bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chemical reactions
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the chemical potentials are a function of the concentration, the pressure and the temperature, condition (4.2) constitutes a relation between these different variables. In general, this equation has several possible solutions. Nevertheless, if all the reacting species are ideal gases there is only one solution (Zeldovich 1938). The equilibrium condition takes a more useful form as long as the chemical species are ideal gases or the solutes are at low concentrations (a weak solution).
Evolution of growth forms
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thus, the motion of the curve is only described by the normal velocity of these points. The tangential velocity appears as a degree of freedom corresponding to the invariance of the gauge or the parametrisation. The choice of parameterisation depends on the problem in question. The simplest case is clearly V = 0 , but certain constraints may impose other possibilities.
Stochastic growth forms
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Consider a square lattice of points in the centre of which we have placed a particle at rest. From an arbitrary point at the edge of the lattice we introduce a second par- ticle which leaps randomly from one site to a neighbouring one in an equiprobable way. As soon as the particle reaches a site next to the central particle, it is attached and thus nucleates an aggregate of two particles. We repeat the same process several times; as soon as the new particle reaches a site next to the aggregate it is attached in the same way.
Polymers, Elastomers and Rubber Elasticity
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ability to identify the structure of macromolecules is a relatively recent occurrence in history, in spite of our reliance on such materials since ancient times. Some sig-nificant events in this advance have been the development of a rubber industry based on coagulated rubber latex, procedures for vulcanising rubber with sulphur and heat, discovered by Goodyear in 1844, the development of cellulose nitrate and xanthane and the development of gutta percha. One of the founders of polymer chemistry was Hermann Staudinger, who first proposed the now familiar 'chain' idea for these large molecules (Staudinger, 1920). The DuPont Company began synthesising polyesthers and polyarnides in the 1930s which provided an impetus for polymer industry in the United States (Carothers, 1929). Parallel efforts, largely stimulated by the two World Wars, were focussed on phenolformaldehyde resins (Baekeland, 1909) and at Farben-fabriken Bayer (Weil, 1926; Hofmann, 1936).
Cholesteric Elastomers
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Liquids of rod-like units, which possess a certain handedness in their shape or po-larisability, spontaneously form cholesterics, or twisted nematic phases. The breaking of symmetry such that an object differs from its mirror-image (such as right and left hands) is called the chirality. Chiral, nematogenic polymers also form cholesteric phases. Crosslinked networks made from such polymers accordingly have a spontaneously twisted director distribution; they are non-centrosymmetric in their symmetry and possess corresponding physical properties, such as the piezoelectricity. Their director distribution being helical with characteristic length scale in the optical range, they display their chirality in their brilliant colours.
Measuring change
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The measurement of change has been a topic of considerable confusion in the medical literature. As clinicians and researchers, we view that the ultimate goal of most treatment medical, surgical, psychosocial, or educational—is to induce change in the patient’s or student’s status. It would appear to follow that the measurement of change in patients’ health state or in a student’s level of understanding is an appropriate goal of research. A number of recent articles (Guyatt et al. 1987; MacKenzie et al. 1986) have advocated this position, both on the grounds that the measurement of change in patient’s condition is the goal of clinical care and should be addressed by research methods, and on the methodological basis that instruments which are responsive to changes in health status are more sensitive measures of the effects of clinical interventions than those which simply assess health status after an intervention.
Fantastic voyages
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some people think that nanotechnology will transform the world. Nanotechnology, to these people, is a new technology which is not with us yet, but whose arrival within the next fifty years is absolutely inevitable. Once the technology is mastered, we will learn to make tiny machines that will be able to assemble anything, atom by atom, from any kind of raw material. The consequences, they believe, will be transforming. Material things of any kind will become virtually free, as well as being immeasurably superior in all respects to anything we have available to us now. These tiny machines will be able to repair our bodies from the inside, cell by celł The threat of disease will be eliminated, and the process of ageing will be only a historical memory. In this world, energy will be dean and abundant and the environment will have been repaired to a pristine state. Space travel wi11 be cheap and easy, and death will be abolished.
The Brownian universe: physics at the nanoscale
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People who write about the history of ideas know that great works of literature can change the way people think. But popular films, trashy genre novels, and cheesy television shows can change the intellectual climate just as much as high art can. I am sure that the way people think about nanotechnology now has been profoundly changed by the 1966 science fiction film ‘Fantastic voyage’, later made into a novel by Isaac Asimov and spun out into a Saturday morning television series. The heroes of the film have to save the life of a scientist who knows vital secrets, but who lies in a coma following an attack by the bad guys. He has a blood clot on his brain, inoperable unless the brain surgeon and his team are shrunk to the size of microbes and injected into the scientist’s bloodstream in a similarly sunken submarine. After a series of misadventures, our plucky team manage to destroy the blood clot with (shrunken) laser guns and swim to safety, after their submarine is consumed by a white blood cell.
Machines and mechanisms
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘I sell here, sir, what all the world desires to have—power.’ These are the reported words of Matthew Boulton, the early industrialist, who collaborated with James Watt to manufacture a steam engine of hugely improved design. It was this device, which, perhaps more than any other, made possible the industrial revolution. Before then, if you wanted more work done than human muscle power could manage, then you could use animals like horses or oxen, you could use a windmill, or you could use water power. Animals need to rest, with wind power you are at the mercy of the weather, and the use of water power on an industrial scale relies on a suitable combination of climate and topography. England’s Peak District, where I am writing these words, combines a hilly landscape with a quite stupendous propensity for rain, and, as a consequence, was industrialised very early on the basis of its water power, but the inhabitants of drier and flatter places were less lucky. So the development of power sources which had much greater capacity than animals, which were reliable, and which did not depend on a favourable location, provided both power and wealth to their inventors. At the beginning of the industrial revolution, the ultimate power source was the energy won by burning coal. The energy in coal is chemical energy; this chemical energy is converted into heat energy by burning it in air, and the heat energy is converted to mechanical energy by boiling water to drive a steam engine.
Our nanotechnological future
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps the most radical visions of the nanotechnology evangelists will not come to pass. Nonetheless, nanotechnology, in the form of machines structured on the nanoscale that do interesting and useful things, will certainly play an increasingly large part in our lives over the next half-century. How revolutionary the impact of these new technologies will be is difficult to say, and I am conscious that scientists have a very bad track record in prediction. Scientists almost always greatly overestimate how much can be done over a ten-year time period, largely because most scientists are quite unaware of the scale of effort and ingenuity required to take a viable idea from the laboratory and turn it into an engineering and economic success. But equally, scientists typically underestimate what can be done in fifty years. Working scientists are often cautious, incremental people, and their time horizons are as often determined by the typical duration of a grant from a funding body-three years-as by some Jong-term goal or vision.
Detecting Agents
Authors: Johnson Susan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper reviews a recent set of behavioural studies that examine the scope and nature of the representational system underlying theory-of-mind development. Studies with typically developing infants, adults and children with autism all converge on the claim that there is a specialized input system that uses not only morphological cues, but also behavioural cues to categorize novel objects as agents. Evidence is reviewed in which 12-to 15-month-old infants treat certain non-human objects as if they have perceptual/attentional abilities, communicative abilities and goal-directed behaviour.
Facial expressions, their communicatory functions and neuro-cognitive substrates
Authors: Blair R J R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human emotional expressions serve a crucial communicatory role allowing the rapid transmission of valence information from one individual to another. This paper will review the literature on the neural mechanisms necessary for this communication: both the mechanisms involved in the production of emotional expressions and those involved in the interpretation of the emotional expressions of others. Finally, reference to the neuro-psychiatric disorders of autism, psychopathy and acquired sociopathy will be made. In these conditions, the appropriate processing of emotional expressions is impaired. In autism, it is argued that the basic response to emotional expressions remains intact but that there is impaired ability to represent the referent of the individual displaying the emotion.
Dressing the mind Properly for the Game
Authors: Sally David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Game theory as a theoretical and empirical approach to interaction has spread from economics to psychology, political science, sociology and biology. Numerous social interactions—foraging, talking, trusting, coordinating, competing—can be formally represented in a game with specific rules and strategies. These same interactions seem to rely on an interweaving of mental selves, but an effective strategy need not depend on explicit strategizing and higher mental capabilities, as less sentient creatures or even lines of software can play similar games. Human players are distinct because we are less consistent and our choices respond to elements of the setting that appear to be strategically insignificant.
Economic evaluation using patient-level data
Authors: Drummond Michael E , Sculpher Mark J , Torrance George W , O’Brien Bernie J , Stoddart Greg L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we review some general principles concerning economic evaluation using patient-level data, which usually means the collection of data alongside randomized controlled trials. Many of the issues covered are also pertinent, however, when an observational study is used as a vehicle for economic evaluation ( for example, analysis of patient records or charts). The intent of the chapter is to examine general issues that are common to all the techniques of economic evaluation. The discussion of specific issues, such as the collection and analysis of utility or willingness-to-pay data, can be found in earlier chapters.
Fundamental Concepts And Equations
Authors: Novotný A , Straškraba I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is introductory. In the first section, we introduce the basic mathematical notions and notation used throughout the whole book. The physical background to the governing equations of gas dynamics is presented in Section 1.2. In Section 1.3 we list an important number of advanced mathematical concepts and results needed in the sequel. Finally, in the annexed Section 1.4, a survey of basic general concepts from functional analysis is briefly recalled.
Setting the scene
Authors: Jean Yves 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Transition metal complexes are molecules containing one or more metallic centres (Ti, Fe, Ni, etc.) bound to a certain number of ‘ligands’. These latter may be atoms (H, O, Cl, etc.), molecular fragments (CR3, NR2, SH, etc.), or molecules that are themselves stable in the absence of any interaction with a metal (NR3, PR3, R2C=CR2), benzene, etc.). In this book, we shall study the electronic structure of these complexes by molecular orbital (MO) theory. We shall seek to establish the shape, the energetic ordering, and the electronic occupation of the MO; starting from this detailed description of the electronic structure, we shall consider problems of geometry and reactivity.
Applications
Authors: Jean Yves 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A detailed knowledge of the electronic structure of transition metal complexes, and in particular of the shape and electronic occupation of the d-block orbitals, enables several problems related to their structure and reactivity to be studied. The examples discussed in this chapter illustrate a method for analysing these problems that usually relies on a study of orbital interactions between the ligand and the metal centre, and/or on a correlation diagram that links the orbitals of two different structures. The answers that one may hope to obtain from this type of analysis are qualitativerather than quantitative. For example, one can often determine which of two possible conformations of a complex is the more stable, and why, without being able to deduce the energy difference between them. Once the electronic factors that favour a particular structure are established, it may well also be possible to predict the type of changes that will follow from, for example, a change in the nature of the ligands. A qualitative interpretation of the structure and reactivity of complexes is exceedingly interesting for chemists, even if studies of a different type, that depend on accurate calculations, are necessary to provide theoretical data that may usefully be compared, quantitatively, with experimental results.
The General Theory of Relativity
Authors: Hawley John F , Holcomb Katherine A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Einstein’s conviction that the universe obeyed the relativity principle led him not only to revise Newton’s mathematical equations of mechanics, but even more drastically, to discard the concept of absolute space and time. It proved unnecessary to alter Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism, since they already obeyed the correct invariance law; it was their lack of Galilean invariance that had motivated Einstein in the first place. Special relativity thus brought mechanics and electromagnetics into full consistency.
Alexander matrices and Alexander polynomials
Authors: Gilbert N D , Porter T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the method that we have used to calculate the Alexander polynomial of a knot only uses the theory of determinants, the trouble with it is to know why it works. It is easy to check that the result is invariant under the Reidemeister moves but it would be nice to link it in with other invariants. ‘It would be nice’ sounds a weak reason, but often when one can do something by a different method, it is possible to see how to ‘squeeze’ the method a bit to get out more detailed information. What we will do is give a second method of calculating Alexander polynomials, this time using presentations of groups. The payoffs are (i) methods that can be applied to other group presentations which we will use later in Chapter 11; (ii) intermediate stages and related constructions that show more of the fine detail of the situation even in the case of knots; and (iii) new invariants that have important geometric significance although in this book we will not be able to do justice to this aspect.
From Chern-Simons to WZW via Path Integrals
Authors: Fine Dana S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Direct analysis of the Chern-Simons path integral reduces quantum expectations of unknotted Wilson lines in Chern-Simons theory on S3 with group G to n-point functions in the WZW model of maps from S2 to G. The reduction hinges on the characterization of 𝒜/ 𝒢n, the space of connections modulo those gauge transformations which are the identity at a point n, as itself a principal fiber bundle with affine-linear fiber.
Low Frequency Expansions
Authors: Dassios George , Kleinman Ralph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The motivation for considering low frequency expansions is to replace the general scattering problems described in Chapter I by sequences of simpler problems. If one is interested only in scattering at extremely low frequencies, then, in the spirit of Rayleigh (1897a), it is possible to replace the scattering problem by a potential problem. But, if one wants to improve the approximation, then additional terms in a power series expansion may be found (Stevenson 1953a,b) by solving boundary value or transmission problems for the Laplace equation in acoustics and electromagnetics and for the elastostatic equation in elasticity, each of which is simpler than the original scattering problem. In this chapter we describe this process in detail for each of the problems discussed in Chapter 1.
Spin Interactions in Solids
Authors: Karlsson Erik b. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To understand the nuclear spin interactions in solids we must start with the free atoms. In a free atom the interaction between orbital and spin motion of the electron produces the fine structure, which gives rise to the J = L + S multiplets. The hyperfine structure is the further splitting, caused by the coupling of J to the nuclear spin I, where the levels are described by their total angular momentum F =J +I.
Splittings of the F levels due to the magnetic interaction between I and J are smaller than the fine-structure splittings by a factor governed by the ratio of the nuclear magneton μN to the Bohr magneton μB, where μN/ μB =mc/mp ≈1/2000. From the ‘nuclear’ point of view this interaction is conveniently visualized as a motion of the nuclear magnetic moment and its spin I in the field produced by the atomic electrons.
Superconductivity
Authors: Karlsson Erik b. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Magnetism and superconductivity are strongly interrelated; magnetic fields can destroy superconductivity, and superconductivity can prevent a magnetic field from entering into a conductor. Therefore it is evident that nuclear techniques, which measure magnetic fields and their fluctuations at local points of the probe nuclei, can provide detailed information on the superconducting state in various materials. NMR was applied at an early stage to study the Knight shift and nuclear spin relaxation around the superconducting transition temperature T c in conventional superconductors. The existence of the so-called Hebel-Slichter anomaly (Hebel and Stichter 1959) in the relaxation rate below T c was one of the strongest proofs of the validity of Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory for these materials since it demonstrated the nature of the current carriers as quasi-particles. Of the nuclear spin methods discussed here, there has been only marginal use of DPAC for conventional superconductors and the same seems to be true for investigations of the high T c superconductors (HTSCs), whereas μSR has emerged as one of the major spectroscopies in this field.
The classical logic
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter contains background material. It collects and organizes the fundamentals of standard logic in a way which will make it easier to compare and distinguish between the classical and many-valued logics. The classical propositional calculus (CPC) is a basic system of the two-valued logic. The standard line of approach here is a theory of the following sentence connectives taken from everyday reasoning.
Lukasiewicz logics
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The generalization of his three-valued construction (see Chapter 2) led Lukasiewicz in 1922 to the family of many-valued matrices, both finite and infinite valued (countable and of the power of continuum); see Lukasiewicz (1961 p.135). The propositional calculi of Lukasiewicz and the related algebras have undoubtedly an important place in the history of logical many-valuedness. An account of the work of Lukasiewicz and his followers is given below.
Post logics
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Post (1920, 1921) is the author of a class of finite-valued, functionally complete propositional logics. In his constructions Post was inspired by the well-known formalization of the classical logic presented in Principia Mathematica (Whitehead and Russell (1910)) and by the truth-table method of verification of logical laws. In this chapter we survey the work of Post and his followers. Given the history of the subject, special attention will be put on recent algebraic interpretations and formalizations of Post logics which, as one may see in 14.3 and 14.4, are oriented almost entirely towards applications.
Standard properties of many-valued constructions
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The interpretation principle of propositional languages stated in 3.1 is a generalization of the truth-functionality principle constituting the base of matrix description of the classical propositional logic. The link in question is somehow manifested by the fact that most of the many-valued constructions known are ‘conservative’ extensions of the classical logic matrices. Rosser and Turquette (1952) determined the conditions that make finitely valued propositional logics resemble more the CPC, and hence simplified the problem of axiomatization and also the question of their extension to predicate logics (compare 11.3).
Fuzzy sets and Zadeh logic
Authors: Malinowski Grzegorz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As is generally acknowledged, the possibility of applying the apparatus of traditional formal logic to the analysis of everyday reasoning is very limited. However, recent developments in logical studies have considerably extended it. Our aim in the present chapter is to account for one of the most interesting but simultaneously most controversial conceptions inspired by logical many-valuedness: the fuzzy set theory and logics based on it.