bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The method of maximum likelihood
Authors: Cowan Glen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Consider a random variable x distributed according to a p.d.f. f(x; θ). Suppose the functional form of f(x; θ) is known, but the value of at least one parameter θ (or parameters θ = (θ 1, … , θ m)) are not known. That is, f ( x; θ) represents a composite hypothesis for the p.d.f. (cf. Section 4.1). The method of maximum likelihood is a technique for estimating the values of the parameters given a finite sample of data. Suppose a measurement of the random variable x has been repeated n times, yielding the values x1, … , Xn. Here, x could also represent a multidimensional random vector, i.e. the outcome of each individual observation could be characterized by several quantities.
Statistical errors, confidence intervals and limits
Authors: Cowan Glen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapters 5-8, several methods for estimating properties of p.d.f.s (moments and other parameters) have been discussed along with techniques for obtaining the variance of the estimators. Up to now the topic of ‘error analysis’ has been limited to reporting the variances (and covariances) of estimators, or equivalently the standard deviations and correlation coefficients. This turns out to be inadequate in certain cases, and other ways of communicating the statistical uncertainty of a measurement must be found.
Molecule Formation in Dust-poor Environments
Authors: Babb J F , Kirby K P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Molecules have been found to exist in a number of astrophysical environments that at first glance would appear hostile to their formation or survival. Regions which are observed to have negligible amounts of dust and/or are subjected to strong radiation fields such as the ejecta from novae (cf. Chapter 18), supernovae (cf. Chapter 19), and certain stellar winds (cf. Chapters 7, 12, 13 and 17) contain molecules. No detections of primordial molecules have been made as yet. However, theoretical studies of the early Universe to examine the evolution of primordial structure leading to the first astronomical objects show the important role that molecules may have played in initiating and sustaining gravitational collapse (cf. Chapter 3). In this chapter the main processes involved in making molecules under the unusual conditions that obtain in these sources will be described and their importance assessed.
Transistors and detectors based on GaN-related materials
Authors: Duboz Jean-Yves , Khan M Asif 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to show precisely the interest of using GaN and related compounds in bipolar transistors, we would like first to recall the main issues in bipolar transistors. A bipolar transistor is made of two back-to-back p-n junctions. The first one, called an emitter-base (E-B) junction, is forward-biased so that minority carrier are injected into the base. The second one, called a base¬ collector (B-C) junction is reverse-biased and minority carriers injected in the base can by diffusion or drift be collected in the collector (by definition, a pro¬ portion a of them actually are). The base current is due to recombination in the base, minority carrier injection into the emitter, and leakage current in the reverse-biased B-C junction. In a good transistor, almost all the carriers injected in the base are collected, so that a ““ 1. The power amplification arises from the B-C voltage being much larger than the E-B one. In the common emitter configuration, the ratio (3”“ a/(l - a) between the collector and base currents can be important: it defines the current gain.
111-V nitride-based short-wavelength LEDs and LDs*
Authors: Nakamura Shuji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much research has been done on high-brightness blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes (LDs) for use in full-color displays, full-color indicators, and light sources for lamps with the characteristics of high efficiency, high reliability, and high speed. For these purposes, II-VI materials such as ZnSe [1, 2], SiC [3], and III-V nitride semiconductors such as GaN [4] have been investigated intensively for a long time. However, it was impossible to obtain high-brightness blue LEDs with a brightness over 1 cd and reliable LDs. Much progress has been achieved recently on green LEDs and LDs using II-VI-based materials [5]. The short lifetimes prevent II-VI-based devices from commercialization at present. It is considered that the short lifetime of these II--VI based devices is caused by crystal defects at a density of 103/cm2, because one crystal defect would cause the propagation of other defects leading to failure of the devices. SiC is another wide bandgap material for blue LEDs. The brightness of SiC blue LEDs is only between 10 med and 20 med because of the indirect bandgap of this material. Despite this poor performance, 6H--SiC blue LEDs have been commercialized for a long time because there has been no competi¬ tion for blue light-emitting devices [6].
Convergence of the Energy for the Thomas-Fermi-Von Weizsäcker Model
Authors: Catto Isabelle , Bris Claude Le , Lions Pierre-Louis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the problem under consideration is the existence of the thermo dynamic limit for the energy in Thomas-Fermi-van Weizsiicker type molecular models. We again consider a set of IAI nuclei of unit charges located on a set A of points of integer coordinates in R3. Denoting byh the energy of the neutral molecular system and by PA its electronic ground state, we investigate the behaviour of bothh and PA as the set A goes to the periodic lattice Z3. For the (quite substantial!) physical background of this mathematical problem, we refer the reader to Chapter 1 and to the references mentioned therein from solid state physics, thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics.
Speciation
Authors: Grant Peter R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The biology of islands is the biology of isolation, and isolation is conducive to speciation. How does speciation occur? This is one of the most enduring questions in evolutionary biology, perhaps the most enduring, because it is an historical question and because it is complex. Its elements are how populations diverge under selection and drift, where this happens, how the diverging populations become reproductively isolated from each other, and how and when this happens. In other words there are components of geography and history, of genetics, behaviour, and ecology.
Epilogue and questions
Authors: Grant Peter R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of patterns and processes of evolution on islands has played an important role in the development of general theories of how and why evolution occurs. Such studies are continuing to be exciting new fields for investigation, as theoreticians attack questions of genetic change in island models and empirical biologists seek explanations of adaptive radiations in archipelagos. This book has attempted to survey our current knowledge, conveying, at the same time, the excitement of this important and developing subject.
Land Habitats
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tropical forests can support more species than any other terrestrial ecosystem in the world. Coral reefs are the equivalent ecosystem of the marine environment. One hectare of tropical lowland evergreen rain forest may have twenty times the number of large tree species found in the same area of European temperate woodland. In turn, these numerous tree species directly coexist with myriad diverse communities of other plants and animals.
Biodiversity and Biogeography
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Biodiversity has become one of the most politically important ecological words of the 1990s and Indonesia is recognised as one of the six megadiversity countries in the world, possessing a major portion of the global biological diversity (Mittermeir 1988). This diversity or richness exists on many levels: from ecosystems and communities, to the basic source of variation in life, the species and, ultimately, the gene (Solbrig 199la,b; Wilson 1988).
Land Resource Use: Forests
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With 57% forest cover in NT&M and only 6% considered permanently cultivated under upland cultivation, wetland cultivation, and tree-crop estates, much of the region has no officially recognised permanent land use: 25% of West Nusa Tenggara (WNT), 61 %-6:”&gt;% of ENT, 54% of East Timor, and 10%-15% of Maluku. These latter areas arc often traditional village lands (as is much of the forested land), which support extensive shifting agriculture or livestock grazing ( chapter 10). Because there is no officially recognised permanent land use, the land is considered available for development or reforestation. Some forest-covered land is also marked for clearance and development, for example for plantations. Because of poor mapping and poor recognition of local land tenure systems in NT&M, this often non-locally controlled development or the land causes conflicts between local people and the government or commercial enterprises (WALHI and YLBHI 1992).
Invitation to Discrete Mathematics
Authors: Matoušek Jiří , Nešetřil Jaroslav 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a clear and self-contained introduction to discrete mathematics, and in particular to combinatorics and graph theory. Aimed at undergraduates and early graduate students in mathematics and computer science, it is written with the goal of stimulating interest in mathematics and encourages an active, problem-solving approach to the material. The reader is led to an understanding of the basic principles and methods of actually doing mathematics. It is more narrowly focused than many discrete mathematics textbooks and treats selected topics in unusual depth and from several points of view. The book reflects the conviction of the authors, active and internationally renowned mathematicians, that the most important gain from studying mathematics is the cultivation of clear and logical thinking and habits, invariably useful for attacking new problems. More than 400 exercises, ranging widely in difficulty, and many accompanied by hints for solution, support this approach to teaching. Readers will appreciate the lively and informal style of the text, accompanied by more than 200 drawings and diagrams. Specialists in various parts of science ( with a basic mathematical education) wishing to apply discrete mathematics in their field will find the book a useful source, and even experts in combinatorics may occasionally learn from pointers to research literature or from the presentation of recent results. Invitation to Discrete Mathematics should make delightful reading both for beginners and mathematical professionals.
Matrices
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Column vectors and matrices will appear in many ways in this book. On the one hand, they provide particularly important examples of vector spaces (the subject of the next chapter) and various operations on vector spaces (the subject of Parts II and III). On the other hand, they provide elegant and convenient mathematical tools for performing calculations in all sorts of types of problems, including problems which at first sight have nothing to do with matrices. This will be done in a somewhat more ‘advanced’ way than when you perhaps learnt this material. The same basic ideas concerning matrices appear in several different contexts, and can be usefully presented in a rather ‘unified’ way.
When is a form definite?
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter we used the Gram-Schmidt process to obtain orthonormal bases for vector spaces with inner products. In this chapter we will present several variations of the idea behind Gram-Schmidt, this time applied to a form which need not be positive definite. Sections 6.1 and 6.2 both address the same question: given a real symmetric (or complex conjugate-symmetric) matrix A, how can we determine if the form XT A X is positive definite? And, if it isn’t, how can we find a nonzero vector x such that XT Ax 0? In this chapter, we consider bilinear forms on vector spaces over ℝ and sesquilinear forms on vector spaces over ℂ only, since the notion of ‘positive definite’ as we have defined it only really applies to these forms. Section 6.2 requires knowledge of determinants, and can be safely omitted or postponed until later if the reader is not familiar with these at this stage.
Quadratic forms and Sylvester’s law of inertia
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given a symmetric bilinear form F on a finite dimensional real vector space V we attempt to find ‘nice’ bases where the matrix representation of the form is as simple as possible, in the same sort of way as we did in the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process for inner products. The theorem which says that this is possible and which describes all the possible matrix representations one can get is called Sylvester’s law of inertia. (Sylvester’s law of inertia has nothing to do with inertia: the story goes that Sylvester said, ‘If Isaac Newton can have a law of inertia, then so can I’, and consequently gave this theorem the name it has been known by ever since.) This ‘law’ is exactly analogous to Theorem 2.33 which classified all finite dimensional vector spaces using dimension; it turns out that symmetric bilinear forms are classified by the dimension of the underlying vector space and two further numbers, called the rank and the signature of the form.
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rather than giving the formal definition of eigenvalues and eigenvectors — the subject of this chapter, indeed of the rest of the book — straight away, we shall give a hypothetical example of their use to motivate their study. We imagine a team of biologists studying a single-celled organism which reproduces by cell division. They have identified two different types of the organism, X and Y, and have noticed that on cell division a type X sometimes mutates into type Y, and sometimes a type Y mutates into type X. Their measurements indicate that both types of the organism reproduce at the same speed, on average doubling in number in unit time. Moreover, starting from a population of 100 type X organisms, after unit time they observe a population of 180 type X and 20 type Y. Similarly, starting from 100 type Y organisms, after unit time 190 type Y and 10 type X are observed.
Revealing the factors that promote speciation
Authors: Barraclough Timothy G , Vogler Aljiied P , Harvey Paul H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Life is made up of species, and so understanding the evolution of species richness is fundamental to our understanding of the natural world. Traditionally, however, this area is plagued by the difficulties inherent in studying a phenomenon operating over timescales many orders of magnitude greater than our own lifespans (Panchen 1992). Recent accumulation of phylogenetic information through the use of molecular techniques has provided novel possibilities for statistical tests of hypotheses concerning the evolution of species richness in extant taxa (Mooers and Heard 1996; Nee et al.1996a; Purvis 1996; Sanderson and Donoghue 1996). We illustrate this approach by concentrating on two issues. First, can biological attributes of lineages influence the tendency for those lineages to accumulate species richness? Second, can we use species-level phylogenies to identify modes of speciation and patterns of subsequent phenotypic change?
John Conduitt’s ‘memoir’
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first and for long the most influential biographer of Isaac Newton was John Conduitt (1688-1737), Masterof the Mint from 1727to 1737. Conduitt’s narrative of Newton’s life, prepared for the Academie Royale des Sciences in Paris, but only published in 1806, dominated biographical accounts of Newton before the appearance of Sir David Brewster’s two-volume Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton in 1855. Yet even he, for many personal matters, relied heavily on Conduitt’s memoir for the Academie or his manuscript notes. Few of Newton’s contemporaries left considered accounts of him.
The Biographia Britannica article
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The second life of Isaac Newton to be written and published in England appeared in 1760, in the fifth volume of the Biographia Britannica. This large work, a ventur on the part of a group of London booksellers-also, at that time, the usual publishers-was an early attempt to compile on a comprehensive scale the lives of national worthies, written with some fullness and authority. Publication of the letter A had begun (in parts) as early as 1747. The success of the work when completed was great enough to merit, in 1776, a plan to revise and expand it in a new edition, whose editorship was first of fered to Dr Samuel Johnson.
ThIeslamic and Baha’i Calendars
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the Islamic calendar was first used in the Arabian peninsula in the seventh century AD, its use has spread throughout the world to wherever Islam is practised. It is employed to regulate the feasts and fasts of that religion, but in many Islamic countries, the Gregorian calendar is used for civil purposes. From the earliest times the Arabian peoples observed a strictly lunar calen dar. In the twelfth month they made a pilgrimage to Mecca. There they indulged in rituals associated with the sacred meteorite given to Abraham by Gabriel and now embedded in the walls of the Ka’ba; at the end of the pil grimage an animal was slaughtered. Since a lunar calendar does not keep step with the seasons, this sometimes led to logistic difficulties in finding food for the trip and animals for slaughter. To ensure sufficient supplies they started to intercalate a month, so as to keep the 12th in the autumn. They had learnt of this stratagem from the Jews ofYathrith, and adopted it in AD 412.
Modern Electric Vehicle Technology
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern Electric Vehicle Technology covers multidisciplinary aspects of electric vehicles (EVs), and is written for a wide coverage of readers including students, researchers, engineers and administrators. This book is probably the first comprehensive reference book on electric vehicles that includes the following distinct features; It concisely and precisely reviews the state of the art of EV technology and the historical development of EVs, presents the engineering philosophy of electric vehicles. Identifies new configurations, concepts and classifications of modern EV and hybrid EV (HEV) systems. Provides in-depth discussions on electric propulsion systems, emerging EV energy sources and latest EV auxiliaries. Presents the concept of system level simulation and a dedicated EV simulator for system optimisation. and discusses the key issues relating to commercialisation and implementation of EVs.
Anti-Viral Drug Therapy
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In January 1995, George Shaw from the University of Alabama at Birmingham and David Ho from the Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center in New York and their colleagues published two papers in the journal Nature, which hit the headlines more than any other AIDS-related paper in that year. Within a few months almost every HIV virology paper referred to the new findings, and by the end of the year, the papers had established a historical record: compared to all scientific papers ever published they received the largest number of citations in their first year of publication (about 500).
Emergence Of Drug Resistance
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have discussed in the previous chapter, anti-viral treatment of HIV-1 infection often fails because of the emergence of resistant virus. In single-drug treatment the virus population in a patient can be completely resistant within a few weeks of initiating therapy. Such treatment usually leads to a rapid, but short-lived decline in plasma virus load; after a few weeks the plasma virus load is back to its original pre-treatment level. Similarly there is an increase in the CD4 cell population followed by a return to baseline.
The Infinite Cosmos
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From time immemorial, poets and philosophers have looked in awe and wonder at the Universe. Such awe is shared by astrophysicists, too, as they seek to understand its nature, and whether it has any limits. In The Infinite Cosmos, Joseph Silk, Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford University, cosmologist and well-known science writer, brings together the modern understanding of the Universe, its structure, its evolution, and its possible fate, combining the latest from theory and observation. The narrative is peppered with quotations from literature and philosophy, and reflects, too, on the process of scientific discovery, and the implications of our discoveries.
Isolated magnetic moments
Authors: Blundell Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the properties of isolated magnetic moments will be examined. At this stage, interactions between magnetic moments on different atoms, or between magnetic moments and their immediate environments, are ignored. All that remains is therefore just the physics of isolated atoms and their interaction with an applied magnetic field. Of course that doesn’t stop it being complicated, but the complications arise from the combinations of electrons in a given atom, not from the fact that in condensed matter there is a large number of atoms. Using this simplification, the large number of atoms merely leads to properties like the magnetic susceptibility containing a factor of n, the number of atoms per unit volume.
Competing interactions and low, dimensionality
Authors: Blundell Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In some lattices it is not possible to satisfy all the interactions in the system to find the ground state. Often this leads to there being no single unique ground state but a variety of similar low energy states of the system in which the un happiness (by which I mean non-minimization of the energy) is shared around as much as possible. In this case the system is said to show frustration. As an example, consider the lattices in Fig. 8.1 in which only nearest-neighbour antiferromagnetic interactions operate.
Gauge Theory of Elementary Particle Physics
Authors: Cheng Ta-pei , Li Ling-Ffong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Students of particle physics often find it difficult to locate resources to learn calculational techniques. Intermediate steps are not usually given in the research literature. To a certain extent, this is also the case even in some of the textbooks. In this book of worked problems we have made an effort to provide enough details so that a student starting in the field will understand the solution in each case. Our hope is that with this step-by-step guidance, students (after first attempting the solution themselves) can develop their skill, and confidence in their ability, to work out particle theory problems.
The parton model and scaling
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei , Li Ling-Fong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
However, for light mass quarks in the long-distance range, perturbative quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is not applicable. Since the proton is not an isotopic singlet, there is really no reason to expect its quark sea to be symmetric with respect to the u and d quark distributions.
Topics in flavourdynamics
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei , Li Ling-Fong 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose the technifermion condensate breaks this symmetry down to SU(S)l
+r. Show that there are 60 new Goldstone bosons besides those which were removed by gauge bosons. Show that these Goldstone bosons will become massive if we turn on the gauge interaction.