bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Equity and Justice
Authors: Rao J. Mohan , Kapstein Ethan B. , Sen Amartya 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Economic and cultural globalization seem to have ushered in an awkward and potentially unstable period of transition for the world. Even if one supposes that free trade and unrestricted capital mobility can eventually result in global factor price equalization and international equality, the transition may take decades if not centuries. At stake are questions of how to distribute the costs incurred, and the benefits to be derived, by cooperative action to create global public goods or minimize global public bads. Questions of equity are also implicated in the origin of the global problems themselves. International negotiations are influenced by unequal economic and bargaining strengths and the diverse stages of development at which nations find themselves.
The basic argument of this chapter is that equity and distributional criteria must be at the core of a global public goods framework for international cooperation. There are several reasons behind this. First, equity and justice promote cooperative behavior, itself needed for the provision of public goods. Second, when the system is perceived to be fair and equitable, nations will participate in it willingly. Third, global equity is itself a public good that, without cooperation or coercion (i.e., in a decentralized setting), may be undersupplied. The undersupply may be because, e.g., there is no private market through which nations or individuals may meet their need to give.
Thus, the first section of this chapter sets the stage by outlining the continuing role of inequality among nations in shaping the world. The second section considers the potential instrumental value of social cohesion in public goods supply (equity for public goods). After that, the chapter considers how distributional factors affect the demand and supply of public goods. Then, it pursues the proposition (originally from Thurow, 1971) that the distribution of income is itself a public good. The final section offers conclusions. The rest of the chapter illustrates the value of equity for the production of public goods, in the distribution of public goods, and as a public good itself.
Deep Integration and Trade Agreements
Authors: Birdsall Nancy , Lawrence Robert Z. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter looks at financial crises as a challenge to the international financial system and investigates the “public bad” nature of the phenomenon. The conclusion: excessive financial volatility is a global public bad. Instability is not purely a technical by‐product of the production of financial services. Rather, it is the outcome of market failures, for reasons not yet fully understood. Having laid out this diagnosis, the chapter looks at how existing institutions and policies deal with international financial instability, both to limit its acuity and to deal with its implications. The main emphasis is on drawing lessons from recent experiences (Europe, Mexico, and East Asia) and recent theoretical advances, especially those that have improved our understanding of crises. The chapter presents five main proposals. (1) Proceed with caution in promoting capital liberalization; (2) avoid the restrictive macroeconomic policies, huge loans, and deep structural policies of recent packages; (3) complement today's ex post conditionality with ex ante conditionality; (4) suspend debt repayment in the event of a major crisis accompanied by a collapse of the exchange rate; and (5) end the monopoly of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) by creating regional IMFs.
Montreal versus Kyoto
Authors: Barrett Scott 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe world of public goods has changed radically in the past quarter century, rendering some textbook discussions and examples quite dated. This is a good time to take a fresh look at both the nature of public goods and the policy options for managing their provision. Privatization and technological advances have combined to change the very nature of public goods provision in many respects. In the environmental field, in addition, there exists a growing volume of privately produced global public bads, such as pollution. In response, Heal suggests using markets to foster the private provision of public goods. If properly structured, markets can solve the problems posed by this type of good. The chapter describes how a global market in pollution permits could reduce pollution levels while assuring an efficient and equitable distribution of the costs of emission reductions. In a second example of the power of markets to overcome cooperation dilemmas, Heal describes how early actions by large firms or countries can accelerate environmental reforms by smaller actors through a process of adoption spillovers.
New Strategies for the Provision of Global Public Goods
Authors: Heal Geoffrey 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Crude cost‐benefit analysis is often a poor guide to solving issues of the environment but also those of culture. Both can have economic as well as intrinsic value that is commonly recognized, if not valued. For methodologically similar problems such as these, cost‐benefit analysis must be complemented by new analytical instruments. Beyond the criterion of use value, used for private goods, Serageldin highlights the relevance of nonextractive value, including existence value, e.g., the value of a cultural site goes beyond the amount that the site is able to generate in terms of tourist dollars. Unique sites have value for the world at large, not just for residents and visitors. Serageldin suggests that private–public partnerships to ensure the revitalization of priceless sites such as old cities would be an effective policy option, offering to illustrate the examples of the historical districts of Hafsia, Tunis, and Fez, Morocco.
Cultural Heritage as Public Good
Authors: Serageldin Ismail 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
While global interest in health surveillance was relatively weak between the 1940s and the 1980s, today there is a renewed interest in international cooperation. There are many good reasons for this heightened interest, including new health risks and better communications. But it is also because in a world of increased mobility – of people and goods – health risks anywhere can pose a threat everywhere. Thus, the knowledge generated through international health surveillance has an important public goods dimension. Because information about existing risks is often of great interest and benefit to all countries, it is increasingly difficult to withhold this information given the strength of civil society and the media. Yet knowledge about disease outbreaks has a peculiar quality. Zacher points to two problems: the reluctance of governments to report disease outbreaks and the lack of capacity in many countries to adequately monitor public health and respond to outbreaks. Zacher suggests that increased involvement by nongovernmental organizations will help remedy at least part of the disclosure problem. “Bad” news travels faster today owing to the spread of the Internet and the growth of international networks of health professionals. Still, the expanded role of NGOs and individuals in disclosure does not take away from the need for an international organization, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) to verify and legitimate outbreak reports and to coordinate international responses to outbreaks. In addition, international development assistance has an important role to play in improving the weak links in global prevention and surveillance systems. National capacities to prevent, report, and control outbreaks can and should be improved in many developing countries in the interest of reducing the common global risk posed by infectious diseases.
Health as a Global Public Good
Authors: Chen Lincoln C. , Evans Tim G. , Cash Richard A. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Today we recognize that knowledge is not only a public good but also a global public good. We have also come to recognize that knowledge is central to successful development. The international community has a collective responsibility for the creation and dissemination of one global public good – knowledge for development. But how can we deal with the dilemma of reconciling the often contradictory incentives for the production and for the dissemination of knowledge? States must decide to what extent there should be public provision and to what extent private production should be encouraged through strengthened intellectual property rights. Designing the appropriate intellectual property rights regime entails balancing static and dynamic efficiency. Indeed, because research (knowledge) is one of the most important inputs into the production of further knowledge, raising the “price” of knowledge may actually reduce follow‐on research and slow the pace of innovation. Thus, it is essential to reward research and innovation by firms while ensuring widespread access to knowledge and protection against monopoly rents. Issues of equity and efficiency interplay here, as most innovations incorporate ideas that are part of the common pool of knowledge. Narrowing the knowledge gap between developing and developed countries requires the construction of strong domestic knowledge infrastructures, most notably in education. Because knowledge is a global public good, Stiglitz argues that successfully meeting the challenges posed by knowledge externalities depends critically on cooperative efforts at the international level.
Preventing Deadly Conflict
Authors: Hamburg David A. , Holl Jane E. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Through an interesting dynamic, there is at present an interesting intersection of two literatures – that on conventional foreign aid and that on global externalities and public goods. Some of the key questions that emerge from this are (1) Could international public goods and cross‐border spillovers provide a revived rationale for old‐fashioned transfers intended to spur development in poor countries? (2) When faced with the choice of making transfers or contributing to an international public good, what should a donor country do – even if its objectives are governed by self‐interest rather than solidarity? (3) What happens to the many issues (like conditionality and ownership) in old‐fashioned solidarity‐driven aid, so exhaustively and exhaustingly debated over the past 20 years or more, in this new world of international public goods?
The objective of this chapter is to begin the discussion of these questions, which seem to have been neglected in the rush to embrace international public goods as a new rationale for maintaining international development cooperation and even traditional aid flows. We set out a simple model of interaction between two countries that share a common public good and pose the problem of the richer “donor” country deciding between making a transfer or contributing to a public good, while being concerned only about the impact of outcomes on its own well‐being. We next analyze the problem with different specifications of the public good. We conclude by discussing the implications of this analysis and the areas for further research.
Peace as a Global Public Good
Authors: Mendez Ruben P. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
During the 1980s and 90s, aid programs increasingly became a kind of surrogate national government, with outside agencies (usually led by the Bretton Woods institutions) attempting to foster the provision of public goods at the local and national levels. In this vision, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank would lead reform on behalf of the national polity because the government receiving the aid was too weak, too corrupt, too prone to backsliding, or too incompetent to mobilize the needed actions on its own. Thus, during the 1980s and especially in the first half of the 90s, aid was closely tied to policy conditions to ensure that the aid was linked to appropriate policies and the appropriate provision of public goods by the national government. In principle, if the aid were not used in the way agreed with the outside agencies, it would be cut off. We know from a large number of studies and frustrating case histories that this model is deeply flawed.
A new approach to aid is needed. In our view, donors should get back to basics to ensure that aid really delivers public goods that otherwise will not be provided either by markets or recipient governments in the absence of the aid. Without a doubt, there is one hugely neglected area of public goods: goods that can only be provided effectively at the level of the region (defined here to mean a grouping of neighboring governments) or on a global scale. The first category may be called “regional public goods” and the second category “international public goods.” This chapter focuses on regional public goods, partly because international public goods are covered in other chapters and partly because very little work has been undertaken on the actual and desirable levels of public goods provision at the regional level.
International Public Goods and the Case for Foreign Aid
Authors: Jayaraman Rajshri , Kanbur Ravi 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
During the 1980s and 90s, aid programs increasingly became a kind of surrogate national government, with outside agencies (usually led by the Bretton Woods institutions) attempting to foster the provision of public goods at the local and national levels. In this vision the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank would lead reform on behalf of the national polity because the government receiving the aid was too weak, too corrupt, too prone to backsliding or too incompetent to mobilize the needed actions on its own. Thus, during the 1980s and especially in the first half of the 1990s aid was closely tied to policy conditions to ensure that the aid was linked to appropriate policies and the appropriate provision of public goods by the national government. In principle, if the aid was not used in the way agreed with the outside agencies, it would be cut off. We know from a large number of studies and frustrating case histories that this model is deeply flawed.
A new approach to aid is needed. In our view donors should get back to basics, to ensure that aid really delivers public goods that otherwise will not be provided either by markets or recipient governments in the absence of the aid. Without a doubt, there is one hugely neglected area of public goods: goods that can only be provided effectively at the level of the region (defined here to mean a grouping of neighboring governments) or on a global scale. The first category may be called “regional public goods” and the second category “international public goods.” This chapter focuses on regional public goods, partly because international public goods are covered in other chapters and partly because very little work has been undertaken on the actual and desirable levels of public goods provision at the regional level.
Regional Public Goods in International Assistance
Authors: Cook Lisa D. , Sachs Jeffrey 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The concept of global public goods can help us understand and respond to the new global policy challenges likely to face nations in the twenty‐first century. Tackling this growing agenda of common concerns will require fresh thinking, intense research efforts, new political instruments, and innovative policy responses. Up to now, global public goods consisted primarily of “traffic rules” between countries and such at‐the‐border issues as tariffs. But increasingly, the initiatives for international cooperation reach behind national borders. Global concerns are penetrating national agendas, and national concerns are becoming the subject of international debate and of policy coordination and harmonization. Today, concrete outcomes and targets – such as disease control, pollution reduction, crisis prevention, and harmonized norms and standards – matter. The reasons for these new exigencies: enhanced openness, growing systemic risks, and the policy demands of the growing number of transnational actors in both business and civil society. Nation states will witness continuing erosion of their capacities to implement national policy objectives unless they take further steps to cooperate in addressing international spillovers and systemic risks. But that cooperation must be of a new type. Not just cooperation that keeps global public bads at bay (until they reach crisis proportions) but cooperation that centers on creating global public goods and internalizing externalities. And not just cooperation that mistakenly assumes that the sphere of “public” ends at national borders, but cooperation that recognizes that an efficient system of global public policy is a necessary ingredient of an efficient global economy. To make cooperation work along these lines, its current structure must be reengineered to create: (1) clear jurisdictional loop, reaching from the national to the international (regional and global) level and back to the national; (2) participation loop, bringing into the process all actors – governments, civil society and business; all population groups, including all generations; and all groups of countries; (3) an incentive loop to ensure that cooperation yields fair and clear results for all.
The Money Trust (1890–1920)
Authors: Geisst Charles R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The money trust and the development of the Federal Reserve. The central role of Wall Street power brokers in the country and the increasing sophistication of the exchanges. The Pecora hearings in Congress, revealing the inner workings of the money trust, the death of Pierpont Morgan, World War I financing, Liberty Bonds, and the role of bankers again as central figures in the power structure of the country.
The Booming Twenties (1920–29)
Authors: Geisst Charles R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The boom and stock market crash of the 1920s. The public begins to invest in the stock market. Wall Street expands and banks begin selling securities. Wall Street bankers and brokers become celebrities. Federal Reserve is unable to slow down market bubble. The crash occurs and country quickly slides into depression. Market loss the largest in American history.
The Transformation of American Religion
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Religious life in the U.S. underwent a profound change in the late twentieth century as divisions between different religious groups softened, exposure to various religions increased, and Americans experienced growing interest in personalized forms of religious experience. The surge of interest in personalized forms of spirituality coincided with the decline in the mainstream Protestant institutions that had once dominated American religion and shaped American culture. It also coincided with the criticism of American arrogance, the debacle in Vietnam, and the defeat of victory culture. Nevertheless, even as patriotic optimism and the authority of Protestant institutions declined, Protestant influence persisted in the celebration of individual religious experience, and in the tendency to place the authority of individual experience above that of established institutions and official hierarchies. Late twentieth‐century American spirituality reflected the Protestant tendency to individualism underlying American religious life, even as it also reflected the mainstreaming of Catholicism in American culture, and an unprecedented interest in, and freedom for, other religions. The book traces some of the antecedents of this recent awakening to the spirituality of American Transcendentalism in the nineteenth century and, before that, to New England Puritanism and its investment in the Holy Spirit's power in individual life. In its examination of these historical precedents, the book argues that the persistent tendency toward individualism in American religious life has often been affirmed and promoted as an effective source of benevolence, social responsibility, and reform.
The Liberation of Missionary Evangelicalism
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
American enthusiasm for individual religious experience has often resulted in missionary outreach and social reform. Focusing on the Reformed Protestant tradition that helped shape American culture, this chapter shows how American Protestants in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries came to see benevolence as the chief manifestation of Christian virtue. The chapter also describes the criticism of missionary arrogance that developed within missionary circles in the early twentieth century, and the emergence belief that while education, economic assistance, healthcare, and other forms of philanthropy were appropriate Christian endeavors, attempts to destroy other religions were not. The chapter points to this development in missionary thinking, and to social gospel tradition in liberal American Protestantism more generally, as a precursor of the liberation theology promoted by Catholic activists in the late twentieth century.
Buddhism and the Deconstruction of Selfhood
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Buddhism emerged as an important component of American culture in the late twentieth century. New laws lifting restrictions on Asian immigrants contributed to this development, as did changes in American intellectual life that led more Americans than ever before to become predisposed toward Buddhist ideas about selfhood. Buddhist ideas had been present in America since the mid‐nineteenth century, but not until the writings of D.T. Suzuki and the Beat poets in the 1950s did these ideas catch hold as antidotes to the materialism and individualism of American culture. This chapter shows how Buddhist ideas of emptiness, nondualism, and no‐self contributed to the development of American psychology and popular culture, and also how American psychology and popular culture revised and redirected these Buddhist ideas.
Gender Consciousness, Body Awareness, and the Humanization of Religion
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Awareness of gender roles, and gender role conditioning, became increasingly prevalent in late twentieth‐century America. As an outgrowth of the civil rights movement and experiments in consciousness raising, the women's movement promoted gender consciousness as an essential part of women's liberation. The close connection between gender and religion became increasingly apparent, especially as academic courses in women's studies explored these connections. Focusing on the writings of Mary Daly and other pioneers in feminist theology, this chapter shows how gender awareness became an important element in twentieth‐century American spirituality.
The Pragmatic Role of Religious Studies
Authors: Porterfield Amanda 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The academic study of religion in colleges and universities played an indirect but important role in the development of spirituality. Courses in religious studies proliferated in the context of the Vietnam War, criticism of American Protestant culture, and the search for alternative forms of religious meaning. This chapter identifies the historical roots of religious studies in Protestant thought and describes the development of the field, paying particular attention to the influences of Paul Tillich and Mircea Eliade.