bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Field J V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The name Renaissance is really a label for a style not for a period. In art and literature its beginnings are usually traced back to the powerful works of the painter Giotto di Bondone (r. 126(i-1337) and the poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). In mathematics and the mathematical sciences the process of ‘rebirth’ is generally seen as starting later, perhaps in the mid-fifteenth century, with astronomers’ attempts to return directly to Greek sources. This scientific Renaissance, like that of the arts, has no definite&gt; end-which is to say that books with titles of the form X and the end of the Renaissance arc a good way for certain kinds of historian to make bids for the attention of their professional colleagues.
Through the wall: Masaccro’s Trinityfresco (c. 1426)
Authors: Field J V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Masaccio’s fresco of the Trinity is shown in Fig. 3.1. In his Life of Masaccio, in the version printed in 1568, Giorgio Vasari describes the picture in the following terms: But the most beautiful thing in it, apart from the figures, is a semicircular barrel vault drawn in perspective, and divided into squares containing rosettes that diminish in size and are foreshortened so well that it seems as though the wall is pierced.
Piero Della Francesca’S Mathematics
Authors: Field J V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Piero della Francesca (c. 1412-1492) is acknowledged as one of the most important painters of the fifteenth century. His pictures are notable for their characteristically Renaissance quality of seeming to portray real figures in real pictorial space (see Fig. 4.1). Piero is, however, unique in also having an independent reputation as a highly competent mathematician. As we have seen from our investigation of Masaccio’s Trinity, it is extremely perilous to attempt to use works of art as evidence of an artist’s mathematical skills. Luckily, for Piero the case is entirely different. We have three mathematical treatises by him-Vasari says he wrote ‘many’ such works-and these establish that as a mathematician he was indeed both competent and original. How far his mathematical skill can be seen in his art is a more difficult question, so it is with his mathematics that we shall begin.
Density Estimation for Inference
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1, the role of kernel functions in constructing nonparametric density estimates was illustrated on a variety of different types of data. This led to a set of useful tools, particularly for graphical illustration of distributional shape. The uses of density estimates in reaching conclusions in a more quantitative way will now be investigated. Attention will be focused on one- and two-dimensional data on an unrestricted continuous scale. In order to go beyond the exploratory and graphical stage it is necessary first to understand more about the behaviour of these estimators and to derive some basic properties. Although many theoretical results exist, simple expressions for means and variances of the estimators are enough to allow ideas of interval estimation and hypothesis testing to be discussed, and to motivate techniques for choosing an appropriate bandwidth to employ with a particular dataset.
Nonparametric Regression for Exploring Data
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Regression is one of the most widely used of all statistical tools. Linear modelling in its widest sense is both well developed and well understood, and there is in addition a variety of useful techniques for checking the assumptions involved. However, there are cases where such models cannot be applied because of intrinsic nonlinearity in the data. Nonparametric regression aims to provide a means of modelling such data. Even where the suitability of linear models has not yet been brought into question, smoothing techniques are still useful by enhancing scatterplots to display the underlying structure of the data, without reference to a parametric model. This can in turn lead to further useful suggestions of, or checks on, appropriate parametric models. In this chapter, the main ideas of nonparametric regression are introduced and illustrated on several different types of data. The emphasis throughout is on the exploration of data, although technical and inferential issues will be raised for discussion in later chapters.
Inference with Nonparametric Regression
Authors: Bowman Adrian W , Azzalini Adelchi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some basic ideas of nonparametric regression were introduced in Chapter 3 and illustrated with a variety of data of different types. The emphasis has so far been on the graphical representation of data. However, a number of issues have arisen. A principal question is how the features of a nonparametric regression curve can be assessed, to discover whether these indicate structural effects or whether they can be attributed simply to random variation. In addition, some attention needs to be devoted to methods of selecting suitable smoothing parameters. In order to prepare the way for a discussion of these issues some very simple properties of nonparametric regression estimators are derived. Attention is restricted mostly to the case where the response y and a covariate x both lie on continuous scales. Many theoretical results exist in this area. However, for the purposes of the tools to be described in later chapters it is sufficient at this stage to focus simply on means and variances.
Artificial Neural Networks and Multivariate Statistics
Authors: Martin E B , Morris A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mechanistic modelling of processes can present major challenges in practice and attention has turned to the sophisticated use of monitored plant data. As a result of this transfer of interest, two major areas of strategic research have emerged since the mid-1980s: multivariate statistics and artificial neural networks. This chapter introduces the key methodologies and describes a number of related issues prior to applying such techniques to complex engineering problems. A number of industrially based examples are presented which contrast multivariate statistical approaches with those of neural network techniques. An additional example is included which focuses upon a situation where linear statistical approaches are not applicable. The first case study compares the techniques of principal components regression, projection to latent structures, orthogonal least squares based regression, feedforward neural networks, radial basis function neural networks and locally weighted regression using, as an example, near-infra-red spectral data. For the second example, some aspects of neural networks are considered and different approaches assessed for the prediction of polymer properties. An industrial application is then presented which is analysed using dynamic artificial neural networks since multivariate statistical techniques are inappropriate for the study. The application of linear projection to latent structures and nonlinear projection to latent structures to the prediction of pH are presented and the results compared. The final case study focuses upon principal components analysis (PCA) and its nonlinear variants. A number of examples are discussed including its application to fault detection and diagnosis.
Rejecting the dull hypothesis: the relation between method and theory in cognitive aging research
Authors: Perfect Timothy J , Maylor Elizabeth A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we begin by outlining a basic problem in cognitive aging research, namely that the statistical approach based on rejection of the null hypothesis is not appropriate for theory building. We then discuss two broad approaches that have been used in an attempt to overcome this shortcoming. We end with a discussion of potential ways forward, as outlined in the chapters that follow. Psychologists spend considerable time and effort attempting to establish the reliability of basic effects. Over the past century psychologists have utilized many sophisticated statistical techniques to detennine whether the variability in performance they are measuring is likely to represent a real phenomenon to be explained, or whether it is just chance variation about the population mean. We inculcate this approach upon our students, against considerable resistance. Students’ intellectual opposition to this idea is entirely understandable: if one stops to consider, it is odd that we base our science on setting up, and then rejecting the hypothesis that there will be no effect in our studies.
The University of Pavia Medical School before Golgi
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pavia lies on the river T1cino. In the middle of the nineteenth century, with its towers and medieval churches, it was a tranquil and misty city that could be comfortably and quickly traversed on foot. Pavia did not differ much from other Lombard cities except for the presence of the University, the city’s topographic and cultural centre. This institution, whose remote origins can traced back to the year 825,1 was a powerful cultural magnet for the Lombard bourgeoisie, who sent their sons to study there.
Neurohistology and neurophysiology before the ‘black reaction’
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion that vegetables and animals are made of cells is relatively recent. In 1665 Robert Hooke reported the presence of ‘cellular’ structures in vegetables and soon afterwards Antony van Leeuwenhoek and Marcello Malpighi made analogous but more precise observations in animal and vegetable tissues. For many years, however, the importance of these discoveries was not fully recognized. In 1781 Abbot Felice Fontana glimpsed the internal structures of the cell, the nucleus and nucleolus, but it was Robert Brown, the discoverer of Brownian motion, who in 1831 recognized the nucleus as an essential part of the living cell.
The threat from Milan
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 4 November 1893, Golgi read the official opening address for the academic year 1893—94, as the new Rector of the University of Pavia. His election had been bitterly opposed by the members of the old guard, such as Sangalli, who were jealous of their power and prerogatives. Golgi was the leading exponent of that generation of’progressive’ middle-aged academics who were called ‘Young Turks’ by the students1 because of their aggressive assault on the key positions within the University.
The Golgi apparatus
Authors: Mazzarello Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During his three years as Rector of the University, Golgi had been occupied primarily with bureaucratic and administrative issues, even if every now and then he was able to return to the laboratory to carry out some experiments. He had resolved to his advantage the problem of the Palazzo Botta (and had cut a few corners in the process) and now his Institute occupied a vast wing of this building. In 1894 he had set up the section for the production of the anti-diphtheria serum and now, three years later, he added a section for anti-smallpox vaccine.
Separating hippocampal maps
Authors: Redish A David , Touretzky David S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hippocampal place cells also show correlations to non-spatial aspects of the world, including environment (Kubie and Ranck 1983; Muller and Kubie 1987; Thompson and Best 1989), task within environment (Markus et al. 1995), and even stage within task (Eichenbaum et al. 1987; Eichenbaum and Cohen 1988; Cohen and Eichenbaum 1993; Hampson et al. 1993; Gothard et al. 1996). Some have argued that these experiments imply that place cells should be understood as being general context cells, with space being only one of many parameters to which they are tuned (Eichenbaum et al. 1992; Wiener 1993; Eichenbaum 1996).
Right medial temporal-lobe contribution to object-location memory
Authors: Brenda Milner , Ingrid Johnsrude , Joelle Crane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of patients undergoing unilateral brain operation for the relief of epilepsy has revealed impairments after right anterior temporal lobectomy on a variety of spatial learning and spatial memory tasks, but only if the removal encroached extensively upon the hippocampus and/or the parahippocampal gyrus. The tasks sampled ranged from simple delayed recall of the position of a point on a line (Corsi 1972; Rains and Milner 1994) to more complex ones, such as stylus maze learning, both visual (Milner 1965) and tactual (Corkin 1965), and spatial conditional associative learning (Petrides 1985). These results for spatial memory are in marked contrast to the findings for complex visual patterns, such as faces, abstract designs, or the figurative detail in representational drawings, where an impairment in recognition memory is demonstrable after right temporal-lobe removals, even when the hippocampal region is spared (Kimura 1963; Milner 1968; Burke and Nolan 1988; Pigott and Milner 1993). They also contrast with those for verbal material, where memory impairment is typically seen after left temporal lobectomy but not after right.
Hierarchical organization of cognitive memory
Authors: Mishkin Mortimer , Suzuki Wendy A , Gadian David G , Vargha-Khadem Faraneh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Long-term cognitive memory, often referred to as declarative (Squire 1982) or propositional (Tulving 1993) memory, is critically dependent on the part of the medial temporal lobe that comprises the ‘ hippocampal system’ , a set of heavily interconnected structures consisting of the hippocampus and the underlying entorhinal, perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices. According to one func¬tional view, the medial temporal hippocampal system contributes in a unitary fashion to cognitive memory ability, which includes both memory for specific events (episodic memory) and memory for factual information (semantic memory). This single-system, unitary-process view is based on results that sug¬gest that the episodic and semantic memory impairments of amnesic patients with medial temporal-lobe damage vary together in a graded manner depend¬ing on the extent of damage to the hippocampal system as a whole (RempelClower et al. 1996; Squire & Zola 1996).
How do we select perceptions and actions? Human brain imaging studies
Authors: Rees Geraint , Frith Christopher D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The selective nature of human perception and action implies a modulatory interaction between sensorimotor processes and attentional processes. This chapter explores the use of functional imaging in humans to explore the mechanisms of perceptual selection and the fate of irrelevant stimuli that are not selected. Experiments with positron emission tomography show that two qualitatively different patterns of modulation of cerebral blood flow can be observed in experiments where non-spatial visual attention and auditory attention are manipulated. These patterns of modulation of cerebral blood flow modulation can be described as gain control and bias signal mechanisms. In visual and auditory cortex, the dominant change in cerebral blood flow associated with attention to either modality is related to a bias signal. The relation of these patterns of modulation to attentional effects that have been observed in single neurons is discussed. The existence of mechanisms for selective perception raises the more general question of whether irrelevant ignored stimuli are nevertheless perceived. Lavie’s theory of attention proposes that the degree to which ignored stimuli are processed varies depending on the perceptual load of the current task. Evidence from behavioural and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of ignored, visual-motion processing is presented in support of this proposal.
Oligodendrocyte Development
Authors: Richardson W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oligodendrocytes, like other neural cells in the central nervous system (CNS), develop from the neuroepithelial precursors that line the lumen of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain—the so-called ventricular zone (VZ). Although myelinating oligodendrocytes are one of the last cell types to differentiate in the CNS—accumulating mainly after birth in rodents—their progenitors are present in the VZ much earlier. In the rat spinal cord, for example, the first overt oligodendrocyte precursors appear in the VZ around embryonic day 14 (El4) or even earlier (conception is E0, birth ∽E21). Soon after this, they undergo a morphological transition, detach from the epithelium and migrate away from the VZ through the developing CNS (Levine and Goldman, 1988; Reynolds and Wilkin, 1988).
Structure and formation of the Node of Ranvier
Authors: Ellisman M , Deerinck T , Bennett V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nodes of Ranvier are the sites on myelinated axons, first discovered by the French pathologist Louis-Antoine Ranvier (1874), where insulating layers of myelin are interrupted and where the ion fluxes occur which are required for propagation of action potentials. Myelinated axons and their nodes of Ranvier are an important evolutionary advance of vertebrates that permit rapid, saltatory propagation of action potentials without an increase in axonal diameter. This physiological achievement is based on adaptations at a molecular level, resulting in an elegant cooperation between glial cells and nerve axons. Nodes of Ranvier include two adjacent specializations of the axonal plasma membrane characterized by high local concentrations of voltage-regulated ion channels: a paranodal region underlying the paranodal processes of glial cells which contains voltage-sensitive potassium channels, and a nodal axon segment between paranodes which is enriched in voltage-dependent sodium channels (Ellisman and Levinson, 1982; Waxman and Ritchie, 1993). The paranodal domain of axons is tightly opposed to paranodal loops of either Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) or oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS). The nodal axon segment of adult axons is in close contact with specialized microvilli of Schwann cells in the PNS (Berthold and Rydmark, 1995) or in contact with astrocytes in the CNS (Black et al., 1995).
Myelin-specific Genes and their Mutations in the Mouse
Authors: Nave K -A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An important function of glial cells in the mammalian nervous system is the assembly of myelin, a specialized cellular organelle and a structural prerequisite for rapid saltatory impulse conduction. Myelin is elaborated differently in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)—by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, respectively—which provides the opportunity to compare how this function is mastered by two cell types that utilize overlapping but not identical sets of genes. Recent evidence suggests that at least some of the myelin proteins are expressed at a low level in non-glial cells and may have been ‘recruited’ as structural components for the myelin sheath.
Control of Gene Expression by Oligodendrocytes
Authors: Hudson L D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two interlaced events distinguish the oligodendrocyte from other cell types in vertebrates, and the transcriptional controls that underly these events are likely to be unique for oligodendrocytes. The first is the specification of oligodendrocytes from stem cells in the CNS, following a series of signaling events (reviewed in Chapters 2 and 6) that culminate in the expression of the first wave of ‘oligodendrocyte-promoting’ transcription factors. It is reasonable to expect that both the types of transcription factors expressed at this stage and the relative concentrations of these factors are characteristic of cells destined to travel the oligodendrocyte pathway. A priori, none of these transcription factors need be found exclusively in cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage. Indeed, Nature’s way of maximizing the diversity of gene regulation with minimal effort is to combine a relatively small set of players (transcription factors), -∽5% of the total number of genes in Caenorhabditis elegans (Clarke and Berg, 1998; Ruvkun and Hobert, 1998), with multiple copies of their targets (small DNA-binding sites) distributed among the ∽60 000 expressed genes in the genome. A particular gene is then activated or repressed depending on (i) which combination of these target DNA-binding sites it possesses; (ii) what transcription factors are present in the nucleus for binding to these sites; and (iii) whether sufficient amounts of these transcription factors are available for binding to their targets.
Astrocytes are Dynamic Participants in Central Nervous System Development and Injury Responses
Authors: Fitch M T , Silver J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Astrocytes are glial cells found throughout the central nervous system (CNS) that are identified by their stereotypical stellate shape and their characteristic intracellular expression of the intermediate filament glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) (Bignami et al., 1972; Bignami and Dahl, 1974). While glial cells of the astrocyte lineage have been appreciated as an integral framework for neuronal migration and axon growth during development of the nervous system (Silver et al., 1993; Rakic, 1995), astrocytes are much more than merely a passive substrate for other cells to interact with. Astrocytes are involved in neurotransmitter transport (Schousboe and Westergaarde, 1995), establishing and maintaining the endothelial blood-brain barrier (Wolburg and Risau, 1995), ion homeostasis (see Chapter 6), immune recognition (Burudi et al., 1999), metabolic functions within nervous tissue (see Chapter 5), the regulation of axon growth during development (Silver et al., 1993) and the responses of the adult CNS to injury (Fitch and Silver, 1999). This chapter will discuss the active role of astrocytes that provide a dynamic framework of glial boundaries in the CNS during development and following traumatic injury.
Genetic and Cellular Mechanisms of Schwann Cell Tumor Formation: Neurofibromatosis type 1 and Neurofibromatosis type 2
Authors: Ratner N , Daston M M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NFl; von Recklinghausen disease) and neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2) are inherited human diseases in which affected individuals are predisposed to develop Schwann cell tumors. NFl and NF2 arise from mutations in different genes, each of which plays a key role in regulating Schwann cell function. The NFl gene on human chromosome 17 encodes an intracellular signaling molecule that functions as a GTPase-activating protein for Ras proteins, while the NF2 gene on human chromosome 22 encodes a cytoskeletal-membrane linking protein. Patients with NFl and NF2 typically present with different types of benign Schwann cell tumors. We describe the symptoms and genetics of NFl and NF2, what has been learned about the roles of the NFl and NF2 gene products in peripheral nerve function, and how loss of these proteins might contribute to formation of Schwann cell tumors.