bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Oxo Process
Authors: Billig Ernst , Bryant David R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

The oxo process, also known as hydroformylation, is the reaction of carbon monoxide and hydrogen with an olefinic substrate to form isomeric aldehydes. Oxo aldehyde products range from C
3
to C
15
and are used as intermediates to alcohols, acids, polyols, and esters by the appropriate reduction, oxidation, or condensation chemistry.

Hydroformylation occurs most frequently in the liquid phase in the presence of a soluble metal catalyst, most frequently a member of the Co–Rh–Ir triad. The first commercial oxo catalyst was cobalt hydrocarbonyl, which has been largely replaced for both ethylene and propylene hydroformylation by more reactive, more selective ligand‐modified rhodium catalysts. Various metal catalysts and ligands, required reaction conditions, and mechanisms are discussed. The most widely employed commercial ligand is triphenylphosphine. Propylene is by far the dominant olefinic substrate subject to the oxo process. Butanals are the largest‐volume product. In the United States these aldehydes are converted principally to butanols; in Europe and Japan,
n
‐butanal is converted chiefly into the plasticizer alcohol, 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol. Other oxo process products include both linear and branched higher alcohols, propionaldehyde, and valeraldehyde. Vol. 17, pp. 902–919, 36 refs. to April 1995.
Paint and Finish Removers
Authors: White David L. , Bardole Jay A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Finish removers play an important role in the recycling of durable goods. Finishes are removed from antiques in the process of restoration. Original equipment manufacturers remove coatings from rejected parts. Lead‐based paints are removed for the safety of those living in lead exposure environments. Finishes are removed from woods, metals, and plastics. No single type of remover can be effective in all of the 107 different applications in which removers are used. Finish removers include a major active component. The formulator can also choose from co‐solvents, diluents, evaporation retardants, emulsifiers, activators, thickeners, and corrosion inhibitors to make the remover best suited for any application. Considerations important when selecting a finish remover include how well it works, how quickly it works, and the cost per amount of work done. It is also important to consider the safety of the person using the remover and the impact the finish removal process will have on the environment. Manufacturing is best done in closed kettles for the protection of the worker and the environment.
Pantothenic Acid
Authors: Rawalpally Thimma R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract(R)‐Pantothenic acid is a water soluble B‐complex vitamin. Pantothenic acid is an essential vitamin needed to synthesize coenzyme A and the acyl carrier protein (ACP) portion of fatty acid synthetase. Both animals and microbes convert pantothenic acid into metabolically active coenzyme A by a number of enzymatic reactions. The pathway for this enzyme conversion has been elucidated and has been reviewed extensively. Only (R)‐pantothenic acid is biologically active. Although well‐defined pantothenic acid deficiency in humans has not been reported, deprivation of pantothenic acid results in metabolic impairments, including reduced lipid synthesis and energy production. (R)‐Pantothenic acid is extremely hygroscopic. Consequently, the major commercial form of pantothenic acid is calcium‐(R)‐pantothenate. The key step in the present commercial chemical synthesis of (R)‐pantothenic acid involves resolution of racemic pantolactone. Recent industrial synthetic efforts have been directed towards developing a method for enantioselective synthesis of (R)‐pantolactone either by chemical or microbial reduction of ketopantolactone. To date, the microbial reduction of ketopantolactone is a promising approach, but commercialization of this process has yet to be realized. Calcium‐(R)‐pantothenate is used in food and feed enrichment. Panthenol and pantyl ether are industrially important derivatives of pantothenic acid and are used in hair care products.
Recycling, Paper
Authors: Borchardt John K. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Recycling of used paper products is increasing rapidly, particularly in North America. Recovered paper that is recycled includes old newspapers and magazines, old corrugated containers, and printing and writing paper. Recycled paper products include newsprint, magazine paper, corrugated cartons, other boxes, and printing and writing paper.
Paper recycling mills are a series of unit operations designed to disintegrate paper to form pulp, detach ink and other contaminants such as adhesives from cellulose fibers, and separate the dispersed contaminants from the cellulose fibers. The fibers are optionally bleached and then made back into paper. The type of paper, types of contaminants present, and recycled paper product determine the choice of unit operations and their sequence. In particular, different ink types such as toner inks affect mill design and the choice of process chemicals. Both chemical and mechanical phenomena promote contaminant detachment from cellulose fibers and separation of the dispersed contaminant particles from pulp. Important chemicals used in paper recycling include agents to provide high pH, dispersants, surfactants, chelants, and bleaching agents. More paper recycling mills are clarifying and reusing process water. As a result, water clarification has become an important part of mill operations.
Papermaking Additives
Authors: Dulany Margaret A. , Batten George L. , Peck Michael C. , Farley Charles E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIn papermaking, chemical additives can be characterized either as process additives or as functional additives. Process additives are materials that improve the operation of the paper machine and include retention, formation, and drainage aids; defoamers; wet‐web strength additives; pitch control agents; effluent treatment aids; slimicides and biocides; and creping aids. Functional additives are materials that enhance or alter specific properties of the paper product, and include sizing agents; dry‐strength and wet‐strength additives; fillers; pigments; and synthetic fibers. Process additives are primarily added internally, ie, at the wet end of the paper machine, while the sheet is being formed. Functional additives may be added either internally or onto the surface of the sheet, ie, at the dry end of the paper machine. The chemistry, mechanisms, and interactions of these various additives with other additives and with the papermaking fibers are discussed. Methods that test the effectiveness of the chemical additives are mentioned. Attention is also given to the effect that recycled fibers have on the use of papermaking additives, and to other environmental concerns.
Patents, Literature
Authors: Simmons Edlyn S. , Kaback Stuart M. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Patents form a significant component of the literature of technology. The intensification of effort on research and development in the aftermath of World War II produced a sharp increase in the number of patents being produced and led to the increased publication of unexamined patent applications, which compounded the growth of this literature. Among the outgrowths of this situation have been a modification of patent documents, especially their front pages, to make them more informative, the introduction of a wide range of new services that provide alerting and retrospective search capabilities for patents, the rapid development of computer storage and searching techniques for patent information, and the rapid development of archival and delivery systems for patent documents themselves. The contributions of many governmental, scientific, and commercial organizations to these developments are surveyed in this article.
Antimicrobial Peptides
Authors: Mor Amram 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe twentieth century antibiotic armamentarium included a number of peptide‐based compounds, mostly produced by spore‐forming microorganisms. Characteristically, these peptide antibiotics are synthesized by multienzymatic complexes and display complicated molecular structures. Peptide antibiotics, however, were seldom the drugs of choice for systemic therapy because of toxicities. At the dawn of the twenty‐first century, the use of peptide‐based antibiotics is envisioned anew with more optimism, due to the discovery of a novel class of ribosome derived antimicrobial peptides that display promising properties. Animal‐derived antimicrobial peptides are believed to kill target cells by disrupting their membrane(s). Compared with conventional antibiotics this peptide‐based antimicrobial system represents several advantages: (1) antimicrobial peptides seem to escape most known drug resistance mechanisms; (2) they have a large spectrum of potential targets with rapid cidal activity toward bacteria, protozoa, yeast, fungi, enveloped viruses, and cancer cells; (3) they portray a highly modulable antimicrobial system since peptide chemistry allows a multitude of simple, rapid and cost‐effective chemical modifications. In addition to their membrane disrupting activity, antimicrobial peptides are reportedly able to—directly as well as indirectly ‐ modulate responses of the innate immune system. Such antimicrobial system is attracting increasing interest for a variety of potential biomedical applications, including its use in therapeutics and as a food preservative. A few antimicrobial peptides are presently being evaluated in various stages of clinical trials, mostly for topical applications. In the future, however, the deplorable situation of ever increasing multidrug resistance and the lack of available alternatives may reveal strong enough arguments to stimulate the development of strategies that will allow the safe systemic administration of such peptides and put to advantage their incontestable advantageous properties.
Perchloric Acid and Perchlorates
Authors: Mendiratta Sudhir K. , Dotson Ronald L. , Brooker Robert T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPerchlorates are chlorine oxyanions in which the chlorine is present in its highest oxidation state (\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{+}}7}$\end{document}). The most outstanding property of the perchlorates, which are more stable than other chlorine oxyanions, is their oxidizing ability. Most cations form perchlorate compounds. Commercially, one of the most important compounds of this class is ammonium perchlorate, used as an oxidizer in propellant formulations for solid rocket fuel. Perchlorates are also used in explosives and pyrotechnics, in dry batteries, and in oxygen‐generation systems. Commercial perchlorates are prepared by electrochemical oxidation. Perchloric acid, commercially available as a 72% aqueous solution, is one of the strongest of the mineral acids. Properties, manufacturing, and uses of these compounds are described.
Fluorine‐Containing Polymers, Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids
Authors: Savu Patricia 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPerfluoroalkanesulfonic acids and their derivatives are of commercial significance because of their unusual acid strength, chemical stability, and the surface activity of the higher members of the series (eight carbons and larger). The best method of preparation is via the perfluorinated sulfonyl fluorides derived from electrochemical fluorination, although other methods including direct fluorination with fluorine gas are known. The first member of the series, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, is one of the strongest acids known. Alkyl esters of trifluoromethanesulfonic acid are among the best leaving groups known and are commonly used in that capacity in displacement reactions. Lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate solutions are very conductive and can find application as electrolytes in primary lithium batteries and as antistats for films.Derivatives of the longer‐chain perfluoroalkanesulfonic acids have a number of unique surface‐active properties and have formed a basis for a number of commercial products. The longer‐chain acids and their salts, particularly C8F17SO3H and higher, are surface‐active agents in aqueous media. They reduce the surface tension of water to levels not possible with hydrocarbon surfactants. Preparation of difunctional perfluoroalkanesulfonates and their derivatives is discussed, including fluorosulfonylacetyl fluoride. Fluorosulfonyldifluoracetyl fluoride is an important industrial intermediate used in the production of Du Pont's Nafion ion‐exchange membranes and in many other applications.
Perfumes
Authors: Schreiber William L. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This article surveys the essential aspects of perfume creation and the fragrance industry, providing brief notes on the history of fragrance use and a list of odor descriptors. It discusses the creation of and illustrates with examples both fine and functional fragrances, summarizing in particular the performance requirements of the latter group in a number of applications. It describes different perfume ingredients, natural as well as synthetic, and offers information about their origin, fragrance characteristics, and uses. In addition, it examines the chemical structures and odors of some typical aroma chemicals by functional groups.
The article also covers such topics on fragrance research as the analysis of natural products, synthesis of aroma chemicals, structure–odor considerations, process research and development, and psychological effects of fragrance. Finally, it reviews the manufacture and quality control of perfumes and ingredients, and supplies an overview of the economic, safety, environmental, and regulatory aspects of the industry.
Feeds and Feed Additives, Pet Foods
Authors: Corbin James 
Published: July 2004

AbstractStudies have provided extensive information about the nutritional requirements of dogs and cats. Commercial pet food is available in canned, semimoist, and dry forms; dry food may be either pelleted or extruded. Pet food formulations contain as many as 50 nutrient (amino acids, fats, fibers, etc) and nonnutrient (antioxidants, flavor enhancers, etc) additives. The Association of American Feed Control Officials has developed nutrient profiles for dog and cat foods.
Feedstocks, Petrochemicals
Authors: Aubrey Darryl C. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Petrochemicals are derived from natural gas or petroleum and can be broadly classified as olefins or aromatics. The choice of feedstock for a given operator is primarily an economic issue, but may be constrained by technical considerations or local availability of indigenous hydrocarbons. Feedstock economics are influenced by fuels products markets and the seasonal effects in fuels prices. Olefins are produced primarily by the thermal cracking of hydrocarbon feedstocks such as ethane, propane, naphtha, or gas oil. In the United States the most important olefin feedstocks are ethane and propane, which are recovered from natural gas, whereas in most of the rest of the world naphthas are the dominant feedstocks. Lesser quantities of olefins, primarily propylene, are produced from refinery off‐gases. Aromatics are recovered from refinery catalytic reformer operations and pyrolysis gasoline from olefin plants based on naphtha or gas oil feedstock. In the United States, reformer operations are the most important source; in the rest of the world, pyrolysis gasoline is the dominant feedstock. Although alternative feedstocks have been the subject of much research, only minimal usage can be expected over the coming decades.
Controlled Release Technology, Pharmaceutical
Authors: Edgren David , Leeper Harold , Nichols Kirstin , Wright Jeremy 
Published: July 2004

AbstractControlled release dosage forms enhance the safety, efficacy, reliability, and convenience of drug therapy by controlling the rate and duration of drug release to control drug actions and to reduce the frequency of drug administration, thus encouraging patient compliance. Controlled release pharmaceuticals are designed to release drugsin vivoaccording to a predictable, therapeutically rational programmed rate to achieve the optimal serum‐drug concentration in the minimal time. The most familiar of these systems are taken orally, but a growing number are designed for less conventional body sites such as the rectum, skin, oral cavity, nose, lungs, eyes, uterus, and vagina. The energy sources for controlled drug delivery are typically processes or properties such as biodegradation, diffusion (from matrix and membrane systems), elasticity, electricity, osmosis, pH sensitivity, and vapor pressure. Increasingly important applications of controlled release technology include patterned, targeted, triggered, and closed‐loop delivery.
Phosphazenes
Authors: Books Jeffrey T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPolyphosphazene elastomers are phenolic or fluoroalkoxy substituted polymers with a backbone of alternating phosphorus and nitrogen atoms. They have a number of advantages due to the flexibility of the backbone and its inertness. Fluoroalkoxyphosphazenes have found utility in applications requiring low temperature flexibility, oil resistance, and stability to 150–175C. Damping properties have also proven useful. Aryloxyphosphazenes are nonflammable without containing halogens. This has led to applications requiring extreme fire safety. This article discusses these properties and the resulting uses of these materials. Background information is provided on the synthesis routes to these elastomers and related compounds. Toxicology is briefly mentioned, and limited references are also provided to other application areas of phosphazene derivatives.
Phosgene
Authors: Dunlap Kenneth L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhosgene is a colorless, low boiling liquid which is manufactured by reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine over activated carbon. It is a very toxic substance, and extensive safety procedures and equipment have been developed to help ensure the safe handling of phosgene. Phosgene is an important and widely used intermediate for chemical synthesis. Its primary use is for the manufacture of polyisocyanates for the polyurethane industry. Other uses are the production of polycarbonate, chloroformates, agrochemicals, and intermediates for pharmaceuticals and dyestuffs.
Phosphorus Compounds
Authors: Fee Darrell C. , Gard David R. , Yang Chen‐Hsyong 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhosphorus compounds exhibit an enormous variety of chemical and physical properties as a result of the wide range in the oxidative states and coordination numbers for the phosphorus atom. The intermediate electronegativity of phosphorus also plays a role. Phosphorus oxides, halides, sulfides, hydrides (phosphines), nitrogen compounds, and metal phosphides, as well as organophosphorus compounds, are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the commercially important phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorus pentasulfide, phosphorus(V) oxide, and phosphine. Structure and nomenclature of phosphorus compounds and their organic derivatives are presented. Properties of the P–O, P–S, P–H, P–C, and P–X (\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{X}}={\rm{halogen}}}$\end{document}) bonds are given. The manufacture of the commercial phosphorus compounds are outlined. Phosphorus compounds are found in or used as intermediates for the manufacture of oil additives, heat‐transfer and hydraulic fluids, water‐treatment chemicals, catalysts, herbicides, flame retardants, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, semiconductors, and surfactants. Intermediates in the preparation of organophosphorus derivatives are reviewed.
Phosphine and Its Derivatives
Authors: Rickelton William A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhosphine, PH3, was discovered over 200 years ago but the first, large‐scale production of this compound and its derivatives did not begin until the mid‐ to late 1970s. The delay was due largely to the pyrophoric and highly toxic nature of phosphine which requires specialized technology for safe handling. Nevertheless, two viable manufacturing processes were eventually invented, patented (in 1961 and 1962), and later commercialized.This article describes these processes and compares their advantages and disadvantages. However, more emphasis is given to the growing number of applications for this relatively new and versatile class of specialty chemicals. Phosphine itself is used both as a dopant in semiconductors and as a fumigant for grain silos. The former requires high purity or electronic‐grade phosphine, whereas in the latter case, less pure phosphine is employed as a 2% mixture with carbon dioxide. The derivatives of phosphine, such as alkylphosphinic acids, phosphine oxides, and phosphonium salts find utility as textile flame retardants, mining chemicals, solvent extraction reagents, biocides, phase‐transfer catalysts, and uv photoinitiators. The chemistry involved in the synthesis of these compounds is discussed in addition to the applications.
Flame Retardants, Phosphorus
Authors: Weil Edward D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOne of the principal classes of flame retardants for plastics and textiles is that of phosphorus, phosphorus‐nitrogen, and phosphorus‐halogen compounds. These flame retardants are also used for wood and paper. The mechanisms of action, which may be in the condensed or vapor phase or in both, are presented. The interactions with other flame retardants are discussed.Commercial phosphorus‐based flame retardants include some inorganic compounds as well as both additive and reactive organic phosphorus systems. These materials range from simple salts to oligomeric compounds and encompass both liquids and solids. Some commercial products are pure compounds. Others are mixtures. The various compounds, corresponding structures, and specific uses are given. The toxicity of these products is discussed.
Photodetectors
Authors: Wadsworth Mark 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhotodetectors, based on photon absorption or thermal emission, are made from semiconductor materials that are very sensitive in the spectral range from ultraviolet to far infrared. Detector figures of merit such as responsivity, noise, noise equivalent power and detectivity, and ideal performance and cooling requirements are given. Modes of operation include charge‐coupled device, photovoltaic diode, photoconductor, and bolometer. Most semiconductor detectors operate as photon detectors where the minimum photon energy detected is defined by a discrete activation energy of the semiconductor. However micromachined bolometers are in development for thermal imaging and chemical spectroscopy. Materials and detector types are discussed.Detector material preparation technologies are presented for intrinsic detectors where the photon absorption coefficient is high, and for the low absorption coefficient detectors such as impurity‐doped Ge or Si. Fabrication technology making possible large photodetector focal planes that detect photons and perform signal processing are integrated structures either in monolithic form or in hybrid form. The monolithic arrays range up to 106detectors. The hybrid focal planes, mostly for infrared detection, contain up to 105. Photodetector arrays have been developed for imaging across the spectrum and are used in CCD cameras, chemical spectroscopy, missile seekers, and night vision equipment.