bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Aims And Background
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book has two purposes. First, it offers a draft of a comprehensive annotation scheme for representing the structure of the modern English language. This scheme attempts to specify a single predictable analysis for any form that is found in the language as it is used in practice, and to indicate all aspects of the grammar of English that are definite enough to be susceptible of formal annotation. And secondly, it introduces the reader to an electronic research resource, a body of English annotated in conformity with this scheme, which is available freely and without formality to anyone who would like to use it, and which is already in widespread use internationally. At the end of the book there is an explanation of how a copy of this SUSANNE Corpus can be obtained by anyone working at a computer with access to the Internet international network.
How To Get The Susanne Corpus
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Susanne Corpus is distributed electronically by the Oxford Text Archive over the international network Internet. Anyone with physical access to Internet is welcome to take a copy; he needs no permission from the author or from the Archive, and there are no controls over how copies are used. The only restrictions are matters of honour rather than law: it would not be a friendly act to set up as a rival distributing centre for this resource, and, since the chief reason for creating the Susanne Corpus was to promote the SUSANNE annotation scheme, the author would be particularly sorry to see another group transpose the Susanne annotations into an alternative system and publish the new version in order to promote the other scheme. (But there is obviously no objection to research groups converting SUSANNE annotations into their preferred equivalents for their own local use; this may often be an appropriate thing to do.)
Comparative Dravidian Linguistics
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book will make available the author's most important published articles on Dravidian over the last forty years. It will include a new and substantial introduction to the field, and will conclude with a survey of Dravidian language studies over the last thousand years and a critical account of work since 1950. Those articles reprinted in the work will appear substantially unchanged, with individual addenda in which the author will consider the impact of subsequent work by himself and others. The papers contain solutions to long-standing problems of phonology and morphology of comparative Dravidian. Many seminal ideas have been introduced into the field for the first time. The theoretical highlights such as grammatical constraints on sound change, spread of sound change through lexical diffusion, a new statistical model for linguistic subgrouping within the framework of lexical diffusion, and the interplay of synchronic and diachronic rules in language history, will all be of interest to any comparative and historical linguist working on any language family. To any student of Dravidian linguistics, this volume is indispensable.
Alternations in Vowel Length in Telugu Verbal Bases: A Comparative Study
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two grades of vowel length in Dravidian, viz., long and short, which are distinctly phonemic. In historical and phonetic discussions we can also speak of reduced and zero grades, but these are non-phonemic. The history of vowel length is one of the less discussed aspects of comparative Dravidian, though it is found to play an important role in etymology. I attempt to present here certain historical data concerning vowel length in Telugu with reference to the structure of verbal bases; but these conclusions are also applicable to other parts of the vocabulary, since the criteria governing vowel length are phonological rather than morphological.
Some Observations on Tamil Phonology of the 12th and 13th Centuries
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Owing to the limitations of Tamil orthography, it has not so far been possible to say, in clear terms, when intervocalic and post-nasal stops became voiced in Tamil. An analysis of a Tamil text occurring in a Telugu literary work of the 12th century now provides conclusive evidence on this question. This evidence confirms the conclusions reached earlier on comparative grounds that intervocalic and post nasal stops were completely voiced in Tamil (sub phonemically, of course) even by the time of the branching off of Malayalam from Tamil, i.e. about the 10th century. A few other significant observations on spoken Tamil of the 12th and 13th centuries can also be made on the basis of this text.
Gender and Number in Proto- Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A language has grammatical gender if the nominal stems of that language are classifiable in their morphology/syntax partly on the basis of binary semantic oppositions like animate: inanimate, human: non-human, male: female (with animate and/or human categories), etc. At least, it is noticed that, in languages with grammatical gender, stems denoting male-human always belong to the masculine gender. Languages differ in their degree of grammatico-semantic correlation in the classification of nominal and pronominal stems.
An Overview of Comparative Dravidian Studies since Current Trends in Linguistics 5 (1969)
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Although the Current Trends vol. V which dealt with the South Asian Languages was published in 1969, contributions to the volume were submitted as early as 1966. Emeneau (1971a: 34) deplored in 1968 that the Current Trends volume would become out of date even before it appeared. I wrote the chapter on comparative Dravidian studies in that volume-presenting a critical and comprehensive review of all available literature from the beginning up to 1966, with special referhence to the post-independence period. I would like to review the progress made since 1966 in the field of Comparative Dravidian. As I did in my Current Trends article, I would consider here only publications which explicitly deal with comparative Dravidian problems and not descriptive, typological, or other non-historical studies, even if they may indirectly aid comparative and historical research.
The Origin and Evolution of Primary Derivative Suffixes in Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Introduction
In the1950s, when he was still in Czechoslovakia, Ladislav Zgusta wrote several reviews of works on comparative Dravidian linguistics, in collaboration with Kamil Zvelebil. This paper is a tribute to his profound contributions to the comparative method in general and to his early interest in Dravidian linguistics.
The monumental work of this century in comparative Dravidian linguistics, the Dravidian Etymological Dictionary of 1961, extensively revised in 1984, has scores of entries which lead us to reconstruct primary roots as well as extended stems for Proto-Dravidian (mainly of verbs but also of nouns), in which it is possible to assign some meaning to the monosyllabic roots, but no tangible meaning to the derivative suffixes. Consider for instance the data in 1
Patterns of Sound Change in Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The major sound changes in Dravidian are classified into Historical and Typological. The historical changes are classified into (a) those internal to Proto-Dravidian, and (b) innovations confined to major branches, sub-branches, and individual languages, e.g. palatalization of velars, c &gt; s &gt; h &gt; 0, umlaut, apical displacement, etc.
Optimality and Optimism: the Panglossian Paradigm
Authors: Mcmahon April 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prince and Smolensky (1993) quote Voltaire as an epigraph:’ “It is demonstrated,” he said, “that things cannot be otherwise: for, since everything was made for a purpose, everything is necessarily made for the best purpose” ‘ (Voltaire, Candide, or Optimism: Ch.1). Much of the argument in earlier chapters has tended towards the conclusion that things could almost always be otherwise. It is true that certain observations in biology do follow as a natural consequence of the inviolable laws of physics, and similarly in phonology, certain truly universal facts may reflect inviolable and immutable constraints. For the most part, however, the properties of language or of organisms in general could have evolved differently; and their current configuration, being in part determined by sheer historical accident, could certainly be other than it is. Constraints hypothesized by the theorist to circumscribe only the variation currently attested are therefore themselves shaped by contingency; and we require, in addition, tools for straightforward description. This may give rise to a view of the world rather less comforting, and less amenable to overall explanation, than the one of Prince and Smolensky’s quote. However, if we examine the context of that excerpt further, we shall discover that it reflects neither Candide’s view, nor Voltaire’s.
Old and New Views on Language History and Language Relationships
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is regrettable that linguists, especially dialectologists and historical-comparative linguists, should have tried to force their work into static (i.e. minilectal) frameworks. For these are wholly recreant to analyses which are necessarily cross-lectal. As such, they cannot logically be made to fit into an idiolectal strait-jacket, whether the structuralist one or the transformationalist one, without becoming something other than what they are. Dialectology and comparative analysis obviously require the linguistic analogy of Bach’s well-tempered instrument. And the polylectal descriptive models of the dynamic framework are precisely this. Who, having once enjoyed a well-tempered instrument, could wish to return to one in which only tunes in one key (idiolect) can be played? Scholars in historical linguistics ought to seek their inspiration further in the past-in J. Schmidt and H. Schuchardt. We should be looking for models to implement the insights of those scholars, not aping single-key instruments totally unsuited to our needs.I maintain that, so far from its being feasible for historical investigations to employ static descriptive models, what is needed is for descriptive linguistics to adopt dynamic, or time-based, models of change. Trying to do linguistics with out a satisfactory understanding of the history of the language under analysis is like trying to fly a dirigible with gasoline in the engine but no gas in the bag: The thing is started and all sounds fine; only she will not get off the ground. In addition to the study of languages, there is the study of the history of theories. But this study can never approach in importance the study of the history of languages and should never be permitted to replace it in linguistic curriculums.
A Theory of Language and Information
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Professor Harris presents a formal theory of language structure, in which syntax is characterized as an orderly system of departures from random combinations of sounds, words, and indeed of all elements of language. He argues that the combining of words into a sentence constitutes a mathematical object, and that each departure from equiprobability is a contribution both to the structure and to the meaning of a sentence. He discusses the differences in the structure and content of language, mathematics, and music, and shows that the use of language in a science constitutes a distinguishable sub-language. The structure of that sub-language organizes the information in the science and lies between the structure of language and that of mathematics. The syntactic theory developed here throws light upon the structuring of information and upon the nature and development of language, which the author shows to be a self-organizing and evolving system.
Overview
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book presents in the first place a formal theory of syntax (chs. 3, 4), in which a single relation on word-sequence gives to the set of these sequences the structure of a mathematical object, and produces a base set of sentences which carry all the information that is carried in the language. Within this set of sentences there acts a set of reductions which change the shape of words but not the information in the sentences, thereby producing the remaining sentences of the language. Prior material to this theory is an analysis of how words are constructed from sounds (7.1–4), and preliminary considerations of how words combine into sentences (7.5–8, 8.1). Following upon the establishment of sentences, we can go on to an analysis of how sentence sets, especially sentence-sequences, arc constrained in longer utterances and in discourses (ch. 9), and finally in sublanguages (ch. 10). The relation of syntactic structure to information and to the development of language is then discussed in Chapters 11, 12.
A Theory of Sentences
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been noted (1.0, 2.1-2) that a central problem for a theory of language is determining the departures from equiprobability in the successive parts of utterances. It has been found that in natural languages it is not merely that not all combinations of parts arc equiprobable. but that not all combinations occur. That is, given even very large arbitrary samples of the utterances of a language, some word combinations have zero probability of being found. For the given language. then, we make a distinction between the combinations that have zero probability and those that have any positive probability. It will be seen below that the zero probability characterizes what is outside of syntax (3. 1), while the differences in positive probability characterize the differences in word meaning within syntax (3.2).
The Nature and Development of Language
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The syntactic theory presented here enables us to arrive at some understanding of the nature of language. To he able to draw conclusions from the structural properties of language, it is necessary to have an organized and reasonably complete view of the whole structure of a language; otherwise the discussion can be supported only by episodic examples. It will be seen that certain properties are apparently common to the known languages, others belong to speech as distinguished from language structure, and still others are limited to the grammar of particular languages or language families. There are also certain kinds of phenomena which do not combine in any regular way with the main body of material in a language, and which therefore have to he left out of any precise language structure: for example, the voice of each speaker, cough of hesitation, and intonations of anger or surprise.
Primary-A verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with literal meanings of Primary-A verbs, with roles filled by NPs that have CONCRETE heads. As mentioned before, some Primary-A verbs do have secondary, metaphorical meanings, with other kinds of NP (or even a complement clause) as subject or object (e.g. John’s having got the job quite threw me i.e. ‘discomfited me’). However, these are almost all idiosyncratic to particular verbs so that no generalisations are possible across a type or subtype.
These two types have a number of subtypes which show pervasive semantic and syntactic parallels, so that they can usefully be considered together.
Dialects Converging
Authors: Kerswill Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent models of dialect contact, notably in the work of Trudgill, Chambers, James Milroy, and Labov have stressed the importance of the notions of salience, simplification, linguistic complexity, and the speech community in accounting for the patterns that arise. In this case-study of the speech of rural migrants in the Norwegian city of Bergen, Paul Kerswill critically examines the usefulness of these concepts, and puts recent models of dialect contact to the test for the first time against a case of such contact as it is actually happening. Dialect contact often, it is said, leads to Koineization - the emergence of new, mixed varieties of a language resulting from the intermingling of speakers of different varieties of that language. Kerswill investigates the extent to which processes of change typically ascribed to Koineization are already prefigured in the speech of the first-generation adult migrants of this study. While the author's approach is broadly quantitative he also demonstrates the importance of ethnographic and social-psychological explanations in accounting for the wide differences between individuals in the study. He argues for a sociolinguistic methodology founded on a richer and more comprehensive view of the social factors influencing, langague use.
Language Contact and Language Change: Linguistic and Social Issues
Authors: Kerswill Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For some years, there has been a fruitful interaction between structural and social approaches to language change, starting with Labov’s 1963 paper ‘The Social Motivation of a Sound Change’. This book follows in that sociolinguistic tradition, based as it is on a case study of language use by a particular social group. It will address an issue that, in the last few years, has come to the fore in both sociolinguistics and historical linguistics. This concerns the role of language contact in linguistic change. Language contact is a venerable field of study, though it was only with Weinreich’s Languages in Contact (1953) that an attempt was made to put it on an empirical footing. Surprisingly, language or dialect contact has rarely been explicitly built into either the theory or the methodology of variationism—that branch of sociolinguistics, typified by much of Labov’s work, which deals with broad patterns of social differentiation and seeks to describe linguistic change in a community.
Social Variation and Data Collection
Authors: Kerswill Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the purposes of a sociolinguistic study, finding a set of extra-linguistic parameters relevant to the informant group is of crucial importance. There seem to be two general strategies for doing this: I shall call these ’inclusiveness’ and ’selectivity’. Inclusiveness has to my knowledge only been attempted once in a sociolinguistic study, that known as the Tyneside Linguistic Survey, which, as Jones (1978: 5) states: ’starts from the principle of exhaustive inclusion of parameters of variation’ (see also Pellowe et al. 1972). Its results were far from clear-cut, and point towards an extreme degree of complexity both in the social structure of an urban area and in the relationship between social and linguistic parameters in general. The ’selective’ strategy has been used in most other studies, and has given rather clearer results—perhaps partly because of the very simplification it implies. As with the strategy of inclusiveness, selectivity requires that the investigator has an intimate knowledge of the community under investigation. However, it additionally requires him or her to make informed, but ultimately subjective judgements of the relative importance of the social factors identified. There is an inherent danger in this.
Linguistic and Social Aspects of Dialect Contact: The Migrant
Authors: Kerswill Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this final chapter, we shall try to see how sociolinguistic data on Stril migrants throw light on the issues raised in Chapter 1, particularly those relating to dialect contact. We shall show that the outcomes of new dialect formation are prefigured by the speech of the original migrants. It will become clear, however, that the overall sociolinguistic context the migrants find themselves in is crucial for these outcomes-a contention frequently made but less frequently studied. In order to be able to specif.y this context more precisely, a new, more inclusive speech community model will be presented.
Lukluk Bak: Recurrent Themes
Authors: Crowley Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Different aspects of the history of Melanesian Pidgin have been covered in studies such as Clark (1979-80) and Mühlhäusler (1979). The view of the development of the language that emerges from these studies, and others, is one of a gradually expanding and stabilizing contact language, passing through the following developmental stages: 1. Jargon Both Clark (1979-80) and Mühlhäusler (1979: 56-9) recognize the existence of macaronic, non-stable pre-pidgin English-lexified speech referred to as South Seas Jargon that was widely spoken before the 1860s around the Pacific. Mühlhäusler associates the jargon stage with the whaling, sandalwood, and sea-slug trades.
Women in Policing and Policing Women
Authors: Heidensohn Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1910 Alice Stebbins Wells was hired by the Los Angeles Police Department in the USA; in late 1915 Edith Smith was sworn in and given arrest powers in Grantham in England. There are other claims to both titles, but these two women are generally agreed to have been the first proper policewomen in their respective countries (Horne 1975; Lock 1979). Notable parallels exist between developments in both countries: women organized and campaigned in the USA and England for women police, women themselves actively sought office. For much of the twentieth century, women were a tiny minority of officers in both nations, confined to specialist roles, and this was, on the whole, what the campaigning pioneers had sought. As we shall see in later chapters, many of the problems faced are shared by female officers in both countries as are the policy issues concerning women on patrol, in public order situations, in handling violence, or in equal opportunities.
Policewomen in Britain
Authors: Heidensohn Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One main purpose of the earlier chapters of this book was to set the scene for the characters whom I now wish to introduce, the female police officers interviewed for this study (further details of the methodology of this study are given in the Appendix). All my informants were serving or former police officers in England or the USA. The group was formed by means of a ‘snowball’ system of sampling and thus cannot be claimed to be a random selection. As I shall make clear, it was not my intention to seek a representative group in that way. Rather, I tried to give a voice to women who have, as will become clear, a great deal to say about police and policing, yet whose voices have been relatively muted.
Introduction
Authors: Lobban Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a study of the debates about law and legal reasoning at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries. It seeks to address the question of what the common law was about, and how theorists and practitioners conceived it, in such a way as to make historians more sensitive to the legal framework. This is not therefore a history of any particular doctrine or area of law, but a discussion of the legal framework.