bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Souls Before Birth and at Death
Authors: Kretzmann Norman 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn Aquinas's attempt to explain the origin of an individual human being's soul (his embryological account), he argues that a human soul does not begin to exist at conception, or for some time thereafter. After opposing 12 naturalistic explanations previously given by others of the origin of new human souls, Aquinas claims that, consequently, only particular creation can account for human reproduction. Aquinas thinks he has good, natural–theological arguments to show that at least at death a human soul or intellect is not corrupted along with the human body with which it has been united. The organlessness of intellection is his key to arguing for the intellective soul's survival of death.
Aristotle: Explanation and Nature
Authors: Hankinson R. J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn this chapter, Hankinson discusses Aristotle's conceptions of nature, change, and potentiality; the four causes, spontaneity, and chance; teleology and hypothetical necessity; and also Aristotle's account of action, freedom, and responsibility. The choice facing Greek philosopher‐scientists is simple: show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or pursue a teleological explanation, insisting on the activity of divine intelligence in the cosmos. Aristotle, Hankinson writes, pursues a middle way between these options, although, ultimately, Aristotle takes the whole structure of the cosmos to be teleologically organized. Aristotle rejects Plato's metaphysics of perfect hypostasized forms and divinely directed teleology: relying heavily on his concept of phusis or nature, Aristotle makes teleology an internal principle governing the development of natural objects. Aristotle distinguishes four causes or causal factors in explanation: matter, form, agent, and end, and he distinguishes sharply between regular natural events that can be explained by means of these causes, and chance events, which do not admit full explanation.
The Sceptics
Authors: Hankinson R. J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn this chapter, Hankinson discusses the sceptical attacks on dogmatic accounts of cause and explanation, beginning with the Eight Modes of Aenesidemus, before moving on to discuss Sextus Empiricus’ general attack on the very coherence of the notions of causation. Aenesidemus’ Eight Modes (or tropoi, i.e. general patterns of argument) are a set of arguments of varying scope and power against the Aetiology of the Dogmatists; they demonstrate the fundamental difficulties in any attempt to investigate the hidden structures of things, and also raise methodological difficulties. Sextus Empiricus argues that the very concepts of cause and effect are incoherent, and he also criticizes the notions of agent and patient, and the dogmatist account of sign‐inference. Hankinson also discusses the Modes of Agrippa, according to which an explanation is either circular, infinitely regressive, or arbitrary. The sceptical attacks on astrology and divination are also important in that they undermine the claims of pseudo‐science; such arguments, Hankinson adds, contribute to the understanding of the standards towards which genuine science must strive.
Explanation in the Medical Schools
Authors: Hankinson R. J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn this chapter, Hankinson discusses the major Hellenistic Medical theories and figures, from the Alexandrian doctors Herophilus and Erasistratus in the third century bc to the Empiricist, Rationalist, and Methodist schools of the early Imperial period. Hankinson argues that the practical basis of medical science broadened and deepened the debate about the nature of causal explanation. The Empiricists were sceptics in their attitude to causes, thinking that observation and report of evident conditions and their cures was sufficient for medical science, and thus eschewing causal theory. Rationalist doctors attacked the inadequate methodology of the Empiricists, and they try to explain why the antecedent cause should bring on such and such an effect, while emphasizing the need to decide rationally the proper use of induction, and the relevancy of similarities. The Methodists treat as irrelevant antecedent causes or factors, and they recognized just two pathological conditions—relaxation and constriction; the doctor's concern is to determine by direct observation in which state is the body.
The Neoplatonists
Authors: Hankinson R. J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAlthough the syncretism of the preceding Platonic tradition is still evident in the Neoplatonism of Plotinus, Plotinus’ system of reality, Hankinson argues, is a strikingly original achievement. Plotinus conceives reality as an ordered and causally inter‐related structure, according to which everything is explained in terms of its relationship with the supreme, transcendent One; this is taken over by his successors, such as Proclus, with whom Neoplatonism reaches its most formalized incarnation. The thought of Plotinus and Proclus is quite remote from the discussions of nature that had provided the context for earlier Greek theories of causation. But John Philoponus, a Christian philosopher, brings a Neoplatonic approach to physical explanation, in particular in his critique of Aristotle's physics and dynamics. Simplicius tried to combine physics and theology; as Christianity came to dominate the Graeco‐Roman world, however, scientific speculation on natural causes waned, and theology became the main concern.
Wage Bargaining, Union Power, and Economic Integration
Authors: Boeri Tito , Brugiavini Agar , Calmfors Lars , Booth Alison , Burda Michael , Checchi Daniele , Ebbinghaus Bernhard , Freeman Richard , Garibaldi Pietro , Holmlund Bertil , Naylor Robin , Schludi Martin , Verdier Thierry , Visser Jelle 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExamines the determinants of union influence over wages. After a brief review of the existing literature on union wage effects, it describes the major factors conditioning the extent to which unions will be able to exert an influence on bargained wage outcomes. The likely impact of trade, economic integration, and FDI on union bargaining power are analysed in the following section.
Wider Dimensions of Unions' Presence
Authors: Boeri Tito , Brugiavini Agar , Calmfors Lars , Booth Alison , Burda Michael , Checchi Daniele , Ebbinghaus Bernhard , Freeman Richard , Garibaldi Pietro , Holmlund Bertil , Naylor Robin , Schludi Martin , Verdier Thierry , Visser Jelle 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAn analysis of union presence focusing only on union membership can be misleading, particularly so for European countries. Ch. 4 examines wider issues of union presence, including forms of bargaining (centralization and coordination of bargaining) and issues of coverage of collective agreements. Two key questions are addressed. First, what do unions do besides bargain over wages? Second, how do unions make their presence felt beyond mere density statistics (‘excess coverage’)?
Bargaining Structure and Macroeconomic Performance
Authors: Boeri Tito , Brugiavini Agar , Calmfors Lars , Booth Alison , Burda Michael , Checchi Daniele , Ebbinghaus Bernhard , Freeman Richard , Garibaldi Pietro , Holmlund Bertil , Naylor Robin , Schludi Martin , Verdier Thierry , Visser Jelle 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe macroeconomics effects of various degrees of coordination in wage bargaining are analysed with a special focus on aggregate wage and unemployment levels. The extent of bargaining coordination may affect wage setting both directly and indirectly because it interacts with other factors, such as economic policy and macroeconomic shocks. The last section discusses how the EMU is likely to affect wage bargaining changing and wage setting.
The Future Prospects for Trade Unions in Europe
Authors: Boeri Tito , Brugiavini Agar , Calmfors Lars , Booth Alison , Burda Michael , Checchi Daniele , Ebbinghaus Bernhard , Freeman Richard , Garibaldi Pietro , Holmlund Bertil , Naylor Robin , Schludi Martin , Verdier Thierry , Visser Jelle 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDiscusses the future prospects for union presence and influence in Europe. Three major issues are discussed: (1) future membership trends; (2) the future development of bargaining structures; and (3) possible future union strategies. As a final point, the difficulties of predicting the future role of trade unions in Europe are stressed.
Introduction
Authors: Boeri Tito , Brugiavini Agar , Calmfors Lars , Booth Alison , Burda Michael , Checchi Daniele , Ebbinghaus Bernhard , Freeman Richard , Garibaldi Pietro , Holmlund Bertil , Naylor Robin , Schludi Martin , Verdier Thierry , Visser Jelle 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn this part of the volume, the overall theme is the policy dilemma created by the many different activities of trade union in the field of welfare provision, notably pension policies and unemployment protection. Throughout the following chapters, a tension emerges between the role of unions as insurance providers, as institutions that facilitate agreements between different parties, and as rent‐seeking monopolists. By making use of an interdisciplinary approach, the analysis rationalizes a set of distinct features of the interaction between union activities and union structure on the one hand and welfare arrangements and welfare developments on the other.
Unions and Unemployment Insurance
Authors: Boeri Tito , Brugiavini Agar , Calmfors Lars , Booth Alison , Burda Michael , Checchi Daniele , Ebbinghaus Bernhard , Freeman Richard , Garibaldi Pietro , Holmlund Bertil , Naylor Robin , Schludi Martin , Verdier Thierry , Visser Jelle 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDifferences in unionization rates across countries appear to be related to how unemployment insurance is organized in different countries. The chapter presents the involvement of unions in the provision of unemployment insurance, highlighting theoretical considerations, policy arguments, and empirical evidence in favour of a particular unemployment insurance arrangement known as the ‘Ghent regime’.
The Welfare State as Piggy Bank
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis book applies economic theory to the welfare state. Its core message is that the welfare state exists not only to relieve poverty and redistribute income and wealth (the ‘Robin Hood’ function) but also as a series of institutions that provide insurance and consumption smoothing (the ‘piggy‐bank’ function). The book develops three central arguments about the role of the state in industrial countries and also in post‐communist and middle‐income developing countries.First, the welfare state has an insufficiently understood piggy‐bank function that is additional to and separate from poverty relief. Even if all poverty and social exclusion could be eliminated, so that the entire population were middle class, there would still be a need for institutions to offer insurance (for example, unemployment insurance, long‐term care insurance, medical insurance) and consumption smoothing over the life cycle (for example, pensions and education finance in the form of student loans). Private institutions – though often effective in other areas – face pervasive problems of imperfect information, risk, and uncertainty, and attempts to address those problems inescapably involve state intervention.Second, and consequentially, the welfare state is here to stay, since twenty‐first‐century developments do nothing to undermine those reasons – if anything, they do the reverse.To argue that the welfare state is robust does not, however, mean that it is static. A third set of arguments concerns the ways it can and will adapt to economic and social change.
The Mirage of Private Unemployment Insurance
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Chapter 3 discusses unemployment insurance. Actuarial insurance faces a series of problems including adverse selection and – particularly – moral hazard. It is, therefore, not surprising that private insurance connected with unemployment – for example mortgage protection policies – is offered on only the most restrictive of conditions, and that no private policies offer cover remotely comparable to that of state schemes. The state, in contrast, can offer social insurance.
Problems With Medical Insurance
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter explores the wide‐ranging and well‐known problems of medical insurance, including uncertainty about future probabilities, adverse selection, and moral hazard, which lead to uninsurable conditions and upward pressures on medical spending. The chapter goes on to discuss methods of cost containment, and to assess different strategies: private funding plus private production, public funding plus public production, and public funding plus private (or mixed) production. A key conclusion is that attempts to adapt private arrangements end up looking like social insurance, in the sense that premiums are not based on individual risk and insurers are not allowed to exclude high‐risk applicants. A second key conclusion is that different strategies for financing health care have different but largely predictable problems.
The Economics of Pensions
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn the world of certainty described in Ch. 2, people provide for their old age through saving, and those voluntary choices are efficient. Once the analysis is extended to allow for risk, uncertainty, and imperfect information, pensions based on voluntary saving are no longer necessarily efficient, opening up the possibility that state intervention might improve well‐being. This chapter sets out the simple economics of pensions and then discusses problems of risk, uncertainty, and imperfect information. Consumers are imperfectly informed about complex, long‐run contracts, necessitating stringent regulation of financial markets. Insurers are badly informed in a variety of ways, suggesting that social insurance might have a role. Consumers, insurers, and government all face uncertainty through demographic shocks and macroeconomic turbulence. Such shocks suggest a role for the state in addressing inflation and a potential role for consumption smoothing across generations.
Misleading Guides to Pension Design
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter summarizes core controversies about pensions by focusing on ten persistent myths about pension design that have clouded discussion, many of them centred on the debate about the respective merits of funded pensions (in which today's pensions are paid out of previously accumulated contributions) and Pay‐As‐You‐Go arrangements (in which today's pensions are paid out of today's contributions). Analysis of pensions needs to draw on microeconomics, macroeconomics, financial economics, and an understanding of the theory of social insurance. Many of the myths – relating to demographic change, savings, economic growth, public spending, and labour supply – are based on analysis that is incomplete because it omits one or more of these components.
Pension Design: The Options
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter sets out the wide range of options for pension design – funded or Pay‐As‐You‐Go, public or private, defined‐contribution or defined‐benefit – drawing on economic theory, the experience of different countries, and analysis of public and private institutional capacity constraints. Though the options vary in the form and extent of state involvement, even the most private arrangements require continuing government involvement, notably to ensure macroeconomic stability, to enforce contributions, and to ensure regulation of financial markets; and if reducing uncertainty is an objective – addressing inflation, pooling risks within a generation and across generations – the role of the state is to that extent larger.
Core Issues in the Economics of Education
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn the world of certainty described in Ch. 2, people finance their education by borrowing in perfect capital markets against their future income, and such voluntary choices are efficient. Once risk, uncertainty, and imperfect information enter the picture, that result no longer holds, requiring state intervention to give people a mechanism for moving resources to their younger years. This chapter and the next point to these problems as they apply to four sets of actors – policy‐makers, consumers of education, borrowers, and lenders. This chapter discusses the complex objectives of education and then explains why it is not possible to quantify the benefits of education, with two implications: policy‐makers cannot measure external benefits and hence the efficient level of subsidy; nor is it possible to quantify definitively the efficient level of spending on education.
Institutions and Democratic Citizenship
Authors: Hadenius Axel 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe book contains two parts that have a broad theme in common. The aim in Part I is to contribute to the debate on democracy's preconditions. Drawing on a broad range of theories, the author specifies certain societal and institutional traits that can serve to further democracy. Democratic development in Africa, Latin America, and India is then compared. The conclusion is that democracy is not the product of social and economic forces first of all. To a greater extent, it is the consequence of prevailing institutional conditions, i.e. the nature of the stateThe historical development of state structures is the object of analysis in Part II. The focus is mainly on Europe. The prospects for democracy in modern times have been greatly affected, the author maintains, by varying paths of institutional development. Moreover, the differing modes of state have displayed a variable capacity for governance and economic development. The evolution of state structures thus has consequences across broad areas of political and social life.
Parties: Denied, Dismissed, or Redundant? a Critique
Authors: Daalder Hans 
Published: October 2003

AbstractHans Daalder systematically analyses writings since the beginning of the twentieth century that have dealt with an alleged ‘crisis of parties’, or, as described since the 1970s, ‘party decline’. He criticizes the normative or ideological pseudoconcepts used implicitly or explicitly in this literature in generally negative assessments of the status of parties in Western Europe. The term ‘crisis of parties’, he finds, was commonly used as a euphemism to reflect a rejection of parties in general, or a party in particular, and he argues that in the debate on the crisis of party, at least four different bodies of writing are intermingled, which should be clearly distinguished. The chapter is devoted to discussing these: the first set of literature, which Daalder calls ‘denial of party’, denies a legitimate role for party, and sees parties as a threat to the good society; the second set of literature, called ‘the selective rejection of party’, incorporates the views of those who regard certain types of parties as ‘good’ but other types of parties as ‘bad’; the third set of literature, called ‘the selective rejection of party systems’, contains writings that propose that certain party systems are ‘good’ and others are ‘bad’; the last set of literature, called ‘the redundancy of party’, incorporates the views of those who regard parties as a transient phenomenon—products of a period of past mass mobilization—now becoming increasingly irrelevant in democratic politics as other actors and institutions have taken over the major functions that parties once played.
The Ascendancy of the Party in Public Office: Party Organizational Change in Twentieth‐Century Democracies
Authors: Katz Richard S. , Mair Peter 
Published: October 2003

AbstractConcerned with the development of party organizations in twentieth‐century democracies, and deals specifically with the shifting balance of power between what has earlier been termed the three organizational ‘faces’ of party: the party on the ground, the party in central office, and the party in public office. An evaluation is made of the changing balance among these three faces in the context of four models of party organization: the cadre (or elite) party, which was the dominant form of party organization prior to mass suffrage; the mass party, which emerged with, or in anticipation of and to militate for, mass suffrage, and which was widely regarded, particularly in Europe, as the ‘normal’ or ‘ideal’ form of party organization for most of the twentieth century; the catch‐all party, development towards which was first commented upon in the literature in the 1960s, and which has come to rival the mass party not only in prominence but also in the affections of many analysts; and finally, what is called here the cartel party, a new and emerging model of party organization, which Katz and Mair believe to be increasingly evident among established democracies in recent years. In tracing the shifting balance of power among the three faces and across the four models of party organization, the authors contend that the most recent stage of development has resulted in the ascendancy of the party in public office, and the concomitant ‘relegation’ or subordination of the other two faces. Moreover, while parties on the ground sometimes continue to flourish, they suggest that the ostensible empowerment of party memberships, or even their greater autonomy, may nevertheless, be compatible with an increased privileging of the party in public office. Finally, both the sources and implications of party organizational change are briefly discussed, and it is suggested that there is an association between the most recent shifts in the internal balance of intra‐party power, on the one hand, and the apparent growth in popular feelings of alienation from parties, on the other.
Beyond the Catch‐All Party: Approaches to the Study of Parties and Party Organization in Contemporary Democracies
Authors: Wolinetz Steven B. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
There are good reasons for re‐examining existing classifications of parties and seeing if others can be developed. However, reworking categories is a complex process, requiring further research and interaction between theory and data. This chapter is a preliminary effort, and focuses primarily on parties in established liberal democracies. The first half examines the adequacy of existing party categories in light of the literature in sections entitled: Categories and concepts in the comparative literature; Cadre versus mass parties; and Parties of mass integration, catch‐all parties, and beyond’ (to the cartel party). The second half considers ways in which contemporary parties might be compared in sections entitled: New bases for classification? Vote‐seeking, office‐seeking, and policy‐seeking parties; and Patterns of change in Western European parties.