bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
What Is Environmental Epidemiology?
Authors: Brunekreef Bert , Baker Dean , Nieuwenhuijsen Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Environmental epidemiology is a subspecialty of epidemiology, the basic science of public health. Epidemiology is the study of the distribution of health and disease in the population, and of the determinants of this distribution. Environmental epidemiology studies the effects of environmental exposures on health and disease in the population. The subject matter of environmental epidemiology is environmental health: this, in principle, covers all factors external to the human body which may affect health.
Study Design And Methods
Authors: Baker Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 reviewed the principles of epidemiology and defined classical study designs that are used in virtually all fields of epidemiology. This chapter will describe the role of these study designs in environmental epidemiology, provide examples of how these study designs have been used to investigate environmental health issues, and summarize the methods, strengths and limitations of these study designs in environmental epidemiology. Some study designs have played particularly prominent roles in environmental epidemiology, although they are not used as widely in other areas of epidemiology. Examples include the use of time-series studies and panel studies in air pollution research or the use of cluster studies to evaluate spatial patterns of environmentally related diseases. Chapter 8 will discuss the use and analysis of these special study designs.
Environmental Epidemiology In Developing Countries
Authors: Romieu Isabel , íGuez Horacio Riojas Rodr 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In developing countries, as in other parts of the world, the burden of disease due to envi- ronmental exposure is close to 24 percent [1]. However, in developing countries, this burden is a mixture of old problems, mainly related to poor sanitation and hygiene and lack of infrastructure, and new ones related to mass urbanization and the increase of industrial production without strict environmental control, leading to an increase in exposure to chemicals such as air pollutants, heavy metals, pesticides and other toxic substances.
Laser trapping of atoms
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
That the laser cooling and trapping of neutral atoms are interrelated has already been said in the introduction to Chapter 5. We shall, therefore, now consider various techniques whereby cold atoms can be trapped. All the known techniques for trapping laser-cooled neutral atoms can be classified according to a few basic methods. These basic methods are optical trapping using the forces of the electric dipole interaction between atoms and laser fields, magnetic trapping based on the use of the forces of the magnetic dipole interaction, mixed magneto-optical trapping using simultaneous interaction between atoms and magnetic and laser fields, and mixed gravitooptical and gravito-magnetic trapping. Traps for neutral atoms can have a wide variety of geometries and dimensions: (a) macroscopic traps with a size of a »λ, (b) microscopic traps with a size of a ≃λ/2, (c) various combinations of macroscopic and microscopic traps (one-, two-, and three-dimensional) in the case of optical lattices, and finally (d) nanoscopic traps with a size of a «λ/2.
Scaling responses
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having devised a set of questions using the methods outlined in the previous chapter, we must choose a method by which responses will be obtained. The choice of method is dictated, at least in part, by the nature of the question asked. For example, a question like ‘Have you ever gone to church?’ leads fairly directly to a response method consisting of two boxes, one labeled ‘Yes’ and the other ‘No’. By contrast, the question ‘How religious are you?’ does not dictate a simple two-category response, and a question like ‘Do you believe that religious instruction leads to racial prejudice?’ may require the use of more subtle and sophisticated techniques to obtain valid responses.
Generalizability theory
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We saw that there are many approaches to estimating reliability, each of which generates a different coefficient. One can examine scores from the same observer on two viewings of the same stimulus (intra-observer), different observers of the same stimulus (inter-observer), different occasions separated by a short time interval (test–retest), different items (internal consistency), different forms of the scale (parallel forms), and so on. Further, these standard measures do not exhaust the possible sources of variance. For example, some measures, such as bone density or tender- ness, might be expected to be equal on both sides of the body (left–right reliability?), and skin color might be expected to be the same on the soles of hands and feet (top–bottom reliability?).
Soft Machines
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Enthusiasts look forward to a time when tiny machines reassemble matter and process information with unparalleled power and precision. But is their vision realistic? Where is the science heading? As nanotechnology (a new technology that many believe will transform society in the next one hundred years) rises higher in the news agenda and popular consciousness, there is a real need for a book which discusses clearly the science on which this technology will be based. Whilst it is most easy to simply imagine these tiny machines as scaled-down versions of the macroscopic machines we are all familiar with, the way things behave on small scales is quite different to the way they behave on large scales. Engineering on the nanoscale will use very different principles to those we are used to in our everyday lives, and the materials used in nanotehnology will be soft and mutable, rather than hard and unyielding."Soft Machines" explains in a lively and very accessible manner why the nanoworld is so different to the macro-world which we are all familiar with. Why does nature engineer things in the way it does, and how can we learn to use these unfamiliar principles to create valuable new materials and artefacts which will have a profound effect on medicine, electronics, energy and the environment in the twenty-first century. With a firmer understanding of the likely relationship between nanotechnology and nature itself, we can gain a much clearer notion of what dangers this powerful technology may potentially pose, as well as come to realise that nanotechnology will have more in common with biology than with conventional engineering.
Looking at the nanoworld
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The nanoworld was not invented by Richard Feynman or K. Eric Drexler. Long before the idea of nanotechnology was devised and the word coined, technologies and processes that humans depended on relied on the manipulation of matter at the nanoscale, even if the way these technologies produced their effects were not fully understood at the time. Take the invention of Indian ink by the ancient Egyptians or the discovery of how to make soap; both of these long-established materials undoubtedly rely on nanotechnology in the broad sense, and if these inventions were being made today then their inventors would no doubt be stressing their nanotechnological credentials as they attempted to raise capital for their start-up companies. What makes it possible to think of the nanoworld as a new realm of matter that we can explore and control is the availability of instruments that allow us to see into that realm. It only became possible to appreciate the vast extent of the universe beyond the Earth after the telescope had been discovered. So it is, that the invention of new microscopes, capable of picking out the details of the world on scales smaller than a micron, has enabled us to appreciate the scope of the nanoworld. Seeing is believing.
Wetware: chemical computing from bacteria to brains
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The connection between electricity and the way our brains and nervous systems work was made Jong ago. The Italian scientist Galvani famously made a dissected frog’s leg twitch by connecting a battery to it, and the idea that you can somehow jump-start a nervous system back into life by applying electricity to it irreversibly entered popular western culture in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Thus, when the first electronic calculating machines—computers—were developed in the 1940s it was only too natural to think of them as analogues to our own nervous systems—’electronic brains’. As computers have become embedded in our everyday lives, it becomes even more difficult to avoid making analogies between the brain and computers. Yet these analogies are profoundly misleading. Yes, the action of both brains and computers both involve electricity in some way. But whereas, as we have seen, the action of a computer is based on the transport of electrons through materials, in nervous systems what moves are not electrons, but ions—whole, charged atoms and molecules. The mechanism by which these ions move around in their watery environment is nothing to do with the intrinsically quantum mechanical movement of electrons in semiconductors. Instead, at the heart of these mechanisms are the nowfamiliar companions of the wet nanoworld, Brownian motion and conformational change. The basic elements of logic in living creatures arc molecules, and the way information is moved around is not by the ghostly quantum mechanisms underlying electronic transport, but by the very physical movement of molecules, driven by that ever-present Brownian motion.
Single-molecule electronics
Authors: Jones Richard A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I recently went to a seminar by a distinguished chemist about an aspect of his work on nano-materials. At the end of the seminar, in response to a question, he began musing about why biology never seemed to use electron transport— as we saw in the last chapter, biological electrical phenomena are dominated by the movement of ions. ‘Of course, biology doesn’t use electrons, for the same reason that you shouldn’t use a toaster in the bath’, I thought to myself, but I was too polite to say anything so sarcastic. Which was just as well, because I soon realised that there was a lot more to this question than the simple incompatibility of electricity and water.
The manifold nature of interpersonal relations: the quest for a common mechanism
Authors: Gallese Vittorio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been proposed that the capacity to code the ‘like me’ analogy between self and others constitutes a basic prerequisite and a starting point for social cognition. It is by means of this self/other equivalence that meaningful social bonds can be established, that we can recognize others as similar to us, that imitation can take place.
Fluorescence spectroscopy of immobilized single molecules: examples
Authors: Gell Chris , Brockwell David , Smith Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The time for which a freely diffusing single molecule can be observed is obviously limited by the dimensions of the confocal (detection) volume and the rate at which molecules of interest pass through it. However, as we have seen even given these restrictions fluctuation spectroscopy allows kinetic processes to be studied using the straightforward free-diffusion approach that is unlikely to perturb the analyte. Longer-term observation of kinetic processes, such as protein folding trajectories and enzyme catalysis however, can only be facilitated by immobilizing the molecules in some way.
Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programmes
Authors: Drummond Michael E , Sculpher Mark J , Torrance George W , O’Brien Bernie J , Stoddart Greg L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The highly successful textbook Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care is now available in its third edition. Over the years it has become the standard textbook in the field world-wide. It mirrors the huge expansion of the field of economic evaluation in health care. This new edition builds on the strengths of previous editions being clearly written in a style accessible to a wide readership. Key methodological principles are outlined using a critical appraisal checklist that can be applied to any published study. The methodological features of the basic forms of analysis are then explained in more detail with special emphasis of the latest views on productivity costs, the characterization of uncertainty and the concept of net benefit. The book has been greatly revised and expanded especially concerning analyzing patient-level data and decision-analytic modeling. There is discussion of new methodological approaches, including cost effectiveness acceptability curves, net benefit regression, probalistic sensitivity analysis and value of information analysis. There is an expanded chapter on the use of economic evaluation, including discussion of the use of cost-effectiveness thresholds, equity considerations and the transferability of economic data. This new edition is required for anyone commissioning, undertaking or using economic evaluations in health care, and will be popular with health service professionals, health economists, pharmacists and health care decision makers. It is especially relevant for those taking pharmacoeconomics courses.
Conducting Judgment Studies: Some Methodological Issues
Authors: Rosenthal Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the focus of this chapter is on nonverbal behavior in the affective sciences, the basic principles described apply to any context in which judgment studies are conducted. The term ‘judgment studies’ refers most generally to those studies in which behaviors, persons, objects, or concepts are evaluated by one or more judges, raters, coders, or categorizers, referred to collectively as ‘judges’.
Some Mathematical Tools For Nonsteady Equations
Authors: Novotný A , Straškraba I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with several auxiliary results from functional analysis which are broadly used when we treat nonstationary problems in Chapter 7. In the first section we discuss several properties of weakly continuous functions, time and space mollifiers and local weak compactness in unbounded domains. Finally, in the second section, we investigate various properties of the renormalized solutions to the nonstationary continuity equation.
Testing the Models
Authors: Hawley John F , Holcomb Katherine A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Current observations show that the universe is consistent with the cosmological principle; on the largest scales it is truly homogeneous and isotropic. We know that the universe is expanding; its scale is increasing with time. Because the universe is isotropic and homogeneous, we can characterize that increase in scale by a scale factor R that is a function only of time. A model of the universe is a description of this function. The models are derived from the most basic set of assumptions: general relativity describes the behavior of gravity on the large scale, and the universe conforms to the cosmological principle.
The arithmetic of knots
Authors: Gilbert N D , Porter T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Analogy is a very powerful logical tool. When two different types of situation seem to be running parallel from certain viewpoints, one can try to see if the similar behaviour extends further to give new insight into the different structures. Of course it is as important to notice where the analogy fails as to follow those situations where it works. A basic analogy used in knot theory is that the sum of oriented knots behaves very much like the product of natural numbers; hence the title of this chapter.
Applications of the Van Kampen theorem
Authors: Gilbert N D , Porter T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having got the Van Kampen theorem, how are we to apply it? As with any result, before we try to apply it to a given example, we must check that the conditions necessary for the theorem to hold are satisfied in that example. In order to apply the Van Kampen theorem, the parts into which we divide our space must be open and path connected. As we will see, this sometimes requires an adjust¬ment to the obvious choice of decomposition. Initially we will give nearly all the details of this necessary adjustment, but later on we will leave such details increasingly up to you.
Introduction
Authors: Sloan I H , Joe S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is concerned with a class of methods, called lattice methods, for the numerical evaluation of multiple integrals. Multiple integrals occur in a great variety of practical applications. Very often there are just two or three integration variables (in which case the integral is said to be two dimensional or three-dimensional). For low-dimensional problems of this kind, the traditional methods summarized later in this chapter are generally satisfactory and lattice methods probably have little to offer.
Lattice rules
Authors: Sloan I H , Joe S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A reader whose principal interest lies in applications can turn at any time to the algorithmic development in Chapter 10. Important practical material on the nonlinear transformations usually needed to push typical integrands into a suitable form for the application of lattice rules is given in Section 2.12. Key theoretical definitions are in Sections 2.6-2.8 and 3.2. And even the busiest reader is advised to undertake the following brief tour of lattice rules. Section 2.3 sets out the plan of this book.
Lattice rules-other topics
Authors: Sloan I H , Joe S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this section we seek an explicit expression for the number of distinct lattice rules of a given order N. Note that rules that are geometrically equivalent (in the sense of Section 2.13) but not identical are counted separately here. It would make sense to ask also for the number of geometrically inequivalent rules of a given order N, but no expression for this (smaller) number is yet known.
Representation Theory of Analytic Holonomy C*-algebras
Authors: Ashtekar Abhay , Lewandowski Jerzy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Integral calculus on the space 𝒜 / 𝒢 of gauge-equivalent connections is developed. Loops, knots, links, and graphs feature prominently in this description. The framework is well suited for quantization of diffeomorphism-invariant theories of connections.
Strings, Loops, Knots, and Gauge Fields
Authors: Baez John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The loop representation of quantum gravity has many formal resemblances to a background-free string theory. In fact, its origins lie in attempts to treat the string theory of hadrons as an approximation to QCD, in which the strings represent flux tubes of the gauge field. A heuristic path-integral approach indicates a duality between background-free string theories and generally covariant gauge theories, with the loop transform relating the two. We review progress towards making this duality rigorous in three examples: 2d Yang- Mills theory (which, while not generally covariant, has symmetry under all area-preserving transformations), 3d quantum gravity, and 4d quantum gravity. SU(N) Yang-Mills theory in 2 dimensions has been given a string-theoretic interpretation in the large-N limit, but here we provide an exact string-theoretic interpretation of the theory on R x S1 for finite N. The string-theoretic interpretation of quantum gravity in 3 dimensions gives rise to conjectures about integrals on the moduli space of flat connections, while in 4 dimensions there may be relationships to the theory of 2-tangles.
Basic Theory
Authors: Dassios George , Kleinman Ralph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An acoustic wave in an irrotational, homogeneous, isotropic, compressible fluid medium is characterized by a variation in the ambient pressure field. This variation is called the excess acoustic pressure field, and is denoted by U(r, t), a scalar function of position r = (x 1, x 2, x 3) and time. The excess pressure is measured in units of force per unit area. The velocity of propagation of an acoustic wave is denoted by V(r, t), a vector valued function of position and time.
Integral Representations and Scattering Theorems
Authors: Dassios George , Kleinman Ralph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If u represents the scattered pressure field which satisfies the radiation condition, then a standard procedure (Colton and Kress 1983), wherein Green's second identity is applied to the functions u(r') and G + (r, r') in the domain V +\B(r, ε) and subsequently letting ε → 0 leads to the integral representation for the scattered field u which holds for all r and the left-hand side vanishes in V -.
Integral Equations
Authors: Dassios George , Kleinman Ralph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapters 3-5 it was shown how the problems of determining the coefficients in the low frequency expansion of the field quantities in acoustics and electromagnetics could be formulated as standard problems for Laplace’s equation while in elastodynamics the terms could be found as solutions of standard problems for the static Navier equation. Techniques for solving these boundary value and transmission problems have been central to the study of partial differential equations in mathematical physics for more than a hundred years. In recent years they have served as the benchmark problems for numerical approaches such as finite element methods. It is not intended to discuss these methods here nor do we presume to suggest references. There are hundreds of texts and thousands of papers on the subject and it is inconceivable that any reader who has progressed to this stage of the present work would not be familiar with many of them. An alternative to differential equation based methods are integral equation techniques. This chapter is devoted to a presentation of the integral equation formulation of each of the problems discussed in Chapters 3, 4 and 5. There are many excellent books on integral equations. Among them we refer to Kress (1989), which is tightly connected to scattering theory and Zabreyko et al. (1975) which is a reference book.
The Sphere
Authors: Dassios George , Kleinman Ralph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we present explicit results for low frequency scattering by a sphere of radius a. All the results, whether or not known before, have been rederived using techniques among those developed in Chapters 3 to 6. After all the results are given for plane wave incidence along x 3 axis in acoustics, electromagnetics and elasticity, we present some results for point source incidence in acoustics.
The Formal Theory Of Reactions
Authors: Fröbrich P , Lipperheide R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The formal theory of potential scattering developed in the preceding chapter can immediately be generalized to a formal theory of reactions. We recall that in potential scattering a plane-wave state with the initial momentum k makes a transition to a plane-wave state with the final momentum k’. Since energy is conserved, only the direction of the momentum changes. For a general reaction the definition of the initial and final states requires more than the specification of only their relative momenta. Additional quantum numbers are needed to characterize the internal states of the collision partners, which may be excited and gain or lose nucleons as a result of their mutual interaction. Nevertheless, the formalism of potential scattering carries over to nuclear reactions in general if the state labels a and b are understood to include these additional degrees of freedom.