bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
From genes to individuals: developmental genes and the generation of the phenotype
Authors: Tautz Diethard , Sclmzid Karl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The assumption that the understanding of ontogeny should also be the basis for understanding phylogeny can be traced back into Darwin ‘s times and has become commonplace today. However, developmental and evolutionary disciplines have followed very different routes during the past decades and have generated their own paradigms. Often, these do not provide much room for overlap. This situation is currently changing. The progress in molecular genetic methods is starting to unite the two fields. We are beginning to understand how an organism is built at the molecular level and many of the genes involved in these processes appear to be highly conserved in evolution. This provides an immediate access to comparative studies in diverse organisms and is starting to create a new discipline: molecular comparative embryology. The early results from this discipline do already shed some light on the course of the major cladogenic events. Yet, since most of the developmental genetic approaches were not designed to solve evolutionary questions, their outcomes provide only a patchy picture of the possible routes of evolution of the organisms. The genes that are most heavily studied are those involved in early embryonic decisions, rather than those required for the differentiation of the adult morphology. Evidently, evolutionary biologists would be particularly interested in the latter class of genes, as these are the ones that should be most relevant for ecological adaptations and speciation. Characterizing such genes will therefore be a major task of the future for biologists working at the interface of development and evolution.
Geographic range size and speciation
Authors: Gaston Kevin J , Chown Steven L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No species is distributed ubiquitously across the Earth. Indeed, the sizes of global geographic ranges vary by at least 12 orders of magnitude (Brown et al.1996). At one extreme lie those species constrained, by ecology or by history, to occupy small, isolated islands of habitat or very scarce sets of environmental conditions. At the other extreme lie those species which are distributed across multiple biogeographic regions. This interspecific variance in geographic range sizes has stimulated a host of investigations of the constraints on the occurrences of more narrowly distributed species, and of the mechanisms which enable the more widely distributed to become so (e.g. for references and reviews see Woodward 1987; Hengeveld 1990). On the contrary, little interest has been directed toward broad interspecific patterns in the determinants and consequences of this variation (for reviews see Kunin and Gaston 1993, 1997; Gaston 1994a; Brown 1995).Perhaps the most basic summary of, and pattern in, the variation of geographic range sizes exhibited by a taxonomic assemblage is the species-range size distribution and its associated statistics. The frequency distribution of the geographic range sizes of species in a taxonomic assemblage tends to be unimodal with a strong right-skew.
Rates of speciation 1n the fossil record
Authors: Sepkoski J John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A rate of speciation is a measurement of how many new species appear in an interval of time within a given taxon and a given habitat, region, or ecosystem. A rate of speciation can also be a comparative measure, less dependent on time, relating to how one taxon seems to diversify relative to another. The principal processes of speciation remain inadequately understood, despite a huge literature of field, laboratory, and theoretical studies. Still, this does not preclude empirical studies of the magnitude of speciation and the variation of rates observed in historical records. In this contribution, I briefly examine empirical rates of speciation, and of origination of taxa above the species level, from a paleontological perspective. 1 first consider the average global rate of speciation and then discuss several sources of variation in rate at scales ranging from the whole of the Phanerozoic down to individual taxa and climatic fluctuations.
A short bibliography of Newtons writings published before 1800
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This list is not exhaustive; it does not always note all editions of every work, nor include all Newton’s currency reports and other minor writings. The names of publishers are normally omitted. 1744 Castiglione, G. F. M. M. Salvemini di (ed. and trans.), lsaaci Newtoni ... Opuscula mathematica, philosophica et philolog ica ... Lausanne and Geneva, three volumes. 1779-85 Samuel Horsley (ed.), Isaaci Newton Opera quae exstant omnia. London, five volumes.
Negotiating “the world’s slippery path”
Authors: Parshall Karen Hunger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the course of his life, James Joseph Sylvester repeatedly experienced a sense of sliding on “the world’s slippery path” (letter 7), but his footing seemed perhaps most unsure in the years prior to 1850 as he sought to establish himself professionally while pursuing his mathematical interests. The balance proved difficult to strike for a number of reasons. First and foremost, the twentiethcentury concept of a “professional mathematician” as someone who earns a living by proving theorems did not exist in Victorian Britain. The universities had mathematics chairs, fellows, and tutors, but undergraduate teaching exclusively defined these positions. Moreover, as a Jew and thereby a non-Anglican, Sylvester could not subscribe to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England and so was ineligible for any degree from or post associated with an Anglican institution. How, then, could he make his way doing what he did best, namely, mathematics? The answer was unclear, and he took a number of false steps in trying to find it.
Introduction
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern man has been around for some roo ooo years or so. By 15 ooo BC he had spread into most of the habitable world; by about ro ooo BC he had invented agriculture. We only know of the people of these remote times by their graves, their artefacts, their rock paintings, and their buildings that have survived. If they had a calendar, we can only surmise its nature from the few traces that remain.
ThCealendars of India
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In India (or what is now Pakistan), the Indus Valley civilizations at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and elsewhere, flourished in about 2500 BC.However, their writing has not yet been deciphered, so we know nothing of their calendar. Later, Aryan invaders from the North initiated new developments in many parts oflndia.
ThReoman and Julian Calendars
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many people have some knowledge of Rome and Roman civilization; the following are just a few landmarks in the history of Rome: Our knowledge of the history of the Roman calendar is largely based on the works of Censorinus, who wrote in AD 238 on the division of time in his De die natali; ofMacrobius, a grammarian and antiquarian who wrote his Saturnalia.
ThWeeek
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
You and I may have to refer to a calendar to find out today’s date, but a person who does not know what is the day of the week is sometimes thought to be on the verge of mental disintegration. However, in the absence of newspapers, the radio, and other cultural clues, keeping track of the day of the week is diffi cult--as Robinson Crusoe discovered. In fact, his bout of fever caused him to miss a day from his tally, as he realized on his eventual rescue: Man Friday should indeed have been named Man Saturday.
ThMeayan Calendar
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Mayan people reckoned dates in two ways: by the calendar round and by the long count. The former allowed them to specify a date within a period of about 52 years; the latter was a direct measure of the number of days elapsed since the start of a great cycle in the remote past. We take this day to be the epoch of the long count and, following many scholars, take this to be the Julian date 8/9/3n4 BC, which has aJulian day number of 584285.
Ill-Conditioned Toeplitz Systems
Authors: Ng Michael K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapters 4 and 5, we considered preconditioners for Toeplitz matrices that are generated by positive functions. These are the nice cases as the Toeplitz matrices are well-conditioned and the preconditioned systems will converge superlinearly. In this chapter, we study Toeplitz matrices that are generated by nonnegative functions with a finite number of zeros. These matrices will be ill-conditioned and new preconditioners have to be found. The results we developed in Chapter 4 will be useful here.
Towards the Infinite Universe
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the universe is flat, it is infinite. That at least is what the textbooks tell us. The concept of an infinite universe, or at least of one that is virtually infinite, has received support from the cosmology of inflation. Our universe underwent a phase of exponential growth. There is every reason to expect that it underwent an expansion in scale by many powers of ten within a fraction of a second. Prior to inflation, all the matter within the visible universe spanned less than the size of a pea. Even if the entire universe had begun as a finite space, its present dimension is likely to be at least ten to the power of one hundred times larger than our visible horizon.
Into the Infinite Future
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is apparent that the matter density is below the critical value required to halt the expansion. Utilizing the current value of Hubble’s constant, one finds that the critical density is 1029 grams per cubic centimeter. This is equivalent to 0.00001 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre. This may seem a small value, but we have already seen that the density of luminous matter, when averaged over all of space, is a negligible fraction of the critical density. Since the total density of dark and luminous matter amounts to a third of the critical density, the universe is destined to be always dominated by its kinetic energy: it will expand forever. This is because if an expanding shell is not being decelerated by the effect of the gravity of matter in its interior, its gravitational potential will decrease as the radius of the shell increases. The gravitational potential energy forms a smaller and smaller fraction of the kinetic energy as the shell expands. The universe will become a colder and darker place as galaxies recede from one another.
Synchrotron radiation
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to the fundamental laws of classical electrodynamics, a charge under- going acceleration will radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. This is of course also true of any charged particle moving in an accelerator. As we shall see in what follows, this radiation plays an important role for electrons of sufficiently high energy, while for protons and all other heavy particles it can in general be neglected. Our aim in this chapter is to understand the key physical principles of this synchrotron radiation. A full theoretical treatment of the physics of this radiation and its properties may be found in Jackson [29] and Hofmann [30].
Linear beam optics
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When an accelerator is constructed, the nominal trajectory of the particle beam is fixed. This trajectory may simply be a straight line, as is the case in linear accelerators. In circular machines such as storage rings, however, it may have a very complicated shape consisting of numerous curves connected by straight sections of various lengths. The particles follow the resulting closed path over and over again and so cover an extremely large total path length within the accelerator. On the other hand, the trajectories of individual particles within a beam always have a certain angular divergence, and without further measures the particles would eventually hit the wall of the vacuum chamber and be lost. It is therefore necessary first of all to fix the particle trajectory, in general an arbitrary curve, and then to repeatedly steer the diverging particles back onto the ideal trajectory.
Rheology
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Amusons-nous. Sur la terre et sur l’onde
Malheureux, qui se fait un nom!
Richesse, Honneurs, faux eclat de ce monde,
Tout n’est que boules de savon.
written underneath an engraving entitled ‘La Souffleuse de Savon’
Pierre Gilles de Gennes devoted his 1994 Nobel Prize Lecture to ‘soft matter’, including the soft material which is our subject here. He concluded his lecture ironically with the above poem, to which we offer a revised translation.
Fundamental Concepts and Equations
Authors: Feistauer M , Felcman J , Straskraba I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book we shall be concerned with the motion of compressible fluids, i.e. gases. They will be considered as continuous media or, simply, continua. This means that we assume that each point of the domain occupied by the fluid represents exactly one fluid particle. Moreover, we assume that functions describing the behaviour and motion of the fluid are continuous or even, according to the mathematical means used, sufficiently smooth. These assumptions are used mainly for the derivation of the equations and relations of fluid dynamics. In further considerations the strong assumptions are removed in the so-called weak formulations.
Spectral analysis
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many pulse EPR experiments are performed by directly or indirectly detecting the free evolution of coherence. The resulting time-domain data contain information on the transition frequencies as we have seen in §§2.2 and 4.2.3. In this chapter we explain how a spectrum is obtained from such time-domain data by FT. For the case of direct detection of the FID after a single pulse it is demonstrated from linear response theory that the spectrum is equivalent to a c.w. EPR spectrum, and the interconversion between these two types of spectra is discussed. Quantum-mechanical response theory provides analogous results for multiple pulse experiments. Two-dimensional FT is introduced as a method for the data analysis of experiments which correlate the frequencies of different transitions in a spin system by using two variable time intervals. Both the ID and 2D FTs of discrete time-domain data are discussed with particular emphasis on artifacts due to experimental imperfections and methods for their suppression. The chapter concludes with a survey of alternatives to the FT for the analysis of time-domain data.
Two-level dynamics
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we describe a number of pulse EPR experiments carried out with an ensemble of non-interacting electron spins. Such a simple two-level system is completely characterized by the rotating-frame electron Zeeman Hamiltonian H0 = ΩSSz, a homogeneous linewidth rhom, and an inhomogeneous linewidth ┌inh+. In particular we will discuss how FIDs and echoes manifest themselves for two situations, the narrow-line case where ┌inh+ is much smaller than the field strength ω1 of the m.w. pulses, and the more common broad-line case with ┌inh+ » ω1.Many experiments on multi-level systems described later in this monograph are based on pulse sequences described in this chapter.
Application aspects
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most chapters of this monograph are concerned with theoretical and experimental concepts for separating and determining parameters of the spin Hamiltonian or isolating a certain relaxation pathway and measuring the corresponding relaxation time. Application of pulse EPR spectroscopy, on the other hand, starts with a set of open questions concerning the structure and dynamics of the system under investigation. We wish to find out if these questions can be answered by pulse EPR and what is the most efficient approach.
Diabetes and atherosclerosis
Authors: Eaton John W , Dean Roger T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This brief review addresses a topic of considerable public health importance - the greatly increased incidence of vascular disease in patients with diabetes. Because the great majority of patients with diabetes have so-called type 2 diabetes (also variably known as adult onset or non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)), unless otherwise noted we have restricted our coverage to this form of diabetes. The literature is both vast and inconclusive, and we have no doubt failed to mention a number of potentially important pathophysiologic mechanisms involved in atherogenesis in diabetes (not to mention numerous important publications by important investigators). This review represents an attempt to highlight possible contributory factors other than the obvious risk factors which typically coincide with the diabetic condition. The reader should be warned, however, that the involvement of many of these suggested factors will eventually be disproven. This is the natural course of science.
Futures: Diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerosis
Authors: Kritharides Leonard , Adams Mark R , Celermajer David S , Kelly David T , Dean Roger T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will discuss briefly and speculatively the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerosis. Many of the issues raised here are discussed in more detail elsewhere in the book, in a different context, so references are only provided here when they are not available in other chapters.
Introduction
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this book is to demonstrate the unifying power of the concept of a space-time in understanding the nature of the physical world. It will do so firstly by giving a good understanding of the nature and meaning of the flat space-time of the special theory of relativity, and features of that theory such as length contraction, time dilation, and the twin paradox. Secondly it will provide an introduction to the nature and meaning of the curved space-times of the general theory of relativity, including the concept of the expanding universe and the nature of black holes. Both of these theories of relativity are due to Albert Einstein (Fig. 0.1), the special theory being completed in 1905 and the general theory in 1916.
Curved space-times
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our discussions so far have all been concerned with flat space-times, where we can choose physical coordinates so that all the light cones are parallel to each other. This is possible because, in a flat space-time, initially parallel light rays remain parallel to each other. In curved space-times, the situation is radically different. According to Einstein’s general theory of relativity, in which gravitational fields are represented through space-time curvature, the gravitational fields of massive objects not only curve the paths of other massive objects but also bend light rays (Fig. 5.1); in fact, observation of this effect gave the first experimental verification of the correctness of general relativity (in 1919). This feature affects the causal and observational properties of curved space-times in intriguing ways.
Simple cosmological models
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this final main chapter, we look at curved space-time models of the large-scale geometry of the universe. These explain our observations of the systematic redshifts of distant galaxies in terms of expansion of the universe from a hot initial state, preceded by a space-time singularity (the ‘Big Bang’) which is the origin of the universe and indeed of space-time itself.
Thermodynamics and Lattice Dynamics
Authors: Dove Martin T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The harmonic theory of lattice dynamics developed in the previous chapter has allowed us to determine the distribution of vibrational frequencies in a crystal structure, but it has given no information about the amplitudes of the vibrations, or equivalently about the sizes of the atomic displacements. The vibrations will be excited by the effects of temperature, with higher temperatures leading to large amplitudes, but the theory does not yet include temperature. The theory has been firmly based in classical mechanics, but we might expect that a proper treatment that includes temperature will necessarily incorporate quantum mechanics. This is the main point of this chapter.
Easy Applications of Renormalization Group to Simple Models
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We start with a one-dimensional magnet, in which the individual, microscopic magnets either point up or down but not in any other direction. In physics this is known as the one-dimensional Ising model. The problem it poses is something of a “cheat,” because not only can it be solved exactly but the approximate RG method is readily converted to an exact solution! Nevertheless, it is a nice introduction to how one may calculate the partition function recursively.
Classical Nonlinear Systems Driven by Random Noise
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we at last make use of the formal perturbation theory as presented in Section 1.3.5. We apply it to the study of classical nonlinear systems such as fluid turbulence. It has been recognized since the 1950s that turbulence theory has a similar structure to quantum field theory and this idea has proved beneficial to research in turbulence.
Testudinata (turtles, terrapins, and tortoises)
Authors: Lever Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Bartlett and Bartlett (1999), the status of this predatory African turtle in Florida is not known with certainty, as it is so secretive and aquatic that its presence can be easily overlooked. It is believed to be only tenuously established in a single man-made lake in Dade County, into which it was reputedly released by a local animal dealer. The turtles, said to be of the nominate race, have apparently not spread outside the lake, despite its connections to permanently flooded nearby canals.
Anura
Authors: Lever Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1919, in the course of an address to the South London Entomological and Natural History Society, G. A. Boulenger said: ‘The midwife toad has established itself, no one knows how, in a former nursery garden in Bedford; it has been there for many years, and a friend of mine found it still in plenty last summer’.
Nature of Contact Between Colliding Solids [A]
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall consider briefly the nature of contact between colliding surfaces. This is of general interest in a number of fields involving resistance to deformation under impact. For example, it is of importance in the dynamic hardness of metals and in lubrication problems where vibrations in the moving parts may produce rapid changes in the normal force between the rubbing surfaces. The processes involved in the impact of solids are also of importance in other problems such as the initiation of explosives by impact.
Outlook
Authors: Berthold Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contemplating research on migrants and bird migration we, like the students of so many other areas of nature, now find ourselves in a paradoxical situation. We have gained so much insight into migrants during the last few decades through examinations of the course of bird migrations by means of modern technical equipment, worldwide travel, bird-ringing, and so forth, as well as through investigations into the control of migratory behaviour and orientation mechanisms using ever more refined methods.