bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International standards
Authors: Fitzpatrick D , Anderson M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The historical treatment of seafarers as a distinct group of workers with separate 2.01 an entitlement was a response to the particular nature of maritime employment. Long before human rights protection began to take shape as a moral imperative guiding all States, it was recognized that seafarers required special protection due to the hardship and danger which were staples of the seafaring profession. At the international level, standard setting was led by the International Labour Organization (ILO) which, from 1920 onwards, adopted a series of Conventions and Recommendations pertaining to conditions of seafarers.
Strategic factor markets and competitive advantage*
Authors: Barney Jay B , Clark Delwyn N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historically, strategic management scholars focused on competitive imperfections in product markets to explain persistent differences in firm performance (Porter 1980). This emphasis on product markets is quite reasonable since most economic logic suggests that when product markets are perfectly competitive, firms in these markets will earn a rate of return just large enough to cover their cost of capital (Foss and Knudsen 2003). Logically, it seems to follow that if product markets are competitively imperfect, then at least some firms in these markets will be able to earn superior levels of firm performance. Work on competitive imperfections in product markets has evolved dramatically over the years. In economics, the number of papers and theories describing the social welfare and other implications of various forms of competitive imperfections in product markets continues to proliferate (Segal 1998; Hsu and Wang 2005; Smythe and Zhao 2006). In strategic management, Porter’s ‘five forces framework’ (Porter 1980) describes competitive imperfections in product markets and how, apparently, these competitive imperfections can be used to create opportunities to earn superior returns. However, that a firm operating in an imperfectly competitive product market may earn superior levels of performance is not the same thing as asserting that a firm that implements strategies to create an imperfectly competitive product market will earn such performance. Whether implementing strategies that create imperfectly competitive product markets ∗ This chapter draws from Barney (1986a).
Judicial Training
Authors: Young Justice William , Katkhuda His Honour Judge Sam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 1215 abolition, by Pope Innocent III, of the institution of trial by ordeal left a major 23.01 gap in the fact-findingg methodologies available to the then-rudimentary English legal system. Over the following centuries this gap has been Filled by processes that depend primarily on the evaluation of witness testimony by professional judges (including part-time judges and legally trained magistrates), lay magistrates, and juries.
Penalization, Depoliticization, Racialization: On the Over-incarceration of Immigrants in the European Union
Authors: Wacquant Loï 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1989, for the first time in history, the population entering state prisons in the United States turned majority black. As a result of the crumbling of the urban ghetto and of the ‘War on Drugs’ launched by the federal government as part of a broad law-and-order policy designed to restabilize racial boundaries in the city and reassert state power against the backdrop of rapid economic restructuring and steep welfare retrenchment,2 the incarceration rate of African Americans doubled in just ten years, jumping from 3,544 inmates per 100,000 adults in 1985 to a staggering 6,926 per 100,000 in 1995, nearly eight times the figure for their white compatriots (919 per 100,000) and over twenty times the rates posted by the larger countries of continental Europe.
Distinguishing use versus functional use: three- Dimensional marks
Authors: Hays Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Distinctiveness is the essence of a valid trade mark, allowing it to fulfil the 6.01 purpose of identifying the goods and services of one provider from those of another.1 So long as the definition of a mark is limited to two-dimensional words and symbols, trade mark law stays within a complicated but manageable realm of more or less superfluous adornments placed on products, their packaging and advertisements for products and services.
Integrated Assessment Models
Authors: Hope Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Integrated assessment models (IAMs) of climate change are the formal, computerized, representations that have been created to understand and cope with this complex, global problem. ‘The term Integrated Assessment (IA) … is a relatively recent creation, though much of the “discipline” is not new, dating back at least 25 years’ (Kolstad, 1998, p. 268). What we would now call IAMs were used extensively to examine energy policy in the 1970s and the acid-rain issue in the 1980s. IAMs of climate change first emerged in the late 1970s, and have multiplied dramatically since the early 1990s under the twin stimuli of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which first reported in 1990, and the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) signed at Rio in 1992. The IPCC and FCCC represented the first political recognition of the global scale of a problem which combines science and economics, and requires contributions from several disciplines if it is to be tamed. This chapter describes the main ways in which modellers have responded to this challenge, the capabilities of the models that have been produced, and gives an example of the social-cost results for several gases from one IAM. It concludes with some observations about the limitations of the models and the role of IAMs in the policy process.
Applying The Economics-Based Approach To Article 81: Assessing Competitive Harm and Economic Benefit
Authors: Anderman Steven D , Kallaugher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It will be evident from the previous chapter that the focus of Article 81 analysis 4.01 under the new paradigm is on economic analysis. The application of Article 81(1) depends on whether an agreement or practice has a restrictive effect on competition, which depends in turn on whether the agreement leads to economic harm in terms of higher prices, limited output, or reductions in product quality. The application of Article 81(3) depends on whether the agreement generates economic benefits, which are in turn based on an economic assessment of ef?ciency gains that may be associated with those agreements.
Orientation
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book provides a fresh look at parts of the grammar of English. It pays particular attention to meaning, considering the different sorts of meanings words have, and showing how the varying grammatical behaviours of words are a consequence of their meaning differences.
My ‘meaning orientation’ stance is a little novel. In addition, some of the topics discussed here (especially in Chapters 13 and 14) are scarcely mentioned in regular grammars of English. It could be said that the present book takes of from the point where most other grammars end.
The reader will not find here any detailed discussion of the irregular inflections of verbs or plural forms of nouns, topics which are covered in standard grammars. A basic knowledge of certain aspects of English grammar is needed for understanding the later part of the book, and these are presented in Chapter 2 (which does include some original analysis).
Antigua And Barbuda
Authors: Hillebrands Bernd , Schwehm Johannes 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The political dynasty of the Bird family has dominated the politics of Antigua and Barbuda since the colony was granted internal selfgovernment in the late 1950s. Vere Cornwell Bird and his son Lester Bird have won every election in Antigua and Barbuda since 1951, except the one in 1971. Like his father Vere, Lester governs in an authoritarian manner, disregarding the constitution (ignoring the judiciary branch in particular), and is involved in corruption and misuse of the electoral process. Elections are regarded as neither free nor fair.
Moving Ahead Together: Implications of a Blended Value Framework for the Future of Social Entrepreneurship
Authors: Emerson Jed 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Social entrepreneurship is an emerging field with diverse perspectives, experiences, and visions of our collective future. This diverse community consists of social activists, business people, academics of various stripes, and those involved in government—each with something to offer towards what is simultaneously an evolving exploration and a global coming together of ideas, vision, and new practice. These differing perspectives hold the promise to shed light on discussions with extremely diverse actors, making use of different languages and terms to describe what are fundamentally similar concepts and challenges. This coming together often leads to a tower of Babel in which terms clearly defined in one application are grossly misused in another, contributing to confusion and wasted efforts.
Canada: Developments Towards The Current Law
Authors: Adeney Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Canada is unique among the copyright countries under discussion, standing as it does at the intersection of the civil and common law legal systems. The development of moral rights there has covered almost a century, from the second decade of the 20th century until the present. This development represents a meeting and co-existence of different trends, traces of natural rights thinking co-existing with a positivist approach, doctrinal assertions standing beside instrumentalist justifications. The main bias in Canada could be described as individualist, reflecting something of the consistently pro-author thinking of France.
A Survey of GPTs in Western History (Part B): 1450–2010
Authors: Lipsey Richard G , Carlaw Kenneth I , Bekar Clifford T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We continue our tour through technological history, focusing on only the most important impacts of some key GPTs, again illustrating the kinds of things that can happen rather than exhausting the list of things that did happen. We also repeat our warning that although most of the technologies are presented around a motivating ‘challenge’, this should not be taken to imply an endorsement of a challenge-response model of innovation. Many GPTs arise with no obvious motivating challenge, and at other times clear challenges do not yield neat technological solutions. We use this organization merely to highlight the observation that very few innovations occur ‘in a vacuum’ and some do appear in response to perceived challenges, examples being the steam engine and the electronic computer.
GPTs and Related Concepts in the Literature
Authors: Lipsey Richard G , Carlaw Kenneth I , Bekar Clifford T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Relatively few papers and books have been written on the subject of what we have called transforming GPTs. Important related concepts developed by writers using historical and appreciative theoretical approaches are Mokyr’s macro inventions (1990), techno economic paradigms by Perez (1983, 1985) and Freeman and Perez (1988), Freeman and Louc¸aã’s technological revolutions (2001), and Lipsey and Bekar’s enabling technologies (1995). Nelson and Winter’s technological regimes (1982: 258–60) have some similarities but are closer to the more limited concept of a technological trajectory that we discussed in Chapters 2 and 4 than to a GPT. So we only note the similarity in passing.
Technology Enhancement Policies: Theory and Evidence
Authors: Lipsey Richard G , Carlaw Kenneth I , Bekar Clifford T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We consider a selection of government policies designed to influence technological change, attempting to accelerate it and/or to alter its direction. Policy can use incentives or disincentives that are either generally applied or narrowly focused. Policy can also seek to exert its influence indirectly, by altering such structural variables as the concentration of industry, the amount of foreign competition, the volume of foreign investment, the location of firms, and the education system. At different times and places, policies designed to influence technological change have been given various names and administered under different administrative structures. We cover all such policies under the generic heading ‘technology enhancement policies’.
The Role of Agreement in the Expression of Arguments
Authors: Ackema Peter , Brandt Patrick , Schoorlemmer Maaike , Weerman Fred 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Agreement is the linguistic phenomenon in which particular features of one element in a clause (the ‘controller’) determine the morphological shape of another element (the ‘target’). Agreement comes in many forms: there are many elements that can act as the controller and target in an agreement relation, and there is also considerable cross-linguistic variation in the amount and types of features for which agreement relations can be established (see Corbett 1994 for an overview).
Economy, Agreement, and the Representation of Null Arguments
Authors: Speas Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
way in which null arguments are licensed. I propose that there is no licensing condition per se, and hence no ‘pro-drop’ parameter per se. Rather, null arguments occur wherever general principles of economy permit them to occur. I will argue that this proposal captures the cross- linguistic distribution of null arguments more accurately than theories with licensing and identification conditions; it encodes the long-standing intuition that there is a relationship between ‘rich’ agreement and the licensing of null arguments, which has been abandoned in licensing and identification theories; and it lends insight into how Economy principles work to constrain phrase structures which are generated in the absence of any specific X-bar component, as in the theories of Speas (1990), Kayne (1994), and Chomsky (1994).
Hardcore Restrictions
Authors: Wijckmans Frank , Tuytschaever Filip , Vanderelst Alain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hardcore restrictions, which are listed in Article 4 of Regulation 2790/99, play a central role in the block exemption. A vertical agreement containing a hardcore restriction (also referred to as a blacklisted provision) will lose the benefit of the block exemption. Hence, as a result of the presence of a hardcore restriction it will no longer be possible to rely on the block exemption for any aspect of the vertical agreement.
The Motor Vehicle Distribution Block Exemption
Authors: Wijckmans Frank , Tuytschaever Filip , Vanderelst Alain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For an overview of the historical background of Regulation 1400/2002, reference is made to Chapter 1 (paragraphs 1.49–1.61).
In the process that would finally culminate in the adoption of Regulation 1400/ 2002, one of the recurring themes was that the previous block exemption regulation applying to the sector, Regulation 1475/95, had a straitjacket effect. The Commission describes this effect as one ‘whereby, by exempting only one model for distribution, the Regulation encourages all suppliers to use near identical distribution systems, leading to rigidity’. Tsoraklidis characterizes the straitjacket effect of Regulation 1475/95 as powerful and concludes that ‘all current motor vehicle distribution systems are modelled on Regulation 1475/ 95, thereby impeding the development of innovative distribution systems’.
F
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fallacy of composition can lead individuals or groups of individuals to mistakenly draw incorrect conclusions concerning the relationship between individual and collective behaviors. For example, the fallacy may lead an individual to believe that actions taken that are in the best interest of individuals in a group will also be in the best interest of the group—something which is inappropriately inferred. An economic illustration is the case where increased savings by an individual can clearly be beneficial to the individual but may actually be detrimental to an economy if such collective action leads to a reduction in consumer demand. Marketers concerned with the study of individual and group beliefs regarding the relationship between individual and group actions may benefit from a deeper understanding of the fallacy of composition concept. Given the broad range of phenomena where the fallacy of composition has been both observed and demonstrated (e.g. small group behaviors, economic policy), marketers should not assume that the decision-making assumptions of others will always exclude this fallacy.
K
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Key success factors are those that any firm in a particular market should possess in order to be a viable competitor in the market. Thus, when introducing a new product into an existing market, the success of the introduction may hinge on the extent to which the firm has certain assets and competencies that enable it to compete successfully. Assets forming KSFs may include a strong brand name and financial resources. Competencies forming KSFs may include personal selling competence or online marketing competence. More specific uses of the key success factors term are also found in relation to particular aspects of marketing such as new product development. Marketers should consider understanding key success factors to be an essential input to marketing strategy development. For example, in being able to compete successfully in the e-commerce marketplace, marketers should recognize that KSFs include abilities such as being able to monitor and track individual buying behavior and motivations and being able to tailor the firm’s marketing to individual customers.
N
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Humans have a variety of needs, which may be described, categorized, and related in any number of ways. Examples are needs for safety, love/belonging, and esteem which have been proposed as hierarchically related by Maslow (1943). (See hierarchy of needs theory.) It is clearly within the scope of marketing to aim to satisfy human needs as well as wants, yet it is also recognized within the marketing discipline that consumption needs are just one of several types of human needs. Beyond recognized needs, astute marketers further strive to be sensitive to consumes’ unmet needs in efforts to achieve competitive advantages through their offerings. Within marketing is an implicit concern with sensitively serving and satisfying human needs. In terms of the process by which consumers may seek to satisfy their needs through a marketer’s offerings, need recognition is a considered a key phase in the buyer decision process. In addition, marketers should also focus on the identification of unmet needs in the development of marketing strategies to assist in achieving competitive advantages.
V
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Validity measurement is one of the three standard measurement criteria (in addition to reliability and sensitivity) that are drawn upon in facilitating the conduct of high-quality research (Churchill 1979). There are a number of different validity measures used in marketing research, including those referred to by the following terms:Concurrent validity—a type of criterion validityin that it is validity based on the degree to which a measurement approach predicts an outside criterion, or established standard against which other things can be compared and evaluated, where such criterion measures are obtained at the same time as the measurement.
Y
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Developed as one of two competing theories by McGregor (1960), with the other theory being theory X (see X, theory), theory Y views individuals as motivated, ambitious, and eager to accept responsibility and exercise self-control and self-direction. Based upon an optimistic view of human nature, the theory provides a basis for a set of management practices for workforce motivation that includes striving to remove barriers that prevent workers from reaching their full potential and providing conditions that give employees freedom to be their best. While most employee behaviors and corresponding management practices do not reach such an extreme as that characterized by theory Y, the theory nevertheless is influential through its incorporation into other management theories, practices, and styles which can be described in many other ways including hard vs. soft and tough vs. lenient. Organizations characterized as theory Y organizations, for example, can be described as relatively loose and free, where control is achieved through voluntary compliance that is gained through persuasion and affiliation. Marketing managers involved in the development and implementation of management practices that seek to make the most of employees’ full potential may benefit from an understanding of the principles and concepts associated with theory Y. While the theory Y view is characteristically extreme, an understanding of theory nevertheless enables the marketer to assess better its positive contribution to the development of beneficial marketing management practice.
Z
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Developed by Ouchi (1981), who builds upon concepts developed and subsequently published by Deming (1986), theory Z is based on the premise that employees consider work as something that is natural and can be satisfying to the extent it meets their work-related psychological needs. In adopting a theory Z perspective, organizations therefore strive to develop employee loyalty through total concern for the person. Employment security and stable career prospects are key characteristics of theory Z organizations. A theory Z management approach emphasizes employee involvement in decision making, seeks to develop employee team spirit, recognizes employee contributions, and aims to develop mutual employee–management respect. In addition, while control systems may be implicit and informal, there is also an emphasis on the use of explicit and formal measures for evaluation. While many organizations may find it challenging to adopt fully a management style based on theory Z, knowledge of the theory and its supporting concepts can be invaluable to marketing managers seeking to understand the many possible benefits as well as costs stemming from its implementation. At the very least, understanding better the theory and its principles can provide marketing managers with a basis of comparison for alternative managerial approaches as well as guidance for gradually transforming their organizations in ways that enable greater long-term effectiveness.
Defining The Contracts
Authors: Trepte Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having identified the contracting entities subject to the Directives, it is then necessary to determine whether the contracts to be let also fall within the definitions of the Directives. The Directives cover three main types of contract: works, supplies and (non-construction) services, including design contests. These various contracts are defined in the Directives and are discussed in turn below. The new Directives also resolve the previous uncertainty over the position of framework agreements which, although they may still be contracts for works, supplies or services (or treated as such) and therefore no different in nature by reason of their method of award, require separate treatment here.