bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pilgrims, Cures, and Commercialization
Authors: Blackbourn David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The next day Marpingen was host to around 20,000 visitors, with up to 4,000 in the Hartelwald at any one time. The crush of pilgrims already threatened to exhaust supplies of food and drink in the village, and Neureuter observed that he would have to hear confessions ‘day and night’ to satisfy the demand. There was general agreement that I 2 July marked the beginning of what Father Schwaab of Urexweiler called the ‘great rush’. Carts and pilgrims on foot crowded the roads and tracks in all directions; Neureuter recorded that ‘the carts even come down the Tholey mountain at night, a road that can hardly be travelled in the day’. A schoolteacher in Dörsdorf was unable to conduct his classes because of the noise made by passing pilgrims. The stream of people was not to abate for fourteen months, although the numbers fluctuated over that period.
Communications*
Authors: Pethybridge Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Provincial life as such is now left behind as we turn to various types of connections between it and the political and cultural centres of Russia. Some nationwide systems of Bolshevik political control are examined in the next chapter, whereas here more neutral communications networks are studied. However, since the accent in this book lies on social and political affairs, the railways and the press will be considered from this angle. In fact both networks were subject to heavy political intervention. The first carried goods and people, the second ideas and information. Within their own spheres, they were of overriding importance. Road, air, and even river transport were of little significance by comparison with the railways. The public relied to a minimal extent on what were by modern standards vestigial radio, telephone, and film distribution systems. Lenin and the Bolsheviks had grasped the supreme political importance of the railways and the press as instruments for turning their domination of some cities of European Russia in 1917 into an all-Russian revolution.
Lack of Improvement in Control over the Localities
Authors: Pethybridge Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before turning to examine in later chapters the individual characteristics of three localities in 1926, a more general survey is given here of ideological theories, institutions, and human agents that were manipulated by the central authorities in their efforts to keep the later years of NEP on an even political and social keel in the provinces. The institutions singled out are the moral Soviets and the Central Control Commission and its branches. The agents will be divided into those who facilitated control and those who increasingly hampered it. The ideas and topics treated in this chapter should be related to the subjects discussed for I 922 in Chapter 5, as is implied by the similarity in the titles of the two chapters. A theoretical concept which kept cropping up in the minds of leading Bolsheviks throughout NEP was smychka, the notion of town and country alliance. It has just featured in the previous chapter, for instance. Between 1921 and 1923 Lenin had moved towards an alliance with what were termed the middle peasants, who were considered by most central party leaders to be in the majority in the countryside. The practical effects of this line, or rather lack of them in 1922, were reviewed earlier in the case-study of the Kursk guberniia. By 1924 it was clear that smychka was having little or no impact 0111 the realities of rural life. Even Stalin now devoted some thought to the problem of alliance in his role as temporary ally of Kamenev and Zinoviev.
Rituals of Retribution
Authors: Evans Richard J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Copywriter - Modern History section for 1996 cat The state has no greater power over its own citizens than that of killing them. This book examines the use of that supreme sanction in Germany, from the seventeenth century to the present. Richard Evans analyses the system of `traditional’ capital punishments set out in German law, and the ritual practices and cultural readings associated with them by the time of the early modern period. He shows how this system was challenged by Enlightenment theories of punishment and broke down under the impact of secularization and social change in the first half of the nineteenth century. The abolition of the death penalty became a classic liberal case which triumphed, if only momentarily, in the 1948 Revolution. In Germany far more than anywhere else in Europe, capital punishment was identified with anti-liberal, authoritarian concepts of sovereignty. Its definitive reinstatement by Bismarck in the 1880s marked not only the defeat of liberalism but also coincided with the emergence of new, Social Darwinist attitudes towards criminality which gradually changed the terms of debate. The triumph of these attitudes under the Nazis laid the foundations for the massive expansion of capital punishment which took place during Hitler's `Third Reich'. After the Second World War, the death penalty was abolished, largely as a result of a chance combination of circumstances, but continued to be used in the Stalinist system of justice in East Germany until its forced abandonment as a result of international pressure exerted in the regime in the 1970s and 1980s. This remarkable and disturbing book casts new light on the history of German attitudes to law, deviance, cruelty, suffering and death, illuminating many aspects of Germany's modern political development. Using sources ranging from folksongs and ballads to the newly released government papers from the former German Democratic Republic, Richard Evans scrutinizes the ideologies behind capital punishment and comments on interpretations of the history of punishment offered by writers such as Foucault and Elias. He has made a formidable contribution not only to scholarship on German history but also to the social theory of punishement, and to the current debate on the death penalty.
The Forbidden Books of Pre-revolutionary France
Authors: Darnton Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I want to try to answer a question that was first raised seventy nine years ago by Daniel Mamet and that has been dangling ever since: what did the French read in the eighteenth century? Whatever it was, according to Mamet, it was not what we commonly take to be eighteenth-century French literature. We envisage the literature of every era as a corpus of works grouped around a core of classics; and we derive our notion of the classics from our professors, who took it from their professors, who got it from Theirs, and so on, back to some disappearing point in the early nineteenth century. Literary history is an artifice, pieced together over many generations, shortened here and lengthened there, worn thin in some places, patched over in others, and laced through everywhere with anachronism. It bears little relation to the actual experience of literature in a given time.
The French Revolution or Pure Democracy
Authors: Furet Francois 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The repercussions of the French Revolution are universal because it proclaimed itself to be universal. Independent of the particular conditions of its birth and even of the country in which it broke out, it gave itself the mission not of adjusting institutions to the circumstances of national history or to the state of opinion, but rather of remaking the social contract from top to bottom, as though it were an artefact to be completely reworked, remodelled according to the principles of reasoning will. It was thus an event that was inextricably political and philosophical, and contemporary observers immediately saw it as a blend of these two aspects, hailing 1789 as the victory of Enlightenment philosophy in the realm which it had made its speciality — the reorganization of the polis. The unique character of the French Revolution in modem history derives from this combining of genres, by virtue of which 1789 was to be accompanied by a laicized religious annunciation where the promise of democracy was substituted for that of God.
Regionalism and Counter-Revolution in France
Authors: Forrest Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the vast literature of counter-revolution regional identity is often subsumed or alluded to, but it is rarely investigated in depth, and the significance of regional loyalties is seldom analysed. This is not hard to understand. Regionalism is a rather imprecise concept, a sense of belonging or of mutual identity which defies quantification, a gut feeling of pride in the past and in a shared experience. Like nineteenth-century nationalism, it has diffuse cultural, linguistic, and literary inspirations. It is certainly more deeply implanted in some regions than in others. And, like nationalism again, it may be stronger in times of conflict, when there is a common enemy to be fought or a common threat to be fended off. That threat, in an eighteenth century context, was clearly to be found in the advancing pretensions of the centralist state, whether of the Bourbon monarchy or, more dramatically, of the Revolution. The enemy could easily become the revolutionary administration itself.
Auto—emancipation?
Authors: Vital David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
European Jewry was now divided. It was divided defacto and more than ever before in conscience. It was one thing to observe events in Russia from without and at the immense distance in space and mind separating the barbarities inflicted on the Pale of Jewish Settlement from the comparative order and civilization of central and western Europe. It was another to suffer, or even merely to observe, them at first hand from within the empire itself. Sympathy and benign concern for the easterners when contemplating their disasters were not un-common sentiments in Berlin, Vienna, Budapest, London, and Paris, as we have seen. For the Jews of Russia and Poland themselves matters were of course vastly more immediate, depressing, and, above all, urgent. For the great majority within the Pale, but also for the very small minority allowed to live outside it, for the rich, for the poor, for the high and for the low, for firmly orthodox believers no less than for those who had been touched (or more) by secularism and by indigenous Russian culture, for those who had escaped molestation almost as much as for those who had suffered it at the hands of the mob or those of the authorities-for all these, for all classes, some sort of reckoning had now to be made.
War
Authors: Vital David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Jews of Europe passed through the valley of the shadow of death during the years 1914—18 with the rest of the continent’s population—which is to say, as best they could. That they were no more spared the crippling horrors of the war than any one else was at once the result and the supreme expression of the radical change in their circumstances. The days when, insignificant exceptions apart, it was natural, but also possible, for Jews to keep out of the way when the gentiles foolishly and incomprehensibly fought each other were over. Where their participation in continental warfare, if any, had been on an essentially individual basis—as bankers and provisioners, but only very rarely as soldiers—it was now first and foremost as ordinary fighting men in the ranks of each of the armies of the belligerents. Countless numbers of perfectly ordinary, non-political Jewish people marched off to war and to personal, often fatal involvement in the great and terrifying events that proceeded to unfold from August 1914 onwards along with all the other ordinary, non-political people who were marching off to war. They did so, moreover, for all the world as if it were a natural and (in central and western Europe) a worthy and desirable thing to do. Their political masters had still to determine whether, and if so in what way and to what degree, further advantage was to be taken of their services.
Inquisitorial Law and the Witch*
Authors: Tedeschi John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By approaching the subject of the present volume from the point of view of the legal historian rather than that of the ethnologist or the social historian, I have attempted in this paper to provide a general legal and bureaucratic background against which the witchcraft question may be studied. My intention is to investigate the organization and procedures of a court system, rather than pursue the socio economic or folkloristic implications of the witch persecutions. The following thesis regarding the type oflegal justice administered by the Congregation of the Holy Office in Rome may appear novel to some readers. In fact, the contrast between the procedures described here and the judicial practices of civil courts elsewhere in Europe and in Italy itself is startling.
Iceland: Sorcerers and Paganism
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
lCELAND is situated on the geographical margins of Europe, and the links of communication across the North Atlantic were not always intensive. Yet historically Iceland was always embedded in the wider Nordic and European context, a fact which is reflected also in the seventeenth-century witch-trials. The present paper is concerned with these trials under the double perspective of the witch-craze in Early Modern Europe, in relation to which Iceland is but a peripheral instance, and the local cultural categories of witchcraft, defined from the core of a distinctive Icelandic culture. As elsewhere, the local shaping of the witch-hunt owed as much to pre-existing notions of supernatural powers as to the new ideas of satanic influence. Since the Viking Age and the first settlements on Iceland, a whole range of popular notions of magic intervention in nature and history had been central to the world-view of the Icelanders, and even the conversion to Christianity in AD 1000 had not estranged these notions.1 In many ways the Catholic times represented a continuation of the heathen traditions, at least in practice, if not in theological doctrine.
The Comparative Approach to European Witchcraft
Authors: Burke Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the last twenty years or so, witchcraft has moved from the periphery of historical attention to a place near the centre. When, in the later 1960s, Professor Trevor-Roper published his lively essay on what he called, following nineteenth-century German scholars, the European ‘Witch-craze’, he can hardly have guessed that he was summarizing and synthesizing the conventional historical wisdom on the subject at the very time when this conventional view was being undermined. Trevor-Roper took Europe for his province, ranging from Scotland to Transylvania, but he deliberately limited himself to the beliefs of clerical and lay elites. A sturdy rationalist, he expressed a firm lack of interest in what he called ‘those elementary village credulities which anthropologists discover in all times and at all places’, and his account of the ‘craze’ attempted to relate its rise and subsequent decline to such major intellectual movements such as Aristotelianism and Platonism, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution.
Models of Development
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The advent of the Hohenzollerns, the promulgation of a constitution in 1866, and the achievement of independence in 1878 brought Rumanian politicians, economists, and social thinkers face to face with the new problem of national development. The specific issues were many and varied, but two general directions presented themselves. One, drawing upon the Western European experience, would lead to industrialization and urbanization and bring radical changes to every facet of Rumanian society; the other was based upon Rumania’s agricultural past and emphasized the preservation of traditional social structures and cultural values.
The First World War
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the weeks following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 King Charles and Liberal and Conservative politicians watched the deteriorating international situation with increasing anxiety. They had good reason to fear war, for Rumania’s geographical position made it inevitable that she would find herself in the middle of an expanding, European conflict. The country faced the crisis far from united. There were serious political divisions between the king and a small group of Germanophiles, on one side, and the majority of politicians and public opinion, on the other. which favoured the Entente. Yet both sides could agree on the urgent need to avoid war. The lack of preparedness of the Rumanian army and the aggressive behaviour of Austria-Hungary toward Serbia gave everyone pause. Convinced that Serbia wished to settle the crisis peacefully and fearful that otherwise Russia would support Serbia militarily and a general war would break out, the king and Prime Minister Bratianu urged both parties to settle their differences through negotiation. They became thoroughly alarmed when Austria-Hungary presented a drastic ultimatum to Serbia on 24 July. War now seemed to them inevitable, since Serbia, in their view, could not possibly accept all its terms.
Englishmen And Frenchmen In Occupied Paris
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the absence of the Armagnacs, the Burgundian faction in Paris maintained a remarkable degree of unity amongst the people of the capital. Yet, although we have considered some of the reasons why people supported the duke of Burgundy, and ways in which loyalty to the Anglo-Burgundian regime was encouraged, we are not much closer to answering the question that must particularly intrigue an English historian: what was the attitude of the Parisians to Englishmen as people, and to those aspects of the regime which made it English as well as Burgundian? Here it is perhaps impossible to generalize. According to the Bourgeois, the requirement that everyone take an oath to the duke of Bedford in 1423 provoked a broad range of reactions, some doing this cheerfully but others with much ill will. The anonymous Bourgeois was not even sure in his own mind what he felt about the invaders since he reckoned that if you were to be captured and ransomed it was better to be taken by the English than by anyone else, and he admired the efficiency of Henry V and the duke of Bedford. Even so, he still saw the foreigners as mean and warlike people, doing little for Paris and spending less, with highly uncivilized notions about catering.
An Age of Transition?
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This significant new work by a prominent medievalist focusses on the period of transition between 1250 and 1550, when the wealth and power of the great lords was threatened and weakened, and when new social groups emerged and new methods of production were adopted. Professor Dyer examines both the commercial growth of the thirteenth century, and the restructuring of farming, trade, and industry in the fifteenth. The subjects investigated include the balance between individuals and the collective interests of families and villages. The role of the aristocracy and in particular the gentry are scrutinized, and emphasis placed on the initiatives taken by peasants, traders, and craftsmen. The growth in consumption moved the economy in new directions after 1350, and this encouraged investment in productive enterprises. A commercial mentality persisted and grew, and producers, such as farmers, profited from the market. Many people lived on wages, but not enough of them to justify describing the sixteenth century economy as capitalist. The conclusions are supported by research in sources not much used before, such as wills, and non-written evidence, including buildings. Christopher Dyer, who has already published on many aspects of this period, has produced the first full-length study by a single author of the 'transition'. He argues for a reassessment of the whole period, and shows that many features of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries can be found before 1500.
Open Fields and Enclosure: The Demise of Commonality
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sentiments of John Clare, the Northamptonshire poet, were put more prosaically by a lace-dealer of that county. ‘I lament that this field is now a going to be enclosed’, wrote David Hennell of Wollaston. ‘Some that have large quantities of land are set upon it, and pay no regard to the many little ones that may be injured, and I fear many ruined.
Furnaces, Forges, and Mines
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The debate on rural industrialization and its metamorphosis into factory production ignores trades, in both town and country, which were based upon fixed, centralized plant. These included some of the most important industries of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries: the mining of coal and minerals such as iron, lead, tin, and copper; the smelting of ores in furnaces and their refining in forges; the processing of domestic and imported agricultural commodities by sugar-refiners, leather-tanners, seed-crushers, flour-millers, maltsters, brewers, and distillers; and the production of salt, paper, and glass. Although the dynamic of growth in plant-based trades was very different from protoindustrial industries, they were often mutually dependent. The nail-makers of the west Midlands, cutlers of Sheffield, and the producers of buckles, buttons, and small metal goods of Birmingham could only grow by specialization because their supplies of iron, steel, copper, and brass were freed from restraints through the use of coal as a source of heat in furnaces and forges. The impact of the ‘modernized’ sector was much greater than is suggested by the low proportion of the work-force directly employed, for a change in the supply of materials to domestic workers disrupted the existing social relations of production in the ‘traditional’ sectors.
Merchants and Marketing
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Britain’s distinctive regional economies, with their particular social structures and patterns of production, were not self-sufficient: specialism only makes sense where markets permit the exchange of commodities, and connect the regions into a nationally integrated economy. The question is: how efficient were markets in providing these links? The operation of a market depends upon the quality and quantity of information which is available to participants, for a consumer or shopkeeper in, say, Devon might well have no knowledge of the price or design of clocks or cutlery manufactured in Birmingham or Sheffield, and might consequently continue to purchase from local craftsmen in Exeter whose costs were higher. Competition was ‘imperfect’, and the slow development of a more ‘perfect’ market depended upon improved flows of information through the distribution network, allowing areas to concentrate on the production of goods in which they had a competitive edge, and offering consumers access to the lowest-cost suppliers. Of course, the provision of trade networks to link production and consumption itself imposed ‘transaction costs’, and improvements in the efficiency of intermediaries could have a significant impact on the final price to the consumer. Economic historians have concentrated on changes in the production of goods, but changes in marketing which reduced transaction costs could have as great an impact on the final price to the consumer. The technical marvels of steam engines and spinning-machines are more striking than the mundane activities of merchants and shopkeepers who left fewer visible remains and records, but they are not necessarily of greater economic significance. After all, the greatest fortune in the textile trades was not made by Richard Arkwright in the production of yarn; it was accumulated by James Morrison, the ‘Napoleon of shopkeepers’, whose textile warehouse in the City of London supplied the inland trade with its handkerchiefs, ribbons, braids, and fabrics.