bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Biological control of invasive species
Authors: Murphy Sean T , Evans Harry C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Concerns about the impact of invasive species on biodiversity have raised the profile of invasive species to that of an agent of major global threat and change. Thus the discussion on how to prevent and manage invasive species is no longer just an agricultural one. Biological control through the use of host-specific natural enemies, which has essentially been developed and moulded by the agricultural sector for over 100 years, has been seen by many in recent times as a potentially effective and environmentally benign tool, suitable for use against invasive species in natural ecosystems.
The space around us
Authors: Rizzolatti Giacomo , Sinigaglia Corrado , Anderson Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding Chapter, our analysis focussed on the cortical mechanisms which come into play when we grasp our cup of coffee. However, to actually grasp the cup, we have to reach it and to do this, we have to locate it. In other words, we have to assess its distance from those parts of our body which will be involved in the movement—in the case of our coffee cup, the arm. The act of directing the arm towards the cup requires the brain to undertake a series of processes ranging from coding the spatial relations between the limb and the cup to the transformation of this information into the appropriate motor commands.
One-Way Systems
Authors: Higgins Peter M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All networks we have looked at hitherto have represented mutual relationships such as friendship or a two-way physical connection. However one-way systems are common. And not only in road and other transport networks: in physical and physiological systems involving valves, such as radios and the workings of the heart, we see traffic flowing in one direction only.
These directed networks are pictured in much the same way as two-way ones but now the edges carry arrows indicating the direction of the relationship between the two nodes. One-way networks like this are known in the trade as digraphs. This term is short for directed graph because a general network is often called a graph in the world of mathematics. Although we have stuck with the word ‘network’ throughout, we will, out of convenience, use the word digraph for these one-way networks.
Protecting Privacy in Europe: Administrative Feedbacks and Regional Politics
Authors: ∗ Abraham Newman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Advanced industrial societies are awash in personal information. Bank records, credit card transactions, web clicks, mobile phone logs, fingerprints, and now even retina scans leave detailed trails of personal behavior. Governments and businesses use this information to increase efficiency, segment markets, and differentiate risk. At the same time, however, the proliferation of this data raises the specter that personal information will be used to discriminate against individuals and to support Orwellian state surveillance (Newman and Zysman 2006). Societies have responded differently to the privacy challenges raised, relying on quite different public policy solutions.
The Politics of Competition and Institutional Change in European Union: The First Fifty Years
Authors: Büthe Tim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Competition causes suppliers of goods and services to lower prices, raise quality, and innovate. It is crucial for maximizing social welfare in a market economy. Ironically, however, the market by itself does not guarantee competition, unless one makes heroic assumptions about the costlessness of market entry (North 1981; Neumann 2001: 5ff.). As Adam Smith famously warned, ‘people of the same trade seldom meet together ... but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices’. Yet it is not just monopolies, cartels, and mergers that can inhibit competition. Government subsidies and special privileges may also distort the market—within a country and even abroad through trade. Competition thus is an inherently political issue, as well as an economic one.
Numerical Methods
Authors: Xiong Jie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Explicit solutions to the filtering equations are rarely available. Thus, to solve the filtering problems, we have to resort to numerical approximations. In this chapter, we study the numerical solutions to the optimal filters using certain particle systems. The main idea is to represent the solution to a stochastic partial differential equation through a system of weighted particles whose locations and weights are governed by stochastic differential equations that can be solved numerically. In Section 8.1, we consider a direct Monte-Carlo method based on the weighted particle-system representation.
Introduction: Research Agendas and Strategies in the Study of Latin American Politics
Authors: Munck Gerardo L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Research on Latin American politics over the past four decades has made many important contributions to comparative politics, the field of political science dedicated to the generation of knowledge about politics around the world. This research has played a critical role in expanding the scope of comparative politics from its pre-World War II focus on the United States and large Western European countries. Indeed, the first attempts to generate theories about politics in ‘developing’ countries based on a close knowledge of such countries were due to work on Latin America. And the first systematic empirical studies of politics in developing countries were analyses of Latin American cases. Moreover, the study of Latin America, probably more so than any other major region of the world, has drawn on and spurred a cross-fertilization of ideas from various regions, linking thinking about ‘developed’ and developing countries and also about developing countries from different regions. In short, research on Latin American politics has been a key site for generating and testing theories about politics and, hence, a vital part of comparative politics.
The Study of Politics and Democracy: Touchstones of a Research Agenda
Authors: Munck Gerardo L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Latin American politics experienced a far-reaching process of democratization during the 1980s and 1990s. Dictators in South America were replaced by elected leaders starting in 1978 and, with the displacements of General Stroessner in Paraguay in 1989 and General Pinochet in Chile in 1990, a long and dark period of authoritarian and military rule in South America drew to a close. In Central America, democratization was initiated with the holding of elections in the early 1980s, and the process continued with the resolution of armed conflicts through the signing of peace accords, and the transformation of guerrilla organizations into political parties, during the late 1980s until the mid-1990s.
Predictive statistics 101
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unfortunately for Mark Twain, statistics have become a driving force behind modern economics and business, even if many people share his views. Nonetheless, some understanding is required, even if it might bore some people to tears. What follows is a fairly comprehensive overview of topics to which entire textbooks are dedicated. The focus is on providing the non-statistician some understanding of the terms that are used. As a result, it is of a very high level, and looks at:
Data preparation
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This module’s focus has been on data and, so far, data considerations, data sources, scoring structure, and information sharing have been covered. This chapter covers data preparation, the first practical stage in the scorecard development process. It is a crucial stage, as any mistakes can have a severe impact upon the results and may be impossible––or very expensive––to redress. It is covered under the headings of:
Reject inference
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When dealing with selection processes, statisticians are faced with a predicament. If scorecards are developed using historical performance, how can rejects with no performance be assessed? The problem is best, and often, illustrated by applicants with derogatory information on file, which violates policy reject rules, such as court judgments recorded on the credit bureaux. Some cases still make it past the gatekeeper, either because there is extra information not captured by the score, or the applicants try harder, because they have better knowledge of their own circumstances. Lenders can ‘cherry pick’, such that they get the best of the lot from the reject region.
Thus, some means of making educated guesses is required; of using available information to infer reject performance, for use in the final model. It is the next step after segmentation, and is applied to each of the resulting segments. This was one of the biggest puzzles in application scoring in the 1960s. Early developments were limited to known performance, but there was a perception that they were deficient in the cut-off region, where they were needed most. The best approach was random supplementation in that region, and it took several years to come up with some rudimentary solutions (Lewis 1992).
Validation
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is important that we not let models make the decisions, that we keep in mind that they are just tools, because in many cases it is management experience—aided by models to be sure—that helps to limit losses.
Susan Schmidt Bies, Federal Reserve Governor; in Geneva, 7 December 2004.
This is now the home stretch, but some work still needs to be done regarding validation, and presentation of the scorecard for sign-off, which are not mutually exclusive. Best practice is independent scorecard validation, whether by a specialist team, internal audit, or external consultants, but developers must use many of the same frameworks to ensure business acceptance of the model, and to facilitate subsequent review. The primary issues are to ensure: (i) that the model meets business needs; (ii) regulatory compliance; and (iii) when errors are identified, the new knowledge can be used to improve the process. The first is most critical, as the costs of model risk and the resultant adverse selection can break the bank—literally. Management must make informed decisions, and if there is any cause for concern, it must be made known. Much of the model risk results from the use of theoretical and statistical tools by inexperienced modellers, and policies should be implemented to formalise the ‘who’ and ‘how’ of the validation process, which may vary in different circumstances. It is not solely a mathematical exercise, as judgment also plays a role. The major issues are:
Account management
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once customers have taken up the product, lenders enter the realm of ‘account management’, which takes on different meanings depending upon the context in which it is used. In its truest sense, it covers all front- and back-office functions used to manage existing account relationships, including billing, payment processing, limit management, renewals, collections, recoveries, tracing, etc. Within the credit risk management cycle (CRMC) however, it refers more specifically to the management of non-delinquent accounts—collections and fraud excluded. The goals are to manage individuals’ appetites for credit, and to try to keep them coming back for more.
Fraud
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Credit evaluation is based on dealings with Joe Average, who even if financially challenged, is at least honest. Unfortunately, credit people and systems are ill-prepared for Joe Fraudster, who relies upon deception and trickery to part people from their loot. It has thus become best practice for lenders to have dedicated fraud teams within the business. Both credit and fraud are responsible for prevention and cure in their respective areas, but fraud has the added task of investigating suspects. The two areas could be likened to bobby-on-the-beat policing and detective work. Credit deals with losses resulting from bad decisions, domestic problems, unfore-seen circumstances, or perhaps even negligence—but the cases are relatively straightforward, and at least lenders stand a chance of getting the money back. In contrast, fraud deals with cases involving criminal intent that are difficult to identify, and where the funds are extremely difficult to recover—to the extent that it is best to write off fraud losses, once they are identified.
Not a Chimp
Authors: Taylor Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Humans are primates, and our closest relatives are the other African apes - chimpanzees closest of all. With the mapping of the human genome, and that of the chimp, a direct comparison of the differences between the two, letter by letter along the billions of As, Gs, Cs, and Ts of the DNA code, has led to the widely vaunted claim that we differ from chimps by a mere 1.6% of our genetic code. A mere hair's breadth genetically! To a rather older tradition of anthropomorphizing chimps, trying to get them to speak, dressing them up for 'tea parties', was added the stamp of genetic confirmation. It also began an international race to find that handful of genes that make up the difference - the genes that make us uniquely human. But what does that 1.6% really mean? And should it really lead us to consider extending limited human rights to chimps, as some have suggested? Are we, after all, just chimps with a few genetic tweaks? Is our language and our technology just an extension of the grunts and ant-collecting sticks of chimps? In this book, Jeremy Taylor sketches the picture that is emerging from cutting edge research in genetics, animal behaviour, and other fields. The indications are that the so-called 1.6% is much larger and leads to profound differences between the two species. We shared a common ancestor with chimps some 6-7 million years ago, but we humans have been racing away ever since. One in ten of our genes, says Taylor, has undergone evolution in the past 40,000 years! Some of the changes that happened since we split from chimpanzees are to genes that control the way whole orchestras of other genes are switched on and off, and where. Taylor shows, using studies of certain genes now associated with speech and with brain development and activity, that the story looks to be much more complicated than we first thought. This rapidly changing and exciting field has recently discovered a host of genetic mechanisms that make us different from other apes. As Taylor points out, for too long we have let our sentimentality for chimps get in the way of our understanding. Chimps use tools, but so do crows. Certainly chimps are our closest genetic relatives. But relatively small differences in genetic code can lead to profound differences in cognition and behaviour. Our abilities give us the responsibility to protect and preserve the natural world, including endangered primates. But for the purposes of human society and human concepts such as rights, let's not pretend that chimps are humans uneducated and undressed. We've changed a lot in those 12 million years.
Clever Corvids
Authors: Taylor Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter we tried to find a way out of an impasse generated by the very narrow, blinkered approach to comparative cognitive psychology that has placed undue emphasis on comparisons between chimpanzees and humans. Outside this chimp–human comparative world are a breed of comparative cognitive psychologists who despair of this myopic bias and have proved their point with compelling psychological research on birds, a group of animals far removed from humans and the rest of the primates because they diverged over 280 million years ago. Chief among these scientists are the husband-and-wife duo from the University of Cambridge, Dr Nathan Emery and Professor Nicola Clayton.
Inside The Brain—The Devil is in the Detail
Authors: Taylor Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imagine you are standing with both your arms held out in front of you and slightly to the side, palms upward—a little like a human version of the scales of justice that adorn the roof of the Old Bailey law courts in London. On your left palm sits a human brain—careful now, it is heavy: at over 1300 grams it weighs as much as a litre bottle of wine. On your right palm sits the brain of a chimpanzee. At just over 400 grams it is less than a third the weight. If an anatomist had placed a chimpanzee’s tongue on your palm, instead of its brain, it would have weighed more! Now think for a moment about their owners.
Is there a dysexecutive syndrome?
Authors: Stuss, Donald T , Alexander Michael P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The role of the frontal lobes has often been described as a ‘paradox’ or a ‘riddle’. Ascribed to this region has been the loftiest of functions (e.g. executive; seat of wisdom); others contested that the frontal lobes played no special role. There has also been controversy about the unity or diversity of functions related to the frontal lobes. Based on the analysis of the effects of lesions of the frontal lobes, we propose that there are discrete categories of functions within the frontal lobes, of which ‘executive’ functioning is one.
A tale of two exposures
Authors: Thomas Duncan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout history, mankind has experienced numerous and diverse environmental challenges. Some life-threatening problems have doubtless influenced the course of human evolution. Others, less severe, have nevertheless afflicted us with disease or affected us in other ways. Some are natural: climate, the micro-cosmos that surrounds us; others manmade: the myriad forms of pollution of the air, water, soil. Some are highly localized (toxic waste disposal sites), some regional (air pollution), some truly global in extent (climate change, depletion of the ozone layer). And new environmental problems are continually appearing, like fallout from nuclear weapons testing or novel chemicals produced by technological progress.
Spatial models
Authors: Thomas Duncan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Spatial models—and geographic maps in particular—have always played a central role in the “person, place, and time” triad of descriptive epidemiology. Nowhere is this better illustrated than in the pioneering work of John Snow (1855) on cholera (Figure 9.1) that led to the identification of the Broad Street pump as the source of the epidemic and his removal of the pump handle as arguably the most famous public health intervention of all time.
Measurement error and exposure models
Authors: Thomas Duncan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Exposure assessment is often one of the biggest challenges in environmental epidemiology. The topic is complex and very specific to the particular factors under study; entire books have been written on the general principles (Checkoway et al. 1989; Armstrong et al. 1992; Steenland and Savitz 1997; Nieuwenhuijsen 2003) as well as specialized texts in specific fields (e.g., Till and Meyer 1983 for exposures to radiation). Rather than discuss exposure assessment methodology in detail here, we briefly review the various general types of methods that are used, so as to motivate a treatment of the problem from a statistical point of view. Thus, this chapter will discuss approaches to exposure modeling, the influence of uncertainties in exposure estimates on exposure–response relations, and methods of correction for them.
Accommodating Historically Oppressed Social Groups: Deliberative Democracy and the Politics of Reconciliation
Authors: Bashir Bashir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past forty years have witnessed a dramatic change in the way many Western democracies deal with issues of ethnocultural diversity. In the past, these democracies typically adopted majoritarian models of democracy and difference-blind models of national citizenship. In these traditional models, ethnocultural diversity was often seen as a threat to political stability, and hence as something that should be relegated to the private sphere and not publicly supported in the form of minority rights or multiculturalism. As a result, immigrants, national minorities, and indigenous peoples were all subject to a range of policies intended either to assimilate or marginalize them. Today, however, many Western democracies have abandoned these exclusionary models, and shifted to-wards a more accommodating approach to diversity. In short, we have witnessed a clear shift from ‘assimilationist’ models that suppress diversity to ‘accommodationist’ models that recognize diversity.
Introduction
Authors: Brown Dana L , Woods Ngaire 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As companies ‘go global’, they are increasingly using factories and facilities spread across the world. But who regulates their activities in far-flung corners of the world economy? In many sectors such as textiles and apparel, chemicals, and forestry, the answer is that companies regulate their own behavior through codes and standards which they agree among themselves. These codes have attracted a lot of attention by scholars who have carefully described and attested to the growth of self-regulation, detailing the number and content of codes of self-regulation and standards which have been promulgated in various sectors.
Do Voluntary Standards Work Among Corporations? The Experience of the Chemicals Industry
Authors: Lenox Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In an attempt to avoid costly government regulation and other liabilities as a result of environmental externalities, a growing number of firms have promoted industry self-regulation—the association of firms to voluntarily control their collective behavior. In the past twenty years, environmental self-regulatory programs have proliferated in both the USA and abroad (Nash and Ehrenfeld 1996). Growing environmental regulations in industrialized nations and increasing environmental activism of consumers and the public in general have driven many industries to look for alternative strategies to deal with stakeholders. Industries have attempted to avoid costly government regulation and to placate concerned stakeholders by promising to voluntarily reduce their environmental impacts.
Local Politics and the Regulation of Global Water Suppliers in South Africa
Authors: Morgan Bronwen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the changing incentives faced by global water companies in light of the political and legal struggle in South Africa over the growing trend of supplying urban drinking water on a commercial, for-profit basis.1 The inclusion of a chapter on water service delivery in this book reflects a remarkable shift over the past ten to fifteen years in the salience of private corporations with a global reach in the water sector. The delivery of domestic water services has historically been determinedly local, markedly regulated, and typically embedded in the public sector.
Wallace and the Species Concept of the Early Darwinians
Authors: Mallet James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the extraordinary features of modern evolutionary biology is an inability to agree on a common definition of species. This lack of agreement, together with changes in the species concepts of taxonomists, is leading to an unprecedented level of taxonomic instability. In a sense, this is perhaps less of a problem than it at first appears, since almost everyone in the debate agrees that species evolve from populations within species, and that speciation is liable to be gradual: there will thus always be intermediate stages that are hard to classify. But in some cases, disagreements spill over into human affairs and cause practical problems. This is especially true in conservation (Isaac et al. 2004; Meiri and Mace 2007).