bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
James Thomson Senior and Mathematics at the Belfast Academical Institution, 1814–1832
Authors: McCartney Mark 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
James Thomson Snr (1786–1849) is perhaps best known as the father of one of the most significant natural philosophers of the nineteen century; Lord Kelvin. Thomson was, however, an important mathematician and mathematical educator in his own right. In Belfast he taught both school and college level mathematics at the Belfast Academical Institution and wrote a number of successful textbooks on arithmetic, calculus, trigonometry, and geography. This chapter focuses on Thomson’s life and work in Belfast over the period 1814–1832, surveying the texts he wrote while there, and giving examples of the standard of mathematical teaching and examining in Belfast at the time.
Method
Authors: Huju Kira 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Chapter 1 is a theoretical and methodological reflection on how to think more imaginatively and inclusively about global order. It provides a critical reading of both liberal internationalist and postcolonial accounts of global order. It then proposes a set of alternative analytical tools, involving reflexive sociology, critical archival work, a subaltern anti-technocratic sensibility, and autoethnographic interview methods. Drawing on self-critical experiences of fieldwork, it introduces the sensibilities of reflexive sociological thinking and lays the methodological groundwork for a systematic treatment of caste in diplomatic studies and IR. In sociologizing the study of international society, this chapter rethinks questions of membership and belonging in it. It considers how we might think about the emergence and nature of the social order now under challenge and where the ‘cosmopolitan elite’ features in this order.
Pedagogy
Authors: Huju Kira 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 considers how Indian diplomats are made. It shows how the over seven decades of Indian diplomatic training constitute an ongoing attempt at reproducing, managing, and re-appropriating an ideal cosmopolitan officer—while also analysing the ongoing anxieties around Indian authenticity and subaltern representation. From an earlier postcolonial anxiety about making ‘real’ Indians out of suspiciously worldly elites, Indian diplomatic training now coalesces around the concern that future diplomats may be excessively ‘authentic’ and insufficiently comfortable in the wine-drinking club of elite diplomats. The chapter examines both the official project to instill a certain habitus in diplomatic probationers during mandatory institutional training and the lonely autodidactic attempts by self-professed outsiders—female and lower-caste recruits in particular—to mimic the dominant, supposedly more worldly officers of the Service outside official training hours.
The Digital Revolution
Authors: Balbi Gabriele 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This book is a short history of the ways in which the digital revolution has been narrated, of the rhetoric, the narratives, and the overt or implied debates that have accompanied it and continue to accompany it today. This volume aims to tell the story of an idea, defined as one of the most powerful ideologies of recent decades: that digitalization constitutes a revolution, a break with the past, a radical change for the human beings who are living through it. The book aims to investigate the origins of this idea, how it evolved, its quasi-religious dimension, which other past revolutions consciously or unconsciously inspired it, which great stories it has conveyed over time, which of its key elements have changed and which ones have persisted and have been repeated in different historical periods. All these discussions, large and small, have settled and been condensed into a series of media, advertising, corporate, political, and technical sources, and so in the book, readers can also find new, previously unpublished historical sources. The main aim of the book is to deconstruct what looks like a “natural” and incontestable idea and to help rethink digital societies today.
Tracing International Legal Change in Genocide Prevention
Authors: Putnam Tonya 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
In the more than seventy years since the International Convention on the Punishment and Prevention of the Crime of Genocide was adopted, nothing in the text has changed. Nevertheless, how states understand the prevention obligations encompassed by the Convention has changed quite dramatically. From initially reinforcing the principle of sovereign non-interference in the absence of external aggression, the Genocide Convention is now widely understood to provide a justification for intervention when foreign governments manifestly fail to protect populations inside their borders from genocide and mass atrocities. A minority of interpreters insist, in addition, that capable states have affirmative duties to take preventive actions in those situations short of the use of military force. This chapter traces these changes, drawing attention to the directed efforts of diverse agents on multiple pathways along with intersecting political and legal developments and agendas.
Resurgent Authoritarianism, Rights, and Legal Change
Authors: Sandholtz Wayne 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Authoritarian politics and practices are on the upsurge around the globe. This study analyses the paths and processes by which rising authoritarianism might reshape international human rights law. At the international level, authoritarians seek to inhibit international human rights institutions from within. Authoritarian regimes also curtail the domestic accountability mechanisms through which international human rights law can enhance respect for rights. They target three essential categories of rights in order to suppress opposition and retain power: (1) access to independent courts; (2) freedom of expression and the press; and (3) freedom of civil society to organize and participate in public life. However, international human rights norms possess sources of resilience to the extent that they become more fully embedded in a greater variety of domestic contexts.
The Future of the Oceans
Authors: Trevisanut Seline 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The law which regulates the use of the oceans is one of the oldest branches of international law. It is consequently deeply rooted in traditional understandings of foundational principles, such as sovereignty, territory, and subjectivity. The multiplication of activities and of sea users emphasizes the importance of the legal framework and its tenants by increasingly requiring the law of the sea to interact, in particular, with international environmental law and human rights law. The present chapter compares the law of sea/international environmental law interaction with the law of the sea/human rights law interaction to identify factors and pathways that facilitate or hinder the impact of environmental law and human rights on the law of the sea. The analysis aims to offer tools to better understand how international environmental law and human rights law are shaping the present and future of ocean governance.
Whose International Law is Changing?
Authors: Endres Dorothea 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The solidification of incremental legal change—ie change not primarily settled by treaty-making or jurisprudence—is a murky process in two ways. First, in the way in which legal change unfolds: a web of interacting participants and elusive institutional structures make it challenging to pin down one clear trajectory of legal change. Secondly—and this partly explains the first difficulty—the way legal change becomes visible for legal practitioners is murky: different communities will have diverging opinions on the degree of solidification of a legal change. In order to pin down the extent to which a legal change has been ‘successful’, it is crucial to look at the practices registering or sidelining legal change. We may find within one issue-area several communities composed of various actors linked together through common practices. Members of divergent communities of practice—whether within the same issue-area or not—will account differently for ‘successful’ legal change.
The Path not Taken
Authors: Venzke Ingo 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Legal change must be understood in relation to its context. But how? To approach that question, the present contribution builds on studies of law’s contingency—the possibility of alternative legal developments under unchanged circumstances. What was the path not taken? This question advocates for law’s utter contextualization while keeping a critical distance from contexts. It does not stop asking why something happened until it is adequately explained, nor does it deny alternative possibilities. The chapter first situates contingency in thinking about legal developments, placing special emphasis on the travails of Third World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL). Secondly, it expands on claims about law’s relative autonomy, and thirdly, on claims about what would make a difference, even in the long run. What has the potential to be path-breaking? The conclusions circle back to questions of what qualifies as context. Why politics?
The King’s Observator
Authors: Fisher John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Astronomers adopted Keplerian as opposed to Galilean optic systems for although they inverted images, they also increased the field of view. More importantly, they allowed the development of telescopic sights and micrometric devices in the common focus. The invention of the pendulum clock allowed the accurate location of celestial objects via right ascension as quadrants did for declination. Charles II appointed an almost unknown provincial John Flamsteed as the King’s Observator, much resented by Robert Hooke who had expected to be appointed. Flamsteed modelled himself on Tycho Brahe, as a hard working astronomer-mathematicus, whereas Hooke proposed new ideas and introduced untried technologies. Flamsteed’s lack of concern about the acquisition of patronage and his distancing from the Royal Society left him politically exposed during his conflict with Isaac Newton. Under Flamsteed’s incumbency, the Royal Observatory was generally neglected whereas the rival Paris Observatory was given every support required.
An Ingenious Young Man
Authors: Fisher John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Bradley was introduced to astronomy in 1711 in Wanstead, soon becoming Pound’s observational partner when they often worked for Newton and Halley. Bradley’s skills were soon noted by Halley; he was employed to observe Jupiter and its satellites in order to determine the longitude and discovered the gravitational resonances between the inner three satellites. His skills were recognized by Newton. In 1717 Bradley contracted smallpox and was isolated and nursed before he recovered. Bradley was ordained a deacon and then a priest in the Church of England in 1719. He was elected as the Savilian Professor of Astronomy in 1721 by a London-based Whig power base, much resented by many Oxford-based Tories, and relinquished all Church livings as required by the office.
The Triumph of Themistocles
Authors: Fisher John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Bradley first revealed his observations of the nutation of the Earth’s axis to Maupertuis in 1737, after observing it at Wanstead since 1727. He published his paper on the nutation in 1748 after he had observed the phenomenon through a complete retrogression of the nodes of the lunar orbit around the Earth. By eighteenth century standards the phenomenon, followed via the senses was infinitesimal, so much so that Edmond Halley, Bradley’s mentor, never accepted that such highly precise observations were possible. The Newtonian approach to making new knowledge claims based on observation and experiment was more successful than the Cartesian approach to knowledge claims based on first principles. It was the precision of George Graham’s instruments that made the discovery of nutation possible.
Framing the Anti-vax Protests
Authors: della Porta Donatella 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The chapter addresses collective framing by anti-vax organizations and activists. The analysis of the framing processes in the Italian anti-vax campaigns identifies the diagnostic frame in the expansion of the powers of a (hidden) elite through various global plots aimed at exercising total control over citizens. The prognostic solution is the defence of (assumed) previously existing liberties, primarily related with freedom, defined in a negative sense as the primacy of individual choice over the collective good. Oppositional frames targeted what was seen as a large global conspiracy, carried out by politicians, corporations, and Big Pharma, which aimed at establishing a sanitary dictatorship. The identity-framing involved a call for individual freedoms, which were considered as being jeopardized by an international elite of politicians, scientists, and journalists with the intention of imposing a global order, pointing to the resistance of a persecuted population of enlightened and critical individuals fighting against a powerful global elite, supported by loyal serfs (such as journalists and experts) and a mass of vaccinated ‘zombies’. As the comparison with the German and Greek cases confirms, different strands present at the beginning of the mobilization tend to be bridged through the spreading of conspiracy thinking.
Anti-vax Protests and Social Movement Studies
Authors: della Porta Donatella 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The concluding chapter first aims to summarize some of the main empirical results on the repertoires of action, organizational models, and collective frames in the anti-vax protests, initially in Italy and then from a comparative perspective with other case studies. Furthermore, it connects some main characteristics of regressive movements to general and country-specific opportunities and challenges for anti-vax protests as well as their expected societal impacts. In doing this, it locates the empirical results within general reflections on the effects of emergency critical junctures, such as the Covid-19 pandemic, on contentious politics with particular attention to the transformative role of protests, i.e. their capacity to trigger new forms of action, organizational models, and collective framing. The final section reflects on the sectarian evolution of anti-vax protests fuelled by vicious cycles as well as their potential consequences.
Seeking Isotopy
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The diagram algebras that we have developed are closely related to knot invariants. To make this connection we want the algebras to be “isotopy invariant”, menaing that the diagrams can be freely deformed as long as strands are not cut. To achieve this we change the diagram normalization to use so-called “Isotopy Normalization”, where a particle loop is weighted by the quantum dimension. This almost achieves isotopy invariance of certain diagrams, except for a possible sign known as the Frobenius-Schur indicator. We carefully discuss this sign, its origin, physical meaning, and how one nonetheless achieves isotopy invariant diagrams. Having handled this sign, we achieve what essentially amounts to a knot invariant — an isotopy invariant mapping from a labeled knot or link diagram to a complex number output. Even given this success it may still be the case that diagrams with branching may incur phases from deforming an up-branching to a down-branching. We briefly discuss other properties of unitary fusion categories including the spherical and pivotal properties.
Some Simple Examples
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
We explicitly work out the details of some simple examples anyon theories. We start with a fusion ring and using consistency conditions we build F-matrices, then the possible braidings (R-matrices). We consider Z2 fusion rules, Fibonacci fusion rules and Z3 fusion rules as simple cases. We consider Ising fusion rules, obtaining eight possible (modular) unitary braided theories. We then describe several more abelian theories, including the toric code, and general ZN anyons. These can be extended to describe all possible abelian braided theories in terms of a limited number of so-called “prime” theories.
Anyons From Discrete Group Elements
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Given a discrete group, we consider planar diagrams where each edge is labeled with an element of the group, and vertices must obey the rule that multiplication of the edges incident on the vertex (in order) must yield the identity. The possible F-matrices for such a diagram are discussed and are known as 3-cocycles from the formalism of group cohomology. We discuss a simple example of building anyons from the ZN group. Noncommutative groups can be considered although they cannot describe a braided theory.
Introducing Quantum Error Correction
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
We briefly introduce some basic ideas of information and quantum information. We start by comparing a classical memory with a quantum memory. Simple repetition codes can protect classical memories from error and we introduce the idea of a code space, physical bits, and logical bits. However, the quantum no-cloning theorem prevents a straightforward generalization to the quantum case. Nonetheless quantum error correction is indeed possible. We show the 9 qubit Shor code as an example.
Levin–Wen String-Net
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The Levin-Wen model is a general construction that uses an input planar diagram algebra to construct a Hamiltonian with a topologically ordered ground state (the Drinfeld double of the input category). The ground state (code) space consists of a sum over all diagrams weighted by the evaluation of the diagram. We work through the example of the doubled Fibonacci model. Here the input category is the Fibonacci fusion rules and F-matrices. We work with continuum diagrams and construct the full tube algebra of the model. We identify the quasiparticle types to include both left- and right-handed Fibonacci anyons. In the case that the input category admits a modular braiding, much of the analyis simplifies and the output is two copies of the input category of opposite chiralities (both left- and right-handed). We finally turn to the construction of the explicit Hamiltonian on the lattice, and construction of quasiparticle string (or ribbon) operators. We return to the reconsider the toric code and doubled semion models as simple examples.
Anyon-Permuting Symmetry
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
A theory with anyon permuting symmetry is unchanged under permutation of the names of the particle types. The toric code is an example of a theory with such a symmetry. The toric code, and all theories with such symmetries can be viewed as arising as a condensation of anyons from some more complicated parent theory. Given that such a symmetry exists, we consider defects of this symmetry which generalize the mathematical structure of the TQFT to a so-called G-crossed extension. To clarify how this works we use a particularly tranparent example of the toric code where the symmetry of particle types is reduced to a lattice symmetry, and the defects correspond to dislocations in the lattice. It can be shown that these defects harbor Majorana zero modes. We discuss the general structure of a parent theory condensing via a G-crossed theory to a theory with permutation symmetry. Finally we mention theories with both on-site symmetries and anyons, which are known as symmetry enriched topological phases.
Cameral Structures
Authors: Martin Shane , Strøm Kaare W. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
To help us understand better the challenges of legislative capacity and accountability within the three ideal-typical models of legislative assemblies developed in Chapter 1 (the members’ assembly, the leaders’ assembly, and the voters’ assembly), this chapter focuses on the number of assembly chambers in the legislative. A legislative assembly’s cameral structure describes the number of chambers in the legislature and, in the case of a legislature with two or more chambers, the similarities and differences between the chambers. This chapter explores the design of cameral structures from the perspectives of voters, members and leaders. Of the legislative assemblies included in our study, 33 have two chambers while 35 have just one chamber. Yet bicameral constitutions are not all the same, and rather than treating unicameralism and bicameralism as binary categories, it often makes more sense to think of different degrees of cameral differentiation. The chapter discusses variation in cameral structures with a focus on how members of second chambers are selected and what legislative powers they have. It thus becomes possible to speak of strong versus weak bicameralism according to the division of power between the chambers and their respective modes of selection.
Parties in the Assembly
Authors: Martin Shane , Strøm Kaare W. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
To help us understand better the challenges of legislative capacity and accountability within the three ideal-typical models of legislative assemblies developed in Chapter 1 (the members’ assembly, the leaders’ assembly, and the voters’ assembly), this chapter focuses on political parties within the legislative arena. Specifically, this chapter explores how legislative parties organize and how party leaders shape and perhaps even control what members do. Indeed, the role and functioning of political parties, and the hierarchies they create, are central to our notion of a leaders’ assembly. Parties do many things, but most importantly they provide a critical hierarchical structure in legislative assemblies. And parliamentary party organizations are most important vehicle by which leaders and members interact. A core theme in this chapter is the degree to which parties, and in particular party leaders, control members and thus encroach on the relationship between voters and members. The level of control plays a central role in determining the type into which the legislature falls: a voters’, members’ or leaders’ assembly. We can usefully think of most democratically elected legislators as having two principals: their respective voters and their party leaders. Legislators may need to balance their responsiveness to voters with following the call of their respective parties. In many situations, serving their party may come at a cost to their constituents, and vice versa.
Lawmaking
Authors: Martin Shane , Strøm Kaare W. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
To help us understand better the challenges of legislative capacity and accountability within the three ideal-typical models of legislative assemblies developed in Chapter 1 (the members’ assembly, the leaders’ assembly, and the voters’ assembly), this chapter focuses on lawmaking and in particular on where power resides in this process. By definition, a legislative assembly is one that makes laws, and by almost universal accord, lawmaking is a central function of any legislative assembly. Our chapter explores variation in the authority and capacity of legislative assemblies to make laws. This legislative capacity of legislative assemblies may vary along several dimensions. One has to do with the laws and regulations that empower particular office-holders or institutions to introduce legislative bills (proposed pieces of legislation). In that context, we also consider rules that allow leaders to preclude potential bills from consideration, also known as gate-keeping power. Such rules are particularly relevant to the power of legislative leaders, or individual members, to control their respective assemblies. Given our interest in legislative assemblies as vehicles of citizen representation, we also examine different ways in which ordinary citizens can put their own proposals on the assembly’s agenda. It may even be the case that laws (e.g., decrees) can be made without the prior consent and deliberation of the legislative assembly.