bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Urban-Rural Differentials in HIV/STDs and Sexual Behaviour
Authors: Carael Michel 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Heterosexual transmission has accounted for about three quarters of the estim ated 13 million human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections in adults world wide. In the 1990s, this mode of transmission continues to grow in importance (WHO/GPA, 1993). The HIV/AIDS pandemic was initially centred in urban loca tions. Rural HIV and STD prevalences have generally been found to be much lower than urban prevalences, with some noticeable exceptions. In the developing world, except Latin America, the majority of the population is rural. In the absence of any specific data from rural areas in most countries, HIV projections so far have assumed rural rates to be five to ten times lower than urban rates (Chin, 1991; Anderson et al.,1991; Mertens et al.,1994). However, in the ten years fol lowing the recognition of the HIV epidemic, additional empirical data on the levels and dynamics of HIV transmission and sexual risk behaviours are begin ning to nuance the picture. There is now a general perception that several types of HIV epidemics are probably co-occuring at different rates across different groups, in different areas of the same country, making assessment of the current dynamics problematical (Piot et al.,1990).
Measuring the Returns to Education
Authors: McMahon Walter W 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The relation of education to a young person’s economic well-being and satisfac tions later in life has long been recognized by most families. After considerable neglect, education has also come into its own among economists as crucial to the dissemination of knowledge with the reawakening of the field of economic growth, due largely to the combination of theory with empirical tests, and to a spreading recognition that the results deal with the questions chat really matter. Knowledge for development has also become a central theme for many economic development agencies (e.g. World Bank, 1998).
Tracing the Impacts of Education on Development: A Summary
Authors: McMahon Walter W 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter is an overview of the main impacts of human resource development through education on development that appear in the complete model. It draws on the preceding chapters to summarize the conclusions reached and identifies the equations that were selected from those tested, which are then programmed as part of the final model for use in interactive simulations. It also describes the internal working of the education sector which is part of the complete model, and variables related to its efficiency, as well as other aspects that were not germane to the sectors but are necessary for the interactive simulations.
The International Role of the Deutsche Mark
Authors: Frenkel Jacob A , Goldstein Morris 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1948, when the D-mark was created as part of Germany’s monetary reform, its international role was negligible. Starting essentially from scratch after the war, it had none of the characteristics that one typically associates with an international currency, and thus presented no competition for the dominant reserve currencies of the day (the US dollar and the pound sterling). Along with other European currencies, it did not become convertible (even for current account transactions) until the late 1950s. The International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) Annual Report first mentions the D-mark as a reserve currency only in 1972.
An Overview
Authors: Messere Ken 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book derives from a series of articles written mostly in 1993 and published in various numbers of Tax Notes International during 1994 and 1995. To facilitate comparisons between countries, articles were written in a standardized form based largely on the framework established by Joseph Pechman in his book Comparative Tax Systems: Europe, Canada and Japan (Tax Analysts, 1987). To accommodate new tax policy preoccupations additional sections were added on fiscal deficits, administrative and compliance costs, and the effect of taxation on labour supply. The standardized format is reproduced in the skeleton provided before the list of contents. These articles were substantially revised by the authors in the light of a number of comments received and they were updated as far as time and space constraints permitted.
Canada
Authors: Bird Richard M , Perry, David B , Wilson thomas A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Over the last decade, the Canadian tax system has undergone its most drastic change since the income tax reform of 1971-the mundane reality that emerged from the political process following the classic statement of the ‘comprehensive tax base’ approach in the Carter Commission Report of 1966. Apart from a series of changes attempting to adapt to the inflationary environment of the late 1970s and early l 980s—most of which were later reversed—and continued recourse to tax incentives for a variety of policy reasons, no fundamental changes were made in federal income taxes until the mid-1980s, when Canada joined the worldwide move towards lower rates and broader bases. This second wave of major tax reform culminated-at least temporarily-in 1991 with the introduction of Canada’s version of a VAT, the Goods and Services Tax (GST), to replace a federal manufacturer’s sales tax that had been in place since 1923.
Italy
Authors: Castellucci Laura 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After the enactment of the basic tax reform of 1973—4, and through the 1980s until the beginning of the 1990s, the Italian tax system underwent a process of rationalization, simplification, and, to some degree, of convergence towards something like a typical ‘European tax system’, whatever that may be. During this period direct taxes grew more than indirect ones and became the most important source of revenue. Among direct taxes the personal income tax consolidated its position as the pillar of the system (in 1989 revenue from direct taxes was for the first time higher than that of social security contributions). The number of personal income tax rates was reduced and to a level that now corresponds more to that of other European countries. The average tax burden reached that generally prevailing in Europe, while in the 1990s the increase in tax revenue was unusual in the context of OECD Europe, being around 4.5 percentage points over the period 1990-3, of which 3.5 percentage points were reached in the last two years. From the point of view of tax collection no one can deny (and no one does) the ‘success’ of the basic reform of the 1970s and of the subsequent adjustments. From the conventional equity and efficiency points of view, evaluations can diverge as indicated later in the presentation of specific topics.
The Netherlands
Authors: Kam Flip De 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1994, public expenditure in the Netherlands amounted to Gld348 billion, or 58.5 per cent of GDP. Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, the claim of the public sector on national income nearly doubled. This strong expansion of public outlays was not caused by increasing exhaustive expenditures. In fact, these have for many years been on a level comparable to that in the USA. The expansion of the public sector in the Netherlands was caused almost solely by strongly rising transfer payments to families, and growing interest payments on public debt.
Education, Fertility, and Child Survival: Unravelling the Links
Authors: Cleland John , Kaufmann Georgia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It is widely accepted that education affects fertility and mortality. The education mortality link has been enshrined in the UNDP’s Human Development Index, which takes indices of both as key components of an overall level of development (UNDP 1990). Despite the statistical strength of these associations, however, the nature of the relationships is still far from perfectly understood.
The major purpose of this paper is to discuss the contributions that intensive methods of investigation, and particularly those of an anthropological nature, have made and can make to illuminate the effects of education on demographic outcomes. Nevertheless, it is prudent to precede this discussion by reviewing the knowledge that demographers have already assembled. More focused, smaller-scale investigations are best used in conjunction with a thorough understanding of the nature of the statistical evidence. As we shall see, the latter provides many clues to identify the more fruitful avenues to pursue.
Are Men Weaker or Do their Sisters Talk Too Much? Sex Differences in Childhood Mortality and the Construction of ‘Biological’ Differences
Authors: Aaby Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Popular beliefs in Euro-American culture are characterized by a complementary definition of the sexes. While males have greater physical strength, Nature has gifted females with greater biological resistance. More men than women are born, but survival is better among women (Mims 1976: 205).
The Contract Responsibility System and X-Efficiency in the Machine Industry
Authors: Mo Pak-Hung , Li Sung-Ko 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the Chinese machine-building industry and investigates how the contract responsibility system, first adopted in 1984, has affected the efficiency of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Some 57 SOEs are included for the machine industry in the 1989 survey on which our analysis is based. The year 1984 is chosen as the initial year for our investigation, the reason being that not until the Third Plenum of the 12th Central Committee (late 1984) did reform measures relating to the introduction of a ‘contract responsibility system’ begin to take effect in China.
Investment Financing and the Profitability Criterion
Authors: Kueh Y Y 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In a conventional Soviet-style economic system, both the scale and allocation of industrial investment are subject to strict central control. State enterprises are obliged to remit profit earnings and capital amortization to the state budget for centralized redistribution. Planners control new investment (expanded reproduction) and replacement investment (simple reproduction). Financial allocations are integrated into the familiar system of material balancing and unified distribution of producer goods in order to ensure that scarce resources are diverted into key sectors in accordance with planners’ priorities.
Industrial Reform as a Major Cause of Inflation
Authors: Fan Gang 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter attempts to show how the reform experiments as conducted in the 1980s with state-owned industrial enterprises in China have contributed to heightened inflationary pressures, culminating in the all-time inflation record of 18.5 per cent in 1988. We make use of the wealth of the balance sheet data generated from our survey of the 300 sample enterprises and focus on two major aspects of changes in the behavior of the enterprises which had a direct bearing on national consumption and investment expenditure.
Empirical Evidence of the Twin Expansion of Investment and Wage Outlay
Authors: Tsang Shu-Ki , Cheng Yuk-Shing 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses two closely related issues about the economic impact of the 1984/5 wage reforms in China, based on our survey of the sample of 300 state-owned (industrial) enterprise (SOEs). The first issue is whether the SOEs were meaningfully constrained in the effort they made to maximize workers’ remuneration. Specifically, we are concerned about whether any observed increases in wage outlay were commensurate with improvements in the productivity and profitability of the enterprises. The second issue relates to the possibility of investment potentials being ‘crowded out’ by undue wage and hence consumption expansion, prompting SOEs or the state planners to resort to deficit investment financing. In other words, we are concerned with the scenario of a ‘twin expansion’ of consumption and investment, which is inherently inflationary.
Hardening the Budget Constraint to Control Inflation under the Two-Track System
Authors: Chai Joseph C H , Tisdell Clem 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since 1984 the Chinese economy has operated under the so-called two track system, whereby goods are subject to multiple allocation mechanisms, plan and market. The share of goods subject to mandatory planning and state fixed prices was reduced from two-thirds of total retail sales in 1978 to about half by 1985 and to one-third by 1988. Meanwhile, the share of goods transacted at market prices soared correspondingly. The allocative efficiency implications of the two-track system have been examined by a number of western scholars.
Structural Change, Welfare Systems, and Labour Reallocation
Authors: Boeri Tito 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This books deals with labour reallocation in the midst of structural change, drawing on the experience of economic transition in formerly planned economies. It details those features of social welfare systems best suited to fostering structural change while at the same time reducing social costs. The interaction between labour and social policies is studies, showing the crucial role that non-employment benefits play in both the scope and the speed of transition. By including the influence of education systems, institution-building, and policy-enforcement mechanisms, this book goes beyond previous studies to provide a detailed analysis of the many contributing factors to the success or failure of the transition process.
Traditions Of Studying Paternity In Social Anthropology
Authors: Guyer Jane I 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Fatherhood has always been problematic and therefore fascinating to anthropology because there can be no plausible biological reductionist explanation for its existence. Biological impregnation predates the parenting of an infant by a very long time, during which there is no biological role for the spermdonor to play; an infant has no biological need for an adult who has no role in feeding it; and the long socialization of a human child, while clearly ‘requiring’ more than one adult, is equally clearly adequately mediated by a whole variety of alternatives to the sperm-donor. The question of why, then, the quasitotality of human societies should nevertheless insist on the affiliation of every child with a man of the senior generation—a man who is often either actually, putatively, or Actively its biological father or the sexual consort of its mother at the time the pregnancy was initiated—and why that affiliation should be so varied from one society to another over space and time, has lain at the heart of the key inspirational questions of our discipline: in what terms are we to understand the ‘passage from nature to culture’ in the world of Homo sapiens, and what explains human variability? The ‘big issues’ of a discipline are only intermittently revisited, because in fact they are only addressable piecemeal.
Male Nuptiality And Male Fertility Among The Qing Nobility: Polygyny Or Serial Monogamy?
Authors: Feng James Lee Wang 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It is true that Chinese habit and doctrine put a premium on the growth of population which appears to Western eyes unnatural and artificial. Sentiment, hallowed by immemorial tradition, makes it a duty to leave sons, and the communism of the patriarchal family dissociates the production of children from responsibility for their maintenance. Hence prudential restraints act with less force than elsewhere and population, instead of being checked by the gradual tightening of economic pressure on individuals, plunges blindly forward, till whole communities go over the precipice.
Women’s Status and Demographic Change: The Case of Mexico-US Migration
Authors: Donato Katharine M , Kanaiaupuni Shawn Malia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A persistent finding in contemporary international migration research is that people move in search of economic opportunity. At the macro-level, much of the literature has attempted to explain migration by examining the sources of economic inequality in sending and receiving nations (see Massey 1988; Piore 1979). At the micro-level, studies have shown that the decision to migrate is strongly related to the economic status of families and households. Because of demographic and economic pressures at home, poor families seek to maximize their income by sending at least one member abroad to search for work.
Change, Complexity, and Governance in Globalizing Space
Authors: Rosenau James N 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Now that we have a global world with global institutions, the question of institutional reform takes on a larger meaning. We know very little and understand next to nothing about ‘globalization’. All we have so far is slogans and anecdotes. But we do know that the supra-national question is abrming from the point of view of democratic theory. We have these bodies that are not accountable to anybody, anywhere. This is the sort of thing we are going to be thinking about.
Mobilization of Culture and the Reform of Citizenship Law: Germany and the United States
Authors: Joppke Christian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter is on the use of culture in contemporary citizenship debates. It differs from other chapters in this book in two respects. First, the focus is on elite mobilization, simply because the reform of citizenship law is mostly an elite affair, in which immigrants and minorities fare only peripherally, or not at all. Secondly, the focus is on the mobilization of culture, not of ethnic difference; however, national identities—as the form of culture that I will look at—form the context of ethnic mobilization and minority integration, and we cannot talk meaningfully about the latter without knowing something about the former. Including the United States in a book that is mostly about Europe provides a necessary comparative perspective, because, so I shall argue, American-style inclusive citizenship sets the norm that European states, including Germany, are bound to follow.
Ethnic Minorities, Cities, and Institutions: a Comparison of the Modes of Management of Ethnic Diversity of a French and a British City*
Authors: Garbaye Romain 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I will seek to provide the basis for a more extensive research project aiming at understanding how Western European cities manage ethnic diversity arising from post-war immigration within the limits and resources of the institutional framework in which they operate. It is an attempt to bring the institutional approaches of ethnic conflict explored by Nordlinger (1972), Esman (1973), and Horowitz (1985), for instance, to the study of the politics of post-colonial minorities. The main thrust of these authors’ argument has been that the elites of states that are faced with cross-cutting ethnic conflicts are able to maintain the stability of the system by using institutional arrangements as instruments. I seek to transpose this type of model to the urban politics of ethnic minorities in order to provide new understandings of the political processes underlying the responses of cities to ethnic cleavages on their territories, ranging from urban regeneration programmes to anti-discrimination policies, institutionalisation, and symbolic recognition of ethnic groups.
Support between Rural Parents and Migrant Children in a Rapidly Industrializing Society: South Korea
Authors: Lee Yean-Ju 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although some observers (e.g. Caldwell 1976; Cowgill 1986) have predicted that a breakdown in the function of the family as a production unit and rising individualism would significantly reduce resource exchanges between parents and their grown children, many recent studies in East and South-East Asian countries where rapid industrialization has been under way have found adult children continuing to support their elderly parents. A majority of elderly parents in those countries still co-reside with one or more of their adult children, and a majority of both co-residing and non-co-residing adult children provide material and financial assistance to their parents (Martin 1991; Eu 1992; Hermalin, Ofstedal, and Lee 1992; Knodel, Chayovan, and Siriboon 1992; Martin and Kinsella 1994; Rhee 1994). This chapter explores the family dynamics underlying adult children’s continuing support for elderly parents in the Republic of Korea, focusing on families in which grown children have migrated from their rural places of origin. Implications of the findings for the future of intergenerational support are also discussed.
Alternative Nuclear Futures
Authors: Baylis John , O’neill Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A major debate has emerged in recent years, which centres on the future role of nuclear weapons in world politics. Focusing attention to the role of nuclear weapons in the post-cold war world, the book argues that unlike the debates which emerged during the cold war period, the contemporary debate has taken place largely in private, with only limited involvement by the general public. What is also significant is the traditional ‘left-wing’ versus Establishment divide has also largely disappeared. Furthermore, a growing number of senior military and defence officials and governments allied with the United States, openly advocate the abolition of nuclear weapons. One of the features of the post-cold war debate is that statesman and scholars alike have begun to think the unthinkable-to consider the possibility of reducing the size of nuclear arsenals, and eventually for abolishing them completely. Contributions from leading academics highlight the key themes that have emerged in this debate. The book aims to generate a wider debate about a subject which, despite the changes that have taken place over the last two decades, continues to be of supreme importance.
Infant Mortality, Child Neglect, and Child Abandonment in European History: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Lynch Katherine A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One of the major theses of Malthus’s ‘Essay on Population’ was that the operation of a set of positive and preventive checks was responsible for regulating the demographic regimes of human societies. Between the first and second editions of his Essay, Malthus extended his analysis of the variety of preventive checks in many parts of Europe, showing how individuals and groups could regulate their own reproductive lives using their rational faculties.
Malthus in Latin America: Demographic Responses during the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
Authors: Pallonl Alberto , Perez-Brignoli Hector , Arias Elizabeth 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the relevance of a Malthusian framework in an effort to account for short-term fluctuations in vital rates in Latin America during the period 1800-1990. We have three goals. First, we evaluate short-term responses during the period 1920-90. This period is relatively rich in data and contains a number of historical episodes with potentially strong impact on population. We show that, even after the onset of transitions towards modern demographic regimes, there is evidence of a residual mechanism whereby marriages, births, and deaths react to changes in economic conditions. This evidence is not particularly strong but is consistent with expectations. Of some importance are the effects on mortality wrought by causes of death during the period 1950-90, an era punctuated by a prolonged crisis (‘the debt crisis’) that most of these countries experienced during the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s.