bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Securing Subsidiarity: The Institutional Design of Federalism in the United States and Europe
Authors: Coglianese Cary , Nicolaidis Kalypso 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Adopts the conceptual tools of agency theory to rethink the challenge of federal governance under conditions of broad concurrency in the allocation of competences by examining the relations between states and the union as instances of principal–agent relationships, and considering the different kinds of ‘mechanisms of control’ available to the agents. After exploring the theoretical implications of principal–agent theory for issues of intergovernmental structures, an examination is made of the different tiered regimes of the USA and the EU for evidence of the mechanisms suggested by the theoretical analysis. It is argued that these tiered regimes feature several characteristic mechanisms that may help sustain the legitimacy of allocations of authority between different levels, and that the policy debate surrounding federalism should include attention to these mechanisms, along with the discussion of the appropriateness of centralization or decentralization. The different sections of the chapter are: Allocation and Legitimacy from a Principal–Agent Perspective; Mechanisms for Securing Allocational Legitimacy; and Federalism and Allocational Legitimacy.
Federalism and State Governance in the European Union and the United States: An Institutional Perspective
Authors: Schmidt Vivien 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Starts by briefly comparing and contrasting the institutional structures and policy‐making processes in the USA and the EU. Two interrelated arguments are presented in the rest of the chapter: (1) that the EU has quasi‐federal institutional structures and quasi‐pluralist policy‐making processes, which in many ways resemble those of the USA; and (2) that although the EU imposes general adaptational pressures on all member states’ institutions, it, nevertheless, has a differential impact on these member states depending upon whether they are unitary or federal in structure and whether they are statist or corporatist in processes. The different sections of the chapter are: The Institutional Structures of the European Union; The Impact of EU Institutional Structures on Member States; EU Policy‐Making Processes; and The Impact of EU Policy‐Making Processes on Member States.
Conclusion: The Federal Vision Beyond the Federal State
Authors: Nicolaidis Kalypso 
Published: October 2003

AbstractFleshes out some of the common horizontal themes emerging from the book, and presents the broad elements of federal vision that have been discussed. The vision calls for five concurrent shifts in understanding what matters about federal contracts, each central to fashioning a ‘federal’ response to the challenge of legitimacy. In particular, it is suggested how the notion of ‘subsidiarity’ as commonly understood—that political decisions should be made and policies conducted at the lowest, or most appropriate, level—should be fine‐tuned, reinterpreted, or even relabelled. The five shifts that are discussed in the different sections of the conclusion are: from allocative outcomes to the process of change—legitimacy and flexibility; from distributed to shared competences—networked cooperation, proportionality, and changing forms of governance; from separation of powers to power checks—governance structures, procedural subsidiarity, and the safeguards of federalism; from power containment to empowerment—proactive subsidiarity, managed competition, and mutuality; and from multi‐level (hierarchical) to multi‐centred governance and horizontal subsidiarity. The concluding section looks towards a model of global subsidiarity.
Considerations in Favour of Eliminativism
Authors: Merricks Trenton 
Published: October 2003

AbstractFurther clarifies eliminativism, and further demonstrates its intelligibility, by showing eliminativism's novel and interesting solutions to a number of philosophical puzzles. The arguments of this chapter also support the truth of eliminativism. The arguments touch on a variety of topics, including vagueness and the ‘Sorites Game,’ worries about co‐location and constitution, and the way a thinker (such as a person) is related to her brain.
Natures: Divine, Human, Animal
Authors: Long A. A. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractRather than expounding Stoic cosmology, Epictetus offers a strikingly personalist conception of God. His focus on divine providence echoes Socrates. Human kinship to God, and the internal divinity constituted by human rationality, are the principal themes of his theology (ideas that strongly echo Plato). Epictetus presents the normative human condition as a process that starts at the merely animal level and ends with achieving independence from the body and self‐conscious understanding of divine providence.
Appropriate Actions and Feelings
Authors: Long A. A. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractEpictetus characteristically views moral action in relation to a person's identity and social roles. To be human, in his view, is to be engaged in a profession, calling for excellent performance in terms of one's rational nature and contingent circumstances. As a Stoic, he treats the passions as malfunctions of reason, but he emphasizes tolerance towards those who err, and a controlled empathy towards those in distress.
What Is Arianism?
Authors: Wiles Maurice 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Outlines the attitude of modern scholarship to heresy in general, and to Arianism in particular. Argues that Arianism as traditionally understood is largely a polemical construction created by Athanasius, and is an unsatisfactory concept for historical research. Finally offers its own sympathetic reconstruction of Arianism with a more positive evaluation of the Arian appeal to scripture, tradition, and research.
Maimbourg's Millennium and the Second Death of Arianism
Authors: Wiles Maurice 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The seventeenth‐century Jesuit historian Louis Maimbourg spoke of a first death of Arianism at the conversion of the Lombard kingdom to orthodoxy in 662 ce, with a brief revival initiated by Michael Servetus at the time of the Reformation leading to a second death around 1660 ce. This chapter surveys that millennium briefly, illustrating the occasional reference to Arianism in the Middle Ages, and looking in a little more detail at the anti‐Nicene teaching of Servetus and the more explicitly Arian‐type teaching of anti‐Trinitarian theology in Poland.
In Defence of Convention T
Authors: Davidson Donald 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAs in Essay 4, Davidson rehearses the demands for an acceptable theory of meaning, and stresses the demand that the stock of concepts used by metalanguage in which the truth theory is stated extends minimally beyond, and ideally includes, that of the object language. He explains how this demand to keep technical machinery at a minimum is congenial to Tarksi's Convention T and his own favoured restriction to first‐order quantification. He then looks at how alternative approaches to semantics fare under this constraint and concludes that the prospects of those employing modal logics, possible world semantics, or substitutional quantification are accordingly dim. In specific, those programmes rely on relativized notions of truth, such as truth on a model, at the expense of leaving the absolute concept of truth undefined; yet it is this absolute concept we naturally apply to sentences and require when specifying their truth conditions or meanings.
Moods and Performances
Authors: Davidson Donald 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDavidson collapsed the theory of sense into the theory of reference in Essay 2; he now asks whether he can do likewise with a theory of force, i.e. whether a truth theory can accommodate what mood captures; if it cannot, ‘then truth theory is inadequate as a general theory of language.’ The mood of a sentence can be either indicated by its syntactic category (or related indications such as Frege's assertion sign) or individuated by which speech acts one can perform using the sentence. Davidson notes that these two alternative classifications are not straightforwardly congruent (such that assertions would simply be utterances of indicative sentences, and commands utterances of imperative ones): we can ask a question using an indicative or imperative sentence, and issue a command using an indicative one. After questioning the rationale of individuations of mood that exploit illocutionary force (Austin) or conventionally recognized use (Dummett; see also Essay 18), Davidson draws up a number of constraints on the valid individuation of mood. As these constraints demand that mood be indicated by a non‐truth functional sentential operator, Davidson transforms the operator into a distinct sentence by means of the paratactic (‘sentence‐splitting’) analysis developed in Essay 7.
Constitutional Design: Proposals Versus Processes
Authors: Horowitz Donald L. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The essence of democracy is that it is indigenous, and the practice over importing a model of democratic governance from outside virtually assures its non‐democratic character, unless a very circumspect approach is adopted. Nor is there a clear theoretical consensus within the developed countries themselves. This chapter sets out the author's basic objections to the theory of consociationalism, and his reasons for preferring an incentives‐based approach to encouraging accommodative behaviour over power‐sharing.
Ballots not Bullets: Testing Consociational Theories of Ethnic Conflict, Electoral Systems, and Democratization
Authors: Norris Pippa 
Published: October 2003

AbstractSummarizes the key assumptions in consociational theories of democracy, enumerates the key propositions to be explored, and describes the data and research methods to be employed. It then compares political attitudes and behaviour among a diverse range of ethnic minorities from countries with various levels of democratic and socio‐economic development—three countries with majoritarian electoral systems (the USA, Great Britain, Australia), three countries with ‘mixed’ or parallel electoral systems (Taiwan, Ukraine, Lithuania), and six countries with PR (proportional representation) systems (Poland, Romania, Czech Republic, Spain, New Zealand, Israel). The results of the analysis suggest that there is no simple relationship between the type of electoral system and majority–minority differences in political support. In particular, it finds no evidence for the proposition that PR party‐list systems are directly associated with higher levels of support for the political system among ethnic minorities.
The Eritrean Experience in Constitution Making: The Dialectic of Process and Substance
Authors: Selassie Bereket Habte 
Published: October 2003

AbstractOutlines the historical background, since the Italian colonization of 1890, to the ratification of Eritrea's constitution on 23 May 1997, which marked the end of 30 years of secessional war with Ethiopia. It recounts the work of the Constitutional Commission of Eritrea, appointed in the wake of the referendum of 1993, in devising and establishing constitutional government for an independent Eritrea. It describes the consultative processes employed and the constitutional architecture produced. The chapter concludes with a prognosis for the country's future democratic stability.
Indonesia's Democratic Transition: Playing by the Rules
Authors: Liddle R. William 
Published: October 2003

AbstractExamines an exceptional factor in Indonesia's post‐Suharto democratization, namely the elite's use of the 1945 Constitution, and reviews the earlier skill, of both President Soekarno and President Suharto, in using it to structure and legitimize their authoritarian regimes. The positive role played by the 1945 Constitution in Indonesia's democratic transition is an extraordinary irony of history, a striking instance of the way in which authoritarian institutions and ideologies can be turned against politicians who have spent decades fashioning them as instruments of autocratic power. However, in a further irony, it now looms as a major obstacle to democratic consolidation, as the new leadership prepares to undertake its substantial dismantlement and virtual replacement.
The Metaphysics of Theism
Authors: Kretzmann Norman 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Metaphysics of Theism presents an explanation and evaluation of Aquinas's natural theology, the paradigm of which is the first book of the Summa contra gentiles. Natural theology provides the traditional and still central means of integrating philosophy with (some of) theology. What makes this enterprise natural theology is its forgoing of appeals to revelation as evidence for the truth of propositions. What makes it natural theology is its agenda to investigate, by means of analysis and argument, not only the existence and nature of God but also the relation of everything else—especially human nature and behaviour—to God, considered as reality's first principle. Natural theology still offers the best route by which philosophers can, as philosophers, approach theological propositions. The one presented in this book undertakes to show that there must be a necessary being that constitutes the ultimate explanation of the universe.
Theology from the Bottom Up
Authors: Kretzmann Norman 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The plan is to take a metaphysically based natural theology as the first phase of a systematic presentation of the rest of philosophy, beginning with the establishment and investigation of what metaphysics has often finally identified as reality's first principle. This metaphysics of theism teaches theism but nevertheless counts as philosophical, because the starting points and ultimate justifications of its arguments are all accessible to ‘natural reason’ and because it never uses revealed propositions as more than occasional guides to its agenda. The Metaphysics of Theism deals only with the topics of Aquinas's Book I of Summa contra gentiles: ‘matters associated with God considered in himself’.
The Existence of Alpha
Authors: Kretzmann Norman 
Published: October 2003

AbstractWithout a good argument as yet for the existence of God or anything else that might count as the universal first source of being and assuming that there is an answer to the question, why is there this sort of world rather than another sort, or nothing at all—the working hypothesis is adopted that there is an ultimate explanatory principle. Aquinas's arguments that focus on immutability and causality are examined. Aquinas expressly grants the possibility of an infinite regress of generating causes, but denies it with sustaining causes. He assumes or considers self‐evident, some form of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. We arrive at an entity that can and must be identified with an altogether immutable, beginningless, endless, and independently existing entity ‘necessary through itself’, first cause, first mover, first sustainer, and first necessary being.
From God to Everything Else
Authors: Kretzmann Norman 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
SCGII is a logical continuation of SCGI since Book I serves as the location for the support for many of the premises of Book II's arguments. Aquinas takes up first the source of the production of things, its power, the relationship between the products and their source, and then its terminus. He reasons from the aspects of God's nature as established in Book I: from first efficient cause, from immovable first mover, from (fully) actual being, from supreme perfection, from perfection of will, and from pure actuality to the propriety of God's producing other things. Aquinas is laying the foundation for the claim that the nature for which that activity is appropriate must somehow involve the power requisite for it. God's power is God's action, God's power is not the source of God's action. Aquinas's argument to show that God is the universal producer of everything else is presented in detail.
The Soul's Anatomy
Authors: Kretzmann Norman 
Published: October 2003

AbstractA discussion of Aquinas's concern with the metaphysical and psychological aspects of philosophy of mind, which was, in Aquinas's own view, largely a picture of Aristotle's philosophy of mind. Aquinas discusses special features of the soul's union with the body as well as giving a detailed account of the nature and activities of the intellect. The human soul is the intellective (or rational) soul, the culminating substantial form in pre‐natal human development, superseding a merely sensory soul, which supersedes a merely nutritive soul. He has little to say about the powers and activities of the nutritive part of the human soul, but with respect to the cognitive powers, sensory as well as intellective, he takes sensory cognition to be the basis of intellective cognition and the proper objects of intellective cognition to be the real universal natures of sensible things. He argues that the human intellect uses no organ of the body in its distinctively intellective activity.
The Atomists
Authors: Hankinson R. J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn this chapter, Hankinson discusses the theory of Atomism, from Leucippus and Democritus to Epicurus and his followers. The early Atomists were concerned with the circumvention of the Eleatic denial of motion; they did so by positing unchanging atoms and the existence of the void in which the atoms move. Democritean Atomism is thoroughly mechanistic and reductionist; Epicurean Atomism is ontologically more generous, accepting, for instance, the reality of properties and guaranteeing, by virtue of the controversial notion of the ‘swerve’, the exercise of free will. Thus, although strictly speaking it denies uncaused events, Epicureanism nevertheless holds that human action is not subject to determinism. The later Epicureans also reject the Stoic view that fundamental physical principles are logically necessary truths.
Science and Explanation
Authors: Hankinson R. J. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractHankinson discusses Ptolemy, whose geometrical model was the most sophisticated development in ancient astronomy, at the beginning of this chapter; but the main focus is on Galen's comprehensive account of causation. Galen insists that antecedent conditions are causes, because the effects are conditioned by them; furthermore, physical dispositions are also preceding causes, and together with the external antecedent conditions they produce the immediate necessary and sufficient containing causes of diseases. Galen combines Aristotle's four causes, except the formal cause, with the instrumental cause of Middle Platonism; he also distinguishes incidental and essential causes. From the Platonic tradition, Galen adopts a directed teleology, and an artisan‐god that is constrained by material necessity. Galen also contributes to the debate on freedom and responsibility: he argues that we remain responsible for what we do even if our actions are determined by causes outside our control.
The Market and Information
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter sets out the economic theory of the role of the state that underpins the rest of the book. It starts with a simple model – the Fisher model – of rational consumer choice over the life cycle. Subsequent sections relax the underlying assumptions, discussing in turn imperfect information in the goods market, the economics of insurance, the effect of imperfect information on insurance markets, and social insurance as a response to information failure. The concluding section summarizes the implications for policy, including discussion of market failure and government failure.
Twenty‐First‐Century Insurance Issues
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter discusses two issues that will assume increasing salience: the impact of genetic screening on insurance markets and problems of long‐term‐care insurance. Genetic screening affects the viability of insurance in at least two ways: by turning risk into near‐ certainty it creates a rapidly growing group of uninsurable conditions; it also has a major bearing on the ability of individuals to obtain cover. Neither problem is new, but genetic screening greatly increases the number of people affected. Solutions will require considerable regulation of private insurers. With long‐term care, a central problem is the degree of uncertainty over a long time horizon about the probability that a person will need long‐term care. One approach to a solution is social insurance.
Twenty‐First‐Century Pensions Issues
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Two sets of issues will become increasingly salient. The first part of the chapter discusses strategies to address population ageing, with heavy emphasis on two policies – increasing economic growth and raising the retirement age. The second part of the chapter discusses the possibility of pension design that is compatible with national and international labour mobility, fragmented family structures, and international competitive pressures. A particular question is whether it is possible to design pensions that have not only the advantages of defined‐contribution schemes (improved labour mobility) but also the advantages of defined‐benefit schemes (greater individual certainty).
Information Problems
Authors: Barr Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

AbstractInformation problems constrain the usefulness of consumer choice about school education, suggesting that the state will continue to provide the bulk of finance for school education and, separately, will continue to be the major provider. In contrast, consumer choice is useful for tertiary education, where consumers are better informed than central planners. This argument is strengthened by the growing diversity of post‐compulsory education and training. These arguments underpin the case for market forces in higher education discussed in detail in Ch. 13. Imperfect information is also a problem in capital markets. Conventional loans (for example, to buy a house), when applied to investment in human capital, present borrowers and, for different reasons, lenders with significant risk and uncertainty.