bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Lincosaminides
Authors: Bannister Brian 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLincomycin, C18H34N2O6S, the first lincosaminide antibiotic to which a structure was assigned, is defined chemically as methyl 6,8‐dideoxy‐6‐(1‐methyl‐trans‐4‐propyl‐L‐pyrrolidin‐2‐ylcarbonylamino)‐1‐thio‐D‐erythro‐D‐galacto‐octopyranoside. Both lincomycin and the semisynthetic clindamycin, C18H33ClN2O5S, are widely used in clinical practice. The trivial name of the sugar fragment of this antibiotic, methyl α‐thiolincosaminide, has lent itself to the other members of this family. Lincomycin has been produced by a variety ofStreptomycesstrains and by strain 1146 ofActinomyces roseolus.The earliest studies on the mechanism of action of lincomycin showed that lincomycin had the immediate effect onStaphylococcus aureusof complete inhibition of protein synthesis. Little effect on DNA and RNA synthesis was observed. Resistance to lincomycin is developed slowly, and leads to coresistance to macrolide, lincosaminide, and streptogramin B antibiotics. Lincomycin hydrochloride (Lincocin) is available in oral dosage forms and as a sterile solution for injection. Lincomycin has found use in the treatment of diseases of the ear, throat, nose, respiratory tissue, skin and soft tissue, bone, joint, dental, and septicemic infections caused by staphylococci, pneumonococci, and streptococci (other than enterococci). It has also been used in the treatment of diphtheria. Clindamycin, 7(S)‐7‐chloro‐7‐deoxylincomyin, also known as Cleocin, first resulted from the reaction of lincomycin and thionyl chloride; improved synthetic methods involve the reaction of lincomycin and triphenylphosphine dichloride or triphenylphosphine in carbon tetrachloride. Clindamycin is significantly more active than lincomycin against gram‐positive bacteriain vitro,and is absorbed rapidly following oral administration. Clindamycin has found use in the treatment of common infections caused by gram‐positive cocci. It is also efficacious in the treatment of anaerobic infections, including actinomycosis. Clindamycin has been shown to be active against strains ofPlasmodiumin animals. Cross‐resistance between lincomycin and clindamycin is complete, and co‐resistances of lincomycin also apply to clindamycin. The composition of matter patents in the United States issued to The Upjohn Company on clindamycin phosphate and hydrochloride having expired at the end of 1986 and in early 1987, respectively, these compounds have been available generically from more than two dozen companies in the United States alone.
Coal Conversion Processes Liquefaction
Authors: Dadyburjor Dady B. , Liu Zhenyu 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCoal liquefaction incorporates both an increase in the H/C ratio and removal of heteroatoms (S, N, O) and inorganic oxides (ash). Successful industrial processes must incorporate both these steps along with the transport of solid‐ and slurry‐phase material in large‐scale processing. The H/C ratio can be increased using high temperatures and pressures and a solvent (generally process derived), or by a catalyst, or by heating rapidly in the absence of a solvent in hydrogen or an inert atmosphere. Sometimes there are advantages to processing coal simultaneously with other fossil fuels such as resids. Typically, such operations, termed coprocessing, result in improved removal of heteroatoms and ash. The use of solids and slurries has resulted in novel reactors and processing steps. Fuel production can be direct, from the coal itself, or indirect, from synthesis gas (CO and H2) obtained by gasification of the coal. Synthesis gas, in particular, can be used to produce chemicals other than fuels. The production of these chemicals often can be used to make favorable the economics of fuel production from coal.
Liquid Level Measurement
Authors: Boisvert Jerry , Carsella Boyce , Shannon Wayne , Williams Ted 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Liquid level measurement is considered one of the four primary process measurement parameters, ie, temperature, pressure, flow, and level. Measurement of any of the parameters is difficult due to the harsh conditions present in many processes. High temperature, high pressure, corrosive environments, turbulence, etc, are a few of the conditions a measurement device must endure if it is to fulfill its goal of accuracy and dependability. Due to these factors, numerous and various level measurement devices have been developed to effectively handle particular types of applications.
The following approaches are covered in the article: sight glasses, dip stick, magnetic liquid level indicators, floats, displacers, buoyancy, conductivity, capacitance, pressure/differential pressure, ultrasonic, microwave, fiber optic, thermal disposition, magnetostrictive, phase tracking, servo gauge, and radiation.
Liquid Crystalline Materials
Authors: Collings Peter J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLiquid crystals are a state of matter in which the molecules diffuse randomly as in liquids but retain some orientational order as is typical of solids. Many thousands of organic compounds, including rigid‐rod polymers and other macromolecules, exhibit liquid crystallinity, either in their pure form or when mixed with a liquid solvent. Liquid crystalline materials are studied both for the basic scientific understanding of this phase of matter and for the possibility of practical applications. To date, the most important application is the low power consuming liquid crystal display (LCD). Topics covered in the article include orientational and positional order in fluids, thermotropic liquid crystals, lyotropic liquid crystals, polymorphism, synthesis, polymer liquid crystals, liquid crystals in biological systems, and applications.
Fuels, Synthetic, Liquid Fuels
Authors: Han Scott , Chang Clarence D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe creation of liquids to be used as fuels from sources other than natural crude petroleum broadly defines synthetic liquid fuels. Synthetic liquid fuels have characteristics approaching those of the liquid fuels in commerce, specifically gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and fuel oil. For much of the twentieth century, the synthetic fuels emphasis was on liquid products derived from coal upgrading or by extraction or hydrogenation of organic matter in coke liquids, coal tars, tar sands, or bitumen deposits. However, much of the direction involving synthetic fuels technology has changed.The potential of natural gas, which typically has 85–95% methane, has been recognized as a plentiful and clean alternative feedstock to crude oil.The proven technology to upgrade methane is via steam reforming to produce synthesis gas, CO + H2. Such a gas mixture is clean and when converted to liquids produces fuels substantially free of heteroatoms such as sulfur and nitrogen. Two commercial units utilizing the synthesis gas from natural gas technology in combination with novel downstream conversion processes have been commercialized.The direct methane conversion technology has received the most research attention and involves the oxidative coupling of methane to produce higher hydrocarbons such as ethylene.A second trend in synthetic fuels is increased attention to oxygenates as alternative fuels as a result of the growing environmental concern about burning fossil‐based fuels. The environmental impact of the oxygenates is still under debate, but these alternative liquid fuels are gaining new prominence.Despite reduced prominence, coal technology is well positioned to provide synthetic fuels for the future. World petroleum and natural gas production are expected ultimately to level off and then decline. Coal gasification to synthesis gas is utilized to synthesize liquid fuels in much the same manner as natural gas steam reforming technology. Although world activity in coal liquefaction technology is minimal, the extensive development and detailed demonstration of processes for converting coal to liquid fuels should serve as solid foundation for the synthetic fuel needs of the future.Coal, tar, and heavy oil fuel reserves are widely distributed.The importance of coal gasification as a means of producing fuel gas(es) for industrial use cannot be underplayed. But coal gasification systems also have undesirable features. A range of undesirable products are also produced which must be removed before the products are used to provide fuel and/or to generate electric power. Natural gas is a plentiful resource, and there has been a marked tendency not to use other fossil fuels as SNG sources. However, petroleum oil shale, and biomass have been the subject of extensive research efforts.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Authors: Taylor R. Ray 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a subcategory of a versatile class of petroleum products known as natural gas liquids that are produced with and extracted from natural gas. Other natural gas liquids include natural gasoline and ethane. LPG is also produced from the refining of crude oil. It is commercially available as propane, butane, and butane–propane mixtures. Specifications of the commercial LPG products depend on composition and vary between wide limits.
The manufacture and processing of LPG is partially dependent on the desired by‐product as well as the process economics. Purification procedures involve both amine and caustic treatments to remove sulfur as well as dehydration and fractionation. Shipment and storage require specialized equipment.
Principal uses of LPG include as a fuel and as a petrochemical feedstock.
Extraction, Liquid‐Solid
Authors: Wakeman Richard J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Liquid‐solid extraction is complex at the fundamental level, which is masked by the apparent simplicity of industrial processes used to effect extraction. The structure of solids which have to be extracted is varied, and leads to a combination of diffusional and other mass‐transfer processes which effect solvent contact and solute extraction. Other factors that determine extraction rates and hence equipment size include particle size, physical and chemical properties of the solvent, solubility dependences on temperature, and solvent agitation. Extractors rely on either percolation or agitation to give intimate contact between the solvent and the solids to be extracted. Early batch extractors have to some extent been superseded by continuous devices where the mode of solids transport offers the key to successful operation. The method of solids transport is used as a means of classifying the different equipment types. The design of an extraction system generally requires that careful consideration be given to safety and environmental factors, particularly with regard to solvent and dust loadings in the atmosphere of the working environment.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Lithium
Authors: Papcun John R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Lithium fluoride is used primarily in the ceramic industry to reduce firing temperatures and improve resistance to thermal shock, abrasion, and acid attack. It is also used in flux compositions with other fluorides, chlorides, and borates for metal joining, and is an essential component of the fluorine cell electrolyte. Properties are described.
L‐Monosodium Glutamate(MSG)
Authors: Kawakita Tetsuya 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMonosodium glutamate (MSG), more specifically monosodiumL‐glutamate, is used in large quantities as a flavor enhancer throughout the world. The world capacity for production of MSG continues to increase. Demand is expected to increase in developing countries as its use in commercially prepared packaged foods, ready‐made soups, and as a table seasoning increase MonosodiumL‐glutamate,\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{C}}{_{5}}{\rm{H}} _{8}{\rm{NO}}{_{4}}{\rm{Na}}{\cdot{}}{\rm{H}}{_{2}}{\rm{O}}}$\end{document}, crystallizes from aqueous solution at room temperature as rhombic prisms. Commercially preferred crystals for use as flavor enhancement are obtained by crystallization in the presence of amino acids such as alanine. Glutamic acid‐producing microorganisms are distributed widely throughout the natural environment. They are classified taxonomically as theMicrococcus, Brevibacterium, Corynebacterium,andAerobactersp. andMicrobacteriumgenera. Most of these microorganisms are gram‐positive, nonspore‐forming, nonmotile, and require biotin for growth. The carbon sources for biosynthesis of glutamic acid include acetic acid and the commonly used carbohydrates. For industrial production, molasses and starch hydrolyzate are generally used at present. MonosodiumL‐glutamate elicits a unique taste, known as umami, which is different from the four basic tastes of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.L‐Glutamic acid is employed as a pharmaceutical and raw material for cosmetics. The acute toxicity of MSG is low. The main use of MSG is as a food ingredient. No specific toxic effects, and no evidence for carcinogenicity or mutagenicity have been demonstrated.
Polyethylene, Low Density
Authors: Pebsworth Lloyd W. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The article presents a review of the properties, manufacture, reaction kinetics, and applications of low density polyethylene (LDPE), covering general properties relating to crystallinity and molecular weight, as well as specific properties such as density, melt viscosity, tensile and impact strength, stress crack or chemical resistance, electrical properties, and film appearance. It also examines emission reduction and energy conservation during manufacture, reaction kinetics concerning control of chain length, short‐ and long‐chain branching, and lists common comonomers, chain‐transfer agents, and reaction initiators. Finally, the article details end use consumption by application, with particular emphasis on the blown film and extrusion coating areas, and summarizes various environmental issues.
Lubrication and Lubricants
Authors: Booser E. R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article outlines the fundamental principles involved in friction, wear, and lubrication. Refining, compounding practices, and trends are described for petroleum lubricants, which supply 98% of automotive and industrial needs, and the production of chemical additives is also covered. Composition and functioning of these additives are described for enhancing oxidation stability, corrosion resistance, wear reduction, viscosity–temperature characteristics, and other performance characteristics for specific applications. Chemical compositions and unique properties are discussed for the production of synthetic lubricants which is rapidly growing to fill needs of the military, automotive engines, and industry for broader temperature range, longer life, fire resistance, and better matching of machinery and environment. Subsequent coverage follows for greases, solid‐film lubricants, metalworking lubrication, radiation stability, and extreme temperature lubrication with gases, liquid metals, and glass. Production trends, recycling practices, and toxicity factors are given.
Magnetic Spin Resonance
Authors: Kiemle David J. , Winter William T. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Magnetic spin resonance techniques are among the most powerful methods available for determining primary structure, conformation, and local dynamic properties of molecules in liquid, solid, and even gas phases. Both organic and inorganic species can be studied.

An overview of nuclear magnetic and electron spin resonance spectroscopy theory, equipment, and practice is presented. Theory is briefly reviewed, giving particular attention to the differences between the two techniques. The basic modules comprising a magnetic resonance spectrometer, function, and limitations are discussed. One‐dimensional and multidimensional experiments for both the most common nmr nuclei,
1
H and
13
C as well as several less commonly studied species, are described. Applications of nmr studies to larger molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and other polymers both in solution and in the solid state are mentioned, and a brief description of EPR experiments is included. References are given for all areas. This article is current through summer 1994 except for the use of gradient field spectroscopy.
Separation, Magnetic Separation
Authors: Morgan Don 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMorgan, Don (O. S. Walker Co.). The application of magnetic separation relies on the behavior of individual particles under the influence of a magnetic field. Several types of magnetic devices are used, ranging from those for the removal of highly magnetic materials to those for feebly magnetic materials and minerals. Magnetic units may be used as head pulleys of conveyors, magnets suspended over conveyors, magnetic drums, plate and grate magnets, or eddy current separators. These last are employed in recycling operations and other metal operation systems. Conventional magnets are discussed and standard available sizes and the operational value in systems where they are installed are provided.Magnetic separators that are used in wet processes for the recovery of magnetite from heavy‐media separation plants, as well as iron ore recovery, are also discussed. Wet high intensity magnetic separation is introduced. Recommended capacities, feed rates, and magnetic sizes are given.
Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys
Authors: Kramer Deborah A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMagnesium is the world's most readily available metal and occurs naturally in minerals, brines, and seawater. Magnesium metal is prepared commercially by two types of processes. In the first process, magnesium chloride is recovered from the raw materials and converted to metal by molten salt electrolysis. The second process involves the reduction of magnesium oxide with silicon or aluminum at high temperatures. The resulting metal is then cast into a variety of shapes and sizes of ingots, or alloyed with various other metals and made into ingots, slabs, billets, and many extruded shapes. Pure magnesium is used for making aluminum alloys, the desulfurization of steel, the manufacture of ductile iron, and as a reducing agent for the production of other metals. Elemental magnesium is the lightest structural metal. Magnesium alloys are used mainly in die and sand castings, and in the manufacture of wrought products. Alloy composition is varied to obtain the desired physical and mechanical properties for a given application. Production capacities, import and export data are given. Magnesium is essential to most plant and animal life.
Maintenance
Authors: Bergtraun Eric M. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
One of the goals of good management is to operate with a predictive and preventive maintenance program that prevents unscheduled utility service interruptions and machine breakdowns. A reasonable cost of such a program contributes to the profitability of manufacturing plants and results in reduction of operating costs and increased productivity. This all can be accomplished by organizing, managing, and controlling maintenance.
A good maintenance program should include designing, laying out, and constructing facilities with maintenance in mind; providing for reliable utilities and their uses; developing a maintenance organization and program while the facility is under construction; developing a simple, practical, predictive, and preventative maintenance program; supplementing an in‐house maintenance organization with contract maintenance; motivating the maintenance workers; organizing safety as an important function of any maintenance program; including environmental care and appreciation in any maintenance program; developing an energy conservation program as part of the maintenance program; creating a partnership with suppliers and equipment manufacturers; cooperating with other service groups of the facility; and controlling costs and assuring budget responsibility.
Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Moore Colin 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Mass spectrometry is a technique which involves measurements of mass‐to‐charge ratios of the ions formed when a sample is ionized. The types of spectrometers available commercially are listed, as are the ionization techniques and types of mass spectrometers used to solve analytical problems in biotechnology, environmental studies, oil analysis, polymer chemistry, and inorganic applications. Detailed descriptions of instrumental components, the various ion paths, and data analyses are presented. Mass spectrometers for tandem mass spectrometry are discussed. The methodologies used to interface hplc and other separations systems to mass spectrometers are described. Techniques utilizing ionization techniques such as secondary ions, glow discharges, and inductively coupled plasma are used for many analyses.
Matches
Authors: Bean Mark C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe development of the ordinary match followed thousands of years of fire‐making by laborious means. It has been perfected in the twentieth century and its formulations have remained basically unchanged. This article discusses the history of matches, mechanism of fire production, manufacture of matches, safety, and economics. The use of matches has declined considerably with the reduction of tobacco consumption and the growth of lighters as ignition sources, but match books remain an important means of advertising.
Materials Standards and Specifications
Authors: Westbrook Jack H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractWestbrook, Jack (Brookline Technologies). A comprehensive overview of materials standards and specifications is presented. Discussion of standards includes types, the generation process, administration, implementation, standard reference materials, standard reference data, nondestructive evaluation standards, traceability, and a detailed review of basic standards for chemical technology. Comparable treatment of specifications includes objectives and types, content, use strategy and implementation, economic, legal, and educational aspects, and discussion of trends in the field. International standards and specifications, computerization, and the need to consider the use of standards and specifications in various hostile environments are all considerations. A reference section compiling standardization journals, sources of standards and specifications domestic and worldwide, and directories and cross‐reference aids is included.
Meat Products
Authors: Schmidt Glenn R. , Raharjo S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractConsumers not only prefer good tasting meat products, but they also are concerned with the nutrition, safety, and wholesomeness of the meat products they consume. Consumers have been told that red meat is a significant source of saturated fat and consequently the consumption of meat has shifted from red meat to poultry. In response to consumer demand, meat processors are marketing various types of low fat meat products. These low fat meat products can be produced by using leaner meat cuts or adding or substituting ingredients for moisture retention or mimicking the sensorial properties of animal fat. To ensure the safety of the processed meat products, the industry and government regulatory agencies are adopting the hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) system. The importance of the HACCP system is more obvious since consumers are demanding more convenient precooked products such as microwavable meat entrees or sous‐vide processed meat products which are not shelf stable. Descriptive terms on nutrition labels that convey information about the nutritional value or quality of a meat product are useful to consumers when making product choices.