bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Setting the stage for the evolution of life on a tumultuous planet
Authors: Gale Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When astronauts look back to Earth from space they see a beautiful, unique blue planet, swarming with life. But it is no ‘rose garden’, either now or in the past. Ever since life first appeared on Earth about 3.7 Gy BP it has had to contend with and adapt to an ever changing and often extremely stressful environment. Some of the more significant of the cosmic and terrestrial factors affecting and modifying the biosphere have already been described. They include: the slowing revolution of the Earth on its axis and its ever changing and complicated circumnavigation of the Sun, which determine and modify day length, weather and climate; the solar radiation incident on Earth, which has gradually increased, by some 20% in the last 3 Gy; the Sun’s life-impeding UV radiation, some of which penetrates the atmosphere, and the Moon, which has receded, reducing its originally massive tidal effect (Chapters 3, 4, and 5). In addition, and in part as a result of the above motions, Earth has gone through a series of cold periods, the Ice Ages. Planet Earth itself has not been quiescent, but has challenged the biosphere with movements of tectonic plates (Chapter 4), periodic extreme volcanic activity, upwelling of poisonous gases from the oceans, and changes in the composition of the atmosphere. Finally, in our list of stress factors, Earth has suffered from abuses of extraterrestrial origin, especially the impacts of comets and asteroids. Most recently humans have been affecting the biosphere in ways detrimental to themselves and other species (Chapter 9).
Mechanisms of evolution: from first cells and extremophiles to complex life
Authors: Gale Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We learn of former life from its signatures (fossils and organic and isotope tracers) which are found in the different geological strata of the Earth, and from the physiology, biochemistry, embryology, and genetics of early, but still extant, life forms. It would be easy if the deeper we dug the older were the strata. In a general way this is true, but upheavals and subsidence often confuse such a neat picture. This greatly troubled the first palaeobiologists striving to determine the dating and order of appearance and disappearance of species. It led to never-ending disputes as to the age and periods of life on Earth. Dating arguments sometimes became circuitous; with the age of a newly found stratum being based on the fossils it contained and vice versa. These debates came to an end with the development of isotopic dating methods (see part 2 of Lunine, 1999). Radioactive isotopes have constant exponential rates of decay, typical of each element. They radiate energy while decaying to a lighter, usually stable element. Decay begins immediately following the formation of the radioactive isotope from another, stable element. The radioactive isotope forms in the atmosphere or on the surface of the Earth, as a result of cosmic radiation. For example, when 14N in the upper atmosphere absorbs neutrons from cosmic rays, C is formed. C is unstable and breaks down, emitting beta rays and reverting to N.
The evolution of humans and their interaction with the biosphere
Authors: Gale Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the appearance of humans and their effect on planet Earth is reviewed. Maintaining the Earth’s biosphere in a conformation favourable to humans is today an urgent priority. This urgency is the result of a rapidly increasing population and modern technology. There is a digression to a discussion of over-enthusiastic environmentalism. The latter, comes from genuine concern but is often based on poor information. It may engender policies which are misdirected. The wrong ‘culprit’ is often implicated. This can lead to a waste of always limited resources. Two hundred and fifty years ago the great Swedish taxonomist Carolus Linnaeus devised the system of plant and animal classification which has survived, with small changes, to this day. He assigned modern humans to the subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens (the very intelligent human; today Linnaeus might have called us Homo horribilis horribilis). The Linnaen genealogy for humans was as follows: Kingdom, Animalia; phylum, Chordata; class, Mammalia; order, Primates; family, Hominidae; genus, Homo; species, H. sapiens; subspecies, H. s. sapiens. The first Chordata (which later included the vertebrates) appeared around the time of the Cambrian explosion 550-530 My BP. The first mammals appeared around 220 My BP, but only expanded rapidly in the last 55 My.
Ratzinger's Faith
Authors: Rowland Tracey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A general introduction to the theology of Pope Benedict XVI, including his approach to issues in moral and political theology, ecclesiology, liturgy, interpretations of the of the documents of the Second Vatican Council, and the theology of history. Tracey Rowland also addresses the question of Pope Benedict's place in the constellation of contemporary Catholic theologians. It has become a commonplace observation that Pope Benedict has been influenced by the thought of St Augustine, in contrast to many of his predecessors in the papacy who were much more strongly influenced by St Thomas Aquinas. Rowland therefore asks in what way Benedict is an Augustinian, and how this marked difference in theological perspective may play out in the coming years. Her book includes an extensive thematic bibliography, which will be valuable for students.
Introduction
Authors: Brüne Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychiatry is the medical field that deals with the assessment, description, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders and psychological problems. Psychiatry deals with the assessment, description, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders and psychological problems.Psychiatry is interdisciplinarily situated at the interface of the social and the biological sciences. Psychiatry utilizes insights from psychology, philosophy, and ethics, as well as from neuroscience, biology, pharmacology, neurology, and other medical specialties. Contemporary psychiatry can be divided into several subspecialties, including biological psychiatry, social and community psychiatry, consultation and liaison psychiatry, emergency psychiatry, child and adolescence psychiatry, old age or geriatric psychiatry, crosscultural psychiatry, and forensic psychiatry.
Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Brüne Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common disorder of childhood onset with inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsivity clearly exceeding the degree of typical child development. Depending on the leading symptom constellation, a hyperactive/impulsive type can be distinguished from a predominantly inattentive subtype or mixed type of ADHD. Individuals with ADHD usually have problems in organizing and planning of behaviour, as well as difficulties in sustained attention and reduced inhibitory control of behavioural impulses, which is often associated with the inability to tolerate delay of being rewarded.
Introduction
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both geographically and demographically the ancient Greek citystate culture was much the biggest of the thirty-seven cultures I have listed in the previous part. The Greeks called a city-state polis, plural poleis, and there were in all c. 1,500 poleis. More than 600 are attested in Greece proper; more than 400 were colonies or Hellenised communities along the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,4 to which must be added more than 300 Hellenistic foundations in the Near East as far as the River Indus.5 But there were never 1,500 poleis at the same time. Throughout new poleis were being founded and old ones were disappearing. In c.400 bc we can trace about 850 poleis in the sources we have,6 and we can guess that many others may have been named in all the sources that have been lost. At any given time in the Classical period there were at least 1,000 poleis, and that makes the ancient Greek city-state culture the biggest in world history: the next biggest was that of the Aztecs in Central America in the fifteenth century ad.
The End of the City-State Culture in Ancient Greece
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lack of agreement as to when the epoch of the Greek city-states came to an end is even greater than that as to its beginning. Some historians still hold that the city-state flourished in the Archaic and Classical periods but was destroyed by the Macedonians in the second half of the fourth century bc. Independence (autonomia) is regarded as the most important characteristic of a city-state, and city-states lost their independence at the beginning of the Hellenistic period.1 Indeed, it is often supposed that the city-state disappeared at a single blow, the blow being the Battle of Chaironeia on 7 Metageitnion 2 August 338,2 probably at c.3 o’clock in the afternoon when the defeat of the Thebans and Athenians by the Macedonians under Philip II was a reality—and that was what rang the referee’s bell for the city-state.
How Poleis Arose and Disappeared
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the exception of regions of western Greece, most of the poleis in Greece arose during the Archaic period, many so early that polis had not yet become a key concept in political thought. The lack of source material is an insurmountable hindrance to our ever being able to trace the beginnings of the hundreds of city-states in Greece that our Classical sources characterise as poleis with a long history behind them. However, many poleis had a foundation myth. It was typical of the Greeks that they did not conceive the emergence of a polis as the result of a continuous evolution, but believed that it had been created by the deliberate intervention of a named person (or god).
The Settlement Pattern of the Ancient Greek City-States
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In modern studies of historical settlement patterns it is customary to distinguish between nucleated settlement and dispersed settlement, and between three different forms of settlement: (1) cities (large nucleated settlements), (2) villages (smaller nucleated settlements), and (3) farmsteads (isolated dispersed settlements). In all studies of ancient Greece nucleated settlement in cities and villages is contrasted with dispersed settlement on farmsteads. Until the 1970s the prevalent view was that the Greeks lived in nucleated settlements, whether cities or villages, and that isolated settlement was so rare as scarcely to be evidenced at all.2 But in the most recent generation a number of archaeological surveys in several di·erent regions have been conducted, and large stretches of a city-state’s territory investigated in search of traces of settlement,3 and such surveys have caused an ongoing revision of the view of the historians, especially in two regards: (1) traces have been found of the part of the population that lived in the countryside and not in the city, and (2) many of those who lived in the countryside lived on isolated farmsteads and not in nucleated settlements.
The Greek Conception of Polis as a City with a Hinterland
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As shown above, a polis in the sense of ‘city’ was thought of as the centre of a polis in the sense ‘state’, and in most poleis in the sense of ‘state’ there was only one city called polis. It had a hinterland called chora or ge, and a polis by the sea had a harbour, called limen or epineion. Linked to the harbour there was often an emporion, a distinct market for the long-distance trade of the city-state.3 Large cities situated inland could have a harbour-town, often treated as part of the city itself, and sometimes connected to the city by walls.5 In other cases the harbour-town had succient self-government to count as a dependent polis. Almost all poleis had a city wall that separated the city from its hinterland. Larger poleis had villages within their hinterland. If the citizen body was subdivided into territorially based groups, many of those districts would have had a village as their central place; but in other cases the villages were just settlements with no political status.
The Hellenistic Polis
Authors: Hansen Mogens Herman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book the main weight has been placed on the Archaic and Classical periods, when the polis was the exclusive society of adult male citizens to deal with their political institutions, when war between the city-states was the order of the day, and when the majority of the citizens preferred to live within the city’s protecting walls. In the course of the Hellenistic period the polis underwent a set of changes, which have already been noted in the relevant contexts, but not assembled as a whole. So to set the classical polis in relief, I will give a sketch of a polis from the second half of the second century bc, when Greece had become a part of the Roman Empire. By then not just some but almost all poleis were dependent states.
Wittgenstein ‘s Ethics: Boundaries and Boundary Crossings
Authors: Oberdiek Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wittgenstein led a tumultuous internal life, one lived with white-hot intensity, marked by deep concern, especially about his moral character. He placed great demands on students and friends, but nothing like the extraordinary demands he placed on himself. If he was often hard on others, he was always much harder on himself. The ‘duty of genius ‘ drove him into the depths of philosophy — which turned out to be in front of our eyes if we could but see it!— but never allowed him much satisfaction, other than in the knowledge that his mistakes and infelicities were at least in pursuit of deep philosophical understanding. Self-satisfaction in a philosopher was, to Wittgenstein, intolerable: far better to be a philosopher dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. But in addition to his exacting and unending duties as a philosopher, there were equally exacting and unending self-imposed moral duties. These included his philosophical duties— how could they not? — but extended to every aspect of life, in thought, will, and deed. He was a man of great moral seriousness and an unrelenting truthfulness and rejection of guile or affectation. Wittgenstein knew a wide range of moral emotions and virtues, but especially, I think, those that exact from one the most: self-reproach and courage.
Hard and Easy Questions about Consciousness
Authors: Dupré John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After a quiet period for much of the twentieth century, presumably reflecting the influence of various forms of behaviourism, in recent years philosophical writing on consciousness has reached epidemic proportions. A well-known philosophical website lists almost a thousand online articles on the philosophy of consciousness, and no doubt there are another thousand not so available. This writing has, however, had a quite peculiar focus. A founding document of recent philosophical studies of consciousness is Thomas Nagel ‘s classic article ‘What is it Like to be a Bat? ‘ The almost universally accepted answer to this question nowadays is that although there is definitely something it is like to be a bat, it is extraordinarily difficult, perhaps impossible, to say exactly what this is. More difficult still is the problem of explaining how this ineffable something could somehow have resulted, as it is almost universally agreed it must, from the merely mechanical operations of the brain. This latter conundrum, in particular, has come to be known as the Hard Problem of consciousness— in contrast with the apparently ‘Easy Problem ‘ of understanding the relevant mechanical operations of the brain— and has provided the motivation for a great deal of the philosophical work I have mentioned.
Action, Content and Inference
Authors: Dancy Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this essay I try to make progress with a rather peculiar question: can an action be the conclusion of an inference? My answer to this question is no. But it takes me quite a long time to get to this answer. Probably some readers will feel that the answer is obvious. How could one infer an action? Action is just the wrong sort of thing to be the conclusion of anything worth calling inference. All that inference can do is to take one from belief to belief; it can ‘t take one from belief to action— say, the action of combing one ‘s hair. Unfortunately this is altogether too quick. My question is ambiguous, and its ambiguity sets us a puzzle, and it is a puzzle to which the answer is not obvious, as we will see. There is a familiar distinction between inference-as-process and inference-as-structure. Modus ponens is an example of an inferential structure. An inferrer whose inference has that structure is engaging in a process, that of moving from two beliefs to a third— or, if not exactly that process then some similar one. This process can also be called an inference, and it is an action. Someone who infers is someone who acts. But where such an action is done, there must be premises and conclusions, and these are not actions (at least not normally), nor are they parts of the process that constitutes the inference-as-process.
City and Empire
Authors: Dihle Albrecht 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Persian Wars of 490 and 480/79 bc, remembered and glory Wed for centuries, had a great impact upon the feelings of national identity among the Greeks. The Persian Empire, founded in the sixth century bc, stretched from Egypt to the Caucasus and from India to Asia Minor. In 480 bc the Persian Great King joined the forces of all his tribes and nations and led a powerful feet and a huge army against Greece to conquer this small piece of land. The Greeks were conscious of their common cultural and religious background, but politically split into many independent little communities, called Poleis, with or without an urban settlement, centered at the cult of local divinities, and governed in various ways. Some of them had a territory of no more than 200 to 300 square kilometers, the greatest ones, Athens and Sparta, 2,500 and 8,000 square kilometers respectively, with approximately 120,000 to 180,000 inhabitants, including women, children, and slaves.
The Res Gestae Divi Augusti and the Roman Empire
Authors: Witschel Christian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first Roman emperor, Augustus, died on the 19th of August ad 14 in the Campanian town of Nola. Once his body had been brought back to Rome, his successor, Tiberius, convened the senate to discuss the honors to be bestowed on the deceased emperor. In the course of this session, four volumes were brought to the senate house and read aloud to the senators. They contained texts written in Augustus’ own hand that he had deposited with the Vestal Virgins before his death. One of them was a ‘catalogue of his deeds’ (Suetonius, Divus Augustus 101.4). In his will, Augustus had indicated that he wished this text to be inscribed on bronze tablets, which were to be displayed publicly in front of his mausoleum on the northern edge of the Campus Martius in Rome (Suetonius, loc. cit.; Cassius Dio 51.33.1). Tiberius dutifully fuelled this task, and the text must have remained visible there throughout antiquity. But later on it was melted down, and no trace of it has been found in modern excavations around the mausoleum. Thus all knowledge of contents of this unique document was lost until a group of western diplomats visited the Ottoman Empire in 1555 and came to the town of Ankara. On a building that served as an annex to a mosque, but which had originally been a Roman temple and later a Christian church, they observed a long inscription in both Latin and Greek, which they soon realized was a copy of the lost index rerum gestarum of Augustus. The situation improved further when early in the twentieth century two more copies of the same text were found in other towns of the same region of Central Turkey.
New Tendencies, Religious and Philosophical, in the Roman Empire of the Third to Early Fifth Centuries
Authors: O’Daly Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I begin with two dates. The first—ad 248—saw the celebration of Rome’s millennium (the traditional date of the foundation of the city was 753 bc), with three days and nights of celebrations that included gladiatorial combats and displays of exotic animals. The second date—ad 330—marked the dedication of Constantinople as the new imperial capital, with forty days of celebrations, including chariot racing. One focus of the celebrations was the porphyry column in the city’s forum, topped by a gold statue of the emperor Constantine portrayed as Apollo and with a diadem representing the sun’s rays.
Waves in Metamaterials
Authors: Solymar L , Shamonina E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metamaterials is a young subject born in the 21st century. It is concerned with artificial materials which can have electrical and magnetic properties difficult or impossible to find in nature. The building blocks in most cases are resonant elements much smaller than the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave. The book offers a comprehensive treatment of all aspects of research in this field at a level that should appeal to final year undergraduates in physics or in electrical and electronic engineering. The mathematics is kept at a minimum; the aim is to explain the physics in simple terms and enumerate the major advances. It can be profitably read by graduate and post-graduate students in order to find out what has been done in the field outside their speciality, and by experts who may gain new insight about the inter-relationship of the physical phenomena involved.
Dolphin social intelligence: complex alliance relationships in bottlenose dolphins and a consideration of selective environments for extreme brain size evolution in mammals
Authors: Connor Richard C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay, Australia, live in a large, unbounded society with a fission fusion grouping pattern. Potential cognitive demands include the need to develop social strategies involving the recognition of a large number of individuals and their relationships with others. Patterns of alliance affiliation among males may be more complex than are currently known for any non-human, with individuals participating in 2–3 levels of shifting alliances. Males mediate alliance relationships with gentle contact behaviours such as petting, but synchrony also plays an important role in affiliative interactions. In general, selection for social intelligence in the context of shifting alliances will depend on the extent to which there are strategic options and risk.
The social brain?
Authors: Frith Chris D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion that there is a ‘social brain’ in humans specialized for social interactions has received considerable support from brain imaging and, to a lesser extent, from lesion studies. Specific roles for the various components of the social brain are beginning to emerge. For example, the amygdala attaches emotional value to faces, enabling us to recognize expressions such as fear and trustworthiness, while the posterior superior temporal sulcus predicts the end point of the complex trajectories created when agents act upon the world. It has proved more difficult to assign a role to medial prefrontal cortex, which is consistently activated when people think about mental states. I suggest that this region may have a special role in the second-order representations needed for communicative acts when we have to represent someone else’s representation of our own mental state. These cognitive processes are not specifically social, since they can be applied in other domains. However, these cognitive processes have been driven to ever higher levels of sophistication by the complexities of social interaction.