bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dark matter and dark energy components
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 5 we already noted that it appears that a large fraction of the matter in the universe is dark (i.e. non-luminous) matter. The need to postulate such dark matter was noted as early as the 1930s by Zwicky, who observed that galaxies in the Coma cluster seemed to be moving too rapidly to be held together by the gravitational attraction of the visible matter. Obviously, we can hardly be satisfied with our picture of the universe until the nature and distribution of such vast quantities of matter has been settled. For example, an important question is whether this dark matter is in the form of new types of (stable) elementary particle, which have been roaming around since the earliest stages of the Big Bang: and if so, what are such particles, and why have we not met with them in accelerator experiments? Or, could it be that some of the dark matter is agglomerated in the form of non-luminous stellar objects made out of the same matter as ordinary stars, or as mini black holes or whatever? According to present ideas, the quark and lepton constituents of matter with which we are familiar in experiments at accelerators, produced in the numbers foreseen by the model of nucleosynthesis in the early universe described in Chapter 6, can account for only about 4% of the present energy density of the universe. Dark matter is estimated to account for some 20% of the total energy density, but the bulk of the energy density—that is, some 76%—has to be assigned to ‘dark energy’, which in Chapter 5 was identified with vacuum energy. However, the true source of the dark energy—like that of the dark matter—is unknown at present.
Development of structure in the early universe
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Big Bang model described in Chapter 5 seems to give a rather convincing description of the development of the early universe. It is underpinned by three striking phenomena: This success is all the more remarkable since the principal tenets of the model— isotropy and homogeneity of the ‘cosmic fluid’—are to be contrasted with the universe today, characterized by a decidedly non-isotropic, non-homogeneous nature—galaxies, galactic clusters, voids, and so forth. The question arises: how did we get from the uniformity of the Big Bang model to the present universe with its lumpy structure? As described in the following pages, it can plausibly be argued that this structure had its origins in quantum fluctuations in energy density which occurred in the very early universe and were then ‘frozen-out’ when the universe underwent an exponential and superluminal expansion stage called inflation. These tiny fluctuations in density and temperature—typically at the 10 level—then acted as seeds for the development of much greater fluctuations in density via the subsequent process of gravitational collapse during the epoch of matter domination. In Section 8.3 we outline the inflation scenario, which was postulated over two decades ago in response to some difficulties with the Big Bang model, mainly with respect to the initial conditions which are apparently required. Later in the chapter we touch on the subject of galaxy formation. One of the most remarkable features of the universe is that stars are always clumped into galaxies each containing of order 10 stars.
Monitoring key performance indicators
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a manager you will spend a substantial portion of your time studying the performance of entities and relationships, and invoke some corrective action in case that performance falls below certain thresholds. Under these circumstances it is often helpful if a management information system not only displays the performance itself but also the changes in performance over time. In addition, a management information system can alert a manager as soon as performance changes unexpectedly. On the basis of such an alert, one could then decide whether such corrective action is required.
Epilogue
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book, I have set out to address key managerial skills that are needed to design management information systems. We have looked at the structuring of data first, followed by the querying of data, and finally data aggregation and visualization. We then discussed two types of management decisions, and I demonstrated how the design skills could be put to use in order to support those decisions.
Family Friendly Rights
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In addition to the rights on maternity and adoption described in the previous chapter, there are a whole range of additional rights available to those who are parents or who take parental responsibility for a child. These rights derive from a mixture of European Directives (Parental Leave; Time off for Dependants; PartTime Workers’ Rights) and the Government’s ‘family friendly’ initiative (Paternity Leave; the right to request flexible working which now extends to those responsible for other family members as well as children).
Industrial Action
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The law relating to trade disputes is extremely complex and therefore what follows is very much an outline of the relevant principles. The law is primarily enshrined in TULR(C)A 1992. There are also two applicable Codes of Practice, Code of Practice: Picketing (1992) and Code of Practice: Industrial Action Ballots and Notice to Employers (2005).
Dismissals
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All employees have the right not to be wrongfully or unfairly dismissed. These rights are distinct but overlapping. Wrongful dismissal occurs, in essence, when a person is dismissed in breach of the contract of employment, normally when dismissed without being given notice or paid in lieu of notice. No minimum period of employment is necessary. A claim can be brought in the Employment Tribunal, but the claim is limited to $25,000. If the value of the claim is higher than $25,000, the claim should be brought in the High Court or county court.
Redundancy
Authors: Palca Julia , Taylor Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An employer in financial difficulty often needs to reduce the number of its employees by making them redundant and an employee properly made redundant is entitled to a redundancy payment, calculated on a sliding scale, in accordance with age and length of service. Redundancy is potentially a fair reason for dismissal. However, an employee who is unfairly selected for redundancy will be unfairly dismissed. An employer must consult with employees before making them redundant, and, where making 20 or more people redundant within three months, must also enter into collective consultation. Most tribunal cases concerning redundancy revolve around: whether the people selected for redundancy are actually redundant; whether they have been selected for some unfair reason; whether proper individual consultation and/or collective consultation has been implemented; and the compensation to which any redundant person is entitled.
Derivatives
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a practical guide to derivatives, setting out a straightforward and easily understood explanation of the basic concepts, the different types of derivative product, who uses derivatives, and why and how derivatives are used. The book explains both more established products (such as futures, options, and swaps) and more innovative products (such as CPPI structures and those derivative contracts used as financing tools). The expansion of the derivative market to cover different underlying assets (such as freight, power trading, emissions trading, and hedge funds) is explored. The author provides guidance as to the legal and regulatory treatment of derivatives. The book looks at the key documents that are used in both the exchange-based and over-the-counter (OTC) markets and explores the important materials published by ISDA .The book also discusses other related topics including the accounting and tax treatments of derivatives. The book considers the background to current legal trends, including the developing strand of English case law on claims for the misselling of derivative products and the retail offer of derivatives, which has recently been the subject of considerable debate within the financial services industry. The third edition includes a new discussion of the retail offer of derivatives, and discusses a greater number of derivative products (including CPPI structures, derivatives used as financing tools, power trading, emissions trading, multi-asset derivatives, fund-linked derivatives, derivatives based on "computed data", and the different wrappers" in which derivative exposures are made available). It provides greatly expanded discussion of the ISDA documents used in the over-the-counter (OTC) market and looks in more detail at the duty of care (selling and misselling, including the recent decision in the "Springwell" litigation).
An Overview
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The right of a party conferred under a derivative contract might be the right to buy or to sell a specified quantity of the underlying at a specified price at a specified time, or the right to receive one or more payments (such as interest, the amount of which is calculated with reference to an underlying notional amount of money). Exercise of a right by a party can result in that party assuming obligations, for example the exercise of the right to buy the underlying gives rise to the obligation to pay the specified price for that underlying. The right of one party is the obligation of the other, hence the right of one party to choose whether or not to buy a specified quantity of the underlying (and thereby assume the obligation to pay the specified price) becomes the obligation of the other party to sell that specified quantity if that right is exercised, and that other party of course then has the right to receive payment of the specified price.
Key Concepts
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A party to a derivative contract is said to open a position when entering into the contract. A position can be opened either by buying the derivative contract or by selling the derivative contract. A position that has been opened by buying is a long position, and a position that has been opened by selling is a short position. An open position is closed by entering into a transaction equal and opposite to the transaction in which the position was opened, although of course the opening price and the closing price will tend to differ (this difference of course generating the profit or the loss made). For example, a trader opens a position by selling five lots of the March FTSE 100 index future, and the trader is therefore short five lots of the December future. The trader would subsequently close this position by buying five lots of the December future.
The Legal Framework
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Financial services legislation, and the regulation that is made under that legislation, together provide the legal framework for the financial markets, including of course the derivative markets. This legal framework establishes the system for the regulation of the derivative markets, provides a definition of each type of derivative market, and provides a definition of each type of derivative contract that is dealt. This chapter considers the sources of the applicable legislation and regulation, the regulatory concept of the general prohibition, the types of regulated activity which fall within the scope of the regulatory system, the different legal market structures, and the increasing volumes of EU legislation which set the overall standards that are implemented at the national level throughout the European Economic Area. Financial services regulation is a wide subject, and this chapter can only set out a brief survey of the more basic principles in the context of the subject matter of this book. However, these principles of course underpin the derivative markets, and accordingly some of the fundamental principles introduced in this chapter are examined in greater depth elsewhere, particularly in Chapter 8.
Risk, Documents, and the Otc Market
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The OTC derivative market lacks the legislative foundation which underpins the exchange-based derivative market; under English law, the relevant legislative foundation is provided by Part VII of the CA 1989, which the previous chapter explores. The OTC market also generally lacks the involvement of a clearing and margining system. Therefore, a participant in the OTC market must rely on two measures to control its risks. One, it carries out its own extensive counterparty due diligence checks, under which it verifies the risk generally of doing business with a prospective counterparty. These checks include establishing that the counterparty has the legal power to transact the relevant business contemplated and establishing that the counterparty has sufficient creditworthiness to be able to make the payments contemplated. Two, it executes various agreements to document the entire trading relationship. These documents set out how risk is controlled, including through obtaining appropriate representations and warranties, the right to terminate early transactions in response to certain events and circumstances, the computation of a net amount payable by one party to the other following the termination of transactions, and perhaps, looking at the wider relationship between the parties, a right of set-off as against other debts between them. In addition, the various agreements may also legislate for both the provision of collateral, and the maintenance of collateral during the course of the trading relationship at acceptable levels. Finally, legal opinion letters might also be obtained to provide assurance that certain agreements constitute the valid, binding, and enforceable obligations of the parties to them under the relevant laws, and to provide assurance that certain legal devices such as netting are effective under the relevant laws.
Capital
Authors: Castagnino John-Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The regulations governing capital are voluminous and complex, containing intricate calculations, and this chapter can only indicate in general terms the various sources of these regulations and how these regulations are implemented in practice. Regulatory authorities around the world emphasize the importance of the maintenance by financial institutions, whether banks, investment firms, building societies and other types of savings institutions, or insurance companies, of adequate financial resources, that is, both adequate capital and adequate liquidity. No discussion of the derivative industry, or indeed any other facet of the financial services industry more widely, would be complete without some mention of this important and fascinating topic. Adequate financial resources enable a financial institution to absorb losses, which might arise from a variety of different risks, without jeopardizing the business itself, the assets of depositors or other persons for whom assets are being held, or indeed at a more intrinsic level the interests of investors in the business. Regulatory capital is the capital that a financial institution is required, by the regulations which apply to it, to hold in order to cushion it against certain risks.
Nonequilibrium Statistical Physics
Authors: Pottier No¨elle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While systems at equilibrium are treated in a unified manner through the partition function formalism, the statistical physics of out-of-equilibrium systems covers a large variety of situations that are often without apparent connection. This book proposes a unified perspective on the whole set of systems near equilibrium: it brings out the profound unity of the laws which govern them and gathers a large number of results usually fragmented in the literature. The reader will find in this book a pedagogical account of the fundamental results: physical origins of irreversibility, fluctuation-dissipation theorem, Boltzmann equation, linear response, Onsager relations, transport phenomena, Langevin and Fokker-Planck equations. The book's comprehensive organisation makes it valuable both as a textbook about irreversible phenomena and as a reference book for researchers.
Quantum Mechanics
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book provides the reader with a contemporary and comprehensive introduction to Quantum Mechanics. It is suitable for beginners as well as for more advanced university students. Quantum mechanics is presented in a pedagogical fashion, with a clear logical organization. The various concepts and methods are introduced first in elementary terms, and later developed into more precise formulations. Systematic studies of approximation methods and the discussion of a wide class of physical applications follow. Part I of the book, together with the opening sections of Part II, provide adequate material for an introductory course of one semester at most universities. The rest of the book might be used in an advanced course on Quantum Mechanics. The basic material is fairly standard, even though some discussions such as those on general systems with time-dependent Hamiltonians, on metastable systems, as well as the discussions in some of the Complement sections, may not be found in other textbooks. The book also contains many original observations or new ways of illustrating even well-known subjects. In fact, the authors wish to convey in this book the sense of wonder in the logical simplicity and at the same time the beauty of subtle and far-reaching consequences of Quantum Mechanics, to young physics students in particular. Problem sets are provided at the end of each chapter, to be solved either analytically or by numerical methods. The solutions to both types of problems are given as separate pdf files or as Mathematica notebooks (there are 88 of them), all together on a CD accompanying the textbook. The presence of such a collection of numerical analyses enriches the main text and is one of the characteristic features of the book. With the many interesting systems discussed, the book will also be a useful reference for researchers and teachers. It provides the reader with a unique, enjoyable and rather complete textbook of Quantum Mechanics, destined to set a new standard for many years to come.
Introduction
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Physical phenomena in the microscopic world are extraordinary and often appear even paradoxical from the viewpoint of our daily experiences. A closer look, however, shows that they possess a simple and elegant logic of their own. By way of introduction to this entire volume on quantum mechanics, let us discuss a few such features, taking the example of the electron. We then briefly review the historical development which led to the discovery of quantum mechanics.
Path integrals
Authors: Konishi Kenichi , Paffuti Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An elegant alternative formalism of quantum mechanics was given by R. P. Feynman in 1948. The importance of this formalism, known as the path integral, functional integral, etc. approach, first of all lies in its vivid, intuitive description of quantum fluctuations. At the same time, it provides us with a formidable tool of calculus, of both perturbative effects (Feynman diagrams) and non-perturbative effects (e.g., tunnel effects, instantons).
Introduction
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dumping as ‘price discrimination between national markets’ (Viner) is a phenomenon of international trade which has been the subject of legislation providing for counter-measures since the beginning of the twentieth century. The introduction of anti-dumping legislation resulted from the experience of a number of countries that their industries had suffered damage from foreign competition often selling at prices below cost of production. Dumping was considered a trade practice which left domestic producers defenceless and which could, ultimately, lead to the disappearance of domestic production of the merchandise concerned altogether. It was, therefore, qualified as being ‘unfair’ and actionable.
Article 3: Determination of Injury
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of injury is set out in Article 3 of Basic Regulation. It comprises three different types of injury, namely material injury, threat of material injury and material retardation of the establishment of a Community industry. A finding of injury cannot be based simultaneously on all three forms of injury, as such a finding would be ‘internally contradictory’.4An important aspect of injury is the qualification of the concept by the term ‘material’ which is not clearly defined in Article 3. Other important elements of the injury analysis are the notions of causation and cumulation. The term causation is used to describe the fact that one needs to establish a specific link between the dumped imports and the injury resulting from these imports.5 The second element, cumulation, plays a role when the dumped imports originate in several countries. The effect of imports originating in two or more countries on the Community industry may be assessed cumulatively if the conditions set out article 3(4) are met.
Article 6: The Investigation
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Article 6(1) entrusts to the Commission the task of carrying out the investigation. The reference to ‘& acting in co-operation with Member States’ as contained in the first sentence of Article 6(1) denotes simply the possibility of the Member States participating in the investigation pursuant to Article 6(3), (4) and Article 16(4), although in practice Member States usually do not avail themselves of these rights The investigation concerning a new proceeding is usually divided into two phases, i.e. the phase up to the adoption of provisional measures and the ensuing phase up to the adoption of definitive measures. A non-co-operating party in the provisional phase is also excluded in the definitive phase since both phases relate to one and the same investigation. The investigation of dumping and injury must, in accordance with Article 6(1) of Basic Regulation 384/96 and Article 5.7 of the WTO Anti-dumping Agreement, be carried out simultaneously. In practice, anti-dumping investigations are carried out by Directorate H of the European Commission’s Directorate General Trade.
Article 15: Consultation
Authors: Müller Wolfgang , Khan Nicholas , Scharf Tibor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The provisions of Article 15 are essentially self-explanatory. The consultation provided for by Basic Regulation 384/96 constitutes an essential procedural requirement in anti-dumping proceedings. Consultation is required at each significant step of the proceeding The decision-making procedure established by Basic Regulation 384/94 does not fall under one of the procedures provided for in the Comitology Decision. The results of consultation do not bind the Commission. However, in cases where the Commission consults the Advisory Committee with a view to terminating a proceeding without imposition of measures or by accepting an undertaking, the result of the consultation determines whether or not it falls to the Council to decide on this matter. It may only decide in these two cases if an objection was raised by one or more Member States. Otherwise, the proceeding is automatically terminated or the undertaking accepted once the Commission adopts the corresponding decision.