bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Opinion And Emotion
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Apenal Reform Narrative Which Assumes That Most Of The middle-to-middling classes became ever more indignant about harsh punishment in the early nineteenth century looks problematic now. For most people the strangulation of felons on scaffolds always signified something other than itself, it seems. Not much in the grimy business was seen as we can afford to see it at our safe distance. Few saw or heard the terrified urinations and ululations on the platform. Few saw how felons’ plight might raise questions about how strong people subjected weak. And if some did see the pity of it all they usually turned away. Hierarchy was ordained and order and property must be pro tected somehow.
The Process of Accumulation
Authors: Grassby Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Josiah child considered that young English merchants were under capitalized compared with the Dutch, receiving ‘seldome above £1,000 and sometimes not two Hundred ‘. Dudley began in 1661 with £400 and borrowed an additional £1,000 from his brother. This was an average stake: Gilbert Savile, having bequeathed his eldest son all his land, left £300 to apprentice his younger son, Robert, to a Turkey merchant at 16 and £1,000 at 24 or when his apprenticeship ended. Some children fared worse than Dudley, but what he received was still a bare minimum. By the time he returned to England, he had converted this £1,400 into £22,320 in assets and retained profits, most of which was almost certainly acquired during the decade 1669-79.
The Largest Non-Earlish Estates
Authors: Clarke Peter A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Tms chapter will include a discussion of all those estates which Domesday Book values TRE at £40 or more. Above this figure, most landowners can be identified with a fair degree of reliability, and their estates given a relatively accurate evaluation, but as estates get smaller, the relative accuracy of the figures involved is reduced. Identification of the lesser landholders is not as easy as that of greater lords. Bynames are given less frequently for poor men than for the wealthy, and in many cases a Norman succeeded to land which had been held by many different Englishmen before the Conquest. It is therefore not easy to discover how many individuals are being men tioned in a given location. This in turn means that there is a greater chance of attributing a particular manor to the wrong individual, and because the overall values being dealt with are small, every mistake has a great effect on the value of the estate being calculated.
The Pursuit of Victory in the Second World War
Authors: Bond Brian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Despite the profound and widespread reaction against war after 1918, exemplified in the 1920s by the disarmament conferences and the proclamation of the Kellogg Pact, there was by no means universal acceptance that war had ceased to be a viable instrument of state policy. In eastern Europe, for example, the Bolsheviks triumphed in the civil war and established their authority over the bulk of the former Tsarist empire; while the Poles decisively defeated a Russian invasion at the battle of Warsaw in 1920, and enhanced their victory by extending their frontier eastward at the Treaty of Riga the following year. Thus, while in Britain and France, ‘men counted their dead and meditated on the futility of war, the peoples of eastern Europe counted their gains and losses and observed the efficacy of force’.
Organization And Structures
Authors: Vale Malcolm 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The fundamental question of definition treated in the last chapter—what was the court?—does not repeat itself when we consider the nature and organization of the domestic princely household. It was fairly clear, from a relatively early date, that the hôtel, hospitium, or domus had a distinct and relatively well-defined structure. This was sometimes (but not always) laid down in the genre of documents known as ‘household ordinances’ (ordonnances de l’hôtel, Hofordnungen, Hof-ordinatien).
Introduction
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This work explores the role of the visual arts in the English church (and especially in its monastic sector) from the reign of Alfred the Great (871-99) to the generation after the Norman Conquest. My principal concern is to elucidate the uses to which art was put, the ways in which it functioned, and the resources it had for doing so. Needless to say, an appreciation of its functions requires a clear under standing of its character and forms. Accordingly, I shall be considering the nature of the surviving artefacts and their visual language in order to assess what they could convey and how they did so.
Inscriptions
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastics and, to a lesser extent, their congregations were surrounded by inscriptions. This is quite clear despite the fact that the vast majority of relevant primary material has been lost. Painted or incised legends of a wide variety of forms occurred in architectural settings (notably on dedication stones, but also elsewhere as the example on the arch to the south porticus of Breamore church, Hampshire, shows), on stone sculptures, fonts, and sundials (Pl. 20a), in painted wall decoration, on vessels, vestments, and hangings, and as part of shrines and altars be they of stone, wood, or metal, not to mention on seals and coins. The analogy of Continental examples8 suggests that some pulpits, too, may have borne inscriptions. One particularly common image, the Crucifixion, included an in scription as a matter of course, namely a version of the legend that, as three of the gospels record, was affixed to the cross.
Broader Perspectives
Authors: Gameson Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Much of the art we have discussed was produced by, and associated with, the most important monastic foundations in southern England during the tenth and eleventh centuries. In examining it we have ranged from general themes to specific types of decoration. The cumulative effect of these chapters, it is hoped, has been to shed a variety of spotlights on the question of the role of art in the late Anglo-Saxon church. Attention to detail is a prerequisite of formulating adequate answers to such a complex issue. Yet such detail must also be considered in its wider historical context. Accordingly, to complement the aforegoing studies, in this final chapter we will re-examine the material as a whole in a series of broader perspectives.
Introduction
Authors: Sawyer Birgit 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Compared with western Europe, Scandinavia is poorly provided with written evidence for its early medieval history; there are no charters before 1085, and the earliest law codes and histories were compiled in the twelfth century (in Sweden not until the thirteenth century). The only texts preserved from earlier periods (apart from some coin legends) are runic inscriptions, some of which are scratched on pieces of wood or on metal objects such as spear-heads or brooches, but most are on stones erected as memorials or grave-markers. There are also similar memorials inscribed on exposed rock surfaces. For convenience all these memorial inscriptions will here be called rune-stones. In Scandinavia about 3,000 are known, most of them made in the tenth and eleventh centuries. In so far as they have been used as a historical source, most attention has been paid to the monuments that commemorate men who died abroad, which may give the impression that such inscriptions are typical; in fact, they amount to less than 10 per cent of the whole corpus. Most monuments were for people who lived and died at home and constitute a body of contemporary evidence for the period that has been largely untapped by historians. It is true that the inscriptions seldom provide information about events or identifiable persons, and that not much historical knowledge can be gained if only single stones are considered. The main purpose of this book is to show that studied as a whole, the corpus of rune-stones is a most rewarding source for the social, economic, religious, and political history of Scandinavia in the tenth and eleventh centuries.
Rune-Stones, Their Distribution And Historical Background
Authors: Sawyer Birgit 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
MORE than 3,000 rune-stones are known in Scandinavia, and the majority of them were made in the tenth and eleventh centuries. Most of these ‘late Viking-Age rune-stones’ were upright, but some are horizontal slabs that covered graves and are here called ‘recumbent stones’, and some inscriptions are carved on natural rock faces. They differ in size, shape, and design, but the content of the inscriptions is very uniform, and everywhere the language is Old Scandinavian.
Presentation Of The Corpus And Its Subgroup; Bases Of Analyses
Authors: Sawyer Birgit 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The corpus comprises all inscriptions that yield a minimum of textual information. These are all listed below in the Catalogue. As described at page xvii above, most of the inscriptions are identified by the numbers assigned to them in the standard editions (DR, NiyR, SRI), but since the edition of Gland’s inscriptions is out of date, these are referred to by the numbers given in Nilsson (1973). For inscriptions not included in these editions (new finds and lost ones that have now been recovered) it is customary to refer to their archival number or to the publications in which they have been reported. However, I have found it more practical to adopt another system for these finds, using the abbreviations ‘Dk’ for Denmark, ‘No’ for Norway, and the standard abbreviations for Swedish provinces (listed in the Abbreviations, above, and in App. 1), with my own numbers preceded by ‘N’ (=new).
The Kingdom of Egypt to the Fall of the Middle Kingdom (1678 BC)
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
‘Tis education forms the common mind, Just as the twig is bent, the tree’s inclin’d; (Alexander Pope, ‘Epistle to Lord Cobham’, 1734) Vntil towards the end of the fourth millennium Egypt decidedly lagged behind Sumer in civilization. During the Late Uruk period in Mesop tamia (c.3300 BC), when cities like Erech and Eridu were arising, the peoples of Egypt were still tribal, living in small and primitive farming villages along the banks of the Nile. Then, near the end of the millennium, Egyptian culture makes a sudden leap. From a line of small villages dotted along the river-bank there emerged-so it would seem-statelets, possibly confedera tions, and then, c.3000, the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under a single monarch. With this began the Archaic age, c.3000-2650, the period of the first two dynasties; and the succeeding dynasties III-VI, which we call the Old Kingdom, survived until c.2150 BC. Late-prehistoric Egypt had come under south Mesopotamian influence: art-motifs, the cylinder-seal, Sumer ian-type boats, mud-bricks and brick buildings are all clearly attested. Yet before the beginning of the Old Kingdom all this had disappeared. In its place the Egyptians had developed their own individual style of writing the hieroglyphs. Monumental architecture sprang up, and arts and crafts broke into flower. A pattern was set that was to last into the Hellenistic, indeed, the early Roman eras.
The Persian Empire
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What we do know is mostly derived from literary sources, and most of these are Greek, that is, an enemy account. Recently two Persian archives, the Treasury Tablets and the Persepolis Fortification Tablets have somewhat increased our understanding. Nor is very much claimed for its mode and techniques of government. The Persian Empire is mainly seen by historians as a stepping-stone to some later order: to an increased syncretism of religion and fusion of culture, or to the spread of Hellenistic civilization, or to the creation of the subsequent Iranian states. As to the effects of its rule, most opinions are favourable. It is claimed that most areas of the vast empire enjoyed some two-and-a-quarter centuries of peace under the Achaemenid dynasty, that it treated its subjects’ religious and social institutions with respect, that it was no more repressive than the suppression of open rebellion required it to be, that apart from perhaps the provinces of Babylonia, Egypt, and Phoenicia, the burden of taxation was tolerable, and that, providing the subject population kept the king’s peace and paid their taxes, the Persian yoke was positively benign. It is conveniently contrasted with the unmitigated ferocity and exploitativeness of Assyrian over-rule and the rapacity and extortion of the subsequent Hellenistic monarchies.
The End of the Polis
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If it extended, its citizens could not meet together as the Assembly, and if it did not, it fell prey to big consolidated monarchies. There was, one might surmise, a third alternative-confederation-and that was indeed attempted, but the resulting formations failed both tests. They were forced to abandon rule by the Assemblies (in practice, if not in theory) and they were still too weak to preserve their independence. This is not the whole story. Internal development also worked against demokratia. Between external attack and internal decay, the polis as a special form of state disappeared. How this happened requires some knowledge of the events subsequent to Alexander’s victory over Persia. That conquest heralded the Hellenistic Age, which conventionally ends with Octavian’s defeat of Cleopatra at Actium, 31 BC. It has enormous importance for the history of civilization, but nothing like as much for the history of government; effectively, it amounted to giving a somewhat new thrust to absolute monarchy in Asia and Egypt.
The Roman Republic
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It must seem redundant, perhaps impertinent even, to seek to justify a place for Rome in a general history of government. Western Europe is the heir to Rome. Rome was the carrier of the culture of the Hellenic world which she incorporated: of Christianity and of Roman law which have shaped western values up to our day; the planter of a civilization of cities, disseminator of the Romance family of languages, author of a literature including political history that, along with the Greek and the Hebrew, provided European scholars, writers, and statesmen with a com mon stock of historical experience and models until the nineteenth century and so we could go on, recalling the Romans’ feats in engineering, in road-building, in monumental architecture, and the like. To praise Rome as the progenitor of the West is, of course, not the same thing as praising the Roman Empire in itsel£ What we have inherited is what we have selected, which means what we have not chosen to discard. And in appraising the Roman Empire in itself scholars are far from unanimous. Herder and Hegel, Marx and Weber, Toynbee and Spengler in their different ways and for different reasons have all been antipathetic.
The Han Empire
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although the Warring States followed a similar pattern of government, they each had different identities. Their administrative arrangements varied, they had their own currency and their own legal codes, and although all spoke versions of Chinese that were more or less related, each had developed its own variant of the script. All these differences were swept away forever when Cheng, the king of Ch’in, completed his conquest of these states in 221 BC. No single man ever, in the entire 3,000 years of Chinese history, per formed so historic a task as he did nor left so great and so indelible a mark on the character of government at any time or in any place in the world. Although he reigned a mere eleven years as emperor, the changes he wrought in China’s institutions were determinative. Shih Huang-ti was a barbarous and cruel megalomaniac of cyclonic energies who forged his newly con quered dominions into one community in the image of his own kingdom of Ch’ in writ large, and all the successor empires built upon and adapted its basic institutional structures. Furthermore, the political model he estab lished-of theunique, tightly unified, centrally directed chung kuo, that is, the world-central kingdom-has inspired every generation of patriotic Chinese down to this day.
The Roman Empire: The Principate,
Authors: Finer S E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The end of the Republic and its replacement by ‘the Empire’ is con ventionally ascribed either to 31 BC or to 27 BC. The first date refers to the Battle of Actium by which Octavian, the adopted nephew of Caesar, became the de facto ruler of the Roman world, the second to the constitu tional settlement in which he came to be addressed as princeps, that is, ‘First Man in the State’-hence the term ‘Principate’ to express the nature of the new regime. For two centuries it flourished, but during the third century AD it was badly shaken by barbarian pressure without and civil convulsion within, and after the accession of Diocletian in 284 the appa ratus of government was radically altered. This period is sometimes known as the Late Empire or the Dominate. We left the Roman Republic at the point where Sulla had replaced the ancient constitution by a new constitutional settlement of his own, but to no avail. There followed even more turmoil: bribery and corruption of the electoral process, pressures, coercion, and intensifying civil wars. The terrible tally of assassinations, proscriptions, insurrections, and wars was bought to an end by a dictatorship, that of Octavian, or, as he was to be known, Augustus. His settlement, in 27 BC, proved to be a successful ground-plan for governing the empire for the next 200 years.
Introduction
Authors: Orme Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A glance at a map of Cornwall reveals a land of saints. Churches, parishes, settlements bear their names: St Austell, St Germans, St Ives, St Michael’s Mount. Many other places, though lacking the prefix ‘St’, are called after people who came to be thought of as saints-Advent, Ladock, Probus-or contain a saint’s name in a compound form, like Egloskerry (‘church of Keri’), Landulph (‘church-site of Delech’), and Pelynt (‘parish of Nunit’).
Introduction
Authors: Crook John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The cult of saints is one of the most long-lasting features of the Christian Church. From as early as the second century until the present day (despite the local hiatus caused by the Reformation) the belief has persisted that the ‘very special dead’— firstly martyrs, who had died for their faith, and subsequently those recognized as having led exemplary, Christian lives—continued from beyond the grave to exercise an influence on the living; furthermore, being simultaneously present in heaven in spirit, and on earth in their physical remains, they could act as channels of communication between the two realms. This influence was accessible to suppliants especially at the graves of saints and in the corporeal ‘relics’ that they left behind on earth. The subject of this book is the influence of the cult of saintly relics on the architecture of the early medieval churches of the West, and on the development of the particular monuments known as ‘shrines’.
The Physical Setting of Relic Cults up to c.750
Authors: Crook John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter I described in detail the development of traditions and beliefs associated with relic cults, and explored the physical requirements for the practice of those beliefs: principally, the need for the faithful actually to touch holy relics, or at least to approach them as closely as possible. We now turn our attention to the way in which those needs found architectural expression in the design of churches, their internal layout (including features such as steps and platforms), and the development of the special monuments known as shrines.
Architecture and the Cult of Saints, from the Ninth to the Early Eleventh Century
Authors: Crook John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the second quarter of the ninth century—more precisely, perhaps, between 820 and 840, a new generation of crypts associated with relics cults made its appearance. These are characterized by the development of the confessiocontaining the saint’s body: no longer a narrow corridor, as in the ring-crypts discussed above, or a small loculus,as found in the corridor crypts, but a larger, more accessible space.
The Structure of Government: Institutions and Personnel
Authors: Aylmer G E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Institutional History has a bad name, for being dull and old fashioned. Yet it would be absurd to start discussing the crown and its servants without some notion of the king’s government, its different branches and their respective functions.
It is a mistake to think of a ministry, a team of government ministers and their supporters, in the modern sense. Great officers of state, other privy councillors, middling and lesser officials were all still individually the king’s servants. None the less, the government of Charles II’s early years, from the time of his return until the mid- or even later 1660s, can reasonably be thought of as a coalition. It was dominated by royalists, both those who had been in exile with the royal family, such as Edward Hyde, Edward Nicholas, and the Marquis of Ormonde, and those who had sat it out at home under the Commonwealth and the Cromwellian Protectorate, like the Earl of Southampton and the Marquis of Hertford.
The Transformation Of European Politics 1763 –1848
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is the only modern study of European politics to cover the entire timespan from the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763 to the revolutionary year of 1848. Paul Schroeder's comprehensive and authoritative volume charts the course of international history over this turbulent period, in which the map of Europe was redrawn time and again. Professor Schroeder examines the wars, political crises, and diplomatic opportunities of the age, many of which - the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna and its aftermath - had far-reaching consequences for modern Europe. Professor Schroeder provides a new account of the course of international politics over these years and a major reinterpretation of the structure and operation of the international system. He shows how the practice of international politics was transformed in revolutionary ways, with far-reaching and beneficial effects. The Vienna Settlement established peace by abandoning the competitive balance-of-power politics of the eighteenth century, and devising a new political equilibrium. It created a European consensus on a new political balance with new rules to maintain it, ushering in a uniquely peaceful, progessive period in European international politics.