bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Appropriate Attitudes Toward Nonexistence
Authors: Kamm F. M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractConsiders how one should deal with death, given what makes it bad, and worse than prenatal non‐existence. An evaluation is made of the three main types of factors discussed in Ch. 4 that play a part in our asymmetrical attitude toward death and prenatal non‐existence: the Insult Factor, that death happens to a person who has already existed and undoes him; the Extinction Factor, that death means the possibility of anything significant for the person in the future is over; and the Deprivation Factor, that death deprives the person who dies of significant future goods (the Thomas Nagel/Derek Parfit point). Part of the discussion on the Insult Factor involves looking at the shape of events at the edges of life, as well as within it: incline and decline. This matter is considered further in a brief appendix following this chapter.
Acquisition of Organs
Authors: Kamm F. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Deals with the problem of the acquisition and distribution of organs for transplantation and allows the application of the foregoing theoretical discussion of saving lives and relevant/irrelevant utilities. As an aid to dealing with categories that are of current concern to the medical community, Ch. 11 starts with a summary of the recommendations of the US Task Force on Organ Transplantation on acquisition and distribution of organs, and discusses and criticizes the total‐brain‐death criterion for death. The next section of the chapter discusses the role of informed consent of the original organ owner and his family in relation to the State in the task of acquiring organs, as well as the moral possibility of sale, trading, and taking of organs. The last section of the chapter considers the morality of more controversial proposals for acquiring organs: ‘donation’ from foetuses, donation from live donors where there is significant risk to the donor, and (the most radical) killing some persons for the sake of acquiring organs for others.
Distribution of Resources: Outcome, Waiting Time, and Money
Authors: Kamm F. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Continues the discussion of organ distribution for transplantation presented in the last four chapters of Part III of the book. Considers whether and why, when need and urgency are held constant, greater (better) outcome should be given weight in making decisions. An examination is made of various theories in more detail, including that of contractualist moral reasoning as proposed by Thomas Scanlon. Aspects addressed include the substitution of equivalents, counting numbers vs concentrated benefit, worse vs better outcomes, the weight to be given to death, equal rights, and social utility in relation to outcome, and the role of the doctor in relation to consideration of outcome and social policy. Discussions of how much weight to give to waiting time, the role of ability to pay in distribution decisions, and problems in deriving the government's duty to pay complete the chapter.
The Inner Kalacakratantra
Authors: Wallace Vesna A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Kālacakratantra and its commentarial literature are a rich textual source for the study of diverse but mutually related fields of South Asian studies in general and of South Asian Buddhism in particular. The works that belong to the Kālacakra literary corpus warrant careful research for several reasons: they express the doctrinal and social theories and the relevant tantric practices that were characteristic of north Indian Buddhism in its final stages; the Kālacakratantra literature also sheds light on the religious and social conditions of eleventh‐century India in general and on the social standing and role of Indian tantric Buddhism of that era in particular. For these reasons, a main focus of this book is on the Kālacakra tradition as an Indian Buddhist tradition. The central topic of the book is the Kālacakratantra's view of the nature of the individual and the place of the individual in the universe and society. Accordingly, a primary theme is a textual, historical, and philosophical analysis of the second chapter of the Kālacakratantra, the “Chapter on the Individual” (adhyātma‐paṭala), and its principal commentary, the Vimalaprabhā. However, since the Kālacakra tradition's theory of the human being permeates all the chapters of the Kālacakratantra, its second chapter is intimately related to the other chapters of the tantra. For example, the Kālacakratantra's view of the individual is inseparable from its view of the universe as discussed in the first chapter of the tantra. Likewise, the purpose of the Kālacakratantra's presentation of the individual's psycho‐physiology in the second chapter becomes clear only when examined in light of the tantric yogic practices described in the third, fourth, and fifth chapters. Therefore, in this book the topics of the inner Kālacakratantra are dealt with in their relationship to the larger context of the Kālacakratantra's theory and practice. In accordance with the Kālacakratantra's theory of nonduality, this book analyzes the Kālacakra tradition's view of the individual in terms of the individual as cosmos, society, gnosis, and the path of spiritual transformation.
The Broader Theoretical Framework of the Kālacakratantra
Authors: Wallace Vesna A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first part of this chapter gives a general introduction traditions and theory to the Kālacakratantra, which is described as belonging to the class of the unexcelled yoga‐tantras (anuttara‐yoga‐tantra). Together with its most authoritative Indian commentary, the Vimalaprabhā it stands as the most comprehensive and informative tantra of its class. According to the Kālacakra tradition itself, the Kālacakratantra is the most explicit tantra, which imparts its teaching by revealing the actual meanings, whereas the other anuttara‐yoga‐tantras, which are regarded as secret or concealed tantras, convey their meanings in an implicit manner. The topics covered in the further sections of the chapter are the classification of the families in the Kālacakra tradition; a critique by the Mādhyamika system of Buddhist philosophy of other philosophical systems in the Kālacakratantra; the concept of the Ādibuddha in the Kālacakra tantric system; and the Kālacakratantra and the Mañjuśrīnāmasaṃgīti [a fairly early devotional tantric text of unknown origin (circa 7th century) for communal recitation centring on the praises of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, the Buddhist patron saint of wisdom and learning]. The last section of the chapter presents a brief analysis of the Inner Kālacakratantra.
The Concept of Science in the Kālacakra Tradition
Authors: Wallace Vesna A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
When the issue of science is raised within the context of Indian Buddhist thought, there are no more advanced or comprehensive matrices of theory and practice than those presented in the literature of the Kālacakra tradition. A textual study of the Indian literary sources of this tantric tradition reveals that when Brāhmaṇic formal education in eleventh century India was exclusively theological and disdainful of technical knowledge, north Indian Buddhist monastic education incorporated training in nontheological skills that required knowledge of medicine, alchemy, mathematics, artisanship, and even weaponry. The sharp split between theological and scientific education, which impaired the Brāhmaṇic educational system of that time, was absent in Buddhist monastic education owing to the prevailing Buddhist view that theological knowledge and technical and scientific learning are not only compatible but complementary. The literature of the Kālacakra tradition with its diverse and well‐integrated topics and applications of diverse fields of knowledge attests to that fact, and has its roots in the Buddhist monastic, educational system. This chapter presents examples of science from the Kālacakratantra and other Kālacakra literature; almost half of it is devoted to the Buddhist tantric medicine, which integrates classical Āyurdevic medicine, alchemy, and magic.
The Transformative Body
Authors: Wallace Vesna A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first part of this last chapter discusses the path of actualizing gnosis in relation to the individual. The Kālacakratantra's theory of the nature of gnosis, prāṇas (life force or life winds), spiritual ignorance, and mental afflictions, as well as the relationships among them, provides the rationale for the Kālacakratantra practices for eliminating mental afflictions and actualizing the four bodies of the Buddha. Among the Kālacakratantra's multifaceted approaches to the eradication of mental afflictions, several are especially significant: first, the path of eliminating mental afflictions is the path of sublimating the afflictive nature of mental afflictions into the peaceful and pure nature of the enlightened beings, who are the pure aspects of the elements from which mental afflictions arise; second, the path of sublimating mental afflictions in the Kālacakra tradition is the path of recognizing the ultimate nature of one's own mental afflictions, which is gnosis. The following three sections of the chapter look at the transformative body of the path of initiation, the transformative body of the path of the stage of generation, and the transformative body of the path of the stage of completion. The last section examines the phases of the ṣaḍ‐aṅga‐yoga (six‐phased yoga) of the Kālacakratantra; this is a meditative process that manifests the successively more encompassing aspects of the mind.
Truth Bearers
Authors: Soames Scott 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
A variety of truth bearers are considered – statements, beliefs, claims, assumptions, hypotheses, propositions, sentences, and utterances. It is argued that statements, beliefs, claims, assumptions, and hypotheses – in the sense of things stated, believed, claimed, assumed, and hypothesized – can be identified with propositions, but that these, in turn, cannot be identified with sentences or utterances. Propositions are distinguished as the primary bearers of truth, while sentences and utterances are properly characterized as true in virtue of expressing true propositions.
Forms of Truth Skepticism
Authors: Soames Scott 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Five different forms of truth skepticism are examined and defused: the view that truth is indefinable, that it is unattainable and unknowable, that it is inextricably metaphysical and hence not scientifically respectable, that there is no such thing as truth, and that truth is inherently paradoxical, and so must either be abandoned or revised. An intriguing formulation of the last of these views is owing to Alfred Tarski, who argued that the Liar paradox shows natural languages to be inconsistent because they contain defective, and ultimately incoherent truth predicates. Here, it is argued in response that on a plausible interpretation of his puzzling notion of an inconsistent language, Tarski's argument is, though logically valid, almost certainly unsound, since one of its premises is highly problematic. Similar results are achieved for other forms of truth skepticism.
Lessons of the Liar
Authors: Soames Scott 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In proving that the language of arithmetic does not contain its own truth predicate, Tarski demonstrated that the claim that a language both satisfies certain minimal conditions and contains its own truth predicate leads to a contradiction – a result that can seem puzzling in light of the fact that it seems obvious that English does satisfy the relevant conditions, while containing its own truth predicate (though of course this cannot be). Chapter 5 explores the well‐known response to this problem (a version of the Liar paradox), which maintains that English is really an infinite hierarchy of languages defined by a hierarchy of Tarski‐style truth predicates. The construction of the hierarchy is explained, and the ways in which it is used to block different versions of the paradox are illustrated. The discussion then turns to problems with the approach, the most serious being the irresistible urge to violate the hierarchy's restrictions on intelligibility in the very process of setting it up – something we tend to forget because we imagine ourselves taking a position outside the hierarchy from which it can be described. Once we realize that the hierarchy is supposed to apply to the language we are using to describe it, the paradox returns with a vengeance, threatening to destroy the very construction that was introduced to avoid it.
Nature's Garden
Authors: Cladis Mark S. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractFocuses on life in the Garden, or in what philosophers commonly call the state of nature. Its inhabitants – Rousseau's Solitaires, the imaginary human species that inhabited the state of nature – have as much to tell us about association as about solitude. Rousseau came to realize that alone, as radical solitaires, although we are protected from much pain, we can be neither truly happy nor moral. In the company of others, however, even as we seek to do good, we risk inflicting harm. Rousseau's response to this dilemma illuminates a salient feature of modern liberal society: the more we seek to do good, the more we risk doing evil; or, conversely, the more we avoid such risk, the more we dodge our moral obligations.
From the Garden to the Blessed Country
Authors: Cladis Mark S. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCharts the course of the Fall from the simple contentment, invulnerability, and innocence of the Garden to the complex gratifications, vulnerability, and corruption of the City. This is a story of costly progress: the Solitaire must sacrifice itself in order to release its inner potential for development, and thereby give birth to a new creation, the social human. The Fall is cast in seven stages that are based on Rousseau's discourse, “On the Origin of Inequality.” The first four stages are considered in Ch. 3, concluding with stage four, the Second Garden, which represents Rousseau's vision of happy humans precariously balanced between solitude and community, invulnerability and vulnerability, and independence and dependence.
Overcoming Moral Evil
Authors: Cladis Mark S. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractRousseau is often celebrated or cursed as an exemplar Enlightenment philosopher who declared that although humans are naturally good, society tampers with us and thereby corrupts us. Although Rousseau's complex and even contradictory writings engender disagreement among his interpreters, all seem to agree that Rousseau spurned any notion of original sin – of innate corruption – and that he blamed corrupt, irrational social institutions for the majority of our miseries. Ch. 6 argues, however, that this standard interpretation of Rousseau's account of evil is too facile. Rousseau positioned himself at the crossroads of Enlightenment and Augustinian thought, and this awkward position enabled him to produce a rich and complex view on the nature of evil and human culpability. We will see that, in Rousseau's view, humans naturally gather and court harm, and that, in spite of this pessimism, Rousseau could also optimistically declare God's creation and human existence to be good.
The Mountain Village
Authors: Cladis Mark S. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExplores the way of Clarens, or the Mountain Village. In the Mountain Village of Rousseau's Julie; or, The New Eloise, self‐sufficient families enjoy community life, agreeable work, and natural beauty. Clarens has much to teach us about what we may hope for from family and friends, from local community, and from those intermediate spheres where the lines between public and private are not stark, where individuals can gather and share their different yet related lives. Rousseau's most cherished ideals are found on this path, and they are incarnated in his most famous woman character, Julie. Yet the way of Clarens has no political life, no government or culture to safeguard individual rights. Hence we should fear anything resembling a national Clarens. Clarens, like Rousseau's other paths, remains partial, incomplete, and provisional.
Conclusion
Authors: Cladis Mark S. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCan we achieve a common life and also support thriving private lives? In this concluding chapter, I ask if Rousseau held a dominant, normative view that informed his various depictions of social and personal health and healing. Finally, I suggest what Rousseau has to offer to us, to practitioners of twenty‐first century democracy. It is precisely the chaos of Rousseau's life and tangles of his thought that make him useful for exploring the irregular contours of the public and private. The tensions and complexities of life alone and life together branded, seared, his work. Self‐possession and civic participation, private safety and public belonging, personal aesthetics and shared pleasures – these goals, commitments, and ideals animated Rousseau as he sought to capture them, all of them, in his life and thought. His failures are evident enough. But the attempt remains worthwhile.
South Africa: The Role of Peace and Conflict‐Resolution Organizations in the Struggle Against Apartheid
Authors: Taylor Rupert 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Participation in civil society was one of the few options for the pursuit of peaceful progressive change in apartheid South Africa, and a range of peace and conflict‐resolution organizations (P/CROs) explored this option. These P/CROs were staffed mainly by middle class, white, university educated, English‐speaking males, exhibited significant levels of formalization and centralization, depended heavily on international funding, and were often harassed by the apartheid state. P/CROs were active in antimilitarization activities, mediation, promoting contact between white and black communities, encouraging dialog between elites, and research. Extensive links developed amongst P/CROs, between P/CROs and other kinds of antiapartheid nongovernmental organizations, and between some P/CROs and the mass‐based resistance movements; collectively, these organizations formed a “multiorganizational field.” P/CROs, in concert with the rest of the multiorganizational field, helped project an “emergent reality” – a nonracial and democratic South Africa; established channels of communication between the apartheid state and the resistance movement; and ripened the climate for political change.
Peace and Conflict‐Resolution Organizations in Northern Ireland
Authors: Cochrane Feargal , Dunn Seamus 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The “democratic deficit” and significant British and European financial support for civil society have led to the growth of a large voluntary sector in Northern Ireland, including a diverse collection of peace and conflict‐resolution organizations (P/CROs). P/CROs in Northern Ireland were founded to deal with the symptoms of the conflict, not its real or perceived causes, and member characteristics were largely determined by which symptoms P/CROs focused on; however, most members were broadly left leaning. Some P/CROs targeted specific communities, some sought to influence a broader audience, and others did both. While smaller, less formal P/CROS needed little income, larger groups required more funding, and sometimes had to professionalize in order to secure it, although relationships with funders tended to be relaxed. While P/CROs clearly had no direct impact on the peace process, they did introduce an “inclusivist” philosophy into the political arena, encouraged political debate, and provided an extra tier of progressive leadership.
The Significance of Free Will
Authors: Kane Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe first of two goals of this book is to provide a critical survey of the major debates about free will and determinism of the past quarter century, a period during which there have been many new developments in the study of this ancient philosophical problem. The book seeks to acquaint readers with current debates and new developments on free will, showing their relevance to broad contemporary concerns in ethics, politics, science, religion, and humanities. The second goal of the book is to defend a traditional view of free will and moral responsibility, according to which both are incompatible with determinism. In response to claims that such a traditional view of free will (often nowadays called an “incompatibilist” or “libertarian” view) has no place in the modern scientific picture of the world, the book argues that a nondeterminist conception of free will can be defended without the usual appeals to obscure or mysterious forms of agency and can be reconciled with recent developments in the sciences – physical, biological, neurological, cognitive, and behavioral. The book also discusses the relation of free will to other important topics, such as morality, dignity, rationality, creativity, autonomy, desert, causation, consciousness, alternative possibilities, explanations of action, reasons for action, practical reason, weakness of will, incommensurability of values, and others.
Responsibility
Authors: Kane Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIt is argued on historical grounds that two criteria for free will have led people to suppose it must be incompatible with determinism. The first and most commonly discussed of these criteria is the requirement of avoidability or “alternative possibilities” (AP) (that one who acts from free will must have the power to do otherwise or “could have done otherwise”). The second criterion is less commonly discussed, but I argue that it is the more important and central requirement for free will: “ultimate responsibility” (UR), being the ultimate originator or creator of one's own purposes, character, and achievements. This obscure, but pivotal, notion of ultimate responsibility, and the related notion of ultimate origination, are analyzed and their relation to the historical problem of free will is explained.
Alternative Possibilities
Authors: Kane Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter analyzes the latest arguments for and against the claim that determinism is incompatible with free will that rely on the first criterion for free will – alternative possibilities (AP), or the “power to do otherwise.” The chapter begins by considering the most discussed argument for the incompatibility of free will and determinism based on AP, called the “Consequence Argument” by Peter van Inwagen. Current debates about this Consequence Argument are thoroughly canvassed; and in the process, various views are critically discussed concerning the meaning of power, ability, “can,” “could have done otherwise,” laws of nature, changing the past, and other notions. Compatibilist analyses of these notions (analyses that would render free will compatible with determinism) are critically examined.
Efforts, Purposes, and Practical Reason
Authors: Kane Robert 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe task of constructing an indeterminist account of free will without appeal to obscure or mysterious notions of agency or causation (begun in Ch. 8) is continued in this chapter. The theory is extended to additional topics beyond free choices in moral and prudential contexts, for example, to “efforts of will sustaining purposes” that may be involved in different human activities where resistance in the will must be overcome, to acts of attention, to self‐control and self‐modification, practical deliberation, creative problem solving and changes of intention in action. Along the way, a number of other topics are discussed: evolution and rationality, the role of chance in problem solving, self‐deception, the role of “effort” in Eastern philosophies, such as Taoism, and the relation of incommensurability of values to free will.