bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Justification of Terror
Authors: Bosworth A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Early in 325 Alexander embarked on one of the most savage campaigns of repression recorded in our sources. It was directed against the Malli (Malavas), an independent people of the southern Punjab. Comparatively short (little more than a week) in duration, it was horrendously violent in execution, and the Malli suffered enormously. After the campaign Arrian refers to them as a remnant, ‘those of the Malli who survived’, and from the narrative it is clear that whole communities came close to extermination. The ferocity of the fighting has always raised eyebrows. For the humanitarian Tarn the campaign was ‘unique in its dreadful record of mere slaughter’, and he had an explanation ready for the aberration: the culprits were the Macedonian troops, who were reluctant to fight and responded by giving no quarter. This raises interesting and important questions. How unique was the Malli campaign? To what extent were the troops unwilling? Why was it necessary to fight in the first place? Tarn’s observations have the merit of focusing precisely on the issue of repression. Much of Arria’s narrative in Books 4-6 is a veritable chronicle of slaughter, punctuated by siege narratives and the mass killing which was the depressing concomitant of capture by storm. It must necessarily have had an effect upon the army, but whether it produced a reluctance to fight is highly debat able. Alexander’s own response also deserves examination. Why did he launch such an atrocious and apparently unnecessary campaign, and why did he harry the civilian population with such uncompro mising ruthlessness?
Writing, Reading, and Democracy
Authors: Hedrick Charles W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no practice so characteristic of the ancient Athenian democracy as writing. The Athenians of the fifth and fourth centuries BC documented their political habits, activities, and accomplishments almost obsessively. Lists of magistrates, accounts of expenses, resumes of decisions, and many other kinds of political texts were recorded. These texts were written in a variety of media, including perishable materials such as wood and papyrus, as well as on more enduring fabrics, such as ceramic, stone, or metal. Most notably, certain texts were erected in the public space of the city, where all could see them. The number of fifth- and fourth-century Athenian inscriptions which have been preserved to modem times is unparalleled by any other classical Greek state: the Athenian production of public writing differs from others’ by orders of magnitude.
Two New Attic Inscriptions
Authors: Matthaiou Angelos P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this paper, I present two new inscriptionsx which, I believe, touch upon old ·scholarly problems. The architect Dr Manolis Korres prpduced the drawings. (Figs. rn.r-4) of the two inscribed monuments. His contribution to the understanding of the form of the monuments was decisive. Credit for the reconstruction of Kim.on’s monument must go to his long experience and unique knowledge of ancient Greek architecture. Rectangular base of Pentelic marble. Until I 984 it lay in a stone-heap at the north wing of the Propylaea on the Acropolis. Today, it stands in front of the SE comer of the E Porch of the Propylaea by the statue-base of Athena Hygieia.
Europe and Democracy
Authors: Ruschenbusch Eberhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Democracy is that form of government in which all public authority emanates from the demos. The primary meaning of demos is the people, and thus the meaning of ‘democracy’ is ‘rule of the people’. However, as the great majority of the people do not come under the category of propertied persons, democracy can also mean ‘rule of the poor’. Then, the demos is accused· of avarice and arbitrary licence by its political opponents. According to their point of view, democracy becomes the ‘rule of the mob’.
Accounts and Accountability in Classical Athens
Authors: Davies John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper is, I hope, appropriate both to salute David Lewis and to exploit afresh the endless riches and (it seems) unfathomable complexities of democratic Athens. It has two focuses, each of them a defining characteristic of that society and of its polity. By ‘accountability’ I mean the intricate and overlapping procedures, summed up in the words euthuna/euthunest11ai and Iogon didonai, by which classical Athens attempted to ensure that those holding any kind of public position were effectively accountable to the statutory bodies of the community for all acts performed by them in that public capacity, especially but not only acts involving the administration of public monies. How, in a phrase, did they prevent embezzlement and maladministration? The ‘accounts’ of my title therefore have an obvious denotation, viz. the numerous series of public documents from fifth- and fourth-century Athens which come under that generic heading-the Tribute Quota lists, the records of the Treasurers of the sacred monies of Athene and of the other gods, the navy lists, the manumission lists, the poletai lists, etc., etc. As we all know, such documents reveal aspects of the public (and sometimes the private) life of Athens in stupefying detail, and ought therefore to help us to understand how accountability worked in practice.
The Rhetoric of Reciprocity in Classical Athens
Authors: Millett Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Towards the middle of the fourth century Be, the professional speechwriter lsaios composed a law court speech that has been pre served in its published form as On the Estate of Niko stratos (IV). It was written on behalf of two brothers, Hagnon and Hagnotheos, who were laying joint claim to the estate of Nikostratos son of T’hrasymakhos: a mercenary soldier who had died away from Athens, leaving a substantial fortune of two talents. Competition in Athens to inherit the estate was apparently keen, with at least seven rival claimants (7-10). The brothers based their claim on considerations of kinship, being first cousins of the deceased. Their opponent in court was one Khariadcs, himself a soldier of fortune, who claimed that ikostratos, before his death, had drawn up a will adopting him as son and heir. The speech composed by Isaios was actually delivered on behalf of the two brothers by an unnamed person, who identifies himself as a close friend of the family (1).
Reciprocity and Friendship
Authors: Konstan David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Friendship is a relationship that is presumed to involve reciprocity. As an elective association, friendship seems to be predicated on the voluntary exchange of benefits, under written by feelings that are understood to be mutual. while expectations of fair return may sustain an informal ethical code of friendship, acts of friendship are not perceived as obligatory or contractual, and are normal1y outside the jurisdiction of the state, both modern and ancient.
Marcellinus and Illyricum
Authors: Croke Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Cassiodorus (Inst. r.17. 2), Marcellinus was an Illyrian (Ilfyricianus) and this information must be considered accurate. After all, Cassiodorus was familiar with the full corpus of Marcel linus’ work; more importantly, he was in close contact with the Latin-speaking community of Constantinople amongst whom the chronicle found its first readers. Nor is it impossible that in Con stantinople in the late 54os/ early 550s Cassiodorus had actually met Marcellinus, or people who had known him (if the chronicler was now deceased). Yet, even without Cassiodorus’ statement we would be compelled to think Marcellinus an Illyrian simply because he has so much to say about Illyricum in the chronicle; and what he does say is generally of a precise and relatively full nature, suggesting knowledge of local personalities, geography and affairs. Henceforward, the task is to set out the Illyrian back ground and context of the chronicle; first, by defining exactly what area Marcellinus and Cassiodorus understood to be encom-passed by ‘Illyricum’, and then by amplifying and explaining the information in the chronicle in order to discover what Marcel linus’ native region meant to him. His Illyrian background and identity governed the selection of material for his chronicle, shaped the story he told, and reflected his own personal perspective on events in that region.
The Chronicle’s Afterlife
Authors: Croke Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How quickly after 518, and then after 534, the chronicle of Marcellinus gained popularity and in what circles cannot be determined. It may have attracted the attention of the chronicler and former Ostrogothic courtier Cassiodorus in the 530s although he may only have come across it for the first time in the late 54os/early 550s when he was himself in Constantinople, seeking safety from the continuing war in his native Italy. It was at precisely this time that the chronicle was also being used by Jordanes in his brief history of the world, and especially of the Roman empire, to his own day.Jordanes wrote his Romana, together with a history of the Goths based on that of Cassiodorus, at Constantinople in 550-r.1 It is possible that Jordanes was in Constantinople as early as the 530s when Marcellinus was still alive, and he may even have met him. Certainly their works have some essential features in common. In the Romana]ordanes made considerable use of the chronicle of Marcellinus although he never cites it by name.’ A few years later another writer took Marcellinus’ chronicle as his starting point Gust as Marcellinus had taken Jerome) and continued it to the early 550s. Jordanes may have known this Continuator of Marcellinus too. At any rate, he appears to have used one of the Continuator’s main sources of information. As we have seen (Chapter 7), the work of the Continuator only survives in an incomplete form so it is not possible to tell precisely where it ended. Cassiodorus may also have known this Continuator, although he gives the impression that there were many such chronicles being compiled at the time without identifying any particular one (Inst. r. 17).
Conclusion: Chronicles and Christian Culture
Authors: Croke Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like all late antique chronicles, that of Marcellinus was written within a particular social and intellectual context. This study has attempted to define and explicate the different elements which constitute that context: the author’s own background and position in life, his native territory of Illyricum, the city and community of Constantinople in which he lived and worked, the nature of his chronicle as typical of its literary genre, the expectations of author and audience, and the way it has been transmitted to the present. Rather than the traditional understanding of the chronicle as being a product of western Latin aristocratic circles in Constan tinople,1 it has emerged that Marcellinus’ work is really a Byzantine chronicle – in Latin. As a continuation of Jerome, the format of Marcellinus’ chronicle is more akin to Latin chronicles such as that of Prosper. Yet its content, identity, and emphasis have closer affinities with eastern works such as the chronicle of John Malalas. That is, the city whose inhabitants Marcellinus calls the ‘Byzantii’’ (and of whom he was one himself) forms a pivotal focus of the chronicle. The world beyond the city of the Byzantines is described and interpreted from the reference point of the imperial capital. The chronicles of Marcellinus and John Malalas are contemporary and complementary, not mutually exclusive. Both authors were at some time part of the imperial administration, both used official records and public notices, and both subsequently updated their chronicles. There are certainly contrasts between them, not least Malalas’ more extensive narrative, but they possess an identifiable common format and model in the chronicle of Eusebius. Many at Constantinople could, and presumably did, read both chronicles. Indeed, Marcellinus and Malalas could read each other’s works and perhaps did so.
The Integrity of the Analysis
Authors: Meikle Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nicomachean Ethics, 5. 5 and Politics, 1 are usually held to be hodgepodges of insights and prejudices, some showing economic precocity, others economic backwardness, social hauteur, and political reaction. Taken together, they are generally thought to lack any serious overall intellectual cohesion. This view is shared by schools of thought which agree on very little else. It is held by those, like Finley, who think Aristotle did no economic thinking at all, and by Barker and his many followers, who think Aristotle did primitive neo-classical economics. The incoherence attributed to Aristotle is entirely a product of misconstruction and oversight. There is a tight organization across both of Aristotle’s discussions which brings them into a theoretical unity whose fundamental principle is the analysis of use value and exchange value, and the metaphysical gulf he opens up between them. The positions he adopts on wealth, exchange, and interest, are arrived at by consistently applying that principle, and the same is true, though in a more devious way, of his accounts of money and trade.
Nature and Commensurability
Authors: Meikle Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is difficult to imagine that the economic view of the world, when it came to be formed, could in the end have found an Aristotelian foundation, or even an expression that would have been consistent with the Aristotelian view of the world. Applying Aristotelian metaphysics to the analysis of the chief economic notions use value, exchange value, wealth, money, and exchange does not seem capable of yielding any very more favourable judgements on the worth of commercial values and behaviour than those Aristotle himself arrived at.
Summary of the Eastern Campaigns
Authors: Fraser P M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not my purpose in this brief chapter to do more than indicate, on the basis of Arrian’s narrative of Alexander’s campaigns, where Alexander is recorded as having founded major settlements, or actual cities, with a brief note also of the circumstances in which this occurred. This introduction will, it is hoped, help the reader to follow the problems that arise in identifying the foundations there after.
Classics Transformed
Authors: Stray Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first book to give a general account of the transformation of classics in English schools and universities from being the amateur knowledge of the Victorian gentleman to that of the professional scholar, from an elite social marker to a marginalized academic subject. The challenges to the authority of classics in 19th-century England are analysed, as is the wide range of ideological responses by its practitioners. The impact of university reform on the content and organization of classical knowledge is described in detail, with special reference to Cambridge. Chapters are devoted to the effects of state intervention, social snobbery and democracy on the provision of classics in schools, and the dissensions within the bodies set up to defend it. The narrative is carried through to the abolition of Compulsory Latin in 1960 and the absence of classics from the National Curriculum in 1988.
Introduction
Authors: Stray Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the National Curriculum promulgated in England and Wales in 1988, no reference was made to classics. Nothing shows more clearly just how marginalized a subject has become which once lay at the heart of English high culture. How are the mighty fallen! But why did they take so long to fall? Might we not have expected an elitist subject centred on the learning of dead languages to have been discarded after the industrial revolution, the emergence of parliamentary democracy, and the triumph of the vernacular? On the contrary, the continuing role of classics as a means to the maintenance of social identities and the exclusion of outsiders for long underpinned its existence as a source of cultural authority. My title refers to the change which took place between 1830 and 1960 in the form this authority took: the high-cultural claims of Victorian Hellenism gave way in the twentieth century to a lower-key disciplinary formation whose symbolic centre of gravity was Latin rather than Greek. The decisive moment in this process was symbolically marked by the abolition of the compulsory Greek requirement by Oxford and Cambridge after the First World War.
The Classical System
Authors: Stray Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Early nineteenth-century England witnessed both the consolidation of the power of the bourgeoisie, and the remarkable recovery of authority of classics, which had earlier been subject to mounting criticism. This was no coincidence. As Armstrong puts it, we find ‘a sudden infatuation with classical authors at a point in history when strong group interests appear to be at stake’. Friedrich Paulsen made the connection explicitly in his study of German education: Introduction of Greek as the obligatory subject in the schools was carried out at the same time as the bourgeoisie entered society ... In the nineteenth century, the dukes and princes also had to learn Greek in order not to fall behind in education. These ... are the essential factors which led to the surprising change in the nature of education and the constitution of the schools.
Discipline, Specialism, and Hierarchy: The Realm of Latin, 1920—1960
Authors: Stray Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before 1920 the pervasive and embedded authority of Latin had been overshadowed by the cultural glories of Hellenism. After 1920, how ever, it emerged in its own right as a symbolic exemplar of disciplinary authority in the tripartite system of secondary schooling. This chapter considers both the way this authority was institutionalized, and the wider social and cultural contexts of curriculum content and organization.
The Significance of Imagines
Authors: Flower Harriet I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHY investigate Roman ancestor masks (imagines maiorum)? Or, to put it in a different way, why is the study of imagines of general interest to the student of Roman society and customs? An answer can be found in two ancient texts which reveal the role and significance of imagines in widely differing historical contexts. This chapter offers a reading of Sallust’s version (Jug. 85 = T66) of the speech that Marius delivered as consul in Io 7 BC, and of the senate’s decree condemning Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso in AD 20. Both sources provide explicit and complex evidence about ancestor masks. While showing a glimpse of the situation on two particularly dramatic occasions, these texts also have wide-reaching implications for everyday practices in politics, oratory, and the law. The two passages were written about 60 years apart, and shed light on both Republic and Principate. The information gleaned about the imagines shows two sides of the same coin. Sallust indicates what the imagines meant for a novus consul at his moment of triumph over the traditional office-holding families: the senate’s decree reveals their import for a distinguished nobilis, close to the family of the emperor, at his moment of ruin.
Ancestors and Inscriptions: Elogia and Tituli
Authors: Flower Harriet I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
AFTER the delivery of the funeral oration in the Forum the family followed the body to the grave outside the city for the burial and its accompanying rites. Traditional regulations quoted by Cicero confirm that in the earlier republican period graves seem to have been family plots, in use over a period of some time (Leg. 2. 22. 55). This is supported by the literary and archaeological testimony for early family burial areas both inside the walls and then spreading along the main roads from the city gates. Such family burial sites were placed to attract public attention and to serve as advertisements for the family’s rank, and perhaps even their politics. This chapter is concerned with the nature of family traditions of memory as preserved in tombs, notably the tomb of the Scipios. Grave inscriptions associated with tombs contained notices of the deceased’s career and of his position within the family group. Such inscriptions provide vital evidence for the basic information about each family member which was considered worthy of record for posterity.
Ancestors at Home: Imagines in the Atrium
Authors: Flower Harriet I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
MOST modern treatments of the imagines concentrate on their role in the funeral procession. This is seen as their raison d’etre and hence as their main function. In addition, however, the imagines had more common uses in the everyday life of the home. There is ample testimony in our ancient sources that the imagines were often thought of principally as part of a display in the atrium. For this reason it makes perfect sense for a love poet, who is contrasting what he has to offer with the allurements of a rival of ‘noble’ birth, to allude to the imagines in the atrium rather than at a funeral.3 This chapter will explore the most frequent contact with the imagines, whether for the office-holder or the ordinary Roman citizen, which was in the atrium of the Roman aristocratic house. The changing uses of this room will be examined since it was here that the imagines were set up and decorated, sometimes as part of extensive displays of ancestral images in various media.
Introduction
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the 1970s some attention has been paid to the history and sociology of bastardy. The importance and interest of the subject is well summed up by Jenny Teichman: The legitimate/illegitimate distinction is situated at a multi-dimensional interface of human institutions and natural facts about human beings. These institutions and natural facts are: sex-reproduction-birth control; kinship-lineage-identity and names; inheritance-property-law; legalitymorality-religion. The interest of the distinction consists precisely in the fact that it is situated at this interface.
The Surveillance of Legitimacy (I): The Process of Legitimation
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Treatments of the organization of bastardy in classical Athens tend, reasonably enough, to be written from a legal or legalistic perspective. Such an approach tends to obscure the important fact that the recognition of an Athenian’s legitimacy was in practice not a simple, unitary event that occurred at a defined and definitive legal moment, but a process that began before birth and continued up to and even beyond the age of majority. In this section we will review in order the key stages in this process of recognition (the Greek term is poiēsis), presentation, and legitimation in a (wouldbe) citizen’s life that led to full phratry and deme membership.
Common Bastardy
Authors: Ogden Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The usual Greek word for ‘bastard’, nothos, appears in our Spartan evidence only once (other than in royal contexts); it has been interestingly suggested that it may not be a Doric word. The single usage is in a passage referring to a campaign in 380: ‘Many were accompanying him [Agesipolis]: fine volunteers from the perioeci [i.e. free non-citizens dwelling around the city of Sparta], aliens from the so-called ‘reared boys’ (trophimoi), and nothoi of the Spartiates, very fine looking, and not inexperienced in the fine things in the city’ (Xenophon Hellenica 5. 3. 9).