bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
To BLEVE or not to BLEVE: Anatomy of a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion
Authors: Venart J. E. S. , Rutledge G. A. , Sumathipala K. , Sollows K. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe loss of containment (LOC) for Pressure Liquefied Gas (PLG) vessels under accidential fire engulfment is shown to be very complex. The LOC depends upon: (i) the extent and intesity of external heating, (ii) the pressure relief device (PRD) operation and flare (if contents flammable), (iii) the fluid and fill level, (iv) the construction of the vessel, and (v) the thermohydraulic history of the commodity prior to failure.The Simple experiments described here shows that there exists a new type of more powerful failure than the BLEVE. This even we call a BLCBE, a Boiling Liquid Compressed Bubble Explosion. A hypothesis is advanced to explain this mode of failure which is supported by an initial series of small scale experiments involving Argon, water, R11, and R123.A comprehensive test program to determine the details of the BLCBE and BLEVE failure modes is indicated along with work to determine methods of protection.
Industry views on chemical process safety
Authors: Andrews David C. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe American Petroleum Institute strongly supports process safety management (PSM). However, as we begin to implement OSHA's new PSM rule, and as we face EPA's Risk Management Plan Rulemaking pursuant to the Clean Air Act Amendments, we have several concerns. These involve: (1) resource management; (2) quality of effort; (3) managing regulatory change; (4) enforcement; (5) prospect of duplicative or inconsistent regulations; and (6) role of the Chemical Safety Board. An enormous challenge lies ahead for industry, consultants and contractors, as well as OSHA and EPA, in implementing process safety management. Working together, we will be successful.
The unforeseen side‐effects of improving the environment
Authors: Kletz Trevor A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractChanges made to improve the environment have sometimes produced unforeseen and hazardous side‐effects. Thus enclosing compressor houses to reduce noise has made explosion more likely, the replacement of CFCs in aerosols has led to a number of fires in plants and warehouses and the confinement of flammable vapors in vent collection systems has caused a number of explosions. These and some other similar changes are described. Before changing designs or methods of operation we should try to foresee their effects and we should balance the risks to people against the risks to environment.
Vapor suppression of chemicals using foams
Authors: Scheffler Norman E. , Green L. Shayne , Frurip David J. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractIn the handling of chemicals in our plants, there is always concern about the possibility of spillage. The consequences of a spill have to be carefully evaluated. Two of the main hazards are fire and emissions to the environment. Foams have proven to be very effective in blanketing a spill and in giving fire extinguishment by providing a barrier covering. This same barrier covering can also be effectively used to suppress vaporization and emissions. This paper gives the results of measurements of the vapor suppression for various chemicals using foamsm, and gives the test procedures developed. The base conditions simulated a 5.0 mph (8.05 km/hr) wind at 25°C with a 76% relative humidity, using Universal® GOLD foam from Chubb National Foam. Variables studied were chemical, foam type, foam height, relative humidity, and time. Data was obtained for chemical concentration in the vapor and relative percent vapor suppression versus time using acrylonitrile, ethyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, allyl chloride, propylene oxide and vinylidene chloride. Excellent vapor suppression was demonstrated for most systems with 100% vapor suppression for 2 hr for vinylidene chloride, about 95% for 2 hr for the acrylates and allyl chloride, and 90% for 2 hr for acylonitrile. Propylene oxide was suppressed to 95% for 1 hr before marked decrease.
Electrostatic ignitions in enriched oxygen atmospheres: A case history
Authors: Pratt Thomas H. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThere have been instances where ignitions have occurred in oxygen enriched atmospheres in closed systems. The causes of these ignitions have been difficult if not impossible to explain by ordinary mechanisms, and even though electrostatics has been implicated, there have been no definitive mechanisms proposed which can explain the ignitions. This paper will perhaps be a step toward a satisfactory explanation by bringing another electrostatic mechanism to the attention of the loss prevention community.In an example incident, ignition occurred when oxygen was bubbling to the surface of a liquid where flammable vapors existed. It is known that bubbles breaking at a liquid surface can create an electic field in the atmosphere above the liquid. Also, in real systems, there are all sorts of surface discontinuities and things floating about so that there are sharp points where it is conceivable that corona discharge may develop, depending on the strength of the electrostatic field. In ordinary atmospheres, corona discharge is only incendive to very sensitive vapors and is considered to be non‐incendive to ordinary vapors, but on the other hand, it is well known that the minimum ignition energy requirements for ordinary vapors in pure oxygen atmospheres are some 100 times less than those in normal atmospheres. Such a reduction in energy requirements could likewise be expected for corona discharge. One can then speculate that such a self induced corona discharge could have been capable of igniting the flammable vapors which were in an oxygen enriched atmosphere. The experimental and theoretical pros and cons of this mechanism are discussed in the paper with no definitive conclusion being reached.
Evaluating external spill response resources
Authors: Browne George 
Published: June 2004

AbstractImagine that a seemingly minor fire has been discovered in the warehouse storing raw materials for your plant. The fire department is notified and you expect that the emergency will be over shortly. Twelve hours and several millions dollars worth of damage later, the fire is extinguished. You stand there in shock as you try to make sense of what happened. Reality or fiction? The answer can depend on many factors, some of which you can resolve, easily, and some which will require an extensive commitment of time and money.
Failure and design limit criteria for blast loaded structures
Authors: Barker D. D. , Whitney M. G. , Waclawczyk J. H. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe majority of buildings located at petrochemical plants, exclusive of control rooms, are of conventional construction and do not explicitly provide for resistance to blast loads. Typical construction types include steel frame with metal cladding, concrete masonry unit, and brick clad with concrete or steel frame. These buildings are designed for conventional loads without regard for high overpressures and fragments resulting from an accidental explosion. Current regulatory trends are causing many companies to evaluate design standards for new and existing support structures especially in the wake of recent accidental explosions. Response criteria is an important part of these design standards especially when they are used to analyze existing structures for blast protection. Structural evaluations at several sites have revealed that few existing structures meet current design criteria primarily due to weak member connections. Previous work has shown that many conventional structures can develop a surprising degree of resistance to blast loading if proper detailing is used in design, thus allowing members to develop their full capacity. This paper discusses response criteria currently used for new structures and examines the problem of determining acceptance criteria for existing structures. Data from explosion accidents and test programs is reviewed to determine the degree of conservatism in current criteria. Finally, alternatives for establishing blast capacity of existing structures are discussed.
The cost and benefits of process safety management: Industry survey results
Authors: Bridges William G. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractProcess safety management (PSM) is a relatively new phrase that encompasses many activities for controlling process‐related hazards in the workplace. These activities (also called PSM elements) have been maturing at different rates over the past two decades. Since 1986, state and federal regulators have been mandating implementation of PSM programs at workplaces that handle hazardous chemicals, including explosives, toxics, and flammables. Before promulgating their regulations, the regulators estimated the cost and benefit of compliance with these regulations, but in all cases their cost estimates have fallen orders of magnitude short of actual implementation costs. This paper presents the actual costs that some companies have expended and provides estimates of future costs to comply with either self‐imposed standards or government regulations related to PSM. The data on actual costs were provided in response to a recent survey. The costs are broken into categories so that companies just now implementing PSM will be able to gear up for their future efforts. Also discussed are the types of benefits and, where possible, the actual benefits that have been achieved by implementing PSM programs. The cost of developing and implementing PSM is great; however, most companies have seen comparable or greater benefits as a result of implementing PSM programs. Finally, this paper explores the cost of implementing EPA's forthcoming regulation for risk management programs.
Prediction of discharge rate from pressurized vessel blowdown through sheared pipe
Authors: Khajehnajafi Shahryar , Shinde Ashok 
Published: June 2004

AbstractIt is a common industrial practice to store chemicals in large vessels. For emergency response management, prediction of the impacted area due to the dispersion of a chemical accidentally released from a vessel is crucial. Therefore, accurate estimation of the release rate and condition of the flowing stream is warranted.Based on this need, a general purpose quasi‐steady model is developed which can calculate the discharge rate from a tank‐pipe system (rupture in the tank or shearing of an attached pipe). The tank may contain gas, vapor, saturated or sub cooled liquid (under its own vapor pressure or padding pressure). The model output includes the history of the tank variables i.e., pressure, temperature, mass content, liquid level as well as the transient outflow of chemicals from a rupture or pipe as a function of momentary tank thermodynamics condition. The results of the model for the case of two phase flow through a pipe are validated against experimental data. Charts are provided which show the effect of the pipe length and the padding pressure on the discharge of the tank content.
Loss case histories in pressurized ethylene systems
Authors: Britton Laurence G. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThis paper addresses a number of accident case histories in pressurized ethylene systems comprising heaters, driers, purifiers and High Pressure Polyethylene product receivers. Also covered are compression‐heating accidents in pipelines and compressors, and decomposition via external fire exposure of piping.Several companies contributed accounts; few of these have been reported in the open literature. The probable event scenarios are discussed with reference to safety information that in many cases postdates the contemporary loss reports. While there may be room for some debate over probable causes, insight can be gained simply by reading the accounts.The objective is to provide real examples of design and operational oversights contributing to preventable losses. As usual in Loss Prevention case histories, an important lesson is that years of uneventful operation often pass before a problem is recognized, and that subsequent investigation often uncovers the potential for other failure routes and possibly worse outcomes.
Application of ARCTM thermokinetic data to the design of safety schemes for industrial reactors
Authors: Townsend D. I. , Ferguson H. D. , Kohlbrand H. T. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractAn ARCTM or similar experimental apparatus provides the transient temperature history of a chemical system under adiabatic conditions. The information obtained has several applications in the design and operation of industrial systems. Of particular interest is use of the adiabatic kinetic data to define “intervention strategies” based on “allowable response times” during an emergency.The time‐temperature behavior of industrial reactors can be simulated over a limited temperature range by matching the “thermal inertia” (or ϕ‐factor) of the experimental system to that of the full‐scale system. This approach is applicable even for complex reactions, minimizes the extrapolation of data, and allows the use of simple models for data interpretation. Simulation results directly give the time available to respond in the event of a thermal runaway; this in turn defines the design requirements for an intervention scheme (e.g., emergency cooling, blow down, quench, etc.). The chosen intervention system can be tested experimentally prior to and/or during process start‐up.
Validation of scaling techniques for experimental vapor cloud explosion investigations
Authors: Mercx W. P. M. , Johnson D. M. , Puttock J. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractWithin the project “MERGE”, an acronym for Modelling and Experimental Research into Gas Explosions, eight institutes from five different European countries co‐operated to increase the understanding of vapor cloud explosions and to improve the sophisticated computerized prediction techniques that were, until this project, under separate development at several institutes.The objectives of the project were:

to provide a consistent set of data on the influence of obstacles on flame propagation in initially quiescent mixtures at various geometrical scales;
to improve, compare and validate numerical models for vapor cloud explosion simulation;
to validate scaling techniques for explosion experiments;
to investigate and to model jet explosions.
The second item is discussed in this report.
Transition from deflagration to detonation in layered dust explosions
Authors: Sichel M. , Kauffman C. W. , Li Y. C. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractDust layers on the bottom of mine tunnels, on factory floors, or on the floors of grain elevator passages are the most frequent cause of highly destructive dust explosions. Typically, such layered dust explosions involve a high velocity, accelerating, turbulent flame which is fed by the dust layer and results in high destructive static and dynamic pressures. In some cases transition to detonation has been observed, and such explosions are the most destructive. Scientific studies of such layered dust explosions, conducted at the University of Michigan, are discussed.
Some loss prevention case histories
Authors: Kletz Trevor A. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractWe learn more from accounts of accidents than from codes and standards or exhortations to follow them. Incident reports are more likely to spur us into action. We are unlikely to read a code until an accident report has shown us the need. This paper describes a number of accidents, some old, some recent, which can teach us lessons of general interest. It looks at the underlying causes as well as the immediate technical ones.
Measures for reducing SCC in anhydrous ammonia storage tanks
Authors: Nyborg Rolf , Lunde Liv 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe results from four research projects on ammonia stress corrosion cracking (SCC) are provided, including the effect of oxygen and water in the ammonia, prevention of SCC with electrochemical methods, crack growth rate studies, and behavior of welds. Practical recommendations are given for construction, inspection, repair, commissioning, and operation of ammonia storage tanks.
The sensitivity of non‐explosive compounds to friction testing
Authors: Négyesi György 
Published: June 2004

AbstractProcess safety officials often place great emphasis on the results from tests to define various fire and explosion hazards inherent in dusts. These include the flammability, the autoignition temperature, the lower explosive limit, and sometimes the Kst‐value which is a characteristic equivalent to the maximum pressure rise in a 1 m3 vessel of an optimally combined substance/air mixture when the temperature is 20°C and pressure was 100 kPa before the explosion. It is also important to know if there is any electrostatic hazard. Tests of the specific volumetric resistance, the minimum ignition energy, the electrostatic chargeability, the relative permittivity and the discharge time contribute to determining this specific hazard.If the substance is also subjected to elevated thermal conditions, the safe process temperature should be tested by the help of thermoanalytical techniques [1, 2, 3, 4]. If the dust indicates the characteristics of an explosive in such tests, its sensitivity to impact should be tested, and if the substance is sensitive to impact, its sensitivity to friction should also be tested [5, 6, 7]. Note: many of the tests used for process safety studies in the chemical industry have been adapted from the explosives industry.The significance of friction testing for expert decisions regarding grinding operations on non‐explosive chemicals when the test results of the sensitivity to impact were negative is introduced in this paper.
Vapor cloud explosion analysis
Authors: Baker Quentin A. , Tang Ming Jun , Scheier Ephraim A. , Silva Gustavo J. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThis paper introduces a new method (now commonly referred to as the Baker‐Strehlow Method) for estimating pressure and impulse generated by vapor cloud explosions. Strehlow's blast curves and concepts from the Multi‐Energy method for determination of explosion energy are applied in this technique. New correlations for maximum flame speed based on obstacle density, fuel reactivity, and cloud confinement allow selection of the appropriate blast curve. Application of these correlations removes much of the subjectivity present in existing explosion estimates.
On the estimation of hazard potential for chemical substances
Authors: Melhem G. A. , Shanley E. S. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThere is considerable interest in means for predicting reactivity hazard potential from chemical structure. Such means are intended to provide measures of the likelihood that a given chemical composition can undergo rapid self‐reaction, i.e., that it can detonate or deflagrate. The means to be discussed are most useful in predicting behavior under unconfined conditions. As they are computational in nature, they can be deployed quickly and easily to wide ranges of compositions, whether or not these have ever been made. Comparison with better‐known compositions is facilitated and can provide additional guidance.In this paper we provide critical reviews of some commonly used hazard evaluation systems, including the oxygen balance system, and ASTM CHETAH. We also provide a review of our recent studies aimed at the development of more powerful screening systems.
Hazard rating system for flammable and combustible liquids
Authors: Scheffey Joseph L. , Tabar David C. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractFlash point determinations made from small‐scale fire test apparatus are used by regulatory authorities to classify flammable and combustible liquids. Based on these classificaiton, regulators then specify or provide guidance on the appropriate methods to transport, handle, package, store, dispense, and protect these materials. Closed‐cup flash points of flammable and combustible liquids are used to establish their appropriate classification. Exceptions to these classifications include products such as alcoholic beverages and medicines stored in relatively small containers, which have historically presented a limited fire hazard.Many companies are now reformulating their consumer liquid products to meet customer and regulatory demands for low volatile organic compounds (VOC's). Low VOC formulations often do not inherently result in the total elimination of flammable or combustible liquid solvents. In some cases, the reformulations result in “water‐reducible” products, which contain a high water content. Water‐reducible coatings are products where the solvent system used to disperse and suspend solids is primarily water. The remainder of the solvent system may contain liquids that are classified as flammable or combustible liquids. A natural by‐product of the “water‐reducible” trend is the development of a fire analysis framework which could be adopted by regulatory authorities as part of the movement toward performance‐oriented codes. This methodology could also be used to address limitations of specific test methods. These limitations relate to product vicosity, accuracy in predicting overall fire hazard, ability to assess physical changes of state when a product is tested, and test method reliability and ease of use.
Pipe and duct deflagrations associated with incinerators
Authors: Chatrathi Kirs , Going John 
Published: June 2004

AbstractThe potential for dust and gas explosions in the process industries has been long recognized. Potentially explosive materials are handled in large quantities on a daily basis. A specific hazard associated with conveying materials into incinerators and thermal oxidizers involves the potential for deflagration propagation through process pipes and ducts back into the plant.The deflagration propagation phenomena in pipes and ducts is one that is both highly hazardous and complex to predict. A deflagration, moving down a pipe, under the right conditions can increase in velocity to the point when a transition into detonation occurs with potentially catastrophic results. This deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) is effected by a number of interrelated factors. Knowledge of these factors is crucial to the development of explosion prevention and protection measures.A discussion of the deflagration phenomena is presented with emphasis on pipes and ducts and transition of deflagration to detonation. The use of this information to design explosion protection is described using several industrial examples.
Reaction calorimetry for process development: Recent advances
Authors: Singh Jasbir 
Published: June 2004

AbstractReaction calorimetry has found widespread acceptance as a valuable tool that provides a combination of thermal hazard and process data for batch‐type reactors. There have been many significant advances in this type of instrument over the last few years, which include both improvements in methodology and the addition of new experimental features. This article describes, with examples, the basic elements of a reaction calorimeter, comparison of commercial devices, and a number of new development, including the use of power compensation in place of the more familiar heat flow calorimetry.Applications to process safety and reaction optimization are presented with data from the SIMULAR reaction calorimeter.
Measuring inherent safety, health and environmental characteristics early in process development
Authors: Hendershot Dennis C. 
Published: June 2004

AbstractIt is generally agreed that inherent safety is most effectively addressed early in chemical process development. Measurement of inherent safety, health, and environmental (SHE) characterisics of various process alternatives is important to effectively consider these charactersitics when selecting the best overall process. Several tools which can be used to measure inherent SHE characteristics of a chemical process early in development are briefly discussed.