bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Pain Anticipation in the Cingulate Gyrus
Authors: Porro Carlo Adolfo , Lui Fausta 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our ability to anticipate the consequences of motor events, environmental stimuli, or decision processes is a fundamental aspect of consciousness and it offers unique adaptive advantages (Ingvar, 1985). Previous acquired knowledge, in combination with currently available information, provides the basis for understanding as to how we generate anticipatory responses. Anticipation is a highly complex condition where different factors such as attention, preparation and motivation, fear, or anxiety can come into play. Such mechanisms allow anticipatory adaptation and coping with neutral and emotional stimuli, thus influencing subsequent behavior (Lazarus, 1991; Posada et al., 2001). A description of current theories on anticipation is beyond the scope of this Chapter (for review, see Kirsch, 1999).Given its unique role at the interface of cognitive, affective, and motor functions as discussed in Chapters 5 and 8–13, the cingulate cortex is a likely substrate for anticipatory mechanisms. Indeed, physiological and functional imaging studies have disclosed the role of cingulate regions in different experimental models of anticipation. For instance, electrophysiological studies performed in non-human primates have shown anticipatory activity of anterior cingulate neurons during expectation of the visual cue triggering task onset, or during the delay period in delayed response tasks (Niki and Watanabe, 1976, 1979); anticipatory activity of different neurons could be related to orienting attention before stimulus onset, to a preparatory set for emitting appropriate behavioral responses, or to time estimation processes.
Hypnosis And Cingulate-Mediated Mechanisms Of Analgesia
Authors: Faymonville Marie-Elisabeth , Vogt Brent A , Maquet Pierre , Laureys Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the history of hypnosis, speculation about the basic nature and underlying causes of these phenomena has been full of controversies, conflicts and passion. Theories of hypnosis are generally divided into psychological and physiological theories. The psychological theories of hypnosis emphasize role definition, expectation, and subject motivation, while physiological theories emphasize the neural bases of hypnosis. Currently, there is an agreement that, in addition to the changes in external behavior, suggestions presented in a hypnotic context may give rise to changes in subjective experience. The disagreement has focused on the question whether reference to a specific internal state of the individual called the hypnotic state is necessary to describe or explain the objective and subjective changes associated with hypnosis. While some researchers postulated an altered state of consciousness, others caution that the evidence only supports a state of high suggestibility. Subjects in hypnosis reported vivid images, hallucinations in all sense modalities, amnesia, timelessness, detachment from the self and willingness to accept distortions of logic and reality. They experience a lack of initiative or willful movement. Hypnosis investigators have long sought specific physiological indicators of this state. Some of the first physiological responses to be studied were autonomic in nature such as heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin responses (Jana, 1967; Tebecis & Provins, 1976; Ray et al., 2000). Much of the early research in this area was fuelled by investigators seeking to confirm that the identification of a specific physiologic indicator of hypnosis would lend support to the view that hypnosis is a state of consciousness distinct from other states, such as normal wakefulness or sleep and cortical electroencephalographic activity during hypnosis was thought to be unlike cortical activity during sleep (Gorton, 1949).
Altered Processing of Valence and Significance-Coded Information in the Psychopathic Cingulate Gyrus
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Lane Richard D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The official diagnostic classification system for mental disorders in the United States, DSM-IV, recognizes anti-social personality as a distinct entity. In contrast, psychopathy is not recognized as a distinct disorder. Both disorders involve behavioral impulsivity and actions that violate social norms and what distinguishes psychopathy from anti-social personality disorder is that the former includes a deficit in emotional responses to others and the latter does not. This deficit, like other behavioral disturbances involving emotion in psychiatric disorders (e.g., blunted affect in schizophrenia), is difficult for clinicians to rate reliably, which may account for its lack of inclusion in DSM-IV. However, recent empirical findings have advanced our understanding of the brain and behavioral basis of psychopathy and the associated emotional deficits and these abnormalities include alterations in the functioning of subregions of the cingulate gyrus as well as other areas. As such, these new findings advance our understanding of how the brain mediates emotional responses and how disruption of these functions may result in clinical conditions such as psychopathy. A deeper understanding of the brain basis of disorders of emotion regulation may ultimately contribute to the inclusion of their behavioral manifestations in the definition of these disorders.
The Contribution of Anterior Cingulate-Basal Ganglia Circuitry to Complex Behavior and Psychiatric Disorders
Authors: Middleton Frank A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rostral cingulate cortex consists of at least three major functional domains, which subserve distinct but complementary roles in guiding behavior. Two of these domains exist as separate anatomical regions—the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which is specialized for the processing of limbic, autonomic, and reward-related information, and the midcingulate cortex (MCC), which receives nociceptive inputs and engages in the regulation of movement via the cingulate motor areas (CMAs). The third cingulate domain is not anatomically distinct, but exists as a higher-order domain that integrates signals from prefrontal areas concerned with working memory and the signals to motor and premotor areas involved in motor outputs, and thus can be said to be involved in the selectiveguidance of behavior to achieve intended outcomes. In this sense, the third domain encompasses the most complex forms of behavior represented in cingulate cortex.At the cortical level, the involvement of the rostral cingulate cortex in both simple and complex behavior has been demonstrated in various functional imaging paradigms and even with intracortical stimulation and single unit recording. It is important to recognize, however, that such activations are dependant to a large extent on the anatomical connections that exist between the cingulate cortex and other cortical and subcortical regions.
Cingulate Cortex Seizures
Authors: Nadkarni Siddhartha , Devinsky Orrin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Epileptic seizures provide a complex contrast to lesions. Destructive lesions typically cause functional deficits. However, the activities of preserved cortical and subcortical areas, released from the influences of the destroyed or impaired tissue, can paradoxically cause focal hyperactivities. Seizures result from excessive synchronous neural discharges that can cause positive (hyperactive such as jerking) or negative (functional impairment such as weakness) changes. Lesions and seizures both provide valuable, but often not straight-forward, insights into brain function. While the correlation between disease and abnormal function is often easily made, the extrapolation from disease to normal function is much more tenuous. Hughling Jackson’s localization of focal motor seizures to primary motor cortex was a remarkable leap for neurology, but his localization of déjà vu, olfactory hallucinations, and dreamy states to the mesial temporal lobe was a larger jump (Jackson, 1931). He recognized in the dreamy states the dual nature of a seizure’s effects on mind. ‘There is not always loss, but there is, I believe, always, at least defect, of consciousness co-existing with over-consciousness (“dreamy state”)’. Just as motor seizures can be excitatory and cause clonic or tonic activity, seizures arising from limbic and associational cortices can cause positive or negative symptoms. When a seizure evokes fear, the paroxysmal occurrence of the emotion without an environmental context is readily identified by the patient.
Human Biology In A Small Cosmos
Authors: Alpers Michael P , Attenborough Robert D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The large island variously known to the outside world (the insiders had no name for it) as New Guinea (its coast and people apparently like those of Guinea in Africa) or Papua (the land of the fuzzy-haired people) has held a fascination for Europeans for over three hundred years. In the past hundred years or more-see, for example, reference to the Papuan Mission in Trollope (1861)-there has been continuous and slowly progressive contact between the outside world and the people of the large island as well as the inhabitants of the many other smaller islands of Melanesia; the people of the smaller islands include the Solomon Islanders, whose black skin gave the name to the region and the Melanesian people who inhabit it.
Pigbel
Authors: Lawrence Gregor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Papua New Guinea (PNG) pigbel, or enteritis necroticans, is a fascinating disease of the highland areas of the country where it has been a major cause of death and morbidity in children after the first year of life (see Lawrence et al. 1979a; Davis 1984). The distribution of pigbel is more or less restricted to the highlands and in a worldwide sense it is only an endemic public health problem of enormous importance in PNG. Pigbel epidemiology shares some of the strangeness of the epidemiology of kuru (discussed by Alpers, Chapter 16). As in kuru, the pathogenesis is directly related to the social and behavioural characteristics of the people involved and to the biology of the causative organism, which in the case of pigbel is Clostridium perfringens (previously known as C. welchii) type C (CPC).
Social Change And The Emergence Of Degenerative Cardiovascular Disease In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Sinnett Peter F , Kevau Isi H , Tyson Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The population of Papua New Guinea consists of peoples of diverse ethnic origins (Kirk, Chapter 8; Serjeantson et al., Chapter 9). The ethnic diversity of the population is matched by the environmental diversity of the land in which they live. Indeed the population of Papua New Guinea has adapted to this uniquely wide range of physical environments, which are described briefly by Allen (Chapter 2). Nevertheless, as Sinnett and Whyte (1981) have pointed out, the ethnic, environmental, and, indeed, cultural diversity found among traditional Papua New Guinea communities was matched by a significant homogeneity in their social and economic organization. While regional differences in the prevalence of infectious disease and malnutrition were largely explainable on the basis of genetic and environmental diversity, it was the overriding influence of their social and economic organization that restricted the range of disease to a pattern dominated by infectious conditions and nutritional deficiency and precluded the development of chronic degenerative diseases which are a feature of technically developed and urbanized communities.
Transition Fronts
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The various shock-wave phenomena described in the previous section involve considerable spatial and time-dependent changes in velocity, density, pressure, and temperature in the continuum in which they take place and, therefore, they may be studied by the methods of nonstationary gas dynamics. The propagation of plane waves, and of cylindrical waves, or spherical waves in a duct with variable cross section is a special case of wave propagation. The analysis may be greatly simplified by the assumption of one-dimensional flow, whereby the flow properties are assumed to be uniform over any cross section and to vary only with the distance along the duct axis and also with time. However, in a real gas viscosity will cause a departure from this uniformity. Consequently, the onedimensional representation of real flows requires the use of appropriately defined average flow quantities at each cross section. In what follows, it will be assumed that the dynamic and thermodynamic variables describing the flow in the ducts are suitably averaged over a cross section and that they are functions of distance, r (along the duct axis), and time only.
Hydrodynamic Shock Tubes
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The simple shock tube is well established as a facility for investigating numerous problems in the physical sciences. A similar method has been extended to the study of cylindrical and spherical shock waves and expansion waves in Chapter 8. The present chapter gives an explicit solution to the planar, hydrodynamic, shock-tube problem neglecting gravitational, viscous, and gas imperfection effects (see [1]). In this problem a high-pressure driver gas in a chamber is separated by a diaphragm, D, from a driven liquid in a channel (see Fig. 9.1). The chamber and channel are of uniform cross section (assumed infinite in length to avoid wave interactions), and mounted vertically, with the liquid below the diaphragm. When the diaphragm is ruptured at time t = 0, it is assumed that a classical shock-tube wave system is generated; that is, a shock wave moves into the liquid to compress it irreversibly, then a gas-liquid contact surface propagates into the channel containing the liquid, and an expansion wave moves into the chamber containing the high-pressure gas.
Dusty-Gas Shock Tubes
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a gas carries many solid particles, these particles significantly affect the flow by the transfer of momentum and heat from or to the gas. Shock waves propagating in such a dusty gas are characterized by a transition region orders thicker than that caused by viscosity and heat conduction in a pure gas. Across the transition front, the interaction of the gas and the particles leads to an equilibrium state of the mixture. The structure of stationary shock waves has been studied theoretically on the assumption that the formulae for the drag and the rate of heat transfer for a single spherical particle placed in a steady flow can still be applied to the motion of many particles contained in a dusty gas (see, for example, [1–4]).
Applications
Authors: Basak Amitava 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are advantages in light and heavy industries in using linear rather than rotary motors for linear drives if the position and speed of these motors can be controlled precisely. Linear motors remove the necessity for gears, belts, etc., to transfer the rotary motion into linear motion. Thus they reduce the cost of the drive system, and also the space required for it. Direct-current linear motors offer an impressive combination of precision, power, and speed. They can produce a thrust of up to 1 kN, accelerate loads to speeds in excess of ms-1, and then position the loads to submicrometre accuracies. This type of motor is, however, not easily adaptable to a variety of application demands (as rotary motors are), since gearing is impracticable. Therefore, in most linear-drive applications, requirements such as stroke-length, linear-velocity, acceleration and deceleration level&, etc., need a motor which is uniquely designed for a particular application.
Diffraction
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce diffraction using the concept of Huygens secondary sources. At the same time, we take the attitude that the whole subject must be grounded on Maxwell’s equations. We do what we can at our level of treatment to make the connection, and look critically at the customary assumptions. The whole subject of diffraction is, of course, itself founded on an understanding of simple cases of interference, such as the Young slits. It is assumed that the reader has acquired this foundation from a more elementary treatment of optics.
Humanism and the lure of antiquity
Authors: Quillen Carol Everhart 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, a passion for antiquity profoundly shaped Italian cultural production. It first emerged clearly in the Veneto and Tuscany, in the works of Lovato &lt;lei Lovati (1240-1309) and Geri d’Arezzo (b. mid thirteenth century), as a reaction against a rising pre-professional approach to education that stressed functional competence in Latin rather than the study of ancient authors. From there it spread among teachers, notaries, artists, and other educated people to become what later historians called the humanist movement. Jacob Burckhardt (1818-97), the founder of modern Renaissance studies, described humanism primarily as a movement to reproduce antiquity. Fourteenth- and fifteenth-century humanists accepted as ideals for their own time cultural standards that they found in the works of ancient Roman (and later Greek) authors. They sought, Burckhardt wrote, to know what the ancients knew, to write as the ancients wrote, to think and even to feel as the ancients thought and felt.
Governments and governance
Authors: Najemy John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Renaissance Italy contained an array of governments. The South was a nominally unified kingdom, but sometimes functioned as a loose federation of noble baronies. In the centre, the papal state was a composite of cities and territories mostly governed by local lords and communes. Though popes made extravagant claims to universal temporal and spiritual authority, they could not even contain the R man nobility. The centre and north (Venice excepted) were officially part of the Holy Roman Empire, but by 1200 nearly every city was an independent commune. After 1300 republican government survived in Venice, Florence, Siena, Lucca, Perugia, and intermittently in Bologna and Genoa. But many communes were supplanted by lordships, or signorie, which first emerged as unofficial regimes of factional leaders and later gained legitimacy as hereditary dynasties: the Este in Ferrara, Visconti in Milan, Della Scala in Verona, Gonzaga in Mantua, Carrara in Padua, Montefeltro in Urbino, and a host of lesser ruling families, especially in the Romagna. By the fifteenth century most cities were absorbed into the territorial dominions of the emerging regional powers: Milan, Venice, Plorence, and the papal state.
Rural economy and society
Authors: Wickham Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Italy is not a coherent whole in socio-economic terms, and never has been. Its historical disunity reflects the extreme difficulty involved in even travelling from north to south along a long peninsula that is essentially created by a set of mountain ranges, the Apennines. Until the railways were built, by far the easiest way to travel long distances was by sea, with land routes only imposing themselves because the network of Italian cities was so important to most travellers that intermediate stops were as significant as final destinations. Land routes therefore shifted in importance as cities did; so, for instance, the Via Flaminia, the Roman consular road to Rome from the Adriatic (and thus Ravenna), declined in importance across the early Middle Ages, as did the Rome-Ravenna axis, whereas the new Via Francigena, from the cities of northern Tuscany, Lombardy, and, eventually, France, a pilgrim road to Rome and, increasingly, a commercial route, developed fast from the ninth century onwards.
The cities
Authors: Gelichi Sauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 1980s marked a turning point in research into the Italian cities of the early Middle Ages, providing us with new information on the building materials used and extending our knowledge of the layout and organization of public and private spaces. This turning point coincided with a renewed interest in urban archaeology, and hence with the initiation of a series of excavations on the sites of the ancient cities of the peninsula-both those which had been subsequently abandoned (for example, Luni near La Spezia) and those which continued to develop as urban settlements (Rome, Naples, Brescia, Pavia, and Verona).
Private charters
Authors: Langeli Attilio Bartoli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The written documents that we shall be concerned with in this chapter include all the forms of written texts that have survived from this period, particularly those whose function was to establish and provide evidence in forms acknowledged and recognizable as legal by alt whether compiled by public corporations or by private individuals. There were two fundamental types of documents depending on who produced them: one group comprised diplomas, liens, permits, and orders issued by a public, secular, or ecclesiastic authority, the other agreements, contracts, and other legal instruments drawn up on behalf of private individuals. ‘Public deeds’ included those documents that were issued by the authorities, who participated directly in their compilation and made their authorization evident through such devices as the affixing of a seal, the use of a particular style of handwriting, or the adopting of certain marks.
The Church as a Moral Community
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Christian church accepts, with the other Abrahamic faiths, that God has a moral purpose for the created universe, and that human beings have the responsibility of forming a society which will enable that purpose to be realized. The Christian way is not one of individual release from bondage to the material world. It is a way of communal action to bring into actuality many of the potential sorts of value that the material world contains. There is a positive goal for creation, and that goal lies in the co-operative bringing about and enjoyment of many sorts of good things. The duty of a Christian is to co-operate with others and with the Creator in the actualization of goodness. It is to bring into being a community of justice, peace, kindness, and happiness.
Since human beings have largely created a society of injustice, war, cruelty, and misery, there is also a duty to oppose the forces that make for injustice and oppression, both in oneself and in others. Christian faith is not a way simply of inner union with God, which leaves conditions in the social world to go on in any old way. Admittedly some early Christians thought of the political world, the ‘world of the nations’, as doomed to judgment, and looked for a supernatural salvation from that judgment by the coming of Christ in glory. Even then, their hope was for a new society, a social world in which justice would flourish, even if that could only come about by supernatural intervention.’ Their concern was with justice and with the ending of injustice, even if they could see little hope of being able to do anything about it, in remote provinces of a militaristic Roman Empire.
Roots and Context of the Conflict of Laws Within the UK
Authors: Hood Kirsty J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In seeking to understand the operation of conflict rules within the UK, it is important to examine the historical roots of this field of law both in the period prior to the formation of the UK, and in its formative years. This allows us better to appreciate both the context of the development, and the later operation, of the conflict rules applying as between the various component parts of the UK.