bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Abducens Or Vlth Cranial Nerve
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nucleus of Origin. The abducens (or lateral extraocular) nerve ends in the lateral rectus muscle of the eye and arises in a nucleus that lies in the most dorsal part of the medial or white reticular formation of the medulla, immediately ventral to the ascending limb and genu of the facial nerve. Modern histologists invariably have confirmed this origin, which had been determined earlier by Deiters, Stieda, Krause, Laura, and others. The location and arrangement of neurons giving rise to the abducens nerve are illustrated in Figs. 371 and 375. The cell mass that they form is triangular in small mammals and oval in humans; it is bounded dorsally by the genu of the facial nerve and crossed vestibular pathways, medially by the medial longitudinal fascicle and parts of the medial reticular formation, and laterally by part of the transverse limb of the facial nerve. There is no clear boundary ventrally because neurons of the abducens nucleus intermingle with longitudinal bundles and neurons of the reticular formation in this region. In certain mammals, such as the rabbit and mouse, the ventral tip of the nucleus extends for a short distance into the root fibers of the abducens nerve itself; thus a number of displaced neurons may be observed ventral to the main body of the nucleus. Within the nucleus, tiny bundles of longitudinal fibers are obvious between the cells.
Intrinsic Pathways And Nuclei Of The Medulla
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Central Somatosensory Pathway or Medial Lemniscus. We have dealt repeatedly with the origin and course of the second-order somatosensory pathway. Recall that this fiber system arises in the dorsal column nuclei; decussates with its counterpart from the opposite side of the medulla ventral to the central canal, just rostral to the pyramidal decussation; and then ascends in a region of the medial or white reticular formation between the inferior olives (Fig. 284S and the following figures, especially 286C and 289D). After continuing on through the pons, where it forms a transverse band in ventral parts of the reticular formation, the medial lemniscus finally reaches the thalamus.
Adolescent Health Promotion: Rationale, Goals, and Objectives
Authors: Millstein Susan G , Petersen, Anne C , Nightingale Elena 0. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is health promotion? The term generates different meanings, depending on one’s point of view. Whose health are we promoting? Who is defining the construct of health? What is this individual’s disciplinary perspective? What is the historical context in which the definition emerges? Examining historical changes in how health has been conceptualized provides an illustration of the diversity of views about health. The ancient Chinese viewed health as a state of dynamic balance between interrelated biological, psychosocial, and environmental components. Illness occurred when imbalances existed. These imbalances could be caused by factors such as diet and exercise or by disharmonies in family relations. This “ecological” definition of health and illness was later expressed by Hippocrates, whose views formed the basis for much of Western medical science. With the exception of the Early Middle Ages, the model for medical thinking reflected an ecological perspective that considered the human organism within its social and environmental contexts (Noack, 1987).
The Influence of Economic Factors on Health-Related Behaviors in Adolescents
Authors: Klerman Lorraine V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The health of the poor is generally worse than the health of the nonpoor, regardless of age, but poverty is only one of the many factors that affect health status. Genetic endowment, perinatal conditions, the physical and social environments, and medical care are a few others. Poverty appears to influence health both by increasing the likelihood of these factors causing health problems and by influencing health­ related behaviors. This chapter will not explore all the ways that poverty can impact adolescent health; instead, it will focus on the behaviors of poor adolescents that are likely to compromise their health, such as smoking or using drugs, and on those that are likely to enhance their health, such as using contraceptives or seeking medical care.
A View of Health from the Adolescent’s Perspective
Authors: Millstein Susan G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many authors, including those in this book, have suggested that more attention be paid to the phenomenological aspects of adolescent health and development. Such an approach would examine health from the adolescent’s perspective, exploring the meaning of health to the adolescent, motivations for health-related behaviors, how health communications are interpreted and acted on, and how health behaviors are experienced. This type of research inquiry is customary in disciplines such as anthropology and education but is infrequently employed as a scientific tool in psychology or medicine. There are, however, compelling arguments for extending our research on adolescent health issues to include phenomenological inquiries.
The Psychology of Psychoanalysis: Freud and Little Hans
Authors: Candland Douglas Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychoanalysis gains its insight and formulates its laws regarding behavior by detailed analysis of the individual case rather than by statistical measure of groups. By referring to psychoanalysis as a myth, Ienlarge its importance to human beings, for it is by myths that we con duct our lives. These myths are about the nature of good and evil; about what is appropriate and what is not; about what gives pain and what pleasure; and about the probable outcomes of our actions.
Human and Ape Communication: Washoe koko, and Nim
Authors: Candland Douglas Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Born In West Africa, most probably in September 1965, a female chimpanzee was destined to arrive in Reno, Nevada, on June 21, 1966. There she would learn to use one language of the deaf, American Sign Language (ASL), with the hope that she might communicate to human beings, and that human beings might communicate to her. The idea can be traced to Pepys in the seventeenth century and the first execution of it to Itard in the eighteenth. It may be recalled that Itard and Victor had their first meeting in the Luxembourg Gardens, the Paris park from which the Institute for the Deaf may be seen, a place from which Itard developed a means to communicate with the nonhearing. The notion that the noncommunicating person can be taught was developed further by the work of Samuel Howe with Laura Bridgman and, later, by Lubbock and the dog, Van.
Little Tranquilizing Pills
Authors: Young Louise B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In response to requests for information concerning the design of high-voltage equipment and its environmental impa&lt;2t, power company officials offer opinions and what Rachel Carson called “little tranquilizing pills of half-truth.” “We urgently need an end to these assurances,” she said, “to the sugar coating of unpalatable facts. It is the public that is being asked to assume the risks….
The Book Peddler and Literary Disseminationi
Authors: Zboray Ronald J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prior to the emergence of a reliable national transportation system in the middle of the nineteenth century, book distribution fell largely to itinerant “hawkers and walkers.” These peddlers would set out with a cart and horse, their books sometimes exhibited in a square cabinet in the rear. Moving up and down the roads of early America, they constantly turned over their stock through barter and commonly settled their innkeeper’s bill with books. They are seldom depicted using water transportation, perhaps because its public nature detracts from their image of heroic self-reliance.
The Transportation Revolution and Book Distribution
Authors: Zboray Ronald J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transportation revolution had two stages that affected literary dissemination in distinct ways. As the last chapter showed, the earliest developments in road and water shipment little advanced the national circulation of literature. Books continued to go along many of the same avenues, in a similar tenuous manner (in conformity to the local agrarian rhythm), as they had in the days of the colonial peddlers. But the second stage of internal improvements, dominated by rail, achieved an unprecendented constancy of communications throughout the country. Railroads would particularly encourage the emergence of a modem commission relationship between central publisher and local bookseller.
The Railroad, the Community, and the Book
Authors: Zboray Ronald J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The completion of the northeastern rail network in the 1850s held great significance for the history of the American reading public. As the previous chapter discussed, railroads opened a national mass market for books and assured easy distribution of literature from publishers in New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. In the first of these cities particularly, American book production centralized, largely at the expense of smaller literary centers scattered across America.
Gender and Boundlessness in Reading Patterns
Authors: Zboray Ronald J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fragmentation affected not only antebellum institutions but the state of knowledge as well. The systematizing and over particularity in the culture of the period thus seem to be more or less formal responses to this underlying perception of epistemological chaos. The question, however, remains: How did this boundlessness play upon common readers? Did they individually experience the feeling of fragmentation in the culture? Or did they on their own, despite stochastic institutions, preserve their internal sense of order?
A Deeper Unity: Some Feyerabendian Themes in Neurocomputational Form
Authors: Churchland Paul M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the late sixties, every good materialist expected that epistemological theory would one day make explanatory contact, perhaps even a reductive contact, with a proper theory brain function. Not even the most optimistic of us, however, expected this to happen in less than fifty years, and most would have guessed a great deal longer. And yet the time has arrived. Experimental neuroscience has revealed enough of the brain’s microphysical organization, and mathematical analysis and computer simulation have revealed enough of its functional significance, that we can now address epistemological issues directly. Indeed, we are in a position to reconstruct, in neurocomputational terms, issues in the philosophy of science specifically. This is my aim in what follows. A general accounting of the significance of neural network theory for the philosophy of science has been published elsewhere (Churchland 1989a, 1989b). My aim here is to focus more particularly on five theses central to the philosophy of Paul Feyerabend.
An Overview
Authors: Powell Jeffrey R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Problem Of the millions of species that inhabit the earth, biological researchers tend to concentrate on relatively few organisms that subsequently become “model systems.” The reason is obvious: Research builds on past research. To advance the forefront of knowledge, the system one studies must be known up to that forefront. Obviously not all the millions of species can be so well known, so a few have been chosen for intense “vertical” study. The faith is that what holds for one species holds for all, a mindset captured in the famous (or infamous) dictum, “What is true of E. coli is true of elephants.” While today this naive faith is rarely embraced in a literal sense—given the abundant evidence that the dictum is just plain wrong—the vertical, in-depth approach to understanding biological systems still rests on confidence that what is found for one species applies in some degree to all (or at least many) living systems.
Phylogenetics
Authors: Powell Jeffrey R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The topics covered in this chapter traditionally fall into three disciplines: taxonomy, systematics, and phylogenetics. Taxonomy is the science of accurately naming, defining, and identifying various taxa. Systematics is concerned with arranging the named taxa into a logical hierarchical framework to make sense of the many millions of named taxa. Phylogenetics aims to understand the historical ancestral-descendent relationships of the taxa, both extant and extinct. Clearly the three disciplines are tightly integrated in modern biology, although this has not always been the case. For example, today it is quite widely accepted that systematics should, as far as practical, reflect phylogeny, a proposition of considerable controversy not so long ago. Because this lbook is primarily concerned with evolutionary issues, phylogenetics will be the primary focus here, although we can hardly address these issues without frequent reference to systematic and taxonomic issues as well.
Molecular Evolution
Authors: Powell Jeffrey R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter presented a global view of the evolution of Drosophila genomes, and now we increase our magnification in examination of the genome and deal with changes in specific genes and gene systems. We will be concerned primarily with DNA variation, since protein variation, as revealed by allozyme electrophoresis, was discussed in chapter 2. However, since most studies at the DNA level have involved regions coding for proteins, we will frequently refer to issues relevant to protein evolution. In addition to describing patterns of variation observed in Drosophila, we will also examine what is known of the mechanisms that generate the patterns.
The Characteristics of Children Who Create Imaginary Companions
Authors: Taylor Marjorie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Not all children create imaginary companions. What can be said about the children who do? Is there any truth to the idea that these children are especially bright and creative, but perhaps too shy or socially awkward to develop friendships with real children? What about the Hollywood portrayal of such children as emotionally damaged or lacking a firm grasp of reality? The purpose of this chapter is to describe what the most recent research has revealed about children with imaginary companions. Along the way, I will point out why overly negative stereotypes of these children have been generated and perpetuated.
Why Do Children Create Imaginary Companions?
Authors: Taylor Marjorie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Cat in the Hat by Dr. Seuss begins with two bored children who can’t go outside to play because it is too cold and wet. They are sitting around with nothing to do, when suddenly a tall black cat in a red top hat walks through the door and saves the day by entertaining the children for hours with his peculiarities. Everyone has a great time messing up the house until the grownups return. Scholars of popular culture differ in their interpretations of the title character of this story, but he sounds like an imaginary companion to me. For many children, someone like the Cat in the Hat would be an ideal solution to the problem of being stuck in the house on a rainy day, and it is likely that many imaginary companions have their beginnings in scenarios like the one described in Dr. Seuss’s story. As discussed in Chapter 3, children who create imaginary companions tend to enjoy social interaction.
What Happens to the Imaginary Companions Created in Early Childhood?
Authors: Taylor Marjorie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Children’S friendships with imaginary companions are often in¬ tense, emotional, and absorbing, but they don’t last forever. One day, parents realize that the pretend friend they have been hearing about for months, or even years, is no longer mentioned. A once-cherished stuffed animal ends up in the back of the closet; invisible beings dis¬ appear without a trace. These endings are typically difficult to pin¬ point and can be as perplexing as the initial appearances. When children are asked what happened to their imaginary companions, they usually report that they don’t remember. Curiously, they also express very little sadness or regret. Note that in Peter, Paul, and Mary’s well-known song, it is Puff the Magic Dragon, not Jackie Pa¬ per, who mourns when their relationship is over. In real life most children, like the fictional Jackie, give up imaginary companions without fuss or fanfare. When they are finished with their pretend friends, they move on to something new and often forget about them completely.
Synaptic Plasticity, Neural Architecture, and Forms of Memory
Authors: Morris Richard G M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the relationship between synaptic plasticity and learning, with particular reference to the work of Kandel and his colleagues on Aplysia. After summarizing several general principles that may be derived from this work, I argue that the claim that the neural mechanisms of conditioning involve altering the efficacy of existing synapses does not require that all forms of conditioning elaborate existing reflexes. I argue further that a neural mechanism which detects the conjunction of two events will allow the nervous system to represent this temporal relationship only if the conjunction mechanism is embedded into appropriate circuitry. These arguments are relevant to efforts to understand the relationship between psychological and neurobiological accounts of conditioning, and they offer a new way of thinking about the significance of parallel distributed memory systems.
Time and Memory
Authors: Doty Robert W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While memory preserves times past, a record that will instruct an organism’ s future, time also enters the mnemonic process in many other guises. A critical aspect is how long the mnemonic trace will endure, a time stretching from seconds to a lifetime. Vastly shorter, yet meaningfully measurable to some degree, is the time it takes to retrieve a memory. The time between the occurrence of two successive events is also important. This temporal relation will determine whether, and in what direction, an enduring association will be formed between the events, as in the rules found applicable in forming conditioned reflexes. In terms of expectations from neurophysiology (e.g., Auyeung, May, Goh, & Sastry, 1987; Larson & Lynch, 1986), the direction of this association is paradoxical, for in the formation of a conditioned reflex it is the response to the first occurring event, the conditional stimulus, that becomes altered, whereas the response to the subsequent, unconditional stimulus is stable. I have termed this the “temporal paradox” of conditioning (Doty, 1979). This relation prevails for the usual type of Pavlovian conditioning, even in bees (Menzel, 1983), as well as when assayed with electrical excitation of randomly chosen points in mammalian neocortex (Doty & Giurgea, 1961) or, with entirely different parameters, for establishing long-term potentiation in the hippocampus with stimulus relations similar to those in conditioning (Levy & Steward, 1983). The temporal paradox is thus an underlying principle in the formation of such associations.
Dorothy Richardson.’s Pilgrimage
Authors: Wallace Doris B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dorothy Richardson’s pilgrimage was a long walk back and forth between the self and the earlier selves. Her life and work show how the artist, by creating life, changes it. She wrote about herself, reconstructing her own past and thus her identity. The very fact that no one knew of the autobiographical nature of her novel Pilgrimage gave her more latitude, both for revelation and for blending the lived life with the created one. The, fact, also, that she wrote this very long novel over a 40-year period and lived with the central character herself-all that time strengthened the fusion of the two levels of reality. Un tangling these two skeins to make plain their relationship as part of the creative process is one of the aims of this chapter.
The Superstitious Person
Authors: Vyse Stuart A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In May 1988, Donald Regan, former White House Chief of Staff to President Ronald Reagan, released his memoirs to a flood of publicity. His insider’s view of the presidency revealed that, over a seven-year period, First Lady Nancy Reagan had employed an astrologer to advise her on a wide range of topics, many of which bore directly on the affairs of state. According to Regan, ‘‘Virtually every major move and decision the Reagans made during my time as White House Chief of Staff was cleared in advance with a woman in San Francisco who drew up horoscopes to make certain that the planets were in a favorable alignment for the enterprise.’’ He claimed that Mrs. Reagan ‘‘insisted on being consulted on the timing of every Presidential appearance and action so that she could consult her Friend in San Francisco about the astrological factor.’’ Suggestions that certain days were ‘‘bad’’ for the President led to the cancellation of speeches and press conferences and, on occasion, the curtailment of all travel for days at a time. Regan never discussed the issue with the President, so he was uncertain whether Mr. Reagan knew the extent to which his administration had been controlled by the alignment of the stars.
Language and Mind: Methods
Authors: Bartsch Karen , Wellman Henry M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our basic assumption is that children’s talk about the mind can reveal their conceptions of the mind. Specifically, we assume that at least some uses of terms such as think, know, and want can reveal the speaker’s understanding of beliefs and desires, core concepts in an everyday theory of mind. An example might be Mark’s statement above that “he thought there were haunted things in his house.” Of course, charting children’s concepts by examining their everyday language is not simple. On the one hand, children (and adults) may use terms like think, know, or want without any conception of, or reference to, beliefs and desires. For example, they might learn to say “Know what?” to gain a listener’s attention without any deeper understanding of notions such as knowledge or knowing. Or they might say “I don’t know” in a ritualistic way, as perhaps Ross does above. On the other hand, children might understand something of beliefs and desires but never talk about them. Or they might talk about such mental states but never use conventional terms like think and want. In these ways, among others, children’s language might underestimate or overestimate their understanding.
Talk about Desires
Authors: Bartsch Karen , Wellman Henry M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We examined children’s use of the terms want, wish, hope, care, and afraid in order to chart their early understanding of mental states of desire.’ Together, desires and beliefs constitute the core constructs in our everyday mentalism. Desires, broadly conceived, include a person’s goals and motives; they point to what the person wants, or is attracted to. Beliefs cognitively frame these desires. Desires provide the dispositional bedrock of our everyday psychology; we construe human actions as essentially desire-driven, intentional actions motivated by the actor’s desires.