bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Sacred World of Black Slaves
Authors: Levine Lawrence W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Africans brought to the English colonies as slaves in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries did not carry with them a network of beliefs, customs, institutions, and practices constituting what might be called with accuracy a unified “African” culture. No such monolithic cultural entity existed. The peoples of Africa created a myriad of languages, religions, customs, social, political, and economic institutions which differentiated them and gave them separate identities. These marked differences have been cited frequently to illustrate the insuperable obstacles slaves in the British colonies of North America faced in keeping a semblance of their traditional cultures alive. With few exceptions-the most notable being W. E. B. Du Bois and Melville Herskovits-most scholars until very recently have assumed that because United States slavery eroded so much of the linguistic and institutional side of African life it necessarily wiped out almost all of the fundamental aspects of traditional African cultures. “The Negro,” Robert Park wrote in 1919, in a statement that typifies much of twentieth-century scholarship on this question, “when he landed in the United States, left behind him almost everything but his dark complexion and his tropical temperament. Coming from all parts of Africa and having no common language and common tradition, the memories of Africa which they brought with them were soon lost.” This inability to transmit and perpetuate African culture on American soil, Park maintained, made the Negro unique among the peoples of the United States. “Other peoples have lost, under the disintegrating influence of the American environment, much of their cultural heritage. None have been so utterly cut off and estranged from their ancestral land, traditions and people.”
Black Laughter
Authors: Levine Lawrence W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early 1890s James Weldon Johnson spent three months teaching in the backwoods of Georgia-an assignment that brought him closer to the rural black folk than he had been before. Years later he summed up his experience in the form of a conundrum: “The situation in which they were might have seemed hopeless, but they themselves were not without hope. The patent proof of this was their ability to sing and to laugh. I know something about the philosophy of song; I wish I knew as much about the philosophy of laughter. Their deep genuine laughter often puzzled and irritated me. Why did they laugh so? How could they laugh so? Was this rolling, pealing laughter merely echoes from a mental vacuity or did it spring from an innate power to rise above the ironies of life? Or were they, in the language of a line from one of the blues, ‘Laughing to keep from crying’? Were they laughing because they were only thoughtless? Were they laughing at themselves? Were they laughing at the white man? I found no complete answer to these questions.” In Negro Dancers the black poet Claude McKay expressed the same perplexity.
A Pantheon of Heroes
Authors: Levine Lawrence W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The legends and stories of antebellum blacks lived on well past their generation. They were to be found throughout the twentieth-century South and North-wherever Negroes were. Black storytellers still told and black audiences still relished supernatural tales, moral and didactic tales, human and animal trickster tales, tales centering on both real and apocryphal personal experiences-indeed, the entire range of tales that slaves had told and retold. The art of story telling retained its importance and continued for many to be a prime means of entertainment.
Introduction: The Nationalist Garden and the Holy Book
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early nineteenth century in America, nature couldn’t do without God, and God apparently couldn’t do without nature. By the time Emerson wrote Nature in 1836, the terms “God” and “nature” were often the same thing, and could be used interchangeably. The transcendentalists accepted God’s immanence. More orthodox religions, which had always insisted on a separation of God and nature, also capitulated to their union. A “Christianized naturalism,” to use Perry Miller’s phrase, transcended theological boundaries, so that one could find “sermons in stones, and good in every thing.” “Nature,” wrote Miller, “somehow, by a legerdemain that even so highly literate Christians as the editors of The New York Review could not quite admit to themselves, had effectually taken the place of the Bible. . . .”
Grand Opera and the Still Small Voice
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the mid-nineteenth century the American preoccupation with nature manifested itself in several distinct types of landscape painting. Two of these may now be seen as polarities, though it can also be claimed they shared similar goals. The large-scale, popular landscapes by such artists as Church, Bierstadt, and Moran seemed to satisfy the myth of a bigger, newer America. But a more modest kind of expression, practiced by some of the same artists, and by others who dealt more exclusively with this idiom, may have indicated some of the nineteenth century’s profoundest feelings about nature. The recognition of this polarity now seems a central issue in understanding nineteenth-century American painting.
Both modes continued the late-eighteenth-century notion of America as the “Virgin Land,” a world unsullied by civilization. In expressing this idea, the larger, more operatic paintings tended to impose older European conventions. The smaller paintings seem to have formulated their own conventions by a more original transformation of European models—tempered perhaps by paradigms of order established by the industrialism rapidly eradicating the primordial wilderness.
The Geological Timetable: Rocks
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Trinity of God, Man, and Nature was central to the nineteenth-century universe. Nature itself was illuminated by another trinity: art, science, and religion (fig. 4.1). Nature’s truths, as revealed by art, could be further validated by the disclosures of science, which revealed God’s purposes and aided the reading of His natural text. At mid-century, landscape attitudes were firmly based on this unity of faith, art, and science—a precarious unity, as we shall see. Common to all three was an idea that obsessed the period: Creation.
Behind much landscape art in America was a desire to approximate the moment of Creation itself. This was so whether the artist respectfully duplicated nature in the work of art (Durand), or whether his aim was to imitate the creative powers of God (Cole). Cole’s reference to “those scenes of solitude from which the hand of nature has never been lifted”—his concern for these “undefiled works” of God—partly reflected the ideas of Rousseau and the late-eighteenth-century sublime. But the urge to touch origins became a quest for primal truths that would redeem the present.
The Primal Vision: Expeditions
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The landscape artist’s prominent role in the exploration of the American continent was as diverse as that great adventure itself. In style, it ran the gamut from the simple topographical description of the earlier western expeditions to the baroque glorification of the great surveys of the seventies. The locale ranged from desert heat through the climatic extremes of the South American tropics to the icy expanses of the Arctic. The artist was explorer, scientist, educator, frontiersman, and minister. He ran arduous risks and suffered extreme hardships which certified his “heroic” status. This heroism became a kind of tour de force in the vicinity of art.
In Europe, the tour de force generally received its scale from the artist’s Ambition, set resplendently within a major tradition. In America, it consisted in simply “getting there.” The artist became the hero of his own journey—which replaced the heroic themes of mythology—by vanquishing physical obstacles en route to a destination. For the ambition of the artistic enterprise was substituted the ambition of the artist’s Quest—itself a major nineteenth-century theme. In this displacement of the heroic from the work of art to the persona of the artist lay, perhaps, part of the attraction of unexplored territory for the American artist at mid-century.
Gesamtkunstwerk
Authors: Millington Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The German term ‘Gesamtkunstwerk’, meaning ‘total work of art’, was used by Wagner for his notion, formulated in his theoretical essays of 1849–51, of an art form that combined various media within the framework of a drama. Harking back to ancient Greek drama, he suggested that there the basic elements of dance, music, and poetry had been ideally combined. Their division into separate genres had diminished their expressive force; only in the total work of art could they regain their original dignity. Similarly, the arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting would recover their classical and authentic stature only as constituents of the ‘artwork of the future ’.
Asher B. Durand: Hudson River School Solutions
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the hands of Thomas Cole’s successors, the development of an official Hudson River style seems to have been the natural result of the general public pressure for fulfillment of the hybrid aesthetic of the real-ideal. Some critics, such as Jarves, would have preferred the idealism of Cole: . . . in all his work we find the artist actuated rather by a lofty conception of the value of art as a teacher than by an ambition to excel in mere imitation. With him American landscape art began its career with high motives. Progress in this direction requires no ordinary degree of thought and imagination. It is, perhaps, on this account that he is not popularly estimated at his right value, and has left no followers to carry forward the beautiful significance and lofty suggestion with which he aimed to endow landscape art.
Fitz H. Lane: A Paradigm Of Luminism
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Emerson wrote this famous statement in Nature in 1836, Fitz H. Lane (1804–65), a native of Gloucester, was in Boston serving as an apprentice to the lithographer William S. Pendleton. The following year, he worked with the Boston publishers Keith and Moore, and in 1845 formed his own business with John W. A. Scott. He returned to Gloucester about 1848. Shortly after, he built a stone house with a southeast studio and a view of the harbor, and he lived there until his death, apart from short trips to Maine, New York, Baltimore, and probably Puerto Rico.
Martin Johnson Heade: Haystacks And Light
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is little evidence that Martin Johnson Heade (1819–1904) knew Fitz H. Lane or even that he was acquainted with his work. Yet his painting The Stranded Boat (1863; fig. 7.1) is so similar in mood, feeling, and style to Lane’s Brace’s Rock of about the same time (see fig. 6.3) that it further substantiates the idea of luminism as an indigenous mode of seeing that characterized much pre–Civil War art without, however, taking on the communal aspects of an acknowledged school or movement.
Albert Pinkham Ryder: Even With A Thought
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thomas Cole had complained that the American public wanted “things, not thoughts.” Albert Pinkham Ryder (1847–1917) can be said to have made thought into a thing, into a substance built up of innumerable layers of paint. In his awareness of the expressive potential of paint, Ryder recalls the romanticism of Allston earlier in the century. Both artists have links to the coloristic tradition of European art, from the Venetians through Rubens, into Delacroix’s romanticism, Impressionism, and ultimately into Expressionism.
On Orchestrators and Orchestration
Authors: Steven Suskin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theatre orchestration is the art of—well, is it a creative art? Or is it the work of skilled craftspeople? This question shall be addressed again and again over the course of this book. As shall the question: what precisely does the orchestrator do? And even trickier, I suppose, is: what does the orchestrator do that the composer doesn’t?
Twelve Major Orchestrators
Authors: Steven Suskin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Robert Russell Bennett—the so-called president of the Broadway orchestrators—resounds through the history of the American musical, seeming to go back almost to the Mayflower. Bennett did, in fact, go back to the Mayflower; his mother was a direct descendant of William Bradford, who came over on the first boat and later served as governor of the colony of Massachusetts. Paternally, Bennett came from the brass section; his father and three uncles were professional musicians, with papa Bennett on the trumpet. Bennett tells us in his autobiography that upon his birth on June 15, 1894, his mother named him after the writer James Russell Lowell. His father, just as definitely, insisted that he was named in honor of the comedian Sol Smith Russell. In light of the general confusion about his name—he was credited for much of his early career as Russell Bennett—Bennett points out that “Robert” was a family name but “Russell” was the name he was always called.
Putting It Together
Authors: Steven Suskin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The accompaniment, melody, and decoration join together, sometimes inseparably, to create the overall effect; in special cases, some of the layers are missing altogether (by design) from an orchestration. Let us now attempt to illuminate the discussion by examining twelve specific orchestrations, which have been selected not only for general interest but on the assumption that readers most probably have the relevant original cast albums on their CD shelf. Or should, anyway.
Overlooked and Underappreciated: The Human Potential for Peace
Authors: Fry Douglas P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although war and other types of violence may be very noticeable, a close examination of cross-cultural data reveals that people usually deal with conflict without violence. Humans have a solid capacity for getting along with each other peacefully, preventing physical aggression, limiting the scope and spread of violence, and restoring peace following aggression.1 In this chapter we will consider a couple of ethnographic cases that illustrate this human potential for peace-the nonwarring, nonfeuding Siriano and Paliyan.
Void if Detached ... from Reality: Australian “Warriors,” Yanomamo Unokais, and Lethal Raiding Psychology
Authors: Fry Douglas P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, I mentioned that the Murngin of Arnhem Land in northern Australia engaged in a ceremonial peacemaking fight called the makarata. Warner explains, “It is a kind of general duel and a partial ordeal which allows the aggrieved parties to vent their feelings by throwing spears at their enemies or by seeing the latter’s blood run in expiation.” Whereas the ceremony did not always succeed in restoring the peace, over the twenty-year period of Warner's study, no one was ever killed during a makarata. During the expiation ceremony, the elders continuously reminded those throwing spears "to be careful not to kill or hurt anyone." Clearly the makarata was not warfare,-it was an example of conflict resolution, Australian Aborigine style.1 Exquisite rock art showing animals, humans, and mythological beings is spread across Arnhem Land.
Darwin Got It Right: Sex Differences in Aggression
Authors: Fry Douglas P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter and the next, we will consider an evolutionary analysis of the patterns of interpersonal aggression in nomadic hunter-gatherer societies. I will suggest that the forces of natural selection and sexual selection have shaped such behaviors in humans as they have in a great number of other species. Evolutionary theory, models of aggression based on game theory, studies of animal aggression, and data on nomadic band societies converge toward a similar assessment: During human evolution, restraint and limited interpersonal aggression have been favored by selective forces over more extreme aggression. This assessment pertains to interpersonal aggression. If we shift the focus to warfare, neither the observable facts nor the application of evolutionary principles supports the notion that war is an evolutionary adaptation. In short, widely publicized assertions by some evolutionary psychologists that war has evolved through natural selection cannot be substantiated by the evidence from nomadic forager studies.
A Macroscopic Anthropological View
Authors: Fry Douglas P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anthropology offers a broad perspective on humanity that spans evolutionary time and crosses cultural space. In this sense, anthropology is macroscopic-it helps us to see the big picture. A macroscopic view, for instance, leads to insights about how cultural belief systems affect our thinking. We have examined how individuals tend to accept the belief system of their culture without much question. Widespread beliefs that war is natural and acceptable hinder the search for alternatives-and thus the inevitability of war becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Enhancing Peace
Authors: Fry Douglas P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anthropology provides many insights on war and peace, but by far the most important, for it pertains directly to the future of the species, is that war, like slavery before it, can be abolished. With wars continuing to erupt in different quarters of the planet, this idea might seem implausible. The elimination of war, however, is starkly realistic in two senses of the word. First, an anthropological perspective suggests that the human species, realistically, has the capacity to accomplish this goal. Second, the serious challenges facing humanity, including the spread of weapons of mass destruction, suggest that realistically we must abolish war before it abolishes us. Replacing war with alternative ways to insure security and resolve conflicts is the only rational way to proceed into the twenty-first century and beyond.
“A Vote of Thanks”
Authors: Symonds Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By Midsummer Of 1864, the U.S. Navy had more than six hundred warships in commission, and more on the way. A handful of older sailing vessels maintained a minimal American presence overseas in those parts of the world where Union merchant ships still carried on a global trade. They were augmented by several newer and faster steam frigates that hunted the elusive rebel commerce raiders, such as the Alabama and Florida, which threatened that trade.
Forms: Phrases and Sections
Authors: Everett Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What provides the shape of musical matter? What are the fundamental ways of establishing repetition and contrast? What gives us the sense that some musical ideas lead logically to others? What creates a sense of balance and what puts it in peril? These are some of the questions that lead us to consider music’s formal structure—how phrases are constructed, how they are grouped together to form sections, and how sections relate to each other to form complete songs. Our earlier coverage of the fundamentals of rhythm and harmony, along with our detailed understanding of texture and color, will be quite useful as we approach these issues.
Engineering the Master
Authors: Everett Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once the artists, producer, and any session musicians have arranged their song as a composition to be performed, a studio’s recording engineers, tape operators and disc cutters play a large role in creating the sound as heard on record. Their chief responsibility, of course, is to record what the artists play so it will sound its best when reproduced, but because every step in the recording process can affect the resulting sound, the final product may range from a relatively neutral reproduction of a song as performed in an ideal environment to a highly colored and even profoundly changed reading of what had been done in the studio. Aside from live concert performances, which make up a small percentage of our listening, virtually all music recorded for radio programming and home listening in the 1950s and ‘60s was produced in acoustically designed sound studios, with sound waves converted by microphones to analog electrical signals that would be routed through processors and controllers of various types (often laid out on a mixing board) and recorded on a multitrack magnetic working tape, to be manipulated still further in the creation of a monophonic or stereo master that would then be subject to dynamic alteration in the cutting of the prototype for the making of the metal parts that would stamp the record’s groove into thousands of vinyl consumer copies. Traditional music recordings, in the way of classical music, Broadway shows, jazz, and folk songs, tended to be transparent, relying on the studio’s ideal neutrality as a way of preserving the original sound. After all, a violinist might have spent tens of thousands (today, millions) of dollars for an exquisitely crafted instrument because of its sonic properties, and moreover would have worked for decades developing a technique that would permit the control of every nuance of the resulting sound, and would then depend upon an engineer to reproduce as close a likeness to the original as the medium would permit. Rock musicians, by contrast, began to find an aesthetic potential in the manipulation of sound for its own sake, discovering that the studio would provide an ideal blank canvas upon which to work, and so the engineers who could develop and control circuits that would shape every imaginable facet of a sound became an artist’s collaborator, often contributing much more than a final scrub and polish. Thus this chapter is devoted to engineering, which would not very likely find a place in a book structured like this on classical music but is crucial in our domain.
Creating an Interpretation
Authors: Everett Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once a listener has a working knowledge of the basic properties of the musical languages within rock, one can begin to tie together relationships, and form a critical response a bit deeper than “it’s a good song.” When the listener can hear how rhythms, harmonies, melodic and contrapuntal ideas, tone colors, and formal schemes work with the ideas in the lyrics, he or she can begin to understand the song as a composition in a much more satisfying way than ever thought possible before, building a personal interpretation that makes that song more and more one’s own. Part of the process involves listening to the lyrics themselves at a level beneath the surface, thinking about the characters who populate the song, their relationships, the situations and imagery by which character traits are amplified, remaining sensitive to possible references to other texts, to the ways in which language is poetically manipulated to suggest meanings beyond the words themselves, to the ordering of presentation, to the attitude of the narrator, and to possible thematic meanings of social or cultural interest. All of these poetic components can be compared to their songs’ musical settings to see whether all is mutually supportive, or whether a new level of commentary is revealed by examining apparent contradictions.