bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Microsporidiosis
Authors: Bramante John P , Oliver Marquam R , Ryan Caroline A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Microspora are ubiquitous obligate intracellular spore-forming protozoa! parasites. Six species are known to infect humans. Enterocytozoon bieneusi
is the most frequently identified human microspora and generally remains confined to the gastrointestinal tract. It most commonly infects the proximal small bowel, but occasionally invades other regions of the gastrointestinal tract, including sigmoid colon, rectum, and biliary tract. Septata intestinalis,
a more recently identified microspora, can also infect the gastrointestinal tract, but has the propensity to disseminate to other organs, including liver and kidneys.
The reservoir for microsporidia and the mechanism for transmission remain unknown. Presumably these organisms usually enter the host via the gastrointestinal tract.
Microsporidia was first suspected as a cause of HIV-associated diarrhea in 1985 when it was identified by electron microscopy in a patient with chronic diarrhea. Since that time, several reports have noted the presence of microsporidia in HIV-infected patients with diarrhea.
Several reports have suggested that microsporidia causes up to 30 percent of the episodes of diarrhea in AIDS patients that otherwise defy diagnosis by standard means. One case-control study, however, has called into question the pathogenic role of microsporidia in HIV-infected patients. Specifically, this study found E. bieneusi
in HIV-infected patients without gastrointestinal symptoms and noted no significant difference in the occurrence of E. bieneusi
infection in HIV-infected patients with or without chronic diarrhea.
Hepatitis C
Authors: Koelle David M , Willson Richard A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because clinicians rarely encounter clinically evident acute hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among HIV-infected individuals, this chapter will focus on chronic HCV infection.
HCV is a recently discovered RNA virus that is predominantly spread via blood products (now screened) and injection-drug use. Transmission of HCV also occurs by sexual exposure, household contact, occupational exposure, and from mother to child, but at a low frequency.
Among HIV-infected individuals, HCV seroprevalence rates range from 4 to 80 percent, with high rates (greater than 50 percent) present among injection-drug users and low rates (less than 20 percent) present among men who have sex with men. For those HIV-infected persons with elevated hepatic transaminase enzyme levels, up to 33 percent will have evidence of chronic HCV infection as measured by a positive HCV polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test.
Although the effect of HCV infection on progression of HIV remains poorly studied, available data suggest that HCV does not alter the course of HIV disease. In contrast, several studies suggest that HIV-infected patients have relatively higher titers of HCV viremia and a more rapid decline of HCV antibody titers.
Molluscum Contagiosum
Authors: Velde Karen M Van De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Molluscum contagiosum is caused by a poxvirus and is a common, self-limited infection in children. Among HIV-infected individuals, it is typically more widespread and chronic. Approximately 10 percent of HIV-infected persons develop molluscum contagiosum at some point in their illness.
The virus is spread by direct contact. Autoinoculation by scratching, shaving, or other means can lead to diffuse disease.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Characteristic lesions appear as flesh-colored, dome-shaped, 2 to 5
mm papules with central umbilication. They typically first develop on the face and genitals, but may become widespread over time. Some patients may have associated pruritus.
Individual lesions may rapidly enlarge or coalesce into large plaques. When large lesions develop, they may ulcerate. Although most lesions do not cause symptoms, some lesions, especially large ulcerated lesions, can cause pain.
Less commonly, lesions involve the mucosa or eyes, with the latter sometimes leading to a chronic keratitis or conjunctivitis. Palm and sole lesions rarely occur.
DIAGNOSIS
The diagnosis is usually based on clinical findings. The differential diagnosis may include cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, or basal cell carcinoma
Scabies
Authors: Vandevelde Karen M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scabies is an infestation caused by the mite Sarcoptes scabiei
and is transmitted by close personal contact. It is a common cause of pruritus in the general population as well as among HIV-infected individuals.
The common (classic) form of scabies is characterized by severe pruritus. Most infected persons harbor fewer than one dozen mites at any one time.
Crusted scabies, also known as Norwegian
or hyperkeratotic scabies,
is a different and uncommon form of scabies. It occurs primarily in immunocompromised, elderly, or institutionalized patients. Among HIV-infected patients, it generally occurs only in those with AIDS. In contrast to the small number of mites present in classic scabies, the density of mites present in crusted scabies is astounding, with estimates of thousands of mites on the skin. Several reports have described large-scale nosocomial outbreaks associated with crusted scabies.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Patients with common scabies typically complain of severe pruritus, and their physical examination shows multiple urticarial papules and excoriations. Lesions are distributed most prominently at web spaces of the hands, the wrist, the umbilicus, the belt line, and, in males, the glans penis. Burrows, which are long (0.5 to 2.0 cm), slightly elevated, linear (or tortuous) lesions that often end in a vesicle, may be seen. Indurated erythematous nodules known as scabetic nodules
may appear at some point in the course of scabies, especially on the scrotum.
Xerosis and Xerotic Dermatitis
Authors: Vandevelde Karen M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some degree of xerosis (dry skin) frequently develops among HIV-infected persons, particularly those with advanced HIV disease. Xerotic dermatitis refers to dry skin that shows “dermatitic changes,” namely, erythema, scaling, and fissuring. Xerotic dermatitis occurs in up to 30 percent of HIV-infected individuals.
Xerosis and xerotic dermatitis can cause significant morbidity as a result of pruritus- induced scratching and secondary infection. Patients often complain of pruritus disproportionate to the clinical degree of xerosis. Infection may result from entry of bacteria through fissures and erosions created by scratching or excessive water loss.
Xerosis and xerotic dermatitis are chronic conditions that may wax and wane with environmental conditions, concurrent illnesses, and other factors. The severity may worsen with progressive immunosuppression.
Xerosis and xerotic dermatitis can overlap with acquired ichthyosis, a condition that also occurs with other systemic illnesses, such as malignancies and sarcoidosis. The cause of acquired ichthyosis in HIV-infected individuals remains unknown.
CLINICAL FEATURES
On physical examination, xerotic skin typically feels dry and rough. Fine scale may develop focally or diffusely, with a predilection for the anterior tibial areas, dorsal hands, and forearms.
Read the Lips: Speculations on the Nature and Role of Lipreading in Cognitive Development of Deaf Children
Authors: Campbell Ruth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I came at studies of deafness sideways and backward, and a description of this trajectory will form the first part of this chapter. This concerns studies of lipreading conducted mainly but not exclusively with hearing children and adults. In a further willful twist, however, I will break off this particular story and consider some aspects of the acquisition of language and thought in people born without useful hearing, only to regain the track of the original story at a much later stage. Then, in a further loop (taking a shaggy dog for a walk?), I consider some aspects of the cerebral bases for understanding seen speech and attempt to relate them to what is known about the brain bases for understanding language in deaf people. I also consider some ways in which the acquisition of seen speech may and may not be optimized for people born with no effective hearing.
Making Faces: Coextant Domains for Language and Visual Cognition
Authors: Campbell Ruth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My original impulse in studying speechreading (I now enter the modern era) was that it gave an interesting perspective on the interface between language-usually construed in terms based on auditory/articulatory processing-and visual processes that are nonlinguistic, especially those concerned with face processing. This perspective does not place special emphasis on hearing impairment. This is still the impulse that motivates me, but thanks to the work of researchers in American Sign Language (ASL) psycholinguistics, such as Siple and Lillo-Martin, the study of speechreading may be placed in a fuller context. In this response, I will consider just one aspect of this enlarged context: the uses of the face in signed languages. One point elegantly clarified by the contributions of Lillo-Martin and Siple is that the underlying structural constraints and parameters of language have become clearer in recent years. To a large extent this is due to the work of theoretical linguists taking into account not only signed languages but structural aspects of all human languages. In this newer context, as Lillo-Martin makes clear, typical syntactic forms in signed languages can be seen to have similar underlying principles to those of some spoken languages- common-
Inaccuracy And Inaccessibility In Memory Retrieval: Contributions From Cognitive Psychology And Neuropsychology
Authors: Koutstaal Wilma , Schacter Daniel L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People depend on memory in countless facets of their everyday lives. Fortunately, human memory systems are capable of encoding and retrieving large amounts of reasonably accurate information about past events. But memory is far from perfect. We do not retain all that we experience; forgetting is a ubiquitous feature of memory. And not everything that we do remember is entirely accurate; memories often contain a degree of distortion. Our memories thus can fail because information is either lost or temporarily inaccessible, or because what is remembered does not correspond well to what actually happened.
Psychodynamic Therapy For Patients With Early Childhood Trauma
Authors: Matthews Julia A , Chu James A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent years have seen a dramatic rise in the attention to the psychological and therapeutic issues associated with severe childhood abuse. Mental health professionals have become increasingly aware of the high prevalence of childhood maltreatment, and have recognized the contribution of actual trauma to the development of adult psychopathology. In response to this increasing awareness, we are currently witnessing a swing of the pendulum back to a theoretical perspective, reminiscent of Freud’s earliest theory of the etiology of hysteria, that places actual external trauma as the central causative factor in many forms of psychiatric illness. In the clinical arena, the acknowledgement of the reality of early traumatic experiences leads to a more empathic formulation of current difficulties and can guide treatment interventions. Taken to an extreme, however, the focus on external childhood trauma can gain such a central position that the diverse insights of psychodynamic psychiatry concerning the complexities of interpersonal relationships and intrapsychic processes are all but disregarded. The result can be a reductionistic and simplistic vision of human suffering that is framed exclusively in terms of victimization.
Feudal Foundations 1000-1350
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the peculiarities of Central Europe is that some people from the region consider the Middle Ages to be the high point in their national historical traditions. Therefore, we should examine the period before 1500 because the process of empire building in Central Europe, which gradually led to the demise of the kingdoms of Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland, began shortly thereafter. By the end of the eighteenth century most of Central Europe had been divided among three dynastic powers: Habsburg Austria, Romanov Russia, and Hohenzollern Prussia.
Absolutism as Enlightenment 1700-1790
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rise of continental European absolutism during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and the concomitant development of the stream of thought called the Enlightenment may appear to be incompatible in theory, but they were compatible in practice. Although the various philosophers of the Enlightenment agreed on a few basic methodological principles like a faith in reason instead of revelation, a critical analysis of tradition and authority, and the scientific spirit, there is really no point in arguing who the best representatives of the Enlightenment were because each nation seems to have its own.
Pharmacokinetics of Ethanol: Absorption, Distribution, and Elimination
Authors: Kalant Harold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic elements in the pharmacokinetics of ethanol and other lower alkanols have been known for nearly a century. Much of the early work was described in detail in previous reviews (Kalant, 1971; Wallgren and Barry, 1970), and there have been many excellent reviews of different aspects of the topic in the past two decades. It is impossible to cite all of them here, and a few will suffice to illustrate the range of special approaches and interests reflected in reviews available else where to the reader.
Cross-Tolerance: Theoretical and Experimental Issues
Authors: Khanna J M , Lê A D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A common theme in the area of cross-tolerance can be derived from two major reviews of tolerance and cross-tolerance during the 1970s. Kalant et al. (1971) stated that “it has been long recognized that cross-tolerance can exist between various depressant drugs, such as ethanol and barbiturates, or ethanol and other sedatives.” According to Coper (1978), “It is well known that functional crosstolerance exists between ethanol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines.” In fact, it was generally believed that drugs with similar properties and belonging to the same pharmacological class would show cross-tolerance and that dissimilar drugs would not. Research over the last two decades, however, indicates that these views are oversimplified.
When the Fox Preaches, then Beware Your Geese
Authors: Ingle H Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Wednesday, October 30, 1650, Fox was staying in the Derby home of a doctor whose wife he had convinced. He heard the local church bell tolling, calling people to a lecture sponsored by the Presbyterians; numerous outsiders, including an army colonel, had also come for the meeting. After interrupting the service with a compatriot, John Fretwell, a native of Stainsby in Derbyshire, Fox was taken into custody and subjected to eight hours of close questioning. Among other things he asserted, in the course of interrogation, that he was free of sin because Christ had taken it away, a comment bound—if not calculated—to infuriate his staunch Presbyterian inquisitors who held that no person could be free from sin. The two strangers—Fox was listed in the records as a cordwainer and resident of nearby Mansfield—were promptly committed to jail for a term of six months for blaspheming. Actually, the authorities probably cared less about his blasphemy than the appeal his religious message, with its undertones encouraging social insubordination, would have for the lower sorts. Thus he was queried about a female disciple who, it was reported, went looking for a man willing to kiss her. Fox remained in custody, unable to preach publicly, for almost a year.
Put Not Fire to Flax
Authors: Ingle H Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While waiting for Farnworth to arrive so they could discuss the movement’s future, Fox wasted no time beginning preaching missions in surrounding villages. His successes were many, he reports, but “rude” ones continued to resist his efforts. Rumors spread that he bewitched people to win them over. The crusade in the north was clearly on, and it had just as clearly struck fire, immediate fire: Ulverston’s vicar, William Lampit, took it upon himself to scout ahead of Fox to warn people about the strange doctrines he preached. Fox headed back to Dent where the tithe revolt smoldered and where he found people still responsive to his message. Preaching at Gdsdale, he received word from Margaret Fell that Nayler and Farnworth had arrived at Swarthmoor, so he temporarily banked the coals and returned to Lancashire.
The Linguistic Individual
Authors: Johnstone Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Linguists usually discuss language or dialects in terms of groups of speakers. Believing that patterns can be seen more clearly in the group than the individual, researchers often present group scores with no indication of the variation within the group. Even though they all acknowledge that no two individuals speak alike, few study individual variation and voice. The individual has always been thought to be outside the purview of linguistic theory. Johnstone makes the case for the importance of the role of the individual, and the individual ‘s idiosyncrasies, in language and linguistics. Using theoretical arguments and discourse analysis, along with linguistic examples from a wide variety of speakers and settings, Johnstone illustrates how speakers draw on linguistic models associated with class, ethnicity, gender, region, among others, to construct individual ways of sounding. In doing so, she shows that certain important questions in sociolinguistics and pragmatics can only be fully answered with reference to individual speakers. Her study is important not only for the understanding of speech as expressive of self, but for the study of variation and the mechanisms of linguistic choice and change.
Rebuilding Zion
Authors: Stowell Daniel W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the American Civil War and its aftermath, Southern evangelicals remained convinced that their cause was both Christian and just. This position became more entrenched as Northern evangelicals entered the South after the war, aiming to save freedmen. Author Daniel Stowell plots the conflict that resulted from these competing visions of the religious reconstruction of the South. By demonstrating how the Southern vision eventually came to predominate, he shows how the Southern Churches became one of the principal bulwarks in the creation of the myth of the "Lost Cause," Southern honour, and curious moral righteousness of the South's treatment of both slave and freedman.
God’s Judgment
Authors: Stowell Daniel W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like their southern counterparts, northern clergy and laity vigorously supported their section during the Civil War. Like Confederate Christians, the vast majority of the northern religious populace interpreted battlefield victories as evidence of God’s favor and defeats as divine chastisement. As James H. Moorhead has convincingly demonstrated, northern Protestants saw the conflict in millennial terms; the nation was engaged in an apocalyptic struggle to determine whether it would fulfill its millennial role in hastening “the day of the Lord.”
Nature With Nurture: A Reinterpretation Of The Evidence
Authors: Broefenbrenner Urie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although Jensen’s ( 1969a, 1969b) argument claiming genetically based race differences in intelligence has been repeatedly and forcefully attacked (e.g., Scarr-Salapatek, 1971a), his thesis that 80 percent of the variation in intelligence is determined by heredity has been generally accepted (e.g., Scarr-Salapatek, 1971b). Since Jensen takes this thesis as the foundation both for his argument for innate differences in ability between the races, and for his contention that intervention programs with disadvantaged groups have little hope of success, it becomes imponant, both from the point of view of science and of social policy, to examine the evidence and line of reasoning that underlie his initial thesis.
Benchmarks of Fairness for Health Care Reform
Authors: Daniels Norman , Light Donald W , Caplan Ronald L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Health care services are rapidly changing in ways that seem increasingly inaccessible and unfair to millions of Americans. Yet what does "unfair" mean and how should our system be changed to make it more "fair"? This book addresses these probing questions by providing a universal definition of fairness and a set of criteria to measure which health care reform policies are more fair and why. The book comprises the efforts of a leading moral philosopher of health care, an internationally known sociologist of health care systems, and a health economist who join forces to transpose for the first time the universal moral concept. Through examples, they show how leaders and experts in various realms of public policy could develop criteria for applying concepts of moral philosophy to different fields. The book is original and controversial because it actually scores four major proposals for health care reform that exemplify the most prevalent ideas of the 1990s in state and national circles. Although some reform ideas fare much better than others, the author finds all proposals wanting, especially in establishing open, democratic procedures for deciding the limits of care. The authors give special attention to what market-based reforms need to do to be fair to everyone. They also assess the current changes brought on by the rapid growth of managed care systems since the collapse of national reform. Benchmarks of Fairness should be read by every citizen, physician, nurse, employer and politician who wants to educate themselves about fairness and who is interested in assessing the fairness of health care reforms..
Introduction: A Call for Research to Elucidate Causes, Assessment, and Management of Common Gastrointestinal Symptoms
Authors: Bruera Eduardo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chronic nausea and vomiting, anorexia, constipation, and malnutrition are among the most frequent and devastating complications in patients with advanced cancer. These different symptoms were initially studied in isolation from each other. However, there is growing evidence that there is a strong association among them. Anorexia, early satiety, chronic nausea, and constipation are all major manifestations of the cachexia syndrome.1,2 These symptoms also occur in patients with autonomic failure due to cancer and other conditions. Finally, these symptoms are also frequently observed in patients receiving opioids.
Introduction: What Might the Future Hold for Opioid Pharmacotherapy?
Authors: Portenoy Russell K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Translational” research, the stream of scientific endeavors that leads from basic discoveries in the laboratory to practical applications, has captured the attention of the scientific community. It is an appropriate label for research in opioid pharmacology during the past three decades. During this time, the ongoing elucidation of opioid-mediated antinociceptive processes and related opioidergic systems has provided the impetus for many advances in analgesic therapies. This part describes some of the most important advances and offers guidelines for opioid pharmacotherapy. An extensive clinical experience in the treatment of cancer pain suggests that these guidelines can provide sustained benefit to a large proportion of patients with chronic pain.