bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Languages of the Pacific Coast of South America
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The degree of linguistic diversity in South America is comparable only to that in New Guinea (see Ch. 13, this volume). This genetic diversity is reflected in the sheer number of language families and isolates, many of which are now extinct or on the verge of extinction. In his classification, Loukotka (1968) established 117 languages families besides a large number of unclassified isolates, while Tovar and Tovar (1984) postulated over 170 groups. Many of the linguistic families are discontinuous. For instance, Arawak languages are spoken in over ten areas north of the river Amazon, and over ten to the south.
Indigenous Languages of Australia
Authors: Walsh Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is generally agreed that there were about 250 indigenous languages spoken in Australia when the first significant contact was made with outsiders (McConvell and Thieberger 2001: 16). Sustained contact began in earnest in 1788 with the European settlement of Australia and there is a strong correlation between the degree of contact and the relative viability of the languages today. Languages in the south-east of Australia bore the brunt of sustained contact and many of them have been referred to as “extinct “. On the other hand, the languages with the greatest degree of intergenerational transmission are to be found in the remoter parts of northern Australia where contact was much later and sparser.
Languages of the Pacific Region: Malayo-Polynesian
Authors: Sakiyama Osamu 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The languages that are currently spoken in the Pacific region can be divided broadly into three groups: the Australian and New Guinean languages were formed by people who participated in the region ‘s earliest migrations over a period of 20,000–30,000 years starting several tens of thousands of years ago, and the Malayo-Polynesian (Austronesian) languages were spoken by Mongoloid people who migrated from the Asian continent around 3000 bc. The Pacific region has numerous languages, including 250 Aboriginal languages in Australia and 750 Papuan languages on the island of New Guinea (including Irian Jaya of the Indonesian territory, now called Propinsi Papua) and neighbouring areas.
Nivkh and Ainu
Authors: Nakagawa Hiroshi , Okuda Osami 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nivkh and Ainu, together with Korean and Japanese (Ch. 18), are geographically adjacent to one another in the Far East, but they are probably genetically unrelated to each other. None of the four languages, for that matter, is known to be related to any other language of the world, and they continue to be regarded each as an isolate. As a matter of fact Nivkh has been classified in linguistic literature as one of the Palaeoasiatic or Palaeosiberian languages together with Chukchi-Kamchatkan, Yukaghir, Ket (Ch. 20), etc., which do not constitute a genetic family but are simply a geographical group of those languages in Siberia assumed to have been spoken long before the dominant language groups such as Uralic, Mongolic, Tungusic (Ch. 20), and Turkic advanced into the area.
Languages of the Northwest Coast
Authors: Watanabe Honoré , Sasama Fumiko 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The narrow strip of area on the North American continent, along some 1,600 km of coastline from the southernmost part of the state of Alaska to the southern state border of Oregon, within which languages of an astonishing number and varied types are embraced, and with which we deal in the present chapter, matches fairly closely (though not exactly: see immediately below) one of the so-called “culture areas “ of Native North America (cf. Kroeber 1939): the “Northwest Coast “. Much the same as in all other parts of the North American continent (and beyond), the Northwest Coast has also seen the devastating effect of the arrival of the Europeans on the languages and cultures of the indigenous peoples. As a result, the number of speakers and the use of the Native languages in this region have declined significantly, and many languages have already lost all speakers.
Introduction: The Limits of Contextualism
Authors: Preyer Gerhard , Peter Georg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In contemporary epistemology, the thesis that epistemic vocabulary is context-sensitive has been adopted by a number of authors. Since the thesis is a semantic claim, evaluation of its truth has interested those working in philosophy of language. In particular, serious consideration of the thesis requires some account of when a linguistic construction is context-sensitive. This book will look at contextualism in epistemology and its linguistic underpinnings, and at related general issues in the philosophy of language. The fruitful interaction between empirical questions about language and philosophical issues in epistemology that occurs in the essays in this book can perhaps be viewed a considerably more empirically grounded return to the linguistic turn in epistemology offered by Wittgenstein, Austin, and Malcolm.
Geometry and Mathematical Existence
Authors: Chihara Charles S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An insight into these logical differences can be obtained from an investigation into the dispute that began near the end of the nineteenth century between Frege and Hilbert concerning the axioms of Hilbert’s geometry. This dispute was carried on by letter between 1899 and 1903, and it was triggered by the pioneering research Hilbert was conducting on geometry, which culminated in the publication of his groundbreaking Foundations of Geometry in 1899.1 It is a dispute that has received a great deal of attention from historians of philosophy, logic, and mathematics. On the whole, what I’ve read suggests that scholars have tended to side with Hilbert.
The Constructibility Theory
Authors: Chihara Charles S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In investigating the reasons Shapiro and Resnik have proposed for being realists (with respect to the “parts” or “positions” in structures), I have con centrated thus far on the positive reasons these philosophers have given for believing in mathematical objects. I have not yet investigated Shapiro’s principal reason for not being an eliminative structuralist—what he called the “main stumbling block of the eliminative program” (Shapiro, 1997: 86). As a useful preliminary to such an investigation, I shall begin a characterization of the Constructibility Theory I discussed earlier in Chapter 6. Since this theory has been described in detail in my Constructibility and Mathematical Existence (Chihara, 1990), I shall give here only a brief description of the theory, setting out its main philosophically salient features, before giving a presentation of how (finite) cardinality theory is developed within it—a cardinality theory to be used in later sections of this work. This short exposition will be given in the early sections of this chapter.
The Western Desert, 1940–1943
Authors: Harrison Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Western Desert campaigns were fought in Egypt and Libya under the auspices of the Middle East Command, which had its headquarters in Cairo. It was the most important of the three campaigns fought by British and Commonwealth forces in the region, the others being in East Africa (Ethiopia and Somaliland) and the Balkans. Operations in this theatre were extremely mobile and covered vast expanses of territory, creating severe logistical problems. Fighting broke out in September 1940, when Marshal Graziani was ordered to launch the Italian 10th Army in an invasion of Egypt. After making a tactical withdrawal, the small British Western Desert Force, under the Commander-in-Chief, Middle East, Field-Marshal Sir Archibald Wavell, made a surprise attack on the Italians, inflicting heavy losses.
Introductory Remarks
Authors: Reimer Marga , Bezuidenhout Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What motivates this particular selection of topics? There is a sense in which the selection of topics is self-motivating, as it reflects some of the current interests of philosophers of language and linguists. Contributors (all of them philosophers or linguists) were invited to write on any issue concerning descriptions and/or related phenomena that they found to be of interest, and which they believed would be of interest to both philosophers of language and linguists. Introductions accompany each of the six parts that comprise this collection. These introductions are intended to provide the background relevant to the specific issues addressed in the respective sections.
Descriptions: Points of Reference
Authors: Bach Kent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Russell (1905) made a compelling case that descriptions, de finite as well as indefinite, are devices of quantification, not referring phrases. Strawson (1950) and Donnellan (1966) pointed out that de finite descriptions can be used to refer. And even indefinite descriptions can be used to refer. All this is old hat. If ‘On Denoting’, ‘On Referring’, and ‘Reference and De finite Descriptions’ had not provoked decades of debate, philosophers might have just thought it obvious that the mere fact that an expression can be used to refer does not show that it is inherently a referring expression, an expression that itself refers.
The Proper Form of Semantics
Authors: Almog Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The classical form of semantic theory is translational . We assign each target vernacular sentence another vernacular sentence, a ‘translate’, an entity articulating what-it-says or its content . This is the paradigm method ever since Frege, whether the semantics assigned general propositions or singular ones, whether it rested on a notion of absolute truth or truth at a possible world (index), whether it used first-order or higher order ‘symbolizations’ and/or ‘logical forms’. I believe that three decades ago, Keith Donnellan was the first to suspect that something is fundamentally wrong with the paradigm. He was driven by three classes of ‘outlaws’.
Indefinites and Anaphoric Dependence: A Case for Dynamic Semantics or Pragmatics?
Authors: Breheny Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We ask how this kind of discourse is understood and how this understanding relates to the form of the sentences used. In particular, we want to know what it is about the way in which the first sentence is understood that makes subsequent anaphoric reference possible. In asking such questions we note that, as always in the study of natural language understanding, they are somewhat vague or ambiguous. We could, for instance, be asking about how language users typically view their interlocutors’ actions. Answers to this type of question would be along the lines of, ‘We understand the discourse as . . . ’, where what follows could include some kind of speech-act descriptions making reference to propositional content. Alternatively, we could be asking a more psychological question.
Descriptive Descriptive Names
Authors: Jeshion Robin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On June 5, 1599, in Sevilla, a baby boy let out his first wail. The next day, he was baptized. His parents, or a priest, proclaim that his name is Diego Vela´zquez. Fifty-six years later, we can imagine Vela´zquez before his newly finished fascinating masterpiece declaring that its name is Las Meninas. As we all know, Leverrier isolated discrepancies between the calculated orbits and the measured orbits of the other planets and hypothesized that there was another planet in our solar system whose gravitational force was responsible for the discrepancy. Prior to any telescopic identification of such a planet, Leverrier introduced the name ‘Neptune’ to refer to the planet that was responsible for the perturbations in the orbits of the other planets.
Possessed Nouns, and Adjectives
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses two important elements within the NP-possessed nouns, in §11.1, and adjectives, in §11.2. One of the most notable features of Jarawara grammar is the class of possessed nouns (PNs) which go into slot C in noun phrase structure, after the head noun and optional augment mee. A PN, like the head noun, can be modified by an adjective.
Demonstratives and Related Forms
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
12.1 discusses the forms, meanings, and functions of nominal and spatial adverbial demonstratives. 12.2 then deals with a number of grammatical forms (somewhat like 3rd person pronouns) which have an anaphoric or specifying function. 12.3 examines fara/fare ‘the very one‘ and bara/bare ‘a different one ‘. Finally, in 12.4 four locational nouns ( ‘near‘ and ‘far ‘, ‘upstream‘ and ‘downstream ‘) are discussed.
Copula Clauses
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The great majority of clauses in Jarawara discourse have as predicate head a verb (transitive or intransitive) with referential meaning. But about 2 per cent of clauses have as predicate head one of two copula verbs, which have a relational rather than a referential meaning. The copula verbs are (to-)ha- ‘become‘ (homonymous with auxiliary (to-)ha-), which behaves morphologically like referential verbs, and ama ‘be‘ (homonymous with secondary verb ama ‘extended in time ‘), which is morphologically quite unusual, lacking prefixation and having only limited suffixation (see 13.3). A summary of the differences between secondary verb ama and copula ama is in 7.1.1.
Peripheral Markers jaa and ni-jaa
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Postposition jaa typically follows an NP or a nominalized clause and marks it as a peripheral constituent of the main clause, coming in clause-initial or clause-final slot (that is, before or after the core). There are just a few examples of NP-plus- jaa intruding in the middle of the core. The marker jaa may sometimes be omitted from a peripheral NP, if there is no danger of ambiguity. It has a wide range of meaning-indicating ‘at ‘, ‘in ‘, ‘on ‘, ‘into ‘, ‘to ‘, ‘from ‘, or ‘with‘ with an NP, and ‘when ‘, ‘after ‘, ‘while ‘, ‘until ‘, ‘at ‘, ‘if ‘, or ‘since ‘/because‘ with a nominalized clause. There is a variant form, ni-jaa, which is not used with nominalized clauses, but only after NPs with human reference; it carries a non-local meaning (see 20.2). Both jaa and ni-jaa may also come after a main clause, or a sequence of clauses, relating the whole sequence to what follows.
Other Peripheral Markers
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the remaining postpositions that follow an NP and/or a nominalized clause kaa(ro/ri) in §21.1; tabijo ‘due to the lack of‘ in §21.2; and namoni ‘taking news of‘ in §21.3. Then, §21.4 considers the unusual forms ni-ma and ti-ma ‘be similar to ‘. 21.1kaa(ro/ri) ‘ALONG, THROUGH, BECAUSE, ETC.‘ Like jaa, this postposition can follow NPs or nominalized clauses and forms a peripheral con- stituent. It has the form kaa when preceding the main clause and either kaa or kaa(ro/ri) when following it; the final -ro/ri recurs in demonstratives and in dependent clause marking (see 24.4).
Topics in Semantics
Authors: Dixon R M W , Vogel Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The semantic content of the small closed class of adjectives was discussed in 11.2, that of the larger class of PNs in 11.1, and that of kinship nouns in 1n.4.1. This chapter begins with short sections on generic nouns and on compound nouns (in 26.1). Then, 26.2 deals with verbs: number-related suppletive forms, inflecting and non-inflecting subclasses, transitivity subclasses, the relation between semantic roles and syntactic functions, some semantic characteristics of verbs, illustrations of a number of semantic sets, and a brief note on verbal idioms. In §26.3 there is a short note on formulaic expressions.
The art of speaking
Authors: Goddard Cliff 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Speaking any language well calls for a lot more than mere grammatical knowledge. It means having command of a whole range of possible ways of speaking and knowing how to choose between them depending on the social circumstances. To make this point clearer, linguists often distinguish between narrow “linguistic competence” and broader “communicative competence”. In this chapter we sample some of the dimensions of communicative competence in East and Southeast Asian languages. We will start at the level of individual expressions, looking at aspects of “word skills” in various languages.
Introduction: Epistemological Progress
Authors: Hetherington Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At any given moment, epistemology’s general goal-its telos, most broadly construed-is either to be, or to generate, epistemological progress. So long as epistemology has not reached its final moment, it continues; and so long as it continues, it can have no more general a goal than that of making progress. Epistemology proceeds today, in order to be better tomorrow. Of course, any given one of us is unlikely to improve it much, if at all. But can our individual efforts somehow join together to do so? The present custodians of epistemology’s heritage must at least try to enrich it, making it fitter and stronger than it was previously.
Knowing What to Think about: when Epistemology Meets the Theory of Choice
Authors: Morton Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A very traditional epistemology studies changes in belief, given the information and reasoning available to a person, but ignoring her desires and values. A somewhat more realistic epistemology studies changes in belief, given information and reasoning and some relevant desires and values. The question in both cases is: if some of your beliefs change how should you change the rest? Parallel to this, a standard approach to rational decision will study changes in intention given a person’s beliefs and desires. Counting intentions as a special kind of desire the question is: if some of your desires change how, given your beliefs, should you change the rest? But in reality we can hold neither beliefs nor desires constant while changing the others.
Meat and Dairy Products in Late Medieval England
Authors: Woolgar C M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evidence for meat and dairy products reviewed in Chapters 5 and 6 can be supplemented for the late medieval period by documentary sources that allow us to address a series of questions about the contribution these foods made to diet that can be answered in no other way. First among these are the levels of consumption of meat and dairy foods: historical evidence offers the opportunity to quantify this, even on an individual basis, as well as providing more general indications of levels of food availability. Secondly, historical sources offer information about meat products that have left no more than a slight trace in the archaeological record, such as the use of sausages and offal, items of some consequence in a society which had restricted access to meat protein. Evidence for dairy foods is much more substantial in the historical sources than in the archaeological record and this permits us to consider questions of consumption, rather than production, and to encompass the contributions made by sheep and goats as well as cattle dairying.
Diet in Medieval England: The Evidence from Stable Isotopes
Authors: Müldner G , Richards M P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces a relatively novel method of exploring medieval food- ways, the direct measure of past human diets through stable isotope analysis of bone collagen. This analysis reflects long-term dietary averages and is used to gain information on broad categories of foods consumed by humans in the past. In medieval historical and archaeological studies there is a tendency to focus on the specifics of diet. Approaches such as isotope analysis, which provide evidence of general dietary patterns, have therefore only rarely been applied. By contrast, isotopic methods are widely used in prehistoric archaeology, as this field does not have the benefit of documentary sources. The method is briefly outlined here and then the chapter presents results of the isotope analyses for a number of English medieval sites. It aims to demonstrate that in combination with the rich textual evidence from this period, isotope analysis can tell us new and unique information about diet and its role in medieval society.
Balliol
Authors: Mcintosh Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Roy Jenkins and I first met in October 1938 at the beginning of our freshman term at Balliol. We got on well straight away and remained close friends for sixty-five years. Balliol was a good place to be in that last year of peace before the Second World War. It had a wider social and ethnic mix than most other colleges, with strong contingents from North America, India, and (thanks to a seventeenth-century benefaction) Glasgow. Perhaps because of this it had an open and tolerant atmosphere where people were accepted on their own merits as human beings and not because of school or other connections. This was not so common in pre-war days as it may have since become.
Back and Forth to the United States
Authors: Schlesinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The career and character of Roy Jenkins are a standing refutation of the idea that Great Britain must choose between Europe and America. No Britisher of his time exceeded Roy in his conviction that Britain’s destiny lies with Europe. And no Britisher of his time exceeded him in his passion for America; at least for liberal America, for the USA of Franklin Roosevelt, Harry Truman, John Kennedy, and Bill Clinton. As John Kenneth Galbraith has said, Roy Jenkins ‘more than any other since Winston Churchill has been, effectively, a citizen of both the United States and the United Kingdom’.
A Late Friendship
Authors: Harris Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 5 September 1995 my publishers threw a partyat theTravellers’Club in Pall Mall to celebrate the publication of my second novel, Enigma. Roy Jenkins was invited at short notice on the strength of a generous review he had given it in the previous week’s Sunday Times. Slightly to my publishers’ surprise—and certainly to my everlasting good fortune—Roy came, thus initiating a friendship that was to last for more than seven years. During the course of that first conversation I happened to mention that I had an Enigma machine, lent to me for a promotional tour. He expressed his curiosity and almost before I knew what was happening he had pulled out a Smythson’s pocket diary and arranged to come for lunch the following Sunday to have a look at it. Two weeks after that we lunched again. And then, two weeks after that, again. And somehow, it seemed, we never stopped lunching. I reckon we must have met at least a hundred times in all.