bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Transition from School to Work in the United States
Authors: Arum Richard , Hout Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human-capital theory approaches educational stratification from the point of view of investments and returns: young people invest in themselves and their futures by enrolling in school, and reap the returns on those invest ments in the labour market (Becker 1972). While the key issue for theo rists is the return to this investment over the individual’s whole lifetime, many young people have a much shorter planning horizon. They want to know about the immediate returns to their education. In particular, they want to know if staying in school will ‘pay-off with a good job right after leaving. Theory has begun to catch up with this reality. Manski (1993) proposes a model that explicitly addresses the ‘stay in school or go to work now’ choice that young people make. In particular, he notes that students assess their prospects and choose according to what they know about those prospects, their sense of their academic ability, and how much they enjoy school.
A Differentiated Part-Time Workforce: Marginal Jobs, Half-Time Jobs and Reduced Hours Jobs
Authors: Hakim Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to present a new classification of working hours which was developed through iterative analyses of the SAR files, and to show that it differentiates usefully between subgroups within the so-called part-time workforce, thus helping us to make sense of puzzles in crossnational comparisons of part-time work.
Socio-Political and Community Dynamics of Arab Christians in Jordan, Israel, and the Autonomous Palestinian Territories
Authors: Pacini Andrea 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a society where Muslims constitute 95 per cent of the population, Christians number around 150,000 in Jordan, or 4.2 per cent of the total population. They are divided among several Churches, the most important and the largest of which are the Greek Orthodox Church, with about 81,000 members, the Melkite Church, with 22,100 members, the Roman Catholic (or Latin) Church, with 35,000, and the various Protestant communities, with about 5,000 adherents. In addition to these are the other, smaller communities which make up the mosaic of the Christian community in Jordan. These include members of the Armenian Apostolic Church (3,500), the Syrian Orthodoxes (2,200), the Copts (1,200), and the Syrian Catholics (about 400).
Supply-Side Influences on the Development of SGI-USA
Authors: Hammond Phillip E , Machacek David W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
CURRENT sociological wisdom suggests that three factors influence the destiny of a religion entering a new social environment: ( l) the degree to which that environment is religiously unregulated and thus open to religious competition, (2) decisions made and actions taken by a religious organization itself regarding how it will deliver its message, and ( 3) the degree to which that message is an appealing alternative to the religions already available to the society’s members. The first and second factors combined form what is called the “supply-side” theory of the organizational growth and decline of religions. What flexibility is a religious organization allowed, and what does it do with that flexibility?
Obligations and Autonomy in Social Welfare
Authors: Millar Jane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Looking to the post-war future, in which the British state would take on responsibility for the welfare of citizens from the ’cradle to the grave’, William Beveridge was very clear that this meant quite different things for men and for women. Full employment would mean that men would always be able to support at least ’a wife and one child’ and it would be their responsibility to do so. Women would withdraw from the labour market on marriage to take up their other duties as mothers to the new generation. The provisions of the postwar British welfare state thus rested on a very strongly genderdifferentiated model of family life, in which men were full-time workers and women were full-time carers.
The Restructuring of Gender Relations within the Medical Profession
Authors: Crompton Rosemary , Feuvre Nicky Le , Birkelund Gunn Elisabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In all European countries, women are increasingly qualifying for, and practising, professional occupations. Medicine, law, accountancy, pharmacy, and a host of other occupations requiring degreeand postgraduate-level training and qualifications have all seen an increase in their female complement. In this chapter we will argue that this ongoing restructuring within the higher levels of the occupational hierarchy has a number of implications for our thinking about gender, as well as for the long-established ’sociology of the professions’ itself. We will be developing these arguments through an analysis of the medical profession in Britain, France, and Norway. In all of these countries the medical profession is in a process of feminization, and women now make up more than a half of students in training for medicine.
Rational Choice Theory
Authors: Bruce Steve 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ALTHOUGH the secularization case made in the previous chapter is widely accepted by historians and social scientists, a number of small and specific criticisms have been made. The relative weight of various causes has been much debated, as has the extent to which we can generalize from the past of the Western industrial world to other societies. There has also long been one general reason for rejecting the whole approach. Despite the strong evidence of declining interest in religion, some scholars, usually philosophers and theologians, have argued that enduring secularization is impossible because there is something about the human condition that persistently leads us to ask spiritual questions. If nothing else, our mortality leads us to hope that there is more to life than meets the eye and causes us to search for a ‘meaning’ to life.
Perspectives on Cooperative Strategy
Authors: Faulkner David O , Rond Mark de 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cooperative strategy became a very fashionable area of intellectual debate in the 1990s, rather as competitive strategy was in the 1980s following the publication of works by Porter (1980, 1985). The reasons for this have been far more profound than mere fashion. Markets have become increasingly global during this period, tastes have converged, technologies have shown a disturbing tendency not to endure for long before being replaced by others, and product life cycles have become ever shorter in a society driven by the restless energy of the advertiser. All this has meant the need for greater capital investment than one firm, however big, can regularly cope with, and the need for allies who span the major markets of the globe and have between them the necessary competencies to meet the demands of the global market (cf. Murray and Mahon, 1993; Ohmae, 1989).
National Differences in Acquisition Integration
Authors: pitkethly Robert , Faulkner David O , child john 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the highest level of firm interdependence short of outright total integration of the wholly owned and internally developed subsidiary, namely the merger or acquisition. Appropriate behavioural attitudes of a cooperative nature are as vital in these circumstances as in a partly owned joint venture, if the respective cultures and competences of the two companies are to be married effectively together. The chapter thus concentrates on the key issue of integrating acquisitions, drawing on a study of acquisitions of UK companies by firms from the USA, Japan, Germany, and France. Four major aspects are considered: the overall level of integration; the control mechanisms adopted; the communication methods; and the strategic philosophy pursued by the new parent in relation to its acquisition.
Local Social Capital: Making it Work on the Ground
Authors: Macgillivray Alex , Walker Perry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WE are the country mice in this collection of town mice, wondering if our wellington boots look out of place amidst the soft black shoes and the academic gowns. For our interest is in measuring the social capital created by some very practical regeneration projects. We do this despite believing that no exact measure is possible, since how we do so affects the results. We do this because we know that such measures act as flags, drawing attention to aspects of regeneration previously invisible. We want these flags to be available to policymakers, but also to the residents affected by these projects. How we have tried to do this, and the dilemmas we faced, is the subject of this chapter.
Neutron interactions and coherent scattering lengths
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scattering lengths are the relevant quantities for the description of the neutron-nuclear interaction at low energies and they are of substantial interest for the understanding of the basic nucleon-nucleon interaction. Related investigations are directly connected to the elementary hadron-hadron interactions, namely neutron-proton, neutron-neutron, and proton-proton scattering, and to the problems of charge dependence and charge symmetry of nuclear forces (Henley 1966; Slaus et al. 1989). Quantum chromodynamics is the fundamental theory of hadronic structure and interaction, but a rigorous evaluation of low-energy nuclear data is still not possible. The observed interactions between hadrons are influenced by direct and indirect electromagnetic effects due to Coulomb interaction, magnetic interaction, and effects due to the finite charge and magnetic moment distribution and due to the mass differences between charged and neutral pions producing different nuclear forces. Various aspects of fundamental properties of the neutron and its interaction are summarized in the books by Gurevich and Tarasov (1968), Byrne (1994a) and Alexandrov (1992). In the low-energy regime the scattering length is the only parameter necessary to describe the neutron-nuclear interaction, whereas at higher energies the effective range and the shape parameter must be included to account properly for the scattering cross-section data. As neutron physics moved more and more toward condensed matter research, the precise values for scattering lengths of all the elements and many isotopes became quite important, because they determine the strength of the elastic and inelastic scattering signal from structurally complex samples. A collection of all measured neutron scattering length data and recommended values for the elements and most of the isotopes are given in a review by Koester et al. (1991) and in Sears (1992) and Rauch and Waschkowski (2000).
Spinor symmetry and spin superposition
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The spinor calculus can be regarded as applying a deeper level of structure of space-time than that described by the standard quantum mechanics. It makes transparent some of the subtler properties of space-time phenomena. The essential reason is that the basic spin space is two-dimensional (but complex) rather than the four-dimensional (real) space-time structure. Spinor properties have profound links with the complex numbers that appear in quantum mechanics (Penrose and Rindler 1984).
Perfect-crystal neutron optics
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The classical Mach –Zehnder and Michelson interferometers operate on the principle of coherent division of the amplitude of an incident electromagnetic wave by partially reflecting partially transmitting objects, called beam splitters. The perfect silicon crystals in the neutron interferometer are the beam splitters and mirrors. Their operation depends upon the dynamical diffraction of neutrons having a de Broglie wavelength in the range of 1 −5 Å. Although the results and basic physics of most of the experiments discussed in this book can be understood without a detailed knowledge of the wave fields inside the perfect-crystal slabs of the interferometer, it has been found that the successful fabrication and utilization of this device requires a rather advanced analysis of the dynamical diffraction process occurring within each of the single-crystal elements. The main goal of this chapter is to provide the reader with a focused description of the physics of dynamical diffraction in perfect-crystal media that is necessary to understand the interferometer in its essential details. In addition, there are a number of neutron physics experiments that do not use the interferometer, but are directly based upon the exquisite coherent wave fields accompanying the diffraction of neutrons in the perfectly periodic structure of silicon. The theoretical description follows the early development of X-ray dynamical diffraction theory (Darwin 1914; Ewald 1916, 1928; von Laue 1931). Here we will describe the first observation of the oscillation of the integrated reflectivity of silicon crystals as a function of thickness by Sippel et al. (1965), and the observation of the Pendellosung fringe structure by Shull (1968, 1973). The related, more recent ‘effective inertial mass’ experiments of Zeilinger et al. (1986), Raum et al. (1997), which also use dynamical diffraction effects inside perfect crystals, have already been discussed in Section 7.2.3.
Interpretational questions
Authors: Rauch Helmut , Werner Samuel A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters we have shown many successful applications of quantum mechanics, and it would be a major problem not having this excellent theory available. Despite these successes, however, the basic conceptual framework has been considered by many scientists to be unsatisfactory. In this chapter we will outline the standard Copenhagen –G öttingen interpretation and some of the alternative approaches. Quantum mechanics has to be seen as a major part of more basic quantum field theories. Inevitably, many of the questions that arise are matters of opinion rather than of fact, and therefore many physicists consider that they belong more properly to philosophy than to physics. However, the conceptual basis of quantum mechanics is so fundamental to our understanding of nature that it should surely be important to physicists as well. The conception of determinism differs substantially from classical physics because quantum theory predicts only the relative probabilities of different outcomes. The feature of non-locality is another new concept which makes space-like separated events instantaneously entangled.
Mathematical Logic
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Logic forms the basis of mathematics, and is hence a fundamental part of any mathematics course. In particular, it is a major element in theoretical computer science and has undergone a huge revival with the explosion of interest in computers and computer science. This book provides students with a clear and accessible introduction to this important subject. The concept of model underlies the whole book, giving the text a theoretical coherence whilst still covering a wide area of logic.
Introduction
Authors: Cori René , Lascar Daniel , Pelletier Donald H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are many who consider that logic, as a branch of mathematics, has a some what special status that distinguishes it from all the others. Curiously, both its keenest adversaries and some of its most enthusiastic disciples concur with this conception which places logic near the margin of mathematics, at its border, or even outside it. For the first, logic does not belong to ‘real’ mathematics; the others, on the contrary, see it as the reigning discipline within mathematics, the one that transcends all the others, that supports the grand structure.
Energy sources
Authors: Alexander R McNeill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Life on earth is supported by energy from the sun. This chapter is mainly about the sun ‘s radiation and how it is captured by plants. A short section at the end describes an alternative energy source used by a few exceptional orgamsms.The light from the sun is its most obvious radiation, but is just part of a broad spectrum. The visible spectrum ranges from violet light, with wavelengths of about 0.4 micrometres (μm), to red, with about 0.7µm. We cannot see shorter or longer wavelengths. Ultraviolet radiation, with wavelengths less than 0.4µm, causes suntanning and skin cancer. Infrared radiation, with wavelengths greater than 0.7µm, is also invisible, but we can feel its warming effect on our skin.All objects emit radiation. Cold bodies emit only a little, but as you heat a body up it emits more and more radiation, at shorter and shorter wavelengths. A piece of iron at room temperature emits only infrared, with wavelengths much longer than 0.7µm, but as a blacksmith heats it, its radiation increases and moves into the visible spectrum. A red-hot bar is emitting red light (and plenty of infrared as well). A white-hot bar emits the whole range of visible wavelengths. The sun emits the range of wavelengths that anybody would emit at its temperature of about 5500°C. About 40 per cent of its energy is conveyed as light (0.4-0.7µm), 40 per cent as near infrared (0.7-1.5µm) and the rest as shorter or longer wavelengths. Ultraviolet is known for its harmful effects but amounts to only 8 per cent of the energy.
Basic requirements
Authors: Alexander R McNeill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having looked at the sources of energy for animal life, we now start to ask how much energy animals need. In this chapter we are concerned only with the energy used by resting animals; later chapters consider the energy needed for activities such as feeding and travelling from place to place, and also for growth. In this first section of the chapter we are concerned with methods for measuring the energy used by animals.This energy is derived from food, so we are going to need to know how much energy is available from different kinds of food. Animals oxidize food to make the energy available, and we can find out how much energy is available by burning foodstuffs and measuring the heat that is produced. It does not matter that the food is oxidized in the animal by a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions, and in the experiment by burning; if the initial materials and the final products are the same, the same amount of energy will be released.The heat produced when food is burned is usually measured by means of a bomb calorimeter (Fig. 2.1(a)). A weighed specimen of the food is put into a thick walled metal container (the ‘bomb ‘) which is then filled with oxygen under pressure. The bomb is enclosed in an insulated container, then the specimen is ignited electrically.
Energy And Momentum Relaxation Of Hot Electrons By Acoustic Phonon Emission
Authors: Kent A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At low electron temperatures the dominant process of energy relaxation by hot electrons in semiconductors is by acoustic phonon emission. The rate of energy loss due to electromagnetic (far infra-red) radiation is absolutely tiny by comparison. At higher electron temperatures optic phonon emission takes over. The carrier temperature at which the changeover from acoustic to optic phonon emission takes place depends on the optic phonon energy. In gallium arsenide the optic phonon energy is about 36 meV and the changeover is at between 30 and 50 K (Hawker et al. 1992). In gallium nitride, which has a much larger optic phonon energy( 100 meV), the changeover is expected to occur at a higher temperature. At room temperature optic phonon emission is dominant. This is due to an exponential dependence of the optic phonon emission rate on carrier temperature, while the energy relaxation rate through acoustic phonon emission saturates because emission of large wave vector (high-energy) acoustic phonons is forbidden by momentum conservation considerations. This effect is particularly important in low-dimensional electron systems, in which the reduction of phase space for electron scattering can significantly suppress the energy relaxation by acoustic phonon emission.
Kinematic Theory
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since high-energy electrons interact strongly with solids it is likely that scattering will occur more than once as electrons propagate through the specimen. This also means that the single scattering, or kinematic, approximation cannot be applied to the interpretation of experimental observations. Nevertheless, there are some interesting situations where the single scattering approximation does provide a useful means for understanding experimental results and in particular for understanding the geometry of electron diffraction patterns. In general, to develop a useful single scattering approximation we need to represent the potential V (r) by a sum of two terms
Temperature-Dependent Debye–Waller Factors
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Debye–Waller factor is a parameter widely used in both X-ray and electron crystallography to account for the effect of thermal vibrations of atoms in the lattice on the intensity of diffracted beams (Willis and Pryor, 1975). Thermal vibrations smear the periodic potential of the crystal. The instantaneous positions of atoms in the crystal are no longer periodic. However, an average periodic potential can be defined, which gives rise to discrete diffracted beams satisfying the same Bragg law that applies to the static crystal potential in the absence of thermal vibrations. The real-space distribution of the average potential is more smeared out in comparison with the distribution of potential in a static crystal. In real space within the harmonic approximation the effect may be described by a convolution of the potential corresponding to atoms frozen at their equilibrium positions with a Gaussian function describing the statistical distribution of thermal atomic displacements. Alternatively, in reciprocal space the effect of thermal vibrations on the average potential is described by the multiplication of the corresponding atomic electron scattering factor of the static crystal by the temperature factor Tk(James, 1948)
Statistical tests
Authors: Cowan Glen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter some basic concepts of statistical test theory are presented. As this is a broad topic, after a general introduction we will limit the discussion to several aspects that are most relevant to particle physics. Here one could be interested, for example, in the particles resulting from an interaction (an event), or one might consider an individual particle within an event. An immediate application of statistical tests in this context is the selection of candidate particles or events which are then used for further analysis. Here one is concerned with distinguishing events of interest (signal) from other types (background). These questions are addressed in Sections 4.2-4.4. Another important aspect of statistical tests concerns goodness-of-fit; this is discussed in Sections 4.5-4.7.
Unfolding
Authors: Cowan Glen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Up to now we have considered random variables such as particle energies, decay times, etc., usually with the assumption that their values can be measured without error. The present chapter concerns the distortions to distributions which occur when the values of these variables are subject to additional random fluctuations due to the limited resolution of the measuring device. The procedure of correcting for these distortions is known as unfolding. The same mathematics can be found under the general heading of inverse problems, and is also called deconvolution or unsmearing. Although the presentation here is mainly in the context of particle physics, the concepts have been developed and applied in fields such as optical image reconstruction, radio astronomy, crystallography and medical imaging.