bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Specialization, Trade, and Integration
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What determines the degree of specialization in production and trade across member states within the EU? And how integrated is EU industrial produc tion? As the decomposition in the previous chapter made clear, there are two importantly different dimensions to integration: by trade and by international ownership. The integration of ownership is dealt with in later chapters on multinational enterprise. Here, our concern is with trade; and, given our focus on integration within the EU, this will be confined to intra-EU trade.1 A particular measure of intra-EU international specialization, SPEC, falls out of the Chapter 4 decomposition of European concentration, and this pro vides a convenient starting point for looking at the various dimensions of trade. In particular, we investigate the determinants of both inter-industry and intra-industry trade: both are aspects of trade integration, but they have dif-: ferent causes and different implications for the distribution of income (Krugman, 1981). For example, inter-industry trade, based on comparative advantage, reduces the real incomes of factors of production specialized in, or intensive in, the import-competing sector; but intra-industry trade, based on the exchange of products with similar manufacturing technologies (and factor intensities), has no such distributional problems. While both forms of trade improve the aggregate real income of the economy (or the variety of goods available), because of the distributional implications, they generate different political pressures.
Alternative Corporate Strategies: Multinationality versus Diversification
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Previous chapters have explored two possible trade-offs in corporate strategy. In product space, there is the choice between expanding market share in a primary industry and diversificationinto other industries. In geographic space, the firm may grow by increasing its operations in its home country or by moving into multinational production. In this chapter, we straddle the two spaces, by asking whether multinationality and diversification are alternative routes to firm growth-are they complementary or substitutes? At the core of conventional explanations of diversification and multi nationality is the hypothesis that firm-specific assets are the driving force. The multinational firm is viewed as having some special advantage which it can only properly exploit in foreign markets by actuaUy producing in them. This might be some sort of managerial skill, but it is also frequently associated with product differentiation and/or technological know-how (e.g. Michelin’s steel radial tyre, Coca Cola’s strong brand image).
Structural Change and Urbanization in Indonesia: From the ‘Old’ to the ‘New’ International Division of Labour
Authors: Douglass Mike 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Indonesia’s economy shares many structural characteristics with other large countries of Asia. It has remained a substantially agrarian society throughout its post-independence era, with more than half the population working in or having employment dependent upon agriculture. Until very recently, the shift of employment away from agriculture has been moderate and has tended toward tertiary activities rather than the manufacturing sector, with the latter sector having among the lowest shares of employment in Asia.
Urban Housing and Infrastructure Provision and Financing in Indonesia
Authors: Koswara Mustaram 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
According to the 1990 population census, by 1990 the urban population of Indonesia had already reached over 55 million persons. Projections made by the National Urban Development Strategy (NUDS) project suggest that by the turn of the century urban population could well reach 76 million persons, representing about 36 per cent of the projected total and an average increment of over 2 million persons annually over the 1980-2000 period (NUDS 1985). Relating this to total population growth under the same set of projections implies that close to two thirds of all the population growth over this twenty-year period will accrue to urban areas.
Introduction
Authors: Visaria Pravin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
India, with a population of nearly 846 million according to the 1991 census, is the second most populous country in the world. Its land area of 3.23 million km2 forms only 2.4 per cent of the total land on planet earth. Separated from central Asia by the Himalayas, it is dependent on the monsoon winds originating in the Indian ocean for rainfall which has a decisive impact on the productivity of its agriculture and the incomes of nearly 60 per cent of the workforce.
Child Mortality in Francophone Europe: State of Knowledge
Authors: Perrenoud Alfred 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Child mortality in francophone Europe has been the object of extensive study. In France, the INED survey of a representative sample of parish registers between the years 1740 and 1829, supplemented by the work of Catherine Rollet, and the reconstruction of mortality in nineteenth-century France, broken down by year and age, by France Mesh and Jacques Vallin, permit us to trace the development of child mortality at a national level from the eighteenth century on (Blayo, 1975; Rollet, 1977, 1990; Mesle and Vallin, 1989).
Infant Mortality in Britain: A Survey of Current Knowledge on Historical Trends and Variations
Authors: Woods Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The study of infant and childhood mortality has a long history in Britain. In England this has been encouraged, in part, by the availability of parish registers from the mid-sixteenth century and civil registration since 1837. In Scotland and Wales parish registers are both less numerous and less reliable, and in the former civil registration of births, marriages, and deaths did not commence until 1855. The application of partial family reconstitution techniques to Anglican parish registers has provided numerous case studies of local trends and variations in infant mortality rates. It has also been possible to estimate endogenous and exogenous mortality using biometric methods and to gain some approximation of childhood mortality rates (Jones, 1976; Flinn, 1977; Wrigley, 1977; Schofield and Wrigley, 1979; Wrigley and Schofield, 1983).
India In Comparative Perspective
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In historical terms, the improvement of living conditions that has taken place in the developing world during the last few decades has been quite remarkable. To illustrate, it is estimated that, between 1960 and 1992, life expectancy at birth in developing countries has expanded from 46 to 63 years, infant mortality has declined by more than 50 per cent, and real per-capita income has almost trebled.1 These global trends are quite at variance with the gloomy predictions of famine and chaos that have been regularly made over the same period, even if absolute levels of deprivation remain intolerably high in large parts of the world.2
Public Action And Social Inequality
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
‘Beware the fury of the patient man,’ John Dryden had warned three hundred years ago. Unfortunately, the ruling authorities often have excellent reason to ignore that piece of ancient wisdom. The patient man-or woman-may be much too patient to come into the reckoning of those who are in charge of the levers of control. Successive governments in India have had reason enough to rely on the unending patience of the neglected and deprived millions in India, who have not risen in fury about illiteracy, hunger, illness, or economic insecurity. The stubborn persistence of these deprivations has much to do with that lack of fury.
Basic Education As A Political Issue
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The diverse personal and social roles of education were discussed in general terms in chapter 2 of this book. In connection with the issue of social inequality examined in the preceding chapter, the empowerment and redistributive role of education may be worth further exploration. Literacy is a basic tool of self-defence in a society where social interaction often involves the written media. An illiterate person is that much less equipped to defend herself in court, to obtain a bank loan, to enforce her inheritance rights, to take advantage of new technology, to compete for secure employment, to get on the right bus, to take part in political activity, in short, to participate successfully in the modern economy and society. Similar things can be said about numeracy and other skills acquired in the process of basic education.
Financial Development of Post-Socialist Economies: The Main Issues
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the chapters that follow we tell the story of the development of finance in the former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the aftermath of the fall of communism. In pursuing this very down to-earth purpose we shall marshal a huge number of facts concerning banking, privatization, securities markets, and monetary policy in the region. Thus our approach is decidedly empirical in nature. However, in order to let the data speak they need to be organized according to some conceptual framework. The study of the ex-socialist economies attempting to develop into full-fledged market systems has given rise to a set of concepts generally known as ‘transition economics’, and our analysis will draw freely on this literature. Since the preoccupations of this field as well as the language employed may be unfamiliar to the general reader, we start our study with a discussion of the main ideas encoun tered in this new field.
Hungary
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Among the communist countries directly dominated by the Soviet Union between 1950 and 1989, Hungary stood out as one which departed significantly from the Soviet model and managed to make reforms stick. Starting with the New Economic Mechanism adopted in 1968 Hungary eliminated quantitative planning and in other ways allowed a degree of decentralization of the economy. Managers of large enterprises obtained considerable scope for independent decision making, but they never cut themselves off from the State. Indeed, maintaining good relations with high ministerial officials was important in ensuring that, in case of need, the enterprise had access to budgetary subsidies or soft loans. While bankruptcy laws were put into place, they were not brought to bear on large state enterprises, which if they were loss-making, were kept alive though the workings of the soft budget constraint. Furthermore, even if decision-making power was more widely distributed in the Hungarian system, this did not mean that the influence of the State receded very much. Indeed, in the late 1980s government expenditure as a share of GNP was about 64 per cent in Hungary as compared to 46 per cent in Western Germany and 37 per cent in the USA (Kamai 1992).
Comparing Financial Transition in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the preceding three chapters we have examined in some detail the development of the financial sectors of the economies which are widely viewed as leaders in Eastern Europe in the transformation of the socialist economy into a thoroughly market-based one. Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic are often grouped together as sharing a common heritage of Soviet dominance which was thrown off at roughly the same time and in similar circumstances. However, at the outset of their transition to the market these economies faced very different sets of conditions. Both Hungary and Poland had very large foreign debts whereas Czechoslovakia’s foreign debt was relatively small. Poland’s foreign debt was to a large degree owed to official creditors whereas Hungary’s was largely owed to large banks and other private creditors.
Financial Policy for Transition Countries
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After devoting seven chapters to the description and analysis of the financial development in transition economies as represented by the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland, we now adopt for the first time the point of view of the economic policy-maker. This is in contrast with much of the early literature on transition which was motivated by the need to provide guidance in making pressing choices of policy. As was inevitable at the time, polemics preceded analysis. Now, several years into the transition process in Eastern and Central Europe, we and others have had the time to analyse the facts and to observe some of the consequences of the policy choices that have been taken so far. It is hoped that the result will contribute to making more informed policy choices in the future. We feel obliged to go one step further and state explicitly what we believe are some of the lessons suggested by our analysis.
Income Distribution, Political Instability and Growth
Authors: Bergström Villy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The idea we test in this chapter, which is based on Alesina and Perotti (1996), is at the same time simple and plausible: when income distribution is very unequal, the resulting tensions within a society induce a high level of political instability. This instability discourages investment and therefore generates a low rate of growth of the economy.
Introduction
Authors: Bergström Villy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There is a long tradition of expecting long-term convergence of per capita incomes in different countries. This forecast can be based on two different theories, both of which predict that incomes and productivity ought to grow faster in relatively poorer countries. According to the first theory, it is much easier for relatively poorer countries to imitate and adopt modern technology from more highly developed countries than it is for the technologically most advanced countries, through innovations, to improve their technology further. This theory is gener ally called the catching-up hypothesis. The same prediction follows from the neoclassical growth model introduced by Solow (1956) and further refined by Cass (1965) and Koopmans (1965). In this case, the rate of return on investment is assumed to decline with increasing capital intensity (capital stock per employed). Since the capital intensity is higher in richer countries, the return on investment, according to the theory, is higher in relatively poorer countries. The capital stock, and thereby production and labour productivity, tend therefore to grow faster there, producing a trend towards income convergence over time. Although the predictions of the two theories are identical, the theoretical points of departure are very different.
Comment
Authors: Bergstrom Villy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Microeconomic theory defines a narrow scope for government activity. It is confined to the supply of collective goods and interventions to correct, for example, externalities or monopolies due to increasing returns in production. A curious result of this micro theory is that this view of government often becomes a normative or ideological opinion among economists. Government shouldnot do more than what can be motivated by the activities of ·the night watchman state’, to use a Swedish phrase. In reality government activities cover a wide range. Governments supply private goods, they intervene in the distribution of incomes and in the function of markets without any existence of externalities.
Introduction: Macroeconomic Instability m Post Communist Countries, Suggested Causes and Proposed Cures
Authors: Rostowski Jacek 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The destruction-or collapse-of a world system is bound to be cataclysmic, and the collapse of the world socialist system which is playing itself out at present across twenty eight coun tries is no exception. Indeed, the very fact that these twenty eight states were only nine in 1990, shows the scale of the changes. That this collapse has occurred without a major war has tended to obscure what is happening: the political, social and economic relations which governed these societies are all being simultaneously changed in a fundamental way. This by way of admission that there is much that lies outside our understanding as economists, and that it is likely to become particularly important in times and places such as those studied in this book. In such a context, the presence of macroeconomic instability is hardly surprising. Yet, it is the job of economists to try to identify the specific causes of economic phenomena, even-or maybe particularly-when they are caught up in the whirlwind of history.
Market Socialism is Not Enough: Inflation vs. Unemployment in Reforming Communist Economies
Authors: Rostowski Jacek 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
All the market socialist economies are facing high or hyperinflation. Rates of inflation for 1988 were 17 per cent for Hungary and 20 per cent for China, 60 per cent for Poland and 195 per cent for Yugoslavia. The implications for the whole of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union are profound. Poor East European economic performance is widely seen as being due to the inefficiency of the traditional centrally administered economic system, which manifests itself in its inability to generate intensive as opposed to extensive growth or produce exports that would be competitive on world markets (particularly important given the high debt levels of many East European countries), and the high level of material intensity which the system exhibits. Market socialism is often seen as a way of increasing efficiency.
Stopping Very Rapid Inflations in Reforming and Post--Communist Economies
Authors: Rostowski Jacek 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What are the conditions necessary for stopping very rapid inflations in reforming and post-communist economies (RCEs and PCEs)? The question is of considerable importance, as two reforming communist economies, Yugoslavia and Poland, are already suffering from very rapid inflation (about 1,500 per cent and 400 per cent in autumn 1989), while the other two, China and Hungary, are suffering from high inflation (30 per cent and 20 per cent, respectively). The implications of the experience of moderate inflation in advanced capitalist countries for RCEs and PCEs has been dealt with in Chapter 2. Here we shall draw on the experience of very rapid inflation of nine market capitalist economies and of two RCEs, as well as examining the implications of the specific institutional structure of RCEs and PCEs for the stopping of very rapid inflation. Five of the experiences of very rapid inflation took place in the early 1920s in Austria, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and the Soviet Union, while six took place in the 1980s in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Israel, Mexico, and Vietnam.
Stabilization and the Banking Sector: Switching from Bad to Good Credit in Post-Communist Economies
Authors: Rostowski Jacek 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Before the beginning of the transition to capitalism all credit in Central Europe and the Soviet Union was ‘systematically bad’, in the sense that it was not allocated on the basis of commercial criteria, and therefore there was no reason to suppose that, once ordinary market conditions were established, any particular loan could be serviced and ultimately repaid by the borrower. Bad credit of this kind is not really an asset belonging to the lender, but rather a transfer to the borrower, occurring at the expense of either the lender or of those financing the lender (the lender’s lenders). To the extent that a part of any credit could be serviced and repaid, this was accidental, and to the extent that servicing is enforced, could be thought of as a random tax on particular borrowers.
Fiscal Crises During Economic Transition in East Central Europe: An Overview
Authors: Rostowski Jacek 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One of the most pressing problems of the transition economies, even the ‘first wave’ ones (i.e. those that have achieved preliminary macroeconomic stabilization and an important degree of transformation into market economies), is a large and growing gap between public revenues and expenditures (see Fig. 27 at the end of this chapter). This problem affects Hungary and Poland in particular, but, as this introductory chapter argues, the better performance of the Czechoslovak budget was partly (although not entirely) a consequence of the postponement of hard decisions on microeconomic restructuring. This volume analyzes the reasons for growing budgetary gaps in most of the transition economies of East Central Europe; it also tries to assess the longer-term implications of large budget deficits for debt and inflation.
The Political Process and Environillental Policy in Open Econoillies
Authors: Rauscher Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the dimension of political economy into the analysis. The issue has been touched upon earlier, e.g. in Chapter 3, where the aspect of labour market objectives has been considered in the framework of the capital mobility model. In this chapter, a similar exercise will be performed in the framework of an international trade model. The difference between this chapter and the two preceding ones, that dealt with trade issues, is the set of questions addressed. In Chapters 5and 6, we were concerned with the impacts of various policy instruments on factor allocation, trade, and welfare.
Methodology and Main Findings on Child Survival of the Khanna Restudy, 1984-1988
Authors: Gupta Monica Das 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the restudy carried out in the eleven villages of Ludhiana District of Punjab State, India, which were originally studied in the Khanna Study by John Gordon and John Wyon in the 1950s (see preceding chapter). The main objective of this restudy was to study the demographic transition taking place in this society, with a focus on the interrelationships between social and demographic change in this society in the process of transition. Thus this study is more rooted in the social sciences than in epidemiology and the medical sciences, as are most of the other major longitudinal studies conducted in developing countries.
Bandim: An Unplanned Longitudinal Study
Authors: Aaby Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The title of the chapter may be a contradiction in terms. However, the project was initially planned to last one or two years. Interaction with the first observations forced us to go on collecting more data, which again produced observations which needed to be explained, etc. This process is essential in research. However, funding of the process may be difficult to obtain these days, with research tending to become routinized as rigorous testing of specific hypo¬ theses. The range of possible answers to the research question needs to be predefined to be funded. This makes much research trivial, at least to an anthropologist whose concept of research is exploring and making sense of the unknown (Aaby 1988).