bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The early days: a retrospective view
Authors: Rietveld Hugo M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a Ph.D. student at the University of Western Australia between 1961 and 1964, I became thoroughly acquainted with X-ray and neutron diffraction techniques through experiments being conducted at the HIFAR in Lucas Heights (NSW). The emphasis was on single crystal diffraction since, even then, the powder method was regarded to be inferior, particularly for structure refinement. During that period the computer entered the scientific field and long, tedious structure factor and density calculations could be obtained more or less instantly. First with the ‘Mercury’ computer at the University of Oxford and the ‘Silliac’ computer at the University of Sydney, and later the IBM 1620 at the Physics Department of the University of Western Australia, computers became an integral part of my crystallography work. They were, incidentally, also important for my later work.
Data collection strategies: fitting the experiment to the need
Authors: Hill Roderick J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The abundance and complexity of the structural and physical information that can be extracted from powder diffraction patterns is approaching that obtainable from single crystal data. It is advisable, therefore, that careful consideration be given to the selection of the conditions under which powder data is collected and to the effect of these choices on the capabilities and results of the analysis. The fundamental measured quantities (observations) for crystal structure refinement using powder diffraction data are the intensities of the Bragg peaks; the intensities collected at each step in the pattern serve only as multiple, variably-weighted, estimates of these values. The precision of the peak intensity measurement can be improved by increasing the number of counts accumulated at each step and/or the number of steps measured across the peak, but this is useful only up to the point where counting variance becomes negligible in relation to other sources of error; thereafter, time is wasted.
Rietveld refinement with time-of-flight powder diffraction data from pulsed neutron sources
Authors: David W I F , Jorgensen James D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The recent development of accelerator-based pulsed neutron sources has led to the widespread use of the time-of-flight technique for neutron powder diffraction. The properties of the pulsed source make possible unusually high resolution over a wide range of d-spacings, high count rates, and the ability to collect complete data at fixed scattering angles. The peak shape and other instrument characteristics can be accurately modelled, which makes Rietveld refinement possible for complex structures. In this chapter we briefly review the development of the Rietveld method for time-of-flight diffraction data from pulsed neutron sources and discuss the latest developments in high resolution instrumentation and advanced Rietveld analysis methods.
Waves in a Hot Plasma
Authors: Brambilla Marco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will investigate the effects of the thermal motion of ions and electrons on the propagation of h.f. waves in plasmas. As a preliminary, it is useful to introduce notations for the dielectric tensor components and for the hot-plasma dispersion relation which take into account the considerations made in Section 15.5, and what we already know about wave propagation in a cold plasma.
Numerical Methods For Transition Regime Flows
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As was noted in the preceding chapter, very few of the ‘analytical’ methods lead to closed form solutions and most depend on numerical procedures for the production of the final results. On the other hand, the ‘numerical’ methods rely on computation from the outset. While the analytical methods are almost invariably based on the Boltzmann equation which is the accepted mathematical model of a gas flow at the molecular level, a large fraction of the numerical methods are based directly on the simulation of the physics of the flow and do not depend on a mathematical model. This difference in approach can be used to define two classes of methods, but the situation is complicated by the efforts that have been made to link some of the simulation methods to the Boltzmann equation with sufficient rigour that they can be claimed to be ‘solutions’ of that equation. All methods that employ simulated particles or molecules will be classed here as simulation methods.
Sand Behaviour Under Monotonic Loading
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A deposit of sand is composed of an assemblage of particles in equilibrium where inter-granular forces are transmitted through points of contact. When shear stress is applied, the resulting deformation is always accompanied by a volume change which is known as dilatancy. This shear-induced volume change accrues as a result of two competing modes of particle movement, namely, slip-down and roll-over (Dafalias, 1993). The slip-down movement of grains tends to reduce the volume by repacking the sand aggregate into a denser state. This mechanism is activated predominantly in loose deposits of sand. The roll-over mechanism tends to increase the volume which is characteristic in the behaviour of dense sand. When the slip down takes place, particles are filling gaps in the void and not moving largely in the direction of shearing. Therefore the slip-down movement can occur rather easily without mobilizing a large amount of shear strain. It is for this reason that the volume reduction is generally observed at an early stage of loading in the tests on sands with a wide range of density. On the contrary, a larger movement is always required for particles to roll over neighbouring ones and hence the volume increase or dilation is generally induced at a later stage of shear stress application where the sand is largely deformed.
Liquid-Liquid Extraction in Hydrometallurgy
Authors: Cox Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hydrometallurgy involves a series of interlinked unit processes for the recovery and purification of elements using aqueous solutions. One of the essential features of present flow sheets is the inclusion of a solution treatment step to purify and concentrate the desired element before recovery. Several alternative techniques are available but liquid-liquid extraction has the greatest versatility for the separation of elements and also the range of solution concentrations which can be treated. This process is therefore now seen as the preferred technique for the treatment of all except the most dilute leach liquors, such as in gold and some uranium operations where resin ion exchange and carbon adsorption processes offer distinct advantages (Streat and Naden 1987). Although a detailed discussion of hydrometallurgy is outside the remit of this chapter, it is appropriate to consider the demands made by such a flow sheet (Fig. I. I) as these will influence the choice and operation of the liquid-liquid extraction system.
Some Current Developments and Extraction Techniques
Authors: Weatherley L R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evolution and development of new liquid-liquid extraction processes has been strongly dependent in the recent past upon the structural changes which have occurred within the chemical industry as a whole. The early l980s have seen significant changes in distribution of chemicals manufacture and product mix which have resulted from important fluctuations in feedstock patterns and market demand for various products. These changes have given rise to much new process development including major reexamination of separation processes and have also stimulated a new demand for more elegant and complex separation techniques in areas like biotechnology and in the hydrometallurgical industry.
The Evaporative, Tubular Thermosyphon
Authors: Lock G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Above the critical pressure, the tubular thermosyphon behaves as a singlephase system. The same is often true below the critical pressure provided that the fluid specific volume is very much different from the critical value. As Fig. 3.1 indicates, v≪vcr corresponds to a liquid-filled device while v≫vcr corresponds to a gas-filled device unless the pressure is very low, that is P≪Pcr Under such single-phase conditions, the descriptions presented in the previous chapter continue to apply. If the critical point is approached in these circumstances, the behaviour of the system changes but not in any fundamental way. The thermal expansion coefficient increases and the circulation becomes more vigorous, but it is still driven by thermal buoyancy forces, directly or indirectly. In the vicinity of the critical point, however, a discontinuity appears in the fluid density if the pressure falls beneath the critical value; a less-ordered vapour phase then coexists with a more-ordered liquid phase at the same pressure and temperature. This molecular-based alteration of fluid properties produces a different type of thermosyphon behaviour, the upper boundary of which is therefore marked by the critical point; the lower boundary is found at the triple point.
Temperature
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we briefly introduce and discuss the fundamental definition of temperature and the condition of thermodynamic equilibrium and describe both the macroscopic and microscopic points of view. Measurements of transient temperature in engineering and science require a thorough understanding of the principles, so that a short introduction on the basic concept of temperature is justified. Neglect of fundamentals is a chief cause of error in practical temperature studies. However, we have omitted many derivations of thermodynamic laws and formulae; the interested reader can find these in some of the standard texts on thermodynamics and temperature listed in the references.
Application To High-Pressure Combustion In Engines
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Transient temperature and heat Aux measurements have been, and continue to be, a topic of great interest and pertinence in the design and development of reciprocating internal combustion engines. The need to measure the transient gas temperature in the combustion chamber is driven by the need to gain insight into the complex problems of combustion for both spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines. These problems include the phenomenon of knock or self-ignition, droplet evaporation, heat transfer between the gas and the combustion chamber walls, and chemical reaction rates. The latter are of importance in determining the rate of heat release and the donation of exhaust emission products such as soot, oxides of nitrogen, and hydrocarbons. The need to measure an engine’s transient exhaust gas temperature has been driven by problems related to the transient and steady-state performance of turbochargers and catalytic convertors.
Anvils
Authors: Eremets M I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Maximal static pressures have now been achieved with the diamond anvil cell (DAC). From the mechanical point of view it is a Bridgman anvil cell, Fig. 1.1, made of the strongest material: diamond. There is also a broad class of apparatus based on the same principle. The Bridgman anvil cell itself is traditionally made of tungsten carbide and works up to 20 GP a (Yoneda et al. 1984).
Shear-Deformation Cells
Authors: Eremets M I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to methods studying of matter at high pressures in combination with large shear stresses and large deformations, i.e. far from the perfect hydrostatic conditions typically needed for good physical experiments. However, there are physical and chemical phenomena where the presence of shear stresses and plastic deformations is favorable and needs to be studied, in particular the kinetics and hysteresis of phase transformations. This is also a field of study in the compaction of powders and geophysical processes.
High Temperatures
Authors: Eremets M I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ln this method electrical current is used to heat a sample placed in the DAC chamber. Liu and Bassett (1975) first studied melting of iron wire which was resistively heated in an ungasketed DAG. The phase diagram of iron was studied to pressures up to 43 GP a by Boehler et al. (1986) and up to 36 GP a by Mao et al. (1987) at temperatures up to 2000 K. They isolated the electrical leads from the gasket with the aid of alumina or Mg , Fig.10.1.
Nano-measuring systems of sub-namometre accuracy and resolution
Authors: Taniguchi Norio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to process a workpiece to namometre-order accuracy, measuring and control techniques of nanometre accuracy or better are essential. Nanotechnology must therefore be considered as an integrated technology of processing, measurement, and control. The measurement techniques used in connection with precision processing measure many characteristics of machined workpieces and machine tool components. The quantities measured are length, displacement, vibration, runout, figure, surface roughness, etc. The phenomena detected are sound, temperature, mechanical force, light, electromagnetic field, etc. Because of its widespread applications and present status, optical detection is the main theme here.
Fabrication systems for nano-assemblies composed of nanometre-accuracy parts
Authors: Taniguchi Norio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The integrated circuits (IC) is a product which involves very precise microtechnology in itself and is also fabricated with very precise microtechnology. The IC has been improved with the progress of precision technology in the field of optics, mechanics, control, and so on. Recently, IC technology has entered nanometre technology, i.e. nanotechnology. A sectional view of the most advanced IC observed by SEM is shown in Fig. 7.1.1. The complex structure may not be resolved, but the sizes of microstructures can be estimated from the scale of 0.25 µm.
Removal Of Inclusions
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The solubility of dissolved impurities in molten metals was seen in Chapter 2 to decrease with decreasing temperature. During solidification as the temperature drops and solubility decreases, impurities are precipitated as a second phase (non-metallic inclusions or intermetallic phases) in the metal. Oxides and sulphides in steel are examples of inclusions. Such particles are usually very harmful to the mechanical and other properties of the metal (Chapter 1). Therefore one attempts to keep the amount of impurities at low levels so that inclusions are not produced. Partly the approach is to employ stable refractories and a suitable protective slag. For instance, in steelmaking a basic reducing slag prevents the pick-up of oxygen from the atmosphere. Furthermore, allloy additions should be chosen that contain low levels of impurities and inclusions. Combined with these preventative measures dissolved impurity levels may be suppressed by the addition of elements with a high affinity for the impurity. An example of this is precipitation.
Mixing, Mass Transfer, And Numerical Models
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mixing and stirring are terms widely used when discussing melt treatment. These terms are useful in that they have an immediate intuitive meaning. However, a worker in refining metallurgy very early finds it necessary to give them more substance. In the following section an attempt is made to explain and clarify the meaning of these terms.
Addition Of Alloy Components
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are innumerable ways in which the properties of a metal can be modified and improved by the addition of alloy components. This is especially the case for steel, and for aluminium and copper a vast array of alloys have also been developed. To achieve alloys with specific engineering characteristics with regard to strength, fatigue, ductility, and other physical properties, common practice is to start out with a ‘pure’ solvent metal and introduce alloying elements at very precise, predesigned levels. Thus addition of alloys, melting, and dissolution is a necessary operation in the handling of melts before casting. The thermal requirements and the rate of solution need to be understood precisely to develop good alloying practices. Also dissolution and melting rates may limit productivity in a number of steelmaking and other processes.
Two-Phase Flows, Gas Mixtures, And Compressible Flows
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter covers measurements in two-phase flow, in gas mixtures, and in flows with significant compressibility effects. Two-phase flows have been studied extensively, with many investigations devoted to air/water or steam/water flows due to their common occurrence in engineering machinery and plants. However, many of the phenomena observed in gas/liquid flows are also observed in the flow of two immiscible liquids, and the following HWA measurement techniques for two-phase flow can be applied to both flow situations.
Vorticity Measurements
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the measurement of the components of the vorticity vector. The vorticity vector at a point is defined as the curl of the velocity vector. Using tensor notation this relationship can be expressed as where wi (i = 1-3) are the components of the vorticity vector, are the components of the velocity vector, and eijk is the alternating tensor. As discussed by Wallace (1986), at each point in the flow field a spherical fluid particle can be imagined the motion of which can be decom posed into translation, expansion, and rotation. The vorticity can be inter preted as being twice the instantaneous solid-body rotation rate of particles along the principal axis in the fluid, where there is no shear deformation.
Non-linear interfaces in optical systems
Authors: Shvartsburg A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A non-linear interface is an important optical element for spatial and temporal modulation of wave beams. This element consists of the interface between two dielectric materials, one of which has an intensitydependent refractive index. The interest in non-linear surface wave phenomena is twofold: firstly, these phenomena can provide subsurface localization of powerful wave fields. On the other hand the reflection of light from the electrically-driven interface is an effective tool for tuning the parameters of reflected light waves. The latter effect results in optically controlled tuning of wave refraction also. Puting aside the numerous problems connected with generation of new harmonics at the non-linear boundary, which was the subject of classical research work at the outset of the laser era (Bloembergen et al. 1962), we shall analyse the novel possibilities of wave governing beams using power-dependent reflection effects.
Vector Control and Dynamics of AC Drives
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book presents a detailed but easily understood development of the complex variable form of the equations describing AC machines. These equations are then extended to incorporate inverter models and a number of examples of inverter-machine dynamics are presented. A section on constant speed behaviour includes development of the conventional equivalent circuits and an extensive treatment of the constant speed eigenvalues and switching transients. Vector control and field orientation concepts are first introduced in terms of their steady state properties. This allows anyone with a basic understanding of steady state machine behaviour to understand and appreciate the potential of field orientation and to actually start using the book immediately. This is followed by a full dynamic analysis of vector controlled systems including conventional indirect and direct field orientation and less conventional systems that orient to air gap or stator flux rather than rotor flux. A chapter on the important types of current regulators is also included. The final two chapters deal with vector control and field orientation system performance in relation to tuning errors, saturation effects, selection of flux levels to optimize performance and the question of optimization in the field weakening mode.
Complex Vector Analysis of Induction Machines
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of the complex vector model of an induction machine presented in Chapter 2 clearly demonstrates the utility of the complex vector concept in simplifying and manipulating the differential equations describing the machine. The resulting model can be interpreted as a set of ordinary, real variable differential equations which can be used to represent an induction machine in specific situations. For each application a set of external constraint relations describing the specific situation is developed and imposed on the general model to obtain the application specific model.
Dynamics of Vector Control and Field Orientation
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The steady state analysis in Chapter 5 has been used to demonstrate the basic concepts of vector control and field orientation in both synchronous and induction machines. The underlying motivation in Chapter 5 was to obtain torque (and flux) control independent of motor speed. Although the steady state arguments of Chapter 5 cannot provide information concerning the dynamic (transient) response, it was suggested that the same basic concepts as developed from steady state theory also produce dynamic decoupling and torque control in the dynamic state (l,2,3]. For high performance systems the dynamic response characteristics are as important as the steady state performance and this chapter is devoted to extending the concepts introduced in Chapter 5 to the dynamic state.
Solitons in Optical Communications
Authors: Hasegawa Akira , Kodama Yuji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Solitons are a fascinating topic for study and a major source of interest for potential application in optical communication. Possibly the first observation of a soliton occurred in 1838 and was made by a clerical gentleman riding a horse along a canal towpath. When a barge under tow came to a stop alongside him the bow wave did not stop, but continued to travel on its own for several miles with no change in shape. At the time this unusual phenomenon was not understood and remained unexplained. Interest was revived with the development of optical fibres and the realisation that at the high intensities possible in their very small cores the onset of non-linear effects could modify the propagation characteristics in a significant way. In a seminal paper in 1973 Hasegawa and Tappert solved a non-linear Schrodinger equation for fibre propagation and found solutions for solitary waves, i.e. solitons. Since then advances have been very rapid resulting in a much better understanding of a wide variety of soliton effects, and, crucially, the realisation that soliton propagation can be used to potentially great advantage in practical long-distance systems. There is, as a result, a wealth of theoretical and experimental research in progress all over the world. At NTT (Japan) a pule-code-modulated soliton train has been transmitted at 10Gbit/s over one million kilometres with zero error! Perhaps all long-distance, large bandwidth communication problems have been solved for ever. This book gives a clear account of the theory and mathematics of solitons travelling in optical fibres. It is written by the authority on the subject.