bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Small-angle neutron scattering
Authors: Zaccai Giuseppe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Small-angle scattering (SAS) of X-rays or neutrons arises from scattering density fluctuations of the order 10—100 A. In biological studies, samples are usually solutions of macromolecules in this size range. Depending on the experimental conditions such as macromolecular concentration, for example, SAS provides information on structural properties of individual particles as well as on interactions between them.
Biological spectroscopy using low energy (VUV/UV) synchrotron radiation
Authors: Jones G R , Munro I H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Synchrotron radiation (SR) storage rings provide the most highly collimated and intense continuous sources of X-rays, soft X-rays and extreme vacuum ultraviolet (UV) radiation. At longer wavelengths, in the UV, visible and infrared the photon flux of SR is often surpassed by alternative (usually less expensive) sources, such as lasers, arc lamps, blackbody sources, etc. However, there are inherent properties of synchrotron light that make it the preferred source for many experiments. Synchrotron light from bending magnets provides a wavelength continuum of highly collimated, linearly polarized radiation, emanating from a tiny source (of from 103 to ∼ 106 gm2 in cross-section) of electrons or positrons with a well-understood time structure and long term stability. This unique ensemble of properties is further augmented at third generation synchrotron radiation sources by the much higher flux and brightness available from insertion devices such as undulators or multipole wigglers.
Crystallography of viruses and very large macromolecules
Authors: Stuart David I , Crimes Jonathan M , Fry Elizabeth E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Crystallography, using synchrotron radiation, can reveal the internal structures of very large macromolecules and macromolecular complexes. The limitation is the requirement for well-ordered three-dimensional crystals. Thus it is very difficult to determine the structure of a macromolecular complex which does not have a single, well-defined structure or which is difficult to obtain in a pure and stable state. Since the late 1970s, when technical and methodological advances opened the way to the determination of the structures of complete virus particles, virus crystallography has led the way in the analysis of complex structures. Crystallography is an extraordinarily powerful tool in the pursuit of a fuller understanding of the biological functions of viruses [see Chiu et al. (1997) for a recent compendium]. However, an intact virus structure determination is not a trivial undertaking and entails a significant scaling up in most respects compared to a traditional crystallographic analysis of a protein. This is because the number of data required to perform an analysis of a crystal by X-ray diffraction (at a fixed resolution) is proportional to the volume of the asymmetric unit of the crystal. Thus for a virus of particle mass 70 MDa (the approximate size of the largest particle thus far solved at reasonable resolution) there are 5000 times as many data to be measured as for, say, lysozyme (the first enzyme structure determined). Not only are there 5000 times as many X-ray reflections to be measured, but these reflections will each be, on average, about 5000 times weaker than those for lysozyme. Virus crystallography makes considerable demands on the qualities of X-ray sources, the performance and sensitivity of X-ray detectors and the computer hardware and software necessary to deal with this enormous increase in data. Nevertheless, the field is now sufficiently mature that it has become quite routine to solve the structure of a relatively small icosahedral virus. Here we give a brief introduction to the methods and take an example from our current work. Before embarking on the crystallographic analysis of a virus, the reader is referred to, e.g. Arnold et al. (1987), Luo et al. (1989), Fry et al. (1993) and Rossmann (1989) for a detailed treatment of various methods.
Principles of voltammetry, electrolysis, spectroelectrochemistry, and other techniques employed in studies involving solution phase and surface-based electrode processes
Authors: Bond A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since Faraday’s pioneering studies (Table 1.1), it has been known that the transfer of electrons between a redox active species, dissolved in a solution phase, and solid metal, or carbon, or liquid mercury electrodes, results in interesting reaction pathways. However, voltammetric techniques, which involve the measurement and interpretation of I–E–t curves have only become popular since the 1940s, when instrumentation required to conveniently conduct such experiments became readily available. The early studies invariably used a constant or linear sweep of the direct current (DC) potential and measurement of DC cur rent at the potential of interest. In the last 50 years a wide range of techniques have emerged (Table 1.1).
Electrode processes that illustrate the influence of irreversible homogeneous reactions and the competition between reactions that occur in the solution phase and on the electrode surface: fundamental studies, photovoltaic dye-sensitizers, stripping voltammetry and glucose biosensors
Authors: Bond A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 3, the solution-phase voltammetric theory presented in Chapter 2 was applied to the electrochemically and chemically reversible electrode processes associated with some polyoxometalate compounds. However, examples of this relatively straightforward reversible class of processes are not too common and the influence of complexities that may arise in a voltammetric study are now illustrated in the examples of voltammetric studies in this chapter.
Use of metalloprotein voltammetry to illustrate the nuances of electrochemistry related to blocked electrodes, chemically modified electrodes, electrode functionality, and microscopic aspects of electrode behaviour
Authors: Bond A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As noted in Chapters 3 and 4, voltammetric studies on small redox active inorganic, organometallic, and organic molecules frequently provide an efficient method of obtaining important thermodynamic and kinetic information. Logically, therefore, it would be expected that extensive solution-phase voltammetric studies on important electron-transfer metalloproteins such as the cytochromes, ferredoxins, rubredoxins, plastocyanins, and azurins would have been undertaken almost as soon as these water-soluble biologically important molecules had been isolated and characterized.
Demography of the Tar chimpanzee community
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Forest scene, Survival: 21 August 1996: Mognié, a six-year old female, was in the company of her mother Mystère with baby Mozart, Sirène and Brutus were also there. Suddenly, at 13.40, there was a violent outburst of screams, sign of a possible leopard attack. Grégoire Nohon heard Mystère bark very loudly and very aggressively. He hurried to the site to find all the chimpanzees in trees. Mognié was badly wounded. Claws had raked her chest and belly. Five holes were visible with a piece of intestine popping out of one. Her respiration could be heard through one of the holes in her chest. Forty minutes after the attack, all the chimpanzees moved westwards. Mystère licked some of the blood off Mognié’s chest. Four minutes later, Mognié again climbed a tree to rest in a nest. At 16.45, they all moved further west. At 16.50 Mognié climbed into a Uapaca tree and Grégoire saw that the piece of intestine that had been popping out must be back in place, but the respiration was still strongly audible through this hole. Mystère and her baby Mozart remained with Mognié for two days. She entered Mognié’s nest many times, but it was not possible to see what she did to her.
Female life histories
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Forest scene: Salomé, a high-ranking female, was in full oestrus with an impressive pink swelling. All the adult and adolescent males of the community guarded her closely and followed her every move. She was leading this crowd for the whole day. Snoopy, her 16-year-old son, a strong young male normally very interested in oestrus females, followed her like the others, but did not try to mate. Her youngest son, Sartre, now 6 years old, seemed fascinated by the success of his mother and at the same time required her full attention and wanted to be carried for all longer distances. He was clearly one of the oldest infants to still enjoy such favour. There was also Ondine and her offspring in the cortège, the highest-ranking female and very close friend of Salomé. Ondine in contrast to Salomé had only daughters: Chloé, her oldest, was starting to produce some small swellings and tried to gain some attention from all these males (she will soon migrate). Her second daughter had died during the early days of the habituation before we could identify her. The third one, Orée, was now 4 years old and Ondine was again beginning to show some sexual swellings. She is to have another daughter within a year, whereas it will take two more years before Salomé will give birth to a female infant.
Social structure of the Taï chimpanzees
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Forest scene: On 3 January 1986, we followed Falstaff, the oldest male of the community. He was on his own, eating the young leaves of saplings while he moved on slowly. It had not been clear what direction the chimpanzees would take. Now at 6.30, we heard pant-hoots from the west, while in the south we heard the young adult male Snoopy drum loudly. Falstaff sat and listened to his group mates. A third party was vocalizing farther away north. Loukoum, Gauloise, and Goma passed, heading northwards with their youngsters Lychee and Gallus wildly chasing one another. As they disappeared, Mystè re passed by, running after them. We heard Schubert, the beta male, drum loudly to the north and Macho bark in support. Snoopy replied by drumming three more times. To the west, someone was pant-grunting intensively at a dominant individual. Falstaff started slowly to move in this direction, 10 minutes later silently joining Ondine and Salomé, the two highest-ranking females, who were feeding on fruits of Dacryodes.
Hunting behaviour in wild chimpanzees
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Forest scene: 4 January 1994: Attracted by the deep and loud calls of diana monkeys that are usually associated with other monkey species, Fitz, Kendo, Darwin, Macho, Ella, Bijou, and Gala move silently to the north. After three minutes, they stop and listen. Further on we hear the typical sound of branches bent by monkeys moving in the trees. With a glance towards Fitz and Darwin, Kendo leads them in this direction. After 150 metres, we locate the agitating foliage. Soundlessly, the chimpanzees place themselves underneath and sit and scrutinize the foliage. Directly above diana monkeys utter little contact calls, unaware of the chimpanzees. About 60 metres ahead, we see branches being moved, probably by heavier monkeys, possibly red colobus. Darwin and Macho rush there silently, climb immediately, and run after the fleeing monkeys. As so often happens, no monkey is caught during this first move. The diana monkeys immediately give alarm calls and most monkeys climb higher in the trees and flee in all directions.
Intelligence in wild chimpanzees
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once in the early days of the study, when habituation was close to zero, we had searched for chimpanzees all day long without success, when suddenly nearby we heard the typical sound of nuts being pounded with a heavy tool. Very carefully, we approached the chimpanzee, expecting it would disappear before we could get a glimpse of it. However, thanks only to a rustling sound, we saw the shadow of a chimpanzee that was obviously collecting nuts. Surprisingly, at the same time, we heard the pounding go on. Then the spell broke, and in a second the two animals had disappeared. As expected, we found nuts and shells of Panda oleosa but only one stone hammer. We were left with the intriguing question of what exactly these chimpanzees had been doing.
Chimpanzee and human evolution
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For centuries the quest for our identity has been a major incentive for philosophical and scientific work. Understanding the uniqueness of human beings with regard to other living beings has often been biased by the difficulty of reasoning impartially about ourselves. The literature is full of statements praising human uniqueness and claiming that we occupy the highest position in evolution. It has been claimed that humans are the only species with a reflective intelligence, the only species that cares for wounded conspecifics, or that depends on cultural products for survival. Similarly, some sets of human behaviour are claimed to be especially demanding, solely because they are performed by humans, such as tool-use, tool-making, coalition building, or language. Such circular arguments that declare a behaviour as unique to humans and therefore representing a proof of the highest evolutionary achievement, do not add much to the understanding of what distinguishes humans from other animals. Although historically such an attitude may have been justified by lack of information, it is not justified today.
Divergent natural selection between environments
Authors: Schluter Dolph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Divergent natural selection is the ultimate cause of phenotypic differentiation in adaptive radiation, according to the ecological theory. The two proposed sources of divergent selection are differences between populations and species in external environments and interspecific resource competition. In the present chapter, I investigate the first of these claims. I begin below by clarifying the concept of an adaptive landscape for phenotypic traits. I then address the evidence for divergent natural selection between environments.
Ecological opportunity
Authors: Schluter Dolph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the most remarkable living examples of adaptive radiation, the span of resources utilized by the taxon surpasses typical bounds to include items normally taken by unrelated taxa missing or poorly represented in the region. For example, in addition to ordinary seeds finches on remote archipelagoes take foods otherwise exploited by warblers, woodpeckers, and honeyeaters in more diverse mainland faunas. The marsupial mammals attain their highest diversity in Australia where placental mammals are underrepresented, and the vast array of phenotypes to have evolved there include likenesses of wolves, shrews, moles, and other types of placental mammals that roam the other continents.
Collagen VII and the formation of anchoring fibrils
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Collagen VII was first isolated from chorioamniotic membranes by limited pepsin digestion and was termed long-chain collagen (LC) before being referred to as collagen VII [911, see 7, 8, 9 for reviews]. Collagen VII is the major structural component of anchoring fibrils [691, 724], the specialized fibrous structures located immediately beneath the lamina densa of many epithelia and which are critical for epidermal-dermal adhesion. Table 12 gives the Swiss Prot database entries for collagen VII.
The balance between order and disorder
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 we took, as an historical starting point for the discussion of all observations concerning the material objects we sense around us, the four ‘elements’ of certain Greek philosophers and scientists such as Aristotle (see Fig. 1.1). We also noted the relationship to similar thinking in Chinese philosophy (Fig. 1.4).
Evaluating the effects of chemistry
Authors: Anastas Paul T , Warner John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How does a chemist evaluate a chemical product or process for its effect on human health and the environment?
It is easiest to assess a chemical product or process in stages rather than trying to evaluate the whole system in its entirety. Certainly, with the number of parameters that it would be necessary to evaluate at each step of the process, it would be virtually impossible to conduct a systematic assessment on a product or process as a whole. Therefore, a simple approach is to identify the various parts of the process and to ask the necessary evaluative questions at each of those stages. As was mentioned earlier, the five aspects can be thought of as follows.
For each of these aspects, the same questions need to be addressed. Whether dealing with a solvent, reagent, product, etc., there are essential characteristics that need to be known in order to conduct a green chemistry evaluation.
Evaluating feedstocks and starting materials
Authors: Anastas Paul T , Warner John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the greatest effects that the manufacture, processing, and use of a chemical substance has can be determined from its starting material. If the starting material, or feedstock from which the chemical product is made, has a negative environmental effect, it is very likely that the overall effect of the chemical substance itself will have a net negative effect. It is for this reason that evaluation of the feedstock or starting material is fundamental when conducting a green chemistry assessment of a chemical product or process.
The magnitude of the effect of the feedstock on the overall profile of the chemical product is dependent on a number of parameters, including the complexity and the length of the process that makes the chemical. If the preparation of the chemical is a one-step catalytic conversion to a petrochemical building block, then the environmental profile of the starting material is of paramount importance. If the end-product is a pharmaceutical that is manufactured via a 12-step synthetic pathway with complex processing and purification, the importance of the starting material may be somewhat diminished. In either of these cases, the profile of the starting material is the first step in evaluating the green chemistry of the chemical product or process.
Clinical trials
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the main driving forces behind the development of new statistical methods in recent years has been the importance of clinical trials both in public health initiatives and in industry. Public control of the release of new medications by national agencies has led to their more rigorous testing, with the accompanying need for reliable statistical procedures. A long-term goal must be the understanding of why a drug works and not just an empirical demonstration that it produces a better result than a placebo or the standard treatment. This will require mechanistic models at all stages of the development process. In this and the following chapters, I shall explore some of the tools that are available.
In medical research, clinical trials are the main method used to evaluate the effectiveness of some treatment(s), such as drugs, surgery, physiotherapy, diet, health education, and so on, in curing some illness or improving health. Here, I shall consider the more advanced, and more publicized, stages of this process, before going on, in the following chapters, to look at some of the more fundamental phases of drug discovery and development.
Quality of life
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen, a major goal of clinical trials is to evaluate the effectiveness of some treatment for illness or health problems. Although good health is important, if only defined in a narrow sense of curing a disease or longer life, it may not necessarily lead to increased well-being of a population in all its aspects.
Many modem medical treatments have important side effects that can make life difficult while, at the same time, perhaps alleviating or curing the condition being treated. Weighing the relative importance of the many dimensions of improved health is an extremely difficult problem, especially because each can have a different meaning and importance for different people.s
Assays and formulations
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Medical statistics does not only involve directly medical (human) problems. More chemical aspects are also important and raise interesting nonlinear modelling issues. In this chapter, I shall look at two of these that occur at opposite ends of the development process: the analysis of assays, needed at the beginning, and the development of formulations for the administration of a medication, required once its value has been established.
In drug development, one must be able to measure the concentration of a new molecule in samples taken from the human body. Thus, one important step is the derivation of suitable assays for measuring the level of the drug in serum, plasma, or other supports. Thus, all of the measurements used in pharmacokinetics(Chapter 7) depend on the availability of such procedures.
Activation of receptors by oligomerization
Authors: Helmreich Ernst J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Binding of the ligand leads to the activation of a membrane-bound receptor and initiates the cellular response to hormones, growth factors, and cytokines. The structural basis of ligand binding and receptor activation is therefore a central problem of cellular signalling. The question is how a single polypeptide chain which passes through the membrane only once, is activated on binding the ligand. The answer is by dimerization.
Regulation of gene transcription by growth factors and cytokines
Authors: Helmreich Ernst J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
General transcription factors have been discussed above, and now we turn to specific, signal-responsive transcriptional regulators. Specific transcription factors link extracellular signals, received by receptors and transmitted through cellular signalling pathways to the gene. Considering the central role of transcriptional activation for growth and differentiation of all cells and tissues, it is hardly surprising that thousands of factors control the expression of about 30 000 human genes. Therefore, the discussion in this chapter is, by necessity, simplistic and selective. Moreover, bear in mind that new factors are discovered all the time and that there is still a way to go until all facets of gene regulation are understood.
Regulation of the immune response
Authors: Helmreich Ernst J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The immune response is complex and has many facets. It is an essential cell-specific function, guaranteeing our survival. This chapter concentrates on a few topics centred around signalling in the immune system. The processing of the ligands, the antigens, and their presentation to antigen receptors will be discussed, focusing on cell (T-cell) mediated immune responses. Outstanding textbooks on immunology and cell biology are available, which the reader could consult.