bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The explosion blast prediction model in the revised CPR 14E (yellow book)
Authors: Mercx W. P. M. , van den Berg A. C. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe well‐known Yellow Book, nickname for the publication by the Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs and the Environment contains a number of models for prediction of the effects following an accidenial release of hazardous materials. TNO was involved in a complete revision of this Yellow Book. One of the models that has been completely revised is the blast prediction model for vapor cloud explosions. The Multy‐Energy model was selected as the new model to be incorporated in the revision. The concept of the Multy‐Energy model is widely accepted as a better alternative to TNT equivalence methods although a practical application is hampered by a lack of guidance for application in practice. Guidance for application is given in the revision, though it still leads to conservative solutions.This paper describes how the method should be applied according to the revised Yellow Book. The motivation for the guidance for application given is discussed by comparison with guidance given in other publications and with experimental results obtained from some large scale experimental programs. Present efforts in an ongoing research program by TNO to obtain more detailed and sound guidance is presented as well.
A detailed method for estimating mixture flammability limits using chemical equilibrium
Authors: Melhem G. A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThis paper presents a general method for the estimation of flammability envelopes for chemical mixtures based on chemical equilibrium. The impact of mixture initial temperature, the presence of diluents and elevated system pressures are implicitly accounted for. The performance of this method is tested against much of the experimental data reported in the literature for systems containing a wide range of chemicals from CHNO compounds to compounds containing sulfur, phosphorus, silicon and halogens.This method presents a very useful and accurate approach for assessing the flammability envelopes of mixtures where no experimental data is available, and to guide experimental flammability testing work.
Burst resistant ribbon wound pressure vessels for ammonia plants
Authors: Shah Manesh , Zhu Guohui 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThis paper presents the design of ribbon wound pressure vessels useful for Ammonia, Urea and Methanol plants. The design is to create a thin shell of 1/5 the total wall thickness required, weld it to the end pieces, and wind 4 to 8 mm thick ribbons of 80 mm width at an angle of 15 to 30 degrees on the inner shell, using a prestress. The ribbons are welded at the ends and an even number of layers are wound cross‐helically on to the shell. With more than 7000 vessels over the pressure range of 50 to 350 atmospheres in use in the various chemical industries in China over the past 30 years, their safety record has been excellent. Of particular interest has been the application of this technology in the Ammonia and Urea plants, where the design allows fabrication of these vessels at substantial reduction in cost, and early delivery, when compared to the mono wall technology.
Models for domino effect analysis in chemical process industries
Authors: Khan Faisal I. , Abbasi S. A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractIn the risk assessment parlance, especially with reference to chemical process industries, the term “domino effect” is used to denote “chain of accidents,” or situations when a fire/explosion/missile/toxic load generated by an accident in one unit in an industry causes secondary and higher order accidents in other units. The multi‐accident catastrophe which occurred in a refinery at Vishakhapatnam, India, on September 14, 1997, claiming 60 lives and causing damages to property worth over Rs 600 million, is the most recent example of the damage potential of domino effect.But, even as the domino effect has been documented since 1947, very little attention has been paid towards modeling this phenomena. In this paper we have provided a conceptual framework based on sets of appropriate models to forecast domino effects, and assess their likely magnitudes and adverse impacts, while conducting risk assessment in a chemical process industry. The utilizability of the framework has been illustrated with a case study.
Multivariate hazard identification and ranking system
Authors: Khan Faisal I. , Abbasi S. A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractRisk analysis in chemical process industries is an elaborate exercise involving several steps from preliminary hazard identification to development of credible accident scenarios, to preparation of strategies for prevention or control of damage.All this requires substantial inputs of time and money. In order to get an approximate yet workable assessment of risk at much lesser costs, indices have been developed which link typical findings of elaborate risk analysis to scales of risk. The scales, in turn, provide workable measures of hazards/risks/safety.In the past, indices have been reported for swift risk assessment—the noteworthy among them include Dow fire and explosion index, Mond fire, explosion and toxicity index, IFAL index, and mortality index. A few rapid ranking techniques have also been proposed.This paper presents a new system of methodologies for Hazard Identification and Ranking (HIRA). The system consists of two indices: one for fire and explosion hazards and another for the hazard due to likely release of toxic chemical. The magnitudes of these indices indicate the severity of the likely accident; in terms of the size of the impacted area.HIRA has been applied to a typical chemical process industry—a sulfolane plant—and its performance has been compared with that of the Dow's and the Mond's indices. The study reveals that HIRA is more sensitive and accurate than the other indices.
Reactivity and ignition characteristics of silane/air mixtures
Authors: Tamanini Francesco , Chaffee Jeffrey L. , Jambor Richard L. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractResearch was carried out to develop improved protection guidelines for silane handling systems through enhanced understanding of the behavior of releases of this pyrophoric gas. The approach involved addressing three aspects of the problem: the prompt ignition behavior of silane; the reactivity characteristics of quiescent silane/air mixtures; and the rates of reaction of silane leaked into enclosures with and without explosion venting, in the presence of ventilation air flow. A first conclusion, reached from tests in a ventilated cabinet, was that, contrary to prevailing belief, the ventilation flow has no measurable effect on the prompt ignition of the release. From experiments in a 5.1‐liter (311‐in.3) sphere it was found that silane/air mixtures of concentrations between 1.4 and 4.1% (by volume) are explosive but stable. In this case, piloted ignition tests yielded laminar burning velocities up to 5 m/s (1000 ft/min). Mixtures between 4.5 and 38% (the maximum reached in the tests) were found to be metastable, and would undergo spontaneous ignition after a delay ranging from 15 to 120 seconds, with the shorter values corresponding to higher silane concentrations. Experiments were also performed in a 0.645‐m3 (22.8‐ft3) vessel both with and without explosion venting, to measure the rates of energy release associated with impulsively‐started silane leaks from 1/8 and 1/4‐in. (3.2 and 6.4‐mm) lines. A method for the prediction of the venting requirements of partial‐volume deflagrations (PVD) was evolved into a tool to quantify the pressure rise from ignition of silane leaks in enclosures. These results represent a significant step toward updating existing design recommendations which prescribe ventilation requirements that are based on outdated and, in some instances, misinterpreted data.
Properties of simulated gas explosions of interest to the structural design process
Authors: Høiset S. , Hjertager B. H. , Solberg T. , Malo K. A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractGas explosion simulators are often used as tools in process plant design. This article presents some properties of gas explosions found using the EXSIM simulation software on three offshore modules with a total of nearly 10,000 simulations. The selected results are chosen for their supposed applicability to structural design in the process industries.Generalized data are presented for the effect of gas cloud size, explosion impulse vs. explosion pressure, pressure and impulse vs. duration, the probability of a “short” explosion, loading rate, pressure‐time “shape” function, and the effect of introducing louvers.
Measures taken to ensure safe operation of an ammonia storage tank
Authors: Walter M. , Lesicki R. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractAn ammonia storage tank was built at the BASF Antwerp site in 1969 on land reclaimed from the sea. After several years of operation uneven foundation settlement, of up 2, occurred. In order to assure stability of this area for the next operation period (at least 10 years) measures were taken to ensure continued safe operation. One key measure was strain gauge monitoring at the location of maximum stress.
Recent developments in the Baker‐Strehlow VCE analysis methodology
Authors: Baker Quentin A. , Doolittle Craig M. , Fitzgerald Gary A. , Tang Ming Jun 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe Baker‐Strehlow methodology was developed to provide an objective approach to prediction of blast pressures from vapor cloud explosions. The complete methodology was first published in 1994 [1]. Since then, it has evolved through ongoing research and use in VCE hazard analyses, facility siting studies and accident investigations. This article gives a brief overview of a paper on recent developments in the Baker‐Strehlow methodology presented at the 31st Loss Prevention Symposium in Houston on March 9‐13, 1997. Because the entire paper is too lengthy to be presented here, the following discussions may be lacking in some details. A copy of the complete paper can be obtained from the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).Since the Baker‐Strehlow method was first published, it has been used extensively in VCE hazard assessments in refineries and chemical plants. As expected, many practical lessons have been learned during the course of the hazard assessments, and the Baker‐Strehlow method has evolved as a result. The changes have been evolutionary, not revolutionary. In keeping with the goals of the original study in which the methodology was developed, all changes have been incorporated with the intent of achieving an objective methodology to provide consistent prediction of VCE blast effects.The revisions to the Baker‐Strehlow method resulting from experience gained during plant walk‐downs and hazard assessments include:

Systematic identification of “potential explosion sites” or “PESs,”
Selection of the level of confinement for mixed zones of 2D and 3D confinement,
Deciding on flame expansion when confinement is elevated above the vapor cloud,
Selecting the reactivity for a fuel that is a mixture of fuels with differing reactivities,
Predicting blast loads when there are multiple PES's within a vapor cloud considering different ignition source locations.
Investigation and repair of an auxiliary boiler explosion
Authors: Davis Gerald D. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractOn August 1, 1985, an accident occurred at Triad Chemical damaging portions of the primary reformer. The accident was caused by ignition of natural gas pockets which entered the system during attempts to light an auxiliary boiler burner.The article reviews the cause of the accident, the resulting damage, the required repair, and the modifications made to prevent a recurrence.
Ammonia converter operation
Authors: Shimagaki Makoto , Miyashita Kenjiro , Ilyas Alita , Kalyubi Aslam 
Published: June 2004

AbstractOptimization for the operating conditions of Kellogg's four‐stage adiabatic quench converter was achieved in a 1000 MTPD plant of Asean Aceh Fertilizer in Indonesia by adjusting the temperature profile through the catalyst beds with adjustments of quench flows.
The use (and misuse) of bonding for control of static ignition hazards
Authors: Mancini R. A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractIn this paper, specific procedures to minimize potential hazards related to the accumulation of static electricity are addressed. The hazards of concern herein are those arising from the ignition of mixtures of air and flammable gases, vapors, and dusts. Accordingly, concerns related to process operability, sensitivity or reliability of electronic components, or nuisance effects are not considered. Also, ignition of condensed phase explosives or oxygen enriched systems are not specifically included through many of the principles and conclusions discussed below will apply.
Static hazards of drum filling. I. Actual incidents and guidelines
Authors: Britton Laurence G. , Smith Jack A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractTo safely fill drums with flammable liquids of low conductivity, bonding and grounding may not always be enough. Static discharges may under certain conditions originate from charged liquid in the drum, unaffected by grounding. The problem is discussed with reference to actual incidents, published Guidelines, and the types of static discharges that may occur.
Health and safety aspects of thin‐film photovoltaic cell manufacturing technologies
Authors: Fthenakis V. M. , Moskowitz P. D. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractProduction of thin‐film photovoltaic cells entails extensive handling of toxic and flammable, or explosive materials. Large scale manufacture of these photovoltaic cells may present potential health and safety hazards to workers and the public. Hazards to occupational and public health related to the toxicity and explosiveness of several feedstock gases are evaluated and safety and control options are presented.
The DIERS users group: A forum for development/dissemination of emergency relief system design technology
Authors: Fisher Harold G. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractDIERS was formed in 1976 to develop methods for the design of emergency relief systems capable of handling runaway reactions [1, 2]. Of particular interest at the time were when tow‐phase flow venting would occur and the applicability of different methods for sizing emergency relief systems for two‐phase, vapor‐liquid flashing flow. Approximately $1.6MM was devoted to investigations of two‐phase, vapor‐liquid onset/disengagement dynamics and the hydrodynamics of emergency relief systems.
Ammonia plant prolonged operation between major overhauls
Authors: Kershaw R. , Cullen J. G. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractHigh labor, capital equipment, and variable costs, together with lethally expensive downtime have made ammonia producers seek ways of extending their production runs between major overhauls. This paper outlines operating and maintenance policies together with some of the actions taken at the Kemira (formerly UKF Fertilizers) Ince plant to achieve this objective without compromising plant safety.
A new release of the ASTM CHETAH program for hazard evaluation: Versions for mainframe and personal computer
Authors: Frurip David J. , Freedman Eli , Hertel George R. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractCHETAH, which stands for the Chemical Thermodynamic and Energy Release Program, was introduced in 1974. Since then, the CHETAH program has been widely used in the chemical industry for hazard evaluation. Although its chief aim is to predict deflagration/detonation potential from molecular structure, it can also be used to estimate heats of reaction, heat capacities, and entropies. One of the limitations of the original program was its rigid, punched card oriented format for data input and the lack of an overall hazard rating derived from the several hazard criteria. A new release of this program alleviates these shortcomings and includes other improvements. The main features of the new release are: 1) a totally interactive front end, 2) an interpreter subroutine which uses sophisticated pattern recognition techniques to combine the four hazard criteria into an overall hazard rating, 3) recognition of certain atomic groupings which are known to be sensitive, 4) correct handling of the symmetry number, and 5) an updated data bank. One of the most important features of this release is its availability in an IBM PC compatible version, making the program accessible to more users.
Dust explosion venting for dusts pneumatically conveyed into vessels
Authors: Siwek Richard 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe size of venting areas of containers in dust explosions has hitherto been calculated by use of nomograms developed from tests in which explosible dust‐air mixtures were produced by rapid discharge of combustible dust from storage containers. Such tests did not truly reflect the conditions prevailing when containers are charged with product in industrial practice. There was, therefore, a need to perform dust explosion tests with vented containers and pneumatic product filling. The results of such tests show that there is a considerable reduction in the venting area in comparison with that predicted from results obtained with earlier test procedures.
Ignition properties of mechanical sparks and hot surfaces in dust/air mixtures
Authors: Bruderer R. E. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractUp to now it was believed that mechanically generated sparks caused most of the dust explosions in industry. Such belief was not confirmed through extensive testing involving combustible dust and selected flammable gases. The steel grinding, friction and impact sparks were capable of igniting fuel/air mixtures under certain conditions. However, from additional tests it was found that hot surfaces which are generated by rubbing steel against steel are capable of easily starting dust explosions independent of the ignition behavior of the fuels.
Preventing explosions during chemicals and materials storage
Authors: Fauske Hans K. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractSimple passive means are considered for preventing explosions in connection with storage of non‐reactive and reactive materials. For high‐pressure storage, special attention is given to the elimination of BLEVEs. Cost‐effective passive features are proposed to accommodate both global and local fire impingement conditions. For atmospheric pressure storage, passive features are considered to accommodate potential fire exposure and prevent runaway scenarios for reactive systems.
Safe handling of organic peroxides: An overview
Authors: McCloskey Chester M. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractOrganic peroxides are widely used today, and yet their properties and the procedures for their safe handling remain a mystery to many. After many years of hard work, the fog lifted considerably with the adoption, in 1986, of NFPA, 43B Code “Storage and Handling of Organic Peroxide Formulations [1]. A U.N. committee is also making a contribution by developing recommendations for the worldwide transport of organic peroxides [2]. This has had a secondary benefit in providing a forum for comparing and evaluating test methods and classifications worldwide. However, there is still much to be done.
Experience with a simulator for training ammonia plant operators
Authors: Mani S. , Shoor S. K. , Pedersen Hans S. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractA computer‐based simulator was used for training operators prior to the start‐up of a new fertilizer complex which includes a 1,350‐MTPD ammonia plant, two 1,100‐MTPD urea plants, and a steam and power generation plant with two 18‐MW gas turbines. The simulator offered many benefits, which can be used for continued education of operators and engineering studies.
Application of the DIERS methodology to the study of runaway polymerization: Validation of the DIERS methodology using blow‐down tests
Authors: Kirch Larry S. , Magee Joseph W. , Stuper Wayne W. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems (DIERS) and more recently the DIERS Users Group have been investigating various aspects of emergency relief for more than 12 years. The DIERS programs have given rise to an in‐depth understanding of the basic mechanism of how runaway thermal reactions are safely vented. In concert with the development of the understanding of the venting mechanism, DIERS also developed experimental procedures and computational techniques for estimating emergency vent sizes.
Preventing fires with high temperature vaporizers
Authors: Bowman James W. , Perkins Rowan P. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractIn 1986 one of Du Pont's plants experienced a damaging fire in and around a vaporizer containing a high‐temperature heat transfer medium (HTHTM). There were no injuries, but there was considerable property damage and lost production. A review of HTHTM history showed other plants and companies had experienced both damaging fires and incidents of severe damage to the vaporizer with no accompanying fire. This suggested a study in more depth than usually associated with one specific incident.
Turbulence effects on dust explosion venting
Authors: Tamanini Francesco 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe ability to estimate the intensity of accidental dust explosions is an essential prerequisite of methodologies intended to provide design guidelines for the protection of equipment and buildings where combustible dusts are being handled. In general, the severity of an explosion depends on the type of dust involved, its physical properties (such as particle size and moisture content), the characteristics of the interested volume (size, shape, presence of vents, and blockages), the strength and type of the ignition source, and the conditions of the environment (air flow, turbulence).
Explosive decomposition of ethylene oxide
Authors: June R. K. , Dye R. F. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe purpose of this work was to obtain data on explosive limits for ethylene oxide (EtO) in nitrogen beyond the published data range. Tests were conducted at temperatures from 60°‐190°C and pressures in the range 10 to 80 psig. Initial measurements showed that the limits for the EtO/N2 system are unusually dependent on the details of the ignition source. Hot wire ignition gave very erratic responses. Induction coil sparks were not satisfactory due to inadequate energy and uncertain gap breakdown at elevated pressure. However, high‐energy capacitive discharge across an exploding bridge element tuned to the ignitive process gave responses that were reproducible and judged to be true and conservative. Graphite filament was used as the exploding bridge “wire” to avoid contamination of the test mixture. (Carbon is a product of EtO explosions.)The data from this study show the EtO explosive range becomes wider with increasing pressure at the low end of the temperature range examined than previously understood from literature data. At modest pressures, the directly‐measured limits at elevated temperature agree with extrapolations of earlier reported data. Because of the pressure nonlinearity, the system is deemed safer at 80 psig and high temperature than had been predicted from the linear treatment.
Predicting liquid jet breakup and aerosol formation during the accidental release of pressurized hydrogen fluoride
Authors: Tilton James N. , Farley Carl W. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe safe production and handling of toxic chemicals is an issue of growing importance for public officials, legislators and petrochemical plant managers. Industrial and academic research is improving the understanding of a variety of phenomena related to risk assessment, and communicating these risks to concerned parties. Several groups are investigating the behavior and mitigation of accidental releases of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid. Forthcoming results of these studies will include the key issue of aerosol formation.