bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Plato's Philosopher
Authors: Davidson Donald 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
This essay discusses Plato’s embrace of the Socratic elenchus, the inconclusive dialectic of conversational give and take wherein Socrates elicits a statement from his interlocutor, then sets out to show the statement’s inconsistency with other things the interlocutor believes. Someone who practices the elenchus can claim that he does not know what is true; it is enough that he has a method that leads to truth. It is only in the context of frank discussion, communication, and mutual exchange that trustworthy truths emerge.
Theological Trajectories In the Early Fourth Century: I
Authors: Ayres Lewis 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Turns to the fourth and the most important point of departure: pre-existing tensions among theological trajectories present c.300. Looks first at Alexander and Athanasius’ theology and finds parallels in Gregory Thaumaturgus, in some Antiochene theology and in some third century Alexandrian figures. Looks second at ‘Eubseian’ theology, a category that includes diverse figures such as Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea and Eusebius of Nicomedia and Asterius. Both trajectories considered here owe something to Origen. Also questions the usefulness of the term ‘subordinationism.’
Confusion and Controversy: AD 325–340
Authors: Ayres Lewis 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Initially focuses on the council and creed of Nicaea. Sketches the course of the discussion at the council and asks if the creed was intended as a universal standard of faith. The middle sections of the chapter focuses on Nicaea’s controversial terminology. The author then asks if we can identify a common theology among the architects of the creed. The last section of the chapter narrates the progress of controversy after Nicaea up to 342.
The East From Valens To Theodosius
Authors: Ayres Lewis 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Begins by considering Basil’s theological work against the background of his attempts at alliance-building in Asia Minor, in the eastern provinces, and with the West. Often, Basil faced constant setbacks and the perception that his attempts to secure his own power base were as important as any higher motive. Considers the pro-Nicene theology of Ephrem the Syrian, presenting him not as an isolated figure but as offering a distinctly pro-Nicene theology directly parallel to those found in Greek and Latin authors. Then discusses the author’s use of pro-Nicene over and against other terminologies, and ends with a consideration of Theodosius’s accession.
Victory and the Struggle For Definition
Authors: Ayres Lewis 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Begins with a discussion of Gregory Nazianzen’s preaching in Constantinople and the theology of the Theological Orations. Considers the imperial definition of Nicaea ‘orthodoxy’ in the early 380s. These definitions attempt to embody the pro-Nicene logic or grammar that had become the understood context for interpreting Nicaea. A discussion of the Council of Constantinople in 381 is followed by a discussion of Latin theology during the 365–400 period. In this discussion, the author focuses on Ambrose of Milan. Ends by arguing that the story of these controversies and of the non-Nicene theology should not be seen as ending in 381. By the early 380s the pro-Nicene ‘solution’ that endured had emerged, but argument and controversy continued.
‘Walk Towards him Shining’
Authors: Ayres Lewis 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Builds on the previous two, looking first at common pro-Nicene anthropological themes. Pro-Nicenes share ‘dual-focus’ anthropologies, in which a rightly ordered soul is attentive both to the governing of the body and to the presence of God to the soul. These beliefs form the background to the accounts of purification that are, in turn, taken to be the context for the good practice of Trinitarian theology. The second half of the chapter considers shared pro-Nicene accounts of Scripture. Pro-Nicenes share a new sense of the efficacy and yet the mysteriousness of the scriptural text that shapes and is shaped by the pro-Nicene aesthetic is outlined in the previous chapter.
On Not Three Gods: Gregory of Nyssa's Trinitarian Theology
Authors: Ayres Lewis 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Against the background of the previous three chapters, this chapter offers a new reading of the fundamental structures of the Trinitarian theology of Gregory of Nyssa. Considers the argument of his Ad Ablabium, showing how it reveals a concern to express God’s unitary power rather than any early ‘social’ analogy for the Trinity. This concern is expressed in the context of the anthropological and epistemological dynamics discussed in Chs 11–13 and, alongside, an insistence on the irreducibility of the three persons.
Two Models of Belief
Authors: Christensen David 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Ties the book's central question to a choice between a qualitative binary (all-or-nothing) conception of belief and a quantitative graded conception of belief (degrees of belief). The two conceptions invite different formal constraints. Argues that probabilistic coherence is best seen not as a new logic for graded belief, but as a way of applying standard logic to graded belief. Explores different ways of understanding the relation between binary and graded belief, concluding that the way one sees this relation has important implications for the questions of whether and how beliefs are subject to formal rationality constraints.
ARGUMENTS FOR DEDUCTIVE COGENCY
Authors: Christensen David 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Examines and rejects several arguments claiming that the fundamental purposes of binary belief requires deductive cogency. The strongest such argument claims that if deductive cogency were not rationally required, deductive arguments would have no rational force. Develops and defends an alternative explanation of the epistemic importance of deductive arguments, rooted in a probabilistic coherence constraint on graded belief. Ends with a discussion of whether binary belief has any epistemic importance; argues that although our binary way of talking and thinking about belief may be very useful, it may not, in the end, capture any important aspect of rationality. Moreover, further development of extended Preface-type cases shows that the sort of binary belief that was subject to deductive cogency could not have the connections to central aspects of our practical reasoning, our assertions, and our emotions that seem to give belief its point.
Introduction
Authors: Chui Michael , Gai Prasanna 
Published: August 2005

AbstractReviews the modern debate on the international financial architecture. Reviews the financial crisis in Korea during 1997–98, which marked a watershed in the debate and encouraged policymakers to advocate debt standstills, collective action clauses, and statutory Sovereign Debt Restructuring Mechanisms (SDRM) as ways of tackling creditor coordination problems.
VALUATION OF CONTINGENT CLAIMS: EXTENSIONS
Authors: Poon Ser-Huang , Stapleton Richard 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
‘Valuation of Contingent Claims: Extensions’ extends the analysis in Ch. 3 to contingent claims on assets with non-lognormal distributions, for example, normal distributions, as in the Brennan (1979), and generalized lognormal distributions, as in the shifted lognormal case of Rubinstein (1983). Next, the authors consider the pricing of claims where risk-neutral valuation relationships do not exist. For this case, they discuss Heston (1993)'s extension to the case of ‘preference-parameter free valuation relationships’, where at least one preference parameter in the pricing kernel becomes irrelevant for the pricing of contingent claims. Then, they derive the related results in Franke, Stapleton, and Subrahmanyam (1999) who showed that if assets are lognormal, but the pricing kernel has declining elasticity, possibly due to background risk, then all options have higher prices than in the Black–Scholes world. Finally, they discuss the bounds on option prices in such economies.
FORWARD AND FUTURES PRICES OF CONTINGENT CLAIMS
Authors: Poon Ser-Huang , Stapleton Richard 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
‘Forward and Futures Prices of Contingent Claims’ applies the multi-period rational expectations model to analyse the pricing of forward and futures contracts and derives an expression for the difference between the prices of the two, which is commonly known as the convexity adjustment. These are illustrated using an example where the asset price, the pricing kernel and the bond prices are joint lognormal variables. The authors then consider the futures and forward prices of contingent claims, such as call options. Futures prices of options can be significantly different from the forward prices of the contingent claims, especially when the options are on interest-rate related assets such as bonds or swaps. Forward prices of long-term bond can be obtained by taking appropriate expected values of future spot pries under the risk-neutral measure.
Placement and Pilgrimage
Authors: Brown David 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
This chapter consists of three sections. The first considers feelings of alienation in modern cities and contrasts this with ancient approaches to home and city. Detailed consideration is given to attitudes in ancient Rome, and the history of religious influences on town planning over the centuries is also explored. The second section then looks at the question of symbolic geography, and in particular the medieval practice of placing Jerusalem at the centre of maps (never understood literally). The final section discusses pilgrimage, noting how even those religions initially hostile nonetheless eventually succumb (e.g. Buddhism, Sikhism). Two aspects are explored in some detail: the contrasting use of the maze or labyrinth to expound the nature and meaning of the journey; and some unusual features of pilgrimage in medieval Rome.
2 JUDGEMENT AND DESIRE
Authors: ODDIE GRAHAM 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThis chapter outlines two problems of knowledge which any cognitivist about value faces. One is the familiar problem of the motivational inertness of bare facts, and the knowledge of such facts. The other is the much less familiar problem of value data. The inertness problem can be approached through a puzzling asymmetry in value judgements, an asymmetry which can easily be explained by the internalist thesis that value judgements are special in being intrinsically or necessarily motivating. It is argued that there is a natural way for the cognitivist to explain the puzzling asymmetry, and it is one which simultaneously solves the problem of the missing data. The explanation appeals to two rather radical ideas. First, experiences of value are necessary, though not sufficient, for us to have knowledge of value. Second, desires are experiences of value. The conjunction of these two theses is referred to as the experience conjecture, and it is shown how it explains, inter alia, the puzzling asymmetry.
Kant
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Kant was the greatest of modern philosophers. He held that we have knowledge of the phenomenal world alone; of the realm of the noumenal we have only moral experience. But he had moral passion in his notion of the categorical imperative, or goodwill dedicated to duty. Kant’s revolutionism is seen in the idea of the homogeneity of states—a federation of ‘republics’; or alternatively in cosmopolitanism— a world of individuals and peoples rather than of governments and states. Kant’s belief in the harmony of interests underlies his doctrine of progress. There are categories of Kantians, although Kant himself was both comprehensive and universal as a philosopher.
The Work of Emotion
Authors: Pugmire David 
Published: August 2005

AbstractEmotion, especially as expressed, has social impact. Can emotions, then, be seen as manipulative devices, strategic stances? They are sometimes used in this way, and some philosophers have proposed understanding emotion instrumentally. This is unsatisfactory, however, at both the practical and the theoretical levels. Manipulative emotive responses could only work if they were not believed to be manipulative; so if we were all doing it, it would not work (without collective self-deception). Targeted emotion would also lack depth. And anyway, emotions are too unlike actions to remain well-formed when used strategically.
The Case for a Human Right to an Adequate Environment
Authors: Hayward Tim 
Published: August 2005

AbstractArgues that a right to an adequate environment is a genuine human right. After indicating the scope of the right, it defends this proposition against sceptical counterarguments. Clarifies how the question of its genuineness includes both moral and legal considerations. Regarding the moral case, it shows that the right to an adequate environment meets each test of genuineness that can reasonably be proposed. Regarding the status of the right in international law, it suggests there is sufficient evidence to claim that the right is in the process of emergence internationally, and that its further consolidation can reasonably be expected.
Environmental Rights as Democratic Rights
Authors: Hayward Tim 
Published: August 2005

AbstractConstitutionalising a right makes it immune to the possibility of (routine) democratic revision. So, constitutional rights that set certain substantive values beyond the reach of routine political revision have the effect of pre-empting decisions that might otherwise be arrived at through democratic procedures. To the extent that environmental rights can be taken to embody substantive value commitments, they would appear to be vulnerable to the criticism that the constitutional entrenchment of them is undemocratic. Certain procedural rights, however, are necessary for the very functioning of democracy as such. Can procedural environmental rights be justified on this ground? And what about the substantive right to an adequate environment? Argues that both kinds of environmental rights, in common with some existing and far less controversial rights, can in fact be justified on the very grounds that democracy itself is justified.
C. I. Lewis's Radical Justification of Memory
Authors: Olsson Erik J. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
C. I. Lewis’s coherence (congruence) justification of memory is examined with respect to how well it can accommodate the troublesome facts uncovered in Ch. 2. Lewis draws on a presumed parallel between memory and testimony. Various ways for how to model witness scenarios are discussed. Distinctions are made between different kinds of witness reliability. A connection is established with Bayesian networks. Lewis is seen to underestimate the effect of the credibility of individual reports on the overall likelihood of truth.
Common Knowledge
Authors: Bergin James 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Introduces common knowledge is introduced. The definition of common knowledge is given. Convergence of beliefs under iterative announcement is discussed, and the implications of common knowledge of an aggregate statistic described. In a game theoretic framework, it is show how lack of common knowledge can lead to cooperative equilibrium in a finitely repeated prisoners’ dilemma game. Finally, a no-trade theorem is given.
The Burden of Grandeur: Physical and Economic Well-Being of the Russian Population in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Mironov Boris 
Published: August 2005

AbstractFrom 1700-1704 to 1795-1799 the average stature of Russian recruits decreased from 164.7 to 159.5 cm. It means that the eighteenth century is noted for the fall in the biological status of the Russian population. The decrease occurred against the background of a considerable economic growth and was caused not by economic depression but by the rise in taxes and obligations. Increase in payments to the state was linked with the wars Russia waged for outlets to the Baltic and Black seas, and for the status of a great power, and with reforms carried out by the supreme power catching up with the West European countries.
Short-Term Demographic Changes in Relation to Economic Fluctuations: The Case of Tuscany During the Pre-Transitional Period
Authors: Breschi Marco , Fornasin Alessio , Gonano Giovanna 
Published: August 2005

AbstractFocuses on the short-term relations between prices of consumer goods and demographic time series. The area considered is the Grand Duchy of Tuscany from 1823 to 1854. The research identifies the different demographic outcomes in specific social groups in presence of price fluctuations.
Individuals and Communities Facing Economic Stress: A Comparison of Two Rural Areas in Nineteenth-Century Belgium
Authors: Oris Michel , Neven Muriel , Alter George 
Published: August 2005

AbstractIn the early nineteenth century, eastern Belgium was the first region on the European continent to follow the British example of industrialization based on textiles, coal, and iron. Rural areas were faced with old problems and new opportunities. On the one hand, they faced intensified population pressure due to population growth and the decline of proto-industrial production. On the other hand, new industrial jobs in growing cities beckoned rural workers. Examines the range of demographic responses to economic stress in this transitional period through an analysis of two very different rural societies. The correlations between prices and demographic behaviours in the early nineteenth century mostly disappeared after 1850. Rural people were able to shift from a ‘defensive logic’, which families used to protect themselves against hard times, to positive choices intended to take advantage of new opportunities.
Governing China's Grasslands: The Creation of Empty Institutions
Authors: Ho Peter 
Published: August 2005

AbstractOffers a detailed institutional analysis of national grassland policy. It is demonstrated that one of the main reasons for the failure of national grassland policy and the pasture lease system is the fact that both do not suit the current socio-economic parameters. In other words, they are ‘empty institutions’. The ‘empty institution’ incorporates rules that have not yet been widely accepted in society, yet in such way that these can have no real impact on the behaviour of social actors. An ‘empty institution’ generally arises from a compromise over sensitive political issues. In this case, national grassland policy reflects a political compromise over the core of grassland property rights: the distinction between state and collective property.
Effect of seed passage through birds and lizards on emergence rate of mediterranean species: differences between natural and controlled conditions
Authors: RODRÍGUEZ‐PÉREZ J. , RIERA N. , TRAVESET A. 
Published: August 2005

Summary

The ingestion of fruits by vertebrate frugivores produces great variation on seed germination responses which depend on (1) the frugivorous species; (2) several factors intrinsic to the plant species; and (3) the conditions under which germination tests are conducted. Most studies on this topic have used only one or a few disperser species, and have been performed under controlled conditions.
The main goals of this study were to determine (1) the effect that birds (Turdus merula) and lizards (Podarcis pityusensis) have on seed emergence patterns of a group of common mediterranean plants; and (2) whether such patterns differ between field and common garden conditions. Over 2 years we compared seed emergence times with those of controls (pulp‐removed seeds).
Emergence patterns were inconsistent for most plant species when comparing field vs. common‐garden conditions. In some cases results were even contradictory: for instance lizards accelerated the emergence time of Rubus seeds in the field, but delayed it in the experimental garden; likewise Rubia seeds ingested by Blackbirds emerged more slowly than controls in the field, but faster than those in the garden. The two frugivorous species had also inconsistent effects on the same plant species.
Significant changes in seed weight after passage through the animals’ digestive tracts were observed in most species. However, seed weight did not explain differences in seed emergence patterns between ingested and non‐ingested seeds.
This study demonstrates the great heterogeneity in seed‐emergence responses of the different plant species to ingestion by different types of frugivore, and to the different experimental conditions. Thus, caution is needed when making generalizations from studies that aim to evaluate the influence of frugivores on seed dispersal quality.
Does spatial pattern matter to ecosystem functioning? Insights from biological soil crusts
Authors: MAESTRE F. T. , ESCUDERO A. , MARTINEZ I. , GUERRERO C. , RUBIO A. 
Published: August 2005

SummaryTheoretical and modelling studies highlight the importance of the spatial patterns of organisms for ecosystem functioning, stability and dynamics. However, there is little empirical evidence as to their importance as drivers of such ecosystem attributes.We evaluated the relationships between different biological soil crust attributes (spatial pattern, cover and diversity) and ecosystem functioning in two semiarid areas differing in the developmental stage of these crusts.We found a significant direct relationship between spatial pattern and both soil bulk density and respiration (surrogates of ecosystem infiltration and nutrient cycling, respectively) at one of our study sites. However, the strength of such a relationship was lower than that found between attributes such as cover and evenness and the same ecosystem functioning surrogates.Our results represent, to our knowledge, some of the first empirical evidence linking the spatial pattern of a community and ecosystem functioning. They also suggest that the importance of spatial pattern as a driver of ecosystem functioning may depend on community attributes such as cover and diversity, and that its importance may be lower than that of these attributes.