bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Indonesia
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Indonesia, a former Dutch colony, became independent in 1949. In 1990 the population was approximately 150 million. Because of the geographical features of the country-hundreds of islands, huge expanse of waters, and ethnic groups-state policy is based upon certain principles known as ‘Pancasila’: belief in one God; just and civilized humanity; unity of Indonesia; sovereignty of the people led by the wisdom of deliberations among representatives; and social justice for the people of Indonesia.1 ‘Pancasila’ posits a liberal attitude towards the ethnic groups living in the country, while guaranteeing state cohesion. Complementary to this, the oft¬ used term ‘unity in diversity’ explains the state structure of centralized government and ethnic diversity.2 The policy adopted towards refugees is founded partly upon ‘Pancasila’, in particular the principle of ‘just and civilized humanity’. However, the application of state policy is not without difficulties.
Methods of Settlement of Disputes: The Basic Framework
Authors: Collier John , Lowe Vaughan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the purposes of the United Nations, set out in article 1(1) of the Charter is ‘to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace’. Among the principles in accordance with which the Organization and its members are to act in pursuit of such purpose are that all members are to ‘refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations’ (article 2(4)), and that they ‘shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered’ (article 2(3)).
V
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An agreement made between parties operating, at least for the purposes of the agreement, at different levels in the supply chain. Examples are distribution agreements, for example between producer and wholesaler, or wholesaler and retailer, or supply agreements, between the producer of a raw material or component and a manufacturer who purchases it for incorporation into his product. Intellectual and industrial property licences are also vertical agreements. Competition law treats most vertical agreements more generously than horizontal agreements, because economic theory predicts that restrictions agreed between non-competing firms will frequently be pro-competitive or neutral, whereas horizontal agreements, made between competing firms, are more likely to be damaging to competition. Like all agreements, a vertical agreement only infringes Art. 81 EC if it has an appreciable effect on trade between Member States (see further under Agreement of minor importance, Effect on trade between Member States) and restricts competition (see further under Restriction of competition). If it includes fixed or minimum resale prices or an absolute export ban (‘hard core’ restrictions), it will almost certainly be unenforceable and may attract fines. In the absence of hard core restrictions, and if the relevant market share does not exceed 30%, automatic exemption may be available (see further under Block exemption). Where the market share is over 30% its legality depends on the nature of the restrictive clauses it contains and their effects on the relevant market, and it can benefit from exemption only if the restrictions in the agreement can be justified in terms of economic efficiency (see further under Exemption).
Strategic Information Systems: Some Organization Design Considerations
Authors: Ives Blake , Vitale Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Strategic information systems (SIS) is one in a string of miracle cures offered up by the information systems community to an increasingly wary audience of senior managers and directors. SIS is one of the alphabetic elixirs of information technology alongside DBMS, DSS, EIS, and AL Unlike the others, which focused primarily on internal efficiency, the SIS cure is usually targeted specifically at a firm’s products, customers, distribution channels, or suppliers. Information technology (IT), we were told in 1984, can be used to erect barriers to entry, lock in customers and suppliers, produce new products and new distribution channels, and in some cases, restructure an industry (McFarlan 1984). Some SIS success stories (American Airlines, Merrill Lynch, and American Hospital Supply) became well known and frequently told, occasionally in versions that include ‘benefits’ that have not always been carefully documented. After a period of initial euphoria, practitioners and academicians alike then began to question the validity of the SIS concept.
Mergers: The Role of Information Technology
Authors: Linder Jane C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mergers and acquisitions have had questionable success in recent years. Anecdotal sources report that 70 per cent of acquisitions do not meet the acquiring company’s expectations and 50 per cent are outright failures (Carlyle 1986). More systematic research indicates that 50 to 60 per cent of acquisitions are later divested (Porter 1987) and that market share, profits, and return on equity in acquired units often decline (Bhide 1987). These transactions are unsuccessful for a variety of reasons. Among these is difficulty in integration—a failure to bring two firms together in a way that creates value (Jensen and Ruback 1983; Lubatkin 1987; Salter and Weinhold 1979). Not all mergers and acquisitions intend to create value through operating synergies; some seek portfolio gains such as reduced financial risk, and others intend to restructure an acquired firm and resell it at a profit (Chatterjee 1983). However, if Bhide’s statistics from 1981 and 1985 can be generalized, between 25 and 40 per cent of friendly acquisitions are intended to create operating (or business unit level) synergies (1987). The goal is to share or transfer skills or resources among business units. In these cases, effective integration is the gateway to value.
Foreword
Authors: Earl Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Often when one discusses with senior managers their experiences in, and attitudes to, IT, they are coloured by recent experience of an IS project that has been in difficulty. Successes may abound in the case studies we teach; they are rarer in the real-world cases that managers themselves recall. It is therefore perhaps appropriate that this volume contains a substantial section on IT project management and systems implementation. Indeed, many CIOs will observe that project management remains one of the key but elusive capabilities required in exploiting IT today. And in the media, it is failed projects that often give IT ‘a bad press.’ Morris opens this section by presenting a historical perspective on project management—not just IT projects, but projects at large. He compares IT and non-IT pr jects and argues that often the former are more complex than the latter. It is the uncertain environment of IT projects which Morris particularly highlights and it is fairly well established in the IS literature that we should examine context when we choose project management techniques and information systems development methods.
The Project Sponsor
Authors: Edwards Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Popular and academic commentary for many years has lamented the apparent fact that computer projects seem doomed to end up late, over-budget, and ineffective. Many have not even reached implementation, and their cancellation or suspension has been taken as further occasion for breast-beating by those involved in the complex business of bringing in new computer systems, and criticism from those demanding them. Of course there is an inevitable bias in the published stories, because good news is almost no news in any area of human activity. However, there is no doubt that many IT projects have indeed been unsatisfactory in their conduct, product, or result. Therefore, in response to the at-least uncertain prospects for IT projects, much effort has gone into improving the general discipline and technology of delivering systems. This has not always produced a satisfactory outcome as seen by those who commissioned the work, however. One reason for the frequent disappointment can be found in the general misunderstanding of just what an IT project is. Properly, it is the total set of process, system, and relationship changes which are required to give effect to a new vision of how a piece of business should work.
The Successful Design of Expert Systems: Are Ends More Important than Means?
Authors: Mumford Enid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a case study example of the design of an expert system. The system was developed as a participative venture by a technical team and the future users who were sales staff. The author presents it as an example of how participation can assist the creation of shared values, commitments, and objectives in employment situations where relationships are traditionally contractual. The chapter shows how the success of the system was greatly influenced by the processes that were used in its design.
The Use of Legal Discretion: Perspectives from Law and Social Science
Authors: Hawkins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Discretion is a central and inevitable part of the legal order. It is central to law because contemporary legal systems have come increasingly to rely on express grants of authority to legal and administrative officials to attain broad legislative purposes. It is inevitable because the translation of rule into action, the process by which abstraction becomes actuality, involves people in interpretation and choice. Law is fundamentally an interpretative enterprise in which discretionary behaviour is compelled by what Denis Galligan has neatly summarized as the ‘vagaries of language, the diversity of circumstances, and the indeterminacy of official purposes’ ( I 986a: I).
Shielding Quasi-Judicial Action
Authors: Olowofoyeku Abimbola A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discussions in Chapters I and 2 have revealed the extent of the immunity accorded to judges in respect of their judicial acts. As the epigraph above indicates, this immunity has been extended to certain persons performing duties of a judicial nature but who are not judges in the strict sense. This extension has been variously described as an immunity for quasi-judicial action, an immunity of quasi-judicial officers, or simply as a quasi-judicial immunity. Furthermore, the principles of judicial immunity have also been extended by the courts for the protection of persons and bodies involved in the performance of functions which are in nature ‘quasi-judicial’ (a term which we shall presently examine more closely). Finally, some officials have been fortunate enough to be accorded an immunity derived from that of judges-a derivative immunity of sorts.
Women Drug Users
Authors: Taylor Avril 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The book provides an account of the lives and experiences of a group of female intravenous drug users in Glasgow. Based on participant observations of the women in their own setting and in-depth interviews, it is the first full ethnographic account of the lifestyle of female drug users. It charts their entry into drugs, the various ways in which they provide for their drug use, their relationships with friends, partners, family members, and children as well as attitudes towards professionals such as social workers with whom they come into contact by virtue of their status as drug-using mothers. Finally, the efforts the women make to give up their use of drugs is examined, along with the reasons which make these endeavours difficult. The evidence suggests that, ironically, the lifestyle which evolves around their use of drugs offers an arena in which the women are able to find a degree of independence and purpose otherwise lacking in their lives and which makes their drug-using lifestyle attractive even when disadvantages become apparent.
Lex Arbitri and Locus Arbitri
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Naviera Amazonica Peruana S.A. v. Compania Internacional de Seguros des Peru [1988] 1 Lloyd’s Rep. II6 the Court of Appeal (Kerr and Russell L JJ and Sir Denys Buckley) was confronted with a famous problem in the law of ‘international’ arbitration: what, as a matter of procedure, is the effect of a clause such as ‘arbitration under the conditions and laws of London’? Neither party nor any of the judges doubted that any arbitration initiated in pursuance of such a clause was intended to be governed by English law or, to put it more precisely, that the procedural law of the arbitration, the lex arbitri, was English, so that the Arbitration Acts 1950 and 1979 applied. But where was the arbitration to be held? Both parties were Peruvian who had concluded in Lima an insurance policy expressed in the Spanish language; Kerr LJ thought
Re Russian Commercial and Industrial Bank
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a result of the revolution a Russian bank is dissolved in Russia in 1917. Under what is now section 400 of the Companies Act 1948, an order for its winding up is made in England in 1922. What is the amount of sterling due in the winding up to a client of the bank’s London branch, who on current account was entitled to a sum of Russian roubles? In 1917 the rate was 360 roubles to one pound, in 1922 it had depreciated to 400,000 roubles to one pound.
L. Schuler A.G. v. Wickman Machine Tool Sales Ltd.
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In L. Schuler A.G. v. Wickman Machine Tool Sales Ltd. [1973] 2 WLR 683 it was finally established by the House of Lords that, as a matter of general principle of English law, in construing a written contract the conduct of the parties subsequent to the execution of the contract cannot be taken into account.
Interest as Damages
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In National Bank of Greece S.A. v. Pinios Shipping Co. [1989) 1 All ER 213 the Court of Appeal (O’Connor, Lloyd, and Nicholls L JJ) held that the plaintiff bank’s claim to compound interest failed. The defendents had expressly undertaken to pay to the bank interest at an agreed rate and, as was conceded by them, had impliedly undertaken to pay compound interest with quarterly rests. The contract did not define the final date, when the duty to pay interest or compound interest came to an end. The question before the court was whether the obligation to pay compound interest continued after the bank demanded payment of the outstanding balance on 13 November 1978. The Court of Appeal answered in the negative. It relied mainly on the decision of the Court of Appeal (Scrutton, Greer, and Romer L JJ) in Deutsche Bank v. Banque des Marchands de Moscou (1931) 4 Legal Decisions Affecting Bankers 293, where it was held that when, as a result of a winding up order, a bank account ceased to be current and the relations between the parties became merely that of creditor and debtor, the obligation to pay compound interest ceased.
R. v. The Home Secretary, exp. L.
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT is settled that an interned alien enemy, like a prisoner of war, is not entitled to the benefits of habeas corpus: Exp. Weber [1916] I AC 421; Exp. Liebmann [1916] 1 KB 268. On the other hand, a stateless person who is interned is probably entitled to a writ. What, then, are the rights of a person who at the outbreak of war was an alien enemy and who during the war loses his enemy nationality? In R. v. The Home Secretary, exp.L. [1945] I KB 7, Viscount Caldecote LCJ, with whom Humphreys and Wrottesley JJ agreed, said ‘that such changes of nationality are not recognized for very obvious reasons. If such changes were to be permitted in time of war enemy agents might acquire facilities which could be used in a way very much to the prejudice of this country.’ The application for a writ of habeas corpus was therefore refused. In view of the peculiar character of the writ the result is hardly open to doubt (although Reg. 18B would probably have deprived a decision in favour of the applicant of any dangerous consequences) and it was certainly impossible for the Court to be influenced by the fact that in this particular case the application was made not by an alien enemy who had ‘thrown off’ his disability
Recognition of Sovereignty
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The year 1952 has produced two decisions of the highest tribunals of the British Commonwealth of Nations on the important and difficult question of the effect upon matters of State succession of a foreign government’s recognition by the Sovereign of this country: Gdynia Ameryka Linie v. Boguslawski [1953] AC rr, and Civil Air Transport Inc. v. Central Air Transport Corporation [1953] AC 70. The problems in both cases were so similar that it is not easy to discover why the former case, decided by the House of Lords, was not even referred to in the opinion which Lord Simon delivered in the latter case on behalf of the Judicial Committee.
Foreign Policy and Judicial Discretion
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In strict law, the decision of the House of Lords in Rio Tinto Zinc Corporation v. Westinghouse Electric Corporation is an authority on the interpretation and application of the Evidence (Proceedings in Other Jurisdictions) Act 1975 which, giving effect to a Hague Convention of 1970, replaced the much more agreeably named Foreign Tribunals Evidence Act 1856. There are, however, wider aspects of the decision which are of great significance for international law in general and the perennial problem of the relationship between foreign policy and the judiciary in England in particular. It is this effect that requires some analysis and comment.
Documentary Credits and Bretton Woods
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The decision of the House of Lords in United City Merchants (Investment) Ltd. v. Royal Bank of Canada [1982] 2 WLR 1039 is destined to become a leading case in the law relating to international trade. At the same time it has considerable bearing upon the law relating to international finance and in this respect is so singular that one is bound to ask whether the practice (or malpractice) of delivering only one speech is fortunate, especially in cases in which the Court of Appeal is being reversed. There are, it is believed, many who will emphatically vote against the single speech and the impoverishment of English law it involves.
The Judicial Recognition of an Unrecognized State
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since the House of Lords decided Carl Zeiss Stiftung v. Rayner & Keeler Ltd, there was room to question whether the modern English judiciary had given thought to the rationale of the executive’s refusal to recognize a foreign entity as a State. The meaning and purpose of non¬ recognition is simple and straightforward: the United Kingdom expresses its disapproval of the foreign entity, its origin, and its policies. Therefore the UK regards it as non-existent, denies efficacy to its institutions, law, and activities (though there may possibly be certain limited exceptions in matters of a purely private nature). In particular, the UK denies to an unrecognized State the right to become a party to a treaty, refuses to accept a diplomatic note or other official communication, or to recognize a passport issued by it. In law, therefore, the non-recognized State does not exist. It is, if one prefers so to put it, a nullity. Of course, we all know that in fact or in the real world there is such an organization as, say, the Turkish Republic of Cyprus, but in English eyes it does not exist. To a lawyer this is not an unfamiliar situation: in law a contract may be null and void and unenforceable, but in fact it may have been concluded and performed.
Stale Arbitrations:The Antclizo—Missed Opportunities by the English House of Lords
Authors: Mann . F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Seven years ago a bare majority of the House of Lords (Lord Diplock, Lord Edmund-Davies, and Lord Russell of Killowen, Lord Fraser of Tullybelton and Lord Scarman dissenting) rendered a decision which was immediately and universally regarded as wrong and which, so it would appear, even the House of Lords itself would like to reject. It was held that notwithstanding the wide terms of section 37 of the Supreme Court Act 1981 the court was precluded from granting an injunction to restrain a party from proceeding with an arbitration.
The Single Speech
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Lonrho Ltd. v. Shell Petroleum Co. Ltd. (No. 2) [1982] AC 173 Lord Diplock asked the question ‘whether an intent by the defendants to injure the plaintiff is an essential element in the civil wrong of conspiracy, even where the acts to be done by the conspirators amount to criminal offences under a penal statute’, i.e. have been committed by unlawful means (at 188). With the concurrence of Lord Edmund-Davies, Lord Keith of Kinkel, Lord Scarman, and Lord Bridge of Harwich he ‘unhesitatingly’ (at 189) answered in the affirmative. Lord Edmund-Davies, Lord Keith, and Lord Bridge described their agreement as ‘complete’ or ‘entire’.
Human Rights, Peoples’ Rights
Authors: Kamenka Eugene 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rights are claims that have achieved a special kind of endorsement or success: legal rights by a legal system; human rights by widespread sentiment or an international order. All rights arise in specific historical circumstances. They are claims made, conceded or granted by people who are themselves historically and socially shaped. They are asserted by people on their own behalf or as perceived and endorsed implications of specific historical traditions, institutions and arrangements or of a historically conditioned theory of human needs and human aspirations, or of a human conception of a Divine plan and purpose. In objective fact as opposed to (some) subjective feeling, they are neither eternal nor inalienable, neither prior to society or societies nor independent of them. Some such rights can be singled out, and they often are singled out, as social ideals, as goals to strive toward. But even as such, they cannot be divorced from social content and context.
Terrorism and Torture
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the mid-1970s, both before and after the Soweto uprising, the government became aware of more sophisticated efforts to revive the ANC and PAC in South Africa and to step up the military struggle. The stakes were being raised. For the state, it was no longer a question of merely policing intellectual dissidents or ambitious but isolated youths: now, the state needed to penetrate, expose, and crush nascent ANC and PAC structures being established within the country, which might be used to facilitate armed attacks against the state. With the increased danger to the state, police methods in investigating the threat and constructing cases became ever more sinister, and in the year and a half of unrest after Soweto, twenty-seven people died in detention.
An Overview of the Literature
Authors: Kontou Nancy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the different ways in which new custom may affect a prior treaty. A treaty may be interpreted in the light of supervening custom that completes or clarifies its provisions. If new custom is incompatible with a prior treaty, two possibilities exist: either the treaty is amended or terminated on account of new custom, or both the treaty and the customary rule are considered to be in force giving rise to conflicting obligations whose order of priority must be established.