bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book explores the cross-linguistic variation in the structural encoding of the Domain of Intransitive Predication. This domain is defined as the set of non-embedded propositions which consist essentially of a one-place predicate and its argument; the typical linguistic reflection of such propositions is formed by intransitive main clauses. I assume that the domain can be seen as some ‘cognitive/ semantic space’, the topography of which is the same for all languages. Furthermore, I assume that the domain consists of four (non-discrete, and prototypically defined) subdomains, which correspond to a four-way distinction between the semantic classes of event predicates, property predicates, class predicates, and locational predicates; these four semantic predicate classes have their typical linguistic reflection in the lexical classes of verbs, predicate adjectives, predicate nominals, and predicatively used adverbials. In short, the data base of this study consists of the equivalents of English sentences such as given in (1) for each language of the sample:
Discovery
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rapanui’s rongorongo inscriptions were to be first described to the outside world at their very demise, the honour of penning their obituary falling to the Frenchman Joseph-Eugène Eyraud (1820---68), Easter Island’s first known non-Rapanui resident (Fig. 3). From his Bolivian mining interests Eyraud had become moderately well-to-do and, emulating his missionary brother Father Jean Eyraud of China in wishing to dedicate his fortune and talents to the Congregation des Sacres-Coeurs (hereinafter SSCC), he eventually sailed on his own recognisance-legally independent of the SSCC-to Rapanui where from January till October of 1864 he tested the feasibility of an authorised Catholic mission to the island.
“How Can the Riddle Be Solved?”
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If with the advent of the twentieth century a revolutionary breakthrough in the decipherment of Easter Island’s classical script had been anticipated, then one was to be sorely disappointed. If anything, there still prevailed the two unproductive methods of approach to rongorongo: the gathering of informant information and the survey of possible cognate scripts. It would not be for another half century until trained epigraphers would begin to appreciate the full possibilities of an internal analysis of the elusive Easter Island script.
Formal Models of Syntactic Discontinuity
Authors: Kathol Andreas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I review a number of proposals that offer alternatives to the traditional view on the relationship between syntactic structure and surface order. The first is Pullum and Zwicky’s notion of ‘liberation’, which extends the expressive power of ID/LP grammars to allow for a greater degree of ordering variability and/or ordering relations among nonsisters. A research tradition that shares much of the intuitions is that of ‘tangled tree’ analyses, in which the usual relationship between dominance and precedence in terms of tree representations has been relaxed. Most central to the framework that will be developed in this study are the proposals by Dowty and Reape, who posit a more radical break between the combinatorial structure of a constituent on the one hand and its linear organization on the other.
Complementizers and Verb Placement
Authors: Kathol Andreas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In much of the discussion of German clausal syntax, a close relation is assumed between the two types of root patterns, Vl and V2. I will first concentrate on the issue of verb placement, in particular its relationship with the positional properties of complementizers, and return to the issue of pre-verbal constituents in the next chapter.
Among the different approaches to verb placement, two general families can be distinguished. The first involves some kind of verb dislocation mechanism, be it in the form of head movement or the passing of gap information, while the second denies the existence of any filler-gap linkage and instead treats verb placement by means of variation in linear precedence relations alone.38
Sentence Type Determination
Authors: Kathol Andreas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of the content of contemporary syntax concerns itself with issues of combinatorial well-formedness. There are, in fact, quite a few corners of syntax where this is all that one has to concern oneself with. For a cate gory such as noun phrase, the rules and principles governing its internal composition determine its grammaticality status completely. Typically, a well-formed phrase exhibits only a limited amount of interaction with its external syntactic environment. In the case of NPs, only morphosyntactic properties such as case and agreement features can limit the occurrence in certain environments if we ignore semantic anomaly here. Crucially, we do not find NPs whose internal syntax is significantly different depending on their occurrence as subjects vs. objects.
It may be for this reason that it is often assumed that the internal properties of clauses are sufficient to describe their status with respect to external distribution and/or interpretive potential. But, as I argue in this chapter, such a view forces a variety of undesirable consequences upon us, which all can be avoided if instead we view the well-formedness of clausal structures in terms of an interplay between combinatorial (internal, bottom-up) constraints and constructional (external, top-down) licensing statements.
OED and the Earlier History of English
Authors: Stanley Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Oxford English Dictionary, abbreviated OED, is the title by which the book that forms the subject of this volume of studies has been known throughout the twentieth century, though it appeared on its spines and title-pages only in the twelve-volume reprint ofi933 (see also Chapter 1, note 1). Burchfield (1972-86: i, s.v. O) has as the earliest use of the abbreviation OED a quotation from E. E. Morris’s Austral English (1898). The scene for the new name was set by the loyal dedication prefixed to the third volume of the dictionary: ‘To the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty this Historical Dictionary of the English Language is by Her Gracious Permission Dutifully Dedicated by the University of Oxford A.D. MDCCC XCVII.’ The lexicographers’ and the University’s pride in a great undertaking of Queen Victoria’s reign is evident in that dedication, and it is fully justified by its lexicological planning and lexicographical and typographical execution, clearly to be seen already in the words from A to E that had been published, not quite in alphabetical order, in the fascicles issued by July 1897.
Pronunciation in the OED
Authors: Macmahon Michael k. C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The decision to include pronunciation in the dictionary came about almost by accident. Richard Chenevix Trench, in his paper to the Philological Society in 1857, ‘Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries’, had not even broached the question (Trench 1860: 5); nor had the official Proposal for the Publication of a New English Dictionary by the Philological Society of 1859. The first formal mention of it—perhaps as an afterthought—was in the Canones Lexicographici of 1860, the set of instructions drawn up by the Society to inform members about the proposed contents of the dictionary. Readers were given guidance on how words were to be ‘collected’, and were told that ‘the Pronunciation and Accent shall be marked; and any changes which the former have undergone shall be briefly pointed out’ ( [Trench et al.] 1860: 5). Shortly afterwards, Derwent Coleridge (uncle of the dictionary’s first editor, Herbert Coleridge) spoke on the question of pronunciation, in a paper read to the Society in 1860. He expressed the view that there would be ‘some difficulties’ in tackling the orthoepical part of the dictionary, but that ‘the standard of pronunciation should be fixed by a comparison with some foreign standard or standards’ and that ‘varying pronunciations should be given, and where the preference is not decided by custom, then, and then only, it may be given in favour of the spelling or etymology’ (Coleridge 1860: 166-7, fn. 1).
‘An Historian not a Critic’: The Standard of Usage in the OED
Authors: Mugglestone Lynda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Every language has ... improprieties and absurdities, which it is the duty of the lexicographer to correct or proscribe’, declared Samuel Johnson on the opening page of his Dictionary (1755: A1v). The responsibilities accorded to the maker of dictionaries are, in this particular construction, indeed markedly interventionist. ‘Adulterations’ are ‘to be detected, without a settled test of purity’, and ‘modes of expression ... rejected or received’; likewise ‘confusion’ must be regulated, and choice made ‘out of boundless variety, without any established principle of selection’. Images of linguistic redemption for a language hitherto neglected and ‘suffered to spread, under the direction of chance ... exposed to the corruptions of ignorance’ predominate in Johnson’s account of the task which first confronted him.
In Trench’s systematic reassessment of lexicographic practice just over a century later, the lexicographer was, however, to assume a somewhat different form. If Johnson was ultimately brought to the recognition that, in his earlier desires to correct and embalm the language, he had ‘indulged expectation which neither reason nor experience can satisfy’ (1755: C2v), such expectations undergo a categoric rejection in Trench’s text. Descriptive rather than prescriptive imperatives inform his redefinition of the rightful role of the lexicographer. Not the ‘slave of science’ (Johnson 1755: A1v) but a scientist of language, his occupation was to be that of neutral observer, a linguistic historian impartial in the face of change and variation, the shifts of sense or spelling.
Length
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of all the prosodic features, length appears-at first sight at least-to be conceptually the simplest and least controversial. Speaking is a time-dependent activity; utterances take place in real time, and although articulatory events are not necessarily discrete-articulations overlap and some events are simultaneous rather than successive-there is nevertheless a temporal order to both the production and the perception of the speech signal. Thus, any part of this signal will occupy a finite portion of time, which can be measured, and the length of any such part is simply the time taken to utter it.
Introduction
Authors: Palmer John A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parmenides is, after Socrates, the philosopher who exercised the greatest influence on Plato’s thought. Parmenides arguably had an even more profound influence than Socrates on Plato’s overall metaphysical outlook, especially in the later stages of his career. In the Sophist, Plato allows an Eleatic pupil of Parmenides’ to assume Socrates’ traditional role as the dialogue’s primary questioner. Parmenides himself, in the dialogue bearing his name, is allowed to question Socrates, posing problems for a theory similar to Plato’s own middle period theory of forms. Parmenides then undertakes an elaborate examination of his own views regarding the one being to help Socrates form a more adequate conception of the nature of intelligible reality. The historical Parmenides had also substantially influenced the theory his fictional namesake is made to criticize in this dialogue, so that understanding Plato’s engagement with Parmenides at this stage of his career is a prerequisite to understanding the later engagement. At present, the influence at neither stage is well understood.
Is Society Responsible for My Health?
Authors: Holm Søren 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most important issues in the field of allocation of resources for health care is the question of whether a person is responsible for his own health state. This question has been posed many times, and has prompted very detailed and deep philosophical analysis. At the same time it has often been presumed that the question put in this way has priority over the question of whether society is responsible for my health. That is, if it can be established that I am responsible for my own health, then it is at the same time established that society has no such responsibility.
HIV/ AIDS and the Point and Scope of Medical Confidentiality
Authors: Vedder Anton 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is generally assumed that workers in the field of health care and health research have a duty to respect the confidentiality of personal medical information, meaning that in principle they should not pass this information on to third parties, unless the person whom it concerns explicitly agrees or requests that such is done. The duty of medical confidentiality has a relatively long tradition and is deeply entrenched in the practice of health care and health research. Now, sometimes personal medical information can be literally of vital interest to third parties, so that disclosure to them would seem highly desirable. This seems to be the case with information resulting from HIV testing and screening which indicates that a person is HIV positive. Armed with such information, the sex contacts of that person might protect their own health and the health of others.
Can Health Care Workers Care for Their Patients and be Advocates of Third-Party Interests?
Authors: Hilhorst Medard T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People who have AIDS, or are HIV infected, no doubt have moral duties towards other people to inform them and act in a responsible way, although the extent of these duties, and how strong they are, is open to discussion. It can be argued that health care workers (HCWs) also have moral obligations toward these ‘third parties’. These professional duties can, however, be conceived of in different ways. I will defend the view that the duties can best be seen as ‘derived’ duties: derived from the duties that can be ascribed to the infected people themselves. This view underscores a doctor’s responsibility to confront his or her possibly unwilling, irresponsible, or unreflecting patient, with justified third-party interests and be an advocate of those interests. A professional relationship should-on this view-leave room for some kind of ‘moralizing’, in which professional responsibilities can be exercised and society as a whole can be served in the fight against AIDS. The ‘derived duties view’, how ever, also implies the limits of these professional obligations and of a public policy that seeks to promote them. These limits can he found in the personal and moral views of the patient, and should be respected.
HIV Infection and the Health Care Worker: The Case for Limited Disclosure
Authors: Farsides Calliope C S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1993, a number of cases hit the press in which health care workers employed within the UK were found to have died of AIDS. This in itself was not the major issue. With the growing awareness of the virus, the public could only expect that members of most groups in society would at one time or another be affected. Rather, the public concern was over the risk to which these workers may have put their patients. On more than one occasion the name of the dead carre was widely publicized, former patients were contacted, and help lines set up to deal with patients’ worries and fears. We have an interest both in terms of respecting the confidentiality due to health care workers who die of HIV-related disease, and in terms of sparing patients unnecessary alarm to make sure that such occurrences do not become commonplace.
AIDS and Insurance
Authors: Sorell Tom , Draper Heather 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In commercial markets for life insurance in the West, individuals apply for policies that pay very large sums of money in the event of premature death, and successful applicants are charged premiums according to the insurers’ calculations of the risks: the greater the risk, the higher the charge or premium. Certain medical conditions, leisure pursuits, and jobs are known to carry a higher risk of death than others, and policies are weighted accordingly. Thus, people with high blood pressure are charged more than people with normal blood pressure, smokers are charged more than non-smokers, and mountain climbers and skydivers are charged more than chess players. Insurance companies routinely elicit information about risky medical conditions, leisure pursuits, and jobs in deciding whether to accept applications for life insurance and in deciding how to fix levels of premiums. If it is morally permissible for them to do so, and to charge more to those whom they classify as the higher risks; if it is morally permissible for insurers even to refuse to take on some risks, is it morally permissible for them to do these things in the case of people who are at relatively high risk of contracting HIV disease?
Perplexity and the Beginning of Philosophy
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Somewhat hidden away in Aristotle’s treatise On the Heavens (De caelo) there is an interesting puzzle toward which Aristotle displays an intriguing ambivalence. On the one hand, he devotes a great deal of attention to it; in fact he discusses it for almost two of the fourteen chapters that make up book 2 of that work. On the other hand, he is rather apologetic in the way he introduces it, as if he were a little embarrassed to be bringing it up. This puzzle, he says at 294 10-1 I, must have occurred to everybody. Anyone who has not been astonished by it, he adds, rather sarcastically, must have quite an ‘untroubled mind’ (alupoteras dianoias).
Second-Order Perplexity: Parmenides
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reason, we should recall, that Socrates in book 7 of the Republic had not been at all puzzled about how something could seem to be both hard and soft, or light and heavy, is that Socrates had learned to distinguish the Forms themselves from the things that participate in them. Thus he had learned to distinguish hardness (‘the hard itself’) and softness (‘the soft itself’) from the various things in this world of coming-to-be and passing-away, such as loaves of bread things that are now soft and later hard as a rock, or, like a bed, hard in one part, say, its frame and soft in another, say, its mattress. The notion seemed to be that hard or soft things in the sensible world, being only reflections of the Forms, are for that reason only imperfectly hard or soft, whereas the Form, hardness, is perfectly hard, and the Form, softness, perfectly soft. Once we are clear about this distinction, we are to be no longer perplexed about how sensible things can be both hard and soft, or now one and now the other.
Socratic Perplexity and the Nature of Philosophy
Authors: Matthews Gareth B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters I have made an effort to redirect the way we think about Socratic perplexity in the dialogues of Plato. I have also tried to awaken a new appreciation for the importance of perplexity to philosophy, and to enhance our understanding of the variety of ways perplexity may be used, treated, or appealed to, in doing philosophy. Let me elaborate a bit on each of those two aims. First, let’s consider afresh the role of perplexity in the dialogues of Plato.
On the Roles of Optimality and Strict Domination in Language Learning
Authors: Tesar Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the possible contributions to language learnability of two defining properties of Optimality Theory (Prince and Smolensky 1993): optimization and strict domination. The fact that Optimality Theory is based upon the optimization of harmony makes it possible to adapt some optimization-based ideas from statistical learning theory to the questions of language learning. The important properties of optimization-based learning procedures are discussed in Section 16.2. Strict domination among the violable constraints makes it possible for a learner to efficiently identify a ranking making a particular candidate optimal. This is because strict domination restricts the possible ways for constraints to interact (as compared to, say, distinguishing the relative importance of constraints by assigning numeric values). As a result, if a hypothesis ranking does not make the correct description optimal, it is possible to quickly determine a way of changing the ranking to one which is closer to the correct ranking. By indicating the direction in which to move in the hypothesis space, strict domination guides learning so that it may reach the correct ranking quickly. Section 16.3 discusses how strict domination may be exploited, and presents an algorithm for learning constraint rankings from grammatical structural descriptions.
Scope of the Case Study
Authors: May Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this second part of the book is to examine in detail Nietzsche’s critique of the value of truth-that is, of the truth that we possess in propositional, conscious knowledge1-in order more fully to understand how, employing his standard of ‘life-enhancement’, he goes about evaluating a value to Which traditionally such supreme importance has been attached and, hence, how he ‘revalues’ it. Since Nietzsche attacks not values as such, but only their employment for life-denial, this suggests that, unless a value is not susceptible of any life-enhancing function, he seeks not its demise, but, on the contrary, how it can, by his standard, be better valued. This is so, at any rate, for our ‘highest’ values-for, in defining our identity as individuals or as an ethical community, these are values which reflect ‘what we are’ and which, when maximally employed in the service of ‘lifeenhancement’, are therefore crucial to ‘becoming what We are’.
[L] Nasal Vowels and Vowel Nasalization: Preliminaries
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vowel nasalization is a process which has operated widely in Romance. Amongst the standard varieties, French and Portuguese have been particularly affected and they have developed a series of independent nasal vowel phonemes. Romance is consequently well represented in the modest set of present-day European languages possessing nasal vowel phonemes (others include Polish, Albanian, Irish, Gaelic, and Breton). In the remaining standard varieties of Romance, nasalization has not led to the creation of nasal vowel phonemes, but in many cases it has exercised a considerable influence on patterns of vowel evolution. A similar picture emerges when non-standard varieties of Romance are considered; vowel nasalization has had a widespread impact, and in some cases it has been great enough to result in the creation of nasal vowel phonemes. The different varieties of Romance thus provide a rich quarry for the investigation of nasal vowels and their evolution.
Gallo- Romance I: French
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No Romance language has received as much attention in the investigation of vowel nasalization as French. It is therefore appropriate that the first area of Romance to be considered in our review should be Gallo- Romance within which the French language fits. In fact, the patterns of vowel nasalization which emerge vary a good deal from region to region. It will therefore be helpful to divide the coverage of Gallo-Romance into three sections. In this chapter, the focus of attention falls on northern French, and more specifically on the developments which have occurred in the variety which became the standard language. In the following chapter, general patterns of vowel nasalization in non-standard northern varieties are examined, and in Chapter 6 the major developments in southern varieties of Gallo-Romance are considered.