bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Miracles of Resurrection: Reinventing Blood Transfusion in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Lederer Susan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In November 1906, a young Cleveland surgeon, George Washington Crile, published a preliminary clinical note about the direct transfusion of blood. Using a newly developed surgical technique, he sewed together the cut end of an exposed artery in a donor’s arm with a similarly exposed vein in the arm of his patient. Crile’s patient was a 23-year-old man who had lost a considerable amount of blood following the removal of several large kidney stones. “It was clear,” the surgeon explained, “that the terminal stage was at hand with all the resources at command exhausted. It seemed therefore a suitable case for transfusion, and one which would afford a crucial test of its value.”With desperation as a justification, Crile performed the surgical cut-down to expose the artery in the arm of his patient’s brother; he then joined this vessel with the exposed vein in patient’s arm.
Organ Recital: Transplantation and Transfusion in Historical Perspective
Authors: Lederer Susan E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Transplanting a human face was a new surgical procedure in 2005, but the con-cerns about its implications were not new. The face transplant provoked many of the same concerns about identity, ethics, and the “supply” problem created by the transplantation of glands, skin, bones, and other body parts in the first part of the twentieth century, what some might call the “pre-history” of organ transplantation. These were also among the concerns occasioned by moving blood between human bodies. Like transplantation, blood transfusion redrew the lines between self and other, and raised profound questions of identity and difference.
Postnatal Growth in Infancy
Authors: Niedbala Barbara , Ekvall Shirley W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nutritional intake, from birth on, must be adequate for proper growth and development and must be provided to the infant in a way that is appropriate for his or her developing motor skills and that enhances nurturing between the infant and caregiver. The American Academy of Pediatrics identifies breast-feeding as the ideal method of feeding and nurturing infants and in achieving optimal infant and child health. The nursing relationship confers many benefits to both the mother and the infant. It provides optimal nutrient intake to the infant as well as substances unique to the mother-infant pair. Breast-feeding protects against respiratory infections, diarrhea, and otitis media4 and has been associated with higher developmental scores. Infant formula composition is based on human milk and is continually being modified to replicate the substances in human milk more closely. When nursing the infant is not chosen by the mother or is medically inadvisable, iron-fortified infant formula is the best choice.
The Small-For-Gestational-Age Infant And Problems Of Prematurity
Authors: Itani Oussama , Niedbala, Barbara , Tsang Reginald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) reduces overall weight gain of the fetus compared to an appropriately grown fetus of the same gestational age. The term small for gestational age (SGA) is commonly used to describe infants born with birth weights less than the 10th percentile for gestational age and may also be defined as birth weight and/or length at least two standard deviations below the mean for gestational age. The SGA infants are a heterogeneous group, as they may be born premature, term, or post-mature; furthermore, the growth restriction may differ in its etiology, severity, and duration (Fig. 3–1).
Community-Based Nutrition Services And Resources
Authors: Rokusek Cecilia , Jarka Elvira , Hanley, Barbara , Hahn Joan Earle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the past 30 years the need for nutrition services for children with special needs has increased significantly in communities is throughout the country. Deinstitutionalization, integrated community living programs, supported employment options, least restrictive learning environments, work sites for adolescents, full integration in the school systems, and a philosophy of inclusion or normalcy have been the mandates of communitybased systems to serve the education, social, and health-care needs of all persons with special needs. These directives have confronted nutrition professionals with new and continuing challenges to focus more efforts on the community setting, which can include the home, the clinic, and the school. In addition, qualified nutritionists are now key members of interdisciplinary health-care teams providing services and support for the child with special needs. The interdisciplinary team approach enhances a sense of cooperation among all professionals united by a common goal of achieving optional medical and nutritional support for all individuals.
Sports Nutrition For Children
Authors: Dolins Karen Reznik , Heaner Martica 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nutrition and physical activity play a dual role in good health. Because the two are inextricably linked, it is important to avoid focusing on one area while neglecting the other. Both regular exercise and good nutrition can provide a wide array of physiological, psychological, and functional health benefits to all children, especially those with chronic illnesses or developmental disorders. When implementing physical activity regimens, follow established exercise guidelines and make any necessary modifications as dictated by the child’s specific medical condition. Nutritional intake should meet the child’s basic nutritional needs to optimize health as well as to enhance the child’s physical performance.
Vegetarian Diets For Children
Authors: Hodgkin Georgia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Children of all ages may be consuming vegetarian diets, either by their choice or by their family’s choice. Two percent of children aged 6–17 said in a 2000 Roper poll that they never eat meat, fish, or poultry; 6% said they never eat meat. These data mirror those in a similar poll in 1995. Approximately 2% of the adult population are vegetarian.
Cerebral Palsy
Authors: Bandini Linda , Ekvall, Shirley W , Stallings Virginia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a chronic, nonprogressive motor disability that results from an injury to the developing brain early in life. Dysfunctions in motor coordination and muscle tone characterize CP. Several factors increase the likelihood of cerebral palsy, such as premature birth, low birth weight, blood type incompatibility between the mother and infant, and placental insufficiency. Other risk factors include maternal infection with German measles or other viral diseases; bacterial infections of the mother, fetus, or infant (injuring the central nervous system); loss of oxygen during delivery; and severe neonatal jaundice. Nationally representative CP prevalence data are not readily available. A rough estimate of prevalence of CP can be obtained from a population-based study in metropolitan Atlanta in which CP prevalence for the years 1986–1991 was reported as 2.0 per 1000 one-year-old survivors.
Autism
Authors: Nordin Viviann , Ekvall Shirley W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Leo Kanner first described autism in 1943 as a rare condition featuring lack of emotional contact and resistance to change. In 1944 Hans Asperger identified a group of children with problems in the same areas. Later work on diagnostic criteria has placed autism among the developmental disorders as a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) (DSM-IV, ICD-10, WHO). Epidemiological studies have documented a span of signs and symptoms as an autistic spectrum. In autism, there is a pattern of impairments in three areas: (1) qualitatively impaired reciprocal social interaction and (2) communication and (3) restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped interests and behavior. Idiosyncratic reactions to sensory information are not included in the diagnostic criteria but are often important symptoms; they are reported by many persons who have autism. The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder are listed in Table 13–1 (they are the same criteria as for childhood autism in ICD-10). The term Asperger syndrome is most often used to describe children with autistic spectrum problems and a normal or near-normal cognitive level, but there is not complete agreement about these criteria among researchers. Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD NOS) is a diagnostic term without clear definition. It may be used for persons who do not fulfill the criteria for autistic disorder but have obvious problems in the development of reciprocal social interaction and some problems in one or both of the other two domains (about the same as in atypical autism in ICD-10). In the autistic spectrum and in each diagnostic subgroup, there is a continuum from mild impairment to severe developmental disorder.
The Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Authors: Huber Agnes , Ekvall Shirley W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ulleland et al. in Seattle were the first researchers in the United States to document that heavy alcohol consumption during pregnancy has a deleterious effect on the offspring. The growth retardation, malformations, and central nervous system effects of infants exposed to alcohol in utero were first termed fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) by Jones et al. Infants who show some symptoms of FAS but not the full constellation were labelled as having fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Other terms have been proposed, such as alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD) or neurodevelopmental disorders due to alcohol exposure (ARND). Since children with alcohol-related problems suffer from lifelong disabilities and since there is no safe level of alcohol ingestion by pregnant women, the American Academy of Pediatrics has suggested that women who plan to become pregnant or are pregnant should abstain from alcohol use during pregnancy. The incidence of FAS may be underreported. Surveys have shown figures ranging from 0.9 to 1.9 per 1000 live births, an incidence believed to be higher than that of Down syndrome or cerebral palsy. Newer data suggest incidence rates of 5.2 per 10,000 live births.4 Among alcohol-abusing women, rates of FAS are in the range of 24–42 per 1000 in the southwestern Apache and Ute tribes, 209 per 1000 in Ireland, and 259 per 1000 in Germany. Fetal alcohol effects are thought to occur in 3 to 5 births per 1000. The central and associated features of FAS are summarized in Tables 14–1 and 14–2, based on data from Clarren and Smith.7 Microcephaly and abnormal weight and length are recognized at birth, as are facial dysmorphies8 (see Fig. 14–1).
Drug Therapy And Nutrition
Authors: Springer Ninfa , Shlafer Marshal 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Drug therapy and nutrition for developmentally disabled (DD) and the mentally retarded (MR) individuals living in intermediate care facilities (ICF/DD and ICF/MR) are regulated by federal guidelines, which are symptom-based rather than diagnosisbased Some drugs, including vitamins in pharmacological dosage, can cause undesirable food-drug or nutrient-drug interactions. This needs to be differentiated from the supplemental use of vitamins/minerals, as presented in several sections of this chapter. Supplements used in this context compensate for adverse drug effects; amounts used are based on individual needs determined during nutrition assessment (see Chapter 4). Drugs used for chronic diseases are too numerous to discuss in this chapter. Those used for developmental disabilities, and substances that are commonly abused, are summarized in Table 27–1. In most cases, only drugs generally prepared as prototypes of the class are listed in this table. When there are important differences among other members of a class, individual drugs are noted separately. Drug-drug interactions are not emphasized; pharmacology textbooks provide more information.
HIV Infection In Children
Authors: Ayoob Keith-Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) and is usually transmitted by the exchange of blood or blood products or sexual contact. In children, HIV is acquired perinatally from high-risk HIVinfected mothers (85%) or through receipt of contaminated blood products. High-risk mothers are identified as injecting drug users, sexual partners of infected persons, or recipients of HIV contaminated blood or blood products. Breast milk is also known to transmit HIV. Antiretroviral drugs have been used to dramatically reduce the rate of mother-to-child transmission. The first cases of pediatric HIV were noted in the United States in 1982. Since that time, the number of HIV and AIDS cases has increased dramatically. As of December 2001, the latest date for which statistics are available from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 9074 AIDS cases were reported in children under 13 in the United States and 4428 AIDS cases were reported in children ages 13 to 19.4 A total of 3923 cases of HIV had been reported in children under age 13 as of December 2001, although this number is likely underreported, as it reflects only areas with confidential HIV reporting. The vast majority of these cases occur in minority populations. Cumulatively, 83% and 82% of reported cases of HIV and AIDS, respectively, have occurred in black and Hispanic children. New York, New Jersey, Florida, and Texas account for 60% of all children under the age of 13 living with HIV/AIDS. Human immunodeficiency is diagnosed by blood analysis for the virus. Infants are not routinely tested for the presence of HIV at birth unless HIV is suspected in the mother. Presence of the virus, rather than just its antibodies, can now be detected in the blood. The test can be done at birth, allowing pharmacological intervention immediately, if necessary. The CDC expanded the diagnostic criteria for AIDS in 1993 for persons ages 13 years and older to include anyone with HIV whose CD4 T cell count is below 200 cells per microliter.
Gastrointestinal Disorders Of Infancy And Childhood (With Nutrition Support And Probiotics)
Authors: Farrell Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For a child to grow and develop normally, food must be ingested, digested, and absorbed. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is crucial in this process. This chapter describes primary and secondary conditions that interfere with the normal digestive and absorptive functions of the GI tract. The past decade has seen the development of a variety of nutrition support modalities that allow children with any type of gastroenterological dysfunction to develop normally. An understanding of the physiology of digestion and the pathophysiology of GI diseases allows selection of the appropriate method of nutritional support. Nutritional problems are common in children with neuromotor disorders and other chronic conditions. The most frequent nutritional problems are inadequate nutrient intake, obesity, constipation, nutrient-drug interactions, and inadequate standards with which to compare the growth and adequacy of nutrient intake. Adequate nutrition begins with ingestion of the appropriate amounts and type of calories. Infants with chronic medical and developmental disorders often have difficulty ingesting adequate nutrients. This may be due to oromotor dysfunction, a decreased level of consciousness, and/or spasticity (see Chapter 24). The practitioner must remember that feeding difficulties may be the initial manifestation of a chronic condition, neurological or otherwise. Regardless of the etiology, malnutrition adversely affects the quality of life of children with cerebral palsy and other chronic neurological conditions.
Methylmalonic Acidemia And Propionic Acidema
Authors: Frazier Dianne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The organic acidemias are a class of autosomal recessive inborn errors of metabolism sharing the characteristic of having a block in a specific step of amino acid catabolism that results in the excretion of abnormally high concentrations of non-amino organic acids. This chapter will discuss two of these disorders: propionic acidema (PPA) and methylmalonic acidemia (MMA). The disorders 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency (3MCC), isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (IVA), glutaric acidemia type I (GAI), and 2-ketoadipic aciduria will be described in later chapters.
Hyperuricemias (Lesch-Nyhan Disease)
Authors: Nyhan William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lesch-Nyhan disease is an inherited disorder of purine metabolism in which there is enormous over production of uric acid.1,2 It is the most common cause of hyperuricemia that is understood at the molecular level. It is caused by deficient activity of the enzyme hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT). Deficiency of HPRT leads to a variety of clinical phenotypes ranging in severity from the classic Lesch-Nyhan disease, in which neurological and behavioral features are seen, along with clinical manifestations of hyperuricemia that are shared with patients with gout, to patients with normal neurology and behavior who have only manifestations directly attributable to uric acid. Among patients with HPRT deficiency, the classic Lesch-Nyhan phenotype is the most common. The variant forms are all rare. Uric acid is the end product of purine catabolism. Hyperuricemia may result from overproduction or from inefficient renal excretion of uric acid. These two forms can be distinguished by analysis of the uric acid content of the urine. Patients with increased uric acid in blood and urine have overproduction of purines and may be assumed to have a metabolic disease. Biosynthesis of purine nucleotides is achieved via a de novo synthetic pathway and a salvage pathway. HPRT catalyzes the reutilization of the purine bases hypoxanthine and guanine in the formation of inosinic and guanylic acids (IMP, GMP) in the salvage pathway. Human HPRT is encoded by a single structural gene on the X chromosome. The gene has been cloned and sequenced,3 and its amino acid sequence has been determined. The importance of an efficient purine nucleotide salvage pathway is underscored by the clinical manifestations of inherited disorders of purine metabolism.
Nutritional Aspects Of Birth Defects
Authors: Saal Howard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A birth defect is “any anomaly, functional or structural, that presents in infancy or later in life and is caused by events preceding birth, whether inherited or acquired.” Medically significant birth defects are essentially conditions that are present at birth and require at least some degree of medical intervention (Table 60–1). Approximately 3%–5% of all children are born with a medically significant birth defect. Approximately 150,000 children are born in the United States every year with one or more birth defects. These defects are the single leading cause of infant mortality in the United States, resulting in 20% of all infant deaths. Birth defects are the second leading cause of death in children 1 to 4 years of age and the fourth leading cause of death in children 5 to 15 years. Birth defects are also a leading cause of hospital admissions. Over 11% of all pediatric hospital admissions are due to genetic disorders, and 18.5% are for children with other congenital anomalies.
Heart
Authors: Lin Angela E , Belmont, John , Malik Sadia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In common practice, malformation of the heart refers to a defect of the intracardiac structures, that is, the atrial and ventricular chambers and septa, and the atrioventricular and semilunar valves. Beyond the heart itself are the great arteries which are frequently associated with abnormalities of outflow tract septa- tion (conotruncal defects), and the systemic and pulmonary veins. Because intra-cardiac and extra-cardiac malformations cannot be easily separated, this chapter uses the broader term cardiovas-cular malformation (CVM), also known as a congenital heart defect.
Systemic Vasculature
Authors: Bird Lynne M , Jones Kenneth Lyons 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interrupted aortic arch is discontinuity of the aortic arch in which either an aortic branch vessel or the ductus arteriosus supplies the descending aorta. Three anatomic forms have been described. In type A, interruption of the arch is distal to the origin of the left subclavian artery; in type B, interruption of the arch is proximal to the origin of the subclavian artery, between the origins of the left common carotid and left subclavian arteries; and in type C, interruption of the arch is proximal to the origin of the left common carotid artery, between the origins of the innominate and the left common carotid arteries (Fig. 3-1).
Spleen
Authors: Aylsworth Arthur S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The spleen forms during the week (when the embryo is 8– 10 mm) as a local mesodermal condensation in an area of tissue on the left side of the dorsal mesogastrium. It is the only organ that is left-sided at its inception. The splanchnopleuric epithelium thickens to form a ridge of mesoderm that extends along the dorsolateral border of the developing stomach. The ridge lies between areas of tissue that eventually will form the gastrosplenic and pancreaticosplenic portions of the dorsal mes- entery and extends to the region of the developing mesonephros (Fig. 5-1). Several genes involved in spleen development have been identified in the mouse. These include Hox11, Wt1, Bapx1, and capsulin.
Craniofacial Structures Skull
Authors: Graham John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neural crest cells in the head region differentiate into mesen- chymal cells that form the bones of the face (viscerocranium), while the cranial base and other portions of the cranium are formed by the mesodermally derived occipital somites and somitomeres. The portion of the skull surrounding the brain is termed the neurocranium. The neurocranium is divided into the membranous part, which forms the flat bones of the cranial vault, and the chondrocranium, which forms the cartilaginous bones of the base of the skull. The chondrocranium develops by fusion of a number of cartilaginous structures, which ossify by endochondral ossification to form the base of the skull. Posteriorly, the base of the occipital bone is formed from parachordal cartilage and three oc- cipital sclerotomes.
Skeletal System Pectoral Girdle, Spine, Ribs, and Pelvic Girdle
Authors: Hudgins Louanne , Vaux Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The skeleton develops from the somatic layer of the paraxial and lateral plate mesoderm and from neural crest cells. At the same time the notochord and neural tube are forming, the paraxial mesoderm lateral to these structures form two longitudinal col- umns. These columns become segmented into blocks of meso- derm toward the end of the 3rd week. From the occipital region caudally, these blocks are referred to as somites. Each somite dif- ferentiates into two parts: the sclerotome, located ventromedially, which forms the vertebrae and the ribs, and the dermomyotome, located dorsolaterally, which forms the dermis and the myoblasts. The embryonic connective tissue, the mesenchyme, forms at the end of the 4th week from the sclerotome cells.
Rectum and Anus
Authors: Stevens Cathy A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anorectal malformations are relatively common anomalies. They are usually recognized at birth and can cause life- threatening bowel obstruction. However, with appropriate surgi-cal intervention, the long-term prognosis is good. The historical treatment of anorectal malformations has been previously reviewed. There are a few references to anal atresia in the writings of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, primarily suggesting rupturing an anal membrane with the finger. Paul of Aegina (A.D. 625–690), a Greek physician, gave the earliest account of surgical intervention for anal atresia. Following incision, dilation with bougies and application of wine and salve was recommended. Little more was written about this subject until the 17th century when Scultetus advocated anal dilation with gentian roots following the incision.