bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Feedstocks, Coal Chemicals
Authors: Worsham Paul R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Worsham, Paul R. (Eastman Chemical Company). Many basic chemicals currently produced from petroleum can be produced from coal using demonstrated technology, including coal carbonization, direct liquefaction, and coal gasification. A broad range of chemicals is available by gasification of coal to make synthesis gas and subsequent transformation with existing processes to methanol, ammonia, acetyl derivatives, and Fischer‐ Tropsch products. Other useful chemical products can be isolated from the liquid by‐products of coke production and gasification. These products include pitch, creosote, naphthalene, and cresylic acids. Some of these same products are recovered from modern synfuel plants producing liquid transportation fuels and synthetic natural gas. Another group of chemicals can be produced from coal‐derived acetylene.
The choice of feedstock for a chemical process depends on complex technical, economic, environmental, and political factors. Except in special situations, the manufacture of most chemicals from coal is not competitive with petroleum and natural gas at feedstock prices prevailing in the early 1990s. Special situations typically are the result of the concurrence of several favorable factors such as location of producing facilities close to coal supplies which match the needs of the desired operation, coupled with the availability of modern conversion processes which can take advantage of coal composition to generate high value products with minimal conversion to the hydrogen/carbon ratio of competing feedstocks.
Coated Fabrics
Authors: Barden Bruce 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
A coated fabric is an engineered product derived by a combination of textile and polymer coating technology. Each type of coated fabric is designed to fulfill the requirements of a specific application. The textile substrate is chosen based on a knowledge of the strength and dimensional control requirements of the finished product. The coating, a product of polymer compounding knowledge, is chosen for its specific properties such as abrasion resistance, oil resistance, resistance to leaching, etc. The components, processing, testing, and uses of coated fabrics are discussed.
Coatings
Authors: Wicks Zeno W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOrganic coatings are discussed with an emphasis on the scientific understanding of the chemistry and performance of coatings. Topics covered include film formation, including solvent evaporation from films, film formation from thermosetting resins, coalescence of polymer particles; flow, including, viscosity of resin solutions, viscosity of systems with dispersed phases; mechanical properties; exterior durability, adhesion including adhesion to metals, adhesion to plastics and coatings, testing for adhesion, corrosion protection, including protection by intact films, protection by nonintact films; resins for coatings including latexes, amino resins, urethane systems, epoxy resins, acrylic resins, polyester resins, alkyd resins, other coatings resins; volatile components, color and appearance, including color matching, gloss, pigments, pigment dispersion, pigment volume relationships; application methods; film defects, including leveling, sagging, crawling and cratering, floating and flooding, wrinkling, foaming, product coatings, coatings for metal, wood products coating, radiation curing coatings, powder coatings; architectural coatings, including flat wall paints, exterior house paints, gloss enamels; special purpose coatings, including maintenance paints, marine coatings, automobile refinish paints, other special purpose paints; and economic aspects of the coatings industry.
Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys
Authors: Hodge F. Galen , Dominey Larry 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCobalt is a metallic element the earliest uses of which were as colorants for glass and pottery. Cobalt has unique magnetic properties. The largest consumption of cobalt is in the metallic form as magnetic alloys, cutting and wear‐resistant alloys, and high temperature superalloys. The second largest use of cobalt is in the form of salts, including lacquers, enamels, colorants for glass, and catalysts. Radioactive cobalt has considerable application in radiochemistry and radiography.Cobalt‐base alloys are generally described as wear‐resistant, corrosion‐resistant, and heat‐resistant. Many of the properties of the alloys arise from the crystallographic nature of cobalt, the solid solution strengthening effects of chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum, the formation of carbides, and the corrosion resistance imparted by chromium.
Cobalt Compounds
Authors: Richardson H. Wayne 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAn overview of cobalt compounds including the chemistry exhibited by the +2 and +3 valences is presented emphasizing those compounds of industrial significance. Methods of manufacture for many of the commercial compounds are given as is transition‐metal separation methodology. The biological role of cobalt in humans and ruminants is discussed.The two fluorides of cobalt, namely the cobalt(II) fluoride and the cobalt(III) fluoride, are of great importance in the fluorochemical industry owing to the use of the latter as a hard fluorinating agent. It is used for the replacement of hydrogen by fluorine in halocarbons, fluorination of alkynes, and fluorination of aromatic compounds.The primary use of cobalt compounds is in catalysis for hydrotreating petroleum resulting in hydrodesulfurization. Cobalt catalysts are also used to denitrify, deoxgenate, crack crude oil and gas, and in homogeneous oxidation and the oxo process (hydroformylation). Cobalt compounds are used in pigments for paints and printing inks, as colorants for glass, ceramics, and enamels, and in the form of metallic soaps as driers. Other industrial uses are in electronics, agriculture as feed and soil additives, and as an adhesive in the tire industry.
Color Photography
Authors: Kapecki Jon , Rodgers James 
Published: July 2004

AbstractColor photography is the technology by which the visual appearance of a three‐dimensional subject may be reproduced on a two‐dimensional surface having a pleasing balance of brightness, hue, and color. Light capture is primarily effected by silver halide crystals. Integral tri‐color film packs also contain spectral sensitizing dyes and colored masking couplers appropriate to the subtractive primary dyes, filters, and an overcoat.The chromogenic chemistry of the color photography process involves the reactions ofp‐phenylenediamine developers and various couplers. Prototype dye couplers, which often contain an organic ballast to enhance solubility in hydrophobic solvents, colored masking couplers, and development‐inhibitor‐releasing couplers, which carry a silver development inhibitor linked to the film coupling site, are given. Both chromogenic and post‐development film chemistries are described as are the relationships between film speed, light sensitivity, dye stability, image structure, and color reproduction.
Colorants for Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices
Authors: Marmion Daniel 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article includes a brief history of the use of colorants in foods, drugs, cosmetics, and medical devices, and the development of legislation in the United States to control them. It describes where and why colorants are used, lists all those currently in use, identifies each as either needing certification or not, and describes the chemical and physical properties, method of manufacture, chemical structure, chemical classification, and uses of each. Individual and general restrictions relating to the use of colorants are described, and sample specifications are shown. The weight of each colorant certified in the United States each year from 1983 to 1990 is given. Includes references and sources for more information regarding colorants including their analysis as is and in product matrices.
Color
Authors: Nassau Kurt 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Two theories of color perception have been dominant. The trichromatic theory relates to blue‐, green‐, and red‐sensitive cones in the retina of the eye. It explains various forms of color blindness and is the basis of the 1931 CIE chromaticity diagram (color triangle) using
x,y,Y
and the 1976 CIELUV color space using L*, u*, v*. The opponent theory uses the opposites light/dark, red/green, and blue/yellow. It explains a variety of perception phenomena and is the basis of the 1976 CIELAB color space using L*, a*, b*. These apparently incompatible approaches apply to different parts of the color perception process. Modern electronic instruments have greatly simplified the measurement of color.

In considering color mixtures, it is important to distinguish two types, having different sets of primary colors and having different results for color mixing. In subtractive color mixing, applying to paints and dyes, the addition of the three primary colors absorbs all light and produces black; here mixing blue and yellow paints produces green. In additive color mixing, applying to beams of light and video displays, the addition of the three primary colors reconstitutes the full spectrum and produces white; here mixing blue and yellow light beams produces white.
Fifteen distinct chemical and physical mechanisms explain the various causes of color, all involving the behavior of electrons in matter. Vibrations and simple excitations explain the colors produced by incandescence (flames), gas excitation (vapor lamps), and vibrations and rotations (blue of water). Ligand‐field effects give the colors of transition‐metal compounds and impurities (turquoise and ruby, respectively). Molecular orbitals give the colors in organic compounds (dyes) and charge‐transfer compounds (blue sapphire). Energy bands lead to the colors of metals (copper), semiconductors (vermilion), doped semiconductors (blue diamond), and color centers (amethyst). Geometrical and physical optics explain colors from dispersive refraction (prism spectrum), scattering (blue sky), interference (soap bubble), and diffraction (opal).
Photography, Instant
Authors: Mervis Stanley H. , Walworth Vivian K. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractInstant photography began in 1947 with a one‐step print process providing a finished photograph within a minute after exposure. Outwardly dry processing under ambient conditions is initiated within the camera upon release of reagent from a sealed pod that is provided as part of the film unit. Instant color photography was introduced in 1963. Integral print films, introduced in 1972, retain the developed photosensitive layers concealed within the print. Instant film configurations also include print and transparency processing independent of the camera. Subtractive instant color processes use dye developers and dye‐release compounds to generate images comprising preformed dyes. Additive instant color transparencies comprise microscopic black‐and‐white silver images formed by exposure of a panchromatic emulsion layer through an integral color screen. The chemistry of the various systems is discussed. Instant color films are utilized in many professional fields.
Conveying
Authors: Thomson F. M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe transport of bulk solids by conveying is an integral part of the chemical industry. A wide range of mechanical and pneumatic conveying equipment, designed to meet the handling requirements of a variety of materials, is available. The selection and design of bulk handling conveyors required for any specific task are based on matching the characterisitics of the conveyor to the handling and flow behavior of the material to be conveyed. Material flow behavior is determined by combining data from bench‐top experiments and previously observed plant performance. The more recent advances in conveyor technology have centered around the design of belt conveyors and of dense phase pneumatic conveying systems.Various types of mechanical and pneumatic conveyors are discussed and the dependence of conveyor selection on material characteristics is emphasized. Components, design, and power requirements are considered.
Copolymers
Authors: Leiza José R. , Asua José M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe preparation, properties, use, and characterization of synthetic copolymers is reviewed and future trends are discussed. The different copolymer structures are detailed and the nomenclature is explained. The copolymerization reactions (free radical including controlled free radical, anionic, cationic, ring‐opening, catalytic, and step growth) are discussed emphasizing the copolymer structures attainable through each polymerization mechanism. Industrially important random, alternating, block, graft, star, and hyperbranched copolymers are discussed in terms of the processes used to produce them and the properties achieved. Their main uses and trade names are also detailed. Future trends are discussed.
Copper Compounds
Authors: Wayne Richardson H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAn overview of copper compounds is presented with the emphasis on those compounds of key industrial importance. The chemistry and stability of copper in its various oxidation states and with regard to coordination complexes are discussed. The primary methods of manufacture for many commercially significant compounds are given as are the most usual methods of analysis. The uses of copper in agriculture, as a nutritional fungicide and algicide are discussed. The various copper‐bond fungicides are listed. Other uses of copper compounds such as in catalysis, electronics, and electroplating are mentioned. Copper compounds are also used as pigments, in wood preservation and electroless plating, and in solar collectors.
Copyrights
Authors: Koenigsberg I. Fred 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCopyright developed after the invention of the printing press as a means of protecting works of authorship. The United States copyright law derives from a constitutional grant to Congress to promote progress in science, knowledge, and learning. Copyright protects original works of authorship of all types. Copyright does not protect ideas, concepts, methods, systems, processes, research, or facts themselves, but only their expression. Copyright may protect utilitarian works, but only to the extent that they contain physically or conceptually separable original works of authorship.Copyright is a property right and may be transferred or licensed and owned jointly. Copyright is owned initially by the author, usually the human creator of the work. However, in the case of works made for hire, the employer or other person for whom the work is created is deemed to be the author. Copyright formalities, that is, notice, deposit, and registration, are of less importance now than they were previously, but are still encouraged. No copyright notice is necessary on copies of works first published after March 1, 1989. Copyright registration is entirely permissive, but enables important legal procedural rights and remedies.Copyright generally endures for the life of the author plus 70 years, for works first created or copyrighted on or after January 1, 1978; or for an initial term of 28 years and a renewal term of 67 years, for works first copyrighted before January 1, 1978. Copyright protects the rights to reproduce the work in copies, to prepare derivative works, of public distribution, of public performance, and of public display. These rights are not absolute, because certain exceptions, such as the fair use and first sale doctrines, apply.
Cotton
Authors: Wakelyn Phillip J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCotton is both a fiber and food crop that is grown in about 80 countries. Annually in the world about 90 million 217.7 kg (480 lbs) bales [∼19.6 million metric tonnes (21.6 million tons)] of cotton fiber and 27 million metric tonnes (29.8 million tons) of cottonseed are produced. Cotton is the most important natural fiber (about 37% of the textile fiber consumed in the world in 2002) used to produce apparel, home furnishings, and industrial products. Cottonseed is the world's No. 3 oilseed, used for vegetable oil, animal feed, and linters. Over 90% of the world's cotton production is upland cotton (G. barbadense. In 2002 transgenic varieties are about 25–30% of the cotton grown in the world. Commercial cottons are white. There has been some interest in naturally colored cottons (shades of brown and green are the main colors) and organic cotton but, at present, there is very little production of these cottons [< 20,000 bales worldwide; < 4455 metric tonnes (4800 tons)]. The origin, biosynthesis, biology, development, production, harvesting ginning, classification, physical properties, morphology, physical structure, chemistry, reactivity, economic aspects, utilization, and health and safety are reviewed.
Cryogenic Technology
Authors: Agrawal Rakesh , Herron D. Michael , Rowles Howard C. , Kinard Glenn E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBy accepted international standard, the term “cryogenic” refers to phenomena and processes occurring at or using temperatures <120 K. “Permanent” gases, such as oxygen, and helium, can be liquefied at ambient pressure at temperatures of 120 K or below.Cryogenic technology has contributed greatly to scientific research and has found a wide range of industrial applications. Cryogenic condensation and distillation processes are widely used to produce high purity oxygen, argon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium for the chemical, metal, and electronic industries. These gases and others, such as natural gas, are commonly stored and shipped as cryogenic liquids rather than as pressurized gases. Cryogenic processes are also used to provide low temperatures to refrigerate, freeze, and store other materials, such as food and biological tissue, or to alter the properties of materials, as with superconductivity.A wide variety of specialized equipment has been developed for cryogenic processes and apparatus, including compressors, expanders, heat exchangers, and distillation columns. Specialized materials have also been developed to insulate cryogenic equipment, transfer lines, storage tanks, and transport vehicles.
Crystal Engineering
Authors: Braga Dario , Grepioni Fabrizia 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCrystal engineering is the bottom‐up construction of functional materials from the assembly of molecular or ionic components. The discipline bridges supramolecular and solid‐state science. Crystal engineering is highly interdisciplinary and spans across all traditional sectors of chemistry (organic, inorganic, organometallic, biological chemistry). Beside theconventionaltools of molecular and supramolecular synthetic chemistry, crystal engineering requires the utilization of solid‐state and solid–gas techniques, including theoretical and advanced crystallography methods.
Crystallization
Authors: Ulrich Joachim 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article provides an overview of crystallization that can be used by scientists and engineers, regardless of their familiarity with the operation. Key aspects of the use of crystallization for separation, purification, or other purposes are covered; especially noteworthy is the coverage relating product purity, morphology, and size distribution to the kinetic phenomena of crystal nucleation and growth. Current studies have shown that crystallizer variables such as mixing and the rate at which supersaturation is generated influence the purity of recovered crystals. Crystal morphology can be affected by variables modifying inherent growth kinetics of crystal faces or by changing interfacial or solution properties. Molecular modeling is a tool to understand and predict morphologies or changes of morphologies due to additives/impurities. Theory is mixed with empiricism in showing the role of operating variables such as supersaturation, magma density, and agitation in determining crystallization kinetics. Methods are illustrated for coupling crystallization kinetics with population balances on continuous and batch crystallizers to determine crystal size distributions. In addition, the bases of using selective removal functions (clear‐liquor advance, classified‐fines removal, and classified‐product removal) to influence the characteristics of size distributions is presented. Qualitative characteristics of batch crystallizers are presented and the role nucleation plays in determining the general behavior of product size distributions from such systems is described. Finally, a summary of industrial practices and equipment is presented; both crystallization from solution and from the melt are included in the summary. Attention is given to the emerging importance of crystallization from the melt.
Cyanohydrins
Authors: Cholod Michael S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA cyanohydrin is an organic compound that contains both a cyanide and a hydroxy group on an aliphatic section of the molecule. Cyanohydrins are usually α‐hydroxy nitriles which are the products of addition of hydrogen cyanide to the carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones. The outstanding chemical property of cyanohydrins is the ready conversion to α‐hydroxy acids and derivatives, especially α‐amino and unsaturated acids. Cyanohydrins are highly toxic by inhalation or ingestion and moderately toxic through skin absorption. Cyanohydrins are used primarily as intermediates in the production of other chemicals. Manufacture of methyl methacrylate, used to make acrylic molding resins and clear sheet from acetone cyanohydrin, is the most economically important cyanohydrin process.
Acrylic Ester Polymers, 2‐Cyanoacrylic Ester Polymers
Authors: O'Connor J. T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe polymers of the 2‐cyanoacrylic esters, more commonly known as the alkyl 2‐cyanoacrylates, are hard glassy resins that exhibit excellent adhesion to a wide variety of materials. The polymers are spontaneously formed as very reactive liquids, and the excellent adhesion properties of the cured resins combine to make these compounds a unique class of single‐component, ambient‐temperature‐curing adhesives of great versatility. The materials that can be bonded run the gamut from metals, plastics, most elastomers, fabrics, and woods to many ceramics. The cyanoacrylic esters are prepared via the Knoevenagel condensation reaction, in which the corresponding alkyl cyanoacetate reacts with formaldehyde in the presence of a basic catalyst to form a low molecular weight polymer. Subsequently, the polymer is cracked and redistilled at a high temperature onto a suitable stabilizer combination to prevent premature repolymerization. Good ventilation when using the adhesives is essential. Both the liquid and cured 2‐cyanoacrylic esters support combustion. Some of the market segments served by these versatile materials include automotive, electronic, hardware, cosmetics, and medical devices.
Cyanamides
Authors: Cameron William 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Cyanamide has been commercially available, as calcium salt, since the beginning of the twentieth century. A commercial process for manufacturing a pure grade of cyanamide was introduced in 1964. Cyanamide was widely used as a nitrogen fertilizer and later as a raw material for dicyandiamide and melamine.
The use of cyanamide as a fertilizer has been replaced by ammonia and urea. Melamine is now made by a petrochemical process using natural gas. Cyanamide is still used in the manufacture of dicyandiamide and calcium cyanide. Cyanamide‐based chemicals have also been used in special applications for defoliants, fungicides, herbicides, and as a weed killer. In pure form, cyanamides are used in the synthesis of many complex chemicals.
Calcium cyanamide is produced by both batch oven and continuous kiln processes. This article deals with the chemistry, manufacture, specifications, health and safety factors (toxicity and environment), and use of cyanamide homologues: cyanamide, dicyandiamide, and melamine.