bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A nicotine delivery device without the nicotine? Tobacco industry development of low nicotine cigarettes
Authors: Dunsby J , Bero L 
Published: November 2004

Background:Defining harm reduction and regulating potentially reduced exposure products (PREPs), including low nicotine products, are key issues in tobacco control policy. The US Congress has been considering legislation authorising the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to regulate tobacco products.Objective:To investigate tobacco industry perceptions, interests, motivations, and knowledge regarding the marketability of low nicotine tobacco products.Methods:Qualitative analysis of internal tobacco industry documents identified in the Legacy Tobacco Documents Library between February 2002 and June 2004. Search terms included low-, no-, reduced-nicotine; denicotinization; low-, reduced- alkaloids; Next; de-nic; and key names of people, organisations, projects, and their common abbreviations and acronyms.Results:The tobacco industry has made repeated efforts to develop low nicotine cigarettes. Reasons for doing so include consumer appeal and economic importance in a highly competitive cigarette market for “healthier” products. The industry considered the development of a new “denic” market segment a critical challenge.Conclusions:The tobacco industry exploits consumer misunderstanding of the health effects of nicotine in development and marketing efforts. The industry has risked the development of a less addictive product to expand the market reach of tobacco products based on perceived health benefits and appeal to quitters.
A mire of highly subjective and ineffective voluntary guidelines: tobacco industry efforts to thwart tobacco control in Malaysia: Figure 1
Authors: Assunta M , Chapman S 
Published: November 2004

Objective:To describe tobacco industry efforts in Malaysia to thwart government efforts to regulate tobacco promotion and health warnings.Methods:Systematic keyword and opportunistic website searches of formerly private tobacco industry internal documents made available through the Master Settlement Agreement and secondary websites; relevant information from news articles and financial reports.Results:Commencing in the 1970s, the industry began to systematically thwart government tobacco control. Guidelines were successfully promoted in the place of legislation for over two decades. Even when the government succeeded in implementing regulations such as health warnings and advertising bans they were compromised and acted effectively to retard further progress for years to come.Conclusion:Counter-measures to delay or thwart government efforts to regulate tobacco were initiated by the industry. Though not unique to Malaysia, the main difference lies in the degree to which strategies were used to successfully counter stringent tobacco control measures between 1970 and 1995.
A “clean cigarette” for a clean nation: a case study of Salem Pianissimo in Japan
Authors: Assunta M , Chapman S 
Published: November 2004

Objective:To illustrate, through internal industry documents, how RJ Reynolds exploited the concerns of the Japanese society about cleanliness to market the concept of cleaner, implicitly healthier cigarettes in Japan.Design:Systematic keyword and opportunistic website searches of formerly private internal industry documents.Results:Industry documents show that RJ Reynolds developed marketing plans based upon their cultural assumptions of Japanese people as fastidious about hygiene and manners, and with relatively high penchants to try new products. RJ Reynolds found there was also a growing concern for health, the environment, and smokers were conscious about annoying others. Deodorised consumer products were one of Japan’s biggest trends. These characteristics presented RJ Reynolds with a profitable formula for marketing Salem Pianissimo, a clean cigarette with less smell and smoke. Salem Pianissimo, a 100 mm cigarette claiming to contain 1 mg tar and 0.1 mg nicotine, targeted women since menthol cigarettes were popular among 18–24 year old female smokers, although Japan’s law prohibited those below 20 years to smoke and the tobacco industry had a voluntary code disallowing advertising to women and youth.Conclusion:RJ Reynolds successfully launched its clean cigarette, Salem Pianissimo, in Japan aiming to exploit perceived cultural characteristics such as a penchant for cleanliness, an eagerness to try new products, and social harmony.
The tobacco industry’s accounts of refining indirect tobacco advertising in Malaysia
Authors: Assunta M , Chapman S 
Published: November 2004

Objective:To explore tobacco industry accounts of its use of indirect tobacco advertising and trademark diversification (TMD) in Malaysia, a nation with a reputation for having an abundance of such advertising.Methods:Systematic keyword and opportunistic website searches of formerly private tobacco industry internal documents made available through the Master Settlement Agreement.Results:132 documents relevant to the topic were reviewed. TMD efforts were created to advertise cigarettes after advertising restrictions on direct advertising were imposed in 1982. To build public credibility the tobacco companies set up small companies and projected them as entities independent of tobacco. Each brand selected an activity or event such as music, travel, fashion, and sports that best suited its image. RJ Reynolds sponsored music events to advertise its Salem brand while Philip Morris used Marlboro World of Sports since advertising restrictions prevented the use of the Marlboro man in broadcast media. Despite a ban on tobacco advertisements in the mass media, tobacco companies were the top advertisers in the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The media’s dependence on advertising revenue and support from the ruling elite played a part in delaying efforts to ban indirect advertising.Conclusion:Advertising is crucial for the tobacco industry. When faced with an advertising ban they created ways to circumvent it, such as TMDs.
Complicity in contraband: British American Tobacco and cigarette smuggling in Asia
Authors: Collin J , LeGresley E , MacKenzie R , Lawrence S , Lee K 
Published: November 2004

Objectives:To examine the complicity of British American Tobacco (BAT) in cigarette smuggling in Asia, and to assess the centrality of illicit trade to regional corporate strategy.Methods:Analysis of previously confidential documents from BAT’s Guildford depository. An iterative strategy combined searches based on geography, organisational structure, and key personnel, while corporate euphemisms for contraband were identified by triangulation.Results:BAT documents demonstrate the strategic importance of smuggling across global, regional, national, and local levels. Particularly important in Asia, contraband enabled access to closed markets, created pressure for market opening, and was highly profitable. Documents demonstrate BAT’s detailed oversight of illicit trade, seeking to reconcile the conflicting demands of control and deniability.Conclusions:BAT documents demonstrate that smuggling has been driven by corporate objectives, indicate national measures by which the problem can be addressed, and highlight the importance of a coordinated global response via WHO’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control.
“Almost a role model of what we would like to do everywhere”: British American Tobacco in Cambodia
Authors: MacKenzie R , Collin J , Sopharo C , Sopheap Y 
Published: November 2004

Objectives:To examine British American Tobacco’s (BAT’s) renewed interest in Cambodia from the early 1990s, reviewing negotiations to establish a joint venture and the subsequent conduct of BAT Cambodia (BATC).Methods:Analysis of previously confidential BAT documents relevant to the Cambodian market.Results:With the advent of comparative political stability in the early 1990s, BAT was quick to explore the possibilities for investment. The Cambodian government urgently required foreign investment, offering inducements and assistance to investors. In developing a joint venture, BAT saw a cost effective opportunity to dominate the local market and to defend its regional interests, Cambodia being viewed as strategically located to support smuggling. Given minimal advertising regulation, BATC have undertaken wide ranging promotions and sought to prevent advances in tobacco control.Conclusions:BATC is presented as a contribution to Cambodia’s regeneration, but the documents highlight its exploitation of state incapacity and an escalating threat to public health.
PSPACE SURVIVES CONSTANT-WIDTH BOTTLENECKS
Authors: CAI JIN-YI , FURST MERRICK 
Published: November 2004

We discuss the relationship between constant-width branching programs and a hierarchy of languages lying between P and PSPACE. We introduce a notion of serializability. A computation is [Formula: see text]-serializable if it can be organized into a sequence of local computations, c1, c2,…, cr, each of limited power (imposed by the complexity class [Formula: see text]), each passing only a few bits of information (a bottleneck) as the result of its computation to the next local computation. By an application of Barrington’s method on branching programs we show that PSPACE is LOGSPACE-serializable with a constant-width bottleneck.
ALTERATION OF HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION IN IRRADIATED SARCOMA IN VIVO
Authors: HARADA S. , LI P. , YANAGISAWA T. , SERA K. , FUTATSUKAGAWA S. , HATAKEYAMA S. , SAITOH Y. , SUZUKI S. 
Published: November 2004

Alterations of heavy metal concentration in inoculated Sarcoma -180 after irradiation by 6MeV electron beam at the doses of 5Gy were evaluated in vivo in BALB/c mice, by Particle Induced X -ray Emission (PIXE). Analysis was performed for K, Cl, S, Fe, Zn and Cu. In the irradiation of 5Gy, the concentration of K and Cl have revealed the fast incremment at 1 hour after irradiattion and the fast decremment after that time. As for the S, Fe, Cu and Zn, their concentrations have revealed the fast incremment at 1 hour after irradiattion and the slow decremment from 1 hour after irradiation (except for slow increment from 1 hour to 1 day after).
MINSKY'S SMALL UNIVERSAL TURING MACHINE
Authors: ROBINSON RAPHAEL M. 
Published: November 2004

Marvin L. Minsky constructed a 4-symbol 7-state universal Turing machine in 1962. It was first announced in a postscript to [2] and is also described in [3, Sec. 14.8]. This paper contains everything that is needed for an understanding of his machine, including a complete description of its operation. Minsky's machine remains one of the minimal known universal Turing machines. That is, there is no known such machine which decreases one parameter without increasing the other. However, Rogozhin [6], [7] has constructed seven universal machines with the following parameters: [Formula: see text] His 4-symbol 7-state machine is somewhat different from Minsky's, but all of his machines use a construction similar to that used by Minsky. The following corrections should be noted: First machine, for q 6 00Lq 1 read q 6 00Lq 7; second machine, for q 4 11Rq 4 read q 4 11Rq 10; last machine, for q 2 b 2 bLq 2 read [Formula: see text]. A generalized Turing machine with 4 symbols and 7 states, closely related to Minsky's, was constructed and used in [5].
Adaptive Mesh Computation of Magnetic Hydrodynamic Equilibrium
Authors: DEGTYAREV L.M. , DROZDOV V.V. 
Published: November 2004

In stationary problems of mathematical physics an error of the finite-difference method ||z||=||u−uh|| is determined by the number of grid nodes N so that as N→∞, asymptotically [Formula: see text] The accuracy order m depends on the approximation of an original differential problem by a difference problem, while the constant C depends on the solution derivatives and the grid step h distribution. The value of ||z|| may be decreased by redistributing the grid points. An optimal computational grid is determined by both the region in which the original differential problem is solved and by the solution structure. Such technique will be called the method of grids adaptive to the solution. In this paper the ideology of the method of adaptive grids is presented for one-dimensional problems. A presentation of the method for two-dimensional MHD equilibrium problems is given. The main points of the method for three-dimensional MHD problems is discussed.
Monte Carlo Simulation of Lattice Model of Amphiphile and Solvent Mixture on a Transputer Array
Authors: BRINDLE D. , CARE C.M. 
Published: November 2004

A binary mixture of an amphiphilic material and water exhibits a rich phase behaviour as the concentrations of the components or temperature is changed [1]. Similar behaviour is also observed for ternary mixtures of amphiphile, oil and water. Lattice models of ternary systems have been extensively studied [e.g. 2]. However these models usually represent the amphiphilic molecule as a bond or site within the lattice and hence ignore the internal structure of the amphiphile. In this paper we present results for the lattice model of a binary system in which we represent the amphiphilic molecules by extended chains. This allows the nature of the chain packing and its influence on phase behaviour to be investigated. It also allows comparison with mean field calculations of chain order parameters [e.g. 3].
VAN HOVE SINGULARITIES AND HIGH-Tc SUPERCONDUCTIVITY: A REVIEW
Authors: MARKIEWICZ R. S. 
Published: November 2004

This review describes a Fermi liquid picture of high-T c superconductivity. A density-of-states (dos) peak associated with the CuO 2-plane van Hove singularity causes a peak in T c as a function of hole doping. Strong correlation effects drive a Mott transition at half filling. For intermediate doping, the electronic system is unstable against phase separation, with one phase near the insulating state, the other near the T c peak. The large dos leads to competition between superconductivity and structural instability, in analogy with the A15 compounds. The superconductivity appears to be driven by strong electron-phonon coupling, enhanced by fluctuation effects.
QUANTUM STEADY COMPUTATION
Authors: CASTAGNOLI GIUSEPPE 
Published: November 2004

Current conceptions of "quantum mechanical computers" inherit from conventional digital machines two apparently interacting features, machine imperfection and temporal development of the computational process. On account of machine imperfection, the process would become ideally reversible only in the limiting case of zero speed. Therefore the process is irreversible in practice and cannot be considered to be a fundamental quantum one. By giving up classical features and using a linear, reversible and non-sequential representation of the computational process — not realizable in classical machines — the process can be identified with the mathematical form of a quantum steady state. This form of steady quantum computation would seem to have an important bearing on the notion of cognition.
Balance-Equation Approach to Hot-Carrier Transport in Semiconductors
Authors: Lei X.L. , Horing N.J.M. 
Published: November 2004

The balance-equation approach to nonlinear hot-carrier transport theory, formulated by Lei and Ting (1984), is addressed in this comprehensive review. A central feature is the role of strong electron-electron interactions in promoting rapid thermalization about the drifted transport state and the concomitant substantial simplification of the transport theory. This physical feature is embodied in the initial density matrix chosen to represent the unperturbed carrier system. Force and energy balance equations are formulated for the dc steady state, ac dynamic and transient cases of charge conduction, including memory effects. The scattering mechanisms include impurity and phonon interactions along with dynamic nonlocal screening effects due to carrier-carrier interactions. Both linear and nonlinear resistivities are discussed in the degenerate and nondegenerate statistical regimes. Interesting phenomena such as electron cooling and thermal noise and diffusion are discussed as well. Semiconductor microstructure transport is described for both linear and nonlinear hot carrier conduction. In this connection, quasi-2D-systems, heterojunctions, and quantum well superlattices are treated with attention to steady state, transient and high frequency transport, including, for example, superlattice plasmon resonance structure. Type-II superlattice transport is reviewed as well as type-I, and electron-hole drag is treated in conjunction with negative minority electron mobility in a quantum well. Multivalley semiconductors are discussed in some detail. Furthermore, attention is also focused on the center-of-mass velocity fluctuation, Langevin-type equation and thermal noise and diffusion for microstructures and multivalley systems. A number of particularly important phenomena are examined from the balance-equation point of view, such as nonequilibrium phonons, higher order scattering effects and weak localization, hydrodynamic equations for weakly nonuniform systems, and the intracollisional field effect. Alternative formulations and interpretations of the balance-equation approach are reviewed. The distinction between this many-particle, isothermal, balance-equation theory and the noninteracting (single-particle) adiabatic transport theory is discussed to clarify issues subject to controversy in the literature. Finally, we give a brief review of recent developments in the balance-equation approach: investigation of the distribution function in balance-equation theory, improved calculations for GaAs/AlGaAs heterojunctions, extension of the balance equations to an abitrary energy band and recent work on superlattice miniband transport.
Observation of Highly Charged Sodium Clusters
Authors: Näher U. , Göhlich H. , Lange T. , Martin T.P. 
Published: November 2004

Singly charged sodium clusters have been multiply ionized in the drift tube of a TOF-mass-spectrometer. By this method multi-step photoionization of clusters can be examined mass selectively. Up to fourteenfold positively charged clusters have been observed in the mass spectra. The upper limit for multiple ionization is found to be exclusively a function of cluster size and photon energy. The energy required for each stage of ionization varies with cluster size in a manner well described by a purely classical electrostatic model.
NONLINEAR AND CHAOTIC OSCILLATIONS IN SEMICONDUCTORS UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF A TRANSVERSE MAGNETIC FIELD: THE DYNAMIC HALL EFFECT
Authors: HÜPPER G. , SCHÖLL E. , REIN A. 
Published: November 2004

The dynamic Hall effect is presented as a novel model for transverse magnetic field induced oscillatory instabilities in semiconductors. Comprehensive account is given of the theoretical derivation of nonlinear dynamic magnetotransport properties of hot electrons, a linear stability analysis, and nonlinear simulations for a variety of materials with positive or negative differential conductivity in the regime of low-temperature impurity breakdown. Periodic, chaotic, and intermittent voltage oscillations and period-doubling scenarios as a function of current or magnetic field are found under dc bias. The physical mechanism rests upon the dielectric relaxation of both drift and Hall field, coupled with impurity impact ionization.
RECENT ADVANCES IN MACHINE LEARNING
Authors: KODRATOFF YVES 
Published: November 2004

Inference is a very general reasoning process that allows us to draw consequences from some body of knowledge. Machine learning (ML) uses the three kinds of possible inferences, deductive, inductive, and analogical. We describe here different methods, using these inferences, that have been created during the last decade to improve the way machines can learn. We have already presented the most classical approaches in a book (Kodratoff, 1988), and in several review papers (Kodratoff, 1989, 1990a, 1992). These results will be described here very briefly, in order to leave room for newer results. We include also genetic algorithms as an induction technique. We restrict our presentation to the symbolic aspects of connectionism. A learning system can also be viewed as a mechanism skimming interesting knowledge out of the flow of information that runs through it. We present several existing learning systems from this point of view.
ROBUST AND ADAPTIVE SEGMENTATION OF NOISY IMAGES USING GIBBS RANDOM FIELD MODELS
Authors: WANG TAO , ZHUANG XINHUA , XING XIAOLIANG 
Published: November 2004

A robust and adaptive algorithm for segmenting a noisy image is presented. The original (or noise-free) images are modeled by an underlying Gibbs random field (GRF) or equivalently by a Markov random field (MRF), and the driving noise is a mixture of an additive independent Gaussian noise and an outlier process. The processes of maximum a posteriori (MAP) segmentation and maximum-likelihood (ML) estimation for the image model parameters are carried out simultaneously. Both procedures, which are based on stochastic relaxation algorithms with a simulated annealing technique, are efficiently implementable on parallel architectures, such as artificial neural networks. Our proposed method is adaptive in that it recursively segments the noise-corrupted images and estimates the model parameters necessary for the segmentation procedure. We should emphasize that the proposed algorithm is robust in eliminating the effect caused by outliers. Finally, a number of computer simulation experiments are given to demonstrate the robustness and effectiveness of the recursive algorithm.
SAMEA: OBJECT-ORIENTED SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE ENVIRONMENT FOR ASSEMBLY PROGRAMS
Authors: CHEN S. , TSAI W. T. , CHEN X. P. 
Published: November 2004

This paper presents a software maintenance environment for assembly programs, SAMEA. It presents an object-oriented database support for displaying, understanding, modifying and configuring assembly programs for software maintenance. Understanding of assembly programs is based on the theory of explicit representation of various structural and functionality elements of code and multiple relationships among them. Modification of program is based on an object-oriented incremental editor and a set of rules to check the correctness of instruction format. The characteristics of SAMEA are: integration of multiple tools, on-line information, ease of adoption of new tools, and finally, support of software maintenance activities such as program understanding, ripple effect analysis, and program redocumentation. The ripple effect of a contemplated change is the parts of the code that need to be reexamined for possible modification. Assembly code elements and relations among code elements are represented as objects in SAMEA which is built on top of an object-oriented database GemStone. SAMEA consists of 26K lines of C code and 4K lines of GemStone code. We have successfully populated 18K lines of BAL code in SAMEA.
CONSTRAINT PROPAGATION IN SOFTWARE LIBRARIES OF TRANSFORMATION SYSTEMS
Authors: KATZ MARTIN DAVID , VOLPER DENNIS J. 
Published: November 2004

Domain modeling can be applied to collections of reusable designs and reusable software. Libraries of such collections can be used when applying a refinement by transformation technique to software construction. There already exist systems that can automatically or semi-automatically perform program transformations that constitute refinements. An important question is how to organize such libraries so that transformation tools may feasibly use them. We show that transformation of a high level program with constraints on the transformations is an NP-complete problem; however, appropriately organized libraries are tractable. Moreover, we define a property which a library of transformations can have, ensuring that any consistent high level program can be transformed into an executable form. Finally, we give approximations which reduce the complexity of transformations for libraries which do not have this property. The most important aspect of this work is that it implies certain rules should be followed in constructing libraries and the domains that are placed in them.