bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Field Theories of Gravitation: the First Fifty Years
Authors: Pais Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It did not take Einstein long to realize that the collaboration with Grossmann [E1] had led to some conclusions that defeated the very task he had set himself. Let us briefly recapitulate the developments in his thinking about gravitation up to the spring of 1913. Late in 1907 he discovered the singular position of gravitation in the theory of relativity. He realized that the question was not how to incorporate gravitation into the special theory but rather how to use gravitation as a means of breaking away from the privileged position of covariance for uniform relative motion to covariance for general motion. In his Prague days, the analysis of the motion of light in an inhomogeneous gravitational field taught him that the light velocity depends on the gravitational potential and that therefore the framework of the special theory of relativity was too narrow [E2]. Toward the end of his stay in Prague, the technical concept of general covariance took shape in his mind and the fundamental role of the metric tensor as the carrier of gravitation became clear. The first steps toward the tensor theory of gravitation, taken with Grossmann, led him to conclude that the gravitational field equations can be covariant only with respect to linear transformations.
The Field Equations of Gravitation
Authors: Pais Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On November 25, 1915, Einstein presented to the physics-mathematics section of the Prussian Academy of Sciences a paper in which ‘finally the general theory of relativity is closed as a logical structure’ [El]. The title of that paper is identical with the heading of the present chapter, in which it is described how his field equations reached their final form. Einstein was still a professor at the ETH when he presented his report to the Vienna meeting discussed in Chapter 13. However, by then he had already decided to leave Zürich. In the spring of 1913, Planck and Nernst had come to Zürich for the purpose of sounding out Einstein about his possible interest in moving to Berlin. A combination of positions was held out to him: membership in the Prussian Academy with a special salary to be paid, half by the Prussian government and half by the physics-mathematics section of the Academy from a fund maintained with outside help, a professorship at the University of Berlin with the right but not the obligation to teach, and the directorship of a physics institute to be established.
A Loss of Identity: the Birth of Quantum Statistics
Authors: Pais Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This episode begins with a letter dated June 1924 [Bl], written by a young Bengali. His name was Satyendra Nath Bose. The five papers he had published by then were of no particular distinction. The subject of his letter was his sixth paper. He had sent it to the Philosophical Magazine. A referee had rejected it [B2]. Bose’s letter was addressed to Einstein, then forty-five years old and already recognized as a world figure by his colleagues and by the public at large. In this chapter I describe what happened in the scientific lives of these two men during the six months following Einstein’s receipt of Bose’s letter. For Bose the consequences were momentous. Virtually unknown before, he became a physicist whose name will always be remembered. For Einstein this period was only an interlude.* He was already deeply engrossed in his search for a unified theory. Such is the scope of his oeuvre that his discoveries in those six months do not even rank among his five main contributions, yet they alone would have sufficed for Einstein to be remembered forever.
Einstein’s Proposals for the Nobel Prize
Authors: Pais Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Einstein’s Nobel prize proposals enable us to catch glimpses of what, in his judgment, were and were not important issues in his time. In what follows, the reader will find neither a dissertation on the virtues, follies, and harm of prizes and awards, nor a gossip column about personalities. Nine of the following entries refer to physics proposals. Unless noted otherwise, they are all addressed to the Nobel Committee in Stockholm in the form of letters. There are also seven proposals for the peace prize directed to the Starting in Oslo. One entry deals with correspondence about a Nobel prize in medicine for Sigmund Freud, another concerns a literature prize for Hermann Broch.
An Einstein Chronology
Authors: Pais Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
August 8. Hermann Einstein (b. 1847) and Pauline Koch (b. 1852) are married in Cannstatt. March 14, 11:30 a.m. Albert, their first child, is born in the Einstein residence, Bahnhofstrasse 135, Ulm. June 21. The Einsteins register as residents of Munich. November 18. E.’s sister Maria (Maja) is born. The first miracle: E.’s enchantment with a pocket compass. First instruction, by a private teacher. E. starts taking violin lessons (and continues to do so to age thirteen). E. attends public school in Munich. In order to comply with legal requirements for religious instruction, he is taught the elements of Judaism at home. E. enters the Luitpold Gymnasium.** The religious education continues, at school this time, where Oberlehrer Heinrich Friedmann instructs E. until he is prepared for the bar mitzvah.
The Abstract Nature Of Mathematics
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Study of mathematics is apt to commence in dis­ appointment. The important applications of the science, the theoretical interest of its ideas, and the logical rigour of its methods, all generate the expectation of a speedy introduction to processes of interest. We are told that by its aid the stars are weighed and the billions of molecules in a drop of water are counted. Yet, like the ghost of Hamlet’s father, this great science eludes the efforts of our mental weapons to grasp it—“Tis here, ‘tis there, ‘tis gone’-and what we do see does not suggest the same excuse for illusiveness as sufficed for the ghost, that it is too noble for our gross methods. ‘A show of violence,’ if ever excusable, may surely be ‘offered’ to the trivial results which occupy the pages of some elementary mathematical treatises.
Dynamics
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The World had to wait for eighteen hundred years till the Greek mathematical physicists found successors. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of our era great Italians, in particular Leonardo da Vinci, the artist (born 1452, died 1519), and Galileo (born 1564, died I 642), rediscovered the secret, known to Archimedes, of relating abstract mathematical ideas with the experimental investigation of natural phenomena. Meanwhile the slow advance of mathematics and the accumulation of accurate astronomical knowledge had placed natural philosophers in a much more advantageous position for research.
Periodicity In Nature
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Whole life of Nature is dominated by the existence of periodic events, that is, by the existence of successive events so analogous to each other that, without any straining of language, they may be termed recurrences of the same event. The rotation of the earth produces the successive days. It is true that each day is different from the preceding days, however abstractly we define the meaning of a day, so as to exclude casual phenomena. But with a sufficiently abstract definition of a day, the distinction in properties between two days becomes faint and remote from practical interest; and each day may then be conceived as a recurrence of the phenomenon of one rotation of the earth.
Quantity
Authors: Whitehead Alfred North 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In The previous chapter we pointed out that lengths are measurable in terms of some unit length, areas in term of a unit area, and volumes in terms of a unit volume. When we have a set of things such as lengths which are measurable in terms of any one of them, we say that they are quantities of the same kind. Thus lengths are quantities of the same kind, so are areas, and so are volumes. But an area is not a quantity of the same kind as a length, nor is it of the same kind as a volume. Let us think a little more on what is meant by being measurable, taking lengths as an example.
Public Financing of Campaigns
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The November 1989 election was a milestone in New York City’s political history. For the first time the campaigns of candidates for municipal offices were financed partly by public funds. With this historic election, New York City joined a small number of other cities and states that provide partial public financing of campaigns. The campaign financing program was created under the New York City Campaign Finance Act, signed into law in March 1988.
Bargaining and Budgeting
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses issues involving two of the most important aspects of New York City government, municipal budgeting and collective bargaining. The issues are highlighted by the repeated failure of collective bargaining to resolve municipal wage policy in time for adoption of a realistic annual operating budget. The delays in resolving labor settlements mean that city officials must allocate resources and determine related policy issues without having the benefit of knowing what labor costs will be in a given year. This threatens the integrity of the city’s budgeting and financial planning processes.
Municipal Wage Policy
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On June 30, 1990, contracts between the city of New York and most of its unionized employees expired. The relatively new Dinkins administration began its first round of collective bargaining. Its initial settlements with the United Federation of Teachers in early October 1991 and two other large municipal employee unions a few weeks later were widely criticized as too generous, adding to the city’s mounting fiscal woes.
The Uniformed Services
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 11 explained how an input—output approach can serve three purposes in the analysis of municipal services: it can further understanding of the expenditure—services relationship, facilitate performance evaluation, and help identify options for service improvement. This chapter applies the approach to the city of New York’s four uniformed services—sanitation, fire, police, and correction—with an emphasis on evaluation and options for improvement.
The Department of Parks and Recreation
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Standing before the stony panorama of New York City’s concrete skyscrapers and asphalt streets, the average New Yorker would be surprised to learn that fully one-sixth of the city is public parkland and that a larger portion of its land is reserved for parks than in any other large American city. (See Tables 14.1 and 14.2.) In fact, the average share devoted to local parks among the nation’s largest cities is only about 6 percent, less than half the equivalent figure for New York City.
Introduction
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Maier Steven F , Seligman Martin E P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the last thirty years, we have witnessed a vast change in how the social sciences explain our behavior. As students, we were taught that people were pushed and pulled by their inner and outer environments. The details of this pushing and pulling became the preferred explanation of our actions. We learned such explanations as: Organisms persist in their responses, if these are reinforced by the occurrence of positive events or the cessation of negative ones. Organisms display their habits when their biological drives are high and will repeat responses that have been followed by the reduction of biological needs.
Learned Helplessness and Social Problems
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Maier Steven F , Seligman Martin E P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two stories about learned helplessness in people. The first one has to do with the attempts in the experimental laboratory to produce a phenomenon akin to that observed in dogs following un­ controllable shocks. The second one has to do with the extrapolations of the helplessness phenomenon to explain all manner of failures of human adaptation. There are some striking differences between these stories. As we described in Chapter 4, basic helplessness research has been controversial. In contrast, the applications for the most part have been enthusiastically accepted. But here’s an even more interesting wrinkle: the most thoroughly worked through application of learned helplessness has been to depression, and this is precisely the most controversial. In Chapter 6, we touched on some of the reasons for this controversy.
Geochemical Self-Organization
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This monograph offers an interdisciplinary approach to the analysis of geological systems which become spatially organized through the mediation of chemical processes. The treatment is based on a mathematical approach. The intended readership includes researcher and advanced undergraduate and graduate students in all branches of geology as well as scientists and mathematicians concerned with nonlinear dynamics, numerical analysis, self-organization, nonlinear waves and dynamics, and phase transition phenomena. The work could also serve as a basis for a special topics course in mathematics, chemistry or physics.
Introduction
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The traditional view of geology is that observed structures are due to an externally imposed pattern. For example, sedimentary rock layering is attributed to seasonal variations in the rate and character of deposition. This view has succeeded in explaining many observed patterns. However, not all repetitive geological patterns can be directly attributed to a “template,” that is, to causes external to the rock system in which the patterns have formed.
Metamorphic Differentiation
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metamorphic differentiation is the spontaneous intensification of contrast leading to compositionally distinct, heterogeneous patterns of alternating domains of mineralogy and/or fabric arising in metamorphic rocks; these patterns are not necessarily related to a preexisting layering, sedimentary bedding or other feature. Layering or banding is the most commonly observed pattern (Fig. 11-1), although spotted and orbicular structures are also found (see Chapter 13 for further details). In this chapter we advocate the view that these patterns arise via a dynamic of self-organization involving coupled mechanochemical processes. Quantitative models are set forth and methods for analyzing them are presented. Preliminary numerical simulations of the reaction-transport-mechanical equations are shown to have many of the features dis¬ played by metamorphic layering.
Geodes, Concretions, Agates and Orbicules
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Roughly spheroidal objects of supragrain dimension are observed to develop under a variety of conditions including igneous, metamorphic, and diagenetic. Examples include orbicular granite, concretions, geodes, and agates. They are noteworthy from the point of view of self-organization in that they may have internal compositional distributions or morphologies which suggest that autonomous patterning processes have played a role.
Compartmentation Of A Sedimentary Basin
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent observations on the existence of arrays of basin compartments suggest that they may be examples of kilometer-scale self-organization. A compartment is defined to be a domain of rock of relatively high permeability surrounded by rock of relatively low permeability (Fig. 15-1). The phenomena of interest are such compartments and basin-scale arrays of them as suggested in Fig. 15-2. Basic notions of the compartments and their surrounding seals are introduced, emphasizing aspects of self-organization that appear to operate in association with their development. The nonlinear dynamics of episodic fluid release from these compartments is discussed in the next chapter. While it is likely that many of the phenomena discussed here can operate deep in the crust or in the mantle, this chapter will focus on sedimentary basins.
Episodic Fluid Flow and the Fracturing/Healing Cycle
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A number of mechanisms exist for creating elevated pore fluid pressures. If pressures exceed a critical value, a rock may fracture. As a consequence, fluid pressures may drop through fracture-induced enhancement of permeability. When pore fluid pressures drop sufficiently, fractures at depth heal or close. If the fluid-pressurizing mechanism is still in operation, pressures may again rise, completing one cycle.
Plotting against Castro
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In November 1959, Castro’s revolution was barely eleven months old. In the opinion of Washington policymakers, however, it had lasted long enough. Following Castro’s takeover of Cuba, relations between the United States and its small island neighbor had rapidly deteriorated. Convinced that the United States was hostile to his revolution, Castro quickly began confiscating American property on the island. In the summer and fall of 1959, he accused the United States of encouraging the counterrevolutionary activities of antiCastrist exiles and charged that the United States threatened Cuba with “economic strangulation.”1 U.S. political leaders, in return, increasingly were alarmed by Cuba’s antiAmerican rhetoric and the active participation of Communists in Cuba’s new regime.
The Helicopters That Couldn’t
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On March 22, 1980, President Carter received his first full briefing on planning for a rescue mission as he spent the weekend at the presidential retreat at Camp David. By then the hostage crisis had dragged on for more than five months. From then on, in the words of National Security Adviser Brzezinski, “the rescue option began to take on a kind of inevitability.” With Carter at the briefing were Vice President Mondale, Secretary of Defense Brown, Secretary of State Vance, CIA Director Turner, JCS Chairman Jones, Brzezinski and his deputy Aaron, and White House Press Secretary Jody Powell. For several hours General Jones presented the plan, which he described as “exceptionally complex.” In contrast, however, to the skepticism the JCS had evidenced in November 1979 about the possibility of rescuing the hostages, Jones was positive about the rescue plan. After months of planning and training, the military was confident it had finally developed a workable plan and a force that could execute it.
Radiative Transfer In Clouds
Authors: Liou K N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Clouds reflect, absorb, and transmit solar radiation. The amount of solar flux reflected, absorbed, and transmitted by clouds is a function of the optical depth, the geometry governing the sun, and the direction of detection. Under the planeparallel assumption, a number of the radiative transfer methodologies that have been introduced in Chapter 3 can be used to determine the radiative properties of clouds. As shown in various sections in that chapter, the fundamental radiative transfer equation has been developed for an ensemble of molecules and/or particulates. In the case of clouds, the basic scattering and absorption properties of cloud particles are determined by particle size distribution. Clouds can also reflect and transmit the thermal infrared (ir) radiation emitted from the surface and the atmosphere and, at the same time, emit ir radiation according to the temperature structure within them. Although Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive discussion of the transfer of irradiation in clear atmospheres, the general effects of scattering by cloud particles on ir radiation transfer have not been addressed.
The Cell Membrane: Molecular Structure
Authors: Wolken Jerome J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cells are the basic units of life. Cells are enclosed by a cell membrane that encapsulates all the intracellular components, organelles, of the cell. The cell membrane provides the means for cells to separate their external environment from their internal environment. The cell membrane has selective properties and allows for the differential diffusion of ions and the exchange of gases. The cell membrane was at one time envisaged as only a passive barrier for diffusion and permeability, but it is now known to play an active role in chemical transport, energy transduction, and information transfer to and from the cell.
Sensory Innervation of the Viscera
Authors: vero F Cer , Foreman R D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The autonomic nervous system has been regarded traditionally as a motor system with the specific responsibility of regulating the internal environment. Visceral afferent fibers are also an integral part of this system, through they have not always been regarded as such because their anatomical and physiological properties were indistinguishable from those of somatic afferent fibers. Both were viewed as part of the sensory equipment of the body. It is impossible, however, to understand integrative autonomic functions without reference to the afferent signals that trigger and modulate autonomic reflexes and without knowledge of the peripheral and central sensory systems responsible for signaling visceral pain.
From Historiography to Class Ideology
Authors: Reed Adolph L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Historiographical Tendency that Baker and Gates exemplify has attained prominence partly for institutional reasons. Its popularity reflects the broader appeal of literary studies-and lines of inquiry rooted in the concerns of literary studies - in the academy of the 1980s and 1990s. This appeal has been notable in Afro-Americanist scholarship, which has become sharply inflected toward the study of literature and associated interpretive rubrics. As in other academic pursuits, this development is most immediately the product of a familiar professional dialectic. The interpretive orientation that emerged in literary studies in the 1980s, typically under the flags of deconstruction and poststructuralism, has several features that support its proliferation. It is a selfcontained discourse that, not unlike Straussianism in the history of political thought, has its own relatively esoteric lexicon and an elaborate canon of critical texts-characteristics that impose entry costs high enough to confer a technicistic legitimacy. Yet militant antipositivism and skepticism regarding linear argument or grand narrative undermine both internal and external consistency as criteria for evaluation. Successful interpretation, therefore, is not simply a function of straightforward application of method, and adjudication of interpretive claims necessarily is idiosyncratic.
Parties and Policies
Authors: Medding Peter Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The State of Israel, as was pointed out in chapter 1, inherited from the Yishuv a working multiparty system that reflected social diversity and intense ideological differences over a whole range of issues. What is more they were anchored in separate and distinctive political sub communities or enclaves. Ideology per se was of great significance as the parties struggled to imprint their particular weltan schauung upon the identity and character of the future state.