bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Physical principles of field ion microscopy
Authors: Miller M K , Cerezo A , Hetherington M G , Smith G D W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the basic physical processes involved in field ion microscopy and atom probe analysis are discussed. For reasons of space, full derivations are given only for the most important relationships. References are given for more advanced mathematical treatments. 2.1 Electric Field Distribution Knowledge of the distribution of the electric field and potential within the FIM is of fundamental importance, since the potential distribution between the specimen and the imaging screen determines the overall trajectories of the gas ions, the nature of the image projection and the magnification in the FIM. It also dictates the rate of ion acceleration in the atom probe and the trajectories of the field evaporated ions. Regional differences over the specimen surface control the local gas supply function and affect the local rates of field ionization and evaporation. Atomic scale variations of the field determine image contrast and also influence the initial stages of the field evaporation process, producing small aberrations in ion trajectories which limit the spatial resolution attainable in atom probe analysis.
Statistical analysis of atom probe data
Authors: Miller M K , Cerezo A , Hetherington M G , Smith G D W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the statistical methods for analysing conventional and three-dimensional atom probe data are presented. Most of the statistical methods that are applicable to atom probe data are based on probability theory and the analysis of time series (an ordered set of observations of a phenomenon which moves through time or space such as a composition profile). The main focus is on the characterization of fine-scale microstructures for which the atom probe is uniquely appropriate. Several worked examples are presented to illustrate the various statistical methods. 5.1 Introduction The goal of the analysis of atom probe data is the characterization of a threedimensional microstructure from the sequence of detected ions. However, the interpretation of the data is not necessarily straightforward and has to be performed with an awareness of the common pitfalls. Obvious questions which may be posed in estimating the scale or magnitude of a composition variation are what is the best method to make the estimate, how accurate is this estimate, is the estimate biased or unbiased, how dependent is the estimate on any implicit or explicit model of the microstructure and to what degree are the estimated parameters characteristic of the scale and magnitude of composition fluctuations in the bulk materialã There is no single or simple answer to these questions; the answer depends on the correct formulation of the problems with the use of appropriate models.
Dynamics Of A Black Hole In A Background Universe
Authors: D'eath P D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The perturbation theory described in Chapter 2 is concerned with linear perturbations superimposed on an asymptotically flat Kerr solution, thereby ignoring the presence of the rest of the universe. However, one sometimes needs to understand the way in which a black hole fits into the surrounding space-time. For example, the rotating black hole may be interacting with matter of comparable or much greater mass, as in a galaxy or in cosmology, in which case the perturbation approach just mentioned is inadequate, and one should take into account the perturbations of the black hole produced by the matter, the perturbations of the external geometry produced by the black hole, and the motion of the black hole relative to the matter. A technique is presented here for dealing with this type of situation (D’Eath 1975a). This problem was also studied in the case of a Schwarzschild black hole by Manasse (1963) and Demianski and Grishchuk (1974). The ‘external universe’ may also be the geometry produced by another massive object, such as a black hole, neutron star, or other compact body. The case of two black holes in nearly Newtonian orbit around each other is described in the following Chapter 4 (D’Eath 1975b). These matching ideas are still viable for compact bodies which are not black holes (Kates 1980a; Damour and Taylor 1992).
Gravitational Radiation From High-Speed Black-Hole Encounters
Authors: D'eath P D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let us turn now to the gravitational radiation emitted in black-hole encounters, which becomes more and more significant as one increases the approach velocity. A review which covers the subject of gravitational wave generation is given by Thorne (1987). As described in Chapter 4, one can study the interaction of two black holes using perturbation theory in various different regimes. First, one can take, as in Chapter 4, the case of a low-velocity quasi-Newtonian interaction, where the black holes’ paths are either approximately bound or unbound Newtonian orbits. Second, one can take the case of a distant encounter of two black holes at relativistic speed (but not too close to the speed of light), with deflection by a small angle (Thorne and Kovacs 1975; Kovacs and Thorne 1977; 1978; D’Eath 1979b). If the relativistic encounter is close, then the usual perturbation methods will break down, as strong-field effects will appear. Third, one can take an encounter of two black holes with relative velocity close to the speed of light. Here, instead of taking (for example) the masses as small parameters, one uses γ−1 as a small parameter, where ‘Y is a typical Lorentz factor (measured in a centre-of-mass frame) of an incoming black hole. This leads to a new type of perturbation theory, which is valid even for head-on collisions (Chapters 6, 7, and 8), giving the gravitational radiation emitted near the forward and backward directions (D’Eath 1978; D’Eath and Payne 1992a-c). The results on gravitational radiation for all three regimes merge smoothly together. The first two regimes will be summarized briefly in Section 5.2. The third regime is the topic of the rest of this chapter, and is related to the work on collisions at the speed of light described in the following Chapters 6, 7 and 8.
Conclusion
Authors: D'eath P D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The examples of black-hole interactions treated in this book show the power gained by the use of matched asymptotic expansions in general relativity. This technique, in fact, seems very well suited to a variety of problems involving the interaction of strongly self-gravitating systems, and in one case—as in Chapters 5-8—to a strong-field interaction between strong-field systems, namely the collision or close encounter of two black holes at or near the speed of light.
The spectral theorem for normal operators
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter H denotes a non-trivial complex Hilbert space. Then, by 17.15(4), L(H) is a C*-algebra. Thus we can apply to L(H) the notions and results from Chapter 17. In particular, it is clear what self-adjoint, normal and unitary operators in L(H) are.
The spectral theorem for unbounded self-adjoint operators
Authors: Meise Reinhold , Vogt Dietmar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall prove the spectral theorem for self-adjoint (unbounded) operators A in Hilbert spaces. It says that for each A there exists a unique spectral measure E on a(A), so that A = ∫ t dE. In the sequel H is a complex Hilbert space.
A Boundary Value Problem for the Laplacian in a Multi-Structure
Authors: Kozlov Vladimir , Maz’ya Vladimir , Movchan Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the present chapter we consider a multi-structure ‖;ε defined as a union of a three-dimensional domain and a number of thin cylinders of normalised thickness ε parallel to each other (see Fig. 2.1). We deal with the asymptotic analysis of a solution u of a mixed boundary value problem for the Laplacian operator in ∂‖;ε.The Dirichlet data are prescribed on the bases of thin cylinders; on the remaining part of the surface ∂Ωε we have the Neumann boundary condition. We note that the solution of this problem describes the temperature field in the multistructure for the case when the heat flux is specified on the boundary surface outside the base regions of the thin cylinder, where the values of the temperature are given.
International Finance
Authors: Biggs Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Exchanges among a given set of currencies define a graph, and the rates of ex- change satisfy a condition which can be described in terms of a potential function on the graph. Using this approach, the matrix-tree technique is applied to show that the balance of payments determines a unique system of exchange rates. Let V be a set of currencies and E the set of pairs of currencies that can be exchanged directly. Clearly, there is a corresponding graph G = (V,E). The aim of this chapter is to explain how such a network of exchange rates can be studied in graph-theoretic terms. If every pair of currencies is exchangeable, then the graph is a complete graph, but this will not generally be the case, and the theory is not restricted to complete graphs. However, for our purposes it is reasonable to assume that the graph is connected, which means that any two currencies can be converted indirectly, by a sequence of exchanges involving other currencies.
Genetic markers for population studies-I Morphological, physiological, and cytological markers
Authors: Burnett John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Traditionally, quantitative and morphological traits have been employed most frequently in the description of species, variants and variation. For population studies, however, there is a need for discrete characters which vary within the species that can be used as markers to recognize or differentiate populations. It is especially useful if the markers used have a known genetic basis, and, indeed, the use of genetic markers-discrete differences in genetic information possessed by different individuals within a species-is the preferred option.
The generation of variation-Ill Recombination through heterokaryosis, parasexuality, hybridization and polyploidy
Authors: Burnett John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hybridization and polyploidy are not uncommon amongst diploid Eukaryota, although the significance accorded to them as evolutionary processes continues to be debatable, but these processes are poorly documented in fungi. In contrast, hetero karyosis and para sexuality are much less common in diploid Eukaryota but well documented in Eumycota where they are seen to be a reflection of the structure and biology of the fungal mycelium. However, all four of these processes in fungi are far better known and studied in the laboratory than in natural conditions where the question of how they affect populations of both Eumycota and Straminipila is still far from clear.
Ethologist in the 1930s
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Tinbergens returned to Holland on a high; many people knew about the expedition and admired the pluck of Niko and Lies. Their arrival back home in September 1933 was soon followed by articles in the Dutch popular press and pieces written by Niko himself,1 and obviously they could capitalize on their stories for a long time. In the world of birdwatchers Niko’s tales of phalaropes, snow buntings, and gyr-falcons made news, and as far as his Dutch friends were concerned, he had become an ornithological world authority. There was the fabulous collection of Eskimo art and utensils, and his first-hand knowledge of life in the cold. It was something like fame, with all its time-consuming trimmings.
Niko’s two worlds: Oxford in the 1960s
Authors: Kruuk Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Looking back at the 1950s, one gets an impression of Niko’s life as hectic, confused, and torn in many directions. But at the beginning of the next decade it gained stability, and he appeared to come to terms with his niche in Britain. At least he seemed to settle down, into two separate existences, related but firmly apart, literally racing from one to the other. One of these worlds was in the field, in his wide-open spaces, in the dunes somewhere in the north of England, or in the Serengeti in Africa. His other world was in the Zoology Department in Oxford.
The fundamental group and its applications
Authors: Lawson Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we study, through the example of the fundamental group, the general method of algebraic topology. We give a means of associating to a geometric problem a (hopefully easier) algebraic problem to solve. Consider the problem of distinguishing between two surfaces. How can we tell, for example, that there is no homeomorphism between the sphere and the torus? According to algebraic topology, to solve this problem we should transform it into an algebraic problem that is readily solved. To each topological space X, associate to it some algebraic object, say a group g(X). Do this in such a way that homeomorphic spaces have isomorphic groups associated to them. Thus one way of telling that X is not homeomorphic to Y is by showing that g(X) is not isomorphic to g(Y). Of course, this works only when we can readily compute g(X) and g(Y) and decide whether or not they are isomorphic. This method is successful in distinguishing between surfaces.We now formalize the informal discussion above. In this section, we start by discussing briefly the concept of a group. Readers with a previous course in abstract algebra should just skim over the group theory material in this section to become familiar with our notation and viewpoint. We then apply these ideas to discuss how algebraic topology uses group theory to answer topological questions. In later sections and chapters, we will introduce more sophisticated results from group theory as it is needed.
Classes Of Geometric Morphisms
Authors: Johnstone Peter T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our aim in this chapter is to revisit some of the ‘topologically inspired’ classes of geometric morphisms which we introduced in Section C1.5, in the context of morphisms between localic toposes, and to investigate their properties in the more general context of morphisms between Grothendieck toposes. As in Section C2.4, we shall henceforth interpret ‘Grothendieck topos’ loosely as meaning any topos defined and bounded over a base to pos 𝒮 having a natural number object; but we shall often treat 𝒮 notationally as if it were the classical category Set of sets, relying on the reader to translate our arguments as required into the language of 𝒮-indexed categories as developed in Part B.
Reversible and irreversible work processes
Authors: Carrington Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce some basic results deriving from the second law. These concern the work performed on systems undergoing reversible and irreversible work processes. We shall also introduce work processes on systems other than fluids. The reversible process theorems (Haywood 1980) are analogous to the Carnot theorem, but they apply to non-cyclic processes, whereas the Carnot theorem applies to cyclic processes. We shall use the Kelvin-Planck expression of the second law in order to establish these theorems.
Electric and magnetic work processes
Authors: Carrington Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Several different types of work process may be identified when matter is subject to electric and magnetic fields. Consequently there are a number of expressions for the work performed. Each is useful in a particular physical situation. This chapter provides an introduction to these work processes and to the thermodynamic functions associated with them. While we shall refer to this material in subsequent chapters it may be passed over on a first reading without loss of continuity.
Fundamental properties of electrons in solids
Authors: Kuramoto Y , Kitaoka Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electrons in metals have an effective mass m* which is in general different from the mass in vacuum, mo= 9.1 ×1028g Experimentally, m* can be measured by such methods as cyclotron resonance, de Haas-van Alphen (dHvA) effect, specific heat, and so on.
Metallic and insulating phases of heavy electrons
Authors: Kuramoto Y , Kitaoka Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters, we have seen that the magnetic and thermal properties of heavy electrons are determined basically by strong local correlations. A signature of the local nature is that the susceptibility and specific heat are approximately proportional to the concentration of Ce in systems such as CexLa1-xCu6 or CexLa1-xBu6 The RKKY interaction is operative in bringing about magnetic ordering. Its energy scale is given by JRKKY × J2Pc, where J is the exchange interaction between f and conduction electrons and Pc is the density of conduction band states per site. The RKKY interaction competes with the Kondo effect which points to the nonmagnetic singlet ground state. There exists a rather detailed balance bel\veen these two tendencies. It is expected that the magnetic transition temperature TM, if it exists, is lowered due to the Kondo effect. In the opposite case, TK » J2Pc, no magnetic order should occur.
Anomalous magnetism
Authors: Kuramoto Y , Kitaoka Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we discuss magnetically ordered or nearly ordered states of heavy electrons. In describing heavy-electron magnetism, there are two complementary pictures one can consider. First, one can regard a heavy-electron system as a lattice of Kondo centres coupled to each other by the RKKY interaction. Of central interest is the competition between the RKKY interaction toward magnetic order and the Kondo screening toward the nonmagnetic singlet state. The RKKY interaction is mediated by conduction band electrons which are only weakly renormalized.
Introduction
Authors: Boffi Sigfrido , Franco Davide Pacati Carlotta Giusti , Radici Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nuclear physics with electromagnetic probes has its roots deep in the early years of modem physics. Soon after the discovery of the Dirac (1928) equation for the relativistic electron, Mott (1929) derived the cross-sectional formula for the scattering of Dirac particles by point nuclei. Just two years after the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick (1932), which indicated the composite nature of nuclei in terms of nucleons, the photodisintegration of the deuteron by Chadwick and Goldhaber (1934) may be considered the first photonuclear experiment.
Two-Nucleon Emission
Authors: Boffi Sigfrido , Franco Davide Pacati Carlotta Giusti , Radici Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The occurrence of two-nucleon emission processes induced by electromagnetic probes gives an unambiguous signature of nucleon-nucleon correlations in nuclei. The available data, obtained by making either inclusive (e,é) or coincidence experiments, have provided strong evidence that these processes play a relevant role in extended kinematical regions. The depletion of the occupancy of various shells, observed throughout the periodic system in recent high-resolution (e,ép) experiments in the quasifree region (see Chapter 7), suggests a considerable hole strength at large missing energy, which, according to the results of many-body calculations, is the effect of shortrange NN correlations (SRC). Moreover, the results of they-scaling analysis of (e,é) data (see Section 10.3) in the low-energy-loss tail of the quasielastic peak and the (e,ép) cross sections measured at large recoil momentum and missing energy clearly show the existence of high-momentum components in the nuclear wave function, owing to strong NN correlations.
Bonding of transition metals and semiconductors
Authors: Pettifor D G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The only elements with cohesive energies greater than 7 eV per atom are sp-valent carbon (7.37 eV) and the sd-valent transition metals niobium (7.57 eV), tantalum (8.10 eV), tungsten (8.90 eV), rhenium (8.00 eV), and osmium (8.17 eV), as can be seen from Fig. 1.7. Interestingly, carbon with its saturated covalent &lt;J bonds does not have the highest cohesive energy, this honour belonging to the transition metal, tungsten. The transition metals are not describable by the conventional NFE model of the metallic bond since their valence d electrons remain relatively tightly bound to their parent atoms, forming unsaturated covalent bonds with their neighbours. These d bonds are responsible for the structural and cohesive properties of transition metals.
Structural trends within solids
Authors: Pettifor D G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Elemental solids and binary compounds display numerous well-defined structural trends. We saw in chapter 1 that we would like theory to be able to explain at least the following: 1) the change from close-packed structures on the left-hand side of the periodic table to the more open structures on the right-hand side;
(2) the 8-N rule which gives the number of neighbours expected for N ~ 4,and exceptions to the rule such as graphitic carbon and dimeric nitrogenand oxygen; In this chapter we will show that the tight binding (TB) description of the covalent bond is able to provide a simple and unifying explanation for the above structural trends and behaviour.
Diffuse scattering theory
Authors: Nield Victoria M , Keen David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter an introduction to neutron scattering formalism was given. This formalism can be used directly to calculate the diffuse scattering for various specific models of disorder, provided an atomic model reflecting this disorder can be produced. An example of this is given in §3.2 below. The equations can also be modified to be applied more easily to certain specific types of material, such as molecular materials with orientational disorder (§3.3 and §3.4). In both these cases the calculated diffuse scattering can then be compared with the experimental data. In other cases theoretical methods are used to extract meaningful information directly from the experimental diffuse scattering data.
Diffuse scattering from molecular materials
Authors: Nield Victoria M , Keen David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 3 the underlying theory of diffuse scattering from orientationally disordered materials was considered. In studying these materials the relative positions of the molecules, and the reorientations that they undergo, are usually the features under study. The internal structure of the molecule can also be studied, and often details of the intra-molecular structure are necessary to explain the orientational information. This is particularly the case if the orientations are affected by the orientations of neighbouring molecules for steric reasons (as shown in Fig. 3.1, and discussed in §3.1.1).
Nearly-Free Electron Approach
Authors: Davison Sydney G , Stęślicka Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although Maue (1935) was the first to use the nearly-free electron approximation (NFE) to study surface states, and their effect on the electrical conductivity of a metal, it was the subsequent generalization of the method by Goodwin (1939a) that eventually brought it into prominence. Unlike Goodwin's three-dimensional treatment, a one-dimensional one is developed here, for the sake of simplicity.
Inelastic Ion-Atom Collisions - Coupled Channel Models
Authors: Bransden B H , McDowell M R C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall begin to develop the quantum theory of inelastic ion atom collisions. In order to discuss the basic concepts without inessential complication, the theory will be developed for a simple system composed of a single electron and two inert singly charged ions A+ and B +. This will allow us to discuss charge exchange reactions like H+ + H( 1s) -+ H(n/m) + H + and H + + Li0 -+ H(n/m) + Li+ where, in the second example, Li+ is treated as an inert core interacting with the electron through an effective potential. The restriction to singly charged cores and one-electron systems will be removed later.