bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Language Acquisition
Authors: Fisher Cynthia , Gleitman Lila R. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractLearning to speak and understand a language is probably one of the most complicated tasks we ever do. Yet this learning task is regularly accomplished by very young children. Three fundamental components of this task structure our review: discovering the words (and other linguistic forms), entertaining concepts of the kind expressed by those linguistic forms, and mapping linguistic elements onto their meanings.First, children must analyze the stream of speech to find the particular linguistic forms used in their community. We review evidence that listeners, from infancy to adulthood, are exquisitely sensitive to the details and the statistics of their experience with spoken language.Second, children must be able to entertain concepts of the kind that are expressed in languages. Here we recruit evidence from the field of infant cognition to argue that pre‐linguistic infants form object categories and factor their knowledge of events into objects (e.g., cup, ball) and relations between them (e.g., containment). These structured concepts constitute the semantic building blocks of language. Striking evidence that usefully‐structured concepts precede language learning comes from the invented communication systems (Home Sign) of linguistically isolated deaf children.Third, children must accomplish a specific mapping between linguistic elements and the ideas they evoke. We propose that children learn a core vocabulary of concrete words (including many names for things) by observing which words systematically occur with particular elements in the world. This is no simple process—it depends on every aspect of the child's developing conceptual apparatus and nascent understanding of human intentions. This initial vocabulary, in turn, boosts the child into a better position to learn other words, and to begin to work out the phrase structure of the language. Even very young children use partial knowledge of syntax to guide sentence interpretation, and therefore to learn new words.
Anatomy of Motivation
Authors: Watts Alan G. , Swanson Larry W. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe past thirty years have seen a revolution in our understanding of neural connectivity. The enormous amount of new neuroanatomical data has significantly altered our ideas about how different parts of the brain interact to control behavior. This chapter assesses what we currently understand about the neuroanatomical basis of motivated behaviors. These behaviors enable animals to organize their interactions with the goal objects that promote the survival of an individual or maintain sustainable numbers of individuals within a species. Four classes of behavior are recognized: ingestive and thermoregulatory behaviors, which are the behavioral adjuncts of physiological homeostasis, and defensive and reproductive behaviors, which organize those social interactions that are more concerned with individual security and the maintenance of the species.
Methodology and Statistics in Single‐Subject Experiments
Authors: Anderson Norman H. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractSingle‐subject design and analysis are an experimental ideal because perception, thought, and action all have their locus within the individual organism. Single‐subject design thus avoids confoundings with individual differences that trouble many group experiments. Furthermore, single‐subject design yields reliable data. But many single‐subject experiments face the serious problem that responses may not be independent. There may be position effects, carryover effects from one trial to another, or successive responses may be correlated. Lack of independence means that each new response carries only partial information. To obtain independence, two main methods have been used. One is with treatment randomization, in which treatment conditions are randomly assigned to trials. The other is by allowing ample time between trials or by interpolating a baseline treatment to bring the subject to a common state before the next trial. With independent responses, standard statistical techniques become applicable, especially valid confidence intervals. To illustrate the broad potential of single‐subject design and analysis and to emphasize the fundamental importance of extrastatistical research judgment, this chapter includes 10 illustrative experiments from perception, operant psychology, judgment‐decision, developmental, and person cognition.
Analysis of Response Time Distributions
Authors: Zandt Trisha Van 
Published: November 2003

AbstractResponse times are one of the most commonly collected dependent measures in empirical investigations of human cognition. Issues of response time analysis are becoming more important as models are developed that make explicit predictions about the shape of the response time distribution. This chapter addresses the general problem of response time analysis. First, I present the concept that response time data form a random sample from some distribution. I discuss how random variables are characterized, defining the density, distribution, survivor and hazard functions. I pay special attention to problems of estimation, including familiar issues involving central tendency (mean) and dispersion (variance) and the effects of outliers on these statistics. I also address parameter estimation in the context of specific models of the response time distribution. Methods for obtaining empirical estimates of the distribution, density and hazard functions are presented. Finally, in the last section of the chapter, I demonstrate and discuss the use of distributional analysis in testing processing models of cognition.
Personality and Individual Differences
Authors: Petrill Stephen A. , Brody Nathan 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Our chapter provides an overview of individual differences in research in the area of personality by examining five broad topics. First, we describe the analysis of relationships among one or more measures of the same or related constructs. Second, we examine continuity and change in personality constructs over time. Third, we describe the relationships among different constructs. We indicate how exploratory and confirmatory methods may be used to construct taxonomies and to infer causal relationships among personality constructs. Fourth, we examine cases in which constructs are structurally invariant and structurally variant for different groups. Fifth, we consider cross‐domain relationships between individual difference constructs and constructs derived from biological, genetic, and cognitive experimental psychology. At several places we indicate the way in which theoretical assumptions structure methodological approaches.
A New Method for Nitration of Phenolic Compounds
Authors: Shi Min , Cui Shi‐Cong 
Published: November 2003

AbstractPhenolic compounds can be nitrated by 65% nitric acid in the presence of catalytic amounts of montmorillonite KSF and bismuth(III) nitrate to give the corresponding nitrated products in good yields in a heterogeneous phase. The co‐catalyst of KSF and Bi(NO3)3 can be easily recovered and reused in the next batch of nitration.
Klassifikation der rastersondenmikroskopischen Verfahren
Authors: Friedbacher Gernot , Fuchs Harald 
Published: November 2003

AbstractIn den letzten Jahren hat die Rastersondenmikroskopie eine große Bedeutung in verschiedenen Bereichen der naturwissenschaftlichen und technischen Forschung erlangt. Die Erfindung des Rastertunnelmikroskops im Jahre 1981 hat eine rasante Entwicklung ausgelöst, aus der eine Reihe neuer Oberflächenanalysetechniken hervorgegangen ist, die unter dem Begriff Rastersondenmikroskopie zusammengefasst werden können. Das große Potenzial der Rastersondenmikroskopie findet seinen Niederschlag in weit über 1000 Publikationen pro Jahr. Als Folge der historischen Entwicklung existieren heute für identische Techniken zum Teil mehrere Bezeichnungen und Ausdrücke, die manchmal auch irreführend sind. Daher zielt dieser Bericht auf eine Einteilung der wichtigsten Rastersondentechniken und einen Überblick über sie sowie eine Diskussion der entsprechenden Terminologie ab. Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf der analytischen Bewertung der Rastertunnel‐ und der Rasterkraftmikroskopie, weil diese beiden Techniken bis jetzt die größte Bedeutung für analytische Anwendungen erlangt haben.
Ecdysone agonists: Mechanism and importance in controlling insect pests of agriculture and forestry
Authors: Retnakaran Arthur , Krell Peter , Feng Qili , Arif Basil 
Published: November 2003

AbstractMolting is the result of the expression of a cascade of genes that is sequentially both up and down‐regulated by the molting hormone, 20‐hydroxyecdysone (20E), which is secreted as a pulse during each instar. Benzoyl hydrazine analogs of 20E act like the native molting hormone at the molecular level by binding with the ecdysone receptor complex and transactivating a succession of molt initiating transcription factors that, in turn, induce the expression of a group of molt‐related genes. As a result of the expression of these up‐regulated genes, the larva undergoes apolysis and head capsule slippage and takes on the appearance of the pharate larva. However, unlike 20E, which is cleared at this juncture, allowing the down‐regulated genes to be expressed, these synthetic analogs bind strongly to the receptors and remain in place and repress all the down‐regulatory genes such as the ones necessary for cuticle elaboration, sclerotization, and ecdysis resulting in a developmental arrest in this state. As a result, the treated larva goes into a precocious incomplete molt that is lethal. Two of the analogs, tebufenozide and methoxyfenozide, are lepidopteran specific and have good control potential for open feeding larvae that ingest this material while a third one, halofenozide, acts on coleopteran larvae. Since they specifically act through an insect receptor complex, they have little or no effect on non‐target species, making them environmentally attractive pest control agents. Some insects, however, show resistance to these analogs and this could be, inter alia, due to an ATP Binding Cassette Transporter like system that selectively pumps out the analogs. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 54:187–199, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The structure of tri‐proline in water probed by polarized Raman, Fourier transform infrared, vibrational circular dichroism, and electric ultraviolet circular dichroism spectroscopy
Authors: Schweitzer‐Stenner Reinhard , Eker Fatma , Perez Alejandro , Griebenow Kai , Cao Xiaolin , Nafie Laurence A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractTripeptidesserve as model systems for understanding the so‐called random‐coil state of peptides and proteins. While it is well known that polyproline or proline‐rich polypeptides adopt the very regular polyproline‐II (PPII) or left‐handed 31‐helix conformation, it was thus far not clear whether this is also the predominant structure adopted by proline‐containing tripeptides. To clarify this issue, we have investigated the amide I′ band profile in the ir, isotropic, and anisotropic Raman, and vibrational circular dichroism (VCD) spectrum of cationic and zwitterionic tri‐proline in D2O. The data were analyzed by modifying a recently developed algorithm, which allows one to obtain the central dihedral angles of tripeptides from the amide I′ band intensities (R. Schweitzer‐Stenner, Biophysical Journal, 2002, Vol. 83, pp. 523–532). Our analysis revealed that the peptide adopts a nearly canonical PPII structure in water with ψ and ϕ values in the range of 175°–165° and −70°–(−80°), respectively. This is fully confirmed by the respective electronic ultraviolet‐CD spectra. Our result indicates that the strong PPII propensity of trans proline results from local interactions between the pyrrolidine ring and the backbone and is not due to any long‐range interactions. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers (Pept Sci) 71: 558–568, 2003
Monitoring Molecular Beacon DNA Probe Hybridization at the Single‐Molecule Level
Authors: Yao Gang , Fang Xiaohong , Yokota Hiroaki , Yanagida Toshio , Tan Weihong 
Published: November 2003

AbstractWe have monitored the reaction dynamics of the DNA hybridization process on a liquid/solid interface at the single‐molecule level by using a hairpin‐type molecular beacon DNA probe. Fluorescence images of single DNA probes were recorded by using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. The fluorescence signal of single DNA probes during the hybridization to individual complementary DNA probes was monitored over time. Among 400 molecular beacon DNA probes that we tracked, 349 molecular beacons (87.5 %) were hybridized quickly and showed an abrupt fluorescence increase, while 51 probes (12.5 %) reacted slowly, resulting in a gradual fluorescence increase. This ratio stayed about the same when varying the concentrations of cDNA in MB hybridization on the liquid/surface interface. Statistical data of the 51 single‐molecule hybridization images showed that there was a multistep hybridization process. Our results also showed that photostability for the dye molecules associated with the double‐stranded hybrids was better than that for those with the single‐stranded molecular beacon DNA probes. Our results demonstrate the ability to obtain a better understanding of DNA hybridization processes using single‐molecule techniques, which will improve biosensor and biochip development where surface‐immobilized molecular beacon DNA probes provide unique advantages in signal transduction.
Diamination of Olefins: Synthesis, Structures and Reactivity of Osmaimidazolidines
Authors: Muñiz Kilian , Iesato Atsushi , Nieger Martin 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe diamination of certain olefins bearing electron‐withdrawing substituents proceeds with well‐defined bisimido and trisimido complexes of osmium. The products are obtained as osmaimidazolidines which are of unprecedented stability with regards to olefin functionalisation. Osmium complexes from related dihydroxylation or aminohydroxylation are significantly less stable and thereby promote catalytic reactions. This difference in reaction profile has been investigated and chiral osmium heterocycles obtained from olefin difunctionalisation were characterised by X‐ray analysis for the first time. Kinetic studies on the reaction profile have also been carried out. An asymmetric version of this reaction is based on chiral non‐racemic auxiliaries and leads to diastereomerically enriched osmaimidazolidines with up to 90 % de. This sequence represents the first asymmetric diamination of olefins. Attempts on the use of chiral ligands for direct asymmetric diamination as well as the consequences of osmaimidazolidine properties for a catalytic reaction are discussed.
Preparation and Properties of Centrally Bridgehead‐Substituted Hexacyclo[4.4.0.02,1.03,5.04,8.07,9]decanes (“Diademanes”) and Related (CH)10Hydrocarbons
Authors: de Meijere Armin , Lee Chih‐Hung , Bengtson Bengt , Pohl Ehmke , Kozhushkov Sergei I. , Schreiner Peter R. , Boese Roland , Haumann Thomas 
Published: November 2003

Abstract6‐Trimethylsilyl‐ (1 b), 6‐hydroxymethyl‐ (1 e), and 6‐methyldiademane (1 f) have been prepared by irradiation of the corresponding snoutene derivatives, in 23, 2.8, and 17 % yields, respectively, together with the isomeric 1‐trimethylsilyl‐ (10 b) and 1‐methyldiademane (10 f) (8 and 2 % yields, respectively). The starting 4‐trimethylsilyl‐ (9 b) and 4‐(trimethylsilyloxymethyl)snoutene (9 d) were prepared from the correspondingly substituted cyclooctatetraenes4 band4 cin several steps in 20 and 8 % overall yields, respectively. Upon heating, as well as under the conditions of gas‐chromatographic separation, diademanes1 b, 10 b, 1 f, and10 frearranged into the corresponding C10‐ and C1‐substituted triquinacenes3 b, 3 f, 11 b, and11 f, respectively. Rough kinetic measurements of these rearrangements indicate some acceleration of the reaction caused by the presence of a methyl substituent and retardation by that of a trimethylsilyl substituent, relative to the parent diademane1 a. At this insufficient precision, however, the activation energies (Ea) of 29.0 and 28.1 kcal mol−1, respectively, are essentially the same as that reported for1 a(28.3 kcal mol−1). An X‐ray crystal structure analysis of trimethylsilylsnoutene9 brevealed a significant lengthening of the distal (with respect to the substituent) bond (1.534 versus 1.505 Å) in the unsubstituted cyclopropane ring. In the substituted cyclopropane ring, the two proximal bonds are lengthened (1.530 Å) and the distal bond is slightly shortened 1.492 Å). This indicates a small, but significant electron‐withdrawing effect of the trimethylsilyl group in9 b. An X‐ray crystal structure analysis of 6‐hydroxymethyldiademane1 eshowed pronounced alternation of the bond lengths in the six‐membered ring, with 1.494(4) between and 1.539(4) Å within the three cyclopropane moieties, in close agreement with computations at different theoretical levels. This structural feature corroborates a predisposition of the tris‐σ‐homobenzene skeleton of this molecule in the ground state to undergo the facile [σ${_{{\rm s}}^{2}}$+σ${_{{\rm s}}^{2}}$+σ${_{{\rm s}}^{2}}$] cycloreversion to the triquinacene skeleton observed for the parent diademane1 a, its derivative1 band1 f, as well as for other tris‐σ‐homobenzene derivatives.
The Convergent Synthesis of Poly(glycerol‐succinic acid) Dendritic Macromolecules
Authors: Luman Nathanael R. , Smeds Kimberly A. , Grinstaff Mark W. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe high‐yield convergent synthesis of dendrons, dendrimers, and dendritic–linear hybrid macromolecules composed of succinic acid, glycerol, and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is described. This convergent synthesis relies on two orthogonal protecting groups; namely, the benzylidene acetal (bzld) for the protection of the 1,3‐hydroxyls of glycerol and the tert‐butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS) ester for protection of the carboxylic acid of succinic acid. These novel polyester dendritic macromolecules are composed entirely of building blocks known to be biocompatible or degradable in vivo to give natural metabolites. Derivatization of the dendritic periphery with a methacrylate affords a polymer that can be subsequently photo‐cross‐linked. The three‐dimensional cross‐linked gels formed by ultraviolet irradiation are optically transparent, with mechanical properties dependent on the initial cross‐linkable dendritic macromolecule.
Management of nonsinonasal neuroendocrine carcinomas of the head and neck
Authors: Barker Jerry L. , Glisson Bonnie S. , Garden Adam S. , El‐Naggar Adel K. , Morrison William H. , Ang K. Kian , Chao K. S. Clifford , Clayman Gary , Rosenthal David I. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractBACKGROUNDNonsinonasal neuroendocrine carcinomas (NSNEC) of the head and neck are rare and pose a diagnostic and management challenge. The authors undertook a retrospective study to gain insights into the spectrum of clinicopathologic characteristics, patterns of failure, and optimal management of patients with this disease.METHODSThe authors treated 23 adults with pathologically proven, nonmetastatic, primary NSNEC from 1984 to 2001. The majority (13 patients) had laryngeal origin with the following American Joint Committee on Cancer stage distribution: Stage I disease in 1 patient, Stage II disease in 2 patients, Stage III disease in 6 patients, and Stage IV disease in 14 patients. Nine patients underwent definitive surgery with or without postoperative radiation, and 14 patients received definitive radiotherapy. The median definitive radiation dose was 66 grays (Gy) (range, 44–72 Gy) using conventional fractionation. Fourteen patients received chemotherapy, with two to four cycles of induction platinum plus etoposide used most commonly.RESULTSThe median follow‐up time for surviving patients was 40 months (range, 15–89 months). The actuarial 2‐year and 5‐year overall survival (OS) rates were 53% and 33%, respectively; and the disease‐free survival (DFS) rates were 41% and 25%, respectively. Both the 2‐year OS rate (68% vs. 30%;P= 0.002) and the 2‐year DFS rate (55% vs. 17%;P= 0.004) were improved with chemotherapy compared with local therapy alone. Seventy‐five percent of patients with measurable disease had complete clinical responses to induction chemotherapy. There was 100% complete clinical response of tumor after radiotherapy. The actuarial 2‐year local failure rate was 23%. Chemotherapy did not reduce local failure (P= 0.91). There was no regional failure. The 2‐year and 5‐year distant metastasis rates were 54% and 71%, respectively. The 2‐year rates of metastases without and with chemotherapy were 79% and 39%, respectively (P= 0.006). The 2‐year and 5‐year rates of intracranial metastases were 25% and 44%, respectively, and the 2‐year and 5‐year rates of isolated brain metastases were 21% and 41%, respectively.CONCLUSIONSBased on these results, the authors' treatment strategy for patients with NSNEC is sequential chemotherapy and radiation. They recommend full‐dose radiotherapy alone for patients with NSNEC who achieve a complete clinical response to induction chemotherapy. Newer chemotherapeutic regimens or additional adjuvant chemotherapy should be investigated for patients with NSNEC given the high rate of distant failure. Due to the very high rate of brain metastases among patients in the current study, the authors now consider incorporating prophylactic cranial irradiation into primary radiotherapy for individual patients who have complete clinical responses to induction chemotherapy. Cancer 2003. © 2003 American Cancer Society.
Skin‐sparing mastectomy
Authors: Bleicher Richard J. , Hansen Nora M. , Giuliano Armando E. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractBACKGROUNDSkin‐sparing mastectomy (SSM) is a variation of modified radical mastectomy (MRM) optimized for reconstruction. The authors attempted to determine SSM attitudes and biases within different specialties and countries throughout the world.METHODSThe authors polled 11,485 individuals via e‐mail, including members of surgical, medical, and breast oncology societies, about SSM. Respondents were directed to a survey website where data were directly entered into a database.RESULTSAmong 1027 respondents, 19 said their knowledge was insufficient to attempt the survey. Surveys were completed by 1008 respondents (8.8%) from 52 countries, comprising 436 (43.3%) surgeons, 376 (37.3%) medical oncologists, 146 (14.5%) radiation oncologists, and 50 (5.0%) individuals from other fields. Of the respondents, 61.9% stated that SSMs are performed at their institution. However 19.1% of these believed that SSM leaves the nipple and areola intact. This perception was higher outside the U.S. (P < 0.0001). Despite knowledge by 77.8% that SSM does not have a higher local disease recurrence rate than MRM, 25.3% of these individuals did not believe the literature. This was most prevalent among radiation oncologists (48.5%), as was the belief that SSM is contraindicated in patients with ductal carcinoma in situ and invasive breast carcinoma (23.3%).CONCLUSIONSDespite a developing body of literature, there was variation in opinion among specialties and a lack of understanding of SSM. Many physicians were not familiar with the literature. Among those who were, skepticism was highest among radiation oncologists. Although these results were indicative of only those responding, education about SSM is needed across specialties and in other countries if the procedure is to be widely accepted. Cancer 2003. © 2003 American Cancer Society.