bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Visual Event Perception
Authors: Siskind Jeffrey Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ability to describe visually observed events sits at the center of human cognition. It is the meeting point of perception, language, knowledge representation, and spatiotemporal reasoning. While there has been some prior work on visual event perception within the machine vision community (e.g., [6, 3, 24, 41, 44,27, 42, 45, 50, 28, 30, 43, 46, 1, 21, 49, 4, 2, 22, 25, 32, 40, 26]), this work has by and large not addressed the problem of classifying occurrences of visually observed events into classes that correspond to ordinary simple spatial-motion verbs. Similarly, while there has been substantial prior work on describing the lexical semantics of such verbs within the linguistics community, very little work has been done on precisely characterizing the truth conditions of verbs such as pick up, put down, drop, or throw and formulating such truth conditions in a way that can be grounded in perceptual input. This chapter attempts to bridge this gap by presenting a logical calculus for representing the truth conditions for events described by simple spatial-motion verbs along with the necessary perceptual mechanisms for detecting occurrences of such verbs in simulated visual input.
A Knowledge Framework For Seeing and Learning
Authors: Cooper Paul R , Brand Matthew A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Seeing requires knowledge—lots of knowledge. While this has been understood clearly from the beginnings of computer vision, progress in building knowledge intensive vision systems has been slow, if not absent entirely. There are a number of reasons for this, including serious problems with:
• simply identifying knowledge that is useful for vision,
• understanding how to build vision systems that can exploit high-level knowledge, including understanding how to build vision systems that can even so much as bridge levels of abstraction,
• understanding how to generalize tha applicability of knowledge beyond narrow domains.
Outflow Channels
Authors: Carr Michael H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term outflow channel was coined by Sharp and Malin (1975) to denote large channels, several to tens of kilometers across, that start full size at discrete sources. Tributaries are rare but branching downstream is common. Outflow channels have bedforms on their floors, sinuous streamlined walls, enclose teardrop-shaped islands, and tend to be deeper close to their sources than they are downstream. Bedforms include longitudinal scour, inner channel cataracts, and plucked zones. Many, particularly those that debouch into the Chryse-Acidalia basin, expand when they cross nearly level plains to scour illdefined areas up to hundreds of kilometers across. The terms channels and valleys have genetic implications and misuse can lead to confusion. A fiuvial channel is the conduit through which a river flows and is at times filled or almost filled with water. A valley is a general term that refers to any linear depression. Afiuvial valley generally contains many fluvial channels, is normally orders of magnitude wider and deeper than the channels it contains, and never comes close to being filled with water. Despite their large sizes, the outflow channels of Mars appear to be true channels, cut by enormous floods.
Valley Networks
Authors: Carr Michael H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The valley networks are the most common drainage feature on Mars and the feature most commonly cited as evidence for former warm and wet climatic conditions. Because of their resemblance to river valleys, they have generally been assumed to have formed by fluvial erosion. If formed by fluvial erosion, they imply warm, wet climatic conditions, for under present conditions, small streams would rapidly freeze and prevent development of a network. Since most of the valley networks are old, the former warm and wet conditions are proposed mainly for early in the planet’s history. These interpretations are, however, almost certainly too simplistic and the view of a warm, wet early Mars on which fluvial activity was common, changing early to the cold planet we know today, is likely to be only partly true, if true at all. The resemblance of the valley networks to terrestrial valleys is not exact. River channels, for example, are not observed within the valleys, as would be expected if they were fluvial valleys and other seemingly non-fluvial characteristics must be reconciled with a fluvial origin. In addition, while most of the networks appear to be very ancient, some, cut in young units, must have formed late. Thus, there are reasons to question both a purely fluvial origin and an exclusively old age for the networks. We are on questionable grounds if we invoke warm, wet terrestrial climatic conditions to explain the martian valleys without understanding the reasons for the differences between the terrestrial and martian examples, and also if we invoke wet conditions for the early period of intense network development, while calling upon some other circumstances to explain the younger networks. In this chapter, we examine the characteristics, distribution, ages, and mode of origin of the valley networks and attempt to draw some implications with respect to climate.
Blues Transformations in the Music of Cream
Authors: Headlam Dave 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1966, guitarist Eric Clapton joined with bass player Jack Bruce and drummer Ginger Baker to form the rock trio Cream. While Clapton tended toward a style of electric blues close to the Mississippi Delta and Chicago blues songs he venerated, with the combination of Bruce’s elaborate bass lines and Baker’s jazz-influenced drumming Cream quickly became the best known of the original “power trio” blues-based rock bands and prepared the ground for the later group Led Zeppelin to begin the transition from blues-based rock to heavy metal. Cream’s assimilation and transformation of blues songs and styles is part of the widespread influence of American popular music—jazz, blues, rhythm and blues, and rock ‘n’ roll—on the development of British rock music in the late 1950s and 1960s. While this influence has been well documented in its biographical, historical, cultural, and sociological aspects, the purely musical features of the various transformations, such as Cream’s recasting of blues songs into rock songs, have received less attention.
Functional variation
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far I have shown that despite the presence of pre-patterned and prefabricated segments, what characterizes CAR texts above all other features is their minimal degree of syntactic elaboration. As a result, the notion of obligatory context cannot be applied to the measurement of syntactic elaboration in this register because attempts to identify missing features often amount to little more than guesswork. I also noted that the degree of syntactic elaboration appears to vary systematically across ad categories.
Diarrhea
Authors: Sheffield John V L , Shuhart Margaret C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most HIV-infected patients will develop diarrhea at some point in the course of their illness. Diarrhea is particularly common among HIV-infected homosexual men and among HIV-infected patients in developing countries. The volume depletion and electrolyte disturbances associated with severe diarrhea are significant sources of morbidity in AIDS patients.
Headache
Authors: Zunt Joseph R , Marra Christina M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Headache is a common problem in HIV-infected persons. Although a variety of HIV- related disorders may cause headache, many HIV-infected persons suffer from migraine or tension-type headaches that are not related to HIV. Moreover, HIV- infected patients with fever frequently develop headache, even in the absence of a central nervous system abnormality.
The differential diagnosis of headache expands as the patient’s CD4 count decreases. At any stage of HIV disease, a patient can develop headache from bacterial meningitis, neurosyphilis, medications, migraines, or muscle contraction. Certain intracranial infections, including cryptococcal meningitis and Toxoplasma
encephalitis, generally do not occur until the CD4 count decreases to less than 200 cells/mm3 Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and primary central nervous system lymphoma predominantly occur in patients who have CD4 counts less than 100 cells/mm3
Analyzing the patient’s symptoms (quality of pain, duration, sensitivity to light and sound) is often not helpful in determining the cause of the headache. HIV-infected patients who develop headache associated with a focal neurologic deficit usually have a serious central nervous system disorder.
Lower Respiratory Tract Symptoms
Authors: Curtis Randall , Paauw Douglass 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Respiratory symptoms are among the most common presenting symptoms for HIV- infected persons. Cough is often the earliest respiratory symptom. Dyspnea is another common symptom and can range from dyspnea with moderate exertion to severe dyspnea at rest with impending respiratory failure. The subjective inability to take a deep breath has been associated with Pneumocystis carinii
pneumonia (PCP) in HIV- infected persons.
The differential diagnosis of respiratory symptoms is lengthy and diverse. The most common etiology of these symptoms will depend on a number of factors, including the person’s level of immunosuppression, the use of prophylaxis for PCP, and the geographic region of residence and travel.
The differential diagnosis of respiratory symptoms in HIV-infected persons is strongly related to the CD4 cell count. In persons with less than 200 cells/mm3, P. carinii
is one of the most common causes of respiratory tract symptoms. In persons with CD4 counts greater than 200 cells/mm3, bacterial infections (bronchitis or pneumonia) are the most common cause of these symptoms. Pseudomonas aeruginosa
is an important cause of bacterial pneumonia in HIV-infected patients with CD4 counts less than 100 cells/mm3
Tuberculosis should be considered in every HIV-infected person with respiratory symptoms, primarily because of the concern of spreading Mycobacterium tuberculosis
to other patients and to health care workers. Although M. tuberculosis
can cause disease in HIV-infected patients regardless of the CD4 cell count, the clinical presentation of patients with tuberculosis varies according to the CD4 cell count.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Curtis J Randall , Hooton Thomas M , Nolan Charles M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
In the mid-1980s the incidence of tuberculosis in the United States, after decades of decline, began to rise. The HIV epidemic has played a major role in this resurgence of TB. Patients with AIDS have an incidence of TB much higher than the general population.
Persons with HIV infection are at increased risk for active tuberculosis for two reasons. First, an HIV-infected individual with latent TB is at much higher risk of reactivation TB. The risk of reactivation in HIV-negative persons with latent TB is 5
to 10 percent in a lifetime, but in HIV-infected persons this risk is 5
to 10 percent per year. Second, HIV-infected individuals are at an increased risk of active disease when they are newly
infected with TB. This risk is hard to quantitate and depends on the individual’s degree of immunosuppression. Several TB outbreaks among persons with HIV infection have documented attack rates for primary active TB ranging from 9 to 37 percent. These attack rates compare with the less than 2 percent attack rates seen in immunocompetent individuals.
In 1987, extrapulmonary tuberculosis in an HIV-infected person became an AIDS- defining diagnosis. In 1993, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) expanded the definition of AIDS to include pulmonary tuberculosis (in an HIV-infected person).
Cytomegalovirus
Authors: Schacker Timothy W , Corey Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a member of the herpes family of viruses and can cause viremia, retinitis, colitis, esophagitis, neuropathy, encephalitis, adrenalitis, and hepatitis in HIV-infected individuals. CMV is found on all continents, and humans are the only known reservoir for this virus.
CMV causes a primary infection and then establishes latency in monocytes and macrophages. It occasionally reactivates, usually in the setting of immune compromise. Some reactivations cause clinically apparent disease, but many do not.
In contrast to the CMV seroprevalence rate of 34 percent in the general population (ages 6 to 22 years), greater than 95 percent of injection-drug users and men who have sex with men have antibody against CMV. In contrast, less than 50 percent of HIV- infected hemophiliacs have serologic evidence of prior CMV infection. HIV-infected patients who are CMV antibody negative should receive CMV-negative blood products.
Reinfection of the genital tract with CMV is common among men who have sex with men; multiple CMV strains have been detected in their semen. In HIV-infected persons, the correlation between infection with multiple strains and subsequent CMV disease remains poorly defined.
At least 7 to 10 percent of all HIV-infected individuals eventually develop clinically apparent CMV disease. CMV usually does not cause significant disease until the patient’s CD4 count decreases to less than 100 cells/mm3 Among patients with a CD4 count less than 100 cells/mm3, the risk of developing clinically apparent CMV disease within a 2 year period is approximately 20 percent. Among those with advanced HIV disease who die and undergo autopsy, one can find microscopic evidence of CMV in the organs and body fluids in most.
Varicella-Zoster Virus
Authors: Nienow John R , Spach David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus is a DNA herpes virus. More than 90 percent of adults have serologic evidence of infection with varicella-zoster virus. Therefore, primary varicella infection infrequently occurs among HIV-infected adults.
There is a high incidence of zoster in association with HIV infection: one study (Buchbinder et al., 1992) has shown that when compared with age-matched HIV- seronegative men, the relative risk of developing zoster among HIV-infected men is approximately 17. In addition, 8 to 12 percent of AIDS patients develop zoster at least once.
Recurrent episodes of zoster occur relatively frequently, with approximately 20 percent of HIV-infected individuals who develop zoster having at least one recurrence.
Development of zoster does not correlate with the duration of HIV infection; it occurs at a relatively constant rate after a person becomes infected with HIV. In addition, an episode of zoster does not affect prognosis and does not predict a more rapid progression to AIDS.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Localized Zoster
The typical clinical presentation of localized zoster is similar to that in the immunocompetent patient, but the duration may be longer and the risk of developing disseminated infection greater.
Immune Thrombocytopenia
Authors: Aboulafia David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hematologic abnormalities commonly occur among HIV-infected patients, usually reflecting either myelosuppression or hypoproliferation of all three cell lines. HIV- associated immune thrombocytopenia (ITP}, which typically results from rapid platelet destruction, is considered an exception to this general principle.
HIV-associated ITP is an immune disorder characterized by thrombocytopenia (less than or equal to 70,000 platelets/mm3), a positive HIV serology test, normal to increased numbers of megakaryocytes on bone marrow aspirate, and normal white and red blood cell values (although abnormal values frequently exist in HIV-infected patients for other reasons).
Overall, HIV-associated ITP is present in 5
to 12 percent of HIV-infected patients. Thrombocytopenia from nonimmune causes may develop in 30 to 60 percent of patients at some time during the course of their HN
illness. HIV-infected patients can develop chronic ITP with or without an AIDS-defining illness. HIV-associated ITP, which is indistinguishable from classic ITP, is not associated with an increased short- term progression to AIDS.
Leukopenia
Authors: Aboulafia David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Leukopenia, a common finding among HIV-infected patients, may result from multiple causes and frequently is multifactorial. The incidence of leukopenia increases with progressive immunosuppression: approximately 80 percent of AIDS patients will develop lymphopenia and approximately 20 percent granulocytopenia. Anemia and granulocytopenia tend to occur simultaneously.
Severe neutropenia, classically defined as an absolute neutrophil count less than 500 cells/mm3, is the dose-limiting toxicity of a number of therapeutic agents, including zidovudine, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, intravenous pentamidine, ganciclovir, pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine, and cytotoxic agents. Several studies have shown that the use of myeloid growth factors ameliorates the toxicity of myelosuppressive regimens in AIDS patients.
Several unresolved questions about the role of growth factors for HIV-infected patients remain: What is the impact of growth factor treatment on overall survival? What is the cost effectiveness of growth factor treatment? What is the clinical significance of growth factor-HIV interaction in patients receiving antiviral drugs? Do patients with HIV infection and bacterial sepsis benefit from treatment with growth factors?
HIV-Associated Dementia
Authors: Uldall Karina K , Marra Christina M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
HIV-associated dementia, also called AIDS dementia complex and AIDS encephalopathy, is the most frequent neurologic complication of AIDS. It affects at least 20 percent of all HIV-infected patients, most commonly those with a CD4 count less than 200 cells/mm3
The mechanism by which HIV-I infection causes dementia is not completely understood. HIV-I can infect macrophages and microglial cells productively (making RNA); restricted (not making RNA) HIV-I infection occurs in astrocytes and possibly in neurons. Despite the lack of productive infection in neurons, several studies show decreases of up to 40 percent of cortical neurons in brains of persons dying with HIV-
An indirect mechanism for neural damage seems most likely. This may result from toxic effects of viral gene products (gp-I20 or tat) or toxic products of infected macrophages (cytokines). The final common pathway for neural damage is probably through the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, a subtype of glutamate receptors that mediate brain excitatory neurotransmission. Investigators have shown that NMDA receptor channel complex antagonists or L-type voltage-dependent calcium channel antagonists protect neuronal cell cultures from HIV-I-mediated toxicity.
CLINICAL FEATURES
HIV-associated dementia is characterized by disabling cognitive, motor, and behavioral changes. It is considered a “subcortical” dementia because dysfunction associated with cortical involvement, such as aphasia, infrequently develops. White matter and subcortical gray matter are pathologically the most prominently involved regions of the brain.
Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Authors: Kovach Nicholas L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is defined as all lymphomas other than Hodgkin’s disease. Among HIV-infected individuals, the incidence of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is increased approximately fivefold. Overall, approximately 3 to 10 percent of HIV- infected individuals develop some type of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
All HIV-infected persons appear to be at increased risk for developing lymphomas, regardless of their risk factor for acquiring HIV. Recognized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as AIDS-defining diagnoses, primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma and systemic high-grade lymphoma constitute about 3 percent of AIDS-defining conditions.
Lymphomas are characterized by their cell type (B cell or T cell), histologic features, and natural history (low grade, intermediate grade, or high grade). HIV-related lymphomas are predominantly B-cell tumors, with 75 to 80 percent classified as high grade, exhibiting either immunoblastic or small noncleaved cell (Burkitt’s and non- Burkitt’s) histology. By comparison, high-grade histology is found in only 10 to 15 percent of non-HIV-related lymphomas in a comparable age group. Diffuse large cell lymphoma is the other major histologic type of HIV-related lymphoma; although it is classified as intermediate grade, it behaves more agressively (like a high-grade lymphoma) in HIV-infected individuals.
Aphthae
Authors: Moss Gregory B , Schubert Mark M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aphthae are painful ulcers that typically occur in the mouth. These ulcers frequently develop among HIV-infected individuals. Aphthae are also a common problem in HIV-negative persons. Those who have experienced aphthae in the past often report exacerbation of the condition after becoming infected with HIV.
The cause is unknown, although many factors have been suggested, including psychologic (stress), immunologic (autoimmune), or infectious.
Therapy with zalcitabine has been associated with aphthae; the lesions typically develop within several weeks of initiating therapy.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Aphthae appear as well-circumscribed ulcers with an erythematous margin. They are typically found in the mucous membranes of the mouth (especially the labial mucosa, tongue, and soft palate), but have also been described in the esophagus, colon, rectum, and vagina. Aphthae are typically painful and sometimes interfere with speech and swallowing.
Universals, Generalizability, and the Acquisition of Signed Language
Authors: Siple Patricia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Why do you study sign language?” That question is asked a surprising number of times of someone like me who did not grow up with deaf relatives and was trained as an experimental psychologist. There are two parts to my answer. In the applied arena, a solid base of fundamental research on the acquisition and use of sign language is crucial for making informed decisions about educational and social issues of concern to deaf people. The importance of this responsibility cannot be underestimated by the sign language researcher. It is the theoretical part, though, that brought me into sign language research, and it is the theoretical reasons for studying sign language that are the focus of this chapter. The stage for the current theoretical interest in sign language was set in the 1960s by the pioneering work of William Stokoe. Stokoe (1960) argued that American Sign Language (ASL), while produced in a different modality, could be studied using the same principles employed to study spoken languages. He demonstrated that ASL signs were not irreducible holistic units but could be analyzed as composed of discrete elements corresponding to a phonetic and phonological description of language. Stokoe’s work, result-