bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Socially Constructing the Individual
Authors: Sapp Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was often proclaimed in the late nineteenth century that the key to all biological problems must, in the last analysis, be traced to the cell. The discovery that all cells arise by division of preexisting cells, neatly embodied in Rudolf Virchow’s maxim “omnis cellula e cellula”; the extension and verification of this maxim in the demonstration that the vertebrate egg is a single cell; and the demonstrations of the 1870s and 1880s that the internal processes of cell division were fundamentally the same in both plants and animals-all magnified the importance of the cell as a universal unit of structure. Cell theory, inaugurated a new era in the history of physiology and pathology based on the belief that all the various functions of the body, in health and disease, were but outward expression of cell activities. It was through cell theory again that the way was opened for understanding the nature of embryonic development and the law of genetic continuity that lay at the basis of inheritance. It was frequently claimed that no other biological generalization, save only the theory of organic evolution, had brought so many apparently diverse phenomena under one common point of view or had accomplished more for the unification of knowledge.
Background
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vitamin A deficiency is one of the oldest recorded medical conditions, long recognized for its striking and unique ocular manifestations. Nightblindness and its successful treatment with animal liver was known to the ancient Egyptians at least 3500 years ago, and is mentioned by Hippocrates. Corneal destruction resulting in permanent blindness was certainly recognized by eighteenth and nineteenth century phusicians, usually in association with severe systemic illnesses like meningitis, tuberculosis, typhoid, and severe protein energy malnutrition.
Dietary Intervention
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vitamin A deficiency is fundamentally a nutritional disorder and thus appears to have an obvious, dietary solution: increase the intake of foods rich in “vitamin A” (preformed retinyl esters or provitamin A carotenoids) to a satisfactory level among those who are deficient. Finding effective dietary approaches to prevent vitamin A deficiency in most developing countries, however, is not straightforward, despite a generally sufficient supply of “vitamin A” in available foods. Where foods containing vitamin A are already available, affordable, and used by most households, the most vulnerable groups (low-income families, children) frequently do not consume adequate amounts. These populations would be expected to benefit from effective programs aimed at changing the dietary behavior (e.g., eating practices) of those in need.
Where vitamin A-rich foods are not locally available or affordable, one faces the greater challenge of both creating demand (for a better diet) and increasing the available, affordable supply. The latter goal has been approached by encouraging food production for personal consumption and creation of local micro-enterprises that increase availability at the marketplace.
Lexicon as a Key To History, Nation, and Society
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since many languages, especially European languages, have words denoting ‘native country’, the concepts embodied in these words may be assumed to transcend language boundaries. In fact, words that appear to match in this way often differ from one another in particularly telling ways, offering valuable insight into different national traditions and historical experiences. I will illustrate this general proposition by analyzing and comparing three key words of modern German and Polish: Heimat, vaterland, and ojczyzna. For comparison, I will also include a cursory discussion of the Russian word rodina.
Fourier Optics and the Role of Diffraction in Image Formation
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a brief review of the basic concepts of image formation, described from a wave-optical point of view. Chapter 2 has already given an outline of important concepts that emerge from x-ray crystallography. The concepts of x-ray crystallography contribute only one part of the foundations of electron crystallography, however. The mathematical understanding of image formation contributes a second part that is equally basic to the development of electron crystallography.
Symmetry and Order in Two Dimensions
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The repetition of a particular structure, or unit cell, in a pattern generated by some form of translational symmetry, is a unique, defining characteristic of crystals. While crystals may also have additional types of symmetry, such as that corresponding to rotation about a certain axis, the periodic repetition of a given structural motif over an extended region of space is something that uniquely defines what is meant by a crystal.
Data Processing: Images of 2-D Crystals
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A substantial amount of image processing is required to extract the information contained in high-resolution electron micrographs of biological macromolecules. Descriptions of commonly used software packages for processing electron microscope images have been published in the Journal of Structural Biology, volume 116, issue 1 (1996). In this chapter we focus on the methodology for extracting structural information from images of thin, two-dimensional crystals.
Electron Crystallography of Helical Structures
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Helical structures are essential for life. They connect and integrate function between distantly separated structures within a cell. Actin and microtubules are examples of helical structures that are part of the cell’s cytoskeleton and that define cell shape. They also act as the railroad tracks along which molecular motors tow subcellular material between locations within the cell. Helical structures also occur in pathological states such as the paired helical filaments associated with Alzheimer’s disease or fibers of hemoglobin in sickle cell anemia. Helical structures can serve mechanical roles; for example, the bacterial flagellar filament converts torque into thrust to propel the bacterium. In addition to naturally occurring helical structures, some molecules can be induced to form helical structures after biochemical isolation, as in the case of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.
Single Particles
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The single-particle approach to solving macromolecular structure (see Frank, 1996, 2006) is based on the premise that the specimen is in the form of many isolated particles that are randomly oriented, collectively presenting a large range of views. It is further assumed, at least initially, that through application of biochemical methods of isolation and purfication, the specimen is homogeneous; that is, only macromolecules of one kind are present. Finally, if the specimen is prepared in such a way that anisotropic compression is avoided, then all the molecules on the electron microscopic grid can be assumed to have identical structure, and hence the geometrical relationships among the molecules in three-dimensional (3-D) space can be modeled as a set of rigid body movements. However, even if this assumption of structural identity is violated, due to some native structural variability, we can still use the single-particle approach for solving the structure at low resolution, and treat the structural variability as a high-resolution perturbation, a topic to be discussed later on.
Genetic Influences on Drinking Behavior in Humans
Authors: Heath Andrew C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is an extensive literature on the inheritance of alcohol abuse or dependence (see Chapters 1 and 2). Findings from studies of twin pairs, adoptees, and half-siblings and their families are broadly consistent with an important genetic contribution to risk of alcoholism in males, and though findings for alcoholism in women are more ambiguous (e.g., McGue et al., 1992), the largest study of adult female twin pairs (Kendler et al., 1992) suggests an important genetic contribution to alcoholism risk in females also.
Alcohol Metabolism, Sensitivity, and Tolerance: Testing for Genetic Influences
Authors: Wilson James R , Laffan Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Familial aggregation of alcohol abuse has been noted for a long time, and has led to the belief that the tendency to abuse alcohol is heritable. But the two major sources of familial resemblance-shared genes and shared environment-are difficult to disentangle in data from cohabiting family members. A number of behavioral genetic strategies have been developed to estimate the relative influence of genes and environment on individual differences in behavioral phenotypes, and many of these have been applied to studies of alcohol abuse and/or alcoholism. Some of these methods are outlined below, as an introduction to findings from research utilizing behavioral genetic methods.
Biochemical Phenotypic Markers in Genetic Alcoholism
Authors: Diamond Ivan , Gordon Adrienne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is extensive evidence that genetic factors play a role in alcoholism (Begleiter and Porjesz, 1988; Kiianmaa et al., 1989; Cloninger, 1991) and in the development of alcoholic medical disorders (Devore et al., 1988). Moreover, Cloninger (1987) has shown by adoption studies that a “male-limited” type of alcoholism in the biologic father is a much greater predictor for alcohol abuse in the son that the environment in which the boy is raised. However, these observations do not suggest pathophysiologic mechanisms. Instead, clinical and experimental work with alcohol intoxication, tolerance, and dependence may provide clues to candidate phenotypes in alcoholism.
Computational Laws
Authors: Valiant Leslie G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although computation has had a central role in mathematics from the beginning it was not studied systematically until the recent advent of digital computers, which made large scale computations possible. A new discipline has arisen which has come to be called computer science. From this a broad perspective has emerged that invites comparisons with the physical sciences. In particular it now appears that the world of computation can be compared with the physical world not only in the richness and variety of phenomena that can be observed, but also in the existence of underlying laws that govern what is and what is not feasible to do.
Cognitive Functions
Authors: Valiant Leslie G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous two chapters we considered the possible contributions that the fields of neuroscience and computer science could make to an understanding of cortical computations. In this chapter we consider the third major viewpoint, that of cognitive psychology. The potential contribution of this field is to provide definitions or specifications of the behavior exhibited by the brain. Once accurate specifications are available, and provided suitable neural models have been abstracted from neuroscience, there remains only the problem of discovering the algorithms.
Knowledge Representations
Authors: Valiant Leslie G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If a neural system can cope in a complex external world, one must presume that its behavior can be described in terms of the various semantic items that are meaningful in that world. By the term item we mean just about any aspect of the world that may be useful in describing it. Individual objects, events, properties, relationships, concepts, and categories are all examples of items, as are certain predicates that are detected at lower levels in our perceptual systems.
Supervised Inductive Learning
Authors: Valiant Leslie G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As explained earlier, we find it useful to divide knowledge acquisition mechanisms into two categories. In the first the acquisition mechanism is such that little room is left to question the validity of the acquisition process. Examples of acquisition methods of this first kind are: inheriting an algorithm at birth, memorizing the text of a program or recipe given to one explicitly, memorizing the features of an individual or of an event, and arriving at knowledge by logical deduction from knowledge already available. Whatever problems of computational implementation these processes may pose, none of them raises philosophical difficulties concerning the rational defensibility of the outcome.
Systems Questions
Authors: Valiant Leslie G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters we demonstrated how any one instance of any one of several different functionalities can be realized in an NTR. When we wish to realize all these functionalities together and to invoke them not just on one occasion but in arbitrary sequences, then significant additional problems arise. These systems problems fall broadly into two categories, depending on whether they relate essentially only to the internal working of the NTR or whether they concern directly the particulars of the interactions with the peripherals.
The Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Authors: Janowitz Henry D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
You are a relatively young person, in your twenties, thirties, or forties, who enjoys good health. Without any warning you begin to experience periods of lower abdominal discomfort, which may increase in intensity. You have pain that feels like cramps. You need to move your bowels more often than usual and to move them quickly: “Precipitously” is your doctor’s word for this urgent need. Suddenly your stools are different: loose, watery, even explosive, without blood, but possibly containing mucus that looks like the uncooked white of an egg or the stuff you blow out of your nose with a simple cold.
Southern Writers and “The Impossible Load of the Past”
Authors: Cobb James C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With The War Of 1914-1918, Allen Tate observed, “the South re-entered the world-but gave a backward glance as it stepped over the border; that backward glance gave us the Southern renaiscence [sic], a literature conscious of the past in the present:’ In reality, although a new spirit of critical self-awareness had clearly emerged in the South during the first decade following the war, its initial focus had been largely contemporary. The actual “backward glance” that marked the full flowering of the literary phase of the Southern Renaissance came primarily in the 1930s when, in the absence of a critical historical tradition, southern writers began to ask how such an appealing and glorious past could have degenerated into such a dismal and defective present.
Introduction
Authors: Nuckolls Janis B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In her introduction to Language the Unknown, political theorist and linguist Julia Kristeva states the following: “The question ‘ what is language?’ could and should be re placed with another: ‘ How was it possible to conceive of language?’ (1989: 5).” This question assumes particular importance for the anthropologist investigating the language practices of speech communities unfamiliar with Western scientific culture. How can a scientific conception of language, which insists on its abstraction from the material world and from the body of the speaker, have any meaning for people who conceive language as a material force integrated with the natural and cosmic world? A scientific representation of language as an abstract, disembodied, and immaterial essence is ill equipped to understand, for example, magical practices that depend for their efficacy on the power of words.
Towards a New Reading of Gershwin
Authors: Hamm Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The United States has not produced a more famous composer than George Gershwin, who died half a century ago, on 11 July 1937. Many of his popular songs became standards or “evergreens” throughout the Western world from the 1920s through the 1950s, and some even survived the evolution of popular-music style from Tin Pan Alley to rock. Jazz musicians have always found his songs particularly suitable for improvisation, and much of the bebop repertory is built over the chord changes of several of them. His concert pieces, particularly Rhapsody in Blue, An American in Paris, the Concerto in F for piano and orchestra, and the Preludes for piano, are among the most widely performed “classical” works of the twentieth century, and his Porgy and Bess has become the most popular opera of the century. He is said to have written popular classical music and classic popular pieces. A large literature has grown up around his music and his life, much of it dealing with the latter point.
Creating the French Royal Academy of Medicine
Authors: Weisz George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The creation of the Academy of Medicine in 1820 did more than bring yet another Parisian medical institution into existence. It was a major and perhaps the final step in a process begun during the French Revolution leading to the formation of a national medical elite in France. Like other stages in this lengthy process, the establishment of the academy was part of a struggle for power to define and control the medical domain.
The Maxistop Study
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Well the worst that can happen is they pee in their pants. People don’t literally die of embarrassment,” smirked the chief resident sliding into her chair, late as usual, for the meeting of the Institutional Review Board of St. Catherine Hospital.
“That’s not a great way to start this meeting off,” responded Dr. John Boston.
“If you’ll pardon the expression, the whole thing smells bad to me. Why are we messing with this anyway?” put in Dr. Barbara Rowe, physician and activist.
Joey, Jessica, Roger, Tom, and Marti
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Authors’ Note: Although we present this case with pediatric patients, the main issue it raises—the allocation of scarce medical resources or rationing—has no special connection with this population.
It is a beautiful Memorial Day weekend, which means trouble for you. As a fellow in intensive care medicine at University Hospital, you know it is going to be tough. There will be automobile accidents, boating accidents, plus all the usual problems. Since University provides the highest level of pediatric intensive care in the entire state, you know you will be busy.
The Castelli Baby
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dick Bernstein was the hottest neonatal intensivist that University Hospital had produced in several years. He was completely devoted to the intensive care of very sick newborns. After completing residency there and a fellowship elsewhere, he had returned as a faculty member in neonatal medicine at University Hospital.
“It’s cruel and inhumane,” Rachel says. “You people must be sadists, torturing little children. Do you do it just for the challenge? Don’t you ever think of those poor kids and what it must be like? You treat them like objects, not like babies!”
Making Moral Decisions: A Process Approach
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For most medical decisions, there is a professional and social consensus on what should be done and a relatively simple process for determining it. Benefits and costs are usually clear, duties are apparent, and the patient readily consents to the physician’s proposal for treatment.
Tough decisions arise when costs are not clear, duties are not obvious, when the patient’s desires are different from those of the medical team, or when the standard solutions are no longer appropriate. In such circumstances, when people do not know what should be done and it is not clear who should decide, we have found it helpful to think about how good decisions can be made, to think about the process rather than the product.
Harlem
Authors: Gioia Ted 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Harlem in the late l920s was a society precariously balanced between two extremes. The Harlem Renaissance—the name given to the broad-based flowering of black cultural and intellectual life during these years—crystallized the first of these possibilities, reflecting a forward-looking optimism and deeply felt community pride. It was tempting to reach for scriptural imagery in describing this vision of Harlem. Here was a promised land for a downtrodden race, delivered from slavery as in the Old Testament, now answerable to its own needs, and finally free to pursue its own vision of civil society.
The Acquisition of Branching
Authors: Bauer Brigitte L M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In my diachronic analysis of Latin syntactic and morphological units I have demonstrated that Latin LB structures, which were inherited from PIE, have been replaced with their RB equivalents which dominate in Modern French, and, second, that this change was not limited to this linguistic lineage. The shift from left to right branching is indeed characteristic of all Indo-European languages. The diachronic analysis in terms of branching has thus revealed that syntactic as well as morphological changes that at face value may appear random and unrelated are governed by the same underlying universal principle: the c9mprehensive reversal of the order in hierarchical units. In contrast to the claims of traditional teaching, the emerging of analytic forms in morphology and the tendency toward a stricter word order in syntax are but secondary effects. Although I have observed a change in branching, I have not been able to determine which structure has been the first to undergo this change. Data on the very first modification might have informed us on the cause of the observed shift. Moreover, diachronic evidence from Italic languages does not corroborate the chronology of the SOV - SVO reorganization proposed by Lehmann (1971) or Vennemann (1974), who based their claim essentially on evidence from Germanic languages. Although the beginning of the development is lost in the mist of time, combination of IndoEuropean data makes it possible to put forth a hypothesis about the nature of the structures that were the first to undergo the revealed change. The elements that in the analysis of Latin are shown to be the first to change branching arc the adjective, the adposition, and the relative clause.