bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Infant and childhood mortality
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss levels and trends in infant and childhood mortality. Early mortality is a standard indicator of the overall health of a population, so we are interested in comparing Herero rates at different periods and with infant and childhood mortality in other populations. In particular the !Kung Bushmen, the subjects of Nancy Howell’s (1979) pioneering demographic study, inhabit the same area and should be exposed to similar pathogens. The !Kung have less food than the Herero and they are thinner. A comparison between the two groups may show the effects of diet on early mortality.
Life history and marriage
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Demographers and anthropologists typically consider marriage the normal context for child-bearing in human societies. Common approaches to dealing with non-marital reproduction are to ignore it because it is rare or to treat it as an abnormality that requires an explanation. Because there are no universal biological or social constraints limiting reproduction to marital unions, we are hesitant to adopt this view. Instead, we suggest that marriage and reproduction are understood by viewing them as concurrent rather than equivalent states of the life course such that one state is affected by the other but is not dependent upon it. Since a reproductive advantage conferred by marriage can vary among individuals and across ecological and social environments, rather than trying to understand why women do not marry, we might just as well ask why they marry at all.
Herero and !Kung comparative demography
Authors: Pennington Renee , Harpending Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last two decades anthropologists have become increasingly interested in the possibility that variability in caloric intake and energy expenditure affect fertility. Much of the impetus for this interest was the finding that !Kung Bushmen, hunting and gathering people who occupy the same valleys of north-western Ngami land as Herero, had low completed family sizes of four to five live births. The low fertility of the !Kung became incorporated into an anthropological legend about Bushmen–that they were affluent, cheerful, and gentle people who ate a lot of high fibre natural foods, lactated a long time, and got a lot of exercise (Sahlins 1968; Kolata 1974). This way of life led to ‘natural’ fertility control, according to the ideology, so that they had near zero population growth and were in long term balance with their environment. The natural state was lost when Herero and other pastoralists moved into their range. !Kung settled with Herero, began drinking milk and eating grain, quit walking long distances to forage, and their fertility increased dramatically through shorter birth intervals.
Overdispersion and cluster models
Authors: Lindsey J k. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen in previous chapters of this part, count data arise from the enumeration of events on individual units. If no explanatory variables, or time, distinguish among the events, they may be aggregated as counts. In fact, this can only be done legitimately for Poisson or binomial data if the events are independent. One may expect that such would not be the case for repeated events on each unit. This is usually known as over- or underdispersion, depending on whether dependence is positive or negative. Over- (or under-) dispersion in counts can arise for at least two reasons.
Factoring the likelihood function
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The likelihood function provides an overall assessment of the relative merits of different members of a given family of statistical models, although this must be balanced against their relative complexity. However, as we saw in Section 3.6.3, we often require measures of precision of the estimates of individual parameters in the model. This is most often the case in a decision context (Part IV), where, for example, one might wish to decide which of two or more treatments provides the most positive effect, while controlling for various other influential factors. As in Section 3.6.3, the techniques to be discussed in this chapter should not be used for model selection, such as determining if a parameter could be set to zero. They are appropriate for interval estimation of individual parameters once an appropriate model has been selected. When the parameter vector is of low dimension, the precision of a parameter can be determined by inspecting a plot of the (profile) likelihood function. However, when many parameters are present in a statistical model, the profile likelihood will give a poor measure of the uncertainty in any one parameter component, unless it is orthogonal to the others, because it effectively assumes that the other parameter components are known to be equal to their maximum likelihood estimates (for fixed value of the parameter ofinterest). Thus, in Section 3.6.3, we introduced a modified profile likelihood to meet this problem, with a further application in Section 4.2.2. In this chapter, we shall explore in more detail the validity of such approximations.
Frequentist decision-making
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

abstract
Up until now, we have been studying how to extract the maximum information from data about models, and how to check their appropriateness, without being concerned about the uses to which the conclusions might be put. In this chapter and the next, we look at various approaches to handling the latter problem. These involve, in different ways, the peculiar notion (to a scientist) that the model for the phenomenon under study can be true or correct. However, in a context where one must make decisions involving irrevocable concrete actions, this is usually a necessary assumption. To incorporate the information from a study into this context requires an additional new type of model, one describing how human beings make such decisions.
Binomial regression
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A biological assay, or bioassay, is an experiment to study the reaction of a living organism to some material, usually a pharmaceutical preparation. When the only response recorded is presence or absence of the reaction, it is called a quantal response. Usually, the material to be studied is applied at different dose levels in an inert diluent and the response observed. Comparison may be made to a negative control, i.e. inert material, or to a positive control, usually a competing pharmaceutical preparation. In many such assays, the material may cause irreversible change, such as death, so that the subjects can only be used once. One of the very early quantal response assays, published in 1926, concerned a study of the effect of insulin on mice, as measured by whether or not they had convulsions. The data are given in Table 10.1. We are interested in modelling how the proportion of mice with convulsions varies with the dose of insulin and with the type of preparation.
The depressed patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The appropriate management of the depressed patient is probably the key psychiatric skill for the GP to master. Not only are depressive disorders very common (1 in 10 consulting patients), but also effective primary care-based treatments can make a marked impact on patient morbidity and recovery. Depression is without question a disorder of primary care with approximately 90% of cases seen and treated without specialist referral. However, the GP has long been berated for not recognizing cases of depressive disorder, and then not adequately treating those cases which are recognized. This chapter sets out a pragmatic approach to diagnosis and treatment, which seeks to empower rather than criticize the GP. Guidance is given (evidence based where possible) to support the key management steps.
The fatigued patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fatigue is common amongst patients in primary care (Table 8.1). There is a strong correlation between fatigue and psychological morbidity. The more severe the fatigue symptoms, the greater the chance of being a case on the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). In a prospective study comparing patients presenting with viral illness, with matched controls, the strongest predictors of fatigue 6 months later were a past history of fatigue and psychological distress (Wessely et al., 1995). In a search for predictors for post-viral fatigue, a cohort of primary care patients presenting with viral illness were followed for 6 months. Infective symptoms did not predict fatigue at 6 months, but psychiatric morbidity, belief in vulnerability to viruses and attributional style at interview were all associated with self-designated post-viral fatigue (Cope et al., 1994).
The patient with a personality disorder
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patients with personality disorders can be amongst the most difficult patients to treat in general practice. All GPs will have had the experience of referring a patient to a specialist psychiatric service only to have them assessed as having a personality disorder, ,with no treatable psychiatric diagnosis, and sent back to primary care. The GP is then left with the unenviable task of attempting to manage a patient who is often very demanding and also disabled by their symptoms.
The risky patient
Authors: Mynors-Wallis Dr Laurence , Moore Dr Michael , Maguire Mr Jon , Hollingbery Mr Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Risk is currently an important topic within mental health. Much of the research in this area has been done in samples of high risk-patients, e.g. repeated self-harmers or those convicted of a violent offence. Evidence from such samples is not readily applicable in primary care where the prevalence of such behaviours is much lower. This chapter will focus on two areas of risk: the self-harming patient and the violent and aggressive patient.
The planning and control of reaching and grasping movements
Authors: Desmurget Michel , Baraduc, Pierre , Guigon Emmanuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In our everyday life, we constantly interact with various objects. We reach for them, we manipulate them, and we grasp them with no apparent effort. Obviously, this simplicity has a cost in terms of the neural and functional organization of the nervous system. If our ‘motor programs’ are so powerful and easy to use, it is because their implementation is incredibly complex. A century of intense investigations have demonstrated that addressing this complexity is not a small challenge. In this chapter, we examine the most recent developments in this field of research.
Corticospinal deficits
Authors: Noth Johannes , Fromm Christoph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our knowledge about the consequences of corticospinal (CS) lesions in humans rests on three lines of evidence: (i) behavioural studies on animals and, in particular, on non-human primates which provide detailed anatomical and physiological information about the corticospinal system, (ii) conclusions drawn from experimental lesions of the corticospinal tract in non-human primates, and (iii) case reports of neurological syndromes following small well-defined cortical, peduncular, or pyramidal lesions of the corticospinal tract. To avoid overlap with other contributions to this volume, only those aspects that are essential for the understanding of corticospinal deficits will be discussed here.
Apraxias as traditionally defined
Authors: Leiguarda Ramon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Apraxia is a term used to denote a wide spectrum of higher-order motor disorders due to acquired brain disease affecting the performance of skilled learned movements with or without preservation of the ability to perform the same movement outside the clinical setting in the appropriate situation or environment. The disturbance of purposive movements cannot be termed apraxia, however, if it results from a language comprehension disorder or from dementia, or if the patient suffers from any elementary motor or sensory deficit (i.e. paresis, dystonia, ataxia) which could fully explain the abnormal motor behaviour (Heilman and Rothi 1985; Roy and Square 1985; De Renzi 1989).
Cortical plasticity and motor disorders
Authors: Celnik Pablo A , Cohen Leonardo G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The view of the central nervous system as rigidly organized has been replaced by a more dynamic conception that emphasizes its ability to change. This paradigm shift took place over several decades and has led, in the last few years, to a tighter connection between basic scientists working in animal models of plasticity and clinicians interested in the application of principles of plasticity to the treatment of human disease. Influential studies leading the way of this new trend included those of Hubel and Wiesel (1965), who showed that visual experience during the early life of kittens has a profound impact in shaping the responsiveness of individual cortical neurons, the discovery of nerve growth factor in the adult mammal brain (Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti 1968), and the characterization of long-term potentiation and depression (Bliss and Gardner 1973; Douglas and Goddard 1975; Lynch et al. 1977).
The unpopular age
Authors: Graham Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a psychiatrist working for over 25 years in a children ‘s hospital, I have listened and talked to young men and women of Fergus ‘s age referred for emotional and behavioural problems. As a researcher over an even longer period of time, I have been involved in studies of ‘ordinary ‘ school students of this age who were selected at random from school populations and from ‘young people ‘ on lists of family doctors. Some of these lived in very deprived areas, others were much better off. As a university teacher, I have discussed issues to do with adolescence with undergraduates, themselves only just out of their teenage years. Finally, like everyone else, I have learned about the teenage years from my own adolescence, as well as that of members of my family and friends.
The invention of adolescence
Authors: Graham Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘adolescence ‘ was first used in ancient Rome, probably by Plautus, around 193 BC. ‘Adolescere ‘ is Latin for ‘to grow up ‘ and adultus means ‘to have grown up ‘. So, in a sense, adults are defined in terms of the completion of their adolescence. The term ‘adolescent ‘ was used by churchmen and other scholars in classical times and in the Middle Ages to describe young people who had not achieved full adult social rights. This might take a long time and some eminent doctors and churchmen who wrote about the young laid it down that the end of adolescence did not arrive until the age of 35 or even 42 years. But it always began round about the time of the beginning of puberty. In those days this was later than it is today, on average at about 14–15 years.
Teens in the family
Authors: Graham Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1, I suggested that most young people in their teens did not con-form to the stereotypes the media and sometimes even professionals put out about them. In this chapter, I shall first look at the ways in which most of those in their teens actually do behave in families. Then I shall go on to suggest that one of the most important reasons why most teenage children do not show the appalling behaviour their reputation might lead one to expect is that their parents have, since early childhood, taken account of their children ‘s feelings, listened to them, and eventually arrived at family relationships that are reasonably democratic. They have empowered their children.
More cheerful than moody
Authors: Graham Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I suggest that most of those in their teens are cheerful, happy, and reasonably stable most of the time. As we shall see in more detail later in this chapter, three out of four 13–15-year-olds report that they have never or only occasionally been unhappy over the past years. Contrary to popular belief, young people in their teens, if compared to those in their twenties and thirties, are not moodier or more depressed. Rates of low self-esteem, depression, and suicidal ideas increase in the early teens and then remain stable from about the age of 14 years onwards through the rest of young adulthood and middle age. Thus, as far as mood and mood disorders are concerned, those in their teens are very like those in later adulthood, as they are in so many other aspects of life.
Sex: same hormones, different lives
Authors: Graham Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Myths, or widely held inaccurate ideas about sex and the teens, are common in the adult world, so that much discussion is poorly informed. What are these myths? First, is the idea that the physical changes of puberty begin in the teens. In fact, they begin well before this. Indeed they begin well before these physical changes are visible. Another myth is that sexual development is beginning earlier these days than it did even 20 years ago. The evidence for this is weak or non-existent. A third myth is those in their teens have extraordinarily high levels of sex hormones, and that these gradually decline in the twenties. Finally, there is a widespread and mistaken notion that all those in their teens are, or at least would like to be, highly promiscuous in their sexual behaviour.
Schools: the solution or the problem?
Authors: Graham Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Education is empowering. Without educational success young people are condemned to low paid jobs, a much higher likelihood of unemployment and inability to appreciate many of the good things of life. But inevitably, from the perspective of those in their teens, making schooling compulsory risks being seen as disempowering. One can understand how they feel. Highly competent young people have the freedom to decide how they will spend their weekdays taken away from them until the age of 16 years. Even after that, the job market and benefits system, with no minimum wage protection and no allowance to benefit under 18 years, are arranged in such a way that most have little choice but to continue in some sort of educational setting however boring or unrewarding they may find it.
Introduction
Authors: Fenchel Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is about the development of life from its origin and until multicellular plants, fungi, and animals arose-corresponding approximately to the time period from 4 to 0.6 billion years ago. If the reader expects a complete explanation for the origin of life and its earliest differentiation then she or he will be disappointed. First of all these questions will never be fully answered because the origin of life is a historical event. Plausible ideas about mechanisms that possibly led to the origin of life may be suggested and perhaps, in some cases at least, tested experimentally. But it will never be possible to prove that this is how it happened. Also, there are huge gaps in our understanding of the earliest evolution of life.
Origin of life
Authors: Fenchel Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fact that no one knows how life originated is generally acknowledged, but the formidable difficulties in formulating even modestly reasonable models is perhaps appreciated less. And so many simplistic proposals have been made without addressing fundamental difficulties. Understanding the physical-chemical conditions under which life arose, simple chemical processes in the environment that may have provided the energy for the earliest life, and the spontaneous (‘self-organizing’) mechanisms that might have created some sort of mechanical scaffolding ( e.g. coacervates) for the earliest life are all important. It appears to me, however, that the most essential problem remains that of explaining the origin of replicators that were subject to Darwinian evolution.
From the RNA world to the first cell
Authors: Fenchel Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Evolution from the (hypothetical) RNA world to the first bacterial cell is in many ways as difficult to explain as the origin of life itself. It is possible to formulate problems, but their solution seems in many cases to be almost insurmountable. Comparative studies combined with palaeontology can provide convincing descriptions on how, for example, Devonian lobe-finned fish developed into terrestrial vertebrates. But going from simple ideas on how life could have originated and relatively simple chemical systems with replicating RNA molecules to the first cell represents a huge gap with little but speculation to fill it.
The evolution of metabolism
Authors: Fenchel Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If one could speak of bacteria having a purpose in life it would be to grow and pro duce two new bacteria. This requires free energy and building materials-the same requirements that must have applied to the first RNA quasi-species as well as to all other kinds of life. The energy always comes from the hydrolysis (splitting with concomitant uptake of H2O) of energy-rich phosphate bonds. In the case of microorgan isms and fast growing other kinds of organisms, by far the greatest energy demand is for the production of polymers (proteins, RNA, DNA) and for active (energy requiring) uptake of molecules from the surroundings.
The eukaryotic cell
Authors: Fenchel Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eukaryotes include all organisms that are not bacteria (prokaryotes = eubacteria + archaebacteria). The eukaryotes include the three large groups of multicellular organ isms. That is, animals, (vascular) plants, and the higher fungi plus a large number of rather unrelated groups of unicellular organisms often referred to as protozoa, protophytes (unicellular algae), multicellular algae, and some fungi-like organisms. Eukaryotes that belong to neither the animals, plants, or fungi are often collectively referred to as protists.
Sex, species concepts, and evolution
Authors: Fenchel Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although horizontal gene transfer is known from bacteria it is not possible to speak about bacterial sex in the sense that it applies to eukaryotes. Many groups of unicellular protists also seem to be sexless. This applies, for example, to naked amoebae: the classical textbook amoeba Amoeba proteus has been grown in laboratories for almost a century, but no sexual phenomenon has ever been recorded. Totally sexless forms also occur among many groups in which other representatives display some sort of sexual phenomena. Many groups of unicellular eukaryotes display different components of sexual processes and in other cases protozoan sex resembles that of animals.
Evidence from geology
Authors: Fenchel Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the 1960s geology obtained a coherent description of structures and processes in the surface layers of Earth. These theories are collectively termed plate tectonics. Radioactive decay and thus heat generation in the mantle leads to slow convective flow somewhat comparable with that in a viscous fluid exposed to heat from below: hot fluid rises in some places from the bottom to the surface, cools at the surface to sink down in other places. In a similar way molten magma rises in certain zones below the oceanic sea bottom and spreads to the sides as new ocean bottom. These spreading zones show through mid-oceanic ridges, volcanism, and hydrothermal vents.