bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Integrationist and accommodationist measures in Nigeria’s constitutional engineering: Successes and failures
Authors: Ejobowah John Boye 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Integration and accommodation have emerged as the two most prominent approaches to constitutional engineering in divided societies. The first seeks a homogeneous public sphere and a differentiated nonpublic domain, drawing its theoretical matrix from conventional liberalism animated by the ideas of John Rawls and Brian Barry. The latter envisages a differentiated public sphere consistent with the identity cleavages in the nonpublic sphere and is driven by theories ranging from liberal multiculturalism to consociationalism. The institutional repertoires of these two approaches function accordingly. Institutions of integration work to create a national community that has a single identity in which its members have uniform rights. On the other hand, institutions of accommodation generate and sustain a political community in which multiple identities coexist and in which rights are allotted to these multiple identities as societies see fit. It is not certain if the institutions of these two competing approaches overlap, are mutually exclusive, or could be blended to achieve desired outcomes. This chapter attempts to clarify these uncertainties through examining constitutional engineering in Nigeria.
Energy Regulation In Italy: Enhancing Sustainability
Authors: Panella Giorgio , Zatti Andrea , Carraro Fiorenza* 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Public intervention aimed at reducing the environmental impact of energy production and consumption can be based on two major policy options: energy efficiency and renewables. An effective energy efficiency policy on the demand side and the promotion of renewable energy sources (RES) on the supply side are considered key components of the European Union’s (EU) approach to sustainable energy.1 This is an approach which, beginning with the EU’s White Paper on renewables2 to the more recent Directive on energy end-use efficiency (Council Directive (EC) 2006/32),3 has assumed the distinguishing characteristics of what has been called the ‘open method of coordination’. Under this method, targets and quantitative objectives are set at the Community level (for example in terms of share of green electricity to be supplied on the market or per cent of national energy savings to be attained), while Member States commit themselves to the implementation of strategies and measures for the achievement of their planned targets (which remain, however, indicative in nature and entail no legally enforceable obligation). Submission of national action plans, peer reviews, intermediate monitoring, stocktaking, and the exchange of best and bad practices are the most commonly used tools in this governance path.
Analysis Of Energy-Related Subsidies In Austria
Authors: Kletzan1 Daniela , Köppl2 Angela 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of the twentieth century, a shift in the paradigm governing environmental policy was taking place. Before that time, environmental protection was often regarded as constricting economic growth, implicit in the concept of sustainable development was the complementary relationship between an improvement in the quality of the environment and economic development. The focus, therefore, had shifted from the remediation of mostly local problems to the question of how to consider the ecological effects of societal and economic processes, as well as the interaction between the environment and the economy in order to ensure long-term sustainable development. The scope of environmental policy has expanded since the advent of the concept of sustainable development. Instead of using traditional end-of-pipe measures and command-and-control instruments, an integrated approach is increasingly being applied. This approach takes into account the effects of policy measures on the economic, ecological, and social systems, as well as their interdependencies. Accordingly, attention is being paid to the environmental effects of various kinds of subsidies. This includes subsidies that aim at a transition towards more environmentally friendly economic structures and those that are environmentally harmful, for example ‘financial supports and regulations that are put in place to enhance the competitiveness of certain products, processes or regions, and that, together with the prevailing taxation jurisdiction, (unintentionally) discriminate against sound environmental practices’.3
Trading Greenbacks For Green Behaviour: Oregon’S And The City Of Portland’s Environmental Incentives
Authors: Hymel Mona L , Mann Roberta F , Wolfsong1 Beth S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both the State of Oregon and its largest city, Portland, believe environmental stewardship is a top priority. Through fiscal and other economic instruments, they have undertaken a cooperative effort to redevelop the state environmentally. This chapter examines whether the environmental initiatives implemented by Oregon and Portland are effective by weighing the cost of the initiatives against three measures: (1) environmental improvement; (2) impact on economic growth; and (3) equity. This chapter first describes how states and localities use financial incentives to improve the environment. Next, it describes the initiatives implemented by Oregon and Portland, which include both tax incentives and other financial incentives such as low interest loans and grant programmes. As these economic incentives have been implemented at different levels of government, the chapter next discusses how Oregon and Portland have addressed issues under shared jurisdiction.2 Thirdly, based on a review of available studies and other information, the chapter considers whether or not these incentives have been successful, examining not only environmental and economic success, but also how these incentives affect different segments of society. This chapter considers issues of equity in analysing the impact of both environmental degradation and its remediation through fiscal instruments. Finally, the analysis concludes with several observations regarding existing and future use of economic instruments for environmental reform.
Climate Change Post-Kyoto: A Tax Policy Perspective
Authors: Hansford1 Ann , McKerchar2 Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The United Kingdom, under the then new government of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, was an enthusiastic signatory to the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. One of the most significant developments in the United Kingdom that arose as a consequence of this commitment was the introduction of an environmental tax—the Climate Change Levy (CCL)—with effect from April 2001. In contrast, while Australia pledged its commitment to reducing energy usage and emissions in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol, it refused to support the core penalties, targets, and emissions trading provisions which underpinned the Protocol. Instead, Australia favoured voluntary agreements and technological development as the means by which to meet its commitment. Thus the two countries, which are normally staunch allies, adopted conflicting positions to the Kyoto Protocol. This chapter seeks to explore these positions, why they were adopted, and how they may impact on post-Kyoto environmental tax policies in both the United Kingdom and Australia. The chapter begins by considering the background to developments in environmental policy within the United Kingdom and Australia since 1997 to provide an understanding of how these two countries responded to the Kyoto Protocol. It then considers the current political perspectives in both countries and speculates on how this may impact on their post-Kyoto environmental policies, particularly in respect of taxation. The chapter concludes with an examination of alternative tax policies that could be relevant to these countries in seeking to achieve their post-Kyoto environmental goals, but which may require a shift in their political perspectives.
Which Fiscal Instruments Are Effective In Reducing Carbon Emissions From Road Transport? Australia’s Greenhouse Measures And Tax Instruments Compared Internationally
Authors: Mortimore* Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Australia may have the third lowest fuel taxes and the fourth lowest petrol prices in the OECD,1 but Australians have the unenviable record of being the ‘highest polluters per person in the developed world’.2 Australia’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from fuel combustion per unit of GDP are 43 per cent above the International Energy Agency (IEA) average.3 The highest growth in greenhouse emissions is in the transport sector, increasing from 11.4 per cent of total emissions in 1990 to 14.3 per cent in 2003.4 This represents an increase of,28.8 per cent compared to total emissions growth of only 1.1 per cent for the same period.5 Road transport is by far the largest source of emissions in this sector, representing 88 per cent of transport emissions.6 The significant growth in road emissions is attributable to Australia having one of the highest rates of passenger car ownership in the world.7 When compared to the European Union, Australia is sparsely populated with long distances between cities, which, coupled with a poor public transport system, has meant a higher reliance on road transport. Even so, Australia’s environmental and taxation policies do not encourage Australians to choose fuel-efficient vehicles, with low fuel prices being identified as the most common impediment.
Stem Cells Patenting and Competition Law
Authors: Engelbrekt* Antonina Bakardjieva 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patenting of biotechnological inventions, and of stem cells in particular, raises not only ethical dilemmas but has likewise important economic implications. In a market economy patents are often described as legal monopolies. They grant the patent holder a time-limited exclusive right to commercially exploit the invention and to exclude others from such exploitation. As known from economic theory, monopolies imply considerable social cost.
Statistical mechanics and chemical kinetics
Authors: Lindsay S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nanosystems are interesting precisely because they generally contain too many atoms to be thought of as simple mechanical systems, but too few to be described by the bulk properties we assign to materials that contain vast numbers of atoms. This chapter starts with a review of the properties of bulk systems, as described in terms of the possible arrangements of the atoms of which they are composed. We then review fluctuations in these bulk properties and show how their relative importance depends on the size of the system. Fluctuations drive chemical reactions, so we follow this discussion with a review of the thermodynamics of chemical reactions, and a discussion of the factors that control the rates (i.e., kinetics) of reactions. At the end of this chapter, we touch on questions such as the relationship between thermodynamic equilibrium and kinetic phenomena and the tricky subject of how thermal fluctuations affect quantum mechanical phenomena.
Making nanostructures: bottom up
Authors: Lindsay S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chemical synthesis has been the primary route to self-assembly of complex materials since the time of the alchemists. Its importance is even more today, and skill in making new compounds and adding functional groups to existing compounds is a key tool in nanoscience. This chapter begins with a brief outline of the synthetic methods, tools, and analytical techniques used by organic chemists. We then turn to review the many interactions, weaker than a covalent bond, but somewhat stronger (in binding energy) than thermal fluctuations, that permit the self-assembly of complex systems in biology, and ever increasingly in nanotechnology. We consider the formation of lipid vesicles (fatty spheres that self-assemble in water) as our example of equilibrium self-assembly. Clever synthesis techniques exploit chemical kinetics to allow certain kinds of structures to be made with a narrow size range not possible in thermodynamic equilibrium (examples are the synthesis of quantum dots and nanowires). We end with a look at a new strategy for self-assembly of very complex systems based on the remarkable properties of the DNA that carries the genetic code in biology. DNA nanotechnology is sowing the seeds of a revolution in self-assembly.
Electrons in nanostructures
Authors: Lindsay S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The electronic properties of materials change when electrons are confined to structures that are smaller than the distance between scattering events (i.e., the mean free path) of electrons in normal solids. In this chapter, we will discuss what happens to electrons that are confined to one-dimensional structures (i.e., constrictions or “wires”) and zero-dimensional structures (i.e., small particles). Two-dimensional confinement will be dealt with in a discussion of semiconductor heterostructures in Chapter 9. As a prerequisite for this material, we begin with a broad overview of conduction in normal solids, including the “free electron” model of metals and the band structure theory of the electronic states in periodic solids.
Molecular electronics
Authors: Lindsay S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Molecular electronics lies at the intersection of chemistry with nanoelectronics, and many of the concepts learned in Chapter 7 will be combined with chemical concepts in this chapter. We begin by considering two examples of molecular electronic devices. The ﬁrst is a molecular diode, proposed in the 1970s, though still not a commercial device. The second is the photovoltaic molecule that con-verts light to chemical energy, introduced as an example of chemical synthesis in Fig. 6.1. It has been successfully synthesized and could be producing electricity commercially one day. We use these as examples in this chapter.
Kamerlingh Onnes – Liquid Helium and Superconductivity (1911)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Superconductivity is the property of some conductors to completely lose their electric resistance below some, usually very low, temperature. It was discovered in mercury in 1911 by Kamerlingh Onnes [1,2], who, in 1908, had succeeded in liquefying helium and thus in producing the ‘the lowest temperature on earth’ at the time.
The Franck–Hertz Experiment (1914)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1914 James Franck [1] and Gustav Hertz [2], a nephew of Heinrich Hertz, were working together in the Physics Institute of Berlin University led by Rubens. Both were from Hamburg and knew each other since their student days. At that time, Hertz was assistant and Franck Privatdozent, i.e., a scientist with the right to give lectures but not having a professorship.
The Compton Effect – The Light Quantum Gains Momentum (1923)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of the light quantum or photon, as it is now mostly called, is one of the most interesting of modern physics. It took nearly the whole first quarter of the twentieth century for it to become fully developed and accepted. The development was essentially completed by the work of Compton [1,2].
Spin (1925)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the preceding episode that early in 1925 Pauli attributed to the electron a ‘classically not describable two-valuedness’. Within a few months this property of the electron was given a physical description which, it is true, is not satisfactory from the viewpoint of classical physics. This description is regarded as the discovery of the intrinsic angular momentum or spin of the electron. In fact the description was given twice. Already in January Kronig discussed it with Pauli who was completely opposed to the idea so that Kronig did not publish it. The concept of the electron spin was independently proposed and published [1] by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit who thus became the discoverers of spin.
Nonlinear Optics (1961)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The laws of reflection and refraction of light were, at first, found empirically and later derived from various theories of light and matter. In his doctoral thesis of 1875 and, in more detail, in his book of 1895 [1] Lorentz gave a derivation from Maxwell’s equations and a model of matter which agreed with experiments until 1961. His model was based on the assumption (by no means generally accepted at the time) that matter consists of molecules and that these may exist in charged form as ions. He pointed out that the existence of ions had proved necessary to explain electric conduction in gases and continued [1]:
There is More than One Kind of Neutrino (1962)
Authors: Brandt Siegmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Episode 79 we mentioned that the muon decays into an electron and two neutrinos and that this fact was ascertained, in particular, on the basis of measurements which Steinberger performed for his thesis and published in 1949. A dozen years later he was the senior scientist in a group demonstrating that these two neutrinos are of different nature.
The expanding universe
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Everyone is familiar with the fact that the universe is populated by stars and that these stars occur in huge assemblies called galaxies. Atypical galaxy such as our own Milky Way will contain of order 10 stars, together with clouds of gas and dust. Various forms of galaxy are observed. One of the most common forms are the spiral galaxies, in which the older, population II stars are located in a central spherical hub, which is surrounded by a flattened structure or disc in the form of a spiral, associated with the formation of younger, population I stars moving in roughly circular orbits, and concentrated in spiral arms. Figure 5.1(a) shows a picture of the spiral galaxy M31, which is similar in structure to our own Milky Way, sketched in Fig. 5.1(b), and which, together with our nearest neighbour galaxy, the Large Magellanic Cloud, forms part of the Local Group of around 30 galaxies. Other forms of galaxy are the oval galaxies and the irregular galaxies, the latter being important as the apparent source of γ-ray bursts, which are some of the most energetic events in the universe (discussed in Chapter 9). The total number of observable galaxies is enormous, of order 10. They occur in clusters—see Fig. 5.2(a) for the Coma cluster—and superclusters separated by enormous voids as in Fig. 5.2(b) and (c). In other words, the material of the universe is not distributed at random, but there is structure on the very largest scales. Typical sizes and masses are given in Table 5.1.
Nucleosynthesis and baryogenesis
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In continuation of this discussion of the early universe, we next turn our attention to the synthesis of the nuclei of the light elements—He, H, He, and Li. The agreement between the predicted and measured abundances of these elements provided early support for the Big Bang hypothesis. As discussed in Section 5.10, once the universe had cooled to a temperature kT &lt; 100 MeV, or after a time t &gt; 10 s, essentially all the hadrons, with the sole exception of neutrons and protons and their antiparticles, would have disappeared by decay. The nucleons and antinucleons would have been present in equal numbers and have nearly, but not quite completely, annihilated to radiation. As described in the next section, once the temperature had fallen below kT 20 MeV, a tiny residue of about one billionth of the original numbers of protons and neutrons must have survived to form the stuff of the material universe we inhabit today.
Cosmic particles
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The particles circulating in the cosmos include the so-called cosmic rays, which have been intensively studied ever since their discovery by Hess in 1912. Karl K. Darrow, a past chairman of the American Physical Society, caught some of the atmosphere of this early research when he described their study as remarkable ‘for the delicacy of the apparatus, the minuteness of the phenomena, the adventurous excursions of the experimenters and the grandeur of the inferences’. Cosmic rays consist of high-energy particles incident on the Earth from outer space, plus the secondary particles which they generate as they traverse the atmosphere. Their study has a special place in physics, not only in its own right, but because of the pioneering role that cosmic ray research has played—and is still playing—in the study of elementary particles and their interactions. We can recall the discovery in cosmic rays of antimatter, in the form of the positron and e*e– pair production in 1932, and of pions and muons and strange particles in the late 1940s. In those days, before 1950, the cosmic radiation was the only available source of high-energy particles (those above about 1 GeV). These discoveries indeed kick-started the building of large particle accelerators and the development of their associated detecting equipment, developments which were essential in broadening the scope of the subject and putting elementary particle physics on a sound quantitative basis.
Particle physics in stars and galaxies
Authors: Perkins D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters we have traced the primordial development of the universe, principally through the properties and interactions of the elementary particle constituents of matter. This phase came to an end when the temperature of the fireball fell below a value kT 0.3 eV and z 10, when the radiation and (baryonic) matter decoupled, and not long after the time when the universe became matter dominated. The previously opaque universe, consisting of a plasma of electrons, hydrogen and helium nuclei, and photons, was then replaced by a relatively transparent but almost totally dark universe, consisting very largely of clouds of neutral atoms and molecules. From these clouds, stars were able to form by gravitational in fall as soon as the redshift fell to z 12. Then there was light. The process of star formation has of course been continuous since that time. The evolution of the stars, at least during most of their life, is only peripherally linked with elementary particle physics as such, so we shall discuss it rather briefly and in particular contexts, for example, with respect to solar neutrinos described in Chapter 9. However, the later stages of stellar evolution do depend very directly on particle processes at a fundamental level and at quite high energies, involving some of the most violent events in the universe, and we describe these in more detail.
Structuring data, part 2
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter we discussed the fundamentals of structuring data. In this chapter we will be building on this material and discuss an important alternative to ER diagrams, UML class diagrams. The Unified Modeling Language or UML is a diagramming language that, among other things, recasts entities into classes. The fundamental notions of entities and classes are very similar, but the terminology is slightly different. I will discuss the UML concepts in a bit more detail in this chapter, because you will frequently encounter class diagrams instead of ER diagrams.
Selecting alternatives
Authors: Heijden Hans Van Der 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter covers a second class of decisions that managers frequently have to make: selecting the most appropriate alternative out of a list of alternatives. We will discuss this particular type of decision in more detail and then focus on the ways that management information systems can help to support these types of decisions. There are many examples of these types of decisions. Typical ones include the selection of an appropriate supplier of a certain material or service, or the selection of an appropriate candidate out of a list of suitable candidates for a particular vacancy.