bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Areal and Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change: Evidence from Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Telugu, Gondi, Konda, Kui, Kuvi, Pengo, and Manda. With the help of a computer analysis of relevant etymologies, it has been shown that apical displacement affected less than a dozen items at a common stage of the above subgroup. The rules gradually spread to the rest of the lexicon over the following two millennia, and the change is still in progress in some languages of this subgroup.
Theory, Description, and What Keeps Linguistics from Becoming a Science
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I This writing has a twofold purpose: one is to bring together in summary form ideas that have been presented at various times in diverse writings, not without slight changes arising out of the natural growth of ideas. The second purpose, which is the goal that the first serves as means to end, is to address certain fundamental issues underlying disagreements among today’s linguists over how to proceed in the investigation of human language. I hope to be able to show that some positions are inconsistent with their own goals, and that the position advocated here is at least free of this charge. I may be entirely wrong in what I assert here, but it would still be worthwhile making the assertions if that should prove conducive to a discussion of the fundamental issues I plan to expound. So-called ‘formal explanations’ in generative linguistics aside, the number of explanations to be found in ‘minilectal’ approaches to linguistic analysis-those like structuralism and transformationalism, which posit idiolects as the only proper object of linguistic analysis-is embarrassingly close to nil. If explanations are wanting, it follows that an explanatory-predictive theory must also be wanting. As for predicting, transformationalists can make predictions about still unknown data within the same minilect; but predicting future systems or developments of a given system would carry them outside their defined object of analysis-the idiolect.
What Grammarians Haven’t Been Doing Right or Unriddling Analytical Paradoxes
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The quite opposed forces of 1a. We shall return (resolve)and lb. Shall we return? (a mild suggestion)are suggestive of much more startling reversals in marked categories and environments to be presented later. An inquiring and systematic mind will look for an explanation of this and other reversals—e.g. why unmarked tag questions reverse the negativity of the inflected verb in the pre-tag. Until W. Mayerthaler’s (1980; 1981; etc.) ground-breaking theory predicting reversals in marked categories and environments, it was not realized that reversals are general and systematic. A marked category in an unmarked environment is unmarked in a marked environment; and vice versa. Double reversals (yielding what look like unreversed phenomena) occur not only in overmarked categories and environments but also when a marked environment and a category which (in it) is marked come together in a form.
Epilogue on Historical Linguistics
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I Much that has been learned about the development and analysis of languages in the past two decades or so has been ignored by traditional historical-comparative linguistics, much to the detriment of the discipline. Besides the self-evident philistinism of this, and besides the undefended and indefensible use in comparative analysis of minilectal, or synchronic-idiolectal (anticom-parative), models—often subsequently to their having been discarded even in synchronic-idiolectal analysis-there is also the exclusive use, by more than a few, of purely surficial phenomena to establish language relationships. By surficial phenomena, I mean phonemes (all are idiolectal), word order with or with out case-marker(ing)s, and the like. Of course, no one would wish to underrate the significance of Greenberg’s word-order implicationalities. (Indeed, they are what make postpositions natural in OV-clauses-namely English WR-clauses like one who I spoke to and not one of which did she ever account for.) But genetic relationships are proved by unborrowable deep similarities.
On the Mathematics of Language
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As was noted in 1.2, there are reasons to expect language to have a mathematical structure. One is that if new words entering language are to fit into the existing system of word combinations, the existing words have to be characterized by their combining-relation to each other rather than by any individual properties: the new word may have a kind of meaning or of phonemic composition different from the existing words, but it will have to fit into one or another of the kinds of word combination which make sentences. Another reason is that in the absence of an external metalanguage (2.1), the elements of language can only be identified by their departures from equiprobability, which is the kind of property that can be studied mathematically (differently from meaning or phonemic composition). A third reason is that the speakers of a language, who have limited (though generalizable) public experiences of recognizing speech entities and their combination, can understand an unbounded number of sentences (more than are ever actually said), since there is no structurally relevant specifiable upper bound to the length of a sentence: hence there must be some constructive or recursive characterization of sentences.
Sub languages
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Certain proper subsets of the sentences of a language may be closed under some or all of the operations defined for the language. That is, carrying out a grammatical operation on a sentence of that subset yields another sentence of the same subset. Such subsets constitute a sublanguage of the language, because they satisfy the grammar without involving any sentence that is outside the subset. It will be seen that the structures of these sublanguages have important new properties of their own, and also throw further light on the structure of language as a whole.
Semantic Opposition: Systemic versus Non-Systemic
Authors: Mettinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the pairs of opposites established on the basis of syntagmatic contrast in 2.3 we find, among others, the following cases: (1) He’d been madly in love with Veronica but it wouldn’t have done. Veronica would have swallowed him body and soul. (TH,25) (2) I wish she would explain it to me, he thought wrily, gazing into another mirror, I’m damned if I can make head or tail ofit. (CP,170) (3) Do you think the old saying is true—about you’re born to be hanged or born to be drowned? (HP,87)(4) It was indeed, he thought, a perfect marriage of Nature and Civilization, this view, where one might take in at a glance the consummation of man’s technological skill and the finest splendours of the natural world. (CP, 56) (5) Unable to decide on the relative accuracy of the oral and rectal methods of taking her temperature, Barbara had decided to employ both. (TBMIFD,10) (6) Caroline dissented. She said that if the man was a hair-dresser, he would have wavy hair, not straight. All hair-dressers did. (MRA., 19) (7) She drew out from her handbag the letter she had received that morning from Lady Tamplin. Katherine was no fool. She understood the nuancesof that letter as well as anybody and the reason of Lady Tamplin’s show of affection towards a long-forgotten cousin was not lost upon her. It was for profit and not for pleasure that Lady Tamplin was so anxious for the company of her dear cousin.
Oppositeness of Meaning: Basic Assumptions
Authors: Mettinger Arthur 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter pairs of systemic opposites, i.e. those that constitute semantic micro-fields, share the same archisememe, and differ along one semantic dimension, will be looked at in greater detail.1 I do not, however, wish to establish a typology of systemic opposites; the main objective of the remainder of this study is to describe and explain the semantic relations obtaining between the members of a pair of systemic opposites in terms of semantic dimensions and semantic features, or rather, feature-relations. In doing this, I have found it advisable to confine myself to the study of cases of complementarity (male—femafe, existence—inexistence, affirm—negate),antonymy (heavy—light, beautiful—ugly, curiosity—incuriosity, love—hate),and gradable complementarity (certain—uncertain, content—discontent, innocent—guilty, sound—silence),not only because the majority of opposites found in the Roget’s Thesauruscorpus belong to these groups/ but also because these types of opposites can be regarded as prototypical instances of systemic semantic opposition. Apart from this, antonymy, complementarity, and gradable complementarity share one common criterion, viz. gradability, which can, as will be shown presently, serve as the point of departure for the investigation of the semantic properties characterizing pairs of antonyms, complementaries, and gradable complementaries. I will therefore concentrate on this group of “central oppositeness of meaning”; the discussion of basic assumptions concerning central oppositeness of meaning in this chapter depends on, and is supplemented by, the analyses given in Chapter 5.
Approaches to Language Typology: A Conspectus
Authors: Shibatani Masa Yoshi , Bynon Theodora 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The schools of language typology represented in this volume are all current and active. What unites them is a common goal and a shared scholarly tradition. They have all developed theoretical frameworks within which to account for the particular aspect of cross-linguistic variation they have selected to study, and they all have their roots in a shared European tradition of scholarship.
Language Contact and the Bislama Lexicon
Authors: Crowley Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The vocabulary of modern Bislama is currently growing rapidly, largely with English as a source for borrowings. Thus, words and expressions like teroris ‘terrorist’, rebol ‘rebel’, speseli ‘especially’, and long bihaf blong ‘on behalf of are now commonly heard on the radio and in formal meetings. Considerable semantic expansion is also taking place, with existing words coming to refer to new concepts, especially in colloquial registers of the language. For instance, the word kale until five or six years ago meant ‘to wedge, chock up’, but it now also refers to the practice of having a beer after a few shells of kava to heighten the effect. Existing words are also combined according to productive patterns in the language to refer to new concepts. For instance, the following words and expressions are now frequently heard over the radio: roket-bom ‘missile’ and bigfala toktok insaed long nius ‘news headlines’.
Beach-la-Mar to Bislama: Emergence of the Grammar
Authors: Crowley Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Bislama spoken by the end of the First World War was probably not very different to varieties of Bislama spoken widely today. These varieties include those represented in most recent descriptions of the language, e.g. Guy (1975), Camden (1977), and Tryon (1987). The discussion that follows focuses on the evolution of those aspects of the grammar of twentieth-century Bislama which have come to distinguish it structurally from the sister dialects of Melanesian Pidgin spoken in Solomon Islands and in Papua New Guinea.
Self-Government and the Obligation to Obey Socialist Law
Authors: Sypnowich Christine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Would citizens have a moral obligation to obey the law in a socialist society? This chapter raises the age-old problem of obligation to the state, but in a radical framework, on the assumption that all citizens fully participate in the making of law, and all citizens enjoy maximum economic and social equality. If the citizen has a moral obligation to obey the law under a model of democratic socialism, radical theory will succeed where liberal theory fails.
Introduction
Authors: Heidensohn Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Social scientists can learn much from the study of images. In the early 1990s, for instance, it was possible to collect a striking series of pictures of women from western mass media. Margaret Thatcher, Britain’s Prime Minister for more than eleven years, resigned. World-wide she was shown not only departing in dramatic style, but her premiership was portrayed and analysed at length. A few months later, Edith Cresson became the first female Prime Minister of France. Between these two political events, women serving in the Coalition Forces in the Gulf War were depicted in combat gear and with weapons and also embracing their children as they left for the war. The most senior woman police officer in Britain claimed that she had been sexually discriminated against and was suspended while a disciplinary charge was brought against her. Fictional portrayals of women as detectives, especially in television series, are not new, but the 1990s saw new departures with films such as Nikita, Blue Steel, and The Silence of the Lambs in all of which the pursuing officer is a tough, armed female.
Introduction
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Louis Henkin, ‘Human rights is the idea of our time’. In concrete terms the ‘idea’ of human rights is given expression through a myriad of regional and global international instruments. The most general of those instruments, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), the Optional Protocol thereto (1966), and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966), collectively form the ‘International Bill of Rights’. The two Covenants and the Optional Protocol entered into force in 1976.
Changing within the Consensus, 1964–79
Authors: Windlesham Lord 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The abolition of the death penalty was a political, not an administrative, reform. Demand for the restoration of capital punishment is regarded to this day by many politicians as a powerful torrent capable of bursting its banks and flooding the adjoining landscape. For most of the time since 1965 it has been contained in a separate channel isolated from the rest of criminal justice policy-making. While the politicians were preoccupied with the death penalty and corporal punishment in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the civil servants were paddling in the mainstream, adjusting to the implications of the higher volume of crime and trying to get a grip on what was to become a perennial problem for the next quarter century, the growth in the number of persons appearing before the courts charged with criminal offences. To describe the process as reform would be to claim too much. Evolutionary modification, generally contained within a broad consensus, is nearer to the mark.
The Legal and Ethical Implications of Postcoital Birth Control*
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this important symposium, as I understand it, is to make more widely known the form of birth control called ‘postcoital birth control’. Perhaps we should recall that it is exactly a year since the Pregnancy Advisory Service opened its first clinic offering this service, in April 1981. Some of you in the audience will have heard the BBC radio interview that Helene Grahame, PAS press and information officer, gave this morning. In it she set the scene for the symposium by pointing out that, despite the fact that services have been offered for a year now, there is still a considerable lack of awareness among doctors, especially GPs, and the public of these services, so much so that women quite often have to travel long distances to get help. Ms Grahame made the important point, to which I shall return later, that what we are talking about is a form of emergency birth control. We are not, at present at least, discussing something which can be looked upon as a regular method of birth control.
Patients, Doctors, and Human Rights
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My concern is with what I will call medical law. The question for consideration is whether there is anything to be gained analytically or practically in approaching medical law in terms of human rights. I will suggest that there is and that a number of recent developments in medical law should properly be seen as involving issues of human rights. I will argue further that if they had been seen in this way, they might well have been analysed and even decided differently.
The Monetary System, its Organization and Incidents
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
CHIEFLY in the course of the nineteenth century almost all States enacted legislation with a view to organizing their respective currencies. This led to the creation of monetary systems as they are familiar to the modern world. It does not fall within the scope of a discussion of the legal problems of money to describe in detail the numerous matters which are included in the organization of a monetary system; methods of issuing money, forms or symbols of money, the composition of coins, · standards of fineness, limits of error, remedy allowances-these are some of the elements of a monetary system which the legislator has to take care of and which economists have often described.
Monetary Obligation: Unliquidated Amounts
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
NOMINALISM, as has been shown, on account of its origin and nature, has developed and operates in relation to liquidated sums, whether they stem from the parties’ agreement, from a unilateral statement of intention such as a will or from statute. Consequently the question whether and to what extent nominalism operates outside the realm of fixed sums does not arise. The extent of unliquidated amounts depends upon the principles applicable to the relationship in issue rather than the law of money: it is the law of damages, breach of trust, unjustified enrichment, agency, and so forth that must decide upon the relevance and impact of variations of monetary value. In all these cases the claims are unliquidated and require assessment by means of a valuation in terms of money. Their extent or, to put it differently, the result of the valuation depends upon the time with reference to which the process of valuation is carried out. Value, as opposed to a sum which is fixed and constant in character, implies variability and, therefore, a reference to a time element.
Introduction Foreign Currency and its General Relations with Municipal and Private International Law
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE first part of this book is devoted to the legal position of a domestic currency within the sphere of its own domestidaw (e.g. Eng1ish money in England under English law). The second part, on which we are now entering, deals with the position of a currency other than that of the given country, within the sphere of such country’s private international and municipal law (e.g. French currency in England). But the case of a sum of English money payable under an obligation governed by a foreign law (e.g. pounds sterling under a French contract) is nowhere treated in the present work.
The General Position of Foreign Money and Foreign Money Obligations in English Law
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE question what money is to be regarded as foreign money cannot be so easily answered as might be supposed. It appears to be thought by some that foreign money is such money as belongs to a currency system of a country other than that whose law governs the obligation. Another author1 considers that money is foreign money if it is owed as a result of private agreement as opposed to public law. A view more widely held is that such money is foreign as is different from the currency of the place of payment, and this solution has been accepted by Article 41 of the Uniform Law on Bills and Notes, 1930, and by Article 36 of the Uniform Law on Cheques, 1931, which laws, in pursuance of the Convention made under the auspices of the League of Nations, have been put into force in a number of countries.
The Private International Law of Exchange· Control
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The private international law of exchange control, i.e. that part of the conflict of laws which deals with the reaction of English law to foreign exchange control regulations,1 is undoubtedly one of the most important aspects of modern monetary law. Unfortunately, it is in a state of evolution which renders its treatment a matter of difficulty.
The Bretton Woods Agreements, at present binding upon more than 150 nations, not only express a definite legal policy, but also contain formal rules of law. Both that policy and those rules differ from traditional practice and theory. Moreover, Bretton Woods does not lay down a complete code: it leaves many gaps which will have to be filled by resorting to general principles.
The Valuation of Foreign Currencies
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHERE there exists an independent monetary system, its relationship with other monetary systems invalves not only the problem of making payments to another country, but also that of valuing the one currency in terms of another. The former was dealt with in the preceding three chapters; the latter, or rather some of its aspects, will be discussed in the present chapter.
Monetary systems may be related to each other by two means of measurement, the (nominal) par of exchange and the (real) rate of exchange. The par of exchange is of minor importance in the legal practice of a world in which currencies are ‘floating’ aud will therefore require only a few comments (below section II). On the other hand, the rate of exchange gives rise to many and varied problems which necessitate discussion at some length.
The Monetary Law of Inter-State Obligations
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHEN one comes to monetary obligations arising under public international lav·, that is to say, normally, obligations arising between international persons, one is concerned with problems which are almost identical with those arising under the municipal legal systems of all countries. The primary task, therefore, is to ascertain the extent to which the solutions evolved by municipal law are acceptable to international law. But two complications must be borne in mind. In the first place, international practice, which must form the background of legal research, has developed over a long period of time, discloses many varieties, and is dispersed over numerous treaties; it is so elusive that caution is required before a rule of customary international law can be deduced from it.
International Commercial Arbitration
Authors: Collier John , Lowe Vaughan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Commercial arbitration has a long history: it predates the existence of organised systems of States’ courts. Arbitration is a natural extension of the informal practice of traders calling upon a respected colleague to express a view on disputes between them. Where the courts might appear remote, rigid, and slow and expensive in their procedures and the judges might seem unversed in the ways of commerce and the law, insensitive and ill adapted to the exigencies of commercial life, arbitrators offered an attractive alternative. They were originally drawn from the same commercial community as the traders, often experienced in the trade, capable of offering practical suggestions for the settlement of the dispute and of doing so informally, quickly, and cheaply. These advantages of arbitration were magni­fied in disputes between traders in different countries.