bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Principle of diffraction experiment
Authors: Aslanov L A , Fetisov G V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to answer the question ‘How does one measure Bragg reflections from crystals?’ it is helpful first to introduce the concept of the Ewald construction, based upon which it is easy to consider experimental geometries. The concept of the Ewald’s construction permits one to visualize diffraction effects in reciprocal space, helps to understand better the effects and is often helpful in calculations related to geometrical features of diffraction measurements. Since we will use this concept widely in our further Due to the three-dimensional periodicity of a crystal lattice, X-rays are scattered by crystals and form a corresponding three-dimensional set of diffracted intensities, which are observed at specific angles 20 between directions of the incident and reflected X-rays. W.L. Bragg described this fact at the beginning of this century by the formula.
Fundamental techniques for X-ray diffractometry
Authors: Aslanov L A , Fetisov G V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two main types of equipment are used now to obtain X-rays for crystallographic applications. They are X-ray generators with X-ray tubes and synchrotrons. The generation of X-rays requires a source of electrons (either ions or some other charged particles) with sufficiently high energy. The simplest solution therefore used in X-ray crystallography is employment of a high voltage to accelerate electrons in vacuum. The mechanism of X-ray generation is schematically shown in Fig. 3.1. The electrons are driven at high speed into a metallic target. Their collision against the target reduces the speed of the electrons, gives energy to the atoms composing the target and excites them. A continuous spectrum of white radiation and characteristic radiation are emitted in this process. Thus, for X-ray generation one needs first of all a high voltage generator. An electron-vacuum unit including a cathode emitting electrons, a system for electron beam formation, a metallic target (anode) for deceleration of electrons and windows for transmission of X-rays generated in the anode to the outside of the unit must be attached to the high-voltage generator. This unit is called an X-ray tube.
Single-crystal X-ray diffractometry
Authors: Aslanov L A , Fetisov G V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to experimental conditions and techniques for crystal structure data collection. First of all let us determine the type of task which should be carried out by the experimenter. What is an experiment in general? An experiment is a scientific test which is done in order to prove or discover what happens to something under particular conditions. At the same time a measurement can be defined as a sequence of experimental and ca1cu1ating operations carried out in order to determine the value of a physical quantity characterizing a certain object or phenomenon. The “measurement’ result is the degree of approach to the true value of the quantity and therefore must contain the determined value and an estimate of its deviation from the true meaning of the quantity, that is the ‘measurement’ error. The main difference between experiment and measurement consists in the fact that the experiment is done once, or just a few times and may include many types of measurements and calculations, while the measurements represent nearly identical operations which are carried out routinely over and over again on series of substances to determine their properties. The measurements may be either direct, when the result is obtained immediately as the measured quantity, or indirect, when the value is found on the basis of its known dependence on the directly measured quantities. Indirect measurements are used when there is no possibility of obtaining the value directly or the precision of direct measurement is insufficient.
Single-crystal diffraction data collection and primary processing
Authors: Aslanov L A , Fetisov G V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Figure 5.1 represents a simplified flow diagram for the evaluation of structure factors |F&lt;H)|2 from the very beginning of the instrumental work. The beginning of the instrumental stage of the analysis has been considered in detail in Chapter 4, so this chapter is devoted to the most important stage of X-ray crystal structure analysis-experimental data acquisition. When the diffractometer is ready for measurements and the selected and prepared specimen placed on the goniometer it is necessary, first of all, to determine the orientation of the crystal lattice relative to the goniometer reference system. For a unique correspondence between these two coordinate systems it is necessary to know the coordinates of at least three non-coplanar crystallographic directions in the reference system of the diffractometer. The first task in this problem is to find Bragg reflections corresponding to such a crystallographic direction. Such reflections are found by systematic investigation of reciprocal space and determination of the angles &lt;p, X, w and 20 in the four-circ1e diffractometer reference system.
Primary data reduction and error correction in single-crystal diffractometry
Authors: Aslanov L A , Fetisov G V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
X-ray structure analysis enables crystallographers to solve problems both for determination of the positions of atoms in a crystal unit cell (routine structure analysis), and revealing the electron density distributions and the parameters of thermal vibrations in a unit cell (precision analysis). Both problems require accurate experimental measurements and correct data processing. Certainly, the requirements of the experiment are more severe in precision structure analysis, where any possible experimental artefacts and errors of data processing should be excluded. The task of instrumental methods is to obtain correct values of the modulus of structure amplitudes IFI.
Critical Two-Phase Flow
Authors: Whalley P B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As an introduction, critical (or choked) single-phase flow is first reviewed briefly. Then, in subsequent sections two-phase flow is treated in an analogous manner. Critical two-phase flow is here only considered for a one-component flow, that is for a liquid and its vapour (for example a steam-water flow). From Chapter 5 eqn (5.8) gives(8.1)−dpdz=4τd + ρg sinθ + G2ddz(1ρ).
Rewetting of Hot Surfaces
Authors: Whalley P B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since min = 27kW/m2, then ATmin = 80°C. This is a rather low value, giving a minimum film boiling temperature of 180 °C. In practice, effects such as liquid and surface contamination and the presence of an oxide layer on the surface all tend to increase the minimum film boiling temperature, another term for the Leiden frost temperature (see Bergles and Thompson 1970), and so the value of min is also increased. Indeed, it seems probable that there is, in general, no well-defined minimum film-boiling heat flux and, correspondingly, no well-defined minimum film-boiling temperature. Nevertheless these quantities are calculated in Example 7 in Chaper 25 as part of the pool-boiling curve calculation. Typical values for the minimum film-boiling temperature for water at 1 bar are around 290 °C
Process Industry Reboilers
Authors: Whalley P B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some of the more practical aspects of boiling are considered here. The examples are taken from the process industry. Of the boiling operations in the process industry, one of the most common is that to provide the vapour for a distillation column. In a distillation column vapour moves up the column and is brought into contact with liquid which moves down. The vapour is provided by a reboiler which vaporizes most the liquid which arrives at the bottom of the column.
Practical Calculation Methods
Authors: Whalley P B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter contains full details of a number of the calculation methods described in the text which are likely to be of direct, practical interest. The calculation methods which are included are listed below. For each the relevant section, equation, and figure numbers are given. The relevant text should be read carefully before the method is used to check, for example, the range of applicability. Four of the more complicated methods have been detailed separately in appendices.
Questions
Authors: Whalley P B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These questions are arranged in rough chapter order. References to equations and figures in the main text are given. It should be noted that the text is not sufficient to answer all the questions: for some, additional reading and thought are necessary. General references which are useful for the examples are Collier (1981), Hetsroni (1982), and Wallis (1969). These references, and others used in the questions, are given after the questions. Most of the necessary data on physical properties are given in the question or in the main text.
Linear Dependence: Reciprocity of Screws: Linear and Non-Linear Screw Systems
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The join of any two given points A 1 (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 , w 1 ) and A 2 (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 , w 2 ) is a line (see §3.3). Any point on this line is linearly dependent on A 1 and A 2; indeed every point on the line is linearly dependent on any two distinct points on it.
Spectral Field Calculations in a Mul Tila Yered Medium
Authors: FachÉ Niels , Olyslager Frank , De Zutter Daniël 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transmission line structures analysed in Chapters 7 – 9 consist of conductors embedded in a multilayered medium. We distinguish three types of media of which the cross-sections are shown in Fig. 6.1: a closed type (Fig. 6.l(a)), a semi-open type (Fig. 6.l(b)), and an open type (Fig. 6.l(c)). In the dosed type the layers are sandwiched between two ground planes. In the semi-open type the medium is placed on top of a ground plane and the top layer is semi-infinite. In the open type both outermost layers are semi-infinite.
Lossless Wire Transmission Line Structures
Authors: FachÉ Niels , Olyslager Frank , De Zutter Daniël 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wire transmission line structures are the second type of interconnection structures handled in this book. This type of transmission line, like the strip transmission line structures, allows a special treatment. Wire transmission line structures are gaining more and more practical importance in, for example, the Multiwire®, Microwire®, and Microdot® technologies.
Arbitrarily-Shaped Polygon Al Transmission Line Structures with Finite Conductivity
Authors: FachÉ Niels , Olyslager Frank , De Zutter Daniël 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a third and most general transmission line structure, we handle transmission lines consisting of conductors with polygonal cross-section and finite conductivity. This kind of structure can for example be used for studying the influence of the thickness of strip transmission lines or to analyse transmission lines with trapezoidal cross-section due to under-etching. A conductor with a regular polygonal cross-section can serve as a model for a wire. The theory developed below also enables us to study the skin effect
The waveguide structures analysed in this chapter consist of polygonal inhomogeneities in a multilayered medium. Though the theory elaborated in this chapter is valid for situations ranging from pure dielectric to perfectly conducting inhomogeneities, we will restrict ourselves to conductors. These conductors can be either perfectly conducting or have a finite conductivity.
Model-Based Adaptive Control
Authors: Arimoto Suguru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Trajectory tracking control problems for a given desired trajectory q/t) in joint space are treated on the basis of passivity analysis of residual error robot dynamics. Owing to the physical property that dynamic parameters appear linearly in Lagrange’s equation, a concept named a ‘regressor’ is introduced, which renders the system description more flexible. Model-based adaptive control for trajectory tracking is then devised by defining an update law of parameter estimation. This method is extended to cope with adaptive hybrid trajectory tracking control for dynamics under holonomic constraint. The effectiveness of this adaptive scheme is finally verified by experimental data.
Advanced Control for Electromechanical Systems
Authors: Arimoto Suguru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We discuss advanced techniques for analysing mechatronic systems in various situations and designing controllers from various practical viewpoints. These are (1) control problems in task coordinates, (2) generalization of impedance control to cope with non-linear dynamics with passivity, (3) coordination control of multiple arms, (4) control problems for mechatronic systems with actuator dynamics, (5) H ∞-tuning problems for robot control, (6) adaptive sliding mode control, and (7) friction compensation. In particular, a necessary and sufficient condition without invoking Riccati’s equation for the establishment of H ∞-tuning is presented, which explores a new physical characterization of non-linear mechanical systems. Almost all of the techniques, except in Section 7.3, involve more or less the ideas of developing corresponding non-linear position-dependent circuits and their passivity analysis. In fact, it was helpful at first to visualize these dynamics as being depicted in their corresponding circuits and then to interpret their physical properties in mathematical terminology.
Survey Papers
Authors: Clarke D W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There has been significant recent progress in our understanding of the design and use of ModelBased Predictive Control. Rather than imposing a specific model structure, different forms are used to suit individual application areas. The two-degree-of-freedom solution of many MBPC algorithms enables optimal behaviour in set-point response and for rejection of known disturbance patterns, gives enhanced robustness against model/plant mismatch, or provides a compromise - a trade-off - between these objectives. The original lack of a comprehensive theory of stability has now been overcome by adapting earlier work on terminal constraints in receding-horizon control. This has been accompanied by a growing awareness of how best to choose ‘design knobs’ for typical heuristic closed-loop performance criteria. The finite-horizon methodology readily enables the addition of practical actuator, output, or state constraints for which stability theories are emerging. Further extensions are to plants with inherent non-linear structure: here MBPC is one of the leading design approaches.
Applications of MBPC
Authors: Linkens D A , Mahfouf M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development and evaluation of Generalised Predictive Control (GPC) for on-line administration of muscle relaxant drugs in operating theatre is described. The necessary software was transferred into the operating theatre at two sites where successful trials were performed. Excellent regulation has been achieved, and the GPC algorithm displayed good robustness properties against disturbances such as surgical diathermy. The work was extended later to the multivariable case involving simultaneous control of muscle relaxation, and unconsciousness using blood pressure monitoring. A fault detection isolation and accommodation (FDIA) layer has been superimposed on top of the multivariable GPC strategy and the performance of the overall supervisory control scheme has been evaluated in a series of simulation runs on a workstation. The algorithm has proved very effective in detecting, diagnosing and eventually compensating for various simulated faults normally encountered in the operating theatre.
Conversion factors
Authors: Cook James L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The density of water is frequently quoted as 1000 kg/ cubic metre or I gram/cubic centimetre with no reference to the conditions at which this density is valid. The calculation of an ‘ideal’ pressure column of water is given in BS 350, referring only to the ‘standard gravity’ of9.80665 metres/second squared. For most practical purposes, water may be assumed incompressible but the temperature will have some effect on its density and for critical work should always be considered.
Interpolation functions and numerical integration
Authors: Mohr G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter interpolation functions for two and three dimensions are discussed. First Cartesian displacement functions are considered and examples of these are used to demonstrate some of the constraints which should be considered in choosing interpolations for a finite element formulation. Particular emphasis is then given to the definition of suitable dimensionless coordinates for rectangular and triangular regions and the derivation of interpolation functions for such regions. As we saw in Chapter 3 finite element stiffness matrices are then obtained by differentiating these interpolation functions to obtain a strain-interpolation matrix Band then integrating the product B’ DB over the element volume. In simple cases analytical integration can be used to obtain explicit matrices but in general numerical integration is used. The chapter closes with a discussion of numerical integration techniques for finite elements.
Thick plate elements
Authors: Mohr G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis of thick plates must allow for the additional deformations of the plate caused by transverse shearing, and appropriate equations for this were discussed in Section 2.7. These equations have been implemented in a variety of ways for rectangular finite elements but may meet with difficulties in triangular elements. These difficulties are reduced by the use of the natural strain technique of Argyris and Scharpf.1 Such elements may still be used to analyse thin plates with the use of penalty factors to enforce the Kirchhoff constraints.
Non-linear materials and large displacements
Authors: Mohr G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present chapter provides a brief introduction to techniques for the solution of non-linear finite element problems. The two main types of nonlinear problem are those where the magnitudes of the stresses, displacements velocities, and so on, are sufficient to alter the nature of the constitutive relationships or to make non-linear terms in the governing straindisplacement relationships or differential equations significant. In the mechanics of solids we call these non-linear material and large displacement problems respectively, and both types of problem are discussed in this chapter.
Eigenvalue analysis of vibration and stability
Authors: Mohr G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many physical systems possess eigenvalues, that is, values of some important parameter at which the system falls into characteristic states of behaviour. Each of these states is described by an eigenvector which is associated with one of the eigenvalues. The eigenvalue problems most frequently encountered in the mechanics of solids are those of vibration and buckling and both of these are discussed in the present chapter. Techniques for solving linear eigenvalue problems are then discussed and these can also be applied to the eigenvalue problems of electromagnetic vibration and seiche motion which we shall encounter in Chapters 18 and 20.
Time stepping analysis of vibration and creep
Authors: Mohr G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Time-dependent propagation problems for which finite element methods are much used include those of structural vibrations, creep problems, and transient field problems such as those of seepage through porous media and heat conduction. The linear eigenvalue problem of dynamics has already been discussed in Chapter 13 and any dynamical analysis can be made by mode superposition once the eigenvectors have been determined. In this chapter we shall restrict attention to the application of time stepping techniques to analyse the creep and vibration of solids. Heat and fluid flow problems are deferred until Chapters 18, 19, and 20 following the introduction of the governing equations and weighted residual methods needed to deal with these.
Basic differential equations in continua
Authors: Mohr G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Previous chapters concentrated upon formulation of finite element models based upon energy or equivalent virtual work arguments and applied these to a wide range of problems in the mechanics of solids. In the mechanics of fluids and many other field problems, however, energy arguments are more difficult to construct; instead a governing differential equation is usually used as the starting point for the analysis. The present chapter introduces some of the basic differential equations that govern the behaviour of physical systems as a prelude to Chapter 17 in which techniques for attacking these are introduced. Later chapters apply these techniques to a wide range of fluid and field problems.
Introduction
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Any mechanical load results from an interaction between two mechanical components (or two parts of a single component) which come into contact with each other. It is therefore not surprising that contact interactions exist in virtually all structural and mechanical systems. In engineering, contact interactions are usually intentional such that a structure, like a bridge, can sustain loads or that a mechanical system, like a forging press, can perform an assigned task. There are, however, situations where contact interactions are not intended, as in a vehicle crash. It is obvious that contact interactions may have a significant influence on the behaviour of the structure or the mechanical system. To increase efficiency in intentional contact interactions and to decrease adverse effects in non-intentional contact interactions, it is desirable to gain an insight into the process of the interactions.
Numerical Solution Procedures
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are several types of difficulties in finding a solution to the general contact-impact problem formulated in the preceding chapter. The difficulties come from the inherent non-linearity of the contact-impact problem itself and other possible non-linearities. First of all, the equilibrium (or fictitious ‘dynamic equilibrium’) of the contact system is expressed in the configuration at time t, which is not yet known. This is one source of non-linearity, the geometry non-linearity, which presents difficulties in calculating such quantities as stresses. It is not possible either to directly carry out the volume integrations and the surface integrations presented in the equilibrium equation. Secondly, it can happen that the stresses at the current configuration cannot be determined by only knowing the current configuration. Specifically, the complete deformation history of the contact system may be required for stress calculations. This is a kind of material non-linearity. Furthermore, the solution must satisfy the contact conditions over the contacting boundaries, which are also not known prior to the solution of the problem. This will be referred to as the contact non-linearity in our study.