bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Truth in Fiction
Authors: Lewis David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Drawing on his account of possible worlds, Lewis attempts to specify the truth‐conditions for statements of the form, ‘In fiction f, Φ’. According to Lewis, such truth in fiction is the product of two sources: “the explicit content of the fiction, and a background consisting either of the facts about our world or of the beliefs overt in the community of origin.” In the postscript, Lewis addresses the topics of make‐believe, impossible fictions, and fiction in the service of truth.
The Nature of Mathematical Knowledge
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe Nature of Mathematical Knowledge develops and defends an empiricist approach to mathematical knowledge. After offering an account of a priori knowledge, it argues that none of the available accounts of a priori mathematical knowledge is viable. It then constructs an approach to the content of mathematical statements, viewing mathematics as grounded in our manipulations of physical reality. From these crude beginnings, mathematics unfolds through the successive modifications of mathematical practice, spurred by the presence of unsolved problems. This process of unfolding is considered in general, and illustrated by considering the historical development of analysis from the seventeenth century to the end of the nineteenth.
Counterfactual Dependence and Time's Arrow
Authors: Lewis David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Upholds the asymmetry of counterfactual dependence, and proposes a semantic analysis of counterfactual conditionals that can account for it. It also considers the asymmetry of miracles and that of overdetermination, and answers the “future similarity” objection. The paper contains five postscripts, dealing with objections and further issues arising from the proposed account.
Probabilities of Conditionals and Conditional Probabilities
Authors: Lewis David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In this paper, the view that probabilities of conditionals are conditional probabilities is rejected on the grounds that there is no satisfactory way of interpreting a conditional connective such that the probabilities of conditionals will equal appropriate conditional probabilities. The paper contains a postscript where the theory of indicative conditionals proposed is rejected, and an alternative theory developed by Jackson is endorsed instead.
Introduction
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This introductory chapter begins by explaining what the book is about. It then goes on to define financial markets and financial instruments, and to outline the basic concepts of accounting – the balance sheet, the cash flow statement, and the income statement. The book is mostly concerned with financial markets in the narrow historical sense of a market as central trading place (e.g., stock exchanges and the futures market); other important financial markets, notably those in government bonds, foreign currencies, and over‐the‐counter stocks, are also included since although they do not have central trading places, they share many of the features of markets in the narrow sense. Financial instruments are defined as readily negotiable claims, and include bonds, shares, futures contracts, and options; since futures and options differ in essential ways from securities – equities (shares or stocks), bonds, and other similar financial instruments – and are traded in different markets, they are called ‘derived financial instruments’, or ‘derivatives’.
The Demand for Securities
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter covers the demand side of the financial markets, with some example data from the USA. Three important factors driving demand are covered in detail in the three sections: the time value of money and expected returns, attitudes toward risk, and the possibility of reducing risk by holding a diversified portfolio of investments. A framework based on microeconomic theory is presented for analyzing why individuals and other investors are interested in the various types of financial instruments discussed in the previous chapter. This approach allows development of the links between demand and interest rates on bonds of different maturities or rates of return on financial instruments with different risk profiles. The willingness of an investor to hold a particular security is shown to depend on two sets of characteristics – those of the investor and those of the security.
Securities Markets and Their Efficiency
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The discussion in this chapter begins with an analysis of central trading places, which looks at the economics of securities trading and the rationale for brokers and central trading places (with reference to US stock exchanges), the types of orders buyers or sellers may place in the market and the way these are executed, and the system of ‘specialists’ commonly found in stock exchanges (which is designed to provide a smooth and continuous market for individual stocks). Next, it briefly examines financial markets without central trading places. This is followed by a look at the mechanics of securities trading in the stock exchanges in London (UK) and Tokyo (Japan). The last section of the chapter discusses the operational efficiency of the stock market and the efficient market hypothesis (EFM), looking at the implications of central exchanges in which information flows rapidly between participants for the efficiency of the stock market as a whole and, in particular, at the ‘random walk’ behavior of share prices.
Security Analysis
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In Ch. 5, it was stated that security analysis is consistent with market efficiency because it interprets the news that reaches the market from firms and other sources. This chapter discusses in more detail how this interpretation is accomplished, drawing mostly on three sources: the economics of industrial organization, data on industry growth, and accounting; most of the examples are from the USA. It begins by examining the implications of market efficiency for the possible returns to be gained from security analysis, and explaining how to analyze the intrinsic value of a corporate equity by taking into account the responsiveness of the company's performance to economic growth, the structure of its industry, and its sources of competitive advantage. It also explains the insights to be gained by proper analysis of a company's financial statements. Finally, it assesses the uses and pitfalls of various shortcuts to security valuation, including the uses of price earnings ratios and Tobin's q ratio.
Futures Contracts and Futures Markets
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This is the first of two chapters dealing with futures contracts, and it concentrates on the defining characteristics of a futures contract, on ways in which it can be settled, on types of commodities and financial instruments in which futures trading is likely to be successful, and on measures of the importance of futures markets; the discussion is with respect to the USA. The exchanges on which futures contracts are traded are also explored: the history of organized markets, the role of the clearinghouses, the form of quotations, and the main market participants – hedgers, speculators, arbitrageurs and floor traders. The following chapter examines some of the theory and empirical evidence on the pricing of futures contracts, paralleling the discussion of stock and options prices in earlier chapters; it should be noted that some of the finer points in Ch. 9 may not be fully clear without the analysis of futures prices presented in Chapter 10. The first section of Ch. 9 looks at forward contracts, and the rest of the chapter is devoted to futures contracts (which are a highly standardized forwards contract) per se – with sections on the origin of futures trading, basic elements of futures contracts and the organization of futures markets. An appendix discusses the Euromarkets and the swap market.
Futures Prices
Authors: Houthakker Hendrik S. , Williamson Peter J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The previous chapter outlined the nature of futures contracts and some of the institutional aspects of the markets in which they are traded; this chapter analyzes the forces that determine the prices of different futures contracts, their relationship to the current market price (known as the spot price), and derives a satisfactory theory of futures prices. Different determinants are explored of the prices of both commodity futures (contracts based on a tangible commodity) and financial futures (those based on another financial instrument or index). After looking at the role of futures in ‘programme trading’ and the realities of so‐called portfolio insurance through the use of futures and options – a concept that was put to the test by the ‘Black Monday’ crash of 1987 – the chapter concludes by discussing futures as an investment. The five sections of the chapter (which is a discussion with respect to the USA) are as follows: Profits and losses on various transactions; Relations among spot and futures prices; Hedgers, speculators, and market equilibrium; The role of expectations; and Futures and portfolio management.
The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law Volume 1: Harm to Others
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Harm to Others is the first volume in a four‐volume work entitled The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law that addresses the question, What acts may the state rightly make criminal? Feinberg identifies four liberty‐limiting, or coercion‐legitimizing, principles, each of which is the subject of a volume of his book. In the first volume, Feinberg looks at the principle of harm to others – or the harm principle – which John Stuart Mill identified as the only liberty‐limiting principle. The other principles that Feinberg considers in subsequent volumes are (1) the offense principle: it is necessary to prevent hurt or offense (as opposed to harm) to others; (2) legal paternalism: it is necessary to prevent harm to the actor herself; and (3) legal moralism: it is necessary to prevent immoral conduct whether or not it harms anyone. As a thinker who favors liberalism, Feinberg rejects legal paternalism and legal moralism, maintaining that the harm principle and the offense principle exhaust the class of morally relevant reasons for criminal prohibitions. Feinberg's examination of the harm principle begins with an account of the concept of harm and its relation to other concepts like interests, wants, hurts, offenses, rights, and consent. After addressing difficult examples such as moral harm, vicious harm, prenatal harm, and posthumous harm, Feinberg considers both the moral status of a failure to prevent harm and the problems related to assessing, comparing, and imputing harms.
General Introduction
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Specifies the parameters of Feinberg's inquiry: he is concerned with the limits of the legitimate power of the state to impose criminal prohibitions on “primary” crimes. Put differently, his concern is the moral limits of individual liberty (understood as an absence of legal coercion). Criminal law regulates one's liberty by imposing duties, extending liberties, and conferring rights. Coercion‐legitimizing or liberty‐limiting principles provide moral considerations that weigh against the presumptive case for liberty. As a proponent of liberalism, Feinberg aims to limit the number of liberty‐limiting principles to the harm principle and the offense principle.
Harming as Wronging
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Considers features of harmful acts arising from their character as violations of others’ rights. A person violates another's rights when she acts in a manner that is defective and morally indefensible, given both the risks it generates for the other person and the setbacks it causes to that person's interests either intentionally or negligently. Harming that meets these conditions is morally indefensible, as it lacks an adequate justification or excuse. The consent of the person harmed provides some justification for harming, according to the classical Volenti maxim that “to one who has consented, no wrong is done.” Feinberg goes on to examine the concept of a victim, which he defines as one who suffers any kind of unconsented‐to harm to one's interests. Feinberg concludes by considering the causation of harming.
The Philosophy of Leibniz
Authors: Mates Benson 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This book offers a critical account of the fundamental elements of Leibniz's philosophy, as they manifest themselves in his metaphysics and philosophy of language. Emphasis is placed upon his hitherto neglected doctrine of nominalism, which states that only concrete individuals exist and that there are no such things as abstract entities – no numbers, geometrical figures or other mathematical objects, nor any abstractions such as space, time, heat, light, justice, goodness, or beauty. Using this doctrine as a basis, the book considers the core of Leibniz's metaphysics and philosophy of language, including the well‐known principles of Contradiction, Sufficient Reason, Continuity and Individuation, and the concepts of Possible World, Individual Substance, Truth, and Necessity.
Life and Works
Authors: Mates Benson 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
A summary account of Leibniz's life, with special attention to the aspects and episodes that throw light upon his intellectual qualities and the difficult circumstances in which he had to work. Although he is known principally as a philosopher (“this is the best of all possible worlds”) and as a mathematician (coinventor of the differential and integral calculus), the remarkable scope of his intellectual activity and attainments amply justifies his characterization as a polymath, polyhistor, or universal genius.
Necessary and Contingent Truths
Authors: Mates Benson 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
To reconcile his account of truth with his acceptance of the distinction between necessary and contingent truths, Leibniz introduces a distinction between absolute and hypothetical necessity. It turns out that for him a proposition P is hypothetically necessary if the proposition ‘If the actual world exists, then P’ is absolutely necessary; or, what comes to the same thing, the conjunction ‘The actual world exists and not P’ is absolutely impossible.
Cross‐World Identity
Authors: Mates Benson 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter takes up the question of what it can mean, for Leibniz, to say that an element of one possible world is identical with an element of another. It turns out that for him, such an identity is impossible. Thus, e.g., Adam would not have been the same person if Eve had not existed, i.e., he would have lacked the attribute “coexistent with Eve”; in other words, the very concept of Adam includes the attribute, “coexistent with Eve”; in still other words, nobody who was not coexistent with Eve could even possibly be Adam. In general, possible worlds are completely disjoint.
Relations and Denominations
Authors: Mates Benson 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In the so‐called region of ideas, the counterparts of declarative sentences are propositions or thoughts; correspondingly, the counterparts of definite or indefinite descriptions are so‐called “denominations”. The content of Leibniz's principle “there are no purely extrinsic denominations,” in its connections with the rest of his philosophy, especially his theory of relations, is explicated. A number of texts are given in which Leibniz endeavors to make clear his view that there really is no such thing as a relations.
Space and Time
Authors: Mates Benson 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter sets forth and discusses critically Leibniz's controversy with Newton about the existence of absolute space. It also discusses the significance of the so‐called analysis situs, in which Leibniz defines a number of geometrical concepts – e.g., sphere, straight line, circle, plane – in terms of a single quaternary relation, R (a, ba, c, d), with the intuitive meaning “a is as far from b as c is from d,” and then, on the basis of these definitions, proves such theorems as “ the intersection of a sphere and a plane is a circle.”
Pride, Faith and Fear
Authors: Quinn Charlotte A. , Quinn Frederick 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIslam is spreading rapidly in sub‐Saharan Africa, home of more than 150 million Muslims. African Islam is local Islam, responsive to local histories in cultures as diverse as the countries considered in this study – Nigeria, Sudan, Senegal, Kenya, and South Africa. Islam provides a source of communal identity to those experiencing rapid change, populations affected by secularization, unemployment, corrupt and ineffectual governments, and the intrusions of global media. The spread of Islam ascends as respect for the state declines. Ironically, the same Muslim believers who rail against Western materialism are keen on adopting the most modern technologies to communicate with members, and to find access to employment and economic opportunities in the West. As for Islamic fundamentalists (Islamists) the danger is that given Africa's porous borders and weak state structures, such groups can move about easily, feeding on popular discontent. Often more political than theological in aspirations, there is no certainty that the Islamist position will advance in Africa. Opposition includes central governments, many of them with Muslims in key positions, and numerous traditional Islamic rulers and brotherhoods, more moderate in outlook. The extent to which imposition of Sharia, traditional Islamic law, is introduced in a country can be a barometer of the extent of Islamic influence. This timely study is based on extensive field research, including oral interviews, the study of contemporary local sources, and historical research by two scholars with long familiarity with the subject.
Islam in the Sudan
Authors: Quinn Charlotte A. , Quinn Frederick 
Published: October 2003

AbstractSudan, at the crossroads between Africa and the Arab world, is an oil‐rich, largely barren country with a Muslim North, home to numerous factions and brotherhoods, and a Christian South, with many ethnic and linguistic groups represented. Under Turco‐Egyptian suzerainty during much of the nineteenth century, the most important Islamic figure to emerge in that era was the Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmad ibn ’Adballah. During the postindependence period, Sudan has suffered from destructive competition among sectarian groups, including Islamic groups and their political parties that paralyzed the decision‐making process during rare periods of civilian rule. Imposition of a sweeping version of Sharia has become the symbol of Muslim–Christian conflict in Africa. With the ideologue Hasan al‐Turabi sidelined, there are indications that the government led by General Umar Hasan al‐Bashir is moving toward a more pragmatic direction by both opening up the electoral process and discussing the ending of one of the world's longest standing civil wars.
The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law Volume 4: Harmless Wrongdoing
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Harmless Wrongdoing is the final volume in a four‐volume work entitled The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law that examines the kinds of harm that a state legitimately may make criminal. Of the four liberty‐limiting, or coercion‐legitimizing, principles that Feinberg examines, he accepts only the harm principle and the offense principle as morally relevant reasons for establishing criminal prohibitions. In this fourth volume, Feinberg considers and opposes the principle of legal moralism , according to which legal coercion is legitimate to prevent immoral conduct whether or not that conduct harms anyone. Feinberg examines various forms of legal moralism: including: (1) moral conservatism, which endorses legal coercion that may prevent drastic change to a group's way of life; (2) strict moralism, which supports legal coercion against nongrievance evils that are inherently immoral; (3) the exploitative principle, which recommends criminal prohibitions against substantial, unjustly exploitive, free‐floating evils; and (4) legal perfectionism, which combines moralism with paternalism in approving legal coercion that benefits an individual's character. In his defense of liberalism, Feinberg makes some concessions to legal moralism, but maintains that only harm to others and offense to others have sufficient weight to legitimize legal coercion.
Moral Conservatism: Preserving a Way of Life
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Feinberg analyses a variety of pure legal moralism, which he calls “moral conservatism,” according to which legal coercion is legitimate when likely to prevent drastic change to a group's way of life. The moral conservative view of social change does not regard any one way of life as superior to others, but rather regards any substantial change in a traditional culture as evil per se. Feinberg outlines, first, the arguments for impure moral conservatism based on fairness and on harm to interests, and second, the arguments for pure moral conservatism based on the need to prevent free‐floating social‐change evils. He maintains that to impose legal coercion to prevent free‐floating evils, evils like false beliefs or evil thoughts that cannot ground personal grievance, would be to impose suffering and injury for the sake of no other person's good.
Exploitation With and Without Harm
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In this chapter, Feinberg considers the concept of exploitation (which he defines as a way of using someone for one's own ends), distinguishing between exploitation that causes harm and exploitation that does not. On rare occasions, exploitation of a morally unsavory nature can occur although it is free‐floating and thus does not harm the interests of the exploitee. If this nongrievance exploitation were a moral evil, then the liberty‐limiting principle legitimizing its prohibition (the exploitative principle) would be a variety of strict legal moralism. Feinberg assesses this principle in Ch. 32. Here, he considers the key elements of exploitation: (1) the ways that other people can be used, (2) the kinds of potentially exploitable traits and circumstances, and (3) the redistribution of gains and loses.
The Exploitation Principle: Preventing Wrongful Gain
Authors: Feinberg Joel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
What role should the law play in preventing or punishing nongrievance or even free‐floating exploitation? According to the exploitative principle, which Feinberg regards as the last best hope for legal moralism, certain types of unjust exploitation are free‐floating evils substantial enough to warrant criminal prohibitions. To this defense of legal moralism, Feinberg offers several replies: (1) some acts of apparently free‐floating exploitation like insider‐trading, which generate unjust gain for the exploiter, actually involve rights‐violating harm; (2) limited forms of certain types of exploitation should be decriminalized, like fortune‐telling for entertainment, or isolated instances of ticket‐scalping. Combining these two replies, Feinberg responds to the legal moralist on the issue of blackmail (a crime that involves threatening to do what one has a legal right to do anyway unless some demand, which one has a legal right to make, is granted by the victim). Taking a radical view, Feinberg argues for the decriminalization of a variety of informational blackmail on the grounds that no criminal code based on liberal principles could prevent people from offering, in exchange for consideration, not to do what they have a perfect legal right to do (i.e., carry out their threat).