bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Patterns of Conflict and Cooperation in Mayor-Council and Council-Manager Governments
Authors: Svara James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Politics,” Banfield and Wilson assert at the beginning of City Politics, “arises out of conflict, and it consists of the activities ... by which conflict is carried on.” 1 This orientation colors their observation and interpretation of the phenomena of urban politics. Most political science research has shared this perspective. Attention has been given to those aspects of the political life of cities which conform to a pattern of conflict. Conflictual conditions, however, are not universal in the governmental process. To have a more complete view, one must look for a different pattern in the interactions that occur among officials. In some communities, there is not only an absence of conflict but the presence of cooperation.
Social Psychology as Individual Psychology
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of American social psychology during the first decades of the twentieth century paralleled the general historical and intellectual currents of the period. Social psychology can be seen as evolving in a pendulum manner, swinging from an emphasis on society and group to one on self and the individual. Although social psychology was relatively well established by 1924, Floyd H. All port’s text was the first written from a psychological perspective. All port has to be seen as a monumental figure, coming at the end of an epoch and re shaping social psychology largely in his own image (Post, 1980).
Socialization and Personality Development
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although experimental research continued to increase throughout the 1930s, the conflict between psychology and sociology was temporarily obscured by the brief entry of two new disciplines, psychoanalysis and cultural anthropology, and by a more general concentration on the psychological study of social problems brought on by the Great Depression. The stock market crash of 1929 and the depression marked a dramatic shift in cultural and intellectual trends and a pendulum swing away from the conservative focus on the individual that was characteristic of the 1920s. Social psychologists, like other social scientists, were profoundly aware of the impact of the environment during the depression and began once again to look for the causes of behavior within the broader social context. The development of social psychology during the 1930s reflected a blend of progressive ideals prevalent in America before World War I and new trends imported from Europe, such as Marxism and psychoanalysis.
Symbolic Interaction
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While psychological social psychologists have tended to stress the experimental study of cognitive processes, sociologists since World War II have focused on symbolic interaction. The symbolic interaction approach addresses two shortcomings within the psychological approach to social psychology. First, it includes a frank recognition that mental processes are culturally derived, and second, it focuses on interaction-that is, communication and coordinated activity-rather than cognitive processes taking place within individuals.
Exhaustion of the Resource Base and the Future Supply of Oil and Gas
Authors: Drew Lawrence J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the exhaustion of the parent population of oil and gas fields by the exploration process and links it to the effect of a change in oil and gas prices to form a set of future supply categories. This concept was developed from the application of discovery process modeling, which was discussed in Chapters 6-8, and from the theory of the exploration play, which was discussed in Chapter 4. Exploring for crude oil and natural gas within an exploration play is an economic activity that progressively attacks the parent population of undiscovered oil and gas fields that occur under the fairway of the play. The exploration process deals with large risks that arise from the uncertainties associated with the amounts of crude oil and natural gas found when a new discovery is made that starts a play, as well as with the number of wildcat wells needed to make additional discoveries in the early phase of an exploration play.
DNA variation in humans and its implications for human evolution
Authors: Li Wen-Hsiung , Sadler Lori 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A knowledge of the extent and pattern of genetic variability in natural populations is a prerequisite for understanding the mechanism of evolution. For this reason, electrophoresis was used extensively from the late 1960s to the early 1980s as a simple, convenient technique for studying the genetic variability in natural populations (see reviews by Lewontin 1974; Nei 1975). In view of the tremendous progress in recombinant DNA techniques one would expect that some of these techniques would have been heavily used to study DNA variation in natural populations. Unfortunately, this has not been the case.
Symbiosis in evolution
Authors: Douglas A E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This article explores the significance of symbiosis as a source of novel capabilities. It concentrates on one class of symbiosis, the endosymbioses, which have been defined as associations between species of unequal size in which the whole body of the smaller (known as the symbiont) is enclosed within the larger (the host) (Douglas and Smith 1989). The symbionts are microorganisms (prokaryotes and protists) and the hosts are eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, and animals).
Overview: Afghanistan And The End Of The Cold War
Authors: Cordovez Diego , Harrison Selig S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historians debating why and how the Cold War ended have divided into two warring camps. On one side are those who argue that the West prevailed through four decades of geopolitical containment and military deterrence, culminating in the American military build up during the presidency of Ronald Reagan and in the stepped-up support for anti-Communist insurgencies proclaimed in the Reagan Doctrine. Many proponents of this view attribute the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan primarily to American military pressure, with a passing nod to the bravery of the Afghan resistance. Carried to its extreme, this interpretation gives the CIA’s covert operation in Afghanistan credit not only for ending the Cold War but also for bringing about the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Arrayed against this dominant school of thought are George Kennan and like-minded Soviet specialists who emphasize the profound changes that were taking place within Soviet society during the Cold War, the failure of the ossified Communist system to respond to these changes, and the resultant emergence of new leaders committed to domestic reform and retrenchment abroad.
Soviet Occupation, Afghan Resistance, And The American Response
Authors: Harrison Selig S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within days of the invasion, President Carter made a series of symbolic gestures to express American outrage, invoking economic sanctions against the Soviet Union and canceling American participation in the 1980 Olympics scheduled to take place in Moscow. Within weeks he stepped up long-gestating plans for a Rapid Deployment Force (RDF) in the Persian Gulf. No longer skittish about a direct American role in providing weapons support to the Afghan resistance, Carter also gave the CIA the green light for an American-orchestrated covert assistance program to be financed in part by congressional appropriations and in part with Saudi Arabian help. By 1991 the covert aid influx was to surpass $2.8 billion in American and Saudi funding. It started out, however, at relatively modest levels of $30 million in 1980 and $50 million in 1981. During these two years, Pakistan agreed to serve as a conduit for the gradually expanding aid, but only after a protracted internecine policy struggle and unabashed bargaining with the United States. The price exacted from Washington was a U.S. commitment to provide $1.5 billion in military aid for Zia’s armed forces. Foreign Minister Agha Shahi, who wanted to limit the U.S. role in Afghanistan and to promote a settlement, lost his job in this struggle.
Making The Russians Bleed
Authors: Harrison Selig S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Moscow made its first serious attempt to find a way out of the Afghan quagmire during the fifteen-month tenure of Yuri Andropov, from November 1982 until his death in February 1984. Andropov no longer displayed the ambivalence that had marked his attitude toward the 1979 decision to intervene. In internal Communist party debates he became increasingly critical of the occupation as a serious blunder likely to entail growing economic, social, and diplomatic costs for the Soviet Union. Many of his close associates cite persuasive evidence that Andropov was prepared to withdraw Soviet forces under the aegis of the United Nations despite opposition from the armed forces and from more orthodox Communist leaders. By all accounts, however, he envisaged a withdrawal on terms considerably more favorable to the Soviet Union than those that Mikhail Gorbachev accepted five years later. Precisely what type of settlement he was ready to accept was never tested because Pakistan and the United States were in no mood to bargain. With the Cold War at full tilt, the dominant power groups in Islamabad and Washington deeply distrusted Soviet motives in the U.N. negotiations and regarded it as desirable, in any case, to keep Soviet forces pinned down in a now in commitment.
From Breakthrough To Breakdown
Authors: Cordovez Diego 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On October 11, 1982, one month before Brezhnev’s death, the New York Times published an OP-ED article by William Safi.re entitled “Inside Andropov’s Mind,” which reflected an upsurge in Western interest in the Geneva negotiations. “The struggle for succession in Moscow is on and I, Yuri Andropov, represent the policy line that will win,” he was supposed to be thinking. Chernenko, in Andropov’s mind, advocated the statuo quo: “continued failure of the economy, adventurism in Afghanistan, losses to the Israelis in the Mideast, helpless pleading with the Chinese· and inability to entice the Americans into detente and SALT.” Victor Grishin, another front-runner in the maneuvering to succeed Brezhnev, “wants to bring about a Bay of Pigs in reverse-a superpower confrontation in Iran or Yugoslavia which, if a weak American President succeeds Reagan, might tip the scales permanently.” “Although I headed the KGB for fifteen years, ... “ Andropov was supposed to conclude, “my image is pleasing to the West .... The specific issue upon which I ascend to power is this: The only way to achieve the fruits of detente without having to give one iota of freedom to Eastern Europe is to arrange an accommodation in Afghanistan.”
Realpolitik Vindicated
Authors: Harrison Selig S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Mikhail Gorbachev assumed power on March 11, 1985, disengagement from Afghanistan was one of his central objectives. Yet it was not until three years later, on April 14, 1988, that the Geneva accords were concluded. Why, I asked him, did it take so long to bring about the Soviet withdrawal? How serious was the opposition from Soviet hard-liners who wanted to continue the war? Would a more positive American attitude toward the U.N. negotiations have made an earlier withdrawal possible?“Actually,” Gorbachev replied, “it would have been a very great stimulus if the United States had recognized that we were serious and had shown a desire to help us get out through the U.N. process. It would have facilitated the situation a lot in dealing with people who were causing difficulties.” To my surprise, he minimized the power of the prowar lobby in Moscow. “Yes, yes,” he said, “but this wasn’t the main problem. Don’t forget Kabul. Remember that Karmal headed the Afghan government. He was a very particular personality, and he had his own agenda. In view of this, I am afraid that even with the backing of the United States we would have had a very difficult time.
Climax And Anticlimax: The Geneva Accords
Authors: Cordovez Diego 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Determined as Gorbachev was to bring about significant changes in Soviet American relations, the Washington summit was undoubtedly his finest hour. The New York Times said that almost up to the time of his departure, on December 9, Gorbachev “continued his remarkable campaign to sell himself, his policies and his country to the American people.” “It was like the coming of the second Messiah, or something,” said an astonished Washingtonian when Gorbachev leaped from his car on Connecticut Avenue to shake hands with bystanders. “The man is a genius,” gushed a thrilled young girl on the evening news. “It will be remembered,” Time magazine concluded, “as the summit at which intimacy and symbolism overshadowed disputes about substance.”The summit was still dominated, of course, by the old Cold War agenda; the reunification of Germany, the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, the collapse of the Communist system were to take place later.
Charcoal Monkey
Authors: Strier Karen B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Muriqui is the Tupi Indian name for the largest South American monkey, the gorillas of the New World, in a sense. Muriquis of both sexes grow up to weigh nearly 15 kilograms, but even their weight fails to convey the impression they give when they are glimpsed in the wild (Figure 1.1). Muriquis measure about five feet when they hang suspended from their long arms, so, although they weigh less, they appear nearly as tall as a human. But unlike the tail-less gorillas and humans, muriquis have long, grasping, “prehensile” tails that are strong enough to support their full body weight while they feed or socialize upside down.
Fragmented Forest
Authors: Strier Karen B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scattered throughout southeastern Brazil, from Bahia in the north to Sao Paulo in the south, and inland into Minas Gerais, are isolated stands of what remains of the Brazilian Atlantic forest. It once carpeted the chain of mountains running along the eastern coast of Brazil from the states of Rio Grande do Soul to Rio Grande do Norte, an area of roughly one million square kilometers. Agriculture and logging have reduced this unique ecosystem to less than 5% of its original extent. Now all that is left are fragments of a once magnificent forest that early explorers described as a living paradise (Figure 2.1).
From Days to Years
Authors: Strier Karen B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I left the United States for my second visit to Fazenda Montes Claros in June 1983 with five large suitcases containing the clothes, field supplies, and books I would need for the next 14 months. Unfortunately, I arrived in Rio de Janeiro alone. I was promised that my luggage would be delivered to me within a day, which had its advantages since now I would not have to try to explain the purpose of each item to the customs officers in my still somewhat broken Portuguese. I had arranged to have Mittermeier’s Brazilian assistant, Carlos Alberto, pick me up at the airport and drive me to the forest, and when my luggage was delivered the following morning, we set off.
Early Risers and Other Surprises
Authors: Strier Karen B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The summer sun rises at 5:00 am in southeastern Brazil, and the forest begins to wake up like a vast green blanket unrolling with life. It is already humid, and dew steams from the tops of the trees. Troops of howler monkeys fill the air with their long morning calls. Less resonant, the neighs of the muriquis signal that it’s time for them to move on.
Peaceful Patrilines
Authors: Strier Karen B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first mating I ever observed was such a passive affair that it took me several minutes to recognize what was going on. I had been following Nancy, one of the adult female muriquis, systematically recording her approaches, first to one male, then to another, before she finally settled down on a branch less than 1 meter from one of the largest males, Irv. A moment later, Irv moved into contact with Nancy, and then nonchalantly climbed on her back. I didn’t connect this unusual position with an attempted copulation until he began to thrust his hips minutes later. Nancy’s son, 1½ year old Nilo, was clearly curious about what Irv and his mother were doing, and he, too, climbed on Nancy’s back to investigate. When his efforts to insert himself between Irv and his mother proved unsuccessful, Nilo swung underneath them and grabbed at Irv. Irv swatted at Nilo, who screamed and moved beside his mother on the branch. Nilo continued to scream, but Nancy’s only response was to look over her shoulder at Irv, with her lips drawn back in a grin and her teeth chattering in a mating “twitter.” Irv resumed his sporadic thrusts, and disengaged himself a leisurely 6 minutes later (Figure 6.1).
Expert Invention and the Turn of the Screw
Authors: Weber Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I’m fastening a shelf on the wall. I want it to be a strong enough for books so I’m using long wood screws that will not pull out. I’ve never looked closely at a screw before, but now that I’ve become interested in invention every device seems new to me. Where did the screw come from? From some natural form? Or the less complex nail? While we all engage in invention on an everyday basis, with the motivation of satisfying an immediate need or making an immediate improvement in the way something works, that is not necessarily the way the experts do it. To be sure, the expert’s motivation may well be need-driven or device-driven, but it may also be something more. For lack of a better phrase, we will call that something more play-driven invention. It results from the actions of mental manipulations driven more by mental play and the desire to form interesting combinations than anything else. It is what-if thinking on a grand scale-thought experiments where ideas and devices are selected and combined in unusual ways. The combining of ideas is anything but random, however. Often it is influenced by subtle and powerful heuristic principles, rules of thumb for generating ideas. To foreshadow our story, I want to follow the idea of the screw through the work of great historical inventors-Archimedes, Leonardo, and the Wright brothers. The span of history ranges from the third century B.c. to this century, and each case is a meditation, a variation, on the turning screw.
Describing an Invention
Authors: Weber Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quickly, I stab the crust of the chicken pot pie with my fork, so it won’t explode when heated in the microwave. After it cooks, I use the fork to break the shell and stab a piece of meat and transport it from plate to mouth. Then I scoop up some vegetables with the cup or palm of the fork. The crust is too big for the next bite, so I use the edge of the fork to cut it. A piece of potato looks a bit dry and I mash it into the gravy by using the back of the fork. What is going on here? Evidently, something more general than just using a fork. It is almost systematic, almost describable.
Nicotine Delivery Devices
Authors: Slade John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cigarette is ... among the most awe-inspiring examples of the ingenuity of man .The cigarette should be conceived not as a product but as a package. The product is nicotine. The cigarette is but one of many package layers. There is the carton, which contains the pack, which contains the cigarette, which contains the smoke. The smoke is the final package. The smoker must strip off all these package layers to get to that which he seeks Smoke is beyond question the most optimized vehicle of nicotine and the cigarette the most optimized dispenser of smoke.
Introduction
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Immunology began as a biological discipline in the 1880s. It arose from convergence of several disciplines, principally microbiology, pathology, and embryology. The emergence of the germ theory of infectious diseases was well established by the midl 870s. The studies by Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur of anthrax in 1876-1877, where each claimed to first establish the etiology of the disease (I), served as the experimental basis of a new discipline. Koch’s postulates (although he never formally so presented them [2]) were quickly applied to human diseases, so that by the midl 880s the basis of infectious diseases was firmly established as the science of microbiology.
Support Builds for Networks
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kölliker was not alone in gravitating toward the concept of nerve networks. The idea is commonly ascribed to von Gerlach, but in fact it was born in the early 1850s and by the 1880s had acquired many fathers. We will chart its rise briefly in this chapter in order to understand the microscopical evidence on which it was based, to gauge its depth of support, and to gain an appreciation of how it set a rather hostile tone to the intellectual environment from which the neuron doctrine emerged.
Modern Revisions of the Neuron Doctrine
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the early part of this century the incorporation of the nerve cell into the cell theory was widely accepted in biology and the neurological sciences. Its importance was stated eloquently by Sherrington (1906) in the first sentence of his landmark book, The Integrative Actions of the Nervous System: Nowhere in physiology does the cell-theory reveal its presence more frequently in the very framework of the argument than at the present time in the study of nervous reactions.
Post-Renaissance Visual Anatomy and Physiology
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the seventeenth century, l’Abbe Edme Mariotte (1620–1684) discovered the blind spot in the eye through careful study. He determined where the optic nerve entered the eye and set about to test the sensitivity of this point. Mariotte’s discovery of the blind spot was communicated in an “Epistle” to a M. Pecquet, which was then sent to the Royal Society in London. Mariotte (1668, p. 668) wrote: This discovery was deemed so important that it was demonstrated to the king. Nevertheless, Mariotte erroneously concluded that the choroid and not the retina was the sensitive layer of the eye.
Olfaction
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The idea that unpleasant odors can be evil, powerful, or dangerous has a long history. In fact, in some languages, words such as “wizard” or “witch” were derived from terms meaning “to smell evil” (Summers, 1926). In addition, feces and other substances with repulsive odors were used routinely to drive away demons and harmful spirits in Egyptian and other early cultures (see Chapter 1).
The Process of Sleep
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two very closely related topics are sleep and dreaming. This chapter looks at the nature of sleep, and Chapter 18 examines theories and research on dreaming. The present chapter begins with some general ideas about sleep from ancient civilizations and works into the nineteenth century, when experimenters began to study sleep more scientifically. Much of the discussion here focuses on the major theories of sleep proposed during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Two sleep disorders, African sleeping sickness and narcolepsy, are also examined.