bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fluids
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If you want to see one of the key differences between Eastern and Western thought, look at the classical art of the two cultures. The West is deeply concerned with static form, with the angle of hand and arm, the tilt of a head, the naturalistic reproduction of shape. The Eastern tradition works differently: not with light and shade, not with a limitless blend of mimetic colour, but with quick, broad strokes, alive with the energy of the artist. It is like the apotheosis of a sketcher’s technique, capturing the instant while exclaiming the transience of forms in motion. It is, in short, an art that embraces change-an embodiment of the essential difference between a Platonic and a Taoist tradition. Traditional Western artists have seldom faced up squarely to the challenge of change. It’s not easy to paint something that is never still. Yet to the traditional Chinese artist, that can be the whole point of the exercise to capture the fundamental forms of motion.
The Inclusion Of Resonances
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The effect of the resonance over the non-resonant QED cross-section is parameterized in terms of the underlying Breit-Wigner resonance. The measurement of the parameters of the Breit-Wigner resonance have therefore to be corrected for the limited energy resolution as well as for the effects of radiation on the initial e+e~ state
The Minimal Standard Model Lagrangian
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this section we give the explicit form of the Standard Model (SM) Lagrangian in the Re gauge (Fujikawa et al.1972, Yao 1973). We assume the simplest (minimal) scalar sector. The Lagrangian of the SM is by now a well-known quantity (Veltman 1994b) and, therefore, we limit its derivation to the essential points. Some special care, however, will be devoted to illustrating those points that are usually difficult to find in the literature, expecially those connected with the choice of gauge and with the corresponding Feynman rules in the ghost sector.
One-Loop Renormalization In The Standard Model
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The renormalization of the QED Lagrangian now has to be extended to cover the full Standard Model (SM). Once this step is taken, we will be able to make complete theoretical predictions and they will be compared with experimental measurements. In this chapter, therefore, we are going to unravel the deep quantum nature of the SM Lagrangian as a model for electroweak interactions.
Bernard le Bavier de Fontenelles Eloge
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conduitt had simply passed to Fontenelle (1657-1757) the problem of de scribing Newton’s scientific work with due contextual and critical comment. His accomplishment of this part of his task, without Conduitt’s assistance, will be considered in a moment. Certainly this part of Fontenelle’s Eloge was also found by subsequent biographers to be a convenient model to follow.
Thomas Birch’s article
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although Thomas Birch (1705-66) was the first British author of a biography of Isaac Newton, one need not suppose that he devoted tremendous effort to it as a literary composition. Thomas Birch’s father was a coffee-mill maker, a Quaker; the son set up a literary mill for turning out biographies, in the course of preparing which he assembled much useful information and collected many manuscripts-both orginals and copies procured at his own cost later to be preserved in the British Museum. Horace Walpole spoke of him running about after novelties like a brisk young dog; ‘Tom Birch’, Dr Johnson may have said, ‘is as brisk as a bee in conversation, but no sooner does he take a pen in his hand than it becomes a torpedo to him and numbs his faculties’. To counter this sarcasm, Boswell added: ‘We have seen that Johnson honored him with a Greek epigram; and his correspondence with him during many years, proves that he had no mean opinion of him’.
EV and HEV developments
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1801, Richard Trevithick built a steam-powered carriage, opening the era of horseless transportation. After tolerating over 30 years of noise and dirtiness due to steam engines, the first battery-powered electric vehicle (EV) was built in 1834. Over 50 years later, the first petrol-powered internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) was built in 1885. So, the EV is not new and is already over 166 years old. It was better than the ICEV in the early 1900s. Having slept for almost 70 years, it began to recover in the 1970s. Now, the EV intends to strike back (Daniels, 2000). Detailed history of the development of EVs can be found in Wakefield (1994, 1998) and Shacket (1979).
EV systems
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conventional ICEV employs a combustion engine for propulsion. Its energy source is liquid petrol or diesel. In contrast, the EV employs an electric motor and the corresponding energy sources are batteries, fuel cells, capacitors and/or flywheels. Notice that the presently achievable specific energy of capacitors and flywheels precludes them from being the sole energy sources for EVs. The key difference between the ICEV and EV is the device for propulsion (ICE vs. electric). There are many alternatives for configuring EVs. Although EVs borrow most of the system parameters from ICEVs, they have some parameters that are absent in ICEVs (Chan, 1993; Unnewehr and Nasar, 1982; Shacket, 1979).
EV Auxiliaries
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Similar to ICEVs, EVs need many auxiliary devices or subsystems to enhance the vehicle’s manoeuvrability and driver’s comfortability. Some of these auxiliaries are dedicated to EVs such as the battery charger, battery management system (BMS) and regenerative braking system, whereas the others are common to those of ICEVs such as the air-conditioner, auxiliary power supply, power steering system, navigation system, lighting, defroster, screen-wiper and radio. Even common to both EVs and ICEVs, most EV auxiliaries (including the air-conditioner, auxiliary power supply, power steering system and navigation system) have their unique features and operation (Chan and Chau, 1997).
Introduction: Viruses, Immunity, Equations
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Viruses populate the world between the living and the non-living. They themselves are not capable of reproduction, but if put into the right environment they can manipulate a cell to generate numerous copies of themselves. ‘Reproduce me!’ is the essence of the virus, the message that the viral genome carries into the headquarter of a cell--the nucleus. The viral genome manages to attract the attention of the workers in the cell, which are the various enzymes capable of copying and interpreting genetic information. These workers will read the viral message and follow its instruction; they will produce viral proteins and more copies of the viral genome. The cell may devote all its resources to produce new virus particles and die after everything has been turned into virus. A swarm of new ‘Reproduce me!’ messages is then leaving the cell, searching for new targets.
Dynamics Of Immune Responses
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we analyse the basic mathematical models that describe the interaction between a replicating virus population and immune responses. We study a variety of such models exploring different assumptions about the detailed dynamics of the immune response. We characterize conditions that specify whether a virus will establish a persistent infection or will be cleared by the immune response. We also study the correlation between virus load (that is, the abundance of virus) and the magnitude of the anti-viral immune response. While functional immune responses always reduce virus load, the correlation between virus load and the abundance of immune cells can be positive or negative. A high virus load provides a strong antigenic stimulation and may induce a high abundance of immune cells which in turn reduce virus load.
The Frequency Of Resistant Mutant Virus Before Anti-Viral Therapy
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A number of potent anti-HIV drugs are now available which inhibit the replication of the virus in vivo. Reverse transcriptase inhibitors prevent the infection of new cells, while protease inhibitors prevent infected cells from producing infectious virus particles. As discussed in Chapter 4, drug treatment usually results in a rapid decline of plasma virus load and an increase in the CD4 cell count. Monotherapy often leads to rapid emergence of drug-resistant virus mutants. For some drugs, a single-point mutation can confer high level resistance, while for other drugs several point mutations are required. Combination therapy can result in a longer lasting suppression of virus load.
Structured Systems
Authors: Ng Michael K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far in this book, only iterative methods for the solution of Toeplitz systems of equationsTnX= b have been discussed. This chapter provides a survey of some of the latest developments in PCG methods for the solution of linear systems of equations with structured coefficient matrices, for instance Toeplitz-like, Toeplitz-plus-Hankel, Toeplitz-plus-band, block-Toeplitz, Toeplitzblock, and block-Toeplitz-Toeplitz-block matrices. We also discuss Toeplitz least squares problems. Several preconditioning techniques are discussed for different classes of structured matrices. This method allows us to solve structured systems efficiently and is therefore attractive for large scale problems.
Applications to Signal Processing
Authors: Ng Michael K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Least squares methods find widespread use in all scientific disciplines where data are obtained by measurement of some physical process. In this chapter, we apply the least squares method in estimation of the parameters of linear system models for unknown systems. Thus a linear system model with a finite set of parameters is postulated for the unknown system and the least squares method is used to estimate the model parameters. This is a problem in system identification.
Dark Energy and the Runaway Universe
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Supernovae are believed to be virtually perfect bombs. A supernova is brighter than a billion suns. When stars die, they brighten so much that individual stars can be detected even in distant galaxies. That suggests that supernovae might be good distance indicators. The best supernovae for this purpose are the brightest and most consistent. These are the supernovae of Type Ia, and they are generated by low-mass stars.
Spin Hamiltonian
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter starts with an explanation of the different terms of the static spin Hamiltonian, their relation to structural parameters and a brief outline of the underlying physics of the various interactions. Then we discuss the transition amplitudes of electron and nuclear spin transitions and mention the most important line broadening mechanisms. Approaches to evaluate transition frequencies and line intensities of EPR and nuclear transitions from a given spin Hamiltonian are described in some detail. The concept of orientation selection by selective excitation, which is central for many pulse EPR experiments on disordered systems, is explained. Finally, we introduce a model system, which will be used in the following chapters to describe most of the pulse experiments devoted to the measurement of hyperfine interactions.
Desity operators and their evolution
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce the quantum mechanical description of the state of spin ensembles and of their time evolution The relation between the density operator and the magnetization vector of ensembles of isolated spins S = 1/2 is explained. We derive the equation of motion of the density operator from the Schrodinger equation and discuss how the evolution of spin systems during pulse EPR experiments can be mathematically described.
Nuclear modulation effect I: basic experiments
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1965, Rowan, Hahn, and Mims observed that for certain samples the decays of primary electron spin echoes were modulated with frequencies that correspond to nuclear frequencies and their combinations (differences and sums). After the development of a theory for the nuclear modulation effect by Mims in 1972, this so-called electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) spectroscopy became very popular for studying hyperfine and nuclear quadrupole couplings in solids. Particular advantages of ESEEM techniques are the lower technical effort compared to ENDOR, a more sensitive detection of nuclear frequencies below about 5 MHz, and the broadband excitation of nuclear transitions which simplifies the development of correlation experiments and the separation of interactions (§10.3, Chapter 11). The application of ESEEM for the measurement of small hyperfine and nuclear quadrupole interactions is described in a number of reviews and in a monograph.
Field-swept EPR experiments in one and two dimensions
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
EPR spectra with optimum resolution can often be measured with the highest sensitivity by c.w. EPR spectroscopy. In this chapter we first consider cases where ID field-swept pulse EPR experiments provide more faithful EPR lineshapes than c.w. EPR does or where pulse EPR techniques can be used to separate the EPR spectra of different paramagnetic centres by their relaxation times (§15.1). In many cases a 1D EPR spectrum may be difficult to interpret even if resolution is optimum. In such situations, 2D techniques can facilitate data analysis by providing additional information and unravelling different interactions which contribute to a complex EPR lineshape (§15.2). We first examine the correlation of forbidden transitions in an EPR spectrum to nuclear frequencies, which can be used to detect the presence of weak forbidden transitions and establish their character. We then discuss the separation of the electron Zeeman interaction in a second dimension as a tool for analysing spectra of species with electron Zeeman and hyperfine interactions of the same order of magnitude. Another 2D resolution enhancement technique makes use of a measure for the anisotropy of the interactions to obtain the second dimension. Finally we examine the possibility to obtain isotropic EPR spectra of solid-state samples by a magic-angle sample spinning technique.
Likelihood functions for a parameter of interest
Authors: Severini Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Consider a model parameterized by a parameter θ which may be written θ = (ψ, λ) where ψ is the parameter of interest and λ is a nuisance parameter. In general, both ψ and λ may be vectors, although often ψ is a scalar. For models without a nuisance parameter, inference may be based directly on the likelihood function L(ψ); for instance, a test of ψ = ψ 1 versus ψ = ψ 2 may be based on the likelihood ratio L(ψ 1)/L(ψ 2). When a nuisance parameter is present however it is not possible to use the likelihood function to directly compare different values of ψ . For instance, the value of L(ψ 1, λ)/L(ψ 2, λ) will, in general, depend on the value of λ. The greater the dimension of the nuisance parameter, the greater is its potential effect on the conclusions regarding the parameter of interest.
Structure and Dynamics: An Atomic View of Materials
Authors: Dove Martin T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is concerned with a wide range of general principles that govern the behaviour of atoms in solids, and these principles are applied to the full range of types of materials known to man. The dual focus is on the structures of materials at an atomic level and on how the atoms vibrate inside solids. This dual focus comes together to explore how the atomic principles determine the behaviour and properties of materials. Attention is also given to experimental methods. The general principles include the factors that determine the packing of atoms to form the huge variety of structures, the formal description of real and reciprocal space, the types of atomic bonding, the formalism of atomic vibrations, and the theories of phase transitions. The tools covered include diffraction and spectroscopy, both laboratory and large-scale facilities.
The Reciprocal Lattice
Authors: Dove Martin T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of the reciprocal lattice arises from the need to have a formal mathematical representation of the planes of atoms within a crystal. The existence of planes of atoms plays an important role in many aspects of crystalline materials – images of planes of atoms in crystals are given in Fig. 4.1. The shapes of crystals are determined by the relative energies of surfaces defined by the crystal planes. For example, the faces of the calcite crystals shown in Chapter 1 are determined by one particular plane of atoms, as shown in Fig. 4.2. Vibrations of the crystal involve motions of planes of atoms. Diffraction of beams of radiation involve constructive reflections from planes of atoms. With such a diverse range of applications involving planes of atoms, a consistent and general representation is clearly of value, and the formalism of the reciprocal lattice fulfils this role.
Application of Renormalized Perturbation Theories to Turbulence and Related Problems
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss two specific theories of turbulence. They are the direct-interaction approximation (or DIA, for short) and the local energy transfer (or LET) theory. They are both examples of second-order renormalized perturbation theories, as discussed in the previous chapter, and hence share the same equation for the pair correlation of velocities, but differ in the way in which renormalization is accomplished by the introduction of a second (response or propagator) function.
Setting The Scene: Critical Phenomena
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the third and last part of this book we concentrate on renormalization group (or RG) in its various forms. As the great success of RG has been in the context of critical phenomena, it seems sensible to consider the general theoretical situation in that subject as it existed just prior to the coming of RG. Moreover, as the application of RG to critical phenomena was to some extent inspired by the concepts of scaling and “blocking the lattice,” it will be helpful to examine these ideas also.
Real-Space Renormalization Group
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we saw in Chapter 2, the effect of the RGT is to change the strength of the coupling, and successive applications of the RGT can cause the value of a particular coupling constant to flow in a space of coupling constants. We use these ideas now to provide a general, more quantitative, formulation of RG, and in particular to identify the fixed point which corresponds to the critical point.
The Ginzburg–Landau model
Authors: Annett James F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The superconducting state and the normal metallic state are separate thermodynamic phases of matter in just the same way as gas, liquid, and solid are different phases. Similarly, the normal Bose gas and Bose–Einstein Conden-sate (BEC), or normal liquid He and superfluid He II are separated by a thermodynamic phase transition. Each such phase transition can be characterized by the nature of the singularities in specific heat and other thermodynamic variables at the transition, Tc. We can therefore examine the problems of superfluidity and superconductivity from the point of view of the thermodynamics of phase transitions.
The macroscopic coherent state
Authors: Annett James F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the previous chapters that the concept of the macroscopic wave functionΨ(r), is central to understanding atomic Bose–Einstein condensates (BEC), superfluid He, and even superconductivity within the Ginzburg–Landau (GL) theory. But the connection between these ideas is not at all clear, since the atom condensates and He are bosonic systems, while super-conductivity is associated with the conduction electrons in metals which are fermions. The physical meaning of the GL order parameter was not explained until after 1957 when Bardeen Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) published the first truly microscopic theory of superconductivity. Soon afterward the connection was finally established by Gor’ kov. He was able to show that, at least in the range of temperatures near Tc, the GL theory can indeed be derived from the BCS theory. Furthermore this provides a physical interpretation of the nature of the order parameter. Essentially it is describing a macroscopic wave function, or condensate, of Cooper pairs.
Crocodilia
Authors: Lever Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In its native range the dwarf or broad-fronted crocodile (the nominate form reaches about 1.7 m in length and 0. t. osborni 1.2 m), which is classified by the IUCN (the World Conservation Union) as vulnerable, inhabits small rivers and shallow tributaries of large rivers and pools in the central African forest, venturing into the savannah along well-shaded rivers. It does not occur in large rivers occupied by themuch bigger (up to 6 m long) Nile crocodile Dwarf crocodiles (of which subspecies is not recorded) were apparently shipped from Madagascar (to which they had been previously introduced at an unknown date, and where their current status, if they survive there, is not known) to Kenya in the 1930s by the British explorer Ewart Grogan, who released them in Lake Challa on his 25000 sq km estate south of Nairobi. (This introduction is not mentioned by Spawls et al. 2002.) In Lake Challa, which straddles the Kenya/Tanzania border between Tsavo West National Park and Mount Kilimanjaro, the crocodiles are said to have thrived and multiplied for the next 60 years until, in the early 1990s, local subsistence fishermen, whose nets they were contin ually destroying, began a programme of eradication. It was generally believed that the fishermen had been successful and that the crocodiles in Lake Challa had died out, until in March 2002 a British tourist was killed by one while swimming in the lake (A. Blomfield, personal communication 2002).
Hardness Measurements by Spherical Indenters
Authors: Tabor D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the Brinell hardness test (Brinell, 1900) a hard spherical indenter is pressed under a fixed normal load on to the smooth surface of the metal under examination. When equilibrium has been reached, say after 15 or 30 sec., the load and indenter are removed and the diameter of the permanent impression measured. The Brinell hardness number (B.H.N.) is then expressed as the ratio of the load W to the curved area of the indentation.