bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Consequences of Permanent Disability
Authors: Phelps Charles E , Lakdawalla Darius N. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Controversially, standard cost-effectiveness analysis states that treating disabled people has less value than treating otherwise-similar nondisabled people—a clear and unmistakable bias. By introducing diminishing returns, the generalized risk-adjusted cost-effectiveness model reverses this finding, showing that proper valuation makes it more, not less, valuable to improve disabled people’s quality of life (QoL). This arises because willingness to pay (WTP) for health represents the marginal rate of substitution between consumption and health, and when permanently disabled people have lower health to begin with, they have a higher WTP for health gains. This chapter, using Taylor series methods, develops proper valuation methods to include permanent disability, and then it expands the total value of a medical intervention (TVMI) to incorporate permanent disability. Although this situation has added complexity, the chapter shows that not only are gains to QoL higher for disabled people but also, in many, perhaps all, realistic situations, the same is true for gains in TVMI.
In Search of Decision Thresholds
Authors: Phelps Charles E , Lakdawalla Darius N. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Cost-effectiveness analysis and the generalized risk-adjusted cost-effectiveness model have no useful applications unless decision-makers choose “threshold” upper bounds on incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICERs), above which they will not pay for health gains. Early methods to estimate thresholds relied on now-outdated “league tables” comparing ICERs for various interventions and assessing which was “reasonable.” Subsequent models estimated willingness to pay (WTP) thresholds using value of a statistical life (VSL) estimates, then converting them into WTP thresholds using assumptions about discount rates and remaining life expectancy. This chapter discusses potential biases in this approach, including both those relating to VSL estimation and the subsequent “spreading” to create a WTP per quality-adjusted life year. More recently, experiments use discrete choice experiments to estimate WTP directly. This chapter also analyzes “announced” thresholds from various countries, and it shows how they grow steadily with per capita gross domestic product (GDP). New “structural models” provide another approach, somewhat converging on values of approximately two or three times per capita GDP.
The Origins of Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative
Authors: Angelo Paul J. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Chapter 2 traces the long-standing US relations with security institutions in Colombia and Mexico that enabled the disparate stakeholders of the US policy community to coalesce around major security assistance programs amid crippling security crises. In the twentieth century, the United States consistently expanded its ties with the Colombian and Mexican security sectors, a trend that accelerated following Washington’s declaration of a war on drugs in the 1970s. Corruption and human rights abuses, however, rendered Colombian and Mexican security institutions a potential liability for Washington, long accused of supporting undemocratic practices in Latin American security forces. This risk necessitated an approach that went beyond the train-and-equip strategies pursued elsewhere. This approach was one that put institutional reform, with a focus on effectiveness and accountability, at the heart of Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative.
Structuring Security Assistance in Colombia and Mexico
Authors: Angelo Paul J. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Chapter details the composition of US-led programming to facilitate institutional reform in Colombia and Mexico, highlighting the whole-of-government design that characterized US contributions via Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative. Although militaries were the early beneficiaries of US assistance, US commitments eventually shifted to include civilian institutions, including law enforcement and judicial agencies. After more than a decade of generous assistance in Colombia, major strides in security provision, resulting in a peace process with the country’s largest insurgent group, led to a reconfiguration of US aid, signaling the end of Plan Colombia. In Mexico, although Washington pointed to its improved relationship with security forces as evidence of success, public security in Mexico became considerably more precarious during the implementation of the Mérida Initiative. When US President Donald J. Trump and Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador came to office, they both described the Mérida Initiative as a failure and ended some of its hallmark programs.
Hamas’s Quest for Legitimacy
Authors: Musgrave Nina 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
In Chapter 5, Nina Musgrave looks at Hamas and discusses the challenge of obtaining and maintaining legitimacy amongst the residents of Gaza, as well as by regional and international actors. She discusses how legitimacy has been a central feature of Hamas’s evolution from its 1987 inception as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood to its transition to political participant and electoral victor in the January 2006 Palestinian Legislative Council elections. She examines Hamas’s development as a political actor, key junctures it faced, including the 2006 elections, the Arab Spring, and Hamas’s ongoing troubled relationship with Israel, to highlight the group’s ongoing challenges of attaining legitimacy amongst diverse audiences.
Reclaiming Our Evidence
Authors: Leite Adam 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter defends the Moorean use of considerations about the world when responding to skeptical argumentation. Recent skeptical arguments developed by Duncan Pritchard fail because they do not provide good reasons against counting considerations about the world as part of our evidence. Concerns about begging the question, Nozick’s Sensitivity Requirement, the nature of our evidence, epistemic closure, epistemic priority, circularity, “internalist” constraints, the New Evil Demon Problem, and reflective accessibility are all canvassed in search of a reason to restrict our evidence in a way that would prevent such a response. None provide a compelling reason to reject the Moorean’s appeal to considerations about the world.
Evidence and Method
Authors: Leite Adam 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter further defends the claim that we know and have evidence that we are not being deceived by an evil demon. Penelope Maddy has proposed an approach similar to this book’s method, but she maintains that though considerations about the world are part of our evidence, we still have no evidence that we are not being deceived by an evil demon. This chapter canvasses motivations for this position arising from concerns about the structure of the skeptical scenarios and limitations in our epistemic position, expectations about what evidence should do, the methodological role of evidence, and the methodological significance of a neutral position. None are successful. Given her other commitments, Maddy’s “Plain Inquirer” has no good reason to reject the position urged in this book.
The racist uncle, and other awkward situations
Authors: Horisk Claire 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
It is commonly thought that there is nothing wrong with listening to belittling speech in itself; rather, failing to confront the speaker is wrong. This chapter argues that a listener who is part of a conversation is making amends for the previous wrong of listening to demeaning speech by challenging it, blocking demeaning claims from the common ground. However, family, institutional, and other social hierarchies affect how much power individuals have over the common ground, so it may be rational for underprivileged individuals to smother challenges just as they have reasons to smother testimony. The chapter also argues that conversational alliances lead to multiple, overlapping common grounds in a single conversation; power dynamics, rather than number of participants, determine which common ground is more significant. The chapter also discusses the effects on the common ground of changing the topic, walking away, and silence in the face of belittling speech.
A Politics of Flows
Authors: Billard Thomas J 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This concluding chapter brings together the forms of activism practiced by the National Center for Transgender Equality that were analyzed in the preceding chapters to consider how these activities converged in a sustained program of work aimed at transforming the political information environment. The chapter argues that such activism can be understood as fitting a “politics of flows,” which understands the evolving power dynamics of interrelated communication streams. It further argues that the structure of the contemporary communication system is inextricable from the practices that are developed to influence it, as evidenced by the National Center for Transgender Equality’s (NCTE) work.
Protecting Human Rights in the Americas
Authors: Grossman Claudio 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the various roles that the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has played during its history. The chapter distinguishes three phases: fighting dictatorship, dealing with its legacy while embracing the new democracies emerging from authoritarianism, and finally promoting inclusion by expanding the human rights narrative to positive actions including the need to protect economic, social, and cultural rights. The Western Hemisphere confronts serious challenges to democratic governance, including inequality, corruption, discrimination, and concern about security. The Commission faces a possible reversion to authoritarianism, represented by different forms of populism that present alternative narratives of human rights to address the challenges facing the Western Hemisphere. This chapter discusses the techniques and work methodologies that the Commission has used, such as visits in loco, Rapporteurships, and the case system. The chapter assesses the working methods’ impact and suitability to address the current hemispheric reality. It argues that to deliver on its mandate, it is essential that the Commission maintains its independence, which is vital for the Commission’s legitimacy and ensures its ability to take on its broad and evolving mandate. While organizationally, the Commission is dependent on States and the current challenges existing in the Western Hemisphere cannot be underestimated, the Commission’s adaptability, legitimacy, and resilience, together with the existence of vibrant civil societies and States’ support, creates an important opportunity to address the challenges of the region through human rights and democracy.
Impact of the Inter-American Jurisprudence on Economic, Social, Cultural, and Environmental Rights
Authors: Mac-Gregor Eduardo Ferrer 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter studies the way in which the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) has protected economic, social, cultural, and environmental rights (ESCER). It analyzes the stage in which protection was carried out through the connection with civil and political rights (1999–2017). Subsequently, the stage of direct justiciability of ESCER is studied, either through the Protocol of San Salvador (right to education) or through an evolutionary interpretation of Article 26 of the American Convention on Human Rights, based on the Lagos del Campo case (2017). This new jurisprudential stage analyzes the methodology used, the specific obligations of the States (immediate enforceability, progressive development, and nonregression), as well as the ESCER declared violated by the court (right to work, health, social security, environment, food, water, cultural identity, etc.). The chapter ends with an analysis of the guarantees of nonrepetition ordered by the IACtHR, which has generated a transformative impact.
Indigenous Rights in the Inter-American System
Authors: Urrejola Antonia , Neira Elsy Curihuinca 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
For decades, various Indigenous organizations have appealed to the Inter-American Human Rights System seeking protection for their rights, when these have been threatened or violated within States. On this basis, the Inter-American System, through both of its organs, has set standards and adopted specific measures to ensure Indigenous peoples’ right to self-identification and recognition, their right to collective property, special protection from ethnic-cultural discrimination, among other human rights that they are entitled to. The present chapter provides an overview of the main inter-American human rights standards on Indigenous peoples, analyzing their specific application through the mechanism of precautionary measures implemented by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). The methodology used was a qualitative approach, carried out through the analysis of the resolutions of the IACHR. It is possible to affirm that significant gaps persist in the implementation of precautionary measures, mainly due to the lack of State agencies that ensure compliance with this approach. The foregoing reveals the need to join forces among the different actors, to make effective the fulfillment of the precautionary and protective functions of the Inter-American Commission regarding the human rights of Indigenous peoples, when they are at imminent risk of irreparable harm.
The Human Right to Defend Human Rights in the Inter-American System
Authors: Fachin Melina Girardi 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
How does the Inter-American System react to violations of the rights of human rights defenders in the configuration of what has been called the right to defend rights? This is the central question that this chapter aims to critically analyze. The topic could not be more current and urgent in the Latin American region, where many violations of human rights defenders occur, and impunity usually surrounds such crimes. Thus, the importance of the dialogue between different protective human rights levels to establish the inter-American standards of protection for human rights defenders. This product conflict intends to expand and magnify the rights protection of human rights defenders, based on a multilevel order.
Impact of the Inter-American Human Rights System in the Struggle against Impunity
Authors: Vera Oscar Parra 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter identifies some situations that affect compliance with the obligation to investigate, prosecute, and punish those responsible for serious human rights violations that, at the same time, constitute a reparation measure ordered by the Inter-American Court in contentious cases against Colombia. Through this preliminary diagnosis, it was possible to identify obstacles in the follow-up carried out by the Inter-American Court, determined by the generality of some of the inter-American orders, the type of obligation they involve, and the delays and difficulties that the Inter-American Court has in obtaining quality information to assess compliance. On the other hand, judicial authorities in Colombia face significant evidentiary obstacles and are immersed in a context of armed conflict that hinders their work. This general approach aims to show the complexity of administering justice in cases of serious human rights violations from a public policy perspective, in order to reflect on possible differentiated strategies, both at the Inter-American Court and within the States, with the objective of strengthening the fight against impunity.
The Independence of Justice as a Human Right and an International Obligation in Inter-American Jurisprudence
Authors: Corao Carlos Ayala 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter analyzes the independence of justice as a human right and an international obligation in inter-American case law. It focuses on the right to effective judicial protection, highlighting the State parties’ duty to protect rights via independent judges and courts, considering the UN Basic Principles on the Independence of the judiciary. The chapter also addresses several elements of the independence of judges, discussing professional stability, the exceptional nature of provisional judges, as well as the system for removing judges from office. In particular, the chapter characterizes the arbitrary removal or dismissal of judges as a failure to respect the guarantees of judicial independence. As a conclusion, this chapter endorses judicial independence as an essential element of the rule of law and constitutional democracy and as a human right within the guarantees of due process.
Conclusion
Authors: Bogdandy Armin von , Piovesan Flavia , Mac-Gregor Eduardo Ferrer , Antoniazzi Mariela Morales 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
By building upon the scholarship on ICCAL, this book analyzed the transformative impact caused by the actions of the Inter-American System of Human Rights (IASHR). It conceptualizes transformative impact as “structural changes resulting from the Inter-American System’s responses to human rights violations, which tackle systemic regional challenges by addressing the root causes and institutional enablers of violations.” Three characteristics have been singled out as significant enablers of IASHR’s structural impact: the system’s victim-centric approach, community of practice, and institutional resilience. These three elements -and the positive transformations they foment- are the bedrock that enables the system to succeed in improving the protection of human rights in the America despite deep-rooted historical and current challenges in the region.
Increasing Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Employee Attraction
Authors: Hebl Mikki , King Eden 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Organizational diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) depends heavily on the people who apply to join the organization. In other words, equitable and inclusive recruitment or attraction of people from diverse backgrounds is necessary to support DEI in organizations. This chapter offers a set of recommendations based on extensive scientific studies on organizational recruitment. After reviewing existing recruitment tools and strategies, organizations can pursue strategic recruitment opportunities, project authentic DEI optics, explicitly and implicitly communicate about DEI, and offer policies that are appealing to a wide and diverse applicant pool. Careful attention to the ways that DEI intersects with the recruitment process in its broadest sense—the process of increasing the attractiveness of the organization to potential employees—is critical for organizations.
Procedural Due Process and the Day-in-Court Ideal
Authors: Redish Martin H. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the doctrines of res judicata and collateral estoppel, which prevent litigants who have already had their day in court from relitigating cases or issues which were already litigated in prior adjudications. It has long been recognized (quite wisely) that the bars imposed by these doctrines cannot be imposed upon litigants who have not had their day in court. However, in recent years, some courts have developed the theory of “virtual representation,” pursuant to which even litigants who had not had their actual day in court may be bound by prior judgments, as long as the losing party in those prior cases possessed interests and motivations parallel to those of the new litigant. This was so, even though the new litigant may well have had absolutely no connection to or knowledge of the prior litigant. The US Supreme Court wisely rejected this doctrine as a violation of due process. However, in doing so, the Court failed in two important ways: first, while purporting to rely on the so-called “day in court” ideal, the Court failed completely in providing a sophisticated theoretical rationale to justify the litigant’s right to a day in court; second, the Court failed to consider situations in which competing constitutional interests might be sufficiently compelling to justify overcoming a litigant’s right to her day in court. This chapter answers both questions by drawing on the foundation of liberal adversary democratic theory.
The Islamic Republic of Iran in Historical and Institutional Perspective Ruptures and Continuities
Authors: Hunter Shireen T. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
There have been vast discontinuities between Iran’s historical and institutional past under the Islamic Republic. The Islamic Republic was a sharp break with Iran’s past. Religion has had a significant social, cultural, and, to some degree, political role in both pre and post-Islamic Iran. But throughout its history, Iran never had a religion-based government either under indigenous or foreign rulers. The possible exception is when Iran was under Arab Caliphates’ rule. Even then, the clergy were not engaged in governance as the Caliph combined both sacred and temporal power. Iran’s transformation from a monarchy to a republic marks another significant break. This transformation, however, could have been expected, because monarchies in other countries were being abolished as well. There has also been a downgrading of “Iran” and an elevation of “Islam” as the sole foundation of national identity and the focus of loyalty and unprecedented attacks on Iran’s pre-Islamic heritage. The Islamic system does show some continuities with the past. However, many of its institutions and practices are a departure from the past. Meanwhile, the country’s political culture, especially its tendency towards the cult of personalities and towards authoritarianism, reflect significant continuity with the past.
The Velayat-e Faqih
Authors: Mahdavi Mojtaba 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The innovative position of the velayat-e faqih, conventionally translated as Supreme Leader, has a remarkable breadth of powers in the Islamic Republic. As the core of the postrevolutionary state, the office of the velayat-e faqih enjoys enormous political, military and financial power. Under Ayatollah Khomeini the velayat-e faqih’s power was largely derived from Khomeini’s revolutionary and religious charisma as well as the semi-totalitarian nature of the state he founded in the first decade of the postrevolutionary polity. With no or limited religious and revolutionary charisma, his successor Ayatollah Khamenei, however, has mostly relied on his conservative peers and the security-military apparatuses backed by petrodollars and the rentier structure of the state. The second vali faqih has bureaucratized, routinized and institutionalized the office of velayat-e faqih, turning his office, the beyt, into the headquarter of Iran’s deep state, in charge of multi-mega revolutionary financial conglomerates.