bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pathways and Strategies of Advocacy in International Organizations
Authors: Oksamytna Kseniya 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the book’s findings, outlines implications for theory and practice, and suggests directions for further research. In terms of implications for theory, the advocacy-centred framework has been able to explain the transformation of UN peacekeeping better than rival perspectives, such as principal–agent models, functionalism, or historical institutionalism. In terms of implications for practice, advocacy has unintended consequences. It can lead to proliferation of uncoordinated agendas and become one of the reasons why organizations end up with an ever-growing list of responsibilities that do not fit well together. When novel issues become institutionalized in international organizations, they are formalized in structures, frameworks, and guidelines. While promoting uniformity and predictability, institutionalization can stifle innovation. Together, advocacy and institutionalization create three problems: incoherence, overcommitment, and inflexibility. In terms of directions for further research, the advocacy-focused framework should be applied to the analysis of the trajectories of other peacekeeping innovations, such as the women, peace and security agenda or community violence reduction projects. The framework should also be applied to the study of institutional change in organizations in other fields beyond peacekeeping. While this book focuses on international organizations’ expansion, assessing whether the advocacy-focused framework can explain their contraction equally well would be an important contribution. Finally, reasons why advocates take up campaigning for change in international organizations is an important question that this study has not addressed but that further research should explore.
Suggestions for a Projected Study of International Security Organisation
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The goal of this projected study of international security organizations was to compare the new-born United Nations with the League of Nations. Wight asked, “Why did the League fail and how far does the United Nations Charter avoid the causes of that failure? … What defects of the Covenant is the United Nations Charter designed to circumvent, and were these really the defects that brought about the failure of the League? … It is suggested that the central question of the study should be the relation between the ambiguities or defects of the Covenant and the failure of the League in practice.” The latter derives from the political choices of specific states. In Wight’s view, “It would be necessary to try to assess the relative importance of the following factors … 1. The balance of power. … 2 The differences in interest, and consequently in Genevan theory, between the League Great Powers. … 3. The differences in aim and interpretation within the bosom of the democratic League Powers. … 4. The growth or perversion in practice of the original design of the League. … But the controversy over the security provisions of the Charter shows differences between the Great Powers not less deep than those between the Great Powers of the League. … The Charter, like the Covenant, must be analyzed in relation to the balance of power from which it springs.”
Review of John Middleton Murry, Trust or Perish (Rickmansworth: Andrew Dakers, 1946)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Martin Wright raised the question “Does Peace Take Care of Itself?”—as implied by Kantian principles—and concluded that it does not, and that purposeful action will be necessary. Wight wrote, “Mr. Middleton Murry makes a profound, brilliant and lucid analysis of the present crisis of civilization, of war, totalitarianism and the inadequacy of the United Nations Organization. But the suggestion that a unilateral renunciation of war by Great Britain might turn Russia’s heart and contribute to a reign of law seems to repeat the pacifist illusion, familiar during Hitler’s ascendancy, that you can have collective security without force, and non-violence without suffering.”
Review of Ely Culbertson, Must We Fight Russia? (Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company, 1946)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Wight’s view, this document constitutes “the most vigorous, lucid, and intelligent restatement of the collective security case that has been published in the United States or Great Britain since the war. It faces all the defects which make the revision of the United Nations Charter imperative, all the difficulties which make it virtually impossible.” Culbertson holds that “in the light of America’s tremendous power, the United States is perfectly able to build an honest and effective system for international security—with Russia if possible, without her if necessary.” Wight concludes that this policy prescription “has made at least one reader feel that the American people might yet rise to the height of Mr. Culbertson’s argument and avert the Third World War.”
Review of C. E. M. Joad, Conditions of Survival (London: Federal Union, 1946)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Martin Wight asked, “Has Scientific Advance Changed the Nature of International Politics in Kind, Not Merely in Degree?” and delivered a qualified “no” in reply, in view of the continuing willingness of governments, including rulers of Western societies, to regard defeat in combat as a greater threat than nuclear war. In Wight’s view, Joad “goes too far” in his enthusiasm for federal union: “The history of Switzerland and the United States proves not that federation abolishes war, but that it substitutes civil war for international war. And the formation of federations short of a single world federation would not abolish international war but would only increase the size of the units which continued to live in a state of anarchy.”
Review of William C. Bullitt, The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs (New York: Scribner, 1946; and London: Macmillan, 1947)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
William Bullitt served as US Ambassador to the Soviet Union (1933–36) and France (1936–41). His book has three noteworthy features. “(1) It is a standard work for followers of the anti-Red crusade. It describes the insatiable tyranny and aggrandizement of Russia as continuous from Ivan the Terrible to Stalin, from the Oprichina to the N. K.V.D., from the conquest of Kazan in 1552 to the occupation of Persian Azerbaijan in 1945–46. (2) It uncompromisingly criticizes Roosevelt’s War-time diplomacy and his failure to coax Stalin into good-neighbourliness. (3) It sketches a policy of a Defence League of Democratic States to resist Soviet aggression and prepare a federal organization of the world, which foreshadows the Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan.” The book may “leave unsatisfied even those who agree that the Soviet regime is a detestable tyranny, and that appeasement is contemptible folly.” It exhibits “too much of the egocentric illusion here to give the truest perspective in which to see the Russo-Occidental conflict, and the deepest grounds on which to understand and condemn the Stalinist despotism.” Moreover, the book “isolates and emphasizes” Roosevelt’s diplomacy, notably “the naive optimism with which Roosevelt approached Stalin, repeating Chamberlain’s approach to Hitler.” Roosevelt may have “paid too high a price to keep Russia in the war, but Mr. Bullitt scarcely recognizes that the price paid secured goods punctually delivered and of surpassing quality.”
Review of John MacLaurin, The United Nations and Power Politics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1952)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Wight wrote, “This is the most useful general book about the United Nations that has yet appeared in English. It covers the entire work of the organization thoroughly, simply, clearly, and freshly. It is extraordinarily readable, and makes the dreariest convolutions of procedure exciting. It is studded with good quotations from the official records; the documentation is complete and will provide a switchboard of clues for the intelligent student. … But he [MacLaurin] is emotionally less interested in the cold war (‘an unsavoury power struggle with the Politburo,’ p. vi) than in the social advancement of the under-developed regions, where he thinks the Western Powers are losing ground more rapidly than they may be gaining it in the direct struggle with Russia. He trounces the British for their record of reaction and mean subterfuge in trusteeship debates (e. g., pp. 371, 386), and in a sense Michael Scott is the hero of the book. ‘Man’s struggle against man,’ he concludes, ‘has … been and remains largely the struggle of the ruled against oppressive rulers. It is this struggle that is basic. Compared with it, international conflicts form a fleeting pattern imposed on the surface’ (p. 440). A generation ago the popular liberal interpretation of international affairs saw political arrangements as broadly rational; today, an element of inherent conflict is acknowledged, provided it is horizontal not vertical; we have moved from Locke to Rousseau, but not to Hobbes.”
Review of A. P. Thornton, The Imperial Idea and Its Enemies: A Study in British Power (London: Macmillan, 1959)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Wight wrote, “British imperialism has produced one of the great debates in the history of political thinking—a debate largely between absolute and conditioned morality. No man is good enough to be another’s master. True; but if masters are inevitable, some are better than others. We may have no right to be there, indeed; but if enterprise and accident have put us there the question quickly becomes, have we a right to leave? Good government can be a duty overriding the grant of self-government, as the young Churchill argued in the South African debate in 1906. … The book’s chief weakness is that while it describes from the inside the nationalism of the older Dominions (so distressing to imperialists), Indian and Egyptian nationalism are seen from the outside, as the imperialists saw them, and remain a mysterious and unanalysed force. But it is reassuring to see how little the anti-imperialist case has rested on any belief that if only British despotism is dismantled, democracy will spring up in its place.” “‘British liberalism,” Thornton argued, “is the story of a privileged class working to abolish or extend its privileges.” “But no group of men that has yet governed Britain has come to the decision that political and international power are also privileges which may be given away on grounds of conscience or humane principle.” Wight concluded, “The book leaves you debating with yourself … whether this statement is true, and if it be true whether it is right.”
Conclusions and Future Directions
Authors: Newby Zahra 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This concluding chapter draws together some of the themes explored by the proceeding chapters and identifies avenues for further research. In particular, it shows how different chapters explore the ways in which material culture places individuals or cities within a social network, underlining the connections between particular groups, or setting up dialogues of conversation or competition. While some of the chapters show the central role played by the emperor and his interactions with different groups, such as victorious athletes, guilds and individual cities, others reveal how material culture helped to set up networks of collaboration or rivalry between individuals, cities or groups. Another key theme is the way in which material culture helps to fix ephemeral events into communal memory and to create particular visions of civic identity. Finally, the chapter explores how material culture can help to create emotional communities and also to frame and create ritual experience. All of these themes are set into a wider context, drawing parallels with research into other areas of the roman empire, and identifying areas for further future research.
A Theory of Possible Worlds
Authors: Fritz Peter 
Published: October 2023

AbstractPossible worlds are widely appealed to in philosophy. At the same time, it is often considered questionable whether there are such entities as possible worlds. Consequently, many proposals exist for reducing possible worlds to entities which may be considered less problematic. Based on the language of propositions and necessity developed in the previous chapter, this chapter develops a language for talking about possible worlds, and a theory which characterizes the theoretical role of possible worlds. It is shown that if anything satisfies the role of possible worlds, then certain propositions, called maximal, satisfy the role of possible worlds. Furthermore, it is shown that maximal propositions satisfy the role of possible worlds just in case a principle called Atomicity is true, according to which necessarily, there is a true maximal proposition.
Looking Ahead
Authors: Fritz Peter 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThe major choice points in the book are revisited, and alternatives to each of them are sketched. The alternatives either take the form of endorsing different principles in the formal languages adopted here, or of adopting different languages. Worries about the metasemantics of higher-order languages are addressed, and a methodology is advocated according to which the good standing of new ideological resources can be established through their successful use. The chapter concludes with two cautionary remarks: First, views of fine-grained individuation of propositions which are sometimes grouped under the umbrella term "hyperintensional metaphysics" may not in fact be able to make sense of the notion of hyperintensionality. Second, the difficulties in establishing that such views are viable is greater than is often appreciated, since showing their consistency by model-theoretic means requires models of our talk of propositions rather than merely models of the propositions themselves.
Historical Appropriations/Historical Claims
Authors: Gerstenblith Patty 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores how the development of international law to protect the economic interests of colonizing and imperial countries at the expense of the colonized led to expropriations that continue to make it extremely difficult to carry out restitution today. Three examples of expropriations over the course of the nineteenth century are used to highlight the ongoing debate as to the proper location of cultural objects. The chapter first discusses three phases of the Parthenon Sculptures in ancient history, at the time of their expropriation by England, and as a modern example of the conflict between the rescue narrative and contextualism. The chapter then turns to the Yuanmingyuan Palace complex that was destroyed with its cultural artefacts appropriated in a display of domination by the British and the French over foreign trade. Finally, the chapter explores the Benin cultural objects looted during the British Punitive Expedition of 1897 and the lasting effects of colonialism and imperialism on cultural heritage.
Historical Appropriations: Of Time and Reparative Justice
Authors: Gerstenblith Patty 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter turns to proposing a methodology for the return of cultural objects from where they were taken without the consent of the local communities and States. First the chapter lays out the obstacles time places on restitution including bars to litigation based on passage of time, bars based on the non-retroactive nature of laws (tempus regit actum), and bars based on the failure to recognize colonized States as beneficiaries of international law in the nineteenth century. It then outlines and invalidates contemporary arguments, which are based on the rationales developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, against the return of objects taken during armed conflict and colonialism: the rescue narrative, the justification for universal museums, and an integration of appropriated objects into a possessing State’s national identity. The chapter next details the framework of reparations consisting of establishing obligations to correct historical injustice, establishing an appropriate form of correction, and establishing an appropriate means of reparation. A paradigm of restitution for cultural objects, including detailed restitutionary principles for human remains; objects with cultural, religious, or historical ties; integral monuments; and representative collections is proposed. Finally, this chapter grapples with the difficult question of to whom cultural objects should be returned and suggests a need for reparations beyond restitution.
Financier network behaviour
Authors: Meyer David R. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The business press coverage of four leading Goldman Sachs investment bankers demonstrates how little we know about financier network behaviour. Interviews with experienced financiers are difficult to acquire. They need assurance that the interviewer will not break that confidentiality; therefore, the author’s interview strategy was based on referrals. The book draws on this unique database of interviews with 167 financiers in London (24 interviews), Zurich (4), New York (45), Hong Kong (45), Singapore (9), Shanghai (13), Beijing (6), and Mumbai (21). Digitally recorded interviews covered financiers in corporate and investment banking, hedge funds, private equity, venture capital, fund management, real estate investment, insurance, and private banking. Extensive quotes are the mechanisms to explain how financiers behave. Social network theory supplies the theoretical framework. The thesis is that financiers leverage their access to social capital to enhance their performance.
Networked financiers leverage their social capital
Authors: Meyer David R. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The financier is an archetype of financiers in different sectors. The financier leverages social capital to enhance business performance. This social capital is both the resources that the financier accesses from network members and the network structure used to access these resources. Financiers access confidential knowledge through weak and strong ties. Group members have diverse external networks which provide financiers access to rich resources. Financiers build relational social capital to enhance the value of informal meetings. Elite alumni networks are mechanisms to transfer high status to the members, and they are viewed as high quality. Organizational membership also gives financiers access to this social capital. Financiers strategically employ weak and strong ties to obtain referrals. They utilize relational social capital in order to build and maintain relationships, and they employ structural social capital to maximize the number and breadth of their relationships. Trust builds over time through social networks.
Will financiers change their network behaviour?
Authors: Meyer David R. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Interviews with experienced financiers in global financial centres reveal the strategic network behaviour they employ to access social capital, thus enhancing their performance. While the interview results match many theoretical expectations, the findings also raise intriguing questions for future research. Financiers’ cohesive networks are open networks because each member has external network ties. The small-world phenomena of financiers’ networks is extraordinary. Experienced financiers reach targeted contacts across global financial centres with, at most, one referral. The significance of trust to financiers’ network behaviour is succinctly captured by the phrase ‘It’s all about trust.’ The deep-seated feelings about trust need more research. Neither telecommunications technologies nor adjustments to workplace or long-distance travel will alter the fundamental behavioural principles of financiers’ network behaviour. Fintech mostly impacts their business indirectly. Senior financiers, similar to those interviewed for this book, will continue to operate from the pivotal global financial centres as networked financiers.
Time
Authors: Russell Gillian K. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter is about the past/future barrier. It begins with a summary of what Hume said about the barrier, and then introduces a tense logic, which is used to formulate A. N. Prior’s lesser-known counterexample (lesser known than his objection to the is/ought barrier, that is). The technique from Chapter 2 is then reapplied within this new framework, proving the barrier but identifying some new problems as a result. One technicque for avoiding the problems is investigated—refining the taxonomical categories—but at the end it is argued that this is ultimately unnecessary.
Modality
Authors: Russell Gillian K. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 concerns the modal barrier. It notes that there are at least two plausible interpretations that we might try to formulate more precisely. The is/must interpretation (version A) says that claims which attribute necessity don't follow from claims which don’t, but says nothing about other modal properties, such as possibility. The other interpretation (version B) says that sentences about what’s going on at other possible worlds don’t follow from sentences about the actual world. A class of familiar modal logics is laid out and both versions are proved. The chapter then investigates some of the taxanomical consequences, noting that the status of sentences can vary with the logic employed, which explains the theorem’s robustness even as the logic is strengthened.
Normativity
Authors: Russell Gillian K. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter formulates and proves Hume’s Law. It brings together the work on complex logics from the previous two chapters and lays out a deontic-alethic modal logic, defines descriptive and normative sentences using narrow model-theoretic properties (breakability and unbreakability with respect to the intermodel relation of S-shifting) and uses these to formulate and prove the barrier theorem. The barrier and the definitions are used to diagnose a list of purported counterexamples to the law.
Historical contingency and the development of planetary ecosystems
Authors: Wilkinson David M. 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThe ecology of a planet is influenced by historical processes. At any stage in its development the current conditions of life on a planet form the starting point from which new conditions develop. This means that over time, an ever-increasing number of historical accidents will be incorporated into the system and so the role of past history will become increasingly important. This happens across a range of scales, from the chance long-distance dispersal of seeds to the survival of mass extinction events. Gould's interpretation of the Burgess Shale is discussed as a well-known, if controversial, example of the potential importance of historical contingency. The idea of historical contingency is a simple one and yet it is crucially important in understanding much of ecology. This constrained the possible subsequent trajectories of ecological development on Earth.