bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Circuits
Authors: Cullerne John P , Machacek Anton 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When asked at the dawn of the 20th century why Britain produced so many world leading physicists, the Nobel laureate and Cavendish Professor J.J. Thomson replied that it was because no science was taught in British schools. Understanding an electric circuit is hardly as conceptually groundbreaking or fundamentally fascinating as more exotic topics such as quantum mechanics, particle physics or astrophysics. However, the humble electric circuit is important to the engineers or physicists for two main reasons. First of all, they spend much of their time using and designing electronic circuits to do their measuring and experimental control. Without measurement, there is no science; and in a modern paper mill, hospital, refinery, nuclear reactor, airliner or laboratory, most of the measurements are made electronically. Second, a good understanding of electric circuits is not easy to achieve, but serves as an excellent exercise for the mind – which is then much more adept at tackling other problems (just like Thomson ‘s school studies in Latin and Greek). In fact when engineers are trying to understand a completely new system, they may often draw analogies between the parts of the system and the components of an electric circuit. Once they have solved the circuit using their electrical knowledge, they have solved the other system too. Electric circuits, with all their connections, serve as excellent analogies for a vast number of linked or connected systems.
Image and Audience
Authors: Bradley Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There have been many accounts of prehistoric ‘art’, but nearly all of them begin by assuming that the concept is a useful one. In this extensively illustrated study, Richard Bradley asks why ancient objects were created and when and how they were used. He considers how the first definitions of prehistoric artworks were made, and the ways in which they might be related to practices in the visual arts today. Extended case studies of two immensely popular and much-visited sites illustrate his argument: one considers the megalithic tombs of Western Europe, whilst the other investigates the decorated metalwork and rock carvings of Bronze Age Scandinavia.
Does the world need more Canada? The politics of the Canadian model in constitutional politics and political theory
Authors: Choudhry Sujit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past two decades, numerous political theorists have taken up the question of how constitutional design should respond to ethnic, national, and linguistic division. Just as important as that question is the way in which these theorists have responded to it. Some, rather than deriving constitutional strategies and models from abstract principles of political morality, have turned to real-life examples to buttress their proposed solutions. This is hardly surprising, since political theorists write about urgent problems to which they hope to offer principled solutions that actually work. However, in the subsidiary literature concerned with the accommodation of minority nationalism, the models on offer are often much more complex, consisting of a large number of constitutional instruments meant to operate as a whole. It is precisely in this context—and as just such a model— that Canada has attained considerable prominence.
Ethnic identity and democratic institutions: A dynamic perspective
Authors: Pildes Richard H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most urgent problem in the design of democratic institutions today is how best to design such institutions in the midst of seemingly profound internal heterogeneity, conflict, and group differences. In different parts of the world, the relevant differences can be religious, racial, linguistic, tribal, cultural, regional, or perhaps of other forms (as a shorthand, “ethnic differences”). This problem is central, not only to newly forming democracies over the last generation but also to more established democracies, as various groups more assertively press claims for political recognition, representation, and influence. We ought to understand this issue, better than we have thus far, as lying at the intersection of democratic theory and democratic institutional design on the one hand, and questions about the nature of individual rationality and rational choice concerning ethnic group “identities”, on the other.
Ecological Tax Reform And Emissions Trading—Can They Work Together In Practice? An Empirical Analysis For Germany
Authors: Schlegelmilch1 Kai , Bunse2 Maike 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Industrialized nations use more natural resources than the Earth can provide in the longer term. Fossil fuels are particularly scarce and in limited supply. At the same time, greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise, fostering climate change because the capacity of the Earth’s atmosphere to absorb them has been exhausted. In tackling this global challenge, one highly promising measure is the use of economic instruments to increase the price of conventional energy, provide incentives for more efficient energy use, and promote greater use of renewables. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change provides a global framework for the use of economic instruments at international level. As a signatory, the European Union (EU) has agreed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 8 per cent. Using a target sharing3 approach, EU Member States have each set national reduction goals; Germany has committed to reducing emissions of all six greenhouse gases defined in the Kyoto Protocol by 21 per cent in the period 2008 to 2012, compared with the figures for the base year. The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) supports the fulfilment of the commitments arising from the Kyoto Protocol. The scheme provides for an initial three-year and subsequent five-year trading period. The first (2005–07) and the second (2008–12) trading period cover only CO2 emissions and are limited to specific industry sectors.
Reconsidering Crowding Out Of Intrinsic Motivation From Financial Incentives: The Case Of Conservation On Private Lands
Authors: Stern1 Stephanie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There has been a dramatic growth in the use of tax and financial incentives to reduce environmental harms from individuals. In the United States, incentivebased regulation has provided financial support to landowners for habitat management, created tax credits for early purchasers of hybrid vehicles, rewarded consumers who return bottles, and conferred significant tax savings on landowners who donate development rights in their land.2 The strong political resistance to the regulation of individual consumers makes incentives an appealing method, particularly for encouraging transitions to new behaviours. Environmentalists have expressed misgivings, however, that financial compensation will reduce motivation and subsequent voluntary action, limit the internalization of pro-environmental social norms, and inappropriately commodify the environment.3 Scholars have noted that market strategies imply a licence to pollute4 and incentive payments ‘may conflict with general conservation obligations that we want society to internalize’.5 Other commentators have observed that market-based strategies make the environment an ‘ordinary commodity’.6 In particular, environmentalists are concerned that individuals who receive short-term compensation or incentives will be reluctant to act later in time or in different circumstances where incentives are not available.7 This charge is troubling for proponents of environmental incentives. If incentives undermine motivation to engage voluntarily in conservation practices or harm environmental attitudes generally, incentives may indeed be counter-productive.
Extra Strength Sewer Surcharges In Ontario: Do They Really Reduce Contaminant Loadings?1
2
Authors: Donnan3 Jack , Balasuriya4 Gunawardana , Havet5 Ines 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Different charge schemes have been developed and implemented by environmental management agencies in Canada and the United States to help manage or curtail environmental pollution.6 Municipal sewer authorities throughout North America have applied extra-strength sewer surcharges (ESSSs) for many years through extra-strength sewer surcharge agreements (ESSAs). Where an ESSA has been established with a commercial or industrial sewer user, surcharges are imposed on sewage discharges which exceed contaminant limits that are set in the by-laws of the municipality. Municipalities typically levy charges for water and sewer utility use either through property taxes or direct billing. Water and sewer charges typically include one or more of the following: Despite the fact that water and sewer systems are physically connected and operationally interdependent, they are usually operated by two separate agencies in most medium to large municipalities. This can result in challenges in planning andcoordinationofcapacitiesandintheefficientpricingofservices.7 Nevertheless, municipalities have achieved centralized billing of water and sewer charges.
Towards Commonality? Policy Approaches to Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research in Europe
Authors: Isasi Rosario M , Knoppers* Bartha M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The heterogeneity of European approaches to embryo and stem cell research policy is a reflection of the continent’ s diverse socio-cultural, religious, economic, and historical contexts. The peculiarities of national institutional frameworks and the role of stakeholders constitute additional factors that influence policy development.
Morality Provisions in Law Concerning the Commercialization of Human Embryos and Stem Cells
Authors: Viens* A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of establishing a consistent and unified approach in law concerning the ethics of commercializing human embryos and their derivative parts, products, or related technologies remains incomplete within the European Union. An examination of legislation, jurisprudence, and policy documents concerning the governance and regulation of biotechnology innovation reveals a lack of substantive and coherent moral justification concerning how and which * A M Viens, PhD candidate, School of Law, Queen Mary, University of London.
Introduction to Nanoscience
Authors: Lindsay S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nanoscience is not physics, chemistry, engineering or biology. It is all of them, and it is time for a text that integrates the disciplines. This is such a text, aimed at advanced undergraduates and beginning graduate students in the sciences. The consequences of smallness and quantum behaviour are well known and described Richard Feynman's visionary essay 'There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom' (which is reproduced in this book). Another, critical, but thus far neglected, aspect of nanoscience is the complexity of nanostructures. Hundreds, thousands or hundreds of thousands of atoms make up systems that are complex enough to show what is fashionably called 'emergent behaviour'. Quite new phenomena arise from rare configurations of the system. Examples are the Kramer's theory of reactions (Chapter 3), the Marcus theory of electron transfer (Chapter 8), and enzyme catalysis, molecular motors, and fluctuations in gene expression and splicing, all covered in the final Chapter on Nanobiology. The book is divided into three parts. Part I (The Basics) is a self-contained introduction to quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics and chemical kinetics, calling on no more than basic college calculus. A conceptual approach and an array of examples and conceptual problems will allow even those without the mathematical tools to grasp much of what is important. Part II (The Tools) covers microscopy, single molecule manipulation and measurement, nanofabrication and self-assembly. Part III (Applications) covers electrons in nanostructures, molecular electronics, nano-materials and nanobiology. Each chapter starts with a survey of the required basics, but ends by making contact with current research literature.
Röntgen’s X Rays (1895)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1833, Michael Faraday did his research on the conduction of electricity through a liquid, which was a solution of some salt in water. Two metal plates, called electrodes, were immersed into the liquid and connected to a battery. The electrode connected to the positive pole of the battery was called anode, the other cathode. In such a set-up an electric current flows and, at the same time, substance is deposited at the electrodes. The latter process is called electrolysis. As an example, if the liquid is a solution of silver nitrate, then silver is deposited at the cathode. The mass deposited is proportional to the electric charge passed through the liquid. The transport of electricity and of material obviously is due to charged matter. As the atomic hypothesis gained support, this charged matter was conceived to consist of positively or negatively charged atoms or molecules called ions. The smallest possible charge of an ion was obtained by dividing Faraday’s constant, i.e., the total charge needed to transport one mole of chemically monovalent substance, silver in our example, by Avogadro’s constant, namely, the number of atoms (or molecules) per mole. This charge was called the atom of electricity by Helmholtz in 1881 and electron by Stoney in 1891. We now call it the elementary charge, since the term electron was soon used to designate a fundamental particle (see Episode 4).
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays (1899)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1899 a young New Zealander, Ernest Rutherford [1,2], appeared on the scene of radioactivity research, which he was to dominate for the next decades. He had studied at Canterbury College, Christchurch, which was part of the University of New Zealand and performed important research work on the detection of electromagnetic waves. In 1894, he won the prestigious 1851 Exhibition Science Scholarship and went to Cambridge to work under J. J. Thomson. Together with Thomson he began to study the effect of X rays on gases. They described in detail how X rays in a gas produce pairs of ions with opposite charge and thus make the gas a conductor. They found quite different behaviours for the positive and negative ions. After the electron had been detected, Thomson quickly made it clear that the negative ions were, in general, electrons. This pioneering work on the ionization of gases helped Rutherford to become an expert in the detection of radioactivity in which ionization plays a key role.
The Transmutation of Elements (1902)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ernest Rutherford had found that thorium produces a radioactive gas, which he called emanation and which decays with a half-life of about one minute (see Episode 8). In his further studies he discovered that the wall of a vessel, which had contained emanation, showed radioactivity even after the emanation had decayed [1]. He called this phenomenon excited radioactivity and the new substance an active deposit. Rutherford measured eleven hours as half-life of the active deposit, to be compared to one minute for the emanation. In the summer of 1900 a young scientist, Frederick Soddy , came from Oxford to McGill University to become Demonstrator in Chemistry there. Rutherford, who, with his new gas and deposit, could do with the help of a chemist, was glad that Soddy agreed to do research work with him.
Einstein’s Light-Quantum Hypothesis (1905)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There can be no doubt that Einstein [1–3] is still the most widely known scientist of all time. He entered the scientific stage in 1905, the year in which he published several papers of utmost importance and the year in which he obtained his doctor’s degree. In the first of these papers, he proposed the light quantum, which for his whole life he considered to be his most daring idea.
Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment (1910)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Millikan [1,2] was the first American-born Noble laureate. He also was the best known and most influential American physicist between the two world wars. In text books, his name is mostly related to the oil-drop experiment for measuring the elementary electric charge e. Millikan was born in Iowa as son of a minister. He studied at Oberlin College and Columbia University where he obtained a Ph.D. in physics in 1895. After a year in Europe, where he attended lectures in Jena, Paris and Berlin and did research work in Göttingen under Nernst, Millikan became assistant and later professor at the Ryerson Laboratory of the University of Chicago which was led by the great Michelson. In the next decade, Millikan did some research on radioactivity and also on the photoelectric effect. But his main activity was teaching and writing textbooks for both university and high-school students. In 1907, together with his graduate student Begeman , he began with measurements of the elementary charge. Let us shortly review the state of the art for the determination of that quantity at the time.
Tracks of Single Particles in Wilson’s Cloud Chamber (1911)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I feel that I owe what success I have achieved inmy scientific work mainly to my good fortune in beginning my experiments on clouds just at the right time – a few months before Röntgen made his great discovery. And my choice of a subject to work upon was not due to any forethought on my own part nor to any good advice received, but just to the fact that in the autumn of 1894 I spent a few weeks on a cloudy Scottish hill-top – the top of Ben Nevis. Morning after morning I saw the sun rise above a sea of clouds and the shadow of the hill on the clouds below surrounded by gorgeous coloured rings. The beauty of what I saw made me fall in love with clouds and I made up my mind to make experiments to learn more about them. Working in J. J. Thomson’s laboratory during the years when X-rays and radio-activity were discovered, I could not help being interested in ions – and with ions and clouds I have worked ever since.
Hess Finds Cosmic Radiation (1912)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As early as 1785 Coulomb , to whom we owe the law governing electrostatic forces, found that an electrically charged body gradually loses its charge even if it is very well insulated. It was found out that this effect is due to a small electric conductivity of the air. After Becquerel had observed that this conductivity increased when radioactive material was present, it became generally accepted that the radiation emitted by that material created pairs of positive and negative ions in the air and that the conductivity of the air was caused by radioactive substances in the earth and possibly in the air itself. If that was so, then the conductivity of atmospheric air should decrease with rising distance from the surface of the earth.
Sommerfeld – Spatial Quantization and Fine Structure (1916)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1906 Röntgen, who was then professor of physics at the University of Munich, saw to it that the chair of Theoretical Physics, left vacant by Boltzmann who had moved to Vienna, was offered to Sommerfeld . (Before, it had been offered to Lorentz, who, however, had preferred to stay in Leiden.) Sommerfeld [1–3] was an accomplished mathematician. Earlier in his career he had been assistant to Klein , the eminent mathematician in Göttingen. Besides the main lecture courses Sommerfeld used to offer lectures on special topics on which he was currently working. In the winter semester 1914/15 his topic was the Bohr model. He extended it considerably and was able to find a number of new results which were published [4,5] early in 1916.
Matter Waves Proposed by de Broglie (1923)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen that it took about two decades to fully realize that light or, generally, electromagnetic radiation has both wave and particle properties. The final proof came with the discovery of the Compton effect (Episode 31). Even Compton himself needed years before he saw that the particle picture of radiation was unavoidable in view of the experimental evidence. Still in the year of Compton’s publications, Louis de Broglie [1] on purely theoretical grounds proposed that the particle–wave duality not only holds for radiation but also for material particles, i.e., for particles with a rest mass such as the electron.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and Bohr’s Complementarity (1927)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his memoirs Heisenberg reports on his first encounter with Einstein in April 1926. He had been invited to present his work on quantum mechanics in the prestigious Berlin colloquium and after the talk they walked together to Einstein’s apartment. Einstein began the conversation by criticizing Heisenberg’s postulate that quantum mechanics must be based exclusively on quantities which are in principle observable (Episode 37). Astonished, Heisenberg remarked that he thought, just that had been Einstein’s approach in special relativity when giving up the concept of absolute time, Einstein replied [1]: ‘Probably I did use this kind of reasoning, but it is nonsense all the same [… ] In reality the opposite happens. It is the theory which decides what we can observe.’
The Band Model of Conductors and Semiconductors (1928–31)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1927, when he was twenty-five, Heisenberg was appointed full professor of theoretical physics at the University of Leipzig and soon established a very productive group. His first doctoral student was Bloch , whom we met briefly already as a student in Zurich (Episode 39). Following an advice by Debye, who himself had moved to Leipzig, Bloch [1] had arrived for the winter semester 1927/28. On Heisenberg’s suggestion he thought about a subject for his thesis over the Christmas break and concluded that he would like to reformulate an important theorem, obtained by Ehrenfest in the ‘old quantum theory’, in the framework of the new quantum mechanics. But he was told by Heisenberg [2]: ‘Yes, one might do that, but I think you had better leave such things to the learned gentlemen in Göttingen’, alluding to the group of Born, who, as we have seen, was originally a mathematician. Instead, Heisenberg suggested something ‘more down to earth, such as, for example, ferromagnetism or the conductivity of metals’.
Pauli Presents His Neutrino Hypothesis (1930)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All through the 1920s, the greatest discoveries took place in quantum theory, culminating in the development of quantum mechanics and its applications. Radioactivity or, as it gradually was called, nuclear physics stood in the background. But not quite. Experimental facts, concerning the β decay, were accumulated that were difficult to explain until Pauli resorted to a ‘desperate remedy’ by postulating the existence of a new particle, later called the neutrino. A beautiful account of the history of the neutrino was written by Pauli himself in his last year [1].
Anderson Discovers the Positron (1932)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anderson [1] was born in New York but grew up in Los Angeles, where he attended a technically oriented high school. From his physics teacher he heard of the recently founded California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and, although discouraged by other teachers, he applied and was admitted as student of physics. The domineering figure there was Millikan. Besides leading Caltech as a whole he was also Chairman of the Division of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy. He chose the subject of Anderson’s Ph.D. thesis, the spatial distribution of electrons produced by X rays, but as Anderson recollected, the busy ‘Chief’ never came to see him in his lab.