bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The History Of Government From The Earliest Times
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
No one has hitherto had the breadth of imagination and intellectual boldness to describe and analyse government throughout recorded history and throughout the world. This unique study of government is the culmination of the work of the late S. E. Finer, one of the leading political scientists of the twentieth century. Ranging over 5,000 years, from the Sumerian city state to the modern European nation state, five themes emerge: state-building, military formats, belief systems, social stratification, and timespan. The three volumes examine both representative and exceptional polities, and focus on political elites of different types. Ancient Monarchies and Empires opens with Finer's masterly Conceptual Prologue, setting out the entire scope and structure of The History. Books One and Two then consider early examples of the predominantly `palace' type of polity, notably in respect of the Kingdoms of Egypt and the Empires of Assyria, Persia, Han China, and Rome; interspersed with consideration of the `exceptional' Jewish Kingdoms and the Greek and Roman Republics. Professor Finer's cogent descriptive analysis offers both an invaluable reference resource and an exhilarating journey across time and space.
The Egyptian Polity at Zenith: The New Kingdom
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The ‘high’ period of Egyptian government and administration really lasted 1520-c.u50 BC (the middle of the XXth dynasty). It was the era of the ‘empire’, the period when it had conquered Nubia in the south, exerted hegemony over and planted colonies in Syria-Palestine, and was engaged in full diplomatic intercourse with such powers as the Hittites, the Mitanni, and the Assyrians. For virtually all these 370 years the country was governed stably and well. There were only two brief intervals of indecision and dynastic confusion: in the aftermath of Akhnaton’s Amarna experiment (1335-1315) and in the late XIXth dynasty (1204-u90). For any comparison we must turn to China, where the Han Empire lasted some four centuries with only a brief interval of usurpation and civil war between AD 9 and 23. Neither Persia nor Rome nor Byzantium could show such stability over so long a period. After the Hyksos seized Memphis in c.1630 Egypt had fallen apart. The Hyksos ruled as suzerains over a number of principalities in the Delta, while in the Sudan beyond the third cataract lay the partially Egyptianized Kerma state which enjoyed its heyday in the Second Intermediate Period (i.e. 1640-1520). At Thebes, however, a line of Egyptian princes ruled Upper and most of Middle Egypt. For a long time in coexistence with the Hyksos north, these kings, having consolidated a tightly centralized riverine kingdom and equipped themselves Hyksos-fashion with chariots and advanced weaponry, defeated the Hyksos, drove them right out of Egypt, then turned south to crush the Kerma state.
The Assyrian Empire, 745-612 BC
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
government? It was never free from revolts and secessions, and when it collapsed after the sack of Nineveh in 612 its ruler and its statehood disappeared. Yet a history of government would be very pedantic to ignore a power which in its time was the scourge and master of the entire Middle East. And in fact, there is a better case for including it. It is that the Assyrian Empire represents a new type of state formation. So far we have encountered in Sumer the city-state and in Egypt we met with the country-state. Here for the first time in history we encounter Empire. Conventionally speaking [writes Garelli], ‘imperial’ domination connotes a political and often, a spiritual hegemony exercised over a significant portion of the known world at a given moment. We next introduce the criteria of territorial extent and of ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity. From this standpoint the Assyrian ‘empire’ can be contrasted with the former ‘kingdoms’ which comprised only small areas and thin populations.
The Jewish Kingdoms, 1025-587 BC
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
mall, poor, ill-managed, divided, and short-lived: the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah were two of the petty monarchies extinguished by the Assyrians and their Babylonian successors. But these states, and Judah in particular, represent, however, a revolutionary breakthrough in the tradi tion of government traced so far. After a span of 2,000 years-since 3200 BC-there appeared, briefly, a form of government with a wholly original and totally different characteristic. After AD 132 the political community itself was uprooted, driven out, and dispersed. Yet the memory of its peculiar polity was preserved as part of the sacred writings of the late Roman world. As such, it served as an exemplar for the new, barbarian peoples of Western Europe. In this way it entered into the Western state tradition and, through that, into the governmental norms of our entire contemporary world.
The First Republics-The Greeks
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
history of mankind had a crisis in the fifth century BC, an explosion of light which affected everything and still does so today. Europe is the result, and Greece is the key:1 No less than anything else, perhaps more so, the Greeks affected the practice and the theory of government. What they worked here was a revolution. From the beginning of recorded history in Sumeria and Egypt-for some two-and-a-half thousands of years-every constituted state had been a monarchy: not only in the known world of the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, but in the worlds of India and distant China too. These monarchs had all been absolute, and godlike too, except for the Jewish kingdom where God ruled the kings. Suddenly there was government without kings or god. Instead, there were man-made, custom built republics of citizens. These Greek polities speak to us in a modern idiom and it was the Greeks who coined such terms as monarchy, autocracy, tyranny, despotism, aristocracy, and oligarchy, as well as democracy.
The Later Roman Empire: From Diocletian to Theodoric, 284-526
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 235, when Alexander, the last Severan, was murdered, the empire plunged into crisis. Barbarians in the north and Persians in the east penetrated the frontiers, Roman armies fought their brothers to put short lived emperors on the throne, and the currency collapsed. The empire that emerged from this ordeal was very different from the Antonines’. The Dominate, conventionally dated from Diocletian in 284, represents the empire adapting to permanent military siege. Its central characteristic was an unremitting and vast bureaucratic effort to mobilize the empire’s human and natural resources. These were inadequate and in any case the govern ment lacked the administrative techniques to marshal them. Nevertheless, every check only emboldened it to redouble its bureaucratic interference, and with every such advance the human and natural resources dwindled still further.
Introduction
Authors: Collinson Patrick 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For much of the twentieth century, history enjoyed a privileged pos ition in sixth-form and university syllabuses. And in England history meant primarily English history, which more often than not included that old faithful, Tudors and Stuarts’. In Scotland, the subject taught was, naturally, Scottish history. It is a not uncommon experience for a product of an English education to find, in conversation with a Scot, striking differences in what they think happened in their interrelated pasts, not least in the sixteenth century. Ireland, too, had its own nationalist historians. As for anything which could be called British history, it hardly existed, so that in 1975 the distinguished historian John Pocock was able to publish an article with the title ‘British History: A Plea for a New Subject’.1 But is British history a subject, or rather, when did it become one?
The limits of power: the English crown and the British Isles
Authors: Ellis Steven G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The chief legacy of the Tudors in terms of state formation was perhaps to create the circumstances in which a multiple monarchy coterminous with the British Isles emerged in 1603. This development was the product of two separate processes. In the first place, the reduction of all Ireland to peace and civility-which, in effect, meant the conquest of the hitherto-independent Gaelic parts-had long been an English ambition. It represented the final phase of a process of monarchical expansion and centralization in the Tudor state which also saw the imposition of standard English structures of local government in other outlying parts, notably Wales and the English far north. Essentially, this involved the welding into a composite monarchy of those territories ruled by medieval kings as ‘parcels’ or dominions of the English crown. Second, there was the Union of the Crowns with Scotland, which brought together under one king two very different, and traditionally hostile, kingdoms. This was the half intended result of the dynastic marriage in 1503 between Henry Tudor’s daughter, Margaret, and King James IV of Scots, and it was foreshadowed too in the projected but abortive marriage involving the future Edward VI and Mary, queen of Scots.
Conclusion
Authors: Aylmer G E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Many historians have emphasized the importance of symbols and ceremonies as a feature of government and an aspect of state power. Whether these were of greater significance in the seventeenth century than in the twentieth and the twenty-first centuries need not concern us here. It is, however, hard to believe that two civilized powers of today would regard a maritime dispute over saluting the flag as a casus belli, though stranger things have happened in our time. The English claim to sovereignty over the narrow seas around the shores of these islands (but extending far outside what have come to be defined as territorial waters in modern international law) was symbolized by the demand that vessels of all other nationalities should strike their flags and dip their topsails to the ships of the English Crown (or State-for the Commonwealth had applied this doctrine with at least equal vigour).
Spies and Covert Operations
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Cold War was always fought on numerous ‘fronts’, of which none has inspired as much popular mythology as that of intelligence activities and other covert operations. Throughout the Cold War the two principal spy agencies the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Soviet Committee for State Security (KGB)-engaged in a series of activities aimed at uncovering secret information of the other side’s plans and activities, monitoring the military development (particularly the development of nuclear weapons) of the adversary, and arresting unfavourable developments in third countries. While the details of many of these activities are still largely not declassified, the end of the Cold War has dramatically enhanced our knowledge about the hidden war of Western and Eastern intelligence agencies.
The Nile
Authors: Collins Robert O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Nile is one of the great natural and romantic wonders of the world. It is the longest river, flowing south to north 6,825 km (4,238 miles) over 35° of latitude through civilizations of great antiquity. Its basin is broad and big, embracing some three million km ( r, r 96,000 sq. miles) of equatorial and north-east Africa. It flows irresistibly through every natural formation, from mountainous highlands to barren deserts. Today its basin includes nine independent States-Ruanda, Burundi, Zai :re, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Egypt, and the Sudan.
The Sudd
Authors: Collins Robert O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although the difficulties of navigation through the Nile swamps had long been known, the exact character of the obstructions, called sudd, remained obscure until the British began methodically to clear the rivers at the beginning of this century. Sudd is derived from the Arabic word sadd ( ) meaning barrier or obstacle, and came into general use among the European and Arab merchants and traders whose passage through the swamps in the nineteenth century was impeded by large dams of aquatic vegetation blocking the channels. Today the term is used to describe the permanent swamp of the Nile or, more loosely, to refer to the whole of the Nile flood-plain, including the seasonal wetlands as well as the permanent swamp.’
The Years of Indecision, 1920-1946
Authors: Collins Robert O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The resignation of Sir Murdoch MacDonald in 1921, combined with the political upheavals in Egypt following the war, left the future planning of the Nile in total disarray. MacDonald’s position as adviser to the ministry of public works was never again filled, and upon the independence of Egypt in 1922 the British high commissioner in Cairo could no longer play the political and financial role of Cromer, Gorst, or Kitchener. Their successors became bogged down in a swamp of disputations and frustrating negotiations between Britain and Egypt over their own relations and the role each was to play in the Sudan. British power to intervene at the Egyptian ministries was emasculated.
The Equatorial Nile Project
Authors: Collins Robert O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the autumn of 1946 the Egyptian ministry of public works published The Nile Basin, volume vn: The Future Conservation of the Nile by H. E. Hurst, R. P. Black, and Y. M. Simaika. It was a dramatic event, ending the years of indecision. Hurst himself was fully conscious of its importance. Having just sent the manuscript to the press he wrote to Nimmo Allan, irrigation consultant to the Sudan government, in August. ‘Anyway the first thing is to have the engineering and scientific side on a sound basis, and this we think we have done. Of course, the scheme can be modified in detail, but it is useless to devise schemes only for immediate development as has been the practice in the past.’1 For the first time since the publication of Nile Control in 1920, a comprehensive plan for Nile development had been conceived, which included three major innovations in planning. First,
Napoleon’s War with His Empire, 1810-1812
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Late 1809 to mid-1812, like late 1939 to early 1940, was an interlude of Sitzkrieg, without new military campaigns or critical developments in those under way. Yet most of the era was tense with expectation of a new collision, this time between France and Russia. Many contemporaries believed, as some historians have argued since, that Napoleon brought on this great conflict because of his other failures and omissions. Had he not neglected the Spanish ulcer but seriously worked at ending it himself, or had he given his Continental System enough time to work, he might have won in the peninsula and even defeated Britain, and thereby kept Russia in line or at least had no reason to fight it. Failing to win these campaigns, or even to make an allout effort to do so, he tried instead to save his Empire and bring Britain down by conquering Russia.
Introduction
Authors: Housley Norman 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book began life as a proposal for a short survey of the crusading movement between the Second Council of Lyons and the fall of Granada in 1492. In the course of negotiations with possible publishers the book expanded in several ways. I agreed to take the subject as far as the late sixteenth century, and to write not only about crusading expeditions and projects, but also about the associated processes of conquest and settlement, both Christian (in Spain, the Baltic region, Greece, and Cyprus) and Muslim (in the cases of the Mamluk and Ottoman Sultanates). These changes in time-span and scope in turn necessitated a much longer book. In the event I am pleased that the changes were introduced. It is true that they bring with them the danger of mental indigestion for anyone who is new to the subject. Unavoidably, the shortage of space available to handle complicated and contentious issues has resulted in generalizations, while the sheer size of the historical landscape involved will have led to omissions; reviewers and colleagues will doubtless point these out. But I am convinced in hindsight that to conclude any account of the later crusades earlier than 1580 would be to neglect events of intrinsic interest and significance. It will be apparent from Chapter 101 that I now regard the fall of Granada in 1492 as the starting-point for a series of extraordinary developments in Iberian crusading. But the matter goes deeper than that: in a nutshell, it is impossible to regard the crusading movement as a dead or even ‘residual’ expression of Catholic belief or behaviour in the sixteenth century, before or after (perhaps especially after) the Protestant Revolution. I also think that any account of crusading which does not deal with what the crusaders or their enemies achieved, in terms of government, economy, and society, is incomplete.
The Church of England 1559-1625 a Church designed by a Committee?
Authors: Russell Conrad 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
‘The Devil take him, whomsoever he be, that had a design to change religion’. These words were part of Charles I’s off-the-cuff reply when presented with the Grand Remonstrance, and they mark out the ground on which he and the majority in the House of Commons joined issue. They agreed that there could be only one church and only one religion, and they agreed that it was a crime to alter or innovate that religion. Granted their agreement that this was a crime, they were forced to join issue on the question which of them was guilty of that crime. Since what was at stake was the claim to lawful succession, innovation was necessarily one of the major charges to be substantiated: as Laud said at the trial of Burton, Bastwick, and Prynne, ‘they, which are the only, or the chief, innovators of the Christian world, having nothing to say, accuse us of innovation’. Since it was a rule of the contest that the more persuasive claim of orthodoxy won the debate, it was necessary to claim it at all points. Even Anthony Lapthorne, Dr Fincham’s favourite bad penny, was-described in 1642, when installed as lecturer in the parish from which the High Commission had deprived him in 1617, as’ an orthodox divine’.
The Poverty of the Crown and the Weakness of the King
Authors: Russell Conrad 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
‘And for my particular I may say thus much that if sitting so near the storm and seeing it coming in the air, I should have suffered it to break and bemoaned myself in a private corner without resorting to the natural place for remedy, I were not worthy to carry this staff in my hand’. These words were not spoken by Lord Treasurer Juxon about the Second Bishops’ War, though we might have had a higher opinion of Juxon if they had been: they were spoken by Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, in his opening speech to the Parliament of 1610. Many, indeed most, of the storm clouds which met in 1642 were ones Robert Cecil could not have seen coming, but in this speech, he saw and plotted with exemplary accuracy one of the storm-tracks which met in the hurricane of 1642: the failure of the King’s finances.
Class and Poverty in Edwardian England
Authors: Mckibbin Ross 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
IN 1887 Charles Booth addressed the Royal Statistical Society on the condition and occupations of the inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets, and this was to be the pilot study for the great Life and Labour. After he had spoken the statistician Leone Levi asked the question:
Who was a poor man? … The author [Andrew Mearns, writer of The Bitter Cry of Outcast London] had not mentioned the causes of poverty … His own impression was that poverty proper in the district which had been described was mon frequently produced by vice, extravagance and waste, or by unfitness for work, the result in many cases of immoral habits, than by real want of employment or low wages.
Class and Conventional Wisdom: The Conservative Party and the ‘Public’ in Inter-war Britain
Authors: Mckibbin Ross 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
IN a previous chapter I argued that the British constitutional and political system promoted its legitimacy in two ways: by excluding the relationship of the organized working class to civil society from the sphere of ‘politics’ and by discreetly undermining the authority of the employing class. This strategy was pursued with consider able success until the outbreak of the First World War. Yet it was also faltering. The argument that the claims of the industrial working class on society could indefinitely be confined to the margins was by 1914 increasingly unconvincing. Equally, it is doubtful that the employing class would accept for long a situation in which it seemed more and more disadvantaged, or would refrain from seeking allies amongst social groups who also felt themselves oppressed by the weight of the organized working class. By 1918, it was clear that the strategy had not simply faltered, it had failed: society’s relations with the working class had at last become the central political problem, while the ‘middle classes’ had made it clear that they were not prepared to play a subordinate role in the new order. It is the purpose of this chapter to examine one of the most significant consequences of that transformation: the Conser vative Party’s electoral domination of inter-war Britain.
Palmerston and After, 1855–1868
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The most natural outcome of the collapse of Aberdeen’s coalition in late January 1855 was the emergence of Palmerston as Prime Minister. Derby and Russell had both very publicly failed to construct administrations. Russell’s efforts had been dismissed by almost everyone because few were prepared to grant their author absolution for his part in bringing about the coalition’s collapse. Derby in turn had given up in the face of refusals from Palmerston, Gladstone, and Herbert to join a Conservative-dominated ministry. Being the natural successor did not, however, mean that every crooked thing was suddenly made straight or that Disraeli’s comments of February 1855 about the 71-year-old Prime Minister were not widely shared: ‘He is really an imposter, utterly exhausted, and at best only ginger-beer, and not champagne, and now an old painted pantaloon, very deaf, very blind, and with false teeth, which would fall out of his mouth when speaking if he did not hesitate and halt so in his talk.’ ‘Progressive’ Conservatives like Derby’s son, Lord Stanley, believed Palmerston ‘would break under the weight of the premiership’ while Cobden expressed the Radicals’ view that ‘to call in an exploded sham to master a crisis like this is merely proof that we as a nation are in a state of collapse’. Indeed, Palmerston’s position in parliament was never secure during the whole of his first ministry. He survived partly by luck and partly because his own undoubted political skills were rarely put to the test by an opposition as cautious as it was disunited.