bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Total sales of tobacco products, 1870-1989
Authors: Wald Nicholas , Nicolaides-Bouman Ans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of tobacco spread from America to other countries during the sixteenth century. The first factories making cigarettes by machine were set up in Havana in 1853, in London in 1856, and in the USA in 1872. However, during the nineteenth century, tobacco for pipes and chewing, and tobacco for cigars and snuff, accounted for virtually all the tobacco sold. From 1895 sales of manufactured cigarettes increased rapidly, so that by 1919 they comprised more sales by weight than all other forms of tobacco combined. Filter cigarettes, although available from the 1930s, did not become popular until the 1960s when they quickly replaced plain cigarettes. Hand-rolled cigarettes have accounted for only about 6 per cent of total annual cigarette sales by weight during the last 30 years.
Consumption of tobacco products per person and per smoker, 1870-1988
Authors: Wald Nicholas , Nicolaides-Bouman Ans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As TAC data have not been provided after 1987 and the GHS does not collect data on the annual weight of tobacco consumed, these data will not be available in the future unless steps are taken to obtain the information. If they are not it will represent an important gap in our knowledge of national smoking habits.
Manufactured cigarettes: trends in type and yields, market shares
Authors: Wald Nicholas , Nicolaides-Bouman Ans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first major change to occur in the type of manufactured cigarettes was the switch from plain to filter cigarettes, which began in the 1950s, gathered momentum in the 1960s, and has continued to the present. The original filter cigarettes were unventilated (without perforations in the tip), and these still account for the majority of the filter market. During the 1970s, ventilated filters (with perforations in the tip) were introduced. The subsequent rise in the market share of ventilated filter cigarettes was due both to the introduction of new ventilated brands, and to the change of some existing brands from unventilated to ventilated filters. By 1988 the market shares of unventilated filter, ventilated filter, and plain cigarettes were estimated to be 52, 46, and 2 per cent respectively.
Measurements in the environment
Authors: Armstrong Bruce k. , White Emily , Saracci Rodolfo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Environmental agents include physical, chemical, and biological components or contaminants of the general environment (soil, air, water), the local environment (home, workplace, recreational sites), or the personal environment (food, drinks, cosmetics, drugs). Frequently, exposure to these agents is unknown or unsensed by the exposed individual. Under these circumstances, the exposure as such cannot be recalled or recorded by the study subject, so it can only be documented through measurements in the environment. In other circumstances measurements in the environment represent an alternative or a complementary approach to questioning the subject.
The results of evaluation
Authors: Cumper George E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is axiomatic that the results of the evaluation of a national health system are to be measured not in terms of the document it produces, but in terms of the favourable changes it generates in health, and particularly in health care. If this is a falsehood, it is one which no one in the field of health planning and administration dares to contradict. Yet experience suggests that this generalization is eminently contradictable. The shelves of health ministries and of international agencies are well provided with evaluation reports which have not led to change (at least directly). Evidently getting implemented the suggestions for change which arise from evaluation is not the easiest part of the evaluator’s task. This is the kind of difficulty with which this chapter mainly deals. But it will also be suggested that a national evaluation which leads immediately to no traceable change is not entirely wasted.
Searching for Causes of Work-Related Diseases
Authors: Olsen Jørn , Merletti Franco , Snashall David , Vuylsteek Karel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is an introductory text for those people who need to know more about the scientific principles behind the study of the causes of disease occurence. As most people spend a large part of their lives at work, and as some people may be at risk of being exposed to harmful substances at high levels, workers protection should have a high priority. Studies in the workplace can help to identify causes of occupational diseases, and the outcome of such investigations should be applied when the effects of protective action are evaluated. In searching for occupational causes of diseases, epidemiological principles should be used, even at the factory level. Applying strict logical principles to the collection of data concerning worker's experience with ill-health ensures that a useful insight is gained into the causes of disease, and that data are obtained in a format suitable for subsequent larger-scale studies.
Case study of infertility in males
Authors: Olsen Jørn , Merletti Franco , Snashall David , Vuylsteek Karel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1977 a chemical factory manufactured fertilizers and pesticides for agricultural and household use. In the latter process, workers mixed, diluted, and repacked technical-grade pesticides obtained from chemical manufacturers. Some 100 different chemicals were used in the formulation of approximately 200 different products, including organophosphorus compounds, halogenated hydrocarbons and carbamates. Since 1962 the company had established a special Agricultural Chemical Division with 39 employees: three supervisors, 24 production workers, four maintenance mechanics, two clerks, and six laboratory workers. Thirty-six of the group were men. exposed workers was compared with unexposed. The cohort of exposed workers was identified as far back in time as possible according to available records. Such studies are often referred to as historical or retrospective follow-up studies. Non-respondents are frequent in many epidemiological studies including the present one where only 142.
Lung cancer mortality among workers exposed to chromate pigments
Authors: Olsen Jørn , Merletti Franco , Snashall David , Vuylsteek Karel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Workers involved in the manufacture of zinc and lead chromate pigments drew the attention of the occupational physician to several fatal cases of lung cancer among their co-workers. The occupational physician in charge of this small plant (92 workers) first noted that all the cases were smokers and considered that the condition was not related to occupation. In 1974 two new cases and in 1976 a third one changed that point of view and the physician decided to consult the Institute of Occupational Medicine to set up a study to determine if an occupational hazard was involved. All 251 workers who had worked for six months or more in the plant between 1958 and 1978 were included in the study. Occurrence and dates of death were obtained from the plant or death registers or both. Causes of death could not be obtained from death certificates in the country where the study was conducted and were therefore obtained from families, physicians, hospitals, or pathologists.
Geographical variation
Authors: Little Julian , Elwood Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ascertainment of neural tube defects has been discussed in Chapter 3; some of the major conclusions are reviewed here. Anencephalus is a gross malformation, obvious to simple inspection, and is incompatible with survival beyond a few hours or days. Therefore its recording in hospital records, birth records, or death and stillbirth certificates will be reasonably accurate. Such equivalence will not hold for spina bifida or any other major defect. Data on anencephalus may be inaccurate because of variations in terminology, particularly in earlier periods; examples of death certificates coded as Ȉmonstrosityȉ which in turn was usually counted as anencephalus, were given by Elwood J.M. and Elwood J. H. (1980, p. 77). However, data based on livebirths alone, excluding stillbirths, will be grossly inaccurate; in Canada it was shown that the proportion of cases of anencephalus classified as stillbirths has varied greatly over time, and so data on time trends based only on livebirths are misleading (Elwood J.M. and Elwood J. H. 1980, p. 76). Mortality data thus give a good measure of the frequency of anencephalus in births and stillbirths, but do not, of course, include earlier abortuses. Special recording systems are needed to include induced abortions, and the frequency in earlier pregnancy is discussed further in the section on fetal loss. In more recent years, the frequency of antenatal diagnosis and induced abortion has had a large effect on the frequency at birth.
Distribution by sex
Authors: Elwood Mark , Little Julian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In most communities, anencephalus and spina bifida are seen more frequently in females than in males. The possibility that this female excess is attributable to a phenotypic feature of the malformations themselves has been considered, but chromosomal studies have confirmed that phenotypically female anencephalics are genotypically female (Polani 1959; Polani and Claireaux 1957; Nakano 1973). Sex distribution may be presented as the sex ratio, namely the ratio of the numbers of male to female cases, or as the proportion of all cases which are male or female. A proportion is simpler to handle statistically than a ratio and so we have expressed sex distribution as the ‘male proportion’, or the male percentage.
Associations between neural tube defects and multiple pregnancy
Authors: Little Julian , Elwood Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Associations between twinning and neural tube defects may provide clues to the aetiology of these defects. Two general issues can be raised. If neural tube defects were of predominantly genetic aetiology, monozygotic (MZ) twins would be expected to be concordant for the defects more frequently than dizygotic (DZ) twins, because of their greater genetic similarity. If neural tube defects were caused by an abnormal intrauterine environment, it would be expected that if one member of a dizygotic (DZ) twin pair were affected, the other would be affected more often than a non-twin sibling because of the common environment.
Genetic models
Authors: Little Julian , Nevin Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Certain features of the epidemiology of neural tube defects are consistent with a genetic component in their aetiology. First, concordance rates for neural tube defects are significantly higher in twin pairs of like sex than in twin pairs of unlike sex (Chapter 11). Thus, it is likely that monozygotic twins are concordant for these defects more frequently than dizygotic twins, indicating a genetic component to the aetiology. However, possible associations between zygosity, sex type and intrauterine survival make this conclusion tentative. Second, the increased risk among siblings, the offspring of parents with spina bifida and among half siblings (Chapter 16), is also consistent with a genetic component. Although familial aggregation of disease could be due to shared environmental factors, Khoury et al. (1988) have shown that even with a complete correlation in exposure among siblings, environmental risk factors associated with relative risks of less than ten, as is the case for all risk factors for neural tube defects, lead to an increase of risk in siblings of the order of twice that in the general population. Under a purely environmental model, the 2-5 per cent observed sibling and recurrence risk for neural tube defects could only be explained by a teratogen which increased risk approximately one-hundredfold and which exhibited a considerable degree of familial aggregation. Such a teratogen has not been identified, so a genetic component in the aetiology of these defects may be inferred. We review studies of the possible modes of inheritance of neural tube defects.
Effects of cigarette smoking on ‘hormone-related’ diseases in a Southern California retirement community
Authors: Ross Ronald K , Bernstein Leslie , Paganini-Hill Annlia , Henderson Brian E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The associations of cigarette smoking with several sex-hormone related disorders were investigated in a cohort study conducted in a large retirement community near Los Angeles, California. Post-menopausal women who smoked cigarettes had a lowered risk of endometrial cancer, especially when smoking at the time of last menstrual period was considered. There was no relationship between smoking and breast cancer but smokers had an increased risk of hip fracture. In men the data suggested a weak link between smoking and prostatic hyperplasia requiring surgical treatment and cancer of the prostrate, although there was no consistent relationship with amount smoked or duration of smoking.
Smoking and Parkinson’s disease
Authors: Marmot Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parkinson ‘s disease is a degenerative disorder of the substantianigra characterized by a dramatic improvement after treatment with the dopamine precursor L-dopa. Cigarette smoking is inversely related to the risk of Parkinson ‘s disease, and this appears to be a genuine protective effect. If smoking is, in fact, protective of Parkinson ‘s disease then one would expect not only that patients with Parkinson ‘s disease would be less likely to be smokers but also that they would have a lower risk of smoking-related cancers, which indeed they do.
Increased oxidative metabolism of oestrogens in male and female smokers
Authors: Michnovicz Jon J , Fishman Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The metabolism of oestradiol in humans is principally oxidative, and involves two competing pathways, C-2 and C-16a hydroxylation. Oestradiol 2-hydroxylation generates peripherally inactive catechol oestrogens, and increased activity of this enzyme in smokers could contribute to a hypo-oestrogenic state. Using an in-vivo radiometric technique cigarette smoking in both men and women has been found to be associated with significant induction of 2-hydroxylation, and no change in l 6a-hydroxylation. Increased 2-hydroxylation measured radiometrically is accompanied by enhanced urinary excretion of 2-hydroxyoestrone, the end product of the enzyme reaction. The ratio of urinary 2-hydroxyoestrone to oestriol ([20HEY[E3]) is roughly proportional to the increase in 2-hydroxylation. Furthermore, elevated 2-hydroxylation increases gradually with greater levels of smoke exposure, as judged by serum cotinine levels, suggesting that even breathing other people ‘s smoke may be sufficient, in some individuals, to alter oestrogen metabolism. These studies shed light on the environmental factors capable of modulating hormone metabolism, and may help in developing strategies to reduce the risk/or oestrogen-dependent diseases in humans.
Analysing Health Systems
Authors: Ellencweig Avi Yacar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book explores the methods and approach necessary to investigate the setting up and running of a health system. It will enable the reader to begin to investigate his own health system, and compare and contrast it with other systems. The continual monitoring of change allows for the detection and identification of longitudinal trends within and across systems, and evolution in systems can then occur. Looking at systems can furnish alternative ideas, and help to establish new models of care. The book presents a modular approach to analysing health care systems, and the author explains how this can be put to practical use. Topics are discussed at both conceptual and operational levels, and methods of applying the approach are outlined. Case histories illustrate the use of the modular approach in `real life' situations. An appendix of terms and concepts is provided to facilitate use.
Assessment of needs—population needs and their measurement
Authors: Ellencweig Avi Y Acar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To analyse the process of health care requires that we consider the recipients of health care. The needs of these recipients are likely to be presented in the form of health needs. Their needs can then be translated into the demand for health services. Needs can be regarded as the ‘difference between observed and ideal levels of health’ (Kalimo 1979, p. 64). Need is thus an egalitarian concept because it reflects what is desirable, while demand for health care is a libertarian concept because ‘liberty is seldom equally divided’ (Boulding 1966).
Preventive behaviour: a closer look
Authors: Cohen David R , Henderson John B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Price, income, and advertising are all factors which are expected to alter the demand for any good be it preventive, hazardous, or neutral in terms of its effect on health. Thus there is no reason why the demand for screening cannot be analysed in the same framework as the demand for shoes, as was seen in the previous chapter. Estimates of the price, income, and advertising elasticities of demand for screening are valuable pieces of information.
Community-based health programmes in Indonesia: the challenge of supporting a national expansion
Authors: Berman Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is now well over a decade since Indonesia launched its first official, government-sponsored community health worker (CHW) scheme. Although Indonesia’s efforts violate most of the conventional wisdom on CHW programmes, they comprise one of the largest and longest running efforts in the world. In the last 12 years, hundreds of thousands, some estimate millions, of community health, nutrition, and family-planning workers have been trained. Most of these citizens work as volunteers, receiving no monetary compensation and often no compensation at all. They provide or participate in a fairly comprehensive package of basic services, yet they receive a bare minimum of training, preparation, and support for their tasks. In a public health system characterized by fairly low cost-efficiency, they are one of the most cost-efficient components. There are major doubts about their efficacy, but few observers feel they make no contribution to health improvement.
France
Authors: Lachaud Claire , Rochaix Lise 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The French health care system was established in 1945 with the clear objective of guaranteeing health for all. Equality of access was therefore a founding principle, but so was the rather more individualistic principle of autonomy of the consumer—freedom of choice. The result is a rather hybrid system which attempts to reconcile solidarity and liberalism through collective financing, coupled with the coexistence of a public and a private sector for the delivery of health care.
Ireland
Authors: Nolan Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents the results of an analysis of equity in the financing and delivery of health care in Ireland, applying the methodology developed in the course of the COMAC-HSR project. The data on which the paper is based come from two large-scale surveys: the Household Budget Survey, carried out by the Irish Central Statistics Office in 1987 (for the financing side), and the Survey of Income Distribution, Poverty and Usage of State Services carried out by The Economic and Social Research Institute in the same year (for the delivery side). The results from an equity perspective presented here can be placed in the context of the Irish health services utilization and financing patterns analysed in detail in Nolan (1991).
Surgical wounds
Authors: Leaper D J , Gottrup F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A wound may be defined as the loss of continuity of epithelium, with or without loss of underlying connective tis sue (including muscle, bone, and nerves for example), following injury. The injury may follow direct violence or be inflicted by a non-mechanical injury-which may also be re sponsible for delay in healing. Their may be extensive tissue damage (e.g., contusion or haematoma) with minimal tissue loss.
Authority, hierarchy, and work levels
Authors: Collins Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far the analysis has developed agendas for the effective formulation and implementation of decentralization and intersectoral coordination. Attention should now focus on a number of key organizational issues dealing with the internal authority and hierarchy within the ministry of health. All managers working in government health services have to work within hierarchies and forms of authority. The manner in which they are designed can have an important impact on the manager’s effectiveness. Our tasks in this chapter are to look at the following questions.
The Strategy of Preventive Medicine
Authors: Rose Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the central theme of Professor Rose's personal and unique book, in which he presents his ideas drawn from many year of work on preventive medicine strategies. Now in available in paperback, he explores the options for prevention, considering them from various view points - theoretical and scientific, sociological and poitical, practical and ethical. He contrasts the individual and population based strategies for prevention, and offers the concept of health as an issue for populations and not just for individuals. The applications of his ideas are illustrated by a variety of examples ranging from heart disease to alcoholism and roa accidents. Professor Rose, who has pioneered thinking on preventive medicine, hbas written an accessible book which will appeal to a wide range of readers, including clinicians, epidemiologists, public health workers, health service managers, and anyone who is concerned with the wider public issues of health.
What needs to be prevented?
Authors: Rose Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Those who seek to remedy the world’s ills like to see situations in clear and dichotomous terms: doctors categorize people as sick or healthy, social reformers and politicians focus their concerns on definable minorities and discrete problem areas, moralists identify choices as black or white, evangelists see a world made up of the converted and the heathen, and so on. Any alternative creates indecision and uncertainty. Concern for sick individuals has led to an attractively simple approach to preventive medicine. We wish to reduce the number of sick individuals, who form a clearly definable minority; by implication the majority of the population is normal and should therefore be left in peace. This approach rests on the traditional principle of medical diagnosis which assumes that, with respect to each disease, the world falls into just two classes, namely those who have it and those who do not. Thus if a patient comes to clinic complaining of pain in the belly, the doctor must consider a series of possible diagnoses (peptic ulcer, gastric cancer, gallstones, and so on), and for each there must be a simple judgment, ‘yes’ or ‘no’, implying that each condition is either present or absent. This is the diagnostic process.
The population strategy of prevention
Authors: Rose Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The high-risk preventive strategy (Chapter 4) is a targeted rescue operation for vulnerable individuals. If a problem is confined to an identifiable minority and if it can be successfully controlled in isolation, then this approach is adequate (although it will need to be maintained for as long as its causes persist), but it is an inadequate response to a common disease or a widespread cause. Mass diseases and mass exposures require mass remedies. A targeted approach may assist but it cannot be sufficient. The population strategy of prevention starts with the recognition that the occurrence of common diseases and expostures reflects the behavior and circumstances of society as a whole. This recognition rests on sociological, moral, and medical grounds.