bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox Judaism in America: Is There an Alternative to Denominationalism?
Authors: Raphael Marc Lee 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1981 a publisher invited me to write a history of American Judaism to serve as one volume in a series on religions in America. The senior editor told me to organize it around the major denominations, and I must admit that I never gave this organizing structure much critical thought. True, I wrestled with how to define Orthodoxy: as a self-conscious response to the challenges modernity offers to tradition or as an attempt to reconstruct East European Jewish communities? And, depending on the answer to this, I wondered in what order I should present the branches of American Judaism: Was Orthodoxy always here, together with the earliest Jews, or (as I would argue) did a self-conscious American Orthodoxy emerge only after the rise of Reform and Conservative Judaism? Was Conservative Judaism an American denomination, or did it intentionally imitate the European model in which its origins lay—who was (and was not) a Conservative Jew in the nineteenth century? But the fundamental division into Reform, Conservative, Orthodox, and Reconstructionist Judaism, whatever the actual order, I took for granted.1
Presbyterians and the Mystique of Organizational Efficiency, 1870–1936
Authors: Moorhead James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1922 William Adams Brown of Union Theological Seminary in New York City .published an extensive survey of American Protestantism. The noted educator, Presbyterian minister, and ecumenist wrote The Church in America because he believed that Protestant denominations had reached a moment of truth: “We are trying an experiment,” noted Brown, “which will have a far-reaching effect upon the future of democracy, an experiment which will show whether it is possible to supply the unifying spiritual influence needed in a democracy by means of a strong, coherent, free Church, and so make possible under the conditions of our modern life the coming of the new social order called by our Maker the Kingdom of God.” Protestants could exercise that “unifying spiritual influence” only to the extent that they reordered their institutions for more effective ministry. Brown allowed that the churches needed more than new organizational blueprints. “We may plan as we will, but when all is done, there is always something incalculable about religion.
Introduction
Authors: Dewees Don , Duff David , Trebilcock Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The crisis in the mid-1980s in the availability, affordability, and adequacy of liability insurance in the United States and to a lesser extent in Canada, and the widespread public attention that has been generated in the United States in a number of huge mass tort claims, such as the asbestos, DES, and Agent Orange litigations, have precipitated much anguished political, judicial, and academic soul-searching as to the goals and future of the tort system, especially with respect to personal injuries. While some scholars have questioned whether the perception of a so-called litigation explosion in recent years is empirically well grounded,. calls for a re examination of the tort system and its alternatives continue unabated.. In any event, the pervasiveness and cost of accidents underscore the immense importance of law and policy decisions in this area. One of every four Americans is injured each year. In 1985, million Americans were injured seriously enough to require medical attention or to restrict their activities, and 143,000 of these died from their injuries, making injuries the fourth leading cause of death in the United States.. One study estimated the cost of injuries in the United States in 1985 to be $182 billion (in 1988 dollars).. This book documents the ways in which the traditional tort regime has come underseige on a number of different fronts. While upward trends in frequency and size of claim have been less dramatic for automobile accidents than for other accidents, concerns over escalating costs of premiums-which most drivers must payhave led to questioning of various features of the tort system, as well as proposals for partial or total replacement of it by various forms of no-fault compensation schemes. Although medical misadventure is still ostensibly governed by a negligence regime, the frequency and size of both medical malpractice claims and insurance premiums have escalated dramatically in the last two decades. In turn, this escalation has led to criticisms that the tort system has induced enormously expensive forms of defensive medicine rather than cost-justified improvements in precautions. Again, as in automobile accidents, commentators have urged either major tort reforms or the replacement of tort with some form of no-fault compensation scheme.
Medical Accidents
Authors: Dewees Don , Duff David , Trebilcock Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Medical, or iatrogenic, injury is by no means an insignificant phenomenon. A 1964 study reported that 20% of patients admitted to the medical wards of a teaching hospital over an 8-month period experienced one or more untoward episodes.1 A 1981 report in the New England Journal of Medicine reported a 36% rate of iatrogenic injury (defined as “any illness that resulted from a diagnostic procedure or from any form of therapy” as well as “harmful occurrences ... that were not natural consequences of the patient’s diseases”) among 815 consecutive patients on a general medical service of a university hospital; of these, 9% were reported to have suffered “major complications.”.A Department of Health, Education and Welfare (DHEW) study based on records from two hospitals placed the incidence of iatrogenic injury at 7.5%.3 Two large-scale independent studies of hospital records-one undertaken in California in the mid-1970s4 and the recent Harvard Medical Practice Study of New York hospitals5-yielded similar findings, indicating that approximately 4% of all hospitalizations result in adverse events from medical treatment and one-quarter of these incidents involve substandard care.6 In other words, negligent adverse events were found to occur in 1% of all discharges.7 As a result, the Harvard study concluded that in New York State in 1984 nearly 99,000 patients suffered disabling injuries, of which more than 13,000 resulted in death.8 Extrapolated to the U.S. population as a whole, this suggests that of 40 million patients hospitalized every year, 1.5 million suffer some kind of disabling injury, that 180,000 of these patients die as a result of medical treatment, and that over half of these deaths are due to negligence.9 The number of deaths from medical injury thus appears to exceed mortalities associated with both motor vehicle accidents (about 40,000 per year) and workplace accidents (6,000 per year)..
Summary And Implications
Authors: Dewees Don , Duff David , Trebilcock Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past 20 years or so, tort scholarship has been dominated by theoretical debates about the appropriate normative goals of the tort system and the doctrinal implications that each entails. These debates have centred around three major goals: deterrence, compensation, and corrective justice. We believe that these debates cannot be resolved in the abstract, but require close attention to empirical evidence on how the tort system, and alternatives to it, actually perform. We believe that the central normative question should not be which of these goals, or values, is superior to which other, but rather which legal or policy instruments are best equipped to vindicate which values. In other words, we accept the legitimacy of all of these goals and focus our analysis on identifying the means that best achieve each goal. In this respect, the empirical evidence has convinced us that a single instrument, the tort system, cannot successfully achieve all three of the major goals claimed for it, and attempting to use it in pursuit of objectives for which it is not well suited is both costly and damaging to its ability to perform well with respect to other goals that it is better able to realize. Almost a century ago, the tort system was abandoned for workplace accidents and replaced by an administrative workers’ compensation system to perform the compensation function with a regulatory system emerging to deter some types of hazardous workplace behavior. Since the middle of this century, no-fault compensation systems have been adopted in various jurisdictions to compensate victims of automobile accidents, complementing regulatory systems for reducing risks to motorists. We endorse these moves and propose extensions of them with three caveats: compensation schemes must be separately funded in each of the accident areas; premiums for compensation schemes must be risk-rated to preserve deterrence incentives; and tort should not be entirely displaced, but should have a residual role in cases of egregious behavior causing serious harm.. However, we do not see these compensation schemes operating in the areas of product or environmental injuries.
Introduction
Authors: Neville Gwen Kennedy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the vast moorland known as the Borders of Scotland, the ancient towns, or burghs, are sentinels of civic order amid an otherwise sparsely populated expanse of heath and meadow dominated by hills and Cheviot sheep. The stately towns form commercial islands linked together in patterns of trade in goods, in the exchange of people through marriage, and, in a very important way, in ceremonial performances. Each town, on a recurrent Friday or Saturday in summer, holds its own particular town ceremony or festival, and the other towns send representatives who are principal players in their own earlier or anticipated local performances. Hawick, Selkirk, Melrose, Peebles, Kelso, Jedburgh, Galashiels, Langholm, and Lauder each in turn call out their casts of riders and horses, foot processionals, silver bands, pipe bands, banners, emblems, costumes, vocal music, and actors in order to bring into being a dramatic statement about the burgh as a place and about other themes that run through the culture of Scottish Border life-themes of war and death, loss through emigration, the divisions within the town by trades and crafts, and the overarching theme of protecting the town against the “outside world” beyond the boundaries of its common land.
Scenes of Processions, Marking of Boundaries, and Casting of Flags
Authors: Neville Gwen Kennedy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The contact with the world beyond the town has produced further experiences of loss and death, especially loss through emigration and the threatened death of the town’s autonomy through its sale of common lands and its loss of local political control. These themes are represented in the ongoing drama through the riding of the boundaries and the procession of the guilds. The horses and riders assemble in a street called Back Row and wait for the appointed hour as towns folk begin to gather at 6:15 A.M. in High Street to sing the first of the common riding songs, to the music of the silver band. The singing throng makes its way to Victoria Hall, where they watch and cheer the handing over of the burgh flag by the provost to the royal burgh standard bearer for his ceremonial ride. By 7:00 A.M. the crowd is streaming into the streets in a merry surge of guilds behind their flags, with the riders following behind the standard bearer and his attendants, all adorned in stately garb with hunting jackets and fine attire festooned with rosettes in town colors, and the walking public singing loudly to the tunes they have known from childhood to be sung in a set order on Common Riding morning.
Epilogue
Authors: Neville Gwen Kennedy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We anthropologists working in highly textualized cultures, such as those of Western Europe, often find ourselves overwhelmed by the wealth of our ethnographic materials and by the inadequacy of our method in dealing with centuries of written texts. We face the further intimidation of answering critics who read our work outside their own elegant expertise in some aspect of cultural or social analysis— folklore, ethnomusicology, literary history and criticism, sociocultural and economic history—not to mention the contemporary experts who find their voices in fields of "Scottish studies," "British studies," or "European studies."
Early Rabbinic Responses: Mishnah and Avot
Authors: Kraemer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the year 70 CE, the Romans destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, and Jews were left once again without the classical means to atone for their sins, with out obvious evidence of God’s presence on Earth. Whatever the difficulties of the decades and even centuries leading up to this event, nothing could have been as shattering as this loss. Before, at least, the divinely commanded service, as spelled out in detail in the Torah, could be observed. Now, in a single catastrophic instant, the entire priestly code was rendered irrelevant and, with it, whatever stability and confidence it provided.
Early Rabbinic Responses: The Halakhic Midrashim
Authors: Kraemer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The so-called halakhic midrashim, the tannaitic midrashim on the books of Exodus through Deuteronomy, are the next stage in the development of the rabbinic literary corpus. Regrettably, there remains considerable dis,agreement among scholars in dating these works, with regard both to their substance and (somewhat less so) their final redaction. As in the case of the Tosefta, Albeck here again argues that these are (redactionally) post Talmudic documents.1 In what he calls “a good guess,” Neusner remarks that they were probably completed around 400 CE-though he does not offer substantive proof for this guess.2 In my opinion, it is more reasonable to suggest a date of the late third century, for the following reasons. First, these midrashim quote both the Mishnah and, less frequently, the Tosefta, meaning that the earliest possible date of their redaction is the mid-third century. On the other side, they are already quoted in the Yerushalmi, c. 400, making this the latest possible date of their redaction. The remaining question is whether they were completed before the Christianization of the empire and therefore closer to Avot and the Tosefta, or after the triumph of Christianity and thus closer to the Yerushalmi and the early aggadic midrashim. As will be evident to anyone who reads these works, they are, in terms of language, named authorities, and ideologies, far closer to the former than to the latter.
Later Palestinian Documents: The Yerushalmi
Authors: Kraemer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Talmud of the Land oflsrael-the Yerushalmi-is, after the Mishnah, the major halakhic work of the rabbinic community in Palestine in the ancient period. It came to its final shape in the early fifth century, as part of a burst ofliterary creativity which produced, at approximately the same time, this Talmud, two major aggadic midrashim (Genesis Rabbah and Leviticus Rabbah), and a variety of more minor midrashic compositions. Together, these works comprise the statement of the rabbinic community at a crucial crossroads in Jewish history.
Later Palestinian Documents: The Aggadic Midrashim
Authors: Kraemer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As indicated in Chapter 7, the Yerushalmi was not the only rabbinic text to take shape in Palestine in the century following the triumph of Christianity and the failed restoration of the (once and future) glorious Jerusalem temple. Joining the Yerushalmi were the earliest aggadic midrashim-Genesis Rabbah, Leviticus Rabbah, Lamentations Rabbah, and Pesiqta de’R. Kahana.1 Though they are certainly distinct in their documentary characteristics and programs, these midrashim, along with the Yerushalmi, represent a common approach to the issues at hand. Thus, though a consider able number of traditions discuss suffering in this literature, it is pointless to review them all. Our attention will therefore be applied selectively, seeking to examine representative examples of the full range of opinions (limited as it is) finding expression at this time. Furthermore, because Genesis Rabbah and Leviticus Rabbah are the more ambitious of the four and be cause they, in any case, record virtually the full range ofrelevant views evidenced at this level of the developing rabbinic tradition, primary attention will be given in this chapter to these documents.
The Bavli Rebels
Authors: Kraemer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have isolated three Bavli texts that make especially important statements about suffering. The first two represent significant manipulations of earlier traditions in order to express innovative positions. In each case they add their own distinct voices as well, but it is the appropriation of prior voices that makes these deliberations so striking. The third text is almost entirely original, articulating an opinion that, as far as I have been able to discern, is entirely without precedent in all rabbinic tradition. Individually and in combination these texts exemplify the rebellious side of the Bavli.
Introduction
Authors: Motz Lotte 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In discussion and reconstructions of archaic religions the figure of a di vine mother has been given an important place. A number of books were devoted to this deity in the past-for example, Erich Neumann’s The Great Mother, E. O. James’s The Cult of the Mother Goddess, Robert Briffault’s The Mothers-and were still written in recent time-such as Marija Gimbutas’s The Language of the Goddess and Elinor Gadon’s The Once and Future Goddess. These scholars invariably draw the image of a universal, archetypal, time-transcending being in whose womb all life has generated. She received her exaltation through the awe and wonder inspired by the powers of her fertile womb. The writers invariably include in their explorations divinities who did not bear a child and do not bear the title mother. Motherhood is also attributed to the mute forms of prehistory. Widely divergent qualities and creatures, belonging to various cultures, are held to be expressive of the many shapes of one single divinity. One gains the impression that the scholars set out on their endeavor with an already fixed belief in the existence of a primordial, maternal, all-encompassing, and sovereign deity.
Reverence of Nature: Nortliem Eurasia
Authors: Motz Lotte 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To gain insight into the spiritual universe in which the goddesses of this study found their earliest manifestations, we must tum to cultures that retained not only archaic ways of subsistence but also archaic modes of thought and religion. Such cultures exist, or existed until recently, in the arctic and subboreal belts where urbanization or even farming had not entered or prevailed. The European and Asiatic portions of this region, named North Eurasia, have been well explored and the mode of life of their inhabitants well documented; it was found that a homogeneous cultural unit had been formed. In this chapter the beliefs of the North Eurasian peoples will briefly be presented in exploring the environment of very early forms of divinity and in examining to what extent the figures of more complex societies can be traced to the archaic gods.
The Creativity of Suffering: The Eskimo
Authors: Motz Lotte 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The territory of the Eskimo (Inuit) is sparsely settled. A population of about 100,000 dwells in an area that extends across the North American continent and reaches the Chukchee Peninsula of Siberia.1 The most northern of the groups, the Polar Eskimo, lives at the edge of the inhabitable world. Some experts believe that the tribes had been pressed toward the North from a more southerly station of the continent. Whatever their point of origin, they found their new homeland to be a place of harsh and cruel natural conditions that allowed them no more than a life of bare subsistence. In our time the region has been modernized, and Inuit culture has all but vanished.
The Human Condition: Mesopotamia
Authors: Motz Lotte 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If we turn from the cultures of northern Europe, Asia, and America to those of the ancient Middle East, it is as if we left a somber half-lit place for a realm of dazzling riches and dizzying complexity. Even in their preliterate period the settlers of the land between the Tigris and Euphrates had achieved a state of civilization in which urban centers had emerged in the cultivated farmland, and where the towering places of devotion rose beside the palaces of kings. With the invention of writing (about 3000 B.C.E.), the continued construction of monuments, and the recording of literature and legal codes, Mesopotamia became, with Egypt, the leading intellectual force of the Mediterranean regions.
Beauty through Resemblance
Authors: Johnston Mark D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The limited techniques of verbal ornament reviewed in chapter 5 do not indicate that Ramon Llull possessed a very wide or profound knowledge of poetical and rhetorical doctrine regarding style. Despite its narrow theoretical foundation, his work does display a broad practical familiarity with certain very popular techniques of verbal ornament. He especially recommends a wide range of devices that we would call symbols, personifications, metaphors, comparisons, similes, proverbs, analogies, exempla, and fables. Taken together, these devices comprise a discourse of resemblance that virtually defines verbal ornament for Llull. His preference results from the preeminently herineneutic function of his own Great Art: the devices of likeness that Llull favors are all means to interpret signs. His reliance on these techniques of likening reinforces the conviction that language obeys the same metaphysics of participated resemblance found in all being and thought. Llull displays his broad appreciation of these techniques terminologically in his interchangeable use of labels such as exemplum, similitude, metaphor, comparison, or even proverb to name any sort of figural or illustrative discourse.
Framing The News
Authors: Cappella Joseph N , Jamieson Kathleen Hall 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Scholars speak of framing, those not steeped in the jargon may recall that builders speak of framing a house and photographers of framing their subjects. Each offers a way to explain our use of the word. Like the framing of a house, a news frame creates a structure on which other elements are built. There is much in a house that is not the frame, but without the frame there is no house. And the frame determines the shape of the house.
A photographer frames her subjects by setting boundaries, choosing contexts, selecting and manipulating light. The act of framing determines what is included and excluded, what is salient and what is unimportant. It focuses the viewer’s attention on its subjects in specific ways. The objects in the photograph are presented in a setting and illuminated to create visual effects. The photographer’s act of framing binds its subjects together in a distinctive way; another photographer framing the same subject would produce a recognizably different picture.