bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Estuarian Waters
Authors: Dissanayake Priyanka K. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Estuaries are in many ways the most complicated and variable of aquatic ecosystems. An estuary is a place where salt water from an ocean mixes with freshwater from the land and creates a unique and special environment in which marine species live, feed, and reproduce. Estuaries and intertidal regions are naturally exposed to stressful conditions.
An estuary and its immediate catchments form a complex system of ecological, physical, chemical, and social processes that interact in a highly involved and, at times, unexpected fashion. Estuaries are the end point for the detrimental effects of many upstream catchment activities. Materials carried from the land by rivers vary in quality and quantity, sometimes with strong seasonal patterns of high biological significance. Tidal oscillations cause vigorous reversals of flow. Inherent hydrographic patterns can lead to accumulation of materials and to upstream transport from the point of addition. The estuaries as recipients of wastes from rivers entering them and cities and industries along their shores are obviously more immediately susceptible to pollution damage than any other part of the marine system. Increased loads of nutrients and sediments from activities in the surrounding catchments are the two key threats to marine and estuarine water quality.
Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)
Authors: Kazemi Gholam A. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe use of CFCs in hydrology began when Thompson et al. (1) the usefulness of a special type of fluorocarbon known as Freon 11, as a tracer in both groundwater and surface water hydrology. They found good agreement between CCl3F data and hydrologic and tritium age data. Brown (2) also examined the use of fluorocarbons as groundwater tracers through soil column studies. There was no significant use of or development in CFC dating techniques during the 1980s, possibly due to the availability of other methods such as the tritium method and the low resolution of the available CFC analytical techniques. From 1992, the application of CFCs in groundwater studies, especially for age dating and determination of rainfall recharge became important (3).
Heavy Water
Authors: Kazemi Gholam A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Each of the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen, which form the water molecule, has three isotopes;
1
H,
2
H (D),
3
H (T) for hydrogen and
16
O,
17
O, and
18
O for oxygen.

The abundances of these isotopes in the hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere and in different stages of the water cycle vary slightly from these figures.
Considering the six isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen, 18 combinations of HOH or “18 varieties of water” are possible (2, 3).

Of the above eighteen varieties of waters,
1
H
2
16
O has a mass of 18 and is the most common; it is generally known as “water” or sometime called ordinary or light water. Deuterium oxide (D
2
16
O) has a mass of 20 and is known as “heavy water.” Some references use the term “semiheavy water” for HD
16
O. Washburn and Urey (4) were the first to enrich deuterium oxide in water in 1932. Some of the 18 varieties of water are extremely rare. An interesting, though trivial, point is that the molecular weight of the most common form of water
1
H
2
16
O (18), equals the number of different varieties of water, 18.
H
enry's Law
Authors: Viadero Roger C. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
William Henry (1774–1836) established the fundamental relationship to define the partitioning of a soluble (or partially soluble) chemical species between gas and liquid phases, at equilibrium, in a dilute aqueous solution.
Three main limitations must be considered when applying Henry's law: (1) the state of equilibrium, (2) the solute concentration, and (3) the veracity of using standard data for calculations in contaminated water systems. The application of Henry's law is limited to cases where chemical equilibrium has been reached in a dilute solution (< 1% solute concentration). However, the concentrations of most water constituents are normally less than 1%, so the application of Henry's law is typically valid.
Mariotte Bottle—Use in Hydrology
Authors: Holden Joseph 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
A Mariotte bottle is a device that allows constant flow of a fluid from a container, even when the fluid level in the container changes. It is named after Edme Mariotte (1620–1684), a French physicist, who, independently from Boyle, discovered the law that states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure. Mariotte bottles have a wide range of applications in engineering and science (such as fuel supply) and are used in a variety of hydrologic applications ranging from river discharge gauging to infiltration measurement.
Sodium in Natural Waters
Authors: Priyadarshi Nitish 
Published: April 2005

AbstractSodium is a light alkali metal which floats on water in its pure state. However, it is very chemically active and is rarely found in its pure state. All natural waters contain sodium; nearly all sodium compounds readily dissolve in water, and it naturally leaches from rocks and soils.The sodium ion, the sixth most abundant metallic ion in the earth's crust, is a natural constituent of both food and water from several sources. Most water supplies contain less than 20 mg of sodium per liter, but in some countries, levels can exceed 250 mg/liter. Saline intrusion, mineral deposits, seawater spray, sewage effluents, industrial brines, chemicals used in paper processing, soap, glass, and glass‐wool industries, food processing, slaughtering and meat packing industries and salt used in road deicing all contribute significant quantities of sodium to water. In addition, water treatment chemicals, such as sodium fluoride, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium hypochlorite can together result in sodium levels as high as 30 mg/liter. Domestic water softeners can give levels of over 300 mg/liter. A much more important source of sodium in fluvial waters is the input from leaching of halite from sedimentary or evaporite deposits. More than 40% of the sodium in fluvial waters comes from this source. Sodium is also derived from the weathering of silicate minerals, principally sodic plagioclase feldspar. This source accounts for more than 20% of the sodium in river water. It is also an important element in mica, amphibole, and pyroxene.
Technetium in Water
Authors: Clausen Jay 
Published: April 2005

AbstractTechnetium, element 43, was predicted on the basis of its location in the periodic table. Twenty‐two isotopes of technetium whose masses range from 90 to 111 are known, and all are radioactive. Technetium has three long‐lived radioactive isotopes: technetium‐97 [97Tc] (half‐life {T1/2} = 2.6 × 106years),98Tc (T1/2 = 4.2 × 106years), and99Tc (T1/2 = 2.13 × 105years). An important isotope is95mTc (“m” stands for metastable state) [T1/2 = 61 days], which is used in tracer work. However, the most useful isotope of technetium is99mTc (T1/2 = 6.01 hours), which is used in many medical radioisotope tests because of its short half‐life, easy detection of the gamma ray it emits, and the ability of technetium to bind chemically to many biologically active moleculesTechnetium‐99 is a surface water and groundwater contaminant at a number of DOE sites such as the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant (PGDP) in Paducah, Kentucky; the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant in Piketon, Ohio; Currently, the largest annual release of99Tc to the environment occurs at the two nuclear fuel‐reprocessing facilities in Sellafield, United Kingdom.The most extensive groundwater distribution of99Tc is at the PGDP where amile long plume of99Tc contaminated groundwater is commingled with the solvent trichloroethene. The99Tc was introduced to the site during the 1970s when fissioned uranium was reprocessed.The technologies explored for remediating99Tc in water include ion exchange, liquid–liquid extraction, precipitation with various forms of iron, redox manipulation, the FORAGER sponge, granular activated carbon (GAC), and natural attenuation.
Unit Hydrograph
Authors: Cudennec Christophe 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
On the scale of a hydrologic event, a river basin schematically has two influences. The first is the yield of rainfall transformed into effective rainfall (in terms of runoff production), and the second is the transfer of runoff flows generated all over the basin territory to the unique outlet. The concept assumes that all transfer processes of the whole basin can be synthesized in a single linear function, called the unit hydrograph of the basin considered. It is at the root of the idea of the transfer function and is a kind of functional signature of the basin. This means that a characteristic function can be identified for a given basin. It is assumed that this function underlies any rainfall–runoff event and synthesizes all relevant hydrologic processes and geographic influences on the temporal scale of the event and the spatial scale fixed by the basin territory. Furthermore this means that the unit hydrograph should really be the hydrograph at the outlet, following an average impulse unit effective rainfall input, and that the response of the basin to any actual effective rainfall chronicle can be simulated through the sum of successive elementary affinities of the unit hydrograph. Such a holistic purpose necessarily faces problems of simplifying the natural complexity and of identifying the unit hydrograph itself.
Wetlands: Uses, Functions, and Values
Authors: McCartney Matthew P. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThroughout history, wetlands have played an important role in human development. They have brought benefits, but also caused difficulties for people. Their perceived value to society has varied from place to place and has changed over time.In many arid and semiarid regions of the world, societies have flourished because of the water and other resources provided by wetlands.In recent years, it has been realized that wetlands are valuable ecosystems. It is now understood that they maintain environmental quality, sustain livelihoods, support immense biodiversity, and have important recreational and aesthetic qualities.
Episodic Acidification
Authors: Mitchell Myron J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Episodic acidification is the short‐term decrease (≤0 µmol
c
L
−1
) in acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of surface waters due to both natural and anthropogenic factors. ANC is a measure of the ability of water or soil to neutralize added acids and is defined by the reaction of hydrogen ions with inorganic (e.g., HCO
3
−
) or organic ions. Decreases in ANC generally result in a decline in pH, sometimes dropping to levels below 4.5. Episodic acidification most commonly occurs during snowmelt or precipitation that results in rapid increases in the discharge rates of surface waters. Typically the decrease in ANC and pH of streams and lakes is accompanied by increases in Al

n
+

concentrations. These decreases in ANC and pH and increases in Al

n
+

concentrations have marked effects on water chemistry and freshwater biota.
Adsorption of Metal Ions on Bed Sediments
Authors: Jain Chakresh K. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe adsorption characteristics of cadmium on bed sediments of the River Ganga (India) have been studied to determine the tolerance of the river system for the heavy metal load. The effect of various controlling parameters, initial concentration, solution pH, sediment dose, contact time and particle size, have been evaluated. The optimum contact time needed to reach equilibrium was approximately 60 minutes and was independent of the initial concentration of cadmium ions. The adsorption curves are smooth and continuous leading to saturation, suggesting a possible monolayer coverage of cadmium ions on the surface of the adsorbent. The extent of adsorption increases with pH. Furthermore, the adsorption of cadmium increases as adsorbent doses increase and as adsorbent particle size decreases. The two geochemical phases, iron and manganese oxides, probably support the adsorption of cadmium ions. The adsorption data have been analyzed by using the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models to determine the mechanistic parameters of the adsorption process. Isotherms have been used to obtain thermodynamic parameters, free energy change (ΔGo), enthalpy change (ΔHo) and entropy change (ΔSo). The negative values of free energy change (ΔGo) indicate the spontaneous nature of the adsorption of cadmium on bed sediments, and the positive values of enthalpy change (ΔHo) suggest the endothermic nature of the adsorption process. The uptake of cadmium is controlled by bulk as well as intraparticle diffusion mechanisms.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Hydroelectric Reservoirs
Authors: Barrette Nathalie 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe presence of certain trace gases (e.g., CO2and CH4) in the atmosphere is related to human activity (fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, and intensive agriculture), and to the biogeochemical processes that occur in natural environments (tropical and boreal forests and tundra). For many years now, scientists have been trying to determine the importance of natural environments as sinks for or sources of these trace gases (1, 2, 3). The terrestrial biosphere constitutes a major carbon sink (4); more than a third of the anthropic CO2emissions are fixed there (5). However, certain changes in land use (e.g., deforestation and the draining of marshes for agriculture) can lead to changes in the way greenhouse gases (GHGs) are produced or fixed by modifying the physicochemical characteristics of these soils. In the medium and long term, these changes are likely to invert the carbon sink capacity that has been attributed until now to certain natural environments (e.g., boreal regions). This article examines how one of these land‐use changes, the creation of hydroelectric reservoirs, significantly modifies the carbon cycle in natural environments.
Hydroelectric Power
Authors: Jain Sharad K. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Hydropower generation follows a simple concept: water falling from the force of gravity turns the blades of a turbine, which is connected to a generator. The rotating generator produces electricity. Prehistoric man was aware of the energy contained in falling water. One of the earliest devices to use this energy was the water wheel. The Romans used the energy of falling water to do many useful things. They constructed paddle wheels that turned with river flow and lifted water to troughs built higher than river level. The Egyptians and Greeks harnessed the power of river currents to turn wheels and grind grain before 2000
B.C.
In the Middle Ages, more efficient water wheels were built for milling grain.

In the nineteenth century, the water turbine gradually replaced the water wheel, and dams were built to control the flow of water. Since then, the hydroelectric potential of rivers continued to be developed. The first modern turbine design was developed in 1849 by James Francis. According to estimates, hydroelectric power production has now risen to 2,000 billion kilowatt hours worldwide.
Reservoirs‐Multipurpose
Authors: Jain Sharad K. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Reservoirs are developed for two main functions. The first is to store water to even out the fluctuations in river flow and match the availability to demand. Generally, the major part of annual stream flow is available during the few months of the rainy season, but the demand for water arises all year round. Therefore, it is necessary to store the excess water in the months of high flows and use it when the natural stream flow is inadequate to meet the demand. The water stored in a reservoir may also be diverted to faraway places where it is needed.
The second function is to raise the level of the water upstream of the dam to provide a hydraulic head. The creation of storage and head allows dams to generate electricity. The other important purpose of a reservoir is to control flooding in downstream areas.
River Basin Planning and Coordination
Authors: Hjorth Peder 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
A river basin is a functional entity where water is the integrating factor. What happens in one location will impact any downstream location. Sometimes there are upstream impacts as well, for instance, backwater effects upstream of a dam. Thus, water management must be coordinated and concerted to result in desired outcomes in different parts of a drainage basin. To this end, there is a need for effective communication across institutional and disciplinary boundaries.
Rivers and Streams: One‐Way Flow System
Authors: Cudennec Christophe 
Published: April 2005

AbstractBroadly speaking, rivers and streams are inscribed in the structural relief lines of the lowest local altitudes, the thalwegs. But they do not necessarily strictly follow these lines when they are considered on a very precise scale, because their exact drawing is constrained by local particularities such as the substratum, the vegetation, and anthropic artifacts. Inversely, there is not necessarily a river or a stream in a thalweg because the permanent flow and the landscape marking depend on many hydrologic and geomorphological factors.Because of this particular position of rivers and streams, they have a major role in hillslope drainage, whatever the kinds of waterways through the hillslopes are. Then, any river or stream receives water from the sides and from upward, and makes it flow downward through a slope‐oriented sense. Thus, a point of a stream or a river has a topological and functional relationship with all of its up and downward points. This relationship leads to defining the so‐called ‘one‐way flow system’ and makes structured objects emerge on a larger scale. Rivers and streams meet and are organized in a hierarchical branched network.
B
enjamin
F
ranklin: From Kite to Lightning Rod
Authors: Waterway William 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
One stormy day in June of 1752, Benjamin Franklin took a walk into a field to go kite flying with his 21‐year‐old son, William. The field rested along the banks of the Schuylkill. Trusting in his fathers scientific know‐how, William probably had no idea that he was participating in a potentially life‐threatening experiment. At the time, little did William realize that Franklin had so much excitement and interest in studying storms that he could have been dubbed “the world's first official storm chaser.”
As the story goes, Franklin attached a piece of metal wire to the fuselage of his homemade kite to help attract electrical charges flying among the overhead clouds. The hemp string played out through Franklin's fingers, and the kite twisted and turned in the turbulent winds as it soared higher and higher. After a considerable length of the string had played out, Franklin tied a key to the taut string. Then, with a dampened silk ribbon tied to the knuckles of his free hand, Franklin and William waited to see what would happen.
Whether it was a collection of static electricity gathered along the moist hemp string or a “gentle” lightning strike, we may never know. Regardless, Ben Franklin reported that when he placed his hand with the insulating silk ribbon near the key, he received a jolt of electricity as sparks leaped from the key. Franklin's grounded body acted as a grounding path for the electrical current built up in the electric field of the storm clouds overhead. In addition to proving that thunderclouds generate electricity, Franklin also extrapolated his negative/positive electrical research from his laboratory and theorized that the lower part of the thunderclouds was mostly negatively charged.
Our Evolving Water Consciousness
Authors: Marks William E. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Since the dawn of our species, being conscious of water has been vital to our survival, health, and social behavior.
Hundreds of thousands of years before the written word, humans thought and communicated about water. Besides being essential for survival, water remains a mysterious fluid that science continues to research and study.
Prior to the invention of writing, communication about water found expression in human sign language and the spoken word.

An important turning point in the correct human grasp of the hydrologic cycle came in 1580 with the publication of Bernard Palissy's book,
Discours admirables
. Palissy, a potter by trade, was a keen observer of nature and the workings of water. In
Discours admirables
, Palissy presented a concept of the hydrologic cycle that is accurate according to today's definition. Palissy's book also provided other new hydrologic concepts such as the origin of springs and rivers, how wells are recharged from nearby rivers, the hydrodynamics of artesian wells, the use of forestation for controlling erosion, and plans for constructing fountains for domestic water supply.

It was not until the late 1600s, however, that Edmund Halley, of Halley's Comet fame, actually proved that Palissy's theory was correct. Using his sense of observation and mathematical skills, Halley roughly figured the quantity of water draining from all the rivers of North Africa and Europe into the Mediterranean. From this, Halley determined that the combined flow was about equal to the water falling as rain or snow on the region's drainage area.
B
enjamin
F
ranklin's
A
rmonica: A Water Music Instrument
Authors: Marks William E. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

The art of creating music from water‐filled glass receptacles is probably as ancient as glassmaking. Some music scholars date the phenomenon of water music back to 2500
B.C
. Because this time predates recorded history, all we have as documentation are references in early folklore and tales.

In the ancient days of Pythagoras, a variety of music was composed by musicians using water‐filled bowls that held different levels of water. This use of creating water music according to a mathematical scale, resonated with Pythagorean philosophy, which believed in transmigration of the soul and a related belief in a numerical scale.
In Persia, where some methods of their glassblowing techniques remain a mystery to this day, we find accounts, as early as the fourteenth century, of water music being played from glasses. Largely because glass music was often played by amateur performers who created their own folk music, glass music has a history that is obscure and mysterious.
F
lood
C
ontrol
A
ct of 1994
Authors: Holst Arthur M. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The Flood Control Act of 1944, enacted on December 22 of that year, established federal policy regarding jurisdiction over rivers and other bodies of water, specifically watersheds. The act states that all water‐related construction and navigation projects will be approved only if they substantially improve navigational capacity and do not excessively interfere with standard water usage. The plan was proposed to prevent flooding and to allow more irrigation, easier navigation, increased river‐related recreation, and the production of hydroelectric power. The Army Corp of Engineers was designated to oversee these tasks.
G
reat
L
akes
G
overnors'
A
greement
Authors: Lasserre Frederic 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The Great Lakes Commission (GLC) is the only regional organization whose statutory mandate is to represent the eight Great Lakes states on a variety of environmental and economic issues. It was created in 1955 and was granted Congressional consent in 1968. The Great Lakes Commission is now a binational agency: its members include the eight Great Lakes states—Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin; the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Québec have had associate member status since 1999.
The Commission is dedicated to managing the waterbody of the Great Lakes: it promotes the orderly, integrated and comprehensive development, use, and conservation of the water and related natural resources of the Great Lakes Basin and St. Lawrence River. Each jurisdiction appoints a delegation of three to five members comprised of senior agency officials, legislators, or appointees of the governor or premier.