bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Zweiniger-Bargielowska Ina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rationing, austerity, and fair shares occupy a central place in British history during and after the Second World War, but there is no study which focuses on these policies throughout the entire episode from the outbreak of war in 1939 until the termination of rationing and controls in the mid–1950s. The purpose of this book is to explore this topic from a range of perspectives. Chapter 1 examines how rationing and controls were administered and assesses the implications of the policy on consumption and dietary trends. Subsequent chapters analyse the public response to the austerity policy by focusing on popular attitudes, women’s experiences, and the black market. The continuation of austerity after the war became increasingly controversial, and the final chapter discusses the party political debate about post-war austerity and its electoral implications.
Background: Immigration and Settlement
Authors: Marks Lara V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘IMPOVERISHED’ and ‘destitute’ were the words frequently used by contemporaries to describe the East European Jewish immigrants settling in East London in the late nineteenth century. Migrating from areas facing great upheaval and poverty many of these Jews arrived penniless and without any possessions. Between 1895 and 1902 22 per cent of all the Russian, Romanian, and Galician immigrants arriving at the port of London claimed to be penniless. A further 15 per cent had less than 10s. per adult, and the average total was 26s. per adult.1 None the less, despite such poverty, it is a mistake to think of these immigrants as a socially and economically homogeneous group. Each immigrant came with differing levels of skill and economic resources. Some had migrated from towns, others from little villages. Similarly, while some travelled with their family or with friends, others came on their own. Such a variety of backgrounds not only shaped their ordeals on arrival and in subsequent years, but also the future of their children born in East London.
The Health of Jewish Infants and Mothers in East London
Authors: Marks Lara V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the gentle reader desires to know what kind of blood it is that flows in the Chosen People’s veins, he cannot do better than take a gentle stroll through Hatton Garden, Petticoat Lane, or any other London ‘nosery’. I do not hesitate to say that in the course of an hour’s peregrinations he will see more cases of Lupus, trachoma, favus, eczema, and scurvy than he will come across in a week’s wanderings in any quarter of the Metropolis. Such words reveal the fear of many politicians and social campaigners at the turn of the century. They were anxious that the influx of East European Jewish immigrants would bring disease and physically deteriorate the health of the British population.2 This was a view promoted by ardent anti-Semites, such as the conservative Joseph Banister, as well as by social reformers such as the Fabian Socialists. Arriving at a time of grave anxiety over the future of Britain’s economic and military position in the rest of the world, East European immigrants provided a focus for these concerns.
Poor Law Institutions and Maternity Care
Authors: Marks Lara V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Visitors to the infirmaries, especially in the East End, will agree that the conditions in these places are altogether unsuited for Jews. The feeling between the Jew and non-Jew patients is somewhat strained, and the staff generally would rather prefer to dispense with the Jewish element. Here again the language difficulty is the main trouble. The very name ‘Infirmary’ seems to terrify the East End Jew. Such words used by Revd Wolf in 1909, vividly portray the discomfort many Jews experienced in Poor Law institutions. In these institutions Jews not only suffered the stigma of parish relief like everyone else, but also were disadvantaged by their immigrant status and non-Anglican background. This chapter explores what implications this had for Jewish mothers who, unable to seek care from their traditional or communal networks of support or to gain help from other host agencies, were forced to rely on the parish for their maternity care.
Kingdoms on the Periphery of Europe: The Case of Medieval and Early Modern Scandinavia
Authors: Poulsen Bjom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How did the relatively backward areas of Europe narrow the gap, in terms of economic and fiscal development, with the ‘more advanced’ areas? This chapter seeks to explain what might be called the ‘early harmonization’ of the European economy, which was the product of a long period of state formation in Scandinavia. During this process, three kingdoms came into being, namely Denmark, Norway and Sweden (with Finland). Other types of governmental structure formed on the periphery of these kingdoms. The Danish and German social and fiscal systems fused in Schleswig and Holstein, while peasant republics existed in Iceland and Ditmarschen on the west coast of Holstein. This chapter attempts to demonstrate how and why these early states moved towards the European level of fiscal development. The main emphasis will be on the majority of the population in these areas, the peasants, and on the mechanisms by which their economic surplus was transferred to the nascent state structure.
Early Modern Theories of State Finance
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has already been seen that the theoreticians of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance had developed sophisticated theories with regard to the nature of taxation, and that in some measure they had anticipated ‘modem’ debates on the ‘progressive’ or ‘regressive’ aspects of a fiscal system in terms of its economic and social consequences (Chapter 1). This chapter concentrates largely on what was new in the arguments of early modem theoreticians, on new disciplines such as the study of monetary circulation and its impact on the economy; on population growth and its implications for society, the economy and the state; and on the development of credit instruments and their relevance to the long-term growth of state finance. The aim of this chapter therefore is not to rewrite in entirety the history of those parts of political theory which relate to state finance; nor even to select certain particularly influential theorists and cover the entire corpus of their works. Instead, its purpose is to demonstrate the evolution of ideas in as brief a survey as possible so as to provide a context for the discussion which follows. A number of obvious questions present themselves.
Revenues
Authors: Bonney Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Where a programme of research covers such a vast area of study, it is necessary to begin by setting its parameters. It is impossible to study the evolution of the revenue systems of every European state, let alone the evolution of the main types of revenue in each one. Our more modest objective is to describe the evolution of certain types of revenue which we may take to be reasonably representative of their kind within western Europe, and to attempt to discern the relationship between these types of revenue and political and economic developments. In other words, certain types of political, economic and social development were necessary for particular forms of revenue to be adopted by states. As has been seen earlier (Chapter 6.5), at least by the eighteenth century, theoreticians were clear that some types of revenue were better adapted to particular governmental and economic systems.
Legislation, Justice and Political Power in Italian Cities, 1200-1400
Authors: Sbriccoli Mario 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The experience of the communes of central and northern Italy may be considered, in its mature phase, that in which recourse to the juridical instrument as a means of organizing and guaranteeing political life was established with suffi cient clarity, and perhaps thoroughly for the first time. We are at a point at which it is possible to say that a great part of political theory is to be found in legal trea tises concerning institutions and forms of government:1 the relationship between the exercise of political power and legal processes is fairly clear, and it was brought to light some time ago by legal historians.
The Nobility-State Relationship
Authors: Mczak Antoni 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘A monarchy where there is no nobility at all, is ever a pure and absolute tyranny as that of the Turks. For nobility attempers sovereignty, and draws the eyes of the people somewhat aside from the line royal ‘, wrote Francis Bacon. ‘ ‘No nobility no king ‘, or ‘No Bishop, no King, no nobility ‘: these popular epigrams recorded in Bacon ‘s time were among many stressing the indivisibility of ruler and elites in the monarchy. Butifit is true that the nobility balanced the powers in the state, the problem is: What was the role of the state in the life of the noble, and what was the nature of their relationship? ‘
Introduction
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origins of the modern state are to be found in the Middle Ages—this was the conviction of the historians, legal historians, and political scientists who met in Strasbourg in 1987 to launch a research project which was to study and compare the structures and developments leading to the modern state as it appeared c.1800 in the different European countries. Half a millennium of European history would have to be reviewed.
Explanations
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Compared to central Europe, peasant resistance in Scandinavia was modest. Violence was exceptional, and those violent actions which did occur took place at times of national crisis and cannot be explained in isolation from that context. Most of these actions were confined to the century between c.1430 and c.1540. Day-to-day resistance was channelled through a political system based on the principle of co-operation between rural communities and the royal or ecclesiastical authorities. The medieval state was built on the principle of local self-government. Kingship and community were tied together by strong reciprocal bonds. The administration of justice and military defence were communally organized, and as a rule the most outstanding peasants were tied to the Crown as lensmen, members of the royal hird,or simply as persons of high esteem available for public service. Likewise, this local élite was tied to the Church, acting as churchwardens or appointees of the bishops.
Introduction
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historians usually assume without question that the form of government of the civic community in the Middle Ages has something to do with the modern state. In construing the historical relationship of cause and effect, however, most historians use metaphors more than analytical categories. The city as a ‘hothouse of the modern state’ is such an image, borrowed from the vegetal world by a German legal historian,and the French historian Fernand Braudel used the fable of the hare and the tortoise to describe the relationship between city and modern state.According to Braudel’s analogy, the city was faster at first, as was the hare, but c.1500 the tortoise reached the goal first. In any case, neither the medieval nor the modern European state originates directly from cities, as did ancient Athens in the form of the clearly defined polis, and Rome, where Roman citizenship was expanded to include the entire Roman Empire— even though the words of European languages for citizenship in the national state (‘citizen’, citoyen, cittadino, Bürger) are derived from the words for the city inhabitant.
The Holy Roman Empire
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the later Middle Ages, the German-speaking core of the Holy Roman Empire contained an extremely complex set of urban landscapes, which confront the urban historian as products of varieties of city building, from the Celtic and Roman foundations of ancient times to the early medieval coastal trading entrepôts— Henri Pirenne’s world—along the northern seas to the sites established by the great city-founding dynasties of the high Middle Ages, such as the Zähringen, who founded Berne and Freiburg im Breisgau. The great wave of urban foundations in this part of Europe culminated in the second half of the thirteenth century, when three times as many cities were founded as in the entire era before 1250. The wave then broke off abruptly around 1300, although many new very small towns (Minderstädte) appeared during the following 150 years. Then came the ‘urban trough [Städtetal]’—Heinz Stoob’s term—which coincides with the entire early modern era (1450–1800), and during which very few new cities were founded.The urban landscapes of the German-speaking world in 1800, therefore, had been created by 1300; the later Middle Ages witnessed their internal consolidation and the intensification of urban networks; and the early modern era formed an era of relative stasis with respect to the cities and urban life. This broad pattern is responsible for some of the great peculiarities of urban life in the German-speaking world: the lack, as contrasted with the states of Europe’s western tier, of a centre or several centres; the intense development of small urban centres; and a wide variety of urban social complexions.
The Common People and the Process of State Formation: Some Conclusions
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘modern state’ was shaped mainly by two developments: first by the monopolization of political power in the hands of a king or territorial prince in the early modern period, and, secondly, by the renunciation of the legitimacy of monarchic-aristocratic authority in the wake of the French Revolution. The revolutionary act of 1789 was the establishment of the tiers état in the nation as a sovereign power, thus turning the political power hierarchy, which had existed for centuries, upside down. Peasants and burghers, who before had been understood to be ‘subjects’, were politically emancipated, with the result that the monarchy as a form of government disappeared, whereas the state itself continued to hold a monopoly of power. Before, during, and after the French Revolution, not only in France, but throughout Europe, a programme was formulated and politically accomplished in the course of the nineteenth century, which proclaimed equality and freedom to be innate human rights and declared the welfare of its citizens to be the purpose of the state.
A Whig Education, 1779-1805
Authors: Mitchell L G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the first three or four years of her reign, Victoria often found herself ensconced on a sofa in Windsor Castle, listening spellbound to Melbourne’s accounts of his youth. So much had happened between the 1780s and the 1830s, that his tales had the quality of describing a foreign country. It is on these stories that an account of Melbourne’s early life has to be built. Inevitably, they are partial, coloured, and no doubt much elaborated to tease the imagination of his young audience.
Collapse from Within, 1837-1841
Authors: Mitchell L G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The real threat to Melbourne's tenure of office came not from the Left or the Right, from Radicals and Tories, but from within the ranks of those he counted as his supporters. His government had been put together in a fragmentary way: one or two Foxite Whigs, the Grey family interest, and Palmerston as a law unto himself. He kept it together by umpiring in crises between departments, and by making personal appeals to whatever better nature his colleagues had. It was political juggling of a very high order, but it could not go on forever. Issues of any kind brought on new divisions. While the agenda of 1830-4 was continued and polished, there was a chance of minimum agreement, because his friends would be bound by previous decisions. On the other hand, new points of business would be devastating. Melbourne endlessly fought to divert the attention of his colleagues from anything that would demand new responses.
Introduction
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The expression ‘a polite and commercial people’ was used by the distinguished academic, MP, and judge, William Blackstone, in his magisterial Commentaries on the Laws of England, published between 1765 and 1769.1 Blackstone is a fitting source for the title of this volume. His lifetime, 1723 to 1780, coincides with the period which it describes, and his varied career touched many of the themes with which it is concerned. But similar terms were commonplace in the 1760s and 1770s, and suggest something of a consensus about the central characteristics of mid eighteenth-century England. They also correspond well with the images of eighteenth-century life which were transmitted to posterity. Politeness conjures up some familiar features of Georgian society, its civilized if secular outlook, its faith in a measured code of manners, its attachment to elegance and stateliness, its oligarchical politics and aristocratic fashions. Politeness is stamped on the country houses and portraits which for many provide the most vivid introduction to the culture of the eighteenth century. It is to be found in the pages of the standard texts through which modern readers customarily encounter eighteenth-century literature, the Spectator’s journalism, Pope’s poetry, Horace Walpole’s letters, Gibbon’s history, Burke’s rhetoric, Boswell’s Life of Johnson, Johnson’s own Lives of the Poets. Commerce is not less redolent of an era in which the empire, built on trade and extended by arms, expanded beyond the empires of ancient as well as modern times. Moreover, it will forever be associated with the enterprise of an age of extraordinary economic growth, accompanied by the first clear signs of industrialization.
Salvation by Faith
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evangelical revival had its origin in a period when conventional religion was under pressure from fashionable deism. The doctrine of _justification by faith permitted a rebellion against the early eighteenth century’s attachment to ‘natural’, ‘reasonable’ religion. It attracted diverse groups, including parish clergy who accepted the authority of the established Church. Wesley himself was an opponent of those who wished to separate from the Church and also of those who could not accept its Arminianism. None the less he was often seen as a threat to the forces of tradition and order. His appeal to the poor aroused much suspicion of his motives. Neither the Church nor the Dissenting sects could readily match the dynamism of the revivalists. Resistance to Methodism was often violent, reflecting popular hostility as well as genteel disapproval. The Church used its episcopal powers and legal privileges to combat lv1ethodist influence. Clerical dislike of the evangelical model of the priest hood was heightened by Wesley’s reliance on lay preachers and encouragement of pious women. Lady Huntingdon’s Connection came in for similar censure. Uniting the enemies of the evangelical movement was a profound distrust of its emotionalism and ‘enthusiasm’. Polite literature was steeped in the Newtonian view of the world: between the enlightened empiricism of the educated and the primitive superstition of the uneducated there was a widening gulf The popular reception of reforms like the repeal of the Witchcraft Act and the introduction of the Gregorian calendar confirmed the belief of polite society in the barbarity of its inferiors.
Philipon and the Illustrated Press, 1830–1836
Authors: Kerr David S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The vast majority of the political caricatures produced in the early 1830s were drawn for, and appeared in, the illustrated newspapers owned and directed by Charles Philipon. All newspapers develop a collective identity which imposes certain obligations upon their contributors; the ideological and stylistic constraints imposed upon the contributors to Philipon’s newspapers were especially strong. With La Caricature, Philipon invented a new type of satirical newspaper. His interventionist management transformed the illustrated newspaper from a fashionable review decorated with a disparate collection of lithographic imagery into a formidable machine de guerre. The artists and writers who worked for La Caricature and Le Charivari were keenly aware that they were participating in a common endeavour: they worked as a team, borrowing themes and motifs from one another constantly. Philipon’s newspapers posed a challenge to their readerships. To understand their humour fully, readers had to be able to follow the multiple cross-references between successive caricatures and between the caricatures and the newspaper articles. Scholarly monographs which artificially isolate the work of individual artists and treat their prints as if they were autonomous works of art have ignored the conditions under which caricature was produced. An adequate understanding of caricature in the 1830s can only be achieved by examining the mechanics of the illustrated press and by studying the newspapers as a whole rather than the contribution of single artists.
‘A United People’: Charles Knight and the Making of a Picturesque History of England
Authors: Mitchell Rosemary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the 1840s novels of W. H. Ainsworth show, the growth of picturesque historiography fostered an new interest in the history of the everyday lives, customs, and habits of the British people, and the physical remains of the national past. For much of the eighteenth century, these subjects were the preserve of antiquaries and were passed over by most philosophical historians.
The City Magistrates and the Process of Prosecution
Authors: Beattie J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike France, which by the early eighteenth century had a system of police, both national and local, and a particularly well-organized force in Paris under central control and with a finely graded hierarchy of authority, policing in England was entirely local and fragmented.1 In the City of London, many of the activities we would summarize as ‘policing’ were carried out by a variety of officials and by private citizens. These forms of policing were, however, to be extended and increasingly co-ordinated in the eighteenth century, impelled by a search for more effective surveillance of the streets, and more effective prevention and prosecution of criminal offences. Largely as a result of these changing practices, the word ‘police’ came into more common use and took on a variety of shifting meanings over the century.
The geographical element in Irish history
Authors: Andrews J H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
of all geographical boundaries the seacoast is the most easily apprehended. It is the one line that can be trusted to appear on even the oldest and crudest of early maps; and as the antiquity of many insular names suggests, it is the island, among all varieties of region recognised by geographers, that makes the readiest psychological appeal. However closely Ireland resembled the neighbouring countries, acre for acre, it was to be expected that insularity in itself would create an impression of individual character or personality in the mind of any commentator, at any historical period, who knew the country to be enclosed by water.
Iron-age Ireland
Authors: Raftery Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Already in the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries b.c. there is evidence from Greece, Slovakia, and elsewhere that meteoric iron was cold-hammered to form rings and other small items, and it now seems that forged iron was already being produced on a small scale in western Europe soon after the middle of the same millennium. The Hittite kingdom of Asia Minor was an important centre of iron-working from about the fourteenth century b.c. onwards, but seems not to have had a monopoly of industrial production as was once believed. Towards the end of the millennium the knowledge began to spread across the west on a significant scale.