bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
An application of the self‐ignition method of polymers: Anti‐smoke additive induced glowing effect in the combustion of poly(vinylchloride)
Authors: Descamps J. M. , Delfosse L. , Lucquin M. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe effect of anti‐smoke additives in poly(vinylchloride) (PVC) has been studied using self‐ignition methods. The self‐ignition reaction was followed thermally, visually and by gas—liquid chromatography of the gaseous phase around the sample. Particular emphasis was palced on the determination of the CO, CO2 and aromatic species. It is shown that ferrocence, among similar additives, considerably modifies the self‐ignition behaviour of PVC by inducing glowing phenomena of various kinds. In some cases this incandescence can lead to self‐ignition. From the analysis of carbon oxids and aromatic species as a function of time and temperature, it is possible to deduce that the anti‐smoke reaction is associated, at least partially, with reactions which lead to incandescence. These reactions transform the carbon into carbon oxides instead of producing, in the gaseous phase, molecules which on further condensation lead to aromatic species at the origin of the soot. In short, the anit‐smoke reaction appears to proceed mainly through a competing mechanism.
Skin damage due to heat transfer by conduction
Authors: Stoll A. M. , Chianta M. A. , Piergallini J. R. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis study provides basic data with respect to pain and burns produced on short‐term contact of bare skin with heated substances. The data may also be used to determine the thermal properties and thicknesses of fabrics or coatings required to prevent injury in such contacts. The maximum temperature any material might attain without causing injury on contact with bare skin was determined from measurements of pain threshold during contact with heated materials representing a wide spectrum of thermal properties form good conductors to good insulators. Pain threshold times were converted to blister times and the latter extrapolated to predict those temperatures at which blistering would result form ‘instantaneous’ (0.3 s) contact. The predicted temperatures were verified experimentally in contacts with four different materials. From these data, charts and equations were derived by which the maximum permissible temperature for safe contact could be determined for any material solely form a knowledge of its thermal conductivity, density and specific heat. Additionally, equations for transient heat flow in two‐layer systems yield the thickness of coatings, fabrics or other thermal barriers of known properties which would be required to protect the skin form pain or burn on contact with materials at excessive temperatures.
Biological end‐points for the assessment of the toxicity of the products of combustion of materials
Authors: Farrar D. G. , Galster W. A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe toxicological end‐points used in a method for the assessment of the toxicity of combustion products are described. The evaluation considers three areas of toxicological interaction: incapacitation, death, and post‐exposure involvement. The model of incapacitation described is the leg‐flexion avoidance response of the rat. Additional end‐points to assist in the determination of the causality of the observed toxicity are included. The effects of the combustion products of Douglas fir, a phenolic foam, a urea formaldehyde foam and a flexible polyurethane foam on these endpoint are described. The wide range of types of potential toxicities resulting form exposure of animals to the combustion products of materials is discussed. Additionally discussed are the relative merits of the leg‐flexion avoidance response as a model of incapacitation. Conclusions as to the important components of a first‐tier toxicological evaluation of combustion products are drawn.
Intumescent coatings and their uses
Authors: Rhys J. A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThin coats of flame‐retardant paints are unable to protect flammable substrates as there is not sufficient flame retardant in the thin coat to protect the substrate. Intumescent coatings foam and bubble when subjected to high temperatures and create multicellular cushions which prevent (a) heat from penetrating into the substrate and (b) flames from spreading along the surface. This paper concentrates on paints and varnishes, but also considers protective coatings for structural steel, smoke proof and wall piercings.
An evaluation of heat release criteria in reaction‐to‐fire tests
Authors: Vandevelde P. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA theoretical approach is developed for evaluating quantitatively the heat evolved during a reaction‐to‐fire test. This involves determining the transfer function from two head balance equations, one concerning the walls and the other the air in the test box. A comparison between this theoretical approach and the empirical ‘area under the curve’ method has been made for 34 tests on electrical cables. It is shown that the empirical method is unacceptable.
Anomalous behaviour in certain versions of the critical oxygen index test
Authors: Wharton R. K. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractMeasured Critical Oxygen Index values at 40°C for Opal polymethylmethacrylate (Perspex) sheet have been found to be remarkably dependent on the gas velocity within the column of the Hot Flammability Test Apparatus. Investigation of the atmosphere present in the column has indicated that the effect is almost solely attributable to varying quantities of ambient air entering the column as the flow rate is altered. A modification to the apparatus is proposed that successfully prevents this entrainment of air at normal testing flow rates.
A computational study of physical and chemical inhibition in a perfectly stirred reactor
Authors: Brown Nancy J. , Schefer Robert W. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis paper reports a set of modeling studies that were undertaken to acquire a more detailed knowledge of combustion inhibition mechanisms. Mixtures of H2/O2/Ar reacting in the idealized perfectly stirred reactor were investigated. Three H2/O2 kinetic mechanisms were considered, differing from one another by the number of HO2 reactions included. Two physical inhibitors, Ar and N2, and one chemical inhibitor, HBr, were investigated. Additional parameters considered were pressure, equivalence ratio, inhibitor concentration and rate coefficient variation. The most effective inhibitor was HBr which acted chemically and caused substantial reduction in radical concentrations in the mixtures considered. The molecules Ar and N2 acted as physical diluents with N2, the more effective of the two due to its larger heat capacity.
Hydraulic fluids: An approach to high pressure spray flammability testing based on measurement of heat output
Authors: Roberts A. F. , Brookes F. R. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractOne of the main hazards associated with the use of hydraulic fluids is the accidental release of hydraulic fluid near to a source of ignition. Several tests simulating this hazard have been developed but, in the opinion of the authors, none fulfils all the scriterla required of a flammability test. A new form of test has been developed. A test chamber is ventilated by a smooth flow of air; the hydraulic fluid under test is sprayed into the test chamber and ignited. The temperature rise in the gases leaving the stack and the radiation from the flame are measured at a specified time and from these measurements the heat output of the flame is estimated. Different fluids are then compared on the basis of their heat output values and data are presented in the paper for a variety of fluids.
The influence of sample dimension on the critical oxygen index of thin polypropylene films
Authors: McIlhagger R. , Hill B. J. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis investigation examines the influence of sample dimensions on the Critical Oxygen Index, as determined on a Stanton Redcoft Hot Flammability Test Apparatus instrument. The materials used were polypropylene films in a range of thicknesses from 40 μm up to 300 μm and polymethylmethacrylate of 1600 μm thickness. Both the Critical Oxygen Index and the rate of spared of burn in the samples were determined. It is concluded that, for polypropylene, the sample dimensions were important in determining the Critical Oxygen Index and the rate of spread of burn and, further, that the ratio of the volume of material burned in unit time to the volume flow of oxygen in the same time remains constant, the value of the constant being 2.5 × 10 −4. For polymethlmethacrylate, in confirmation of the work of Fenimore and Jones, the sample dimensions were unimportant when investigating the Critical Oxygen Index, although the rate of burn by volume showed a significant increase with sample width. The volume ratio showed a corresponding increase.
An investigation of the variation of oxygen index of materials with changes in pressure
Authors: Routley A. F. , Ludlam N. P. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractAn apparatus has been designed and a procedure adopted for studing the oxygen index of materials over a range of pressures. It has been found that the oxygen index falls with increase in pressure so that materials become more flammable, the effect being more marked with the less flammable materials. An empirical method has been devised for predicting the oxygen index at varying pressures.
Modeling of NBS mattress tests with the harvard mark V fire simulation
Authors: Rockett John A. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractNBS burned eleven mattresses made up with bedding in two different rooms, typical of a residential bedroom and a nursing home patient room, respectively. Seven of the mattresses flamed and burned vigorously, the other four were of a construction or so heavily flame‐inhibited that they only smoldered. The burning behavior of the seven that flamed was modeled with the Harvard Mark V fire simulation. The experimental burn behavior for tests conducted in one room was well reproduced using only total weight of combustible, surface area and heat of combustion. Smoke production values were found to have little effect on the predicted behavior except for the smoke production itself. Fires in a second room, whose ventilation was intentionally restricted by the configuration of the adjoining space, could not be as well reproduced by the present, single‐room fire model. During this study several changes were made to the simulation. The most significant change was the inclusion of mixing of the hot exiting fire gases with the cold incoming air. As a part of this, the inter‐layer radiation exchange was reformulated to include the effect of smoke contamination of the lower layer. The reformulation of the radiation model has a marked effect on the predicted upper layer gas temperatures, generally improving the quality of the simulation.
Effect of fire‐retardant additives on the time‐resolved processes of polymer combustion
Authors: Kishore K. , Mohandas K. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe effect of various inorganic and organic additives on various time‐resolved processes (e.g. degradation, ignition, burning rate and quenching) in the combustion of polystyrene has been examined. They are found to impart favourable as well as unfavourable effects on various combustion steps, the important implication being the selection of fire‐retardant additives for the specific hazards encountered in end use.
The thermo‐oxidative degradation of PTFE in the NIST cup furnace toxicity test
Authors: Metcalfe E. , Harman A. R. , Patel M. K. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractLong‐lived end‐chain peroxy radicals have been detected during the thermo‐oxidative degradation of PTFE. These radicals are associated with the fine particulate, which is the established cause of the ultra‐high toxic potency of PTFE produced under the conditions employed. The particulate has been further characterized by a vareity of thermo‐analytical methods. Fluid‐flow modelling analysis has been used to simulate the recirculatory behaviour, characteristic of the NIST cup furnace toxicity test, which may effect the continuous regeneration of the toxicity.
Fire performance of gusset connections in glue‐laminated timber
Authors: Buchanan Andrew H. , King Andrew B. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis paper describes a comprehensive experimental investigation of the fire performance of nailed gusset connections between large glue‐laminated timber members. Both plywood and steel gusset plates were investigated with a range of loaded and unloaded test methods. The principal conclusions are that unprotected gussets have poor fire performance, but that a layer of solid wood or gypsum plasterboard will provide at least one hour of fire protection to typical joints.
Piloted ignition of wood: A review
Authors: Janssens Marc 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe physical phenomenon of piloted ignition of a material is described. A number of mathematical models of this phenomenon are presented in order of decreasing complexity. The most sophisticated models include gas‐phase phenomena. Simple models neglect all chemical effects and are purely thermal. The most commonly used criteria for piloted ignition are discussed. Correlations used in piloted ignition studies from the past 40–50 years are summarized. Many investigators have been successful in correlating piloted ignition data of wood using a simplified thermal model in combination with a critical surface temperature criterion. Emphasis of this review is therefore on this approach. The paper concludes with a detailed analysis of various factors affecting piloted ignition of wood. Some of the factors are related to the experimental conditions, others are associated with the characteristics of the material.
Effect of condensed‐phase and gas‐phase flame retardants on the ignition behaviour of cotton fabric
Authors: Khattab M. A. , Kandil S. H. , Gad A. M. , El‐Latif M. , Morsi S. E. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of some well‐known flame retardants on the ignition behaviour of cotton fabric. Two types of flame retardants acting in different phases (e.g. condensed phase and gas phase) were used. At low add‐on of the retardant acting in the condensed phase the ignition behaviour of the cotton is different from that treated with retardant acting in the gas phase. The condensed‐phase retardant caused cotton to burn more rapidly than untreated fabrics. This was attributed to the fact that small add‐on of the retardant makes the fuel for the flame available at a lower temperature. However, in the presence of sufficient amounts of retardant, the decomposition of cellulose becomes more directed towards the dehydration mechanism and thus the concentration of the flammable gases is insufficient to reach the flammability limits required. When gas‐phase flame retardants were used, a linear dependency of ignition time on the concentration of additive was found. This is explained in terms of the dilution effect of this retardant on the fuel produced from the decomposing fabric.
Analysis and interpretation of the plumbing materials file of the NYS combustion toxicity data bank
Authors: Wallace Deborah 
Published: May 2005

AbstractNew York State's Building and Fire Prevention Code includes a requirement that combustible materials used in electrical, plumbing and finishing systems be tested by the University of Pittsburgh protocol and that particular data from that testing be reported on standard forms to the Office of Fire Prevention and Control. The plumbing file in this data bank contains data on 41 products, excluding minor usages. In this paper, these data plus the data on Douglas fir are reported and analyzed. LC50 was found to have significant correlations with indices of thermal instability, of rate of mass loss, and of corrosive irritants. The most parsimonious model developed with stepwise regression correlated LC50 with three factors: %wt loss per degree of temperature rise, temperature at the beginning of rapid weight loss‐temperature at which 1% of the sample weight was lost, and temperature at the end of rapid weight loss‐temperature at which 1% of the sample weight was lost. LC50 was weakly correlated with maximum CO concentration and in the ‘wrong’ direction (high CO concentrations were associated with low toxicity). Log LC50 was significantly correlated with Log COmax, but also in the ‘wrong’ direction. LC50 was correlated with minimum oxygen concentration with a small R‐squared and also in the ‘wrong’ direction. The question of the relevance of these test results to smoke exposures in real fires is discussed.
Smoke results from a set of over 100 carpets in the NBS smoke chamber: Statistical analysis and investigation of affecting factors
Authors: Hirschler Marcelo M. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA large set of carpets was tested vertically in the NBS smoke chamber (ASTM E662), in two ways: along the length and along the width of their grain pattern. The set comprised 104 carpets. The results were analyzed in order to investigate the potential effect of carpet grain direction on the results obtained. It was shown that there is no statistically significant difference between the orientation of the carpet (width or length). Moreover, the degree of agreement was the same whatever the result of the test. Several other variables were found to have an effect. The most important of these is the sample weight, but others are carpet construction, yarn type and backing material. It was found that the testing mode (flaming or non‐flaming) did not appear to affect the results of this set of samples in a statistically significant way.
Hybrid fibres in fire protection
Authors: Heidari Shahram , Kallonen Raija 
Published: May 2005

AbstractA series of cellulose–polysilicic acid hybrid fibres with 15–35% silica contents were spun and their flammabilities were assessed by the LOI oxygen index test. Also, the rate of heat release and toxicities of fumes evolved during the combustion process for hybrid fibre with 33% SiO2 loading was obtained using the cone calorimeter and FT‐IR techniques. The low flammability and toxicity indices indicate that this hybrid fibre can be used as a flame‐retardant fibre.
The effects of specimen edge conditions on heat release rate
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Twilley William H. , Parker William J. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractWhen bench‐scale specimens are tested for heat release rate, it is generally of interest that the behavior of the specimen simulate, as much as is possible, that of a real‐scale product performing in a real fire. A number of issues have been raised recently by workers trying to understand the optimal conditions of specimen preparation and mounting. In the present study a large number of materials were explored in the Cone Calorimeter to determine the effect of edge conditions and edge frames. It was found that by the use of an insulated edge frame, heat release rate values can be obtained which are slightly closer to expected true values. The testing procedure, however, is significantly more complicated. This makes the insulated edge frame useful for collecting specialized data for fire modeling, but not for conducting routine reaction‐to‐fire tests. For routine testing use, it is recommended: (1) that no edge frame needs to be used unless the test specimen presents special difficulties, such as due to intumescence; (2) that in those cases where the use of the steel edge frame is found necessary, the results should be reported on the basis of an effective exposure area of 0.0081 m2. When reported on such a basis, the heat release rate results do not show a systematic bias, compared to results with no edge frame.
Flame height behavior from multi‐fire sources
Authors: Sugawa Osami , Takahashi Wataru 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe flame height behavior of merged or inclined flames from two rectangular fire sources in a parallel configuration and from three and four circular pools of 120 mm diameter in a symmetrical configuration were studied experimentally. A rectangular gas diffusion burner, 20 mm × 400 mm or 20 mm × 800 mm was used as line fire sources. Propane gas gave 9.5–57 kW per meter for each burner. Hexane was utilized for the flame merging test using circular pool fires. The height of the flame tip when merged or inclined due to interaction of the flames and|or convective flow was estimated from picture analysis of 300 successive frames of video‐recorded data. The flame extension behavior was expressed in dimensionless form as L/Lm = (fs)2/5 for square pool fires and L/Lm = (f1)2/3 for rectangular fires. The correction factors of fs and f1 are fs = (nD2 + S2) / n(D2 + S2) and f1 = (2DW + S2) / 2(DW + S2), respectively. When a rectangular or a circular fire source approaches the wall, the same correlation on flame extension behavior was obtained and simulated successfully considering an imaginary fire source inside a wall.
Combustion behaviour of fabric and polyurethane flexible foam mock‐up combinations under Cone Calorimetry test conditions
Authors: Vanspeybroeck R. , Van Hees P. , Vandevelde P. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThe relative contributions of fabric and foam on important fire hazard parameters as measured in the cone calorimeter were determined for various mock‐up combinations. Three commercial types of high‐resilience PU flexible slabstock foams, representing a wide range of combustion performance, were combined with three different fabrics: polyester, polypropylene and combustion‐modified cotton. Total heat release of the combinations correspond well with the value calculated from the individual components and is determined by the density and effective heat of combustion of the components, and the foam/fabric weight ratio. The foams show a smaller variation in effective heat of combustion than the fabrics. Covering of PU flexible foams with a fabric results in general in a delay of ignition and peak rate of heat release. Performance of the mock‐ups is mainly determined by the fabric but is also influenced by the quality of the foam.
Physical properties of a sprinkler water spray
Authors: Chow W. K. , Shek L. C. 
Published: May 2005

AbstractThis paper reports an experimental study on the physical properties of a sprinkler water spray. The mass flux density, shape of spray pattern, size distribution and velocity of water droplets discharged from two types of 15 mm orifice sprinkler heads were measured. Three operating flow conditions of the sprinkler system, including one specified for the Ordinary Hazard class under the LPC rules for sprinkler design, were set. The sprinkler head was installed above finished floor levels of either 2 m or 2.2 m. The median droplet size was found to be related to the water pressure and the orifice diameter of the sprinkler head as proposed by Dundas. The droplet size distribution function can be fitted by a Rosin–Rammler function.