bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Preparation of aluminosilicate crystalline coatings from sol‐gel derived alumina films deposited on silicon/silica substrates
Authors: Gutmann E. , Levin A. A. , Pommrich I. , Meyer D. C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe dedicated formation of crystalline coatings of the trimorphous aluminosilicates with the composition of Al2SiO5 starting from a low‐cost sol‐gel deposition of alumina thin films is reported. The influence of substrate type and film thickness on the crystallisation behaviour and film morphology is studied by means of wide‐angle X‐ray scattering (WAXS) and X‐ray reflectometry (XR). When annealed at a temperature of 1150 °C under high‐vacuum conditions, formation of the aimed phases was achieved only for films deposited on naturally oxidised Si‐substrates covered with a thin silica layer (thickness is about 3 nm). In the case of films deposited on amorphous quartz glass and thermally oxidised Si‐substrates covered with a thick silica layer (thickness is about 500 nm) no crystallisation occurred at this temperature. After annealing at the higher temperature of 1300 °C under high‐vacuum conditions, in the films deposited on both kinds of Si‐substrates mullite (Al4SiO8) crystallises together with cristobalite (SiO2) whereas the film deposited on the quartz glass substrate remains amorphous from viewpoint of WAXS. (© 2005 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Human monocyte CD163 expression inversely correlates with soluble CD163 plasma levels
Authors: Davis Bruce H. , Zarev Petar V. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractBackgroundCD163 is a monocyte/macrophage‐restricted receptor involved in the clearance of hemoglobin–haptoglobin complexes and regulation of inflammatory processes. CD163 is shed from the cell surface and exists as a soluble form in plasma (sCD163). Monocyte CD163 and sCD163 are potential diagnostic tools in variety of disease states.MethodsWe determined the relation between plasma sCD163 levels by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay, membrane expressions of CD163, CD64, and CD14 on blood monocytes by flow cytometry, and monocyte counts in 129 random blood samples.ResultsA strong inverse correlation was found between membrane CD163 expression and sCD163 levels (r = −0.65, P < 0.001). Monocyte CD163 expression and SCD163 levels did not correlate with the monocyte absolute count.ConclusionsThe inverse relation between monocyte surface CD163 expression and sCD163 levels in human blood suggests that plasma sCD163 is derived from circulating monocytes, in addition to an unknown component from tissue macrophages. The lack of correlation with the absolute monocyte number suggests that such a balance is driven by the functional state of monocytes, rather than simply by numerical changes in circulating cells. We propose that further clinical evaluations of CD163 as a diagnostic parameter should include simultaneous measurements of soluble and cell‐bound forms of this antigen. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fixation and cryopreservation of whole blood and isolated mononuclear cells: Influence of different procedures on lymphocyte subset analysis by flow cytometry
Authors: Pinto Ligia A. , Trivett Matthew T. , Wallace Dora , Higgins Jeanette , Baseler Michael , Terabe Masaki , Belyakov Igor M. , Berzofsky Jay A. , Hildesheim Allan 
Published: December 2004

AbstractBackgroundImmunophenotyping of whole blood (WB) and isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) is a common tool used to evaluate immune system changes in clinical studies. The development of methods that would allow preservation of samples for flow cytometric analysis is important for the extension of this technology to field testing in settings where the equipment might be not readily accessible.MethodsThree‐color flow cytometric analysis was used to determine percentages of T cells and their subsets (CD3+, CD4+, CD8+), B cells (CD19+), and natural killer cells (CD16+/56+) in WB and PBMCs using variations of a standard stain/fix WB staining procedure (Optilyse) that included staining following fixation and freezing of fixed samples before or after staining.ResultsComparable lymphocyte subset percentages in WB or PBMCs were observed regardless of Optliyse method used (all Ps ≥ 0.8). However, differences in fluorescence intensity for several markers were observed across procedures. Compared with the standard stain/fix procedures, fix/stain decreased the mean fluorescence intensities for CD4, CD8, CD19 and CD16/56 in WB and PBMCs (P ≤ 0.03 for these markers P = 0.105 for CD8 in PBMCs). Further decreases in mean fluorescence intensity were seen with the fix/stain/freeze procedure. The stain/fix/freeze yielded intensities largely comparable to those seen with standard stain/fix procedure (P ≥ 0.13), suggesting that, when the markers of interest are known at the time of field collection, implementation of this procedure might be desirable. Fix/freeze/stain resulted in diminution of intensity in general, but they tended to be more modest than those seen for fix/stain/freeze and therefore might be applicable to field studies in instances when the specific markers of interest cannot be defined upfront.ConclusionsFreezing of fixed WB and PBMCs before or after cell surface staining is a reliable method for preserving specimens in field sites for later determination of lymphocyte subset percentages, which are commonly assessed in immunodeficient and cancer patients. Published 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fire testing of upholstered furniture and bedding
Authors: Paul K. T. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractConsiderable concern has been expressed about the increasing number and changing pattern of fires and the fact that modern upholstered furniture is relatively easy to ignite and, once ignited, burns rapidly to produce large quantities of smoke and toxic gas. This led to a number of major research programmes and to the evolution of a number of test procedures in the UK. The first major test procedure was published in 1976 by the BPF in conjunction with RAPRA, BRMA and FIRA. An important aspect of this approach was the linking of ignition and rate of initial burning data with the application of the product and the environmental hazard. It was evolved within a short period of time to proved furniture designers and specifies with a means of avoiding products of high risk. The DOE/PSA are using a comprehensive series of Fire Retardant Specifications to control and specify their upholstered furniture and bedding. Specifications have been developed which enable individual components and sub‐assemblies as well as the final product to be characterized in terms of ignitability and burning characteristics, i.e. temperatures, smoke, and carbon monoxide production. BS DD58 and BS 5852 Part1, ignitability tests for upholstered seating are essentially a combination of BPR and DOE/PSA test procedures. Cigarettes, gas flames and wooden cribs are used for the ignition sources and are positioned on a composite seat/back test rig.
Fire test behaviour of various crystal types of melamine phosphate in intumescent formulations
Authors: Kay M. , Price A. F. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractMelamine orthophosphate crystals vary in shape and formula according to their method of production. The types vary widely in their behaviour when incorporated into an epoxy resin intumescent coating for trials in a small scale fire test. Heat treatment of melamine phosphate crystals at 210 °C, a process designed to reduce their solubility, profoundly affects the performance of any crystal type in a fire test. In such cases crystal shape alone appears to determine performance, whereas the shape, formula, and state of agglomeration affect performance in coatings produced with untreated melamine phosphate. Small plates of side 20 μm heat treated at 210 °C, are the preferred type for optimum performance and weathering characteristics.
Statistics of fires in dwellings involving textiles in the United Kingdom
Authors: Mahon B. H. , Hills M. L. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThere is widespread concern at present about the fire risk form the use of modern materials in upholstery and other domestic articles. One of the main characteristics of fires in dwellings which start with the ignition of textiles or furniture is that they have a high casualty rate compared with other kinds of domestic fires. Most of the casualties form such fires occur in fires which start in upholstery or bedding, often accidentally ignited by smokers' materials. Asphyxiations by smoke is the commonest cause of death in ‘textile’ and ‘upholstery’ fires. This paper presents relevant statistical information on fires in dwellings attended by local authority fire brigades which result from the ignition of upholstery, bedding, other textiles or furniture and the casualties which these fires cause.
Flame‐retardant paints
Authors: O'Neill L. A. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractFlame‐retardant paints have been developed which can considerably upgrade the performance of combustible substrates in surface spread of flame test, but there is uncertainty as to their benefit in a real fire situation. This is partly owing to the lack of agreement on laboratory test methods and even of their value. Flame‐retardant paints commercially available in the United Kingdom are of two types, the intumescent type and the antimony oxide type, and their mechanism of action is discussed.
The performance of various testing columns in small‐scale horizontal burning studies
Authors: Wharton R. K. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe use of Critical Oxygen Index testing columns in the horizontal configuration is investigated. Gas analysis results from within columns of simple design indicate that they are unsuitable for burning studies because of entrainment of the external atmosphere and recirculation of combustion products. A new design of column and holder is proposed that eliminates these effects and provides a possible means of studying small‐scale horizontal combustion in different oxygen/nitrogen mixtures.
Zirpro wool textiles
Authors: Benisek L. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe overall flammability hazard of Zirpro wool protective clothing, carpets and upholstery with regard to national and international standards is summarized. Protective clothing against heat and flames has to be evaluated not only for flame‐retardance by a vertical flame test but also for heat transfer from convective (flames), radiant and conductive (molten metal) heat exposure to ensure a realistic assessment of the potential protective offered and required. Textile furnishings (carpets, upholstery, curtains) have to be evaluated for flame‐retardance, heat release, smoke emission and toxicity of combustion products to assess the overall flammability hazard. Evaluation and consideration of only on e flammability parameter, e.g. toxicity of combustion products, can lead to misleading conclusions about the flammability hazard of a material.
Small‐scale experiments of flame spread in pre‐flashover compartment fires
Authors: Takeda Hisahiro 
Published: December 2004

AbstractSome early stages of compartment fires were explored experimentally using small‐scale model fires. In particuylar, the flame spread on the compartment floor was investigated with various ventilation openings. The average flame‐spread rate was higher than that for the free‐burning condition (without a compartment),namely, 3.2 times at the maximum, and seems to depend only on the ventilation opening height and not on its width. Therefore it appears that the driving wind of the inflow air from the ventilation opening to the flame increase‐spread rate. These data were compared with the flame angle data by Quintiere. The gas temperature within the compartment and the ceiling surface temperature was also measured to assess the radiation effect on flame spread. However, the radiation heat flux was unexpectedly small.
The use of DTA to study spontanceous ignition of cellulose
Authors: Horrocks A. R. , Davies D. , Greenhalgh M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe use of differential thermal analysis has enabled spontaneous ignition behaviour of cotton cellulose to be investigate. The temperature. Ti, at which the onset of spontaneous ignition occurs is recorded as a function of the oxygen concentration of the flowing oxygen‐nitrogen atmosphere to which the cellulose sample is exposed in the DTA furnace, when heated at a defined heating rate. The dependence of Ti, on heating rate has enabled the activation energy, Ep, of the rate‐determining flammable pyrolysis product reaction to the determined using both a previously derived simple kinetic model and the technique of Ozawa. Ep, increases from a lower limiting value of 112 kJ mol−1 at zero oxygen concentration to an asymptote value of 169 kJ mol−1 at oxygen volume concentrations above 30%. This effect is described in terms of oxygen catalysis of competing pyrolysis routes. At a given heating rate, increased oxygen concentration reduces Ti. A plot of 1/Ti versus In [O2] gives two liner regions which intersect at an oxygen concentration of about 20%, suggesting that two combustion mechanisms exist, one above and the other below this value. Below this concentration, which is similar to the conventional limiting oxygen for cellulose, significant char remains, suggesting that ignition of gaseous products only occurs. If the difference in slopes is sttributed to the variations in Ep with oxygen concentration, then a value for the activation energy of gaseous product oxidation, Eox = 215 kJ mol−1 is derived.
Smoke and toxicity
Authors: Smith D. A. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractSmoke and toxic gases (STG) are the main cause of fire deaths. They combine to make escape difficult and to retard rescue work and fire‐fighting. The paper reviews advances in the characterization of the STG hazard, and discusses improved materials of construction to meet the new, more stringent safety criteria used by responsible architects and design engineers. Because of the wide choice of safer materials now available at reasonable cost in a number of product areas such as furniture foams and cable insulation, the time is approaching when such materials can be introduced without harming the economics of these industries. Indeed, a convincing demonstration of intrinsic safety could without harming the economics of these industries. Indeed, a convincing demonstration of intrinsic safety could encourage the introduction of improved plastics and other organic materials into a wide range of market applications.
Effect of flame retardants on polyolefines
Authors: Rychlý J. , Rychlá L. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractPhosphorus and Bromine flame retardants decrease the time of self‐ignition delay and increase the mass rate of burning of polypropylene even though the limiting oxygen index (LOI) at ambient temperature is higher. The proposed model which combines ignition, steady burning and extinction shows that the phenomenon can be explained only by an increased rate of polymer volatilization caused by flame retardant.
The corrosiveness of fluoride‐containing fire gases on selected steels
Authors: Sandmann H. , Widmer G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractCombustion gases were produced from several cable‐insulation materials in separate experiments conducted in a model fire chamber. These gases were then allowed to interact with stressed metal specimens, consisting for the most part of various stainless and hardened steels as well as of carbon steel and stainless steel sheet. Thereafter the samples as exposed were stored in a humid atmosphere. As expected, PVC combustion gases caused the cracking of spring steel and also extensive pitting corrosion of stainless steel. These results confirmed that test conditions conformed to real‐life fires as observed in practice. The combustion gases deriving from fluorinated polymers were much less corrosive on stainless steel and provoked only slight pitting in isolated cases. The rate of corrosion damage on carbon steel was lower by more than an order of magnitude than in the case of PVC. However, stress corrosion of sensitized 18/8 stainless steel and spring steel was found to occur. Tests on the thermal degradation of the dluorinated polymer ‘Teflon’ FEP and ‘Tefzel’ confirmed their high stability. If one compares the behaviour of these fluoroplastics with that of PVC it can generally be concluded that, although the use of fluorinated insulation materials on cables might not altogether eliminate corrosion problems in the event of fire, it does constitute a realistic contribution to fire protection and to the reeducation of fire‐related damage.
Polyesters: A review of the literature on products of combustion and toxicity
Authors: Braun Emil , Levin Barbara C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe available literature was reviewed to determine the nature and extent of information available on the thermal decomposition products and the toxicity of the combustion products of polyester materials used in consumer applications such as textiles and building construction. This literature review is limited to those publications printed in English through June 1984. The thermal decomposition products of polyesters are a function of temperature and oxygen content of the atmosphere. In general, as the temperature increases, the quantity of heavier hydrocarbons decreases and the production of CO and CO2 increases. The presence of flame retardant additives, such as bromine and chlorine‐containing compounds, produce halogenated combustion products. The use of phosphorus and bromine together in the same flame retardant finish increases the concentration of low molecular weight compounds. Thirteen different test protocols have been used to evaluate the toxicity of various types of polyester. Non‐flame retarded polyesters give measured LC50 values ranging from 30.5 Mgl−1 to 95.7 mgl−1, while flame retarded polyesters, have LC50 values ranging from 24.0 mgl−1 to 38.0 mgl−1. Several exceptions, however, are noted. Toxicologists consider these differences to be not significant. In general, the results from large‐scale tests are ambiguous because of the presence of other materials in addition to the polyesters.
A review of the literature on the gaseous products and toxicity generated from the pyrolysis and combustion of rigid polyurethane foams
Authors: Paabo Maya , Levin Barbara C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe literature on rigid polyurethane foam has been reviewed with an emphasis on the gaseous products generated under various thermal decomposition conditions and the toxicity of those products. This review is limited to publications in English through 1984. Carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) were the predominant toxicants found among more than a hundred other gaseous products. The generation of CO and HCN was found to increase with increasing combustion products from various rigid polyurethane foams. Lethality, incapacitation, physiological and biochemical parameters were employ as biological end points. In general, the combustion products generated from rigid polyurethane foam in the flaming mode appear from to be more toxic than those produced in the non‐flaming mode. The LC50 values for 30‐min exposures ranged from 10 to 17 mg l−1 in the flaming mode and were greater then 34 mg l−1 in the non‐flaming mode. With the exception of one case, in which a reactive type phosphorus containing fire retardant was used, the addition of fire retardants to rigid polyurethane foams does not appear to generate unusual toxic combustion products.
The formation of hydrogen cyanide during methacrylonitrile pyrolysis
Authors: Metcalfe E. , Harman A. R. , Fardell P. J. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis short note describes studies of the pyrolysis of methacrylonitrile over a wide range of temperatures under flowing nitrogen at atmospheric pressure. Hydrogen cyanide was not found to be a primary product, but several organic nitriles are formed which decompose at higher temperature (> 1100 K) to produce hydrogen cyanide almost quantitatively.
Nylons: A review of the literature on products of combustion and toxicity
Authors: Braun Emil , Levin Barbara C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe literature on polyamides was reviewed to determine the nature and extent of information available on these materials which are commonly used in consumer and industrial applications. This review was limited to aliphatic polyamides normally called nylon and excludes aromatic polyamides such as Nomex and bicomponent polymers consisting of nylon and other polymers. The review was further limited to those publications in English through June 1984. Typical pyrolysis products from a broad range of nylons do not appear to differ greatly. Many of the decomposition products detected in vacuum pyrolysis experiments appear as products of thermal degradation in inert and air atmospheres. In air, a general reduction in the quantities of heavier hydrocarbons is noted along with an increase in the production of CO, CO2, H2O, NH3, HCN and NOx. The toxicity of the thermal degradation products from various types of nylon has been evaluated by nine different protocols. Reported LC50 values range from 10.8 m l−1 to 61.9 mg l−1. Dyes apparently do not affect the materials' combustion products toxicity but an increase in the amount of backcoating on a nylon fabric increases toxicity. Time to death measurements show that volatile products from nylons are less toxic than those from rayons or cotton, while the blending of wool with nylon greatly increases the toxicity of the thermal decomposition products. In general, however, the overall toxicity of the thermal degradation products from nylon do not appear to be greatly different than those from many other polymeric materials. Large‐scale test results are ambiguous, and it is difficult to interpret the results in terms of a single component in a multicomponent system.
Toxicity of the pyrolysis and combustion products of poly(vinyl chlorides): A literature assessment
Authors: Huggett Clayton , Levin Barbara C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractPoly(vinyl chlorides) (PVC) constitute a major class of synthetic plastics, Many surveys of the voluminous literature have been performed. This report reviews the literature published in English from 1969 through 1984 and endeavors to be more interpretive than comprehensive. PVC compounds, in general, are among the more fire resistant common organic polymers, natural or synthetic. The major products of thermal decomposition include hydrogen chloride, benzene and unsaturated hydrocarbons. In the presence of oxygen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water are included among the common combustion products. The main toxic products from PVC fires are hydrogen chloride (a sensory and pulmonary irritant) and carbon monoxide (an asphyxiant). The LC50 value calculated for a series of natural and synthetic materials thermally decomposed according to the NBS toxicity test method ranged from 0.045 to 57 mg l−1 in the flaming mode and from 0.045 to > 40 mg l−1 in the non‐flaming mode. The LC50 results for a PVC resin decomposed under the same conditions were 17 mg l−1 in the flaming mode and 20 mg l−1 in the non‐flaming mode. These results indicate that PVC decomposition products are not extremely toxic when compared with those from other common building materials. When the combustion toxicity (based on their HCI content) of PVC materials in compared with pure HCI experiments, it appears that much of the post‐exposure toxicity can be explained by the HCI that is generated.