bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Novelty of Totalitarianism
Authors: Hayes Carlton J H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In contrast with the quality and training of earlier dictators, note who and what the present ones are. There is Benito Mussolini, whose father was a blacksmith, whose education was obtained in a minor normal school, whose career was that of an unsuccessful elementary-school teacher and a second-or third-rate journalist, and whose military service was brief and inconspicuous. There is Joseph Stalin, generated by a peasant shoemaker, dismissed from a seminary and further schooling at the age of seventeen for irregularity in conduct and discipline, self-trained in the strong-arm arts of highway robbery and factory disorder, and as a convicted criminal relieved of any military service in the World War. There is Adolf Hitler, son of a minor Austrian customs-official, with a minimum of formal schooling and a maximum of frustrated efforts at hack work in painting and drawing, and with a curious record of having fought for four years in the German army without rising above the rank of corporal. In fine, not one of these world-shaking despots of our day comes of what we would deem distinguished antecedents; not one of them has been well educated or gained military repute.
Ideology and Terror
Authors: Arendt Hannah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hannah Arendt’s work was one of the most widely disseminated treatises on totalitarianism during the 1950s and 1960s. Her focus is very much on the centrality of terror to totalitarian regimes. She sees totalitarian regimes as using terror to accelerate what they see as the laws of nature or history—for Nazi Germany, laws based on racial-biological theory; for the Soviet Union, laws based on class and economic development—as a result, terror is visited inevitably upon those who are deemed by the laws of nature or history to be unacceptable to the totalitarian regime.
Behemoth
Authors: Neumann Franz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These various strata are not held together by a common loyalty. To whom could they give it, after all? Not to the state, for it has been abolished ideologically and even to a certain extent in reality. The ideological basis on which the army and bureaucracy formerly rested has been destroyed. Adoration of the Leader is no adequate substitute, because the Leader’s charisma will be completely deflated if he does not prove his worth, that is, if he is not successful. Furthermore, leadership adoration is so deeply contradictory to the process of bureaucratization and depersonalization that a mere postulation of a community integrated by a Leader is insufficient. Racial proletarianism is similarly dependent on final victory. As for such concepts as freedom and equality, it is doubtful if they were ever the basis for common loyalty, certainly not now.
The Primacy of Politics
Authors: Mason Tim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tim Mason combined the political commitment and theoretical underpinning of Marxism with the traditions of less explicitly theorized anglophone empiricism to produce a stimulating set of arguments concerning the ways in which an ideologically driven rearmament programme altered the relationship of the state to business and thus of politics to economics as Marxists would see it. Mason’s writings remain central to any engagement with the history of the Third Reich.
The Civil Service in the Third Reich
Authors: Mommsen Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hans Mommsen was one of the first post-war scholars to lay emphasis on the evolutionary and fluid nature of the National Socialist body-politic; his discussion of the relationship between the civil service and the regime shows that, from the outset, ‘structuralist’ historians conceived of the regime as being something more complex than just a fusion of rational state apparatus with irrational movement.
The Army and the Third Reich
Authors: Müller Klaus-Jürgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The army had been a key institution in the Nazi seizure of power and had had high expectations of the regime. However, during the Third Reich its experience was one of progressive marginalization as a separate power centre within the regime —by the outbreak of the war at the latest it had become merely the executor of Hitler’s orders. In the article from which the following passages are taken, Klaus-Jurgen Muller surveys the reduction of the army from a political elite to a functional elite, examining in particular the ‘turning point’ of 1938.
Justice in the Third Reich
Authors: Gruchmann Lothar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his monumental study of the legal system in the Third Reich during the Gurtner era, Gruchmann stresses the extent to which the commitment of the highly conservative legal establishment to creating an authoritarian justice system led it to collaborate in the undermining of the inherited liberal legal system during the Nazi era. However, despite its collusion in the erosion of the liberal legal system, it was permanently on the defensive, as more and more of the juridical and policing functions of the Justice Ministry and Interior Ministry were usurped by the more radical SS-police system under Himmler. Moreover, having done so much to facilitate the descent into lawlessness of the Third Reich by successive retroactive legalization of illegal acts of terror and barbarism, the Justice Ministry found itself unable then to fall back on institutional and legal safeguards to defend its position. As a result, it was powerless to prevent the ongoing expansion of the concentration camp apparatus and the concomitant radicalization of terror in the war in particular.
The Honour of Labour: Industrial Workers and the Power of Symbols under National Socialism
Authors: Ludtke Alf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alf L üdtke argues that the Nazis’ emphasis on ‘the honour of labour’ found a receptive audience among a working-class population whose own beliefs in the ‘dignity of labour’ represented a central part of a working-class culture which the traditional parties of the Left had failed to tap into. In doing so, the Nazis were able to elicit the cooperation of key sectors of the working class in the pursuit of the goals of the Volksgemeinschaft.
Resistenz or Loyal Reluctance?
Authors: Mallmann Klaus-Michael , Paul Gerhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Klaus-Michael Mallmann and Gerhard Paul, co-authors of important work on patterns of popular accommodation and dissent in the Saarland during the Nazi period, have been among the most strident critics of the Resistenz concept. In this extract they relate their findings in the Saarland project to their rejection of the suitability of the term in connection with the Third Reich.
The Problem of Motivation Reconsidered
Authors: Kater Michael H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Michael Kater’s work also places emphasis on elements of continuity from the pre-Nazi era; similarly, he emphasizes that even those doctors who did not participate as actively as others still failed overwhelmingly to condemn the murderous processes which they were helping to facilitate. Here, he gives consideration to the factors motivating medical doctors to participate in the regime’s racial policies.
The Concentration Camps as Part of the National Socialist System of Domination
Authors: Pingel Falk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concentration camp system grew from the initial ‘wild’ camps established largely spontaneously to deal with political opponents on the local level to encompass a massive network of camps all across Europe, which combined the roles of ‘re-education’, persecution, and extermination with attempts to harness the labour of their inmates in the service of the National Socialist regime. By 1944—5 there were up to three-quarters of a million inmates in the concentration camps alone—not including those in the forced labour and extermination camps. Although, as Falk Pingel argues here, the economic aspect of the concentration camps grew in significance, their function remained overwhelmingly political.
Killing Operations
Authors: Yahil Leni 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transition to systematic mass murder of Europe’s Jews began with the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Four SS Einsatz-gruppen (‘task squads’) entered the Soviet Union behind the German armed forces and organized the mass shootings of Jews described in these passages by Leni Yahil. The experience of these killing campaigns, which quickly escalated in scope to the point where individual killing actions could claim many thousands of victims, led to the decision to embark upon the ‘Final Solution’.
Children
Authors: Hilberg Raul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The biological-racial determinism of National Socialist anti-Semitism meant that. once extermination had been decided upon. no Jew would be spared. Young or old, male or female, able-bodied or infirm-National Socialist ideology determined that no distinction be drawn. The survival prospects of young children were particularly low, as they had neither the physical stamina to survive the appalling conditions under which they were kept nor the independence or experience to attempt an escape. Raul Hilberg here describes the fate of Jewish children during the Holocaust.
Nazism, Politics, and the Image of the Past
Authors: Eley Geoff 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writing from an engaged position to the left of the liberal and Social Democrat-aligned protagonists of the Historikerstreit, Geoff Eley argues that the dispute represented a new phase in an ongoing contestation of the right to shape the dominant public image of the German past, a contest which derives its vigour from the politicized nature of scholarship on the German past and its close relationship to contemporary political discourses. 1be conservative positions advanced in the dispute. Eley contends, represent a new attempt by the Right, in the wake of the Tendenzwende, to recentre historical discourse on issues of nationhood and national identity.
Comedy
Authors: Dover K J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The names of comic dramatists whose plays were performed at the City Dionysia at Athens were not embodied in a permanent record until 486 B.c. It is quite possible (cf. p. 50) that humorous dramatic performances had played some part in the festival for a very long time - possible, that is, that comedy is far older than tragedy but long regarded as ephemeral, topical, and not to be perpetuated in written texts. Aristophanes is the only comic poet of the fifth century B.c. whose plays we can read now; eleven (out of at least forty which he wrote) have survived. He first produced a play in 427, and of the surviving eleven the earliest, Achamians, is datable to 425. We know something, through citations and fragments, about some comedies produced in the period 440-425, but as we move back in time the evidence dwindles rapidly, and very little indeed can be said with assurance about the nature of the comedy contemporary with Aeschylean tragedy.
Greek literature 300-50 B.C.
Authors: Griffin Jasper 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conquests of Philip, who died in 336 B.c., and Alexander, who died in 323, had an immense impact on the life and literature of Greece. Greek language and culture were spread, more or less thinly, over an area from Marseilles to the frontier of India, and from the Crimea to Egypt. In huge countries like Egypt and Syria Greek communities, surrounded by a sea of alien subjects, hugged their education and their language as marks of their status and as reminders of what they were and what they were resolved to remain.
Greek literature after 50 B.C.
Authors: Bowie E L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The expansion of Roman power which gave Polybius his theme continued in the century following the destruction of Corinth in 146 B.c. Some Greek kingdoms passed peacefully into Rome’s control, but others required force of arms, while even greater havoc was wreaked in the Greek cities of the eastern Mediterranean by the succession of Roman civil wars in the first century a.c. Antony’s defeat by Octavian at Actium in 31 B.c. at last brought peace to the Greek world, already even in its exhausted condition the culturally dominant component of Rome’s empire. Egypt, realm of Antony’s Ptolemaic ally Cleopatra and last of the great Hellenistic monarchies, was annexed in the following year.
New anti-Semitic campaign—second Philharmonic season—the Second Symphony in Liège and Vienna (January–May 1899)
Authors: Grange Henry-Louis De La 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE anti-Semitism so violently expressed on the occasion of the first Phil-harmonic Concert reappeared early in 1899, in the guise of one of those ‘scandals’ of which the Viennese were so fond. Following the assassination of the Empress Elisabeth in September 1898, the Court had been in mourning. The city authorities accordingly decided that the big charity ball held each year at the Rathaus should be replaced by a special Philharmonic Concert, scheduled for 1 February. Oberbürgermeister Lueger and his city council further decided to invite an ‘Aryan’, Felix Mottl, to conduct it, regardless of the fact that Mahler was the conductor of the Philharmonic Concerts and was thus being publicly slighted.
War with the administration—difficulties with the singers—Alt-Aussee, the Fourth Symphony (May–December 1899)
Authors: Grange Henry-Louis De La 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
AS we have seen, Hofrath Wlassack, the Kanzleidirektor and a key figure in the Hofoper administration,1 could fairly claim to have played an important part in securing Mahler’s appointment. But he quickly realized that his ‘protégé’ was an ‘ungrateful wretch’. Intendant Plappart had also become Mahler’s sworn enemy, and as soon as he was appointed lost no opportunity to let Mahler feel the weight of administrative authority. Hardly a day passed without some fresh interference, a demand for an explanation, or a complaint about an alleged breach of procedure.
Quarrel with the Bühnenverein—triumph of the Second Symphony in Munich—Failure of the First in Vienna—beginning of the third season of the Philharmonic (August–December 1900)
Authors: Grange Henry-Louis De La 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE manuscript of the Adagio in the Fourth Symphony ends with the words: ‘The third movement, and with it the whole symphony, completed on Sunday 6 August, at Maiernigg.’1 Since 6 August 1900 was a Monday, it is most likely that Mahler really completed his Partiturentwurf (first full orchestra score) on Sunday 5 August. He put some finishing touches to the orchestration and copied the score, as he usually did, during the winter. It would have been natural for him to have experienced a sense of emptiness now that the burst of creative activity was over, but he was happy and relieved at having found his bearings as a symphonist after four years of silence.
Choral Tragedy and Symphonic Drama: Wagner’s Contribution to Nietzsche’s Die Geburt der Tragödie
Authors: Borchmeyer Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the twenty-sixth section of his Hamburgische Dramaturgie Lessing puts forward the view that ‘the orchestra at our stage plays takes the place, as it were, of the ancient choruses’.1 Of course, Lessing’s concern was not with music theatre but with the incidental music played at the theatre, for which he demanded a strict motivic link with the dramatic action, so that, like the chorus, such music could accompany and comment on the events taking place on stage. Lessing argued that instrumental music, which, unlike vocal music, he felt was essentially indeterminate in its ‘expression’, could gain in (semantic) clarity if particular motives were repeated, even if there were no words accompanying them.
The Transformations of Ahasuerus: Der fliegende Holländer and his Metamorphoses
Authors: Borchmeyer Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In writing Das Liebesverbot, Wagner had brusquely turned his back on the tradition of German Romantic opera. Not only this work but his subsequent plans, from Die hohe Braut and Männerlist größer als Frauenlist (of which only the libretti were completed) to Rienzi, all attest to his predilection for the Italian and French type of opera. Not until 1840-1 did he return to Romantic opera with Der fliegende Holländer, where, as with Die Hochzeit, he renounced all those ‘operatic embellishments’ with which he had ‘festooned’ his operas from Die Peen to Rienzi (ML, p. 81; English trans., p. 72). ‘Dutchman disappointed many who awaited another Rienzi’, Robert Gutman writes. ‘Their objections were similar to those of the wealthy host in Strauss’s Ariadne auf Naxos, displeased that his magnificently appointed mansion be the scene of an opera set on a desert island.’1
Plainsong into Polyphony
Authors: Harrison Frank Li. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this essay is to discuss processes of composition used in England during the time indicated, in cases where a primary component in design was material from the plainsong repertory. The publication of four volumes of English polyphonic music of circa 1270 to circa 1400, together with editions of the early fifteenth-century ‘Old Hall’manuscript, makes it possible to survey this aspect of the composition process and to observe some of its continuities and changes over this extended period.
Prologue What is Liturgy?
Authors: Harper John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ordered forms of Christian worship in the West emerged gradually during the first millennium, drawing on a variety of models, traditions, and influences. Western liturgy has never remained static in form or practice, but reached a crucial point of synthesis and stability in the tenth century. From this period it is possible to discern a consistency of liturgical observance supported by written sources that stretches to the present day. Two movements in the eighth and ninth centuries contributed to this: the reforms and codifications undertaken in the empire of Charlemagne and his successors, and the revitalization of Benedictine monasticism in northern Europe.
The Reformed Liturgy of the Church of England (1549-1662)
Authors: Harper John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike the continental Protestant Churches, the Church of England held on to some of the most important features of the daily Office and the Mass, albeit in the vernacular. And whereas the public recitation of the Office declined sharply in the Roman Church it persisted in the Church of England, sung in choral foundations of cathedrals and colleges, recited by parson and clerk in parish churches. Roman Catholic laity favoured new devotions, but the staple public prayer of the English was Mattins and Evensong, and it remained so until the 1960s.
Solo Song
Authors: Orrey Leslie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
SCHUBERT’S death in 1828 closed the first important chapter in the history of the Lied. The next is dominated by Robert Schumann (1810-56). Between the two, song as a genre continued to flourish, and we meet some of the composers in the pages of Schumann’s periodical, Die neue Zeitschrift für Musik, which absorbed much of his time between 1834 and 1844. They include the gifted Norbert Burgmiiller (1810–36), Josef Dessauer (1798–1876), Bernardt Klein (1793–1832), Carl Zollner (1800-60), Josef Klein (1802-62), Wenzel Veit (1806–64), and Heinrich Esser (1818-72). Schumann himself was hesitant to approach the form. As a young man, brought up in the shadow of Beethoven, he valued instrumental art higher than vocal, and he made a reputation with his piano music before any of the songs by which he is universally known had been written. The conversion to song came only a few months after the letter to Hirschbach; another, equally famous, letter to Clara Wieck testifies to his sudden joy in the new medium.
Medieval Chant
Authors: Crocker Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In trying to understand the matrix of the new, specifically Frankish chant that appeared after 850, we have to consider the relationship to Gallican antecedents. With not much to go on, we can probably describe the relationship as one in which a relatively small number of Gallican items provided a point of departure for far-reaching Frankish developments that resulted in many new forms and much new music. The importance of the Gallican models would be that they represented, better than did the Roman chant, the broader traditions of ritual song.
Instruments and Instrumental Music Before 1300
Authors: Page Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The story of Western instruments from the Fall of Rome to the fourteenth century reaches from the lyres that were played in ‘the primeval German forests’ to the lutes of the Ars Nova, their sound holes decorated with grilles as elaborate as any in the mosques of Spain whence they were exported northwards. Since few medieval instruments survive1 our knowledge of them is based upon representations in the visual arts, supplemented by the testimony of contemporary writers and an archaeological record that is exceptionally rich for the earlier centuries (roughly AD 450 850). The musical record is very meagre (as far as music written specifically for instruments is concerned) and does not begin until the later thirteenth century.
Polyphony in England in the Thirteenth Century
Authors: Crocker Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Students of English polyphony of the thirteenth century have argued persuasively that it belongs to the mainstream of polyphonic development, that it is not peripheral. Ernest Sanders pointed out1 that many of the features previously taken to be peculiarly English and, when found in continental sources, to indicate English influence or provenance, were better considered to be widespread in polyphonic practice on the Continent as well as in England, even if not characteristic of Notre-Dame polyphony. Sanders went on to try to identify those other features which could be described as specifically English; they will concern us in due course. Our first concern, however, is to see that English polyphony combines the novelties of Notre-Dame style with more traditional features of polyphony as practised by cathedral musicians. From this we can gain a valuable perspective on the continental Latin motet; for just as it is instructive to see the new French texted discant-the French motet-through the eyes of the trouvere and professional instrumentalist, so it helps to see the Latin texted discant through the eyes of the cathedral musician, taking into account his response to the peculiarities of Notre-Dame style.
Convents and Confraternities
Authors: Strohm Reinhard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No picture of the cultural life of a town like Bruges would be complete without some mention of its convents. Many monasteries and friaries of the Middle Ages have disappeared in the religious struggles of the sixteenth century; in Flanders as well as in England, radical reform movements were directed largely against those institutions from which many of their leaders had originally come. Both Erasmus and Luther had been educated in houses of mendicant orders–and what modern civilisation owes to these men, it indirectly owes to medieval monasticism. The mendicant orders, in particular, helped to form the spirit of the fifteenth century, and the culture of the cities. They not only took care of the spiritual needs of the townspeople by singing masses, praying for the dead, hearing confessions and preaching, but also provided social services in general: health service, burials, charity for the poor and elderly, and education for the young. Their lifestyle and business were integrated into the urban life; most upper- and middle-class families had sons and daughters in some of the town’s convents.