bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Information Retrieval
Authors: Barcelon‐Yang Cynthia S. , Brownlee Evelyn L. , Calhoun Emmett D. , Caputo Bruno A. , Cumbo Charles C. , Daniszewski Joseph P. , Eckel Douglas A. , Glaspey Kenneth H. , Green‐Kocher Darlyn C. , Gruber Marianne B. , Isselmann Margaret M. , Johns Thomas C. , King Alicia P. , Krentz David M. , Kvalnes Florence H. , Minkiewicz Luray M. , Nazer Behrooz , Parsons Angela K.G , Perrotto Carol R. , Ratliff Rita D. , Sikes Jeanette C. , Webster Amie H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDifferent on‐line database resources are described. Database producers and vendors are defined, and a summary of available technical and business chemical databases presented. Scientists dealing with chemicals have the advantage that a chemical structure is a unique presentation. Regardless of their languages, researchers in Japan or in New Zealand will have the same understanding of a chemical structure. A number of sections in this article deal with this unique characteristic of chemistry. Searching for structures using the Chemical Abstract Registry Number, which represents a chemical structure in files such as Registry, Beilstein, and DARC is described. Another challenge to searchers in finding specific physical data is addressed in Numeric, Spectra, and Reaction sections. Patents have significant influence in providing funds to researchers by both industrial and academic sectors. Available databases are discussed and information regarding both on‐line and CD‐ROM presented. Environmental and safety aspects of chemicals in our daily life are taking a predominate role and available on‐line and private information is discussed. Other resources to aid individuals in dealing with searching and storing data are discussed.
Infrared Technology
Authors: Jones Roger W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe ir region of the electromagnetic spectrum is important because every material object emits, absorbs, transmits, and reflects ir radiation in a characteristic manner. Two kinds of information can be gathered from the radiation after it has interacted with the object. Spectrometry determines the chemical composition of the object; radiometry determines the object's thermal characteristics. The basic principles and practices of both spectrometry and radiometry (including thermal imaging) in the ir region are reviewed. The sampling modes used in the spectrometry techniques of transmission, specular reflection, diffuse reflection, attenuated total reflection, photoacoustic absorption, emission, microspectroscopy, and open‐path sampling are examined, and the methods for analyzing and interpreting data are discussed. Uses of spectrometry, including process line monitoring, defect analysis, environmental monitoring, and weathering studies, as applied in the polymer, pharmaceutical, grain, food, and flavor and fragrance industries are reviewed. The relations among temperature, emittance, radiance, and radiometric measurement are summarized. Using the medium‐wave and long‐wave regions of the ir spectrum for radiometry are compared. Applications of radiometry and thermal imaging to process monitoring, plant maintenance, nondestructive evaluation, and stress analysis are discussed. The characteristics of ir optical materials, fibers, sources, detectors, radiometers, thermal imagers, and spectrometers (grating, Fourier transform, interference filter, and acousto‐optic filter) are reviewed. Vol. 14, pp. 379–416, 85 refs. to June 1993.
Inks
Authors: Bassemir R. W. , Bean A. , Wasilewski O. , Kline D. , Hillis W. , Su C. , Steel I. R. , Rusterholz W. E. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This article includes a description of the important commercial printing processes used in the world. The inks required for each of these processes are described, including the key ingredients in the formula necessary due to the physical constraints of each particular printing process. A discussion of the nature of the raw materials used in printing inks and their general chemical composition is given. A summary of the environmental regulations applying to the printing industry and their impact on ink formulation is presented.
Insecticides
Authors: Plimmer Jack R. , Gammon Derek W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractInsects constitute an immense drain on food resources worldwide, as well as being serious disease vectors. Insecticide applications are made directly to raw agricultural commodities to protect plants and animals from insect attacks. Official national and international bodies regulate pesticide use and set permitted maximum residue levels or MRLs/tolerances for residues of insecticides and degradation products. Insect vectors spread many human and animal diseases. It was estimated in 2000 by the World Health Organization (WHO) that malaria caused close to 3 milllion deaths annually. Major health and economic benefits are associated with the continued use of insecticides, and the combination of newly introduced chemical classes with improved understanding of pest management has done much to reduce both the amounts used and the risks to nontarget species and the environment. Historically, many insecticidal preparations were derived from plant species. Synthetic organic chemicals were introduced in the 1930s, but the scale of their use increased during the immediate postwar years, with the introduction of the chlorinated insecticides, the carbamates and the organophosphates. Chlorinated organic insecticides were used in quantity, particularly for control of disease vectors, but they became recognized as ubiquitous environmental pollutants. Their effectiveness fell as insect resistance became widespread. Newer insecticides based on substantially different modes of action and of greater environmental acceptability are replacing older compounds. Newer types include growth regulators, juvenile hormone analogs, compounds affecting other metabolic pathways, such as chitin synthesis, and compounds affecting insect behavior. Investigations of insect physiology revealed more details of the insect nervous system and identified new targets. Newer screening and synthesis techniques aided developmental work and resulted in newer insecticides effective at extremely low application rates. These include the synthetic pyrethroids, fermentation products such as the spinosads, that act at the nicotinic acetycholine receptor, as do the nitromethylenes compounds acting on the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex, voltage‐gated sodium channel effectors, and compounds acting on mitochondrial respiration, among others. Regulatory policy favors the development of new compounds that are compatible with integrated pest management (IPM) systems. Major considerations in selection of the proper insecticide for the IPM program include mode of action, timing, dosage of application, and problems of resistance and resurgence, possible effects of insecticide residues on food crops, and in the environment, and the impact of these on humans, domestic animals, and wildlife.
Insulation, Acoustic
Authors: Hirtle Parker W. , Parssinen Carol E. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Acoustic insulation refers to materials and constructions that reduce the passage of sound into or out of a medium such as air, water, or a solid structure. This article is concerned with airborne and structureborne sound and provides an overview of a wide variety of materials and constructions used for acoustic insulation purposes. Included are discussions of sound‐absorbing treatments for reducing the reflection of impinging sounds; sound‐blocking materials and constructions for reducing the transmission of sound from one location to another; vibration isolation devices for reducing the transmission of vibration from vibrating sources into supporting structures (potential sound‐radiators); and vibration damping treatments used to reduce vibrations within and sound radiation from materials and structures. Test methods, measurement units, rating procedures, and specific uses of materials, devices, and constructions for acoustic insulation purposes also are discussed.
Insulation, Thermal
Authors: Tye Ronald P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe applications of both open‐ and closed‐cell cellular plastics for use as thermal insulations to improve energy efficiency in buildings and industrial processes are discussed. Brief details of the types and forms of cellular plastics available for such uses are included as well as typical data on thermal and other relevant performance properties and characteristics. Materials include extruded and expanded polystyrene, block, laminated and sprayed polyisocyanurate (including polyurethane), and phenolic resin based together with a variety of lesser used special application materials such as polyethylene, polyimide, and melamine. The temperature‐dependent properties discussed are thermal performance including aging phenomena and its required accelerated aging testing procedures, mechanical, and structural performance. Flame resistance and other fire‐related parameters are also included as are health and safety issues including environmental effects of CFC and HCFC‐type blowing agents. Finally a brief discussion is included on economic aspects and growth potential of cellular plastics for applications that require thermal insulation for energy efficient operation.
Fluorine Compounds, Organic
Authors: Bajzer William X. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe introduction briefly covers the history of organic fluorine compounds along with an overview of their commercial impact founded in special chemical properties imparted by the CF bond. Various important synthetic fluorination methods are discussed with an emphasis on global commercial processes, the corresponding plant sites and their production capacities. The changing global marketplace is discussed as CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) use is banned and their replacements are being commercialized. Specific chemicals are shown as examples of the dependence and the diversity of organic fluorine compounds within our environment. A summary of safe handling aspects is characterized by a wide range of biological activity and inactivity offered by the examples of this interesting group of chemicals. A bibliography and general reading suggestions complete the subject with the literature search covering information through March, 2004.
Recycling, Introduction
Authors: Boerner Christopher , Chilton Kenneth 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Recycling is the process by which materials that are either not directly usable in their present form (eg, secondary materials or by‐products) or have been separated from waste destined for disposal are remanufactured into usable or marketable materials. The amount of public attention given to recycling has increased noticeably during the last few years; however, the recycling of many industrial and household materials has been a profitable endeavor for decades. More recently, government programs designed to increase recycling rates have distorted recycling markets worldwide. This article provides a broad overview of this politically popular issue. Specifically, the article discusses the amount of material collected and processed for recycling, the composition of this material, how collected material is handled, and the economic aspects of recycling. Although the article is written from an American perspective, most of the concepts examined in the paper are international in nature.
Batteries, Introduction
Authors: Brodd Ralph 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Batteries are precision miniature chemical reactors that convert chemical reaction energy into electrical energy, on demand. Batteries range in size from large house‐sized batteries for utility storage down to tablet‐sized batteries for hearing aids and paper‐thin batteries for memory protection in electronic devices. The electrons involved in the chemical reactions are transferred from the active materials undergoing oxidation to the oxidizing agent by means of an external circuit. The passage of electrons through this external circuit provides the means for control of for the direct energy conversion without going through heat as an intermediate step. The three main types of batteries are primary, secondary, and reserve. The battery voltage is unique for each group of reactants comprising the battery system and is determined by the thermodynamics of the reaction. The criteria for commercial batteries is described. Only a few reactions have the characteristics requisite for use in commercial batteries. The performance of typical commercial and developing battery systems is summarized.
Electrochemical Processing, Introduction
Authors: Fuller Thomas F. , Newman John 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Electrochemical systems convert chemical and electrical energy through charge‐transfer reactions. These processes, which may be electrolytic or galvanic, are introduced. Basic definitions and terminology are given. The fundamental principles of thermodynamics, kinetics, and transport as applied to electrochemical systems, the relevance of these principles to the design of electrochemical systems are discussed.
Nuclear Reactors, Waste Management, Introduction
Authors: Murray Raymond L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe nuclear reactor involves a controlled chain reaction wherein fission of uranium by neutrons occurs. By‐products are energy and wastes. A brief history of reactor development is given. Worldwide usage of nuclear reactors for power generation is summarized, including the numbers and types of reactors. Characteristics of the most common reactor types are given.Environmental aspects of nuclear power plants are presented. Discussion of safety issues includes lessons learned from such previous accidents as those at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. The high cost of nuclear electricity is discussed and compared to use of coal.
Silica, Introduction
Authors: Patterson Robert E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSilica exists in a variety of stable, unstable, and metastable forms, and commercial usage extends to all types. Some, such as quartz, are crystalline; others are microcrystalline; still others are amorphous. The amorphous silicas vary over a wide range of hydration or hydroxylation to produce sols, gels, fumes, and precipitates, according to the manufacturing process employed. The structures and bonding within the various silicas is presented, as are the transformations between forms. Uses of silica, which are dependent on form, range from quartz crystals for precision instruments to precipitated silicas as a reinforcing filler in rubber, from food additive to principal raw material for glass. Uses of silica are expected to continue to grow throughout the 1990s.
Ion Exchange
Authors: Dickert Charles 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIon exchange is a process in which cations (anions) in a liquid are exchanged for cations (anions) on a solid sorbent, maintaining electroneutrality in both phases. Ion‐exchange resins consist of synthetic organic polymeric materials generally categorized according to functionality as either strong or weak acids or bases. Some specialty resins contain other appending groups such as thiols or chelates. The composition and the porosity of the polymer matrix are also important to function. Manufacture, stabilities, and regeneration of resins are described. Particular resins effect chromatographic separation in addition to ion exchange. Many resins may be regenerated after use.The primary application of ion exchange is in softening and deionization of water. Other uses include waste treatment, food processing, catalysis, and purification procedures in the chemical, pharmaceutical, and plating industries. Ion‐exchange columns are often used in conjunction with such other purification materials as activated charcoal. Cation exchangers generally outsell anion exchangers.
Ion Implantation
Authors: Walter Kevin C. , Nastasi Michael 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIon implantation has been used as a research tool since about 1960, as an indispensable part of integrated circuit production since the mid‐1960s, and as a method for beneficially modifying surface sensitive properties since the early 1970s. Ion implantation processes are known to be low temperature (if desired), highly controllable, and reproducible processes capable of exceeding thermodynamic constraints on the types of materials created at, or on, a material's surface. Outside the traditional semiconductor applications for the introduction of dopants into silicon, ion implantation technology has found other applications as a method for modifying the mechanical or chemical properties of material surfaces. In this article the fundamental underlying physical concepts of ion implantation are reviewed, namely, ion stopping, ion range, implanted concentration, channeling, radiation damage, radiation enhanced diffusion, and sputtering. A brief overview of the application of ion implantation to problems in tribology, fatigue, catalysis, and corrosion is provided. As further advances in both the application and the technology of ion implantation are made, and the economic values become realized, interest in ion implantation processes is expected to expand rapidly. In response to anticipated future interest, the state of ion implantation technology and the economic issues associated with the application of ion implantation technology at the industrial level are discussed. Vol. 14, pp. 783–814, 203 refs. to April 1994.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Iron
Authors: Meshri Dayal T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIron(II) fluoride and iron(III) fluoride are both known and commercially available. Only the trifluoride has been employed in a variety of industrial applications, the principal ones being manufacture of magnets, as a catalyst in petroleum and organic industry, and in some fire‐retardant formulations. Preparation and properties of the iron fluorides, their hydrates, and complexes are described.
Iron Compounds
Authors: Stolzenberg Alan M. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

This article provides a brief overview of the preparation, composition, properties, and uses of the principal compounds of iron. The compounds are divided into salts and simple coordination compounds, chelate compounds, organometallic compounds, and compounds of biological relevance. Whereas compounds of iron in the

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oxidation state are the most common, eg, salts of iron(II) are known for almost all the common anions, higher oxidation states are known to exist, even in biological compounds. Moreover, organometallic iron is formally lower in the oxidation state. Iron compounds find commercial applications throughout the chemical industry as catalysts, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pigments, and indicators. Many iron compounds are magnetic and may be found in magnets and in recording media as well as in microwave technology. Sections on economic aspects, analytical methods, and health and safety considerations are included.
Isotope Separation
Authors: Von Halle Edward 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe high cost of isotope separation has limited the use of separated isotopes in nuclear reactors to those situations where no substitutes are available. Whereas isotopic separation processes vary according to the properties of the specific element, these methods are all energy‐intensive. Isotopes utilized range from the heavy uranium‐235 to the lighter deuterium, tritium, boron‐10, and lithium‐7. Separation procedures for each of these isotopes are described.
Ketones
Authors: Hwang Yng‐Long , Bedard Thomas C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractKetones are a class of organic compounds that contain one or more carbonyl groups bound to two aliphatic, aromatic, or alicyclic substituents. Ketones are an important class of industrial chemicals that have found widespread use as solvents and chemical intermediates. Acetone is the simplest and most important ketone and finds ubiquitous use as a solvent. Higher members of the aliphatic methyl ketone series (eg, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl isobutyl ketone, methyl amyl ketone) are also industrially significant solvents. Cyclohexanone is the most important cyclic ketone and is primarily used in the manufacture of a precursor for nylon‐6. Other ketones find application in fields as diverse as fragrance formulation and metals extraction. Physical and chemical properties as well as uses, manufacture, and health and safety data are given.
Laboratory Information Management Systems
Authors: Barrett Michael G. , MacFadden Kenneth O. , Taylor Jean A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Laboratory information management systems (LIMS) are used to acquire, store, and manage data generated in the laboratory. A modern laboratory might implement a LIMS to automate data collection and dissemination, ensure product quality, or comply with U.S. federal government regulations. In the past, most LIMS were highly customized packages residing in mainframe computers or minicomputers. More recently, the proliferation of personal computers and local area networks has resulted in LIMS products which provide more flexible user interfaces on a familiar computer platform. However, the number of possible choices has reinforced the need to assemble a complete functional specification for the LIMS before vendors are contacted.
Laminated Materials, Plastic
Authors: Keeling Ronald J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLaminates are composites made from stacked plies of resin‐treated materials that are most often consolidated under heat and pressure to from a unitary structure. Thermally fused layers of various types of thermoplastic film are also considered to be laminates, but the principal topic of this article is reinforced laminates used for decorative and industrial purposes as defined by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) classifications. The reinforcement material is often paper, and the usual resins are thermosets such as melamines, phenolics, polyesters, and epoxies. Solutions of the resins are used to treat the paper, the solvents are evaporated off, and then the dried plies are collated like a deck of cards to make a structure having useful final properties. The stacked plies are inserted together with caul plates into a flat bed press where heat and pressure are applied to cause the resins to flow to form interlaminar bonds between the plies and eventually to cure into a final thermoset state.After pressing, the laminate edges are trimmed and their backs may be sanded to improve bonding to substrates in later fabrication operations. Laminates may be used for decorative purposes such as countertops or furniture or in industrial applications such as insulator boards or printed circuitry. Laminates may have special fire‐retardant properties or be antistatic for use in computer desks. Being thermoset plastics, laminates are quite inert materials and are safe in many instances for food preparation usage. Direct recycle of scrap is difficult, but regrind is used for fuel, and its use as a filler for molded articles has been suggested. Vol. 14, pp. 1074–1091. 18 refs. to July 1993.