bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Modeling Techniques for Solute Transport in Groundwater
Authors: Das Diganta Bhusan , Hanspal Navraj S. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractGroundwater constitutes an important component of water supply systems for domestic use, industry, and agriculture. Due to increased use regularly above sustainable levels, groundwater quality often deteriorates. Contaminants in groundwater systems are introduced by hazardous industrial wastes, leachate from landfills, oil spills, agricultural activities, sites of radioactive waste repositories, and other sources. In most cases, the source of contamination is aboveground, and the contaminants pass through the unsaturated zone on their way to the saturated region.The fundamental processes that govern solute mobility in groundwater have been studied and reasonably well understood for some time. Solute migration results from a variety of coupled physical, chemical, and biological processes. Owing to the complexities of natural soils and solute–soil–fluid interactions and frequently changing field conditions, modeling solute transport involves some degree of approximation. However, the modeling framework must retain the important aspects of real phenomena. It is also necessary for a reliable/realistic model to answer several relevant questions, such as, what is the purpose of the predictive calculations, what types of environments can be modeled, what level of precision is expected, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of the developed approach. To answer these questions while developing a model for solute movement in the subsurface, many issues must be considered.
Brine Deposits
Authors: Testa Stephen M. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Brines are warm to hot, saturated to nearly saturated, highly saline, ocean and lake waters, containing Ca, Na, K, and Cl and minor amounts of other elements, typical of pore fluids in restricted basins. From an oceanographic perspective, brine is seawater that, due to high evaporation rates or freezing, contains more than the usual amount of dissolved salts, typically about 35%. A brine lake is essentially a salt lake. Brine lakes, like the Dead Sea, the Great Salt Lake in Utah, the Mono Lake region in northern California, and the Salton Sea region in southern California, develop as a result of high evaporation rates in an arid desert that lacks an outlet to the ocean (Fig.1). The salt is derived from either minerals washed out of the surrounding watershed or from a geological deposit or area previously connected to the ocean.
Deep Soil‐Water Movement
Authors: Rasmussen Todd 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water movement above the water table, yet below the root zone, is predominantly downward because of gravitational forces. This vertical movement is frequently affected by lower permeability geologic units that divert water horizontally. Also, vapor‐driven transport of water can be important in very dry climates. Shallow soil‐water is affected by plant uptake of water, and also by evaporation from the soil surface. These processes are characteristic of unsaturated media, i.e., zones where the soil materials are not saturated with water. In these cases, the surface tension of water causes adherance to soil surface, and soil‐water pressures are generally negative. Each soil material has a distinctive relationship between the negative fluid pressure (or tension) and water content. The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is lower than the hydraulic conductivity under saturated conditions because not all available pore space contributes to fluid flow. Deep soil‐water movement is also affected by macropores (large pores) that can provide preferential flow paths under very wet conditions, but may not significantly contribute to flow otherwise.
Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization: Technical, Economic and Regulatory Considerations of the Soil‐Lead Issue
Authors: Johnston Tracey , Datta Rupali , Sarkar Dibyendu 
Published: July 2005

AbstractLead is a common environmental contaminant, produced from multiple anthropogenic sources. The cost of traditional remediation techniques for lead‐contaminated soils is prohibitive. As a result, new technologies such as phytoextraction, the removal of contaminants from soil and water sources by plants, and phytostabilization, the immobilization of contaminants in the soil, are being examined as remediation alternatives for lead‐contaminated soils. Only a few plant species have been identified so far that can tolerate and accumulate lead partly because lead is relatively immobile in soils and has low phytoavailability. However, lowering the pH or the use of soil amendments or chelating agents such as EDTA can enhance the uptake of lead by plants. Lead is already relatively immobile in most soils, so phytostabilization is a promising remediation strategy. However, phytostabilization leaves the contaminant in the soil (albeit in an insoluble form), so long‐term monitoring is required to verify that the contaminant does not become soluble again. Although only limited studies on the economic viability of phytoextraction and phytostabilization have been done, the estimated costs are significantly lower than those of traditional methods.
Regional Flow Systems
Authors: Uliana Matthew M. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

A
groundwater flow system
is a three‐dimensional entity that has the following components:

—a recharge area where water enters the flow system

—a discharge area where water exits the system

—boundary conditions and physical dimensions

When dealing with flow systems, we often differentiate between
local, intermediate,
and
regional
flow systems. The distinction is primarily a matter of scale; local flow systems cover a much smaller area than intermediate systems, which in turn are smaller than regional systems.
Regional groundwater flow systems
generally involve a large area (10
1
–10
2
km), and usually contain several local flow systems, resulting in areas of local recharge as well as springs or other discharge features within the larger system. Often several different aquifers and geologic formations will be connected by a larger regional groundwater system.
Magnetic Water Conditioning
Authors: Ritchie Ingrid 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Hard scale is a significant problem costing billions of dollars annually throughout the world in industrial, commercial, and residential equipment that utilizes heat transfer surfaces. The development and use of technologies that can help reduce hard scale and the use of vital energy, water, and other resources is critically important as society grapples with increasingly more common resource shortages and environmental pollution. One important green technology that can reduce scale that results from hard water in a wide variety of applications (including boilers, hot water heaters, cooling towers, and steamers) is permanent magnetic water conditioning. Magnetic water conditioning is a nonchemical treatment option that can be used as a replacement for most water‐softening equipment. It can also be used as a preconditioner to allow other water treatment technology to work more efficiently and last longer. Whether it is used as a primary treatment device or as a preconditioner for other technologies, magnetic water conditioning can reduce the use of hazardous chemicals, maintenance downtimes, and labor costs and can result in overall cost savings compared to other strategies for scale reduction or removal.
Bonding of Toxic Metal Ions
Authors: Peleka E. N. , Matis Kostas A. , Erwe T. , Mavrov V. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractWorldwide environmental problems are becoming more and more acute. It is known that many specific industrial wastewater streams with large flows contain toxic metals in concentrations up to 500 mg/L, which have to be removed prior to water recycling, indirect discharge into a sewage system, or direct discharge into surface waters. Some examples are (1) rinse water in metal working enterprises, containing Cu, Ni, Zn, Sn, Cd, Pd, Ag, Al, Au, Cr, Mo, etc.; (2) rinse water in the semiconductor industry, containing Cu, Sn, Pb, Sb; (3) wastewater from the copper industry, containing As, Se; (4) other types of water in which the presence of toxic metals causes problems; (5) drinking water from ground water contaminated with As; and (6) mine water contaminated with different toxic metals (e.g., U, Ra, As).
Application of Microfiltration to Industrial Wastewaters
Authors: Erwe T. , Blöcher C. , Mavrov V. , Matis Kostas A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe examination of membrane processes started mostly as a search for effective product separation that is crucial to economical operation in process industries. Certain types of materials are inherently difficult to separate, and their processing has become of increased importance in recent years, especially due to the growth of the biotechnological industry (1) This new technology using synthetic membranes for process separations has developed rapidly. Industrial membrane processes are classified according to the size range of materials, which they are to separate, and the driving force used in separation. The most common pressure‐driven process is microfiltration (often denoted as MF) (2). This technique separates a size range of 10–0.1 µm; typical examples of materials separated are small particles, large colloids, and microbial cells.
Evaluation of Toxic Properties of Industrial Effluents by On‐Line Respirometry
Authors: Samaras Petros 
Published: July 2005

AbstractIndustrial effluents often contain chemical compounds that have potential toxic properties which upon co‐treatment with municipal wastewaters may affect the operation of a wastewater treatment plant. Respiration measurements, corresponding to the estimation of oxygen uptake rate (OUR) of living microorganisms, may be used to evaluate the toxic properties of industrial wastewaters, estimate their biological treatability, and predict the impact on the performance of a wastewatewater treatment plant. Several commercial on‐line respirometric biosensors have been developed for monitoring various parameters such as carbon/nitrogen biological removal, anaerobic digestion, and activated sludge settling; these systems have common characteristics such as a simple measurement principle, low amount of chemicals required during their use, and the absence of a sample pretreatment step. On‐line biosensors may be used as early warning tools in treatment plants, to protect plant operation and to increase efficiency, contributing to the development of toxicity management plans, especially in plants treating industrial wastes.
Transpiration
Authors: Miyashita Koichi 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the plant to the atmosphere. In case of open stomata, transpiration from a leaf is schematically outlined. Relationships among meteorological factors such as the wind speed and the solar radiation, physiological activities, and the transpiration are described. Some effects of transpiration on plants are also pointed out. One is to increase the absorption of minerals from the soil, and another is to decrease the leaf temperature to prevent a high‐temperature stress. For the plant canopy, the total of transpiration from plants and evaporation from the wetted surfaces of plants and soils is described as evapotranspiration. Transpiration and evapotranspiration from plant canopy has the different seasonal and diurnal patterns, depending on various climatological and meteorologicaly conditions. These quantitative data about transpiration and evapotranspiration from plant vegetations are very important for forestry and landscape management, irrigation management, and prediction of climatic change. Finally, some measurement methods of transpiration from the single leaf, the individual plant, and the canopy level are presented shortly.
Humidity—Absolute
Authors: Persaud Naraine 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Using ideal gas assumptions, relationships for atmospheric humidity as a function of temperature are developed and discussed. The Clausius–Clapeyron, Richards, and Magnus–Teten equations for estimating the saturation vapor pressure (e*) for water as a function of temperature needed for practical application of these relationships are presented. Example calculations using these equations are included.
Barometric Efficiency
Authors: Rasmussen Todd 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The barometric efficiency is used to describe how water levels in wells fluctuate in response to atmospheric pressure. Normally, water levels rise whenever the barometric pressure falls, and vice versa. This phenomenon is observed in both confined and in deep, unconfined aquifers. In confined aquifers, the change in water level is caused by a change in the force applied to the Earth's surface by the atmospheric pressure—higher atmospheric pressure causes a greater load, which is transferred to water at depth, causing the water pressure within the aquifer to rise. In unconfined aquifers, the response is because of the difference in air movement through the borehole vs. the unsaturated zone, resulting in a rapid change in water levels in an open borehole, followed by a slower change to the original level once the air pressure at the water table equals the air pressure in the borehole.
Climate and Society
Authors: Glantz Michael H. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

At the turn of the twentieth century, scholars who wrote about the interplay between climate and society did so based on their perceptions of climate as a boundary constraint for the development prospects of a society. Perceptions of climate were used as an excuse to dominate societies in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. As a result, climate–society studies soon became viewed as a colonial ploy to control populations in developing areas in the tropics. Perhaps the most cited book in this regard was written by Ellsworth Huntington,
Climate and Civilization
, published in 1915 (1). In his view, inhabitants of the tropics were destined to accept lower levels of economic and social development because their climate setting was not conducive to lively (i.e., productive) human activity or an aggressive work ethic. According to Huntington, tropical climate was the main culprit causing people in the tropics to be less productive than people in temperate regions. Huntington argued that the temperate climate has an energizing effect on humans. With the growing belief that such an argument was racist in intent, Huntington's work was challenged, and discussion of the various ways in which climate might influence human behavior was stifled for decades, notwithstanding a few notable exceptions. One such exception is entitled
Climate and the Energy of Nations
(2) in which Markham referred to the “air‐conditioning revolution,” a revolution based on the development and spread of a new technology into the tropical areas. Markham asserted that technology brings islands of temperate‐zone climate into the tropics, thereby generating a more aggressive work ethic.
Overview: The Climate System
Authors: Dickinson Robert E. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe climate system consists of the atmosphere, cryosphere, oceans, and land interacting through physical, chemical, and biological processes. Key ingredients are the hydrological and energy exchanges between subsystems through radiative, convective, and fluid dynamical mechanisms. Climate involves changes on seasonal, year‐to‐year, and decadal or longer periods in contrast to day‐to‐day weather changes. However, extreme events and other statistical measures are as, or more, important than simple averages. Climate is seen to impact human activities most directly through the occurrence of extremes. The frequency of particular threshold extremes, as, for example, the number of days with maximum temperatures above 100°F, can change substantially with shifts in climate averages.
Rain Forests
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Rain forests are, by definition, those forests that receive more than 2500 mm of rain each year. Rain forests are characterized by very dense vegetation dominated by tall trees and huge biodiversity. Rain forests exist in many parts of the planet, but most of them are along the equator, where the weather is stable throughout the year and there is never a dry season. Rain forests do not have seasons at all. The amount of rain is almost constant during the year, and the temperature seldom dips below 16°C. Rain forests cover 7% of the earth's land surface and 2% of its total surface, but are home to more than half of all animal and plant species. Despite the fact that rain forests cover less than 10% of the earth, they support a third of its plant matter. The largest tropical rain forest in the world is the Amazon Rain Forest, which lies in the countries of Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia. There are rain forests in Africa, mainly in the Congo, and in Oceania.
Rainfall and Runoff
Authors: Endreny Theodore A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Rainfall is generated by multiple weather patterns, summarized into frontal, orographic, and convective, that affect the duration and intensity of storm accumulation. Climate data analyses reveal regional and local trends in the seasonal and annual rainfall patterns of duration and intensity and have been reported in map and tabular form for durations of 5 minutes to 24 hours and a variety of return periods in Technical Papers 40 and 49 by the U.S. Weather Bureau and in HYDRO‐35 by the National Weather Service. A large variation in rainfall spatial and temporal duration and intensity has been observed for large and small area, long and short time events, and a combined system of drop‐size spectrometers, recording rain gauges, and microwave radar have helped to capture this detail nationally at the resolution of 5 minutely volume scans for 1 km
2
bins, aggregated to rain‐gauge‐corrected hourly totals at 4 km
2
bins. Internal warm and cold cloud precipitation dynamics, low‐level evaporation of falling precipitation, and distinction between rain, sleet, freezing rain, and snow still provide technological challenges. Time series plots of rainfall are referred to as hyetographs, maps of equal rainfall amounts are known as isopleths, and National Weather Service NEXRAD Doppler radar gauge‐corrected hourly 4 km
2
grid based rainfall maps are known as Stage III products. The spatial aggregation of rainfall point estimates from rain gauges is performed using surface fitting, weighting, and interpolation schemes, including the method of Thiessen polygons.
Relative Humidity
Authors: Ramis Climent , Romero Romualdo , Alonso Sergio 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The air is a mixture of gases. The pressure exerted by air is the sum of the partial pressures exerted by each of its components (Dalton's law). The partial pressure exerted by water vapor, denoted as vapor pressure (
e
), is then a measure of the water vapor content in the atmosphere. A state can be represented by a point in a diagram whose coordinates are (temperature, vapor pressure) = (
T
,
e
).

For each temperature, a maximum vapor pressure exists that is known as the saturation vapor pressure (
e
s
). That saturation value cannot be surpassed, and if water vapor in excess occurs, condensation or sublimation results.
Coastal Fog Along the Northern Gulf of
M
exico
Authors: Erickson Timothy 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Coastal fog is a problem for all traffic. It may be present as either a mesoscale or microscale phenomenon. Numerous conditions promote coastal fog. Coastal fog may exist in one of two ways, radiative that does not move or advective that does move. These two fog conditions are further broken down into several categories: radiative, frontal, maritime, advective, and conglomerate. Air, water, and dew point temperatures are the main variables that produce fog when all other atmospheric conditions are supportive. An inversion develops when the atmosphere warms with height, and an inversion must be present for any fog to form. For radiative coastal fog, 0 to 3 knots of wind speeds but no more will be needed to initiate coastal fog. For advective coastal fog, wind speeds of 4 to 12 knots are needed. Radiative coastal fog rarely envelopes the center of cities such as New Orleans. The buildings and pavement will hold heat longer than the surrounding countryside and will normally be enough to dissipate radiative fog. Depths between advective and radiative fogs vary from a few inches to hundreds of feet, with advective fog being the deepest.
Desertification
Authors: Conti Aldo 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Desertification is a degradation of the top layer of the soil that reduces its ability to support plant life and to produce food. As a result, the soil becomes dusty and dry, and it is easily carried away by erosion, which affects wild and domestic animals, wild plants and crops and, finally, humans. Desertification can be the result of human activities or of natural climate changes. In the latter case, the process is very slow and can take several thousand years to produce its effects. A common misconception about desertification is that it spreads from a desert core. The truth is that land degradation can occur where land abuse has become excessive. If it is not stopped in time, desertification spreads from that spot. Eventually, many of these spots merge and form a large homogeneous area. Another misconception is that desertification is the result of droughts. In fact, well‐managed land can recover from even a long period of drought with very little adverse effect as soon as rains return. But it is true that droughts can increase the pace of desertification already taking place.
Dew Deserts
Authors: Kidron Giora J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe term dew deserts denotes deserts that receive dew precipitation throughout the year. Dew is defined as condensation of atmospheric vapor and does not include vapor condensation that stems from the wet ground, i.e., distillation. We term dew desert as a desert that receives at least 10 mm of dew in >0.1 mm of daily precipitation. As a result of dew precipitation, primary production in dew deserts is much higher, affecting the entire food chain.
Filtration With Granular Media
Authors: Ahmad Rasheed 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Granular media filtration is a water treatment process that uses a porous medium through which water passes to remove particulates or suspended solids. Particulates that are removed by this process include microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, and protozoan cysts), clay and silt particles, colloidal and precipitated humic substances and other organic particulates from natural decay of vegetation, precipitates of an aluminum or iron coagulation process, calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide precipitates from lime softening, and iron and manganese precipitates.
For granular media filtration to be effective, source water must be pretreated. Chemical destabilization is an essential prerequisite for effective filtration. Chemicals used for particle destabilization are limited primarily to metal salts or cationic polymers as primary coagulants. Pretreatment may also include aeration or introducing an oxidant if water treatment aims to remove iron or manganese. Sometimes a filter aid polymer is added in the influent to the filter to improve particle capture efficiency.