bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pre-reform Economic Development in China
Authors: Lin Justin Yifu , Cai Fang , Li Zhou 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
With the implementation of the first five-year plan, the traditional economic system started to take shape. This system solved the problem of how to increase the rate of accumulation to 15 per cent or more in a backward economy,1 and established in a rather short period of time a relatively complete industrial structure in China. However, in terms of economic efficiency, the cost of implementing this strategy was extremely high.
Economic Growth and Stability in China
Authors: Garnaut Ross , Ma Guonan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
High inflation and external deficits in the late 1980s in China raised questions about the viability of Chinese official ambitions to sustain strong growth. Inflation helped to set the scene for the political unrest in 1989, which itself raised doubts about the political feasibility of sustained gradual reform. Some commentators drew attention to an apparently deteriorating trade-off between growth and stability through the 1980s, with given rates of growth being associated with higher inflation and external payments deficits later in the decade (Gamaut 1990, 1992).
China’s Macroeconomic Performance and Management during Transition
Authors: Yusuf Shahid 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Alone among the former socialist economies, China has led a charmed life. It was not by any means the first to experiment seriously with market institutions-that distinction belongs to Hungary. Nor did it attempt to ‘cross the chasm in a single leap’. Nor has China’s assimilation of market forms been buffered by a major infusion of resources, as in East Germany. Starting with the agriculture sector (Ash 1993), the country has transformed itself, a step at a time, always ensuring that each economic initiative passed the test of sociopolitical acceptability before it was widely implemented. Instead of a risky Big Bang, China’s reform can be most aptly described as a series of small controlled explosions, which maintained the momentum of change while minimising the risk of instability.
Township, Village and Private Industry in China’s Economic Reform
Authors: Byrd William , Gelb Alan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For most economists, seventeen articles and a book on comparative economic systems and reform would constitute a sizable volume of output. In the case of Bela Balassa, this work is dwarfed by his prodigious output in other areas. Nevertheless, his deep interest in this topic is only natural. From its early stages, he has analysed the Chinese economic reform process, comparing it with developments in Eastern Europe, especially his native Hungary. Anotable characteristic of Balassa’s analysis, for example, in ‘China’s Economic Reforms in a Comparative Perspective’ (1987), is a strong focus on the incentive structures linking performance and rewards. This emphasis, natural to one so involved in analysing trade (and other) regulatory regimes, provides a unifying thread for analysis of the spread of ‘responsibility systems’ in agriculture and industry and of the evolving balance between planning and markets for both products and factors that characterise the reform process.
Surrounding the Cities from the Countryside
Authors: Findlay Christopher , “Watson Andrew 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the late 1920s and early 1930s Mao Zedong developed a revolutionary strategy of ‘surrounding the cities from the countryside’. The strategy, forged in the midst of intense debate within the Chinese Communist Party, was based on an evaluation of the relative political strengths of city and country in achieving the aims of the revolution. Akey issue in the reforms since 1978 has also been the relationship between city and countryside, though the strategic goal this time has been to accelerate economic growth through economic reform. The rural reforms have provided the stimulus for a phase of rapid growth and, simultaneously, presented new challenges for the urban economy. One of the most significant aspects of this process has been the impact of the growth of non-agricultural rural enterprises on state-run urban industry. These enterprises, which have profoundly influenced the economic relationship between China’s cities and countryside, are leading to structural changes in the economy and generating new types of conflict between urban and rural industrial systems. In terms of the strategic aims of the reforms, they offer again, in some ways, a chance to surround the cities from the country¬ side and help solve some of the difficult problems of urban enterprise reform.
Enterprise Reform in Chinese Industry
Authors: Jefferson Gary H , R.awski Thomas G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Chinese economy commands attention because of its immense size, and because China’s unique combination of dynamic performance and unusual institutional arrangements challenges many popular notions about the reform of socialist systems. Industry, which by Chinese convention includes mining and utilities as well as manufacturing, exemplifies this arresting mix of scale, dynamism, and unexpected structural features. Industry is the largest sector of China’s economy, accounting for 50 per cent of total output and 80 per cent of exports, and employing 102 million workers in 1992 (Zhongguotongji zhoiyao 1993). Its robust growth, amounting to well above 10 per cent annually during the1980s (Table 1), undergirds China’s standing as the world’s fastest-growing economy.
The SOE Sector Under Reform
Authors: Sachs Jeffrey , Woo Wing Thye 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
China’s reform of its state enterprise sector has been undoubtedly incremental and experimental. Reforms have typically taken the form of new practices being allowed for a small number of SOEs, and then being more widely adopted over time. Furthermore, before full coverage was reached, another set of new measures would be implemented on an experimental scale which might then in tum be expanded in scope. So, at most points in time, there may be the preponderance but not exclusive existence of a particular reform configuration.
Fiscal Decentralisation and Growing Regional Disparities in Rural China
Authors: West Loraine A , P.W.Wong Christine 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Increasing regional and sectoral inequality and its possible consequences for social and economic instability are of growing concern in China. This is reflected in the ninth Five Year Plan adopted in September 1995, which has included among its key targets the amelioration of regional income disparities during the plan period (1996-- 2000). A priori, the process of transition to a market economy is expected to produce large income shifts and increase income disparities as the realignment of prices and resource allocation by market forces bring changes to the distribution of income across sectors, regions, and households, and as the mechanisms by which planned economies effect equalisation (such as restrictions on private property rights, wage setting, and trade restriction) are dismantled. In fact, however, one of the pleasant surprises of the Chinese reform experience was the diminution of income differentials during the1979-84 period (World Bank 1985; Adelman and Sunding 1987; Denny 1991; Sicular 1991; Tsui 1991).
Wage Determination and Occupational Attainment in the Rural Industrial Sector of China
Authors: Gregory R G , Meng Xin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As Eastern European countries struggle to transform their economies the process of moving successfully from a planned to a market economy has become a major challenge. In this paper we analyse some labour market aspects of a very successful reform process, the dismantling of centralised controls of the Chinese rural industrial sector. This economic history is particularly interesting because it demonstrates the considerable economic success that can be achieved by the combination of extensive product market liberalisation and minimal liberalisation of the labour market.
The Role of Foreign Trade and Investment in China’s Economic Transformation
Authors: Lardy Nicholas R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the almost two decades since economic reform began in China the role of the foreign sector has burgeoned in ways that no one anticipated. The volume of foreign trade and the role of foreign capital are both far greater than could have been foreseen based on the modest Chinese economic reforms initiated in the late 1970s. By the mid 1990s China had become one of the world’s largest trading nations, the recipient of more foreign direct investment than any other country in the world, the largest borrower from the World Bank, the largest recipient of official development assistance in the form of low-interest, long-term concessionary loans from industrialised countries, and, except for the Czech Republic, the only transition economy with ready access to international capital and equity markets.
Institutional Change, Trade Composition and Export Supply Potential in China
Authors: Ligang Song 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The main objectives of this paper are to analyse the changing composition of China’s trade within the context of the reform of the Chinese economy and to discuss its export supply potential with reference to the experience of other developing economies in Asia. The paper presents the following key arguments. First, the rapidly changing composition of trade in China during the past 15 years is the result of a convergence of its trade pattern toward market-determined comparative advantage. Such convergence is primarily due to institutional reform, particularly trade system reform, aimed at introducing market mechanisms into economic and trading activities. Second, China’s export supply potential will be very much determined by progress in further trade liberalisation that leads to a dynamic change of its comparative advantage. Progress may be examined in the context of the contribution of exports to economic growth in China and its economic integration into the world economy, namely, how the scale of China’s expected future trade expansion will transform its stature in world trade.
Post-war Tax Revenue Trends
Authors: Messere Ken , Kam Flip de , Heady Christopher 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter mainly covers post-war trends in both total tax ratios (TTRs) and the share of receipts from particular taxes in total tax revenues (tax structures or the tax mix). Although comparisons of tax levels and structures of OECD countries are aimed to answer two separate questions—how much tax revenues and what tax mix, respectively—data on tax structures could be simply derived from those on tax levels by some multiplication and division. It would accordingly be superfluous to reproduce all the information twice and more detailed country comparisons are confined to tax structure data. Indeed, it is useful for a number of reasons to have some separate information on tax structures. If total tax receipts rather than GDP at market prices is chosen as the denominator, trends as between different kinds of tax are more clearly revealed, not only because the numbers are larger, but also because trends in particular tax ratios can conceal trends in the relative share of receipts from particular taxes in total tax revenue.
Consumption Taxation
Authors: Messere Ken , Kam Flip de , Heady Christopher 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In addition to personal and corporate income, consumption constitutes a major tax base in all OECD countries. Section 9.2 discusses the rationale for taxing consumption, after which some comments on terminology and a brief history of consumption taxation are provided. Section 9.2.4 discusses the influence of the European Union (and its predecessors the Common Market and the European Communities) on consumption taxation of its fifteen member countries which has been far greater than in any other area of taxation.
Section 9.3 examines in greater detail why value-added tax (VAT) is almost universally preferred to other forms of general consumption taxes. After an attempt to clarify what VAT means in theory and in practice, the defects of manufacturing sales taxes (MSTs), wholesale sales taxes (WSTs) and cascade taxes are described.
Tax Choices of OECD Countries
Authors: Messere Ken , Kam Flip de , Heady Christopher 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This rushed tour of twenty-five OECD countries aims at identifying similarities and differences between their main choices with regard to tax levels, structures and systems—in many cases over the last forty or fifty years, but for rather shorter periods for the newly joined members of OECD in the transitional economies, Korea and Mexico. The chapter also tries to pick up what might be called ‘tax eccentricities’, choices made by particular countries, not to be found elsewhere. Such features are summarized in Tables 11.1 and 11.2. The chapter also covers major tax reforms and tax aspects of fiscal federalism, but does not refer to recent minor changes to the tax law.
Transition: The First Ten Years
Authors: Flemming John S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In a conference with as broad a coverage as this, a broad brush treatment of the first decade of transition seemed appropriate. In what follows I focus in particular on selected topics from the definition and duration of the transition to the diversity of the origins and destination of the twenty five individual countries. There are reasons for the process not being smooth and I examine relationships between reform and recovery as well as the nexus of corporate privatization, restructuring, and finance. Finally, reference is made to other welfare measures and criticisms of the reforms are addressed.
Privatization and Institutions in Developing and Transition Economies
Authors: Nabli Mustapha K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Within the scope of factors that determine the success of privatization, there is the increasing belief among development practitioners that the institutional framework has an important role to play. In fact, some institutional factors--such as the degree of regulation, government accountability, red tape, judiciary efficiency, and corruption-are becoming increasingly recognized as critical elements that can either fasten or stand in the way of privatization.
Global Governance for Environment: Equity and Efficiency
Authors: Tubiana Laurence 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The past decade shows that there has been major progress in governance related to global environmental problems. By the same token, however, the shortfalls, weaknesses, and inadequacy of institutional responses to these problems have proved particularly acute. The improvements have been reflected in the progress made in international negotiations on environmental issues, arising from a growing awareness of the risks involved and their widespread impact. Governments, together with the scientific community, the media, environmental organizations, and major corporations in a large number of industrialized countries, have taken part in the debate in order to assess the extent of the risks and to reflect on possible solutions and the required means for implementation. Networks of parties directly or indirectly involved in public decision-making and negotiations have been established in response to major issues regarding the global environment.
Financial Fragility, Crises, and the Stakes of Prudential Control
Authors: Aglietta Michel 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the last two decades, most countries progressing towards financial liberalization have been faced with a combination of banking crises and declining asset prices (property, equity, foreign currency). This phenomenon is so widespread that it can be assumed not to be circumstantial or transitional but to be tied to the intrinsic operation of the financial systems themselves. Crises seem to be part of the dynamism of finance when capital markets emerge. This assumption tends to be borne out by history, with its long list of known international financial crises.
Introduction
Authors: Gregory Mary , Salverda Wiemer , Bazen Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Combining economic efficiency with social equity is an ongoing challenge, with the terms of the debate and the trade-offs it presents continually reshaped by events. Low-wage employment is one of the key areas where this challenge is currently posed. The 1980s saw the emergence ofhigh and persistent unemployment throughout much of the European Union, in many instances involving groups who had not previously been affected. As inflation receded over the decade, combating unemployment was restored to a central place on the policy agenda. The 1990s, however, saw growing recognition that unemployment is only one dimension in an increasingly complex set of unsatisfactory labour market outcomes. Many countries are now confronting a growing gap between those who benefit from the new career opportunities created by technological developments and rising prosperity, and those who do not. This gap manifests itself in a number of ways. Alongside the well-paid new jobs that are being generated, the fastest employment growth has been in ‘atypical’ work, part-time, limited term, or outside conventional employment contracts, often offering little in the way of security or continuity. While salaries and incomes have been rising, so has the extent of low-paid work. This has led to the sharp rise in earnings inequality already pronounced in the UK, and increasingly evident elsewhere. As sluggish employment growth has limited job opportunities, a new pattern of ‘joblessness’ has become established. Premature withdrawal from the labour force, which emerged initially as a trend towards earlier retirement, now involves substantial numbers of men in mid-career or even earlier. This movement out of economic activity can be a more important source of joblessness than unemployment. The distribution of work has become polarized in some countries, as two-earner and no-earner households have become common, replacing those with a single breadwinner. This range of developments has put issues of income distribution, inequality, and social justice back on the policy agenda.
Wage Inequalities and Low Pay: The Role of Labour Market Institutions
Authors: Lucifora Claudio 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In recent decades a number of industrialized countries have experienced significant changes in the distribution of earnings. Various factors, economic and institutional, have contributed to reshaping the structure of wage differentials across different groups of workers. Major changes have also occurred in the distribution of employment and unemployment within the labour force, with declining employment rates and growing joblessness particularly in European countries. In this context, some have argued that there is a trade-off between the extent of joblessness and overall wage dispersion, advocating greater labour market flexibility, especially in wage setting, to reduce unemployment. However, in the face of the increase in earnings inequality, concern has emerged for those individuals located at the bottom end of the earnings distribution who have been most strongly affected, in terms of social exclusion and poverty, by the changing economic conditions. In particular, the low paid, the low skilled, and less protected groups generally, such as women, young workers, and older men, appear to have borne most of the burden, in terms both of lower earnings and of the higher incidence of unemployment (OECD 1996a).
Minimum Wages and Low-Wage Employment
Authors: Bazen Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The role of minimum wages and the analysis of their labour market impact changed in the 1990s. This was partly due to new research in the USA that undermined the apparent consensus that had emerged in the early 1980s. However, it was also due to the lack of convincing evidence that minimum wages are responsible for the high unemployment rates in Europe. These developments led in many quarters to a change of attitude towards minimum wage setting. Instead of being regarded as harming those they are intended to help owing to their assumed negative effect on employment, minimum wages came to be regarded by many as a protective measure for vulnerable workers, and an element of the level playing field for competition among firms. Evidence of such a change is present in the First Report of the Low Pay Commission, which recommended the initial level for the national minimum wage that was introduced in the UK in April 1999.
Trade or Technological Change? Which is Working against the Low Skilled?
Authors: Gregory Mary , Machin Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Across the advanced economies the last twenty years of the twentieth century saw a sustained decline in the relative demand for low-skilled workers. Within the EU the persistent high levels of unemployment that characterized most member states in the 1980s and 1990s in substantial part reflect the poor employment prospects of the low skilled. The effects of this, in the marked deterioration in the position of low-skilled workers in the labour market, are now widely documented (Glyn and Salverda, this volume). Throughout the EU unemployment rates for low-skilled workers are several times greater than for the higher skilled, and the low skilled predominate among the long-term unemployed (Nickell and Bell 1995). Worse, these unemployment rates seriously understate the marginalization of the low skilled. Falling employment rates and growing non-participation in the labour force, even among prime-age men, indicate a degree of exclusion from work that may be as large again as overt unemployment among the low skilled. Developments in the relative wage position of the low skilled are less clear-cut. In a number of countries, notably within the EU, the earnings distribution has remained relatively stable; in others, however, the shift in the employment structure has been accompanied by growing wage inequality, as relative earnings for the high skilled have increased while those for the low skilled have declined. The USA presents the most extreme case, with real earnings for workers in the lowest deciles of the distribution declining markedly, in absolute as well as relative terms, between the 1970s and the mid-1990s. In the UK, although wages for workers at the bottom of the distribution have not fallen in real terms, none the less growth has been much slower for low-wage workers than for higher earners, and wage inequality has widened (Machin 1996a, 1998, 1999).