bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Meltdown, Rebuilding, Reform 1996–2001
Authors: Freeze Gregory L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE presidential election of 1996 did not end the misery and malaise, but indeed only accelerated the political disintegration, economic decline, social unrest, and marginalization in world affairs. The systemic meltdown culminated in the fiscal crisis of August 1998, when the state—unable to tax or borrow—had to default on its spiraling loans and to devalue its currency, with devastating consequences for the general population.
Economic structures and transformations
Authors: Marino John A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Written in retirement 1537-40 and published posthumously twenty years later, Francesco Guicciardini’s History of Italyincludes a short digression on the explorations of the Portuguese and Spanish in the chronicle for the year 1504, ‘since this was one of the most memorable things which happened in the world for many centuries and since the harm it caused the city of Venice has some connection with Italian affairs’.
Enlightenment and reform
Authors: Rao Anna Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For Italy, too, the eighteenth century was the age of Enlightenment and reform. But, as in the rest of Europe, this did not mean that the institutions of government in Italy suddenly became the object of an irresistible desire for reform, nor were Enlightenment and reform linked directly as cause and effect. In fact, much of recent historical debate on eighteenth-century Italy has been devoted to exploring how the Enlightenment and reform were linked, and also the extent to which it would be more correct to think in terms of distinct ‘national’ enlightenments, each with features that made them specific and hence different from France.
The Republic in crisis: politics 1914–1945
Authors: Passmore Kevin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Third Republic withstood four years of murderous combat against invading German armies during the Great War, yet crumbled within six weeks of another incursion in 1940. The triumph of republican France in 1918 contrasts with parliament’s abject surrender to Marshal Pétain in 1940. Faced with these paradoxes, some historians have emphasized the weakness of democratic culture, others, its strength.
The Fifth Republic as parenthesis? Politics since 1945
Authors: Vinen Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Describing the Fifth Republic as a ‘parenthesis’ may sound gratuitously perverse. France has seen five republics, two empires, two sorts of monarchy, a consulate, and an ‘état’ since 1789. The Fifth Republic has already lasted longer than all but one of these, the Third Republic of 1870–1940. The Fifth Republic did not, as its defenders would hasten to point out, spring from nowhere.
The Chinese economy
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conventional opinions on the state of the Chinese economy and Chinese society in the first half of the twentieth century have been largely the reflection of nationalist emotion rationalized in a vulgar Marxism. These opinions are easily stated. They are that the Chinese economy was stagnant and regressing; that one major cause of this was the deteriorating conditions in which the peasant majority lived, conditions which were leading to their rapid expropriation; that the second major cause was the competition of foreign enterprise, buttressed by privileges imposed by force and served by a sycophantic class of compradors, competition which made it virtually impossible for modern enterprises in Chinese hands to thrive; and that such foreign competition also crushed the life out of the traditional handicrafts.
The rise of Chiang Kaishek
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After Sun’s death in March 1925 the civilian contenders for the succession to the leadership of the Guomindang were veteran revolutionaries who had been closely associated with him since the early days of the Tong Meng Hui: Hu Hanmin, Wang Jingwei, and Liao Zhongkai. Liao, born and educated in San Francisco, a journalist by profession, was the most able of the three. His support, however, came mainly from the Communist Party and from the Comintern advisers. Of the other two, Hu Hanmin probably had the greater following; in the elections to the first Central Executive Committee he had come top of the poll.
Languages of Silence
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The preceding chapters have examined ways in which dominant discourses are imposed, exposed, or transcended. This chapter begins by looking at the silences and suppressions that lie behind them during the Franco years, and in particular examines the peculiar workings of official censorship and its effects on writers and publications at different moments in this period; but the chapter is concerned, too, with other forms of silencing and exclusion and writers’ responses to these. Although the transition to democracy brought the recuperation of previously silenced voices and the return of exiled writers, many forms of writing were initially implicated in tricky processes of negotiation and compromise; under the PSOE, controls of certain media (Anson et al.: 1996) and the formation through policy of a dominant cultural discourse brought their own suppressions; and by the 1990s an appearance of openness and pluralism is contradicted by voices which remain stifled, ignored, or without an instrumental language as well as by those which paradoxically challenge through silence.
Through the Kaleidoscope
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The second half of the 1990s, where we end our thematic narrative of writing after the Civil War and after Franco, is a time from which those two predicating eras seem impossibly distant and distinct. These recent years are ones of constant changes and fluctuations in the forms and boundaries of imaginative writing and, possibly, in culture in general, although official cultures, for all that they are recycled as vibrant and colourful (as New Spanish/Galician/Catalan/Basque and so on), remain at base no more (and certainly no less) than art museums, Big Names, grand buildings, public image.1 Many new texts (though countered by booming markets in good, solid reads) are characterized by a persistent questioning of identities as multiple, often contradictory images emerge of Spain (Labanyi 19956) and Spanish subjects (whether in the sense of individuals, citizens, or cruxes of debate), as if the cultural changes of the transition to democracy, the political change, ‘el Cambio’, which was the PSOE’s early motto, and the heady days of the movidas and intricately contradictory claims on lo posmoderno were, in some arenas anyway, mere rehearsals.
Parliament under the Tudors
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is an examination of the role and development of parliament throughout the Tudor period, now a central topic in the study of Tudor history. Jennifer Loach examines the constitutional position, political activities, and relationships of the two houses of parliament from the late Middle Ages until the accession of the Stuarts. She explores the growing importance of the Commons and examines the ways in which the Tudor monarchs, from Henry VII to Elizabeth I, attempted to exert their royal power. Topics covered include elections, patronage, and constitutional issues such as the succession to the throne; the fundamental part played by parliament in taxation and other financial matters; the social and economic background; and the vexed and vital question of religion. Thoroughly grounded in contemporary sources, this is a comprehensive and lucid account, which will be invaluable to students of Tudor history.
Procedure
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parliament usually met in London, and began with a splendid procession to Westminster Abbey led by the monarch, with the peers in their scarlet and ermine parliament robes and the bishops in scarlet with lawn sleeves. The procession would then return to the White Chamber of the Palace of Westminster, where the chancellor (or lord keeper) would set out, briefly, the main reasons for which the parliament had been summoned. The two Houses would then separate, the Lords to register absentees and their proxies, the Commons to elect their speaker. Thereafter, the two Houses assembled separately: the Lords in the White Chamber, the Commons, at first, in the chapter house or the refectory of Westminster Abbey. In the reign of Edward VI, however, the Commons acquired St Stephen’s chapel for their meetings. The layout of that building, and, in particular, of its antechamber, was to have an important effect on the way in which procedure developed in the Lower House.
Mid-Tudor Parliaments
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The consequences of the Reformation Parliament were immense, for parliament as well as for the religious history of England. Because Henry VIII had used parliament in his fight with the pope, his son was to use it to carry through a Protestant reformation: because the Reformation had been sanctioned by parliament, the Counter-Reformation of Mary’s reign had also to be carried out through parliament. Of course parliament had concerned itself about religious matters before the Reformation, but the Reformation and the changes of the subsequent decades, changes carried out by statutory authority, brought parliament into the centre of religious debate to an unprecedented extent: Hooker’s treatise on parliament of about 1571 would indeed declare that the chief justification for parliament’s existence was the need to see ‘that God be honoured’. This central role was recognized by clergy and laity alike. In 1547 the lower house of convocation asked that the lesser clergy might be represented in the Commons-the bishops, of course, already sat in the Lords-so that ‘such statutes and ordinances as shall be made concerning all matters of religion and causes ecclesiastical may not pass without the sight and assent of the said clergy’.
Elizabethan Parliaments
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first parliament of Elizabeth’s reign began on 25 January 1559 with a service in Westminster Abbey. Historians have scrutinized with care the form taken by that service in an attempt to understand Elizabeth’s intentions, but the episode, like so many of those involving Elizabeth, is shrouded in ambiguity. When the queen met the abbot of Westminster at the door, ‘robed pontifically, with all his monks in procession, each of them having a lighted torch in his hand’, she declared, ‘Away with these torches, for we see very well’, a comment which has led some writers to suggest that Elizabeth disliked all the monks’ popish ceremonial. However, she apparently accepted the incense and holy water with which she was also greeted, balking only at the processional lights. This middle position fits Elizabeth’s declaration to Philip II’s envoy, Count Feria, that she was resolved ‘to restore religion as her father left it’: the implication was that although she needed to resume the supremacy, without which her claim to the throne itself was shaky, she hoped to avoid doctrinal change.
Conclusion
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parliaments existed to make laws. This function they carried out with remarkable consistency throughout the Tudor period: in Henry VIl’s reign an average of 27 statutes were passed in each session. The average rose to 44 in the second part of Henry VIII’s reign, with a peak in the session of 1 540, which saw 80 statutes passed. Under Edward and Mary the average number of statutes passed per session was 27, and in Elizabeth’s reign it was 31. These figures conceal, however, a growth in the number of bills being considered by either or both Houses. No figures can be calculated before 1547 and the beginning of the Commons Journal, and the difficulty of identifying bills even after that makes any precise figures impossible, but the general trend is none the less obvious. Between 1547 and 1558, about 68 bills, on average, were considered in each session. In the first part of Elizabeth’s reign, the average was 126, and it was just over 95 in the years after 1584.
Modern India
Authors: Brown Judith M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A new edition of this widely used text covers the last two centuries of Indian history, concluding with an epilogue written from the perspective of the 1990s. It thematically and analytically discusses the emergence of India as one of the world's largest democracies and one of the most stable of the states to emerge from the experience of colonialism. The foundations of this rare phenomenon in either Asia or Africa are seen in India's society, the ideas and beliefs of her people, and the institutions of government and politics which have developed on the subcontinent, in a process of interaction between what was indigenous to India and the many external influences brought to bear on the country by economic, political, and ideological contact with the Western world.
Merchants and their Trade
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The long-distance trade that had grown up before 1300 was important to a wide range of people and contributed a sufficiently large amount to incomes across Britain to be a matter of political significance. Any landlord who sold wool, any merchant who handled it, any shipman who shipped it, and the king himself who taxed it, felt the effects of fluctuations in international markets or the breakdown of normal relations. So did townsmen who depended upon imported goods for a livelihood—the clothmakers who needed imported dyes, the furriers, the mercers who sold linen, the vintners who imported wines and sold them both wholesale and retail. By 1300 foreign trade was sufficiently valuable to affect landlords’ incomes, and to a lesser extent the volume of employment, in most parts of Britain, as Edward I’s critics appreciated when they criticized the tax he imposed on wool exports.
Gender and the family
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Images of the father as sovereign in his family and of the king as father to his subjects flowed naturally from the pens of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century political theorists. Paternal authority was not merely an analogy for monarchical authority, it was considered the necessary complement to the king’s powers in the well-run monarchical state. Jean Bodin summed up this view in his Six Books of the Commonwealth, first published in 1576, when he wrote that ‘the family, which is the source and origin of all republics, is the principal member of it’. It followed for Bodin that the ideal family, like the ideal republic, was authoritarian and patriarchal. Governed by commandment and obedience, strong families were the building blocks of a strong state.
Interaction with the non-European world
Authors: Armstrong David , Goldstein Erik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the risk of oversimplifying a vast topic, Europe’s interaction with the world may be considered in the context of three broad themes: the cold war (and its ending), which established both constraints and imperatives for the divided continent; decolonization and its aftermath, which defined Western Europe’s relations with half the world and also helped condition the Soviet Union’s approach to its adversaries’ former colonies; and the processes of globalization and internationalization, which created much of the international political, economic, and cultural environment within which the developments during this period took place.
Introduction
Authors: Bull Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume in the Short Oxford History of France series deals with some of the most important changes that took place between c.9oo and c.1200 in the area that we may for convenience label &lt;France ‘. More broadly, therefore, the book addresses processes and events that are sometimes grouped together under a heading along the lines of (The birth of France ‘. The problem here, of course, is that any metaphor like this runs up against the fact that there was no single moment when France came into being; what we mean by France itself is not reducible to the sort of single, coherent entity which one needs if organic analogies are to work properly. To speak of medieval France is effectively to use a piece of shorthand for a mass of concurrent ideas, myths, geographical features, historical memories, word associations, mental maps, and senses of belonging, sometimes in harmony, sometimes in conflict. To some extent France existed in the area bounded by the coastlines and land boundaries (however vague) that literally gave it shape, but it was also inside people ‘s minds as a construct, or more accurately a host of different constructs.
Political culture
Authors: Koziol Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 754, three years after Pippin the Short had deposed the last Merovingian to become king of the Franks, Pope Stephen II levelled a curse good to the end of time against any who would ever choose a king from outside Pippin ‘s line. Some 130 years later, in the face of a pressing Viking threat and mindful that the four previous Carolingians had proven themselves arrogant, incompetent, or simply fatally unlucky, the northern magnates of the west Frankish kingdom did just that, overriding the claims of the three-year-old Charles, great great-great-grandson of Pippin, and electing as king Odo, count of Paris and margrave of Neustria. Judging by the next 300 years of west Frankish history, God must have taken Stephen ‘s curse seriously, for Odo ‘s reign (888-98) begins a sorry story. Civil wars and treacheries followed in an endless succession that numbed even contemporaries. Alliances, truces, and treaties were repudiated at first advantage. Kings were imprisoned or deposed, counts, bishops, and court favourites assassinated, and conspiracies and intrigues abounded. The wonder of it is that the Franks kept doing it, over and over, for three centuries, swearing oaths they knew would be broken, anointing kings they would conspire against, accepting safe conducts they knew could be violated.
The French overseas
Authors: Phillips Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of all the peoples of the Latin West there is a strong case for arguing that it was the French who made the greatest impact outside their own lands in this period. It is true that the Germans made substantial territorial gains to the east, but theirs was a slow and progressive landward expansion. Perhaps Italian traders travelled further afield, or the reform papacy exerted the most widespread influence, but the French were the most dynamic of all. Their involvement ranged from conquest and settlement, through participation in military campaigns, to contact via trade and diplomacy. This chapter will examine why, where, and how the French made their mark. It will also con sider how the French overseas viewed relations with their homeland and, in turn, how their homeland regarded them. These relationships operated and overlapped on religious, familial, political, and economic levels.
The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1788–1814
Authors: Crook Malcolm 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Revolutions only occur when regimes disintegrate. The French monarchy was not overthrown in 1789; it had already begun to collapse a year earlier when it proved incapable of reform. The revolutionaries thus occupied as much as created a political vacuum, which they sought to ﬁll with a new order. Yet it was far more difficult to build than to destroy and 1789 merely marked the beginning of a decade of upheaval that was only brought to a temporary halt with the advent of the Napoleonic dictatorship at the turn of the new century. Although it profoundly shaped the nature of nineteenth-century France, even the Bonapartist regime turned out to be something of a stopgap. In political terms Napoleon created another option, rather than a deﬁnitive solution. The events of 1815, when he staged his famous, but short-lived, Hundred-Day return, only served to restart the revolutionary cycle that would dominate French political history during the decades to come.
Theories of Simple Conditionals
Authors: Woods Michael , Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the truth-value (or possibly the absence of truth-value) of Simple Conditionals is fixed solely by the truth-values of their antecedents and consequents, there seem to be only two possibilities. First, if we take the view that ‘If ... then .. .’ sentences always have a truth-value, there is, in fact, no alternative to treating them as material conditionals, if they are truth-functional. This is a consequence of the fact that ‘If P and Q, then Q’ is always true, whatever the truth-values of P and Q are, and that not all ‘If ... then .. .’ statements are true. ‘P and Q’ cannot be true if Q is false, but the other combinations of truth-value assignments to P and ‘P and Q’ are not ruled out.
Compound Conditionals and Truth-Values
Authors: Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the conclusions of the last section are correct, that it is misguided to import possible worlds into the analysis of Simple Conditionals, what account should be given of them? What possibilities remain? As we saw in Section 4, we may hold that Simple Conditionals lack truth-values, and that the correct account of them is that they are used to make conditional assertions: one who utters ‘If P then Q’ makes no unconditional assertion using this form of words, but asserts Q on condition that P. If we use Frege’s assertion sign’ ⊢’, an assertion of P will be represented by’ ⊢P’, and an appropriate notation for the conditional assertion theory would be to represent ‘If P then Q’ by ⊢pQ. As we saw in Section 4, the combined effect of Lewis’s result and the acceptance of Adams’s Hypothesis may suggest this as an appropriate treatment of Simple Conditionals. The conditions for an utterance of Q would be that the probability of Q is high relative to the truth of P.
Do Godel’s Incompleteness Theorems Place a Limit on Artificial Intelligence?
Authors: Gillies Donald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far in this book we have examined some of the implications which new results in artificial intelligence might have for old questions in the philosophy of science and philosophy of logic. I think it will be agreed that the results have been quite striking. Advances in machine learning have supported the Baconian inductivist view of scientific method against more modern alternatives. The development of PROLOG has provided arguments for the empiricist as opposed to a priori conception of logic, and logic programming has also suggested a new framework for logic within which it may be possible to develop an inductive logic quite similar to deductive logic. Altogether the new results call into question many ideas concerning logic and scientific method which have been dominant for the last fifty or so years.
Soul and Mind
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The soul is much older than philosophy. In many places and in many cultures human beings have imagined themselves surviving death, and the ancient equivalents of the world ‘soul’ Worst appear as an expression for whatever in us is immortal. Once philosophy began, the possibility of an afterlife and the nature of the soul came to be one of its central concerns, straddling the boundary between religion and science. Pythagoras, often venerated as the Worst of philosophers, was also renowned as a champion of survival after death. He did not, however, believe as many others have done that at death the soul entered a different and shadowy world; he believed that it returned to the world we all live in, but it did so as the soul of a different body