bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
SFO Inquiries—Opening Pandora ‘s Box
Authors: Nash Mike , Williams Andy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the introduction of the SFO notification and review protocols there have been four major independent inquiries into SFOs. Between 2004 and 2006, HMIP produced four major reports into SFOs that were to have a dramatic impact on the probation service, as well as the SFO notification and review policies dis- cussed in Chapter 1. This chapter examines in detail the major themes and issues that came out of these inquiries. In doing so, we utilize the key profiling inputs examined in the previous chapter to provide some structure to our analysis. Of course it is not possible or indeed necessary to go through each facet and caveat of the inquiries in detail. Readers who are interested in the detailed intricacies of each inquiry should go to the actual reports themselves.
Conclusion
Authors: Nash Mike , Williams Andy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are a variety of ways for organizations and governments to respond to tragedies and significant incidents which might be regarded as falling within their ambit (as most are). For example, when unnaturally high rainfall flooded much of central and eastern England during the summer of 2006 the government was blamed for not providing enough flood defences and for allowing building on flood plains. Although global warming may have contributed it was undoubtedly a natural phenomenon totally beyond the control of anyone. Yet as soon as the rain fell and kept on falling, blame had to be passed on to someone. It appears that there always has to be someone or something to blame.
Asthma in the Modern World
Authors: Jackson Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Saturday, 7 June 2008, at the onset of the monsoon period marked by the Hindu ritual of Mrigasari Karti, several thousand people with asthma arrived in Hyderabad in India in order to receive a controversial treatment for their respiratory illness. For over 160 years, the Bathini Goud family had been dispensing a secret remedy that had reportedly been revealed to one of their ancestors by a saint in 1845 on the condition that the medicine would be administered without cost to all patients. The treatment, which comprised swallowing a live murrel fish stuffed with a yellow medicinal paste, was referred to by the Goud family as a ‘fish prasadam’, a form of karma-free food offered to the gods. According to popular belief, consumption of the medicine, followed by a strict diet for forty-five days, for three successive years effectively prevents the accumulation of phlegm and offers a complete cure for asthma.
The simple sentence
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A mental lexicon is not much use on its own if we want to talk about our experiences. We need syntax, a set of rules to combine words into phrases and sentences. Syntax is also called ‘grammar’, but grammar is used in a number of different senses. It can refer to a comprehensive description of a language. If I buy a Spanish grammar I would expect some information about pronunciation and word building as well as syntax. In its most common use in the community at large ‘grammar’ refers to syntax and inflection, particularly to a set of rules for guidance as to what is ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’.
Varieties
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Speakers of a language don’t all speak the same, nor do individuals speak the same in every situation. In most languages there are different varieties spoken in different areas. In many cultures there is language variation correlated with social position, sex, or age, or with the setting or situation. In this chapter we shall look at some of these types of variation.
Languages change over time. Most of us are aware of changes in vocabulary as new words come into use, mainly for new inventions such as computers, and other words fall into disuse, but all aspects of language change including pronunciation, word-building, syntax, and the meaning of particular words.
Introduction European Citizenship: An Avenue for the Social Integration of Europe
Authors: Giesen Bernhard , Eder Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The avenue to European integration as imagined by the founding fathers of the EEC and finally established by the treaties of Maastricht and Amsterdam has led to a common market for goods, labour, and capital and to supranational political institutions. The status of the resulting institutions, however, is far from clear. Although the increasing influence of the European Court of Justice and its claim to supremacy over national legislation and even over the national constitutional courts hints at the growing power of European governance regarding the member states, the status of the European Community has been heavily debated among legal and political scientists as well as among politicians and practitioners of international law. It has centred around the question of whether Europe is a federation created by a treaty between autonomous national governments, as the ‘intergovernmentalists’ claim, or whether this federation gave rise-intentionally or as an unintended consequence-to strong supranational institutions which reside at the top of national governments and can rightly claim to be based on an implicit constitution. In the first case the European Community is the domain of international law and can dispense with the question of a European demos and of a strong conception of citizenship. Both remain exclusively at the level of nations and their member states. If, however, as the European Court of Justice successfully claims, the Community represents the sovereign centre of governance (at least for a certain range of policy fields, the First Pillar of the Union), then the issue of European citizenship comes to the fore and a debate about its relationship regarding the multiplicity of national citizenship can hardly be avoided.
Citizenship and the European Union
Authors: Beyme Klaus von 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The internal conflicts regarding the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty showed the difference of traditions in the perception of citizenship: some countries followed their doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty and had the treaty ratified by a parliamentary majority. Britain, when it admitted a referendum on the question of adherence to the European Community, deviated from its basic constitutional principles. Some Scandinavian parliamentary systems followed the British example. But even when a country voted ‘no—as Norway has already done twice—the West European constitutional mystique was sufficiently generalized to respect such a decision. In some countries the tiny majority in favour of further European integration caused misgivings, such as in France or Denmark.
Conclusion Citizenship and the Making of a European Society: From the Political to the Social Integration of Europe
Authors: Eder Klaus , Giesen Bernhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Europe is more than a system of legal norms and rules and political institutions which regulate European citizenship. Europe is also a symbolic space where projections and memories, the collective experiences and identifications of the people of Europe are represented. Europe has a cultural meaning. There are three different motives in addressing European citizenship as being more than an administrative matter. It is first of all a concept which raises moral concerns about justice and democracy, and which conveys a sense of transnational universalism. These non-legal elements of citizenship are at the basis of the hope and despair that accompany the discourse on European citizenship. The expectations in terms of political participation and social justice put on national citizenship provoke the question of whether European citizenship can realize what national citizenship rights have succeeded in doing: the creation of a largely stable system of political freedom and social justice.
Sustainable Development and Policy
Authors: Atkinson* Giles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The call for countries to pursue policies aimed at achieving’sustainable development’ was established both in the Brundtland Report and at the Earth Summit in 1992. Sustainable development has since been adopted as an over-arching goal of economic and social development by international agencies, individual nations, local governments, and even corporations, and, further, has generated a huge literature. While there are legitimate questions about what these bodies have signed up to, the focus on sustainability broadly embodies the goal that development policy deliver improvements in the prospects of people both now and into the future.
Making Things Stick: Enforcement and Compliance
Authors: Heyes* Anthony G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Environmental regulations are only useful if firms comply with them. Since compliance is generally costly, regulations have to be enforced if they are to work. Since enforcement is itself costly, enforcement is usually incomplete, meaning that some firms get away with noncompliance. Only by taking account of this sort of leakage can the success of a regulatory programme be assessed accurately.
The UK Landfill Tax
Authors: Brisson Inger , Powell* Jane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The landfill tax was introduced into the fiscal framework of the United Kingdom on 1 October 1996, and immediately acquired landmark status. This rank can be explained by two reasons; first, the tax was designed to reflect the actual environmental cost of landfilling waste, and so it became the first true environmental tax in the UK. Second, in a further digression from previous practice, the Treasury agreed to the hypothecation of a portion of the revenue from the tax, to facilitate the search for alternative methods of waste disposal.
Decentralization in Four Colombian Cities
Authors: Angell Alan , Lowden Pamela , Thorp Rosemary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a country characterized by diversity and complexity, it is to be expected that the four cities chosen as case studies will offer a varied testing ground for the impact of decentralization. Our focus in this chapter is on the changing role of local mayors since 1988, and the effect such changes have had on nature of the administrations over which they preside. Even against a backdrop of contrasting histories and institutional resources, and despite some negative developments, there are clearly discernible points of progress in the emerging picture of local government reform in our case studies. While these cannot be taken as an indication of national patterns of change, they are at least illustrative of the types of change decentralization may produce. New and reformist political leaders are emerging at the local level. Some are more independent of old clientelist loyalties and more competent than others are. Nor is political independence from regional bosses a guarantee of effective and honest government. What is unquestionable, however, is that positive change in the quality of municipal government has proven possible even in the least promising circumstances-and largely thanks to decentralization. Moreover, it is equa1ly certain that the local governments of the four cities are far better placed today to play a key role as leaders of local development than they were a decade ago.
Premises
Authors: Malcolm Rosalind , Pointing John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Premises may be in such a state that they constitute a statutory nuisance to the occupier of those premises (an “internal nuisance’) or to an adjoining occupier. When premises fall into the internal nuisance category, this will, normally, fall under the health limb of section 79(1 )(a) of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (‘EPA l 990’) since there is no element of a private or public nuisance present.1 Some actual or threatened injury to health must then be shown.
Noise And Noise Nuisance
Authors: Malcolm Rosalind , Pointing John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no adequate legal definition of noise and its measurement and control are often complicated. Noise is also perceived differently by different individuals and in some respects is a social construct. Changes in lifestyle affect the ways in which problems are perceived and defined. Significant increases in noise affecting a high proportion of the population have been caused by an ever-increasing volume of road traffic. Increases in the number of aircraft movements coming from more and larger airports have also caused substantial problems which are similarly difficult to resolve.
Other Remedies
Authors: Malcolm Rosalind , Pointing John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers alternatives to the use of the abatement notice procedure under section 80 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (‘EPA 1990’) and to ‘persons aggrieved’ taking their own proceedings under section 82 of the EPA 1990. (However, a discussion of civil claims in nuisance, which constitutes a different legal regime from statutory nuisance, is beyond the scope of this work. Civil or private nuisances are property torts which do not apply to local authorities unless a council is taking action in its own right to protect its interests. Conceptual overlaps between private, public and statutory nuisance are analysed in Chapter 4.)
The Governance of Local Economies in Germany
Authors: Glassmann Ulrich , Voelzkow Helmut 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter asks whether local economies actually exist in Germany. We show that they do, but that they are subject to other governance mechanisms than those associated with the term ‘industrial district’. The collective competition goods that are produced via inter-firm co-operation and diverse local or regional providers evolve from a distinct institutional arrangement.
Liquidity Provision via Banks and Markets: A Discussion
Authors: Thadden Ernst-Ludwig van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Liquidity provision is usually considered to be one of the main macroeconomic functions of the banking system. Yet, while this notion is old and can be traced back at least to Adam Smith, precise definitions and analyses of the role of banks for liquidity provision date only from the early 1980s. In this survey, I will briefly review this earlier literature, thus paving the way for some of the work of the 1990s that is collected in the main part of this section.
Banking Panics, Information, and Rational Expectations Equilibrium
Authors: Chari V V , fagannathan Ravi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Banking panics were a recurrent phenomenon in the United States until the 1930s. They have reemerged as a source of public concern and much theoretical research recently. In this paper, we provide an information-theoretic rationale for bank runs. The traditional “story” is that contagion is an important aspect of bank runs. The idea seems to be that when the general public observes large withdrawals from the banking system, fears of insolvency grow resulting in even larger withdrawals of deposits.
Contagion and Efficiency in Gross and Net Interbank Payment Systems
Authors: Freixas Xavier , Parigi Bruno 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The impressive growth in the value of daily interbank payments1 has raised concerns about the potential systemic risk induced by contagion. This effect, also known as the domino effect, occurs if the failure of a large financial institution to settle payment obligations triggers a chain reaction that threatens the stability of the financial system. (See, among others, Brimmer (1989).) The two main types of large-value interbank payment systems, “net” and “gross,” differ sharply in their exposure to contagion risk. In the former, netting the positions of the different banks through compensation of their claims only at the end of the day implies intraday credit from one bank to another, and exposes banks to contagion.
Capital Requirements and the Behavior of Commercial Banks
Authors: Rochet Jean-Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In fact, the above questions have already been examined, notably by U.S. economists, who used essentially two competing sets of assumptions. In the first setup, financial markets are supposed to be complete and depositors are perfectly informed about the failure risks of banks. Then the Modigliani-Miller indeterminacy principle applies and the market values of banks are independent of the structure of their assets portfolio, as well as their capital to assets ratio. How-ever, when a bankruptcy cost is introduced as in Kareken and Wallace (1978), it is found that unregulated banks would spontaneously choose their assets portfolio in such a way that failure does not occur. The reason is market discipline: since capital markets are supposed to be efficient and banks’ creditors (including depositors) are supposed to be perfectly informed, any increase in the bank riskiness would immediately reflect in the rates of return demanded by stockholders and depositors.
Is the Glass-Steagall Act Justified? A Study of the U.S. Experience with Universal Banking Before 1933
Authors: Kroszner Randall S , Rajan Raghuram G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 prohibits commercial banks from underwriting, holding, or dealing in corporate securities, either directly or through securities affiliates.1 The driving force behind the Act was Senator Carter Glass, who strongly believed that direct commerical-bank involvement with corporate securities was detrimental to the stability of the financial system. The commingling of investment and commercial banking functions, Glass and others argued, creates significant conflicts of interest. This view gained popular support after the Pecora Committee investigations (U.S. Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, 1933-1934) into the potentially conflictladen and putatively abusive practices at securities affiliates of the two most prominent national banks, National City Company and Chase Securities Company.
Reputation and Discretion in Financial Contracting
Authors: Boot Arnaud W A , Greenbaum, Stuart I , Thakor Anjan V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter explains why financial contracts often allow participants a measure of discretion as to whether to honor or repudiate them. An example is the “comfort letter” used by a parent company to assure the subsidiary’ s lenders that the parent will support it in financial distress. The British High Court recently ruled that comfort letters represent nothing more than a moral commitment (see American Banker, 6 June 1989), thereby reversing an earlier ruling by a lower court (see Rene Sacasas 1989). Another example is the “highly confident” letter with which the investment banker promises to provide credit, but the promise is typically not legally enforceable. Other examples of such contracts are discussed in Section III.
The Effect of Credit Market Competition on Lending Relationships
Authors: Petersen Mitchell A , Rajan Raghuram G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is it possible for firms facing competitive credit markets to form strong ties to particular creditors? Does the benefit to a firm of forming such relationships diminish when credit markets get more competitive? There is a theoretical reason for believing that credit market competition may be inimical to the formation of mutually beneficial relationships between firms and specific creditors. When a firm is young or distressed, the potential for future cash flows from its projects may be high, while the actual cash it generates is low. When evaluating the creditworthiness of the firm, a creditor should take into account the stream of future profits the firm may generate.
Competition among Financial Intermediaries When Diversification Matters
Authors: Winton Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many models of financial intermediaries (e.g. Diamond 1984; Ramakrishnan and Thakot 1984) imply that these institutions have substantial scale economies linked to improved diversification. History provides some support for this view. For example, in the period leading up to the Great Depression, the U.S., which restricted most banks to a single state, had higher bank failure rates than Canada, which had large, nationwide banks; within the U.S., larger banks were less likely to fail than smaller banks (Calomiris 1993).
Proprietary Information, Financial Intermediation, and Research Incentives
Authors: Bhattacharya Sudipto , Chiesa Gabriella 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In their examination of corporate financial policy, Bhattacharya and Ritter (1983) introduced an equilibrium model of proprietary information and its disclosure in financial markets. In equilibrium, a firm with superior private knowledge, having a higher Poisson intensity of invention in a research and development (R&D) race, is induced to disclose part of its knowledge as a signal. The benefit of the signal is that the financing for the R&D can be obtained at lower cost. The cost of the signal arises from the fact that the information disclosed benefits the firm’ s product market competitors.
Financial Intermediation, Loanable Funds, and the Real Sector
Authors: Funds, Loanable , Sector the Real 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the late 1980s and early 1990s several OECD countries appeared to be suffering from a credit crunch. Higher interest rates reduced cash flows and pushed down asset prices, weakening the balance sheets of firms. Loan losses and lower asset prices (particularly in real estate) ate significantly into the equity of the banking sector, causing banks to pull back on their lending and to increase interest rate spreads. The credit crunch hit small, collateral-poor firms the hardest. Larger firms were less affected as they could either renegotiate their loans or go directly to the commercial paper or bond markets.
Credit Markets, Intermediation, and the Macroeconomy: A Discussion
Authors: Reichlin Pietro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The view that the “financial structure” and the performance of credit markets may be important to understand the macroeconomy dates back to Gurley and Shaw (1955) and it has been reconsidered in the last 20 years in a growing number of studies.1 The common feature of these contributions is the idea that the way in which agents finance their activities, have access to financial markets and choose contractual arrangements is mostly relevant to understand the business cycle. For expositional convenience I will refer to this approach as the “financial structure approach” (FSA) to macroeconomics.
The Parties in the Subsequent Proceedings
Authors: Barnett Peter R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is one thing to recognise a foreign judgment and verify its status as a res judicata, but the benefits and burdens of a res judicata are confined to those who were party (or privy) to the judgment. This means that any attempt to rely upon the preclusive effect of that judgment in subsequent proceedings will only succeed if the parties or privies in the subsequent proceedings are identical to those involved in the proceedings giving rise to the res judicata.
Core Concepts
Authors: Adger David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Certain utterances of human languages seem to have a special status, in that they express what you might call ‘complete thoughts’. So if I were to say, “It’s rather hot, today”, any native English speaker will interpret me as conveying a message which is somehow complete. Note that you could say exactly the same thing, “It’s rather hot, today”, which will also convey a complete message. However, if I do this on Sunday, and you do it on Monday, the message communicated is different. Linguists say that the proposition expressed is different.