bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Peasant Opinion and the ‘Coercive Economy’
Authors: Kershaw Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Peasant farming dominated Bavarian agriculture, which was predominantly mixed in character, though specialized production flourished in the viticulture of Lower Franconia, the hop-growing of parts of Middle Franconia, and the dairy farming of the alpine reaches of Upper Bavaria and Swabia. As Table IX shows, 77.5 per cent of agricultural concerns in Bavaria (here including the Palatinate) were classed in the 1933 census as peasant farms of various sizes, compared with. 68.9 per cent in the Reich as a whole. Most typical of the Bavarian rural economy was the medium-sized peasant holding, a tendency strengthened even further if we omit the Palatinate where, in a region of predominantly partible in heritance, three-quarters of all concerns were small peasant farms or smallholdings. Of the administrative regions of Bavaria proper, only Lower Franconia, where partible in heritance was also common, had a disproportionately high ratio of small peasant enterprises and smallholdings. For the rest, as Table X indicates, a half or more of all agricultural units was made up of medium-sized peasant farms with a fair sprinkling of larger farms, especially in southern Bavaria where many of the large peasant holdings were to be found in the alpine foothills.
Petty-bourgeois Complaint and Compliance
Authors: Kershaw Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An attempt to explore middle-class opinion during the Third Reich faces some obvious difficulties. The first is definitional. Whatever their internal differentiation and stratification, the peasantry and the working class can be seen as relatively homogeneous social groups. The ‘middle class’, by contrast, embraces numerous, quite disparate sectors of society with widely differing socio-economic interests.
The Disillusioning of the Protestants
Authors: Kershaw Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The acqms1t10n of Franconian territories and of the free Reich cities within its geographical area—the most important of which were Augsburg and Nuremberg—brought the Bavarian State for the first time in the early nineteenth century a sizeable Protestant minority, amounting in 1815 to just less than a quarter of the total Bavarian population.
The Alienation of the Catholics
Authors: Kershaw Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In its relations with the Catholic population of Bavaria, the Nazi Movement faced both before and after 1933 problems of an entirely different order from those which it encountered in its dealings with the Protestant population. Compared with the historical divisions and theological rifts which were features of a critical disunity in the Protestant Church during the Weimar Republic, Catholic institutions and religious life between the foundation of the German Empire and the rise of Nazism were characterized by an extraordinary degree of inner strength, cohesion, unity, and vitality, which rose to a peak in the years of the Republic.
Nazism and the Church: the Last Confrontation, 1941
Authors: Kershaw Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After subsiding into an uneasy partial truce in 1938–9 and continuing to- simmer at just below boiling-point during the first war years, Church-State relations erupted again during 1941 as the Nazis launched what was to prove their final all out offensive against the institutions, traditions, and values of in particular the Catholic community. The opposition of the churchgoing population reveals perhaps more clearly than any other single episode the depth and intensity of antagonism towards Nazism.
A Military Education 1852-1858
Authors: Owen Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The military school to which Evelyn Baring was sent in 1852 at the age of 11 had been started only a few years earlier as an experiment to prepare young boys for a cadetship at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich (RMA). It was not a success and came to an end in 1859 after only ten years owing to a disagreement between the masters. It was quartered in Carshalton House, most parts of which had been built by an East India Company merchant in the eighteen century, and leased to the Board of Ordnance in 1847. A drawing of 1850 shows it to have been an imposing, three-storey structure. It was built in a brownish-yellow brick, with decorations of better-quality red brick and stone window sills. There was also a large formal garden with a lake, an island, and an ornamental bridge.
Surviving the Drummond Wolff Mission and the ‘ Race Against Bankruptcy’ 1885-1887
Authors: Owen Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As Baring prepared to leave for Cairo at the end of the summer of 1885, his main preoccupation was with what was soon to be called the ‘ race against bankruptcy’ , the name given by Alfred Milner to the struggle to ensure a return to full payment of the interest on Egypt’ s funded debt within the two years allocated by the London Convention which followed the London Conference. However, even before he left England for Austria, perhaps to take the waters at Carlsbad (now Karlovy Vary), perhaps to go hunting, he learned that there was to be a significant new development on the international front as well.
One Among the Crowd: The Marking of Singular Participants
Authors: Cysouw Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pronominal paradigms vary widely among the world’s languages. It will be a long journey to get this variation under control. I will proceed in small steps, limiting myself each time to a conveniently arranged subset of the variation. Inevitably, this will lead to some ad hoc decisions to include certain themes in one chapter or another, but everything that has to be said will come up eventually. This chapter deals with singular pronominal marking. In the introductory chapter, I have defined pronominal systems as paradigms that show at least an opposition between the marking for speaker and addressee. In this chapter, one category will be added to these two: the category ‘any other singular participant’. There are maximally three different morphemes to be discussed here: one for speaker, one for addressee, and one for any other. The principal objective of this chapter is to provide a typology of singular person marking (Section 2.2). Various kinds of homophony between the singular categories are attested. The major part of this chapter will consist of a description of examples of singular homophony. Almost everything that is theoretically possible will be shown to exist (Section 2.3). Next, I will argue that the examples attested do not corroborate the hypothesis that the ‘richness’ of singular marking is linked to the usage of independent pronouns (Section 2.4). Subsequently, some attention will be paid to the occurrence of zeros in singular pronominal marking. Among others, the question will be raised here whether these zeros should be considered as non-overt marking, or maybe better seen as non-existing marking (Section 2.5). Finally, a summary will be presented (Section 2.6).
The Diversity of the Core : A Survey of Patterns of Singular and Group Marking
Authors: Cysouw Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the classical analysis of the pronomen, various accidentia(‘attributes’) of the pronoun were distinguished. For example, in the Te’khne Grammatike’by Dionysius Thrax, ‘persons, genders, numbers, cases, shapes, species’ are mentioned as possible attributes of pronouns (Uhlig 1883: 64; Kemp 1987: 182). Somewhat differently, the Ars Minorby Donatus lists the attributes ‘quality, gender, number, form, person, case’ (Chase 1926: 33). Many slightly different version of the list of attributes can be found in the classical literature, but all agree on one basic point: there is an unordered list of characteristics that are equally relevant to the analysis of pronouns. This classical analysis is rather different from what is found in more recent grammatical work. Today, the PERSONAL pronouns have been put at the top as the prototypical kind of pronoun, and the attributes person and number have become the central pivot for their description. However, there has never been a clear decision to change the perspective. Over the ages, the special status of the combination person/number has diffused slowly and largely unnoticed into grammatical practice. It dates back at least to De Emendata Structure(1524) by Thomas Linacre. He gives these two attributes a special place among the others because they occur with all declinable word classes (Luhrman 1984: 185, 205). Over the following centuries, the combination person/number virtually becomes the basic framework to describe pronouns.
Cardinality : Redefining Number in the Pronominal Domain
Authors: Cysouw Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The marking of quantity-more traditionally called ‘number’-in human language is a complex and multifaceted subject. In The Philosophy of Grammar, Otto Jespersen introduces the discussion of number with the warning that grammatical number is more complex than basic counting: Number might appear to be one of the simplest natural categories, as simple as ‘two and two are four’. Yet on closer inspection it presents a great many difficulties, both logical and linguistic. (Jespersen 1924: 188)Jespersen continues with an extensive discussion of various aspects of number marking in the grammars of human languages. Among many other things, he notes the problematic status of the plural in the pronominal domain, characterizing the pronoun ‘we’ as being ‘essentially vague’ (p. 192). Still, he does not conclude that the analysis of ‘we’ as a plural should be reconsidered. Yet this is exactly what is being proposed in the present work. The traditional use of plurality in the pronominal domain implies that the number of participants is important. However, as has been argued before (see especially Chapter 3), the categories traditionally called ‘plural’ are better interpreted as unmarked for number. The difference between the traditional approach and the perspective taken here is illustrated in Figure 6.1. A GROUP of participants has been defined as a specific combination of various singular participants (see Section 3.3). A group is unmarked for number because the number of participants is not important. Of course, a group necessarily refers to more than one person. Yet the definition of a group is based purely on qualitative characteristics of the constituting parts. The KIND of participants that form the group is important, not the NUMBER of the included participants.
Cognate Paradigms Revisited : Connecting the Dual
Authors: Cysouw Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A pronominal paradigm is not an isolated, unchangeable structure. Quite the contrary: the structure of a pronominal paradigm is highly variable through time and space, and the variation in paradigmatic structure, even between closely related languages, is remarkable. Individually, pronominal elements are relatively stable, but the structure of pronominal paradigms appears to change rather easily. The resulting variability of paradigmatic structure might make one wary of any typological generalization or diachronic analysis of the paradigmatic structure because both types of investigation need an object with some stability to yield results. However, each of these analyses can be combined to compensate for the other’s deficiencies. Typology abstracts away from the small variations and focuses on the major transitions in the synchronic structure of human language. In contrast, historical-comparative study starts from small variations between close relatives to develop generalizations about diachronic. Typology can inform a comparative investigation about the chances with which a particular structure occurs. In return, comparative investigation can enhance a typology by adding transitions between the types distinguished. In this chapter, I will use a crypto-diachronic method to incorporate the typo-logy of dual marking from Chapter 7 into the cognitive map as established in the previous chapter. The typology of dual marking resulted in the Dual Explicitness Hierarchy. As a hypothesis, this typological hierarchy is interpreted as a pathway for diachronic change. I will use examples of cognate paradigms to test this hypothesis. If the hierarchy allows for a diachronic interpretation, I expect to find examples of cognate paradigms linking two paradigms that are adjacent on the hierarchy, approximating the dynamics of paradigmatic structure through time and space.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German is spoken as a first language by approximately 100 million people in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and elsewhere, and as a second language by many others in Central and Eastern Europe. It is also learnt as a foreign language by people all over the world. There are many books which purport to describe the language, ranging from compendious grammars intended for native speakers to elementary textbooks for foreign learners, and from dictionaries of current usage to philological studies of earlier stages of the language.
Morphology
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One complaint often made by learners of German is that it has ‘a lot of grammar’. This is, of course, somewhat misleading, since all languages are complex and difficult for foreigners to learn, and there is no evidence that, taken as a whole, any language is significantly more or less complex than any other; all languages have ‘a lot of grammar’. What is usually meant by this remark is that German has a particularly complex word structure, and in this respect certainly it may be said to be rather more complex than some other languages, including English. There are, of course, also many languages, especially outside the Indo-European family, that have more complex word structures than German.
Syntax
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of grammatical structure is conventionally, and conveniently, divided into two parts, morphology and syntax; the former, which we considered in detail in Chapter 3, dealing with the structure of words, the latter, to which the present chapter is devoted, dealing with the structure of sentences. Morphology and syntax have many features in common: they are both concerned with grammatical entities and with the principles that underlie their combinations. But words and sentences are rather different kinds of units; words are not only very much shorter and simpler than the majority of sentences; they are also much more stable and fixed in their structure, offering fewer possibilities for innovation and improvisation. The more complex and much freer structure of sentences makes syntax a rather different knd of subject from morphology, requiring a different type and wider range of descriptive concepts and categories. Syntacticians make much of the fact that the vast majority of the sentences that we produce and understand are new and have never been uttered before, and yet we are able to produce and understand them without difficulty. Clearly, then, as speakers and hearers of our language we are making use of some sort of knowledge that goes beyond the mere memorising of structures, and we could therefore see the study of syntax as an investigation of this knowledge.
German in Use
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theme of this book is, as the title asserts, the structure of German. Our analysis of the language so far has therefore focused on this structure: the various units — phonemes, morphemes, words, etc — and the way in which they fit together to form larger entities, the largest of which is the sentence. In our discussion of the complexities of this structure, we have explicitly excluded the way in which the language is actually used by speakers of the language, an area of linguistic study that, as we observed in Chapter 1, goes by the name of pragmatics.
War of Words: The Famine in the Times and the Nation
Authors: Fegan Melissa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is rather disconcerting to look up the word ‘Ireland’ in the index to The History of the Times for 1841–84, and discover absolutely no reference to the Famine. ‘IRELAND: The Times “special commissioner”, reads the main entry; elsewhere there are oblique references to the Irish Church Question and Land Question, but the Famine-not to mention the other Irish events which made headlines such as Repeal, the Fenians, the Land League, etc.-is absent.
The Prefect, Political Functionary of the Jacobin State: Permanences and Continuities (1870-1914)
Authors: Machelon Jean-Pierre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
AS one of the best-known historians of nineteenth century France, Vincent Wright could not have failed to be interested in the prefects. His doctoral thesis on the Basses-Pyrenees from 1848 to 1870 took him straight to the heart of a department of rural France at the time of the Second Republic and the Second Empire, where he was understandably fascinated by the contrast between the stability of the consular administrative institutions and the political and constitutional instability of the nineteenth century. Over a period of 30 years, starting in 1968, he wrote a number of important works on the prefectoral institution, which had long been taken for granted as being the backbone of territorial administration and the custodian of the Jacobin spirit. With Bernard Le Clere he wrote the definitive work on the prefects of the Second Empire. 1 He himself wrote a number of articles on the same period, in particular on ‘Les prefets demissionnaires en decembre 1851’ (1968), ‘Le corps prefectoral et le coup d’Etat de decembre 1851’ (1968), ‘Les prefets d’Emile Ollivier’ (1968), and ‘Les prefets imperiaux et le 4 septembre 1870’ (1970). In addition, other very substantial contributions to the literature on the subject scrutinized in detail the prefectoral body during the tormented early days of the interregnum between the Second Empire and the Republic, a period about which little was known, as is the case with all transitional periods.2 Vincent Wright’s curiosity did not stop there.
Introduction
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of this book can be conveniently identified as Matthew Arnold’s Catholic younger brother. Readers who know of the Arnolds as one of the famous professional families of Victorian England will be aware that Matthew had brothers; several in fact. Rather fewer are likely to have known that one of them became a Catholic under the influence of John Henry Newman, like many of his contemporaries in the middle decades of the nineteenth century. Tom Arnold, though, wore his Catholicism with a difference; after some years he reverted to Anglicanism (though never moving very far from Catholic beliefs), then finally returned to the Catholic Church. Each of these shifts was the product of a spiritual crisis which involved physical displacement and a family upset.
Oxford Again
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tom Arnold quickly made use of his privileges as a life member of the Oxford Union. Writing to Julia on its notepaper on 22 April 1865, soon after his arrival, he remarked on the fact that the Union supplied him with free stationery and a term’s postage at a greatly reduced rate. He wondered why undergraduates should willingly contribute to let old members, who paid nothing, enjoy such resources. But he briskly concluded, ‘However I did the same when I was an undergraduate, so I “take the good the Gods provide” and say nothing.’ He mentions his friendly reception from the Oxford establishment, or at least a leading member of its liberal faction. Benjamin Jowett, not yet Master of Balliol but confidently biding his time, had invited him to breakfast that morning, but Jowett had had a sleepless night, and Arnold found him rather dull.
Dublin Again
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dublin, when Tom Arnold returned there, was sinking further into the decline that had been evident in the 1850s. In the words of a modern historian, ‘The 1880s were a particularly depressed decade. Unemployment and under-employment were rife. There were numerous appeals to charities, and demonstrations of men seeking work were common. By 1891 the population of Dublin was lower than it had been in 1851. The falling population and decaying properties reflected an impoverished city.’ It was also an unhealthy city, with bad drains and high mortality; in 1879 the death-rate in Dublin reached record levels.
Introduction
Authors: Watson Janet C E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I sketch the development of Arabic from its Proto-Semitic ancestor to the present-day dialects. I begin by looking at common features of Semitic phonology, morphology, and syntax. I then consider the position of Arabic within the Semitic phylum as a Central Semitic language which also exhibits several shared traits with South Semitic. In Sections 1.2.1–3, I consider the spread of Arabic from the Arabian Peninsula, the development of the standard language and the phenomenon of diglossia. In Section 1.3 I introduce the main focus of this work, the mod-ern dialects of Cairene and San’ani Arabic.
The Phoneme System Of Arabic
Authors: Watson Janet C E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the development of the phoneme system in Arabic and establishes the phoneme systems for present-day San’ani and Cairene. I begin by considering the consonantal system of Classical Arabic as recorded by the founding father of Arabic grammar, the eighth-century ce Arab grammarian, Amr ibn Uthman ibn Qanbar Sibawayh. Having established the consonantal system of Classical Arabic, I look at refiexes of the Classical Arabic consonantal phonemes in modern dialects of Arabic. I then consider the consonantal system of San’ani and Cairene, showing that San’ani is far closer than Cairene in terms of its consonantal system to what we believe to have held for Classical Arabic. Finally, I consider the vocalic systems of Classical Arabic, and then of San’ani and Cairene.
Phonological Features
Authors: Watson Janet C E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been long understood that speech sounds are not atomic, indivisible units, but that they are made up of a number of phonological features. In earlier work, speech sounds were represented as unordered sets or bundles of distinctive features (Bloomfield 1933: 79; Chomsky and Halle 1968: 335 ff ., Lass 1984: 94). Today it is understood that speech sounds are internally structured: certain groups of phonological features behave as units in assimilation processes; certain features appear to be dependent on other features—[distributed] and [anterior], for example, are relevant for coronals and not for velars or labials; in assimilation processes certain spreading features appear to be contingent on the presence of features shared between the trigger and target (Cole 1987). The need to provide a structured representation of phonological features was first properly addressed in Clements’s (1985) paper entitled ‘The geometry of phonological features’ in which he proposed that features are arranged geometrically. Feature geometry rep-resents both the separate and the coordinated aspects of features within a hierarchical structure. In the model of feature geometry that I adopt, phonological features and feature values fulfil the four basic criteria listed in (1).
Word Stress
Authors: Watson Janet C E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Arabic is a language with word stress. This means that one of the syllables in a content word is perceived as prominent and receives main stress. In words of more than two syllables in San’ani (optionally also in words of two syllables where the leftmost syllable is heavy and the rightmost syllable superheavy) one or more of the remaining syllables receives secondary stress. In Cairene, secondary stress is not perceived.