bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Data Automation
Authors: Patnoe Richard A. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
This chapter presents the basic concepts of electronic data processing (EDP) systems and describes the steps necessary to plan, design, and implement an effective computer application. Industrial health applications are also discussed and references are provided to assist those interested in pursuing additional aspects of data automation. A data processing glossary is included for reference.
Discussions with industrial hygiene professionals about the demands of their jobs reveal that many are spending a significant amount of time arranging, refining, and manipulating data. Of the time spent working with data, many people estimate that 80% of the time is related to the above tasks and that 20% or less is concerned with interpretation of the data and in adding value to the results. This is a tragic waste of effort since the 80% discussed above are activities that can very easily, speedily, and conveniently be handled by automation. Computers and computing technology do a fantastic job of manipulating, collecting, and sorting of data. When industrial hygienists are working on these aspects of the problem, their talents and value to the enterprise are not being fully utilized. The industrial hygienist truly becomes valuable when efforts are spent in interpretation of data, deciding what additional data is needed, and presenting this data. The use of data automation frees up industrial hygienists to do the advanced and technical aspects of their jobs. Everyone is interested in making the maximum contribution to their job/employer and increasing their worth to the enterprise. Certainly, the employer shares that interest. Thus, the quest becomes one of how to optimize the effectiveness of the industrial hygienist. Automating data management can contribute to this. This chapter discusses how automating data can help to increase this value.
Risk Analysis for the Workplace
Authors: Tardiff Robert G. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Occupational exposures to chemicals, often inevitable, are generally viewed as without consequence to the health of the workers, provided that the doses are no greater than limits set by some recognized authority.
Risk analysis (also referred to as risk estimation) is often vital to decisions on controlling risks and to communicating about the significance of risks before and after abatement of emissions. By its nature, the risk analysis process enables the systematic evaluation of data and the quantitative presentation of complex information. It facilitates both comparisons among alternatives and incorporation of seemingly disparate information (e.g., technological choices, economics, and policy goals) into complex decision‐making processes.

Applied to emissions of chemicals in the work environment, risk analysis (
1
) characterizes injurious effects that might be associated with an activity, (
2
) enables comparison of health risks of existing technologies with health risks or benefits of proposed replacement or supplemental technologies, (
3
) helps to distinguish between major and minor sources of risks and their relative impact on health for resource allocations, and (
4
) permits establishment of priorities in cases presenting multiple potential health problems with limited resources to address them. With an understanding of the extent and seriousness of potential health effects, reasoned choices can be made about allocation of resources and about engagement in specific activities.

Selections of one technological approach over another to reduce emissions of chemicals to the atmosphere can be greatly influenced by an understanding of the degree of health safety or health risk associated with each option. Furthermore, knowledge of the health benefits from a specific selection can be shared with those exposed to ease the concern for their well‐being.
This chapter first provides an overview of risk analysis and describes some detailed procedures applied to the interpretation of physical, chemical, and toxicity data to estimate risks. Next, an illustration of the estimation of risks from exposure to a carcinogen in the workplace is presented. That is followed by a comparable illustration to demonstrate the derivation of the degree of safety from workplace exposures to reproductive toxicants. A variety of resource documents are available to the reader that provide more detailed information about risk analysis procedures and their applicability.
Health Surveillance Programs In Industry
Authors: Zavon Mitchell R. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract

There is no universal agreement on what is included or what should be included in the term
health surveillance in industry
. Some apply a narrow interpretation, for example, making it synonymous with “health effects monitoring” or “the periodic medical– physiological examinations of exposed workers with the objective of protecting health and preventing occupationally related disease. The detection of established diseases is outside the scope of the definition”. It was defined as distinct from
biological monitoring
, “the measurement and assessment of workplace agents or their metabolites either in tissues, secreta, excreta, expired air or any combinations of these to evaluate exposure and health risk compared to an appropriate measure.”. This discussion, however, is not limited to such a narrow definition of health surveillance; the maintenance and protection of worker health must include evaluations of exposure as well as evidence of biologic effects, if any.

Any discussion of health surveillance in industry must take into account the reasons for such surveillance. First and foremost in the rationale for such a program should be concern with health maintenance and health protection of those in the work force. This should not exclude mental health, an area of concern which has rarely been addressed when looking at health surveillance in industry. Any discussion of health surveillance in industry must, however, take into account the important influence of government regulations. These regulations will differ greatly around the globe. This discussion will be directed primarily toward the American experience and regulations. These include mandates by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (EEOC), and others. There are also influential guidelines by nonregulatory agencies, such as the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The specific requirements embedded in regulations promulgated by these agencies, and some of the fallacies therein, will be addressed after a more general review of current medical and scientific concepts regarding the role of such surveillance in worker health protection.
Although the emphasis in this chapter will be on hazard‐oriented health surveillance aimed at protection of workers, it is still important to regard this as part of a broader program of health maintenance. The effective incorporation of special elements into a more general health program is the preferred approach. For this reason it is not feasible to discuss hazard‐oriented examinations out of the context of examinations to detect preexisting conditions or the development of abnormalities unrelated to the work environment.
Explosion Hazards of Combustible Gases, Vapors, and Dusts
Authors: Hertzberg Martin 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
An explosion is a gas‐dynamic process by which a marked increase in system pressure generates destructive forces. The cause of the pressure rise is a rapid, exothermic chemical reaction, which propagates as a combustion wave, and which markedly increases the gas temperature behind the wave. Those destructive forces can damage or destroy structures, and endanger personnel nearby. Such chemical explosions are a major hazard in homes, commerce, and industry, and it is essential to understand the factors that cause them in order to prevent their occurrence. The rapid chemical reaction that generates the explosion is usually the oxidation of a fuel in air, which leads to such a rapid energy release from the exothermic reaction that the system temperature increases markedly. Limits of flammability and application to practice; Prevention and control; Explosion probability in typical scenarios are discussed.
Air Pollution
Authors: McKee David J. , Bachman John D. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractAir pollution has been affecting human health since the dawn of mankind. Whether caused by human activity, such as the burning of carbonaceous fuels, or natural events, such as wildfires and volcanic eruptions, it has been recognized for millenia that air pollution can adversely affect human health and even result in the death of some individuals. Some of the best known air pollution disasters occurred in Europe and the U.S. (e.g., Meuse Valley, Belgium in 1930; Donora, Pennsylvania in 1948; London in 1952) during this century and were documented better than any previous air pollution events. These events and growing public support in the 1960s provided the impetus for passing the Clean Air Act of 1970, legislation designed specifically to improve air quality in the U.S. This chapter documents results of implementing the Clean Air Act and health effects of many of the air pollutants regulated by the Act.This chapter provides a summary of sources, health/environmental effects, and trends in air quality of the six principal ambient air pollutants (commonly known as air quality criteria pollutants) and discusses other air pollution problems, including global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, and visibility impairment. A detailed discussion of the health effects of the six principal air pollutants is given.
Hazardous Wastes
Authors: Simkins Lisa K. 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction and overview of hazardous waste management issues. The topics include major regulatory requirements pertaining to hazardous waste, waste characterization, management options, and health and safety considerations. Owing to the vast number of local, state, and federal regulations pertaining to this subject, the practicing professional must always consult the latest regulations before embarking on a hazardous waste management program. This chapter can be viewed as a starting point that provides basic background information for the industrial hygienist or environmental professional involved in one or more facets of hazardous waste management.
Selection of Personal Protective Equipment (Excluding Respirators and Hearing Protection)
Authors: Stull Jeffrey O. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractPersonal Protective Equipment (PPE) comprises items of clothing and equipment that are used by themselves or in combination with other protective clothing and equipment to isolate the individual wearer from a particular hazard or a number of hazards. PPE can also be used to protect the environment from the individual such as in the case of cleanroom apparel and medical devices for infection control.PPE is considered the “last line of defense” against particular hazards when it is not possible to prevent worker exposure by using engineering or administrative controls. Engineering controls should be first used to eliminate a hazard from the work place by modifying the work environment or process to prevent any contact of workers with the hazard. When neither engineering nor administrative controls are possible, PPE should be used.Workers should not rely on PPE exclusively for protection against hazards, but should use PPE in conjunction with guards, engineering controls, and sound manufacturing practices in the workplace setting. While PPE is designed for protection of personnel against various hazards, PPE cannot provide protection to the wearer against all hazards under all conditions. The use of PPE itself may create additional hazards for the wearer including heat stress; reduced mobility, dexterity, and tactility; and impaired vision or hearing. Therefore, PPE must be selected not only for the level of protection that it provides, but also for the specific wearer hazards that it creates, or its impact on worker productivity.PPE covers a broad range of different clothing and equipment items, including: full and partial body protective garments; protective gloves and other handwear; protective footwear; protective headwear; protective face and eyewear; respirators; and hearing protectors or hearing protection devices.The selection and use of PPE is relevant to several different industries, where different hazards exist requiring: physical protection; environmental protection; chemical protection; biological protection; thermal protection; and electrical protection.OSHA regulations dictate the use of PPE when hazards exist and require employers to select PPE based on a risk assessment and to provide proper training in the use of selected PPE.Because of the broad range of PPE types and applications, this chapter focuses on those areas in which there is less information available to industry for selection of “appropriate” PPE. The chapter emphasizes information and processes for PPE selection. This chapter specifically excludes respiratory protection and hearing protection that are covered in other chapters.
Occupational Dermal Exposure Assessment
Authors: Nylander‐French Leena A. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThe skin is generally considered to be a good barrier to the systemic absorption of chemicals. However, many chemicals can partially or fully breach the skin where they may be metabolized, and interact with dermal macromolecules or components of the skin immune system, and then be systemically absorbed and distributed. Thus, dermal exposure to chemical substances can contribute significantly to the total systemic dose as well as result in acute or chronic skin toxicity and disease.Skin diseases related to occupational exposure are the second most prevalent type of occupational disease. From 1983 to 1994, occupational skin diseases increased by 26%. In 1994, approximately 66,000 cases were reported, which accounted for 13% of all occupational related disease. Since occupational skin diseases are believed to be severely under‐reported, the actual rate may be much higher. Total costs (including lost productivity) have been estimated at $1 billion annually. Given such widespread prevalence of skin diseases, we need better measures for predicting, quantifying, and preventing dermal exposure to hazardous agents.Dermal exposure to hazardous chemicals in the workplace has become an important occupational hygiene issue and a growing field of interest to health professionals in occupational hygiene and dermatology. Dermal exposure has been indicated as the primary source for the systemic exposure from chlorophenols, polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), glycol ethers, chlorpyrifos, acrylamide, cyclophosphamide, and 4,4’‐methylene dianiline. Exposure to chemicals, which may interact with endogenous nucleophilic sites in the skin directly (e.g., electrophilic isocyanates) or following metabolism to reactive metabolites (e.g., benzo[a]pyrene diolepoxide), has not been systematically investigated and is poorly understood. The deposition, absorption, and uptake of chemicals into and through the epidermis, and the biological consequences of dermal penetration are also difficult to measure. Thus, the significance of adverse health effects associated with dermal exposure is difficult to evaluate.A major limitation to our understanding and development of this area of research has been the absence of a reliable noninvasive method to determine chemical‐specific skin deposition and to investigate mechanisms of dermal toxicity. Thus, the threshold dose required to induce an adverse effect and toxicity from occupational and environmental exposure conditions cannot be determined accurately.Methods to assess the significance of dermal exposure are limited in number and scope. The current methods available for measuring dermal exposure, e.g., removal tecniques, surrogate techniques, fluorescence techniques, all suffer from fundamental problems and have not been adequately documented and validated. This chapter reviews and summarizes our current knowledge on dermal exposure assessment, and reviews and evaluates the current sampling methods.
Industrial Toxicology: Origins and Trends
Authors: Bingham Eula , Zapp John 
Published: August 2005

Abstract
Industrial toxicology is a comparatively recent discipline, but its roots are shadowed in the mists of time. The beginnings of toxicology, the knowledge or science of poisons, are prehistoric. Earliest human beings found themselves in environments that were at the same time helpful and hostile to their survival. They found their food among the plants, trees, animals, and fish in their immediate surroundings, their clothing in the skins of animals, and their shelter mainly in caves. Their earliest tools and weapons were of wood and stone.
It was in the very early period of prehistory that humans must have become aware of the phenomenon of toxicity. Some fruits, berries, and vegetation could be eaten with safety and to their benefit, whereas others caused illness or even death. The bite of the asp or adder could be fatal, whereas the bite of many other snakes was not. Humans learned from experience to classify things into categories of safe and harmful. Personal survival depended on recognition and avoidance, so far as possible, of the dangerous categories.
In a unique difference from other animals, humans learned to construct tools and weapons that facilitated their survival. Stone and wood gave way in time to bronze and then to iron as materials for constructing these tools and weapons. The invention of the bow and arrow was a giant step forward in weaponry, for it gave humans a chance to kill animals or other people from a safe distance. And humans soon used their knowledge of the poisonous materials they found in their natural environment to enhance the lethality of their weapons.
This article gives a detailed history of the origin of industrial toxicology, both experimental and industrial. Early studies in chemical carcinogenesis are listed. Trends include a section on toxicological testing, human genome, global workplaces, mixtures, and training and personnel complete this introduction chapter to the Work.
Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology
Authors: Kimmel Carole A. , Buelke-Sam Judy 
Published: August 2005

AbstractThis chapter provides a brief overview of normal reproduction and development, as well as examples of how toxic agents may impact these processes. It summarizes the types of studies conducted and data collected as part of routine toxicity testing. Assumptions that must be made in the risk assessment process and an evaluation of data from both animal and human studies used in this process are discussed. The integration of hazard data (both animal and human) and dose–response information is described, and exposure estimates in the final characterization of risk are summarized. Advances have been made in our understanding of reproductive and developmental toxicity, particularly as the integration of molecular biology and toxicology has grown. However, there are still many gaps in our knowledge of both normal and abnormal reproductive and developmental processes. Further research will continue to fill these gaps and enhance our ability to identify more specific susceptible events in these processes and ultimately reduce adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes due to chemical exposures.The views expressed in this chapter are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of trade names of commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Wood Dust
Authors: Dement John 
Published: August 2005

AbstractWood dust is any particle arising from processing or handling wood. Woods are classified into two broad botanical classifications; hardwood is the common name given to the botanical classificationAngiosperms, and softwood is the common name given to the botanical classificationGymnosperms.Gymnospermshave exposed seeds whereas angiosperms have encapsulated seeds. Although there are more than 12,000 species of trees recorded, most species are deciduous trees or hardwoods, and only about 800 species are coniferous trees or softwoods.This article discusses production and uses of wood. Wood use depends on availability. Biologically active organic compounds in wood are described. Wood dust is not a component of the ambient environment in the vicinity of woodworking operations. Toxicity information is given for populations exposed to wood dust (mill workers, furniture makers, etc.). Diseases studied include, nonmalignant lung disease, lung cancer, digestive cancer, and Hodgkin's disease. Wood exposure limits for hardwoods and softwoods are listed.
Bloodborne Pathogens In the Workplace
Authors: Hunt Debra L. , Tulis Jerry J. 
Published: August 2005

AbstractOccupationally acquired infections from bloodborne pathogens have been recognized since 1949, when a laboratory worker was reported to have been infected with “serum hepatitis” in a blood bank. In the early 1970s, serological tests became available for the diagnosis of infection with hepatitis A and hepatitis B viruses. Seroprevalence studies were then able to document the distinct epidemiology of these two viruses and the extent of transmission to healthcare workers. For example, Skinhoj reported subsequent increases in occurences of laboratory‐acquired hepatitis and found a sevenfold higher rate of hepatitis in laboratory workers when compared with the general population.With the development of diagnostic tests for other bloodborne agents (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (HIV‐1) and hepatitis C virus), studies continued to show that occupational infections with bloodborne pathogens were occurring. The potential occult infectivity of blood has been emphasized with the documentation of 54 occupationally transmitted infections with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV‐1) in the United States. Since the first occupational transmission was reported in 1984, healthcare and laboratory administrators, as well as those in the public sector, have reexamined the infection control aspects of their work practices and have begun to analyze and develop equipment and procedures to minimize exposures.Because infection with HIV and other bloodborne pathogens is not always clinically apparent, and the infectious potential of blood and other body fluids is not always known, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommended “universal blood and body fluid precautions” in 1987. This approach emphasizes that blood and body fluid precautions should be consistently used forallpatients and their clinical specimens and tissues.The “universal precautions” strategy has formed the foundation for federal guidelines through the CDC and regulations from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Both organizations recognize that this practical approach to safety will not only minimize the risk of occupationally acquired HIV‐1 infection but will also serve to protect against occupational infection with other bloodborne pathogens such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human T‐cell leukemia viruses I and II, HIV‐2, and, to a large extent, prions (agents causing Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease).The risks to healthcare and laboratory workers are dynamic because of the availability of vaccines, antiviral treatment, and recognition of new agents and interactions with old ones. It is the purpose of this chapter to provide an overview of the epidemiology, risk of transmission, and the recommended or regulated strategies to prevent occupational transmission of HIV and other bloodborne pathogens.