bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
St. Petersburg and the U.S. Diplomatic Tradition
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the standpoint of power politics, relations between the Russian empire and the American republic were of secondary importance before World War I. Separated by land and sea, their populations, commerce, cultures, and governments seldom came into contact. When there was a crisis involving the two states, it was of brief duration, as were moments of cooperation. Occasionally, the vanity of one party or the other was flattered or injured, but their vital interests were never engaged. Nevertheless, over the period between 1780-when the Continental Congress sent Francis Dana to St. Petersburg-and the cataclysms of 1914 to 1918, habits of mind developed that influenced the future shape of U.S. attitude toward the Soviet Union. Echoes of a precommunist Russian reality and an earlier diplomatic experience resonated with that of ambassadors in postczarist Moscow. The purpose of this chapter, the first of two devoted to pre-1914, is to show how U.S. envoys between the reign of Catherine II (“the Great”) and that of Nicholas I evaluated Russia and coped with its peculiarities.
Preparing for Moscow
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Obsessed by statistical indicators of economic growth and unabashed in its disregard for the legal protections normally accorded people living in modern society, Stalin’s dictatorship emerged during the period when the United States withheld recognition from the USSR (1917-1933). These were the years of Soviet phantas-magoria. Cruelties inflicted on the peasantry by White and Red armies, policies of terror practiced by both sides in the civil war, levies on food in the years of War Communism, and epidemics of disease and famine in the early 1920s caused millions of fatalities and crippled the economy. To secure the population a respite and to pump up production (which by 1921 was a fraction of its pre-1914 level), Lenin inaugurated the New Economic Policy (NEP). It allowed for a modest system of private enterprise and spearheaded national recovery by 1926.&gt;Communist party control of politics and the destruction to human values and lives caused by Felix Dzerzhinsky’s ubiquitous security police did not diminish, however. In the struggle for succession following Lenin’s death in January 1924, Stalin defeated by turns his rivals on the left (Trotsky), within the “new opposition” (Leo Kamenev and Gregory Zinoviev), and on the right (Nicholas Bukharin and Alexis Rykov). Such as it was, the NEP respite was (in effect) repealed by Stalin at the All Union Congress of the Communist party in December 1927. There followed the explosion of the First Five-Year Plan. The rapid industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, and decision to “squeeze” the countryside’s wealth to pay for machinery and foreign technology amounted to an attack by Stalin’s government on the population. This massive but lopsided contest between coercive state power and its subjects resulted in countless more fatalities and led to the incarceration, exile, and forced labor of millions of men and women.
Neither War Nor Peace
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Soviet Union confronted daunting tasks of reconstruction during the last years of Stalin. Drought and famine in the Ukraine (1946-1947), the disproportionately high number of old people and youngsters in the labor force, and the numerical imbalance between men and women of child-rearing age (in 1946, 52 million women versus 31 million men) were the most visible signs of national distress. Fought over by German and Soviet armies, expanses of western Russia and the Ukraine were devoid of habitation and agricultural life.&gt;Through cajolery and terror, the regime forced its subjects to salvage these areas while reestablishing industrial production and repairing the physical foundations of such devastated cities as Leningrad, Kiev, and Stalingrad. This work was shouldered by a popula-tion simultaneously grieving for its war dead and improvising for millions left maimed and inadequately sheltered. Nonetheless, the fortitude of the Soviet nations combined with state necessity to effect a titanic feat in postwar rebuilding. By the mid-1950s, the USSR’s principal urban centers, coal and steel processing, and major industries had recovered, though agricultural production continued to lag.
Analysis of Hybrid Zones with Bombina
Authors: Szymura Jacek M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of fire-bellied toads in Europe has a long history, and for much of it debate has centered around whether the two species, Bombina bombina and B. variegata, hybridize in nature. The existence of individuals with intermediate morphology in areas where the ranges of B. bombina and B. variegata meet (overlap) was explained by invoking either hybridization (Mehely, 1892; Karaman, 1922; Mertens, 1928) or response to local environmental conditions. Artificial hybrids could be obtained in the laboratory, and heterospecific pairs in amplexus were observed in the field (Michalowski, 1958), but fertility of hybrids was unknown and morphology of F, hybrids did not resemble most intermediate forms found in nature (Michalowski and Madej, 1969). Spotting pattern and coloration of the belly, although characteristic for each of the forms, are variable and difficult to describe, making simple morphological analysis of presumed hybridization inconclusive. Furthermore, the lowland and the mountain form of Bombina have distinct mating calls (Larcher, 1969), which traditionally have been regarded as effective barriers to gene exchange in many amphibian species. Even more confusing, intermediate morphologies are also found far from the area of con tact, and some association between habitat type and morphology has been observed within the species ‘ overlap. Therefore until recently evidence for hybridization in the fire-bellied toads was ambiguous.
Memory Representation in the Hippocampus: Functional Domain and Functional Organization
Authors: Eichenbaum How Ard , Cohen Neal J , Otto Tim , Wible Cynthia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first studies on the amnesic patient H.M. made it immediately clear that the hippocampus and associated medial temporal lobe structures are critical components of a functional system for long-term memory formation (Scoville & Milner, 1957). Subsequently, the focus of much research logically turned to characterizing the precise functional role played by the hippocampal system. Work on this issue has been conducted both with amnesic patients and with animals having experimental lesions in brain structures shown to be damaged in human amnesia. Progress toward a consensus either within or between species has been disappointingly slow, however, due in large measure to difficulties (and controversies) in identifying the relevant distinctions in memory processes that are “honored by the nervous system” (cf. Squire, 1987). Some of these issues were considered in detail in the first two meetings of this symposium (Lynch, McGaugh, & Weinberger, 1984; Weinberger, McGaugh, & Lynch, 1985) and to a lesser extent in the third (McGaugh, Weinberger, & Lynch, 1990), but a brief and pointed review will be offered here to frame the view of hippocampal system function that has emerged from our own work.
A philosophical position
Authors: Williams George C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Successful biological research in this century has had three doctrinal bases: mechanism (as opposed to vitalism), natural selection (trial and error, as opposed to rational plan), and historicity. This last is the recognition of the role of historical contingency in determining properties of the Earth’s biota. The formation of the Earth was a unique event, and unique events have been altering evolutionary processes ever since, always keeping futures unpredictable from presents. As S. J. Gould (1989, p. 48) forcefully expressed it, if we could rewind the tape of evolutionary history to the remote past and play it again, it would turn out entirely different. The term evolution in its original sense of an unfolding or development, analogous to the development of an individual animal, is misleading (Salthe 1989).
Clade selection and macroevolution
Authors: Williams George C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 proposed that genes and, sometimes, genotypes of inbred or asexual lineages meet requirements for the precise long-term proliferation needed by units of selection in the codical domain. If the same can be true of gene pools, they must also be considered as likely codices for the natural selection of information. A gene pool and all its descendant gene pools constitute a clade, the usual sort of entity represented by diagrams such as Fig. 2.1A. Discussions of higher levels of selection are not always clear as to whether collections of gene pools or of organisms living at a particular moment are being considered. My use of gene and clade as strictly codical concepts demands other terms for their physical manifestations (Table 3.1). My consistent use of the term clade selection always implies a parallel phylad selection in the material domain. This is reasonable because of the simple one-to-one relation between the codex
Optimization and related concepts
Authors: Williams George C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I argue in Chapter 6 that organisms are never optimally designed. Designs of organs, developmental programs, etc. are legacies from the past and natural selection can affect them in only two ways. It can adjust the numbers of mutually exclusive designs until they reach frequency­ dependent equilibria, often with only one design that excludes alternatives. It can also optimize a design’s parameters so as to maximize the fitness attainable with that design under current conditions. This is what is usually meant by optimization in biology. An analogy might be the common wooden-handled, steel-bladed tool design. With different parameter values it could be a knife, a screw driver, or many other kinds of tool-many, but not all. The fixed-blade constraint would rule out turning it into a drill with meshing gears. The wood-and-steel constraint would rule out use as a hand lens.
Historicity and constraint
Authors: Williams George C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is about natural selection, with all discussion constrained by acceptance of the two other doctrinal bases of modern biology, mechanism and historicity. In accepting mechanism I assume that all the laws of chemistry and physics are obeyed by living organisms, in their individual activities, in the workings of their minutest parts, and in their ecological interactions. This chapter will deal with the more generally unappreciated doctrine of historicity and with related evolutionary constraints (phylogenetic, developmental, genetic) on the action of natural selection.
About Emotion
Authors: Lazarus Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of what we do and how we do it is influenced by emotions and the conditions that generate them. Pride and joy about our children revitalize our commitment to advance and protect the well-being of our family. Loss undermines our appreciation of life and may lead to withdrawal and depression. Anger at being wronged mobilizes and directs us toward retribution. When “blinded by rage,” our thinking is impaired, which places us at risk. It is even said with good reason that emotions contribute to physical and mental health and illness; positive emotions to health, negative to illness.
Goal Incongruent (Negatiue) Emotions
Authors: Lazarus Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main emotions that result from goal incongruence include anger, fright-anxiety, guilt-shame, sadness, envy-jealousy, and disgust. The hyphens denote two different emotions that are closely related or at least have been traditionally regarded as such. My discussion of anger will be considerably more detailed than the discussion of other emotions, because anger is in many ways so complex, socially important, and conflictful, and because many of the issues surrounding anger apply to all emotions. For example, the subtle differences in the meaning of emotion terms are particularly well illustrated in anger.
Individual Development
Authors: Lazarus Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Those who study the relationships among cognition, motivation, and emotion tend to divide into two groups, those devoted to adulthood and those focused on infancy and early childhood. The two groups rarely interact. Yet it is especially important to chart emotional development, and the processes that affect it, because what seems to happen in early childhood is by no means the same as what happens in adulthood. Not to compare these periods of life systematically risks distortion of our under standing of the emotion process in the adult, which draws on both immature and mature cognitive and motivational activity.
Social Influence
Authors: Lazarus Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two positions can be taken with regard to emotional development, reflecting the field’s preoccupations with biological influences on the one hand and social influences on the other. One position views development as an unfolding of individual genetic potentials, which follow inherited or preprogrammed patterns. The other position sees emotional development as learning from experience, which partakes of societally defined rules of behavior and culturally defined meanings. Both positions are, of course, equally applicable and, as I suggested in Chapter 5, a sound theory of emotion looks to the interplay of both.
The Historical Tension: Politics v. le droit
Authors: Stone Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of constitutional review of legislation in France constitutes an extraordinary and transformative departure from an established constitutional orthodoxy long thought to have been utterly resistant to fundamental change. In this orthodoxy, la loi (“statute” or “legislation’)-the product of public politics-is a concrete expression of sovereignty, sovereignty to which le droit (“a subject matter,” things “juridical’)-the work of the judiciary and of legal science-is an obedient, if at times, creative servant. “If the average Frenchmen,” wrote a Fourth Republic critic, “were asked, ‘what is democracy?,’ he would not hesitate to answer: ‘It’s the sovereignty of the people whose will is expressed by the majority vote of the elected assemblies.”‘ To recognize judge-made law is to diagnose pathology, and judicial review is all but unthinkable.
From Watchdog to Policymaker: Structure, Function, Mandate
Authors: Stone Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In both context and detail, the paralysis of politics in the waning years of the Fourth Republic, the forceful coming of a heroic, charismatic leader to establish a new one, even the constitutional niceties of the emergent regime cannot but recall past Bonapartist solutions to the problem of the apparent ingovernability of France in crisis.1 The new constitution, drafted principally by conseillers d’Etat under the watchful eyes of de Gaulle, Michel Debre, and their associates, shifted effective power over the legislative process and over the form and content of legislation from parliament to the executive. In a word, the parliamentary system was rationalized, that is, placed under the management of a government detached from parliament (if left responsible ).2 A special body, the Constitutional Council, was created to guarantee the viability of this new distribution of powers, and-not wholly unlike the Bonapartist Senates the institution was expressly denied a judicial role, and its competence was limited entirely to parliamentary space. This chapter, first, examines the creation of the Council-with special attention paid to the intention of the founders-along with attributes of the body’s jurisdiction, composition and recruitment.
From Watchdog to Policymaker: The Evolution of Constitutional Review
Authors: Stone Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since its inception, referrals to the Constitutional Council have been used to draw out the legislative process, a means of opposing and blocking policy choices recently enshrined in pending statutes. Whereas in the first decade of the Fifth Republic the primary function of constitutional review was to ensure that Gaullist constitutional ideas would find their expression in stable practices, since the mid-1970s the politics of review have become a central feature of opposition tactics. This development is intimately linked to the Council’s steady incorporation, beginning in 1971, of the 1789 declaration and other provisions contained in the preamble to the 1946 constitution and elsewhere. As the Council cataloged substantive restrictions on policymaking, the importance of constitutional debate in policymaking increased, and the grounds of referral open to parliamentarians expanded.
Understanding French Constitutional Politics
Authors: Stone Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The American law professor, Charles L. Black, Jr., used this story to dramatize what he thought to be “one of the chief excellencies of the American polity.” What the priest smelled in the air that day had emanated not from an abstract New World commitment to liberty, equality, or even the rule of law, but from something more substantial and utterly foreign to the French political system: the practice of judicial review. It was, indeed, “the sweet odor of the Supreme Court.” To believe the most published and respected French public lawyers, French citizens need no longer envy such “legitimacy”-the Constitutional Council now provides much the same thing. In this chapter, I examine aca demic discourse on the Council. In the first part, revisiting themes developed in chapter 1, the evolution of doctrinal attitudes to the Council are traced and the impact of scholarly activity on the Council’s behavior evaluated. In the second, I assess the literature on the Council’s political role and impact.
The Council Legislates: Nationalization and Privatization Policy
Authors: Stone Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the late spring of 1981, under the euphoric spell of electoral victory, the newly constituted Mauroy government began work to concretize in detail what had been the central priority of the Left for most of the century: the extensive nationalization of industry and commerce. The move was unprecedented. As Ross and Jenson write, this was “the first time in modern Europe that any government had moved to extend public ownership to the core of the profitable oligopoly sector”-an extension, by any standard, “far beyond the established boundaries set for European mixed economies.” 1 By the spring of 1982, the task largely completed, the State enjoyed a virtual monopoly over France’s finance and investment sectors. It owned every major bank, controlled more than 90 percent of all deposits, and more than 85 percent of all outstanding credit; it had purchased a dying iron and steel industry, but also leading giants in the modernized, strategic industries of the international economy. Of France’s largest twenty corporations, thirteen were now in public hands. Taken together, the public sector would henceforth account for or control three-fifths of all investment, one-half of all production in big industry, one-half of all exports, one-fifth of the domestic retail market, and one out of every three jobs.
The Council Legislates: In Search of Media Pluralism
Authors: Stone Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The search for coherent, stable, and pluralistic regimes to govern the French press and broadcast industries has been an extraordinarily active one this past decade. It has occupied vast amounts of the time and legislative resources of governments, parliamentarians, and bureaucrats, led to the creation of numerous regulatory commissions, and opened up new areas of law and administration. Media politics dominated the political agenda and front-page headlines in the 1980s; only the politics of nationalizations and privatizations were more salient or controversial. This chapter examines attempts by successive governments, in 1984 and 1986, to reform legislative regimes governing the media. These reforms led to the most rancorous legislative debates in the history of the Fifth Republic, as measured by standard indices of obstruction,’ and to the two longest decisions ever handed down by the Constitutional Council.
Introduction: The Constitutional Founders’ Liberalism and Civic Virtue
Authors: Sinopoli Richard C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his first published discourse that “we have physicists, geometers, chemists, astronomers, poets ... [but] we no longer have citizens.”1 In so doing, he pointed to a long-standing, probably eternal, problem of political life. How does an individual reconcile private capacities and goals with the duties-and opportunities-of public life? Rousseau’s solution, by and large, consists of a campaign of education and socialization, reminiscent of the Spartans, to remind each and every member of the political community that the good of the community takes precedence over that of any of its members. If you are a poet, Rousseau suggests, your poetry should laud the country that enabled you to develop your gifts. If you are a chemist, your life’s work should be put at the service of the community. Each person, is in a sense, public property. Whatever your particular gifts, you are first and foremost a citizen and, as such, you should not only serve the state in your particular occupation but should take an active part in its governance.
Clinical Years
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While Hans Krebs was at home between semesters-it may have been in February or March of 1921-his father suggested to him and to Wolf that they should make a legal declaration that they had left the Jewish religious community. The idea was a logical culmination of the conviction Georg Krebs had long held that assimilation was the best solution to the Jewish problem in Germany. They should, he explained to his sons, take an active step to show that they believed seriously in assimilation.
The Research Apprentice
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of January, 1925, Hans Krebs walked through the entrance to the Pathological Institute of the Charite Hospital and into the Division of Chemistry, to begin his practical training in the methods of the science taught there. In one large laboratory room with many benches new students like himself worked side-by-side with more advanced students, with research assistants to the director, and with a few independent investigators. David Nachmansohn, who had already been working enthusiastically in the laboratory for several months, probably told Krebs that he could expect to learn a lot there.
The Ornithine Effect
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kurt Henseleit resumed his experiments on October 19, 1931. His first moves were a continuation of the efforts to improve the basic methods employed in the urea research. In phosphate-Ringer’s solution, he had found earlier, the action of urease on urea is partially inhibited. In an attempt to obviate this difficulty, so they could try using phosphate-Ringer’s solution in the main experiments, Henseleit examined the influence of calcium chloride added to that solution, and discovered that the urease reaction then took place at the same rate as in bicarbonate Ringer’s solution. On the same day, he tested a urease preparation, made in the laboratory from an extract of soya beans that he had ground up in a coffee grinder. Making the urease this way was less expensive than to buy it; but the new urease also worked three times as fast as the commercial urease they had been using. They adopted the extract for their future experimental determinations.