bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Christmas Day 1932, the German chemical combine I.G. Farbenindustrie filed a patent application on behalf of a red dye that its medical researchers and chemists had found to have a remarkable ability to cure certain kinds of bacterial infections in mice. By the time the patent was awarded just over two years later, the dye, now called by the trade name Prontosil, had been found to have the same curative powers in humans. Announced in a brief publication in a German medical journal in February 1935 by Gerhard Domagk, the medical researcher responsible for the work, Prontosil went on the market and became available to doctors in April 1935.
Feminism In The 1980s:Surviving The Backlash
Authors: Evans Sara M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the 1980s, feminism was out of fashion with most young women. Like flappers in the 1920s, these women looked on feminists of the previous decade as old hat, stodgy, and unpleasantly angry. Paula Kamen, writing for the University of Illinois student newspaper in 1988, soon understood “that taking a stand on anything even remotely construed as a women’s issue aroused strange and strong suspicions. “ When she subsequently interviewed more than 100 female peers, she found that the word “feminist “ conjured for them caricatures of “bra-burning, hairy-legged, Amazon, castrating, militant-almost-anti-feminine “ women. She attributed these stereotypes in part to the sense that young feminists were almost invisible in the 1980s. “During our ‘coming of age’ years from 1980 to 1990, young feminists didn’t seem to exist. “1 The new freedoms younger women experienced were to be explored in highly individualistic ways. Yet, in fact, they were in the middle of a revolution—something more like the eye of the storm than its aftermath.
Prosodic Features
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In singing the pitch of the voice rises and falls as the singer follows the melodic line. In fact, for many people this is the most important part of singing; we often enjoy a song in another language even if we cannot understand the words. In speech, most people tend to take the opposite view and think of the words as the only important part and the melodic line as mere decoration. Possibly because of the powerful influence of the alphabetic writing system (see chapter 15), even linguists have tended to concentrate on the segmental aspects of speech, that is, on the individual sounds (phonemes), words, parts of words (morphemes), and ways of combining them into larger units (syntax). There are, however, other aspects of speech that are as important as—and, in many cases, may be more crucial than— the sounds and words themselves. Utterances may contain very different messages depending upon the tone of voice in which they are delivered (see chapter 10). Most of the factors that contribute to the tone of voice have been investigated under the heading prosodic features (or suprasegmental features).
Language Change
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the remarkable characteristics of language is the fact that it can be transmitted so effectively from one generation to another over centuries. There are words whose meaning and pronunciation (as far as we can tell) have changed very little over two or maybe three thousand years. They have been preserved, not especially because they have been written down, though that provides some of our knowledge of their existence over the past thousand years or so. They have survived because each generation of children learns the language of the community in which they are growing up. Despite the individual nature of language learning, children grow up to speak in a way that identifies them as members of a speech community, sharing its norms. This can be seen most clearly in the survival of dialect forms (see chapter 13) that are not part of the standard language. The fact that forms which are not normally written down should survive with such persistence over long periods of time is evidence of the successful transmission of community norms. In fact, many dialect forms are conservative or relic forms; it is the standard language that has changed, for combined with stability there is also the possibility of change.
Literature
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It used to be common for linguists to claim that all languages are equal or words to that effect. This was a natural reaction to the kind of elitism that asserted the superiority of Latin, Greek, French, or English for some reason or other. Like many generalizations the claim of equality contains an element of truth. All known human languages are highly complex, sophisticated, structured systems of communication. There are no primitive languages “with only a few hundred words,” such as have sometimes been mistakenly attributed to tribes living in inaccessible parts of the world. All languages that are spoken by groups of people as their first language have to be able to deal with the complexity of interaction in the society in which the language is used. Many of the languages spoken by peoples whose way of life might seem very limited (or “primitive”) to those in technologically advanced societies make subtle distinctions that are not found in, for example, modern European languages.
The Theorbo
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The type of large lute with an extended neck, known in England in the seventeenth century as the theorbo, originated in Italy in the final decades of the sixteenth century. In Italy the word ‘tiorba’ was synonymous with ‘chitarrone’, the name popularly used for the same instrument in the first three decades of the seventeenth century. The name chitarrone, from the Greek ‘kithara’, reflects the idea, strong in the minds of the instrument’s inventors, that the instrument was the modern counterpart of the kithara used by the self-accompanying poets of classical antiquity. The chitarrone is first referred to in the six intermezzi that were part of the theatrical entertainment entitled La Pellegrina, performed in Florence in May 1589. According to one account the singer/composer Jacopo Peri accompanied himself on a chitarrone in a solo madrigal in the fifth intermezzo. Peri was one of the earliest of all opera composers, and the connection between opera and the theorbo remained strong throughout the seventeenth century, the instrument being thought to be especially suitable for the accompaniment of recitative.
Scottish Lute Music
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Was but the sound of laughter heard Or tinckling of the lute Would Knox with unction tell The vengeance that in days of old Had fallen on Jezebel Robert Aytoun (1569-1638), Both,Pell Lutenists were fully established at the Scottish royal court by the late fifteenth century, though the instrument is occasionally mentioned in Scots literature before this time.1 Sir John Graham Dalyell in his Musical Memoirs of”Scotland (1849) mentions a number of lutenists belonging to the royal household, the earliest reference being in 1474.2 Dalyell lists extracts taken from the Household Accounts of the Lords High Treasurers of Scotland showing frequent payments to lutenists during the reign of James III (1460-88) and James IV (1488-1513). Payments were made to a certain Jacob, but also to his fellow lutenists: John Wardlaw, Rankine, Robert Rudman, Adam Dikeson, Robert Hay, John Ledebetar, Craig, ‘Lindores’, and ‘Gray Steil’.3 The unfortunate James IV married Margaret Tudor in 1503. During the celebrations he entertained his bride by playing the ‘clarychordes’ and ‘lute’.+ 1\fargaret had been taught the lute as a child. Kenner or Krennar, her ‘lutar’, is mentioned in English accounts prior to her departure, and “as probably English.
Slavery in Portuguese and Spanish America in the 18th Century
Authors: Klein Herbert S , Ben Vinson III 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The growth of the West Indies plantation system in the 17th century and the early 18th century did not put an end either to the Brazilian sugar industry or to the thriving slave system upon which the Brazilian economy rested. The Dutch occupation and the subsequent growth of the West Indies sugar industry did, however, seriously affect the colonial economy. Not only was a large part of the Pernambuco sugar industry destroyed, taking a long time to recover, but also Brazilian export markets were reduced and production stagnated for most of the late 17th and early 18th century. Bahia did continue to grow, but the golden age of pro&gt;tability had passed. Competition from the West Indies sent sugar prices into a decline relative to the &gt;rst half of the century, and West Indian demand for slaves meant rising African slave prices, thus squeezing planter pro&gt;ts. By the last two decades of the century the Brazilian economy was in a depressed state, and an anxious Crown was seeking new markets and products to revive the colonial economy.
Freedmen in a Slave Society
Authors: Klein Herbert S , Ben Vinson III 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every slave society in Latin America permitted slaves to be manumitted from the very beginning. All such regimes accepted the legitimacy of manumission, since it was the norm in Roman law and was deeply embedded in Christian piety and practice. A free colored class thus developed in every American slave society virtually from the &gt;rst days of colonization. All such populations grew slowly in the 16th and 17th centuries, and all faced some type of restriction on their freedom. These restrictions were uniquely applied to them because of their origin and color. From the early 18th century onward, however, certain slave regimes began to distinguish themselves from others on the basis of their changing attitudes toward the manumission process, which in turn caused major changes in the growth, number, and ratio of freedmen in the respective societies.
Besieged
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From ancient times to the present, great sieges have had an enormous impact on the shaping of world history. Now, in this spectacular, fully-illustrated volume, one hundred of the world’s most monumental and mind-boggling sieges are laid out in detail. Besieged covers the most important sieges from around the world throughout history–from Joshua’s assault on Jericho in the fifteenth century B.C. to the Russian attack on the Chechen capital of Grozny at the end of the twentieth. Each entry provides the name and date of the siege, its exact location in terms of today’s world, the number of forces engaged, when known, the names of the commanders on each side, and the overall importance of the siege in its historical context. Thoroughly examining the actions of both the attackers and the defenders, the book explores the motivations of both, and strategically surveys the technical and tactical innovations and conditions both inside besieged positions and in the besiegers’ ranks. The entries detail the historical setting, the particular circumstances of the event itself, and the long-term results of the siege. These riveting accounts are enhanced by illustrations, over seventy maps, and references for further reading. A glossary and a comprehensive index complete the book. Global in scope, and with stirring accounts of familiar sieges as well as many lesser known conflicts, Besieged is essential reading for military buffs and everyone interested in how the modern world came to be. Includes the sieges of: * Jericho (1405 B.C.) * Troy (1250 B.C.) * Acre (1189–1191) * Constantinople (1453) * Tenochtitlan (1521 * La Rochelle (1627–1628) * Leningrad (1941–1944) * Malta (1940–1942) * Dien Bien Phu (1954) * Khe Sanh (1968) * Beirut (1982) * Sarajevo (1991–1995)
Troy
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This siege is one of the most difficult to write about, for so much of the action lies deep in Greek mythology. Indeed, the entire war between the Greeks and Trojans is possibly nothing more than a literary exercise rather than an historical event. Still, the excavations begun in the late nineteenth century by Heinrich Schliemann give some basis for a real siege at a town on Asia Minor’s Aegean coast sometime in the fourteenth to twelfth century B.C. The main source for the action at Troy comes from Homer’s epic work The Iliad, so-called because the Greek word for the object of their attack was not Troy, but Ilion. It is possible the Trojans were inhabitants of a region rather than merely a city. As Homer is believed to have recorded oral tradition handed down over some four centuries, exact details of the actions of the siege can only be taken on faith. Other works, such as the Kypria and the Aeneid, offer details not included in Homer’s account, making the facts even more elusive.
Numantia
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Roman Republic first showed an interest in Iberia in the wake of the First Punic War. Iberia had long been the major source of mercenaries for the Carthaginian army, as well as a source of natural resources. For a time Carthage controlled the southern part of the peninsula and Rome the upper part near the Pyrennees. The Second Punic War began over a border dispute in Iberia, and in the wake of Rome’s victory at Zama all of Iberia fell under Roman sway. Unfortunately, the inhabitants, a mixture of Celts and local populations, were fiercely independent and resisted Roman rule at every turn. The First Celitiberian War was fought in the years 181-178 B.C. Roman forces under the leadership of Tiberius Gracchus subdued many of the tribes, and he developed a reputation for fairness in dealing with his defeated enemies. Until 155 the region remained fairly peaceful, as the Romans consolidated their hold on the coastal regions and the interior tribes recovered from the war. In 154 the Lusitani (of modern Portugal) attacked Roman territory but in 151 they were defeated by the Roman Sulipicius Galba. He offered them terms of surrender that they accepted; he then slaughtered 8,000 men who had given up their weapons. This act of treachery was unfortunately not uncommon, for most officials sent to Spain had little desire to be there and faithlessness in their dealing with the Celtiberians was a regular practice.
Aquileia
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Huns were one of the myriad of tribes that rode out of central Asia, but little can be determined of their origin. Probably they were the Huing-nu, who failed in wars against the Chinese and turned (or were forced) westward. Occasional early sources opine that they were the Nebroi mentioned by Herodotus as a semi-mythical people living on the fringes of territory controlled by the Scythians. Some of the earliest direct references come from clashes with the Goths around the area north of the Black Sea in the mid-fourth century A.O. The first Hun conquest was of the Alans, who were then used in the vanguard of Hun attacks against the Goths or emigrated into the Roman Empire. The Huns settled into Pannonia (roughly modern Slovenia) along the Adriatic coast. By 432 the Huns were well established and a force to be reckoned with. Emperor Theodosius II paid tribute to the Hun leader Ruas and gave him a general’s commission. Ruas’ sons Bleda and Attila renewed the treaty and fought for Constantinople in campaigns against Persia. Attila grew tired of doing another’s fighting and made war against the Eastern Romans. Between 441 and 443 he rampaged through the Balkans and defeated a Roman army out-side Constantinople, but could not capture the city. He finally stopped upon receiving an increase in tribute. Attila killed his brother and, in 447, reopened his war against the Romans. Although turned back from Constantinople again, Attila did manage to gain a threefold increase in tribute and cession of the eastern bank of the Danube. Theodosius’ successor stopped paying the tribute in 450, by which time the Huns were looking westward.
Pavia
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relationship between the pope and the kingdom of the Franks started in 756. Pepin III, known variously as “the Short” and “the Great,” responded to a call from Pope Stephen II to save Rome from depredations by the Lombards, the population that dominated the northern Italian peninsula. The amity on which this response was based rested on Stephen’s support and blessing of Pepin’s deposition of the last king of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, in 751. That initiated dose ties between politics and religion in the Frankish lands, for Pepin and his heirs were to hold the title of patricius Romanus and protect the Catholic Church from spiritual and temporal threats. Thus, in 755 Pepin marched his army into Italy to capture the city of Pavia and stop the aggressive actions of the Lombard King Aistul£ As soon as he returned to France, however, Aistulf again threatened Rome. Pepin returned in 756, defeated Aistulf again, and is reported to have promised the pope possession of a large portion of the Italian peninsula. When Aistulf died shortly thereafter, he was replaced by Desiderius, who promised to respect papal authority and possessions. That he did not do.
Constantinople
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Constantine the Great established the city oJ Constantinople as his capital in 323. In doing so, he occupied the former city of Byzantium, which for centuries had controlled the straits separating Asia and Europe. The Sea oJ Marmara is flanked northeast and southwest by the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, two narrow straits linking the Mediterranean and the Black seas. Unless one goes completely around the Black Sea, the passage from Europe into Asia Minor is across one of those straits. Therefore, Byzantium/Constantinople/Istanbul has been an extremely strategic possession for both land and naval warfare, as well as overland and maritime trade. As Rome faded and Constantinople rose in power, it became the seat of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire.
St. Augustine
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After Christopher Columbus’ voyage of 1492, Spain began establishing control over the islands of the Caribbean Sea. When their reach extended to Central and South America, the wealth of the Aztec and Inca empires began flowing across the Atlantic to Spanish coffers. As early as 1522, other European nations saw the potential of profiting from Spain’s work by attacking Spanish ships laden with treasure. Spain responded by landing men on the peninsula of Florida, hoping to establish naval bases which (coupled with those of Cuba) would deter pirates from entering the Caribbean. When the French attempted to start a colony in northern Florida in 1564, Spain hurriedly began settling men at St. Augustine to both remove the French threat and begin the pacification and conversion of the local Indians to Christianity. A series of nine wooden forts were constructed over the course of the next century to protect the settlement, all of them destroyed by commanded a sortie be launched against the English while their forces were divided and that paralyzed the English attack. They proceeded to bombard the fort with naval gunfire for twenty-seven days, but inflicted little damage and few casualties. With hurricane season approaching, the force finally retreated to Georgia.
Quebec
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the American Revolution began in April 1775, the Continental Congress that directed the fledgling war effort realized the importance of Canada. From there, the British could send wounded in the leg in the process. He was evacuated and Colonel Daniel Morgan assumed command. He led the men over the barricade and captured a number of defenders, then pressed on. Unfortunately, his command was becoming disorganized owing to the bad weather and the fighting; his prisoners out-numbered his own force. At a second barricade they halted, for this was their rendezvous point with Montgomery. Little did they know that Montgomery lay dead just past Point Diamond and his command had retreated in confusion. There was to be no reinforcement. At dawn the defenders sallied past the barricade but were turned back after Morgan led a counterattack. Unfortunately, behind the second barricade stood a double rank of fusiliers whose fire decimated Morgan’s men. An attempt to outflank them failed, and Morgan’s men began to retreat. Carleton, however, had sent a force behind them to block their withdrawal. After a brief stand in some of the houses, the Americans were forced to surrender.
Genoa
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Napoleon burst onto the military scene in 1796-1797 with his brilliant campaign against the Austrian forces occupying northern Italy. His use of quick attacks on separated enemy forces was so speedy in its execution that the Austrians found themselves not only repeatedly defeated but thrown out of Italy in the spring of 1797. Napoleon soon after this campaign diverted his attention to Egypt, where his fortunes were not so bright. While he was engaged in his Middle East campaign, the Austrians seized the opportunity to reestablish their control in northern Italy. Through 1799 a combined Austro-Russian force ably commanded by General A. V Suvarov swept French forces from northern Italy and threatened to invade France. Suvarov was transferred to the Thine, leaving command of the Austrian army in northwestern Italy to General Baron Michael von Melas. On 7 November 1799, he defeated the last French field force outside Genoa.
Cartagena
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The French Revolution, Napoleon’s rise in Europe, and the enthronement of his brother Joseph Bonaparte in Spain had far-reaching effects in Spain’s western hemisphere colonies. First, the principles of the French Revolution, following closely on the American Revolution, established in Central and South America a movement to break away from the power of Spain’s monarchy. Unfortunately, the goals of the colonial population differed depending on socioeconomic status. The lower classes and slaves looked forward to liberty, equality, and fraternity as preached by the French Revolution, but the upper class creoles (ethnic Spaniards born in the Americas) desired only the removal of royal power without a major social upheaval. When Joseph Bonaparte ascended the Spanish throne in 1808 and the reigning monarch Ferdinand VII was imprisoned, the resulting revolution in Spain against the foreign ruler was soon duplicated in Spain’s colonies. While some of the Latin American cities and provinces maintained their loyalty to Spain, many of the others only gave lip service to restoring Ferdinand to the throne. They were more intent on declaring independence from all of Europe, not just from the usurper Bonaparte.