bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Weakness of Will, Commensurability, and the Objects of Deliberation and Desire*
Authors: Wiggins David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Almost anyone not under the influence of theory will say that, when a person is weak-willed, he intentionally chooses that which he knows or believes to be the worse course of action when he could choose the better course; and that, in acting in this way, the weak-willed man acts not for no reason at all-that would be strange and atypical-but irrationally. The description just given appears to be a consistent description of the inconsistent (not necessarily perverse) conduct that is characteristic of weak will. In this paper something will be done to show that it is a satifiable and frequently satisfied description.
Murray and his European Counterparts
Authors: Osselton Noel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most (but not all) historical dictionaries are hybrids. They combine two functions: to provide a full description of the vocabulary of their own day-words in use, their meanings, their status, pronunciation, and so on; but (2) at the same time to order and present all kinds of information about its past. Such historical information may be seen as directly relevant to the purposes of present-day description (as when the reader is shown how different senses of a word have intermingled in earlier writings, leaving semantic traces today), but very often it will clearly not be so (as when words included in the dictionary have gone forever from the current language, and occur nowhere in books now commonly read).
Introduction
Authors: Bennett Rebecca , Erin Charles A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It would be difficult to justify a claim that the HIV pandemic presents us with novel philosophical challenges. Nevertheless, HIV and AIDS can be said to have attached a new urgency to the practice of Bioethics, and to the role of moral theory in the formulation of public policy. Over the past decade and a half, we have witnessed waves of complacency among those who (believe they) are not HIV positive, and vicious social discrimination against those who are (thought to be) HIV positive. Even though one of the lessons of the history of epidemics is that coercive measures rarely, if ever, work, some say we should view HIV/AIDS as ‘just another epidemic ‘ and demand similarly draconian public health interventions as have been employed in the past for other epidemics. However, there are at least two ways in which we may view HIV/AIDS as different. First, there is the often intimate and private nature of the transmission routes, several of which Jean crucially on what may broadly be termed an individual’s ‘lifestyle’. Second, there is the age in which we live, and upon which AIDS has impacted, to take into account: it is not an overstatement of the truth to say that we live in an age of human and civil rights, and, thus, that we must be far more cautious now than we have been in the past, when it comes to the implementation of policies which infringe upon the liberties of individual citizens. It is against this background that the practical issues of testing and screening for HIV and questions over the confidentiality of the results of such testing and screening must be examined and understood.
HIV Testing and Screening: Current Practicalities and Future Possibilities
Authors: Corbitt Gerald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was first recovered in 1983 by researchers in Paris, France.1 The virus initially carried a variety of names-human T-lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV III), lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV), and AIDS retro virus (ARV) but by consensus the term HIV is now universally applied to the agent.
Polysemy: An Overview
Authors: Ravin Yael , Leacock Claudia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of polysemy, or of the ‘multiplicity of meanings’ of words, has a long history in the philosophy of language, linguistics, psychology, and literature. The complex relations between meanings and words were first noted by the Stoics (Robins 1967). They observed that a single concept can be expressed by several different words (synonymy) and that conversely, one word can carry different meanings (polysemy). The collection of papers assembled here represents current research into the issues arising from polysemy, such as the nature of polysemy; its relation to the more general phenomenon of semantic ambiguity; the ways in which multiple meanings, or senses, are represented in a dictionary or lexicon and related to each other; the principles that govern these relations and the mechanisms that allow the creation of new senses. Since words are used in context, the mechanisms by which polysemous words combine with others to form the meaning of larger syntactic units are also addressed. Polysemy is rarely a problem for communication among people. We are so adept at using contextual cues that we select the appropriate senses of words effortlessly and unconsciously. The sheer number of senses listed by some sources as being available to us usually comes as a surprise: Out of approximately 60,000 entries in Webster’s Seventh Dictionary, 21,488, or almost 40 per cent, have two or more senses, according to Byrd et al. (1987). Moreover, the most commonly used words tend to be the most polysemous. The verb run, for example, has 29 senses in Webster’s, further divided into nearly 125 sub-senses.
Stem Stress and Peak Correspondence in Dutch
Authors: Kager René 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a well-known observation that morphologically complex words ‘inherit’ phonological properties of their stems. Famous examples involve transderivational preservation of stress, which is involved in the analysis of secondary stress in English (Chomsky and Halle 1968), syncope in Palestinian Arabic (Brame 1974) and diphthongization in Spanish (Harris 1983). This chapter deals with the preservation of stem stress in Dutch complex words. Before addressing this specific topic, I will sketch the theoretical background of this chapter, which involves a number of issues in the interaction of phonology and morphology.
Some Subatomic Particles Of Logic
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I CAN best begin this contribution to the articulation of speech acts with a consideration of the Fregian ‘assertion sign’, or, to speak more accurately, ‘judgement stroke’. This correction itself warns us that there is not just one kind of sign that has to be examined, but several. and that an elucidation of this difficult subject has to begin with a careful distinction between them. Only then can we see which of these signs are necessities. or even possibilities, for logic-that is. what we are to say about Wittgenstein’s complete dismissal of Frege’s sign. in Tractatus 4.442 and subsequently, as ‘logically quite meaningless’. I submit this discussion as a penance for having failed to make the necessary distinctions clear in my first book. in spite of being at least partially aware of them at the time (LM 2. I). I later made some of them in print, especially that between what I shall be calling signs of subscription and signs of mood (H 1970). In spite of this. the distinction is still often neglected: in particular, both Dummett’s (1973: 308) and Davidson’s (1984: 110) discussions would have been a great deal clearer if they had been more attentive to it I should perhaps add that I have found Dummett’s treatment of assertion rewarding, and agree with most of it.
Imperatives, Prescriptions, And Their Logic
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
They are so called because their use is to prescribe or direct actions and conduct. This has the consequence that one cannot sincerely assent to a prescription without becoming disposed to comply with it or to wish others to comply with it. The most obvious members of this class are those typically expressed in the imperative mood. The fact that many languages devote a grammatical mood specifically to this kind of speech act shows that their speakers assign a particular role to them. We must not assume, however. either that imperatives are the only kind of prescriptions, or that all imperatives are similar to each other in all their features, The imperative mood can be used to express military commands, polite requests, instructions for using hair-driers or cooking omelets or finding a friend’s house, entreaties, prayers. and any number of other kinds of prescriptive speech act. The most general term for speech acts of this kind is telling someone to do something, in contrast to telling him (or her) that something is the case. This applies even to prayers, where the speaker has no authority or power of enforcement, but is in a completely subordinate relation.
Foundationalism And Coherentism In Ethics
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After pointing out some obvious and well-canvassed faults in Cartesian foundationalism (already noticed in LM 3. 3), I shall go on to explain again where it goes wrong. My only reason for reviving these old arguments is that since then they have been forgotten. I shall then outline a procedure for moral reasoning which escapes these faults, on the lines already suggested in FR 6. 2 ff. and more fully worked out in M1’. This method has some claim to be called foundationalist in a different sense, which is perhaps in accordance with Kant’s aims. It can also claim to be in a sense coherentist. thus breaking down the supposed opposition between foundationalism and coherentism, about which much has been written. For sources, I can refer readers to Mark Timmons’s helpful paper (1987).After that, I shall introduce perhaps my only new point. This is that in the attempt to reconcile foundationalism and coherentism. the dispute between which has dogged epistemology, moral epistemology has a big advantage over most other kinds of epistemology.
Preferences Of Possible People
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hajdin sets out to show that my theory of moral reasoning can be so modified as to make irrelevant two kinds of preferences that have been an embarrassment to me, namely those that Dworkin (1977: 2.34) has called ‘external’ preferences. and those that I have called ‘now-for-then’ preferences. Another name for the first of these is ‘nonexperiential preferences’-that is, preferences for things other than experiences of the preferred. Another name for the second is ‘asynchronic preferences’-that is, preferences for what should happen at times other than the time when the preference is had. I shall for the most part use the second pair of expressions and their antonyms. The effect of the elimination of these two kinds of preferences from moral reasoning would be to make my own theory much more like the ‘happiness utilitarianism’ advocated by Brandt (1989).
Music and Humanism
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is music sad because it causes the listener to feel sad? Is it to be valued because of the pleasure it gives us? R. A. Sharpe argues that the views these questions enshrine underestimate the cognitive element in our response to music. Our beliefs about music and our knowledge of the culture in which it originated underlie the judgements we make. At their most general, these cognitive elements are ideological in nature and they play both a positive and a negative role in our response to music--they both help and hinder. Music has long been thought of as a language. This metaphor underpins the way we hear music and the way we think about it. We conceive of music both as expressive and as something to be understood. Almost certainly the roots of this conception lie in the fertilization of music by rhetoric during the Renaissance. Sharpe suggests that music may have entered a new period in which the language analogy and the humanist conception of music which it expresses are becoming less and less appropriate.
Language, Metaphor, Emotions, and Moods
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Those attempts to account for the power and value of music which emphasize the causal connection between the music and its effect upon the hearer are open, then, to objections. None of these theories need exclude the role of ideas about musical form and structure, about fugue and sonata form, thematic development and harmonic and rhythmic structure, and all the paraphernalia of what Cook calls ‘musical culture’. But they underestimate it; it seems clear that a proper account of music’s significance for us requires a cognitive element.
This cognitive element is not merely the formal apparatus I have mentioned above. It also includes, as I shall show, the expressive function of music, the possibility of describing it as ‘sad’, ‘grave’, ‘ebullient’, ‘tragic’, and so on, for I shall argue that these aspects of the character of a piece of music also require a cognitive theory.
Humanism Founders?
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In making a case for the in eliminability of expressive descriptions of music and for their connection with broader questions of sincerity, authenticity, and the ideology of the arts, I have made a case against treating music as a purely formal art. Music is, I believe, connected with the life humans live. The possibilities it has for expression make it possible for composers to write autobiographical music or music that expresses the conflicts of their times. Music is, to this extent, a humanist art. But what more can be said about this?
If I describe an art as ‘humanist’, what might be implied is that an absorbed attention in it has moral consequences. It makes us, in some oblique way, better people. Our moral judgements are finer and more imaginative through engagement with fiction or drama or film. Perhaps a case can be made for saying that a fine engagement with the complexities of Henry James, George Eliot, or Proust makes us subtler moral agents—as opposed to simply self-conscious and self-absorbed—but it is hard to justify making such claims on behalf of music, opera apart.
Molyneux’s question and the idea of an external world
Authors: Eilan Naomi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic format of Molyneux’s question can be and has been extended to spatial properties other than shape, such as location, length and so forth; and to modalities other than vision and touch, such as hearing and proprioception, and to action. Very loosely, negative answers to the question are said to involve the idea that spatial perceptions are modality-specific; positive answers, the idea that they are a modal. Its enduring interest lies in the idea that the kind of issues it raises about the relations among the sensory modalities, whether they are a modal or modality-specific, have fundamental implications for the way we explain the nature of spatial representation in general.
How Not to Find the Neural Correlate of Consciousness
Authors: Block Ned 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of H2O and the concept of water are two concepts of the same thing, as are the concepts of temperature and mean molecular kinetic energy. But something like the converse case is also common. In the seventeenth century, there were two concepts whose referents did not coincide, both denoted by the ambiguous phrase now translated as ‘degree of heat’. When they measured “degree of heat” by whether various sources could melt paraffin, heat source A came out hotter than B. When they measured “degree of heat” by how much ice a heat source could melt in a given time, B was hotter than A (Wiser and Carey 1983). We now know that the latter method measured heat whereas the former measured temperature. Aristotle used a term we translate as ‘velocity’ sometimes to mean average velocity, sometimes to mean instantaneous velocity. Again, his failure to see the distinction led to trouble.
The Representation of Number in Natural Language Syntax and in the Language of Thought: A Case Study of the Evolution and Development of Representational Resources
Authors: Carey Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From an evolutionary perspective, it would be extremely surprising to find a nonhuman animal lacking in computational specializations. Simply take a mental walk through your average zoo or natural history museum, and consider bats and dolphins who use biosonar to auditorily see the world, honey bees that can detect polarized light, snakes that can see into the infrared, songbirds that can simultaneously tap into two independent sound production sources for singing their glorious courtship melodies, fish that can detect electric pulses, and both vertebrates and invertebrates that can generate their own light sources as advertisements for mating or defensive ploys against predators. These are indeed marvelous specializations and they illustrate the power of natural selection to fine tune an organism’s neural machinery for computational tasks that allow it to solve species-typical ecological problems, or capitalize on species-typical ecological opportunities (Darwin 1859, 1871; Dawkins 1986).
Hobbes on Justice
Authors: Raphael D D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hobbes has a distinctive view of justice. His most explicit statement ofit comes at the beginning of chapter 15 of Leviathan, where justice is identified with the third law of nature,’ Thal men performe their Covenants made’. In making the identification Hobbes does not immediately speak of definition: he says, in the English version, that ‘the Fountain and Originall’ of justice consists in this third law of nature, while the Latin version abbreviates ‘Fountain and Orig:inall’ to ‘natura’. A couple of sentences later, however, it is plain that for Hobbes these terms arc tantamount to, or include, the notion of definition; he says that ‘the definition of INJUSTICE, is no other than the not Performance of Covenant. And whatsoever is not Unjust, is Just’.
The Realism of Memory
Authors: Campbell John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Memory seems to be a way of spanning temporal perspectives: a description of the world formulated at one time is used when describing it at another. So, for example, if I am asked to recall the events of the evening of 17 March 1990, I summon up the description I formulated then, and, with appropriate changes in tense, use it to say how things were then. This procedure assumes that there is a single temporal reality onto which all one’s various temporal perspectives face, so that the judgements I make at one time can be the basis of knowledge at a later time. This characteristic of memory brings our ordinary reliance on it into conflict with any view which opposes realism about the past. My aim in this chapter is to explain more fully the conflict between memory and antirealism; to show that a kind of realism is engraved in our memories. I shall begin with some remarks on the rationale for anti-realism about the past, and then go on to discuss the conflict with our ordinary reliance on memory.
Analysis of the Dialectical Structure of Slippery Slope Arguments
Authors: Walton Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the current literature two points of view on the slippery slope argument have dominated most studies of it. One is to see it as an informal fallacy. The general presumption in this approach is that the slippery slope argument is either inherently fallacious, or at least is such a suspicious argument that one should normally denounce it on sight as a fallacy. This presumption, although it is understandable, has led the textbook treatments to neglect serious research into the underlying structure of the slippery slope as a serious or important type of argumentation. For the real reason this argument is so convincing when used as a sophistical tactic is that, when used properly, it is a reasonable and highly persuasive argument.
Metaphysics and Mental Causation
Authors: Baker Lynne Rudder 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Does what we think ever affect what we do? The answer to this question may seem obvious: of course, having the thoughts that we have leads us to do what we do. But philosophers have recently cast doubt on the relevance of what we think to what we do. Mental causation—the causation of what we do by what we think—be comes a problem against a particular metaphysical background. My aim is twofold: first, to root out the metaphysical assumptions that generate the problem of mental causation and to show that they preclude its solution; second, to dissolve the problem of mental causation by motivating rejection of one of the metaphysical assumptions that give rise to it.
The Non-Reductivist’s Troubles with Mental Causation
Authors: Kim Jaegwon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mind-Body dualism in the classic Cartesian style envisages two non-overlapping domains of particulars (‘substances’) that are, by and large, equal in ontological standing. Mental items are thought to share a certain defining property (‘thinking’ or ‘consciousness’, according to Descartes) that excludes the defining property shared by the items on the physical side (‘extension’, according to Descartes). And associated with each domain is a distinct family of properties, mental properties for one and physical properties for the other, in terms of which the particulars within that domain can be exhaustively characterized. We are thus presented with a bifurcated picture of reality: the world consists of two metaphysically independent spheres existing side by side.
Preliminaries
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given the history of its attribution to Plato, and the evidence provided by stylometric analyses, there is virtually universal agreement among scholars that Plato did indeed write the Apology that has come down to us under his name. The actual date of the Apology’s composition, however, is a matter of controversy. Neither stylometric analysis nor any of the other techniques used for establishing the chronological order of the dialogues can do more than place the Apology within the group of early dialogues.
Socrates’ DEfense, Part I (17al-24b2)
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There was little that was ordinary about the trial of Socrates. One of its most extraordinary aspects was the way in which Socrates behaved in the courtroom: whereas other litigants might employ highly emotional stratagems to win a favorable verdict, all the ancient accounts show Socrates proudly disdaining any posture of supplication or fearful humility that might have helped to earn him the jurors’ mercy. In this respect, Plato’s Apology is no exception. But as we have said, commentators have typically inferred from Socrates’ refusal to ap peal to the jurors’ emotions that he betrayed insolence towards the jurors and was indifferent to the legal outcome of the case.
Socrates’ Defense, Part III (30cl-35d8)
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thus far, Socrates has constructed his defense by means of two sorts of arguments. By responding directly to his ‘first’ accusers and then to his actual prosecutors, he seeks primarily to show that he is not guilty of any of the various forms of wrongdoing specified in their accusations. And by claiming, after the completion of his ‘interrogation’ of Meletus, that his philosophical activities have been undertaken as a service ordained by the god, Socrates attempts to show that the very activities which have for so long been the object of popular suspicion and hostility have actually provided an invaluable benefit to the city of Athens. Both kinds of arguments, those concerning his innocence of the accusations against him and those concerning the good his mission bestows on Athens, show how complete would be the injustice he would suffer by the court’s condemnation.