bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Clauses: Type, Combination, and Integration
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2 it was argued that the sentence be abandoned as a unit of analysis for spontaneous spoken language and that Halliday’s notion of clause complex be applied instead. We now tum to units smaller than the sentence—the clause and the phrase. The clause is the topic of this chapter while Chapter 4 deals with noun phrases. The discussion of clauses includes infinitives and gerunds, traditionally treated as phrases but now generally regarded as non-finite clauses. This chapter will present a large amount of data from English and Russian in order to demonstrate three general points. Two relate to the constructions of spontaneous spoken language: clause constructions occur in spoken language which are excluded from written language, and many clause constructions which are typical of writing are quite untypical of spontaneous speech; (2) clauses combine and interconnect differently in spontaneous spoken language and in written language. The third point is that similar (but not completely identical) constructions occur in spontaneous speech across languages. This point is important because it makes it more difficult to dismiss the structures of spontaneous speech as mere performance errors.
The Phonology Of Armenian
Authors: Vaux Bert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Armenian is geographically one of the most widespread languages of the world, with distinct dialects located as far west as Poland and as far east as India. It has a rich literary history dating from the fourth-century translation of the Bible into Classical Armenian. It is one of the most linguistically divergent of the Indo-European languages, having undergone a host of complicated phonological, morphological, and syntactic changes that continue to resist satisfactory analysis. However, the language has yet to receive a comprehensive treatment by theoretical linguists. Bert Vaux remedies this problem, bringing Armenian into the sphere of phonological discussion by making available to Western readers the results of Armenological work published in Armenian and Russian, and by presenting theoretical analyses of many of the more striking phonological phenomena described in these sources or culled from the author's fieldwork. The topics addressed include syllabification, stress assignment, vowel harmony, feature geometry, consonantvowel interactions, and prosodic structure. Series Information: The Phonology of the World's Languages Series Editor: Professor Jacques Durand, Université de Toulouse-le-Mirail Series ISBN: 0-19-961355-9 Series Description: The phonology of most languages has until now been available only in a fragmented way, through unpublished theses, or articles scattered in more or less accessible journals. Each volume in this series will offer an extensive treatment of the phonology of one language within a modern theoretical perspective and will provide comprehensive references to recent and more classical studies of the language.
Survey Of Armenian Phonology
Authors: Vaux Bert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I present the basic elements of Armenian phonetics and phonology, focusing on the phonemes and their allophones, and syllable typology. This being the first systematic theoretical study of Armenian phonology (useful non-theoretical studies include Abeκjan, 1923; 1932; Fairbanks, 1948; Allen, 1950; Johnson, 1954; Atf atjan, 1971; Xathjatrjan, 1988; Sukiasjan, 1989), I have drawn my material directly from primary sources, which are cited in the appropriate locations. Throughout this study I concentrate on standard eastern Armenian (SEA), spoken in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Iran, primarily because it distinguishes in pronunciation the three consonant series (voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated) employed in both western and eastern orthography. I also make use of standard western Armenian (SWA) and various non-literary dialects where they help to shed light on the phenomena under consideration or themselves manifest interesting phenomena not found in SEA.
Stress Assignment And Metrical Structure
Authors: Vaux Bert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Armenian stress systems are of two basic types, conventionally termed ‘final stress’ and ‘penultimate stress’ by Armenologists. Final stress systems are found in most dialects, and penultimate stress systems occur in Erevan, (Old) Julfa, Meghri, Agulis, Karabagh, Astraxan, and some subdialects of Mush. With the exception of Syria and Shamaxi, which have developed vowel-length contrasts, Armenian dialects appear to be insensitive to prosodic weight distinctions. Nevertheless, a number of phenomena involving irregular stress patterns, vowel reduction, and unstressable vowels reveal that Armenian in fact has an intricate system of metrification similar to those we find in better-known languages such as Cheremis and Chuvash.
Vowel Harmony
Authors: Vaux Bert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vowel harmony systems occur in a wide range of Armenian dialects, from Marash in Turkey to Maragha in Iran to Shamaxi in Azerbaijan. These harmonic systems constrain specifications for the feature [back] (and occasionally [round] as well) within two phonological domains: roots and words. A third, local, type of harmony applies to epenthetic vowels. The dialects in (la) show root harmony, according to which roots can possess no more than one contrastive specification for [back]. This harmony type is examined in 5.2. In group (lb), the same restriction on contrastive [back] specifications applies to the entire word; this harmony type is discussed in 5.3. Epenthetic harmony, which always involves both [back] and [round], occurs in the dialects in (le). This type of harmony, which differs from the other harmony types in being strictly local, is considered separately in 5.4.
Intentionality
Authors: Rosenthal David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thought and speech are intimately connected, in ways that make the study of each shed light on the other. But the nature of that connection, and of the illumination it casts, are vexed issues that are the subject of considerable controversy. At the level of our platitudinous background knowledge about these things, speech is the expression of thought. And understanding what such expressing involves is central to understanding the relation between thinking and speaking. Part of what it is for a speech act to express a mental state is that the speech act accurately captures the mental state and can convey to others what mental state it is. And for this to occur, the speech act at least must have propositional content that somehow reflects that of the mental state, and perhaps must have other such properties as well.
Introspection and Self-Interpretation
Authors: Rosenthal David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Introspection is a process by which people have focused access to their own mental states. We have access, of course, to all our conscious states, since a mental state’s being conscious in the first place means in part that one is conscious of that state. That we are conscious of all our conscious states is evident from the fact that, if one is altogether unaware of a state, that state does not count as a conscious state. But our introspective access to a mental state is something more than that state’s simply being conscious. Access to a state is distinctively introspective only when it is deliberate, attentive, and reflective.
Moore’s Paradox and Consciousness
Authors: Rosenthal David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As G. E. Moore famously observed, sentences such as ‘It’s raining but I don’t think it is’, though they aren’t contradictory, cannot be used to make coherent assertions.1 The trouble with such sentences is not a matter of their truth conditions; such sentences can readily be true. Indeed, it happens often enough with each of us that we think, for example, that it isn’t raining even though it is. This shows that such sentences are not literally contradictory. But even though these sentences have unproblematic truth conditions, we cannot say the same about their conditions of assertibility. There are no circumstances in which one can use such sentences to perform coherent assertoric speech acts. Situations exist in which these sentences would be true, but none in which anybody could use them to say so.
Why Are Verbally Expressed Thoughts Conscious?
Authors: Rosenthal David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose I think it’s going to rain, and leaving my home I take my umbrella. My act of taking my umbrella expresses my thought that it’s going to rain. One way this can all happen is that I consciously think it’s going to rain and deliberately get my umbrella to take with me. But it need not happen this way. I may be late and preoccupied with what I must do that day. So I may reach for my umbrella and take it with me automatically—without thinking, as we might say. In this case I may not even be aware of my thought that it’s going to rain; it may be a nonconscious thought. Nonconscious thoughts often cause appropriate actions, and when that happens the action typically expresses the thought that causes it.1
Verb-Second in Middle Welsh
Authors: Willis Dayid W E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the central word-order patterns of Middle Welsh. It develops a synchronic analysis of the abnormal sentence as a verb-second (V2) phenomenon parallel to similar phenomena in the Germanic languages and in Breton. The discussion shows that, with minor modifications to deal with adverb-placement rules, the standard analysis of verb-second is applicable to Middle Welsh. Restrictions on movement, parallel to those affecting relative clauses, justify the conclusion that in most cases moved preverbal constituents undergo A’-movement. A number of other aspects of the abnormal sentence will also be explored, specifically how it interacts with negation and how the observed agreement patterns can be accounted for. As well as providing an analysis of the construction, the chapter aims to show that the abnormal sentence manifests such intricate rules and cross-linguistic parallels that it is inconceivable that it could be an artificial literary construction.
Verb-First in Middle Welsh
Authors: Willis Dayid W E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Absolute verb-initial (Vl, verb-first) clauses, where at most only the preverbal particle y(d) precedes the verb, are not common in Middle Welsh. On average the frequency of absolute VI, excluding negative clauses and other contexts where it is compulsory, is close to nil in Middle Welsh texts, and in no text which has ever been investigated does it exceed 10 per cent (see Table 3.1).
Children, Families, and Health Care Decision Making
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Issues In Biomedical Ethics General Editors: John Harris, University of Manchester; S(ren Holm, University of Copenhagen. Consulting Editor: Ranaan Gillon, Director, Imperial College Health Service, London. North American Consulting Editor: Bonnie Steinbock, Professor of Philosophy, SUNY, Albany. The late twentieth century has witnessed dramatic technological developments in biomedical science and the delivery of health care, and these developments have brought with them important social changes. All too often ethical analysis has lagged behind these changes. The purpose of this series is to provide lively, up-to-date, and authoritative studies for the increasingly large and diverse readership concerned with issues in biomedical ethics--not just health care trainees and professionals, but also social scientists, philosophers, lawyers, social workers, and legislators. The series will feature both single-author and multi-author books, short and accessible enough to be widely read, each of them focused on an issue of outstanding current importance and interest. Philosophers, doctors, and lawyers from several countries already feature among the contributors to the series. It promises to become the leading channel for the best original work in this burgeoning field. this book: Lainie Friedman Ross presents an original and controversial examination of the moral principles that guide parents in making health care decisions for their children, and the role of children in the decision-making process. She opposes the current movement to increase child autonomy, in favour of respect for family autonomy. She argues that children should be included in the decision-making process but that parents should be responsible for their children's health care even after the children have achieved some threshold level of competency. The first half of the book presents and defends a model of decision-making for children's health care; the second half shows how it works in various practical contexts, considering children as research subjects and as patients, organ donorship, and issues relating to adolescent sexuality. Implementation of Ross's model would result in significant changes in what informed consent allows and requires for paediatric health care decisions. This is the first systematic medical ethics book that focuses specifically on children's health care. It has important things to say to health care providers who work with children, as well as to ethicists and public policy analysts.
Introduction
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My purpose in writing this book is to examine how decisions should be made for children, with a focus primarily on health care decisions. I argue that in a liberal society, decisions about a child’s health care should be made by his or her parents. In order for parents to make health care decisions for their child, they must balance the child’s health needs, his or her needs for other primary goods, and the needs and interests of other family members.
The Child as Research Subject
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Nuremberg Code was adopted in 1946 in response to the documented abuse of human beings as research subjects by the Nazis. The Code was quite explicit that ‘[t]he voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential’. There was no mention of proxy consent; the subject had to be able to consent to participation. Later codes of ethics included the possibility of participation by incompetent subjects by permitting proxy consent. Whether such consent is morally adequate, particularly when the incompetent subjects are children, was the topic of a series of articles between two American Christian theologians, Paul Ramsey and Richard McCormick, in the early 1970s. Despite contributions by many other ethicists, there remains vigorous disagreement within the medical ethics community as to the morality of a child’s participation as a research subject.
The Sexually Active Adolescent
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a contradiction between the purported acceptance of diverse lifestyles within a liberal community and our present-day policy regarding contraceptives for minors. In a liberal community, it is supposed that adults have a special insight into their own conception of the good life, which they can pass on to their children. Yet recent legislation and court decisions in the United States usurp parental power on health care issues pertaining to adolescent sexuality and reproduction.
Conclusion
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last four chapters, I have applied the model of constrained parental autonomy to various health care activities. Implementation of this model requires significant changes in what informed consent allows and requires for paediatric health care decisions. The model runs counter to the current trend to increase the health care autonomy of adolescents.1 For example, parents would be allowed to override their incompetent and competent child’s dissent to participate in minimal-risk non-therapeutic research, which parents may not do under the current Federal Regulations.
Introduction
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Norwegian is the branch of North-Germanic spoken in Norway. The other members of the North-Gennanic branch are Swedish, Danish, Icelandic and Farnese. Norwegian is not spoken as a mother tongue outside of Norway, except that it may still be found among older speakers in some Scandinavian settlements in the United States. Among the North-Germanic languages, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian are particularly close. They are to a large degree mutually intelligible, although amount of previous exposure, education and the accents of the interlocutors wi11 play a certain role. Modem Icelandic and Farnese, which descend from the tongue of the settlers from Norway who came to Iceland and the Farnese islands during the medieval period, are generally not understood by Norwegians.
Phonotactic Constraints
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the strcture of lexical items in terms of segment sequencing will be discussed. It is organized as follows. In Section 3.1 I shall introduce the Jexical architecture assumed, and in Section 3.2 I shall go on to discuss the phonotactic principles that constrain segment sequences in the lexicon. Note that this will be done independently of syllabic structure, for reasons that will become clear below. Sy11able structure will be discussed in Chapter 5.
Tonal Accents
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contrastive use of pitch characterizes most Norwegian dialects. Two distinctive melodies are found, usually called accent 1 and2,or within structuralist analyses more often toneme 1 and2. Their realization is dependent on primary stress, and accent 2 normally requires at least one unstressed or secondary stressed syllable following the syHable carrying primary stress. The nonnal case is therefore that no accentual contrast is possible between monosyllabic words. In the present chapter, we shall concentrate mainly on the lexical aspects of the tonal accents and their relationship with word stress. Their relationship and interaction with intonation will also be taken up to the extent that is deemed necessary, but this aspect will be discussed in more detail in Chapter I0.
The Picture of Man as Reconstructed from Linguistic Data: An Attempt at a Systematic Description
Authors: Apresjan Juri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For hundreds of years the human being has been the subject of study of physiologists, psychologists, philosophers and linguists, to say nothing of sociologists. In the last two to three decades alone dozens of books and hundreds of articles have appeared dealing with human thoughts, desires, feelings, and speech acts. In this chapter it is not possible to take account of all the relevant literature, or even to mention it. We must perforce limit ourselves to references to the following books (Arutiunova 1976: 93—m; Arutiunova 1988: 101—99; Wierzbicka 1987b, 1992; Zalizniak 1992) and the survey by V. Apresjan (1995a), all containing extensive bibliographies. From earlier studies we will mention only a few of those closest to this theme, above all the early works of the Moscow semantic school (Zholkovsky 1964a; Martem’ianov 1964; Shcheglov 1964; Mel’čuk 1974a; MeJ’čuk and Zholkovsky 1984; J. Apresjan 1974) and the books by Anna Wierzbicka and N. D. Arutiunova which have already been mentioned. In particular, the ideas set forth here about the ‘human make-up’ have much in common with what was said by Arutiunova (1988) about the perceptual, mental, emotional, and volitional ‘modes’, their subtypes and their interpenetration. It would be impossible in the space available here, however, to register all the similarities or all the equally numerous differences both in general ideas and in the specific assessments of linguistic facts. It is more practical to explain why yet another essay is needed on a matter on which there is already a vast body of literature, and how this work differs from the others. I shall cite four differences.
On the Language of Explications and Semantic Primitives
Authors: Apresjan Juri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Work on an explanatory dictionary of Russian synonyms in progress since 1991 (see J. Apresjan 1992b&gt; 1993, Chapters 2–6 in this volume, and J. Apresjan et al. 1992, 1995, 1997) has entailed broad theoretical research in the field of semantics, and in particular it has required a new approach to the language of explications in which a description is given of the shared part of the meanings of the synonyms.The question of the language of explications, or semantic metalanguage, has been discussed over the past thirty to forty years in all the advanced lexicographies of the world. For the purposes of the present work, the ideas of greatest interest are those set forth on this subject by two contemporary semantic schools: the Moscow School (Zholkovsky et al. 1961; Zholkovsky 1964a; Mashinnyi perevod 1964; Shcheglov 1964; Mel’cuk 197,ta; J. Apresjan 1974; Mel’cuk and Zholkovsky 1984; Mel’cuk 1989; Apresjan 1995b) and the Polish School (Boguslawski 1966 and 1970; Wierzbicka 1969, 1972, 1980, 1985, 1987b, 1992).
A Lexicographic Portrait of the Verb vyiti [to emerge, come out]
Authors: Apresjan Juri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By a lexicographic portrait of a lexeme we mean a dictionary entry compiled within the framework of a unified or integrated description of a language. The general concept of this description is set out in J. Apresjan (1986b).The integration principle requires that the dictionary and the grammar be coordinated in the types of information given in them and the ways in which they are recorded. Only then are the dictionary and the grammar able to interact with each other within the framework of an integrated linguistic model. In practical terms this means two things. On the one hand, every lexeme in the dictionary should be assigned all the types of information that the rules of grammar may refer to (adjusting the lexis to grammar). By rules of grammar in this context we mean fairly general linguistic rules, including, for example, apart from grammatical rules proper, prosodic, semantic, pragmatic, communicative, and co-occurrence rules.
Fungu la tatu Lakini But ‘
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Word stress in Swahili is on the penultimate (next to last) syllable. (There are a very few exceptions to this rule, consisting of some loan words.) The rule holds even where words are extended, e.g. asante has stress on sa, asanteni has stress on te. Similarly pole (on po], poleni (on te); kwa heri (on he), kwa herini(on ri).
Fungu la kumi na tano Kwenda Mombasa (1) — Going to Mombasa
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The infinitive form of the verb can be used for ‘intention’, also after verbs of wishing, willing, trying, and so on, e.g. ninataka kununua tikiti — ‘I want to buy a ticket’. However, if the subject of the second verb is not the same as that of the first, it is necessary to use the subjunctive, e.g. ninataka ununue tikiti — ‘I want you to buy a ticket’, anataka ninunue tikiti — ‘he wants me to buy a ticket’ etc. Either verb can be in the negative, e.g. sitaki ununue tikiti — ‘I don’t want you to buy a ticket’, and nataka usinunue tikiti — ‘I want you not to buy a ticket’. The difference is subtle but real, and can sometimes be crucial. The negative infinitive has —to— before the stem, e.g. kutonunua — ‘not to buy’. You might say to your husband, jaribu kutokunywa bia leo usiku — ‘try not to drink (any) beer this evening’.