bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Antichrist and the World Turned Upside-Down
Authors: Scribner R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Antichrist is one of the most fascinating figures of late-medieval popular thought, and illustrates the very broad penumbra between official faith and doctrine and popular belief. In .essence, the Antichrist was a diabolical answer to the incarnation, for he was the antithesis of Christ, his personal history a black parody of the Saviour’s. He is born in Babylon from the tribe of Dan, the son of a whore and the Devil. Like Christ, he spends his youth away from the place of his birth, and is brought up by witches and magicians who initiate him into the black arts. At the age of thirty he goes to Jerusalem and is circumcised. He proclaims Jesus to be a fraud and himself to be the true messiah, convincing the Jews of this claim by promising to revive the Mosaic Law. He rebuilds the destroyed temple in three days, sets up his throne there and proclaims himself as God. Through miracles, bribes and force, he quickly gains a huge following, but his rule lasts only three and a half years. During this time he is not unopposed. God sends two prophets, Enoch and Elias, to preach against him, but he slays them.
Teaching the Gospel: Propaganda as Instruction
Authors: Scribner R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two kinds of process were involved in the propaganda we have examined so far. One was largely negative, to denigrate papal belief and to present evangelical belief as its antithesis. The second looked backwards, presenting the Reformation through the familiar and the traditional, using the associations of popular culture and popular belief. It was no less important to establish the Reformation in more positive terms, as a movement with a distinct theological viewpoint and definite religious characteristics of its own. We shall now analyse how it set about this task.
National Expansion: 1688-1760
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between the Glorious Revolution and the death of George II clubs and societies matured as a national social institution. Hitherto largely confined to London and a handful of other centers, they now sprang up across the English provinces and also appeared in growing numbers elsewhere in the British Isles. Small clusters even developed for the first time m British settlements overseas. They remained almost exclusively an urban phenomenon, but, in Britain at lea t, they began to flower in a m1xtd variety of towns. It 1s not just the geographical penetration that is striking; there seems to he a widening of social participation as well. In terms of organization, the trend was towards greater formality, evinced by detailed rules an regulations, a higher frequency of meetings (with the eventual decline of the feastday societies), and more clearly defined aims. Associated with this was the emergence of the first ‘national’ bodies, like the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK), which created a network of contacts with local religious societies and corresponding members across the provinces. Some ‘national’ societies went further and acquired an international profile, most notably the English, Scottish, and Irish grand lodges of freemasons, which soon had a battalion of affiliated lodges across the British t:’.mpire and, to a lesser extent, in continental Europe.
Introduction
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the world at the end of the twentieth century societies are ageing. A growing proportion of their populations are living into their sixties and seventies and often well beyond. The process may continue, and even accelerate, in the next millennium, due to a combination of declining birthrates and declining death-rates. In 1900 about 7 per cent of the population of the United Kingdom was aged 65 or above; in 2000 about 18 per cent; from 2020 the percentage is projected to rise still further. The proportion of these who were very old, 75 or over, rose from 21 per cent in 1901, to 26 per cent in 1951 to 38 per cent in 1991. An average of 74 people a year reached the age of 100 in England and Wales between 1911 and 1920; in 1997, 3,000 people did so.
Did People in the Past Grow Old?
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is widely believed that in the pre-industrial past it was rare to grow old. This is generally because life expectancy at birth is taken as evidence of survival to old age. Life expectancy at birth averaged around 35 years between the 1540s and 18001 and is unlikely to have been higher at any earlier time, but high infant and child mortality rates drastically pulled down such averages. Those who survived the hazardous earlier years of life in medieval and early modern England had a respectable chance of living at least into what would now be defined as middle age—that is, their late forties or fifties— and often for longer still, though the risk of adult mortality fluctuated in different periods.2 Even in medieval times the death of someone in their later thirties was not regarded as ‘timely’ or normal.
Representations of Old Age in Ancient Greece and Rome
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human beings seek to explore and to express the meanings of existence through a range of symbolic as well as material forms. Symbols and images—visual and linguistic—express shared meanings and ingrained beliefs and also influence actions and attitudes. Such beliefs assist individuals to construct their own paths through life. 4Old age’ is a symbol into which multiple, often conflicting, meanings have been poured over time and at any one time. The aged body has been employed as a ‘metaphor for the transience and vanity of this world’.1 In any time narratives of ageing and old age may as readily express personal fears and hopes as observations of lived experience. Meanings are as often expressed in myth and metaphor and in other forms of symbolic representation as in straightforward descriptive or prescriptive language.
Independent Old People: Making a Living in Medieval England
Authors: Thane InPat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Old people were a substantial presence in past societies and they had an unmistakable presence also in the self-images of those societies, as expressed in a variety of forms of representation. But how did they perceive themselves and how did they live through the experience of ageing? Material resources were obviously crucial. In medieval Europe to have sufficient personal resources for a comfortable life required ownership or secure tenure of real property, though cash resources became increasingly important over time. Such material security enabled older people to be agents in the management of their own lives and extended the range of options available to them.1 Those who could afford it might extend their landholdings as their families grew and might adjust to ageing by gradual disposal, beginning when they were in their fifties, though the possibility of making such transactions depended upon local custom and upon the state of the property market.2 Property might be transferred to offspring, as a means of discharging the strong social obligation upon parents in England to assist their children to acquire independence.3 If children were already provided for, or there were none, property might be leased or sold to others, the ageing tenant living on the income, retaining such property as he or she could manage; or ageing people could pay others to work the land.
‘Lives of Expedients’: Old People and the Old Poor Law
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been suggested that, especially in its treatment of older people, the Old Poor Law, far from being as harsh as was once thought, was a ‘welfare state in miniature’, even that the Poor Law could be more generous to old people than the British welfare state of the late twentieth century. Whatever the inadequacies of the modern welfare state, there is an important difference between the certainty of basic income support and health care at a certain age which it ensures and the extreme uncertainty which continued to characterize access to poor relief into the nineteenth century
‘The First Piece of Socialism Britain has Entered upon’? The Introduction of Old-Age Pensions
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1906, after a decade of Conservative and Unionist government, the Liberal Party won a clear majority The election was also notable as the first in which Labour members won a significant number of seats (29) and the Labour Party became firmly established. The new Liberal government was to introduce an impressive succession of social welfare measures. It is often stated that the Liberals came into office uncommitted to any specific social reform including pensions. This is so in the sense that neither they nor the Conservatives published party programmes, hence neither party was formally committed to anything. However, both parties ‘more than made up for this by flooding the electorate with propaganda leaflets on all the major topics of the day.’ In addition, most candidates issued their own election leaflets, which ‘presented a kind of programmatic choice to the electors that was clear enough’. Russell’s analysis of the election addresses shows that 59 per cent of Liberal candidates supported pensions. It was less prominent than Free Trade, which was almost universally supported, or amendment of the Education Act and reform of the government of Ireland, but none the less, substantial.
‘Shocked into Idleness’: The Emergence of Mass Retirement
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How did the spread of pensions in post-war Britain affect the lives of older people? If there has been one period of especially dramatic change in the history of the lives of old people it is the mid-twentieth century By the 1950s, for the first time in history, the overwhelming majority of people in Britain could expect to live from birth to their sixties and beyond as a result of falling death-rates at younger ages, especially in infancy, through the earlier part of the century Even the poorest people could expect a secure, if not necessarily a generous, pension at a fixed, predictable, and early age. Most could expect a period of ‘retirement’ between the end of their working lives and the onset of serious physical dependency, if they indeed experienced this, since it was and is by no means universal. They could all expect secure access to health care, which, though often imperfect, was, especially for poorer women, better than anything available ever before. All of this amounted to an important cultural shift in experiences and expectations, in the ways in which people could imagine their life-courses.
The Family Lives of Old People
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A persistent theme in Western culture over many centuries, as we have seen, has been the conviction that younger people in each generation, more than in The past’, neglect their older relatives, even their parents, both emotionally and materially. This belief has survived tenaciously, despite equally persistent assertions to the contrary. Before the twentieth century evidence either way is scanty and anecdotal. The uneven survival of historical sources makes it easier over long time periods to study the structure of households, who lives with whom, than to understand relationships within families, who may, or may not, share a household. Only after the Second World War were there systematic studies of the relationships between old people and their families which clarify the role of intergenerational family relationships within English culture, in the twentieth century.
‘You’re as Old as you Feel’: Images and Self-Images of Older People at the end of the Millennium
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is commonly claimed in late twentieth-century Britain that in ‘the past’ old people were more respected and culturally less marginalized than in the present; that the modern world especially values youth, and far more than in ‘the past’, old people are stereotyped as decrepit, dependent burdens; that old women are regarded more negatively than old men; and that in other, distant, countries they do things differently and better and show more respect for elders.
Into the Twenty-First Century: An Ageing Society—Burden or Benefit?
Authors: Thane Pat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the world in the later twentieth century populations are ageing. The process will continue, and probably accelerate, in the next millennium. It is far advanced in most developed countries and is visible and projected to advance further and faster in less developed countries, where an assumed Trisis’ of low fertility and ageing populations is overtaking the long-established concern with high fertility and youthful populations. Internationally the change is due to historically unprecedented trends of long-run decline in birth-rates combined with declining death-rates.
England and the English
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Precise and uniform measurement of time, to which we today attach such importance, was neither feasible nor necessary in early modem England. Clocks, found mainly in churches and other public buildings, rarely possessed minute hands until the late seventeenth century, while portable watches were expensive and inaccurate curiosities. Most people relied upon church bells or sundials for the hour of day or night, and no standard clock time was kept throughout the country. The fact that the south-western port of Plymouth ran a quarter-hour later then London hardly mattered much when communications were slow, and the pace of human activities was still governed largely by movements of the heavenly bodies and the passage of the seasons.
Glorious revolution?
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One reason why the events following hard upon William of Orange’s landing came to be known as the Glorious Revolution was that-in England at least¬ they involved almost no armed conflict or loss of life.1 This remarkable contrast to Monmouth’s recent invasion, let alone the mid-century civil wars, resulted largely from James H’s failure to make a determined military stand against the numerically inferior forces commanded by his nephew and sonin-law. Physically debilitated, stricken by recurrent nosebleeds (here indeed the Revolution was far from bloodless), apprehensive for the safety of his family as well as himself, perhaps also fearful that William’s safe arrival signified a loss of heavenly favour, James vacillated. His decision to tum back towards London from Salisbury on 23 November without giving fight merely hastened his already demoralized army’s disintegration. Lieutenant-General Churchill, the King’s former military protege and commander at Sedgemoor, now headed a stream of officers and men defecting to William’s camp. As the Prince moved slowly onward from Exeter, with declarations of support coming in from all over the country, James’s military and political position collapsed.
War and the State
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1699 and 1703 Joseph Addison (1672-1719), a rising Oxford don and budding man of letters, travelled around Europe in order to prepare himself for future employment as a diplomat. From Italy Addison addressed to his Whig patron Charles Montagu, Baron Halifax (1661-1715), a verse letter which suggests that the beauties of the local landscape were largely negated by its oppressive political system. Although bleaker and colder, ‘Britannia’s Isle’ is the home of that ‘Liberty’ which ‘makes the gloomy face of nature gay’.
Trade and the Towns
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The year 1688 is less obviously an economic than a constitutional and political turning point. By establishing parliamentary sovereignty and the rule of law, the Revolution gave property owners a degree of security vis-à-vis the state which may well have been a desirable or even necessary precondition for further economic development over the medium to long term, including the financial innovations discussed in the last chapter. Nevertheless, the events of 1688-9 plainly had less immediate and obvious impact on the economy than on, say, Crown-Parliament relations.
From Party Strife to One-Party Rule
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first two Hanoverian kings are traditionally dismissed as boorish foreigners, who lacked (in Macaulay’s words) ‘those personal qualities which have often supplied the defect of a title’.1However xenophobic, this judgement does point to a fact of prime importance. As prince-electorsof Hanover, ruling a relatively small and recently emerged state in north-west Germany, George I and II never focused exclusively on matters British. This geopolitical schizophrenia tended to marginalize their status within the British polity, and accentuate their dependence upon the ministers who formally served but in many respects actually managed them.
Production and Consumption
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the eighteenth century England was still an overwhelmingly agricultural economy and society. It has been estimated — no precise measurement is feasible — that in 1700 agricultural production accounted for over 40 per cent of total national output, even excluding crops and livestock consumed on the farm rather than brought to market. Agriculture provided artisans and manufacturers with most of their raw materials: ‘Wool, flax, silk, cotton, hides, leather, hair, fur, straw, wood’. Around three-fifths of the adult male labour force then found employment on the land. But because farm work was still essentially a family concern, nearly a million women and children field-workers easily outnumbered some 595,000 men. And for all the glamour, rapid recent growth, and frequent high profitability of finance and overseas trade, political rights and social status continued to be most closely linked to the ownership of land.
People
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
England’s population apparently did not surpass its mid-seventeenth-century peak of 5.3m. until the early 1720s. Population growth continued very slowly for the next twenty years or so, held in check by the severe if intermittent impact of harvest failure and epidemic disease (influenza, smallpox, dysentery, and typhus, but significantly not bubonic plague) between 1727 and 1730, and again in 1741-2. Then from c.1750 the yearly demographic growth rate steadily climbed above 0.5 per cent. By the last decade of the century it had reached the unprecedented level of 1.2 per cent, producing a total of some 8.6m. inhabit¬ ants in 1801.
Retrospect and Conclusion
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The proverbial long-lived time-traveller who visited England after Charles II’s restoration in 1660, then returned again to hear the news of Waterloo, would have found much that appeared unchanged. In 1815 England still retained a hereditary monarchy, ruling with a bi-cameral Parliament and an avowedly un¬ democratic, gender-biased, property-based political nation; agriculture was the largest economic sector in terms of both employment and production, aristocratic landowners dominated high politics, and most people lived in rural villages rather than towns; poverty was massive, social inequality pervasive; the Church of England retained a privileged status, with its bishops holding seats in the Lords and its clergy supported by compulsory universal payment of tithes and other church dues. Yet on closer inspection many of these apparent continuities turn out to be formal rather than substantive, while others were offset by real and significant change, in kind as well as degree.
Town And Country
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his novels Surtees ignores industrial Britain. He has no interest in the cotton operatives of Manchester, the out-workers of Birmingham, the handloom workers of Spitalfields; none in Chartism, or the distress and rioting of 1842. The nearest he comes to the problems of the Industrial Revolution is in Hillingdon Hall, where much of the plot revolves round the intervention of an AntiCorn Law candidate in a local parliamentary election. Yet it would be wrong to conclude that this omission makes him less representative of his age than, for instance, Charles Dickens or Mrs Gaskell. In his lifetime England remained a largely rural and agricultural country-provided, that is to say, the criterion is not statistics of manufacture and commerce but how people lived and what they saw around them in their daily lives.
Squires And Peers
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the interesting minor debates in Victorian public life was over the definition of a gentleman: a debate which, if it did not reach a definite conclusion, at least revealed the confused standards of a rapidly changing society. Historically the term indicated a describable, if not definable, social status. It was the closest post-medieval England came to a caste. In their memoirs men could write without selfconsciousness that ‘I was born a gentleman’; on their tombstones ‘Gent.’ would appear after their name as a sufficient description of their rank. In this time-honoured sense, ‘gentlemen’ and the collective word ‘gentry’ were an extension of the hereditary aristocracy: men of good blood but not necessarily with a title. The gentry class was not a close caste; it was always losing impoverished members and gaining affluent recruits. The duke of Wellington was fond of a saying attributed to Charles II that he could make a hundred noblemen but not a single gentleman. ‘Foreigners’, he told Raikes, ‘hardly know our definition of the term.
Woman And The Pursuit Of Man
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In her book How I Managed My Children, published in 1865, Mrs Warren propounded two axioms, that ‘married life is a woman’s profession’ and that ‘it is the concealed hope of all girls to marry’. As propositions they were neither new nor peculiar to her time. By most middle- and upper-class families it was taken for granted that a girl’s probable destiny was marriage and that it was only prudent for parents to guide their daughters towards a suitable match. Exceptions are not difficult to find. There were girls who did not wish to marry; girls who defied their parents and married for love; parents who neglected their responsibilities for safeguarding their daughters’ future, or more culpably kept them at home to act as unpaid companions and nurses. Yet, when the exceptions are noted and proper reservations made, the characteristic quality of young women in the early-Victorian period seems to have been the realism with which they, as well as their parents, confronted the problem of matrimony.
Manners
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
That in the course of the nineteenth century English society had become quieter, more orderly, more disciplined, and more humane was never doubted by educated Victorians. To explain why it had happened was more difficult. Many influences had been at work and many of them had started long before Victoria ascended the throne. Eighteenth -century rationalism, Benthamite utilitarianism, humanitarianism, political fears and aspirations, had all played their part. What they had in common was a more serious attitude towards social problems; and at the heart of this greater moral seriousness was evangelical religion. From its origins in the Methodist movement of George II’s reign, Evangelicalism had, during the age of the French Revolution and the post-Waterloo period, filtered into every class of English society. The various Churches which made up the collective religiosity of early Victorian England were not all Evangelical in the narrower meaning of the term but they shared the Evangelical emphasis on personal behaviour and sensitivity to moral issues in national affairs.