bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
English Dictionaries 800-1700
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between the beginnings of European lexicography and 1700, many glossaries and dictionaries were arranged not according to the alphabet, but in a topical order which followed the influential paradigms of theology, philosophy, and natural history at that time. Together with related text genres like treatises on terminology, didactic dialogues, and thesauri, they constitute the topical (or onomasiological) tradition which is an important lexicographical tradition in its own right. This book discusses the tradition's principles and origins, and by way of illustration draws upon early glossaries, treatises for the learning of foreign languages, and didactic dialogues. Later comprehensive works are presented as detailed in-depth studies. Professor Hüllen demonstrates that the English tradition is embedded in a complex Continental tradition whose important representatives, such as Adrianus Junius and Comenius, had a great influence on the English scene.
The onomasiological approach
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of science is, above all, the history of ideas. Ideas are the result of ex-perience and reflection. Since they have been preserved and handed down to us in (manuscripts and) books, the history of science is always also a history of books. Moreover, depending on the specific nature of each scientific discipline, its history is additionally marked by relevant facts.1 The history of physics, for example, is a history of documented ideas plus a history of experiments, including a history of tools and technical devices; the history of geography is a history of documented ideas plus a history of travelling experience, including a history of vehicles.
Hermeneumata, Latin-English glosses, and nominales
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Glosses and compilations of glosses, that is, glossaries, are the result of comments on texts in order to make them intelligible. Intelligibility is hampered most by words which are old and which have fallen into disuse, or which are only under stood in particular regions. Intelligibility is also hamperd by homonyms formally identical words with several meanings. Glosses explain such rare words to language users who are not accustomed to them, and they decide which of two (or more) meanings apply in a given text. Explaining words with the help of words presupposes synonymity in natural languages, that is, the fact that meanings and senses can be expressed in more than one way. The awareness of this fact stands at the beginning of classical, and this means of European, thinking about language (Schmitter 1991). Glossography is, thus, part of reception theory and of explication de texte (Hunt 1991, vol. I, 3). As with lexicography in general, there is no glossography without glosses, although there has been a production of glosses and glossaries for a long time without glossographic reflections. It is the historiographers who must endeavour to supply them with their hindsight.
The case of Johannes Amos Comenius
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps the outstanding mark of foreign language teaching between the last third of the fifteenth century and 1700 is its European internationalism. Grammar was thought of in the framework of a unified set of traditional terms in every linguis tic region (country).The methods of arrangement and, thus, the semantic struc ture of onomasiological glossaries and dictionaries remained the same, although more and more European languages were involved. The unity of the Continent, which had linguistically been guaranteed for seven centuries by the one language of intellectuals, Latin, did not break apart when more and more vernaculars rose to prominence. Rather, Europe became a multilingual unity as it had been a Latin unity before.
Puzzle of Fit
Authors: Kirby Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A striking feature of the natural world is the existence of organisms whose occurrence is improbable simply by virtue of their complexity. Matter seems to arrange itself into highly organized bundles whenever life intervenes. The examples of this improbable order extend to the artefacts of life as well as to living things themselves: for example, the buildings, roads, and pavements that make up towns and, more abstractly, the cultural patterns that give rise to these artefacts. All these things are improbable in the sense that they inhabit a small, organized area in the much larger space of logical possibility.
The Limits of Functional Adaptation
Authors: Kirby Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous two chapters I have argued that various universals, both parametric and hierarchical can be explained by examining the way in which processing complexity affects the transmission of language through the arena of use. Computer simulations of language as a complex adaptive system have been useful in demonstrating the validity of this approach, as well as highlighting the limitations of previous explanations for hierarchies. The overall goal has been to solve the problem of linkage by enriching the structure of the arena of use proposed by Hurford (1990).
Innateness and Function in Linguistics
Authors: Kirby Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is widely believed by linguists that the human ability to acquire language is at least in some part innately given, and that UG in the Chomskyan sense is embodied in this ability. Indeed, this assumption has been implicit in much of the discussion in this book so far. The previous chapter showed that such an innate LAD is required in combination with a theory of linguistic selection in order fully to understand the fit of universals to processing pressures. Recent research has begun to look at the possibility of examining the origins of the features of this innate faculty themselves, arguing that these too may have their roots in essentially functional pressures. This final chapter reviews some of this recent literature and examines whether it poses a competing theory of the origin of universals.
Persuasive Rhetoric in Linguistics: A Stylistic Study of Some Features of the Language of Noam Chomsky
Authors: Hoey Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hoey’s chapter is a detailed examination of selected passages from Chomsky’s writing, focusing on Chomsky’s use of evaluative words and phrases. Hoey’s argument is that Chomsky pre-empts criticism of his ideas through a clever use of evaluation, in particular by evaluating negatively any reader whose assumptions about language and about the discipline of linguistics differ from Chomsky’s own. Moreover, Hoey argues, Chomsky’s evaluations are so embedded in the structure of the clause and of the discourse that they are difficult to challenge.
Automated Lexical Resources in Europe: A Survey
Authors: Armstrong-Warwick Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the types of information found in existing computerized dictionaries, concentrating on those of a fair size and coverage, and to report on major projects that are currently under way in western Europe. An underlying assumption is that these dictionaries are potential resources for (re)use in large-scale natural language processing (NLP) applications. Sample entries from projects with ‘toy’ dictionaries are only included to illustrate the ongoing investigation of new types of information and different ways of structuring the lexical material.
Lexicon Acquisition for NLP: A Consumer Report
Authors: Nirenburg Sergei 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Current natural language processing systems typically operate in a ‘demo’ mode—they sometimes feature sizeable grammars but seldom sizeable lexicons containing information about meaning. This difficulty of going beyond toy systems is one of the main bottlenecks of artificial intelligence in general. Scaling up the dictionaries (and other knowledge bases) of a knowledge-based system is, however, essential for the overall success of the field. There are several ways in which the indispensable massive knowledge acquisition program can in principle be conducted. One can envisage developing a machine learning system for automatic acquisition of vast quantities of knowledge through experimentation on a (sub)world.
A Lexical Workstation: From Textual Data to Structured Database
Authors: Calzolari Nicoletta , Picchi Eugenio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to describe some of the tools which have been developed (or are being developed) in Pisa within several projects, and which can be conceived as different modules of a ‘lexicographic workstation’. The present integrated system is mainly based on two prototypes: a textual database system (DBI for ‘Data Base Testuale’: see Picchi 1983 and 1991) and a lexical database system (LDB: see Calzolari 1988).
A Practical Dictionary of German Usage
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most difficult tasks confronting the English speaker learning German is that of finding exactly the right German word to translate an English work in a particular context. Many common English words have several, sometimes a bewildering number of German equivalents. Thus it is all too easy to find yourself saying the equivalent of Have you extinguished the rubbish? instead of Have you put out the rubbish? Bilingual dictionaries list equivalents, but give little or no information about their use. The articles in this practical dictionary are much longer than those to be found in a bilingual dictionary, and the number of words treated is fewer, with a concentration on those which cause particular difficulties for speakers of English. The complexity of the relationship between English words and their German equivalents is attributable to two factors. Firstly, frequently used English words often have more than one meaning, and each of the English meanings may be expressed by more than one German word. Such words will be at least partial synonyms, but the field of meaning is likely to be divided up in a way that is different from English. Each article in the book starts by separating out the different meanings of an English word, and then explains the meaning and use of the German equivalents for each, with numerous examples. The book will be an essential reference work for advanced learners and for teachers of German at all levels, offering a uniquely detailed insight into the structure of word meaning in German as well as practical advice on usage.
B
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
bad, evil, wicked adjs. The main equivalents are schlecht and schlimm. Bose and iibel are usually stronger. Schwer sometimes corresponds to bad[ly]. Order of meanings. 1. Bad= ‘of unacceptably low quality’. 2. Bad= ‘unpleasant, harmful, undesirable’. 3. Bad = ‘morally unacceptable, evil, wicked’. 4. Bad as an intensifier. 5. Other uses. 6. Badly. Bad and poor describe something of defective or inferior quality, what fails to come up to an acceptable standard, and are applied to aspects of the natural world, bad soil, bad light, bad weather, to natural products, a bad crop, bad timber, to things produced by human effort, a bad film, a bad painting, a bad translation, and to people performing work or tasks, a bad teacher or ca1J’)enter. The equivalent is schlecht, which expresses these senses both as an adj. and as an adv.
J
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Join = ‘to connect two thgs. so that they become physically united’. Verbinden is a general term which like join covers different ways of holding things together. Man verbindet zwei Bretter mit Leim/mit Schrauben. Ich habe die Bindfadenenden verbunden. Die Driihte werden durch Lotung miteinander verbunden. The thing effecting the join can be the subj. Schrauben verbinden die Teile der Maschine. However, as in E. there are specific terms which are probably more common. Man verknotet die Bindfadenenden or knotet sie zusammen, ties them together.
O
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Object to s.o. or sth. means ‘to express opposition to or dislike or disapproval of him/her/it’. Protest about/against s.o. or sth. is ‘to say or show publicly that one objects to that pers. or thg.’object/protest! when nothing follows can sometimes be Ich mu& doch sehr bitten! which expresses indignation and a protest against, for example, an unjust accusation or unacceptable behaviour. Bitten has this sense only in this expression. Nothing can be added. When what is objected to is stated, I object to such a tone of voice/to people smoking in my office, sich etw. verbitten, ‘to demand emphatically that something cease or not happen’, is the usual v.
V
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In vain, for nothing, vain. Three G. words, umsonst, vergebens, and vergeblich, express the sense ‘to no effect or purpose’. Umsonst is probably the most common and means ‘without achieving the result which was expected’.For nothing, free, gratis. Umsonst also means ‘for nothing’ or ‘at no cost, although payment is normally expected’. Er hat die Arbeit umsonst gemacht, er hat nichts dafilr verlangt. The chief word in this sense is kostenlos, free of charge. Einige Patienten behandelt der Arzt kostenlos. Alternatives are gratis and frei.
Introduction
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At some time or another, many readers of this volume have shaken their heads in amazement at overhearing speakers who were carrying out a conversation in two languages, apparently freely drawing from both linguistic systems at will. Some readers themselves produce such conversations regularly. Such naturally occurring conversations on everyday topics are the subject of this study. These conversations are frequent all over the world wherever the participants are bilinguals, from Puerto Rican secretaries rapidly alternating Spanish and English while strolling on lunch-break on the sidewalks of New York City, to Kikuyu market vendors in Nairobi, Kenya, judiciously adding phrases in Luo to their Swahili while wooing a Luo-speaking customer, to university professors in Tamil Nadu, India, interchanging English and Tamil when relating what happened at a recent academic conference.
The Search for Structural Constraints on Codeswitching
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most research on CS in the 1970s and 1980s was fuelled by the recognition that CS properly should be considered as a type of skilled performance with social motivations (cf. Gumperz, 1982; Heller, 1988; Myers-Scotton, 1993). However, it soon occurred to researchers that quite another aspect of CS also might not be an accidental matter: where in an utterance a speaker might switch might well not be simply a whim of individual speakers or even a matter of habit for a specific speech community. This chapter surveys earlier answers to the constraints question: what are the limits on where the speaker may codeswitch within a sentence, and what motivates these limits? (Note that only intrasentential CS is relevant to the constraints question, as it has been addressed to date.)
Background for the Matrix Language-Frame Model: Production Models and Identifying the Matrix Language
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter has two purposes. First, it develops independent motivation for the major arguments of the Matrix Language-Frame model to be presented in Chapters 4 and 5. Such motivation comes from psycholinguistic research on several fronts, but especially from research on speech errors as it relates to language production models. Additional motivation comes from studies of patients with certain types of aphasia. Both these sources show a difference in the way closed-class and open-class morphemes (i.e. system versus content morphemes) are accessed in monolingual speech production. Finally, other psycholinguistic studies on bilingual speech offer further motivation for the MLF model. Second, the chapter contains another preliminary to the MLF model: the identification of the matrix language (ML) as opposed to the embedded language (EL) in CS utterances is discussed. The sociolinguistic and dynamic nature of the ML is also addressed.
Regulating Two at Once, I: The Matrix Language-Frame Model
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter and the following one present my current version of a frame-based model of CS. It is called the Matrix Language-Frame (MLF) model. This name highlights its two crucial aspects: (l) CS is envisioned as taking place within the constraints of a conceptual frame; (2) the frame is largely set by semantic and morphosyntactic procedures dictated by only one of the two (or more) languages participating in CS, the Matrix Language (ML). The other language is called the Embedded Language (EL). In some interactions in some communities, CS may involve more than two languages; while there may be more than one EL in such cases, there is always only one ML. How the frame of ML+ EL constituents is structured is the main topic of this chapter. A detailed treatment is offered of what is called the ML Hypothesis and its two principles, the Morpheme-Order Principle and the System Morpheme Principle. These principles provide structural descriptions of ML+ EL constituents. However, this discussion will not be entirely completed until Chapter 5.
Codeswitching and Deep Grammatical Borrowing
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals especially with borrowing which goes beyond lexical items. I will suggest that CS is an important mechanism in at least some cases of structural borrowing, as well as in some cases of language shift and related contact phenomena. First, I will discuss in some detail one such case: spoken in East Africa, Cushitic-origin Ma’a is sometimes called a ‘mixed language’ because it shows deep Bantu incursions. Next, I will present a set of seven scenarios showing the possible role of CS in such cases, including that of Ma’a. It is not my claim that, if CS is present, any of these scenarios necessarily will unfold. My major hypothesis, however, is that a ‘turnover’ of the ML in CS can set into motion processes leading to one language’s borrowing of structural features from another. In a ‘turnover’ of the ML, the former EL becomes the ML, and the former ML becomes the EL.
Conclusions
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The goal of this volume has been to offer an account of how knowledge of multiple languages is represented and accessed during intrasentential CS, the use of two or more languages in the same sentence. In what may be considered a companion volume (Myers-Scotton, 1993), I discuss how the knowledge of multiple languages is exploited for socio-pragmatic purposes; that is, I consider the socio-psychological motivations for CS. Here I summarize the structural-constraints model, the MLF model, the main subject of this volume. I go on to suggest some ways in which the socio-psychological motivations and community norms for CS intersect with structural constraints.
The Syntax of the Experiencer Verbs in Old English
Authors: Allen Cynthia L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we will look at the syntax of the verbs introduced in the pre ceding chapter. In particular, we will be looking at the evidence concerning the grammatical role of the preposed non-nominative Experiencers of Types I, N, and S. As noted in the introduction, intensive investigation into the syntactic properties of different sorts of NPs have led most practitioners of modern syntactic theories to abandon the traditional assumption of a simple relationship between grammatical relations and case marking. Before proceeding to an investigation of the syntax of OE experiencer verbs, I will briefly summarize the reasons which have led to widespread agreement1 about the existence of non-nominative subjects in a related language, modern Icelandic.
Movement in Language
Authors: Richards Norvin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is the most comprehensive, integrated explanatory account yet published of the properties of question formations and their variation across languages. It makes an important contribution to the current debate over whether syntax should be understood derivationally, arguing that the best model of language is one in which sentences are constructed in a series of operations that precede or follow each other in time. The central problem it addresses is the nature of the difference between (a) languages in which all wh-words move overtly to a clause-initial position (exemplified by Bulgarian); (b) languages in which one wh-phrase moves per clause but all others remain in situ (exemplified by English); and (c) languages in which there is no overt movement at all (exemplified by Japanese). Professor Richards focuses on the nature of syntactic movement in order to see what this reveals about the syntactic derivation. He considers the nature of interactions between movement operations and investigates the behaviour of multiple overt wh-movement, scrambling, cliticization, and object shift. His general conclusions about the relationship between movement and multiple specifiers follow straightforwardly from basic principles of Shortest Move and Shortest Attract. He develops a PF-imposed well-formedness condition on movement chains (essentially, a requirement that a single member of the chain be unambiguously identified as the copy to be pronounced), which allows for the development of theories of anti-agreement, the that-trace effect, and the conditions on participial agreement in Romance, among other phenomena. He defends the claim that well-formed dependencies can improve the status of ill-formed dependencies created later in the derivation, illustrating the explanatory power, under certain structural conditions, of his Principle of Minimal Compliance. He uses data on the locality of wh-movement to argue that the Principle of Minimal Compliance is responsible for a number of the apparent distinctions between overt and covert movement. This book will interest syntacticians at graduate level and above as well as linguistic theorists concerned with the syntax-semantics interface.
Optimality Theory:the Basics
Authors: Mcmahon April 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the health of an academic discipline is measured in terms of the liveliness of its controversies, then current phonological theory is clearly in good shape. Perhaps the most contentious area at present involves the formal objects of which a phonological model may be composed: specifically, we have a debate over rules and constraints. In traditional generative models, following from Chomsky and Halle (1968), the basic tool of analysis is the phonological rule. Phonologists write a rule in response to some aspect of phonological behaviour in a particular language, or indeed dialect; thus, in German, the instruction ‘devoice word-final stops’ would account for the well-known alternation between [d] and [t] or [b] and [p]. This rule is given in a slightly more formal version in example (1.1.) below: note that nothing hangs on the particular formalism adopted, which is extremely old-fashioned in theoretical terms, but will suffice for exemplification.
A Note on ξas ‘ss’ [š:] and a ruki-Rule m Ancient Greek
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are in Ancient Greek a few hints of a ruki-development (that is, the change of [s] to [š]—in Sanskrit, to [ş]—when preceded by k, r, i, and u). Till now, the change has been thought to have been limited to a few other indo-European language families. The evidence presented here has chiefly to do with otherwise unaccountable switchings of Greek σ σ with ξ and the fact that the examples occur in ruki-environments.