bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Occupational Safety
Authors: Bloswick Donald S. , Sesek Richard 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
The industrial revolution has had a profound impact on production methods in the United States. Since the last half of the nineteenth century, production processes have changed from craft shops to mechanized processes. These changes have expanded the quantity and variety of products available to the average American but have also expanded the types of hazards which are present in the industrial workplace. This has resulted in an increased need for and development of industrial workplace safety programs.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics indicates that in 1996 there were nearly 1.9 million injuries and illnesses requiring time away from work. The National Safety Council estimates that in 1997 there were 5,100 work related fatalities (including 2,100 involving motor vehicles) and 3,800,000 disabling injuries.
The high costs of injuries, facility damage, equipment downtime, and product loss due to accidents, make it critical for the manager and safety personnel to understand and control the conditions that can lead to accidents and illnesses.
To be effective, a safety program must have both management commitment and employee involvement. First‐level supervisors must understand the importance of safety and be held accountable and responsible for enforcing employee compliance with safety standards and safe work practices. Management must take responsibility supporting safety personnel in the initiation and enforcement of a strong safety plan. Regular inspections of the work environment, equipment, and work practices as well as initial training and periodic retraining of employees will help ensure that work environment remains as safe as possible. Mechanical hazards should be designed out and safe operating and emergency response procedures should be considered during the design phase for equipment and facilities.
Health and Safety Factors In Designing An Industrial Hygiene Laboratory
Authors: Lieckfield Robert G. , Poore Ronald C. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Health and safety are important concerns in any laboratory. Because the industrial hygiene laboratory, in particular, exists to help ensure worker protection, it should be the exemplary safe and healthful workplace. A well planned and well executed laboratory design, including the care, knowledge, and foresight that go into its planning, will do much to ensure the safety and health of its occupants and even the surrounding community. This chapter discusses health and safety factors that must be considered in designing the industrial hygiene laboratory and is intended to help management plan new laboratory construction or remodel existing laboratory spaces. The bibliography listed at the end of this chapter may be consulted for more information on the broad topic of laboratory design.
Noncancer Risk Assessment: Principles and Practice in Environmental and Occupational Settings
Authors: Haber Lynne T. , Dollarhide Joan S. , Maier Andrew , Dourson Michael L. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThe approach to assessing the risks of noncancer toxicity generally differs from that used to assess the potential risks of carcinogenicity. Assessment of risks of carcinogenicity most often assumes that a small number of molecular events can evoke mutagenic changes in a single cell, ultimately leading to self‐replicating damage and carcinogenicity. Generally, this is considered a nonthreshold effect because presumably no level of exposure does not pose a small, but finite, probability of generating a response. In contrast, it is most often assumed that noncarcinogenic changes have a threshold, a dose level below which a response is unlikely, because homeostatic, compensating, and adaptive mechanisms in the cell protect against toxic effects.This chapter describes the general framework for noncancer risk assessment and some salient principles for evaluating the quality of data and formulating judgments about the nature and magnitude of the noncancer hazard. Highlights of noncancer risk assessment methods used by a variety of agencies and organizations, and examples of how occupational risk assessment is moving toward a more systematic use of risk assessment principles are presented.This chapter also has several specific aims. The first is to provide scientifically supportable quantitative risk assessment procedures to meet the risk assessment goals listed following. A second aim is to provide a scientific rationale that may be used to deter‐mine whether new quantitative risk assessment procedures not specifically examined in this chapter are scientifically supportable. The final aim of this chapter is to provide a basis for developing new or improved quantitative risk assessment procedures.The quantitative risk assessment procedures described in this chapter have been developed to meet some of the risk assessment goals for various purposes. Although the protection of the public and occupational health is a common theme that runs through these separate risk assessment goals, they are sufficiently different to warrant separate and distinct procedures. Examples of such goals areto rank chemicals as to possible hazardto determine and/or estimate a level of daily exposure that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetimeto determine and/or estimate the likely human response to exposure to various levels of a particular chemicalMoreover, differing amounts of toxicity data are needed for various quantitative procedures. Thus, the amount of data available affects the choice of procedure.
Use of Toxicological Data in Evaluating Chemical Safety
Authors: Rachamin Gloria 
Published: August 2005

AbstractMore than 70,000 chemicals are currently registered in the chemical substances inventory under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) in the United States (U.S.), and every year new chemicals are introduced to the market. Each chemical can produce toxic effects that may be reversible or irreversible. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can result in a wide range of adverse health outcomes, for example pulmonary disease skin irritation and sensitization, neurotoxicity, lung and liver function impairment, cancer, and hereditary diseases.Toxicological data provide the basis for evaluating the potential health risks of chemicals to humans. Information from human and animal studies is used to characterize the nature of the toxic effects of chemicals and to predict their risk to human health under given exposures. The ultimate goal of using data from such studies is to determine “safe” levels of human exposure to toxic substances. Because it is not possible to assure absolute safety to everyone for any chemical, “safe” does not imply risk‐free but a level of risk that is acceptable in our society.The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the process of chemical safety evaluation in the context of the regulatory risk assessment paradigm from the perspective of occupational toxicology. Toxicological data from studies of the chemical in humans and animals, including physicochemical, toxicokinetic, and mechanistic data, are used in this evaluation. First, the adverse effects are identified and categorized by toxic end point. Next, the dose–response relationship for each end point is characterized, and the overall evidence is evaluated to determine the hazard class of the substance. If the toxicological database for a chemical is adequate, potential health risks to humans are then estimated, and exposure limits are derived by using risk assessment methodologies. Depending on the dose—response relationship (threshold or nonthreshold) of the adverse effect that is observed at the lowest dose (critical effect), three general risk assessment approaches can be applied: safety/uncertainty factor, low‐dose extrapolation risk model, and a unified benchmark dose approach. Note that various risk assessment procedures have been developed over the years and continue to evolve as science advances. A new terminology has also emerged in large part from environmental risk assessment work that focuses on community exposures to chemicals.Toxicological principles are an integral part of chemical risk assessment, so basic toxicological concepts and references are included.
Talc
Authors: Cohrssen Barbara , Powell Charles H. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractTalc is a natural mineral of the general chemical composition Mg3Si4O10(OH)2. The composition varies widely from one geologic deposit to another and even within the same deposit. The main component, crystalline hydrated silicate of magnesium, is usually found as plates but rarely may also be found as fibers. In many talc deposits, other silicates such as the amphiboles, tremolite and anthophyllite, as well as serpentines, antigorite, lizardite, and even chrysotile, may be present. This chapter discusses only the health effects associated with talc that does not contain asbestiform fibers. However, a number of studies have been conducted to determine the health effects of talc in which the purity of the material was not known.
Cotton and Other Textile Dusts
Authors: Merchant James A. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractByssinosis is a generic term applied to acute and chronic airway disease among those occupationally exposed to vegetable dust arising from the processing of cotton, flax, hemp, and possibly other textile fibers. Observations regarding respiratory disease attributable to these vegetable dusts date to the early eighteenth century.Today the production of cotton products is commercially important to developed and developing countries alike. Processing of flax and hemp remains regionally important industries, which continue to provide traditional textile products. Thus several million workers are occupationally exposed to these vegetable dusts worldwide. In the United States more than 300,000 workers are directly exposed to cotton dust, primarily in the textile industry, but also in cotton ginning, cotton warehousing and compressing, cotton classing offices, cottonseed oil and delinting mills, bedding and batting manufacturing, and utilization of waste cotton for a wide variety of products.Two febrile syndromes characterized by fever, cough, and other constitutional symptoms including headache and malaise are also associated with byssinosis and textile manufacturing. These occur most frequently with exposure to low‐grade, spotted cotton. Mattress‐maker's fever and weaver's cough may be considered together because of their characteristically high attack rate and probable similar etiology. Mill fever, which is characterized by fever, malaise, myalgia, fatigue, and often cough, was a common complaint among workers first exposed to high levels of these vegetable dusts, with the prevailing cotton dust levels in the Western world it now rarely occurs. These febrile syndromes are similar to other febrile syndromes described among agricultural workers exposed to high levels of contaminated vegetable dusts. It is now also clear that symptoms typical of byssinosis are observed among others occupationally exposed to vegetable dusts. Many of those exposed are employed in agriculture, which typically involves daily exposure, rather than the cyclical workweek exposure of textile workers. It is also clear that exposure to organic dusts in textile and nontextile operations will often result in clinical asthma. This often results in self‐selection or transfer of the affected worker out of dusty jobs or entirely out of the industry. There is also now evidence that exposure to textile dusts results in heightened airway reactivity and that atopy is a risk factor for the development of vegetable‐dust‐induced bronchoconstriction. These observations are likely to become more relevant with regulation of cotton dust to lower levels. This may allow toleration of lower exposure to cotton dust by many of those who were previously selected out of these industries because of asthma, thereby resulting in increased risk to the development of chronic airway disease.
Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Radium
Authors: Genter Mary Beth 
Published: August 2005

AbstractMagnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium are among the alkaline‐earth metals, found in group IIA of the periodic table. Sir Humphrey Davy first described the electrochemical isolation of barium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium in 1808, and the isolation of a radium salt from waste uranium ore was described by the Curies in 1898. These metals are being presented separately from other metals in this edition. Beryllium, the lightest of the alkaline‐earth metals, is also being handled separately from the alkaline earths covered in this chapter, as beryllium has a number of special immunological and pulmonary toxicology concerns that impact workplace practices and industrial hygiene concerns. Topics covered include chemical and physical properties, production and use, exposure assessments, toxic effects, standards regulations and guidelines for each matter.
Alkaline Materials: Sodium, Potassium, Cesium, Rubidium, Francium, and Lithium
Authors: Pierce Stevan W. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThe primary health hazards arising out of exposures to the alkaline chemicals are mainly those of irritation and corrosion of sensitive body tissues that come into direct contact with the agent. The most commonly encountered alkaline materials include the alkaline salts of ammonia, calcium, potassium, and sodium. The tissues most susceptible to biological damage are the eyes, which, if not treated rapidly after exposure, can be severely damaged. Most exposures come about as a result of accidental spills by way of splashes of solid and liquid materials through mishandling. The alkaline metals readily and rapidly form hydroxides from moisture which can become explosives. Employee training, process control, and the use of appropriate personal protective equipment are the most effective ways to reduce or minimize exposures.In addition to appropriate training, process control, and proper use and care of personal protective equipment, all facilities using or handling alkaline materials should have emergency eye washes available in readily located areas for immediate and prolonged washing of the eyes with water in the case of exposure. Direct contact of the alkaline materials with the skin or respiratory tract may result in irritation and corrosion, because these chemical agents react directly with tissue proteins to form aluminates. Long‐term respiratory exposure, even for low airborne concentrations, can result in permanent damage to the respiratory system.Cesium, rubidium, and lithium are indicated as clinical treatments for psychiatric disorders.
Aldehydes and Acetals
Authors: Morandi Maria T. , Maberti Silvia 
Published: August 2005

AbstractMore than 300 aldehydes occur in foods, water, and air. Due to the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon, particularly when proximal to a carbon–carbon double bond, aldehydes react with thiols and amines to form protein–protein, DNA–protein, and DNA–DNA cross‐links. Despite their potential for causing cell damage, toxicological and exposure data for a large number of aldehydes are lacking. Inhalation and ingestion studies have demonstrated that a number of aldehydes are irritants and can induce tumors in animal models. Formaldehyde which is a suspected carcinogen is the most widely studied of these compounds. The physicochemical properties of saturated aldehydes are summarized. Toxicological and health effects are presented.
Monohydric Alcohols—C1 to C6
Authors: Bevan C. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThis chapter reviews both linear and branched monohydric aliphatic C1to C6alcohols. The C7to C20monohydric alcohols are covered in Chapter 78.The low molecular weight alcohols, including methanol, ethanol, 1‐propanol, and isopropanol are used extensively in industry (16). These alcohols exist as volatile liquids at ambient temperatures, and exposure can occur in both industrial and nonindustrial environments.This review discusses primarily dermal and inhalation routes of exposure, which are the major routes of occupational exposure to alcohols. Many of the high‐production alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, propanols, and butanols cause adverse effects when ingested; ingestion, however, is not a major route of occupational exposure. There are some alcohols that have produced adverse effects in humans, including death, in an occupational environment. Nevertheless, alcohols have been used extensively in the workplace generally with few or minor problems. Occasionally, methanol, ethanol, and the propanols produce a skin sensitizing response in humans. In some, but not all, cases the sensitization response was considered to be due to contaminants and not to the alcohol itself.A common property of some of the alcohols is to produce local irritation to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract, and the effect or potency varies for the type of alcohol. Many alcohols produce minimal or no adverse effects in humans, possibly because of low exposure combined with the low toxicity potential of the alcohol.Few alcohols produce neuropathic effects in humans. Abuse of products containing methanol and ethanol has produced some indications of neurotoxicity in humans, but nothing has been reported in an occupational environment. 2‐Hexanol produces neurotoxicity by the oral and intraperitoneal routes in animals, but there is no evidence of such an effect having occurred in the workplace.There is no clear evidence that occupational exposures to alcohols represent a carcinogenic risk to humans. Based on epidemiological data, there is an association between the manufacture of ethanol and isopropanol by the strong acid process (a process no longer used in the United States) and an excess of upper respiratory tract cancer in humans. The effect has been attributed to by‐products such as dialkyl sulfates and sulfuric acid, not the alcohols themselves.Some of these alcohols such as ethanol and isopropanol can enhance the toxic effects of various chemicals, particularly hepatotoxins. It is thought that the effects may be due largely to an inductive effect of the alcohol on microsomal enzymes, particularly the cytochrome P450 system, which may allow a greater metabolic conversion of the hepatotoxin to its toxic metabolite.
Synthetic Polymers
Authors: Walker Bailus , Burton Laureen 
Published: August 2005

AbstractPolymers are among the oldest chemicals known to humans. Since ancient times, natural polymers, including silk, wool, rubber, and cellulose, have been known and exploited. For a century and a half now, synthetic fibers, plastics, and modified natural polymers have been part of everyday life. The early history of these materials is being documented, and new generations are being taught about their production and fabrication. In the United States, a number of institutions have been established to preserve and transmit knowledge of polymer technology. Natural polymers such as proteins occupy a central position in the architecture and function of living matter. Nucleic acid polymer, called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), automatically controls the formation of another nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid (RNA), that controls the formation of a specific protein. These natural polymers are increasingly important, especially in agriculture and medicine, and much has been written about them. They are not considered here.Many of the general considerations discussed in the chapters on synthetic polymers in the fourth edition ofPatty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicologyare still applicable. To update those portions that need alteration, literature since 1994 when the fourth edition was published has been searched using primarily the National Library of Medicine's Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) and ToxLine. Other sources including the polymer science literature were reviewed for useful information. However, there has been no intent to compile an exhaustive bibliography. References to the multiple dimensions of synthetic polymers are so numerous that it has been necessary to limit citations to those that are most useful to understanding and controlling the toxicological problems of polymers in the occupational environment.
Synthetic Polymers, Polyesters, Polyethers, and Related Polymers
Authors: Cragg Steven T. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractCommercial use of polyester resins dates from the early twentieth century, when alkyd resins were first used in surface coatings. The polyesters are found today as fibers, films, laminating resins, molding resins, and engineering plastics. The high‐molecular‐weight polyethers are known primarily as engineering plastics (an exception is high‐molecular‐weight polyoxyethylene, a water‐soluble packaging polymer), as are the polysulfides and the polysulfones. Some basic properties are given.Production data for the general categories are listed in Table 92.2. Processing techniques vary widely and are discussed in the appropriate subsection.Clearance for certain food contact applications with many of these materials has been obtained under Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Those specifically listed include polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, polycarbonate, polyoxymethylene, polyoxyethylene derivatives, polyphenylene sulfide, and polysulfone. Specifications concerning mechanical and other types of performance depend on end use summarized.Industrial hygiene concerns with these polymers depend on the type of resin in use. Chemicals released in significant quantities may include (1) styrene during the fabrication of unsaturated polyester resins and in any subsequent release of styrene, (2) other volatile products generated at elevated temperatures or in fires, and (3) dust or particulate generated in the manufacturing and processing of polyester fibers. The use of styrene in polyester resins that are fabricated into glass‐reinforced plastics can provide the greatest intensity of exposure to styrene in workplace situations. Toxic vapors can also be released by solvent systems, particularly at elevated temperatures, and during fabrication of engineering resins. For example, the processing of polyoxymethylene (acetals) in a poorly ventilated space may release biologically significant amounts of formaldehyde into the adjacent atmosphere.Sulfur‐containing engineering resins typically have a high resistance to thermal deterioration but may yield hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide if heated to decomposition temperatures.Inhalation tests in rats indicate no particular hazard to humans from particles of commercial polyester fiber but suggest that sufficient inhalation of cyclic ethylene terephthalate trimer dust may produce a granulomatous tissue response. Both types of particles produced a nonspecific inflammatory tissue response when first introduced into the lungs. This initial response was transitory and was not followed by collagen formation or any development of fibrosis. However, small particles of crystalline cyclic ethylene terephthalate trimer dust produced more prominent foreign body giant cell reactions than small polyester fiber particles. The latter, formed during high‐speed processing by abrasive fracture of the surface of commercial fiber, produced a modest response consisting mostly of macrophages; the large nonrespirable particles produced artifactual foreign body granulomas.