bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘A Story of My Own Weakness and Folly’?
Authors: Woolrych Austin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Addressing members of another parliament four years later, Cromwell described his attempt to set up a new supreme authority in place of the Rump as ‘a story of my own weakness and folly’.1 Perhaps he took too much of the blame for what was really a collective decision, and perhaps he was rather hard on himself.
He started off with some advantages. The country and the capital took his coup very calmly, for the Rump had few mourners besides the Rumpers. He hardly exaggerated when he said later that ‘there was not so much as the barking of a dog’,2 and a wag who pinned a notice on the door of the Commons’ chamber reading ‘This House is to be let, now unfurnished’ caught the public mood. One small petition apart, there were no demonstrations of protest against the expulsion; the army was solidly behind Cromwell, and the gathered churches were positively jubilant. But he and his fellow-officers were so unprepared for the responsibility they had undertaken that they needed time to consider how to provide even temporarily for the government of the country. Their public declaration of 22 April promised vaguely enough to call to it ‘persons of approved fidelity and honesty’, and privately they consulted a number of the more sympathetic former MPs on how best to fill the constitutional vacuum.
The Protectorate in Scotland, Ireland, and Europe
Authors: Woolrych Austin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If Scotland and Ireland have remained in the background through the last three chapters, it is because their political role following the Cromwellian conquests was mainly passive. Both countries were to play a dramatic part in the restoration of Charles II, but throughout Cromwell’s Protectorate they were subordinate to England, though in different degrees. Government in Scotland was far more considerate of Scottish interests, and more open to Scottish participation, than in Ireland.
North-Eastern England During The Wars Of The Roses
Authors: Pollard A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first modern scholarly study of north-eastern England during the Wars of the Roses. For a fleeting period in the late fifteenth century, the North dominated England: it was both the adopted home and the power base of Richard III. But this is more than simply an account of the rise and fall of the last Plantagenet as the Lord of the North. A. J. Pollard analyses regional politics and the interrelationship between province and centre from the beginning of the Neville-Percy feud in the 1450s to the establishment of Tudor authority by 1500. Themes explored include Anglo-Scottish relations, local government, the structure of landed society, the wealth, power, and the outlook of lords and gentry, and the economy of the region. Dr Pollard sets political history in the context of the period, and paints a detailed portrait of lay society, based on intensive research among local records. He shows that, contrary to some recent views, the North-East was in certain significant respects more feudal, more conservative and, by the early sixteenth century, poorer than the South-East of England.
Living and Dying in England 1100–1540
Authors: Harvey Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is an authoritative account of daily life in Westminster Abbey, one of medieval England's greatest monastic communities. It is also a wide-ranging exploration of some major themes in the social history of the Middle Ages and early sixteenth century, by one of its most distinguished historians. Barbara Harvey exploits the exceptionally rich archives of the Benedictine foundation of Westminster to the full, offering numerous vivid insights into the lives of the Westminster monks, their dependants, and their benefactors. She examines the charitable practices of the monks, their food and drink, their illnesses and their deaths, the number and conditions of employment of their servants, and their controversial practice of granting corrodies (pensions made up in large measure of benefits in kind). All these topics Miss Harvey considers in the context both of religious institutions in general, and of the secular world. Full of colour and interest, Living and Dying in England is an original and highly readable contribution to medieval history, and that of the early sixteenth century.
The Late Medieval Church and Clergy
Authors: Skeeters Martha C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The church was at the heart of life in late medieval Bristol as in other large towns and cities. One of the benefits of urban life for both laity and clergy was the diversity of religious institutions. For the laity it meant varieties of religious expression, and perhaps experience, as one moved from mass and a sermon at one’s own parish church to offer at another, to an outdoor sermon at a friary or on St Augustine’s Green or at Redcliffe Cross. In the city merely the glimpse of a church’s interior through an open door on a busy way could excite a religious emotion or invite the passer-by to worship. One imagines the many visitors to the monastery church at St Augustine’s when the Corporation’s representatives, the Mayor and Council, worshipped there on Easter and the Monday after. And undoubtedly many extraparochial worshippers joined the Mayor and Council when they heard a sermon at St Mary Redcliffe on Whitsunday. The very existence of eighteen parish churches within the city offered opportunity not only for variety but for the exercise of preference in choosing preachers, priests, and choirs, and the clamour of bells served as a constant reminder. For the urban laity there were choices which the villager never knew.
Itroduction
Authors: Goodman Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The personality and policies of Richard II, and the long-term significance of his reign, were matters of debate and controversy among suspicious and worried contemporaries, and they have remained matters of debate and controversy ever since. Judgements by those who had known him personally, or who had lived under his rule, that he was a tyrant or a foolish king, have echoed long. The theme that he was, with Edward II and Henry VI, one of a trinity of notably crass and unsuccessful rulers, has had a long currency. His rule, arguably, exemplified m governance, whose features were the stuff of bad dreams for the subjects of the later medieval English monarchy. A locus classicus for the indictment of this scarifying trinity is the manifesto against Edward IV ‘s government put out in 1469 by George duke of Clarence, George Neville, archbishop of York, and the earl of Warwick.1 Edward ‘s rule was compared in this manifesto to theirs, which had led ‘to their destruction and the great hurt and impoverishment of this land ‘. The three kings had estranged the great lords of their blood from their secret council, and relied on the advice of those who had no respect for the lords ‘ interests and those of the realm in general, but who impoverished the Crown for their own enrichment, encouraged the imposition of unjust taxes and forfeitures, and generated disorder and crime through their practice of maintenance.
The Great Acceleration, 1912 —1913
Authors: Stevenson David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Events in Eastern and in Western Europe must now be brought to their convergence. Continental diplomacy in the last two years of Great-Power peace centred on the outbreak and the aftermath of the Balkan Wars. With constant turmoil in the Eastern Mediterranean it was understood in every chancellery that the situation was much more strained, and at the climax of the winter crisis of 1912-13 Europe reached unprecedented levels of immediate military readiness. In addition, the crisis spectacularly intensified the drive for medium-term preparedness, expressed in massive spending increases and a string of major army laws. Diplomatic and military developments interacted ever more closely, and armaments competition and crisis management must be seen as aspects of a single phenomenon.
Men Versus the State
Authors: Taylor M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Men Versus the State is a study both of the political philosophy of Herbert Spencer (considered by many to be the greatest philosopher of Victorian Britain) and of the ideas of the Individualists, a group of political thinkers inspired by him to uphold the policy of laissez-faire during the 1880s and 1890s. Despite their important contribution to nineteenth-century political debate, these thinkers have been neglected by historians, who have concentrated on the advocates of an enhanced role for government in economic and social affairs. The Individualists were forceful critics of this tendency to expand the frontiers of the State. This, the first comprehensive study of their ideas, sheds new light on the nature of late Victorian political argument. The book also provides an original perspective on Spencer's political philosophy, which provided Individualism with much of its intellectual justification. It will be of interest to anyone who wishes to set free-market conservatism in a historical context.
Rival Claimants To The Benthamite Heritage
Authors: Taylor M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was argued in the Introduction that the closing decades of the late nineteenth century witnessed the emergence of a sustained debate concerning the true meaning of liberalism. The aim of the present chapter is to demonstrate that, contrary to the Individualists’ own self image as the only legitimate heirs of the Benthamites, the relationship between Individualism and the radicalism of the second quarter of the nineteenth century was more complex than the Individualists them selves believed. While it is undeniable that there were substantial theoretical continuities between Benthamite radicalism and Individual ism, it will be shown that the former contained within itself a number of tensions or ambiguities which enabled the New Radicals as well as the Individualists to lay claim to the Benthamite heritage. Both parties to the dispute reconciled these tensions in contrasting ways, but the fact that they shared a common perception of their existence, and of the need to overcome them, indicates that each side was engaged in a process of theoretical revision. While the innovations produced by the Individual ists were less self-conscious than those of the New Radicals, they did not simply restate the old utilitarian doctrine in the changed conditions of the late nineteenth century, but transformed it in a conservative direction.
Justice, Property, and Natural Right
Authors: Taylor M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most profound tensions between the liberal principles and conservative intentions of lndividualist thought is found in its account of justice, and in particular the doctrine of natural rights. Basing their claims variously on the principle of desert or on a pre-social natural right to property, the Individualists argued that each individual had a moral right to the produce of his labour power. This doctrine has a long history as part of the liberal tradition; as Ryan has pointed out, it ‘has been a commonplace of political and economic radicalism for three hundred years.’ The Individualists were accordingly committed to a theory of justice the revolutionary implications of which ‘conservatism has had a continuous struggle to defuse.’ At the same time, however, the Individualists also wished to turn this doctrine to the conservative purpose of providing an intellectual justification for the established distribution of property in late Victorian Britain. Despite the vast gulf between the extremes of opulence and poverty, despite the ‘unearned’ income derived from inherited wealth, the Individualists wished to contend that any interference with the rights of property would constitute an in justice. The present chapter will explore this tension between the Individualists’ conceptions of justice and their defence of the existing social order, and in particular it will examine their attempts to escape the radical implications of their own principles.
Introduction: Forms of Illusion
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The British are supposed in the nineteenth century not to have made commitments in peacetime. So the marquis of Salisbury told Prince Bismarck, as each tried to persuade the other to bear the burden of supporting Austria-Hungary against Russia. Great Britain was an oddity between 1894 and 1914 in not being in permanent peacetime alliance with another European state. The British had made an alliance against another European state, however, with Japan against Russia in 1902. Too much has been made of the Anglo Japanese alliance, which was hardly a novelty. The British were accustomed to making alliances with Asiatic states; to seeing European states as their likely enemy. Many of their alliances could be ignored, and have been by British diplomatic historians buried in dispatches from Paris and Vienna.
Transfers of Power, 1822-1826
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How the Persian Connection should be managed was partly the cause and partly the result of a series of disputes in the r 820s among the groups forming the British and Persian governments, which led to rapid transfers of power within both. At different times the Connection seemed a barrier to individual promotion, the success of a faction, or the triumph of a principle. The cause of the trouble was still the whereabouts of the Russo-Persian frontier in Transcaucasia: ‘if the Russian frontier discussions were settled, few subjects would arise requiring reference to the Home authorities and then matters would proceed smoothly’. They had not been settled, however, and until they were would cause disputes and, eventually, war. At the centre of the disputes among the Qajars stood Abbas Mirza and among the British, George Canning, made foreign secretary, to almost general regret, upon Castlereagh’s suicide in 1822 and prime minister-for the six months before his death-upon the earl of Liverpool’s retirement in the spring of I 827.
Conclusion
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of the Persian Connection between 1798 and I 828 is divided into two parts. During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the British discussed the nature and extent of their strategic interests in Persia-in the Persian Gulf until 1822-and the possible ways to protect them. After the wars a substantive interest turned into a symbolic one. Owing to Great Britain’s failure to restrain Russia, she had to find a way to support her claims to help manage developments in the Middle East. Anglo-Russian rivalry would spread in the 1830s into regions of Central Asia remote from the frontiers and protectorates of both states. Russian troops would advance south-east beyond Khiva, British troops north-west beyond Balkh. The advance to Balkh signified both the success and the failure of British policy. Despite the disastrous retreat from Kabul in 1842, the British showed in the First Afghan War that, if they chose, they had the capability to march an army to the heart of Central Asia. They had intended, however, that diplomacy should stand in for troops.
Anglo-French Diplomacy and the Transition from Sail to Screw
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The two fleets that so nearly clashed with one another in 1839-40 were composed predominantly of wooden, unarmoured sailingvessels. Such craft had long been the backbone of naval power, but from 1815 were being improved at a greater pace than ever before. Each new vessel of a given rate was larger than its predecessor, carrying more or heavier guns (and often both). Furthermore, naval architects were continually refining their art. There were occasional embarrassments, such as the discovery by the French that the great new four-decker Valmy (launched in 1847) had insufficient stability, and needed extra timber worked in around the waterline (a soufflage).
The Militarization of Naval Warfare in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: Tactics and Strategy
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Probably the most obvious point about the ideas current in our period concerning naval tactics is the initial painful slowness with which they changed to meet the fact of steam-power. From the early 1840s onwards, numbers of powerfully engined steamers were in service in the British and French navies, yet they were not generally seen as introducing any radically new tactical element; instead, they were assumed to be simply a valuable means of supplementing existing plans.
Dockyards and Naval Architects
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
War is the decisive test of military organizations, and the Crimean War showed up well certain deficiencies in the government dockyards in Britain and France. With respect to the royal dockyards, the war with Russia had demonstrated one fundamental difficulty—that of distribution. Whilst Deptford, Woolwich, Sheerness, Chatham, Portsmouth, Devonport, and Pembroke were admirably suited for a war with France, this was not so when Russia was the enemy. There was a proposal in 1855 that a dockyard should be built on the east coast of Scotland, to serve as a Baltic base should one again prove necessary.
Ireland
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
York had received a summons to the Parliament of 1445 as a matter of course, but he was at Honfleur on 21 September, and it was not until the opening of the third session, on 20 October, that he arrived in England. He had some private business to pursue concerning the lordship of Crickhowell, but this could have been left to proctors. His presence was necessitated by Henry Vi’s determination to have a peace with the French. In pursuit of this, it was Henry’s intention to go to France in person, an intention which was already public knowledge before the session began. As the session advanced, the king’s confidence grew, and on 19 December he arranged an extension of the truce until April 1447, and on 22 December set in motion the voluntary surrender of Le Mans.
Popularity And Problems
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 7 September Duke Richard arrived in Denbigh.1 It had been a journey not without incident. Originally intending to land at Beaumaris, he had met with stiff resistance from local officials. They were acting not on their own intiative, as they made clear, but on orders which had their origins in the king’s household, even from the king’s chamber.2 Against this opposition it is doubtful whether York managed a landing, and had he done so he would have had to negotiate Conway Castle, held against him by Bartholomew Bolde. More probably he sailed on thirty miles east to the Clwyd estuary where, as lord of Denbigh, he could feel more secure.
Dartford
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some time over the Christmas season York received word that the king was publicly advertising his displeasure, and on 9 January he signed and sealed a declaration protesting his loyalty to his king. Conscious, perhaps, that such protestations required a more public commitment, he invited the bishop of Hereford and the earl of Shrewsbury to Ludlow, there to tender him an oath on the sacrament and report his sincerity to the king. They were, further, to report his willingness to repeat the oath before nominees of the king, should he so desire it. The only thing York did not offer to do was to go to Henry and declare his loyalty in person. Duke Richard was a worried man. The whole tone of the letter is deferential in the extreme, yet, less than a month later, he was defiantly demanding the removal of the duke of Somerset, insisting that without this there would be no case or tranquillity in the land. The change is so abrupt as to merit attention.
The Confraternities of Late Medieval Florence: An Overview
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter has argued that to understand their emergence, Italian confraternities should be seen in relation to a wide range of institutions in both the early and late Middle Ages. While confraternities grew out of the forms and practices of earlier groups, their distinctive character owed most to late medieval institutions from the friars, on the one hand, to political, social, and economic associations, on the other. This chapter will examine the development of Florentine confraternities, compare briefly their administrative structure with other corporations in the city, and end by asking how distinct were Florentine confraternities from similar associations in other Italian cities.
The Laudesi Companies
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The foundation of laudesi companies in central Italy has to be seen against the background of the enormous growth in the popularity of the Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages. From the twelfth century this movement had received its main impetus from the Cistercian and Premonstratensian orders, for, as Dante recalled, Bernard of Clairvaux was enamoured with the Regina delcielo. However, by the time that Dante wrote the Paradiso, the main propagators of the Marian cult had become the Mendicant orders. Dominic chose Mary to be the patron of his order and, as Humbert of Romans recorded, she became the constant theme of Dominican sermons: ‘We preach continuously of her glory and that of her son.’ The Servites went further and claimed Mary as their true founder, who had established them ‘for her service, her glory, and her glorification’. It was no coincidence that three of the Florentine friaries should have been dedicated to Mary: the Dominican S. Maria Novella, the Servite SS Annunziata, and the Carmelite S. Maria del Carmine. Her influence,
Death, Funerals, and Bequests
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Preceding chapters have outlined the devotional services provided by the laudesi and disciplinati companies of Florence for members during their lifetime and also hinted at their social and political functions. The focus of this chapter will shift to examine the spiritual benefits which accrued to members after their death, in particular funerals and commemorative masses. However, as we have already indicated, the acceptance of bequests often involved confraternities in a whole series of administrative and devotional functions which could lead to modification in the main orientation of their activities. The second part of this chapter will address this theme in relation to two of the most affluent confraternities in Florence, the laudesi company of S. Pier Martire in S. Maria Novella and the company of the miraculous Madonna of Orsanmichele.
Piety and Charity: Orsanmichele and a Public Cult
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The very location of the miraculous Madonna of Orsanmichele represented a blend of the secular and sacred. The oratory was equidistant between the two main symbols of communal and ecclesiastical power, the Palazzo Vecchio and the cathedral. Furthermore, while the Piazza of Orsanmichele fulfilled principally a secular role as the site of the city’s grain-market, this area had an even longer tradition of worship. It had been the site of the Cistercian church of S. Michele in Orto, which had been demolished in 1249 in order to create the grain-market. In 1284 a Loggia was built to provide shelter for the grain merchants,2 and it was on one of its pillars that an image of the Virgin was represented. Over the next seven years a cult developed around the Madonna, probably among the merchants and their customers. The cult acquired a corporate status with the foundation of the laudesi company in 1291, and by the following year, as Villani recounted, the Madonna began to work miracles curing large numbers of sick people.