bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Q
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Queuing theory involves the use of mathematical modelling approaches to obtain insights into the efficiency and effectiveness of various queuing methods, processes, and systems. The theory enables types of queuing systems such as first-in/first-served, last-in/first-served, random order service, and service sharing systems to be examined in terms of their performance in relation to characteristics including arrival rates, arrival probabilities, server numbers, and system capacity. Services marketing remains the major area of marketing where mathematical models based on queuing theory are able to provide insights into various queuing system behaviours. Marketers seeking to establish appropriate queuing systems in any area of services involving the queuing of customers can therefore potentially benefit from applying queuing theory principles and methods to both queuing system design and evaluation. (See also Little’s Law.)
U
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A firm’s marketing approach is clearly unconventional when it is contrary to the practices of other firms in the same industry or market. Durgee (1992) calls this contrarian marketing, where a firm adopts a marketing approach that is diametrically opposed to contemporary marketing strategies. Firms adopting unconventional marketing approaches may find that going ‘against the grain’ of standard practice or commonly defined attributes relative to a product or service category, for example, enables the firm to position its offering in a nonconformist way. According to Hill and Rifkin (1999), any marketing approach or strategy that challenges existing long-held conventional marketing approaches can be considered to be ‘radical marketing,’ with guerrilla marketing being a notable example (see guerrilla marketing).The changing face and role of marketing in a global environment characterized by relative instability has made it inevitable that new marketing approaches, strategies, and tactics will evolve. While the benefits of any unconventional marketing approach ultimately depend on the nature of the offering and the target audience, the adoption of such approaches may ultimately depend on how conservative the firm is in trying and accepting new means of reaching and engaging customers.
X
Authors: Dacko Scott G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Developed as one of two competing theories by McGregor (1960), with the other theory being theory Y (see Y, theory), theory X views individuals as uninterested in work and eager to avoid responsibility. Based upon a pessimistic view of human nature, the theory provides a basis for a set of management practices for workforce motivation that includes the use of a more authoritarian management style, close supervision, and comprehensive controls where there is a threat of punishment for undesirable behaviors. Organizations adopting a theory X perspective are generally command-and-control organizations, where compliance is achieved through a combination of employee rewards and punishments. While many employee behaviors and corresponding management practices are not as extreme as those characterized by theory X, the theory nevertheless is influential in facilitating managements’ understanding of the scope and range of management practice. While many managers and employees discount the extreme views advocated by theory X, understanding the perspective can be beneficial to evaluate current and desired marketing management practices in an organization. Whether a marketing manager is seeking to evaluate a prospective organization with which to work or manage the firm’s marketing workforce, greater knowledge of the theory can help in identifying and understanding pessimistic management perceptions of employees at the very least.
Introduction
Authors: Heckscher Charles , Adler Paul S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A central tension has run through social analysis for well over a century: community and trust seem increasingly necessary in a complex interdependent world, but they are also less available. At the same time that markets and polities have drawn people into tighter webs of relations, traditional communities have been greatly weakened, and the unifying institutions of previous erasdominant religions, labor unions, major political parties-have lost much of their credibility. The resulting sense of fragmentation and anomie has led some to despair and others to call for the revival of community, including conservative appeals to traditional values and liberal explorations of dialogue and participation.
‘The Power to Convene ‘:Creating Collaborative Community with Strategic Customers
Authors: Bonchek Mark , Howard Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most powerful forces pushing large business organizations to experiment with new forms of collaborative community is the desire-and the need-to develop closer relations with their customers. This trend is present across the global economy, but it is especially prominent for a particular segment of the economy: industries such as information technology, telecommunications, and business services where companies are providing technologically complex products and knowledge-intensive services to other large corporate customers.1
Encountering American Indians in Britain: Visits and Virtual Journeys
Authors: Bickham Troy O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although eighteenth-century Britons were separated from American Indian homelands by an ocean, hundreds of miles of wilderness, and a colonial buffer, the British nevertheless encountered them on a regular basis. These encounters, however, were largely staged, virtual events that were tailored to the public’s interest in the empire, which in the second half of the century Britons perceived as increasingly crucial to their own prosperity, both national and personal. In this context, British desire to learn about American Indians, as well as other alien cultures that were thought to influence the course of the empire, blossomed.
Empire Through Evangelization: The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the American Indians
Authors: Bickham Troy O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evangelization of the native ‘heathens’ of America was always among the English, and later British, imperial impulses. Richard Hakluyt listed it among his reasons for empire-building in the Americas in his Discourse to Promote Colonization (1584); it was included in the Virginia Company’s first charter in 1606; and it played into John Winthrop’s now famous justifications for the Puritan settlement of New England. In these instances, however, the rhetoric was far removed from reality. Economic impulses, rather than religious spirit, dominated British Atlantic expansion; the Jamestown colonists and Puritans in New England both killed far more Indians than they converted.
The Role of Trustworthiness in Reducing Transaction Costs and Improving Performance: Empirical Evidence from the United States, Japan, and Korea
Authors: Dyer Jeffrey H , Chu Wujin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The issue of trust in economic exchanges has recently received considerable attention in the academic literature (Barney and Hansen 1994, Mayer et al. 1995, Zaheer et al. 1998) as well as the popular press (Business Week 1992, Economist 1996, Fukuyama 1995). Trust in exchange relationships has been hypothesized to be a valuable economic asset because it is believed to: (1) lower transaction costs and allow for greater flexibility to respond to changing market conditions (Gulati 1995, Barney and Hansen 1994, Uzzi 1997, Dyer 1997) and (2) lead to superior information sharing that improves coordination and joint efforts to minimize inefficiencies (Aoki 1988, Clark and Fujimoto 1991, Nishiguchi 1994). Some scholars even claim that national economic efficiency is highly correlated with a high-trust institutional environment (North 1990, Casson 1991, Fukuyama 1995). For example, Fukuyama (1995, p. 7) argues that the economic success of a nation, ‘as well as its ability to compete, is conditioned by . . . the level of trust inherent in the society.’ Indeed, numerous scholars have suggested that interorganizational trust is a key factor in explaining alliance success (Dyer 1996b, Doz and Hamel 1998). These claims have increased our attention to the important role of trust in economic exchanges.
Trust, Power, and Control in Trans-Organizational Relations
Authors: Bachmann Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Today, a majority of practitioners and academic observers seem to agree that specific forms of long-term oriented co-operation between—in formal terms— independent forms imply important advantages which would neither occur simply on the basis of purely opportunistic behavior and short-term orientations nor would they arise from structures of central control and organizational integration. In the organizational and management literature of the past 15 years or so, many successful inter-firm relationships are described as being based on a hybrid form of co-operation where business partners are ‘neither friends nor strangers’ (Lorenz 1988) and where the structure and quality of relations are constituted somewhere ‘between market and hierarchy’ (Williamson 1985). ‘Strategic alliances’ ( Jarillo 1988; Child and Faulkner 1998) and ‘organizational networks’ (Miles and Snow 1986; Sydow et al. 1995; Ebers 1997) are increasingly seen as a very promising form of trans-organizational relationships. The various reasons given for this view are built on the argument that this approach provides a balance between competition and co-operation and can avoid the primacy of one of these principles over the other (Dei Ottati 1994).
Challenger: Changing the Odds Until Something Breaks
Authors: Milliken Frances J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On January 28, 1986, the space shuttle Challenger disintegrated, killing all seven of its crew, including ‘America ‘s teacher in space ‘, Christie McAuliffe. Those who watched are unlikely to forget their feelings of disbelief and horror. The disaster destroyed more than a space shuttle: it destroyed a part of America ‘s vision as well (Schwartz 1987). The American public, like NASA ‘s managers, had grown complacent about the shuttle technology. We assumed the twenty-fifth launch would succeed because the previous twenty-four launches had succeeded. NASA had produced a long string of successes in the face of hypothetically low probabilities of success, and one result seems to be that both NASA and the American public developed a conviction that NASA could always succeed. The disaster suddenly reawakened us to the technology ‘s extreme complexity and high risk. The ensuing investigation into the causes of the accident reminded us how unrealistic and error-prone organizations can be.
Loan Participations: Legal Relationships Between The Lead Bank and Participants, Participants and Borrower, and Among Participants
Authors: Mugasha Agasha 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Loan participation’ in this chapter means an arrangement where the lead bank sells an undivided interest in its loan to a participant (see Figure 1.7, in para 1.40 above, for a diagram illustrating this relationship). Such an arrangement is popular in the United States, Canada, and Australia as a method of transferring an interest in a loan from one lender to another party. It is not so popular and only constitutes a minority practice in England. In England it has been used in the sale of distressed debt, ie the corporate debt of companies which were in, or approaching, severe financial difficulty. Transactions concerning the sale of distressed sovereign debt and concluded overseas on the basis of this method have also come before English courts.
Loan Sub-Participations: Legal Relationships Between The Lead Bank and Sub-Participant, and Borrower and Sub-Participant
Authors: Mugasha Agasha 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses ‘sub-participations’ as commonly understood in English financial practice. Sub-participations serve the same function as ‘loan participations’ as commonly understood in the United States and some other jurisdictions but the two practices are different and have different legal connotations. Of course, the label given to a particular transaction is not conclusive as to its true legal nature and the legal consequence ultimately depends on the construction of the particular agreement at hand. Thus one encounters some mix-up and inter- changeability of terminology in practice and academic commentary. The US-style loan participations are discussed in chapter 6 above, to which the reader is referred.
Syndicated Loans and Borrower Insolvency: Winding-Up and Workout Procedures
Authors: Mugasha Agasha 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Problems do arise during the period when a syndicated loan is in place and normally the syndicate members will negotiate to reach a mutually advantageous decision or they will waive some important provisions in the syndicated loan agreement to resolve the problems. However, the insolvency of the borrower, actual or prospective, presents an extreme situation for the lenders because it is a signal that the borrower is not able to service its debt obligations. Insolvency occurs when the borrower cannot pay its debts when they fall due or when the value of its assets is less than the amount of its liabilities, or both. Insolvency occurs for different reasons.
The Regulation of Syndicated Loans and The Secondary Loan Market Practices
Authors: Mugasha Agasha 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are no regulations specifically targeted at syndicated loans or related secondary loan market practices. However, a number of domestic and international regulations directly or indirectly impact on these practices either because they are lending or investment transactions or because the parties involved are banks and other financial institutions. Many of these regulations were touched upon briefly in previous chapters; this chapter gives fuller detail and focuses on environmental regulation which was not covered elsewhere.
Motorway Tolls and Sustainable Transport Policy
Authors: Rodi Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aside from energy policy, transport policy is likely to pose the greatest challenges in the quest for a comprehensive, sustainable policy agenda. With Article 2 of the EC Treaty simultaneously calling for a harmonious, balanced, and sustainable development of economic activities and a high level of protection and improvement of environmental quality, a transport policy that meets the requirements of sustainability becomes absolutely critical. Surprisingly enough, however, the environmental integration principle, which was already elevated to the status of primary law with its inclusion in the EC Treaty in 1987, has been essentially ignored within the scope of European transport policy—which, alongside agricultural policy, is one of the original core policies of the Community. As the European Commission has phrased it, therefore, the ‘Time to Decide’ has come for transport policy, and an internalization of external costs has been identified as one of its main priorities. Among policy instruments, electronically collected motorway tolls rank high in the favour and hopes of decision makers. The following chapter will outline political opportunities and the legal framework of this newly discovered instrument for sustainable transport policy. The current policy debate illustrates that, both from the perspective of environmental protection as well as transport and competition policy, several issues require clarification with a view to their bearing on primary European Community (EC) law and their implementation through legally consistent secondary rules.
Atmospheric Pollution
Authors: Calatayud Alexandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Similarly to 2003, most of the developments on air pollution for 2004 involve old initiatives and no significant new proposals. Among the old legislative dossiers of great importance is the draft Fourth Air Quality Daughter Directive relating to Heavy Metals and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. This Directive is the last in the set of legislation that had to be adopted pursuant to Directive 96/62/EC on Ambient Air Quality and Management (Air Quality Framework Directive), and is an important element of the overall strategy to improve air quality in the European Union (EU). Other dossiers to look out for include the Directive on Paints and Solvents, aimed at reducing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and the draft Directive on Sulphur-Free Shipping Fuel. On the international arena, a key development will be how the question of methyl bromide phase-out is dealt with in the extraordinary and the regular Meeting of the Parties (MOP) of the Montreal Protocol, which both take place this year. In 2004, the European Commission (Commission) published the required guidance for the implementation of Directive 2002/3/EC relating to Ozone in Ambient Air (Ozone Directive). The Commission Decision contains advice on the development of short-term action plans that must be drawn up in the event of exceedances of ozone alert thresholds, as well as on strategies to measure ozone precursors. It provides for geographical differences, regional extension, duration of possible measures, and gives examples of short-term actions. In the case of guidance on monitoring levels, the Decision supplies recommendations for the location of the mandatory measuring station.
Nature Conservation
Authors: García-Ureta Agustín 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The European Community’s (EC) policies regarding nature protection reflect conflicting perspectives. On the one hand, there is ample consensus on the continuing disappearance of species and on the need to counter that prima facie unstoppable trend. The Community has adopted ambitious objectives designed to implement efficient protection mechanisms for the species. On the other hand however, the adoption and transposition of basic EC rules happen at a sometimes exasperatingly slow pace. In fact, special conservation areas created by Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (Habitats Directive), should have been designated by the Member States in 2004. Nevertheless, the Community has not yet completed the list of biogeographical regions, which is to precede those designations, and which was to be concluded by 1998, thus revealing the gulf between legal compromises and their effective implementation. Admittedly, it is not an easy task. Community rules are applied in different Member States with diverse realities and administrative practices. It is for this reason that the European Commission (Commission) has been drafting several documents providing coherent interpretation of key Community Directives, including highly contentious matters such as hunting practices. The Commission’s supervision of Member States activities and questions of Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) reveal that development projects area causing severe damage to habitats and species. Obligations requiring the assessment of projects and plans or programmes affecting protection areas will become the most important sign of the effectiveness of Community rules. The ruling of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) in case C-127/02, Landelijke Vereniging tot Behoud van de Waddenzee, Nederlandse Vereniging tot Bescherming van Vogels v. Staatssecretaris van Landbouw, Natuurbeheer en Visserij, which is considered below, has enhanced the scope of those provisions, imposing strict conditions in the light of the precautionary principle. Unfortunately, the prospects seem bleak. In 2004, an increasing number of actions was taken by the Commission to force the Members States to comply with prior ECJ rulings declaring the breach of nature conservation Directives.
Miscellaneous Instruments
Authors: Ryland Diane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The European Commission (Commission) adopted Decision 2004/20/EC setting up an executive agency, the ‘Intelligent Energy Executive Agency’, to manage Community action in the field of energy in application of Council Regulation (EC) No. 58/2003, for the period 1 January 2004 to 31 December 2008. The European Parliament (EP) and the Council have adopted Directive 2004/8/EC on the Promotion of Co-generation Based on a Useful Heat Demand in the Internal Energy Market. The purpose of this Directive is to increase energy efficiency and improve security of supply. A framework is created for the promotion and development of high energy efficiency co-generation of heat and power based on useful heat demand and primary energy savings in the internal energy market, taking into account specific national circumstances especially concerning climatic and economic conditions. Member States are required, inter alia, to adopt harmonized efficiency reference values, under the Directive, and to ensure that the origin of electricity produced from high-efficiency co-generation can be guaranteed according to objective, transparent, and non-discriminatory criteria laid down by each Member State. As its title indicates, Directive 2004/67/EC concerning Measures to Safeguard Security of Natural Gas Supply establishes measures to safeguard an adequate level for the security of natural gas supply. According to this Directive, such measures also contribute to the proper functioning of the internal gas market. It establishes a common framework within which Member States will (i) define general, transparent, and non-discriminatory security of supply policies compatible with the requirements of a competitive internal gas market; (ii) clarify the general roles and responsibilities of the different market players, and (iii) implement specific nondiscriminatory procedures to safeguard security of gas supply.
Knowledge: How Can Governments Know Enough To Govern?
Authors: Mulgan Geoff 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the 1990s, Lawrence Sherman was commissioned by the US National Institute of Justice (NIJ) to investigate patterns of domestic violence, which was becoming increasingly prominent as a crime category, having in the past been largely ignored. His findings were surprising: where acts of domestic violence were committed by employed people living in middle- class areas an arrest would have a big impact and would sharply reduce the risk of re-offending. But if the offender was unemployed and living in a poor area arrests made them more likely to re-offend.
Implementation: Moving From Words To Action
Authors: Mulgan Geoff 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A common vice of organizations that are good at thinking about the future is that they neglect the present. Yet every future direction has to start with changed behaviour in the present, and every serious strategy has to be as concerned with its implementation as with its logical coherence.
Many governments are good at producing paper strategies, often to impress international organizations. The countries queuing up to join the European Union in the early 2000s, for example, fuelled a healthy market in consultant-written strategies which bore only a distant relationship to reality, floating in mid-air without any pillars of money, law, or structure to support them. In other cases strategy-making is a self- contained activity.
New Puzzles and New Findings
Authors: Chesbrough Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This short chapter is intended to frame the subsequent three chapters within this volume. This part of the volume is focused on research that examines the implications of Open Innovation on innovation activities within the firm. Subsequent parts will address the implications of Open Innovation outside the firm, and in the surrounding environment, respectively. Adopting a more open innovation model within a large organization invites the consideration of many puzzles. First, if external innovation is so helpful, why is there so much variation in whether and how much companies utilize it? Second, if many technologies go unused within a firm, why aren ‘t more technologies offered for sale to outside organizations instead?