bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Syntactic Elaboration
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The job of comparing one language variety with another normally presupposes the identification and operationalization of linguistic variables, be they lexical, morphological, or syntactic. This is normally done by identifying a set of linguistic features that can be expected to appear in specific slots-or obligatory contexts-in the literary grammar and by measuring their actual occurrence in the variety under examination. These actually occurring features are then quantified as a proportion of possible occurrences, thus permitting the computation of what might be called structural reduction in this variety.
Epidemiology
Authors: Lafferty William E , Hopkins Sharon G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
HIV is transmitted by three major routes: (1) sexual contact that exchanges body fluids (usually semen or vaginal fluid); (2) blood exchange (transfusion, injection drug use [IOU], needlestick); and (3) perinatally. The risk of acquiring HIV per exposure is highest (nearly 100 percent) from the transfusion of infected blood and lowest (virtually nonexistent) from casual contact. Following the institution of HIV-antibody screening in the United States in 1985, the incidence of transfusion-associated HIV infections has decreased. Infections acquired by heterosexual contact, however, have increased. Worldwide, sexual transmission accounts for greater than 90 percent of HN infections.
Aspergillosis
Authors: Panther Lori A , Rosen Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aspergillosis results from infection with various Aspergillus
species: among HIV- infected patients, A. fumigatus
is the most frequently isolated species, followed by A. flavus,
then A. niger. Aspergillus
is a ubiquitous mold that generally enters the body via the respiratory tract.
Most HIV-infected patients who develop invasive aspergillosis have the same risk factors as other immunosuppressed patients, namely, the presence of neutropenia, recent treatment with high-dose steroids, and malignancies. Possible additional risk factors include prolonged courses of broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy, alcoholism, previous pulmonary infections, and marijuana smoking.
Systemic aspergillosis uncommonly occurs among HIV-infected individuals: less than
0.5 percent of all HIV-infected patients are diagnosed with invasive aspergillosis. This incidence contrasts with the much higher frequency of aspergillosis in other groups of severely immunosuppressed patients.
Aspergillosis typically occurs in patients with advanced HIV disease who have CD4 counts less than 100 cells/mm3 The initial AIDS case definition developed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) included aspergillosis as an AIDS- defining condition. Because of the primary relationship of aspergillosis with neutropenia, as well as the infrequent occurrence of aspergillosis in patients with AIDS, the CDC later deleted aspergillosis from the AIDS case definition.
Histoplasmosis
Authors: Panther Lori A , Skerrett Shawn J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This fungus exists in the mycelial phase in soil and in the yeast phase in tissues at 37°C. The organism thrives in soil enriched with avian or bat excrement. Infection results from inhalation of airborne spores, often after contaminated soil has been disturbed. Endemic areas include major river valleys in the central United States, areas along the United States-Mexican border, the Caribbean, and some areas in Central America, South America, and Africa.
Cryptosporidiosis
Authors: Bramante John P , Ryan Caroline A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum.
The life cycle of this parasite includes three key forms: oocysts, sporozoites, and trophozoites. Humans become infected when they ingest oocysts. Upon reaching the intestinal lumen, sporozoites emerge from within the oocysts and invade the
intestinal epithelial cells. After entering the intestinal cells, the sporozoites mature into trophozoites. Infection with Cryptosporidium
typically involves the small bowel.
Cryptosporidial oocysts have been detected in rivers, surface water, and, in some areas, municipal water supplies. The organism is highly infectious and transmission occurs by person-to-person contact, ingesting contaminated water, or animal-to-person contact. Unpublished data suggest that person-to-person contact plays the most important role in the transmission of C. parvum.
The exact risk of acquiring C. parvum
from municipal water supplies remains unknown. The incubation period is 2 to 14 days. Among HIV-infected patients, it is unknown whether cryptosporidiosis results from reactivation of a prior infection or whether it is acquired de novo.
In 1976, investigators first described cryptosporidium as a human pathogen. In the 1980s, the number of reports of cryptosporidiosis exploded as a result of the AIDS epidemic. Among AIDS patients with diarrhea in the United States, it is estimated that cryptosporidiosis is the causative agent in 11 to 16 percent. Cryptosporidiosis, however, is an AIDS-defining diagnosis in only approximately 2 percent of patients.
Cryptosporidiosis occurs sporadically among immunocompetent people, typically causing a 10 to 14 day illness manifesting as diarrhea and abdominal cramping. The same pattern usually occurs among HIV-infected individuals with CD4 counts greater than 200 cells/mm3 Among those with CD4 counts less than 200 cells/mm3, a chronic infection typically develops.
Hepatitis B
Authors: Koelle David M , Willson Richard A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that replicates through an RNA intermediate. This virus is transmitted via parenteral drug use, sexual contact, blood products (now screened), and occupational exposure. In addition, sporadic cases of HBV transmission also occur.
Evidence of resolved or chronic HBV infection is present in up to 90 percent of patients with AIDS. In addition, 5
to 10 percent of HIV-infected individuals in all risk groups are chronic carriers of HBsAg.
Several studies suggest that HBV coinfection does not accelerate the progression of HIV infection. In contrast, HIV coinfection modifies the natural history of HBV infection. Chronic carriage of HBV after acute HBV infection occurs in approximately 20 percent of HIV-infected patients compared with a chronic carrier rate of only 6 percent in those without HIV infection. In addition, HIV-infected patients with HBV (compared with HIV-negative patients) have increased HBV replication and milder liver injury during acute and chronic infection and increased loss of HBsAb after resolution of acute infection.
The natural history of chronic HBV infection in HIV-infected individuals is variable, with potential progression from chronic hepatitis to either cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma.
The diagnosis of HBV chronic carrier refers to the presence of HBsAg in the serum for 6 months or longer. Since serologic testing in chronic HBV infection does not define the extent or severity of the underlying chronic liver disease, liver biopsy may be required to establish the stage of the chronic HBV infection.
Nephropathy
Authors: Burik Jo-Anne Van , Cooper Mindy A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
HIV-associated nephropathy is typically characterized by heavy proteinuria (with nephrotic syndrome), enlarged kidneys, and rapid progression to end-stage renal disease. Because this disorder often develops before the onset of AIDS, most experts prefer the term HIV-associated nephropathy
instead of AIDS-associated nephropathy.
For unknown reasons, HIV-associated nephropathy has a striking predilection for African-Americans: approximately 85 percent of patients with HIV-associated nephropathy are African-American. The mean age is 33 years, with a male to female ratio of 10:1. Approximately 50 percent of patients with HIV-associated nephropathy have injection-drug use as their risk factor for HIV acquisition. Most reported cases have involved patients living in New York City, Miami, or Los Angeles, with few cases reported from the San Francisco area. These differences in the geographic distribution of HIV-associated nephropathy remain unexplained.
Although initial studies suggested that histologic changes solely consisted of focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis, subsequent reports indicate that HIV-associated nephropathy can produce a diverse array of histologic lesions, including global glomerulosclerosis, mesangial hyperplasia, tubular necrosis, microcystic tubular dilatation with casts, and interstitial inflammation. Nevertheless, focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis remains the most distinctive and common histologic lesion. Although heroin-associated nephropathy and HIV-associated nephropathy share some histopathologic findings, these lesions can usually be distinguished from one another.
Anal Neoplasia
Authors: Kovach Nicholas L , Koutsky Laura A , Kiviat Nancy B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human papillomavirus virus (HPV) is a common sexually transmitted agent. HPV infection is associated with intraepithelial neoplasia, the presumed precursor for anal cancer. Types 16, 18, and 31 are the types most frequently associated with malignancy, although other types, including 6 and 11, may also be associated with malignant dysplastic changes in HIV-infected persons.
Southern DNA hybridization studies of anal specimens have shown a prevalence of 50 to 60 percent of HPV among HIV-infected individuals compared with only 20 to 30 percent among homosexual subjects not infected with HIV. One study, which tested anal specimens for HPV using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, showed HPV detectable in 92 and 78 percent of HIV-infected and seronegative (homosexual or bisexual) subjects, respectively. Increased levels of detectable HPV correlate with progressive immunosuppression. In addition, anal cytologic abnormalities correlate both with the presence and with higher detectable levels of HPV.
Sexual practices have also been associated with an increased incidence of HPV and anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN), with those individuals who practice receptive anal intercourse having the highest incidence. Studies using anal Papanicolaou (Pap) smear evaluations of men reporting anal intercourse have shown that 25 to 40 percent of HN-
infected men have abnormal cytologic findings, ranging from atypia to dysplasia, compared with 5 to 15 percent of subjects not infected with HIV. Among HIV- infected men, those with CD4 counts less than 500 cells/mm 3 have an approximate threefold increased risk of AIN compared with those with CD4 counts greater than 500 cells/mm 3 The overall incidence of anal cancer in HIV-infected persons is not known.
Periodontal Disease
Authors: Moss Gregory B , Schubert Mark M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three major forms of periodontal disease have been described in HIV-infected patients: linear gingival erythema (formerly HIV-associated gingivitis), necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis (formerly HIV-associated periodontitis), and acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. Gingivitis refers to inflammation of the gingivae caused by oral microflora; when associated with changes in the bone it is referred to as periodontitis. Acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis involves inflammation of the gingiva with soft tissue necrosis, but not bone loss.
Some investigators have suggested that HIV-infected persons have unusual forms of gingivitis and periodontal disease; others, however, have found that HIV-infected individuals have similar periodontal health compared with persons in the general population who are not HIV-infected.
In studies of HIV clinic attendees, up to 30 percent have linear gingival erythema, 4 to 25 percent have necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis, and less than 10 percent have advanced or acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. The more severe conditions usually occur in patients with low CD4 cell counts.
Pathogens include the same oral bacterial flora commonly associated with gingivitis and periodontitis in non-HIV infected persons, namely, Bacteroides intermedius, Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Treponema
species, and Actinomyces
species. Although Candida, albicans
is often present in these lesions, its role in HIV-associated periodontal disease remains poorly defined.
Necrotizing stomatitis, which is generally considered separate from periodontal disease, refers to nonperiodontal soft tissue necrosis. Necrotizing stomatitis can,
Drug Therapy
Authors: Woodward Cynthia Brennan Jane A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter, which provides information on HIV-related drugs, includes four tables:
(1) Mechanism, Adverse Effects, and Interactions of Commonly Used Drugs-
information regarding mechanisms of action, significant adverse effects, and drug interactions; (2) Highly Significant Drug Interactions Table-a
quick reference for common clinically significant drug interactions that may require modification of therapy; (3) Prices of HIV-Related Drugs-a
summary of drug costs based on the 1995 average wholesale price (AWP) for standard doses (not including pharmacy fees); and
(4) Programs Supplying Medications for HIV-Infected Indigent Patients-a
list of pharmaceutical companies (and their phone numbers) that have programs to assist HN
-infected patients who cannot pay for medications.
Throughout this chapter, medications are grouped into the categories listed below (Index of Drugs), and the order of the categories follows the order listed below (alphabetical order). Although some medications overlap in several categories, we have listed them under the category that they are most commonly used.
The table Mechanism, Adverse Effects, and Interactions of Commonly Used Drugs
lists medications by generic name with trade names listed in parentheses. In addition, where appropriate, we have listed commonly used abbreviations, such as AZf, ddl, G- CSF, or TMP-SMX. The drugs listed include those that are FDA-approved and are commonly used to treat HIV-infected individuals.
In the Highly Significant Drug Interactions
table, changes in drug concentrations are expressed as measurements in the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC); this is the best measure of total drug in the body and accounts for alterations in absorption, distribution, and elimination. Several drugs can affect the coagulation cascade and cause changes in the international normalized ratio (INR) measurement; the INR is a commonly accepted form of reporting and interpreting prothrombin time results.
The Modular Effects of Sign Language Acquisition
Authors: Lillo-Martin Diane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the topics that introductory linguistics courses almost always cover is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. According to the textbooks, around 1930 Edward Sapir (see Sapir, 1949) and (somewhat later) Benjamin Lee Whorf (Whorf, 1956) made two proposals: “First, that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Second, that the structure of the language one habitually uses influences the manner in which one understands his environment. The picture of the universe shifts from tongue to tongue” (Chase, 1956, p. vi). Careful reviews of this position usually point out that Sapir and Whorf were not the originators of such ideas, nor did they even put them so strongly (see Hill, 1988, for a nice review). But the idea that language shapes thought--or cognition-has been debated in various forms over the years and now usually goes by the name of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Despite their popular appeal, the two hypotheses, linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity, have been largely discredited by thorough crosslinguistic study and experimentation. The linguistic determinism hypothesis is the easiest to put to rest. The facts that (1) one can discover the patterns in a language other than one’s own and that (2) cross-cultural miscommunications are frequent even among speakers of the same language attest to the ability of human cognition to think outside of language (cf. Hill, 1988).
Neuroanatomical Correlates Of The Effects Of Stress On Memory: Relevance To The Validity Of Memories Of Childhood Abuse
Authors: Bremner J Douglas , Southwick Steven M , Charney Dennis S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The recent controversy surrounding the validity of memories of childhood abuse has centered on the question of whether memories of abuse can remain dormant for many years before they come to the surface in the form of delayed recall. Authors on one side of the controversy suggest that memories of abuse can be not available to conscious recall secondary to a mechanism described clinically as amnesia or “repression.” The other side of the controversy claims that psychotherapists practicing a form of psychotherapy known as recovered memory therapy have suggested episodes of abuse to their patients which never in fact occurred, through leading questions or excessive insisting.
World War I and National Self-Determination 1914-1922
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There was a great disparity between the motives and aims of the initial belligerent powers in World War I and the principles and objectives embodied in the various peace settlements after the war. When the war broke out at the beginning of August 1914, the Entente Powers of France, Russia, and England pursued traditional objectives.
Spheres of Influence I: Germany and the Soviet Union
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The states that were carved out of the Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian empires after World War I-Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, and Yugoslavia-initially were conceived as modern democratic nation-states. Along with Romania, they were to have the dual function of collectively containing the expansion of Germany and preventing the spread to the West of the Soviet Union’s breed of Communism.
Spheres of Influence II: East and West, or “Yalta Europe”
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Yalta Europe” has two relatively distinct sets of meaning. Among many East Central European intellectuals and dissidents, it is a pejorative reference to a summit meeting of the “Big Three”-Winston Churchill, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin-held at Yalta, a resort in the Crimea on the Black Sea, on February 4 to 11, 1945. During one week of negotiations, as this version of the story goes, the two most important leaders of the Western democratic world abandoned more than 100 million people to an expanded Soviet version of the east, or the “Soviet empire.”
The Failure of Eastern Europe 1956-1989
Authors: Johnson Lonnie R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the Cold War started, the concepts of East and West were more than sufficient for describing the political reality of a divided Europe, a division 1hat appeared to be permanent. The Soviet version of Communism and the Soviet Communist version of Eastern Europe seemed to be here to stay. The idea that the Soviet Union would let its empire go was simply unrealistic, according to the experts of that now defunct discipline called Sovietology.
Effect of Alcohol on Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors and Enzymes
Authors: Tabakoff Boris , Hoffman Paula L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the last two to three decades the actions of ethanol on nearly every aspect of central nervous system (CNS) function have been investigated, including those on the synthesis, release, and catabolism of neurotransmitter substances. Much of this work generated a rather diffuse picture of ethanol’s actions, with varying results depending on the transmitter system, the experimental protocol, the species, the timing of ethanol administration, and the brain area studied. We have previously reviewed research on neurotransmitter metabolism and direct the reader to those reviews for a historical perspective (Hoffman and Tabakoff, 1985; Tabakoff and Hoffman, 1983a, 1991, 1992).
First Among Friends
Authors: Ingle H Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In First Among Friends, the first scholarly biography of George Fox (1624-91), H. Larry Ingle examines the fascinating life of the reformation leader and founding organizer of the Religious Society of Friends, more popularly known today as the Quakers. Ingle places Fox within the upheavals of the English Civil Wars, Revolution, and Restoration, showing him and his band of "rude" disciples challenging the status quo, particularly during the Cromwellian Interregnum. Unlike leaders of similar groups, Fox responded to the conservatism of the Stuart restoration by facing down challenges from internal dissidents, and leading his followers to persevere until the 1689 Act of Toleration. It was this same sense of perseverance that helped the Quakers to survive and remain the only religious sect of the era still existing today. This insightful study uses broad research in contemporary manuscripts and pamphlets, many never examined systematically before. Firmly grounded in primary sources and enriched with gripping detail, this well-written and original study reveals unknown sides of one who was clearly "First Among Friends."
Introduction
Authors: Hasan-Rokem Gaut , Shulman David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Gonds of central India perform a ritual when a member of their tribe is dying: at night, the adult men divide into two groups and gather at the boundary of the village; one group chants riddles to the beat of a drum, and the other group searches for the answers. No riddle can go unanswered, and each answer has to reproduce a text sancified by tradition. In between the riddle exchanges, strange meaningless sounds are also uttered, heavy with sorrow. Women and children are not allowed within earshot of these singing men. The ritual continues until dawn.
Myth as Enigma: Cultural Hermeneutics in Late Antiquity
Authors: Stroumsa Guy G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Must the gods mean what they say? The question runs like Ariadne’s thread through¬ out Greek culture. Set in the frame of the centuries-long reflection on the ambivalent nature of religious language, this question bears upon conceptions of truth and its expression in the ancient world. Plutarch quotes a well-known saying of Heraclitus, “to the effect that the Lord whose prophetic shrine is at Delphi neither tells nor conceals, but indicates.” The god’s answer is not clearly expressed, but only hinted at, and its understanding requires an interpretative effort. Greek philosophers and grammarians had strived, since the fifth century B.c. at least, to make sense of their religious and cultural tradition, to interpret it. Their need to interpret (hermeneuein) the Homeric myths stemmed from the intellectual impossibility to accept these myths at their face value.
God’s Chastisement
Authors: Stowell Daniel W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Religious southerners upheld the Confederacy both in victory and in defeat. Few, if any, groups could surpass Confederate clergymen in their devotion to the southern cause. They preached for it, prayed for it, and interpreted God’s purposes in it from the beginning to the end. White religious southerners were certain, even through the bitter spring of 1865, that God favored the Stars and Bars. Then came defeat, sudden and complete. How could such a calamity befall the people and, fledgling nation whom God favored and whose cause was righteous? The answer for most white religious southerners was that God was chastening the southern people for greater purposes in the future.