bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Well Design and Construction
Authors: Voutchkov Nikolay 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Wells are used to collect fresh and saline groundwater and seawater. These intake facilities are relatively simple to build, and the water they collect is pretreated via slow filtration through the geologic formations in the area of source water extraction. Well type, size, and capacity are determined by a hydrogeologic investigation. The key factors that determine if the use of subsurface intake is practical or/and economical are the type of the water source aquifer, the aquifer permeability, the average specific yield of the aquifer, and the thickness of the production aquifer deposits. Intake wells are typically vertical or horizontal water collectors drilled into the source water aquifer. Vertical intake wells are usually less costly than horizontal wells, but their yield is relatively small and therefore, vertical wells are typically used for supplying relatively small quantities of water. Horizontal (Ranney) collector wells consist of a caisson that extends below the ground surface with water well collector screens (laterals) projected horizontally from inside the caisson into the surrounding aquifer. This type of well can collect order of magnitude larger volumes of groundwater than vertical wells. Where conventional vertical and horizontal wells are not practical due to unfavorable hydrogeologic conditions, infiltration galleries and riverbed/seabed filtration intake systems have found wide application for groundwater collection.
Limiting Geochemical Factors in Remediation Using Monitored Natural Attenuation and Enhanced Bioremediation
Authors: Jacobs James A. , Vance David B. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

In Situ
Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) and enhanced bioremediation are affected by a variety of limiting factors, including the availability of a terminal electron acceptor (TEA), macronutrients (nitrogen and phosphate), as well as an energy source (carbon). The TEA for aerobic degradation is limited to oxygen. For anaerobic degradation, TEA processes include denitrification using nitrate (NO
3
−
), manganese reduction using manganese dioxide (MnO
2
), iron reduction using bioavailable iron that includes the hydroxide form (Fe(OH)
3
), sulfate reduction using the sulfate ion (SO
4
2−
), and methanogenesis using carbon dioxide (CO
2
) (1).
The Role of Heat in Groundwater Systems
Authors: Jacobs James A. , Vance David B. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The role of heat in the subsurface includes the study of the overall transport of heat in saturated groundwater systems. Once site specific dynamics of heat transport are understood the effects of temperature on physical, chemical, and biological processes that govern the transport and degradation of contaminants in an aquifer can be evaluated.
Source, Mobility, and Remediation of Metals
Authors: Jacobs James A. , Vance David B. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Metals and high levels of inorganic Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are associated with leaks from sanitary, solid waste, and hazardous waste landfills.

Innovation in the area of hydrocarbon remediation has been significant in the last decade. However, metals may only be mobilized or immobilized, unlike hydrocarbons they cannot be degraded to less innocuous components, such as CO
2
and H
2
O, for example. This limited reactivity is one of the reasons that innovative remediation technology has been slow to develop for soils or groundwater contaminated with metals, which will likely change with time, however.
Groundwater and Benzene: Chemical Behavior and Treatment
Authors: Jacobs James A. , Villiers Keith 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Benzene (C
6
H
6
) is a clear, colorless, highly flammable aromatic hydrocarbon liquid. As an important ingredient for making plastics, rubber, resins, and synthetic fabrics like nylon and polyester, benzene is one of the most commonly used industrial chemicals in the world. It is also used as a solvent in printing, paints, and dry cleaning. It is also a major component of gasoline. The wide ranging industrial applications of benzene make it widely distributed, particularly in the case of petroleum products, of which it is a primary constituent. Benzene is highly toxic to humans and the environment. Because of its severe toxic effects, both in the short and long term, benzene use has been under strict regulations for many years. Nonetheless, widespread contamination of benzene has occurred in the environment, and, therefore, significant regulatory efforts in the United States and other nations are being enacted to limit or eliminate potential impacts.
Groundwater and Vinyl Chloride: Chemical Behavior and Treatment
Authors: Jacobs James A. , Munroe Angela 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Vinyl chloride is a colorless, flammable gas at normal temperatures with a mild, sweet odor. It exists in liquid form if it is kept under high pressure or at low temperatures (less than −13.4°C). Vinyl chloride is also known as chloroethene, chloroethylene, and ethylene monochloride (1). All vinyl chloride is manufactured or results from the breakdown of other manufactured substances, such as trichloroethane (TCA), tetrachloroethylene (PCE), and trichloroethylene (TCE). Vinyl chloride was first produced commercially in the 1920s and is now one of the highest volume chemicals produced in the United States (2). Of the vinyl chloride produced, 96–98% is used to make poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) with the remaining 2–4% being utilized in the manufacture of specific chlorinated hydrocarbons such as 1,1,1‐TCA, 1,1,2‐TCA, and vinylidene chloride (3). PVC is used to make a variety of plastic products including pipes, wire, cable coatings, and packaging materials. Other uses include furniture and automobile upholstery, wall coverings, housewares, and auto parts. Vinyl chloride has been used in the past as a refrigerant, an extraction solvent for heat‐sensitive materials, and in the production of chloroacetaldehyde and methyl chloroform (4). Also, limited quantities of vinyl chloride were used as an aerosol propellant and as an ingredient in drug and cosmetic products (4). However, these practices were banned by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) in 1974.
Acid Mine Drainage: Sources and Treatment in theUnitedStates
Authors: Skousen Jeffrey G. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAcid mine drainage (AMD) occurs when metal sulfides are exposed to oxidizing conditions. Leaching of reaction products into surface waters pollute over 20,000 km of streams in the United States alone. Mining companies must predict the potential of creating AMD by using overburden analyses. Where a potential exists, special handling of overburden materials and quick coverage of acid‐producing materials in the backfill should be practiced. The addition of acid‐neutralizing materials can reduce or eliminate AMD problems. Placing acid‐producing materials under dry barriers can isolate these materials from air and water. Other AMD control technologies being researched include injection of alkaline materials (ashes and limestone) into abandoned underground mines and into buried acid material in mine backfills, remining of abandoned areas, and installation of alkaline recharge trenches. Chemicals used for treating AMD are Ca(OH)2, CaO, NaOH, Na2CO3, and NH3, with each having advantages under certain conditions. Under low‐flow situations, all chemicals except Ca(OH)2are cost effective, whereas at high flow, Ca(OH)2and CaO are clearly the most cost effective. Floc, the metal hydroxide material collected after treatment, is disposed of in abandoned deep mines, refuse piles, or left in collection ponds. Wetlands remove metals from AMD through formation of oxyhydroxides and sulfides, exchange and organic complexation reactions, and direct plant uptake. Aerobic wetlands are used when water contains enough alkalinity to promote metal precipitation, and anaerobic wetlands are used when alkalinity must be generated by microbial sulfate reduction and limestone dissolution. Anoxic limestone drains are buried trenches of limestone that intercept AMD underground to generate alkalinity. Under anoxia, limestone should not be coated with Fe+3hydroxides in the drain, which decreases the likelihood of clogging. Vertical flow wetlands pretreat oxygenated AMD with organic matter to remove oxygen and Fe+3, and then the water is introduced into limestone underneath the organic matter. Open limestone channels use limestone in aerobic environments to treat AMD. Coating of limestone occurs, and the reduced limestone dissolution is designed into the treatment system. Alkaline leach beds, containing either limestone or slag, add alkalinity to acid water. At present, most passive systems offer short‐term treatment and are more practical for installation on abandoned sites or watershed restoration projects where effluent limits do not apply and where some removal of acid and metals will benefit a stream.
Ghijben–Herzberg Equilibrium
Authors: Holzbecher Ekkehard 
Published: July 2005

AbstractClassical papers by Badon Ghijben and Herzberg, dealing with the saltwater–freshwater interface in an unconfined coastal aquifers—are presented in some detail first, including the historical context. What follows is a discussion of the conditions that have to be fulfilled for the Ghijben–Herzberg equilibrium (GHE) to be valid. Moreover, generalized formulations and findings, which have been developed during the century, are presented. It is shown that the GHE can be a useful rule of a thumb for confined aquifers, for general two‐phase fluid situations, for saltwater upconing below wells, and for situations without a sharp interface. The GHE can even be included successfully in computer models. Finally, a precursor of the classical papers is mentioned.
In SituBioremediation of Contaminated Groundwater
Authors: Philp Jim C. , Cunningham Colin C. , Kuyukina Maria S. , Ivshina Irena B. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractMore than any other factor, it is likely that oxygen limitation occurs in groundwaters, and the most rapid biodegradation processes normally involve oxygenase enzymes. The supply of oxygen forin situbioremediation adds considerably to the expense and the technical difficulty. This supply involves the use of either blowers or vacuum pumps to draw air through the system. A measure of the pivotal role of oxygen is in the use of hydrogen peroxide to enhance aeration. That its use has been considered at all is remarkable: concentrations of H2O2above 100 to 200 mg/L are toxic to microorganisms; it can be consumed very quickly, limiting treatment to the regions near the injection well; a groundwater circulation system must be created; and good soil permeability is essential.Recent advances in the knowledge of anaerobic biodegradation microbiology have opened up the prospect of greater acceptance of anaerobic bioremediation where maintaining aerobic conditions is not feasible. The existence of microorganisms capable of coupling the anaerobic reduction of Fe3+to the oxidation of organic compounds shows promise. Virtually our entire knowledge of anaerobic metabolism of hydrocarbons has been gained since around 1990 (for reviews, see References 7 and 8). Several alkylbenzenes, alkanes or alkenes, are anaerobically biodegraded by denitrifying, ferric iron‐reducing or sulfate‐reducing bacteria. Another group of anaerobic hydrocarbon‐degrading bacteria are “proton reducers” that rely on syntrophic associations with methanogens. As some of the most significant groundwater pollutants are chlorinated solvents, then a role for microbial reductive dehalogenation is feasible. Although slow, even the reductive dechlorination of dioxins is possible. A recent discovery has shown that even benzene can be oxidized completely under anaerobic conditions by pure cultures, using nitrate as the electron acceptor. Benzene is a particular problem in groundwater because it is relatively soluble and mobile.
Characterizing Soil Spatial Variability
Authors: Corwin Dennis L. , Lesch Scott M. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Soil spatial variability refers to the variation in soil physical, chemical, mineralogical, and biological properties across the landscape and through the soil profile. The significance of soil spatial variability lies in its direct or indirect influence on any landscape‐scale soil‐related issue ranging from solute transport of non‐point source pollution to precision agriculture. A general discussion of the origin, need for characterization, and measurement methods is presented with greatest emphasis placed on the use of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC
a
) to characterize spatial variability. The characterization of spatial variability with geospatial EC
a
measurements is based on the correlation of EC
a
with various physicochemical properties and the use of EC
a
‐directed soil sampling designs. Edaphic factors influencing EC
a
measurements, mobile EC
a
measurement equipment, EC
a
‐directed sampling designs, guidelines for conducting an EC
a
survey, and limitations and precautions are discussed. The discussion is intended to provide a basic understanding of spatial variability and its characterization with geospatial EC
a
measurements to a general scientific audience.
Reactive Transport in the Saturated Zone: Case Histories for Permeable Reactive Barriers
Authors: Li Len , Benson Craig H. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThis chapter describes comparisons between predictions made with a reactive transport simulator and geochemical conditions observed in three permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) employing zero valent iron (ZVI) as the reactive medium. The emphasis is on reactions involving common ions in groundwater that form minerals that may block the pore space in a PRB. Two common public‐domain programs, MODFLOW and RT3D, were combined to form the simulator. A geochemical algorithm was developed for RT3D to simulate geochemical reactions occurring in PRBs. Comparisons between model predictions and field data are presented for three PRBs. Good agreement was obtained between predicted and measured pH and common ion concentrations by adjusting the rate coefficients within ranges reported in the literature. However, sensitivity analyses showed that predictions made with the simulator are sensitive to the rate coefficients used as input. The field data sets also were too sparse to determine whether the simulator accurately predicts the rapid changes in geochemistry occurring near the entrance face of PRBs.
Sugarcane Industry Wastewaters Treatment
Authors: Durán‐de‐Bazúa María‐del‐Carmen 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The sugarcane industry, and particularly one that produces distilled potable products besides sugar (sucrose), generates wastewater with a high content of organic and inorganic compounds that are difficult and costly to remove. Particularly those from ethanol production, known as vinasses (the fermented musts are known as wines, from Latin
vinum
), contain from 60 to 150 g COD/L. Compared with household sewage, that has 400 to 800 mg COD/L, vinasses are about 75 to 375 times more polluted. Vinasses contain important amounts of organic chemical substances from the raw materials used during fermentation, such as undegraded sugars, polyphenols, phenols, inorganic ions such as sulfates, and dead yeast. In Mexico, for example, each liter of fermented and distilled ethyl acohol implies the generation of vinasses that may reach up to 12 liters. Most of these vinasses, to date, are discharged to receiving bodies (soil, surface water sources) without any treatment or only with partial depuration. The use of thermophilic anaerobic systems stabilize and recycle these liquid residues from distillation of fermented musts that produce methane gas and may be used within the plants to generate steam for the distillation towers, is a feasible technology that may be easily adapted to the conditions in distilleries in most tropical countries where sugarcane grows. Then, they may use an aerobic treatment whose microbial biomass can be used in fish feedlots. In tropical countries, a crustacean such as river shrimp can be “cultivated” using fish by‐products, and its cephalothorax can be used to produce chitin, a very high value natural polymer, and a carotenoprotein complex to be added to fish pellets to increase their antioxidant content and the final fish flesh organoleptic quality that gives it a pink salmon color. Wastewaters that contain mainly acid and caustic compounds can be evaporated using solar energy and the resulting salts recycled to the companies that provide these chemicals.
Water Impacts from Construction Sites
Authors: Jacobs James A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Surface water and, to a lesser degree, groundwater are impacted by runoff from construction sites, parking lots, roadways, and other nonpoint sources. Soil particles and dissolved constituents in runoff reduce the beneficial uses of water and have become a major regulatory challenge. Erosion rates at construction sites may be 10 to 20 times greater than for undisturbed lands. Construction sites, including environmental remediation activities and redevelopment, might contain a variety of natural and manmade contaminants that might exceed regulatory levels. Sediment runoff from nonpoint sources is primarily the result of wind and water erosion. Construction sites are locations where special erosion control measures may be needed to prevent storm water runoff and sediment buildup in nearby waterways and groundwater recharge areas.
A Statistical Approach to Critical Storm Period Analysis
Authors: Ruiz F. , Abad M. , Rodríguez‐Ramírez A. , Cáceres L. M. , Rodríguez Vidal J. , Pino R. , Muñoz J. M. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
An evaluation of critical storm period periodicity may be interesting for managing numerous coastal tourist areas. For this purpose, the treatment of the meteorologic data needs to be rigorous with the application of time series analysis. In this article, we analyze some mathematical procedures for resolving these problems, subsequently applied to studying the interrelationships among some meteorologic–oceanographic data of the Gulf of Cádiz (SW Spain) and the recent storm record of this zone. An interesting correlation was found between southwestern wind periodicity and the number of storm periods; the two most probable levels of periodicity are 6–7 years and 9–10 years.
Ground‐Based
GPS
Meteorology at
FSL
Authors: Gutman Seth I. , Holub Kirk L. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water vapor is one of the most important components of the Earth's atmosphere. It is the source of precipitation, and its latent heat is a critical ingredient in the dynamics of most major weather events. As a greenhouse gas, water vapor also plays a critical role in the global climate system: it absorbs and radiates energy from the sun and affects the formation of clouds and aerosols and the chemistry of the lower atmosphere. Despite its importance in climate and weather prediction, water vapor has been one of the most poorly measured and least understood components of the Earth's atmosphere. Researchers at FSL and elsewhere are utilizing recent technology to reverse this situation.
Rainfall
Authors: Smith James A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe capability to measure rainfall advanced dramatically in the last quarter of the twentieth century. The advances have been paced by remote‐sensing technologies including both ground‐based weather radar and satellite‐borne instruments. The most dramatic developments have centered around the capability to monitor precipitation globally from satellite sensors. This measurement capability provides a variety of avenues for hydroclimatological analysis and forecasting. Advances in ground‐based radar technologies and deployment of dense networks of rain gages has enhanced the ability to measure rainfall at short time scales (less than 1 h) and small spatial scales (less than 1 km). These time and space scales are often most relevant for water management applications. A brief summary of rainfall measurement and analysis capabilities is presented in the following three sections and organized by the three principal measurement technologies: rain gage, radar, and satellite.
Package Plants
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Small water treatment systems often find it difficult to comply with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations. Small communities often face financial problems in purchasing and maintaining conventional treatment systems. Their problem is further complicated if they do not have the services of a full‐time, trained operator. The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) requirements have greatly increased interest in the possible use of package plants in many areas of the country. Package plants can also be applied to treat contaminants such as iron and manganese in groundwater via oxidation and filtration.
Iron and Manganese Removal
Authors:   National Drinking Water Clearinghouse
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Iron and manganese are common in groundwater supplies used by many small water systems. Exceeding the suggested maximum contaminant levels (MCL) usually results in discolored water, laundry, and plumbing fixtures. This, in turn, results in consumer complaints and a general dissatisfaction with the water utility.
There are secondary standards set for iron and manganese, but these are not health related and are not enforceable. The secondary (aesthetic) MCLs for iron and manganese are 0.3 milligrams per liter (mg/L) and 0.05 mg/L, respectively.
Small water plants may choose to either sequestrate or remove iron and manganese. Sequestration only works for combined iron and manganese concentrations up to 1.0 mg/L and only in cases where the treatment is not permanent. Removal is usually achieved through ion exchange or oxidation/filtration. There are a number of chemical oxidants and filtration media available that can be used in various combinations.
Water Quality in Distribution Systems
Authors: Michael Lahlou Z. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
A drinking water system's water quality may be acceptable when the water leaves a treatment plant. However, a variety of physical, chemical, and biological transformations can happen once the water enters and travels through a distribution system. Water producers need to understand the sources of water quality degradation during the distribution process because, in addition to taste and odor problems that can occur, research also suggests that degraded water quality increases the risk of gastrointestinal illnesses.
Point‐of‐Use/Point‐of‐Entry Systems (
POU
/
POE
)
Authors: Lahlou Zacharia Michael 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Numerous households use point‐of‐use/point‐of‐entry (POU/POE) systems primarily to deal with aesthetic concerns, such as taste and odor. These treatment devices are installed just as their name implies—at the point where water enters a household or where it is used, such as a faucet. In certain situations, however, using POU/POE systems to provide safe drinking water to a system's customers is not an individual's choice, but that of the water system cooperating with regulatory authorities. Therefore, this “Tech Brief” only discusses POU/POE treatment options that meet Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) water quality requirements.
Preventing Well Contamination
Authors: Bhardwaj Vipin 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Nearly 80% of communities rely on groundwater as their primary drinking water source. Wells extract groundwater for use in homes and businesses. In addition, about 42 million Americans use private wells for drinking water. In light of this information, preventing groundwater contamination is of utmost importance, especially since a number of factors can contribute to groundwater contamination. To prevent well contamination, one of the first steps is to construct it properly. This Tech Brief presents tips about how to site a well and includes information about design issues; material selection and location, such as screens and filter pack; appropriate well sealing methods; and the use of pitless adaptors to prevent contamination.