bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Early Fears of Popuiation and Family Decline
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth witnessed major transformations of the economic and social structure of societies. Industrialization, urbanization, and an increased level of literacy all had a major impact on families. For some families, the new economic era brought prosperity and was synonymous with an improved standard of living. For the large majority, however, the new urban and industrial setting was instead synonymous with dismal living and working conditions. Dwellings were crowded, ill-equipped, and the working environment of most workers was highly hazardous. It is in this context that the issues of poverty and high level of mortality, especially among children, became the subject of major political concern. If the relief of poverty had been so far left to philanthropic organizations, the magnitude of the problem was now calling for governmental interventions. This problem was in fact to lead to the first governmental initiatives directed at the family. The other topic which attracted attention during this period was the decline in fertility. In several countries, since the 1870s, fertility had been declining and projections were suggesting an eventual decline in population size. At a time when population growth was perceived as a guarantee of military and political power, such a situation did not leave governments indifferent. Conversely, it led to major initiatives related to fertility and population growth. Finally, the third theme which attracted attention during this period was that of birth-control. Promoted by some feminists and Malthusian associations, the issue aroused serious controversies. In most countries, governments were to take a firm stance in making illegal the use of contraception and abortion. Essentially private in essence, the issue was thus aired in public and led to major governmental initiatives.
First Elements of Family Policies
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As seen in the previous chapter, concern about the decline in fertility and the transformations undergone by the family led several groups to call for improved state support for families. If, so far, the support provided by governments to families had been very limited, it was to be greatly expanded in this period of major economic and social changes. In particular, three sectors were the target of government intervention: health services for mothers and children, financial support for families, and support for working mothers. Measures introduced under each of these headings constituted the first elements of family policy. These measures were however sketchy, covering only a limited fraction of the population, and not being part of any global policy of support for families. These first elements of family policy were nevertheless important as they marked a precedent in governmental support for families, in addition to providing the basis for the post-World War II welfare state development. Inter-country differences in this respect were wide. While some governments adopted full responsibility in the support of families from a very early stage, others adopted a more limited approach. In this chapter, some of the first measures adopted by governments to support families are examined. In addition, are detailed the cases of France, Germany, and Sweden which, from this early time, adopted a much more comprehensive policy to support families. These measures were partly prompted by emerging concern about population and family decline. In most cases, they were also prompted by welfare considerations, and were part of the governments ‘ fight against poverty.
The Rediscovery of Pover1y
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If the end of the war had raised hopes of a better future and improved standards of living, these hopes had apparently been fulfilled. The post-war economic recovery, and the expansion of the welfare state had brought general prosperity, and above all, had eliminated poverty. This at least was widely believed. The reality however proved to be very different. The rediscovery of poverty in the mid-l 960s showed that not only had the post-war developments failed to eliminate poverty, but more startling, that poverty had even increased. Governments did not remain indifferent and from the 1960s onwards a series of reforms were introduced to the system of state support for families. Breaking with the post-war policy of universalism, these reforms aimed instead at better supporting families in greatest need. This shift of emphasis, from a universal approach to a more targeted one, gave a completely new direction to state support for families.
Conclusion
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If the terms ‘family policy ‘ and ‘family-friendly policy ‘ nowadays appear regularly on the political agenda of governments, it is the result of a long development. From very restricted interventions limited to the most necessitous and vulnerable families, governmental support for families has been greatly expanded. While there are obvious inter-country variations in the ways governments have viewed families and their own role as welfare providers, the inter-country similarities in the development of family policy over time are also striking. Yet, in the literature on family policy, the development of family policy has rarely been studied from a comparative perspective. While some studies have compared governmental support for families at one point in time, others have examined the historical development within the framework of single-country analysis. This book therefore aimed at filling this gap by analysing the development of family policy from both a historical and cross-national perspective.
Economic Considerations in the Timing of Births: Theory and Evidence
Authors: Cigno Alessandro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Two notable features of fertility behaviour in Western Europe and elsewhere in industrialized countries since the end of the Second World War have been a steady decline in completed fertility (the total number of children born to a woman) and fluctuations in the tempo of fertility (the distribution of those births over the mother’s fecund period). In Italy, for example, completed fertility has fallen from 2.11 for the cohort of women born in 1939-40, to 2.06 for the one born in 1944-5, to only l.89 for that of 1949-50. The proportion of that fertility realized before the mother reached age 30 has, however, risen from 68 per cent in the 1939-40 cohort to 74 per cent in the 1944-5 cohort, only to fall lo 72 per cent in that of 1949-50. A similar picture emerges for the rest of Western Europe.
Patrilocality, Childbearing, and the Labour Supply and Earning Power of Married Japanese Women
Authors: Ogawa Naohiro , Hodge Robert William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
At the end of World War II the Japanese economy was in shambles. Since then, however, its growth has been spectacular. By 1958 GNP per capita had recovered to its pre-war level, and by 1988 it was, at nearly US$ 21,000, among the highest in the world (World Bank, 1990). During the period 1958-88 real GNP per capita grew at an annual rate of 5.8 per cent, a remarkably high figure. No less phenomenal was the unprecedented rapidity with which Japan moved through the final stages of demographic transition. After a short postwar baby boom (1947-9), Japan’s fertility level declined dramatically.
Introduction
Authors: Heymann Daniel , Leijonhufvud Axel 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Deep depressions and high inflations are the two extremes of monetary instability. This book will concentrate on very high inflations. We intend to analyse these processes in some detail, using received theory as we find it helpful. But we also believe that some important aspects of them are not captured by standard theory. Its assumptions about individual decision-making abilities and systemic co-ordination do not allow a good representation of these turbulent economic processes.
Scope and Orientation of the CAP in the l 960s
Authors: Fennell Rosemary 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The general circumstances surrounding agriculture in the 1950s were outlined in Chapter 1 and these formed the backdrop to the Commission’s proposals. Farm households were facing a series of interrelated challenges. At a personal level, there was greater exposure than ever before to consumer goods and services originating elsewhere in the economy. On the farm, there was a growing dependence on bought-in inputs. As with the consumer goods, many of the inputs originated in other sectors where prices and wages were rising more rapidly. As a result, the exchange value of agriculture was declining. The low elasticity of demand for many agricultural products was coupled with a decline in the share of consumer expenditure actually going to the raw material. At the same time, there were warnings of impending or actual market saturation. All these factors combined to create a serious income dilemma for farmers and it remained to be seen whether a new common policy would succeed where national policies had apparently failed.
Price and Market Support: Contradictions and Dilemmas
Authors: Fennell Rosemary 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The dominance of price policy and market regulation as the main instruments of agricultural policy in the 1950s was described in Chapter I. It was against such a background that, in 1956, the Spaak report was drawn up; naturally the authors gave some thought to the manner in which agricultural markets should be supported and managed in the proposed new Community. Their experts examined three systems: crop limitation, price intervention, and deficiency payments. The crop limitation system used as a model was the US soil bank or set-aside, under which farmers agreed not to plant a proportion of their land for a stated number of years and in return were paid compensation for the income forgone. This system was accompanied by a public storage scheme. It is quite surprising that the Spaak team were so forward thinking in the mid- I 950s, when surpluses were only just beginning to be discussed as a potential problem in Western Europe. Events were to prove how right they were.
Implications of the Choice of Particular Market Policy Instruments
Authors: Fennell Rosemary 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The development of the market policy over the lifetime of the CAP was traced in Chapter 6; earlier chapters sought to establish the CAP in its policy context in post-World War II Europe. The purpose of the present chapter is to highlight some of the implications of the choice of particular policy instruments, especially for producers, consumers, and the Community Budget. The decision to support the farming sector-for whatever reason and to whatever purpose-is primarily a political one but with strong economic undertones, not least because the instruments chosen are usually economic in nature. The outcome of that choice can have far-reaching consequences. This chapter is not intended to provide a comprehensive account of all the instruments used in the market policy, rather it is a review of a few of the more important ones.
Introduction
Authors: Bergström Villy , Vredin Anders 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Business-cycle research has had its ups and downs during this century. Recently, in the prolonged boom after the US recovery in the early 1980s, cycles seemed to have been overcome by the capitalist system. (At least, many people behaved as if they thought that there would never be a downturn again.) Earlier, especially between the world wars, cycles were the subject of intense research, because the developed capitalist economies were fluctuating heavily. In the inter-war period research was conducted in the same vein as the research undertaken for the papers presented in this volume. There were systematic empirical investigations on the characteristics of business cycles but also attempts at constructing general theories about them. The causes of business cycles were investigated within the framework of equilibrium theory, stressing either monetary factors (Hawtrey, Wicksell) or the time structure of production, based on Böhm Bawerk ‘s capital and production theory (Hayek, Lundberg). With the Keynesian revolution there was a shift of emphasis from the understanding of business cycles within the framework of economic equilibriwn theory to problems of policy remedies to the under-utilization of resources and the determination of output and employment in the short run. The theories of cycles that were developed were based on non-monetary multiplier-accelerator mechanisms (Samuelson, Hicks). Concomitantly there was a development, going back to Tinbergen, of empirically formulated models with increasing size and econometric sophistication. Keynesian demand-oriented econometric models continued to dominate business-cycle research until the beginning and middle of the 1970s.
Comment
Authors: Bergman Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Englund, Vredin, and Warne present an interesting paper. The purpose of the study is to analyse the impact of various shocks—transitory and permanent, domestic and foreign—on the Swedish economy during the period 1871-1990. The main question raised by them is whether the Swedish economy has been exposed to several different shocks or if there has been only one source of shocks. Specifically, their objective is to examine whether the main source of macroeconomic fluctuations is aggregate-demand shocks, as suggested by the traditional Keynesian-monetarist and rational expectations approach, or real productivity shocks as suggested by the real-business-cycle approach. Using a VAR framework, Englund et al. demonstrate how cointegration can help to identify orthogonal innovations that have permanent and/or transitory effects on the variables. The critical problem is to interpret the innovations as economic shocks such as domestic and foreign real shocks. This problem is nicely solved by Englund et al. In the empirical work they study a six-variable VAR system. They first test for the number of trends using the method developed by Johansen. Then they try to give ‘economically meaningful interpretations ‘ of the innovations to the cointegrating vectors and the resulting stochastic trends. In their six-variable VAR model they found four cointegrating relations. However, as they note, the model would be more prone to interpretation if there were only three cointegration vectors present.
Comments
Authors: Honkapohja Seppo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The review by Jean-Michel Grandmont (JMG) has all the usual characteristics that one has come to associate with his expository skills: sweeping coverage, lucid discussion, and useful insights. In my comments I will add to it a few points of emphasis and also express some partly different views of what in my opinion is emerging from the current research. The paper falls into two parts. The first part of Chapter 18 is devoted to a review of models of ‘endogenous fluctuations ‘ and methods for analysing them. In Section 19.2 I will take up some aspects of this literature. Section 2 of Chapter 18 focuses on the very recent literature on learning behaviour. To an outside observer this might seem like a special topic, but in fact the analysis of learning behaviour is a central theoretical issue in the current discussion about business cycles, the subject matter of this book.
The Functions of Industrial Associations
Authors: Yonekura Seiichiro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Ongoing research into Japanese industrial policy has led to some modification of the former so-called ‘Japan Inc.’ theories, in which this policy was interpreted as the ‘fostering of industries under the guidance of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI)’. Now some of the more dynamic aspects of the policy have been highlighted, such as the way private-sector initiative and market mechanisms have coexisted with government planning. Particularly since the collapse of the centrally planned, command economies of the socialist countries, we need to clarify the major differences between planning in Japanese industrial policy and that in the socialist countries. More than ever, detailed, substantiating research into Japanese industrial policy is called for.
Country Bankers in Proto-industrial Japan: The Transformation of Credit
Authors: Toby Ronald P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Well before the opening of Japan’s ports to unlimited foreign trade, and the advent of the Meiji industrialization, Japan had entered an “age of proto-industrialization” in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. A money economy was so far advanced that in some regions even rural households derived half or more of their income from wage labor, cottage industry, and other nonagricultural pursuits.
Materials and Mineral Resources
Authors: Farinelli Ugo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Our views on the problem of raw materials and mineral resources are qualitatively very different today from what they were 40 or even 20 years ago; actually, it may seem that we speak of quite different subjects. The “classical” vision that prevailed some 40 years ago did not take into account the limited nature of material resources. The Earth’s crust, it was thought, contained enough of each mineral and material to satisfy any conceivable need of its in habitants. The challenge was rather how to extract and process these resources. The problem was one of capital investments, of manpower, and to some extent of technologies.
Approaching the Ultimate Constraint: Water Shortage in the Third World
Authors: Falkenmark Malin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the relationships between natural resources and population from the perspective of water as fundamental to life. I start with the premise that a large number of the lowest-income countries suffer from water shortages. Since water-in spite of its renewable character--is a finite resource, I argue that population growth will exacerbate the problems of water deficiency. The presence of the water cycle constitutes a fundamental difference between Earth and other planets in the solar system. Life is made possible by the solar-driven circulation of water between three main spheres: the atmosphere, the lithosphere/ continents, and the oceans. The ecosystems are the results of complex biological interactions in the presence of solar energy, circulating water, and biogeochemical substances circulated by air and water. Because evaporative demand and therefore rainfall efficiency vary with air temperature, the same annual rainfall produces totally different ecosystems in different climatic zones. Rainfall seasonality also contributes to such differences.
The Impact of Technological Changes on Resources for Growing Populations
Authors: Rosenberg Nathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In addressing the question implicit in the title of this article, it is necessary first to look carefully at the content of technological change as a human activity. (1) What specifically does it consist of? (2) What are its possible consequences? (3) What are the social and economic factors that shape the ability to use and exploit superior technologies-not necessarily technologies that are new, but ones that have never been successfully exploited in a particular country? Let me anticipate one of my main conclusions at the outset by stating that the third question is, in many respects, the most crucial of the three. For at present, the division of the world’s population into rich and poor is closely, although not com pletely, congruent with its division into countries with high levels and countries with low levels of technological capability. The third question is an exceedingly difficult one that raises fundamental issues of human organization, social institutions, and economic incentives.
Population Change: The Status and Roles of Women
Authors: Oppong Christine 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This essay focuses on women’s occupational, maternal, conjugal, and domestic roles and ways in which they are altering in the context of economic and population changes. The latter include labor migration, changes in infant, child, and maternal mortality, fertility, and the age structure of populations. The geographical scope is the developing world, where more than one and a half billion women and girls live. They belong to several thousand ethnic groups, with as many languages and systems of kinship reckoning and customary marriage, childbearing, and childrearing practices.
The State of Children’s Health in the Developing World
Authors: Hanson Lars A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The differences between the so-called population pyramids in developing and developed worlds form a good basis for understanding the differences in disease patterns in the two types of societies. In industrialized countries the tall pyramid with a thin base, reflecting an increase in the aged population and a decrease in the young, is connected with the predominance of chronic conditions like cardiovascular diseases, tumors, diabetes, allergies, and arthritis. In contrast, the population pyra mid of poor countries is typically broad-based because the majority of the population is young. The patterns here are dominated by the diseases of the young and poor: frequent infections caused by inadequate hygiene with lack of potable water and sewage control, aggravated by crowding; and undernutrition due to lack of sufficient nutrients and to infections. These infections initiate host defense factors, one effect of which is that the sufferer loses appetite; and common diarrheas cause poor uptake and loss of nutrients. Undernutrition impairs host defense mechanisms, although the clinical consequences are difficult to evaluate, but for vitamin A deficiency.
Introduction
Authors: Livi-Bacci Massimo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To consider the relationship of space and settlement is to assess the impact of popu lation growth on environment. A thorny subject, as everybody knows; opinions (those of scientists as well as those of the general public) are polarized between two extreme positions. The cornucopians assume that population growth plays only a minor role in the deterioration of the environment; what matters are the modes of development, the nature of the technologies used, and the regulations governing the use of resources. Population growth, if sustained by the development of adequate energy-saving and resource-saving technologies, and occurring in the framework of a system that internalizes the environmental cost of private and public activities and regulates access and use of primary resources, may be neutral in impact on the environment. Adherents of this position also state that a decline in the population-such as could occur during the next century in the rich countries should their current reproductive patterns remain unchanged-may ultimately result in a slowdown of economic growth, a decline of aggregate investment, and, consequently a decline in the pace of development of resource-saving, energy-saving technologies that minimize the negative environmental impact of human activities.