bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ecclesiastical Disputing in the Tuscan Dioceses
Authors: Wickham Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
AT FIRST SIGHT, the church’s affairs were wholly different from those we have looked at hitherto. The courts of the kingdom of Italy had already almost entirely vanished at the start of our century, with only an intermittent revived presence in parts of Tuscany in the 1160s—1190s; for secular disputing, local procedures were normally the only possible recourse, and indeed, as we have seen, different cities and their rural hinterlands each took on the task of developing and formalizing such procedures in different ways. The exact opposite is, however, true of the church.
Using Written Records to Revitalize North American Languages
Authors: Nakayama Toshihide 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In research on endangered languages it is relatively common to downplay the value of written records or any other second-hand attestation of the actual uses of the language as a source of information. This tendency undoubtedly has to do with the fact that the collection of primary data has been felt to be more important and urgent than devoting time to secondary records of the language when endangered language communities are going through drastic and rapid acculturation. This feeling has been strengthened by the fact that many of the previous records were of inferior quality, especially in terms of phonetic accuracy.
Linguistic Diversity in Decline: A Functional View
Authors: Miyaoka Osahito 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Linguistic diversity is a theme with a long history of absorbing intellectual and academic enquiry, and interest in it has recently resurged partly through the growing realization of the value of biodiversity and partly through language endangerment as diversity becomes severely threatened. Concerning the current issue of linguistic diversity and its diminution, however, many different attitudes and views prevail—individual and collective—which largely depend upon how to see the functions of human language, besides historical and non-linguistic factors involved. The most commonly held view seems to be that a language is distinct from a culture and irrelevant to the process of thought.
Fuegian Languages
Authors: Aguilera Oscar E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
country, but only six native language groups survive today: Aymara and Quechuan (mentioned in § 10.2.4), Mapuche, two Fuegian languages— Kawesqar and Yahgan—and Rapanui (or Pascuense; a Malayo-Polynesian language, cf. Ch. 14) in Easter Island. At least five other languages are known to have existed, some of them with little documentation, that is, Chango, Atacameno (below), Diaguita, Selk ‘nam, and Chono. See n. 4 for Ona, an extinct Fuegian language. The Mapuche or Mapudungu(n) (also known as Araucanian) family is the most vital group of Amerindian languages in Chile (also spoken in Argentina). While some of the languages are still not endangered (though threatened), others are considered moribund or seriously endangered.
Languages of the Southwest United States
Authors: Ichihashi-Nakayama Kumiko , Yumitani Yukihiro , Yamamoto Akira Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diversity is one of the main characteristics of Native American communities and their languages in the Southwest of the United States. Oftentimes linguistically closely related communities show very different sociolinguistic situations and various degrees of language shift, which result in differences in the degree of language endangerment. The Southwest culture area of North America is known as the region with the “oldest continuous record of human habitation on the continent outside of Mesoamerica “, and it is “a land of diversity, both of landscape and of ways of life upon that landscape “ (Ortiz 1979a: 1).
If-Thenism
Authors: Chihara Charles S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have been asked, sometimes by readers of my structural account and sometimes by attendees at one of my lectures on this material, how my view differs from this or that well-known position. The two accounts that are most often mentioned in this regard are if-thenism and mathematical fictionalism. The last two chapters of this work will take up these two rival views, with the aim of producing a deeper understanding of my structural account by way of contrast and comparison.
How to ‘Read the Market’
Authors: Hohnen Pernille 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In peasant markets1 commodities are seldom standardised or pre-packaged and are often subject to marked fluctuations in supply and demand. Production or overhead costs are not calculated and most traders do not keep written records after a transaction is completed. Vendors of particular commodities cluster together in one section of the market-place, rather than distribute themselves throughout it, and do not overtly compete to make a sale. Advertising, other than sales patter, is almost unknown and although many transactions are between persons previously unknown to one another, the market as a whole is structured by enduring trading partnerships, which channels credit and supplies. As prices are seldom marked on goods or on the stall, except when required by the state, bargaining is the usual means of setting prices.
New Forms of Discipline
Authors: Hohnen Pernille 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The uneven flow of information and knowledge cannot be understood without including an analysis of the power structures in the market. Especially because the formal leadership was weak, an opening had arisen for an alternative form of order, and the market was in reality being controlled by various ‘informal’ agents, mainly bands of racketeers. These partly hidden agents of power and their internal competition may be viewed as influencing the flow of knowledge and information in two ways. First, since their activities often had consequences for the development of the market, knowing about their plans, decisions, and general conduct there was important in order to predict what was going to happen and then act accordingly.
In Praise of the Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
Authors: Anglo Sydney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Monday, 18 August 1572, after protracted negotiations, the Protestant Henri de Navarre was married to Marguerite, youngest sister of the French King Charles IX, at Notre Dame de Paris. The city was thronged with Huguenots, all intent on enjoying the wedding festivities which would, it was hoped, usher in a new age of religious concord. However, on Friday the 22nd, Admiral Coligny, the Huguenots’ leader, was severely wounded by an arquebus shot; and on Sunday the 24th, Saint Bartholomew’s Day, the Admiral was murdered as he lay in his lodgings, and the bells rang out signalling a general massacre of the Huguenots in Paris, which was soon answered by further massacres elsewhere in France. The extent of the atrocities and the question of their premeditation or spontaneity have provided matter for continuing debate among historians; and the Saint Bartholomew has passed into the mythology of European history.
The Syntax of Event Structure*
Authors: Pustejovsky James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent work in linguistic theory has stressed the important role that structured lexical representations can play in natural language, for example, the emergence of argument structure as a distinct level of representation (Grimshaw, 1990; Williams, 1981) and the importance of semantic representations such as f-structure (Bresnan, 1982) and lexical conceptual structure (LCS) (Jackendoff, 1983; Rappaport & Levin, 1988). Similarly, we will explore what advantages there are in positing a separate level indicating the event structures associated with predicates and their arguments.
Tense Logic and the Logic of Earlier and Later
Authors: Prior A N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
W. V. Quine once wrote a paper entitled ‘Three Grades of Modal Involvement’. Tense logic, like modal logic, is something about which some philosophers have misgivings, and like modal logic, it may be presented in a more or a less accommodating manner—it has, in Quine’s terminology, its own ‘grades of involvement’. I want to present here four such ‘grades of tense-logical involvement’, by presenting a series of calculi involving the notion of being true (or as Rescher says, ‘realized’) at an instant, making more and more controversial assumptions at each main stage.
News Stories as Narratives
Authors: Bell Allan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Journalists do not write articles. They write stories. A story has structure, direction, point, viewpoint. An article may lack these. Stories come in many kinds and are known in all cultures of the world. They include fairy tales, fables, parables, gospels, legends, epics and sagas. Stories are embedded in all sorts of language use, from face-to-face conversation to public addresses. The role of the storyteller is a significant one both in language behaviour and in society at large. Much of humanity’s most important experience has been embodied in stories.
A Model for Processing Temporal References in Chinese
Authors: Li Wenjie , Wong, Kam-Fai , Yuan Chunfa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Information Extraction (IE) is an upcoming challenging research area to cope with the increasing volume of unwieldy, distributed information resources, such as information over Among them, temporal information is important in domains where the task of extracting and tracking information over time occurs frequently, such as planning, scheduling, and question-answering. It may be as simple as an explicit or direct expression in a written language, such as ‘‘the company closed down in May, 1997’’; or it may be left implicit, to be recovered by readers from the surrounding texts. For example, one may know the fact that ‘‘the company closed down before an earth- quake’’, yet without knowing the exact time of the bankruptcy.
Medicine Victorious: North-West Europe, 1944–1945
Authors: Harrison Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Normandy landings presented some formidable difficulties to the medical services of the Allied armies. The evacuation of numerous casualties from the beaches, under heavy fire, and the care of soldiers injured or wounded in airborne landings were problems that taxed the best medical planners. But medical arrangements were in the hands of men who possessed a wealth of experience and who had learnt valuable lessons from the mistakes made in earlier campaigns. The medical services were also better equipped than before, possessing a full complement of medical staff, and generous stores of medical and surgical supplies. Aware of the need to maintain a continuous flow of men and supplies between Britain and mainland Europe, the Allies threw the full weight of their industrial and technological resources behind the campaign. This meant that medical personnel were generously supplied and normally able to rely on the rapid evacuation of casualties.
Introduction
Authors: Cody Lisa Forman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eighteenth-century Londoners loved caricatures, and the more off-colour the better. In 1760, however, one appeared that might seem to have tipped the scales of decency. The Happy Deliverance(Fig. 1.1) has its innocent enough features: on the centre right we see a crowd of patriotic, hat-waving, working-class Britons shouting ‘huzza’ and ‘Happy Deliverance’, the latter phrase long associated with both England’s Protestant triumphs over Catholic cabals and the successful birth of babies.
Dynamic De finite Descriptions, Implicit Arguments, and Familiarity
Authors: Meulen Alice G B ter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Asserted, presupposed, implicit, and inferred existential noun-phrases differ importantly in dynamic binding potential. Implicit existential arguments of predicates cannot constitute antecedents for pronouns, yet they bind the presuppositions of de finite descriptions in subsequent sentences and support inferred existentially quantified statements. A proper semantics must allow for free variables and an inference rule of existential generalization, a standard deductive rule in predicate logic. Lambda DRT principally separates the composition of a lambda-term for VPs from the declaration of its reference markers for NPs, projected from nuclear argument structure to constitute accessible antecedents.
Grammatical topics
Authors: Goddard Cliff 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we delve into a selection of grammatical topics in East and Southeast Asian languages. At the noun phrase level, we take up the subject of classifler constructions. Then, in the realm of verbal syntax, we look first at the prevalence of aspect marking in languages of the region, then at the pervasive phenomenon of serial verb constructions. At the level of the sentence we will see that for many East and Southeast Asian languages the traditional notion of grammatical subject has to be augmented with a notion of topic. Finally we look at sentence-final particles, whose use is such an important part of communicative competence in most languages of the region.
Epistemology Futures
Authors: Hetherington Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How might epistemology build upon its past and present, so_ as to be better in the future? Epistemology Futures _ takes bold steps towards answering that question. What _ methods will best serve epistemology? Which phenomena and _ concepts deserve more attention from it? Are there _ approaches and assumptions that have impeded its progress _ until now? This volume contains provocative essays by _ prominent epistemologists, presenting many new ideas for _ possible improvements in how to do epistemology. Doubt is _ cast upon the powers of conceptual analysis and of _ epistemological intuition. Surprising aspects of knowledge_ are noticed. What is it? What is it not? Scepticism's limits are traced. What threatens us as potential knowers? What _ does not? The nature and special significance of inquiry, of normative virtues, of understanding, and of disagreement are elucidated, all with an eye on sharpening epistemology's _ future focus. There is definite insight and potential _ foresight. How might real epistemological progress occur in the future? Epistemology Futures offers some intriguing clues.
Inner Spaces and Outer Spaces: the New Epistemology*
Authors: Churchland Paul M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A novel idea is sometimes best introduced by analogy, or contrast, with ideas already familiar. Let us begin, then, with the Kantian portrait of our epistemological situation, and more specifically, with his characterization of the two faculties of empirical intuition and rational judgment. Most famously, Kant argued that both of these faculties constitute a human-specific canvas on which the activities of human cognition are doomed to be painted. Space and time were claimed to be the ‘pure forms’ of all sensory intuition-the abstract background forms, that is, of all possible human sensory representations. And the organized family of the various ‘pure concepts of the understanding’ were claimed to provide the inevitable framework of expression for any of the judgments that we humans ever make about the empirical world.
Introduction
Authors: Woolgar C M , Serjeantson D , Waldron T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Food and diet are rightly popular areas of research, central to understanding daily life in the Middle Ages. In the past twenty years their study has changed a great deal and a multi-disciplinary approach has become essential to encompass the historical, archaeological, and scientific record. During this time, historians have opened up sources in new ways; zooarchaeologists and archaeobotanists have processed and assimilated archaeological material from a wide range of sites; and scientific techniques, applied to the medieval period, have begun to allow an assessment of the cumulative impact of diet on the human skeleton. Nonetheless, the wide variety of information about diet and nutrition has rarely been drawn together. Even for a single country this project is a daunting task, yet it is one that is crucial to establishing how much more is now known about changes in patterns of eating, the general levels of nutrition and the consequences for health and life expectancy. This is the first ambition of this volume. At the same time, the interchange between the methodological approaches of historians and archaeologists has produced important developments and is equally central to this book. Looking at both strands together, we can reassess the state of our knowledge of this complex subject and see where deficiencies lie in our approaches, planning research accordingly.
The Consumption of Field Crops in Late Medieval England
Authors: Stone D J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is hard to avoid platitudes when describing the place of grain in medieval diet, for in both absolute and relative terms it towered over any other foodstuff. This may not have been the case in every part of medieval Britain, as Gerald of Wales informs us in his Description of Wales of c.1200, but for the vast majority of people in England grain provided the bulk of their calorific intake. It has been estimated that at the start of the fourteenth century grain accounted for up to 80 per cent of a harvest worker’s calories and 78 per cent of a soldier’s; even among the lay nobility of medieval England, grain provided 65–70 per cent of their energy intake. Medieval people consumed grain in three main ways: as bread, as ale, and— among the poorer sections of society—in pottage, a thick soup. On balance, bread was the most important—the monks of Westminster Abbey, for instance, gained 35–46 per cent of their calories in this way at the turn of the sixteenth century—but, for many, ale was not far behind. The basic allowance for these monks was a gallon per monk per day, and great households consumed ale in vast quantities: Henry de Lacy bought an average of 85 gallons of ale a day for his household in 1299, while at Framlingham Castle 78 gallons were consumed per day in 1385–6. A sharper picture of consumption per person emerges from the allowances of food and drink given to lay folk who retired to monastic houses. At Selby Abbey in 1272, for example, Adam of Fleyburghr and his wife Emma received two white loaves, one brown loaf, and two gallons of ale every day.
Pig Husbandry and Pork Consumption in Medieval England
Authors: Albarella U 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The tradition of keeping a family pig in a sty at the back of the house— widespread in the last century—is of long standing. It was the product of changes in agriculture and land management through the last millennium, which caused a series of transformations in the manner of keeping swine in Britain. Several different forms of husbandry were practised over the centuries, but pigs always played an important role in economy and society, and, with their meat and lard, provided key components in medieval and modern diets. Although they were useful for the production of manure and had unselective eating habits that assisted in cleaning backyards and town streets, pigs were almost exclusively reared for their meat. Unlike cattle and sheep, pigs do not provide important sec- ondary products, such as wool or traction. Pig milk was used in Hittite rituals, but such exploitation is unknown in historic Europe. Their inability to provide as wide a range of products as other domesticates is compensated for by their productivity as a source of food, in terms of energy intake. This productivity is partly a consequence of the fecundity of the species. Even when no selection of breeds had occurred, nine to twelve piglets—and sometimes more—could be produced every year.
Birds: Food and a Mark of Status
Authors: Serjeantson D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In England, the eating of chickens and geese began only during the Roman period. With few exceptions, the practice of eating wild birds is found for the first time in the early Middle Ages. Thereafter, every section of society ate domestic fowls (chickens) and geese, but eating other birds was restricted by custom, by decree, and by expense, and was a mark of an individual’s standing. The consumption of birds was also linked to religious observance: the meat of birds was permitted where that of four-footed animals was forbidden. The bones are a better source for the range of species eaten than the historical record, not least because the names given to birds have been surprisingly fluid over the past millennium. Some medieval designations were used for more than one species or for groups of birds, and some correlations are uncertain (Table 9.1). Archaeological remains provide evidence for the relative numbers of the different species which were eaten. They cannot indicate where poultry and gamebirds were procured—this is an area in which written evidence can be especially informative—but they can suggest how they were raised. It is clear from the very many illustrations in which kings and noblemen are seen carrying a hawk that the possession of a bird for use in falconry was an important sign of status, and archaeological evidence has made an important contribution to understanding the origin and development of medieval falconry.
The Impact of the Normans on Hunting Practices in England
Authors: Sykes N J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hunting might seem an obvious way of obtaining food, but in practice augmenting diet in this way was not necessarily straightforward. This chapter examines the archaeological evidence for consumption of foodstuffs that came from this source, relating it to hunting practices and instructional texts of the later Middle Ages. Chapter 12 considers the historical evidence for the management of hunting preserves and their contribution to diet, particularly in the period from 1250 onwards, which allows us to examine some of the dynamics of supply and demand. Together the chapters provide an overview of the role that hunting wild mammals played in food supply. Of all the changes attributed to the Norman Conquest, those associated with hunting are probably the best known, with few school-books neglecting to mention the Normans’ love of the chase. After 1066 the Norman kings applied forest law to vast areas of land, most famously creating the New Forest. Under forest law, rights to take animals were restricted and unlicensed use of forest resources was punishable by imprisonment or maiming. The conquered popu- lation appears to have viewed forest law with contempt; indeed, the authors of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle devoted approximately one third of William the Conqueror’s obituary to complaining about it.
Procuring, Preparing, and Serving Venison in Late Medieval England
Authors: Birrell J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aristocracy of medieval England liked to have venison on their tables, especially at celebratory meals and when entertaining guests. The venison could be enjoyed for its own sake and it also added to the variety of meats presented. But just as important was the special status that venison derived from the fact that, as we have seen in Chapter 11, it was not accessible to everybody. It was neither bought nor sold in the normal way; it had to be hunted, and over much of the country it could only be hunted in one of the many long- or newly established game preserves. Venison might be eaten only on occasion and in smaller quantities than other meats, but this is no measure of its true importance. It was highly prized, and the desire to serve it had many consequences. This chapter examines some of these. Chapter 11 considered the introduction of new rituals of hunting to England and here, too, the processes by which this precious meat was procured and served at aristocratic tables are discussed, with particular reference to the historical evidence. It therefore concentrates on the century and a half beginning in the mid-thirteenth century.