bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Marketing Literature Review
Authors: Leonard Myron 
Published: November 2003

This section is based on a selection of article abstracts from a comprehensive business literature database. Marketing-related abstracts from over 125 journals (both academic and trade) are reviewed by JM staff. Descriptors for each entry are assigned by JM staff. Each issue of this section represents three months of entries into the database. JM thanks UMI for use of the ABI/INFORM business database. Each entry has an identifying number. Cross-references appear immediately under each subject heading. The following article abstracts are available online from the ABI/INFORM database, which is published and copyrighted by UMI. For additional information about access to the database or about obtaining photocopies of the articles abstracted here, please call (800) 626-2823 or write to UMI, 300 N. Zeeb Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48106.
Psychology as a Science
Authors: Fuchs Alfred H. , Milar Katharine S. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractScientific psychology arose in the nineteenth century out of western philosophical inquiry into the nature and function of mind. This “new psychology” was symbolized by the laboratory of psychology at the University of Leipzig founded by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879; experimental methods were adapted from physiology and psychophysics to pursue traditional philosophical questions about mental life. Early laboratory experiments included the measurement of the time course of mental operations, the determination of sensory thresholds, and in time, more complex cognitive processes. Introspection under controlled laboratory conditions replaced philosophical introspection of conscious experience, but its importance waned as the science came to embrace a wider range of normal and abnormal mental and behavioral phenomena and as children and animals became the subjects of investigation, both in and of themselves and in comparison with adult human subjects. Schools and systems of psychology (e.g., Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt Psychology, and Behaviorism) competed to define the content of psychology and its methods. As psychology matured, the definition of the psychological experiment, the methods appropriate to it, and the statistical treatment of data changed to meet evolving conceptions of scientific psychology and the diverse subject matter that contemporary psychology came to encompass.
Sensation and Perception
Authors: Coren Stanley 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe long history of sensory and perceptual research has resulted in a huge data base and much information that has accrued on the substantive issues about how the specific sensory systems operate and how we extract and interpret information from them.This chapter is an overview of the field and concentrates on general themes, rather than upon the data and findings from any one sensory modality. From the overview some idea of the context and scope of the study of perception, and its relation to other aspects of psychology and other sciences will emerge. Three global issues appear repeatedly in several guises throughout the history. The first concerns the perceptual problem or the issue of correspondence between our internal representation of the environment in consciousness as compared to objectively measured external stimuli. The second has to do with borrowing methods and theoretical frameworks from other sciences, such as physics and physiology.And the third is the distinction between sensation and perception; currently they are united in the organism and are interdependent aspects of behavior. The task of the future may be to find some way of reuniting the two aspects of research, which are inextricably bound to each other.
Cognition and Learning
Authors: Leahey Thomas Hardy 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter traces ideas about cognition and learning from the ancient Greeks to modern times. Its treatment is divided into three sections. The first section, The Philosophical Period, describes the epistemological approach to cognition, in which theories about mental activity were framed with an eye toward the search for justifiable knowledge. The impact of the Scientific Revolution is emphasized. It created a new concept of mind—the Way of Ideas—that ultimately pushed thinkers away from philosophical concerns to psychological ones. The second section, The Early Scientific Period, begins with the founding psychology of consciousness and moves through the behaviorist movement of c. 1920–1950, in which under the impact of evolutionary theory the topic of learning—adaptive behavior change—took precedence over the topic of cognition. The third section, The Modern Scientific Period, examines contemporary cognitive science, the fruit of seeing the mind as like a computer program. The three founding concepts of this new approach to cognition and learning, feedback, information, and computationalism are described, and the two chief architectures of cognition, the symbol system hypothesis and the connectionist, or subsymbolic hypothesis are compared and contrasted.
Intelligence
Authors: Sternberg Robert J. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article reviews the history of theory and research on intelligence. It starts with a consideration of expert opinions on the nature of intelligence. It considers in particular operational definitions and symposia of expert opinions on the nature of intelligence. The chapter then continues with a discussion of the seminal views of Galton and Binet. Then it discusses psychometric theories of intelligence, including Spearman's theory of the general factor (so‐called “two‐factor theory”), Thomson's theory of bonds, Thurstone's theory of primary mental abilities, hierarchical theories (Holzinger, Burt, Vernon, Cattell, Carroll, Guilford's structure‐of‐intellect theory, and Guttman's radex theory.After discussing psychometric theories, developmental theories are discussed. First, Piaget's theory of intellectual development is considered. Next, Vygotsky's theory is considered. The first theory emphasizes development more from the inside‐out, and the latter theory, more from the outside‐in. Next the chapter moves on to theories of cognitive processes. The earliest cognitive work was done by Spearman. Many years later, Hunt proposed a cognitive‐correlates approach, and Sternberg, a complementary cognitive‐components approach. A third approach emphasized cognitive training, and a fourth approach, cognitive contents. The chapter next discusses biological approaches and then, contextual approaches.Finally, the chapter discusses recent systems approaches to intelligence, which integrate some of the earlier approaches. Gardner has proposed a theory of multiple intelligences, according to which each of 8 sets of skills are viewed as emanating from separate intelligences. Sternberg has proposed a triarchic theory, which emphasizes the respective roles of analytical, creative, and practical abilities.Approaches to intelligence are still evolving, and the future may bring new syntheses with regard to the best ways to understand the nature of human intelligence.
Personality
Authors: Barenbaum Nicole B. , Winter David G. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter examines the history of American personality psychology, focusing on a puzzling question: In a field defined as the scientific study of individual persons and differences among persons, how can we explain the history of ambivalence toward case studies and life histories? Adopting a multidisciplinary perspective, we suggest that the marginal status of these methods in personality psychology was related to their identification between 1900 and 1930 as preferred methods in psychiatry, psychopathology (considered primarily a medical specialty at the time), and sociology. In contrast, psychologists interested in personality adopted psychometric measures that could establish their scientific expertise in meeting practical goals. These preferences persisted during the emergence of personality psychology as a separate subdiscipline in the 1930s, despite calls for more attention to case study methods. To illustrate the lasting effects of these methodological choices, we trace the efforts of Gordon Allport and Henry Murray to promote the study of individual lives in personality psychology, and we examine psychologists' responses to their work. Finally, we reconsider the historical course of personality psychologists' ambivalence toward the study of individual lives and suggest an interpretation of the revival of interest in case studies, life histories, and psychobiography in recent years.
Educational Psychology
Authors: Weinstein Claire Ellen , Way Pamela J. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

The history of educational psychology traces a path from its origins in concerns about cultural improvement and transmission, philosophy, general education, and psychology. Although the folk tradition of educational psychology has probably existed since the earliest times of humans on the earth, formal histories of educational psychology trace its origins to ancient philosophers. In the late eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries, there were strong European influences on the early development path of educational psychology as a discipline. The subtle transition from philosophy to newer conceptions of psychology as the framework for understanding and applying educational variables was introduced to America by William James, and greatly expanded in 1910 in an essay by Thorndike in the first issue of the
Journal of Educational Psychology
. As Mayer reflected, there was a time during which psychologists developed theories, and left it to educators to apply them; next came a period during which psychology resolutely focused on theoretical issues that were unrelated to educational issues, and education resolutely focused primarily on practical issues; and, now, we have an era in which psychology and education seem to be working more hand‐in‐hand, combining the strengths of both groups to work for the mutual benefit of each group, as well as for the public.
Assessment Psychology
Authors: Weiner Irving B. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractPsychological assessment consists of translating observations of a person into inferences about the person's nature and how he or she is likely to behave in various situations. In more formal terms, assessment psychology is the field of behavioral science concerned with methods of identifying similarities and differences among people in their personal characteristics, functioning capacities, and action tendencies. Assessment methods are accordingly designed to identify what people are like and how they can be expected to conduct themselves, specifically with respect to their disposition to think, feel, and act in certain ways. This chapter begins by identifying the origins of assessment psychology and then traces the development of assessment methods for serving four purposes: the evaluation of intellectual ability, the identification of personality characteristics and psychopathology, the monitoring of neuropsychological functioning, and the measurement of aptitudes, achievement, and interests. The chapter concludes with comments concerning issues currently confronting assessment psychology and bearing on its future prospects.
Clinical Psychology
Authors: Routh Donald K. , Reisman John M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe study of psychopathology, later a part of clinical psychology, was a part of modern psychology from its inception in Wundt's Leipzig laboratory in 1879. In France, the study of psychopathology was even more central to the concept of psychology of such pioneers as Theodule Ribot, who wrote on disorders of memory and disorders of the personality. The actual founding of clinical psychology, as a field involving helping individuals (as opposed to merely studying them), was due to Lightner Witmer, who in 1896 founded the first psychology clinic at the University of Pennsylvania. Witmer's interest was focused on work with children and on academically related problems more than is the case in present day clinical psychology. Despite Witmer's active involvement in remediation as well as diagnostic study, clinical psychology, as it developed early in the twentieth century was largely concerned with the psychometric evaluation of individuals, particularly with the administration and interpretation of the Binet test. The American Association of Clinical Psychologists, founded by J.E.W. Wallin and Leta Hollingworth in 1917, was the first instance of organized clinical psychology. It was later incorporated as the Clinical Section of the American Psychological Association. After World War II, clinical psychology expanded greatly in America under the stimulus of funds from the Veterans Administration and the National Institute of Mental Health. It also emerged as a field internationally in Great Britain, the Scandinavian countries, and elsewhere as a part of emerging nationalized health systems. Post‐World War II clinical psychology acquired a strong interest in psychological intervention, including psychotherapy and behavior therapy. As the twentieth century drew to a close and psychiatry became preoccupied with psychotropic medications and less interested in psychoanalysis, clinical psychology emerged as a field with the primary expertise in psychotherapy and in the development of evidence‐based approaches to psychological intervention.
Counseling Psychology
Authors: Baker David B. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Counseling psychology is a relatively recent phenomenon. The original counseling psychologists were largely social reformers intent on improving the lives of immigrants and children through more thoughtful vocational and career planning. With an emphasis on individual differences, the vocational guidance movement was greeted with interest by applied psychologists, just coming into their own early in the twentieth century. Finding its way in to the university setting, vocational guidance provided laboratories for the development of materials and methods, and provided training for student's training in the field of clinical psychology. With applications in the military, industry, and education, counseling and guidance benefited from significant federal funding after World War II. The federal government's need for and support of mental health professionals, led counseling psychology further from its roots in vocational guidance and closer to its current identity as a health service profession. Today counseling psychology is a recognized area of professional practice in psychology with well‐established graduate training programs, two successful journals, and the American Psychological Association's 10th largest division, Division 17, Counseling Psychology.
Industrial‐Organizational Psychology
Authors: Koppes Laura L. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter is a nascent effort to describe the zeitgeist or social‐historical context of industrial‐organizational psychology by identifying various dynamic influences that shaped the rise of the discipline during the past 100 years in the United States. Significant developments and persons were examined within the overall social, cultural and political contexts of the times to answer the question, “Whywere psychologists studying behavior in work settings and applying psychology to improve the workplace?” The first section encapsulates I‐O psychology's growth: industrial‐organizational psychology shifted from a simple, narrowly defined technical field focused on individual issues for accomplishing organizational objectives to a complex, broad scientific and applied discipline emphasizing individual and organizational issues for achieving both individual and organizational goals. The second section describes the dynamic forces that shaped I‐O psychology and reveals that the discipline's evolution was the result of confluences of several external (socioeconomic, business, legal, military, technology, psychology) and internal forces (individuals, theories, and applications). These forces, along with other influences (e.g., interdisciplinary fields), interacted in shaping both the science and practice of industrial‐organizational psychology. The history presented in this chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive description of industrial‐organizational psychology content or a duplication of historical accounts previously written.
International Psychology
Authors: David Henry P. , Buchanan Joan 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
In developing this chapter, two approaches are followed. The first part, a narrative, summarizes the international roots of psychology, beginning more than 2000 years ago, followed by selected highlights and vignettes retrieved from reports and personal observations. Anecdotal at times, the intent is to show the human side of international psychology by reflecting on the interactions of colleagues seeking international consensus and to demonstrate how political events can gradually force psychologists to move beyond the sheltered world of academia to confront questions of professional ethics and public policies impinging on personal freedom. To illustrate these dilemmas and successes several U.S.‐influenced events are recalled, ending with a commentary on the increasing internationalization of psychology. The second part of the chapter consists of a chronology of events influencing international psychology, including the founding of laboratories and institutes, national psychological organizations, journals and first congresses, as well as some unique events of historical interest that reflect the tenor of a given era.
Professional Organizations
Authors: Pickren Wade E. , Fowler Raymond D. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe organization of psychology has proceeded in an irregular fashion. Beginning in 1889, international congresses of psychology were the first efforts to bring together psychologists. Three years later the first national association was formed in the United States. Over the course of the twentieth century, national psychological organizations were formed on every continent except Antarctica. By mid‐twentieth century, the International Union of Psychological Sciences was formed with 20 initial national associations as members and experienced continued growth as national organizations were formed. The largest national organization was the American Psychological Association, whose growth was facilitated by its reorganization in the 1940s into numerous divisions that represented specific areas of psychological science and practice. Increasingly, psychological organizations were formed to represent such specific areas and by the end of the century there were organizations that represented almost every scientific specialty and practice. The chapter provides a descriptive history of the events and processes of organizations from the broad, international level to the scientific society devoted to particular research topics. The chapter concludes with a brief analysis of historical forces at work in the formation of psychological organizations.
Exploratory Data Analysis
Authors: Behrens John T. , Yu Chong‐Ho 
Published: November 2003

AbstractIn contrast to statistical approaches aimed at testing specific hypotheses, Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is a quantitative tradition that seeks to help researchers understand data when little or no statistical hypotheses exist, or when specific hypotheses exist but supplemental representations are needed to ensure the interpretability of statistical results. In this way, EDA seeks to answer the broad scientific questions of “what is going on here” and “how might I be fooled by my statistical results.” The techniques of EDA are discussed following the “4 Rs” of Revelation (graphics), Re‐expression (scale transformation), Residuals (model building and assessment), and Resistance (using summaries unaffected by unexpected values). The philosophical justification for EDA is presented in terms of C.S. Pierce's concept of abduction and the recognition of a broad range of analytic needs that arise throughout the research process. Several previously published datasets from psychological literature are re‐analyzed to illustrate the interpretive errors that can occur when techniques of EDA are omitted. In general, these errors occur because researchers unwittingly assume the existence of structure that is not supported by the data. Using the techniques of EDA, however, underlying structure is brought to the researcher's attention and appropriate interpretation can be obtained.
Power: Basics, Practical Problems, and Possible Solutions
Authors: Wilcox Rand R. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe chapter gives a broad overview of power issues when testing hypotheses based on measures of location. Typically, power analyses are performed assuming normality and homoscedasticity (equal variances), and the goal is to determine an appropriate sample size, but it has long been known that violating these assumptions can render such analyses highly misleading. The chapter describes why and covers the most recent results regarding how these problems might be addressed. A theme of the paper is that a plethora of issues need to be considered when dealing with power.
Animal Learning
Authors: Church Russell M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe purpose of the chapter is to describe how research in animal learning has been conducted. It describes each of the stages of the research process from the identification of the problem, the conduct of the experiment, and the analysis of the data. These sections are designed to answer such questions as: What is the problem? What apparatus is required? What animals should be used? How should the independent and dependent variables be measured? What procedure should be used? What experimental design should be used? How should the data be analyzed? and How should the results be explained? Because computers are being used in all stages of the research process, a separate section is devoted to the use of computers in research in animal learning. The final section is a case study of an experiment that illustrates how each of the questions arose, and how they were answered.
Neuropsychology
Authors: Bauer Russell M. , Leritz Elizabeth C. , Bowers Dawn 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter provides a broad overview of contemporary experimental methods in neuropsychology. It begins with a brief discussion of neuropsychological inference, focusing on basic assumptions and on ways that neuropsychogical research can yield useful information about brain‐behavior relationships. Then, a brief description of major approaches to neuropsychological research, beginning with the traditional lesion approach and its application to the evaluation of brain dysfunction through group and single case experiments. Descriptions of additional techniques, including reversible lesion methods (repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, WADA technique), human laterality paradigms (dichotic listening, tachistoscopic visual presentation, dual task framework), electrophysiological approaches (ERP, autonomic psychophysiology), and functional neuroimaging (PET, SPECT, fMRI, MEG) are then undertaken. Each section considers the rationale for the technique, outlines its strengths and weaknesses, and provides some examples of how it has been used in addressing today's problems in neuropsychology. Opportunities and promises of cross‐platform approaches to neuropsychological research are highlighted.