bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Turing's Test
Authors: Davidson Donald 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Finds fault with Turing's answer to the question, ‘Can a computer think’? Turing believed that if the answers given by a computer and a person leave an interpreter unable to discriminate between them, then computers must be said to be able to think. The author objects that in order for a computer to think, it must mean something by the answer it gives. Consequently, without evidence for the fact that a computer not merely possesses the syntax of the language it is responding in but also has a semantics, the findings of Turing's Test cannot be used as evidence for the claim that computers can, even in theory, think. Understanding the semantics of an object or creature requires that the interpreter be able to observe what in the world that is shared by interpreter and interpretant causes the latter's responses; having a semantics requires a history of engagement with others and with objects in the world. Turing's test for thought is inadequate, according to the author, not because it restricts the evidence to what can be observed about the computer from the outside, but because it does not allow enough of what is outside to be observed.
Could There Be a Science of Rationality?
Authors: Davidson Donald 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Asks whether there could be a science of rationality, and proposes as an answer — Davidson's own Unified Theory of speech and action, drawing heavily on formal decision theories for explaining intentional action laid out by Ramsey and Jeffrey, but expanding their theories by adding a theory of meaning. This method of radical interpretation interprets this Unified Theory empirically, which justifies the label ‘science of rationality’. In the remainder of the chapter, the author answers the criticisms levelled by Fodor and Chomsky that target Davidson's particular way of interpreting the Unified Theory empirically.
Introduction
Authors: Harding Alan 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
There was no significant new study of the Countess of Huntingdon between the complex and confused Life and Times by A. C. H. Seymour (1839) until after the opening up of the Cheshunt College archive in the late 1960s. The archive contains a major part of the correspondence that Lady Huntingdon received in the last twenty-five years of her life, and shows in detail what day-to-day life was like in the Connexion during that period. Two major studies of Lady Huntingdon were published in the 1990s (by Welch and by Schlenther); the focus of the present work is different from theirs, in that it is concerned principally with the Connexion, rather than its founder. It considers the origins and development of the Connexion, its relations with other sections of the Evangelical Revival, and its impact on the broader religious life of late eighteenth-century England.
The Connexion in the Last Years of Lady Huntingdon's Life
Authors: Harding Alan 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The decade prior to Lady Huntingdon’s death in 1791 was a time of continuing expansion in the Connexion’s work, with the Countess participating as closely as ever in its administration, and being involved in abortive schemes for Protestant missions in continental Europe. These years were marked by rifts between Lady Huntingdon and three of her leading clerical helpers, and by the failure of plans for a conciliar arrangement to run the Connexion after her death; because no permanent organisational structure had been established, the Connexion passed on her death into the hands of the four devizees to whom she had bequeathed her personal property. By the time of her death, there were few substantial areas of the country untouched by the Connexion, and the Connexion’s preachers were to be a catalyst for revival amongst many Dissenting congregations. In terms of its own ministers and congregations, however, the Connexion was substantially smaller than Wesleyan Methodism. Lady Huntingdon did not have Wesley’s breadth of vision, and unlike Wesleyan Methodism (effectively the only home for Arminian evangelicals), the Connexion was merely one among a number of Calvinist evangelical groupings.
Textual Criticism: The Ancient Versions
Authors: Talmon S. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis is the first of five chapters on the text of the Old Testament. It focuses on textual criticism of the ancient versions of the Old Testament, pointing out that no other ancient or modern text seems to be witnessed by so many diverse sources in a variety of languages, and has a transmission history so difficult to elucidate as the text of the Hebrew Bible. The essay offers a necessarily restricted survey of the early transmission history of the biblical text in manuscript form up to the crystallization of an incipient unified Hebrew text and the appearance of translations of the Hebrew original into other Semitic and non‐Semitic languages between c.200 bce and 300 ce; invariably, later secondary translations are not considered. Attention focuses on the early stages of the written transmission of the consonantal text with emphasis on a concise review of the information on its history, which can be obtained from two quite dissimilar groups of manuscript remains in respect to chronology and socio‐religious provenance: (a) the assemblage of biblical scrolls and scroll fragments (the Dead Sea Scrolls) brought to light since 1947 that the dissident ‘Community of the Renewed Covenant’ had deposited in caves near a site known by the modern Arabic name of Qumran; and (b) fragments found since the 1950s at other sites in the Judaean Desert—Masada, Wadi Murabba’at, Naḥal Ṣe‚elim (Wadi Seiyāl) , and Naḥal Ḥever, which represent the textual tradition of normative Judaism.
The Institutional Terrain of the European Union
Authors: Fligstein Neil , McNichol Jason 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Examines some historical examples of the process by which the European Union has created ‘policy domains’ in which EU jurisdiction has come to usurp that of member governments. It explores two related themes: first, it demonstrates that the analytical concept of a policy domain provides a useful means of describing the institutional and legislative terrain over which the EU is acquiring control; second, it describes the evolution of such domains over time, starting with their inception through treaties such as the Treaty of Rome, and their growth as a function of treaty revisions and extensions. It documents the relationship between the presence of transnational pressure groups within the EU and the production of legislation, clarifying the differences between policy domains where cooperation has remained firmly intergovernmental and those where control has effectively passed into the EU's supranational competence.
Self‐Determination and Secession
Authors: Buchanan Allen 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Begins the task of applying the justice‐based conception of political legitimacy developed in Part Two of the book to the practically urgent and theoretically vexing issues of secession and self‐determination. Two main theses are advanced. The first is that international law should recognize a remedial right to secede but not a general right of self‐determination that includes the right to secede for all peoples or nations; from the standpoint of international law, the unilateral right to secede—the right to secede without consent or constitutional authorization—should be understood as a remedial right only, a last‐resort response to serious injustices (the Remedial Right Only Theory). The second thesis advanced is that international legal order should encourage alternatives to secession, in particular by working for greater compliance with existing international human rights norms prohibiting ethno‐national and religious discrimination and, in some cases, by supporting intrastate autonomy regimes, i.e. arrangements for self‐government short of full sovereignty. The six sections of the chapter are: I. Introduction; II. A Justice‐Based Theory of Secession; III. Theories of Secession; IV. Recognition and the Right to Secede; V. Secession and Distributive Justice; and VI. Conclusions.
Middlemen in a Peasant Community: Vegetable Marketing in Indonesia
Authors: Hayami Yujiro , Kawagoe Toshihiko 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis chapter discusses how peasant entrepreneurs develop their trade by taking advantage of the village community relationships, based on a field study of vegetable marketing in Indonesia. It covers commercial vegetable production in an upland village, the organization of vegetable marketing, interregional trade of vegetables, and the impact of economic development on peasant entrepreneurs.
Risk and Insurance in Transition: Perspectives from Zouping County, China
Authors: Morduch Jonathan , Sicular Terry 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis chapter discusses how rural households in Zouping County, Shandong Province, China, cope with increased economic risk and loss of pre-existing financial and insurance mechanisms. Many households are highly exposed to risk. They cope by relying their own devices such as saving and borrowing, and diversifying their sources of income. Explanations for weak insurance provision are studied and innovative insurance arrangements are proposed.
Evolution and Consequences of Community Forest Management in the Hill Region of Nepal
Authors: Otsuka Keijiro , Tachibana Towa 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis chapter analyses the feasibility and effectiveness of forest resource management under the community management system, based on a case study of community forests in Nepal. The factors affecting the formation of community management systems are identified. The impact of community forest management on forest conditions is examined. It is argued that the benefit of community management exceeds the cost of establishing such as system only when forest resources have become sufficiently scarce and valuable.
Pontus Euxinus, 700 bc–ad 500
Authors: King Charles 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The ancient Greeks first entered the Black Sea before 500 BC, perhaps at first searching for precious metals. Trade flourished as Greek colonies sprang up along the coasts and the Greeks interacted with native barbarian populations. Those relations were shaken by the rise of Rome, when the sea became a place of exile. Even then, however, there was considerable exchange with the populations of the interior, including the Scythians and their successors on the northern steppe.
Chernoe More, 1700–1860
Authors: King Charles 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Russia's commercial growth and political power after the late eighteenth century were fueled by access to the sea. The ports of southern Russia grew through trade with the rest of Europe. Intermittent wars with the Ottomans did not hinder the take-off of cities such as Odessa. Travelers from the rest of Europe increasingly visited the coasts, especially after the Crimean war.
Multivariate periodic time series models
Authors: Franses Philip Hans , Paap Richard 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
In Chapter 5 we extend all material in Chapter 4 of the book to the case of more than a single time series. It turns out that in principle it is easy to extend univariate periodic models, by simply adding a subscript s, but that subsequent models can be cumbersome, if not impossible, to analyze for unit roots. Hence, we first outline various representations and discuss which ones are more useful than others in different situations. We devote two sections to the topic of testing for cointegration in periodic models, and indicate how one can best proceed in practice. In the first section we consider a single-equation approach, while in the second section we opt for a full-system approach based on GMM estimation. We illustrate both approaches using two quarterly US industrial production series.
Basic Needs and Basic Capabilities
Authors: Alkire Sabina 
Published: August 2004

AbstractEach of the four chapters of Part I of the book synthesizes one aspect that must be specified in the operationalization of the capability approach, then proposes a framework for doing so. This fifth chapter returns to the issues of whether basic capabilities pertaining to absolute poverty may be identified from without, and whether in poverty reduction activities it is necessary to focus on ‘achieving functionings’ rather than ‘expanding capabilities’. It applies the account of values and decision‐making processes built up in the previous three chapters to the issue of poverty with which economic development is concerned, and asks what, in practice, it means to address absolute poverty within the capability approach—whether and if ‘basic capabilities’ can be specified. It discusses the relativity of these basic capabilities, and the operational implications of focusing on capability rather than functionings, and finally proposes a schematic four‐part operational definition for pursuing capabilities. The focus is on Amartya Sen's work.
The Challenges of Privatization
Authors: Bortolotti Bernardo , Siniscalco Domenico 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis book provides a systematic account of the privatization process at the global scale, presenting an overarching description of the phenomenon, and panel data empirical analyses testing some of the predictions of the recent economic theory of privatization. At the macroeconomic level, privatization processes of the 1980s and 1990s are shown to be a cyclical phenomenon shaped by economic, political, and institutional determinants. At the microeconomic level, privatization has been partial and incomplete, with only minority rights transferred to the private sector. However, genuine privatization, involving the full transfer of control to the private sector, is difficult to achieve as several conditions must be met. First, markets should be competitive or suitably regulated. Second, private investors should be adequately protected by the law in order to avoid expropriation. Third, political institutions should be designed to limit the veto power of constituencies ousting full divestiture. Last but not least, governments should be credibly committed not to interfere post-privatization in the operating activity of the companies. As a consequence, private ownership is likely to coexist with public control, at least in the near future.
Privatization Around the World
Authors: SINISCALCO BERNARDO BORTOLOTTI DOMENICO 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis chapter provides a description of privatization processes in the main areas of the world. Particularly, the main aspects analyzed are the following: the extent of privatization, measured by the number of transactions and their revenues; the time frames; the choice of privatization methods (public offering or direct placement); the main sectors involved; the stake sold; the opening of capital to foreigners; and the existence of golden share mechanisms (that is the special rights retained by governments after privatization). Finally, within each area, the most interesting national experiences are highlighted.
Privatizing Monopolies
Authors: SINISCALCO BERNARDO BORTOLOTTI DOMENICO 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis chapter provides stylized facts about privatization in network industries, with a special focus on electricity. It shows that regulation is the key for successful sales in monopolistic industries. First, it allows the accomplishment of large scale programs. Second, and more importantly, it determines the success of privatization in terms of proceeds. Establishing a credible regulatory framework allows governments to reduce uncertainty, and to raise more proceeds. Under specific circumstances, the chapter shows that revenue-efficienct trade-offs may disappear.
Games, Conventions, and Public Goods
Authors: Little Ian Malcolm David 
Published: August 2004

AbstractGame theory analyses the best behaviour of individuals when this depends on the reaction of others. The prisoners’ dilemma is the best‐known theorem, and has been thought to be an important reason for government intervention in markets. This is misleading because trust and conventions play a large part in oft‐repeated economic and other transactions. The nature and provision of public goods is analysed. In practice, the state typically supplies many goods, which could, in principle, be efficiently supplied by private enterprise.
Gold–Silver Points: Domestic Arbitrages and the Bimetallic System
Authors: Flandreau Marc 
Published: August 2004

AbstractChapter 2 studies the arbitrage mechanism between gold and silver monies at the national level, focusing on the French experience 1848-1870. It shows that, when the effects of the California and Australia gold discoveries combined with the existence of transaction costs contributed to a regionalization of the circulation by currency types in bimetallic economies, rather than to the displacement of silver by gold. As a result, gold became predominant in advanced regions, while silver remained in rural areas.
Between Anarchy and Society
Authors: Bain William 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThe international administration of troubled states—whether in Bosnia, Kosovo, or East Timor—has seen a return to the principle of trusteeship: i.e. situations in which some form of international supervision is required in a particular territory in order both to maintain order and to foster the norms and practices of fair self‐government. This book rescues the normative discourse of trusteeship from the obscurity into which it has fallen since decolonization. It traces the development of trusteeship from its emergence out of debates concerning the misrule of the East India Company (Ch. 2), to its internationalization in imperial Africa (Ch. 3), to its institutionalization in the League of Nations mandates system (Ch. 4) and in the UN trusteeship system, and to the destruction of its legitimacy by the ideas of self‐determination and human equality (Ch. 5). The book brings this rich historical experience to bear on the dilemmas posed by the resurrection of trusteeship after the end of the cold war (Ch. 6) and, in the context of contemporary world problems, explores the obligations that attach to preponderant power and the limits that should be observed in exercising that power for the sake of global good. In Ch. 7, the book concludes by arguing that trusteeship remains fundamentally at odds with the ideas of human dignity and equality.
Power and Change: The Evolution of United Nations Complex Peace Operations
Authors: Chesterman Simon 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Considers the evolution of Council practice in the area of transitional administration. As in much of the Council's work, practice has led theory , with some members of the Council and the wider UN community apparently allergic to the development of doctrine. The chapter also provides a brief account of the various operations that have taken place under the auspices of the Council and of other bodies since the Second World War. Analysis of these operations tends to be chronological or organized by the scope of powers assumed by the international presence. In keeping with the call for political clarity in such operations, this book takes a thematic approach, addressing five distinct political purposes for which a transitional administration (or comparable mission) has been established.
Peace and Security: The Use of Force to Maintain Law and Order
Authors: Chesterman Simon 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Unless security is established on the ground, none of the political purposes of a transitional administration can be achieved. Nevertheless, as this chapter shows, the response of military authorities to the security vacuum that follows the collapse or defeat of state institutions has been varied. With respect to forces operating under UN command, this reflects an equivocation over the use of force that has run through the history of UN peace operations, persuading some that the organization is simply unsuited to military operations. At the same time, the armed forces of many countries (and their civilian commanders‐in‐chief) have resisted taking on ‘policing’ functions. The military is rightly reluctant to embrace law and order duties that are outside its expertise, but failure to do so may irreparably damage the credibility of the international presence and thus undermine the political goals that justified the original military engagement.
Justice and Reconciliation: The Rule of Law in Post-Conflict Territories
Authors: Chesterman Simon 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
How can faith in local institutions — most importantly the rule of law — be supported? In many situations, the very laws to be enforced will themselves be controversial, as Serb laws were in post‐conflict Kosovo. Similarly, appointment of judges gives rise to tensions between the need to involve local actors and the desire of international actors to maintain high standards of accountability (for the locals as well as themselves). These tensions may come to a head around the most political crimes, in turn raising the question of how to address a legacy of human rights abuse.
Elections and Exit Strategies: No Exit Without a Strategy, or No Strategy Without an Exit?
Authors: Chesterman Simon 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
The transfer of power to a legitimate and sustainable local authority, typically mediated through an election, is the central purpose of any transitional administration. Elections and other ‘exit strategies’ are discussed in this chapter. The preference for democratic forms of governance is sometimes linked to the ‘democratic peace’ thesis, which holds that authentic democracies do not fight each other, or that such conflicts are exceptional. First elections can, however, mark an extremely unstable period in the life of a country emerging from conflict — indeed, quantitative research has produced the embarrassing finding that autocracies in the process of democratization actually become more likely to go to war. In practice, a great deal more attention has been paid to the technical side of elections than to their political purpose and significance. Meaningful state‐building depends on a deeper engagement with local stakeholders before and after voting takes place.
Hedonism: A Preliminary Formulation
Authors: Feldman Fred , Feldman Fred 
Published: August 2004

AbstractPresents some typical textbook formulations of hedonism. Shows that they are unacceptable as formulations of the view—they fail to state the intended view in a coherent and consistent way. A simple form of sensory hedonism—‘Default Hedonism’—is then presented. This formulation does not have the defects of typical textbook formulations. Default Hedonism provides a starting point for all the other forms of hedonism to be discussed in the book. Concludes with a somewhat speculative discussion of the hedonism of Aristippus.
Classic Objections to Hedonism
Authors: Feldman Fred 
Published: August 2004

AbstractSeven classic objections to hedonism are presented and explained. Each is carefully formulated as an objection to the Default Hedonism introduced in Ch. 2. The objections are based on (a) the idea that some pleasures are base, disgusting, and worthless; (b) the concept of ‘false pleasures’; (c) the alleged worthlessness of pleasure without knowledge; (d) difficulties in the measurement of pleasure and pain; (e) the idea that we can imagine a good life in which there is no pleasure; (f) the idea that the value of some worlds might be directly affected by such things as beauty or ugliness even when these factors have no bearing on the amounts of pleasure and pain in those worlds; and (g) the idea that the value of a world might be affected by the justice or injustice of the distribution of pleasure and pain in that world even though the total amounts of pleasure and pain are not affected.