bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Clays, Survey
Authors: Murray Haydn H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractClay minerals and materials have very diverse physical and chemical properties dependent largely on their structure and composition. Clays are comprised of hydrous phyllosilicates called clay minerals. The phyllosilicates are generally platy in shape and differ from one another with regard to the structural arrangement of the layers, the water content, and the associated cations. The clay mineral groups are kaolins, smectites, illites, chlorites, and palygorskite‐sepiolite. The differences in these clays are discussed along with their origin and geographic locations.
Metallurgy, Survey
Authors: Hiskey Brent 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMetallurgy is both an ancient art and a modern science, requiring detailed knowledge of the structure, properties, and behavior of metals and metal alloys. Whereas for many metals, the primary source materials are crude metalliferous ores, for some metals recycled material, ie, scrap, contributes significantly to total metal production. Extractive processes for ores or scrap, which may be physical or chemical and may include treatment for prevention of corrosion, processing of metals or alloys by heat treatment, casting, etc, and physical measurements relating to failure analysis and other structure/property relationships, are all areas of metallurgy. Terms used in metallurgy are defined. The relationship between ore grades, metal prices, and economic feasibility is discussed.
Metallic Coatings, Survey
Authors: Krulik Gerald A. , Mandich Nenad V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMetallic coatings may be functional or decorative, permanent or temporary, sacrificial, or noble. Pure metals, metal alloys, metal compounds, and intermetallics may be used. The base material to which the metallic coating is bonded may be metallic, nonmetallic inorganic, or an organic such as a plastic, paper, or a fiber. Methods for metallic coating may be divided according to the way the metal is applied: liquid phase, gas phase, and vacuum phase metallizing, and metallizing by direct physical or thermal bonding. The various processes in each of these categories are described, along with the types of coatings and base materials used. Environmental considerations of these coating processes are also discussed.Whereas galvanizing and electroplating represent the processes having the largest volume of metallic coated materials, the gas and vacuum phase metallizing processes used in the electronics industry represent the highest economic value. The corrosion and wear resistance of metallic coated tools and parts is of the utmost industrial importance.
Hydrocarbons, Survey
Authors: Mears David E. , Eastman Alan D. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Hydrocarbons, compounds of carbon and hydrogen, are structurally classified as aromatic and aliphatic; the latter includes alkanes (paraffins), alkenes (olefins), alkynes (acetylenes), and cycloparaffins. Hydrocarbons are important sources for energy and chemicals and are directly related to the gross national product. The United States has led the world in developing refining and petrochemical processes for hydrocarbons from crude oil and natural gas.
Hydrocarbons are used in the production of lubricants, in agriculture and food, in coatings, and in polymers. Toxicity and regulatory issues, including U.S. Clean Air Acts, the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and others are discussed.
Elastomers, Synthetic, Survey
Authors: Morton Maurice 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe purpose of this article is to provide a brief overview of the materials designated synthetic elastomers and the elastomeric or rubbery state. Subsequent entries describe the individual classes of elastomers in detail. The principal classes of synthetic elastomers covered here or elsewhere in theEncyclopediaare acrylic elastomers, butyl rubber, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, ethylene‐propylene–diene rubber, fluorocarbon elastomers, nitrile rubber, polybutadiene, polychloroprene, polyethers, polyisoprene, styrene‐butadiene rubber, thermoplastic elastomers, silicones, polysulfide rubber, and polyurethanes.
Acrylic Ester Polymers
Authors: Slone Robert V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe nature of the R group in its formula determines the properties of each acrylic ester and the polymers it forms. Polymers of this class are distinguished by their water‐clear color and stability on aging. Acrylic monomers are extremely versatile building blocks. They readily polymerize or copolymerize with a variety of other monomers. Copolymers with methacrylates, vinyl acetate, styrene, and acrylonitrile are commercially significant. Although the acrylics have a higher cost than many other monomers their unique characteristics and efficiency offset the higher cost. Acrylic ester polymers can be made to hydrolyze to poly(acrylic acid) or an acid salt and the corresponding alcohol. Two principal processes are used for the manufacture of monomeric acrylic esters: the semicatalytic Reppe process and the propylene oxidation process, the latter of which is preferred because of economy and safety. The toxicities of acrylic monomers range from moderate to slight. The vast majority of all commercially prepared acrylic polymers are copolymers of an acrylic ester monomer with one or more different monomers. Copolymerization has led to the development of many different resins for a variety of applications. Acrylic polymers are considered to be nontoxic, and are used primarily in coatings, textiles, adhesives, and paper.
Alcohols, Higher Aliphatic, Survey and Natural Alcohols Manufacture
Authors: Kenneally Corey J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe monohydric aliphatic alcohols of six or more carbon atoms are generally referred to as higher alcohols. Historically, the higher alcohols were derived from natural fats, oils, and waxes and were called fatty alcohols, but now similar alcohols are widely available from synthetic processes using petrochemical feedstocks. Although the natural and synthetic alcohols are used interchangeably for many applications, for some applications the distinction still remains. The detergent range alcohols are used mainly as sulfate, ethoxy, and ethoxysulfate derivatives in a wide variety of detergent and surfactant applications. Most higher alcohols of commercial importance are primary alcohols; secondary alcohols have more limited specialty uses. Typical reactions of the higher alcohols include esterification, sulfation, etherification, halogenation, dehydration, oxidation, and amination. In the United States, most detergent range alcohol production is by synthetic processes. Most manufacturers sell a portion of their alcohol product on the merchant market, retaining a portion for internal use, typically for the manufacture of plasticizers. The higher alcohols are among the less toxic of commonly used chemicals. Fatty alcohols are produced by hydrogenolysis of methyl esters or fatty acids in the presence of a heterogeneous catalyst. There are three principal hydrogenolysis processes in worldwide use. Each process typically uses a copper chromite or copper‐zinc catalyst that is modified to meet the needs of the individual producer. The detergent range alcohols and their derivatives have a wide variety of uses in consumer and industrial products. The major use is as surfactants in detergents and cleaning products. They also are used extensively in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The plasticizer range alcohols are utilized primarily in plasticizers, but they also have a wide range of other uses.
Textiles, Survey
Authors: Rebenfeld Ludwig 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Consumption trends of those fibers that are used in the production of typical apparel, household, and industrial textiles are classified and presented. Both naturally occurring fibers, such as cotton and wool, and manufactured fibers are discussed. For manufactured fibers, the methods of fiber production by extrusion spinning are described. The three principal types of textile fabrics, woven, knitted, and nonwoven, are defined and described, as are some of the important dyeing and finishing operations used in the textile industry.
Vitamins, Survey
Authors: Scott John W. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

The vitamins are a group of organic substances, present in small amounts in foods, that are essential for normal metabolism in humans. Lack of vitamins results in deficiency diseases. More recent science indicates that there is another role for vitamins in the maintenance of optimal health. The 13 vitamins are divided into fat‐soluble and water‐soluble groups. The fat‐soluble vitamins include vitamin A (retinol), vitamin D (cholecalciferol), vitamin E (α‐tocopherol), and vitamin K (phylloquinone). The water‐soluble vitamins are vitamin B
1
(thiamine), vitamin B
2
(riboflavin), niacin (vitamin B
3
, nicotinic acid), vitamin B
6
(pyridoxine), vitamin B
12
(cobalamin), folic acid, pantothenic acid, biotin, and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). All are items of commerce resulting from isolation from natural sources, chemical synthesis, or fermentation. In addition to human health, a primary use of vitamins is in animal production.
Sutures
Authors: Lewis O. Griffin , Fabisiak Walter 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Surgical sutures are sterile, flexible strands used to close wounds or to tie off tubular structures such as blood vessels. They may be made from natural or synthetic fibers and are usually attached to a needle. The generic and proprietary names of the natural and synthetic polymeric fibers used in the manufacture of surgical sutures distributed commercially in the United States are given, along with the claims for retention of strength at various intervals and the time required for absorption. The various structures of sutures are discussed in terms of biological compatibility, diameter and strength standards, and methods of sterilization. Color additives and coatings for each type of suture are described, as are the accompanying needles. Regulatory requirements are discussed, and tables of
United States Pharmacopeia
specifications are given.
Silica, Synthetic Quartz Crystals
Authors: Armington Alton F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSilicon dioxide exists in both crystalline and glassy forms. The most common crystalline form is that of α‐quartz. Synthetic quartz crystals, free of twinning and other imperfections, are used extensively in electronic applications. The hydrothermal processing techniques used to synthesize commercial quantities of high purity quartz crystals are discussed. The reasons for using synthetic quartz as timing control and piezoelectric devices are presented.
Alcohols, Higher Aliphatic, Synthetic Processes
Authors: Wagner John D. , Lappin George R. , Zietz J. Richard 
Published: July 2004

AbstractHigher aliphatic alcohols (C6–C18) are produced in a number of important industrial processes using petroleum‐based raw materials, eg, the Ziegler, oxo, and aldol processes. By far the largest volume synthetic alcohol is 2‐ethylhexanol, C8H18O, used mainly in production of the poly(vinyl chloride) plasticizer bis(2‐ethylhexyl) phthalate, C24H38O4, commonly called dioctyl phthalate or DOP. Other, lower volume synthetic alcohol application areas include solvents and specialty esters.
Syrups
Authors: Hebeda Ronald E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCorn sweeteners, maple syrup, and molasses, all commercially available syrups, are concentrated solutions of carbohydrate. These products, produced for a variety of food and nonfood applications, are in some cases also available in a dry form. Corn sweeteners are prepared from hydrolyzed starch and include dextrose, high fructose corn syrup, regular corn syrup, and maltodextrin, which all have in common the raw material source, general methods of preparation, and many properties and applications. Dextrose, the common or commercial name forD‐glucose, is available as a syrup or as a pure crystalline solid. High fructose corn syrup is produced by the partial enzymatic isomerization of dextrose. Corn syrups and maltodextrins are clear, colorless, viscous liquids prepared by hydrolysis of starch to solutions of dextrose, maltose, and higher molecular weight saccharides. Maple syrup, like corn syrup, is a nutritive sweetener produced as a concentrated carbohydrate (sucrose) solution. Molasses is a syrup produced as a by‐product of sugar manufacture.
Talc
Authors: McCarthy Edward F. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Talc, a naturally occurring mineral, is a crystalline hydrous magnesium silicate. It occurs widely throughout the world, most often in association with magnesite, but pure talcs also occur. After sorting or beneficiation, it is milled or micronized to fine powders. Talc is platy, soft, inert, and generally white except when stained by iron or contaminated by other minerals. It is nonhazardous and is classified as a nuisance dust in powder form.

Talc is used in pulp and paper for pitch control, filling, and coating. It is used in ceramics for wall tile, electrical porcelains, and cordierite automotive catalyst supports. It finds application in paints for corrosion resistance, flatting, and TiO
2
extension. It is used in plastics to reinforce polypropylene and to detackify low density polyethylene film. Other markets include body and baby powders, rubber reinforcing, dusting roofing shingles, and joint compounds.
Tall Oil
Authors: Huibers Derk T. A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Tall oil, a by‐product of kraft pulping of pine wood, is formed by acidifying black liquor soap skimmings. It consists of resin acids or rosin, fatty acids, and neutrals. Crude tall oil is an excellent source of rosin and tall oil fatty acid, an industrial‐grade oleic and linoleic acid blend. Extensive fractional distillation is required. The bulk of the neutrals, largely esters of fatty acids, sterols, resin and wax alcohols, and hydrocarbons, boil at either lower or higher temperatures than the boiling range of the fatty and resin acids.
Tall oil fatty acid is used to manufacture drying alkyd resins and dimer acids. Dimer acids are converted to noncrystalline polyamides with low softening points and transition temperatures. These polyamides find application in hot‐melt adhesives, printing ink resins, and epoxy curing agents. Rosin is used mainly in printing ink and adhesives and, to some extent, as emulsifier in the manufacture of styrene–butadiene elastomer rubber and paper size.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Tantalum
Authors: Mahmood Tariq , Lindahl Charles B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTantalum forms a single binary fluoride, tantalum pentafluoride. It is a white solid with a mp of 97C and bp of 229C. It is prepared by the reaction of tantalum pentachloride or oxide with anhydrous hydrogen fluoride. Tantalum pentafluoride has been used as a superacid catalyst for the conversion of CH4to gasolinerange hydrocarbons, in the manufacture of fluoride glass and fluoride glass optical fiber preforms.
Tar and Pitch
Authors: Betts W. D. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This article discusses the origins of tars and pitches from the pyrolysis of organic matter in general; those derived from coal are dealt with in detail. The physical characteristics of tars and pitch residues are summarized, as are the chemical composition of the fractions produced and the distillation processes by which they are obtained from coal tar.
Change has taken place in the twentieth century in the role of coal tar as the principal source of aromatic organic chemicals, and for road construction and surfacing, which has become an important source of components for carbon products, binders, and coating materials. Attention is drawn to the remaining chemical products of commercial importance, principally naphthalene, creosote oil, anthracene, and modest amounts of phenols and aromatic bases. There have also been a few newer uses for naphthalene and a novel purification process, as well as different requirements for pitches used as carbon binders and for the composition of creosote. Concern about the health and safety aspects of coal‐derived substances has been considered by the authorities, particularly in the European Union and directives, and regulations have been introduced to reduce risks in both the environment and workplace.
Tar Sands
Authors: Speight James G. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Tar sands (also known as oil sands and bituminous sands) are sand deposits impregnated with the dense, viscous petroleum‐like material called bitumen and are widely distributed throughout the world. Commercial methods for the recovery of bitumen from tar sand involve mining and nonmining operations. The Athabasca deposit is mineable within concepts of the economics and technology of open‐pit mining. Nonmining (
in situ
) recovery techniques using steam have not had the same degree of success for bitumen recovery but have had notable success in heavy oil reservoir operations.

The hot‐water process is the only successful commercial process in the 1990s to be applied to bitumen recovery from mined tar sand. Various process options have been tested.
The API gravity of tar sand bitumen varies greatly depending on the deposit; viscosity is very high and volatility low. The bitumen is upgraded by a combination of carbon rejection (coking) and product hydrotreating. Bitumen is converted commercially by delayed coking and fluid coking to distillate oils, coke, and light gases. The coker distillate is a partially upgraded material and is a suitable feed for hydrodesulfurization to produce a low sulfur synthetic crude oil.
Tea
Authors: Balentine Douglas A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTea, manufactured from the leaves ofCamellia sinensis, is an important commercial product worldwide. Tea contains polyphenolic and volatile constituents, which provide characteristic color and flavor. The respective chemistries of these compounds are reviewed, with emphasis on tea manufacturing and enzymology. The difference in composition between green and black teas is described. The technologies used for preparation of these and instant and decaffeinated teas are reviewed. The physiological effects of tea polyphenols as antioxidants and their possible role in reduction of chronic disease risk are briefly discussed. Vol. 23, pp. 746–768, 139 refs. to August 1995.
Tellurium and Tellurium Compounds
Authors: Hoffmann James E. , King Michael G. , Carapella S. C. , Oldfield J. E. , Putnam R. D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTellurium is the most metallic of the abundant chalcogens. In many of its chemical properties it still resembles oxygen, sulfur, and selenium.Tellurium is produced as a by‐product at copper refineries throughout the world. The main uses for tellurium are as a free‐machining additive in both ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy (60%) in chemicals (25%), and in electrical applications such as solar cells and thermoelectrics (8%), and miscellaneous (7%). Applications of tellurium are frequently limited by the small quantities available. Tellurium and tellurium compounds generally have a low environmental impact.
Temperature Measurement
Authors: Sostmann Henry E. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Temperature is a measure of the hotness of something. For a measure to be rational, there must be agreement on a scale of numerical values defining hotness and on devices for realizing and displaying these values. The single temperature scale having an absolute basis in nature in the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale or absolute scale, based on principles that can be deduced from the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The most commonly used practical scale is the International Temperature Scale, on which temperatures are designated as Celsius degrees. Instruments of measure and measurements of various materials are discussed.
Textiles, Testing
Authors: Banks‐Lee Pamela , Pegram Jan 
Published: July 2004

AbstractObjective and subjective methods for testing of fibers, yarns, and conventional fabrics are presented in this article. A brief discussion of testing methods for geotextiles and geomembranes is also given. Methods reviewed are mainly from ASTM and American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) standards. Specific properties discussed are, for fibers, length, crimp, transverse dimensions, density, cross‐sectional shape, shrinkage, friction, optical, tensile and elastic properties, moisture absorption, and electrostatic and thermal properties; for yarn, size and number, twist, strength, evenness, friction and texture; and for conventional fabrics, construction, thickness, air permeability, strength and elongation, snag, pilling and abrasion resistance, shrinkage, thermal and moisture transmission, color and wash fastness, flammability, hand, drape, wrinkle resistance, luster, and comfort. Test methods for geotextiles and geomembranes include those for filtration and clogging, permeability, permittivity and pore size, tensile properties, degradation by ultraviolet light and temperature, abrasion, friction, and construction parameters, including mass and thickness. Where appropriate brief discussions of fiber, yarn, and fabric properties are included as they relate to the testing procedures. Testing equipment available for making particular measurements has also been given in many instances.
Thermal Pollution
Authors: Coutant Charles C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractHeat is a quantitative measure of energy that depends on the mass of an object; temperature is a measure of energy intensity. Although heat is the waste product of electricity generation, temperature is the environmental characteristic to which organisms respond. Few energy conversion processes are carried out without heat being rejected at some point in the process stream. Historically it has been more convenient as well as less costly to reject waste heat to the environment rather than to attempt significant recovery. Concern over heat rejection arose when quantities at localized sites rose dramatically as the electric utility industry shifted to water‐cooled, thermal‐electric generating stations of high unity capacity in the 1950s. Cooling techniques, risk minimization, thermal effects, prevention of mortality, maintaining ecosystem structure and function, impingement, biocides, entrainment, gas balance, cooling‐tower chemicals, human pathogens, aquaculture, open‐field agriculture, greenhouse agriculture, animal shelters, space heating, industrial process heat, and cooling reservoirs are discussed.
Enzyme Applications, Therapeutic
Authors: Jayaram Hiremagalur N. , Ahluwalia Gurpreet S. , Cooney David A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEnzymes are used for the treatment of a broad variety of diseases by virtue of the fact that they catalyze chemical reactions with great speed and specificity. The principal therapeutic applications of enzymes are as thrombolytic agents capable of rapidly lysing the clots which cause, or contribute to, myocardial infarction, phlebitis, pulmonary embolisms, occluded catheters, and allied conditions; as oral or parenteral replacement therapy for genetic diseases attributable to a deficiency of a specific enzyme or family of enzymes; in oncology, for the control of the growth of select neoplasms or leukemias; and as antidotes to poisons or as counteragents capable of mitigating the delirious effects of toxins, etc. With the advent of DNA technology, strategies for preparing enzymes of human origin for human use have become readily available, thus circumventing the dual problems of immunogenicity and toxicity which are often encountered with enzyme‐proteins of bacterial origin. Making projections to the future, it is anticipated that therapeutic enzymes of human origin will play an increasingly important role in future strategies for controlling a variety of disease states.