bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evolution of Phenotypic Robustness
Authors: Hermisson Joachim , Wagner Gunter P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Evolutionary biology, in the neo-Darwinian tradition, is based on the study of genetic and phenotypic variation and its fate in populations. Thus, the observation that the genetic variability of a trait is itself influenced by the genotype has obvious theoretical implications [49, 55]. It is in this context that the robustness of phenotypic traits was first conceptualized as canalization and became the focus of a significant research effort (reviewed in Scharloo [39]). With increasing awareness of the intricate molecular mechanisms maintaining the life of cells, the ubiquity of buffering and compensatory mechanisms came into focus [18, 37, 63]. Recent years have seen a confluence of the classical concept of canalization and new research in molecular biology that resulted in a sharp increase in the interest in canalization and related phenomena. One can speak of an emerging field of biological robustness research that is able to draw on a sophisticated arsenal of technical and theoretical tools that were developed over the last ten years [8].
Robustness and the Internet: Design and Evolution
Authors: Willinger Walter , Doyle John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The objective of this chapter is to provide a historical account of the design and evolution of the Internet and use it as a concrete starting point for a scientific exploration of the broader issues of robustness in complex systems. To this end, we argue that anyone interested in complex systems should care about the Internet and its workings, and why anyone interested in the Internet should be concerned about complexity, robustness, fragility, and their tradeoffs.
Growth Regulation
Authors: Cohen Pinchas , Rosenfeld Ron G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While multiple hormones influence somatic growth, the main regulator of postnatal growth is growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is secreted in a pulsatile manner from the anterior pituitary primarily as a 22 kD molecule (although other forms may be found). The development of the pituitary gland, as well as GH gene expression, is regulated by the multiple pituitary transcription factors listed in Table 12-1. Pit-I and Prop-I are genes (which thus encode proteins) that are often mutated or deleted in cases of congenital hypopituitarism.
Glucose, Lipid, and Protein Metabolism
Authors: Dobbins Robert L , Cowley Michael A , Foster Daniel W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The maintenance of life requires a constant supply of substrates that are used to generate energy and preserve the structure of cells and tissues. The process in principle is quite simple, yet the individual metabolic pathways and the regulation of fluxes through the pathways can be complex. Energy is derived when fuel substrates are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen, generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A portion of the ingested foodstuff is also utilized, either directly or after transformation into other substrates, to repair and replace cell membranes, structural proteins, and organelles. The remainder is stored as potential energy in the form of glycogen or fat. Under normal circumstances, each individual remains in a near-steady state where weight and appearance are stable over prolonged periods. Despite the outward evidence of stability, fuel metabolism changes dramatically several times a day during alternating periods of feeding and fasting. An anabolic phase begins with food ingestion and lasts for several hours. Energy storage occurs during this period when caloric intake exceeds caloric demands. The catabolic phase usually begins 4 to 6 hours after a meal and lasts until the person eats once again. During this phase, utilization shifts from exogenous to endogenous fuels, a change heralded by the mobilization of substrate stored in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue.
Assessment of Health-Related Quality of Life in Individuals with Neural Tube Defects
Authors: Stevenson Jim , Pit-Ten Ineke M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The quality of life in people with neural tube defects (NTDs) is an important issue for clinicians and service providers. Decisions that might affect quality of life need to be informed by measurement of the quality of life of those concerned. This chapter will review what is known about the quality of life in individuals with NTDs, evaluate the different types of quality-of-life measures that are available, and highlight what has been learned from a recently conducted large-scale study of the quality of life in children and adolescents with spina bifida and/or hydrocephalus.
Using Models for Species Conservation and Management: An Introduction
Authors: Akşakaya H Reşit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantitative methods, especially modeling and population viability analysis (PVA) are increasingly important tools in the conservation and management of species. The increase in the use of these quantitative methods has increased the importance of developing and applying models correctly. There are several books on using models in species conservation and management (e.g., Burgman et al. 1993, Akşakaya et al. 1999, Sjögren Gulve and Ebenhard 2000, Beissinger and McCullough 2002, Morris and Doak 2002). However, there is a shortage of examples and case studies, especially for species other than birds and mammals. This book is a collection of case studies of models applied to a variety of species. Each chapter uses one or several models to address conservation and management issues related to a particular species. These models are available on the CD-ROM included with the book. The models are implemented in the population modeling and viability analysis software RAMAS GIS 4.0 (Akşakaya 2002). The CD-ROM contains a demonstration version of the software. An appendix describes how to install the program and open, inspect, and run the models. The chapters are organized into sections based on major taxonomic groups and represent a wide range of life histories. Each section starts with an introductory chapter that discusses the life history characteristics of that taxonomic group from the modeling point of view, and then presents an overview of the chapters in the section. This chapter includes two short introductions—to PVA and modeling and to RAMAS GIS—and discusses limitations of, and alternatives to, these approaches.
Australian Heath Shrub (Epacris barbata): Viability under Management Options for Fire and Disease
Authors: Keith David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Southern hemisphere heathlands are characterized by high levels of plant diversity and endemism (Cowling 1983, Hopper et al. 1996). Many of the plant species found in these regions are rare and have small geographic ranges and narrow habitat specificity, although local populations may be large (Rabinowitz 1981). As well as these common patterns of rarity, many southern heathland plants also share a number of life history traits, such as seed dormancy mechanisms, poor propagule dispersal, and the ability of established plants to resprout when burned. With very few exceptions, their life history processes are episodic, driven by recurring wildland fires (Keith et al. 2002). Epacris barbata, an endangered shrub restricted to fire-prone heathland in eastern Tasmania (southern Australia), typifies these patterns of rarity and fire-driven life history. Even though the species’ entire 30-km range is within a conservation reserve and its life history traits are thought to buffer populations against rapid decline under some fire regimes, appropriate management of fire regimes represents a major challenge for its conservation. In addition, diseases caused by alien pathogens pose a new threat to the persistence of E. barbata and many other species in temperate Australia. This chapter describes a model of the impacts of disease on a threatened plant species in a fire-prone environment. The aims are to understand which life history processes have the greatest influence over population dynamics, to quantify the effect of the disease on population viability, and to explore the relative value of alternative management options.
Pacific Herring (Clupea pallasi) in Canada: Generic Framework for Evaluating Conservation Limits and Harvest Strategies
Authors: Fu Caihong , Wood Chris C , Schweigert Jake 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fishery managers often ask how low the abundance of a population can go without causing irreversible harm. The concept of a minimum viable population size is problematic, particularly for pelagic fishes like herring that exhibit high variation in productivity and abundance. However, it should be feasible to determine a conservation limit for population size (N)L that would satisfy stated conservation criteria. For instance, we could choose NL high enough to ensure acceptably low probabilities of triggering World Conservation Union (IUCN) listing criteria (Mace and Stuart 1994) or of falling below a threshold or quasi-extinction level of abundance in the long term. A population reduced to N L should also have an acceptably high probability of recovery to a sustainable target level within a shorter time period. For example, the U.S. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act specifies a legal requirement for recovery within 10 years or as soon as possible (Restrepo et al. 1998) and Johnston et al. (2000) propose a limit to allow recovery within a single generation. Similarly, it should be feasible to determine a corresponding conservation limit for harvest rate (μL). NL and μL values that satisfy these requirements can be determined in Monte Carlo simulations by evaluating outcomes for a wide range of population sizes and harvest rates.
Golden-Cheeked Warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) in Texas Importance of Dispersal toward Persistence in a Metapopulation
Authors: Alldredge Mathew W , Hatfield Jeff S , Diamond David D , True C Diane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The golden-cheeked warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) is a neotropical migrant songbird whose breeding range is currently restricted to fewer than 35 counties in the Edwards Plateau region of central Texas (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1996). Breeding habitat consists of Ashe juniper (Juniperus ashei) along with a variety of deciduous tree species (Wahl et al. 1990). Wintering range consists of high-elevation pine (Pinus) and oak (Quercus) woodlands located in Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico (Pulich 1976, Vidal et al. 1994, Rappole et al. 2000). The golden-cheeked warbler was listed as endangered in 1990 by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), primarily because of the high rate of breeding habitat loss (USFWS 1992) due to clearing of Ashe juniper for range improvement and commercial harvest (Kroll 1980) and for urbanization (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1996). Currently, efforts are being made by public and private organizations to acquire or protect golden-cheeked warbler breeding habitat for the continued survival of the species. However, it is unclear how these lands should be acquired in relation to lands already managed for this species in terms of spatial distribution and size.
Narrative Medicine
Authors: Charon Rita 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Narrative medicine has emerged in response to a commodified health care system that places corporate and bureaucratic concerns over the needs of the patient. Generated from a confluence of sources including humanities and medicine, primary care medicine, narratology, and the study of doctor-patient relationships, narrative medicine is medicine practiced with the competence to recognise, absorb, interpret and be moved by the stories of illness. By placing events in temporal order, with beginnings, middles and ends, and by establishing connections among things using metaphor and figural language, narrative medicine helps doctors to recognise patients and diseases, convey knowledge, accompany patients through the ordeals of illness – and according to Rita Charon, can ultimately lead to more humane, ethical and effective healthcare. Trained in medicine and in literary studies, Rita Charon is a pioneer of and authority on the emerging field of narrative medicine. In this important and long-awaited book she provides a comprehensive and systemic introduction to the conceptual principles underlying narrative medicine, as well as a practical guide for implementing narrative methods in health care. A true milestone in the field, it will interest general readers and experts in medicine, humanities and literary theory.
Cultural Patterning in Language and Womans Place
Authors: Tannen Deborah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I ambled into the sphere of Robin Lakoff—and of linguistics —in the summer of 1973. A teacher of remedial writing named Debby Paterakis, I knew nothing of linguistics except that it was a way of studying language —and language had always been my passion. Nearly everything I have written about conversational style —and about language and gender, which to me is a subcategory of conversational style —was seeded by the course I took with Lakoff at the 1973 Linguistic Institute at the University of Michigan.
The Good Woman
Authors: Eckert Penelope 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So who is this woman who inhabits the pages of Language and Womans Place? Is she me? Is she women? Clearly not. She is an ideological artifact—a stereotype. And what makes the book important is that this stereotype is there to invoke. It is not a stereotype of women, but of a particular kind of woman —a woman who strives to be refined and superpolite, who mitigates her stances and exaggerates positive affect. The simple existence of that kind of woman at one end of the array of kinds of woman one can be is definitional —it is the main thing that makes women different from men.
Linguistic Discrimination and Violence against Women; Discursive Practices and Material Effects
Authors: Ehrlich Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The introduction to Robin Lakoff’s Language and Womans Place (LWP) (1975) sets out the book’s primary purpose — “to provide diagnostic evidence from language use for one type of inequity that has been claimed to exist in our society: that between the roles of men and women” (LWP 39). While much of Lakoff’s text describes instances of linguistic discrimination, her goals go beyond a description of discriminatory language use.
Natural Selection
Authors: Wade Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Natural selection causes change in the phenotypic composition of a population through the differential birth and death of its members. Natural selection can operate simultaneously at many different levels in the hierarchy of biological organization, from the cellular (gametic selection) to the individual (Darwinian or mass selection), to the population (kin, group, and interdemic selection) as well as to the species or community level. That is, we can consider populations of gametes, cells, individuals, populations (called “metapopulations”), communities, and species as collections of biological entities whose members persist, reproduce, and die as a result of differences in phenotype. Differences in the direction or strength of natural selection at different levels in the biological hierarchy contribute to the origins of biodiversity.
Negotiating Middlemarch
Authors: Eermarth Elizabeth Deeds 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The broad point of this essay is to bring back into focus how original and innovative George Eliot”s work was in Middlemarch, how forward looking philosophically and practically. Before she attempted fiction she thought through problems that have yet to dawn on some of her interpreters and that inform not just the local concerns of Middlemarchers but the strategies of the novel. The medium is the message in Middlemarch, as in all George Eliot”s works; she is an artist first, and art is a matter of the “how,” not the “what.” How the text unfolds is far more important a key to understanding it than any statements from this or any text, however explicit, because the method reveals the philosophical biases and assumptions of the text, whether they are explicitly acknowledged or not. This is true of every writer; what may be unique to George Eliot is her philosophical adequacy and the degree to which that adequacy has been thoroughly translated into art.
Oblique Muscle Dysfunction
Authors: Plager David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inferior and superior oblique muscles can cause strabismus by either underacting or overacting. It may be more precise to call these eye movement abnormalities overelevation in adduction, underdepression in abduction, and so on, stressing the result, not the cause, but the terms underaction and overaction to describe oblique muscle dysfunction are so ingrained in our lexicon that these clinically descriptive terms are used in the chapter. These underactions and overactions are usually graded relative to the duction of the opposite eye and are conventionally termed either primary or secondary-to paresis or restriction of ipsilateral antagonist muscles or dysfunction in the opposite eye.
Restrictive Strabismus
Authors: Buckley Edward G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Treating strabismus secondary to a restriction is challenging because both the muscle and the surrounding tissue are involved. Since the cause in most cases is multifactorial, the treatment options are often complex and unpredictable. The preoperative evaluation should include an assessment of the degree of restriction (forced duction), muscle function (force generation), and the condition of the surrounding tissue.
Reoperation Strategies
Authors: Plager David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After strabismus surgery, a reoperation may be needed due to undercorrection, overcorrection, or a new strabismus problem that may or may not be related to the prior surgery. Rates of reoperation are difficult to determine and are related to myriad factors, including the complexity of the original problem, the patient’s level of binocular sensory function, the patient’s age, the development of new problems related to either the original surgery or the underlying diagnosis, and the skill and experience of the surgeon.
Posttraumatic Infections of the Central Nervous System
Authors: Tunkel Allan R , Turtz Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infections that occur following trauma to the central nervous system (CNS) are associated with high morbidity and mortality if not recognized, diagnosed, and treated promptly. Even apparently minor trauma can lead to significant infection that may result in death. The aim of this chapter is to review the acute infectious complications following trauma to the CNS with emphasis on meningitis, brain abscess, and subdural empyema. Bacterial meningitis may follow varying degrees of trauma, ranging from relatively minor injuries to penetrating injuries of the skull. The incidence of acute bacterial meningitis after head trauma ranges from 0.2% to 17.8%. The presence of a leak of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), manifested clinically as rhinorrhea or otorrhea, generally leads to an increase in the incidence of posttraumatic bacterial meningitis. Rhinorrhea and otorrhea most often occur after a basilar skull fracture and are definite signs of a dural and arachnoid tear.
Iatrogenic Complications of Spine Surgery
Authors: Nanda Anil , Rudrappa, Satish , Vannemreddy Prasad 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Spine surgery is changing with introduction of newer imaging techniques, diagnostic protocols, and treatment methods including biocompatible implants. With refined diagnostic methods and surgical techniques, the spine surgeon is now faced with a rapidly changing educational substrate. In the United States alone, 400,000 lumbar surgeries are performed annually and an estimated $3 billion was spent on spine fusion procedures in 2003. From time to time, different series are published describing complications following spinal surgery in varied contexts. Spine surgeons need constant updates on the topic of complications encountered with newer and evolving techniques. In this chapter, we will discuss iatrogenic complications related to all spine surgeries. The complications common to all levels of the spine are presented first, followed by some problems specific to different spinal segments (Table 42.1). The secondary iatrogenic complications of spine surgeries such as deep vein thrombosis, thromboembolism, pneumonia, and so on are not included in this chapter.
Validity in dietary assessment methods
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Validity describes the degree to which a dietary method measures what it is intended to measure (Block and Hartman, 1989). Dietary methods designed to characterize usual intakes of individuals are the most difficult to validate because the “truth” is never known with absolute certainty. Even if the actual food intake, monitored from the results of unobtrusive weighed observations, compares favorably with results obtained from food records maintained by the subjects during the same period, there is no guarantee that the records represent the subjects’ true usual food intake (Block, 1982). To detect any changes in usual intake during the study, observations of actual food intake during, and either before or after the study period should be compared. Such a procedure attempts to measure absolute validity, but it is very time consuming and presents overwhelming practical difficulties. Consequently, absolute validity is generally determined in dietary studies that involve a limited number of subjects or only cover a relatively short time frame.
Assessment of protein status
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The body of the adult 70 kg reference man contains about 11 kg of protein (i.e., 16%) which is widely distributed throughout the different tissues of the body, as shown in Table 16.1. Most of the body protein is present in the skeletal muscle (about 43%) and in the smaller visceral protein pool. Visceral protein is made up of serum proteins, erythrocytes, granulocytes, and lymphocytes, as well as the solid tissue organs such as the liver, kidneys, pancreas, and heart. The skeletal muscle protein (termed somatic protein) and the visceral protein pool together comprise the metabolically available protein known as the “body cell mass” (Section 14.4). The other major protein components of the body are found in the extracellular connective tissue and constitute the noncellular structural proteins of the cartilaginous, fibrous, and skeletal tissues. Such noncellular structural proteins are not readily exchangeable with other body pools of protein. Hence, although alterations may occur in both the somatic and visceral protein components during protein malnutrition and disease, much of the protein in the extracellular connective tissue cannot be mobilized to counteract these changes (Phinney, 1981).
Assessment of the status of vitamins A, D, and E
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The three vitamins A, D, and E are similar, with a structure based on the isoprene unit: [–CH2–C(CH3)=CH–CH2)–]. They are all fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin A and E can be stored in the body, mainly in the liver and adipose tissue, respectively. In contrast, very little vitamin D is stored, but it is readily synthesized by the action of ultraviolet light on a precursor of vitamin D present in the skin.
Assessment of chromium, copper and zinc status
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Trace elements occur in the body in small or “trace” amounts, typically milligrams or micrograms per kilogram body weight; they generally constitute &lt; 0.01% of the body mass. Certain trace elements have been identified as essential for life, and these are listed in Table 24.1. Of these, chromium, copper, and zinc are reviewed in this chapter; iron was discussed in Chapter 17. Iodine and selenium are considered together in Chapter 25 in view of the interactions that occur between these two trace elements.