bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Element Partitioning And The Early Thermal History Of The Earth
Authors: McFarlane E A , Drake M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The partitioning of Ni, Co, Sc, and La between olivine and natural basaltic melt and between various subsolidus phases has been determined at 1800°C and 75 kbar. Aliquots of the mantle composition material KLB-1 were doped with 1-2 wt.% each of Ni, Co, and Sc, were compressed to high pressures, and heated in a uniaxial split-sphere anvil apparatus for approximately 1 hr. Successful run products typically consist of a subsolidus assemblage of olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, spine!, and probably garnet at the cold end, and silicate melt containing quench crystals of olivine at the hot end. The liquidus boundary within the charge is defined by the appearance of sizable equant olivine crystals (instead of quench-textured olivine crystals, which are smaller and more elongate). Olivine/melt partition coefficients (D)at 75kbar and 1800°C, rounded to one significant figure, are D(Ni)= 2, D(Co)= 1, D(Sc)=0.1, and D(La) &lt; 0.007. These partition coefficients may be used to test the hypothesis that the high Mg/ Si ratio in the upper mantle of the Earth relative to most chondritic meteorites results from the floating of olivine in a magma ocean, with subsequent mixing of that olivine into the upper mantle of the Earth. For example, the Ni/Co ratio inferred for the upper mantle is approximately chondritic. The experimentally determined partition coefficients imply that the addition of 30% olivine into the upper mantle to raise the Mg/Si ratio from CI chondritic to its present value yields a Ni/Co ratio 20-25% higher than its initial value. This result is inconsistent with the olivine flotation hypothesis as a means of explaining the elevated Mg/Si ratio of the upper mantle. The implication of these experiments and those of Kato et al. ( 1987, 1988a,b) is that minor and trace element abundances and ratios in the upper mantle of the Earth do not presently show the effects of extensive olivine, majorite garnet, or perovskite fractionation. One possibility is that the Earth was never substantially molten. If so, the accretional process must have delivered gravitational potential energy more slowly than current theory predicts, and an origin of the Moon in a giant impact would be unlikely. Alternatively, if the Earth were indeed substantially molten, then it is possible that minerals remained entrained in magma and were unable to segregate. In either case, the high Mg/Si ratio in the Earth relative to most classes of chondrites would be intrinsic to the Earth, implying that the accretional process did not mix material efficiently between 1 A.U. and 2-4 A.U. where most chondritic meteorites are presumed to originate.
Heat And Mass Transport In The Early Earth
Authors: Davies G F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mass transport was responsible for establishing the main stratification of the Earth ( core, mantle, and crust) and also was the dominant means of heat transport through most of the Earth’s history. During early accretion, impacts supplied the heat input and also enhanced heat loss by stirring the near-surface. Initial core segregation probably began catastrophically when the Earth was about half of its present radius and homogenized the temperature near the melting temperature of the C. Thereafter, core segregation would have been rate-limited by accretion. Subsequent thermal evolution would have depended on whether the surface was insulated by a thick atmosphere or a buoyant crust, either of which might have pertnitted a magma ocean to accumulate. Magma extruding onto a cold slllface is a potent heat removal mechanism: In this case accretion in much less than 1 m.y. would have been required for a magma ocean to accumulate, and a magma ocean generated by a late giant impact would cool to a mush in about 1000 years. Solid-state mantle convection would have begun soon after initial core segregation ( or upon establishment of a cool surface). Mantle convection would have been enhanced by continuing core segregation and melt extraction of heat. At a mean temperature perhaps 100°C higher than at present, the mantle would have entered a regime in which a further increase by 100°C would have required increasing the heat input by one or two orders of magnitude because of heat extraction by melt. In the latter regime, intrasilicate density differences may have played an important role. A substantial magma ocean seems likely only in the cases of an insulated slllface or a late giant impact. As the Earth cooled, there may have been one or more transitions in tectonic style, but how these might relate to the accumulation, chemistry, and structural style of the preserved continental crust is still not clear. The lack of clear evidence for any compositional stratification in the present mantle cautions against models involving substantial early stratification.
Fluid Dynamics Of Core Formation
Authors: Stevenson D J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Past discussions of core formation are incorrect or incomplete because they assume that metallic iron­ rich liquid is able to migrate through a mostly solid silicate matrix by percolation, prior to macrosegregation and diapiric descent. Experimental and theoretical considerations suggest that percolation is largely prevented because of the high surface tension of iron. Two alternative views of core formation are offered. One assumes that percolation is possible in the deep mantle ( where perovskite is the major phase). Iron is then supplied to the deep mantle by Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities of a silicate­ iron suspension in the shallow mantle, and drains efficiently from the deepest mantle into the core by Darcy flow. The other model assumes complete or nearly complete melting of all or part of the mantle. Despite vigorous convection, iron droplets approximately one centimeter in radius are predicted and settle rapidly by Stokes flow, either to the core or into a layer or ponds that provide iron-rich diapirs that can descend to the core. These stories generally suggest very efficient core formation in the sense that the t}pical residence time of metallic iron in the mantle is orders of magnitude shorter tban the formation time of Earth (-108 years). Good chemical equilibrium between mantle and core phases is also predicted in many cases. Geochemical constraints and implications relevant to these scenarios are discussed but are largely inconclusive. The tentative inference of rapid core formation on Mars suggests a magma ocean and iron rainout.
The Rise Of The Gunbelt
Authors: Markusen Ann , Hall Peter , Campbell Scott , Deitrick Sabina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since World War II, America’s economic landscape has undergone a profound transformation. This economic restructuring, the authors argue, is a direct result of the rise of the military industrial complex (MIC) and the formation of a new industry based on defence spending and Pentagon contracts. This book chronicles the dramatic growth of this vast complex.
French to English
Authors: Olea Ricardo A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume provides a comprehensive collection of definitions of geostatistical terms. There are more than 600 entries at varying levels of complexity to assist readers with different backgrounds. Cross-references make the book easily accessible to students, engineers, and others concerned with the meaning of terms found in geostatistical research and practice. Lists of equivalent terms in Chinese, French, German, Greek, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish are included.
Phylogenetic Inference, DNA Sequence Analysis, and the Future of Molecular Systematics
Authors: Miyamoto Michael M , Cracraft Joel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Comparative biology has had a long and noble history (Rieppel, 1988). Its central goal has been to understand the bewildering diversity of form observed across the world’s organisms. Concepts such as taxa (in particular, species) and homology have been the core intellectual instruments for facilitating this understanding. Thus, comparative biologists have labored to sort the world’s organisms into species (however construed), largely based on their characteristics of form (but viewed broadly, including any intrinsic attribute), and to describe their similarities and differences.
Weighted Parsimony: Does it Work?
Authors: Fitch Walter M , Ye Jia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1969, Farris suggested a relatively unbiased way of weighting the value of a character for systematic purposes based upon the proposition that characters that frequently change their state are unreliable guides to relationships, whereas those that change only once are perfect guides to relationships. In nucleotide sequences, one can apply the same philosophy not only to the various characters (homologous positions in the sequences), but to the character changes as well.
Evolutionary Analysis of Length-Variable Sequences: Divergent Domains of Ribosomal RNA
Authors: Larson Allan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is important in molecular phylogenetic studies to match the timescale of the evolutionary divergence events being studied to the evolutionary rate and pattern of the molecules used to resolve them. In many taxa, and especially in vertebrates, divergence events occurring approximately 70 to 300 million years (Myr) before present have been particularly difficult to resolve.
Congruence Among Data Sets: A Bayesian Approach
Authors: Wheeler Ward C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When several independently derived data sets agree, producing the same cladogram, we have high confidence in the result. Such complete agreement, however, is rare and becoming rarer with the multiplication of molecular data sets. Extreme disagreement has arisen between morphological and molecular studies. Zimmer et al. (1989) have produced results on monocot origins that contradict the morphological results of Donoghue and Doyle (1989). Field et al. (1988) have suggested relationships within and among invertebrate groups that counter the great majority of work on invertebrate systematics.
Commentary : Away from Internalization
Authors: Packer Martin J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The opportunity to review and comment on the chapters in Part II has been a welcome one. Before addressing this task, perhaps I should briefly sketch my own position. For some years I have been struggling to understand how children learn and develop in and through their social interaction with adults and other children. This topic raises numerous and complex issues of methodology and theory; practical activity is, as I have tried to describe (Packer, 1985), an odd “object” to investigate systematically. I have come to adopt a perspective I consider in two respects a “hermeneutic” one. The first way my work aims to be hermeneutic is in its method, as human activity, for a variety of reasons, requires interpretation in order to be studied. The second is that it rests on, and takes its starting point in, the “existential analytic,” the phenomenological analysis of everyday human being, conducted by Heidegger (1927/1962). It is necessary here only to note that there are certain parallels between the existential analytic and Vygotsky’s conception of activity as materially situated. (The general question of the similarities between existentialist and Marxist efforts to overcome the dualisms of traditional metaphysics and the debt both owe, albeit largely in opposition, to Hegel is a fascinating one that regrettably cannot be considered here.)
Development of Functional Systems
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we discuss the disorders resulting from abnormal influences on nervous system development and on neuropsychological functioning (Chapters 11 to 30), they will be seen as deviations from normal development in specific neurologically based systems of psychological functions. A functional system consists of those neural structures involved in the successful completion of an individual sensory, motor, or higher cognitive task, e.g., all parts of the visual system, as well as structures mediating the response to visual stimuli (Woolacott 1990).The normal development of functional systems involves an interaction be tween brain development and experience. Each system is to some degree “experience-expectant” (Greenough et al. 1987) to take in and respond to the environmental information of the species, as well as “experience-dependent” to absorb and store information that is unique to the individual. Sensory deprivation experiments on animals have shown long-lasting or permanent sensory impairment, as well as changes in the associated central structures and the cortex, including reduction in synaptic density and the amount of dendrites. Rats raised in individual cages (i.e., without environmental stimulation) showed 20 to 25 per cent less synapses per neuron in the visual cortex compared to those raised in environmental cages, i.e., with numerous objects and with other animals (Turner and Greenough 1985).
Speciation, Raciation, and Color Pattern Evolution in Heliconius Butterflies: Evidence from Hybrid Zones
Authors: Mallet James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hybrid zones often involve either morphological traits such as color patterns of vertebrates with poorly understood genetics or genetic traits such as chromosomes, allozymes, and mitochondrial DNA, which tell us little about selection. In neotropical Heliconius butterflies, hybrid zones for warning, mimetic wing patterns are known in which both genetics and selection can be comprehended. While learning to avoid unpalatable prey, predators cause frequency-dependent selection against rare colorpattern morphs.
Variants of Synaptic Potentiation and Different Types of Memory Operations in Hippocampus and Related Structures
Authors: Lynch Gary , Larson John , Staubli Ursula , Granger Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent work indicates that high-frequency stimulation of afferent fibers causes a long-lasting potentiation of synaptic responses in each of the links of a sequence beginning with the olfactory cortex and continuing through the subfields of hippocampus. Taken together, these studies also established the important point that the characteristics of the potentiation vary across different connections and in some cases dramatically so. There are at least two ways in which these variations are potentially useful in developing hypotheses about the types of memory operations carried out by the regions in which they are found. First, the characteristics of the fully expressed potentiation could be directly related to the properties of memory. Duration and specificity provide obvious examples; synaptic changes lasting for hours are suggestive of different types of behavioral phenomena than changes persisting for months, and modifications that affect specific subpopulations of contacts on a fiber or dendrite can be expected to have very different effects than more general changes. Second, it may be possible to convert the physiological rules (e.g., specific patterns or sequences of activity governing the induction of potentiation) into a set of computational operations. Tests could then be made for regional variations in the rules and computations, and hence for regionally specific memory processes. Placing these points in a more psychological context one might assume that variations in expression should relate to types and organization of memory while variations in induction should govern what is (or can be) learned.
Natural Selection: Domains, Levels and Challenges
Authors: Williams George C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This important new volume in the Oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution examines the mechanism and action of natural selection in evolution. Williams offers his own synthesis of modern evolutionary theory -including discussions of the gene as the unit of selection, clade selection and macroevolution, diversity within and among populations, stasis, and other timely and provocative issues central to the study of evolution. Williams’ preeminent position in the field ensures immediate and widespread interest in the book among evolutionary biologists, geneticists, and their graduate students.
Emotion And Adaptation
Authors: Lazarus Richard S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this landmark work, Richard Lazarus - one of the world’s foremost authorities - offers a comprehensive treatment of the psychology of emotion, its role in adaptation, and the issues that must be addressed to understand it. The work provides a complete theory of emotional processes, explaining how different emotions are elicited and expressed, and how the emotional range of individuals develops over their lifetime. The author’s approach puts emotion in a central role as a complex, patterned, organic reaction to both daily events and long-term efforts on the part of the individual to survive, flourish, and achieve. In his view, emotions cannot be divorced from other functions--whether biological, social, or cognitive--and express the intimate, personal meaning of what individuals experience. As coping and adapting processes, they are seen as part of the ongoing effort to monitor changes, stimuli, and stresses arising from the environment. After defining emotion and discussing issues of classification and measurement, Lazarus turns to the topics of motivation, cognition, and causality as key concepts in this theory. Next he looks at individual emotions, both negative and positive, and examines their development in terms of social influences and individual events. Finally, he considers the long-term consequences of emotion on physical health and well-being, and the treatment and prevention of emotional dysfunction. The book draws together the relevant research from a wide variety of sources, and distills the author’s pioneering work in the field over the last forty years. As a comprehensive treatment of the emotions, the book will interest students, clinicians, and researchers involved in personality, social and clinical psychology, as well as cognitive and developmental psychology. It may also be used as a supplemental textbook in courses on the psychology of adjustment, emotion, and feeling.
Integration
Authors: Wise Gary L , Hall Eric B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If (Ω, F) is a measurable space and ifμ. and v are measures on (Ω, F) such that v &lt;&lt; μ., Radon-Nikodym theory is concerned with conditions under which there exists a function f in L1(Ω, F, μ.) such that v(A) = f A f dμ.. Such results comprise a fundamental part of analysis and also play a prominent role in probability theory. Indeed, for a given measure, results such as this permits us to represent other measures defined on F in terms of extended real-valued functions defined on Ω. Also, in probability theory, conditional expectations and condition probabilities are defined in tenns of Radon-Nikodym theory. Example 5.1. A nondecreasing sequence of functions mapping [0, 1] into [0, 1] may be such that each term in the sequence is Riemann integrable and such that the limit of the resulting sequence of Riemann integrals exists, but the limit of the sequence of functions is not Riemann integrable.
Basic Probability
Authors: Wise Gary L , Hall Eric B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A probability space is a measure space (n, :F, P) such that P(O) = 1. A complete probability space is a probability space such that each subset of a P-null set is measurable. We never assume that a probability space is complete unless we so state. In the context of probability, measurable sets are called events. A random variable is a measurable real-valued function defined on a probability space. A random process is an indexed family of random variables, each of which is defined on the same probability space. In this chapter, for a random process {X(t, w): t ER} defined on a probability space (0, :F, P), we will let X(t) denote X(t, ). Example 7.1. A nonnegative Riemann integrable .function or a nonnegative Lebesgue integrable .function that integrates to one need not be a probability density function. Proof: Let (0, :F, P) be a probability space and let X be a random variable defined on (0, :F, P). For each Borel subset B of R, let μ(B) = P(X EB). Note that µis a measure mapping the real Borel sets into (0, 1). This
Convergence in Probability Theory
Authors: Wise Gary L , Hall Eric B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we present counterexamples related to several different concepts involving convergence in probability theory. In particular, we consider infinite products of random variables, various forms of convergence of sequences of random variables, convergence of characteristic functions, convergence of density functions and distribution functions, the central limit theorem, the laws of large numbers, and martingales.
Introduction The Unphilosopher’s Stone
Authors: Weber Robert J , Perkins David N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The alchemists of yore sought nothing less than to remake matter, a cherished objective being the conversion of lead into gold. This might be accomplished by the touch of the “philosopher’s stone,” a substance that could perform the precious transmutation. Alas, there was no such stone, and, although modern nuclear physics at last gives us ways of transmuting elements, in general the process is nowhere near worth the energy it consumes. If there is anything like the philosopher’s stone, it is as un stony as something can get: It is the human mind. Through the use of the mind (lubricated with a good deal of sweat), human beings have transformed ordinary language into song and sonnet, arithmetic into algebra and the calculus, the Greek atom into quantum physics, geocentric cosmologies into the cosmology of the big bang. Human creativity, ineffable and evanescent as it is generally said to be, is the stone of power.
Perspiration in Perspective: Changing Perceptions of Genius and Expertise in American Invention
Authors: Friedel Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Genius,” Thomas Edison is quoted as saying, “is 1 percent inspiration and 99 per cent perspiration.” The aphorism is often taken as an exhortation to hard work or, possibly, a reference to the cut- and-try approach often associated with America’s most famous inventor. It is also a central part of our Edison mythology, a characteristic bit of modest disclaimer from the rough, plainspoken product of the Middle West whom everyone knew really was something of a true genius. The aphorism takes on its authority and meaning from the fact that it comes from a genius and therefore, in an important sense, we don’t believe it at all. That is to say, we all know that genius is something more than hard work and long hours. Perhaps Edison means to tell us that invention is only “ percent inspiration,” and that successful invention entails much more. But, in fact, genius is fundamentally associated with inspiration and with invention, especially in nineteenth-century America.