bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Global Gambling
Authors: Quintana Jose Mario , Lourdes Viridjana , Aguilar Omar , Liu Jane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Phillip Johnson, a former chairman of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, once remarked “If I buy stocks or bonds I am called an investor. If, on the other hand, I buy futures contracts, I am—at best—called a speculator or—worse—a gambler.” He was suggesting that the colorful terminology of the futures markets might mislead the public. Nevertheless, the difference between investing, speculating and gambling, technically, blurs to variations in the objectives (e.g., the fear and greed tradeoff attitude and the time horizon). Furthermore, financial derivatives contracts such as futures, forwards, options, etc. (as well as the traditional investment instruments) qualify as bets, stakes and gambles from a formal quantitative viewpoint. From this perspective, the cynics who assert that the financial derivatives markets are the greatest casinos of the world may have a point. The currency daily dealing alone is referred to as a trillion dollar market.
The Variational Bayesian EM Algorithm for Incomplete Data: With Application to Scoring Graphical Model Structures
Authors: Beal Matthew J , Ghahramani Zoubin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We present an efficient procedure for estimating the marginal likelihood of probabilistic models with latent variables or incomplete data. This method constructs and optimizes a lower bound on the marginal likelihood using variational calculus, resulting in an iterative algorithm which generalizes the EM algorithm by maintaining posterior distributions over both latent variables and parameters. We define the family of conjugate-exponential models—which includes finite mixtures of exponential family models, factor analysis, hidden Markov models, linear state-space models, and other models of interest—for which this bound on the marginal likelihood can be computed very simply through a modification of the standard EM algorithm. In particular, we focus on applying these bounds to the problem of scoring discrete directed graphical model structures (Bayesian networks). Extensive simulations comparing the variational bounds to the usual approach based on the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) and to a sampling-based gold standard method known as Annealed Importance Sampling (AIS) show that variational bounds substantially outperform BIC in finding the correct model structure at relatively little computational cost, while approaching the performance of the much more costly AIS procedure. Using AIS allows us to provide the first serious case study of the tightness of variational bounds. We also analyze the performance of AIS through a variety of criteria, and outline directions in which this work can be extended.
Bayesian Estimation of the Grade of Membership Model
Authors: Elena A. Erosheva 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Grade of Membership model first appeared in the context of medical diagnosis problem in the 1970s. As a latent structure model for discrete response data, it deals with individual heterogeneity by introducing a set of extreme profiles and individual membership scores for each extreme profile. Existing estimation methods for the GoM model are maximum-likelihood based. Models closely related to the GoM have recently appeared in the genetics and machine learning literatures. We consider a Bayesian estimation approach based on the latent class representation of the GoM model. Augmenting data by the latent class indicators allows us to obtain posterior distribution of the model parameters via a Gibbs sampler, when model hyperparameters are known, or via a Metropolis- Hastings algorithm within the Gibbs, when they are unknown. We illustrate the estimation method on a subset of a disability survey data for the case of two extreme profiles.
Exact solutions of stochastic shear and Bernoulli–Euler beams as benchmark problems
Authors: Elishakoff Isaac , Ren Yongjian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A. M. Lyapunov thought that having put the physical initial problem it should be solved mathematically and it would be best if the precise solution was reached—I. V. Andrianov and J. Awrejcewicz (2000). The increasing popularity if the finite element method conceals in it a danger of extreme infatuation with it in damage to analytic methods. Consideration of discrete methods and analytical ones as opposite techniques, that appears in the literature, is not justified. Both methods have characteristic advantages and drawbacks; they mutually complement each other .. .—I. F. Obraztsov (1975).
Variational principles-based FEM for stochastic beams
Authors: Elishakoff Isaac , Ren Yongjian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People are divided into two categories: from one side those who see the variational formulation of a physical law the apotheosis of economy of nature; from the other side those who deny them any interest and affirm that they can be formulated only after the physical law of the phenomenon is established—E. Tonti (1969). … It is clear that for any probabilistic modeling of a physical system to be useful, it has to be compatible with the available numerical schemes—R. G. Ghanem and P. D. Spanos (1991c).
This sporting life
Authors: Haigh John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thank goodness the old boxing saw ‘A good big ‘un will always beat a good little ‘un’ is false. Sport would attract far less attention if it were more predictable. Tennis matches turn on the effect of a net cord, or the exact distance a lob from 20 yards will travel. The capricious nature of decisions by officials-whether the ball really crossed the line, why that try was dis allowed-affect outcomes in profound yet random ways. This chapter explores a number of places where an investigation of the effects of chance might lead to a better understanding of the game, or possibly point to better tactics.
Philosophical problems in mental health practice and research
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Things have changed a lot since Anthony Quinton, a British philosopher, formerly at Oxford and then a member of the House of Lords, made this observation in a lecture to the Royal Institute of Philosophy (Quinton, 1985). Philosophers are nowadays actively interested in a wide range of topics from mental health practice and research. Conversely, mental health practitioners (including both professionals and users of services) are actively interested in a wide range of philosophical topics. Indeed, the explosive growth in cross-disciplinary contact in the last few years (see Reading Guide) has been as remarkable as the earlier long period of mutual neglect.
Philosophical outputs in mental health practice and research
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thus far in this part we have considered the kinds of problem characteristically tackled by philosophy (Chapters 2 and 3) and philosophical methods (Chapters 4 and 5). In this chapter we will be thinking about the outputs from philosophical work, about what we should expect to get out of doing philosophy. It is important to spend some time on this. Views about the value of philosophy (whether indeed it has any discernible worthwhile outputs at all!) are as diverse as views about philosophical problems and philosophical methods. As we will see, they range from the overoptimistic to the overpes- simistic. So we need to get a balanced perspective appropriate to the particular contingencies of philosophy and mental health.
Phenomenology and psychopathology
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first of two chapters in which we will be looking in detail at the philosophical basis of the work of Karl Jaspers, the philosophical father of modern psychopathology. As we saw in Chapter 8, Jaspers envisaged his psychopathology as being founded on phenomenology. In this chapter, therefore, we will look more closely at phenomenology itself, and, in particular, the way it developed in the work of Edmund Husserl. In Chapter 10, we will move on to the second main philosophical influence on Jaspers’ psychopathology, the Methodenstreit, and how Jaspers used this to formulate an approach to psychopathology, which draws on aspects of both the natural and human sciences.
Causes, laws, and reasons in psychiatric aetiology
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In each case we have been concerned with issues that, although particularly prominent in psychiatry, are generic to medicine as a whole. In this chapter, by contrast, we will be concerned with a complication to diagnostic assessment that, traditionally at least, has been identified particularly with psychiatry, namely the role that reasons as well as causes may play in how we understand the aetiology of mental disorders.
Knowledge of other minds
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These are all questions about the nature of mental phenomena, about their ontology. While they are not straightforwardly empir- ical questions we have looked at the bearing that empirical find- ings, such as the results of brain imaging or theories of mental function from cognitive psychiatry, have on them. However, they have all been questions of ontology, of the nature of what is. By contrast the subject matter of this chapter is the epistemology of mind of how we know about our and others’ mental states.
Histories of the future
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are three kinds of clinical complexity, empirical, valu- ational, and conceptual. Medicine has traditionally been con- cerned mainly with complexity of the first kind, with the empirical challenges of the major pathologies, such as infections, cancer, and heart disease. Partly as a result of its growing success in meeting these challenges, however, late twentieth century medi- cine was marked by the emergence, first of valuational complex- ity, in the form of bioethics, and then, in the closing decade of the century, of conceptual complexity, in the form of a blossoming of new work in the cross-disciplinary field of philosophy of psychiatry.
Understanding the Actions of Others
Authors: Rizzolatti Giacomo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a set of stimuli that play a fundamental role in our life: the actions of our conspecifics. How do we understand their actions? What are the neurophysiological bases of this ability? It is possible that the capacity to understand the actions of others is based exclusively on the visual analysis of the observed action. However, there is growing evidence that a mechanism underlying this capacity is based on mapping visual information of the observed action on to an internal motor representation of the same action. Here I will discuss evidence for such a mechanism, review its properties, and explore its implication for other cognitive capacities, such as action imitation, understanding intentionality and language.
Core knowledge
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Does human cognition depend on a set of representational systems that are domain-specific, task-specific, and encapsulated? Studies of human infants and of non-human animals suggest that representations of extended surface layouts, manipulable objects, intentional agents, and approximate numerosities depend on just such modular core knowledge systems. In contrast, studies of human adults, and some studies of trained non-human animals, suggest that representations of space, objects, agents, and numerosity depend on a more flexible cognitive architecture. In this review, I attempt to bridge these findings and suggest that mature human cognitive performance depends in part on the same domain-specific systems found in infants and non-human animals.
Endogenous and Stimulus-driven Mechanisms of Task Control
Authors: Shulman Gordon L , Corbetta Maurizio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While cognitive processes can be prepared to carry out pre-specified tasks, they must be sufficiently flexible to respond to new contingencies. We propose that this flexibility is achieved through the interaction of two sets of regions in the human brain. One set is concerned with the endogenous control of tasks and primarily involves dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, intraparietal sulcus (IPs), and frontal eye field (FEF). These regions are active during task preparation, generating signals for selecting task-relevant stimuli and linking them to responses, and maintain these signals during task performance. The other set is recruited by behaviorally important stimuli and involves the temporal–parietal junction (TPJ) and prefrontal cortex.
The imaging of visual attention
Authors: Hillyard Steven A , Russo Francesco Di , Martinez Antigona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imaging studies reported in this book have made substantial advances in delineating the cortical networks responsible for allocating attention to locations and objects in the visual fields. Progress has also been made in specifying the multiple levels of the visual pathways at which incoming sensory information is selected or rejected. To reveal the dynamic mechanisms of attentional control and selection, it is necessary to employ imaging techniques having high temporal resolution (such as event-related potentials and magneto encephalography) as well as techniques that offer anatomical precision (such as functional magnetic resonance imaging).
From viewing of movements to understanding and imitation of other persons’ acts: MEG studies of the human mirror-neuron system
Authors: Hari Riitta , Nishitani Nobuyuki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For successful social interactions, humans continuously monitor, and often imitate, motor acts, postures, and gaze of their co-citizens. Recent data suggest that this type of intention reading and action imitation could be supported by ‘mirror neurons’, first identified in the monkey frontal lobe. We have characterized, with whole-scalp magneto encephalographic (MEG) recordings, the human mirror-neuron system (MNS), which seems to consist of several cortical areas activated in a clear temporal sequence. Observation of or facial gestures activated in both hemispheres and within about 250 ms, first the visual cortex, then the superior temporal sulcus (STS) region, the inferior parietal cortex, Broca’s area, and finally the primary motor cortex.
Inference
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have now explored some ways of constructing models to help to distinguish between random and systematic variability in an observed sample of data. We have seen how to estimate certain unknown parameters by calculating values from such a sample of data. We also know that such calculated values will generally not be identical to those that we would obtain if we could calculate them for the complete population in which we are interested. It is now time to address several questions concerning how the results that we obtain for our models from a sample can be related to the population as a whole. This is called inference from the observed data to the population.
Normal regression and Anova
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2, we explored models that allowed the probabilities of the various possible response categories to vary depending on the values of explanatory vari­ables. However, we imposed no specific constraints as to the shape of the prob­ability distributions under this different conditions ( except for order in Section 2.3.4) so that a large number of parameters was often involved. In Chapter 4, we looked at how the forms of probability distributions could be simplified by adopting some appropriate density function. Two major advantages of this pro­cedure were that an appropriate density function should be informative about the data generating mechanism and that the number of parameters to estimate was reduced.
Ecological morphology and anatomy
Authors: Gibson David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The common possession of a number of characteristic morphological features makes grasses readily recognizable to even the lay person— although, as noted in Chapter 2, there is often confusion with other similar families such as the rushes (Juncaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae). In this chapter the morphology and anatomy of a grass plant is described, with mention where appropriate of the ecological relevance and importance of the different features. A number of other sources can be consulted for additional details such as Metcalf (1960), Langer (1972), Chapman (1996), Gould and Shaw (1983), or Renvoize (2002) as well as electronic databases (see §2.2) including Watson and Dallwitz (1992 onwards). There is considerable diversity in form and function that relates to the evolutionary adaptation of grasses to their environment. In general, the trends in grass evolution reflect a series of adaptive reductions in size, complexity, and number—albeit with notable exceptions and a number of reversals (Stebbins 1982).
Physiology
Authors: Gibson David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Grasses are remarkable in their combination of several unique physiological features. These include the possession in more taxa than any other group of the advanced C4 photosynthetic pathway (§ 4.1), highly nutritious forage (§ 4.2), the production of economically important chemicals including starches, sugars, and other carbohydrates (§ 4.3), and the possession of large amounts of silica in their tissue (§ 4.4). All of these physiological features, and others, fundamentally affect the ecology of grasses (§ 4.5), and are described in this chapter.
An act of desperation
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A scientist in the late nineteenth century could be forgiven for believing that the major elements of physics were built on unshakeable foundations and effectively established for all time. The efforts of generations of scientists, philosophers, and mathematicians had culminated in Isaac Newton’s grand synthesis in the late seventeenth century. Newton’s work had been shaped by a further 200 years of theoretical and experimental science into a marvellous structure that we now call classical physics. This physics appeared to explain almost every aspect of the physical world: the interplay of force and motion in the dynamics of moving objects, thermodynamics, optics, electricity, magnetism, and gravitation. Its scope was vast: from the objects of everyday experience on earth to the furthest reaches of the visible universe. So closely did theory agree with and explain experimental observations that there could be no doubt about its basic correctness —its essential ‘truth’. Admittedly, there were a few remaining problems, but these seemed to be trivial compared with the fundamentals — a matter of dotting a few is and crossing some ts.
Quantum measurement
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Measurement lies at the core of the quantum formalism. This may seem a statement of the intuitively obvious for any theoretical structure with a pretension to predict the outcomes of observations made or experiments performed on objects in the real world. But classical mechanics is a theorys of the physical properties of objects and their behaviour when exposed to different kinds of forces, and there is no particularly significant role for measurement other than a passive role involving the recording of those properties or behaviour. In contrast, measurement in quantum theory takes on a far deeper, almost ominous, significance
Plantation organization and structure
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 the words ‘plantation’ or ‘planted forest’ were defined and described in outline. But it is nec-essary to examine more closely the organization and structure of plantations and planted forest as background to their development and management. Although most of this chapter is concerned with industrial forest plantations, much of it also applies to small-scale woodlots, though the relative importance of some matters may differ, for example, species composition, age-class structure, stocking, design, and shape of the plantation.
Seed collection, supply, and storage
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Growing seedlings in a forest nursery is the main way of raising planting stock in the tropics, though increasingly some plantation species are propagated vegetatively. Large quantities of seeds are needed each year for industrial plantations and smaller-scale planting by farmers, villagers, smallholders, and other land managers. There is abundant evidence from around the world (e.g. Jones 1994) to show that the availability of good quality seed of the best adapted species is one of the most critical factors in ensuring healthy, productive, and profitable plantations.
Rotations, regeneration, and coppice
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These questions about regeneration cannot be decided in isolation. For example, if natural regeneration is planned then the rotation must be long enough for trees to produce seed abundantly. The main methods of regeneration used in tropical plantations, that is, clear-felling and replanting, and coppice systems, were briefly discussed in Chapter 4. This chapter considers them more fully, along with brief mention of natural regeneration, but, first, two important points are restated.
Ecological factors and sustainability of plantations
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this final chapter three issues are addressed that affect planted forests to a greater or lesser extent. They are specifically included because debate and sometimes controversy surround them, namely, biodiversity in plantations compared with natural forest formations, the eucalypt controversy, and plantation sustainability. Any casual examination of blocks of planted trees consisting of one species, and often of one age, compared with natural forests of many species and ages shows they are less rich in species. Obviously, and virtually by definition, this is true of tree species, but also applies to associated flora and fauna. This has led to claims that plantations are biological deserts.
From genealogies to sequences
Authors: Hein Jotun , Schierup Mikkel H , Wiuf Carsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter we discussed how genes or sequences are related in a population through their common ancestry. However, to model real data a model of how mutations cause changes in the DNA is necessary. To meet this several mutation models have been developed. Historically, the infinite alleles model appeared first (Kimura and Crow 1964), followed by the infinite sites model (Kimura 1969), and the finite sites model (Jukes and Cantor 1969). This development illustrates an increased focus towards analysis of nucleotide sequence data sets, but also a development towards increasing complexity of analysis.
In this chapter we first introduce the three different types of mutation models, then a mathematical framework for working with probabilities of a sample configuration is discussed. We will mainly focus on the infinite alleles and infinite sites models and relate these models to the underlying genealogy of a sample. Mutations are assumed to be selectively neutral. This has the desirable effect that the mutation process can be separated from the genealogical process, because, in the absence of selection, the mutational process and the transmission of genes from one generation to the next are independent processes (genes have the same probability of transmission whatever their type). Thus, a sample configuration for n genes can be simulated using a two step procedure: (1) simulate the genealogy of n genes; (2) add mutations to the genealogy according to the chosen mutation model.