bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Individual variation, social structure, community organization, and hierarchical views in the marine context
Authors: Iwasaki Keiji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the nineteenth century when, thanks to Darwin’s brilliant achievements, community ecology took root, ecologists have grappled with three kinds of hierarchies. The first is a trophic hierarchy into which food webs, involving micro-organisms, plants, herbivores, and predators, are organized. The second is a competitive one, in which interspecific competitive dominance in the same trophic level is assumed to be fixed and immutable. The third is a form of organization of biological units interacting with one another in a community, that is, a nested hierarchy consisting of individuals, populations, species, and guilds. The incorporation of the first and second hierarchies into one theoretical framework has led to stimulative theories on community organization (Paine 1966, 1969, 1980; Menge and Sutherland 1976, 1987). Indirect interactions that operate through the hierarchies have, in recent times, become a popular field of community ecology, and many investigators have revealed that even mutualism and commensalism are exerted through these interactions (Dethier and Duggins 1984; Dungan 1986, 1987; Schmitt 1987). It has generally been assumed, however, that the unit of interaction is a species or a population whose ecological traits are virtually homogeneous, although not a few authors have demonstrated or suggested the importance of size difference (Buss 1980; Russ 1982), social structure (Jarman 1974), and individual behavioural differences within a species (West 1988a; Iwasaki 1989; Katano 1989, 1991) in community organization. Because of this internal complexity, the real structure of the nested hierarchy of biological units involved in interspecific interactions has hardly begun to be understood.
Discussion: community and social organization—morphology and function of linkages between organisms
Authors: Ezaki Yasuo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A community consists of individual organisms belonging to different species. Every individual in a community is linked with others by two fundamental relationships. One is the trophic (vertical) relationship between heterospecifics. Another is the sexual or reproductive relationship between conspecifics. These two relationships are fundamental, since they directly influence survival and reproduction of the individual. Two other kinds of relationships are common to most communities. They are the (horizontal) relationship between species at the same trophic level and the relationship within species, usually referred to as ‘social’. The totality of relationships among all members of a species, i.e. the sexual and the social relationships in the above categories, is defined as ‘social organization’ (Brown 1975). In the same way, community organization can be defined conveniently as the totality of relationships among all members of a community. By definition, community organization includes social organization. When we study social organization, we usually regard interspecific (vertical and horizontal) relationships as environmental factors that influence a population.
Concluding remarks
Authors: Cohen Joel E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The three previous chapters envision strikingly diverse futures for community ecology. Rossiter bases his vision of the future on detailed studies of net-spinning caddisfly larvae (of the family Hydropsychidae). He compares caddisfly larvae communities at a given point in a river (under various conditions and at various times), at different points in a river (upstream and downstream), and in different rivers. He is impressed by the subtlety and diversity of the factors that affect their communities, such as water temperature, seston (floating food) quality and size, current velocity, laminar versus turbulent flow, substrate form, macrophytes, and interactions among species. According to Rossiter, ‘Given the inherent complexities, it may well be unrealistic to expect population dynamics and community composition to be governed by general rules’ applicable to differing types of communities. Schoener combines theoretical and empirical approaches.
Crustaceans
Authors: Hayward P J , Isaac M J , Makings P , Moyse J , Naylor E , Smaldon G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The crustaceans (Phylum Crustacea) exhibit a great diversity of structure, adaptation, and development. Freshwater and terrestrial species are common, but the majority of species are marine. Crustaceans occur in all marine habitats, from the supralittoral zone to the abyss; additionally, most holoplanktonic animals belong to the Crustacea, and the meroplankton largely consists of the larval stages of benthic Crustacea.
Is the evolution of herbivore resistance influenced by parasitoids?
Authors: Strong Donald R , Larsson Stig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ecological theory is often given to the diversion of make-believe simplicity. In models of parasitoid-host dynamics, perhaps the greatest fiction is autonomy of parasitoid and host insect from plants, other organisms, and abiotic factors that are the very medium of ecological and evolutionary interactions. The idea of ‘tritrophic interactions’ (Price et al. 1980), which explicitly includes host plants into a food chain from producer through herbivore to consumer, begins to deal with real ecological complexity. Along with other pioneers of integrated food web interactions, like Hairston et al. (1960), Jermy (1984), and Ehrlich and Raven (1964), Price et al. (1980) emphasized the role of host plants in affecting the vulnerabilities and protections of herbivorous insects from parasitoids, predators, and diseases.
The taste of enemy-free space: parasitoids and nasty hosts
Authors: Gauld Ian D , Gaston Kevin J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the twentieth century it has become increasingly apparent that secondary plant substances in the diet of a herbivorous insect may have a profoundly detrimental effect on the fitness of those parasitoids which attack it (Table 15.1). Morgan (1910) was perhaps the first to suggest this, but the effects of these allelochemicals remained largely uninvestigated until their relevance to biological control became apparent. Early efforts to introduce the encyrtid Comperiella bifasciata Howard into the United States to control the citrus pest Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) were thwarted because attempts were made to transport the parasitoid across the Pacific culturing it on A. aurantii feeding not on citrus, but on sago palms. The latter food plant was subsequently shown to be toxic to the parasitoid (Smith 1957). Indeed it was not until 1941, some 35 years after initial attempts were made, that A. aurantii was successfully introduced into California (Flanders 1942).
Mapping Species Occurrence on Habitat Availability
Authors: Hanski llkka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Experienced field biologists are often amazingly successful in predicting the occurrence, or the absence, of particular species at particular sites. They know the species’ ecological requirements, and they base their predictions on the assumption that where the requirements are met, within the geographical range of the species, the species is to be found-abundance and distribution reflect the response of local populations to local conditions (Brown 1995, p. 51). Although there is no reason to doubt that this conclusion would not capture a big element of truth, it does not capture the entire truth. Metapopulation dynamics with population turnover imply that a significant fraction of suitable habitat is unoccupied, even if it is not the same patches of habitat that are unoccupied all the time. Apart from being contrary to the expectations of many biologists, the question about empty habitat has profound implications for conservation (Hanski and Simberloff 1997).
Epilogue
Authors: Hanski llkka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Viewed from outside, metapopulation ecology represents a particular brand of spatial ecology. Ecologists are used to thinking about assemblages of interacting entities, such as individuals in populations, but usually without an explicit reference to space. The novelty of spatial ecology is in the claim that the spatial locations of individuals, populations and communities can have equally significant consequences on dynamics as birth and death rates, competition and predation. Spatial ecology is one of the most visible developments in ecology and population biology in recent years; some regard it as a new paradigm arising towards the end of the twentieth century. New paradigm or not, it is true that never before has space been considered to be so pivotal to so many biological phenomena as today.
Cranial and dental adaptations to predation in canids
Authors: Valkenburgh Blaire Van , li Klaus-Peter Koepf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within the family Canidae, there are four species which regularly take prey much larger than themselves: the grey wolf, wild dog, dhole and bush dog. Each of the four species hunts co-operatively and it is likely that this allows them to kill prey much larger than a single individual could kill. This study examined the craniodental morphology of these species within the context of the family. Its purpose was to determine whether the hunters of large prey exhibit morphological specializations that distinguish them from other canids which consume smaller prey and/or are more omnivorous. If so, the presence of similar morphologies in extinct canids could be used to infer aspects of their feeding behaviour. Thirty measurements of the cranium, mandible and teeth are used to construct 17 ratios that describe craniodental shape and proportion and estimate bending strength of the mandibular corpus. Species were assigned to one of four dietary groups that differed in prey size and/or the proportion of vertebrate to non-vertebrate foods consumed. Differences among the groups in ratio values were assessed with analysis of variance and discriminant analysis. R sults demonstrated a clear separation between the hunters of large prey and other canids and significant separation among the remaining three groups. The canids that routinely take large prey exhibited relatively reduced grinding areas of their dentition, larger canines and incisors, broader snouts, wider occiputs, larger second moments of area of the dentary relative to its length and increased advantage of the major jaw closing muscles. This suite of features indicates specialization for large bite forces at the canines and efficient slicing of meat with the carnassials and is consistent with expected adaptations for killing and consuming large ungulates.
The evolution of echolocation for predation
Authors: Speakman J R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Active detection of food items by echolocation has some obvious advantages over passive detection, since it affords independence from ambient light and sound levels. For predatory animals, however, echolocation would also appear to have a significant disadvantage-the echolocation calls might alert prey to the predator’s presence. Surprisingly, therefore, all but two of the different groups of vertebrates that have evolved echolocation are predatory. Despite the diversity of predatory taxa in which echolocation has evolved it is still a relatively uncommon form of perception. It has been suggested that a major constraint on the evolution of echolocation is its high energy cost, due to rapid attenuation of sound in air. The cost of producing echolocation calls has been measured in insectivorous bats, whilst hanging at rest. These measures confirm that echolocation is extremely costly. However, bats normally echolocate in flight which also has a high cost. How bats cope with the high cost of echolocation, when it is combined with flight, is therefore of extreme interest. Measures of the energy cost of flight of small echolocating bats suggest that the cost is no greater than that for non-echolocating birds and bats. The reason for this parent economy is that the same muscles which flap the wings also ventilate the lungs, and produce the pulse of breath which generates the echolocation call. For a bat in flight, therefore, the additional cost of echolocating is very low, whilst for a bat on the ground, and presumably other terrestrial vertebrates, the cost is very high. The release from the energetic constraint may explain the proliferation of echolocation systems amongst flying predators and their paucity amongst terrestrial predators. This model for the evolution of echolocation has some significant problems-notably the absence of echolocation amongst predatory birds and fruit bats. Possible solutions to these problems include the lack of an advantage for diurnal predators and phylogenetic constraints in both the ventilatory and perceptual systems of these animals.
Carnivore life histories: a re-analysis in the light of new models
Authors: Gittleman John L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Carnivora show tremendous diversity in life-history patterns, ranging from species such as the giant panda that typically do not reproduce until five years of age to many weasel species which reproduce at six months of age. Such differences in life histories have profound effects on reproductive output, population dynamics and rates of evolution. An earlier comparative analysis of nine life-history variables across 112 carnivore species revealed that 38-83% of the variation was associated with allometry, significant phylogenetic patterns were observed at familial levels and ecological factors were surprisingly uninfluential. The present analysis updates this study in the light of recent developments in the comparative data base, comparative statistical models and models of mammalian life-history evolution. Phylogenetic association is significant with 13 life histories but correlation is quite varied depending on particular variables and taxonomic ranks. After taking account of phylogeny to enhance statistical independence in the data, allometry (brain and body size) is significantly correlated with all life histories but, given the imprecise causality of allometric patterns and the number of exceptions in allometric scaling, it is unlikely that an allometric approach will reveal insights into carnivore life-history evolution. Ecological factors, as in other comparative studies, also are not influential. Finally, in agreement with various theoretical life-history models and comparative studies across eutherian mammals as a whole, carnivore life histories may compensate for sources of juvenile and adult mortality. Some examples are given from single-species study to show how comparative patterns may arise from differences in mortality.
Otter (Lutra lutra L.) numbers and fish productivity in rivers in north-east Scotland
Authors: Kruuk H , Carss D N , Conroy J W H , Durbin L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A method has been developed, using radio-tracking and radionuclide recovery, to estimate numbers of otters Lutra lutra along streams of different sizes in Scotland and the amount of time otters spend in these streams. Linear range sizes varied up to 78 km of stream (80 ha of water) for males and up to 21 km (34 ha of water) for females. Diet composition and food intake were estimated and compared with electrofishing data on populations of the main prey species, brown trout Salmo trutta and Atlantic salmon S. salar. Eel Anguilla anguilla was less important. Overall, otters appeared to take more young salmon than trout, compared with numbers in the population (18% of salmonid prey was salmon, compared with 6% in the population), and they consumed a high proportion of the total biomass of 1+ fish (fish in their second year of life, or over) and of 1+ fish production (53-67%).
Jaguar predation and conservation: cattle mortality caused by felines on three ranches in the Venezuelan Llanos
Authors: Hoogesteijn Rafael , Hoogesteijn Almira , Mondolfi Edgardo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most important prey species taken by jaguar are given for the Llanos area of Venezuela, and compared with dietary analyses conducted elsewhere. In three studies carried out in seasonally flooded savannah, cattle constituted 35, 48 and 56% of total prey killed by jaguar. Causes predisposing jaguars to prey on cattle are deforestation (loss of habitat), poaching of the jaguar and its prey, and rudimentary herd management. In two studies, 75% and 53% of jaguars killed while preying on cattle exhibited man-inflicted wounds diminishing the cat’s ability to hunt normally. Physical and ecological features are described for three cattle ranches on seasonally flooded savannah. Mortality and loss of calves caused by felines on these well-managed ranches are compared with other causes. On one ranch calf mortality increased following measures aimed at the conservation of jaguars and other fauna. However, predation rates were considerably less than other causes of pre- and post natal calf mortality and accounted for 6% of all calf losses or deaths. On another ranch, in an area of greater agricultural development and poaching, feline predation caused 30% of total calf losses or deaths. Predation was less significant on a third ranch. Counter-measures to diminish predation included fencing areas of gallery forest to restrict access by cattle, pasturing pregnant cows or cows with small calves in open fields or savannah away from forested areas, and controlling the poaching of jaguars and their wild prey. Translocation and sport hunting of jaguars were found to be unsatisfactory methods for controlling predation problems.
Behavioural and physiological options in diving seals
Authors: Fedak M A , Thompson D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Phocid seals are animals which live at depth and only periodically return to the surface to breathe. They are not surface-dwellers which occasionally leave the surface to forage. This view involves more than a semantic distinction: its adoption is essential to the creation of more realistic conceptual models of the behaviour of diving animals and the understanding of the physiological constraints under which they operate. In this paper, we develop such a conceptual model in terms of the behavioural decisions seals must make and how the physiological options available may constrain behavioural choices. We then consider a model of one of these choices in more detail (the choice of resorting to anaerobic metabolism to extend dives) to demonstrate the consequences such a decision would have on diving behaviour. And finally, we examine some of the field data available from grey, Weddell and elephant seals in terms of which behavioural and physiological options are chosen in particular circumstances.
Calcareous microfossils
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with calcareous microfossils. These generally range in size from 0.1-1.0 mm (though ‘larger’ benthonic foraminifera with complex inner structures range up to 10 cm in diameter). Preparation of samples for calcareous microfossil study generally consists of the disaggregation or thin-sectioning of the containing sediment, depending on the degree of induration (though the ‘peel’ technique can also be useful). Acid treatment is not recommnded, owing to the solubility of calcite (although it can be useful in the extraction of agglutinating foraminifera and in rendering the opaque walls of calcareous forms transparent (Stancliffe and Matsuoka 1991)). Note in this context that all samples collected at sea are susceptible to natural acid attack unless treated (taking the necessary safety precautions) with formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde(Maybury and Ap Gwynn 1993).
Phosphatic microfossils
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with phosphatic microfossils (those composed of calcium phosphate). These range in size from 0.1-5.0 mm. Preparation of samples for phosphatic microfossil study generally consists of the disaggregation or dissolution of the containing sediment. The safest method of disaggregation is boiling in water with added sodium bicarbonate (washing soda). Pre-soaking in sodium hypochlorite (bleach) or solvent such as white spirit facilitates the process, but the excess must be drained off prior to boiling (owing to the risk of fire). Dissolution is by means of acetic (ethanoic) or formic acid (or, in special cases, hydrofluoric acid; Etheridge and Austin 1993). Samples are studied under a reflected light microscope.
Petroleum exploration, appraisal and development
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter contains sections on basin exploration and on exploration, appraisal and development drilling (placing particular emphasis on applications of micropala eontology). The section on drilling includes subsections on the processes of drilling, logging, testing and completion (in particular micropalaeontological sample collection), exploration drilling (especially applications of micropalaeontology in monitoring while
drilling, determination of casing, coring and terminal depths and post-drill auditing) and appraisal and development (placing particular emphasis on applications of micropalaeontology in reservoir zonation). Unfortunately, for reasons of commercial sensitivity, the subsection on appraisal and development has had to be kept to a minimum.
Other commercial applications
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the commercial applications of micropalaeontology outside the oil industry and contains sections on environmental monitoring, coal mining, mineral exploration and exploitation and engineering. There are also more esoteric applications such as those in the fields of criminology, archaeology, aerobiology and melissopalynology. For instance, palynological analysis is used in criminology to deter-mine whether a corpse has been moved after death (by comparing the pollen content in samples from bodily secretions, clothes or shoes against that of the ‘background’) or to test alibis (by comparing the pollen content in samples from a suspect against that of the ‘background’ of his/ or her alleged whereabouts at the time of the crime).
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: an introduction
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In its broadest sense, the Tokelau Island Migrant Study (TIMS) is an analysis of social change. However, it is distinguished from other such studies in several respects. First, it examines the relationship between social change and the health of a specific population. In order to accomplish this, we have synthesized findings from three different scientific traditions: ethnography, sociology, and epidemiology. Such a synthesis involves numerous interpretative difficulties. None the less, we believe that such an approach is necessary to present an adequate portrayal of some of the dynamics and consequences of social change for individuals and populations alike.
The ecology and prehistory of Tokelau
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The three islands of Tokelau – Atafu, Fakaofo, and Nukunonu – are located in an isolated area of the south central Pacific Ocean, between latitudes 8° S and 10° S and longitudes 171° W and 173y W. The islands of Western Samoa, about 480 kilometres to the south, are the closest land mass of any size, but tiny Olosega (Swain’s Island) is somewhat closer. The scattered, largely uninhabited islands of the Phoenix group lie some 600 km to the north. To the east it is over 900 km to Pukapuka atoll in the northern Cook Islands, and to the west it is 800 km to the closest atolls of Tuvalu.