bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Well Hydraulics and Aquifer Tests
Authors: Moore John E. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe objectives of an aquifer test are to identify the performance of a well (to estimate the yield capability) and to estimate aquifer properties. Accurate estimates of the hydraulic characteristics of aquifers depend on reliable aquifer test data. The tests are done on existing wells or a well drilled specifically for that purpose. An aquifer test is a controlled, field site experiment to determine hydraulic conductivity and aquifer storage. The test consists of measuring groundwater discharge and observing water level changes in the pumped well.
Groundwater Remediation Project Life Cycle
Authors: Jacobs James A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
During the past decade, the groundwater remediation project life cycle has been used to characterize the status of an environmental project. If groundwater or soil contamination is suspected, a general process from assessment to closure occurs. In some cases, the project may involve many stakeholders, including landowners, responsible parties, bankers, operators/tenants, consultants, and regulators. In addition, others in the process might include environmental attorneys, realtors, developers, and interested parties such as neighbors and the community. Although the timing and specific activities may vary from site to site, a general phased process occurs. Environmental evaluations of potential leakage or spillage of hazardous substances into the subsurface generally consist of four phases (Phase I through Phase IV). The generalized four‐phase approach reflects the realistic process required to take a potentially impacted property from assessment phase (Phase I) through to the final monitoring and site closure phase (Phase IV). The phases generally proceed in order starting with Phase I. Some sites where soil or groundwater contamination is already suspected or documented might start with Phase II when a site has an underground tank or even Phase III, in the case of visually stained surface soils.
Groundwater Contamination from Municipal Landfills in the
USA
Authors: Tonjes David J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Groundwater contamination has been a significant environmental impact associated with landfills. Landfilling can affect groundwater quality through leachate releases, landfill gas migration, and runoff. Leachate releases are the most common and serious cause of impacts. Plume chemistry often limits extensive contamination to salts, ammonia, and redox‐sensitive metals. Liners and gas control systems are effective in preventing pollution at modern facilities.
Groundwater Dating with Radiocarbon
Authors: Priyadarshi Nitish 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Groundwater age, based on measurement of the concentrations of chemical and isotopic substances in water, refers to the time elapsed since the introduction of the chemical or isotopic substance into the water, or to be more precise, the time elapsed since the chemical or isotopic substance was recharged and isolated from the modern reservoir. Although we often refer to dating of groundwater, we are actually dating a chemical substance that is dissolved in the groundwater, not the water itself.
Various environmental isotopes and tracers are used to determine the age of groundwater. Carbon‐14 is used to date ground waters older than 1000 years.

The
14
C generated in the atmosphere is carried down to the earth's surface by precipitation and becomes incorporated into the biomass or transported into waterbodies such as lakes, oceans, and groundwater.
14
C undergoes radioactive decay (to
14
N), so that once isolated from the atmosphere, the amount of
14
C decreases with time.
Infiltrometers
Authors: Holden Joseph 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Infiltrometers allow measuring of the rate of infiltration of water into a given medium. Rain simulators, a particular type of infiltrometer, are discussed elsewhere (see entry R
AIN
S
IMULATORS
). Unlike rain simulators, other infiltrometers do not simulate raindrop activity but measure the rate of infiltration from a reservoir of water at the ground surface. Their main advantage is their simplicity and ease of use. There are two main types of infiltrometer, a ponded ring infiltrometer and a disk infiltrometer.
Irrigation Water Quality in District
H
ardwar,
U
ttaranchal,
I
ndia
Authors: Jain Chakresh K. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The groundwater quality of District Hardwar in the state of Uttaranchal (India) was assessed to determine the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. Two sets of 48 groundwater samples from shallow and deep aquifers were collected during pre‐ and postmonsoon seasons in the year 2002, and the suitability of the groundwater for irrigation was evaluated based on salinity, sodium adsorption ration (SAR), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), and boron content. The values of SAR ranged from 0.24–1.75 during the premonsoon season and from 0.22–1.92 during the postmonsoon season, respectively. Values of the SAR indicate that the majority of samples of the study area falls under the category of low sodium hazard, indicating no risk of sodification. In general, the groundwater of District Hardwar is safe for irrigation. According to the U.S. Salinity Laboratory classification of irrigation water, the majority of the samples (70%) falls under water type C2‐S1 followed by the C3‐S1 type.
Mt
BE
Authors: Jacobs James A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Methyl tertiary‐butyl ether (MtBE) is a synthetic compound that was developed as a solution to the problem of air pollution from vehicle emissions. MtBE was originally added to gasoline as a fuel oxygenate in approximately 1979 to reduce air emissions and make the fuel burn cleaner, allowing more complete combustion in internal combustion engines. The concept was to improve air quality by producing fuels that were more readily oxidized and decrease the resulting tropospheric ozone production. In the late 1980s, the U.S. EPA supported the use of fuel oxygenates in reformulated gasoline to achieve air quality goals.
MtBE, a byproduct of gasoline refining, was inexpensive, and readily available nationwide. Ironically, the use of this air‐saving gasoline additive has taken its toll on groundwater and surface water resources throughout the nation.
Phytoextraction of Zinc and Cadmium from Soils Using Hyperaccumulator Plants
Authors: Datta Rupali , Sarkar Dibyendu 
Published: April 2005

AbstractZinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) are ubiquitous pollutants that tend to occur together at many contaminated sites. The cost of using conventional soil remediation technologies is generally very high, so the use of plants to clean up soils contaminated by pollutants, a technique known as phytoremediation, is emerging as a new tool forin situremediation. Among the various ways in which plants can help in remediating contaminated soils, the technique of phytoextraction depends on the ability of plants to take up metals from soils and concentrate them in aboveground tissues. Those few plants that can accumulate metals to exceptionally high concentrations in their shoots are called hyperaccumulators. The main drawback of using hyperaccumulators for phytoextraction of Zn and Cd is their typically slow growth rate and low biomass. This has prompted researchers to investigate the possibility of developing genetically engineered plants with high biomass and better phytoextractive capacity. In recent years, major scientific strides have been made in understanding the soil chemical and plant molecular–genetic mechanisms that drive metal hyperaccumulation in plants. However, extensive field deployment of this technique on a large scale is still being hampered by a lack of specific understanding of the complex interactions between metal, soil, and plant systems that are instrumental in Zn/Cd uptake, translocation, and storage in plants. A multidisciplinary research effort that integrates the work of plant biologists, soil chemists, microbiologists, and environmental engineers is essential for the success of phytoextraction as a viable soil cleanup technique in Zn‐ and Cd‐contaminated sites.
Qanats: An Ingenious Sustainable Groundwater Resource System
Authors: Saghafian Bahram 
Published: April 2005

AbstractA qanat system consists of an underground tunnel that conveys water by gravity from highland aquifers to the ground surface at lower elevations. Blended with ingenuity, its purpose is simply to collect and bring underground water to the surface for use. Qanat, invented and originated in Iran more than 2700 years ago, is considered a hydraulic engineering system of an Old World era providing water to settlements since its invention. The overwhelming climate of Iran is arid and semiarid; two thirds of the country area in central, southern, and eastern parts receive an average of about 150 mm of rainfall annually. Yet, Iran is considered a farming country where diverse crops are grown. This remarkable achievement in agricultural development of arid lands has materialized partly by building qanats to tap underground water in regions where surface water is lacking or unreliable during seasons of high water demand. Numerous urban and rural qanat‐watered settlements are vivid examples that not all civilizations were rooted by the sides of rivers. Qanats have helped to transform barren lands into productive assets. Thanks to its simple and efficient technique, the idea behind this sustainable water resource system was passed from one generation to the next and traversed geographic boundaries. Qanat's use is not confined to Iran and has been adopted in many regions across the world.
Risk Analysis of Buried Wastes from Electricity Generation
Authors: Cohen Bernard L. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractAn important aspect of generating electricity from nuclear power is the disposal of the high level radioactive waste. The most widely anticipated plan is to convert it into a rock‐like material and bury it deep underground, typically 600 meters below the surface. In evaluating the safety of this procedure, a key element is to estimate the probability per year,P, for an atom of this buried waste to be dissolved by groundwater and eventually enter a human stomach. Obviously, this probability is site dependent and depends on present underground characteristics and future events in the region, many of them unpredictable, including climate changes, geological land uplifting causing rivers to change their courses, volcanoes, earthquakes, and human intrusion.
Fog
Authors: Holst Arthur M. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Fog is a cloud that materializes near the ground or over water. It is a reaction that occurs when the temperature near the ground cools to the temperature required to produce dew and causes the water vapor in the air to become visible in the form of a cloud of precipitation. There are different types of fog, which occur when different variables are involved. The two conditions necessary for fog formation are mild or no winds and air temperatures that are equivalent to the temperature at the dew point. Mild or no winds are important because obstructions in the way of a strong wind can cause it to blow in an up and down motion, which brings warmer air down and pushes the colder air up. Cool air is a requirement for fog formation so wind prevents it from happening.
Hydrologic Cycle
Authors: Jain Sharad K. , Singh Vijay P. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The hydrologic cycle, the endless circulation of water between the earth, the oceans, and the atmosphere, is fundamental to the study of the waters of the earth. The cycle entails a huge turnover of water driven by the energy of the Sun and gravity. It has a profound influence on the landscape and the earth's climate. The major components of the hydrologic cycle are precipitation, evapotranspiration, interception, infiltration, overland and channel flow, and groundwater flow. Quantitatively, the hydrologic cycle is represented by a mass balance or continuity equation. The relative significance of the terms of this equation depends on the space and timescale. Human activities and the hydrologic cycle are interactive and influence the earth's climate.
Hydrologic Cycle, Water Resources, and Society
Authors: Hubbart Jason A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Water is more or less constantly moving and changing from one state to another (solid, liquid, or vapor) while interacting with the physical processes in the atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. These changes and movements of water are linked together into a grand scheme called the hydrologic cycle. Components of the hydrologic cycle include the water vapor and clouds in the atmosphere, and also liquid surface waters (oceans, lakes, and streams) on continents as well as groundwater. Other important components of the hydrologic cycle include glacial ice held on continents and water in biomass. Plants and animals are about 70% water by volume. Water evaporates in enormous quantities from the oceans and then falls as precipitation either on land or ocean. That portion which falls on land evaporates, evapotranspires, runs off, or infiltrates by some measure. Eventually, all water ends up back in the ocean. Between the various stages of the hydrologic cycle, water moves between temporary storage areas often called reservoirs. These movements are controlled by climatic conditions, which include rain, snow, wind, and other meteorologic processes.
Hydrologic History, Problems, and Perspectives
Authors: Hubbart Jason A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Since humans first settled along the banks of lakes and rivers, there has been a keen interest in the proper management of fresh water resources both as a necessity for life as well as to avoid potential health hazards. Along the Indus in Pakistan, the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Hwang Ho in China, and the Nile in Egypt, the first “hydraulic engineers” created canals, levees, dams, subsurface water conduits, and wells as early as 5000–6000 years ago. Hydrologic information became vital to these early civilizations. The flow rates and yields of rivers were monitored by the Egyptians as early as 3800 years ago, and rainfall measuring instruments were first used approximately 2400 years ago by Kautilya of India.
The idea that a global hydrologic cycle actually exists dates back at least 3000 years when early Greek philosophers such as Thales, Anaxagoras, Herodotus, Hippocrates, Plato, and Aristotle conceptualized the basic ideas governing the process. Many initial ideas established by the Greeks about the hydrologic cycle were quite reasonable. However, many of the initial mechanisms concerning the routes by which water returned from the sea and entered rivers were devoid of as much logic. Despite apparent gaps in hydrologic mechanisms, the Romans developed aqueduct systems reflecting an extensive practical understanding of hydrology and hydraulics and did so using the basic hydrologic ideas established and passed along by the Greeks.
Snow Surveys
Authors: Singh Pratap 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The basic objective of conducting snow surveys is assessing the spatial distribution of the snow water equivalent accumulated in the basin at a specific time. The distribution of snow is affected by several factors, including topography, orientation, vegetation, and wind speed. During strong winds, the drifting and blowing of snow create a highly uneven spatial distribution of snow depth. Therefore, to account for uneven distribution of snow in a basin, snow surveys are needed. Snow surveys are primarily a field activity that include determining the depth and vertically integrated density. An estimate of the snow water equivalent at a site is computed by multiplying the snow depth by the density of the accumulated snow. Snow surveys are made at regular intervals during both accumulation and ablation periods. Snow surveys conducted just after winter are considered especially important because they provide information about the total snow water equivalent accumulated during the winter. Such information helps in assessing the water resource potential of the deposited snow and is used for forecasting the volume of water expected from snowmelt.
Unit Hydrograph Theory
Authors: Singh Vijay P. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe fundamental premise of unit hydrograph theory is that the hydrologic system is linear and time invariant. Although the assumptions implied or made in the theory are, strictly speaking, seldom true, the theory, nevertheless, does yield reasonable results in practice. The theory is applicable to a wide range of problems in hydrology and water resources.The unit hydrograph is based on these postulates: (1) For a given drainage basin, the duration of surface runoff is constant for all uniform‐intensity storms of the same duration, regardless of differences in the total volume of surface runoff. (2) For a given drainage basin, if two uniform‐intensity storms of the same length produce different total volumes of surface runoff, then the rates of surface runoff at corresponding times, after the beginning of the two storms, are in the same proportion to each other as their total volumes of surface runoff. (3) The time distribution of surface runoff from a given storm period is independent of concurrent runoff from antecedent storm periods.
Water Cycle
Authors: Holst Arthur M. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The water cycle—a series of steps through which virtually all water on earth is constantly cycling. The names of these steps vary, but they generally follow this order: storage, evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff.
Due to the nature of the water cycle, there is really no “beginning” or “end”, but for simplicity, the cycle can be said to begin at the storage stage. Storage is the storing of water on, in, and above the earth. There are about 340 million cubic miles of water on the earth. This water is stored in many places: glaciers, seas, rivers, lakes, polar ice caps, and all living things on the planet. The largest percentage of water, approximately 97.25%, exists as salt water in the ocean. Water is also stored in the earth's atmosphere and as groundwater. Groundwater in the top few miles of the earth's crust is easily obtainable, whereas groundwater further down is chemically attached to rocks and usually cannot be accessed.
Entropy Theory for Hydrologic Modeling
Authors: Singh Vijay P. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Hydrologic systems are inherently spatial and complex, and our understanding of these systems is less than complete. Many of the systems are either fully stochastic or part stochastic and part deterministic. Their stochastic nature can be attributed to randomness in one or more of the following components that constitute them: (1) system structure (geometry), (2) system dynamics, (3) forcing functions (sources and sinks), and (4) initial and boundary conditions. As a result, a stochastic description of these systems is needed, and entropy theory enables the development of such a description.
Arsenic in Natural Waters
Authors: Ning Robert Y. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Average concentrations of arsenic in the earth's crust reportedly range from 1.5 to 5 mg/kg. Higher concentrations are found in some igneous and sedimentary rocks, particularly in iron and manganese ores. Common minerals containing arsenic are shown in Table. Arsenopyrite, realgar, and orpiment are the most important of these minerals, and they are commonly present in the sulfide ores of other metals, including copper, lead, silver, and gold. Arsenic may be released from these ores to the soil, surface water, groundwater, and the atmosphere.
Natural concentrations of arsenic in soil typically range from 0.1 to 40 mg/kg; an average concentration is 5 to 6 mg/kg. Arsenic can be released to ground or surface water by erosion, dissolution, and weathering. Geothermal waters can be sources of arsenic in groundwater.
Consumer Confidence Reports
Authors: Franklin Susan L. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
On August 19, 1998, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) promulgated a final rule (40 CFR Parts 141 and 142) requiring community water systems to prepare and provide annual water quality reports to their customers. Mandated by the 1996 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act, these “Consumer Confidence Reports” (CCRs) provide the missing link for consumers to have easy access to valuable water quality information. Just as food products have labeling requirements, CCRs are the public's “right‐to‐know” resource.
Cryptosporidium
Authors: Brabants Jacqueline 
Published: April 2005

AbstractCryptosporidiaare small, spherical, obligate, intracellular sporozoan parasites that infect the intestinal tract of a wide range of mammals, including humans.Cryptosporidiumoocysts range in size from 2 to 8 µm, depending on the species and the stage of the life cycle. Oocysts are commonly found in many of the lakes and rivers that supply public drinking water as a result of runoff from sewage and animal wastes applied to nearby fields and pastures or from areas of wildlife or livestock activity. Infection, resulting from ingesting oocysts, manifests as cryptosporidiosis. AlthoughCryptosporidiumwas first described in 1907, human infection was not reported until 1976. Today,Cryptosporidium parvumis well recognized as the cause of the disease cryptosporidiosis in humans and cattle and is one of the more opportunistic agents seen in patients with AIDS that occurs primarily in individuals with compromised immune systems. Currently, there is no totally effective therapy for cryptosporidiosis.
Private Sector Participation, Marketing and Corporate Strategies in Municipal Water Supply and Sewerage
Authors: Owen David Lloyd 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The entry will describe how financial, commercial, and technical services are being mobilized to enable economic and social services to be provided and improved by water sector organizations in the North (the developed economies) and the South (developing economies). These needs are different because the policy contexts (politics and governance), standards, and risks experienced by entities installing and improving water services in the North and the South are different. It will be shown that the international water sector companies have evolved a diverse suite of financial and contractual arrangements often in association with international financial institutions (e.g., the World Bank). It will also be shown that the water sector is evolving as new companies shape their financial and technical competence to operate and compete internationally.
Private sector participation (PSP) refers to the formal provision of municipal water and sewerage services by the private sector. This involves providing these services commercially, where infrastructure work is funded by private capital or through a combination of finance from private investors and multilateral agencies.
Emerging Waterborne Infectious Diseases
Authors: Nel Louis H. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractHumanity is plagued at present by at least 1709 different infectious diseases. These diseases are caused by pathogens, which are microscopic and parasitic organisms of diverse natures, including infectious proteins (prions), viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Compared to diseases like cancer and metabolic diseases that have genotypic roots, including heart disease, diabetes, and the like, progress in the fight against infectious diseases has been rapid during the last half century. Whereas infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles, polio, rabies, plague and numerous other bacterial diseases have once been a global scourge, many of these diseases have now become controllable due to spectacular advances in public health practices, including improvements in the quality of water and sanitation and by immunization, education, early diagnosis, and the use of antibiotics/antimicrobials and other drug therapies. However, globally, 45% of all deaths and 63% of early childhood deaths are still caused by infectious diseases.