bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Magic Mirror
Authors: Benson Donald C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A MAGIC MIRROR that answers every question truthfully would be a dentist’s dream. Common sense suggests that this is only a fairy tale and no such truth-machine can exist. In fact, if there were such a mirror, we could confound it with the following question: A little reflection shows that neither Yes nor No can be a truthful answer. If the mirror says Yes, then it should have said No; and if it says No, then it should have said Yes. The best that the mirror can do is to say: The above is a version of the liar’s paradox -first stated by the Cretan Epimenides in the seventh century BCE. Epimenides said, “All Cretans are liars.” Did he lie or tell the truth? One might think that the search for a truth machine died out with the practice of witchcraft and alchemy. Such was not the case. Early in the twentieth century, the search for a truth machine was a serious, respectable, and plausible concern of mathematical logic.
On the Shoulders of Giants
Authors: Benson Donald C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Calculus is Latin for pebble. The original meaning is preserved in medical terminology: a kidney stone is called a renal calculus. In antiquity, calculi were used for voting-black or white indicating condemnation or acquittal. However, the ancient use of pebbles for reckoning is the source of our common usage: a calculus is a method of computation. Specifically, the calculus refers to a method of computation developed in the seventeenth century. Truly, “method of computation” understates the nature and importance of the calculus, which opened up a new view of the world and led to Newton’s astonishing discoveries in physics.
Roller-Coaster Science
Authors: Benson Donald C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Optimism Of Doctor Pangloss is the butt of Voltaire’s biting satire. Actually, Doctor Pangloss is a stand-in for Gottfried Leibniz, who enjoyed more esteem as co-discoverer of the calculus than for his philosophy of optimism. In physics, however, principles of optimality stand on firmer ground. In fact, there are several variational principles that state that of all conceivable happenings, nature chooses the one of least “effort.” The oldest of these principles is known as Fermat’s principle of least time, which states that a ray of light selects, from all possible pathsbetween two points, the path of least time. Fermat’s principle explains the reflection and refraction of light. In 1746, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698-1759) formulated a similar minimum principle for mechanics, the principle of least action, that characterizes the motion or equilibrium configuration of a mechanical system, for example, a pendulum, a gyroscope, or a suspension bridge.
The Species Problem
Authors: Hey Jody 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Are dogs one species or many species? Our canine pets and helpers are a diverse lot, but it is not just the diversity that causes this common question. The uncertainty also arises from knowing that so much of dog diversity is found between fairly distinct breeds. When engaged in plain talk, people usually use the word species to speak of distinct kinds of organisms. In this sense, there are many species of dogs, indeed hundreds of kinds in so far as we refer to different breeds as kinds, and to kinds as species. But we usually stop short of equating dog breeds with species when we recall how easily dogs of different breeds mate with one another (and produce healthy fertile pups that look like a mixture of the parents). Mixed breed dogs remind us of another commonplace view of species, which is that organisms of different species do not join in sexual reproduction. But with this sexual criterion in mind, it is tempting to ask whether breeds of very different size and shape are different species. Does it help to answer the question about dogs and species if we suppose that a Chihuahua cannot jump enough to make puppies with a Mastiff that cannot stoop enough? Probably not. Firstly, reasoning by the mechanics of copulation leads to some puzzling groupings, perhaps including a Chihuahua and a Toy Poodle in one species that does not include a much larger Standard Poodle. Secondly, the most we could ask with this criterion is whether two dogs are in the same species, and the criterion could not be used to count species or to describe species boundaries.
Categories
Authors: Hey Jody 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is it possible that human minds and human language are dysfunctional in some way that causes them to be poor tools for understanding and describing biological diversity? This is the possibility that was inspired by the repeated knowing failure of biologists to measure species, and that was discussed at the end of chapter 2. In chapter 3, we stepped back and explored the theoretical basis of biological understanding, and the role played by some relatively straightforward words (like gene) within that understanding. At that level, which stopped short of species, we found no noteworthy conflicts between language and our best understanding of reality, despite the fact that common words are some times ambiguous. Now we turn to focus more explicitly on language and on the way that language corresponds to reality. People use language to further a seemingly endless variety of goals, but is it an inherently reliable tool for building a model of the larger world? And if it is not perfect, why not? And where lie the imperfections? By asking, I assume the question is sensible, and thus also assume considerable utility on the Part of language. Necessarily I presuppose that language is just great for many things, even for communicating about language. But language is complex, and the real world of which language is a Part is also complex, and the fit between language and reality could be better in some respects than others.
A Snapshot of Venice at the Twilight of the Renaissance
Authors: Ferraro Joanne M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
venice was reputed to be among the most serene republics in Europe, offering safety and tranquillity to the diverse communities of people living within its waters. The sun, however, had almost set on the Renaissance Maritime Republic by the late sixteenth century. The city witnessed riots precipitated by adverse conditions. Foul weather in 1569–1570 and 1590 had brought the hardships off amine, and the collapse of the coinage system in 1602 prompted bakers to refuse debased coins as payment for bread.1 The potential for siege also caused apprehension. The naval conflict with the Turks (1571–1573) had reached the very gates of Venetian frontiers in Istria and Dalmatia, fueling fears of Turkish conquest. Moreover, the city’s economic life sagged from the strains and disruptions of war.2 Then came another form of siege. Fleas infected with Pasteurella pestis inflicted the horrors of plague on the population in 1575–1577 and 1630. Trade and industry fell into a downward spiral after 1580, and by 1620 the city was no longer a European center of economic gravity. Nobles and other prosperous citizens scrambled to convert investment capital into passive income, such as rents and loans, and inherited fortunes took on greater importance, creating fissures among heirs. Textile workers and other artisans also felt the hardships of economic contraction, making it necessary for them to find other income-generating activities in order to subsist. Despite all these setbacks and reversals, however, the Constitution endured, and from the viewpoint of outsiders, Venice bathed in the myth that its inhabitants enjoyed exceptional peace and political continuity.
Perilous Scripts, Forced Unions, and Ragged Wedding Nights
Authors: Ferraro Joanne M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
camilla belloto, the forty-nine-year-old daughter of a silk weaver, petitioned the Patriarch’s Court in Venice in 1617 in the hopes of obtaining a formal separation from her husband, Angelo de Bollis, a textile worker from the Friulan town of Palmanova.1 The procurator Camilla had engaged, Pietro Abettino (a canon lawyer and a cleric), explained that her relationship with her husband had deteriorated within months of their taking their nuptial vows, twenty-five years earlier. Angelo had reneged on his commitment to support Camilla, and instead, he and his mother had offered his young bride’s sexual services to a gentleman. After six months Camilla abandoned Angelo, taking refoge in her father’s house in the neighboring town of Padua for a year and a half.
Concubines and Courtesans in the Courts
Authors: Ferraro Joanne M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“farewell my concubine” might be the refrain a patrician lover sang to his old flame when the candle had lost its flicker, or he had finally succumbed to family pressure to renounce a long-standing, illicit affair. At times fathers and brothers demanded such renunciations. When a son or brother who was not selected to marry appeared to be reneging on his commitment to remain single, simulating marriage with his concubine, the joint family venture became vulnerable to inheritance disputes or dissipation of the patrimony. Thus, father and/or brothers exhorted the family member gone astray to pawn his concubine off on a man oflesser status. From a male patrician perspective, the honor of the wayward woman was restored through legitimate marriage while the interests of the fraterna remained intact. Concttbines, however, did not always willingly go away. Moreover, they so resented being conveniently discarded and shuffled around by their noble lovers that they sought the aid of the Patriarchal Court. Their cases afford us the opportunity to study modes of cohabitation outside the legal, conjugal bond.1 They also cast light on the sexual activity of both married and unmarried patrician males.2
Tales of Violence, Hunger, and Betrayal
Authors: Ferraro Joanne M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
in 1584, Pasquetta Peregrini decided to change her unhappy domestic circumstances. No longer willing to live with Romano Cavatia, her husband of four years, she initiated proceedings for a separation in the Patriarchal Court.1 Like many other women who left their husbands, Pasquetta retreated for the duration of the ecclesiastical investigation to a place that would preserve her honor and safety, the convent of San Maffei on the island of Murano. A month later she moved to another refuge, the convent of Sant’Andrea.2 There, in June 1584, two months after she had left her husband, Pasquetta told her story to the notary who had come to record her deposition.3
Tearing the Hand Off
Authors: Connelly Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On August 25, 1958, Algerian militants launched a wave of attacks across the French metropole. They blew up oil tanks, gunned down policemen, attempted to assassinate Soustelle—whom de Gaulle had just named minister of information—and even planted explosives in the Eiffel Tower. While these last two operations failed, the new offensive succeeded in gaining the attention of the foreign press and foreign capitals. “They have remembered that there is a dirty war going on in Algeria capable of contaminating the West” an FIN bulletm explained. The virus that weakens colonialist France and through her the whole Atlantic Alliance has crossed the Mediterranean.”
Signaling in the Brain
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although Shakespeare asked this question near the end of the sixteenth century, the answer had been known, at least to some, for more than two millennia. Many ancient Greek scholars, Hippocrates and Plato among them, appreciated that there is something special about the brain, and argued that the brain is responsible for behavior in humans and other animals. We now take it for granted that the brain is the organ that obtains information about the environment, processes and stores this information, and generates behavior. In addition, it is the brain that is responsible for such vaguely defined aspects of behavior as feelings, aspirations, and abstract thoughts, those qualities we consider—with more than a touch of hubris—quintessentially human. Diseases of the brain, which often are associated with aging and hence are on the increase as the human life span lengthens, cause untold suffering for individuals, families, and society as a whole. In essence then, it is the brain that makes us what we are, and indeed it can be argued that all other organs are there simply to support the brain. For this reason understanding the biology of brain function is a major goal of modern science. The brain is one of the last great frontiers in the biological sciences, and the unraveling of its mysteries is comparable in complexity and intellectual challenge to the search for the elementary particles of matter or the effort to explore space.
Ion Channels, Membrane Ion Currents, and the Action Potential
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A great deal of what we know about ion channels, including information about selectivity and gating of different types of channels, was already understood long before single channel recording and the application of molecular and structural approaches revolutionized the field. This understanding developed because, for more than 60 years, the voltage clamp invented by K. C. Cole allowed us to record the macroscopic membrane current in some cells. As we discussed in Chapter 4, the macroscopic current is the combined current flowing simultaneously through all the active ion channels in the cell. In the current chapter, we shall expand on this topic, to describe in detail just how such voltage clamp measurements of ion currents have led to a detailed mechanistic understanding of the action potential. Let us begin with a review of the fundamental physicochemical concept of the equilibrium potential, which is essential for understanding all electrical phenomena in biological membranes. We will then go on to consider how voltage‗and time—dependent sodium and potassium currents combine to give rise to the action potential. It is important to keep in mind throughout that there is nothing mysterious about the phenomena we are discussing here they arise logically from the properties of just a few kinds of membrane proteins, the sodium and potassium channel proteins that (as we have seen in Chapter 5) are becoming increasingly understood in molecular detail.
Neurotransmitters and Neurohormones
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the previous two chapters that a neuron is in large part an elaborate and intricately regulated machine for the secretion of a variety of chemicals. Why do cells go to all this trouble? Although direct electrical connections between nerve cells also play an essential role (see Chapter 8), it is chemical signaling that mediates much of the intercellular communication among nerve cells within the central nervous system. In addition, the transfer of information into the nervous system from sensory organs and the output from the nervous sys tem in the form of muscular contraction are mediated by extracellular chemical messengers. In this chapter we will discuss in a systematic way the different classes of neurotransmitters and neurohormones, some of which we have already met in other contexts. Subsequent chapters will deal with receptors on the target cell that recognize and bind these substances and with the transduction mechanisms that are involved in converting the extracellular chemical signal into an appropriate response (usually electrical) in the target cell.
The Birth and Death of a Neuron
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Radical changes in the structure and connections of neurons occur during the development of the nervous system. Immature neurons are subject to chemical and mechanical influences that cause them to migrate to various locations in the nervous system, to extend axonal and dendritic processes toward other cells, and then to make and break synaptic connections with these cells before a final pattern of branching and connections is established. A full account of the different stages of neuronal development is beyond the scope of this book, which focuses on the properties of adult nerve cells. Nevertheless, neuronal plasticity in the adult animal may utilize mechanisms that are active during development, a period of profound plastic changes in neuronal structure and function. Furthermore, many of these mechanisms may also contribute to the maintenance of neuronal form and connections in the adult. In this chapter, we shall therefore first give a brief and general account of the normal course of neuronal development, and discuss some of the molecules involved in the earliest steps of the formation of the nervous system. We shall cover how new neurons come into being, both during development and in the adult. Finally, we shall discuss the mechanisms that lead to the death of a neuron. The following three chapters will cover molecules that determine the existence and properties of select groups of neurons, the growth of axons, and the formation of synaptic contacts.
Technology and Transition
Authors: Feenberg Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Marx created Marxism by conjoining a philosophical critique of alienation with the aspirations of the labor movement. The critique was directed at the enslavement of human beings to machines in modern industrial civilization. Workers’ aspirations for democracy and economic justice appeared quite modest in comparison with this speculative attack on industrialism itself. Yet so long as conservative regimes opposed even their most elementary demands, it could be argued that workers’ pursuit of a better life depended on general civilizational change.
“Every man knows where and how beauty gives him pleasure” Beauty Discourse and the Logic of Aesthetics
Authors: Jones Amelia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Each of these great figures in the history of aesthetics-Immanuel Kant, Johann Winckelmann, and John Ruskin-acknowledges the profound instability of beauty as a mode of appreciating objects and images that seduce us (in texts from 1790, 1764, and 1849, respectively).1 There is tension in their acknowledgments, however; while proclaiming the contingency of beauty, each goes on to attempt to recuperate some kind of authority for himself as its arbiter.
Beautiful Identities: When History Turns State’s Evidence
Authors: Noriega Chon A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Buried in the Federal Trade Commission Library are several intragovernmental documents from the 1960s and 1970s that can be found in no other archive, but that signal an attempt within the state itself to create an autonomous space outside its own corporate liberalism and the emerging global media. That space was an aesthetic space, instrumental neither for political representation nor for mass communication; instead it served the needs of a social movement for beautiful identities. That space is now called “Chicano cinema” and its mode-initially at least-is that of the documentary. and its location, television.
Functional Equations
Authors: Falmagne Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It sometimes happens that theories in psychology or other empirical sciences are formalized by equations involving unknown functions. For instance, the theorist may be reluctant to make specific assumptions regarding the form of the functions involved in a mathematical model. The equations themselves often reduce the possibilities, however, and occasionally the restrictions are so severe as to restrict all forms to but a few. The most celebrated case in psychophysics involves the connection between Weber’s law and the so-called Fechner’s problem. The restrictions there are such as to yield a logarithm as the only possible form for a function, which Fechner interpreted as measuring the magnitude of the sensation evoked by a stimulus (cf. Chapters 4 and 5). Many other examples will be encountered in this book. This chapter discusses some useful results for analyzing such questions. The term functional equations describes the part of mathematics devoted to the discussion of problems of this kind, in which the unknowns are not numbers, but the form of the functions entering in an equation, or a system of equations. For a systematic treatment of functional equations, see for example, Aczél (1966).
Models of Discrimination
Authors: Falmagne Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 4, we considered a forced-choice paradigm, in which a subject is presented with pairs (a,b) of stimuli (a,b are real numbers, representing the stimulus values on some physical scale). The subject’s task is to select one of the two stimuli as exceeding the other, in terms of some subjective attribute such as loudness or perceived weight, depending on the nature of the stimuli. The basic theoretical notion was a probability P a,b that the subject chooses a over b.
Signal Detection Theory
Authors: Falmagne Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Any psychophysical task has cognitive components, this term covering a variety of such factors as response bias, guessing strategy, motivation, etc. So far in our approach to psychophysical theory, we have implicitly assumed that such factors could be bypassed or controlled by careful experimental design. In fact, we have ignored them. This position is not without its weaknesses; an example will make this clear.
Psychophysics with Several Variables or Channels
Authors: Falmagne Jean-Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We consider here a number of paradigms and models designed to analyze how a subject integrates the information flowing from several sensory inputs. Examples of how this may arise have been encountered in earlier chapters. In the yes/no paradigm discussed in Chapter 10, for instance, the subject had to detect a stimulus s embedded in a “masking” noise n. The subject’s responses were regarded as resulting from some operation combining, on the sensory side, the effect of both sand n on the organism, and on the cognitive side, factors affecting decision making.
Killers of Conviction Groups, Ideology, and Extraordinary Evil
Authors: Waller James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the ways in which we explain extraordinary human evil is to focus on the means by which groups make that evil possible. Intuitively, many of us recognize that we are vulnerable to losing ourselves in a group. There seems to be something about the nature of the collective—a small band of marauders, an army battalion, a mob, a social or political organization, an office staff, a nation—that brings out our worst tendencies. A long line of scholarly interest in the collective has legitimized that intuition.
The Dead End of Demonization
Authors: Waller James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hannah Arendt was one of about 37,000 German Jews who emigrated from Germany in 1933. She first went to France, where, with Youth Aliyah, she worked for the immigration of Jewish refugee children into Palestine. Interned during the war at Gurs, in Vichy France, she escaped, made her way to the United States in 1941, and secured U.S. citizenship in 1951.