bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Calcium Chloride
Authors: Reid Kenneth I. G. , Kust Roger 
Published: August 2004

Abstract

Calcium chloride, CaCl
2
, is a white, crystalline salt that is very soluble in water. Solutions containing 30–45 wt % CaCl
2
are used commercially. Of the alkaline‐earth chlorides it is the most soluble in water. It is extremely hygroscopic and liberates large amounts of heat during water absorption and on dissolution. It forms a series of hydrates containing one, two, four, and six moles of water per mole of calcium chloride. Commercial applications of calcium chloride and its hydrates exploit one or more of its properties with regard to aqueous solubility, hygroscopic nature, the heat gained or lost when one hydrated phase changes to another. Because of high solubility in water, calcium chloride is used to obtain solutions having relatively high densities. Viscosity is an important property of calcium chloride solutions in terms of engineering design and in application of such solutions to flow‐through porous media. Significant quantities of calcium chloride are produced in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Japan. In the United States the principal route for making calcium chloride is by the evaporation of underground brines. The primary CaCl
2
markets have not changed since the 1950s. Significant markets in the United States are for deicing during the winter and roadbed stabilization, and as a dust palliative during the summer. Use as an accelerator in the ready‐mix concrete industry is sizable but there is concern about the possible corrosion of steel in highways and buildings. Calcium chloride is also used in oil and gas well drilling. Food‐grade calcium chloride is used in cheese making to aid in rennet coagulation and to replace calcium lost in pasteurization. In the canning industry it is used to firm the skin of fruit such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and jalapenos. Food‐grade calcium chloride is used in the brewing industry as a basic component of certain beers. Above certain levels chloride is toxic to plants and animals. Calcium chloride solutions are used as antispasmodics, diuretics and in the treatment of tetany. Concentrated solutions of calcium chloride cause erythema, exfoliation, ulceration, and scarring of the skin. Injections into the tissue may cause necrosis. If given orally calcium chloride can cause irritation to the gastrointestinal tract unless accompanied by a demulcent. Calcium chloride has been give a toxicity or hazard level of 3.
Carbonic and Carbonochloridic Esters
Authors: Damle Suresh B. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThe chemistry of carbonic and carbonochloridic esters, commonly referred to as chloroformates and carbonates, is reviewed. These materials are highly reactive with a variety of functional groups and lead to synthetic intermediates for use in pesticides, perfumes, drugs, polymers, dyes, and fuel additives. The article emphasizes the commercial aspects of the carbonate and chloroformate chemistry, including physical and chemical properties, manufacturing processes, analytical test methods, health and effects, environmental aspects, storage, transportation, and uses.
Carbon Dioxide
Authors: Pierantozzi Ronald 
Published: August 2004

AbstractCarbon dioxide is valuable as a chemical intermediate, a liquid refrigerant, and a source of inert gas. It is produced from natural gas wells, lime‐kiln operations, and several other important processes. Most of the significant industrial processes for the production of CO2are reviewed in this article. Methods of purification include reaction and potassium permanganate, reaction with potassium dichromate, adsorption using activated carbon, liquefaction, and solidification. Numerous uses including food freezing, enhanced oil recovery, chemical manufacturing, refrigeration, and carbonation are reviewed.
Carbon Monoxide
Authors: Pierantozzi Ronald 
Published: August 2004

AbstractCarbon monoxide is a valuable chemical intermediate. It is produced either from reforming of hydrocarbons or by coke and coal gasification. Numerous purification methods are available, depending on the method of production, to obtain chemical‐grade CO. This article reviews the physical properties, basic chemistry, industrially significant reactions, production and purifying methods, toxicity, and economics of producing carbon monoxide.Methods of purification covered in this review are copper‐liquor scrubbing, cryogenic purification, the cosorb process, and adsorption processes. Industrially significant reactions covered are the water gas shift reaction, oxidation, disproportionation, the production of phosgene, methanol synthesis, acetic acid synthesis, hydroformylation, acrylic acid production, Fischer‐Tropsch chemistry, methanation, and nickel purification.
Cell Culture Technology
Authors: Karkare Subhash B. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractCell culture technology refers to thein vitroprocesses employed for the growth of mammalian, insect, or plant cells to manufacture biochemicals of commercial importance. Cell culture products, typically therapeutics or medical diagnostics, are regulated by the FDA. The market for cell culture‐derived products is growing and is expected to continue to grow into the 21st century.The technology involved in cell growth is often dependent on cell line type. Hybridoma cells, used for the production of monoclonal antibodies, can be grown in suspension cultures in a manner similar to that used in microbial fermentation. Other cell systems require microcarriers or supports. All of these cells have higher shear sensitivity than microbial cells. Both batch and continuous processes, cell growth kinetics, cell aeration, growth media, product isolation, and purification are discussed, as are safety regulations and standards.
Cement
Authors: Helmuth Richard A. , Miller F. M. , Greening N. R. , Hognestad E. , Kosmatka Steven H. , Lang David 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Inorganic hydraulic cements upon reaction with water form relatively insoluble, bonded aggregations having considerable strength and dimensional stability. The cement produced in the greatest volume is Portland cement which is most often used in concrete for construction. Portland cements contain calcium and silicon oxides together with additives such as alumina, ferrites, and gypsum.
Cement clinker chemistry and the Portland cement phases that form, including composition and reaction times, are discussed. Cement hydration and structure are described as are properties such as strength and porosity of the concretes and chemical admixtures formed. Either a dry or a wet process may be used in cement manufacture; both are described. The uses of Portland cements, special purpose and blended cements, and calcium aluminate cements are reviewed.
Chemiluminescence
Authors: Bronstein Irena , Kricka Larry J. , Givens Richard S. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractChemiluminescence is the emission of light from chemical reactions at ordinary temperatures. The reactions of chemiluminescence produce a reaction intermediate or product in an electronically excited state, and radiative decay of the excited state is the source of the light. Chemiluminescence relates to fundamental molecular interactions and transformations and its study provides access to basic elements of reaction mechanisms and molecular properties, efficient chemiluminescence can provide an emergency or portable light source, chemiluminescence provides means to detect and measure trace elements and pollutants for environmental control or clinically important substances, and classification of the bioluminescent relationship between different organisms defines their biological relationship and pattern of evolution.Liquid‐phase, gas‐phase, and solid‐phase chemiluminescence are discussed as well as bioluminescence, which is characteristic of numerous marine and a few land organisms. The applications of chemical light include marking and illumination and several types of analyses such as flow injection, hplc, direct metal, titration indicators, immunoassay, bacteria and biomass determination, and air pollution.
Chemicals from Brine
Authors: Butts David 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThere are thousands of brine sources in the world that contain useful minerals. Some of these minerals are needed by living organisms to sustain life. Table salt, magnesium, lithium, potassium, and sulfates are but a few of these minerals.Many brine minerals are used to process detergents, paper, plastics, preservatives, construction materials, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, and metals. Sodium chloride alone is used in 14,000 different products common to everyday living in the United States. Over one billion tons of brine each year is used in industries making it one of the largest processed ores in the world.Use of brine is on the increase because much of it can be processed by solar evaporation. This saves the energy cost of fossil fuels and has the added benefit of not polluting the air. In addition there is an endless supply of some of the minerals in the oceans of the world.
Regulatory Agencies, Chemical Process Industry
Authors: Passow Nancy R. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractPassow, Nancy R. (LONZA Inc.). The chemical process industry is highly regulated in the environmental, health, and safety area. Everything is affected, from the siting of a new facility to the transportation of raw materials and finished products, from the working conditions for employees to operating requirements for processes, packaging of finished goods, and dealings with the community.The two main U.S. Federal agencies involved in the protection of human health and the environment are the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). EPA's principal concern is the protection of the environment; in most cases, the area outside of an industrial facility. Significant laws covered by EPA are the Clean Air Act Amendments; the Clean Water Act; Resource Conservation and Recovery Act; Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act; Toxic Substances Control Act; and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. The principal function of OSHA is the protection of people, eg, employees, visitors, and temporary help, in the workplace. The principal law covered by OSHA is the Occupational Safety and Health Act.
Chlorinated Benzenes
Authors: Bryant James G. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThe chlorination of benzene can theoretically produce 12 different chlorobenzenes. However, technology and world events have substantially reduced chlorinated benzene to the current production of three significant products: monochlorobenzene ando‐ andp‐dichlorobenzenes. Monochlorobenzene represents over 50% of the total production of chlorobenzenes. The largest use for monochlorobenzene worldwide is the production of nitrochlorobenzenes, which are consumed to make dye and pigment intermediates, rubber processing chemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and other organic intermediates.o‐Dichlorobenzene is consumed primarily for 3,4‐dichloroaniline manufacture in the United States and Western Europe and in the emulsified form in Japan for treatment of garbage. The largest market worldwide forp‐dichlorobenzene is for deodorant blocks and moth control. A growing use is in the production of the high performance polymer, poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS).Manufacturing methods, specifications, handling precautions, and health and safety factors are covered. With the exception of their use in the production of high performance polymers, markets for chlorobenzenes are mature and overall demand is expected to show little, if any, growth over the next few years.
Chloroform
Authors: Holbrook Michael T. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractChloroform, CHCl3, at normal temperature and pressure is a heavy, clear, volatile liquid with a pleasant, ethereal, nonirritant odor. It is produced almost exclusively by the chlorination of methane or lower chlorinated methanes, though methane oxychlorination and carbon tetrachloride hydrogenation have been proposed. The U.S. chloroform capacity has been estimated at 258,000 t/yr but the actual capability is probably much higher because of the producer's ability to change their product mix between methylene chloride and chloroform. The main uses for chloroform are in the production of HCFC‐22 and fluoropolymers. Growth projections as high as 6% per year have been made for the early 1990s. Chloroform is regulated under a number of federal and state laws.
Chlorinated Paraffins
Authors: Houghton Kelvin L. 
Published: August 2004

Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins are well‐established products in a wide range of diverse applications in today's modern industry. Although as a class of products they have been available for over 50 years, their continuing use results from manufacturers taking advantage of new base feedstocks to develop advanced products to meet the increasing technical demands of the new and emerging technologies. The physical and chemical properties of chlorinated paraffins are determined by the carbon chain length of the paraffin and the chlorine content.
The range of products now available are used as plasticizers in PVC, rubber, surface coatings, adhesives, and sealants where they impart the added benefits of fire retardance and chemical and water resistance. As fire‐retardant additives they find specific usage in polyester resins, polyurethanes, and polyolefins. Chlorinated paraffins are also employed as extreme pressure additives in metal‐working lubricants, as components of fat liquors for leather treatment, and as solvents in carbonless copying paper.
Comprehensive studies on toxicity and environmental impact have been carried out over many years. The acute toxicity of chlorinated paraffins to mammals, birds, and fish is low. Although there is evidence of toxicity to some aquatic species, interpretation of the results is made complicated because of the very low solubility of chlorinated paraffins in water.
Chromatography
Authors: Kaiser Mary A. , Dybowski Cecil 
Published: August 2004

AbstractChromatography, a technique for separation and purification of chemical and biological substances, is used both in research laboratories and in industrial process‐control applications. The chromatographic process usually involves selective interactions between components of the sample with particles packed in a tube (column) as a fluid mixture of the components (the sample) percolates through the column. Because each component of the sample may interact with the particles to a different degree, each is retarded in its passage through the column to a different degree effecting the separation. If the fluid phase is a liquid, the technique is called liquid cromatography; if the fluid phase is a gas, the technique is called gas chromatography; if the fluid is supercritical, the technique is called supercritical‐fluid chromatography. The success of a separation of a particular mixture (the efficiency of the separation) depends on the chemical nature of the packing material, the physical structure of the system, and a host of practical considerations. Chromatography involves the interaction of materials with surface‐bound phases, and it may also be used to characterize the physical and chemical interactions that underlie the process.
Chromium Compounds
Authors: Page Billie J. , Loar Gary W. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractChromium compounds and their important uses are described. Chemical properties of the low valence compounds, Cr(‐II) through Cr(I), and those of Cr(IV) and Cr(V) are discussed as are those of the commercially important oxidation states of Cr(II), Cr(III), and Cr(VI).Sodium chromate and dichromate production from imported chromite ore, and the production of other chromates, dichromates, and chromic acid are summarized. The manufacture of water‐soluble trivalent compounds is also given. Regulations concerning shipments, specifications, and analytical test methods are discussed as are the health and safety factors of chromium compounds.The environmental impact and waste management practices of chromium compounds is also of importance. Chromium compounds of various oxidation states are used commercially as pigments, in metal finishing, leather tanning, drilling muds, and in wood preservation. Chromium compounds are also used in alloys, batteries catalists, photosensitive gels, and as reagent grade chemicals.
Coatings
Authors: Wicks Zeno W. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractCoatings.The field of coatings is reviewed with emphasis on the changes resulting from increasingly restrictive regulations especially with regard to solvent emission. Principles of film formation, and principal classes of resins and polymers, solvents, and pigments used are covered. Topics important to the design of coatings such as color matching, flow, film defects, adhesion, exterior durability, corrosion control, and mechanical and rheological properties are discussed. The principal classes of uses of coatings are architectural coatings, which includes flat wall paint, exterior house paint, and gloss enamels; product coatings, which includes primers, high solids and water‐borne top coats, coil coatings, radiation cure coatings, powder coatings, and wood coatings; and special purpose coatings, ie, heavy‐duty maintenance and marine coatings, and automotive refinish paints.
Coffee
Authors: Wasserman Gerald , Stahl Howard D. , Rehman Warren , Whitman Peter 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis article presents a description of the coffee processing technology, coffee chemistry, and coffee consumption trends. Special attention is given to green coffee processing, the chemistry of green coffee, the chemical effects of roasting and brewing coffee, as well as the chemistry of instant coffee. Processing and packaging of roasted, ground, instant, and decaffeinated coffees are discussed. The economics of green coffee, as well as the import and world production figures for 1989‐1990, are included. New coffee biotechnology and products are presented.
Color Photography, Instant
Authors: Walworth Vivian K. , Mervis Stanley H. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractInstant color photography began in 1963 with a one‐step print process providing a finished photograph within a minute after exposure. Outwardly dry processing under ambient conditions is initiated within the camera upon release of reagent from a sealed pod that is provided as part of the film unit. Integral print films, introduced in 1972, retain the developed photosensitive layers concealed within the print. Instant film configurations also include print and transparency processing independent of the camera. Subtractive instant color processes use dye‐developers and dye‐release compounds to generate images comprising preformed dyes. Dye‐release compounds are also utilized in wet‐processed reprographic films and in photothermographic films for hard copy from images generated by instruments or computers. Additive instant color transparencies comprise microscopic black‐and‐white silver images formed by exposure of a panchromatic emulsion layer through an integral color screen. The chemistry of the various systems is discussed. Instant color films are utilized in many professional fields, especially those involved in documentation or imaging.
Computer‐Aided Engineering (CAE)
Authors: Tayyabkhan M. T. , Britt H. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis article explains the use of computer programs for process simulations and for process and equipment design. Many of the newer techniques such as design optimization, process synthesis, data reconciliation, expert systems, and risk assessments using fault tree analyses have been included here. Process dynamics and process control are treated briefly because they are covered elsewhere in articles on instrumentation and control. CAD, CADD, and CAM (computer‐aided drafting, design, and manufacturing) and management of the construction of process plants also are treated in other articles. Microprocessors have become accessible and popular. An explanation of the use of microprocessor spreadsheets for engineering calculations also has been included here.
Copyrights and Trademarks, Copyrights
Authors: Koenigsberg I. Fred 
Published: August 2004

AbstractCopyright developed after the invention of the printing press as a means of protecting works of authorship. The United States Copyright Law derives from a constitutional grant to Congress to promote progress in science and learning. Copyright protects original works of authorship of all types. Copyright does not protect ideas, concepts, methods, systems, processes, research, or facts themselves, but only their expression. Copyright may protect utilitarian works, but only to the extent that they contain physically or conceptually separable original works of authorship.Copyright is a property right and may be transferred or licensed and owned jointly. Copyright is owned initially by the author. In the case of works made for hire, the employer or other person for whom the work is created is deemed to be the author. Copyright formalities, that is, notice, deposit, and registration, are of less importance now than they were previously, but are still encouraged. No copyright notice is necessary on copies of works first published after March 1, 1989. Copyright registration is entirely permissive, but enables important legal procedural rights.Copyright generally endures for the life of the author plus 50 years, for works first created or copyrighted on or after January 1, 1978; or for an initial term of 28 years and a renewal term of 47 years, for works first copyrighted before January 1, 1978. Copyright protects the rights to reproduce the work in copies, to prepare derivative works, of public distribution, of public performance, and of public display. These rights are not absolute, because certain exceptions, such as the fair use and first sale doctrines, apply.
Crystallization
Authors: Rousseau Ronald W. 
Published: August 2004

AbstractThis article provides an overview of crystallization that can be used by scientists and engineers, regardless of their familiarity with the operation. Key aspects of the use of crystallization for separation, purification, or other purposes are covered; especially noteworthy is the coverage relating product purity, morphology, and size distribution to the kinetic phenomena of crystal nucleation and growth. Current studies have shown that crystallizer variables such as mixing and the rate at which supersaturation is generated influence the purity of recovered crystals. Crystal morphology can be affected by variables modifying inherent growth kinetics of crystal faces or by changing interfacial or solution properties. Theory is mixed with empiricism in showing the role of operating variables such as supersaturation, magma density, and agitation in determining crystallization kinetics. Methods are illustrated for coupling crystallization kinetics with population balances on continuous and batch crystallizers to determine crystal size distributions. In addition, the bases of using selective removal functions (clear‐liquor advance, classified‐fines removal, and classified‐product removal) to influence the characteristics of size distributions is presented. Qualitative characteristics of batch crystallizers are presented and the role nucleation plays in determining the general behavior of product size distributions from such systems is described. Finally, a summary of industrial practice and equipment is presented; both crystallization from solution and from the melt are included in the summary; attention is given to the emerging importance of crystallization from the melt.