bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Vascular Disorders
Authors: Baloh Robert W , Honrubia Vicente 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As discussed in Chapter 2, the vascular supply to the labyrinth, eighth nerve, and brain stem arises from a common source: the vertebrobasilar circulation. The vestibular system is subject to two general categories of vascular ischemia: (1) hypoperfusion in the vertebrobasilar system, in which case multiple areas (both peripheral and central) become simultaneously ischemic, or (2) hypoperfusion in the distribution of a single smaller feeding vessel, in which case there is a circumscribed area of ischemia. In the former case the site of origin of hypoperfusion can be anywhere from the heart and major vessels in the chest and neck to the basilar artery, whereas in the latter case an occlusion is usually situated near the origin or, less frequently, in the smaller feeding vessel itself. These two categories of ischemia are not mutually exclusive, however; a patient with small-vessel disease may be as asymptomatic because of collateral circulation, but an added hypoperfusion in the vertebrobasilar system can lead to focal ischemia and or infarction.
Antiemetic and Antivertigo Drugs
Authors: Baloh Robert W , Honrubia Vicente 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vertigo is an unpleasant sensation that is frequently accompanied by nausea and vomiting. These symptoms can result from a variety of diseases affecting the vestibular system (see chapters 8–17). The best therapy is to eliminate vertigo with specific treatment of the underlying disease. However, in cases in which the disease is not readily treatable, when treatment must be continued for a long period before improvement occurs or when vertigo is prolonged and severe, there is a need for symptomatic therapy.
Vestibular Rehabilitation
Authors: Baloh Robert W , Honrubia Vicente 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the vestibular system has been permanently damaged, the initial state of imbalance at the level of the brain stem nuclei results in acute vertigo.1 Gradually, the patient adapts to this imbalance through a process of compensation that requires intact vision and depth perception, normal proprioception in the neck and limbs, and intact sensation in the lower extremities. Central pathways are also integral to compensation, and damage to these areas results in less effective recovery.
Religious Madness in the Vormarz Culture, Politics, and the Professionalization of Psychiatry
Authors: Goldberg Ann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1849 Germany’s leading psychiatric journal reported a curious “illness” that, “like a plague,” had swept through a number of rural Swedish com munities1: young girls subject to an “involuntary drive to preach.” The “preaching illness” began with symptoms of a “strongly-felt awakening to wards repentance and improvement,” headaches, and burning in the chest. It then progressed to “automatic convulsions” and visions, which the girls “imagine are the effects of God’s spirit.” In this state, they preached a message ad monishing against sin-against dancing, drinking, card-playing, and other depraved behavior-and prophesied the coming destruction of the world. Whole communities had been infected, believing in the girls’ message and in their connection to God.
The Midrashic Enterprise of Contemporary Jewish Women
Authors: Myers Jody 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the first time in almost two thousand years of Bible interpretation, Jewish women are composing and publishing their own midrash. They began in the 1970s in North America, their works appearing in alternative religious ceremonies and in marginal publications. While not yet a familiar form of Jewish religious writing, women’s midrash can now be found in commercially successful books; printed and analyzed in journals; and featured in public lectures, adult education classes, and midrashwriting workshops.
Why So Many Americans Are in Prison
Authors: Tonry Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
American imprisonment rates, more than 700 per 100,000 residents behind bars at the end of December 2002, have reached unprecedented levels compared with other times in U.S. history or with current times in other Western countries. In other Western countries between 50 and 150 residents per 100,000 are in prison or jail on an average day. In Sweden, one in every 2,000 people is locked up; that is the lowest rate. In Portugal, the highest, it is one in 650. By contrast, in the United States, one of every 120 people is in prison or jail; that is five to twelve times the rates in other Western countries (A. Kuhn 1998; Bureau of Justice Statistics 2003). When those under 16 and over 70 are disregarded, one in eighty Americans each day awakens inside a prison or jail. Nearly one of every seven black American men in their late twenties is among them.
Formerly Unthinkable Policies
Authors: Tonry Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contemporary penal sensibilities have led public officials to propose and support policies that would have been unthinkable in other recent times and in other countries today, even though they are commonplace in the United States, and have been enthusiastically supported by public officials, policy intellectuals, and the general public. One way to show how much modern American policies differ from those in earlier times and other places is to note how often they call for imposition of disproportionate punishments. Most normative theories of punishment, and the punishment jurisprudences of most Western countries, attach importance to the ideas that more serious crimes warrant harsher punishments than do less serious crimes and that comparably serious crimes warrant comparably severe sanctions. This is often in shorthand referred to as the proportionality principle: punish like cases alike and unlike cases differently.
Unthought Thoughts
Authors: Tonry Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Just as there are bad ideas and regrettable policies in contemporary America that are best understood as underconsidered outgrowths of contemporary penal sensibilities, there are ideas and policies, formerly so mainstream as not in their own times seriously to be questioned, that have all but disappeared. There are also ideas that are so much a part of contemporary sensibilities as seldom to be questioned, yet they seem nearly absent in other times. Lots of examples could be offered of issues and ways of thinking that are common in particular times and conspicuously absent in others. Two issues, preventive detention and prosecutorial sentence appeals, which due process liberals and crime control conservatives fought over in the 1970s, provide examples. The preventive detention question was whether people charged with crimes could be held in jail until trial because they were believed to be dangerous and likely to commit an offense while free on bail. Until the 1970s, the conventional view was that, with one legitimate and one illegitimate exception, the only reason to deny bail was because the defendant was believed likely otherwise to run away.
Better Understanding, People, and Policies
Authors: Tonry Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The United States has adopted criminal justice policies that reflective people should abhor and that informed observers from other Western countries do abhor. An anecdote makes the point. I spoke recently in Noordwijk, the Netherlands, at a European Union meeting on crime prevention. My assignment was to survey current research findings on “what works,” and in doing so I described Swedish educational programs that had successfully and substantially reduced criminal activities of immigrant children. It has been known for a century, popular beliefs to the contrary notwithstanding, that first-generation immigrants tend to have lower crime rates than the resident population, but that second-generation immigrants typically have higher rates than their parents or the resident population. Sweden had accomplished something noteworthy that furthered both crime prevention and social welfare goals.
The Elusive Messenger
Authors: Maas Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the discovery of transfer RNAs and their role in protein synthesis, the theoretical framework that Crick was drawing for protein synthesis became more detailed. After forming aminoacyl adenylates, the amino acids were joined to transfer RNAs (adaptors), which in turn delivered them to the messenger RNA in the ribosomes. Lined up on the messenger RNA, the aminoacids were joined to each other to form the protein molecules.
Physicians and Tort Liability
Authors: Morreim E Haavi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although medical malpractice is a somewhat specialized area of tort law, it nevertheless embodies the basic elements of tort. Tort law emerges from the fundamental precept that citizens should comport themselves with a modicum of care in order to avoid unreasonably injuring one another. When someone breaches that duty, and when that breach has caused an injury, the costs should be borne by the one who has carelessly caused the problem, not by the blameless one who was harmed.
Stimulants
Authors: et.al. Rebecca E Ford 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The increasing use of stimulants in the United States to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has aroused parental concern and compelled both medical professionals and the media to question the safety and efficacy of this type of treatment. Because ADHD is among the most common reasons for seeking mental health services for children, these questions are more pertinent than ever. This chapter will examine the history of stimulant use, the mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, side effects, and issues related to their clinical use in children and adolescents. More detailed information on clinical applications is provided in Section III.
Antidepressants III: other agents
Authors: Walkup John T , Ritter-Welzant Julia , Kastelic Elizabeth , Joshi Nandita , Frosch Emily 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The low side effect profile, ease of use, and powerful clinical effect of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) revolutionized the treatment of depression and anxiety in the 1990s. The success of the SSRIs shifted the focus from noradrenergic to serotonergic mechanisms in these common disorders. As we move into the new millennium, the focus is shifting to antidepressants considered more atypical. These antidepressants have either mixed receptor functioning (noradrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic), selective impact on noradrenergic or dopaminergic function, or impact on neural systems via less conventional mechanisms. The combined noradrenergic and serotonergic reuptake inhibitors (NSRIs) offer advantages over more selective antidepressants. Although not necessarily considered first-line treatments, the NSRIs may be used as first line and may be particularly helpful for more severe depressions (e.g., venlafaxine) or offer a profile of effects that aid in the treatment of specific patients (e.g., the sedative effects of mirtazapine). The NSRIs also offer an improved side effect profile with fewer anticholinergic and antihistaminic effects than tricyclic antidepressants.
Bipolar disorder
Authors: Carlson Gabrielle A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The association of periods of excited, volatile behavior and withdrawn, depressed behavior has long been recognized. There is current consensus that uncomplicated, classical manic depression (including episodes of euphoric mania, depression, and normal mood state) occurs in adolescents, but it is relatively uncommon in prepubertal children. However, chronic manic symptoms superimposed on a wide variety of other types of psychopathology appear to be much more common and may be a subtype of mania. The extent to which mood dysregulation in young people is part of a larger bipolar spectrum (Akiskal et al., 2000) is uncertain and under investigation. Increasingly, mood-incongruent psychotic symptoms, briefer hypomania (which people may not identify as abnormal), and dimensions of temperament are considered part of a spectrum of bipolarity. Whether bipolar spectrum is valid in children is unclear and remains controversial: outside the United States, for example, early-onset bipolar disorder is rarely reported. When it is diagnosed, it generally lacks externalizing disorder comorbidity (Thomsen et al., 1992; Reddy et al., 1997; Rasenen et al., 1998; Srinath et al., 1998). One suspects that these countries are restricting their definition of bipolar disorder to that of the classical variety.
Tourette’s syndrome and other tic disorders
Authors: King Robert A , Scahill Lawrence , Lombroso Paul , Leckman James F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fluctuating chronic motor and phonic tics that characterize Tourette’s syndrome (TS) are often a substantial source of distress or impairment and hence the target of therapeutic intervention. In addition to these pathognomonic symptoms, however, many individuals with TS also suffer from various other psychological difficulties, including obsessions, compulsions, impulsivity, attentional difficulties, depression or mood lability, various anxiety symptoms, and a range of neuropsychological deficits (King et al., 1999a). For many individuals, these comorbid difficulties may be a greater source of impairment or distress than the tics per se.
Early-onset schizophrenia
Authors: Remschmidt Helmut , Hebebrand Johannes 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Schizophrenic psychoses in childhood are important but rare disorders within the spectrum of the psychoses. Since the descriptions of Homburger (1926) and Lutz (1937/38), there is no doubt about the existence of schizophrenic psychoses in childhood. According to Bleuler (1911) and Lutz (1937/38) about 4% of schizophrenic psychoses begin before the 15th year of life, and 0.5% to 1%, before the 10th year. There is a remarkable increase in frequency during adolescence, and with increasing age the symptomatology becomes quite similar to that of adult patients. Accordingly, the classification is much easier during adolescence than during childhood. It is not clear if the criteria of the current classification systems (International Classification of Disease, 10th ed. [ICD-10] and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disease, 4th ed. [DSM-IV]) are appropriate for schizophrenic disorders in younger children, e.g., below the age of 10 or 12 years. Many of these children suffer from other early developmental, cognitive, and/or emotional disorders, thus complicating an adequate classification within a system that was primarily constructed for the adult type of schizophrenia. It may be that there are two types of childhood and adolescent schizophrenia: one type that can clearly be diagnosed using the prototype of adult symptomatology without remarkable developmental precursors, and another one complicated by an additional and complex developmental disorder that may modify the expression of symptoms in an ageand stage-appropriate way. For practical purposes, the current classification systems can be used, but we should always be aware that they reflect our current knowledge and do not describe clear-cut nosological entities.
Eating disorders
Authors: Halmi Katherine A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eating disorders are best conceptualized as syndromes, which are classified on the basis of the clusters of symptoms they present. The two major and bestdocumented eating disorders, anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN), are best understood with a multidimensional model. In this model these disorders begin with dieting, and behaviors and influences antecedent to the dieting experience propel the symptoms into a full-blown eating disorder. The antecedent conditions consist of biological vulnerability, psychological predisposition, and social influences. As the dieting continues, starvation effects, weight loss, nutritional effects, and psychological changes occur. Both psychological and physiological reinforcements of the maladaptive eating behavior continue a cycle of the core dysfunctional eating behaviors. The numerous treatment approaches for AN and BN reflect studies representing the various categories of this multidimensional model for eating disorders. (Halmi, 1994).
Introduction
Authors: Helmholz R H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The amalgam of Roman and canon law now generally known as the ius commune, sometimes also referred to as the utrumque ius, has undoubtedly played a role in the history of England and in the development of Anglo-American law. In fact, it has played several different roles. Before the time of William Blackstone (d. 1780), it was the Roman law rather than the common law that was taught in the English universities. It had a long innings; only in the twenty-first century does the teaching of the civil law stand in some danger of being lost. Moreover, its influence was not simply academic. It was the ius commune that long governed practice in the courts of the church, the Admiralty, the universities, and (to some extent) the courts of equity. Chancery procedure, for example, drew heavily upon it. On that account, it was an important source of English legal practice in its own right.
Multiculturalism and Just Health Care: Taking Pluralism Seriously
Authors: Blustein Jeffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ours is a culturally diverse society. A major source of this diversity is the influx of foreign-born populations fleeing economic hardship and social deprivation and hoping for a better life and greater opportunities in the United States. Immigration to the United States is not a recent phenomenon, of course. The arrival of ethnic and minority populations from various Asian and Hispanic countries is only the latest in a long history of immigration to America. In past years mainstream American society expected the new arrivals to quickly dis-card their distinctive beliefs, customs, and traditions and join the great “melting pot”; today this assimilationist expectation is increasingly being branded as “culturally in-sensitive.” Not only do we now understand that, as a matter of sociological fact, ethnic and minority groups retain parts of their cultural belief systems while incorporating elements of the broader society, but there is also a growing appreciation of the moral claims of cultural pluralism. The call for assimilation has been replaced or supplemented by a new emphasis on respect for cultural diversity,grounded in the recognition that it is insulting to the members of these cultural groups to neglect or belittle the importance of their cultural identities.
Aggregation and the Moral Relevance of Context in Health-Care Decision Making
Authors: Wasserman David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of the philosophical literature on “tragic choices”-choices about whom to save with limited resources-presents the dilemma of an individual agent, deciding which victims to rescue when there is not enough time, medicine, or gasoline to rescue all. The agent is a helicopter pilot or emergency room physician; the victims are all strangers, but identifiable ones-the agent can observe their fear and peril even if he does not know their names. In contrast, much of the economic and policy literature on tragic choices concerns decisions made by governments or institutions, at a greater temporal distance, about people who can be identified only by the fates they will suffer-decisions about how much to invest in highway safety, cancer research, or rescue helicopters. In this chapter, I will consider the question of whether these are fundamentally different kinds of choices that ought to be governed by different decision rules or distributional principles. I will focus on the allocation of scarce health-care resources, where the differences between the two kinds of choices described above are generally thought to support different decision rules. Thus, of the institutes included in the National Institute of Health (NIH), fewer than half are devoted to diseases that would generally be regarded as life-threatening. No one seriously suggests that those institutes receive the entire NIH budget until the life-threatening diseases they study are eradicated. At the same time, most people would regard it as acceptable, if not mandatory, for a doctor in a short staffed emergency room (ER) to treat a small number of people who would otherwise die rather than a larger number of people who would otherwise lose an arm or suffer other nonlethal harms.In allocating health-care resources, it clearly seems more acceptable to trade off death against lesser harms when the decision concerns harms that will be incurred in the future by individuals who are not currently identifiable than when it concerns harms that will be incurred in the present and close at hand by identifiable individuals.
Unequal by Design: Health Care, Distributive Justice, and the American Political Process
Authors: Vladeck Bruce C , Fishman Eliot 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As recent events have so dramatically reminded us, American democracy takes place within a uniquely complex constitutional and legal framework. Every nation, of course, is different, but the United States may be more different than most in the way that a basic framework established more than two centuries ago has evolved, adapted, and been modified while maintaining certain remarkable continuities. At the same time, the United States is the only modern industrial democracy without some form of universal health insurance. Indeed, in most of the United States, citizens have no right or legal guarantee of access to any medical care except evaluation and treatment by hospital emergency departments, if they can somehow contrive to find their way to one. We believe these two phenomena are causally related. That is our basic thesis: that inequities in health care in the United States arise from the fundamental constitutional and political structure of the American political system. That system does not make inequities inevitable, but it certainly makes ameliorating or eliminating them much more difficult than is the case in any other affluent society.
Resources and Rights: Court Decisions in the United Kingdom
Authors: Tur Richard H S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is about the judicial review of resource-allocation decisions by what I shall call “primary institutions.” Such primary institutions include public authorities responsible for health care, for welfare, and for education. Among “some very obvious generalizations-indeed truisms-concerning human nature and the world,” Hartincluded “limited resources.” Primary institutions inevitably encounter this truth, sometimes in heart-rending and tragic circumstances. Understandably, their resource-allocation decisions can cause acute disappointment, and sometimes they are challenged in the courts by way of application for judicial review. This chapter seeks to explore and learn from the styles of reasoning deployed by judges in exercising their review function with respect to resource-allocation decisions of primary institutions. These concerns grow in part out of current debate in Britain not only as to the future, if any, of the welfare state in general and the National Health Service (NHS) in particular, but also as to the legitimacy of judicial review, which appears to some people to lack sufficient, if any, democratic warrant but which has nonetheless become well established as a central feature in the relationship between the citizen and the state in modern Britain. The growth in public law in the last third of the twentieth century is indeed remarkable.2 By the time of this writing it had become a common place that the British welfare state was seriously under resourcedby the national government, which claimed electoral warrant for and curried electoral favor with their low-taxation policies.