bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Creating of Skills
Authors: Lesourne Jacques 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter, using a particular case, takes up a major question: how can the very operations of an institutional structure (in this case, a market) give birth to a new structure (in this case, two markets)? The particular case examined is a labour-market in which all the workers are unskilled. At the outset, there is then just one labour-market. However, when certain workers are employed by certain firms, they can acquire technicians’ skills. As the firms have the choice between systems of organization calling for either workers or technicians, a second labour-market of variable size is liable to appear. Depending on history, the economy will use the whole of its human resources, transforming into technicians all the workers capable of being so, or will ensnare itself in a final state rendering a greater or lesser fraction of its human capital unproductive.
The Founding of Unions
Authors: Lesourne Jacques 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Considering the importance of the role played by the labour unions in matters of employment, there is no reason to be surprised at the rapid development which micro-economic analysis of union behaviour has experienced (Farber 1986). The research has especially concerned the models in which the size of the union is predetermined, the aim being to explore the influence of union goals and the nature of wage and employment negotiations. Even in the more recent texts treating the size of the union as a variable, the models bring together a single enterprise and one set of workers and place themselves within the static framework of contracts theory.
Government and the Enterprise Since 1900
Authors: Tomlinson Jim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A chronological account of industrial policy This book surveys governmental industrial policy in Britain from 1900 to the early 1990s, exploring the perennial concern of governments to improve the efficiency and the competitiveness of British industry. Organized chronologically, it focuses on the formation of policy-making, and policy implementation, according to the ideas and beliefs that have dominated during the century. Thus industrial policy is traced through time of war and recession, through the building of the welfare state and times of growth, and through stagflation, economic liberalism, and deindustrialization. The constant theme of the book is the attempt by all governments to achieve the objectives of high growth, low unemployment, and international competitiveness. An examination of the effects of government ideologies Dr Tomlinson reveals both the microeconomic context of industrial policy, and microeconomic effects of these policies. The emphasis is on the formation of policy according to the ideology of the political party in power. Tomlinson also deals with the capacity of each government to carry out its policy, and the ways in which this capacity may be limited by economic constraints, or by the institutions through which industrial policy is implemented. Detailed case studies The focus of the book is on British industry, although in parts Tomlinson uses a comparative perspective to set British policy in the world context, most notably during the chapter on the 1980s. The book ends with two case studies, the industries of cotton and cars, to illuminate the policy explored in the previous chapters. Tomlinson concludes that the British government has continuously found an acceptable industrial policy problematic.
Real Price Rigidity
Authors: Andersen Torben M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The distinction between real and nominal price rigidities is important. The present chapter develops a number of explanations of why real prices are rigid, while the issue of nominal rigidities is dealt with more intensively in the following chapters. The explanations of nominal rigidities developed in the subsequent chapters may also be translated into explanations of real price rigidities, but not the other way around. Hence it is most natural to start out with models of real price rigidities. The starting-point is dynamic models of price-setting firms, and we first consider the implications that inventory holdings have for price adjustment. Then in Section 4.3 we dynamize the demand side by introducing the idea of customer markets, implying that customers are attached to suppliers because it is costly to shift between suppliers. A related idea of asymmetric responses on the part of consumers to upward and downward price changes is analysed in Section 4.4 under the heading of ‘Kinked Demand Curves ‘. Finally, Section 4.5 addresses the possibility that collusion between firms in a dynamic setting may cause real price rigidities.
The Economic History of Italy 1860—1990
Authors: Zamagni Vera 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book gives a full account of the economic and social history of Italy since unification (1860), with an introduction covering the previous period since the Middle Ages. The Economic History of Italy represents a scholarly and authoritative account of Italy's progress from a rural economy to an industrialized nation. The book makes a broad division of the period into three parts: the take-off (1860-1913), the consolidation in the midst of two wars and a world depression (1914-47), and the great expansion (1948-1990). Professor Zamagni traces the growth of industrialization, and argues that despite several advanced areas Italy only became an industrialized nation after the Second World War, and that during the 1980s the South was still clearly behind the rest of the country. Zamagni analyses data both from a macroeconomic position, in looking at the growth of the finance sector, or the role of the State, and from a microeconomic position when she draws conclusions from the changing population structure, or from the actions of individual businesses. Professor Zamagni reveals that even though the population more than doubled during this time the level of national income rose 19-fold, to move Italy from a peripheral status in Europe to a central position as a prosperous country. A central theme of the book is Professor Zamagni's argument that the Italian economy has been successful not by any great individuality of its own but by being flexible enough to incorporate the successes of other countries: Japan's integrated business network, for example, or Germany's financial structure. She places the industrialization of Italy in the international context by comparing Italy's GDP and other measures of prosperity at different times to the USA, Japan, the UK, France, and Germany. The book is based on original field-work by the author, and the many detailed but small-scale studies existing in Italian. Quantitative trends are described in more than 70 tables of data, while the book provides appendices containing chronologies of main events in various sectors and biographies.
Resources, Deprivation, And Poverty
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Poverty is a notoriously ill-defined term, both in common usage and in academic application. Empirical research on poverty has to deal first of all with the ambiguities and confusions associated with the term and concept: what is it that one is actually trying to measure? It then has to address the problem that the various approaches to measuring poverty that are used in practice may not adequately implement the underlying concept: they may not correctly identify those one would wish to call ‘poor’. Despite the attention poverty statistics receive from policy-makers and the broader public, there is remarkably little consensus among social scientists on how best to measure the condition. In this book our aim is to identify and address key problems with the ways in which poverty has generally been conceptualized and measured in relatively rich countries. The core issue is how to define and measure poverty in such countries in a way that is valid, meaningful in the context, and valuable for policy-making.
The State and the Family
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In a number of industrialized countries, on the assumption that fertility remains at or close to present levels, populations will start to decline, in some cases quite rapidly in the near to medium future. Many governments are alarmed by this prospect, especially since it goes hand in hand with a further and acute ageing of the population. From the fears in the 1930s about population and family decline, to the fears in the 1970s about over-population, and contemporary talk of `family-friendly' policies, governments' attitudes towards and interventions in family policy have changed considerably. What is today referred to as family policy differs widely from the first forms of government support before the Second World War. This book argues that demographic changes have been a major force in bringing population and family issues on to the political agenda. The decline in fertility, the increase in divorce rates and lone-parenthood, and the entry of women into the labour force have all reduced the relevance of systems of state support aimed at traditional families. From this perspective, the author examines the changes that have affected families over the past 100 years, and the policies that have been adopted by different governments in response to these changes. Data from twenty-two industrialized countries is used to provide an original analysis of legislation, initiatives, and measures aimed at better supporting families. The book assembles arguments from demography, sociology, and economics to explain population policies, their origins and aims. It shows that despite major similarities across countries in the ways family policy has evolved, and in the ways governments have viewed and supported families, there are major dissimilarities shaped by country-specific events, ideologies, and circumstances. It concludes by drawing a typology of models of family policy bases on these inter-country differences.
The Expansion of State Support for Families
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
With the return to peace, new economic and political conditions emerged, and favoured a major expansion of state support for families. In contrast to the scattered measures of the pre-World War II period, the post-war policy of governments towards families was to be characterized by the universality of its support and the comprehensiveness of its coverage. It was the golden era of the welfare state. It is this change in the governments ‘ policy which is now examined for the three decades following the end of the war, up to the mid-1970s. The analysis begins with an examination of the changes in the demographic, social, and economic environment of families, which were to provide the new bases for an expanded state support for families. The cases of family allowances and maternity benefits are then examined in more detail. Despite the persistence of significant inter-country differences, this period witnessed a certain convergence across countries in the provision of state support for families. For citizens, the new political order meant the end of wartime sufferings, and hopes of a better future. Improved standards of living were expected, and with it a more active role for governments as welfare providers. They were now expected to provide citizens with an insurance; an insurance that there would be no return to the pre-war economic depression, or to wartime deprivation. For governments, the new political order also meant new ideologies. In particular, there was a commitment - at least in Europe - to repair the damages of the war, and to give citizens a new sense of security and prosperity.
The Intergenerational Distribution of Resources and Income in Japan
Authors: Mason Andrew , Teh Yoke-Yun , Ogawa Naohiro , Fukui Takehiro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There are two distinct ways in which the term intergenerational distribution of income is applied. In some instances it is used to describe the relative lifetime economic status of successive generations. In a country such as Japan, rapid economic growth ensures that the material standard of living of current generations substantially exceeds that of previous generations. And, if rapid growth continues, future generations will be considerably better off than those living today.
The Main Bank System
Authors: Teranishi Jura 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There is no single agreed definition of the term ‘main bank’, but in cases where a number of banks have made loans to a particular firm, it generally refers to the bank that has a particularly long and continuous record of business relations with the firm and has advanced the largest loans. In some cases a comprehensive range of business dealings, including shareholdings and directorships in the firm, and handling its pensions and financial settlements, are considered the characteristics of a main bank. Currently many firms in Japan have this sort of special relationship (though not always of the same type) with their ‘main bank’, and the arrangement is said to serve a variety of beneficial functions with regard to monitoring the firm, spreading associated risks, and so on.
The Food-Control System and Nōkyō
Authors: Kawagoe Toshihiko 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the shadows of Japan’s striking post-war economic recovery is the agricultural sector, which has been left behind in a state of backwardness. A variety of regulations that date back to the war years remain in force, and structural adjustment has been slow to get off the ground, with the result that high levels of protection have allowed inefficient production to persist. Thus, there has been little objective discussion of the so-called Japanese system of agriculture, and in such discussion as has taken place, Japanese agriculture has inevitably been regarded in a negative light. A range of problematic issues has been highlighted as the features that have marked out Japanese post-war agriculture, particularly in the period since the onset of high-speed economic growth. These include the small size of farms and the trend to part-time farming, the government’s wide-ranging regulations and generous protection of agriculture, Japan’s low level of self-sufficiency in food, and the powerful agricultural co-operative organization.
Japan’s Present-Day Economic System: Its Structure and Potential for Reform
Authors: Okuno-Fujiwara Masahiro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Japan’s present-day economic system is often called the ‘Japanese economic model’. This is because many people, whether they are aware of it or not, regard this system as very different from those of Europe and America, particularly the US system. The characteristic features of labour-management relations in Japan, such as long-term fixed employment, pay by seniority, and internal promotion; the features of the financial markets such as the preference for indirect funding and the main bank system; the characteristics of relations among firms, such as subcontracting and keiretsu alignments; the weakness of small shareholders, their power undermined by the practice of crossholdings of shares as well as boards comprised almost exclusively of internally promoted directors; government-enterprise relations, such as the liberal use of administrative guidance and the unique status of industrial associations run by ex-Ministry officials-these are frequently described as special characteristics of the Japanese economic model, and are rarely seen in other countries.
Quantitative Aspects of Tokugawa Economy
Authors: Miyamoto Matao 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Akira Hayami lays out in the introduction to this volume the broad historical specifics of the socioeconomic system of Tokugawa Japan, in which he sees the emergence of an “economy-minded society.” What kind of macroeconomic performance was produced in that process? We have only extremely limited data for macroeconomic figures of the Tokugawa period, so it is very difficult to get an accurate grasp of the details of Japan’s economic development, but we are able to obtain a general picture from the fragmentary data.
The Second Demographic Transition in Western Countries: An Interpretation
Authors: Lesthaeghe R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The direction of Western family changes since the 1960s is well known. During the initial phase, roughly between 1955 and 1970, there were three major components of change. First, the already upward divorce trend accelerated considerably. Second, the baby boom came to an end. Fertility declined at all ages and marriage durations simultaneously. These trends coincided with the contraceptive revolution, based on new hormonal contraceptives and the rediscovery of the intra-uterine device. Third, the decline in ages at marriage, which had started between 1880 and 1920 in most Western countries, stopped. Instead, the proportion of marriages occurring before the age of 25 dropped considerably. Near the end of the 1960s, several countries also experienced a temporary increase in shotgun marriages: premarital sex had been on the increase throughout the 1960s, and contraceptive protection in such relations was not yet efficient enough. In most countries this feature disappeared during the early 1970s. In others, a problem of teenage pregnancy persisted.
Economic Develc)Pment And Social Opportunity
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the subject of development economics emerged as a distinct field of study, shortly after the second world war, it appeared to be something of a bastard child of growth economics. Some influence other than growth economics was clearly involved in the origin of development economics, but it was not altogether clear what form this influence had taken. In one respect at least, the offspring did not differ from what could be expected from a genuine ‘son of growth economics’, namely an overarching preoccupation with the growth of real income per head.
India Ani China
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
‘An’ the dawn comes up like thunder outer China ‘crost the Bay!’ This is n’t politics, but Kipling on nature, on the road to Mandalay. However, following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the political perceptions of many activists in India began to match this arresting description of the coming dawn from China. Comparison with China and the lessons to be learned from its experience became staple concerns in Indian politics.
Well Beyond Liberalization
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A tiger in a cage adorned the cover of the informative survey of the Indian economy that The Economist published on 4 May 1991. The Indian economy was then in deep trouble, and the special report began with a crisp diagnosis: ‘The future of India looks more threatened than for many years’. The analysis put much of the blame for India’s economic predicament on its ‘ever-proliferating bureaucracy’ and its ‘licence raj’, and expressed the dialectic hope that with the election then due, ‘the new government will immediately face a fiscal crisis’ and as a consequence it ‘might-just might--:-start a reappraisal of the economic role of government that is so long overdue’. The events that ushered in the economic reforms after the new elections did not depart very far from that scenario.
Poland
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The history of socialism in Poland is one in which the Communist Party’s attempts to introduce Soviet style orthodoxy repeatedly met significant resistance. In the face of clear challenges to its authority the party granted a variety of concessions which served to reduce the sacrifices that Polish consumers were called upon to make in support of the process of rapid industrialization. Thus socialism in Poland had been submitted to a series of reforms which meant that by 1989 the organization of the economy departed significantly from the model of central planning.
The most critical challenges to the party originated from labour which used strikes to protest against price increases on basic consumer products. This helped to determine the direction that economic reforms took in Poland. In particular, workers gained very significant powers of economic decision-making through the creation of worker management committees. This tradition of worker self-management is one of the prominent features of the Polish economy which has had important consequences for the direction that was taken during the transition since 1989.
Comment
Authors: Stephens John D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Kevin Grier’s chapter advances our understanding of the determinants of economic growth in advanced capitalist countries by bringing together hypotheses from the literatures in economics and political science and subjecting them to rigorous empirical tests. As Grier correctly argues, past literature in economics has ignored the type of institutional variables of interest to political scientists such as collective bargaining systems, union strength, and party composition of government, while the political scientists fail to control for the basic economic variables such as investment, growth of the labour force, or initial level of economic development. Both economists and political scientists have been unimaginative, or unsophisticated in their statistical analyses.
A Model of a Corporatist Economy with Increasing Returns
Authors: Bergström Villy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To summarize the ideas presented in the last chapter, consider a model economy with a few industrial sectors, the number of which we set to two for illustrative purposes. Call them sector 1 and sector 2. Each sector produces one good, so that the product market is made of two goods, good 1 and good 2. Assume that there are many entrepreneurs in both sectors; we can, however, normalize their number to unity in both sectors in order to make the exposition simple. At this level of generality we may think that each firm is owned by one individual, who is both the entrepreneur and the consumer of the model economy.
The Pholela Health Centre:Understanding Health and Disease in South Africa through Community-Oriented Primary Care (COPC)
Authors: Tollman Stephen M , Kaak Sidney L , Kaak Emily 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Pholela Health Centre, located in rural Natal, South Africa, was established in April 1940. To grasp its significance, even then, the socio-political circumstances prevailing in the country must be appreciated.
Refugee Women, Violence, and HIV
Authors: Long Lynellyn D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Seroprevalence studies among refugees migrating to the US suggest that they have relatively low HIV rates, equal to or lower than their countries of origin (Black, 1993; Tawil, 1990; Refugee Policy Group, 1989). These data, however, may not be representative of the majority of refugees who do not immigrate to a third coun try but remain in some of the poorest countries in the world and in regions that continue to be beset by conflict. While such studies are critical for dispelling myths of refugees as a special risk group, they do not portend the future for those in situations of conflict. The full health and psychological consequences of recent conflicts in Liberia, Somalia, Sudan, the Gulf, and Bosnia-in the time of AIDS-cannot yet be comprehended, much less quantified (Herdt and Lindenbaum, 1992).