bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Centering as a Psychological Resource for Achieving Joint Reference in Spontaneous Discourse
Authors: Brennan Susan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a psycholinguistic perspective on centering as a resource by which speakers and addressees can coordinate their attention moment by moment, as they refer to things. First I will describe some relevant findings about comprehension and production that bear on centering as a processing theory. Then I will present new data from a corpus of dialogs about basketball games (Brennan 1995) in order to address unresolved issues concerning discourse segmentation, utterances with multiple pronouns. and centering attention across utterances by multiple speakers. Finally, I propose that centering needs to take into account the activation and decay of discourse entities over time in order lo be a plausible processing theory.
The Contents of Phonological Signs: A Comparison Between Their Use in Derivational Theories and in Optimality Theories
Authors: Bromberger Sylvain , Halle Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In all the exchanges that we are aware of between proponents of Rule-based Derivational phonology (DT, from here on) and proponents of Optimality phonology (OT from here on), the participants seem to take for granted that the phonological symbols on which both sides rely mean the same thing in both kinds of theories. In other words, they seem to take for granted that switching between OT and DT analyses has no effect on the semantic values that attach to such symbols as ‘ae’, ‘;ae’;, ‘[+ voice]’, ‘[labial]’, and so on: that these and other phonemic and feature symbols carry the same information, have the same semantic content, regardless of whether they occur in the context of a derivation or in the context of a tableau. In this chapter we want to question this presumption of semantic invariance between OT and DT. We will, in fact, argue that many—perhaps all—such symbols mean different things in the two kinds of contexts.
Phonological Derivations and Historical Changes in Hebrew Spirantization
Authors: Idsardi William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chomsky (1995: 224) cites Hebrew spirantization as an example of a phonological phenomenon whose conditioning factors are rendered opaque (even absent) by the operation of later processes in the phonological derivation in standard rule-based generative phonology. Because Optimality Theory (OT, Prince and Smolensky 1993) is built on surface output conditions (and in later versions input-output and output-output correspondence constraints), any such cases of intermediate representations are non-trivial questions to be addressed.
Attic Greek Accentuation and Intermediate Derivational Representations
Authors: Noyer Rolf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Questions relating to levels of representation in phonology have reemerged dramatically in recent years along with the development of alternatives to classical generative theory such as Optimality Theory (OT: Prince and Smolensky, 1993; McCarthy and Prince, 1993a; 1993b; 1995) and Harmonic Phonology (Goldsmith, 1992). In Harmonic Phonology, for example, the grammar defines the class of well-formed expressions by appeal to phonotactic conditions which hold of three privileged levels (M, W, and P) and certain relations which must hold across these levels. In certain prominent versions of OT, similarly, the phonological surface alone is the ‘locus of explanatory action‘, and generalizations holding of any other level of description, such as that of the underlying forms, are deemed epiphenomenal.
On the Politics of Change
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The research reported here is a sociolinguistic and anthropological linguistic study of language change conducted mainly in two Albanian-speaking communities in southern Greece: Spáta in the district of Attika, and Kiriáki in the district of Biotia. Kiriáki represents a more conservative community, being geographically isolated in a mountainous, rough physical terrain, whereas Spáta represents a more modernized community due to its vicinity to the capital city of Athens. Other communities have been surveyed to be mentioned in the analysis of the relevant data.
The Coding of Linguistic Ideology and Arvanítika Language Shift
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2 I discussed the sociocultural and political process responsible for the contact-induced Arvanítika linguistic shift. In subsequent chapters some of the most significant outcomes of the shift, such as the recruitment of bilingual resources for the building of performance frames, the production of an across the-border voice and similar phenomena, were analyzed and related to the macroprocesses of subordination and heteroglossia. The major focus of this book is the dialectic between societal praxis as it is linked to the basic social restructurings of the communities and the use of bilingual resources in speakers’ communicative praxis leading to the creation of a set of interpretive and productive practices that are interested (Hill 1990). As an outcome of this line of analysis topics related to linguistic ideology have been addressed in various places in the book. For example, terminal speakers’ language attitudes and linguistic conduct as they emerge through the frame of an across-the-border voice represent in essence an ideological phenomenon. In this chapter I tum to the discussion of linguistic ideology which I consider worth examining in its own right.
Aristotle’s Representational Notion of Signs
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In considering signs, their relationship to the cognitive world and to the world of things, it is important to distinguish clearly between three separate levels of observation: the linguistic level of signs (words, sentences); the epistemological level of cognitive correlates (concepts, propositions, etc.); and the ontological level of things, truth values,1 and facts. To keep these levels distinct, it will be necessary to adopt a convention for writing about them. One may speak of an elephant, of ‘elephant’ and of elephant. In the first case, we are talking about a certain animal, in the second, about a concept, and in the third, about an English noun. Please note that this distinction binds us neither to the assumption that every linguistic sign corresponds to a conceptual correlate, nor to the assumption that the meaning of a sign is to be situated on the epistemological level. Both of these assumptions will be discussed in detail later.
Conceptual Realism versus Conceptual Relativism
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It’s time for a provisional summary. Two fundamental notions of signs have been contrasted, the representational and the instrumental. Aristotle and Frege were introduced as exemplary of representational notions, Plato and Wittgenstein as exemplary of instrumental notions of signs. These are the central questions that representational notions of signs try to answer: What does a sign stand for? What are the extra-linguistic correspondents of signs? Of course, behind such questions is a certain notion of what communication is. According to this notion, communication is the transferal to the addressee(s) of ideas, concepts, and so on, by the provision of substitutes for those ideas, concepts, etc.: you don’t have direct access to my thoughts, so I give you access by means of signs that stand for my ideas. In such a scenario, the people involved in communicating can safely be left out of the picture. They have no significant role in the conception of such notions of signs. However, representational theories have to live with one big mystery: by virtue of which characteristic do signs manage to stand for ideas? The answer “By symbolizing those ideas” is not a real answer; it only shifts the problem, for we find ourselves faced with another, analogous question.
Types of Concept versus Types of Rule
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I will now attempt to illustrate, with four central examples, the difference and connection between types of concept and types of rule of use. First, though, it will be necessary to agree on a working terminology. The classic idea of a concept is one that is well defined and has sharp boundaries. A correct definition of a concept is called its intension; the class of existing objects that fall under the concept is its extension; the class of all possible (past, present and future) objects that fall under the concept is usually called the concept’s comprehension. Therefore, the intension of a concept classifies its comprehension. To the extension of the concept ‘car’ belong all presently existing cars; its comprehension includes all past, present and future cars, as well as all possible cars. If a distinguishing feature is added to a concept’s intension, its comprehension (but not necessarily its extension!) becomes smaller, and vice versa. As an example, the concept ‘yellow car’ classifies its comprehension, that is, the class of all possible yellow cars; the concept ‘yellow car with radio’ classifies the class of all possible yellow cars with radios. Since there might be some yellow cars without radios, the comprehension of the concept ‘yellow car’ is larger than that of the concept ‘yellow car with radio’. Since it is not impossible that all presently existing yellow cars have radios, or that there presently exists not a single yellow car, the only thing that can be said about the relation between the two extensions is that the extension of the concept ‘yellow car with radio’ cannot be larger than that of the concept ‘yellow car’; the two extensions also could be equal.
Expression and Meaning
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters, we have acquainted ourselves with different prototypical notions of linguistic signs. The quintessence of the exposition up to this point has been: (1)Linguistic signs serve us to communicate, classify and represent. (2)A theory of the representative capacity of linguistic signs provides no answer to the question of which property of a sign enables it to represent something (whatever that something may be), or more generally, by virtue of which property a sign is suitable for communication. (3)This does not mean that theories of meaning as use and representational theories are mutually exclusive. Cognitivist theories are generally representationally conceived. (4)The question “By virtue of which property is a sign suitable for communication?” can be answered only by a theory of meaning as use. Until now, our discussion has considered only the established signs of a language. But how do signs emerge? How do new signs arise from old signs? How and why do signs change? At this point, we will tum to the question of the genesis and change of linguistic signs. The signs of a language can come into existence through intentional, creative acts. In scientific discourse, it is common practice to create signs and intentionally modify them. Every non-redundant definition is such a creative or modifying act.
Rationality and Implicatures
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, we saw that the hearer, in order to understand an utterance, must always undertake two inferential procedures. He must interpret the utterance on the basis of his knowledge of linguistic rules (which in most cases must be supplemented with non-linguistic knowledge), and view the result of this interpretation as a symptom of the end meant to be reached with the utterance. In other words, he must employ the result of use of the symbolic strategy to reconstruct the means-to-end relation with the symptomic strategy. The semantic interpretation must be followed by a pragmatic means-to-end judgment. Though the above is formulated from the perspective of the addressee, it does not mean that our theory is biased in favor of the hearer. But the presentation can be simplified by choosing one of the two perspectives. I continually proceed from the assumption that the inferences made by the hearer are exactly those that the speaker has in mind with the making of an utterance; that is, I continually assume completely successful communication.
Evidence for Eighteenth-Century Pronunciation: The Value of Pronouncing Dictionaries
Authors: Beal Joan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The question which we shall address in this chapter is whether the Grand Repository and other eighteenth-century pronouncing dictionaries provide useful information for the historical phonologist: how much information do these pronouncing dictionaries provide, how reliable is this information, and how does it compare with other available sources of information on the pronunciation of English in the eighteenth century? Before considering the pronouncing dictionaries themselves, we should perhaps review the other types of evidence available to historical phonologists engaged m reconstructing the pronunciation of an earlier period of English.
Spence’s Grand Repository of the English Language
Authors: Beal Joan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the previous chapter that the pronouncing dictionaries produced in the later eighteenth century constitute a potentially very valuable source of information on the pronunciation of English in that period, not least because the respelling of each dictionary entry provides enough instances of any sound for patterns of variation and hence of the diffusion of sound changes, to be observed. What I intend to consider in this chapter is why Spence’s Grund Repository deserves particular attention.
John Withals’ dictionary for young boys (1553)
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the article signed by ‘S. L.’ in the Dictionary of National Biography, exactly one sentence is devoted to the author: ‘Withals or Whithals, John (fl. 1556), probably a schoolmaster, was author of an English-Latin vocabulary for children.’ The year given as ‘fl.’ is that of the second edition of his dictionary. The rest of the article deals with its history as a popular schoolbook. Some dates, obviously depending on Wheatley (1865), deviate from what it was possible (for me) to verify in the British Library. The summarizing sentence, ‘Withals’s Short Dictionarie became a standard school book’ is nevertheless true.
John Wilkins’ comprehensive thesaurus of English ( 1668)
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By definition a universal language is intelligible to everybody, irrespective of their mother tongue. Many learned men of the seventeenth century engaged in plans to construct a semiotic system that would achieve this goal, among them Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Johannes Amos Comenius (1592-1670), Rene Descartes (1596-1650), Athanasius Kircher (1602-80), Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), and others. In Britain particularly this idea found many adherents, mainly centred around the Royal Society, founded in 1660. Among them were Francis Lodwick (1619-94), George Dalgarno (?1626-87), Samuel Hartlib (d.?1670), and John Wilkins (1614-72).
Towards mental lexicography
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Onomasiology is a term belonging to lexical semantics as well as to lexicography. It denotes a mental operation, namely the co-ordination of meaning and language, that is, of semantic matter and linguistic form. It also denotes the technique of listing lexemes according to some order which is not that of the alpha bet. Semasiology is the corresponding term which denotes the co-ordination of language and meaning, that is, of linguistic form and matter, employing the technique of listing lexemes in the arrangement of the alphabet. As is obvious, the two terms presuppose that meaning and language, matter and form, are separate entities in natural languages which, although bound to each other, can nevertheless be distinguished in abstraction. This presupposition can be proved valid by everyday linguistic behaviour. In using language we can employ either approach. When learning a language, native or foreign, in the manner which St Augustine1 described in the classical way, we give a name to something of which we have previously become aware, mostly by its being pointed out to us and by the ensuing perception. Indeed, the question ‘What do we call this [pointing]?’ is with us throughout our life. When we encounter difficulties in understanding, however, again with our native language or foreign ones, we always ask, ‘What does this word mean?’ Obviously, the mental operations that underlie the onomasiological and the semasiological principles are tied to the natural ways in which we handle linguistic communication, either at the productive or at the receptive end.
Conclusion
Authors: Kirby Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use to which language is put influences its form. In particular, the way that we process utterances is reflected in constraints on variation across languages. We can see this—as many functional-typologists have— by comparing processing asymmetries with cross-linguistic asymmetries. However, this is only the starting point for a complete explanation. It is important to tackle the problem of linkage, by making the connection between these asymmetries as explicit as possible.
Lexical Information for Parsing Systems: Points of Convergence and Divergence
Authors: Ingria Robert J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parsers have been written in a number of different theoretical and computational frameworks. Since these frameworks often propose different linguistic elements and operations, the consequences of such differences for the construction of grammars for parsing are usually immediately obvious. Less obvious, but no less real, are the consequences for the lexicon. Nevertheless, information that is, in some sense, ‘identical’ is often represented in lexicons that differ considerably.
The Lexicon in Text Generation:Progress and Prospects
Authors: Cumming Susanna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I will review the state of the text generation lexicon. I have two primary goals: first, to give the reader an idea of what is currently being done, by setting out some of the alternatives designers of generation lexicons have faced, the choices they have made, and the implications of these choices for the types of lexical phenomena they have been able to represent; and second, to suggest what a generation lexicon could do, that is, what range of lexical phenomena might be relevant to the generation task, and how these phenomena interact with other aspects or components of a generation system. While syntactic, taxonomic semantic, and morphological specification are well under stood, there are a number of issues around lexical representation which have only been treated in one or two recent systems; these aspects include collocation, metaphor, and the textual and social dimensions of lexical choice. I will propose that further corpus-based research is necessary for an adequate treatment of these areas.
The Role of Dictionaries and Machine-Readable Lexicons in Translation
Authors: Slocum Jonathan , Morgan Martha G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dictionary needs of humans vary from those of computers; this results from their differential knowledge and abilities. Humans, by the time they are engaged as professional translators, have acquired an enormous body of common sense, knowledge of the world, and other information and heuristics involved in reasoning, hence translating. Computers as yet have no similar capacity for learning, nor indeed for representing and effectively utilizing such complex, diverse bodies of knowledge. On the other hand, computers are endowed with almost unlimited information stores having essentially perfect recall, while humans have demonstrably limited, incomplete memories with faulty recall.
Why Use Words to Label Ideas: The Uses of Dictionaries and Thesauri in Information Retrieval
Authors: Lesk Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dream of having a great library in your desk, instantly accessible by a few keypushes, also needs a vision of how to find things (Bush 1945). Traditional retrieval systems label concepts with words, either in their conventional meanings, or using specially defined thesauri of words whose meanings are restricted. The problem with ordinary words is that they have multiple meanings, as seen from the sense definitions in any dictionary, and that there are often many words that might be used to identify the same concept. A summary of how retrieval is done today and many of the current research trends is available in Salton and McGill (1983).
The Lexicon in a Computational Functional Grammar
Authors: Dik Simon C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the lexical component of a Prolog implementation of a Functional Grammar (FG) of English. FG is a general theory of the grammatical organization of natural languages (NL), based on a functional perspective on the nature of NLs. In this perspective an NL is first and foremost conceived of as an instrument for human communication. From this axiomatic principle a number of things follow concerning the nature of FG. First of all, it is clear that the theory will have to account for the forms of NLs (the morphosyntax) in close interconnection with their meanings (the semantics) and their usages (the pragmatics).
C
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The now somewhat old-fashioned v. reckon [up] means ‘to ascertain a number, quantity, cost, etc. by counting or by calculation’. Calculate means ‘to ascertain or determine by mathematical processes’ often of some intricacy. They reckoned/calculated that production would increase by 5 per cent in the next year. Hire charges are reckoned/calculated from the date of delivery. Both are trans., She calculated the area, and intr., Computers calculate more quickly than human beings. Children reckon on their fingers. Work out is an everyday syn. of both, but is trans. only.
I
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Idea, concept, conception ns. Idea and die Idee do not coincide in all uses, so that other words may be better transls. of idea .One sense of idea is ‘a conception or notion of sth. to be done or carried out’, ‘an intention or plan for action’.In one of its main senses, die !dee denotes a thought according to which one can act. It refers to just the germ of a plan which occurs to someone suddenly, not something thought out or worked out in detail, and can be a clever thought about the way something can be done. A following wie-clause is common. Auf meine Idee, wie wir das Produkt verbessem konnten, ging sie sofort ein. What is to be done is also often given in a new sent. Ich habe eine Idee! Lajst uns das Haus neu dekorieren! An infin.
N
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Near or close in time is nahe. Der SonnenuntergangfDer Frühling ist nahe. Niemand zweifelte am nahen Konkurs des Untemehmens. In naher Zukunft. An alternative is bevorstehen, which means that something will happen in the immediate future. Die bevorstehenden Prü.fungen. Nahe is often added. Die Prü.fungfWeihnachten stand nahe bevor.
S
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Safe = ‘free or protected from danger’. They felt safe in the cave. It is also applied to things, Your job is safe, and is used with from, We are now safe from attack. Secure is a syn. in some contexts. Is sth. secure/safe from harm? or Are we safe/secure from attack? S.o. has a safe/secure position. Sth. is safe/secure in s.o.’s keeping or in safe custody. The equivalent in all these cases is sicher. From is var .