bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Bank of England and the British Economy
Authors: Cairncross Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For most of its existence the Bank of England has been a joint-stock bank differing from other banks mainly in its close relations with government. It came into existence to raise money and lend it to the state and has continued to have the state as its principal customer. In return it was granted privileges as a bank of issue in its Charter and came to occupy a dominant position as a supplier of paper money, acquiring a monopoly of the note issue in the London area at an early stage but not becoming the sole bank of issue in England and Wales until the 1920s. When bank money superseded notes and coin as the main means of payment, however, the Bank could not keep pace with the expansion of the banking system, and by the twentieth century it was a relatively small element in it. On the other hand, its responsibilities expanded as it came to discharge the various duties of a central bank.
Clustering in Biotechnology in the USA
Authors: Prevezer Martha 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapters 4 and 5 looked at the phenomenon of clustering in the computing industry. The next two chapters look at another high technology industry, biotechnology, that has also exhibited a marked propensity to cluster, particularly in the USA. To understand the phenomenon of clustering more generally, we need to establish why, in any particular industry, a cluster grows in one place rather than another. This chapter has two parts. The first looks at what we have discovered about the clustering process in biotechnology in the USA through data and the construction of a series of models described in more detail in Chapter 3; at the entry of new firms into clusters in the USA, and at the growth of incumbent firms within clusters.
Trade and Growth: A Historical Perspective
Authors: Kitson Michael , Michie1 Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘There has developed a growing realization that stability of income and employment calls for policies operating not merely on prices and the credit base but on the volume of effective demand; and this affords a new hope for stability on a wider front. While the synchronisation of national policies required under the gold standard conflicted at times with the demands of internal stability and was for this very reason gradually abandoned, a synchronisation of policies aimed at sustaining and steadying effective demand in the various countries would promote both internal stability and stability of exchange rates at the same time.’ Ragnar Nurkse (League of Nations, 1944).
Some Economical Reflections on Ethics
Authors: Hahn Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am not a philosopher, let alone a moral philosopher. Even worse, I have always had ‘doubts’ concerning arguments of welfare economists. So what follows is both idiosyncratic and ill-informed by a vast literature. I have thought on some of the main issues often for a considerable time, and this is the only inducement which I can offer to the reader to follow what I now have to say.
On the Foundations of Welfare Economics: Utility, Capability, and Practical Reason
Authors: Sen Amartya 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘There is no “royal road” to geometry’, Euclid is supposed to have told Ptolemy. A similar remark can be made about welfare economics also. Welfare economics deals with the basis of normative judgements, the foundations of evaluative measurement, and the conceptual underpinnings of policy-making in economics. It is not a modest subject. Given the variety of problems and the diversity of concerns that are inevitably included in this broad field, it would have been amazing had there been some simple-and already chosen-’royal road’ directing us on how to make these judgements, evaluations, and decisions. Pluralism and variety would be hard to avoid in this important field--characterized as it is by heterogeneity of problems and diversity of normative concerns.
An Evolutionary Dynamic Approach to Altruism
Authors: Sacco Pier Luigi , Zamagnj Stefano 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A social convention is, according to the classical definition of Lewis (1969), a state of things which is customary, expected, and self-enforcing. In game-theoretic terms (as pointed out, for example, by Ullman-Margalit 1977), these requirements can be translated into the familiar Nash equili brium conditions. Very recently, Sugden (1989) has pointed out that historically relevant social conventions need not only be self-enforcing vis-a-vis themselves but also against the possible ‘invasion’ of ‘rival’ conven tions, i.e. against the possibility that a relatively small number of players act as ‘deviants’. This additional feature amounts to a refinement of Nash equilibrium known as evolutionary stability (see e.g. van Damme 1987). This characterization of social conventions clearly stresses their stability, i.e. the fact that, once the social convention has been established, its destruction requires the successful co-ordination of a relatively large number of players. Unfortunately, as is well known, it is often the case that social conventions do not correspond to socially desirable outcomes; this can be due to the fact that:
The Free-Standing Company Revisited
Authors: Wilkins Mira 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A ‘free-standing company ‘ is a firm set up in one country for the purpose of doing business outside that country. The term ‘free-standing ‘ was adopted to contrast this type of investment over borders with the more familiar one of today ‘s multinational enterprise that begins with business operations at home and then moves abroad, building on its competence and needs and generally pursuing a related line of business. With the free-standing company, the individual founders established a new ‘free-standing ‘ unit in the home (headquarters) country with the immediate intention of operating outside that headquarters nation. My initial research on the free-standing company concentrated on the history of British-headquartered free-standing companies; quickly, however, it became apparent that other nations also were homes for such companies.
Transaction-Cost Theory and the Free-Standing Firm
Authors: Hennart Jean FranÇois 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the publication of Mira Wilkins ‘s seminal Economic History Review article where she described the free-standing firm as an important type of pre-1914 multinational enterprise, business historians have started to pay serious attention to this phenomenon. There is increasing evidence that this type of investment made up a substantial proportion of British foreign direct investment before 1914 and that there were a significant number of French, Belgian, and Dutch free-standing firms, and some US-based ones as well. While free-standing firms were overshadowed by the more traditional type of multinational enterprises after the First World War, they continued to be formed in both the UK and the USA, and some are still being floated in the 1990s.
Continental European Free-Standing Companies: The Case of Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland
Authors: SchrÖter Harm 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The free-standing company (FSC) was studied initially in the context of British economic history. Soon the question was raised, to what extent were FSCs headquartered in other states? In Chapter 11, Ben Gales and Keetie Sluyterman considered Holland as home to FSCs; my interest is in Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland. I have noted in an earlier book that the majority of Belgian foreign direct investment (FDI) was carried out through FSCs. In Chapter 5 herein, Peter Hertner showed that Belgian FSCs ‘ investment in Italy was substantial, second only to the British interest. By contrast, other nations with a sizeable share of the FDI in Italy, such as Switzerland or Germany, played a small or even insignificant role there in foreign investments made by FSCs.My opening question is, to what extent are my prior findings on Belgium and Peter Hertner ‘s evidence, which was gathered for one major host nation, confirmed by further research? Thus, my first sec-tion will offer data on FSCs headquartered in Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland, providing information on numbers, destinations, periods of foundation, branches of industries, finance, and so forth. The second part of this chapter will be devoted to special problems that arose during my research and also the association of my empirical materials with the emerging theory on the FSC.
Petty Pawns and Informal Lending:Gender and the Transformation of Small-Scale Credit in England, circa 1600-1800
Authors: Lemire Beverly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Channels of credit assumed wider and more complex dimensions during the early modern period, as industrial, commercial, agricultural, and governmental needs expanded. The confluence of private lenders and government need, late in the seventeenth century, produced the more regulated structures of government debtors and creditors in the form of the Bank of England; this and other more formal lending associations grew in scale and sophistication from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. The history of national debt, mortgaged estates, credit for commerce, and loans for industry defined the early histories of credit. These topics were explored with skill and ingenuity by generations of historians. But credit functions extended beyond the paneled rooms of Thread needle Street and the City and below the business of Blackwell Hall and West Country clothiers. This study begins the exploration of commercial practices common in metropolitan side-streets among formal and informal pawnbrokers, moneylenders, and their clients.
The American Automobile Frenzy of the 1950s
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The American passenger car of the mid-1950s was a marvel: a long, low, powerful, chrome-lashed barge on wheels. This chapter seeks to explain its emergence, its popularity, and its crisis, all in the space of seven years. Peter Mathias pioneered the study of consumer goods industries. This chapter carries his quest across the Atlantic. It examines American car dynamics as part of a larger study of the economic determinants of well-being.
A New Toyotaism?
Authors: Shimizu Koichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Toyota introduced innovations in industrial organization and labour force management throughout the 1950s and 1960s. By the early 1970s these innovations had evolved into the coherent and successful Toyota Production System (TPS). Prior to the first oil crisis, the system was mainly geared towards mass production. The company had to find creative solutions in order to diversify its product range and make its production process more flexible during the turbulent 1970s. Emerging strengthened from these trials, Toyota revealed its capacity to achieve even higher performance levels during the 1980s. The company’s success led numerous managers, observers, and researchers to consider that its system had become the new best industrial model which all companies ought to adopt (Womack et al. 1990). Yet by the end of the 1980s, at the very point at which it was being promoted as the industrial model for the twenty-first century,
Peugeot Meets Ford, Sloan, and Toyota
Authors: Loubet Jean-Louis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past thirty years, the Peugeot group has been marked by the most radical changes in its history. The company had long been a specialist automobile producer, and had only entered the mass market towards the end of the post-war boom. In 1974 a strategy of external growth was launched, with the purchase of Citroen and then the European subsidiaries of Chrysler. This was a vertiginous ascent which boosted Peugeot Societe Anonyme (PSA: the Peugeot Limited Company) into temporarily becoming the largest automobile manufacturer in Europe just as the second oil crisis arrived. However, the extraordinary difficulties of reorganizing and harmonizing three distinct automobile companies were soon revealed, to the point that management became embroiled in a completely different struggle: that for survival. Growth, reorganization, restructuring, and strategic change came in quick succession, as the company encountered the ideas of Ford, Sloan, and Toyota respectively. Perhaps the most unusual aspect of the Peugeot group is precisely its capacity to change. Indeed it may be precisely this capacity for self-questioning that has enabled Peugeot to adapt to an ever changing economic environment for more than one hundred years.
Economic Functioning, Self-Sufficiency, and Full Employment
Authors: Tarling Roger , Wilkinson Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Few economists would disagree that a central object of economic policy should be achieving and sustaining full employment; what they debate is how this can be achieved. Economists have traditionally argued that the labour market cleared; anyone can get a job if they are prepared to accept a market price which declines as the level of unemployment rises. Keynes identified over-saving as a cause of unemployment and introduced the idea that full employment required government intervention to establish and maintain a sufficiency in effective demand. Persistent inflation in the post war period led to the re-establishment amongst economists of pre Keynesian beliefs in a monetary explanation of inflation and a clearing labour market and established the notion of an equilibrium ‘natural’ level of unemployment at which inflation stabilizes. Monetarism rules out a macroeconomic intervention route to full employment and directs policy attention towards reform of the supply side of the labour market as the gen erator of jobs. However, despite seventeen years of continuous labour market deregulation and cutbacks in social welfare to sharpen work incentives in Britain, unemployment, depending on how it is measured, is currently between two to four times higher than it was in the 1970s.
Development Strategy and Management of The Market Economy
Authors: Malinvaud Edmond , Milleron Jean Claude , Nabli Mustapha K , Sen Amartya K , Sengupta Arjun , Stern Nicholas , Stiglitz Joseph E , Suzumura Kotaro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Around the world, the 1990s have seen greater attention being given to the role of markets as an instrument of economic development. Responding to new thinking and changed economic circumstances, governments perceptions of their own role in the management of their economies have shifted. As a result, many have withdrawn from direct involvement in certain sectors of the economy and have reduced their intervention and control in others. The reorientation has been most dramatic in the former centrally planned economies, but governments in developing countries, as well as in advanced countries where markets are already pre-eminent, have profoundly reconsidered their development role and the means of fulfilling it. In this process, it has been recognised that, left entirely to their own devices, markets may be either inadequate or inappropriate for a country's overall economic and social development. Government has a vital role to play even in facilitating the effective functioning of markets--to ensure the necessary infrastructure is in place, to sustain macroeconomic stability, to provide a framework for effective interaction with the international economy. It also has a responsibility to correct the market's inclinations in certain directions, in particular to provide a fuller perspective on the future, to give direction in critical sectors and, importantly, to fulfil a number of social objectives. The challenges lie in identifying policies and selecting instruments that enable the government to fulfil these roles complementing the contribution of markets. In this era of transition and experimentation in economic management, the Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis of the United Nations convened a group of economists to distil their thinking and experience on the changing role of government in the development process. The first volume in this two volume set contains the views of the members of the group on critical dimensions of the management of market economies. The second volume contains some of the companion papers that were prepared as a compliment to the work of the group.
National Systems of Governance and Managerial Prerogatives in the :Evolution of Work Systems England, Germany, and Denmark Compared
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When it became clear, more than a decade ago, that the ‘Fordist ‘ system of work organization and control was not a universal template for organizing production and exchange throughout capitalist economies for all times, and that other work systems, i.e. ‘flexible specialization ‘ (Sabel 1982; Piore and Sabel 1984) and ‘diversified quality production ‘ (Streeck 1992) even challenged the competitive superiority of Fordist mass production under ‘the new competition ‘ (Best 1990), both managerial ideas and the science of industrial organization changed rapidly. According to Mueller and Loveridge in this volume, managers of multinational corporations, be they British, German, or American, are now adopting policies affected by these new ideas and are trying to enforce new designs of work systems, of corporate governance, and of supplier and customer relations on their business units across the world. A new universal template for the design of work systems is seemingly being adopted, imitated, and implemented in a world where the rhetoric of globalization helps to legitimize managerial changes.
From Continent to Periphery: PLA Doctrine, Strategy and Capabilities Towards 2000*
Authors: Godwin Paul H B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the late spring of 1985, shortly after Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the former USSR, the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party (CMC) directed a radical change in the armed forces’ training and preparation for war. The Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA-as all the military services and branches are collectively designated) was instructed that it was no longer necessary to prepare for an “early, major and nuclear war” with the Soviet Union. Henceforth, the PLA’s doctrine, strategy and operational concepts would be focused on preparing for the most probable form of future conflict: local, limited war (jubu zhanzheng) around China’s periphery. The decade following the CMC’s directive has seen the Chinese armed forces begin the transition towards a more modem, flexible military force as they changed their organizational structure, command and control, and training to focus on possibly unexpected, potentially intensive military conflict along China’s borders and maritime territories. These changes paralleled the end of the Cold War and the disintegration of the Soviet Union, which eliminated any significant military threat to China’s northern borders for at least another decade.
Contract Law and the Economics of Interorganizational Trust
Authors: Deakin Simon , Wilkinson Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Following the seminal study of Macaulay (1963), writers in the socio-legal tradition have generally assumed that the system of contract law is marginal to the process of business contracting. The juridification of commercial relations through contract and regulatory law is seen as inimical to the emergence and preservation of trust. Organization theorists also view legalistic procedures and sanctions both as a threat to trust and as ineffective in restoring trust when contractual relations break down (Sitkin and Roth 1993).
Lack of Trust, Surfeit of Trust: Some Causes of the Innovation Crisis in German Industry
Authors: Kern Horst 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Arguments which build on the notion of trust—or on parallel categories like ‘networks of civic engagement’, ‘co-operation culture’, ‘social capital’ —came into fashion some years ago. Often they associate good performance in the production of highly valued social goods with organizations that are blessed with a broad stock of trust. ‘Innovation’ is an example of a set of activities which trust organizations are said to perform well. Neotocquevillian currents in American social science exhibit this type of thinking as well as approaches to economic development which, more or less explicitly, rely on Alfred Marshall’s idea of ‘industrial districts’. It is my opinion that these arguments exaggerate the benevolent effects of trust too far and that the analysis of trust which they bring to the fore is sometimes rather misleading.
Trust and the Transformation of Supplier Relations in Indian Industry*
Authors: Humphrey John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past decade, trust has surfaced as a critical issue in several strands of social science. Rapid industrial development in Germany, Japan, and Italy during the 1970s and 1980s gave support to the idea that economic development is facilitated when interorganizational relations are based on trust. In their different ways, the industrial districts of the Third Italy and Baden-Wlirttemberg and the networks of firms organized by large enterprises in Japan have brought the issue of trust to the fore.1 In the developing world, the issue has been discussed much less, but development agencies have begun to turn their attention to the question of the social conditions for economic development. In 1996, the World Bank set up a group to study the question of social capital, and a recent paper by Knack and Keefer (1996) explored the link between levels of trust and economic growth. Trust is emerging as the new ‘missing factor’ that explains why some countries develop rapidly and others lag behind. Societies that have higher levels of trust appear to grow faster.
Transfers, Commitments, and Issue Linkage in International Environmental Negotiations
Authors: Carraro Carlo , Siniscalco Domenico 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A large amount of pollutants are discharged from each country into the atmosphere and water systems as a result of human activity. The emissions often affect other countries, as well as the global environment. In economic terms, each polluting country benefits from using the environment as a receptacle of emissions but, at the same time, is also damaged by the resulting environmental deterioration. While the benefit is related to domestic emissions only, the damage is related to both domestic and foreign emissions that negatively affect the environment. Hence a problem of international externalities arises which, in the present institutional setting, can be solved only by voluntary agreements among sovereign countries. Such agreements have been quite common in recent years,1 and they seem to share some features: they are often characterized by cooperative behaviour among the individual countries involved; they usually have only a subgroup of the negotiating countries as signatories (partial cooperation); and they tend to use various forms of transfer, typically to the developing countries, as a key instrument for increasing the number of signatories. There are also recent attempts to link environmental negotiations to negotiations on other economic issues.