bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Acetylene‐Derived Chemicals
Authors: Hort Eugene V. , Taylor Paul 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAcetylene, C2H2, is an extremely reactive hydrocarbon, principally used as a chemical intermediate. Because of its relatively high price, there have been continuing successful efforts to replace acetylene with cheaper raw materials. The name ethynylation was coined by Reppe to describe the addition of acetylene to carbonyl compounds. Principal Reppe acetylene chemicals include propargyl alcohol, butynediol, butenediol, butanediol, and butyrolactone. Butynediol is principally consumed in manufacture of butenediol and butanediol. Butanediol is consumed in manufacture of butyrolactone and tetrahydrofuran. Large amounts are also used as a monomer for polyesters and polyurethanes. Butyrolactone is principally used as an intermediate for manufacture of pyrrolidones. Propargyl alcohol is a primary skin irritant and severe eye irritant, highly toxic by all means of ingestion. Catalytic vinylation, in which a labile hydrogen compound adds to acetylene, forming a double bond, has been applied to a wide range of alcohols, phenols, thiols, and carboxylic acids. Vinyl ethers are used in the manufacture of glutaraldehyde and as monomers.
Acrylic Acid and Derivatives
Authors: Bauer William 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAcrylic acid (propenoic acid) is prepared using acrolein from the catalytic oxidation of propylene. Acrylates are primarily used to prepare emulsion and solution polymers. The emulsion polymerization process provides high yields of polymers in a form suitable for a variety of applications. Acrylate emulsions are used in the preparation of paints, floor polishes, and adhesives. Solution polymers of acrylates are employed in the preparation of industrial coatings. The polymeric products share qualities of high resistance to chemical and environmental attack and attractive strength properties. Acrylic acid and its esters react readily with electrophilic, free‐radical, and nucleophilic agents.
Acrylonitrile
Authors: Brazdil James F. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAcrylonitrile (also called acrylic acid nitrile, propylene nitrile, vinyl cyanide, and propenoic acid nitrile) is among the top 50 chemicals produced in the United States as a result of the tremendous growth in its use as a starting material for a wide range of chemical and polymer products. Acrylic fibers remain the largest use of acrylonitrile; other significant uses are in resins and nitrile elastomers and as an intermediate in the production of adiponitrile and acrylamide. Acrylonitrile (C3H3N,\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{mol\ wt}}=53.064}$\end{document}) is an unsaturated molecule having a carbon–carbon double bond conjugated with a nitrile group. Acrylonitrile is miscible in a wide range of organic solvents, including acetone, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, ethylene cyanohydrin, petroleum ether, toluene, some kerosenes, and methanol. Acrylonitrile undergoes a wide range of reactions at its two chemically active sites, the nitrile group and the carbon–carbon double bond. Acrylonitrile is transported by rail car, barge, and pipeline. Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations require labeling acrylonitrile as a flammable liquid and poison. Acrylonitrile is highly toxic if ingested. It is moderately toxic if inhaled. Acrylonitrile is categorized as a cancer hazard by OSHA. Acrylonitrile will polymerize violently in the absence of oxygen if initiated by heat, light, pressure, peroxide, or strong acids and bases. It is combustible and ignites readily, producing toxic combustion products. Federal regulations (40 CFR 261) classify acrylonitrile as a hazardous waste. Uses of acrylonitrile include acrylic fiber, acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) resins, elastomers, and styrene–acrylonitrile resins (SAN).
Fibers, Acrylic
Authors: Knorr Raymond S. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThe first reported synthesis of acrylonitrile and polyacrylonitrile was in 1894. The first acrylic fiber was introduced in 1944 by Du Pont and by the 1950s at least 18 companies were developing acrylic fiber products. In the 1970s the growth rate decreased sharply due to the maturing of the wool replacement market and an increase in the use of nylon. Acrylics retain their traditional markets and, in addition, have small market shares in many new areas such as carbon fiber precursors, asbestos replacement fibers, and conductive/metallized fibers.Physical properties, chemical properties, polymer analysis, fiber characterization, solution spinning, commercial products, and economic aspects are discussed.
Actinides and Transactinides
Authors: Seaborg Glenn T. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract

The actinide elements are a group of chemically similar elements with atomic numbers 89 through 103, and include actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium, and lawrencium. Each of the elements has a number of isotopes, all radioactive. Thorium, uranium, and plutonium are well known for their role as the basic fuels (or sources of fuel) for the release of nuclear energy. The importance of the remainder of the actinide group lies at present in research. The actinides present a storage‐life problem in nuclear waste disposal. Only the members of the actinide group through Pu have been found to occur in nature. Thorium and uranium occur widely in the earth's crust in combination with other elements, and, in the case of uranium, in significant concentrations in the oceans. With these exceptions, the actinide elements are synthetic in origin for practical purposes, ie, they are products of nuclear reactions. All of the actinide elements are radioactive and, except for thorium and uranium, special equipment and shielded facilities are usually necessary for their manipulation. Special techniques for experimentation with the actinide elements other than Th and U have been devised because of the potential health hazard to the experimenter and the small amounts available. The actinide elements exhibit uniformity in ionic types. Corresponding ionic types are similar in chemical behavior, although the relative stabilities differ from element to element. Of the actinide ions, the small, highly charged

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ions exhibit the greatest degree of hydrolysis and complex ion formation. The actinide metals, like the lanthanide metals, are highly electropositive. They can be prepared by the electrolysis of molten salts or by the reduction of a halide with an electropositive metal, such as calcium or barium. Thousands of compounds of the actinide elements have been prepared. The elements beyond the actinides in the periodic table can be termed the transactinides. These begin with the element having atomic number 104 and extend, in principle, indefinitely. Although only six such elements, numbers 104–109, were definitely known in 1991, there are good prospects for the discovery of a number of additional elements just beyond number 109 or in the region of larger atomic numbers. They are synthesized by the bombardment of heavy nuclides with heavy ions. Modern high speed computers have made possible the calculation of electronic structure, upon which chemical properties must be based. Elements in and near the island of stability based on element 114 can be predicted to have chemical properties as follows: element 114 should be a homologue of lead, that is, should be eka‐lead; and element 112 should be eka‐mercury, etc.
Adhesives
Authors: Pocius Alphonsus V. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAnadhesiveis a material capable of holding together solid materials by means of surface attachment.Adhesionis the physical attraction of the surface of one material for the surface of another. There is no unifying theory of adhesion describing the relationship between practical adhesion and the basic intermolecular and interatomic interactions which take place between the adhesive and the adherend. The existing adhesion theories are, for the most part, rationalizations of observed phenomena, although predictions regarding the relative ranking of practical adhesion can actually be made. These theories includediffusion theory, which assumes mutual solubility of the adherend and adhesive,electrostatic theory, surface energetics and wettability theory, andmechanical interlocking theory, in which the adhesive is applied to a surface which is microscopically rough. For good adhesion, the adhesive and the adherend should, if possible, display mutual solubility to the extent that both diffuse into one another. The three principal forces to which adhesive bonds are subjected are a shear force in which one adherend is forced past the other, peeling in which at least one of the adherends is flexible enough to be bent away from the adhesive bond, and cleavage force, which is very similar to the peeling force. A structural adhesive is a resin system, usually a thermoset, that is used to bond high strength materials. Structural adhesives are the strongest form of adhesive and are meant to hold loads permanently. A pressure‐sensitive adhesive, a material which requires no activation other than the finger pressure, exerts a strong holding force, and should be removable from a smooth surface. Hot‐melt adhesives are 100% nonvolatile thermoplastic materials that can be heated to a melt and then applied as a liquid to an adherend; an example is sealing wax. Solvent‐based adhesives are materials that are formed by solution of a high molecular weight polymer in an appropriate solvent. Phenolics, poly(vinyl acetate) adhesives, rubber cements, and hot‐melt adhesives are the leading adhesive products in terms of monetary value. These products are used primarily in the wood, paper, and packaging industries.
Controlled Release Technology, Agricultural
Authors: Goertz Harvey M. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractControlled release fertilizers (CRFs) were originally developed to exploit the benefits of agronomic safety, increase nutrient efficiency, and reduce application frequency. However, CRFs also provide a vehicle for minimizing potential nutrient losses to the environment. Heightened attention to environmental concerns has prompted increased worldwide activity in the development and commercialization of CRFs.This article reviews 25 controlled release fertilizer technologies that are commercially available. They are categorized as either nitrogen reaction products or coated fertilizers. Nitrogen reaction products include urea‐formaldehyde reaction products, IBDU, CDU, oxamide, and melamine. The coated fertilizer section reviews coatings of sulfur, polymer, and hybrid products combining sulfur and polymer. Polymer‐coated fertilizers are categorized by commercial manufacturers. Each technology is examined for its product properties, manufacturing, distribution, and product uses.
Allyl Monomers and Polymers
Authors: Dowbenko R. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAllyl compounds comprise a large group of ethylenic compounds having unique reactivities and uses often contrasting with those of typical vinyl‐type compounds. Unlike monovinyl compounds, monoallyl compounds do not form homopolymers of high molecular weight by free‐radical or conventional ionic mechanisms. In contrast, many allyl compounds containing two or more reactive double bonds yield solid, high molecular weight polymers by initiation with suitable free‐radical catalysts. A number of polyfunctional allyl esters have achieved importance in polymerization and copolymerization, especially to obtain heat‐resistant cast sheets and thermoset moldings. Diallyl diglycol carbonate or diethylene glycol bis(allyl carbonate) (DADC) was developed to produce by bulk polymerization cast sheets, lenses, and other shapes of outstanding scratch resistance and optical and mechanical properties. Reaction of allyl alcohol in the presence of alkali with diethylene glycol bis(chloroformate) gives the DADC monomer, a colorless liquid of mild odor. The latter is low in toxicity, but can produce skin irritation. DADC is soluble in common organic solvents and in methyl methacrylate, styrene, and vinyl acetate. It is partially soluble in amyl alcohol, gasoline, and ligroin. It is insoluble in ethylene glycol, glycerol, and water. Usage of DADC polymers in impact‐resistant, lightweight eyewear lenses has grown rapidly and is now the principal application. The three isomeric diallyl phthalates are colorless liquids of mild odor, low volatility, and relatively slow polymerization in the early stages. At ca 25% conversion, the viscous liquid undergoes gelation and polymerization accelerates. Diallyl isophthalate (DAIP) polymerizes faster than DAP. Besides application as heat‐resistant molding powders for electronic and other applications, DAIP copolymers have been proposed for optical applications. The largest use of diallyl phthalate thermoset polymers is in moldings and coatings for electronic devices requiring high reliability under long‐term adverse environmental conditions. Monomers such as allyl methacrylate (AMA) and diallyl maleate (DAM) have applications as cross‐linking and branching agents selected especially for the different reactivities of their double bonds. DAM and DAF have pungent odors and are skin irritants. Allyl methacrylate (AMA) is used as cross‐linking agent with methacrylate esters in contact lenses. Triallyl cyanurate (TAC), 2,4,6‐tris(allyloxy)‐s‐triazine, and its isomer triallyl isocyanurate (TAIC) are used as cross‐linking agents with comonomers and for aftercuring preformed polymers such as olefin copolymers in electrical insulations.N,N‐Diallyldimethyl(DADM)ammonium salts are used for the preparation of polyelectrolytes. Copolymers of diallyldimethylammonium chloride with acrylamide have been used in electroconductive coatings.
Allyl Alcohol and Monoallyl Derivatives
Authors: Nagato Nobuyuki 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThe technology of introducing a new functional group to the double bond of allyl alcohol was developed in the mid‐1980s. Allyl alcohol is accordingly used as an intermediate compound for synthesizing raw materials such as epichlorohydrin and 1,4‐butanediol, and this development is bringing about expansion of the range of uses of allyl alcohol. Allyl alcohol is a colorless liquid having a pungent odor; its vapor may cause severe irritation and injury to eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. It is also corrosive. Allyl alcohol is freely miscible with water and miscible with many polar organic solvents and aromatic hydrocarbons. It forms an azeotropic mixture with water and a ternary azeotropic mixture with water and organic solvents. Hydroformylation of allyl alcohol is a synthetic route for producing 1,4‐butanediol, a raw material for poly(butylene terephthalate), an engineering plastic. The\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{C}}{\raise1pt\hbox{$\Relbar \kern-4pt{\Relbar}$}}{\rm{C}}}$\end{document}double bond of allyl alcohol undergoes epoxidation by peroxide, yielding glycidol, applied in manufacturing glycidol as an intermediate for industrial production of glycerol. There are two processes for industrial production of allyl alcohol being used industrially at present: isomerization of propylene oxide, and a new process developed by Showa Denko K.K. The monoallyl derivative allyl chloride (AC) is a transparent, mobile, and irritative liquid produced by chlorination of propylene at high temperature. It is used mostly as an intermediate compound for producing epichlorohydrin. Allyl acetate is produced mostly for manufacturing allyl alcohol. Allyl methacrylate (AMA) is used mostly as a raw material for silane coupling agents. Allyl glycidyl ether is used mainly as a raw material for silane coupling agents and epichlorohydrin rubber. Dimethylallylamine is used in the production of insecticides and pesticides. Most allyl compounds are toxic and many are irritants. Precautions should be taken at all times to ensure safe handling.
Amyl Alcohols
Authors: Papa Anthony J. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAmyl alcohol describes any saturated aliphatic alcohol containing five carbon atoms. This class consists of three pentanols, four substituted butanols, and a disubstituted propanol, ie, eight structural isomers C5H12O: four primary, three secondary, and one tertiary alcohol. In addition, 2‐pentanol, 2‐methyl‐1‐butanol, and 3‐methyl‐2‐butanol have chiral centers and hence two enantiomeric forms. The odd‐carbon structure and the extent of branching provide amyl alcohols with unique physical and solubility properties and often offer ideal properties for solvent, surfactant, extraction, gasoline additive, and fragrance applications. Today the most important industrial process for amyl alcohol production is low pressure rhodium‐catalyzed hydroformylation (oxo process) of butenes. Mixtures of isomeric amyl alcohols (1‐pentanol and 2‐methyl‐1‐butanol) are often preferred because they are less expensive to produce commercially and have a more desirable combination of properties. With the exception of neopentyl alcohol (mp 53°C), the amyl alcohols are clear, colorless liquids under atmospheric conditions, with characteristic, slightly pungent and penetrating odors. Commercial primary amyl alcohol is a mixture of 1‐pentanol and 2‐methyl‐1‐butanol. Like the lower alcohols, amyl alcohols are completely miscible with numerous organic solvents and are excellent solvents for nitrocellulose, resin lacquers, higher esters, and various natural and synthetic gums and resins. However, in contrast to the lower alcohols, they are only slightly soluble in water. Important amyl alcohol reactions include dehydration, esterification, oxidation, amination, etherification, and condensation. Three significant commercial processes for the production of amyl alcohols include separation from fusel oils, chlorination of C‐5 alkanes with subsequent hydrolysis to produce a mixture of seven of the eight isomers (Pennsalt), and a low pressure oxo process. The oxo process is the principal one in practice today. The main effects of prolonged exposure to amyl alcohols are irritation to mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract, significant depression of the central nervous system, and narcotic effects from vapor inhalation or oral absorption. All the alcohols are harmful if inhaled or swallowed. Prolonged exposure causes nausea, coughing, diarrhea, vertigo, drowsiness, headache, and vomiting. 3‐Methyl‐1‐butanol has demonstrated carcinogenic activity in animal studies. The amyl alcohols are readily flammable substances;tert‐amyl alcohol is the most flammable. Their vapors can form explosive mixtures with air. Amyl alcohols are best stored or shipped in either aluminum, lined steel, or stainless steel tanks.
Aquaculture
Authors: Stickney Rorbert 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semicontrolled conditions. It involves plant and animal rearing with the objectives of providing human food, recreational fishing, enhancement of commercially valuable stocks, recovery of endangered species, and the production of bait and ornamental species. Aquaculture is conducted in ponds, raceways, cages, and net‐pens. It may also involve suspending molluscs from rafts or ropes, rearing them in baskets or trays, or placing them on the bottom in the natural environment. Technology levels range considerably with the highest level being found in conjunction with recirculating systems. Culturists attempt to control water quality, reproduction and diseases. They also employ feeds specifically designed for the animals being produced. Most species are maintained in captivity throughout the life cycle. Selective breeding is often used as a means of improving stocks of cultured organisms. Diseases can pose significant problems for aquaculturists. Avoidance of stress reduces disease incidence, but treatments, including drugs and vaccines are available for at least some aquatic animal diseases. The final task of the aquaculturist is to ensure that the product reaches the processor in the best possible condition. Careful handling during harvest helps ensure product quality.
Arsenic and Arsenic Alloys
Authors: Carapella S. C. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractArsenic, although often referred to as a metal, is classified chemically as a nonmetal or metalloid and belongs to Group 15 (VA) of the Periodic Table (as does antimony). The principal valences of arsenic are\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${+3}$\end{document},\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${+5}$\end{document}, and\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${-3}$\end{document}. Only one stable isotope of arsenic having mass 75 (100% natural abundance) has been observed. Metallic arsenic is stable in dry air, but when exposed to humid air the surface oxidizes, giving a superficial golden bronze tarnish that turns black upon further exposure. The amorphous form is more stable to atmospheric oxidation. Upon heating in air, both forms sublime and the vapor oxidizes to arsenic trioxide, As2O3. Elemental arsenic combines with many metals to form arsenides. Arsenic is widely distributed about the earth and has a terrestrial abundance of approximately 5 g/t. The most important commercial source of arsenic, however, is as a by‐product from the treatment of copper, lead, cobalt, and gold ores. Arsenic metal is also offered in high (ranging from 99.99% to in excess of\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${99.999{\%}+}$\end{document}) purity form for semiconductor applications. The predominant use of arsenic in the United States is in the manufacture of chemicals. During the 1980s, the market for arsenic chemicals had shifted from cotton farming, where its use is now restricted because of environmental considerations, to wood preservatives for the protection of lumber and other wood products. Arsenic trioxide is the basic commodity of commerce from which a number of important chemicals are manufactured. Trace quantities of arsenic are added to lead–antimony grid alloys used in lead–acid batteries. Phosphorized deoxidized arsenical copper (alloy 142) is used for heat exchangers and condenser tubes. The toxicity of arsenic ranges from very low to extremely high depending on the chemical state. Metallic arsenic and arsenious sulfide, As2S3, have low toxicity. Arsine is extremely toxic. The toxicity of other organic and inorganic arsenic compounds varies. Arsenic is classified as a carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The handling of arsenic in the work‐place should be in compliance with the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations. Precautions should be taken to avoid accidental generation of arsine gas. Disposal of arsenical products should be in compliance with Federal and local government environmental regulations.