bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
8 One God, No Ancestors, in a World Renewed
Authors: Douglas Mary 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
Focuses on the absence of ancestor cults in the Bible, and notes that the ground already covered in the book indicates that the priestly editors of the Pentateuch in the sixth and fifth centuries bce, and their interpretation of monotheism, make it unlikely that there would have been room for such an idea. Considers the limited role of the dead in biblical Israel in the context of the major advance that was monotheism, and asks whether Leviticus represents a Utopian religion or a real one that was actually practiced in the past, emphasizing the intellectual consistency of the Pentateuch in its uncompromising monotheism. The question is asked as to whether Israel ever had an ancestral cult, and the biblical evidence against such a cult is reviewed. The possible benefits of an ancestor cult in taking the blame are discussed, along with some alternative views to this (notably, the horror of death), and the possibility of the forcible suppression of ancestor cults as part of a centralizing government programme (here certain parallels are drawn with other cultures, and the cult of purgatory is discussed). Other ways in which cults of the dead can fade are discussed in the last part of the chapter; these include the secularizing effect of modernization, intergenerational tension, the character of the resource base in relation to the fate of ancestor cults (as illustrated by religious dynamism in the Calabari Delta of Nigeria), religious change instigated by changing regimes in which either the old or the young may become ascendant, and the position of eighth‐century Israel as having everything that would favour a revolt by the young – thus setting a trail for the priestly editors that had been laid centuries before, and embodied the central doctrine of monotheism.
Limits on Theory I: Costs to Agents
Authors: Wilson Catherine 
Published: March 2005

AbstractBernard Williams and Thomas Nagel have argued forcefully that the classical moral theories, utilitarianism and Kantianism, are insufficiently responsive to certain features of the first‐person standpoint. Defends their view that prescriptive statements that routinely impose too heavy costs on agents are not confirmable. The difficulty of fulfilling a request reduces an agent's obligation to fulfil it, and when its exigency is compounded by circumstances such as the agent's involuntary subjection, or his being asked to bear certain burdens unexpectedly or by himself, the obligation is further reduced. The reality constraint with regard to facts about agency and moral motivation thus sets limits on the systems of social rules that are eligible for endorsement.
The Anonymity Requirement and Counterweight Principles
Authors: Wilson Catherine 
Published: March 2005

AbstractEstablishes a metaethical constraint on moral theorizing, the Anonymity Requirement, whose relation to John Rawls’ ‘veil of ignorance’ and to the utilitarian presumption that everyone's pains and pleasures must be impartially considered are discussed. One cannot posit privileges and exemptions ‘for me’ or ‘for us’ within a genuine moral theory as opposed to an ideology. Further, certain ‘counterweight principles’ intrinsic to our moral psychology are shown to offset the force of costs to agents in establishing demand levels. While contractualist theories do provide for universal representation of needs and wants, they confound the question of confirmation by idealized theorists with the question of fair distribution to non‐ideal agents.
CONTEXTUALISM AND THE PUZZLE
Authors: Hawthorne John 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
This chapter examines the advantages and disadvantages of contextualism, and its application to the puzzle. Contextualism offers a compelling solution to puzzle. The contextualist allows that ordinary knowledge ascriptions often come out true, and allows the ordinary claims to the effect that lottery propositions are not known can also come true. He explains away the apparent threat to closure provided by the original puzzles. The resolution of conflicting intuitions is prima facie and extremely compelling.
A Tale of Two Theories
Authors: Borg Emma 
Published: March 2005

AbstractAn introduction to formal semantic theories (focusing on truth-conditional semantics) and dual pragmatic accounts (focusing on Sperber and Wilson’s relevance theory and Recanati’s contextualism). The chapter gives an initial examination of the distinct challenges posed by advocates of dual pragmatic accounts and the precise nature of the debate between the two approaches. The chapter also looks at the notion of logical form deployed by both kinds of semantic theory.
Supposition and Belief Change 1
Authors: Levi Isaac 
Published: March 2005

AbstractIt is argued, with Peirce and against Descartes, that current beliefs do not require justification; justification is only required when change in belief is on offer. Parmenidean epistemology is discussed in defence of the view that commitment to full belief cannot be escaped by a move to judgements of probability or some other index of uncertainty, and that full belief is corrigible. Types of change in states of full belief are distinguished, and it is maintained that without an account of justified expansions and, particularly, contractions there can be no justifiable changes in belief that take into account the desideratum of avoiding error at the next step (the AGM approach developed by Alchourrón, Gärdenfors and Makinson). The pragmatic theory to be defended, in which the justification of a change of belief attempts to show that the proposed change best promotes the goal of the enquiry in question, is set out. It is explained that the focus of the book will be on rationalizing choices between competing contraction strategies once the decision to contract – to relinquish old beliefs – has been made.
Cognitive Decisions 2
Authors: Levi Isaac 
Published: March 2005

AbstractChanges of doxastic commitment by contraction are to be understood as decision-theoretic: the problem of how to contract is a decision problem. Parallel issues relating to inductive expansion and abduction are set out. A number of potential contractions are distinguished. The “commensuration requirement” is defined as requiring that every change in state of full belief should entail a justification of a contraction or an expansion, and is defended. It is suggested that there are two contexts in which inquirers do legitimately contract: when they inadvertently expand into inconsistency; and when doing so enables them to give a serious hearing to an important conjecture without begging the question in favour of or against it. Options in cognitive decision-making are discussed, and it is argued that some expansion is deliberate.
Deliberate Expansion 3
Authors: Levi Isaac 
Published: March 2005

AbstractThe justification of deliberate expansion is the topic of this chapter, and it is argued that any possible expansion should be assessed with respect to two desiderata: the enquirer should seek to avoid error by adding new information that is false; and the enquirer should seek to acquire new, valuable information. The ways in which the legitimacy of an inductive expansion is heavily dependant on contextual parameters are set out, and five such parameters are identified. The notions of “degrees of surprise” and “degrees of belief” (plausibility) are defined and discussed.
Informational Value in Contraction 4
Authors: Levi Isaac 
Published: March 2005

AbstractThe informational value involved in contraction is the subject of this chapter. Probability-based notions of informational value are introduced. It is argued that rational agents need not evaluate consequences of options and probabilities numerically when evaluating decision problems. The notions of weak and strong monotonicity are discussed, and it is argued that when two or more expansion or contraction options are tied for optimality with respect to the goals of the decision-maker, he should adopt the weakest of them, if it exists. A version of a method for evaluating loss of informational value called loss of damped informational value is defended.
3 ‘The Ethical’ in Fear and Trembling
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
Fear and Trembling is not the place to look for an account of Kierkegaard’s ethical views, because it is not a book about ethics but faith, written by someone who neither has faith nor an understanding of it. Kierkegaard does not use Fear and Trembling to represent how the ethical life appears from within the life of faith, as some have believed. Instead, Kierkegaard uses the work to call into question the identification of faith with ethics, especially when the ‘ethical’ is understood in a Hegelian way.
5 Divine Commands as the Basis for Moral Obligation
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
Divine command theory gives an account of obligation, specifically moral obligation. Any action God commands his human creatures to do is morally binding for them, and any action that is morally obligatory for humans has the status of being a moral obligation because God commands it. In Works of Love, Kierkegaard argues that our motivation to obey God is grounded in the special relationship we have with God – a relationship that begins with our birth and continues beyond our death. The grounds for God’s authority is not his power but his love, and God’s commands are not arbitrary but are rooted in God’s desire for human flourishing.
7 Divine Commands: How Given and To Whom?
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
The command to love our neighbour comes from special revelation, in the biblical texts themselves, and from general revelation, in the conscience. Thus, neighbour-love is a command that everyone can and should know. Special revelation is necessary because of human sin, but Kierkegaard should temper his attitude towards humanity’s sinfulness and qualify his belief that the nature of our obligation to love cannot be recognized by human beings apart from special revelation. In Works of Love, Kierkegaard shows that love is both a universal duty and a particular calling. Every person we meet is part of our common humanity and is an individual whom God calls.
10 Contemporary Meta‐Ethical Alternatives: Evolutionary Naturalism
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
Evolutionary naturalism is one possible ground for ethics that does not rely on divine commands. Larry Arnhart, in Darwinian Natural Right: The Biological Ethics of Human Nature, attempts to wed Darwinism to Aristotle in the hopes of demonstrating that contemporary biology provides a solid basis for understanding what is good and right for humans. Arnhart’s hopes falter, however, because he cannot maintain a particularistic ethic built on evolution and a universal ethic of obligation. The two cases of slavery and of female circumcision show the woeful inadequacies of an ethic that grounds moral obligation in biology. By contrast, the ethic of love based on a divine command is universal in its scope; neighbour-love extends across differences in race (in the case of slavery) and gender (in the case of female circumcision).
11 Contemporary Meta‐Ethical Alternatives: Humanistic Naturalism
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
Naturalistic humanism is another possible alternative to divine command theory. David Gauthier, in Morals by Agreement, rejects any objective theory of value, relying instead on the creation of social contracts developed by agreements whose purpose is to satisfy preferences. Three insurmountable problems confront Gauthier, however. First, grounding morality in agreements does not do away with the incentive to cheat. If morals develop when people employ strategies to maximize the efficient satisfaction of their preferences, then presumably they disappear when an opportunity arises to satisfy preferences even more thoroughly by abandoning those strategies. Second, if morality is grounded in a self-interested bargain, then its scope extends only to those who are party to the agreement. Finally, Gauthier’s belief that morality is valuable, in and of itself, flatly contradicts his thesis that morals are simply agreements and nothing else. With divine command theory, we have, by contrast, both an explanation for our beliefs about morality – God’s call – and an explanation for our failure to live a perfect, moral life – human sin.
12 Contemporary Meta‐Ethical Alternatives: Relativism and Nihilism
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
Gilbert Harman develops a theory of moral relativism in which rightness or wrongness depends on a framework. Differences in moral frameworks reflect differences in situation, power, and status. Harman’s relativism thus slides quickly into nihilism. He leaves us with no rational basis for criticizing evil people who do not adopt ‘our’ moral framework. Even a Hitler cannot be criticized so long as he consistently follows his own moral framework. Divine command theory responds to this moral confusion by asserting that our obligations are universal in scope because God commands them.
SENSITIVE MODERATE INVARIANTISM
Authors: Hawthorne John 
Published: March 2005

Abstract
This chapter examines sensitive moderate invariantism, and how it may help the puzzle. It describes two mechanisms that bear on the truth of knowledge claims; ones that are similar to contextualist machinery except that they are conceived of as making for subject-sensitivity. The sensitive moderate invariantist claims that the extension of ‘know’ depends not only on the kinds of actors traditionally adverted to accounts of knowledge but also on the kinds of factors that in the contextualist’s hands make for ascriber-dependence.
New once‐daily, highly effective rescue triple therapy after multiple Helicobacter pylori treatment failures: a pilot study
Authors: Coelho L. G. V. , Moretzsohn L. D. , Vieira W. L. S. , Gallo M. A. , Passos M. C. F. , Cindr J. M. , Cerqueira M. C. , Vitiello L. , Ribeiro M. L. , Mendonça S. , Pedrazzoli‐Júnior J. , Castro L. P. 
Published: March 2005

SummaryBackground:  Helicobacter pylori treatment failure is a growing problem in daily practice.Aim:  To determine the efficacy of the combination of rabeprazole, levofloxacin and furazolidone as a rescue therapy.Methods:  Duodenal ulcer patients previously submitted, without success, to at least two H. pylori treatment regimens were included. Gastroscopy (urease test, histological examination and culture) and 13C‐urea breath test were performed. All patients received a combination of rabeprazole 20 mg, levofloxacin 500 mg and furazolidone 200 mg (two tablets) administered in a single dose in the morning for 10 days. Clinical examination and a new 13C‐urea breath test were performed 90 days after therapy.Results:  Twelve patients (eight females and four males), mean age 43 (30–58) years were included. Two patients failed to complete the treatment because of nausea and vomiting. Ten patients completed the study and took all the medications as advised. Culture was obtained in six patients: 100 and 83% of the samples were sensitive to furazolidone and levofloxacin, respectively. Per‐protocol and intention‐to‐treat eradication rates were 100 and 83% (P = 0.019).Conclusions:  the combination of rabeprazole, levofloxacin and furazolidone in a single daily dose for 10 days constitutes a highly‐effective and low‐cost alternative as a third‐line therapy in patients infected with H. pylori.
Bioequivalence of a new liquid formulation of ursodeoxycholic acid (Ursofalk suspension) and Ursofalk capsules measured by plasma pharmacokinetics and biliary enrichment
Authors: Setchell K. D. R. , Galzigna L. , O'Connell N. , Brunetti G. , Tauschel H.‐D. 
Published: March 2005

SummaryBackground:  Ursodeoxycholic acid is an approved therapy for hepatobiliary disorders but in infants and children compliance is compromised because it is formulated exclusively as capsules, or tablets.Aim:  To determine the pharmacokinetics and bioequivalence of a new liquid formulation of ursodeoxycholic acid (Ursofalk suspension) with a standard capsule (Ursofalk) in a randomized, unblinded, crossover designed study of 24 healthy adults.Methods:  Equivalence was based on single bolus oral plasma pharmacokinetics and biliary ursodeoxycholic acid enrichments after repeat doses. Biliary bile acid composition and hydrophobicity index were also compared. Ursodeoxycholic acid was measured in duodenal bile by high‐performance liquid chromatography and in plasma by mass spectrometry.Results:  The mean percentage biliary ursodeoxycholic acid enrichment after administration of the suspension was not significantly different from that obtained with capsules (44.2 ± 11.7% vs. 46.9 ± 10.2%, respectively). The equivalence ratio was 0.94 (95% CI: 0.8–1.1), establishing bioequivalence between suspension and capsules. Both formulations reduced the biliary hydrophobicity index and no differences in bile acid composition were observed between formulations. The plasma pharmacokinetics of both formulations was similar and the tolerability of the suspension was excellent.Conclusions:  A new liquid formulation of ursodeoxycholic acid suitable for paediatric patients is pharmacologically bioequivalent to capsules when given as single, or repeated oral doses.
Review article: hepatitis C virus infection and type‐2 diabetes mellitus in renal diseases and transplantation
Authors: Fabrizi F. , Lampertico P. , Lunghi G. , Mangano S. , Aucella F. , Martin P. 
Published: March 2005

SummaryA link between hepatitis C virus infection and development of diabetes mellitus has been suggested by many investigators; however, this remains controversial.The mechanisms underlying the association between hepatitis C virus and diabetes mellitus are unclear but a great majority of clinical surveys have found a significant and independent relationship between hepatitis C virus and diabetes mellitus after renal transplantation and orthotopic liver transplantation.We have systematically reviewed the scientific literature to explore the association between hepatitis C virus and diabetes mellitus in end‐stage renal disease; in addition, data on patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplantation were also analysed. The unadjusted odds ratio for developing post‐transplant diabetes mellitus in hepatitis C virus‐infected renal transplant recipients ranged between 1.58 and 16.5 across the published studies. The rate of anti‐hepatitis C virus antibody in serum was higher among dialysis patients having diabetes mellitus (odds ratio 9.9; 95% confidence interval 2.663–32.924). Patients with type‐2 diabetes‐related glomerulonephritis had the highest anti‐hepatitis C virus prevalence [19.5% (24/123) vs. 3.2% (73/2247); P < 0.001] in a large cohort of Japanese patients who underwent renal biopsy. The link between hepatitis C virus and diabetes mellitus may explain, in part, the detrimental role of hepatitis C virus on patient and graft survival after orthotopic liver transplantation and/or renal transplantation.Preliminary evidence suggests that anti‐viral therapies prior to renal transplantation and novel immunosuppressive regimens may lower the occurrence of diabetes mellitus in hepatitis C virus‐infected patients after renal transplantation. Clinical trials are under way to assess if the hepatitis C virus‐linked predisposition to new onset diabetes mellitus after renal transplantation may be reduced by newer immunosuppressive medications.
Review article: drugs interfering with visceral sensitivity for the treatment of functional gastrointestinal disorders – the clinical evidence
Authors: Kuiken S. D. , Tytgat G. N. , Boeckxstaens G. E. 
Published: March 2005

SummaryAt present, the concept of visceral hypersensitivity provides the leading hypothesis regarding the generation of symptoms in functional gastrointestinal disorders.This paper discusses the current clinical evidence for drugs that have been proposed to interfere with visceral sensitivity in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Several possible pharmacological targets have been identified to reduce visceral pain and to reverse the processes underlying the persistence of visceral hypersensitivity. However, most of the available evidence comes from experimental animal models and cannot simply be extrapolated to patients with functional gastrointestinal disorders. In this review, we selected five drug classes that have been shown to exhibit visceral analgesic properties in experimental studies, and of which data were available regarding their clinical efficacy. These included opioid substances, serotonergic agents, antidepressants, somatostatin analogues and α2‐adrenergic agonists.Although clinical trials show a limited benefit, in particular for serotonergic agents, the evidence illustrating that these effects result from normalization of visceral sensation is currently lacking.Therefore, we conclude that the concept of targeting visceral hypersensitivity as a treatment for functional gastrointestinal disorders is still controversial. Future evaluations require patient selection based on the presence of visceral hypersensitivity and application of compounds that exhibit ‘true’ viscerosensory effects.
Systematic review: regression of lymphoproliferative disorders after treatment for hepatitis C infection
Authors: Gisbert J. P. , García‐Buey L. , Pajares J. M. , Moreno‐Otero R. 
Published: March 2005

SummaryAim:  To systematically review the experience of therapeutic studies where α‐interferon with or without ribavirin was administered to patients with lymphoproliferative disorders, in order to evaluate whether eradication of hepatitis C virus may induce regression of lymphoproliferative disorders.Methods:  We used bibliographical searches in electronic databases and in the Cochrane Library to determine our results.Results:  Sixteen studies where an anti‐viral regimen was administered to 65 hepatitis C virus‐infected patients with lymphoproliferative disorders were identified. Complete remission of the lymphoproliferative disorder was achieved in 75% of the cases. In contrast, hepatitis C virus‐negative subjects did not respond to interferon, indicating that the response in the hepatitis C virus‐infected patients is not merely due to the antiproliferative effect of interferon. Remission after HCV eradication was maintained, provided that infection did not reappear. In hepatitis C virus‐infected patients with non‐Hodgkin's lymphoma treated with corticosteroids/chemotherapy liver function tests deterioration did not occur. The addition of interferon to standard chemotherapy may decrease hepatic side‐effects of chemotherapy.Conclusions:  Although it is evident that larger therapeutical trials of anti‐viral therapy are needed to determine the role of this strategy in hepatitis C virus‐infected patients with lymphoproliferative disorders, encouraging data emerge from recent studies showing that interferon (plus ribavirin) is an attractive therapeutic option for some hepatitis C virus‐related low‐grade lymphomas.
Missense mutations in exon 4 of the porcine LEPR gene encoding extracellular domain and their association with fatness traits
Authors: Mackowski M. , Szymoniak K. , Szydlowski M. , Kamyczek M. , Eckert R. , Rozycki M. , Switonski M. 
Published: March 2005

SummaryThree non‐synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (T221C, T232A and C233T) were detected in exon 4 of the porcine leptin receptor (LEPR) gene. The T232A substitution could be identified as a (Tsp509I) restriction fragment length polymorphism. The frequency of genotype TT varied in six genetic groups from 0.62 (Duroc) to 0.99 (Polish Large White). Sequencing of exon 4, performed for 30 animals, revealed that only two intragenic haplotypes (TC and AT at nucleotide position 232–233) were present. The phenotypic effect of the Tsp509I polymorphism was tested for the Polish Landrace (n = 241) and a synthetic line 990 (n = 243). There was no statistical evidence for the direct effect of the LEPR polymorphisms on fatness traits. However, in Polish Landrace allele A at position 232 was associated with thicker backfat over shoulder.