contact phenomena, such as mouthings, and touches upon language attitudes and ideologies towards ISL and related modes of communication. Ultimately, the chapter presents a portrait of language variation and change of ISL in its sociocultural context.
Receiving More
Authors: Kern Darcy 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
In Utopia’s first 150 years Spanish bureaucrats, clerics, scholars, and courtiers on both sides of the Atlantic read it in Latin. Though its circulation may not have been as robust in Spain as it was elsewhere in Europe, it found a receptive audience, some of whom thought it worthwhile to translate the text into Castilian Spanish, though these early translations were not printed. The Inquisition’s interference in 1583 discouraged but did not eliminate interest in More’s work and hindered publication of a vernacular translation until 1637, when one appeared thanks to the efforts of a famous patron, Francisco de Quevedo. By the seventeenth century, interest in Utopia seems to have declined. The extant translations suggest that people interpreted Utopia differently in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though in both periods it was used as a practical guide for reform. For sixteenth-century Spanish readers it served as a real guide to a new world, one with all the possibilities for reform that More laid out. Though they read it with great seriousness, they also read it humanely and as applicable to individual human beings with souls and wills of their own. In the seventeenth century Utopia continued to serve as a basis for reform but without the Neoplatonic optimism and immediate application that American exploration had provided a century earlier. It now belonged to a society in which institutional power and reason of state governed human relations and limited human knowledge. Ultimately, Utopia, that elusive no-place, proved a chimera in Spain.
Utopia and Utopian Writing in Arabic
Authors: Hill Peter 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the reception of Thomas More’s Utopia in Arabic from the seventeenth to the twenty-first centuries. Thomas More was initially seen by Arab Christians as a Catholic martyr. During the Arab Nahda (‘Revival’) movement in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, his Utopia was then received as a forerunner of socialism and technological modernity, and interpreted in the shadow, notably, of Marxism and H. G. Wells. Utopia was also placed alongside the Virtuous City of the earlier Islamic philosopher al-Farabi, feeding into a renewed interest in local and religious cultural forms. Finally, notions of dystopia as well as utopia have played a role in interpreting Arab politics in the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries, as utopian aspirations—most evident in the 2011 Arab uprisings—have contended with social crisis, authoritarianism, and violence.
Of Survival and Living Together
Authors: Pohl Nicole 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The early novel of the eighteenth century developed from and reframed the fictional satire, romance, and prose fiction of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It thus started off as a complex hybrid, experimenting in the eighteenth century with satire, romance, the supernatural, travel writing (including the imaginary voyage), sentimentalism, and ‘formal realism’ to capture human experiences with verisimilitude and historical relevance. This chapter will show that the utopian novel of the period integrates the ‘literary’ and ‘political’ into a polygeneric and polymodal literary genre that, as a ‘literature of knowledge for living and surviving’, not only reflects the issues of the day but is also guided by a discourse on change. These concerns, as the case studies indicate, were debated across Europe in the period, in dialogue with each other.
Utopia in Tudor London
Authors: Bishop Jennifer 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the first English translation of Utopia by Ralph Robinson in 1551, and the revised edition of his translation published in 1556. Focusing on the key contexts of citizenship, civic culture, and ideas of ‘commonwealth’ that characterized mid-sixteenth-century political discourse, the chapter reconstructs Utopia’s place within the shifting social, political, and cultural worlds of the mid-Tudor period. It shows that Robinson’s first translation was intended to appeal to a vernacular readership of citizens and the urban ‘ middling sort’ during the reforming years of Edward VI’s reign; and it asks how (and why) the book was revised and republished under the Catholic regime of Mary I. The chapter emphasizes that these two editions of Utopia were both highly collaborative projects, and analysis is accordingly extended outwards from Robinson himself to take into account his place within wider networks of patronage and friendship. Foregrounding Robinson’s social network, the chapter shows that his publication of Utopia was firmly rooted in a culture of reform and civic humanism that developed in and around the guilds and corporations of mid-sixteenth-century London.
Comparison of Corneal Endothelial Cell Density and Morphology With Optisol-GS and Life4C Storage Media in the Eye Bank: A 5-Year Retrospective Analysis
Authors: Petithomme Rubens , Karmakar Ranit , Lohmeier John , Terrin Staci , Koo Ellen H. , Eghrari Allen O. 
Published: December 2023

Purpose:
Optisol-GS and Life4C are corneal storage media used by eye banks worldwide. We sought to determine whether either solution was associated with superior corneal endothelial cell density (ECD) or morphology in a large cohort of donor corneas.

Methods:
From January 2016 to December 2020, 10,316 corneas from 5624 unique donors were acquired and analyzed at Rocky Mountain Lions Eye Bank. In April 2019, Life4C replaced Optisol-GS as the sole storage medium. We compared ECD and morphology before and after April 2019 and excluded corneas processed within the transition period. Univariable and multivariable regression analyses accounted for age, sex, tobacco use, heavy alcohol use, and diabetes. Only right corneas were analyzed to account for the correlation between eyes.

Results:
Of 5042 right corneas analyzed, 3486 were stored in Optisol-GS and 1556 in Life4C. There was no significant difference in ECD across groups (2794 vs. 2793 cells/mm2 in Optisol-GS and Life4C, P = 0.88). In multivariate analyses, there was no significant difference in corneal ECD (0.6 cells/mm2 higher with Life4C, P = 0.96) or hexagonality (0.22% higher with Life4C, P = 0.31). However, the coefficient of variation was significantly lower in the Life4C group (−0.0039, P = 0.03). After adjustment for above factors, corneas in Life4C demonstrated a 3.1% decreased likelihood of exhibiting coefficient of variation (CV) values greater than 0.40 (P = 0.009).

Conclusions:
This study demonstrates comparable and favorable outcomes using both storage media and confirms their overall efficacy. The decreased CV in Life4C is not of clinically significant magnitude but merits further research in clinical and long-term settings.
Herbicide, fumigant, and fungicide use and breast cancer risk among farmers’ wives
Authors: Werder Emily J. , Engel Lawrence S. , Satagopan Jaya , Blair Aaron , Koutros Stella , Lerro Catherine C. , Alavanja Michael C. , Sandler Dale P. , Beane Freeman Laura E. 
Published: December 2023

Background:
Evidence from epidemiologic and laboratory studies relating pesticides to breast cancer risk is inconsistent. Women engaging in agricultural work or living in agricultural areas may experience appreciable exposures to a wide range of pesticides, including herbicides, fumigants, and fungicides.

Methods:
We examined exposure to herbicides, fumigants, and fungicides in relation to breast cancer risk among farmers’ wives with no prior history of breast cancer in the Agricultural Health Study. Women provided information on pesticide use, demographics, and reproductive history at enrollment (1993–1997) and at a 5-year follow-up interview. We used Cox proportional hazards regression to estimate associations (hazard ratios [HRs] and 95% confidence intervals [CIs]) between the women’s and their husbands’ self-reported use of individual pesticides and incident breast cancer risk.

Results:
Out of 30,594 women, 38% reported using herbicides, fumigants, or fungicides and 1,081 were diagnosed with breast cancer during a median 15.3 years of follow-up. We found elevated risk in relation to women’s ever use of the fungicide benomyl (HR = 1.6; 95% CI = 0.9, 2.7) and the herbicide 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) (HR = 1.6; 95% CI = 0.8, 3.1) and to their husbands’ use of the herbicide 2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy) propionic acid (2,4,5-TP) (HR = 1.5; 95% CI = 0.9, 2.7). We observed few other chemical associations and little evidence of differential risk by tumor estrogen receptor status or linear exposure-response relationships.

Conclusion:
We did not observe clear excesses between use of specific pesticides and breast cancer risk across exposure metrics, although we did observe elevated risk associated with women’s use of benomyl and 2,4,5-T and husbands’ use of 2,4,5-TP.
18F-FDG and 18F-AIF-NOTA-Octreotide PET/CT Confirmed a Rare Case of Cutaneous Merkel Cell Carcinoma With a Solitary Local Nodal Metastasis
Authors: Mi Yanxia , Jia Yuan , Du Dongni , Du Yong , Zhao Ming 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Cutaneous Merkel cell carcinoma with local nodal metastasis is a rare entity. A 56-year-old man presented with a nontender left inguinal mass, and ultrasound-guided biopsy of this nodal mass confirmed nodal metastasis with strong neuroendocrine differentiation from cutaneous Merkel cell carcinoma. Staging 18F-FDG PET/CT showed a solitary 3.9 × 6.8-cm hypermetabolic left groin mass with no other suspicious lesions elsewhere. To confirm the patient’s eligibility for radical curative treatment, taking into consideration of its neuroendocrine differentiation, a subsequent 18F-AIF-NOTA-octreotide PET/CT was performed, which demonstrated only solitary somatostatin receptor–positive left inguinal mass. The patient underwent radical treatment.