bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Origin Of An Inhabited Planet
Authors: Walker J C G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How do the existence and history of life on Earth constrain theories of planetary origin? Something can be learned from the unambiguous record of the antiquity and continuity of life. The oldest clear evidence of life dates back to 3.5 b.y. ago; by that time the processes of planetary growth had ameliorated enough to permit a habitable environment. It is not clear from the paleontological record, however, that the environment was permanently habitable as long ago as 3.5 b.y. A clearly continuous paleontological record of Archean life does not exist, and therefore whole-Earth sterilizing impact events cannot be ruled out on biological grounds until early in the Proterozoic period. Organisms are uniquely able to separate the constituents of the environment. In particular, photosynthetic organisms can generate reduced organic compounds even in a strongly oxidizing environment. Their activities have resulted in accumulations of reduced compounds at the surface of the Earth, throughout the upper crust, and possibly at deeper levels. Equivalent amounts of strongly oxidized compounds have also accumulated. The resultant heterogeneity makes it hard to deternline the original oxidation state of Earth’s outer layers. Although life has oxidized the ocean and atmosphere, it probably has not contributed to overall oxidation of the Earth. If anything, organisms’ abilities to break down environmental compounds have preserved the oxidation state of the mantle from larger changes that would have occurred on an uninhabited planet.
Genetics of Common Diseases that Aggregate, but Do Not Segregate, in Families
Authors: Sing Charles F , Reilly Sharon L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The common diseases of humans that have a multifactorial etiology make a substantial contribution to morbidity (Baird et al., 1988; Trimble and Doughty, 1974; Trimble and Smith 1977) and mortality in the population at large. Because they are more common, and morbidity for each may extend over long periods of time, diseases like coronary artery disease, arthritis, diabetes, hypertension, and the psychiatric disorders require a greater demand on health services than the simply inherited inborn errors of metabolism and the chromosomal abnormalities combined (Baird et al., 1988). These common diseases also provide the greatest research challenge because etiological links between multiple genetic and environmental causes and health status are complex.
Atmospheric Convection
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This graduate-level meteorology text and reference provides a scientifically rigorous description of the many types of convective circulations in the Earth's atmosphere. These range from small-scale, convectively driven turbulences in the boundary layer to precipitating systems covering many thousands of square kilometers. The text introduces the principal techniques used in understanding and predicting convective motion: theory, field experiment, and numerical modelling. Part I explores dry convection, including turbulent plumes and thermals from isolated buoyancy sources, Raleigh-Benard convection, and turbulent convection in the planetary boundary layer. Emphasis is placed on applying theoretical understanding and lessons from experiments. Part II offers a complete treatment of the thermodynamics of moist and cloudy air, including fundamental laws, conserved quantities, graphical techniques, and stability. Part III explores the characteristics of individual convective clouds, thunderstorms, squall lines, mesoscale convective systems, and slantwise convection. Part IV studies the ensemble effects of convective clouds, including stratocumulus at trade cumulus boundary layers and the representation of convective clouds in numerical models. Each chapter is followed by a set of exercises.
General Principles
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All motions that can be attributed to the action of a steady gravitational field upon variations of density in a fluid may be called convective motions and thus almost all the kinetic energy of the earth's atmosphere and oceans and the bulk of that of the many fluid systems in the known unverse results from convection; other fluid motions are attributable to tidal and electrodynamic forces. In the atmospheric sciences, however, one generally uses a more restricted definition of convection which encompasses only a class of relatively small-scale, thermally direct circulations which result from the action of gravity upon an unstable vertical distribution of mass, with “vertical” taken to mean “along the gravitational vector.” (We make an exception in the case of slantwise convection, which is driven by gravitational and centrifugal accelerations, though the underlying physics is the same.) This restricted definition, which will be used throughout this course, excludes the many motion systems that result from differential heating in the horizontal, including simple Hadley circulations and sea breezes, as well as circulations that arise as a result of unstable distributions of vorticity. Due to the geometry of the atmosphere of the earth, this distinction between “convective” and “nonconvective” motions is rendered less academic, as the former is generally highly turbulent, whereas the' latter can often be regarded as laminar except near boundaries. The strong influence of an entire spectrum of smaller scale motions on most forms of convection helps make this phenomenon among the most perplexing in the atmospheric sciences, while the question of the interaction of convection with circulations of larger scale has proven every bit as challenging. It is fair to say that since Archimedes' time, man's understanding of convection and related phenomena has progressed surprisingly slowly.
Global Convection:the Rayleigh-Benard Problem and
Dry Convective Boundary Layers
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While many important characteristics of convection are illuminated by examining the behavior of turbulent convection over highly localized sources of buoyancy, convection in geophysical fluids almost always originates from buoyancy sources distributed over areas that are large compared to the depth of the convecting layer. It is a natural step, therefore, to now examine the behavior of a fluid when the heat source, rather than being confined to a point, is distributed over a large area. In this case the entire fluid is engaged in convective overturning and the convection is thus of a global rather than a local character.
Stratocumulus And Trade-Cumulus Boundary Layers
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 3 we explored the properties of dry convective boundary layers that form when there is a positive buoyancy flux from the surface. Under a variety of conditions, such boundary layers become deep and/or moist enough that clouds form within them. When this happens, the properties of the boundary layer are strongly altered by the latent heat released and absorbed when water changes phase and by the very strong effect of clouds on radiative transfer. In this chapter we explore the properties of boundary layers strongly influenced by clouds that are shallow enough that little precipitation is formed.
Boundary layers with clouds may be classified into four groups, illustrated in Figure 13.1: foggy layers, cloud-topped mixed layers, trade­ cumulus layers, and elevated stratocumulus/mixed trade cumulus-strato­cumulus layers. These are discussed in the following sections.
Fog is defined as cloud in contact with the surface. For the present purposes, we exclude from this definition cloud in contact with hills or mountains.
Over land, fog may form at night as a consequence of radiative cooling of the surface. Heat is lost from the air radiatively and diffused downward into the surface by wind-induced turbulence. If the air near the ground is cooled to its dew-point temperature, condensation occurs, first near the ground and later at higher altitudes. Initially, the fog is thickest near the surface, with the cloud-water content falling off rapidly with altitude. If it does not achieve a thickness greater than a few meters by sunrise, it will remain in this state until absorption of sunlight by the surface and by the cloud itself raises the temperature enough to evaporate the cloud. Thin fog of this kind is not convective, because the cooling occurs from below.
Interaction Of Convection With Large-Scale Flows
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In regions experiencing deep convection, the convective clouds affect the entire depth of the troposphere and serve to link the boundary layer with the rest of the atmosphere. It is important to understand how the convective clouds collectively affect the thermodynamic and kinematic structure of the atmosphere, and how they respond to and affect large-scale circulations such as tropical waves. An important and largely unsolved problem is the control of atmospheric water vapor by deep convection. The water vapor itself, as well as the stratiform clouds that are closely associated with it, has a strong influence on radiative transfer and therefore on the earth's climate.
In the following sections, we develop relations for the ensemble effects of cumulus clouds on atmospheric temperature, water vapor, and momen­ tum and use them together with sounding data to make inferences about atmospheric convection. Finally, we explore the nature of the interaction of convection with atmospheric circulation systems.
Cumulus Representation In Numerical Models
Authors: Emanuel Kerry A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Numerical simulation has become an important means of investigating the nature of atmospheric phenomena and of forecasting weather. We have seen in Chapter 10 and elsewhere the power of this technique when applied intelligently to the investigation of the dynamics of convection.
Many occasions arise in which the phenomena of interest are not convective clouds per se, but larger-scale circulations that may depend intimately on the collective effects of cumulus convection. At the small-scale end of this spectrum are hurricanes, which are rotationally balanced circulations with dynamic scales somewhat larger than those of convective clouds (except perhaps in the vicinity of the eye), while the general circulation of the atmosphere is an example at the largest scale. For relatively small-scale circulations, such as hurricanes, it has become possible to simultaneously resolve the hurricane circulation and individual convective clouds, although the latter are only crudely simulated. The advent of adaptive grid techniques, in which finer grids are locally and interactively enmeshed in the large-scale grid, where the dynamics itself calls for it, may make it possible to simulate even larger-scale circulations while still resolving the convection.
Yet many larger-scale models are not capable of resolving cumulus clouds. Climate models, which must simulate atmospheric and ocean circulations over the entire globe for periods of many years or decades, are very far from being able to resolve individual clouds. As we shall soon demonstrate, even if clouds could be resolved, the microphysical processes within clouds would remain as a strong influence on climate through their control of atmospheric water vapor.
Aerospace Capital of the World: Los Angeles Takes Off
Authors: Markusen Ann , Hall Peter , Campbell Scott , Deitrick Sabina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The approach to Los Angeles International Airport offers one of the world’s most spectacular urban panoramas. And the best place from which to enjoy it, for the dedicated student of cities, is by the airplane’s left window. As the plane swoops down over the ocean, the Santa Monica Mountains in the foreground, there appear the movie stars’ homes of Beverly Hills, an apparently endless march of offices and penthouses down Wilshire Boulevard, the famous “Hollywood” sign on the hillside, and the unmistakable juke-box record stack of the Capitol Records tower. This is the L.A. everyone knows: the capital of movies and television, glitz and glamour, kitsch and schmaltz. Then, as the plane dips toward the right into a giant U-turn, the traveler sees a second L.A.: downtown, marked by the memorable outline of city hall and the huge skyscrapers of Bunker Hill.
The Power of Broadcast Debates
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall , Birdsell David S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general election debates of 1988 face two challenges in their efforts to attract viewers. The unprecedented number of debates in the 1988 primaries devalued debate as an activity. From a special event, worthy of unique attention, debates slipped to being a routine part of life, of no special note. Additionally, past debates have fallen below the lofty expectations the press set for them. None of the debates have been “Great.”
Testing the Theory of Descent
Authors: Penny David , Hendy Michael D , Steel Michael A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down (Darwin, 1859: 189).The comment of Popper (1976:168) that “Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory, but a metaphysical research program-apossible framework for testable scientific theories” is sometimes used to question the scientific status of evolutionary theory.
Dynamics of Discourse: Literacy and the Construction of Knowledge
Authors: Chang-Wells Gen Ling M , Wells Gordon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Work in both child language and cognitive development concurs in seeing the child as a meaning maker(Bower, 1974; R. Brown, 1973;Bruner, 1983; Newson, 1978; Wells, 1985). The linguistic repertoire the child builds and the expanding mental model of the world that he or she inhabits are the results of the child’s constructive effort, achieved through a progressive and cumulative process of hypothesis formation, testing, and modification. Moreover, what is true of learning during the preschool years seems to continue to be true of later learning, even during adulthood. Each new step in the constructive process results from a transaction in which what is already known is brought to bear on new information, creating new meaning and enhancing understanding and control.
Vygotsky, Hymes, and Bakhtin: From Word to Utterance and Voice
Authors: Cazden Courtney B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of a course on “classroom discourse” at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, Martha Demientieff, a Native Alaskan, introduced her take-home examination with this self-reflection on her own language use: As I began work on this assignment, I thought of the name of the course and thought I had to use the word “discourse.” The word felt like an intruder in my mind displacing my word “talk.” I could not organize my thoughts around it. It was like a pebble thrown into a still pond disturbing the smooth water. It makes all the other words in my mind out of sync. When I realized that I was using too much time agonizing over how to write the paper, I sat down and tried to analyze my problem. I realized that in time I will own the word and feel comfortable using it, but until that time my own words were legitimate. Contrary to some views that exposure to the dominant culture gives one an advantage in learning, in my opinion it is the ownership of words that gives one confidence. I must want the word, enjoy the word and use the word to own it. When the new word becomes synonymous in my head as well as externally, then I can think with it. I laugh now at my discovery but realize that without it, I would still be inhibited about my writing. [March 1988] The course Demientieff had taken was primarily about one of the ways in which mind, according to Vygotsky, is socially constituted: through the internalization and transformation of social interactions. The problem she faced, and analyzed so perceptively, is that mind is also, according to Vygot sky, socially constituted in a second way: through mediation via semiotic systems, notably language, that are themselves the expressions of sociohistorical processes.
Commentary Interface between Sociocultural and Psychological Aspects of Cognition
Authors: Serpell Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mental act of knowing is a personal condition, a relationship between an individual and some aspect of the world. As Wittgenstein (1958) succeeded in demonstrating to the satisfaction of many, however, it cannot be considered a private condition, isolated from the rest of society. What we mean when we say that someone knows something has to do with regularities in his or her speech and other observable behavior. Cognition is a dimension of experience we infer from consistency in the ways in which people behave toward one another. The knowledge of one person is therefore, by definition, accessible to others, and many of society’s institutions are based on the premise that knowledge is shared. No laws, or schools, or libraries would make any sense in the absence of this premise. No communication could take place.
Principles of Neural Development
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to theoretical issues, basic principles, and approaches to the study of nervous system development. First, we discuss the role of the developmental neuropsychologist in understanding nervous system development, emphasizing difficulties that arise both in research and in practice when an attempt is made to correlate neuroanatomy and behavior. Then two basic approaches to the study of nervous system development-gross and microscopic-are presented. Finally, the role of specific neural elements in the building of the central nervous system is discussed in detail.The first major difficulty in understanding the relationship between human an atomical and behavioral development arises from the variety of different approaches used to study essentially the same subject matter (Birch 1974). Re search fields have tended to become isolated, each growing so highly specialized that adequate communication with other disciplines is difficult. This often hap pens when different species are used for research. For several good reasons, developmental neurobiologists frequently use rats in their studies, which limits generalizations to humans or other primates. We do not know, with regard to general principles, what inferences for humans can be made from animal re search. Developmental sequences necessary for survival are different for other species.
Cognitive Development in Relation to the Development of the Nervous System
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the morphological and functional development of the nervous system described in the previous chapters shows some gross correlations with motor and sensory development in the newborn and infant, cognitive development has less clear-cut relationships. In fact, studies of cognitive and brain development have proceeded largely independently of each other, and only recently have investigators tried to establish some tenuous relations between them. In this chapter, we describe briefly some of the current models of cognitive development in infancy and early childhood as a basis for the later discussion of cognitive (Chapter 28) and other defects and attempt to outline relations between brain and cognitive development. Since many of the topics in this field have yet to be investigated in a neuropsychological context, and others are discussed separately in this book (e.g., sensation and perception in Chapters 3, 25 and 26 and language in Chapter 27), the present discussion focuses on elements of cognitive development of interest to neuropsychologists.
Disconnection Syndromes
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Just as damage to a cortical region can lead to behavioral disturbances, so can lesions of connections between cortical regions. A disconnection syndrome is defined anatomically as “the effects of lesions of association pathways, either those which lie exclusively within a cerebral hemisphere or those which join the two halves of the brain” (Geschwind 1965, p. 242). Thus, a disconnection syndrome is the result of a lesion of either cortical association fibers, which connect cortical regions within a hemisphere, or of commissural-interhemispheric fibers, which connect similar regions across the two hemispheres. The behavioral effects of such disconnections are relatively predictable when they occur after brain damage in adults.The early history of the concept of disconnection syndromes has been reviewed by Dimond (1972), Gazzaniga (1970), Geschwind (1965, 1970, 1975), and Joynt (1974). Carl Wernicke (1874) introduced this concept when he predicted that an aphasic syndrome (conduction aphasia) could result from the disconnection of the sensory speech zone from the motor speech area by a single lesion in the left hemisphere. Dejerine (1892) first described definite symptoms resulting from a lesion of a commissural system, the corpus callosum, when he presented a case of alexia (loss of the ability to read) without agraphia (loss of the ability to write).
Chromosomal and Genetic Disorders
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with two major forms of disorders that are often loosely described as genetic but that differ greatly in origin: (1) inherited disorders, i.e., disorders involving genetic transmission, and (2) chromosomal disorders, i.e., defective formation of the genetic material itself. Inherited disorders are presumed to be carried by certain genes or combinations of genes and are primarily disorders of metabolism (C in the AAMD system). Chromosomal dis orders (AAMD catego:ry A) form a distinct group of defects of the chromosomal configuration (karyotype), which are clearly recognizable in the laborato:ry and result from unknown or suspected environmental influences. The two groups overlap since some chromosomal defects may be inherited.Both inherited and chromosomal disorders are part of the “genetic load” (Frazer 1962), which has several components: (1) the spontaneous mutation of genes and/or chromosomes (i.e., the extent to which a population is impaired because of recurrent mutations); (2) genetic incompatibility between the par ents, which results in reduced fitness or disorder in the child; and (3) genes predisposing to a certain disorder already present in the population that are combined in sexual reproduction. Hence, the genetic load for defects is present in the population-as part of its genetic variability-and cannot be eliminated entirely. “We can only strive to keep it to a minimum; the ideal homozygote will never be found” (Frazer 1962).