bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
How Small Is a Molecule? The Calculation Franklin Did Not Make
Authors: Tanford Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Here’s puzzle, posed before but never answered. Ben Franklin knew that a drop of oil, when spread out over an area of half an acre, becomes astonishingly thin, thin enough to exhibit the prismatic colors, and even thinner than that, so that the presence of the oil would have been undetectable but for the smoothing of the waves.
waves.
Ernest Overton—Gentle Genius
Authors: Tanford Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We go backward in time here, but forward in understanding. The preceding chapter has given mixed reviews to bio-logical science around the turn of the century. There was brilliant progress in some areas, but neglect and confusion in relation to cell membranes. Charles Ernest Overton was an exception, someone whose comprehension of cell membrane composition and function was never confused. On the contrary, “prescient ” would in retrospect be a good description. Overton ’s work is outside the main theme of this book, in the sense that he himself never experimented with films of oil on water surfaces, but it establishes a physiological context and shows that some areas of physiology were crying out for just the kind of insight that surface film measurements could provide.
Gorter and Grendel: A Factor of Two
Authors: Tanford Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After Langmuir, was there more to be learned from spreading oil on water and measuring surface areas, using the same simple rectangular trough that Pockels and Langmuir had used? As it turned out, there was indeed new and important information to be gained for biology by applying Langmuir ’s method to molecules taken directly from living cells. This chapter deals with a single experiment in this category, a beautiful and simple experiment, exactly right for clearing the air of foggy conceptions about cell membranes. The experiment was conceived by a great Dutch pediatrician, Evert Gorter, and was carried out in his laboratory at the University of Leiden.
Introduction
Authors: Gill Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone trying to construct a biography of Wordsworth faces a problem: the poet spent a lifetime sifting, selecting, and ordering much of the material for it himself. Officiaily he was opposed to biography. It was clear, of course, to both admirers and detractors that autobiography was the well-spring of his creative powers. His, as Keats said, was the poetry of the ‘egotistical sublime’. Wordsworth wrote about real places and events, about the River Wye, Grasmere, London, Bruges, the Yarrow, about tours of Scotland and Italy. He memorialized his own experiences and recollections, his family, people met with in chance encounters, and old friends. The Preface to The Excursion (1814), the notes appended to particular lyrics, and the tantalizingly brief but revealing personal words in the 1842 volume Poems, Chiefly of Early and Late Years even encouraged interest in the poet by sketching in a biographical context for the work. But further biographical probing was always thwarted. ‘In truth my life has been unusually barren of events’, he told Anne Taylor in 1801, formulating a useful untruth which he repeated thirty-six years later when parrying another probe with the remark that his life was ‘bare of entertainment and interest’.2 He forbade Barron Field, an intelligent disciple, to publish his Memoirs of Wordsworth and was so appalled by the unauthorized use made of letters and recollections after Coleridge’s death that he declared he hoped not a scrap of his own correspondence would survive.
1787–1792
Authors: Gill Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his very popular poem The Minstrel James Beattie upbraids those spirits vouchsafed ‘a portion of celestial fire’: and in the story of Edwin, the minstrel, he illustrates the sentiment. To the indulgent eye of Dorothy the fact that ‘the whole character of Edwin resembles much what William was when first I knew him after my leaving Halifax’ just gave her brother added charm. To his guardians, however, the identification, had they recognized it, could only have given cause for further anxiety. This was not the time for high-souled rejection of the world of men, but for diligent attention in Cambridge to whatever was necessary to secure a career and independence. Happily there was no real reason to doubt that Wordsworth would be successful in worldly terms. Hawkshead was a good school which had prepared him as well as any of its numerous pupils already welcomed in the University. He had, in addition, connections who could ease the way to academic and Church preferment. But within five years it was clear that Wordsworth had thrown away every advantage. After an excellent start he had abandoned serious academic competition, taking only a pass degree. He had alienated relatives and seemed determined not to accept the proffered opening of a career in the Church. He had marked his coming of age by fathering a child on a Frenchwoman without the means to support the child or marry the mother. Just as important for his future prospects, he had been infected by the virulent contagion of radicalism, becoming one of’that odious class of men called democrats’3 just at the time when authority was not discriminating too subtly between shades of political principle but dividing up citizens into simple categories, the ‘loyal’ and the ‘seditious’.
1795–1797
Authors: Gill Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Place-Names are used in an interesting way in most accounts of Wordsworth’s poetic development. Writers on, say, Dickens or Yeats, when identifying moments of artistic growth, refer to books—to the transitional form, for example, of Martin Chuzzlewit, or to the self-conscious maturity of Responsibilities. Lovers of Wordsworth might do likewise, pointing to An Evening Walk, or Lyrical Ballads, or The Prelude, as key writings, but they are at least as likely to mark out the poet’s spiritual odyssey by referring to ‘Windy Brow’, ‘Racedown’, ‘Alfoxden’, ‘Dove Cottage’, ‘Rydal Mount’. These were places, it is understood, in which self-discovery or achievement or consolidation occurred, whose particular nature, which may or may not be in evidence in specific poems, can be evoked by naming that one special place.
1798–1799
Authors: Gill Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At II a.m. on 16 September 1798 the German packet slipped out of Yarmouth to the open sea. At once the passengers began to turn frog-coloured—’Wordsworth shockingly ill’, Coleridge reported, ‘his Sister worst of all—vomiting, & groaning, unspeakably!’ They were delayed by fog at the mouth of the Elbe and when they reached Hamburg on the nineteenth had difficulty in finding accommodation in a dirty, stinking city, where children defecated in the streets and shopkeepers (they were convinced) gloated over their skill at cheating foreigners.* It was not an auspicious start to a tour which, as a tour, turned out for the Wordsworths a complete failure.
1800-1802
Authors: Gill Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Grasmere, William Wilberforce remarked, ‘gives one the idea of Rasselas’s happy Valley’. He was not thinking hard about the implications of Johnson’s fable, just echoing Gray’s earlier comment that this was a ‘little unsuspected paradise’. It is easy to see why. Grasmere is surrounded in three quarters by hills—Dunmail Raise, Stone Arthur, and the Fairfield mass to the north and east, Helm Crag and Silver How to the west, and from any one of them, but especially from Silver How and Red Bank at the southerly end of the lake, the water and the village marked out by the church tower seem grouped expressly for picturesque composition. Even on the more open south approach, the road leads over the little hill of White Moss Common and seems to harmonize the scene by leading the eye from the grandeur of the views to the north and west down to the little group of houses at Town End. From their cottage the Wordsworths looked over a meadow to the lake and all that is needed is De Quincey’s account of their main room ‘very prettily wainscotted from the floor to the ceiling with dark polished oak’, dimly lit by ‘a perfect and unpretending cottage window, with little diamond panes, embowered at almost every season of the year, with roses’, for one to imagine that the Wordsworths moved into a ready-made rural idyll.3 But it was not so. They arrived in a period of severe frost—∼ Wordsworth was soon skating on nearby Rydal—at a six-roomed cottage which would have fitted into any one floor at Racedown and Alfoxden. It was damp, gloomy, and almost unfurnished. Their first task was to make it a home.
Cloning and Individuality
Authors: Gardner R L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Organisms that are genetically identical constitute a clone. The essence of cloning is to produce new individuals without the intervention of sexual reproduction, which generates diversity. Cloning is accomplished naturally by the repeated production of new individuals directly from parts of existing ones by such processes as cell division and budding. Particularly in microbes, plants, and lower animals, clones can be very large indeed. Cloning also occurs naturally in man as a result of the unexplained development of more than one fetus from a single fertilized egg. Whilst two genetically identical fetuses are the most common outcome, triplets, quads, and even quins can originate in this way. With increasing use of ultrasound imaging it is now clear that such monozygotic twins are more common during pregnancy than at birth. Thus, competition between intimately associated fetuses must sometimes lead to the demise of one, not infrequently at so early a stage that no trace of it remains when the survivor is born.
Who Should have Access to Genetic Information?
Authors: Knoppers Bartha Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No discussion of a ‘should we’ question can ignore an even more preliminary one, a question that sets the stage for any present and future resolution of an issue, that is, ‘where are we?’ Obviously, this series, The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights, is meant to do just that. Nevertheless, permit me a few introductory remarks on the relationship between that fundamental exercise and the issue of access to genetic information.
Bits and PCs
Authors: Gillies Jamaes , Cailliau Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Internet isn’t the only essential ingredient of the World Wide Web. Another vital component is the personal computer. If the Internet had just connected supercomputers, it is unlikely that anything like the Web would have emerged. Hypertext is equally important: if Berners-Lee had been stuck with hierarchical ways of organizing himself, his invention might have gone world wide, but it wouldn’t have been much of a Web. And even with hypertext and personal computers sweeping the globe, Berners-Lee still needed some thing to click with. How easy would the Web be if we didn’t have the mouse?
Enquire Within Upon Everything
Authors: Gillies Jamaes , Cailliau Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tim Berners-Lee crossed the border into Switzerland in June 1980 to take up his first job at CERN. He had been hired on a six-month contract to write programs to control the particle accelerators of the laboratory’s Proton Synchrotron (PS) complex. Although he didn’t stay long on this first visit to CERN, he made a big impression and took the first concrete steps towards building the World Wide Web.
Sharing What We Know?
Authors: Gillies Jamaes , Cailliau Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
over the next two years, the World Wide Web bandwagon steadily gathered momentum. A constant trickle of students and enthusiastic young programmers passed through CERN, each making their own piece of Web history before moving on to other things. Tim Bemers-Lee and Robert Cailliau argued tirelessly for resources from CERN but never got quite what they asked for. The laboratory did n’t feel that it could give them all they wanted, but nor did it refuse them completely. Tim soon realized, however, that with the support he was getting his project would never really fly. So he adopted another strategy. Instead of trying to develop browsers for popular computer systems like X-Window, Macintosh, and PC at CERN, he concentrated on building a sort of tool-kit that would allow others to build them else where. He then persuaded the laboratory’s management to let him release the tool-kit for free. Within a year, there was a choice of browsers for X-Window, and the first Macintosh and PC browsers were starting to appear.
The Beginning of the Future?
Authors: Gillies Jamaes , Cailliau Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the circle of Web developers growing daily, it could only be a matter of time before the Web left home, and in 1993, with the release of the Mosaic browsers by the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois, the inevitable happened. The Web became accessible to anyone using a Macintosh or Microsoft Windows and it took off like a rocket. Browsers were downloaded by computer enthusiasts at the rate of several thousand per day. Nerds and neophytes alike were riveted to their computer screens. The European Commission began to take notice, prompted partly by a Web-based dinosaur exhibition produced by Kevin Hughes at Honolulu Community College in Hawaii. This exhibition became the yardstick of what the Web could do, and even prompted the bureaucrats of an EU project coordination group to shift their meeting from their not-yet-wired administrative buildings to a nearby university’s computer science laboratory so Robert Cailliau could show it to them.
It’s Official?
Authors: Gillies Jamaes , Cailliau Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even before NCSA released the Mosaic browsers, the Web had begun to make its presence felt beyond the realms of particle physics. Web traffic overhauled WAIS in early 1993, by which time it was rising tenfold every few months. Companies, individuals, and government institutions were all putting up Web sites. By the end of the year even the White House had one, and everyone looked to Tim Berners-Lee at CERN for guidance. The world at large had the impres-sion that there was a big, well-organized team at CERN looking after Web matters, but the reality couldn’t have been more different. ’There were still just two staff members working on the Web,’ remembers Robert Cailliau, ’and we were still in different divisions. ‘Tim and Robert were supported by their enthusiastic band of followers on temporary contracts, but the fact of the matter was that CERN had created some thing it didn’t quite know how to handle. The Web had brought the laboratory into contact with a world it didn’t normally have to deal with, and the result was not always plain sailing. For Tim, however, his vision had to come above all else, and as 1993 wore on, he decided that the crunch had come for CERN. Either the laboratory had to put serious resources into the Web, or the Web would have to find a new home.
Other Peoples, Other Lands
Authors: Briggs Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thomas More ‘s dialogue Utopia (1517) consists of an imaginary debate between More himself, his friend the Flemish humanist Peter Giles, and a fictional traveller, Raphael Hythloday, who has visited Utopia (translatable either as ‘no place ‘ or ‘good place ‘). Hythloday is introduced as a Portuguese, a man who had accompanied Amerigo Vespucci on one of his famous voyages to the New World, and had been left behind in Brazil. He has come across Utopia in his wanderings. The egalitarian and communistic state of Utopia, while providing a commentary on the practices of Tudor England, also catches up significant aspects of the voyages of Columbus and his successors. Their encounters with the peoples of the Americas and with their different languages, cultures, religions, and social organizations, challenged assumptions-ultimately derived from Aristotle-that human life everywhere was governed by certain universal laws. In particular, Utopia avoided war and property-holding; it had no knowledge of the Christian faith and no respect for gold, which was used only for objects of shame--chamber-pots or prison fetters. The many literary treatments of the New World that followed constantly returned to a few distinctive features of More ‘s imaginary country: the possibility of an alternative society; the absence of God; the presence of gold (which the Utopians hoarded yet despised). The Americas offered imaginative spaces on to which Europeans projected the desires that their culture had aroused yet failed to satisfy: desires for a more just society; for the proper exercise of authority, whether religious or civil; but above all, for instant and limitless wealth.
Religion
Authors: Briggs Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If there was a single issue that dominated the half-century from 1580, it was religion; yet, with the exception of the Authorized Version of the Bible, little of the literature still read today reflects this preoccupation. More than half the books published in the reign of Elizabeth concerned religion, but today the many theological tracts, sermons, and books of advice and instruction are hardly ever reread or reprinted. By contrast, the drama, under the surveillance of the Revels Office, was not supposed to present religious issues, or even to refer to God (as opposed to pagan gods), or name Him in the oaths that were a common feature of emphatic language. Even so, the dramatists, like most thoughtful people of the time, were deeply concerned with religion in one way or another: Christopher Marlowe at the time of his death, stood accused of blasphemy and atheism; Ben Jonson, during a prison sentence, became a Catholic convert, and remained so for several years (he has been suspected of involvement in the Gunpowder Plot); John Marston gave up writing plays to become an Anglican priest; Thomas Middleton wrote a version of Ecclesiasticus in verse and a pamphlet on the fulfilment of biblical prophecies-yet their particular beliefs are only intermittently reflected in their plays.
Education
Authors: Briggs Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘In the end the good or ill bringing-up of children doth as much serve to the good or ill service of God, our prince, and our whole country as any one thing doth beside ‘, wrote Roger Ascham in The Schoolmaster (1570),1 echoing the sentiments of the reformers who saw education as a preparation for a virtuous life. Others saw it as potentially dangerous, producing a class of deracinated and dissatisfied intellectuals, whom it would be difficult to employ. The government was committed to the pro motion of reading as part of the Protestant programme, but it took good care to keep strict control over printing presses in England, and made efforts to keep out subversive reading matter from the Continent. A flood of cheap printing, much of it religious, was directed towards a new generation of readers who still had close links with an active oral culture that had managed many difficult and complex transactions without the skill of reading. As Richard Brathwayte observed, ‘Many illiterate [are] of the exactest judgement ‘. Those who could not read structured their knowledge and experience in very different sometimes highly creative-ways, as well as participating in print culture at second hand through friends and neighbours who could read.
The Court and its Arts
Authors: Briggs Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most striking feature of the great nation states of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the enormous expansion of the court and the central administration ‘, according to Lawrence Stone.1 This was reflected in the development of a primitive civil service, the increasing concentration of wealth and aristocracy at court, and the self-conscious cultivation of an extravagantly ‘courtly ‘ way of life, intended to impress foreign statesmen and the lower orders. The court represented itself as an object of national pride, its activities of increasing interest to outsiders, and not only from a political standpoint: like a Holly wood film-star, Queen Elizabeth figured in men ‘s unconscious fantasies, if the secret diaries of the astrologer Simon Forman are anything to go by: his dream of arguing with her, kissing her, and lifting her skirt is a ‘low ‘ version of Prince Arthur ‘s Platonic dream of Gloriana (The Faerie Queene, 1. ix. 13-15). Much literature was written for or about the court, which not only supplied a cultural focus but also offered potential sources of financial support for the aspiring writer. Images of courtliness and court life embody either a unique refinement of manners and morals, or alternatively an unacceptable level of corrupt privilege and vice.
The Second Movement: The Continuity Drafts
Authors: Marston Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As explained in Chapter 5, Beethoven’s sketching in Artaria 195 for the second movement of Op. 109 falls fairly naturally into two phases of activity: the first phase is marked by the shorter sketches on pages 35–40 of the sketchbook, the second by the four continuity drafts which occupy almost all of pages 41–50. This second phase might be further broken down into two subphases, one covering pages 41–5, which contain three continuity drafts along with a small number of closely related sketches, the other represented by the fourth draft, a detailed version of the development and recapitulation which begins on the lower half of page 47 and continues to the bottom of page 50.
Plans for a Variation Set
Authors: Marston Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As explained in the last chapter, the first outline for a variation set in Artaria 195 comes in a series of sketches on pages 50–3. In that they preceded the final, detailed draft of the theme made at the bottom of page 53, these may be regarded as preliminary sketches. which do not appear in the theme sketches prior to the final draft are nevertheless presupposed by some of these preliminary variation sketches; such thematic details may first have been worked out in sketches which are now lost.) Table 8.1 lists the locations of the sketches and shows how much of the theme they represent, while the transcriptions in Ex. 8.1 are intended only to give an idea of their musical content. Some are short enough to be transcribed complete; in other cases only an incipit is given. The three parts of sketch 8 are transcribed in full because they require more substantial discussion.
Sketches for the Variations in the Final Version
Authors: Marston Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The paucity of sketches which may confidently be related to the six variations in the third movement of Op. 109 has already been stressed. Table 9.1 lists the ten sketches which may be so related; all are discussed in this chapter. The term ‘sketch’ does not properly apply to the two A 47 drafts, for these derive from Beethoven’s detailed draft or Concept of the sonata rather than from a sketchbook or sketchleaves. The A 47 drafts are accordingly far more detailed and extensive than any of the other eight sketches listed; and even these eight vary considerably in length and content.