bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The American Way of Trade
Authors: Lind Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One Aircraft Every Five Minutes. That is what the United States produced in 1943 and 1944. In 1939 the United States had produced only 5,856 aircraft. After the United States mobilized its economy in World War II, the total rose to 85,898 aircraft per year in 1943 before reaching a peak of 96,318 in 1944. By contrast, Germany produced only 24,807 aircraft in 1943 and 39,807 in 1944; Japan’s totals were 16,693 and 28,180. On D-Day, June 6, 1944, against the 12,837 aircraft of the Allies, the Germans could deploy only 319.
Pioneers
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The two papers in this section, “Damned Liars and Expert Witnesses” by Paul Meier, and “Statisticians, Econometricians, and Adversary Proceedings” by Franklin M. Fisher, reflect the experiences of two pioneers in presenting statistical evidence in court. The cases they discuss are different, and yet the circumstances they describe haven’t changed much in the intervening years. It’sitting to start this book with the words of two masters of the trade.
Discrimination In Employment
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Federal law (U.S. Code, Title 29, Chapter 14 § 626) forbids discrimination against people 40 years of age and older with respect to employment decisions. Under the doctrine of adverse impact, statistics can be used to establish a prima facie case of discrimination. Under this doctrine it is not necessary to prove that the employer had discriminatory intent, but only to show that his actions had the actual effect of disadvantaging a disproportionate number of people of protected age or race. See United States v. Hazlewood School District, 443 U.S. 299 (1977) (race discrimination) and Geller v. Markham, 635 F.2d 1027 (2d Cir. 1980). To overcome such a prima facie showing, an employer can demonstrate a nondiscriminatory business reason for the decisions.
Racial Steering
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Racial discrimination may occur in many ways. Blatant refusal to provide goods, services, employment, or housing on grounds of race is most familiar, but many more subtle forms of discrimination are common.
Racial steering is one such subtle form of racial discrimination involving housing. Racial steering typically occurs as real estate agents and brokers act to preserve and encourage patterns of racial segregation. When an individual or family comes seeking housing, an agent may illegally offer only options in a neighborhood already dominated by the individual’s or family’s race. The customer is not offered housing in neighborhoods dominated by other races. Racial steering violates section 1982 of the Civil Rights Act of 1966 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.
Juries in Death Penalty Cases
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This article considers a question of current legal interest: whether the present jury selection procedure used in cases in which capital punishment is a possibility is biased against the defense. Section 1 gives the legal background of the question addressed here. Section 2 describes two major studies on jurors in capital cases that were recently presented to the California Supreme Court in Hovey v. Superior Court (1980): the Fitzgerald and Ellsworth (1984) work on the attitudes of jurors favoring either the defense or the prosecution, and the Cowan, Thompson, and Ellsworth (1984) experiment on juror behavior. The response of the California Supreme Court in Hovey is then discussed.
Electronic Draw Poker
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This section records the history of one of my earliest adventures as an expert witness. Pennsylvania has made it illegal to possess a “gambling device,” de;ned as a machine you have to pay to play, that gives you a reward for winning, and in which chance, not skill, drives the outcome.
Thus a slot machine, into which you put money to play, gives you money if you win, and whose outcome is determined solely by chance, is a gambling device per se (i.e., in and of itself). By contrast, a deck of cards could be used for gambling, but could be used solely for amusement, and hence is not a gambling device per se.
The issue in this case was whether a certain kind of draw poker machine was a gambling device per se (and hence could be seized by the State Police on sight), or was a gambling device only if it was used for gambling (which would require further evidence). This question boiled down to a discussion of skill versus chance.
Tax Audits
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A government has the right to “audit,” i.e., examine the books and financial records of its taxpayers to determine whether enough tax has been paid. But or an auditor to examine each and every record among thousands or millions available is neither efficient nor possible. Hence sampling of some kind is an obviously desirable strategy. The result, when applied to a tax audit, is a probability distribution for the amount owed. However, it is not clear how much the payment should be in such a circumstance.
Vote Tampering
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a democracy, the integrity of the voting system is crucial to the maintenance of public con; dence in the outcome. While each system of voting has vulnerabilities, paper ballots are particularly vulnerable. In this case, it was alleged that certain ballot boxes were tampered with between the count on election night and a later recount.
The first analyses done on the data were exploratory and informal, but indicated that vote tampering was likely and showed which precincts were likely to have been the subjects of the tampering. The courts, basically using evidence speci;c to the ballots, found suf;cient tampering to reverse the outcome of the election, in the same precincts. Finally, the paper shows an elaborate model of all the races decided in that election, again showing a high probability of vote tampering, again in the suspect precincts. Thus all three methods, although quite different, come essentially to the same conclusion.
Patent Misconduct
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This case concerns alleged misconduct by an inventor, adding material to his notebook after it was witnessed in an effort to mislead the Patent Of;ce about when he thought of the added material. The issue boils down to whether the added text lies above or below the witness line on the page.
To support the allegation of inequitable conduct, the defendant measured the concentration of 13 trace elements on the raw paper, the text, the witness line, and the intersection between the text and witness lines. Finding that the intersections were more similar to the text than to the witness line, they proposed that therefore the text lies on top of the witness line, so it was added later, thus supporting the claim of inequitable conduct.
A Very Brief Introduction to English Law
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The final two cases examined in this book are from England. Much of English law is like U.S. law, because until 1776 the original 13 states were English colonies. There are, however, important differences.
Sovereignty in England is undivided. Thus there is no analog in England of the relationship between the U.S. federal government and the states. Additionally, there is no written constitution. Legal rights are therefore principally protected by precedent cases.
Presenting Bayesian Analysis to the Jury
Authors: Kadane Joseph B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This case, also from England, concerns an experiment, conducted by Peter Donnelly, to introduce Bayes Theorem to a jury in an interactive manner. The ;rst item here is an account by him of his experiences. Also included are two court decisions that have the consequence of invalidating such an interactive approach. But the courts also verge on rejecting probabilistic evidence entirely.
From Goal Activation to Action: How Does Preference and Use of Knowledge Intervene?
Authors: Markman Arthur B , Brendl C Miguel , Kim Kyungil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The folk psychology of action is fairly straightforward. An agent selects a goal it wants to accomplish. It seeks actions and objects that will allow the agent to bring about the goal. Th e items (e.g., objects, people,and activities) that the agent represents as instrumental for satisfying the goal are called goal-related items. Th ese items should be valuable to the agent. Items that block goal satisfaction are called goal- conflicting items.
Flexibility in the Development of Action
Authors: Adolph Karen E , Joh Amy S , Franchak John M , Ishak Shaziela , Gill Simone V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter has two major aims. The first is to describe flexibility in motor action. Balance and locomotion in infants are used as a test case for understanding three aspects of behavioral flexibility— adaptive motor decisions, modification of ongoing activity, and new means to achieve a goal. The second aim is to illuminate the links between flexibility and development.
Consciousness as a Troubleshooting Device? The Role of Consciousness in Goal Pursuit
Authors: Bongers Karin C A , Dijksterhuis Ap 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the role of consciousness in goal-directed behavior. It begins by reviewing evidence that goals can be activated outside awareness and run to completion without the person being aware. It then reviews literature concerning evaluation processes in conscious goal pursuit and explores whether people are indeed able to detect success and failure to attain unconsciously activated goals. It is argued that failure renders goal-related constructs highly accessible. In turn, this heightened accessibility of goal-related constructs can ultimately lead to conscious awareness of the goal. Evidence is presented that supports the idea that people start to think consciously about unconsciously activated goals when progress is problematic. The chapter ends with a discussion of whether conscious goal related thoughts serve a regulatory function.
A Cultural Geography
Authors: Gregg Gary S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When I wrote Self Representation about the life narratives of young Americans, I assumed my readers shared my respondents’ culture and easily would grasp what it meant when one described herself as a New Age–type person and another said he’d once tried to style himself after the Beat writers. I didn’t hesitate to use familiar cultural terms, describing one respondent as living a counterculture lifestyle and another as narrating a Pygmalion-like life story. Even while I was emphasizing the role of culture in shaping my respondents’ identities, I never recognized the way every step in my interpretations depended on the cultural understandings I presumed respondent, writer, and reader all shared. This book cannot rest on that presumption and presents daunting difficulties about how to provide enough background on North African culture for readers to understand my respondents’ words and evaluate my interpretations of them.
Graph Theory
Authors: Johnston William , McAllister Alex M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Graph theory is the area of mathematics that grapples with the notion of connectedness among objects. Viewed from the proper perspective, our world is filled with many different relationships from the large-scale to the microscopic, from the concrete to the more abstract. Airline routes and interstates connect cities, bridges connect land masses, and wires connect computer circuits. There are relationships among family members, friends, business associates, countries, and corporations. Many aspects of our society are improved by analyzing and optimizing such connections. On a more personal level, navigating our way through daily life often involves understanding social relationships.
Many of the questions that challenge and motivate mathematicians who study graph theory are rooted in visual representations of our world. For example, we might wonder, “What is the best route from Cincinnati, Ohio to Nashville, Tennessee?” The road map in figure 6.1 can help us answer this question. When considering this map, we should keep in mind that “best” can have many different meanings, including least distance, least time, or most picturesque. Perhaps you can think of some other criterion; for example, having a close friend in Lexington, Kentucky might influence your choice of routes.
Complex Analysis
Authors: Johnston William , McAllister Alex M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the elegant and useful mathematics of complex-valued functions. The underlying characterization of a single-valued complex function is the same as for a real-valued function—every (complex number) input is mapped to a unique (complex number) output. In the same way as for real functions, the set of all possible inputs is called the domain of the function and the set of all possible outputs is the range. As we defined in chapter 3, the field of complex numbers contains the reals as a proper subset; we will see that C is two-dimensional, whereas the set of reals is one-dimensional. Because of this increase in dimensionality, the resulting functional behavior is much more intricate for complex functions than for real-valued ones. As a result, the study of complex functions is a rich, interesting field of endeavor, containing many beautiful and sometimes surprising mathematical phenomena.
Setting the Foundation for Dual Recovery
Authors: Daley Dennis C , Douaihy Antoine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Deana is recovering from recurrent major depression and heroin addiction. She has been in a psychiatric hospital once and completed two addiction rehabilitation programs. Deana struggled with low motivation and negative attitudes about taking medications for depression, attitudes that had prevented her from benefiting from treatment. Until recently, she focused mainly on her addiction and struggled with acceptance of her mood disorder. Now she is finally getting the help she needs because of a change in her attitude.
Medications in Dual Recovery
Authors: Daley Dennis C , Douaihy Antoine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Medications are used to treat the acute symptoms and prevent relapse and recurrence of an episode of depression or bipolar illness.1–10 In addition, treatment goals with medications include a full return of functioning. Antidepressants and mood stabilizers, the medications commonly used to treat depression or bipolar illness, do not produce dependence and have no potential for abuse. They are safe for individuals in recovery from alcoholism or drug dependence. Depression is no longer attributed simply to too little neurochemicals such as serotonin or norepinephrine. Instead, depression is associated with a dysregulation of neurochemical firing patterns. Antidepressants treat specific symptoms of depression such as depressed mood, sadness, fatigue and suicidality, and they also regulate the altered brain chemistry that may contribute to these symptoms.
Working With Your Family
Authors: Daley Dennis C , Douaihy Antoine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Discussions with people in your support network put you in a position to identify problems early. Small problems can be caught and dealt with before they Rates of addiction, depression, or bipolar disorder are higher among first-degree relatives (siblings or children) than among the general population.1,2 For example, up to 1% of the general population will have bipolar illness, whereas up to 10% of first-degree relatives will have this illness. Major depression is about three times higher among first-degree relatives than among the general population. Rates of addiction are also higher among relatives of individuals with an addiction than among the general population. For example, a study of alcoholics and their siblings found that almost 50% of brothers and 25% of sisters of the alcoholic also met criteria for alcoholism at some point in their lives; these rates are about 2–4 times higher than the rates of alcoholism found in the general population.
Beyond Rationality
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ken Hammond has spent over a half-century analysing judgment and decision-making. His long-time focus has been on the dichotomy between judgment theories of correspondence (working to achieve empirical accuracy) and coherence (aiming for rationality and consistency) and the political consequences that can come from not understanding which of these theories people are following. In Beyond Rationality Hammond sums up his work and illustrates it with penetrating case studies on topics such as why Kennedy and Khruschev misunderstood each other, Colin Powell's misjudgments, the modes of thought on the Supreme Court, and much, much more. Hammond has changed the way academics think about decision making; with this book, he aims to show a larger audience why mistaken judgments happen, how to make better decisions, and how to understand the thought modes operating in the political process.
Combating Uncertainty
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has often been pointed out “we live in a sea of bacteria” (or viruses). But for those of us who are concerned with how we think, it would be equally appropriate to say “we live in a sea of uncertainty,” for it is uncertainty that envelops our (almost) every judgment. All that is very general, but the pains of uncertainty can be very specific, and in retrospect very uncomfortable indeed. The report of the 9/11 Commission states that although in 1941 the United States “had excellent intelligence that a Japanese attack was coming... these were the days of ‘excruciating uncertainty.’ “
The Strategy of Seeking Correspondence Competence
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first strategy to consider is the oldest one: using information for the purpose of making empirically accurate judgments about the natural world. As a result of natural selection, human beings are good at these natural judgments. For example, we are good at judging that this tree is very tall and hard to climb, this animal is further away than that one but is larger, and that mountain, although it looks smaller than this one, is larger but further away. Indeed, our ability to use visual perceptions to make empirically accurate judgments under good conditions is astonishingly good, although we can be fooled under peculiar conditions.
The Coherence Strategy: Trying to Be Rational
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although we can be quite confident that we have possessed correspondence competence for millions of years, when coherence competence emerged is another matter. We certainly could have gotten along quite well without a coherent set of thoughts for the million years we lived as hominids. There was little or nothing in the natural environment that demanded a coherent judgment strategy from hominids and their immediate successors—no algebra, no Cartesian coordinates, and little if any social organization to demand coherent judgments, so far as we know.
Intuition: Seeking Empirical Accuracy the Easy Way
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Intuition has always been a mysterious process because it is an unconscious process of integrating information. Because it is unconscious, that is, because you are unaware of how you do it, and therefore can’t explain it, the process remains mysterious. That is a critical feature of intuition. To many people its mystery suggests it’s a very powerful form of cognition, but to many others it means that intuition deserves no credence at all.
Analysis: Seeking Empirical Accuracy the Hard Way
Authors: Hammond Kenneth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The slow, hard, highly defensible way to reach a judgment—whether in the correspondence or coherence strategy—is to be analytical. Analysis is hard because it demands that you know how to reason and that you know how to be explicit about your reasoning so that you can defend that reasoning, in terms of both logic and substantive knowledge. In short, you have to think, slowly and carefully: this is not intuition; it is its opposite.
Introduction
Authors: Apple Robin F , Lock James , Peebles Rebecka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If you are currently considering any form of weight loss surgery, it is likely that you have been thinking about your decision for some time. Certainly, it is a decision that warrants much thoughtful consideration. Hopefully this book will help you with various aspects of your decision-making process. Perhaps you began to think about weight loss surgery after a conversation with your primary care physician, who was concerned about specific obesirrelated health problems, such as heart disease, hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes, or sleep apnea.
Conclusion Can We Be Delivered from Extraordinary Human Evil?
Authors: Waller James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is there any hope that the twentieth century’s “Age of Genocide” will be replaced by a twenty-first century that ushers in an increase in cooperative, caring, nonviolent relations between countries and the people in them? Unfortunately, most futurists and scholars in genocide studies think not. Current trends suggest that there will be escalating conditions of extreme hardship, even disaster, in many parts of the world throughout the twenty-first century. These trends include a combination of environmental damage, loss of agricultural lands, dwindling of food and fuel resources, and a doubling of population to between 8.5 and 9.5 billion by 2025. Disconcertingly, the most volatile areas of social instability, mainly in the Third World, are the very places where much of the genocide since 1945 already has taken place.
Introduction
Authors: Wilcox Rand R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At its simplest level, statistics involves the description and summary of events. How many home runs did Babe Ruth hit? What is the average rainfall in Seattle? But from a scientific point of view, it has come to mean much more. Broadly defined, it is the science, technology and art of extracting information from observational data, with an emphasis on solving real world problems.
Correlation And Regression
Authors: Wilcox Rand R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most common goals in applied research is trying to determine whether two variables are dependent, and if they are dependent, trying to understand the nature of the association. Is there an association between aggression in the home and the cognitive functioning of children living in the home? If yes, how might we describe it in an effective manner? Is there an association between breast cancer rates and exposure to solar radiation? What is the association between weight gain in infants and the amount of ozone in the air? This chapter describes the most commonly used tools for answering these type of questions. As usual, we provide a description of the mechanics and the underlying assumptions associated with conventional methods. Then we describe situations where these techniques perform well and where they can be highly inaccurate. Many modern tools have been designed for dealing with practical problems associated with the basic methods described here, but complete details go well beyond the scope of this book. However, a brief outline is provided of how a few modern methods deal with practical problems.