bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A new approach to testing materials in the NBS smoke chamber
Authors: Routley A. F. , Skipper R. S. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe standard NBS/Aminco smoke test chamber is critically examined from the point of view of repeatability and reproducibility of the apparatus itself. Individual components contributing to the overall determination are examined and suggested lines for improvement are made which should result in more consistent results. Problems associated with the presentation of results are discussed and a new approach which includes time‐weighted data is proposed. This attempts to consider the rate dependence of smoke production in one calculated figure rather than isolated observations such as maximum optical density. Utilizing the NBS/Aminco chamber, a novel procedure for determining the smoke evolution characteristics of materials has been developed which can be considered to simulate more closely the progress of thermal degradation that a material undergoes in a real fire.
Mathematical modeling of natural convection in fire—A state of the art review of the field modelling of variable density turbulent flow
Authors: Kumar S. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis review concerns the mathematical modeling of fire phenomena. The fire is treated as a head and mass source driving a fluid flow process. Combustion is not included. It deals in detail with the field modeling approach incorporating the effects of turbulence, strong buoyancy and variable density on the transport of momentum, heat and mass. For the sake of simplicity, other effects such as those due to the interactions of the above mechanisms with the wall, radiation, etc., which may be crucial to the dynamics of the fire phenomenon, are not dealt with in this review. These effects will be the subject of future work.
Raman spectroscopy in the analysis of fire gases
Authors: Alden M. , Blomqvist J. , Edner H. , Lundberg H. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractRaman scattering is a possible technique for analysing gas mixtures. In the work here described Raman scattering was used for detection of gases extracted from different model fires, where wood, polymethylmetachrylate (PMMA) and polystyrene were used as test materials. Raman spectra of gas samples from differently ventilated model fires are presented as well as the variation of O2, CO2 and CO concentrations as a function of time with an effective time constant of less than 5 s. The sensitivity of the experimental set‐up was estimated to be about 1000 ppm, but suggestions are given how to reach a detection limit of about 1 ppm. The feasibility of the technique and various ways of improving it are briefly discussed.
Heat transmission of proban®‐treated fabrics subjected to a radiant heat source
Authors: Stephenson J. E. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe apparatus described in DIN 4842 was used to measure the heat transmission of a series of Nomex, polyester–cotton, Proban®‐Treated cotton, untreated cotton and wool workwear fabrics subjected to a radiant heat source. Heat transmission was found to be dependent on the incident heat flux, fabric weight and fabric thickness. At the heat flux levels tested, 10 KJ m−2s−1 and 20 KJ m−2s−1, heat transmission was found to be largely independent of the fibre composition of the fabric when single layers of fabric were tested. The level of heat transmission was reduced by the use of multiplayer assemblies or a reflective aluminium coating, but the greatest reduction was obtained when air spaces were interposed between the fabrics. Conbinaitons of fabrics were developed which transmitted less than 205 KJ m−2s−1 during testing at incident heat flux levels of 10 KJ m−2s−1 and 20 KJ m−2s−1.
Simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) of dielectric materials
Authors: Stevens G. C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractPolymeric Dielectrics are usually chemically complex, and it is attractive to establish techniques capable of providing a general assessment of material composition and thermal behaviour. Simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) is capable of providing such an assessment and complementing flammability studies. The use of STA in both of these roles is demonstrated for a number of polymer materials used in high‐voltage cables. The materials investigated include various polyethylenes, ethylene‐copolymers and filled polyvinylchloride formulations. Fingerprint identification of materials and the influence of chemical structure and additives on thermal behaviour is discussed. In particular the influence of antimony trioxide‐chlorinated hydrocarbon flame retardants is examined. The application of STA information in guiding flammability studies is shown by example, and some potential routes for further development are also discussed.
Why it is difficult to measure the burning characteristics of materials and products
Authors: Rieber Martin 
Published: December 2004

AbstractFlammability tests are difficult because of the complexity of burning processes and of safety considerations. Experimental fires only give a partial view of the combustion process. Owing to the dynamic processes occurring in the flame, tests are very sensitive to external influences. Use, therefore, of flammability test methods should be made only with a clear understanding of what is being tested. Only officially standardized and recognized test methods should be sued.
An investigation of fire plume impingement on a horizontal ceiling. 1—Plume region
Authors: You H.‐Z. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA theoretical and experimental study of buoyant, axisymmetric, turbulent, diffusion flames is described. Measurements included profiles of mean velocity, mean temperature and mean concentrations of major species for flames having heat release rates of 1.67 and 8.51 kW. An integral model was developed and calibrated with both present and earlier measurements. Empirical constants account for flow entrainment and rates of fuel consumption. Overall, the integral model provided satisfactory predictions of bulk velocity, temperature and concentrations in both combusting and non‐combusting plumes.
An investigation of fire‐plume impingement on a horizontal ceiling. 2—Impingement and ceiling‐jet regions
Authors: You H.‐Z. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA theoretical and experimental study of ceiling flows induced by both impinging fires and weak plumes on a horizontal ceiling is presented. Measurements along a ceiling radius were made of impinging diffusion flames with heat‐release rates of 1.67 and 8.51 kW, resulting in convective and radiative ceiling‐heat fluxes, radiant heat flux to the surroundings and profiles of mean velocity, mean temperature and mean concentrations of major species. However, only ceiling heat fluxes were obtained for weak plumes of pre‐mixed flames of 0.24, 0.385 and 0.709kW. The predicted ceiling convective heat fluxes by an integral model are in good agreement with the measured values. In general, the present model also provides satisfactory predictions of flow thickness, bulk velocity, temperature and gas concentrations for both impinging fires and weak plumes.
Smoke and toxicant production during thermal degradation
Authors: Alexeeff George V. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA series of materials were tested in a radiant furnace for their production of toxicants (carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride) while concurrently measuring the weight remaining of the test specimen. In addition, the effect of sample form on toxicant production was considered for Douglas fir and polyvinyl chloride. The smoke‐exposure profile was found to be dependent on the material's form. The specimen‐irradiation time and the incident heat flux. The calculation of exposure using a Ct product based on the area under the production curve was found useful for smoke and toxicants. Concentrations of toxic gases produced were not linearly related to sample‐weight loss throughout the experiments. The influence of sample form on smoke and toxicant production was greater for Douglas fir than for polyvinyl chloride. The results indicate that in toxicity tests samples should be tested in their end‐use form and that a material's thermal properties may influence toxicity‐value calculations.
Fire‐performance of a ventilated facade insulated with a B2–classified rigid polyurethane foam
Authors: Jeffs G. M. F. , Klingelhöfer H. G. , Prager F. H. , Rosteck H. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA two‐storey test rig was used to investigate how an insulated facade would react to the impingement of a simulated room fire. In particular, whether or not a facade insulated with polyurethane foam would promote vertical flame spread. Wooden cribs weighing 40 kg were used as fire sources. One set of tests was run without any steel cladding to study the behaviour of the polyurethane foam alone. In a wall‐configuration test as well as under a conrner‐configuration one limited vertical and horizontal flame propagation were found. The degree of damage was to some extent, greater under the corner‐test conditions than with the wall tests. A ventilated facade construction with the profiled steel cladding fixed to vertical support‐work was used for the second set of tests. In order to simulate repair conditions, the outer metal cladding was completely removed from the lower 1.5 m of the facade. In Both tests a strong chimney‐effect behind the cladding was observed. This intensification of the flame impingement led to a flame spread up the top of the facade. The tests indicated that the vertical flame spread would continue unless the method of construction incorporated vertical fire stops.
Toxicity and incapacitation due to hydrogen chloride
Authors: Birky Merritt M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractHydrogen chloride is the principal product released during the combustion of poly(vinylchloride). It is classified as a sensory and pulmonary irritant. The toxicity of hydrogen chloride (HCl) has been the subject of numerous acute toxicological studies on rodents to determine the effect of HCl exposure on humans during fires. The lethality studies show that HCl destroys the upper respiratory tract and the eyes of rodents. A few of the rodent studies measured the HCl concentration required to produce incapacitation within a given short‐exposure period. These concentrations were higher than the lethal concentrations due to the fact that most deaths occur post‐exposure. The findings from rodent studies were basically confirmed by exposing non‐human primates (baboons) to high HCl concentrations for 5 min and measuring escape potential. In the baboon study, no statistical significance could be found between the time‐to‐effect parameters, failure modes and the HCl concentrations. The relevance of the baboon behavioral model and physiological response to human escape‐potential in a fire environment that contains HCl is questionable. In terms of the behavioral model, the baboons were able to carry out the escape routine with their eyes closed during the exposure. Inability to see was not considered incapacitating. Humans would have great difficulty escaping from a fire with their eyes closed. Furthermore, the baboons escaped by one simple action; jumping out. Most humans could not escape from a fire by one simple, instantaneous act. Based on the review of HCl toxicity and basic toxicological principles, elements required for the development of an appropriate animal incapacitation model for irritants are proposed. Exposure of animals to irritants, such as HCl, will only provide information on human escape impairment from fire when the animal models address the direct result of irritant effects on vision and respiratory function. Most of the preset studies measure the delayed, secondary systemic effects that produce asphyxia. Clearly, the measurement of vision or the lack of vision should be of primary importance in any irritant smoke incapacitation model.
The effect of elevated temperature on flame‐retardant treated wools and other fibers
Authors: Gordon P. G. , Logan R. I. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe limiting oxygen indices of flame‐retardant treated wools have been determined at environmental temperatures up to 380°C. As the ambient temperature increases, the LOI decreases significantly until, within the temperature range of 308°C and 325°C, it reaches a minimum value, Above 325°C, the LOI of the carbonaceous residue increases rapidly with temperature. The minimum value reached for a number of retardant treated wools was below that for untreated wool. Broadly similar behaviour is exhibited by flame‐retardant cotton, modacrylic and Nomex°, although with the latter there is no increase in oxygen index at the upper end of the temperature range studied.
Structure and radiation properties of large‐scale natural gas/air diffusion flames
Authors: Gore J. P. , Faeth G. M. , Evans D. , Pfenning D. B. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractRecent data from large‐scale turbulent natural gas/air diffusion flames (135‐210 MW) were used to evaluate analysis of flame structure and radiation properties. The conserved‐scalar formalism, in conjunction with the laminar flamelet concept, was used to predict radiative heat fluxes. The narrow‐band model considered the nonluminous gas bands of water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and carbon monoxide in the 1000‐6000mm wavelength range. Structure predictions were encouraging, with discrepancies for mean temperatures (ca200 K in the hottest portions of the flames) comparable to experimental uncertainties, due to thermocouple errors, flame disturbances from ambient winds and lifting and external expansion effects near the injector. Radiative heat flux predictions were also reasonably good, e.g. predictions based on mean scalar properties were generally 15% lower than the measurements. The findings also suggest that continuum radiation from soot is negligible for these flames.
The conflagration of two large department stores in the centre of athens
Authors: Papaioannou Kyriakos 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA conflagration of two large department stores which occurred simultaneously one night in the centre of Athens is described and the construction of buildings involved in the fire, the scenario and the fire damage assessment are given. The behaviour of structural elements during and after the fire has been studied and the causes and the mechanism of collapse of a large part of a multi‐storey concrete building analyzed.
Ignitability measurements with the cone calorimeter
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis , Parker William J. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe Cone Calorimeter is a new‐generation instrument developed primarily for making rate of heat release measurements. This instrument, containing a uniform and well‐characterized irradiance source, was also seen to be useful for making measurements of radiant ignition on materials. Data have now been collected for a wide range of illustrating the performance of similar materials in other apparatuses. Finally, for a selected material, Douglas fir particle board, a detailed comparison with an ignition model has been made.
A literature review of the chemical nature and toxicity of the decomposition products of polyethylenes
Authors: Paabo Maya , Levin Barbara C. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe literature on polyethylenes has been reviewed with an emphasis on the identification of gaseous products generated under various thermal decomposition conditions and the toxicity of those products. This review is limited to publications in English through 1984. The analytical chemical studies of the thermal decomposition products generated under vacuum, inert and oxidative experimental conditions are described. In oxidative atmosphere, which most closely simulate real fire conditions, carbon monoxide (CO) was found to be the predominant toxicant. Acrolein was another toxicant often noted in these reviewed studies. More acrolein was generated under non‐flaming than under flaming conditions. Results from seven different test procedures were considered in assessing the acute inhalation toxicity of combustion products from various polyethylene formulations. The combustion products generated from the polyethylenes studied in the non‐flaming mode appeared to be slightly more toxic than those produced in the flaming mode. In the non‐flaming mode the LC50 values ranged from 5 to 75 mg l−1. In the flaming mode the LC50 values ranged from 31 to 51 mg l−1. The toxicity of the degradation products of polyethylenes appears to be similar to that found for other common materials designed for the same end uses.
Evolution of toxic gases from burning polymeric materials in a small‐scale box model
Authors: Morikawa Tokio 
Published: December 2004

AbstractVarious polymeric materials were combusted in a small‐scale box model equipped with an air supply system to determine the evolution of toxic gases and evaluate the toxicity of the environment containing these gases. There were cases where concentrations of HCN, acrolein and formaldehyde were higher in terms of potential toxicity than that of CO. Overall experimental results indicate that small‐scale experiments are useful in evaluating combustion toxicity of materials.
Fibre mortar composites in fire conditions
Authors: Sarvaranta Leena , Mikkola Esko 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA small‐scale test series was carried out using the heating system (radiant exposure) of a cone calorimeter to detect any differences in the way different fibres affect the thermal properties of a standard mortar. The fibres were different polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, aramide, carbon or steel. Fibres affect the release of moisture from the fibre mortar material. Local pressures caused by water vaporization due to rapid heating can be decreased by incorporating fibres. Fibres have a weak insulating effect. However, use of polyacrylonitrile fibres in mortar may increase the risk to spalling under rapid thermal exposure such as fire. The moisture level in specimens is highly significant for their thermal properties and hence their fire behavior.
Bench‐scale evaluations and mechanistic studies of intumescent/fire‐protective coatings for polyvinyl chloride nitrile rubber
Authors: Pande Seetar G. , Adkins James , Williams Frederick W. , Tatem Patricia A. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe object of this study was to identify, for future large‐scale testing, and adequate fire‐protective coating for the substrate, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) nitrile rubber (MIL‐P‐15280 Rev H). Fifteen fire protective coatings which included ten intumescent, two ablatives, two fire retardants and one photon diffusive coatings were evaluated using bench‐scale thermal insults. To discern the possible mechanism(s) whereby the coatings offer fire protection, the effect of radiant heat versus the flame source employed was investigated and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the neat coatings was performed. In selected cases, the effect of coating thickness and repeatability of the results were evaluated. The differences in coating effectiveness, and the varied repeatability in three of the four cases examined, focus on the inherent complexity of intumescence, as well as on the importance of scaled‐up testing of coatings that appeared promising. Thermogravimetric analyses of the coatings indicate that two selected TGA measurements/parameters, when used in conjunction, appear useful in characterizing mechanistic differences between the less effective and more effective coatings. Based on the rigorous criterion adopted, one candidate (a water‐based intumescent coating at 100 mil (2.54 mm) thickness) appears promising for the substrate, PVC nitrile rubber. Its effectiveness is attributable to it exhibiting good insulative and re‐radiative properties and an apparent low susceptibility to crack formation.
Evaluation of laboratory gallery fire tests of conveyor belting
Authors: Mintz K. J. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractTwo mid‐scale laboratory gallery fire tests, the propane gallery and the BELT test, were constructed and evaluated. In both cases the fundamental parameter that can be used for ranking flammability of a belting is the total quantity of heat input into the sample, rather than length burned or flame‐out time. The temperature and velocity of the ventilating air used were found, experimentally and theoretically, to be critical factors in determining the results of the tests. The two tests correlated qualitatively on a pass|fail basis; however, the BELT test was affected more by the thickness of the sample: the thicker, the more probable to pass the test. The BELT test has the advantages of easier control and producing fewer pollutants. The results of BELT, propane gallery and critical oxygen index tests on some beltings are compared.
Concepts for fire protection of passenger rail transportation vehicles: Past, present, and future
Authors: Peacock Richard D. , Reneke Paul A. , Jones Walter W. , Bukowski Richard W. , Babrauskas Vytenis 
Published: December 2004

AbstractRecent advances in passenger rail transportation, fire test methods, and hazard analysis necessitate re‐examination of requirements for fire safety. Several studies have indicated nearly random ability of current bench‐scale tests to predicts actual fire behavior. Fire safety in any application, including transportation, requires a multi‐faceted approach. The effects of vehicle design, material selection, detection and suppression systems, and emergency egress and their interaction, on the overall fire safety of the passenger trains must all be considered. The strengths and weakness of current methods for measuring the fire performance of rail transportation systems are evaluated. A systems approach to fire safety which address typical passenger train fire scenatios is analyzed. A rationale is presented for the direction in which most fire science‐oriented organizations in the world are clearly headed – the use of fire hazard and fire risk assessment methods supported by measurement methods based on heat release rate.
An investigation into the effects of gravity level on rate of heat release and time to ignition
Authors: Bryant D. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractTwo experiments were performed on board an aircraft flying repeated parabolic trajectories to generate free‐fal conditions. The first experiment investigates the way in which rate of heat release (RHR) varies with gravity for a candle flame under an imposed low‐speed flow. In line with previous studies of flame spread rate it has been shown that rate of heat release drops significantly in imcrogravity. The heat loss due to radiation decreases by a larger proportion than that due to non‐radiative processes indicating a lower flame temperature. The RHR from a microgravity flame is flow rate dependent, increasing for increased flow rate at air speeds under 0.03 ms−1. For the geometry used in this experiment hypergravity caused only a small increase in RHR. The second experiment studied the ignitability of thermoplastics under an imposed radiant heat flux. The ignition test apparatus consists of a conical spiral heating element positioned horizontally above the sample, a continuous spark ignition source and a removable heat shield. Experiments were conducted in a sealed pressure chamber on samples of either PMMA or POM, 1.5 mm thick, with a ceramic backing. There is some indication that gravity influences the time to ignition for some materials.