bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Servants
Authors: Harvey Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has often been assumed that the number of servants employed by monasteries in the Middle Ages was very large and could have been smaller with advantages to the monks themselves, if not to those whom they employed. Thus, in a famous work, G. M. Trevelyan characterized the life of monks in Chaucer’s England as one of ‘sauntering comfort’; and Trevelyan’s references to the monks’ abandonment of manual labour and their employment of ‘armies of servants’ point to some of the ways in which, in his view, this state of affairs had come about.
Richard II in the Chronicles
Authors: Taylor John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although we possess his likeness in the Westminster abbey portrait, and almost certainly in the Wilton Diptych, Richard II lives principally in the chronicles and the literary sources. What relatively few letters of his survive throw an interesting though limited light upon his character and outlook.1 For centuries the popular view of Richard has been determined by Shakespeare ‘s play, where the portrait of Richard is heightened by the ‘dramatic bid for tragedy ‘, and where the image of the king derives ultimately from the Lancastrian chronicles and also from the propagandist French accounts of Creton and the author of the Traison et Mort, accounts which were known to Shakespeare through Holinshed. In the play, which is concerned with the theme of kingship, Richard the man gradually emerges from the trappings of office. On a human level he changes from the arrogant and feckless youth to the suffering king, a change dictated in part by these sources. In view of the fact that Shakespeare ‘s view of Richard was conditioned by his chronicle sources, we need to look at them with some care, for through Shakespeare they have immensely influenced most subsequent writings. When we turn to the contemporary chronicles, consisting of narratives written in England, in Hainau1t, and in France, we find that we are dealing, the French narratives apart, with accounts which were the work of monks and secular clerks situated in different parts of the country.
The Kingship of Richard II
Authors: Saul Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The governance of Richard II fits uneasily into the general pattern of constitutional development in later medieval England. In many ways it appears uncharacteristic of its age. Richard ‘s emphasis on the prerogative recalls the Angevin world of vis and voluntas, when the king could override the common law at will; while the use that was made of Chamber officials in central and local government anticipates one of the Tudors ‘ expedients for undermining the power of the magnates. By comparison with the less doctrinaire, though still assertive, kingship of an Edward III or Henry V, Richard ‘s appears an alien, even a provocative, style of rule-an ‘absolutist ‘ experiment conceived out of its time and predestined to failure.
Introduction
Authors: Stevenson David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first test of Sir Edward Grey’s assessment must be statistical. Like other such tests, it is problematic. In the early twentieth century all the major Powers, including Russia after 1906, had relatively open political systems, in which War and Navy Ministry budgets were public knowledge and were scrutinized in Parliament. For practical purposes their currencies were fixed in value in relation to each other and to gold. Inflation was low. Comparisons are hampered, however, by differing accounting practices, sometimes intentionally misleading, and by problems of definition. Spending totals for each country make no allowance for international variations in purchasing power, and bear no constant relation to the size of forces in being (as measured in infantry divisions or squadrons of battleships). As well as armaments items, such as turrets and shells, they include routine categories, such as fodder and wages. Even so, they bring out the orders of magnitude and the overriding trends, and are the best point of departure.
Arms and the Men
Authors: Stevenson David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For a century and a half before the 1840s land and naval armaments had scarcely changed. But from that time on, the industrialization of weapons manufacture transformed the power to produce and to destroy. It took almost twenty years to re-equip the Prussian infantry with the first standard-issue rifle: subsequent replacements, even in much larger armies, needed only four. The wars and economic boom of the mid-nineteenth century ushered in a revolution in technology and organization that set the mould in which twentieth-century armies still operated. The impetus behind this revolution came from the mechanization of transport and communications and from the transformation of the arms themelves.
Britain’s Persian Connection 1798-1828
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1801 and again in 1809 the British made a treaty with the Qajar regime of Persia. The two treaties and the attempts to define and to protect Great Britain's interests in the Middle East were known at the time as the Persian Connection. Edward Ingram's scholarly and extensively researched study shows how the British expected the Persian Connection to help them win the Napoleonic Wars and to enable them to enjoy the fruits of empire in India. Professor Ingram examines British policies and activities in the Middle East and Central Asia during the early nineteenth century, and traces the course of Anglo-Russian diplomatic relations during this period. The Persian Connection, he argues, was a measure of the status and reputation of Britain as a Great Power; the history of its first twenty years illustrates the limits to British power, as well as having much light to shed on the creation of the Indian Empire.
Scares of Invasion, 1807-1809
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While the East India Company and the board of control were trying to decide how to meet an increasingly likely danger, Harford Jones, armed with a baronetcy and dreaming of a peerage, was on a leisurely voyage to Persia. As long as Great Britain was at war with both Russia and the Ottoman Empire, he did not have the choice of travelling overland. On 4 January 1808, he reached Cape Town, and three months later, on 24 April, Bombay. Imagine his annoyance at finding that one week earlier, his great rival for influence over British policy in the Middle East, John Malcolm, had sailed for Persia at the head of a mission from the government of India. Everybody in India had known for a month that Jones was on his way out from England; at Bombay his arrival was expected any day. Despite this, Sir Edward Pellew, the naval commander-in-chief in the East Indies, was sure the governor-general would be delighted when told, ‘I hurry ... [Malcolm] every hour to get away before Sir H. Jones arrives. ‘ The British were to pay dearly in the Middle East for the partisan conduct of their two highest Anglo-Indian officials.
Imperial Outpost, 1810-1815
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At first glance, the behaviour of British officials in the Middle East can be misleading. Too much has been made of self-willed proconsuls and fidgety frontier agents on the make. They were on the make, of course: why else should John Malcolm-one of that ‘depressing collection of simple practical men who have been there’ -or a fine scholar like Harford Jones endure the discomfort and exasperation of working among Qajars, who resembled the post-Second World War British Establishment in having pretensions to grandeur wildly exceeding their power. Anybody stationed at the fringes of an empire with hopes of returning home to promotion or to set up in society needs a sponsor, and the closer to the centre of power the better. The claims made for ‘excentric’ imperialism by Ronald Robinson and the periphery by David Fieldhouse should not be exaggerated. The goals, limits, and, more important, style of imperial policy are set in the metropolis, even if they must adapt to local conditions and give ground before subjects and affiliates who must seem to be controlled. Nobody ever mistook a British colony for a French one. One had only to eat.
Anglo-French Diplomacy and the Transition from the Screw-Liner to the Ironclad, 1854 Onwards
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rival screw-fleets that we have seen being built against each other so energetically never did meet to fight. Rather, they never met to fight on opposing sides: instead, strange reversal, they went to war as allies against a common enemy. The causes of that war have been described often enough, and will not be dealt with here. Nor will the progress of the land war be looked at in any more than a passing way. Our concern is with the maritime war against Russia, and what it showed of the state of the naval art, and how it affected construction policy.
The Nature of the Rivalry and its Conclusion
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most striking feature of the naval rivalry between Britain and France in the mid-nineteenth century was its degree of exclusivity. Each side came to see itself as having only one real opponent—the other. In a pamphlet published in 1844, one French naval officer wrote, ‘La force et la puissance d’une marine n’étant que relative, il faut un point de comparaison. Ce point, il n’y en a qu’un: c’est la marine anglaise.’1 What he wrote applied also in reverse.
The First Protectorate
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The summons to Duke Richard of York ran counter to a strong political tide. Power had rested with the duke of Somerset since 1451, and after Dartford he had virtually monopolized it. That power was now to be challenged, as the king’s councillors were fully aware. Legitimacy, practical politics, the duke of York’s inexorable arrival at the forthcoming session of Parliament, all demanded a solution, and these considerations, rather than personal favour, determined the council’s invitation. Of the four laymen who signed the warrant, Worcester, the prior of St Johns, Sudeley, and Dudley, the last two had profited appreciably in the Somerset years, Prior Botiller’s attitude is unknown, and Worcester, perhaps indifferent to Somerset, is best regarded as a willing servant of the king. Of the five bishops, three were king’s men, Wainflete, Chedworth, and Lowe, and one was a former Suffolk protege, now the queen’s confessor, Walter Lyhert. The fifth, Richard Beauchamp of Salisbury, may have had some sympathy with York, but it is impossible to see how such a group could agree to summon York other than on grounds of legitimate right.
The Capture Of The Palestinian Coast And The Development Of Crusader Siege Technique
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the crusaders’ triumph over the Fatimids at the battle of Ascalon on 12 August m99, their possession of Jerusalem was temporarily assured. Yet this did not establish Latin authority securely in the Holy Land, and much of the territory which would constitute the Latin states remained to be conquered. One crucial area in the establishment of Latin power in the eastern Mediterranean was the Syro-Palestinian coast. Control of the littoral was vital in several regards, the most immediate involving lines of communication with Europe.
British Business and Protection 1903-1932
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first in-depth study of the involvement of businessmen in the campaign for Tariff Reform, the most important and pervasive political debate on economic policy in the first three decades of the twentieth century. Previously published work on Tariff Reform has concentrated on its political or "social-imperialist" dimensions, and our knowledge of businessmen's motivations, objectives, and strategies has been under-developed. This book is organized around an analysis of the pressure and propaganda groups directed, or supposedly directed, by protectionist businessmen themselves. Detailed treatment of Joseph Chamberlain's Tariff Commission before the Great War, and of successor organizations such as the Empire Development Union and the Empire Industries Association, provide a thread of continuity from Chamberlain's Birmingham speech in 1903 to the Import Duties Act in 1932. Less overtly political bodies, such as the Federation of British Industries, the National Union of Manufacturers, and the chambers of commerce, are also studied. The book includes the first in-depth investigation into the development of protectionism during the First World War, and presents a new analysis of the turbulent events of 1929-1932. Andrew Marrison gives particular attention to the questions of economic motivation and industry-alignment - areas where oversimplification and generalization have been common - and to the relationship between business participants and their political mentors. The general conclusion is one of a "primacy of politics", a fragmentation of the corporate ideal, in which the lack of influence of the businessman, and especially of the manufacturer, in British politics and British society meant that the Edwardians' fear of protectionist vested interests was highly exaggerated. The cunning, grasping businessman of legend is found to be little more than fiction.
A State Under Siege
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origins of the Northern Irish state are of great importance for the study of Irish history and Anglo-Irish relations, but this subject has never been tackled in great detail. In this diligent ad detailed account, Follis makes up for this oversight. He examines the turbulent early years of Northern Ireland, looking at how its administration was established and how it survived in the face of widespread communal violence, near bankruptcy, and political uncertainty, exacerbated by problematical relations with the governments in Westminster and Dublin. The highly controversial subject matter is subject to careful analysis, and if a particular standpoint emerges at its conclusion, an expression of it is long overdue. This is an honest and extremely lucid piece of research on a subject of vital importance.
Defending Self.-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Achieving responsibility for law and order was a major objective for the fledgeling Government of Northern Ireland, particularly given the deteriorating security situation. The truce between the Crown forces and the IRA insisted upon by Sinn Fein as a preliminary to negotiations came into operation on 11 July 1921. Applying the truce in Northern Ireland without London’s consulting the Craig administration highlighted the latter’s lack of control over security matters. With the Special Constabulary virtually demobilized, the force which ‘the Unionists had lobbied so hard to get established had been almost neutralised overnight’. The IRA did not stand down its men during the truce but rather took the opportunity to consolidate its position. Following an attack by IRA gunmen on the police in Belfast on 14 July, full-scale rioting (accompanied by widespread sniping) broke out, resulting in twenty deaths and some 200 wounded. Further serious outbreaks of trouble on 20, 30, and 31 August left seventeen dead and ninety-one wounded. The Government of Northern Ireland could only lobby the military authorities and the British Government for the deployment of additional troops in the hope of preventing further disorder.
Financing Self.-Govemment
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Northern Ireland Cabinet had to grapple with various administrative problems as it endeavoured to establish the new government. Although these problems had been exacerbated by the obstructionist tactics of the Irish Free State, the government succeeded in consolidating its authority and in shaping Northern Ireland as a viable entity. With the implementation of a tough counter-insurgency programme and the defeat of the IRA terrorist offensive in 1922, Northern Ireland appeared to have secured its existence. Doubts, however, remained in the minds of many people about the ability of Northern Ireland to avoid a budget deficit and national bankruptcy. Even at the height of the IRA campaign in 1922, the funding of the Ulster Special Constabulary appeared to pose an almost greater problem than the acts of terrorism themselves.
Conclusion
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fact that the public sector is today the largest employer in Northern Ireland, or that the public purse primes some 80 per cent of total expenditure, can conceal the modest (and recent) origins of the state. Indeed, prior to the establishment of devolved government in 1921, not only were there no organs of statehood in Northern Ireland but Northern Ireland as a political entity and administrative unit did not exist. Apart from some junior-to middle-ranking civil servants administering public services such as revenue collection, agriculture, national insurance, and labour exchanges, there was no central government presence in Belfast. All the senior civil servants responsible for policy formulation were based either in Dublin or in London, as were the bulk of officers who administered the services affecting the people in what was to become Northern Ireland. The Government of Ireland Act, 1920, did not so much establish a devolved government in Northern Ireland as create the entity called Northern Ireland. Unlike the United Kingdom state, which evolved over centuries, Northern Ireland was conceived and born in a matter of months.
Render unto caesar?
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may seem a little strange to include a chapter on the Protestant Churches under a section entitled ‘The Contours of Domination’. The Churches were, after all, hardly part of the communist state apparatus; a legacy of centuries of Christian history, they were institutional standard-bearers of a very different world-view from that of Ulbricht and Honecker. The Church appeared to have acted as a haven for dissidents in the course of the 1980s, leading up to the climactic events of the autumn of 1989; moreover, in the months following the fall of the Wall, many commentators were surprised at the prevalence of pastors in the political landscape of that short-lived transitional state, the ‘noch-DDR’. It seemed to many that the Protestant Church had played more of a role in undermining than sustaining the system of domination in the GDR.
The End Of A Dictatorship
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No revolution, historically, has been a simple matter. In no case is it sufficient to seek to explain only the growth of popular discontent: dislike of prevailing political conditions has never been a sufficient explanation even of an isolated revolt, let alone a successful revolution. As argued above, dislike of the GDR was relatively constant throughout its forty-year history, and does little to elucidate its final collapse. While every revolution is in a very real sense unique, there are certain recurrent features. All successful revolutions appear to be characterized by a particular combination of factors. One of these is the growth of a revolutionary movement which at crucial moments is capable of mobilizing large numbers of people to mount a serious challenge from below. But equally important is the question of elite claims to power and exertion of effective rule. Historically, notable revolutions-including the English Revolution of 1640 and the French Revolution of 1789-have originated, not with a challenge from below, but rather with splits among ruling elites (although of course emerging splits are often simultaneously exploited and exacerbated by growing challenges from below).2 The course taken by revolutionary developments may also depend crucially on international circumstances. In the East German case, the state was characterized by a lack of national legitimacy and the artificial nature of its construction and dependence on the Soviet Union:
British Clubs and Societies 1580-1800
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern freemasonry was invented in London about 1717, but was only one of a surge of British associations in the early modern era which had originated before the English Revolution. By 1800, thousands of clubs and societies had swept the country. Recruiting widely from the urban affluent classes, mainly amongst men, they traditionally involved heavy drinking, feasting, singing, and gambling. They ranged from political, religious and scientific societies, artistic and literary clubs, to sporting societies, bee keeping, and birdfancying clubs, and a myriad of other associations.
Engines of Growth
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Clubs and societies were established for all kinds of reasons. Individuals might have a decisive role, like the Russia merchant Jonas Han way who founded the Marine Society and other philanthropic bodies; William Shipley, an art teacher, who pushed for the creation of the Society of Arts; and the radical philosopher David Williams, who fought for twenty-five years to start the Literary Fund. Or societies might be set up in response to particular problems and perceived crises, such as the wave of moral and social reform societies in the 1780s in the wake of the American defeat. f&lt;ads and fashions might be vital-hence the surge of pseudo-masonic societies following the success of Modern freemasonry; while local and regional factors also had an effect. Societies could rise and fall as a response to short- and medium-term shifts in the cultural and political agenda, and as a result of tough competition between associations. The pattern of associational growth was itself a social process, serving as an indispensable ingredient in the complex reworking of British society during the early modern period.
Organization
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Riven by disputes, the Royal Society erupted in 1783, complaints against the president, Sir Joseph Banks, being ‘stopped by a clamour more worthy of a Covent Garden rabble than the fellows of a learned society’. A decade later An Authentic Narrative of the Dissensions and Debates in the Royal Society recorded renewed faction fighting over admissions and elections? Despite all the rhetoric of associational solidarity and the mechanisms for controlling admission and enhancing cohesion, societies often experienced internal conflict. The Royal Academy of Arts was set up in 1768 following a schism within the Incorporated Society of Artists of Great Britain, but the Academy proved equally prone to division. At the close of the century the professor of painting, James Barry, launched a noisy attack on the president, Benjamin West, and other members of the Council, making allegations of financial abuse. Nor were smaller societies immune. Exeter’s Literary Society suffered acrimonious exchanges in the 1790s, while Tiverton’s corporation club descended to family feuds and personal invective.1 2 The New England minister William Bentley remarked on the ‘many mortifications in such associations’, which led to animosities and division. On occasion, disputes might turn violent. In the 1730s we hear of an East Anglian ringing club, split over sharing the profits from ringing the peals at a wedding, where the members ‘fought till one died on the spot and another was desperately wounded’.
Freemasons
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Decisive for the creation of English, and indeed British, freemasonry as a speculative (that i , non-gild) movement was the assembly of four London lodges at the little Gouse and Gridiron alehouse in St Paul’s Churchyard on the feast of St John the Baptist, 1717. Here they elected Anthony Saver, gentleman, as first grand master, and Captain Joseph Elliot and Jacob Lam ball, a carpenter, as grand wardens, and so inaugurated what was to become the Modern grand lodge of England.