bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mannheim, Germany
Authors: Heiden Wolfram an der , Krumm Bertram , Müller Sabine , Schäfer Marianne , Schwerd Bettina , Weber Iris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Mannheim Field Research Center is located in the province of Baden-Württemberg in the midWestern part of Germany. The catchment area of the study comprises Mannheim, an industrial city at the confluence of the Rhine and Neckar Rivers, the city of Heidelberg, a tourism center some 20 km from Mannheim, and the Rhine-Neckar district with a total population of about 935,000 inhabitants. Located in Mannheim are the most important industrial harbor of the province and an important railroad junction on the north/south route. The region is characterized by a massive conglomeration of industries—metal working, engine building, ship building, chemical and oil refining—as well as scattered agricultural areas cultivating mainly tobacco, hops, fruit, and vegetables.
Beijing, China
Authors: Chen Changhui , Shen Yucun 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Epidemiological surveys of mental disorders carried out by Chinese psychiatrists in the 1950s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s indicate that schizophrenia has the highest prevalence rate of all major mental disorders (Chen and Xu, 1995) including all psychoses, drug and alcohol dependencies, personality disorders, and mental retardation. Furthermore, over time, there seems to be an increasing trend in the schizophrenia prevalence rate from 0.77 to 1.13 per 1000 in the 1950s to 0.92 to 4.60 per 1000 in the 1970s, and from 5.69 per 1000 in 1982 to 6.55 per 1000 in 1993 (Chen, Zhang, and Shen, 1986a; Chen and Xu, 1995). This disorder thus merits top priority for researchers. In the late 1950s, a door-to-door investigation of major mental disorders done by psychiatrists in various cities found a total prevalence rate for mental disorders of 1.27 to 2.82 per 1000 (Chen and Xu, 1995). These data were then used by the Health Administration as the basis of a national development plan for psychiatric institutions, professional training, and education programs.
A Brief History Of Placebos
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As far as we know, the first official use of the term ‘‘placebo’’ in a medical context occurred in a medical dictionary published in 1785, which defined a placebo therapy as something ‘‘calculated to amuse for a time.’’ Similarly, an 1811 definition characterized a placebo as something ‘‘given more to please than to benefit the patient.’’ Indeed, the Latin word placebo is commonly translated as ‘‘to please.’’ On the other hand, Patrick Wall, a well-known pain expert, argues that the medical use of this term may derive from the Latin version of Psalm 116:9, ‘‘Placebo Domino in regione vivorum,’’ which in translation means ‘‘I will walk before the Lord in the land of the living.’’ Wall hypothesizes that ‘‘placebo’’ later became a derogatory term to describe the work of priests and friars who were constantly badgering the populace for money to sing vespers for the dead—a speculation buttressed in the seventeenth century by Francis Bacon, a giant in the history of science, who used the term ironically: ‘‘instead of giving Free Counsel sing him song of placebo.’’ While there is anecdotal evidence that some ancient physicians recognized the uniquely beneficial effects of a positive, authoritative presentation of a treatment regimen, we know for sure that nineteenthand twentieth-century physicians increasingly became aware of a surprising phenomenon.
Impediments That Prevent Poorly Trained Scientists From Making Valid Inferences
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even if ordinary people (such as Sarah) and the physicians who treat them (such as Dr. Smith) have major impediments to overcome in order to figure out what does and doesn’t work, it’s ultimately not up to them to evaluate issues scientifically. Ordinary people and clinicians didn’t come up with the theory of evolution or discover that a specific type of bread mold can cure syphilis. That sort of work—to determine the cause of things as well as what is good for us—is what we have scientists for, isn’t it? It is, but if they are not very, very careful, even our best-trained scientists are capable of being tricked by exactly the same phenomena that confounded Sarah’s and Dr. Smith’s little experiments. And unfortunately, in a discipline such as CAM, which is well outside mainstream scientific inquiry, most of its researchers historically have not been that well trained. Allow me to illustrate some of the implications of this circumstance via the further adventures of Dr. Smith.
Judging The Credibility And Plausibility Of Scientific Evidence
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I think everyone is aware that there is a major distinction between what is considered acceptable scientific evidence and what is considered to be appropriate legal, political, or religious evidence. I think, too, that most people understand that there are also major distinctions between what is considered to be acceptable evidence among the various scientific disciplines. Some sciences are primarily observational in nature, some are primarily experimental, and many are both.
Some Personal Research Involving Acupuncture
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of the various impediments to interpreting the results of randomized, controlled trials of complementary and alternative medical therapies, the most problematic involves the difficulties involved in constructing credible placebo controls. In this chapter I will illustrate the importance of this issue via some research in which I was personally involved during my tenure with the University of Maryland’s NIH-funded Complementary Medicine Program. I believe that describing this firsthand experience is crucial as a point of reference for the remainder of the book, in which I will primarily discuss placebo and CAM research conducted by other investigators. There is always a leap of faith taken when reviewing the work of others. For one thing, it is necessary to assume that what they report about their investigations is exactly what was done in the actual trials. In addition, one has to assume that they have duly reported any serious problems arising during the course of a trial, even though for too many researchers the difficulty of doing so is akin to a camel traversing the eye of a needle—a problem that is compounded by the fact that a surprisingly large number of principal investigators are not integrally involved with what goes on during their trials but rely on other people to run the studies for them.
How We Know That The Placebo Effect Exists
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is time to begin the process of weighing and evaluating evidence because of one simple fact: people often do feel better after they have received a complementary and alternative therapy. This, in turn, requires us to choose between the two most popular rival hypotheses, beliefs, explanations, or opinions (take your pick) advanced for explaining this strange fact: (1) CAM recipients feel better because of some biochemical, energetic, magical, or unknown component of the therapies themselves, or (2) CAM recipients feel better because of the placebo effect.
A Biochemical Explanation For The Placebo Effect
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far I have succeeded in proving the obvious: there is such a thing as a placebo effect. Unfortunately, the answers to some other questions are not quite as obvious. For example: Is there any evidence regarding what the underlying psychological mechanism is that triggers the placebo effect? We already know that expectations play a role, but what psychological phenomenon can explain how a mere expectation can be strong enough to trigger something as dramatic as the placebo effects we’ve seen, say, in the thoracic surgery study? Pavlov’s work has given us a powerful hint in this regard, but just because dogs are our best friends doesn’t mean that we can accept their drooling as direct evidence for a placebo effect for pain relief in humans.
How CAM Therapies Are Hypothesized To Work
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We’ve now answered three of our four original questions by establishing that (1) there is credible research supporting the existence of a placebo effect for pain, (2) there are plausible biochemical reasons we should believe this research, and (3) there is no credible research to support the existence of any CAM therapeutic effect over and above what can be attributed to the placebo effect. So this brings us to our final task, which is to determine if there is some plausible biochemical reason for us to assume that there should be such an effect. Remember, scientists can be wrong, and even the most well-designed placebo-controlled RCTs can sometimes produce false negative results for therapies that in fact do work.
Tying Up A Few Loose Ends
Authors: Bausell R Barker 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While our primary mission has been accomplished, I believe we need to place our results into a larger context. Specifically, given the evidence that CAM therapies are no more effective than placebos: Are there any other modern precedents for so many scientists in an entire area of endeavor to be wrong? If so, do these incidents possess anything in common? Could the public’s access to scientific information be improved to prevent so many people from being misled by marginal scientific findings? Ignoring everything said to this point, what courses of action are available to people who do simply want to find something that provides them symptomatic relief and who couldn’t care less why it does so? Earlier I artificially categorized inferential impediments into those affecting ordinary people, therapists, and scientists. While I did this in an attempt to make these rather abstract concepts a bit more concrete, ultimately we are all ordinary people and these factors conspire to help us all make fools of ourselves, scientists and nonscientists alike. So what I would like to do now is to examine a few relatively recent examples of science ‘‘gone wrong’’ to see if there are any commonalities with CAM research.
The New Medicine: An Introduction
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A new medicine is on the horizon. It is as radically different from modern medicine as modern medicine is from medicine men and faith healers. Pre-modern thinking did not understand scientific notions of cause and effect. It believed in the power of evil spirits, magical forces, and bewitching. It had no understanding of scientific evidence. Modern medicine is nothing if not scientific. At its best it refuses to tolerate, without scientific testing, folk beliefs about causes and cures. It rejects “old wives’ tales,” deeply held but unproven beliefs about the powers of all manner of strange potions, procedures, and prophecies. Although these more primitive understandings of medicine survive, they come from a paradigm entirely different from the one for the medicine we call modern or scientific.
The Puzzling Case of the Broken Arm
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book rests on the claim that every medical decision requires value judgments that cannot be based on science. It would not be surprising if this claim were greeted with some healthy skepticism. Almost anyone would grant that some medical decisions are heavily shaped by religious and other values. Abortion, euthanasia, and even organ transplants raise profound moral and philosophical questions about the meaning and value of life. No doctor, however good a practitioner, can decide whether an abortion is “medically indicated” because the decision is always an evaluative one. Even in the increasingly rare case of a woman’s life being jeopardized by a pregnancy, science alone cannot tell whether the abortion should occur.
Societal Interests and Duties to Others
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This brings us to the third and final reason why physicians in the twentyfirst century will have to stop trying to benefit patients. Almost every plausible ethical system other than the Hippocratic one acknowledges that legitimate societal interests impinge on the patient-physician relation. We are not as far along in recognizing this third problem, but most scholars in medical ethics by now understand that there are times when the patient’s interest must be sacrificed for the good of society or to fulfill duties to others.
The New, Limited, Twenty-First-Century Role for Physicians as Patient Assistants
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous three chapters have provided a three-pronged analysis for why physicians must stop trying to benefit their patients. First, they cannot know what will benefit patients because reasonable patients have interests beyond the health. All rational people will make marginal sacrifices of their medical well-being in order to pursue other dimensions of a good life. Even within the medical sphere, there is no such thing as a single medical good. Saving lives, curing disease, relieving suffering, and promoting continued health are all worth pursuing, but striving for one will sometimes come at the expense of one of the other components of medical well-being. There is no definitively correct way to trade off one aspect of medical well-being for another. The right balance will depend on individual, subjective preferences, and physicians cannot know what the right balance is for their patients without asking them.
“Treatments of Choice”; and “Medical Necessity”;: Who Is Fooling Whom?
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Closely related to the idea of a treatment being “medically indicated”; are the concepts of “treatment of choice”; and “medical necessity.”; If “medical indications”; is a term that bootlegs value judgments, talking about “treatment of choice”; and “medical necessity”; is a major moonshining industry. The two expressions are closely related. “Treatment of choice”; is the simpler, so let’s attack there first.
Universal but Varied Health Insurance: Only Separate Is Equal
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the Clinton version of a universal health insurance plan collapsed in the political chaos of 1994, many Americans remain committed to some version of universal health coverage. Although new interest in health insurance seems to be emerging, and no viable proposal for universal health insurance has surfaced in America since those days, I will in this chapter use the Clinton plan as an example. Whether that coverage be a health service, such as Britain’s, or an insurance coverage, such as Canada’s or Germany’s, the imperative to bring the United States up to the minimally decent standard of the rest of the developed world is strong.
Randomized Human Experimentation: The Modern Dilemma
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Research medicine is another area that must undergo fundamental change in the era of the new medicine. In the modern era, medicine came to be dominated by what came to be called the “gold standard”; of medical science, the randomized clinical trial. Because medical decisions were believed to be based on medical science, it seemed to stand to reason that good science could tell physicians which treatments were “medically indicated”; or “treatments of choice.”; We have seen in chapters 8 and 9, however, that these notions are no longer meaningful in a world in which all medical choices involve value judgments. Now we need to see what the ethics of medical research is like in the new world of postmodern medicine.
Outcomes Research and How Values Sneak into Finding of Fact
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even if clinicians and patients may rationally reject recommendations in practice guidelines and treatment protocols because they reject values incorporated into them, still many seem to believe that clinicians and patients ought to accept at least the fact finding in technology assessments. As we saw in the last chapter, many technology assessments are not so ambitious as to strive to make treatment recommendations. They claim only to be finding and reporting the relevant medical facts. If they could do that job, then the facts found in outcomes research could provide the data for the medical portion of the minor premise in the treatment syllogism. Outcomes research could provide the medical facts on which patients, clinicians, and public policy makers could impose their externally derived evaluations.
The Consensus of Medical Experts and Why It Is Wrong So Often
Authors: Veatch Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past two decades consensus formation among experts in the medical enterprise has had a controversial history. In the earliest, most naive stage, the belief was virtually universal that experts in clinical medicine could, by consensus, determine what were the correct clinical interventions for various conditions. Although this may still be the belief today among many ordinary clinicians as well as among patients and other laypeople, it is generally recognized by most who think critically about philosophy of medicine to contain logical errors. Earlier chapters in this book have shown why even the most expert clinicians in the world cannot, on their own, establish what is the proper clinical treatment for a particular patient.
Neuroscience and Psychiatry
Authors: Paris Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Almost every day, one can read media reports on the latest developments in neuroscience. Scientific journals are packed with exciting new findings. As a result, we have never known so much about the human brain as we do now, and psychiatrists and their patients could eventually be among the beneficiaries of this research. Newresearch has, for example, raised hope that the causes of mental illness will be explained by brain abnormalities. It has also spurred investigations into genetics and specifically prompted a search for genes that may be associated with mental disorders. Meanwhile, a large body of research has examined the role of neurotransmitters in these disorders. Part of what has made this extraordinary brain science possible involves new imaging techniques that, by producing dramatic pictures of the brain, seem to unlock its secrets. A large body of research has examined how neurotransmitters are involved in mental disorders. Even more exciting is the prospect that research in neuroscience may lead to new and more effective methods of treatment.
Psychotherapy and Psychiatry
Authors: Paris Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the 1960s, when I trained to be a psychiatrist, I expected to spend most of my career sitting in an armchair conducting psychotherapy. Many young doctors in my generation had the same idea. Psychotherapy was what attracted us to psychiatry. We were idealistic young doctors who wanted to work with people. The attraction to psychiatry was so powerful that 40 years ago up to 10% of medical students went into psychiatry.
Mood and Mental Illness
Authors: Paris Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Depression is a state of mind that most people can understand on some level. Most of us experience periods of sadness or grief after losses or disappointments in life, and some of us know what it is like to be unhappy for months, or even years at a time. But at what point does depressed mood become a mental disorder? Unfortunately, the broad concept used in contemporary psychiatry fails to answer this question and to distinguish between normal unhappiness, an experience not uncommon in everyday life, and the paralyzing disorder that is clinical depression.
Evidence-Based Psychiatry
Authors: Paris Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Someone could go to 10 psychiatrists for a problem and get 10 different opinions about what the best treatment would be. This variability is not unique to psychiatry but is a problem for all of medicine. Without agreedon standards, practice can be more of an art than a science. As a whole, treatment options have long been afflicted by the dominance of clinical opinion, and in many ways, the history of medicine is rather sobering.1 In the past, physicians worked without any standards for determining whether their treatments worked. Practice depended almost entirely on the accumulation of experience.
A Mess of Pottage
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the Kansas School Board approved a characterization of science that would allow for the teaching of intelligent design in high-school biology, champions of Darwinism were quick to issue a stern warning. States that subordinate serious scientific education to religious concerns cannot expect to be attractive to businesses that are advancing, or applying, new forms of technology. In consequence, their citizens will lose opportunities for exciting and lucrative employment. More generally, American failure to honor established science will lead to a national decline in preparedness for the economic challenges of coming decades, as schoolchildren protected from disturbing ideas will no longer be able to compete in global markets. Darwinian commentators conjured the vision of the booboisie (in Mencken’s famous phrase), burying their heads, ostrichlike, in rural idiocy, and thereby precipitating the decline of the West
“WHAT IT IS?”
Authors: Adams Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If I were to say to you right now, “Dude, I know where we can score some phat mongo,” what would you do? Would you call the police? Would you come along to see what I meant by mongo? Would you look up mongo in the dictionary before we left, so that you knew what you were getting into? I mean, what kind of word is mongo? It doesn’t sound like an English word. It certainly isn’t a word you learned by studying for vocabulary quizzes in school. Is it a bad word for something good, or a good word for something bad?
STANDING OUT
Authors: Adams Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
You probably remember growing into certain types of slang when you spent more time in the schoolyard than you do now. Of course, there was the broad range of profanity (fuck and shit), experimentally crude sexual expressions (suck off and carpetmuncher), romantic metaphors (like stone cold fox and hung), not to mention all of the yo, like, and all that focused and punctuated the flow of teenage conversation: “Yo, she was all, like, baked and shit at the concert.” Some of the slang, though, was a lot cleaner and, unexpectedly, rhymed: “Dude, you show up late in her class and you are cruisin’ for a bruisin’,” and “I told her I’d wash the car if I could borrow it, and it was, like, slam, bam, thank you ma’am, I had the keys and was out the door,” and “[Caprice:] ‘Those boots are sick.’ [Haley:] ‘Hey, whatever floats your boat, chica.’ ” Kids who spoke like that were too cool for school, and after they rhymed in conversation they’d say, “Hey, I’m a poet and didn’t know it.” But they did know it, knew it so well that they couldn’t help pointing it out, couldn’t help stretching it just one rhyme more.
Slang has various social uses, especially on the schoolyard, even when it rhymes. But its value isn’t limited to social group identity, social perceptions and attitudes, or social interaction. Some of slang’s value is aesthetic, if we interpret the term aesthetic broadly. The first definition of the adjective aesthetic you’ll find in any dictionary will be something like, quoting the New Oxford American Dictionary (2005), “concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty.” Most slang is not “beautiful” in any conventional sense.