bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Limits of International Law
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Limits of International Law argues that international law matters but that its scope and significance is far less than assumed by academics, the media, and many public officials. Adopting a rational choice framework, the authors show that international law is a term that we use to refer to variously circumscribed cases of international cooperation. States are able to cooperate through international law but only under narrow conditions; much of international law merely ratifies existing relationships, and has no independent normative force. Indeed, recent efforts to replace international politics with law and judicial process rests on a misunderstanding of the past accomplishments of international law. The Limits of International Law will have important implications for debates about the role of international law in the foreign policy of the United States and other nations.
Intellectual Grove (1835–1844)
Authors: Maynard W Barksdale 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transformation of Walden Pond into a place more than merely physical—into a spiritual and poetical realm at the center of an “intellectual grove” (to borrow a term from Amos Bronson Alcott)— began not with Thoreau but with his friend and mentor Ralph Waldo Emerson. A tireless advocate for American letters, Emerson gathered a circle of writers around him in Concord, and together they discovered and promoted Walden and its surrounding woods as, in essence, an American analogue to England’s Lake District.
Far Off As I Lived (1845–1847)
Authors: Maynard W Barksdale 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In January 1845, Bronson Alcott bought a house in Concord, which he would name “Hillside” (today’s “Wayside”). For three years it provided a stable home place. He had returned a year earlier from the seven-month Fruit lands experiment, where he had engaged in an abortive transcendentalist exercise in self-sufficiency in Harvard, Massachusetts. His diary for 1845 is unfortunately lost; one would like to know what reference it made to Thoreau’s Walden house, an act of settling down parallel to Alcott’s own.
In These Days of Confusion and Turmoil (1960–1989)
Authors: Maynard W Barksdale 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If Concordians were ambivalent about Thoreau, as evinced in their digging a landfill by Walden Pond, young Americans were about to take him up enthusiastically. In 1960, an icon of an earlier age of radicalism testified to the impact Walden had had on him. Upton Sinclair wrote, “I am glad to say that Thoreau was an influence in my life. I lived in a hut too—only mine was a tent! Like him, I learned to stand alone, and speak truth as I saw it.” A new folio edition of Walden was published, Joseph Wood Krutch noting in its preface, “Within the last few years attacks upon ‘conformity’ and incitements to its opposite have become so numerous as to constitute a recognizable genre.
Introduction: Discounted Cash Flow Method
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Financial modelling is an important methodology used by managers at all levels for the purpose of providing business solutions. The process must begin with understanding the business objectives and specifying the economic concepts on which the model is based. Some of the fundamental economic concepts are present-value measures, efficient capital market, perfect capital market, and risk-averse behaviour. These concepts lead to the formulation of the discounted cash flow method as a basic approach to valuing financial instruments.
Risk Management
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Today, most trading operations have risk management in place where traders” risk taking activities are monitored, measured, and managed. So in early February 2002, when Allied Irish Banks PLC (AIB) disclosed that a trader at its subsidiary All first Financial, Inc., a Baltimore-based bank, had lost $691 million in currency trading, the news was a surprise to the financial community. Since this loss hit the financial community, and especially the bank, pretty hard, the news quickly prompted investigations into the possible flaws in the risk management system.
Concluding Thoughts
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Capital markets and corporate finance are two parts that make up a whole; one cannot function completely without the other. Capital markets invest in corporations and can maintain a somewhat complete market for all contingencies by using corporation securities. Corporate finance requires capital markets to determine the optimal values of securities which the corporation holds and issues. This book explains how capital markets and corporate finance are interrelated by describing the financial models of both in one coherent framework.
The Heritage of Classical Growth Economics
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Development as a subject entered mainstream economics only some 50 years ago. Its major ancestors, however, were the classical economists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries—Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, J. S. Mill, Karl Marx. Following the emergence from feudalism of the nation state, the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century, and the extension of science, technology, and industrialization, the classical economists were concerned with the “progressive state”—economic growth.1 After World War II, development economics as a policy-oriented subject was to expand beyond the growth economics of the classicists, but some of the old insights formed a background for the new subject.
Early Development Institutions
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The institutional context for development activities began to be established soon after the end of World War II. Political motives were mixed, but the core economic objective was to improve living standards in the less developed countries. The problems of development were thrust upon these institutions by the breakup of colonial empires in Asia and Africa. In the brief span of five years after the war, India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, the Philippines, Indonesia, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel all became independent. Colonialism was on the way out far more speedily than had first seemed possible at the end of the war, and many more colonies soon emerged as nations. With the “revolution of rising expectations,” leaders of the new nations insisted that international attention be given to their development problems.
Creating the Right Business Design in the Face of Uncertainty
Authors: Barabba Vincent P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a thinking framework to help business and public-sector leaders decide what kind of enterprise they want to become in the face of an uncertain future. This type of strategic thinking is crucial to helping an enterprise find ways to get to where it wants to be from where it is now. It also requires the leadership team to take into consideration, as was pointed out in chapter 12, changes in the broader societal environment, including customer needs, political realities, economics, and many other factors.
Old and New Concerns
Authors: Frankel Tamar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The recent discoveries of frauds raise old concerns. One serious concern is that investors would lose confidence in the financial system and withdraw from the securities markets. There is a debate on whether the recent discoveries of fraud have affected investors’ trust in the markets. Does investor confidence depend on the honesty of corporate and Wall Street leaders? Or does investor confidence relate to the opportunity to make a profit? Trust and the desire to profit need not be linked. They pose two different risks. After all, some investors made enormous profits by trading in the stock of corporations whose financial statements were inflated.. These investors just bought and sold at the right time, before the frauds were publicly discovered.
Toward Abuse of Trust and Mistrust
Authors: Frankel Tamar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the main themes in this book is trust and its opposite or reverse refiection—mistrust. This chapter explores the importance of trusting relationships, their current status, and the direction in which they are moving in American society. After a basic definition I examine trust and its benefits. Next I discuss the paradoxical nature of trust and ways in which people seek to resolve the paradox. Finally, I view modern times that increase the benefits of trust and the dangers of its abuse.
The Shift to Weaker Morality, Weaker Law, and Stronger Market Discipline
Authors: Frankel Tamar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While opportunities to abuse trust and the drive for more have been rising, the barriers against dishonest behavior have been falling. There are many barriers to dishonesty, but among the main barriers are three. One is moral behavior, where trusted persons exercise self-control over temptations. The second is self-protection, where trusting people protect themselves with the help of market sanctions against abuse of trust. Market sanctions represent mostly self-protection of many people, each acting in his or her own interest. The third barrier to abuse of trust is the law. Morality refiects mainly the “trust” component in “trust but verify.” One can trust people who exercise self-control in face of temptations. Self-protection and the markets refiect mainly the “but verify” component in “trust but verify.” One must verify the other person’s statements and promises. The law refiects and supports both the “trust” component and the self-protection “verify” component. Some rules are designed to put barriers to temptations. These rules are addressed to trusted persons. Some rules require trusted people to disclose true information. These rules are addressed to the recipients of the information, and they are expected to decide for themselves whether and how to engage in business with the disclosing parties. And some rules go further and withdraw legal protection from people who do not protect themselves from the fraud of others, even though they can do so.
The Subtle Changes in Legal Doctrine and Interpretation
Authors: Frankel Tamar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past three decades can be summarized as follows. We reduced the power of morality in the law. We have emasculated the regulation of trusted persons—fiduciaries. We have weakened the laws that govern fiduciaries’ honesty, allowed them more freedom, and called the relaxing rules more efficient. But by doing so, we have reduced the efficiency of government enforcement of honesty, increased the risk of abuse, and opened the door to enormous losses to the public and the economic system. We have elevated the role of the markets in preventing abuse of trust. But by doing so, we have shifted the burden of policing fraudulent fiduciaries to the parties who dealt with these fiduciaries, such as the investors in corporate shares, and the patients of physicians. We have changed legal doctrine to reduce the burdens and stigma on embezzling fiduciaries and converted them to salespersons and contracting parties in the markets.
Philip Freneau and the Invention of the Republican Party
Authors: Daniel Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A few weeks after the launch of Philip Freneau’s National Gazette, an essay appeared in its pages that set out to explain the current state of American politics. According to its anonymous author, it was important for all citizens to understand the true nature of party divisions lest “an opportunity is given to designing men, by the use of artificial and nominal distinctions,” to divide “those who never differed.” And in the interests of preventing such a division, the author provided his readers with a brief history of American political parties. During the “first period” of party organization, he informed them, Americans had divided sharply into two warring groups: those who supported and those who opposed the American Revolution. After the Revolution, although there were “parties in abundance,” they were local rather than national in character, and it was the adoption of a new federal Constitution that “gave birth to a second and most interesting division of the people”: into Federalists and Anti-Federalists. A “third division” arose after the formation of the federal government, and this division “being natural to most political societies,” argued the author, “is likely to be of some duration in ours.” It had created two irreconcilable camps: an “antirepublican party,” consisting of those who believed that government could “only be carried on by the pageantry of rank, the influence of money and emoluments, and the terror of military force,” and a “Republican party,” consisting of those who believed that hereditary government was “an insult to the reason and an outrage to the rights of man.” The question of the hour, concluded the author, was which of these parties would “ultimately establish its ascendance.”
The author of this essay, which according to one historian represented the “political christening” of the “Republican party,” was James Madison.
Benjamin Franklin Bache and the Desacralization of George Washington
Authors: Daniel Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the occasion of George Washington’s retirement from the presidency in 1796, the editor Benjamin Franklin Bache published a commentary in the Philadelphia Aurora. “If ever a nation was debauched by a man, the American nation has been debauched by washington,” declared its author:
If ever a nation has suffered from the improper influence of a man, the American nation has suffered from the influence of washington. If ever a nation was deceived by a man, the American nation has been deceived by washington. Let his conduct be an example to future ages. Let it serve to be a warning that no man may be an idol, and that a people may confide in themselves rather than in an individual. Let the history of the federal government instruct mankind, that the masque of patriotism may be worn to conceal the foulest designs against the liberties of a people.
This savage indictment of Washington was the final salvo in a Republican campaign against him that was waged with implacable intensity in the Aurora throughout 1795 and 1796, a campaign orchestrated by Bache. Over fifty years later, John Prentiss, who had been an apprentice working in the printing office of the Boston Independent Chronicle at the time, vividly recalled how President Washington was “bitterly attacked in Bache’s Phila. Aurora.” And Bache is still remembered primarily as a scurrilous newspaper editor who slandered the father of his country, George Washington.
The American Revolution, unlike its predecessor the English Revolution and its successor the French Revolution, created a republic without killing a king.
William Duane and the Triumph of Infidelity
Authors: Daniel Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Thomas Paine returned to the United States in 1802, William Duane was one of the few American editors who welcomed him publicly. “Thomas Paine, the early and uniform asserter of the Rights of Mankind [sic], and author of the immortal revolutionary papers called common sense and the crisis,” wrote Duane, “arrived at Baltimore on Saturday last.” “The arrival of this interesting man,” he continued,
was as might be expected, an object of interest and curiosity to the old who knew his services, and to the young who had heard of his fame in all the opposite modes which political sympathy or hatred could employ to express their respect or abhorrence of the asserter of freedom.
Duane’s oblique reference to Paine’s notorious Age of Reason was followed by a brief acknowledgment of the religious controversy that swirled around the great patriot-author of the American Revolution. “The writings of Mr. Paine on religious subjects,” he added, “were not even mentioned, and the right of private opinion was neither assailed, nor brought into question.”
Duane had already expressed his own views on Paine’s religious writings:
The pretended crime of Thomas Paine, is his Age of Reason. We do not mean to defend that work. That has been undertaken by hundreds, and the book itself is now thrown by among other lumber. We assert however that the writing of that book, is not a proof of his impiety, nor can it be a justification of any person in attempting to asperse the man.
Paying in Paper: A Government Voucher from the Southern Song
Authors: Goetzmann William N , KÖll Elisabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Financial instruments and markets are widely regarded today as fundamental to the operation of the global economy. Until the recent advent of electronic exchange, paper securities were the lifeblood of the market-based global capitalist system. Paper securities facilitated exchange among agents and institutions in an international economy that has grown increasingly oriented toward corporations and private, as opposed to public, enterprise. Many bearer securities either were themselves objects of value, or represented legal and liquid claims on private enterprise and its derivatives. What if such instruments of capitalism had never been in vented-or at least had never grown to their current prevalence? What if private entrepreneurship, and its attendant financial architecture, had not evolved to the dominant position it has today? In this chapter, we consider this counter positive-the development of a large scale public economy managing widespread enterprise and governmental operations with instruments that capture some but not all of the features of the financial securities studied in this volume. Although it is not precisely correct to do so, it is tempting to interpret this alternative technology as the road not taken in world economic history. The logic of this temptation becomes clearer in the broader context of Chinese history.
Annuities in Early Modern Europe
Authors: Poterba James M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The private annuity market in the United States today is small. While there are substantially larger markets in other nations, notably the United Kingdom, most economics research on the annuity market focuses on explaining why so few households choose to purchase life annuities. New investigations of annuity pricing are rare, and they focus on the appropriate actuarial models for life expectancy of the annuitant population.
German Debt in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Guinnane Timothy W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Germany, more than any other country, experienced the turbulence of the twentieth century. That turbulence is reflected in its economic and financial history. The German economy twice experienced the ruin of total war, then the painful process of re construction and reestablishing trade and financial ties with old economic partners. Germany also underwent an event rare even among countries with that much experience of war: divided into two countries by the victorious Allies in 1949, Germany reunited in 1990. The “united Germany” of today is not as large as the German Empire that entered World War I in 1914, but it is once again the largest country entirely in Europe, and easily the largest and most important of the European economies.
King Leopold’s Bonds
Authors: Harms Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the summer heat of 1908, the furnace in the Palace of Brussels ran day and night for an entire week. King Leopold II was burning the archives of the Congo Independent State, a country that had been his private possession for twenty-three years and now was about to be taken away from him by the Belgian government. “They will have my Congo,” he declared, “but they will not know what I did there.”
Why Marriage?
Authors: Fineman Martha Albertson 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mary Lyndon Shanley seeks to fill a perceived gap between American conservatives, who decry the state of marriage in the United States, and their critics, for whom she seems to have much sympathy. She identifies as the primary problem a so-called lack of “alternatives” to the marriage-promotion movement and proposes a comprehensive plan that combines a love for equality with a respect for the institution of marriage. Unfortunately, Shanley’s plan is as shortsighted as our government’s family policies, evolved over a half century of “reform.” An analysis that perpetuates the primacy of marriage excludes nonmarital relationships. At the same time, wishfully extolling the virtues of equality in marriage does nothing to implement it or to address the difficulties that many American families face.
Verbal Ellipsis with One Licensor
Authors: Mcshane Marjorie J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Verbs are, in a sense, the backbone of any clause, since they determine what other elements can and must co-occur with them: generally a subject, often a direct or in direct object, and optionally various types of adjuncts. In addition, verbs impose restrictions on the semantic nature of their co-occurring elements. For example, the English verb polish requires a human agent or machine capable of polishing, a theme with a polishable surface, and, optionally, an instrument of polishing-perhaps a rag and some car, shoe, silver, furniture, or leather polish.
Ellipsis of Minor Parts of Speech
Authors: Mcshane Marjorie J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conjunctions not only bind sentence components in a grammatical sense; they also indicate the semantic relationship between them. English, on the whole, prefers to express conjunctions overtly, so (la) is more common than (lb): As discussed in chapter 1, section 3.6, conjunction use is a language parameter whose value for a given language can range from practically always requiring overt conjunctions to practically never using conjunctions at all. But even within a given language, not all conjunctions are created equal with respect to their overt/ covert status.
More Elliptical Phenomena
Authors: Mcshane Marjorie J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Resolving syntactic ellipsis-that is, the nonexpression of syntactically obligatory categories, which has been the focus of most of the book thus far-generally begins by seeking a coreference relation between the elided category and some linguistic referent. But establishing a coreference relation does not ensure resolving reference, that is, connecting the elided category to some person, thing, or event in the real or imagined world. After all, the antecedent could itself be a pronoun or some other semantically underspecified category that requires reference resolution. Moreover, the referent need not be syntactically overt; it could be understood from the real world context.
Opercular syndrome
Authors: Rubino Dr. Frank A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this era of high technology, localization in clinical neurology is as important as ever before. First, accurate localization leads to assessment by the least number of appropriate tests. Second, localization leads to the diagnosis of a symptomatic lesion, whereas even proper testing may show other asymptomatic, nonclinically important abnormalities. Third, localization is a very important teaching tool in the education of students of neurology as they gain experience and expertise in the art of obtaining a neurologic history, performing a neurologic examination, and interpreting signs and symptoms.
Neuromyelitis optica (Devic’s disease)
Authors: Rodriguez Dr. Moses 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When this patient arrived at Mayo Clinic, she was blind, paraplegic, and in severe respiratory distress. The paraplegia had been present for more than 3 months. Her mother and husband had brought her to Mayo Clinic in hope of a cure. The clinical situation seemed ominous. On MRI, the high cervical-medullary lesion appeared to be demyelinating. The presence of the Fisher one-and-a-half syndrome provided support for this opinion, and the associated optic nerve involvement raised the suspicion specifically of Devic’s disease (neuromyelitis optica).