bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pruning the search using ‘cut’
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cut (denoted in most Prolog dialects by either ! or/) is a control device which caters for dynamic curtailment (or pruning) of the search process. For ease of implementation, and to provide for simple user-control over its activation, a cut is both expressed in the program text and scheduled for execution just like any other call. Executing a cut prevents some part of the tree from being searched-we say that it prunes the tree. This is how it works. Suppose a call to A invokes a clause of the form
This program will always produce correct answers no matter how it is queried. For instance, Figure 38.1 shows the SLD-tree obtained by querying which of 3 and 2 is the least. The leftmost computation gives the unique and correct solution Z/2. The rightmost computation correctly fails but is redundant, since we know that if the query
Herbrand interpretations and models
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of Herbrand interpretations and models (abbreviated respectively to ‘H-interpretations’ and ‘H-models’) provides a foundation for defining and analysing the semantics of logic programs. In particular, it provides information about the satisfiability of any logic program in the domain over which it computes. Some analyses of the logic programming formalism must of necessity consider non-Herbrand interpretations, but these lie beyond our present scope. Thus the only domain we shall consider here is the Herbrand domain. The first important fact to note is that the satisfiability properties of the program in this domain are the same as the satisfiability properties of its ground instantiation.
Minimal models and logical consequence
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a simple but important connection between any definite program P, its minimal model MM(P) and each of its ground atomic logical consequences q, as follows:
Thus MM(P) is exactly the set of all ground atoms which are implied by P. We shall see later that this is just one of several ways of giving significance to a program’s minimal model. The proof of the above relationship makes use of the so-called model intersection property:
On the Construction of Unifying Terms Modulo a Set of Substitutions
Authors: Langet S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to provide a mathematical problem which is of interest for getting practicable methods in the field of inductive program synthesis. The problem we have in mind is obviously a dualism to the unification problem in some equational theory. We consider two terms t 1, t2 and two possibly different substitutions b 1, b2 for each of them. The problem is to find a unique term t for both terms such that t and t I as well as t and t2are unifiable with respect to the underlying equational theory by using b1 or b2as a unifier. The problem is trivially decidable in free-term algebra. It is undecidable in the general case. Moreover, even if the underlying equational theory is decidable, then the problem we have in mind may be undecidable, too. Finally, we derive sufficient pre conditions for proving its decidability.
Interactive Induction
Authors: † W Buntinet , Stirling D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A variety of artificial intelligence induction systems are being success fully used for knowledge acquisition. In some of these systems, knowl edge acquisition is not an automatic procesii hut rather an interactive process between expert/user and system, with induction serving as the focus. We refer to this generic approach as interactive induction. In this paper we examine some case studies, and discuss the approach and software facilities required to support it. Key features for success are the methods and man-machine environment employed to elicit prior, subjective information from an expert (in order to augment the knowl edge implicit in the training data), together with the expert’s acceptance and validation of the knowledge induced.
Design of Knowledge Processing Systems—Principles and Practice
Authors: Ohsuga S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this paper we discuss some ideas for making intelligent computer systems really useful and a system developed based on the idea. Key issues ill designing such a system are the knowledge representation language and system management. The issues relate closely to the manner of solving problems. The analysis of problem-solving processes by human beings suggests to us that a model-based method must he adopted as a new generic method of problem-solving by computers. The method involves operations to build and modify the model as well as capabilities for model analysis and evaluations. The knowledge representation language must he designed so as to be suitable for rep resenting both the model itself and the model building-analysis-manipu lation process. The system must also have the system management capability to define the best scope of knowledge relevant to solve each domain-specific problem and to maintain the system consistency. In this paper we discuss a general view for the design philosophy of such an intelligent system and an implementation.
Semantics
Authors: Hankin Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now make a brief excursion into the model theory of the A-calculus. We start by abstracting the common properties of models. A detailed study would quickly take us into the realms of domain theory and out of the scope of this book. However, to make the material more concrete, we do consider two model constructions. The first is the term models. We also introduce Bohm trees and show how a model can be constructed from them. The purpose of a model is to give a semantics for terms. The objective is to identify each term with an element of some mathematical structure, normally a set or a set with additional structure (e.g. a complete partial order); the underlying theory of the mathematical structure then becomes available as a basis for reasoning about the terms of our language and their inter-relationships.
Other Calculi
Authors: Hankin Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we present three other calculi which have been proposed in the last few years. Each addresses a different deficiency of the pure calculus that has been our main object of study. This chapter is slightly different in style compared to the earlier chapters; we cover a lot of material with few examples or exercises. We have chosen to emphasise the proof theory of the calculi - the interested reader is urged to consult the original source material for details of models and more motivational examples.
Learning Perceptually Chunked Macro Operators
Authors: Suwa M , Motoda H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous studies search control knowledge has been acquired using explanation-based learning (EBL) techniques. These learn goal-oriented control knowledge by explaining how a decision at a control decision node leads to the goal. In the domain of geometry problem-solving, however, this leads to knowledge which is neither sufficiently general nor sufficiently operational. This paper addresses an alternative form of search control knowledge in which the search is controlled at each decision node in such a way that a problem solver can locally recognize relevant ‘perceptual chunks’. Previously the effectiveness of perceptual chunks as control knowledge has been reported in a geometry domain. In this paper, we propose a new chunking technique, which acquires, as a chunk, an assembly of diagram elements that can be recognized and grouped together with the control decision node. In order to implement this chunking criterion a learner, Pclearn, employs recognition rules, domain specific knowledge describing necessary conditions for a domain object to be recognizable. Experiments in a geometry domain show that the set of learned knowledge exhibits higher operationality than EBL macro-operators. They also suggest that the Pclearn chunking technique can be a powerful method for obtaining a small and highly organized set of domain-specific perceptual chunks if augmented with a mechanism for dynamically managing the utility of each chunk.
Deriving Qualitative Control for Dynamic Systems
Authors: Bratko Ivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper investigates how qualitative reasoning can be applied to deriving control rules for dynamic systems. The balancing of pole and cart is used as an example problem. A qualitative control rule is derived from a qualitative model of the pole-andcart system. This rule is shown to be a qualitative abstraction of the ‘classical’ control rule derived from the differential equations model of this system.
Efficient algorithms for inductive learning – an application of multi-linear functions to inductive learning
Authors: Tsukimoto Hiroshi , Morita Chie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although many algorithms have been presented for empirical inductive learning, there are few algorithms whose sample complexity and computational complexity have been theoretically analysed. Moreover, although many algorithms have been presented in computational learning theory, few algorithms can be applied to empirical inductive learning problems. Our final target is to present efficient algorithms for attribute-based inductive learning, whose sample complexity and computational complexity lend themselves to theoretical analysis. This paper presents efficient algorithms for attribute-based inductive learning.
Adapting Good’s Q theory to the causation of individual events
Authors: Michie Donald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion of causality is embedded in scientific language. I. J. Good’s ‘Qsuf’ for sufficient causation and ‘Qnec’ for necessary causation satisfactorily formalize the general idea of causal tendency in an additive framework of Bayesian weights of evidence. But there remain difficulties in characterizing the causes of individual events. In this paper Good’s theory is combined with an explicit treatment of individual events as sets, and is specialized to the management by resource-bounded agents of causal belief, both about tendencies and about individual events. The approach is strictly statistical and treats cause as a degree of rational inferrability, without commitment to whether or not causality is a physical law, i.e. an objective property of external reality.
Tables, graphs and logic for induction
Authors: Yoshida Kenichi , Motoda Hiroshi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Inductive learning, which tries to find rules from data, has been an important area of investigation. One major research theme of this area is the data representation language that the learning methods can use. Conventional learning methods use attributevalue tables as the data representation language, whereas inductive logic programming (ILP) uses first-order logic. We propose colored directed graphs as a data representation language for inductive learning methods. Graph-based induction (GBI) uses this data representation language. The expressiveness of graphs is in between the attributevalue table and the first-order logic. Thus its learning potential is weaker than that of ILP, but stronger than that of conventional attribute-value learning methods. The real advantage of GBI appears in the domain where the dependency between data bears the essential information.
The British Tabulating Machine Company, 1907-1919
Authors: Martin Campbell-Kelly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The period from 1907 up to the end of the First World War saw BTM grow from a very small business, employing a handful of people importing a few machines from the United States, to a medium-sized business with some manufacturing facilities and employing in the region of a hundred people. Probably the best measure of BTM’s progress are its assets and number of personnel (Table 2.1). The assets represented both conventional fixed assets (buildings and machinery), and also a constantly increasing proportion of tabulating machinery on hire. BTM’s growth can be seen as taking place in three phases. First, the period 1907-1911 saw the company tackling the two main problems of entering the office-machinery market: the slow acceptance of office machines in Britain, and the need to raise capital for leasing. The second phase of company growth began with its securing a contract to supply tabulating machines for the British census of 1911. This contract transformed the business outlook of the company, and during the remaining years leading up to the First World War the customer base built up to about thirty installations.
Manufacturing at home, the 1920s
Authors: Martin Campbell-Kelly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both BTM and the Ace and Tab began the 1920s by starting up manufacturing operations in the UK: this was a crucial step in the process of becoming manufacturers, instead of mere importers, of office machines. The British punched-card machine manufacturers were representative of many companies which sprang into prominence during the rise of the office-appliance trades in the 1920s; this chapter examines BTM and the Ace and Tab in their national and international context in the officemachine industry.
Electronic machines, 1950-1954
Authors: Martin Campbell-Kelly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two themes dominate the history of the British punched-card machine industry during the early 1950s: independence from the American companies, and electronic developments.
The main consequences of independence were that the companies were exposed to competition from IBM, and that they were now entirely responsible for generating their own R&D. The companies had a breathing space of perhaps two or three years to come to terms with the new conditions, an adjustment which was made all the more painful by the fact that the post-war seller's market had come to an end. The early 1950s also saw the beginning of the transition from punched-card machines to electronic computers, a transition that was not completed until the middle of the 1960s. Although it was not fully realized at the time, R&D in electronics was the key to the future.
Computers and the merger, 1955-1958
Authors: Martin Campbell-Kelly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By about 1955 BTM and Powers-Samas began to feel for the first time the full force of the competition from IBM, and for both of them it, rather than the other British company, was now the most serious competitor. To become international business-machine companies capable of competing with IBM, the British punched-card machine companies had three strategic objectives: first, to expand in order to sustain their market share; second, to improve their traditional punched-card products; and third, to make an effective entry into the computer market.
The decline of the tabulator, 1959-1961
Authors: Martin Campbell-Kelly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a company, ICT existed for about eight years, before finally merging with English Electric Computers Limited to form ICL in 1968. Although ICT’s revenues grew at an overall rate of 15 per cent a year during this period (Table 9.1), this fell far short of the 30 per cent annual growth rate hoped for when ICT began operations. There was also considerable volatility from year to year, and profits generally failed to keep pace with revenue growth-both in absolute terms and as a return on funds employed. The company’s head count also tended to rise and fall with these financial vicissitudes.
Negotiations and mergers, 1961-1963
Authors: Martin Campbell-Kelly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During 1961-63, ICT was involved in an almost constant round of negotiations with virtually every major computer company in America and Britain, as well as Machines Bull in France. The threads of this tapestry of negotiation are very difficult to untangle. For example, ICT and Machines Bull were both independently talking to RCA and General Electric in the United States, at the same time as they were talking to each other; and simultaneously ICT, English Electric, and RCA were considering some tripartite agreement. There were thus at least six separate, but interlocking, sets of negotiations involving just these companies. The course of these negotiations becomes much clearer when viewed in the context of ICT’s objective in seeking liaisons with other companies. ICT’s objective was to strengthen its position in computers in two ways. First, it needed to close the technology gap between its own computers and those available in the United States-this implied a close relationship with an American company. Second, it needed to increase its electronic production facilities-this implied either merging with, or acquiring, another British computer company.
Convergence, the 1980s
Authors: Martin Campbell-Kelly 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1980, ICL and all the other mainframe manufacturers were faced with two major challenges, one short-term and one medium-term. The shortterm problem was to come to terms with the lower profit margins caused by the price-war between IBM and the Japanese plug-compatible mainframe manufacturers. The medium-term problem was to respond to the coming convergence of computers and communications: this convergence implied not merely developing networked computer systems, but also achieving strategic alliances or mergers with telecommunications firms. In the United States, following de-regulation of the telecommunications industry, new competitors such as AT&T had begun to offer computer and information services, and several computer companies had already made alliances with communications suppliers. Before ICL could respond to these larger issues, however, it had to deal with its short-term problems.
The nature of computer viruses
Authors: Louw Eric , Duffy Neil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some confusion about what qualifies as a computer virus is evident in much of the literature. Many writers use the term very loosely and fail to distinguish viruses from other types of malicious program. or even accidental software ‘bugs’. Although a great deal of what is said about viruses also holds true for other types of ‘electronic pest’; namely Trojan horses, bombs, and worms, the differences between them are important enough to demand that they be distinguished from one another. Other writers use two or three terms to describe what is essentially the same thing. We will try to clear up this confusion by defining carefully what we mean by the terms ‘computer virus’, ‘bomb’, ‘Trojan horse’, ‘worm’, and ‘bug’. The first generally accepted definition was provided by Cohen who defined a computer virus as a program able to ‘infect’ other programs by modifying them to include a possibly evolved version of itself. While this is an acceptable and concise definition of a virus. its implications may not be immediately apparent.
Protection against computer viruses
Authors: Louw Eric , Duffy Neil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All the evidence indicates that computer viruses can be designed to disrupt virtually any type of system, PC or mainframe. Campbell believes that: ‘Neither the technology nor the tools now available can ensure the integrity of any system’. One of the objectives of this book is to develop a framework for dealing with computer viruses in business organizations. To this end, this chapter commences with a short discussion of computer security, in which key concepts are introduced and a framework for IS security and control is presented. The framework for dealing with computer viruses will be based on the structure of this general security framework. We lay the foundation for the virus control framework with a discussion of computer viruses as a security issue. The remainder of the chapter discusses the individual elements of the IS security and control framework as they apply to computer viruses. A methodology, model, or checklist is distilled from each discussion.
The Logical Basis: Signed Analytic Tableaux
Authors: Hahnle Reiner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The formal proof system called semantic (or analytic) tableaux was introduced by E. W. Beth (1986) and K. J. J. Hintikka (1955) in the 1950s, its ancestors being Gentzen systems. R. Smullyan (1968) gave a particularly elegant version of tableaux which largely increased their popularity, and most tableaux systems used today are based on the formulation he set out. Semantic tableaux are popular as a pedagogical tool; however, recently, their importance in the field of automated theorem proving has also grown substantially.
Life history of the Appendicularia
Authors: Fenaux R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first serious attempt to study appendicularian development was that of Delsman (1911, 1912), which still remains the only description of cleavage and embryonic development. The chronology of development in cultured Oikopleura dioica was given by Galt (1972), Paffenhofer (1973) and Fenaux (1976). Fenaux and Gorsky (1983) decribed the development and growth of O.longi.cauda, the only hermaphroditic oikopleurid to be cultured so far; they found a similar general pattern with a few differences in detail. Most of the information given here concerns O.dioica. A comprehensive review of the reproductive biology of appendicularians can be found in Galt and Fenaux (1990b).
Islands, regions, ranges, and gradients
Authors: Dennis Roger L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Butterflies are conspicuous insects. Because of this and because there are fewer species of butterflies than in other groups of insects, they are usually eas¬ily recognized and their distributions for the most part well known. This book starts, then, by asking a basic but most important biogeographical question: why do different butterfly species occur where they do but not everywhere? The full answer is rarely simple. Essentially, distribution patterns depend on at least three factors: (i) the behavioural and ecologi¬cal requirements of the species, (ii) the geographical extent of the appropriate environmental conditions and resources, and (iii) the historical opportunity for organisms to colonize new areas. The degree to which butterflies are influenced by different factors depends greatly on the scale at which observations are made, though scale interdependence ensures that what happens at one scale cannot be entirely separated, in terms of cause and effect, from another. Local, regional, and continental patterns are linked in numerous ways. In this chapter, an array of problems concerning distributions is investigated at a wide range of scales, from the British islands as a whole to issues amid local settings.
Butterfly populations
Authors: Warren Martin S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In an ecological context, the word ‘population’ has a more precise meaning than it has acquired in common usage, and needs to be defined to avoid confusion. Throughout this book, the term ‘popula¬tion’ refers to a group of individuals of a particular species that are separated to some extent, either in space or in time, from other groups of the same species. Each group, or population, usually occupies a discrete site or region and is separated from other groups by an area which is generally uninhabited. Thus, a species of butterfly occurring on chalk downland may be separated into two distinct populations by an intervening belt of scrub, or by some other unsuitable type of vegetation.