bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aerosols
Authors: Sciarra John J. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The aerosol container has enjoyed commercial success in a wide variety of product categories. Insecticide aerosols were introduced in the late 1940s, and shave foams, hair sprays, deodorants, paints, perfumes, whipped cream, and automotive products followed in the 1950s. Medicinal metered‐dose aerosol products have also been developed for use in the treatment of asthma, migraine headaches, and angina. Personal products are the fastest growing segment of the aerosol industry and represent the largest of the categories. Aerosol products are hermetically sealed, ensuring that the contents cannot leak, spill, or be contaminated. The packages can be considered to be tamper‐proof. They deliver the product in an efficient manner, generating little waste, often to sites of difficult access. By control of particle size, spray pattern, and volume delivered per second, the product can be applied directly without contact by the user. All aerosols consist of product concentrate, propellant, container, and valve (including an actuator and dip tube). The propellant, said to be the heart of an aerosol system, maintains a suitable pressure within the container and expels the product once the valve is opened. Propellants may be either a liquefied halocarbon, hydrocarbon, or halocarbon–hydrocarbon blend, or a compressed gas such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or nitrous oxide. Worldwide, use of CFC propellants, designated as Propellants 11, 12, and 114, is strictly limited to specialized medicinal aerosol products such as metered‐dose inhalers. The most popular aerosol container is the three‐piece, tin‐plated steel container. All aerosols are produced by either a cold‐filling or pressure‐filling process. Barrier packs utilize a plastic bag or piston to separate the product from the propellant.
Air Pollution
Authors: Wolff George T. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAir pollution is the presence of any substance in the atmosphere at a concentration high enough to produce an objectionable effect on humans, animals, vegetation, or materials, or to significantly alter the natural balance of any ecosystem. Substances can be solids, liquids, or gases, and can be produced by anthropogenic activities or natural sources. In this article only nonbiological material is considered and the discussion of airborne radioactive contaminants is limited to radon. The original six criteria pollutants, for which the Environmental Protection Agency is required to summarize published information on each, were sulfur dioxide, SO2; carbon monoxide, CO; nitrogen dioxide, NO2; ozone, O3; suspended particulates; and nonmethane hydrocarbons, NMHC. The NMHC are now referred to as volatile organic compounds (VOC). The NMHC were dropped from the list shortly after the criteria pollutants were so designated. In the late 1970s, lead, Pb, was added to the list and in 1987, so was particulate matter having an aerodynamic diameter of less than or equal to 10 µm, PM10. There have been several developments since the establishment of the criteria pollutants. In the mid‐1970s it was shown that high concentrations of O3and sulfate haze could be transported hundreds of miles, and acid deposition studies in the 1980s clearly illustrated the international and global aspects of this transport. Then stratospheric O3depletion and global warming became issues and air pollution was finally viewed in a global context. Air pollution can be considered to have three components: sources, transport and transformations in the atmosphere, and receptors. The source emits airborne substances. The receptor is the person, animal, plant, material, or ecosystem affected by the emissions. In the United States, the framework for air quality management is the Clean Air Act (CAA), which defines two categories of pollutants; criteria and hazardous. For the criteria pollutants, the CAA requires that EPA establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) and emissions standards for stationary sources and for motor vehicles. For the hazardous air pollutants, only emissions standards for some sources are required, but the number is growing rapidly. Current air pollution concerns include photochemical smog, volatile organic compounds (VOC), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter, global warming (the greenhouse effect), and stratospheric O3depletion, among others.
Aldehydes
Authors: Miller David J. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAldehydes are carbonyl‐containing organic compounds in which the carbonyl function is at a terminal carbon. These compounds are extremely reactive. The carbonyl group is susceptible to both oxidation and reduction, yielding acids and alcohols, respectively. The common method of naming aldehydes corresponds very closely to that of the related acids in that the termaldehydeis added to the base name of the acid. The C‐1 and C‐2 carbon aliphatic aldehydes, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, are gases at ambient conditions whereas the C‐3 (propanal) through C‐11 (undecanal) aldehydes are liquids, and higher aldehydes are solids at room temperature. The lower, C‐1 to C‐8 aldehydes have pungent, penetrating, unpleasant odors. Above C8, aldehydes have more pleasant odors and some higher aldehydes are used in the perfume and flavoring industries. Reactions of aldehydes generally fall into two classes: those directly affecting the carbonyl group and those involving the adjacent carbon atom. There are, acute effects of aldehydes: eye, skin, and respiratory tract irritation and organ pathology. Aldehydes find the most widespread use as chemical intermediates. A large proportion of aldehydes are converted to alcohols for use as solvents and in the manufacture of plasticizers. Fatty aldehydes C‐8–C‐13 are used in nearly all perfume types and aromas.
Alkanolamines from Nitro Alcohols
Authors: Bollmeier Allen F. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract

The nitro alcohols obtained by the condensation of nitroparaffins with formaldehyde may be reduced to a unique series of alkanolamines (β‐amino alcohols). The five primary amino alcohols manufactured on a commercially significant scale are 2‐amino‐2‐methyl‐1‐propanol (AMP), 2‐amino‐2‐ethyl‐1,3‐propanediol (AEPD), 2‐amino‐2‐(hydroxymethyl)‐1,3‐propanediol (TRIS AMINO), 2‐amino‐2‐methyl‐1,3‐propanediol (AMPD), and 2‐amino‐1‐butanol (AB). 2‐dimethylamino‐2‐methyl‐1‐propanol (DMAMP) is the only
N
‐substituted derivative of these compounds available in commercial quantities. The six commercial alkanolamines are highly soluble in water. They are generally very soluble in alcohols, slightly soluble in aromatic hydrocarbons, and nearly insoluble in aliphatic hydrocarbons. According to current DOT regulations, AMP, AMP‐95, DMAMP, DMAMP‐80, AEPD, and AB are all classified as combustible liquids. The commercial alkanolamines exhibit the chemical reactivity of both amines and alcohols, as other alkanolamines. Typically, they attack copper, brass, and aluminum, but not steel or iron. Alkanolamines are useful as amination agents. The reduction of nitro alcohols to alkanolamines is accomplished by hydrogenation in the presence of Raney nickel catalyst. Alkanolamines are only slightly toxic by ingestion. Undiluted DMAMP, AMP‐95, and AB cause eye burns and permanent damage if not washed out immediately. The 40% aqueous solution of TRIS AMINO is nonirritating to the eyes and skin. Alkanolamines are used in emulsions, pigment dispersion, resin solubilizers, catalysts, applications in oil and gas production, and in biomedical and synthetic applications.
Aluminum Sulfate and Alums
Authors: Darragh K. V. , Ertell C. A. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAluminum sulfate octadecahydrate,\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{Al}}{_{2}}{(} {\rm{SO}}{_{4}}{)}_{3}{\rm{{\cdot{}}}}18{\rm{H}}{_{2}}{\rm{O}}}$\end{document}, and its aqueous solutions are used primarily in the paper industry for sizing and as a flocculating agent in water and wastewater treatment. This material is often called papermakers' alum or alum and is sometimes referred to as cake alum or patent alum. The solid commercial hydrate also called dry alum, ground or lump. Anhydrous aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, is a specialty item used in food applications. Over 50 acidic, basic, and neutral aluminum sulfate hydrates have been reported. Commercial dry alum is likely not a single crystalline hydrate, but rather it contains significant amounts of amorphous material. In the United States, aluminum sulfate is usually produced by the reaction of bauxite or clay with sulfuric acid. Unfortunately, the term alum is now used for several different materials. Papermakers' alum or simply alum refers to commercial aluminum sulfate. Common alum or ordinary alum usually refers to potash alum which can be written in the form\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{K}}{_{2}}{\rm{SO}} _{4}{\rm{{\cdot{}}}}{\rm{Al}} _{2}{(}{\rm{SO}} _{4}{)}_{3} {\rm{{\cdot{}}}}24{\rm{H}}{_{2}}{\rm{O}}}$\end{document}, or it can refer to ammonium alum, ammonium aluminum sulfate. The term is also applied to a whole series of crystallized double sulfates having the same crystal structure as the common alums. Some examples of alums are cesium alum,\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{CsAl}}{(}{\rm{SO}}{_{4}}{)}_{2}{\rm{{\cdot{}}}}12{\rm{H}}{_{2}}{\rm{O}}}$\end{document}; iron alum,\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{KFe}}{(}{\rm{SO}}{_{4}}{)}_{2}{\rm{{\cdot{}}}}12{\rm{H}}{_{2}}{\rm{O}}}$\end{document}; chrome alum,\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{KCr}}{(}{\rm{SO}}{_{4}}{)}_{2}{\rm{{\cdot{}}}}12{\rm{H}}{_{2}}{\rm{O}}>}$\end{document}; and chromoselenic alum\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{KCr}}{(}{\rm{SeO}}{_{4}}{)}_{2}{\rm{{\cdot{}}}}12{\rm{H}}{_{2}}{\rm{O}}}$\end{document}. In industrial practice it is generally the aluminum content of alums that is important. Because aluminum sulfate is widely available, other alums are more in the nature of specialty items.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Aluminum
Authors: Meshri Dayal T. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Both the binary and complex fluorides of aluminum have played a significant role in the aluminum industry. Aluminum trifluoride trihydrate is of primary importance to the manufacture of aluminum as is sodium hexafluoroaluminate, known as cryolite. Anhydrous aluminum fluoride is used in fluoride glass manufacture and in ceramics. Mixtures of potassium tetrafluoroaluminate and potassium hexafluoroaluminate have been employed as brazing fluxes in the manufacture of aluminum parts. The properties, manufacture, and uses of the various aluminum fluoride compounds are described.
Amine Oxides
Authors: Maisonneuve B. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAmine oxides, known asN‐oxides of tertiary amines, are classified as aromatic or aliphatic, depending on whether the nitrogen is part of an aromatic ring system or not. This structural difference accounts for the difference in chemical and physical properties between the two types. The higher aliphatic amine oxides are commercially important because of their surfactant properties and are used extensively in detergents. Amine oxides that have surface‐acting properties can be further categorized as nonionic surfactants; however, because under acidic conditions they show cationic properties, they have also been called cationic surfactants. Most amine oxides undergo thermal decomposition between 90 and 200°C. Aromatic amine oxides, have some pharmaceutical importance, do not demonstrate surface‐acting properties and are more resistant than aliphatic amine oxides to reduction. Linear alpha‐olefins are the source of the largest volume of aliphatic amine oxides. Fatty alcohols and fatty acids are also used to produce amine oxides. Amine oxides used in industry are prepared by oxidation of tertiary amines with hydrogen peroxide solution. Amine oxides are used in the detergent, organic synthesis, textile, and pharmaceutical industries. Aliphatic amine oxides range from practically nontoxic to slightly toxic. Among the aromatics, 4‐nitroquinolineN‐oxide is a powerful carcinogen, producing malignant tumors on the skin of mice. 2‐Methyl, 2‐ethyl, and 6‐chloro derivatives of 4‐nitroquinoline oxide are also carcinogens.
Amino Resins and Plastics
Authors: Williams Laurence L. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractAmino resins are thermosetting polymers made by combining an aldehyde with a compound containing an amino (\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\relbar \kern-5pt{\relbar}\kern-7pt{\relbar}}{\rm{NH}}{_{2}}}$\end{document}) group. Urea–formaldehyde (U/F) accounts for over 80% of amino resins; melamine–formaldehyde accounts for most of the rest. The principal attractions of amino resins and plastics are water solubility before curing; colorlessness; excellent solvent resistance; outstanding hardness and abrasion resistance; and good heat resistance. Amino resins provide a wide variety of useful products. Adhesives, the largest single market, are used to make plywood, chipboard, and sawdust board. Other types are used to make laminated wood beams, parquet flooring, and for furniture assembly. Aminoplasts and other thermosetting plastics are molded by an automatic injection‐molding process similar to that used for thermoplastics. The process is best applied to relatively small moldings. The great advantage of injection molding is that it eliminates manual labor costs, thereby allowing amino resins to better compete with thermoplastics. The future for amino resins and plastics seems secure. New developments will probably be in the areas of highly specialized materials for treating textiles, paper, etc, and for use with other resins in the formulation of surface coatings. Most amino resins are based on the reaction of formaldehyde with urea or melamine. The first step in the formation of resins and plastics from formaldehyde and amino compounds is the addition of formaldehyde to introduce the hydroxymethyl group, known as methylolation or hydroxymethylation. The second step is a condensation reaction that involves the linking together of monomer units with the liberation of water to form a dimer, a polymer chain, or a vast network, usually referred to as methylene bridge formation, polymerization, resinification, or simply cure. Precise control of the course, speed, and extent of the reaction is essential for successful manufacture. Amino resins are usually made by a batch process. Both urea– and melamine–formaldehyde resins are of low toxicity. Melamine–formaldehyde resins may be used in paper which contacts aqueous and fatty foods. However, some mills are looking for alternatives.
Antiobesity Drugs
Authors: Tilley Jefferson W. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractObesity is a difficult condition to treat. Appetite suppressants have been widely used as an adjunct to dietary restriction and sympathomimetic amines have traditionally been used for this purpose. These agents have not proven particularly useful and frequently cause unacceptable side effects; hence their popularity has been waning. The most promising newer drugs work through a serotoninergic mechanism and hold considerable promise at least for certain obese patients. The majority of formerly obese patients eventually regain excess weight lost and thus a truly successful program must include behavior modification. In the central nervous system, sympathetic nervous stimulation results in increases in wakefulness, psychomotor activity, and reduction of appetite. Compounds structurally related to the endogenous sympathomimetic amines norepinephrine and epinephrine have classically been employed as appetite suppressants. These compounds act primarily by indirect mechanism involving displacement of norepinephrine from presynaptic nerve storage vesicles rather than by a direct effect at the receptor level. Whereas they vary in degree, all of them share similar liabilities of cardiovascular side effects, the potential for central nervous system (CNS) stimulation, the development of tolerance, and abuse potential. All, with the exception of mazindol, are derivatives of phenethylamine. Following the Federal Controlled Drug Act of 1970, compounds available in the United States were classified into one of five schedules according to medical utility and abuse potential. They include Schedule II, eg, amphetamine sulfate (C9H14SO4N, Benzedrine) and dextroamphetamine sulfate (C9H14NO4S, Dexedrine); Schedule III, eg, phendimetrazine tartrate (C16H23NO7, Plegine); and Schedule IV, eg, phenteramine hydrochloride (C10H16NCl, Fastin, Adipex‐P, Ionamin). Only drugs in Schedules III and IV are commonly employed for obesity and of them, phenylpropanolamine is available over the counter. Serotoninergic neurons utilize serotonin, C10H12N2O, which is 5‐hydroxytryptamine (5‐HT), as a neurotransmitter. Central serotoninergic neurons play an important role in determining mood and food intake. Fluoxetine (C17H19ClF3NO, Prozac) is a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, is marketed by Eli Lilly as an antidepressant. It was observed in animal studies that fluoxetine decreased meal size and promoted weight loss, and these findings have been extended to humans in clinical trials. Other drugs include gut hormones, lipid adsorption inhibitors, and thermogenic agents.
Ascorbic Acid
Authors: Kuellmer Volker 
Published: August 2004

AbstractVitamin C was the first vitamin to be manufactured by chemical synthesis on an industrial scale, and today more vitamin C is produced than any other vitamin. Major suppliers of vitamin C are Hoffmann‐La Roche, BASF, Takeda, and Merck‐Darmstadt. Additional production occurs in Eastern Europe, India, and China. Most of the current industrial production is based on the efficient second synthesis developed by Reichstein and Grüssner in 1934. Various attempts to develop a superior, more economicalL‐ascorbic acid process have been reported since 1934. Much time and effort has been developed to find other methods of vitamin C synthesis by fermentation. The use of the fermentation process for the cost‐effective production ofL‐ascorbic acid, however, requires further improvement.Both epidemiological and biochemical studies indicate that vitamin C may play an important role in the prevention of cancer, cataracts, and other disorders. However, there are many gaps in the knowledge of vitamin C, eg, in its role in nutritional interrelationships and in metabolic interactions, as well as its role in prevention of various diseases in humans.Although much additional knowledge concerning the various factors affecting the ascorbic acid status of humans has been acquired in the past decade, the optimum ascorbic acid intake necessary to maintain peak physical and mental health still needs to be established.
Beer
Authors: Nissen J. F. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Beer is generally defined as an alcoholic beverage made by fermentation of a farinaceous extract that is obtained from a starchy raw material, barley, in the form of malt. Although it is possible to replace some part of the barley with other starchy materials (eg, corn, rice, wheat, oats, or potatoes), it is usually the main constituent of brewing materials. There are many production steps in the brewing of beer, involving some of the most difficult disciplines of biochemical and physical science. Despite the scientific knowledge developed in the last century, some brewing information remains culturally derived. Conditions such as tradition, taxation, and other peculiarities have resulted in a beer market characterized by numerous types varying in strength, color, alcohol content, and bitterness.
Butadiene
Authors: Sun H. N. , Wristers J. P. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractButadiene, C4H6, exists in two isomeric forms: 1,3‐butadiene\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{CH}}{_{2}}{\raise1pt\hbox{$\Relbar \kern-4pt{\Relbar}$}} {\rm{CH}}{\relbar \kern-5pt{\relbar}\kern-7pt{\relbar}}{\rm{CH}}{\raise1pt\hbox{$\Relbar \kern-4pt{\Relbar}$}} {\rm{CH}}{_{2}}}$\end{document}, and 1,2‐butadiene,\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{CH}}{_{2}}{\raise1pt\hbox{$\Relbar \kern-4pt{\Relbar}$}} {\rm{C}}{\raise1pt\hbox{$\Relbar \kern-4pt{\Relbar}$}}{\rm{CH}}{\relbar \kern-5pt{\relbar}\kern-7pt{\relbar}}{\rm{C}}{_{3}}}$\end{document}. 1,3‐Butadiene is a commodity product of the petrochemical industry. Elastomers consume the bulk of 1,3‐butadiene, led by the manufacture of styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR). 1,3‐Butadiene is manufactured primarily as a coproduct of steam cracking to produce ethylene in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. However, in certain parts of the world, eg, China, India, Poland, and the former Soviet Union, it is still produced from ethanol. The other isomer, 1,2‐butadiene, has no significant current commercial interests. 1,3‐Butadiene is a noncorrosive, colorless, flammable gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. It has a mildly aromatic odor. It is sparingly soluble in water, slightly soluble in methanol and ethanol, and soluble in organic solvents like diethyl ether, benzene, and carbon tetrachloride. The conjugated double bonds of 1,3‐butadiene allow a large number of reactions at both the 1,2‐ and 1,4‐positions. These reactions include addition, hydrogenation, oxidation, Diels‐Alder, oligomerization, and polymerization reactions. Many of these reactions produce large volumes of important industrial materials. Butadiene reacts with a large number of chemicals, has an inherent tendency to dimerize and polymerize, and is toxic. Therefore, specific handling, storage, and shipping procedures must be followed. U.S. shipments of butadiene, which is classified as a flammable compressed gas, are regulated by the Department of Transportation. Short‐term exposure to high concentrations of butadiene may cause irritation to the eyes, nose, and throat. Dermatitis and frostbite may result from exposure to the liquid and the evaporating gas. In several epidemiological studies, elevation in mortality was observed for small subgroups and tumor types. Interpretation of these findings is still incomplete.