bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Military Justice and the Original Intent of Military Commissions
Authors: Sulmasy Glenn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The bush administration’s decision to use military commissions as the preferred means of adjudicating al Qaeda was not new for the United States government. Throughout our relatively short history, U.S. military commanders and presidents have relied upon this type of “special tribunal” as the best means to try crimes committed by unlawful belligerents during periods of armed conflict. In , President Bush and his lawyers looked to this established practice as well as the relatively ambiguous statutory provisions provided within the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), and determined this was the most flexible option to employ.
The Bigger Hill
Authors: Desjardin Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The hour or two that immediately followed the end of the fighting was filled with a mixture of busy soldiers carrying out various duties and clumps of them lying in a state of collapse. In the falling darkness company officers, many of them newly promoted by virtue of Rebel bullets that had found their targets, sent out details of men to bury the dead, gather discarded weapons, and carry information up and down the chain of command. Amid all of this coming and going much rumor, gossip, even an occasional fact passed from one regiment to another, and the soldiers began to piece together the previous hour or more that had seemed to pass so quickly. Officers did their best to account for the men under their command and, when their fatigue waned, soldiers wandered about in search of mess-mates, neighbors, and kin among the dead and wounded.
In Great Deeds Something Abides
Authors: Desjardin Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The close of the Gettysburg Campaign hardly meant the end of its influence over the soldiers who survived the fight for Vincent’s Spur. On the contrary, veterans of the three regiments found that the fight, which lasted little more than ninety minutes, continued to have an impact on their lives for decades. But, in the months immediately after Gettysburg, veterans viewed the battle on the spur as having no greater significance for the cause of either side than any other portion of the battle, and their thoughts turned to engagements yet to come.
Withdrawal from Complicity
Authors: Zakaras Alex 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though the pursuit of individuality begins in private life, it does not exhaust itself there. In fact, Emerson came to believe that self-authorship required deliberate political speech and action. Citizens who simply withdrew into private life exposed themselves to the risk of complicity in political injustice, which amounted for Emerson not only to a moral failure but also a forfeiture of personal autonomy. The theme of personal complicity is what motivates Emerson’s sometimes reluctant attention to politics, and it runs through virtually all of Emerson’s writings on citizenship. Its fullest articulation comes in Emerson’s speeches on slavery in the 1850s. Before turning to these later documents, though, it is important to make note of the utopian and antipolitical strains that are manifest especially in his earlier essays.
Mexico
Authors: Malumian Nicolas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Compared with the rest of Latin America, Mexico has seen a very long tradition of the use of trusts. As explained in detail in Chapter 2 (Section A1) about the antecedents of trusts in Latin America, despite several attempts in the first decades of the twentieth century, an example being the Trust Banks Act of June 30, 1926, trusts were regulated by the Securities and Credit Transactions General Act (Ley General de Títulos y Operaciones de Crédito or LGTOC) passed in 1932 and amended several times since then. Summarizing the explanation in Chapter 2, the Mexican trust was modeled by Pablo Macedo (who was a member of the committee appointed to draw up the 1932 LGTOC) after the U.S. trust, in?uenced by the works of Pierre Lepaulle.
Uruguay
Authors: Malumian Nicolas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Law No. 17703 entered into force on November 26, 2003 (published in the Official Gazette on November 4, 2003). This law introduced the trust into Uruguayan law, being complemented by Regulatory Decree No. 516, amended by Decree No. 46/04 (hereinafter the “Trust Law” and the “Decree”), and also regulated by rules 1892, 1889, 1895, and 2004/041 of the Uruguayan Central Bank (BCU). Before the Trust Law, Uruguayan law did not regulate the trust, and it was not possible to create a separate special-purpose patrimony with assets that could not be attacked by the creditors of the grantor, trustee, and beneficiary.
Targeting of Persons and Property
Authors: Jensen Lieutenant Colonel Eric T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a simple reality of warfare that in order to defeat an enemy it is neccessary to attack and destroy the enemy’s combat capability. Employment of combat power for this purpose is referred to in the lexicon of military operations as targeting. The targeting process involves identifying a potential target or desired effect and determining it as a military objective; selecting the most appropriate capability, whether kinetic or nonkinetic, to achieve the desired operational effect; executing military operations to employ the combat capability; and assessing the effects achieved. once the effects are assessed, that information is fed back into the targeting process, and the cycle continuously repeats itself.
Conclusion: Deliverance from Insecurity
Authors: O’Neill Philip D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As long as we have lived with the certainty of catastrophic risk from weapons of mass destruction, we have also grappled with the uncertainty of trying to control them to some extent by agreement or otherwise. The prospect of continuing to do so in perpetuity without their further use is belied by past experience. Shared recognition of this simple truth impels many nations toward WMD disarmament. Today the prospects for accelerated movement in that direction are increasing. With the advent of undeterrable risk from terrorist use, and the questionable stability of rogue nations armed with WMD, there is a renewed effort by the international community to bind itself to irreversible elimination of these weapons. The regimes by which nations will do so continue to take shape. Step-by-step arrangements to shift military doctrine, reshape arsenals, and demonstrate appropriate transparency, will also serve to reinvigorate efforts at the bilateral and multilateral levels.
Love and Ambition: Gender, Memory, and Stories from Brazilian Coffee Plantation Families
Authors: Piscitelli Adriana 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My intention here is to discuss how changes and continuities in the transmission of memory relate to gender. My interest in this question arose from interviewing three successive generations of men and women in Brazilian coffee plantation families. When they told me their life stories, invariably intermingling personal stories and family traditions, I observed particularly striking differences between the recollections of the men and women of the two older generations and those of the youngest generation. The array of contrasts reveals how gender influences the themes, structure, shape, and expressive styles that form life narratives, and how the changes in the transmission of memories between the generations are related to shifts in the different life experiences of men and women. When I first started my interviewing for the anthropological research on which this article is based, gendered memory was not my main concern. My focus was on the strategies of social reproduction followed in successive generations in two kinship groups of wealthy Brazilian coffee planters.
Remembrance, Romance, and Nation Memories of Wartime Australia
Authors: Darian-Smith Kate 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
More so than any other events in the twentieth century, the experiences of war-articulated as the foundation myths of nation-have influenced the discourses of masculinity and femininity in Australian society. I War is a gendered and gendering activity, separating the roles of male combatants and female civilians, and spatially dividing the sexes between the military and home fronts. The impact of militarization ‘ritually marks the gender of all members of a society’ in ideological, political, and economic terms, while simultaneously it reformulates the relationship between the individual and the state at a historical moment of crisis. In Australia during the Second World ,war, the distinction between the public and private spheres, and the actions of the individual as opposed to those of the citizen, were increasingly blurred by a state rhetoric of patriotism dictating, above all, loyalty to the nation. Such allegiance was enforced by the emergence of a ‘politics of remembrance’ which derived its power from the symbolic mobilization of national and gendered memories, and manipulated these in attempts to control the social and sexualized behaviours of men and women.
Women In Local Prisons 1850-1877
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The histories of penal reform examined in the previous chapter tend to focus on national ‘model’ institutions for men, failing to take account of the wider translation of theory into policies and practices in the mass of local prisons. However, during the second half of the nineteenth century around 98 per cent of women sentenced by the courts to custody were committed to local prisons. This chapter looks at local prisons after midcentury and up to their nationalization in 1877, and seeks to reveal the extent of their diversity and divergence from the theoretical model of reform. Local prisons were under the jurisdiction of local magistrates and managed by boards of Visiting Justices. Their regime, size, and standards of accommodation varied enormously according to local conditions, the attitudes of local magistracy, and the number and nature of the inmates.
The Age of Atonement
Authors: Hilton Boyd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book examines the mentality of the upper and middle classes during the first half of the nineteenth century. It was an age obsessed by the idea of catastrophes; by wars, famines, pestilences, revolutions, floods, volcanoes, and - especially - the great commercial upheavals which periodically threatened to topple the world's first capitalist system. Thanks to the dominant evangelical ethos of the day, such sufferings seemed to be part of God's plan, and governments took a harsh attitude toward social underdogs, whether bankrupts or paupers, in order not to interfere with the dispensations of providence. Free Trade was adopted, not as the agent of growth it was later seen to be, but in order to restrain an economy which seemed to be racing out of control. In the 1850s and 1860s, however, a different attitude to social problems developed along with evolutionary approaches to the physical and animal worlds and a new understanding of God, who came to be regarded less as an Arnoldian headmaster and more like Santa Claus. At the centre of this ideology, and throwing light upon it, was a new way of understanding the Atonement.
Poverty and Passionate Flesh
Authors: Hilton Boyd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen how Malthus’s Essay on Population impressed Dr James Currie of Liverpool. A bizarre anecdote in one of Currie’s letters to his son shows just how horribly Malthus could impact on sensitive minds, nurtured during the rationalist optimism of the Enlightenment. It concerns a man of liberal education, whose mind had been deranged by Utopian beliefs in ‘the improvement of the human race, and the perfectibility of man’, and who was referred to Currie for treatment.
Quakers and the University: The Aberdeen Debate of 1675
Authors: DesBrisay Gordon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On a Wednesday afternoon in April of 1675, ‘some hundreds’ of the ten thousand or so people living in and about Aberdeen left their work or their studies to attend a formal theological debate between three postgraduate divinity students from Marischal College and two local Quakers. Although early modern Scots had an unusually high tolerance for theological discourse, what attracted and held the crowd’s attention was not the content of the debate so much as the event itself—and I wish to maintain and extend that emphasis. Those in attendance that day witnessed a remarkable spectacle: a learned theological disputation in which rhetorical flourishes were punctuated by gunshots, and the air grew thick with stinging invective and flying manure. But the carnivalesque elements should not distract us from the genuine significance of the proceedings. The debate needs to be understood on at least three levels: as a local event that offers rare insights into the culture of early modern Aberdeen; as an important skirmish in a much wider Quaker campaign to redefine and redirect their movement; and as a reminder of the role played by the university in early modern society.
Conference Reports
Authors: Spatz Nancy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Comite International du Vocabulaire des Institutions et de la Communication Intellectuelles au Moyen Age (CIVICIMA), under the guidance of Olga Weijers, has for some years organized a series of biennial conferences on aspects of the vocabulary of medieval education, scholarship, and the institutions that underpinned them. Previous events have dealt with ‘Terminologie de la vie intellectuelle’, ‘Vocabulaire du livre et de 1’ecriture’, and ‘Vocabulaire des ecoles et des methodes d’enseignement’. This fourth conference was the first to take as its scope a specific aspect of the institutional world, and for that matter one which was not primarily within the framework of intellectual history.
The Art of the Soluble: Science and Scientists at Durham*
Authors: Baker R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The beginnings of the two periods with which this paper is concerned are almost one hundred years apart. Science teaching began at the University of Durham in 1833 and, although successful for a time, was followed by a long period of inactivity before being re-established in 1924. The College of Physical Science, later to be known as Armstrong College and part of the University of Durham, began at Newcastle in 1871. In the early nineteenth century, science, referred to as Natural Philosophy, was a discursive subject, individual, occasional, and largely of amateur status. There were few scientific journals, and very little science teaching in schools. In London, University College and King’s College, together with a number of other institutions which later formed the University of London, pioneered the teaching of science and engineering. University College was founded in 1826 and when it opened in 1828 had Professors of Chemistry, Physics, and Botany. King’s College, founded in 1829, opened in 1831 and also taught science from the beginning. The Royal College of Chemistry, one of the early forerunners of Imperial College, began teaching in 1845. At Oxford in the 1830s, attendance at chemistry and experimental philosophy lectures had declined and ‘Oxford was lost to science for a number of years’. At Cambridge, although a strong emphasis was placed on mathematical studies, the ‘Senior Wrangler being held in the very highest esteem’ , scientific studies were a neglected part of the curriculum. In Scotland, however, science was already well established and popular and the contribution of the Scottish universities at this time was of fundamental importance. Both Glasgow and Edinburgh trained several notable chemists in the early nineteenth century.
The Secrecy of Suicide
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Henry of Le Dale’s suicide would have caused a momentary stir in his priory and village, a stir ending probably in an unmarked grave. I have addressed the question why anyone should wish to revive his memory, and that of others who died as he did. But another question follows, not why, but how, his memory can be revived. How can a historian set about rediscovering medieval people who killed themselves? It is always wise to start any journey of discovery by assessing obstacles. The obstacles here have in the past derived from one circumstance, the intrinsically elusive character of the suicidal act. The person who commits it usually wishes to hide while he does it. Those who discover it usually wish not to publicize it afterwards, and the subject as a whole has commonly been taboo. There are perfectly good reasons for all these inhibitions. But they make the historian’s task harder, not least, in our case, that preliminary part of the task that consists in showing that the obstacle obtains in our particular field. How do you set about proving that something was there, but that there was a conspiracy of silence about it? All kinds of historical fantasy would be possible if that were not proved first. This chapter will therefore address that question in respect of medieval suicide.
The Reticence of Chronicles
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lessons of the last chapter have their intrinsic value. They also have an external, practical consequence in shaping the following investigation, in two ways. On one hand they determine how the documents are best approached, since, if suicide really was innately secret, its faint documentary appearances must be read with that in mind. On the other, if suicide really was so private, its privacy will tend to atomize the history that emerges, and challenges the historian to gather it into intelligible form. Each consideration is important enough, at the outset, to deserve a word more of explanation.
Portraits from English Courts I
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After chronicles, then, judicial records form a second potential tool for a historian’s necromancy, and it is time to start using it. The choice of English records as a point of departure is not just a question of starting from home. In approaching any subject it is usually best to start with a general view and focus on the detail later, and English judicial records allow us to do this. This is because of numbers. Nearly 400 cases of medieval suicide survive in English court records, far more than from the French or any other monarchy. Their ensemble offers, besides any snatched portraits of this or that individual iam morientis nondum viventis, a synoptic panorama of the fields in which suicide could occur.
Portraits from Courts in the Empire
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous four chapters have rehearsed accounts of suicide culled from the judicial records of England and France. Reflecting the conditions that gave rise to them, the records of each monarchy cast their light in different configurations, the English excelling in quantity, the French, at their best, in vividness. There is no reason to think that the truth behind these records differed generically from one country to another, as the records do; rather the opposite. But it is enough now to recognize that, in examining the two groups of record, we are using two cameras, made by different craftsmen and on different principles, recording comparable scenery.
Man, Woman, and Child
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Medieval chronicles only mentioned suicide, exceptional circumstances apart, in proportion as the chronicle lost its character, and took on that of two other types of historical source, respectively legal and religious. Legal sources formed the next category after chronicles to be combed for traces of suicide. It is now time to turn to the third. I called this one ‘religious’ sources, and it consists mainly of stories with a miraculous element. The reader can share Dante’s relief. As a rule, judicial records were about dead people, miraculous literature about living. Miracles told, in general; of people who had had grim experiences but had survived, and whose exploits were publicized so that others could be saved that way too. So stories with unhappy endings are now the exception. There are still a few, but death and disaster are not the focus of this literature. They form instead distinct zones round its edge, so that their victims, while serving as warnings, are denied the kind of psychological elaboration which, applied to the survivors, is the primary contribution of the genre. The next three chapters, but for that exception, will therefore be happier than the last, the waters still rough and with a few casualties, but the sea less cruel.
The Improbable Empire
Authors: Fernández-Armesto Felipe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The paradox of Spain recalls Dr Johnson’s dog, who surprises you so much by walking on hind legs that you do not expect him to do it well. Similarly, no one should expect a poor and naturally ill-endowed corner of the world to make a good job of conquering so much of the rest of it; nor of inaugurating, in the same period of dramatic expansion in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, an era at home of extraordinary artistic creativity and social peace, so lustrous that it has always been known, by almost universal acclaim, as ‘Spain’s Golden Age’.
Tokugawa Japan, 1600-1745
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
apan is a late-comer in the history of government. Its history as a state only really begins with the Taika reforms of AD 645. Even so, it is of but mited interest to the historian of government until 1600, theyear when the warlord Ieyasu Tokugawa defeated all his baronial rivals in the great Battle of Sekigahara. Up to that point Japan’s constitutional history had been a premature attempt at imperial centralization a la T’ang, followed by a progressive and cumulative morcelization of authority and power, an inter minable Wars of the Roses fought by armoured knights of rival houses: what Milton would have called the wars of the kites and the crows. The constitutional significance of the early Imperial (Nara and Heian) period is that it explains the nature of the subsequent feudal anarchy, which in turn is significant in that the Tokugawa Shogunate was (originally at any rate) little else but anarchy institutionalized.
The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, c.1566
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
(The year 1453, when the Turks took Constantinople, conventionally marks the close of medieval and the beginning of modern European history and, just as that date straddles the medieval and the modern, so did the institutions of the Ottoman Empire. The date is a reminder that this reached its peak a good century or more before Tokugawa Japan and Ch’ing China. As the last two chapters have indicated, the heyday of the Tokugawa regime lay c.1710 and that of Ch’ing China around, perhaps, 1750; but by either of these two dates the classical and highly effective institutions of the Ottoman Empire had disappeared, its central government had lost grip over its local officials, and its territorial expansion had not only been halted but turned back.
The Two Traditions: Absolute versus Parliamentary Monarchy
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ome historians consider that the latter half of the seventeenth, rather than the sixteenth, century is the seedbed of the ‘modern state’. This is to confuse the generation of the state as such with the perfection of its forms. Since by now nearly all Europe’s states were monarchies-of the republics only the Netherlands and Venice were of much international significance-it is with the former that this chapter is concerned. By 1715 monarchy had bifurcated into two forms-unlimited or limited-which, in European parlance are called absolute and parliamentary monarchy. Nearly all were of the former kind. Of these France was regarded as the archetype. The second, the parliamentary category, included Poland and (for a time) Sweden, and a small number of the German states; but its archetype was England.