bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Tempting the Wrath: ``Plan Colombia'' in the Colombian Peace Process
Authors:   Sanin
Published: November 2003

AbstractWhat role did `Plan Colombia' – the United States' counter-narcotics aid package –play in the dynamics of Colombia's peace negotiations? This article explains how `Plan Colombia' can be perceived as a strategic move by the Pastrana Administration to overcome the protracted stalemate in the peace negotiations between the government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Using basic tools from game theory, it is shown how `Plan Colombia' could have created incentives for both parties to move towards bilateral concession. However, it is argued that due to the absence of an imminent threat, the incentive structures were not altered sufficiently to induce the parties to compromise. A distinct consequence of `Plan Colombia' is that it irreversibly linked the United State's interest in the Colombian internal conflict to the issue of narcotics.
Case-Based Research on International Negotiation: Approaches and Data Sets
Authors:   Druckman
Published: November 2003

AbstractFour case-based research approaches to analysis of data on international negotiation are discussed: the single, analytical case study, the temporal or time-series case study, the focused comparison of a small number of similar cases, and aggregate comparisons of a large number of different cases. The strategies are compared in terms of a number of methodological and substantive features. They are considered as alternative routes to theory development, understood best in relation to each other and best utilized together as part of a multi-method research strategy. The role of frameworks for guiding comparative analyses is discussed in the second part of the article. They are illustrated in conjunction with several multivariate projects involving the coding of variables from a variety of cases. Methods of analysis and findings obtained from these projects are then summarized. These framework-driven comparative analyses are facilitated by the advent of web-based technologies. The new technologies are especially useful for collecting information about cases of negotiation not described in archival publications. The article concludes with challenges that confront the analyst and some gaps that remain to be filled.
Creating Data on International Negotiation Strategies, Alternatives and Outcomes
Authors:   Odell
Published: November 2003

AbstractIf greater efforts could be invested in generating uniform data on the international negotiation process, I would nominate at least three key dimensions for fresh attention: strategies, alternatives, and outcomes. Although these are not the only interesting dimensions, better empirical knowledge about them is surely central. Strategies can be conceived of as sets of observable behavior that vary along a continuum from purely distributive, through mixed, to purely integrative tactics. This continuum could bring greater order to the many ways in which the notion of strategy has been used. A second worthwhile indicator would estimate the value of the party's best alternative to negotiated agreement and changes in that value. Theoretically, behavior and ultimately outcomes depend critically on the parties' alternatives outside the talks. Third, I believe negotiation researchers need to place a high priority on pinning down the difference that the process makes, net of other influences, to the outcome. Measuring gains and losses requires first choosing a conceptual reference point for the comparison. Data creation projects such as these would face theoretical and technical dilemmas that would demand careful thought. But if the necessary resources were invested, researchers would be better able to test hypotheses about negotiation on evidence from actual experience, in addition to laboratory evidence.
Ethnic Bargaining and the Management of Intense Conflict
Authors: Rothchild  
Published: November 2003

AbstractRecent negotiating successes should cause us to pause and reconsider the widespread mood of scholarly pessimism regarding the possibilities for ethnic bargaining. Such pessimism springs in part from an emphasis on the long-standing nature of group differences and the hatreds that is said to accompany these differences, and in part from the threat to moderate politics that can take place under democratic as well as authoritarian regimes. To be sure, when adversaries confront each other directly and no mediator stands between them, a shift in strategic interactions can prove difficult but not impossible. However, the structure for interethnic bargaining changes significantly when a third-party mediator intercedes and attempts to influence the adversaries to alter their perceptions on the benefits of reaching an agreement. Third-party mediation, then, is the missing variable in the traditional literature on ethnic bargaining; this missing element helps to explain an important part of the gap between the scholarly pessimism of the past and the current reality.
International Negotiations and Plural Societies: The Cases of Estonia and Tatarstan
Authors: Kaplan  
Published: November 2003

AbstractMulti-ethnic societies create special contexts for international negotiations. Chief governmental officers (CGOs) , domestic constituencies, and public protest may affect both the nature of agreements and the domestic structures of regimes. Employing a two-level negotiations perspective, the role of third parties and the ability of CGOs to modify domestic constituencies is highlighted. The contraction of participation and the cooptation of nationalism by CGOs distinguishes these cases which involve plural societies from other international negotiations.
Ethnic Conflict and Three-Level Games: Turks, Kurds, and Foreign Actors
Authors: Kubicek  
Published: November 2003

AbstractNational and ethnic conflict have assumed new prominence in world politics. This article builds upon Robert Putnam's model of multi-level games to assess both the dynamics of conflict and conditions favoring settlement in the case of the on-going battle between the Turkish government and Kurdish separatists. In this case, interaction among issues and forces at inter-ethnic, domestic politics, and international levels affect prospects for a negotiated settlement. Particularly crucial elements have been the structure of Turkey's government and the constraints on free expression. These factors severely limit the chances to resolve the dual Prisoners' Dilemma and find a means to achieve mutual cooperation.
Forcing the Political Agenda: The Zapatista Rebellion and the Limits of Ethnic Bargaining in Mexico
Authors: Foley  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe Zapatista rebels of southern Mexico have achieved considerable success both in maintaining themselves against unlikely odds and in coming to agreement with the Mexican government on issues affecting indigenous rights and identity. At the same time, a central demand, both of the Zapatistas and the indigenous movement which they have helped to revitalize, namely revision of the 1992 constitutional reforms affecting corporate claims to land and the possibility of further land reform, has been roundly rejected by the government. The paper explains both Zapatista achievements and the limits to ethnic bargaining evident in the negotiations to date through an analysis of the dynamic process by which both sides came to the negotiating table and shaped and reshaped the rules of the bargaining game. It draws on social movement theory to show how the Zapatistas in particular were able to overcome the ``asymmetry of internal conflict'' and frame the issues, enlarging its base of support to a national level. At the same time, specifically indigenous issues could be resolved much more readily than the larger concerns, including those surrounding landholding, which motivated the rebellion. The shifting political context had much to do with the government's willingness to negotiate; but the Zapatista's skill at assembling a national constituency, attracting international attention, and framing the issues were decisive in achieving accords on indigenous rights. Nevertheless, in the absence of a ``mutually hurting stalemate,'' government negotiators could continue to reject Zapatista demands on issues reaching beyond strictly ethnic concerns.
Political Pacts as Negotiated Agreements: Comparing Ethnic and Non-Ethnic Cases
Authors: Hartzell  , Rothchild  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article seeks to conceptualize political pacts as a transitional strategy that has been employed by a number of countries seeking to move toward democratic regimes or outcomes. Political pacts, which are formed in an effort to manage large-scale and often violent societal conflict, have certain common characteristics, among them the key role played by elites in negotiating and designing these agreements. After examining the concept of political pacts, the defining characteristics of pacts, and the relation they bear to societal conflict, we focus on the latter factor, differentiating between cases of domestic societal conflict that have an identity/personalistic dimension to them and those that do not. In particular, we seek to determine the types of factors that may facilitate or complicate the successful use of pacts as a transitional strategy for creating and maintaining democratic regimes.
Explaining Oslo
Authors: Zartman  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThree approaches are rested as explanations of the outcome of the Oslo negotiations. Ripeness theory explains the onset of the Madrid negotiations, which then talked themselves into a mutually hurting stalemate, but it accounts only for the beginning of Oslo, not its outcome. Process analysis shows neither a formula-detail nor a concession-convergence process but a hybrid constructed substantive process with two turning points of toughness, alongside a two-phased procedural process created by the need to officialize the proceedings. This approach explains rather well the nature of the constructed outcome. Contending theories of mediation bring out the importance of seeking a settlement rather than a resolution, of turning track two into track one diplomacy, and of using a powerless rather than a muscled mediator. But they also show how the type of outcome reached at Oslo prepared its own undoing when brought back home.
Communication and the Oslo Negotiation: Contacts, Patterns, and Modes
Authors: Carcasson  , Putnam  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis essay contends that Oslo, as a back-channel negotiation, grew out of and was implemented within a complex communication system. This system consists of six elements: the roles of multiple agents, the patterns of interaction among the agents, communication across the sides, overlapping inputs from negotiation channels, the roles of mediators, and the use of communication modes. Back-channel negotiations are characterized by concerns for legitimacy, secrecy, keeping the talks moving, and leveraging both sides to remain at the table. The Oslo system evolved through the use of multiple agents to enhance legitimacy and the use of chain patterns to filter information and persuade principals. The Norwegian mediators acted as facilitators to build relationships between the sides, leverage costs and benefits of working together, and accelerate the speed of the talks through using multiple modes of communication. Overall, the communication system preserved the secrecy of the process through special codes for telephone conversations and through traveling to multiple sites outside of Oslo for meetings. Ironically, the secrecy and expediency of the process also created an insular system, one in which the principals experienced selective bias and illusions of unanimity.
Fair Division: A New Approach to the Spratly Islands Controversy
Authors: denoon  , Brams  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe Spratly Islands are a group of over 230 small islands and reefs in the South China Sea. Both China and Taiwan, as well as four members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) – Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei –have made claims on part or all of the land areas and surrounding waters, which are believed to have major oil and gas deposits. Because there are overlapping claims, and no single country has had continuous possession of the area, it is unlikely that international legal procedures can resolve the dispute quickly. There are four major issues in the dispute: sovereignty, economic development, freedom of passage, and regional security. We focus on sovereignty and suggest a two-step process for dividing the islands. A fair-division procedure called Adjusted Winner (AW) would first be applied to the allocation between China and ASEAN, after which there would be an allocation among the ASEAN states. The example used to illustrate AW divides the region into five zones and concentrates on the first step, negotiation between China and ASEAN. We present three potential bidding strategies for China, and two for ASEAN, that give six different allocations of the islands. The AW allocations are efficient, equitable, envy-free and, in our example, give both sides between 65% and 83% of what we assume they would prefer.
Training as Interactive Conflict Resolution: Characteristics and Challenges
Authors: Fisher  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe face of international conflict continues to shift toward a predominance of internal conflicts between or among contending communal groups within divided societies. New conceptual tools and expanded methods of conflict resolution are required to address this destructive phenomenon. The problem-solving workshop, which can serve useful prenegotiaton functions, is now joined with a variety of innovative interventions in dialogue, reconciliation and conflict resolution training. A broad definition of interactive conflict resolution goes beyond problem-solving workshops to include all forms of facilitated, face-to-face activities in communication, training, education or consultation that promote collaborative conflict analysis and peacebuilding among influential members of groups in protracted conflict. The history and rationale of training in conflict resolution is to be found largely in the development and expression of human relations training and more recently in the growth of training in negotiation and mediation skills. Conflict resolution training in divided societies can be seen as having a unique intergroup focus, and as embodying both generic and focused objectives, the former relating to enhanced capacities of participants to manage conflict effectively, and the latter involving increased understanding of the other group and the creation of mutual ideas for peacebuilding. Thus, training as interactive conflict resolution often involves generic activities to impart concepts and skills as well as focused experiences to induce intergroup understanding and cooperation. While directed toward laudable goals, this powerful form of training raises some important pragmatic and ethical issues that need to be managed carefully.
Designing a Collective Approach to Peace: Interactive Design and Problem-Solving Workshops with Greek-Cypriot and Turkish-Cypriot Communities in Cyprus
Authors: Broome  
Published: November 2003

AbstractA series of problem-solving workshops, facilitated by the author utilizing the “interactive management” design process, was held in Cyprus over a nine-month period with a bi-communal group of Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots. Participants addressed peacebuilding efforts in Cyprus during three phases of group work in which they (a) explored the current situation surrounding such efforts, (b) developed a collective vision for the future, and (c) created an integrated set of activities that they would lead over the next two to three years. The process and the products from the group work are described, and personal reflections are offered about the context for the training, cultural considerations, political and practical difficulties, the impact of the workshops, and an evaluation of the training.
Unofficial Interventions with Official Actors: Parallel Negotiation Training in Violent Intrastate Conflicts
Authors: Chigas  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe article compares the author's experience providing parallel negotiation training to the negotiating teams of the conflicting parties in El Salvador and South Africa as a pre-negotiation tool in its own right, rather than as a prelude to later joint dialogue sessions. Several general conclusions are posited about the key elements and challenges of parallel training used as an intervention tool, including the unusual role played by the trainer in this context as an partisan advisor-trainer, and the difficulties of building the parties' trust. Based on the experience in El Salvador and South Africa, the author proposes several ways in which parallel negotiation training contributes to a successful negotiation: (1) by helping the parties to deal with obstacles to negotiation, such as how the parties define or ``frame'' the conflict and how they view negotiations as a win-lose process; (2) by helping to build the parties' confidence and a sense of empowerment; and (3) by helping to improve the design, structure and implementation of the negotiation process itself.
Action Evaluation and Conflict Resolution Training: Theory, Method and Case Study
Authors: Rothman  
Published: November 2003

AbstractCurrent efforts to develop an “appropriate technology” for evaluating conflict resolution methods, including conflict resolution training, are described. There is a need in conflict resolution for research and evaluation methods which are contextually sensitive to the setting, participants, content, and process of specific initiatives. This need parallels the idea of appropriate technology in third world development efforts, in which sensitivity to context and a great deal of local participation is sought to ensure that outside aid is truly wanted and helpful. Appropriate means of evaluating conflict resolution are still lacking; new methodologies consistent with, and even constitutive of, normative conflict resolution goals and values are required. The article describes and illustrates a process designed to bridge conflict resolution and evaluation, which is labeled “action-evaluation.”
The Potential Contribution of Training to Resolving International Conflict
Authors: Fisher  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis concluding article summarizes and comments on the training cases in terms of the identity of the participants, the stated objectives, the claimed outcomes, the issues addressed and the methods of evaluation. The cases address a range of internal conflicts with international ramifications at various stages of expression from ongoing difficulties, to stalemate, to settlement. There is considerable variety in the scope and focus of objectives, from changing the culture of conflict of a society to shifting the norms of negotiation from adversarial to cooperative. The overall theme is that training interventions can increase the participants' capacity for problem solving and conflict management in ways that support the ultimate resolution of their conflict. The analysis of the issues addressed in the cases shows a moderate level of concern on the part of this group of trainers, with some issues receiving more attention than others. The issue of cultural appropriateness is partly addressed by the cases, but a need is identified for more sophisticated attention through cultural analyses of an anthropological nature and through cross-cultural training for trainers themselves. The educational approach adopted in the cases is largely prescriptive within a collaborative orientation, thus demonstrating a need for more elicitive procedures. Maintaining the training focus and managing political intrusions were issues not commented on frequently in the cases, and yet they are concerns of continuing importance. The issue of succession appears to be well handled in this sample of interventions, with lead trainers being sensitive to developing apprentices who can function independently at the point of program termination. Evaluation is addressed in all the cases, but the depth and scope of such efforts varies considerably, thus demonstrating that the evaluation agenda requires greater investment by the field. Similarly, the question of transfer is raised in most cases, but is addressed in very different ways depending largely on the identity of the participants. Concluding comments provide a general assessment of the cases, and raise questions intended to direct the practice of training as interactive conflict resolution toward continued professional development.
From Research to Application: Utilizing Research Findings in Negotiation Training Programs
Authors: Druckman  , Robinson  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article discusses a project that uses research findings in negotiation training programs. Results from more than 100 published articles were organized by thematic categories and summarized in the form of twelve narrative statements. The narratives were used by trainees in applied exercises that featured three simulated professional roles: analyst, strategist, and designer of simulations. Three workshops were conducted, two with United Nations' diplomats and one with students in a university graduate program. Results showed that all participants were positive about the usefulness of the narratives, the ease of execution of the roles, and the case exercises. However, the analyst and strategist roles were easier to execute than the designer role. The graduate students in the longer university workshop produced better group products (in each role) than did the diplomats in the shorter sessions. Participants from both types of sessions indicated that the experience had substantial long-term impact on their subsequent professional work. The article concludes with a discussion of some of the innovative aspects of the project, some lessons learned, and next steps to be taken.
Simulations and Experiential Learning in the International Relations Classroom
Authors: Lantis  
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article explores the value of experiential learning about international negotiations through role-playing exercises. Simulations have been employed successfully in international relations courses since the late 1950s, but the end of the Cold War has prompted a renewed interest in simulations as interactive teaching tools that capture the dynamics of change in the international system. Building on the existing literature on simulations, I describe an effective role-playing exercise for the new era, the Global Problems Summit, which was originally designed for an advanced undergraduate Political Science course at The College of Wooster. This simulation is structured to fulfill clear educational objectives by providing an opportunity for experiential learning about international diplomacy and the complexity of global problems, an understanding of different national perspectives on these issues, and the development of negotiation and communication skills to promote international cooperation. Three years of successful application lead me to conclude that the Global Problems Summit and related role-playing simulations can truly enliven the international relations classroom and enhance the learning experience.