bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Causation
Authors: Tooley Michael 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter sets out and offers a detailed defense of a non-reductive, theoretical-term analysis of the concept of the relation of causation. That defense involves, first of all, an appeal to several very desirable properties of the analysis itself, including that it is by far the simplest of all analyses, that it immediately entails the correct relationships between causation and probabilities, and that it provides the basis for the only satisfactory account of the relation of temporal priority. Then, secondly, the chapter considers alternative accounts that other philosophers have defended––Humean reductionist approaches, non-Humean reductionist approaches, and the view that the concept of the relation of causation is analytically basic. The author argues that all of those approaches are open to decisive objections, none of which pose any problem at all for the account that he has offered.
Multiple effects of variation in light on the photosynthesis system
Authors: Ford E. David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Processes that protect a plant from damage, or repair damage when it does occur, are important in the growth process. This is particularly important for photosynthesis. A curvilinear relationship between an increase in light received by foliage and the photosynthetic rate achieved is well established, with the maximum rate referred to as the photosynthetic capacity. Within foliage canopies, light received by foliage changes continually with time. Data from a field investigation show that not just the photosynthetic rate but also the photosynthetic capacity varies over the day and over the growing season and photosynthetic capacity was greater during the later growing season when less radiation was received, but not all of this effect is related to higher temperature or reduced stomatal conductance. For the early season the role of systems protecting foliage tissue from the damaging effects of high radiation is discussed. Light flux to foliage within a canopy can change markedly over a few minutes, resulting in a decline in photosynthetic capacity during reduced flux and induction of the photosynthesis system when light flux increases.
Control processes of plant growth
Authors: Ford E. David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Engineers have established an extensive science of control systems that includes a classification of the different types and descriptions of how they function and the types of control they provide. The main types of control are reviewed and both engineering and biological examples are discussed: passive and active; open and closed loop; feedforward and feedback. Particular characteristics of control in plants that do not occur in engineering are discussed. ‘Feedback’ is an omnibus term in biology, but in engineering feedback control has a specific structure, for example as used in temperature control systems, and requires a set point. In contrast, homeostasis in biological systems (an equivalent control objective) may not be achieved through a set point but through interaction of a network of controls. Characteristics of active control in plants are discussed.
The ageing plant
Authors: Ford E. David 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
As plants age, growth and development occur that can change both the importance of particular physiological processes and plant structure which can affect the internal environment of the plant. This is illustrated for cases of both semelparous and iteroparous plants―within both groups there is considerable variation in the ageing process. In the semelparous plant Zea mays, there is a distinct developmental change from vegetative growth to sexual reproduction: the plant’s structure and physiology function together to produce seed―when seed is formed there is a change from photosynthesis being source to sink limited. Senescence and chemical changes, where they occur, are an integral part of seed production so that death and decay of the parent may be considered as incidental. In the iteroparous plant Pseudotsuga menziesii, increasing tree height results in a decline in water potential and so an increase in the possibility of xylem embolisms. This is mitigated, in part, by anatomical changes in the new xylem produced. The continued production of new foliage is through epicormic branches that tend to produce foliage with a more favourable water status. In both Pseudotsuga menziesii and Pinus longaeva (Chapter 2) the morphological processes of reiteration determine a limit to growth.
Why does population matter?
Authors: Barthelemy Marc , Verbavatz Vincent 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
We explain why the population matters, i.e. how and why it is a good proxy for other urban variables. In particular, we will elaborate on the concept of scaling laws in cities and the limits to this reasoning. More precisely, scaling laws and associated scaling exponents are fundamental objects. Used for example in biology in order to understand how the metabolic rate varies with body size, scaling was widely used in physics to understand polymers, phase transitions, fluid dynamics and turbulence. Scaling also became a central tool for describing macroscopic properties of complex systems for mainly two reasons. First, the existence of a scaling law points to self-similarity: the system reproduces itself as the scale change. Second, scaling laws behave often as power-laws and the corresponding exponents constitute precious guides for identifying critical factors and mechanisms in complex systems. In particular, when they cannot be deduced from simple dimensional considerations, they point to relevant scales and ingredients.
About city dynamics
Authors: Barthelemy Marc , Verbavatz Vincent 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
In this chapter, we analyze the model for the dynamics of urban population obtained from first principles considerations (see Chapter 9). In particular, we will show that this model is able to simultaneously explain observations about the stationary population distribution and the temporal dynamics of systems of cities. In particular, this model is able to identify the causes of the diversity of empirical observations about the hierarchical organization of cities, the occurrence of megacities, and the empirical instability in city dynamics seen in the births and deaths of large cities on short time scales.
Social outcomes contracting
Authors: Carter Eleanor , Ball Nigel 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores cross-sector partnerships and collaboration as a potential approach through which to tackle longstanding and entrenched social challenges. In social outcomes contracts these partnerships bring together actors from the public sector, private sector, and social economy. The chapter draws on a range of literature describing partnerships and governance arrangements and utilizes the concept of formal relational contracting as a form of partnership that might better suit the provision of complex services in the social economy, where adaptation and innovation are essential. The chapter describes the adoption of social impact bonds and also offers case studies to contrast outcomes-based and alliance-based contracting arrangements. A focus on measurable outcomes may offer a way to bring together different parts of social economy, government, and the private sector around a shared definition of success, underpinned by relationships.
Conclusions
Authors: Krlev Gorgi , Wruk Dominika , Pasi Giulio , Bernhard Marika 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter shows why the social economy might be more, not less important, exciting or relevant than other fields for understanding and addressing sustainability challenges. We highlight how the social economy’s functions as an organizational role model, promoter of new impact standards, or driver of new institutional design processes spur change across levels of society. We also critically assess how, for example, a continued ignorance of local interactions by the social economy and a lack of assertiveness and leadership hold the social economy back from unfolding its transformational potential. Against this background, we develop directions for future research. First, we discuss which contributions the chapters of Social Economy Science make jointly to different streams of research, whereby elements that grant stability to the organizational issue field and those that promote change, which we refer to as three ‘transformation pathways’, are equally important. Second, we derive a future research agenda for the social economy and beyond the social economy. Third, and to uphold the scholar-practitioner and practitioner-scholar character of this book, we develop a vision of the future. In this vision policy and practice are actively leveraging the social economy’s capacities to accelerate its functions in changing the economy and making society more resilient.
Topics tackled
Authors: Wise Steven P. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Early primates had a small cerebral cortex: no larger than the one that rodents have today. In all modern primates, the cortex is large. These facts raise five questions: When did cortical expansions occur; in which primates did it happen; what ecological factors selected for a large cortex; what new areas contributed to it; and how similar was cortical enlargement in other mammals? Along with comparative neuroanatomy, three fields of biology provide some answers. Paleontology reveals the skeletal and dental adaptations of extinct primates; paleoecology considers a bygone world and the life of primates in it; and paleoneurology provides important information about their cortex. Findings from paleoneurology and comparative neuroanatomy reveal that several independently evolving primate lineages developed a cortex that dominates the brain and includes numerous new areas.
Tempo and temperature
Authors: Wise Steven P. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Three generalizations emerge from primate paleoneurology: Several pulses of cortical expansion occurred during global cooling trends; cortical expansion preceded adaptive radiations in several lineages; and skeletal changes usually occurred millions of years before the cortex enlarged. However, only the second of these generalizations applies to hominoids, the clade that includes gibbons, great apes, and humans. The hominoid cortex expanded during the early Miocene, a time of stable and warming temperatures, and most of their characteristic skeletal traits—such as bodies weighing more than 10 kg, broad chests, and highly flexible shoulder joints—evolved after the cortex reached a size typical of modern species. Except for dental morphology, these hominoids closely resembled Old World monkeys. Thus, a hominoid-size cortex first evolved in animals that were smaller and more agile than modern great apes.
Other orders
Authors: Wise Steven P. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Midway through the Mesozoic, ~196–190 Ma, mammalian brains reached a size typical of Paleocene eutherians, which lived at least 120 million years later. Across all mammals, body mass increased during the Paleocene without much, if any, relative increase in brain or cortex size. Later, the cortex expanded independently in several mammalian lineages. Cortical enlargement in cetaceans most closely resembled what happened in primates: a cortical expansion in toothed whales by the late Eocene (in parallel with Eocene primates); another in oceanic dolphins during the middle-to-late Miocene (in parallel with monkeys). In contrast, cortical expansion in other large-cortex mammals, such as ungulates and carnivores, had a different, mostly later time course. Like primates, several carnivore lineages developed a relatively large cortex independently. In mammals, a larger brain almost always resulted from cortical expansion, but there were exceptions.
Introduction
Authors: Gifkins Jess 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter outlines the rationale for bringing together legitimacy and practice theory and introduces the concept of legitimation practices. The formal rules of the Security Council tell us little about how decisions are negotiated, so to understand decision-making we need to analyse informal practices. Traditional approaches to the relationship between legitimacy and the Security Council focus on the legitimacy, or otherwise, of the Security Council as an institution and its decisions. Instead, this book analyses the ways in which legitimation shapes the process and outcome of negotiations. It introduces the concepts of internal legitimation practices which relate to the legitimation of decisions, such as prioritizing unanimity, and external legitimation practices which relate to the legitimation of actors in the negotiations, such as maintaining consistent arguments. Foregrounding legitimation practices sheds light on seemingly contradictory moments within Security Council decision-making. The chapter also introduces the case study of the book which is the Security Council’s decisions in responding to atrocities in Darfur in the west of Sudan. It sets out the methodology of the book, which draws on a wide range of primary and secondary sources, including original interviews with diplomats, and sets out the structure of the book.
Rape at Chaumot
Authors: Hamilton Tom 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
After Mathurin Delacanche and his soldiers marched on Chaumot in the winter of 1590, they used sexual violence as a weapon of terror and pillaged the resources of the village. This chapter focuses on the villagers’ experiences of the occupation, and highlights their resilience as they lived through the destruction wrought by the local, small-scale warfare that typified early modern conflicts. It further demonstrates how some historians’ claims that pre-modern societies formally tolerated sexual violence need to be revised in the light of the evidence presented here, which reveals how magistrates, plaintiffs, and witnesses decried rape but often found it difficult to prosecute through criminal justice.
Waging Law
Authors: Hamilton Tom 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
According to Pierre Ayrault, going to court was very much like waging war. ‘In truth, whether the adversary appears in the law courts or on the battlefield, the only difference is in the weaponry: in one case it is the sword, in the other it is the law.’ While the previous chapter explained the weapons in Renée Chevalier’s armoury, namely the wealth, status, and connections she built up over her lifetime, this chapter turns to analyse the laws that governed the field of battle. It surveys the hierarchies that structured legal disputes in general and criminal trials in the Parlement of Paris in particular, as well as the tactics Chevalier deployed as she waged law against her adversary Mathurin Delacanche. Chevalier mobilized her connections both in the Sénonais and in Paris as part of a carefully coordinated prosecution that aimed to out-flank Delacanche and guarantee her victory in the final judgement.
Argentina
Authors: Pardina Martín A. Rodríguez , Schiro Julieta 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The Argentinian case analyses auction design and implementation decisions in a challenging investment context. In this chapter, we analyse the design, implementation, and results for the first four rounds of the RenovAr programme, which began a series of auctions for the incorporation of renewable energy installations, that took place between May 2016 and mid-2019. Argentina’s auctions benefited from a range of national and multilateral risk-mitigation structures and provisions, which resulted in competitive price outcomes. Nevertheless, project realization rates remain low as awarded projects struggled to secure financing, illustrating the necessity of incorporating investor requirements and commitment in auction design decisions.
Situationism and the Individualization of Responsibility in War
Authors: Valentino Benjamin 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Defenders of traditionalist just war theory, otherwise known as ‘collectivists’, have forwarded both normative and practical objections to individualist revisionists. In this chapter, Benjamin Valentino presents another crucial practical defence of the traditional view: ‘situationism’, which contends that human beings tend to overestimate the power of stable personal character traits while underestimating the effects that the external environment and context have in shaping behaviour. Valentino asserts that situationism ought to have profound consequences for how we think about individual moral responsibility and justice in war, how we apportion blame, assign punishment, and how we regulate the conduct of war. In short, an appreciation of situationism ought to inform the ways we attempt to apply individualization to war in the real world. In taking situationism seriously, Valentino argues that we would do better to focus our efforts on restructuring the situations and institutions that encourage immoral behaviour in the first place by dividing authority so as to prevent one person from commanding total obedience, or by encouraging diversity among peer groups to prevent destructive conformity and peer pressure.
Two Decades of Civilian Protection Mandates for United Nations Peacekeepers
Authors: Williams Paul D. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Since the end of the Cold War there has been a marked increase in UN peacekeeping operations seeking to stabilize war-torn countries, including active sites of armed conflict where there is no peace to keep. In many of these conflict zones, UN peacekeepers faced increasing local and international expectations to protect civilians yet they were not given explicit protection of civilians (POC) mandates until 1999. In this chapter, Paul D. Williams analyses how the individualization of war influenced the evolution of POC mandates as well as their major consequences for UN peacekeepers. He concludes that POC mandates have been a useful addition, despite raising expectations about what UN peacekeepers can achieve in the field. UN peacekeepers have been more successful in stopping, reducing, and mitigating many threats of physical violence to civilians. However, several normative, operational and cross-cutting tensions have bedevilled the UN’s attempts to implement its POC mandates. Moreover, the organization’s attempts at institutional adaptation to improve civilian protection have generally failed to address underlying governance and political problems which generate these threats. In this sense, despite the UN’s significant institutional adaptation at the operational level, there remains a lack of strategic progress and continued institutional contestation over key aspects of the decision-making process related to the UN’s civilian protection agenda.
Individualization and Collectivization in Contexts of Organized Criminal Violence
Authors: Kalmanovitz Pablo , Bradley Miriam 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Most lethal violence now occurs outside of war zones. In Latin America, countries like Brazil, Mexico, El Salvador, and Colombia have often had yearly homicide rates far exceeding those in Afghanistan or Syria. The use of military force or militarized police has become widespread in such contexts, although they do not meet the international humanitarian law (IHL) thresholds for non-international armed conflict (NIAC) and formally fall under a law enforcement paradigm, where international human rights law (IHRL) applies in full. Through a case of study of Mexico’s ‘war on organized crime’, Pablo Kalmanovitz and Miriam Bradley show how the qualification of a situation of organized violence as NIAC or as below the NIAC threshold has major implications for how individualization processes operate. Starting from an IHRL baseline, processes of collectivization are identified and analysed in reverse analogy with processes of individualization in armed conflicts. The authors find that, while collectivization takes place in contexts of organized criminal violence, there is no international legal framework to underpin it, and consequently not the same level of protection as there is in war. Their analysis sheds light on the structure of processes of individualization in contexts of armed conflict, as it shows how much of the individualization process in armed conflicts is not a move towards peacetime regulation of violence under IHRL.
Exploring Visitor Expectations and Experiences of Conflict and Transitional Justice Exhibitions in Bogotá, Colombia
Authors: Esteban Nancy Rocío Rueda 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the ways in which memory can serve the reconstructive goals of transitional justice in Colombia. While isolated exhibitions have emerged, a consolidated exhibition of transitional justice has not yet been developed in the country. Colombia currently has no dedicated museum that comprehensively deals with Colombia’s violent past and the peace processes that are underway. This leaves a notable void by failing to memorialise the complex web of violent events in the country. The exhibitions that do exist record specific examples of regional violence and represent a specific construction of memory processes that are limited to specific territories. Parallel to the South African chapter, this empirical research was conducted in two different museums: the Museo Nacional de Colombia in Bogotá, and the Centre of Memory, Peace and Reconciliation of Bogotá. The research comprised a quantitative and qualitative survey of visitor expectations and experiences when they visited these museums. Based on this research, the chapter seeks to interrogate the expectations and experiences of visitors to these exhibitions. Flowing from these findings, the author reflects on the need for museums in furthering transitional justice. This chapter shows that the establishment of a museum—dedicated to the twin purposes of memorialising the Colombian conflict and deepening an understanding of the consequent peace processes—could play an important educative role in the transitional justice context and, in so doing, facilitate a deeper process of societal healing for posterity.
Forced Displacement and Social Change Light and Shadows in the Implementation of the Judgment T-025 of 2004
Authors: Beltrán Andrés Mauricio Gutiérrez 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyses the successes and failures in the implementation of the Constitutional Court’s Judgment T-025 of 2004. In its decision, the Court declared that the situation of the internally displaced people that fled their homes due to the armed conflict in Colombia constituted an ‘unconstitutional state of affairs’. This judgment is the most ambitious judicial intervention ever to have been carried out in Latin America in its attempt to restore the human rights of millions of people. It has also required considerable effort on the part of the government in addressing the conditions of displaced persons. This chapter argues that the judgment’s effectiveness should, however, be assessed according to a perspective that focuses on the real changes in the living conditions of the victims. When viewed from this perspective, the changes in the circumstances of the victims have been limited. As a result, the chapter questions the Court’s ability to promote social change independently of political support. In this regard, the chapter underlines the necessity of combining social rights litigation with political mobilisation in order to bring about real social transformation, as envisaged in the Constitution.