bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction to lndo-European Linguistics
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Professor Oswald Szemerényi’s Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft, first published in 1970, remains the standard introduction to comparative Indo-European linguistics. It is available here in English for the first time, in a revised, enlarged, and updated fifth edition. The introductory section presents a general survey of the principles of diachronic-comparative linguistics, and the remainder of the book is a thorough and detailed analysis, according to those principles, of the phonological and morphological structure of the Indo-European group of languages. Each section of the book has a detailed bibliography, so that the student can progress from the general overview to a more detailed examination of particular topics.
Introduction
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone who in addition to his own language is familiar with a foreign language will, in suitable cases, perceive not only unsurprising dis similarities but also remarkable similarities between them. An English speaker studying German needs no instruction to observe that German Vater, Mutter, Hand, Eis sound very much like father, mother, hand, ice in his own language.
Linguistic Change in French
Authors: Posner Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is French and how has it changed over time? Can we distinguish language history from historical linguistics, and language change from linguistic change? These questions are explored using copious material from the history of the French language, concentrating on changes in the relatively modern period in particular. Posner explains how change comes about and how changes at different levels of language interact, and the role of sociological and ideological factors is set against the internal mechanisms that trigger change. This work makes a substantial contribution to the theory of linguistic change, as well as to discussion of the relationship between language and history in French-speaking areas, including Canada and French Creole-speaking countries.
The Market of Languages
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Another aspect on which we want to focus is the fact that markers of identities and boundaries produced and conveyed by socio-cultural groupings may become symbolic resources and give shape to a societal market of languages. In this way, languages achieve values that reflect their attraction to individuals and social categories. Which, in turn, influences the relation of the original carriers to those resources which symbolize their identities. These conjunctural or ‘surface’ circumstances pertain to the third dimension outlined by our schema.
English in Society
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The coexistence of languages or of variants is embedded in socio-cultural pluralism (Fishman, Cooper, and Ma 1971). Languages and variants make cultural accumulation possible and may uphold social cohesion (Stevens and Swicegood 1987). Languages or variants that are not the legitimate language may represent markers that protect a community’s socio-cultural personality (Labov 1976: 116-42). The social importance of such languages may fluctuate according to the location of their relevant community and the wealth, power, and prestige of its members in society.
The Social Transformation of French
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the largest Diaspora languages, French is still used in Israel by about 250,000 individuals—6 per cent of the Israeli Jews—either as their second or even first language (see CBS 1983). Katz and Gurevitch’s survey (1976) has shown that not less than 10 per cent of the Jewish population listen regularly to French radio broadcasts; about 4-5 per cent read a French weekly—l’Express or another—every week, and for 5 per cent, the last book they have read is in French.
Modularity and Modality in Phonology
Authors: Der Hulst Harry Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I claim that the innate abilities that underlie phonology are neither modular nor modality specific. The phonology of a language emerges from the interplay between innate (linguistic and perhaps even more general cognitive) principles and formats and the phonetic domain of the language modality. I will propose an account of the formation of phonological primes, phonological structure, and phonetic implementation for both spoken and signed language that is based on such principles and formats. I then discuss differences (involving the notions segment and syllable) between the two kinds of phonology, which I explain as modality effects.
Phonetics and the Origins of Phonology
Authors: Vihman Marilyn , Velleman Shelley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The chief difficulty for a constructivist account of language development is explaining the origin of specifically linguistic structure—meaning phonology and syntax, the domains of formal linguistic theory and description. The position taken in this chapter will be that the phonetic grounding of phonology, like the semantic grounding of syntax, provides an entry point into linguistic structure. Our main goal here will be to establish that an incipient phonological system can be identified within the single word period, and that it can be seen to emerge out of phonetic structure. At the same time, we will locate the origins of phonology not only in an automatic, passive process of ‘self-organization’ (Lindblom 1992) but also in the individual child’s implicit work of systematization. We ultimately trace the individual differences in both phonetic patterning and the first phonological organization to the children’s personal filtering of the adult input in relation to their own vocal production. And we affirm that emergent phonological structure serves a critical function for the child, helping to support representational memory for a growing lexical repertoire and limiting the learning space—in different ways for different children, but always leading to the same multifaceted adult system.
Questions and Answers in Embedded Contexts
Authors: Lahiri Utpal 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Linguists (and others) have realised for some time that predicates of the 'know' and 'wonder' classes behave differently, in semantic terms, with respect to their interrogative complements, but have not so far fully understood how or why. This book seeks to explore and to provide solutions to this and to related problems in explaining the meaning and grammar of embedded interrogatives and the predicates that take interrogative complements. The investigation extends to the semantics of adverbs of quantification, theories of plurals, and lexical selection. The work is addressed to those working in semantics and to syntacticians concerned with the constraints that syntactic structure imposes on semantic interpretation. It is at the heart of current research in the syntax-semantics interface. Although some knowledge of formal semantics is assumed, the book has been written to be accessible to researchers in computer science, philosophy, and cognitive science.
Expression
Authors: Schulte Joachim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Expression’ is a central concept of the language of psychology as well as of some of its theories. In Wittgenstein’s considerations it plays a decisive role, in particular in such phrases as ‘immediate’ or ‘primary expression’.1 There is, however, yet another context where Wittgenstein deals with the concept ‘expression’, namely the context of aesthetic appraisal, criticism, or description. The connection between this use and the employment of phrases like ‘expression of a sensation’, ‘expression of an experience’, or ‘expression of pain’ is not obvious but it will gradually become apparent.
Valuing: Desiring or Believing?
Authors: Smith Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In general, we can explain intentional action from two quite different perspectives: the intentional and the deliberative. Though at first sight the difference between these two perspectives is both intuitive and clear, on reflection the fact that intentional action can be explained from these two perspectives provides us with a puzzle. Let me begin by explaining the two perspectives. From the intentional perspective, we explain an intentional action by fitting it into a pattern of teleological, and perhaps causal, explanation: in other words, we explain by citing the complex of psychological states that produced the action. Consider my typing these words. We explain this action from the intentional perspective when we cite my desire to produce a paper and my belief that I can do so by typing these words, for this is the desire-belief pair that teleologically, and perhaps causally, explains my typing these words.
Hume’S ‘of Miracles’: Probability and Irreligion
Authors: Wootton David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
David Hume wrote a philosophical essay on the subject of miracles at some time during the years 1735 to 1737 while he was living at La Fleche, where he made use of the Jesuits’ library. It was intended for inclusion in A treatise of human nature’ but the final work appeared “castrated” of this “nobler part”. A discussion entitled ‘Of miracles’, possibly but not necessarily the one written at La Fleche, appeared however in 1748 with the publication of Philosophical essays concerning human understanding-- the first Enquiry. ‘Of miracles’ provoked a debate which continues to this day; but scholars have been slow to explore a number of fundamental historical questions, which need to be studied if we are to understand both how Hume came to write this essay and—a matter of more directly philosophical interest—the significance of the argument in his own eyes.
Confidence and Irony
Authors: Fricker Miranda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sceptical reflection about value tends to open up a disconcerting gulf between how ethical thought is, and how it seems to be. It is a good question exactly what it would take for ethical thought to be everything it seems. The answer will depend on how ethical thought in fact seems to some relevant ‘us’. It is often assumed that the nature of our ethical experience is determinate enough and fixed enough for there to be a number of general claims we can make about it once and for all. But the assumption is questionable. An important reason to question it is that our ethical experience may vary with the historical and cultural location of the ethical community-the ‘us’ to whom morality is seeming one way or another.
Inference from Signs
Authors: Allen James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
James Allen presents an original and penetrating investigation of the notion of inference from signs, which played a central role in ancient philosophical and scientific method. Inference from Signs examines an important chapter in ancient epistemology: the debates about the nature of evidence and of the inferences based on it--or signs and sign-inferences as they were called in antiquity. Special attention is paid to three main issues. Firstly, the relation between sign-inference and explanation. At a minimum, sign-inferences permit us to draw a new conclusion, and they are used in this way in every sphere of life. But inferences must do more than this if they are to play the parts assigned to them by natural philosophers and medical theorists, who appeal to signs to support the theories they put forward to explain the phenomena in their domains. Allen examines the efforts made by Aristotle, the Stoics, the Epicureans, and in medicine to discover what further conditions must be satisfied by inferences if they are to advance explanatory purposes. To speak of inference from signs presupposes that the use of signs is a form of reasoning from grounds to a conclusion. However, an alternative nonrational conception is explored, according to which the use of signs depends instead on acquired dispositions to be reminded by one thing of another. This view is traced to its probable origin in the Empirical school of medicine, whence it was taken by Pyrrhonian sceptics, who introduced it into philosophy. Evidence sometimes supports conclusive arguments, but at other times it only makes a conclusion probable. Allen investigates Aristotle's path-breaking attempt to erect standards by which to evaluate non-conclusive but--in Aristotelian terms--reputable inferences. Inference from Signs fills an important gap in the histories of science and philosophy and provides the first comprehensive treatment of this topic.
The Phraseology of Learners’ Academic Writing
Authors: Howarth Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes research into the phraseological performance of non-native writers of English and, in particular, presents some of the findings of a large-scale study of collocations in academic writing (Howarth 1996). The specific university setting in which the study has been conducted has had a considerable influence on the aims of the research and the approach adopted. The focus of attention is the written production of foreign students, from a variety of language backgrounds, studying at postgraduate level at British universities. My particular interest in these students is twofold. First, I am involved in teaching on postgraduate courses in applied linguistics, evaluating native and non-native students’ written performance from an academic point of view, and, secondly, as a teacher of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) I am involved in the teaching of academic writing to non-native students from a wide range of subject areas.
The Historical Origins of the General-Purpose Dictionary
Authors: Béjoint Henri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dictionaries are probably much older than is generally said. Sumerian lists dating back to the third millennium BC have been found that can be considered as the ancestors of our dictionaries (Boisson et al. 1991: 263). There may even have been ‘oral’ dictionaries, before the development of writing systems: at least one contemporary society that does not have a writing system has been shown to have, among its oral records used in the traditional village recitations, lists of words, either bilingual or monolingual, sometimes with sorts of definitions, half poetry and half lexicography (Boisson et al. 1991: 292). Many other societies could have had similar traditions. Of course, all societies with writing systems have produced dictionaries, of various kinds and for various reasons.
What are General-Purpose Dictionaries Really For?
Authors: Béjoint Henri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lexicographers in many countries have recently felt the need to go beyond empirical observations on the use of the general-purpose dictionary, seeking to find out what the users really do, as opposed to what they are believed to do, in order to make sure that the dictionary really corresponds to the needs of the public. Some thought right from the start that this was a wild-goose chase: ‘What do the prospective users want (a fine exercise in ESP, wishful thinking, and ethnocentric projection)?’ (Forgue 1981: 93). The study of user needs is indeed a strange idea if it is considered in the context of the lexicographical tradition. Old-time lexicographers did not ask who the users were and what they wanted: they knew what was good for their public, and any potential discrepancy between the dictionary and what the public wanted was irrelevant, since the public simply had to adapt to the dictionary as it was. The trend has now been reversed, with lexicographers trying to find out who their users are and what they need.
Whither Lexicography?
Authors: Béjoint Henri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHERE does lexicography go now? This is difficult to say. The answer is to be found partly in an examination of the innovative dictionaries that have been published recently—particularly (though not exclusively) those that have been or are now commercially successful (see above, 2. 5), since the commercial success of a dictionary is the unmistakable sign that there is a need for it, and the evolution of lexicography is necessarily linked with this need. Other possible answers lie in the more theoretical writings of linguists on lexicography, in a domain that extends half-way between inapplicable theory and unfounded practice. The final pages of this book will be devoted to a survey of some of the most interesting research in theoretical linguistics from the point of view of the potential improvement of dictionaries.
Synchrony and Diachrony of Sinitic Languages: A Brief History of Chinese Dialects
Authors: Chappell Hilary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even though Sinitic languages are spoken by more than one billion people, very little research has been carried out on the synchronic grammar of major languages and dialect groups of Chinese, apart from standard Mandarin or putonghuali, and Cantonese to a lesser extent. The same situation applies to the diachrony of Sinitic languages with respect to the exact relationship between Archaic and Medieval Chinese and contemporary dialects.
Aspects of Contemporary Cantonese Grammar: The Structure and Stratification of Relative Clauses
Authors: Matthews Stephen , Yip Virginia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term Cantonese conventionally designates the urban Yue varieties spoken in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and Macau. Our data come from Cantonese as spoken in Hong Kong, which differs in some respects from that of Guangzhou, and more extensively from other Yue dialects of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, with which it may even be mutually unintelligible. In particular, the influence of spoken Mandarin, still moderate in Hong Kong, is stronger in the mainland: the first tone, for example, is generally pronounced with a high level contour in Hong Kong but high falling in Guangzhou.
Pharmacology of chemokines
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chemokines are a group of small cytokines whose eponimous function is to attract leukocytes. A brief overview of some of their general features is given in Chapter 1 and the reader is referred to recent reviews (Rollins, 1997; Baggiolini, 1998; Mantovani et al., 1998; Mantovani, 1999) for a more detailed analysis of the molecular and biological properties of this class of cytokines.
Nervous system
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The production of cytokines and the presence of cytokine receptors in the brain is well documented and is summarized in Table 8.1. Among the central effects of cytokines, fever was probably the first activity demonstrated to be mediated by IL-1. Since then, when purified recombinant cytokines became available, new physiological actions of cytokines on the brain were described.
Cardiovascular system
Authors: Mantovani A , Dinarello C A , Ghezzi P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Blood vessels have long been considered blood containers, whose main property was to contract and to regulate pressure. This ‘passive’ view particularly emphasized the negative properties of vessels and of endothelial cells (EC), the most important being that they are a non-thrombogenic substrate for blood. As such, vascular cells were considered to participate in tissue reactions mainly as targets for injurious agents. The possibility of isolating and culturing vascular cells, particularly EC, from various tissues opened the way to studying their complex reactions to a variety of activating stimuli. Vascular cells have thus emerged as active participants in many physiological and pathological processes.
The Grebes Podicipedidae
Authors: Fjeldså Jon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Those who are unfamiliar with grebes tend to think of them as odd ducks, but their strange behaviours reveal them to be fascinating and intriguing birds. Grebes are unusual and unique in many ways: their habit of feather-eating; their method of sunbathing; their special method of underwater propulsion; the unusual structure of their feet; their courtship behaviour; and their floating nests. As the birds are dependent upon shallow wetlands, they are strongly affected and threatened by our use of their habitats, leading to dwindling populations and even extinction of some species. In this new addition to the Bird Families of the World series Jon Fjeldså, a renowned expert on the grebes, provides an overview of the results of all the research that has been done on grebes. Part I contains a brief presentation of the grebe family, constraints of diving, the relationships between grebes and divers, and the morphology of grebes. Part II covers their biogeography, ecological distribution, feeding ecology, behaviour and communication, breeding biology, environmental threats, and conservation. Part III follows with 22 species accounts, including distribution maps. The plates section contains sixteen stunning paintings showing all the grebe species, by Jon Fjeldså. The Grebes, like its companion volumes in the series, will be an indispensable work of reference for ornithologists, whether professional or amateur.
Organozinc chemistry: an overview and general experimental guidelines
Authors: Knochel Paul , Jones Philip , Langer Falk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Zinc is found in a relatively low abundance in nature, but has been known for a long time due to the ease with which it is isolated from its ores. Despite the low occurrence, the ease of isolation results in today, zinc metal and zinc salts being available at low cost from the usual chemical suppliers.
Zinc is a relatively non-toxic metal and is an essential element for humans and all forms of plant and animal life, and a large number of diseases and congenital disorders have been traced to zinc deficiency. Among the metalloproteins and metalloenzymes,1 zinc species constitute the largest category and their biological functions are diverse and important, including carboxypeptidases, carbonic anhydrase, and metallothioneins. Small amounts of zinc salts are also essential for the growth of animals and plants.
Scleractinia: The Reef-Builders
Authors: Tomascik Tomas , Mah Anmarie Janice , Nontji Anugerah , Moosa Mohammad Kasim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To gain an appreciation of the diverse nature of coral reef systems in the vast Indonesian Archipelago, some understanding of basic coral taxonomy and biology’ is helpful. This is especially true for systems where one particular assemblage of organisms can be considered as the “ecological dominants.” Reef-building corals (Scleractinia) arc such a group, since: “They built the habitat and are the environment for the other reef species” (Bak 1983). Assessing environmental impacts and/or developing management and conservation plans for coral reef ecosystems without the basic knowledge of their ecology- and biology is a significant constraint in Indonesia, even though the rapid degradation of these resources has received a lot of publicity.
Morphology
Authors: Payne Robert B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cuckoos have a zygodactyl foot with two toes of each foot (numbers 1—the inner toe or hallux of most birds—and 4, the outermost toe) directed backward, and the other two toes (numbers 2 and 3) directed forward. Most cuckoos have a long tail. Cuckoos have 10 primaries and 10 rectrices (eight in the anis); the plumage has no aftershaft; the oil gland is naked, and in most species the nestlings have no downy feathers (Nitzsch 1867). Several other morphological features occur in cuckoos that are generally not present in other birds, and a few of these features occur only in the cuckoos. The most distinctive charactereristics are in the skeleton in details of the tarsometatarsal bone (two enclosed canals side by side in the hypotarsus, and a charac teristic shape of the accessory process or sehnenhalter on trochlea IV of the distal tarsometatarsus), and in the shape of the humerus and its deltoid crest.