bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cognitive-Conceptual Structure and Linguistic Encoding: Language Universals and Typology in the UNITYP Framework
Authors: Seiler Hansjakob 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
UNITYP is the name of our research group and stands for ߢLanguage Universals Researchߣ (henceforth abbreviated as LUR) ߢand Language Typologyߣ (henceforth abbreviated as LTYP).1 The groupߣs headquarters is the Institute of Linguistics at the University of Cologne, Germany. Activities started in 1972 on a voluntary basis with this writer as the principal investigator, together with a few members of the Institute. It has received funding from the German Research Council (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) since 1973. It began as an individual project, had developed into a ߢUnitߣ (For schergruppe) by 1978, and is still operating. I welcome this opportunity to express-in the name of the entire group-our feelings of deep gratitude and indebtedness to the Deutsche Forschungs gemeinschaft for its unfailingly generous support through all these years.
I kicked at the bomb, which exploded, and wakened you up.
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some languages have a strict division of verbs into transitive—those that take A (transitive subject) and O (transitive object) core syntactic relations—and intransitive—those that have just one core syntactic relation, S (intransitive subject). A few languages even employ morphological marking so that there can never be any doubt as to whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, e.g. if a verb in Fijian shows a transitive suffix then it must have an object; if it lacks this suffix there will be no direct object.
Transitivity is a much more fluid matter in English. There are, it is true, a number of verbs that are strictly transitive, e.g. like, promote, recognise, inform, and a few that are strictly intransitive, e.g. arrive, chat, matter. But many verbs in English may be used either transitively or intransitively.
The plate, which had been eaten off, was owned by my aunt.
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A passive sentence in English is not an automatic transformation of an active one. It is an alternative realisation of the relation between a transitive verb and its object, and involves an intransitive construction with a subject (corresponding to the transitive object), a copula-like verb be or get, and a participial form of the verb. Thus, corresponding to A man took away the mad dog we get the passive The mad dog was taken away. A passive clause may include an NP, introduced with by, corresponding to the transitive subject (e.g. by a man), but it does so only relatively seldom (in formal, written English, more than 80 per cent of passives are agentless, and the figure is undoubtedly higher for colloquial, spoken styles).
The Linguistic Variables
Authors: Kerswill Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the first chapter, it was argued that the types of linguistic strategy adopted by a migrant group depend to a great extent on the nature of the differences between the language of the migrant group and that of the host community. Where the two language varieties in contact are mutually intelligible and syntagmatically similar (as they are in the case discussed in this book), the minimal strategy on the part of the migrants seems to involve the introduction (with varying frequencies) of morpho-lexical elements from the host language, these elements being phonologically adapted to the migrants’ language. Evidence for this was taken from the linguistic behaviour of Swedes in Norway, as reported by Nordenstam (1979). Some of the speakers in that study, which in many ways parallels the present one, adopted morpho-lexical elements, while other, more ‘Norwegianized’ speakers additionally showed varying degrees of adaptation to Norwegian on the phonological and suprasegmental levels.
More Recent Developments: More on Substrate, Superstrate, and Independent Development
Authors: Crowley Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter tracked some of the more significant grammatical developments in Bislama from the early years of the sandalwood and sea-slug trades from the 1840s to the 1860s, right through to the emergence of an essentially modern Bislama, by about the 1930s. Bislama has, of course, continued to change since then, and some significant changes are currently in progress right now in the 1980s. In this chapter, I will describe some of these more recent structural developments, attempting again to uncover some of the motivating factors behind them.
Evolutionary Perspectives on Diachronic Syntax
Authors: Briscoe Ted 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main purpose of this chapter is to argue the merits of ‘population thinking’ in gaining insight into linguistic and, in particular, syntactic change. Population level thinking and modelling can shed new light on many issues in the study of language acquisition and language change, and leads directly to a precise and useful characterization of E-language, something which is lacking in current generative linguistics. Moreover, this way of thinking is fully compatible with the major insights of the latter, and integrates them into a framework in which language variation and change are inherent and inevitable, rather than peripheral and/or accidental, properties of language. I will argue that (E-)languages are best modelled as particular kinds of dynamical systems; namely, complex adaptive systems (where these terms are used in technical senses made precise below).
Adjuncts and the Syntax of Subjects in Old and Middle English
Authors: Haeberli Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Old English shows characteristic properties of a Verb Second (V2) language. However, certain phenomena can be found in Old English which suggest that V2 in this language cannot be dealt with in terms of analyses that have been pro posed for the Modem Germanic V2 languages. Different alternative analyses have therefore been explored in the recent literature which account for the distinct properties of Old English. Although there seems to be a general consensus on the central points, the different analyses vary with respect to several issues. In this chapter, some of these issues will be addressed and it will be argued that important evidence can be obtained from a comparative analysis of Old English, later stages in the history of English, and the Modem Germanic languages with respect to phenomena concerning the distribution of adjuncts and subjects. In addition, it will be shown not only that the comparative evidence used provides information for the analysis of Old English, but also that the Old English data contribute to a more detailed understanding of a general Germanic word-order phenomenon.
The ‘Withering Away’ of Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is a socialist jurisprudence possible? Many thinkers on the Left, especially Marxists, would answer no. Left-wing thought has long been committed to the view that law will ‘wither away’ under socialism, that political and legal institutions will cease to exist with the emergence and development of socialist society. This thesis was developed by Marx and Engels, and has been upheld by Western and Soviet thinkers in the Marxist tradition. Its legacy has been that thinkers on the Left tend to limit their interests to the role of law in reinforcing capitalist exploitation, or, less typically, its potential for yielding short-term gains for the exploited. Thus Marxists have been unable to make any further contributions to legal theory. They do not consider the role law might play in a post-capitalist society, and a socialist jurisprudence is virtually non-existent. This chapter examines the withering away thesis in order to understand the nature of the obstacles to a socialist contribution to legal theory.
Conclusion
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book has argued that socialist political theory must not forsake law. It has shown that law is not an unavoidable evil, designed to secure order in societies flawed by egoism and inequality, but an enriching feature of any society, especially the ideal community to which socialism aspires. Even where there is shared ownership of social resources, pervasive equality, and a thriving democratic culture, there remains a place for law. I do not mean that law is simply a desirable extra in such a society, the moral ‘icing’ on the practical ‘cake’ of socialism. Law is not merely congenial to socialism. It is an essential pre-condition of its attainment. Whether or not a socialist society is stable and effective will depend on the stability and effectiveness of its legal institutions.
The Human Rights Committee
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Human Rights Committee is charged with the task of monitoring the implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Since its inception it has arguably become the most important independent international human rights body in the world. Through the consideration of State Reports, from over half of the world community, and the examination of communications submitted by individuals (under the Optional Protocol to the Covenant), the Human Rights Committee seeks to establish a universal human rights jurisprudence. This book analyses the institutional characteristics of the Human Rights Committee, how it has developed its practices and procedures under the Covenant and the Optional Protocol, and analyses the jurisprudence of the Committee under selected key articles of the Covenant.
The System of Periodic Reporting
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
3.1 Periodic reporting is the most widespread and established implementation technique for the international implementation of human rights. The obligation to submit reports is the only obligation which States parties to the ICCPR assume, ipso facto, on ratification or accession. The national reports submitted are considered and examined by the Human Rights Committee (HRC), the independent body of experts established under article 28 of the ICCPR. This chapter analyses the reporting procedure as it has developed in the practice of the HRC.
The Optional Protocol to the ICCPR
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
4.1 This chapter examines the work of the HRC in implementing the OP to the ICCPR. A right of petition (communication) to or against governments is of long historical standing both in national and international law. Proposals to include such a right in the international bill of rights proved controversial. That controversy is briefly examined in section A. Section B concerns the structure and terms of the OP. Section C deals with the status of the OP and of communications submitted under it. Section D examines in detail how the practices and procedures of the HRC have developed the structure of the OP. These aspects are linked to section E which reviews how the HRC has approached and interpreted the terms of the OP, the ICCPR, and its own rules of procedure in the consideration of communications. The HRC’s views on a series of substantive rights in the ICCPR are examined in the following chapters. Finally in this chapter, section F offers an appraisal of the work of the HRC under the OP.
Article 6
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every human being has the inherent right to life. This right shall be protected by law. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life. In countries which have not abolished the death penalty, sentence of death may be imposed only for the most serious crimes in accordance with the law in force at the time of the commission of the crime and not contrary to the provisions of the present Covenant and to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This penalty can only be carried out pursuant to a final judgement of a competent court.
The Sources of Legal Judgment
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given that the common law was based on a system of pleas and forms of action and that common lawyers sought for its sources outside that law, it can be seen that it was no static set of eternal rules, nor was it divorced from society and social considerations. As Lord Kenyon put it, judges were not ‘men writing from their closets without any knowledge of the affairs of life, but persons mixing with the mass of society, and capable of receiving practical experience of the soundness of the maxims they inculcate’. The common law was not a self-contained science: it was rather based on a system of forms which allowed lawyers to look outside the law for solutions to legal problems, once the terms of the legal dispute had been set. This did not mean that every case was a wholly new adjudication, where the judges were free to rule as they pleased, based on their ideological or political prejudices, however: for the common law was an artificial forum, where the judges were constrained by the forms of law, its analogies and precedents. Judges remained faithful to a consensus on legal rules, where that consensus existed;4 and in most cases, there was little dispute as to what the law was, since the force of precedent and analogy could give uncontentious answers to legal problems. In these cases, judges did not need to look to social considerations very far, but could answer legal problems from the idealist position that doctrine held all the answers.
Surrender, Occupation, and Private Property in International Law
Authors: Ando Nisuke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most recent title to appear in the Oxford Monographs in International Law series, Surrender, Occupation, and Private Property in International Law examines the legal situation which arises during periods of occupation in respect of private property which is temporarily used, annexed, or destroyed by occupying forces. It asks what happens to that property after occupation ceases, and addresses the issues of restitution and compensation which may sometimes arise. The author focuses upon the post-war occupation of Japan by American forces as the principal example around which to develop his arguments, and makes extensive use of documents from this period. Relatively little has been written about this crucial period in Japanese history, and the successful linking of the historical and legal aspects in this study will make this book of considerable interest to international lawyers and modern historians.
Conclusion
Authors: Ando Nisuke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theme of the present book has been an international legal evaluation of some specific occupation measures which the USA, as the occupant, adopted in order to demilitarize and democratize occupied Japan after the latter’s surrender in the Second World War. Particular attention has been paid to the occupant’s treatment of Japanese private property involved in these measures. While most of the occupant’s handling of Japanese private property has been considered a legitimate exercise of the power that the USA was accorded in international law, a few actions have been held to be in contravention of that law. Irrespective of the validity of these evaluations, this Conclusion proposes to make general observations on some of the international legal problems concerning a surrender, an occupation, and an occupant’s treatment of private enemy property.
Ministering to a Gentler Age, 1947–65
Authors: Windlesham Lord 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Commending the Criminal Justice Bill to Parliament in 1947 the Home Secretary, Chuter Ede, said that it followed closely on the lines of a Bill which had been before the House of Commons in the session 1938–9. The previous Bill had passed through Committee and was well advanced ‘when international affairs so occupied the time of this House that it was impossible to carry the Measure to the Statute Book’. The circumlocution obscured the compelling fact that the earlier Bill had been abandoned two months after the outbreak of war with Germany.
Conservatives Ascendant, 1979–88
Authors: Windlesham Lord 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the time of the General Election in May 1979, which brought the Conservatives to power for a period lasting into the 1990s, the legislative cycle described in the opening chapter had settled into a regular rhythm. The continuing momentum of the drive towards the creation of fresh criminal justice legislation at regular intervals should not be underestimated. General elections provide milestones and signposts pointing to changes in direction and priority, but they rarely presage the most significant developments in policy. More often these result from longer-term forces activated by factors that may not be apparent in the feverish atmosphere engendered by elections, or from shorter-term and more acute forces released by untoward incidents attracting adverse publicity in Parliament and the press, such as prison riots or escapes, miscarriages of justice, public disturbances or disasters, sometimes leading to an inquiry. The report of the inquiry then sets an agenda for future political action. For all these reasons, as well as the risks of giving hostages to fortune, the statements on criminal policy made by the main parties at election time tend to rely more on generalities than on specific proposals.
Discharge for Breach: Instalments, Deposits, and Other Payments Due Before Completion
Authors: Beatson J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many contracts contain provisions requiring one party, the purchaser, to make an advance payment to the other party, the vendor, be it for property or services. Perhaps the most common examples of such provisions are the deposits required in contracts for the sale of land and the instalments or progress payments required in building contracts. Where such contracts are discharged before performance is completed the remedial consequences may be complicated. The position of sums due at the time of discharge, whether paid or not, raises questions of the relationship between damages, debt, and restitution. This essay discusses the remedial problems which arise where such contracts are discharged by reason of a breach of contract by the person liable for the payment. Although the same principles should govern all cases of discharge,1 the consequences of frustration and discharge for breach by the person to whom the payment was due will only be dealt with incidentally. The consequences of frustration are now governed by statute2 but the position where the contract is discharged as a result of a breach by the person to whom the payment was due will be considered where it is relevant to the analysis.
Gap-filling and Risk-reversal
Authors: Beatson J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the important tasks of restitution is as a principle used to give new perspective to old problems. Inevitably there is an overlap between this function and the use of the principle as a source of an independent claim. For instance, both duress and mistake may cause a payment (independent claim) or the creation of a new contract (which may be rescinded or not enforced). They may also cause the variation of an existing contract. When causes of unjust enrichment are studied the two functions are inevitably considered together. Thus, if it is said that duress of goods founds an action for money had and received, as in Astley v. Reynolds, 1 why should not duress of goods also render unenforceable a contract made as a result? Again, if total failure of consideration will make money paid under a contract and money paid under a conditional gift or in anticipation of a contract2 recoverable, why should not contracts made where there is a similar failure be set aside? But one can go too far along this line.
Treat Me Right
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book brings together a wide cross-section of the author's work in the field of medical law and ethics. Many of the articles have appeared previously in journals, but all are updated. Some are published here for the first time. Professor Kennedy, a former Reith Lecturer and a well-known scholar and broadcaster, writes not only authoritatively and informatively about the subject, but often in a way that is provocative, controversial, and amusing. It is a collection that will interest the lawyer with medico-legal interests, and the doctor who wants to know more about the rights, duties, and liabilities of his profession, the student of law or medicine, and the layperson who follows developments in this scientifically complex and morally contentious area of law.
Emergent Medical Models
Authors: Teff Harvey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of the opposition to paternalism in medicine has focused on its denial of rights, particularly on the denial of the patient’s moral and political agency when choice of treatment is pre-empted and more or less unquestioning trust expected. There has been far more concern that paternalistic medical practice undermines the patient’s ‘right to self-determination’ than that it might be detrimental to patient welfare. A commitment to viewing individuals as ends in themselves, free to choose their own destiny, has of course featured very prominently in general ethical debate, if not in professional medical ethics. As Feinberg puts it, ‘every person’s moral right to govern himself surely outweighs the “right” of benevolent intermeddlers to manipulate him for his own advantage, whether that advantage be health, wealth, contentment, or freedom’.1 Appeal to such sentiments can be especially powerful when invasive medical procedures are contemplated. The desire to protect and promote patients’ ‘rights’ is both an understandable and a rhetorically compelling reaction against the traditional concern with their ‘best interests’.
Patients’ Rights
Authors: Teff Harvey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A doctor-centred conception of health care is beginning to lose ground in part because of growing sympathy for the view that patients are entitled to decide what is done to them. In its insistence that individuals be viewed as ends in themselves, a model of patient autonomy seems to offer an appealing contrast to the Hippocratic emphasis on presumed best interests. It also translates naturally into legal form in any system of law which puts a high value on the ‘right’ to self-determination and to bodily inviolability. Like the crime of assault, the tort of battery has been said to hinge on ‘the fundamental principle, plain and incontestable ⃛ that every person’s body is inviolate’. As Lord Donaldson was to put it, ‘in the absence of consent all, or almost all, medical treatment and all surgical treatment of an adult is unlawful however beneficial such treatment might be. This is incontestable.’ At first sight, then, the availability of the action for battery suggests the clearest possible repudiation of paternalism and a vindication of patient choice. In Judge Cardozo’s wellknown formulation; ‘every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body; and a surgeon who performs an operation without his patient’s consent commits an assault for which he is liable in damages’.