bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Vinyl Chloride
Authors: Cowfer Joseph A. , Gorensek Maximilian B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA brief history of the commercial development of vinyl chloride, tabulation of its physical properties, discussion of its chemical reactions, detailed descriptions of the component processes currently used for its production, economic aspects, uses, toxicity and handling precautions, and purity standards are given. Chemical reactions that vinyl chloride undergoes include polymerization, substitution at the carbon–chlorine bond, oxidation, addition, photochemistry, and pyrolysis. Important manufacturing methods are described with emphasis on the balanced process based on ethylene and chlorine feedstocks. Component processes of direct chlorination, oxychlorination, and pyrolysis of the intermediate 1,2‐dichloroethane (EDC) are described in terms of their reaction mechanisms, operating conditions, conversions and yields, and overall process integration. Oxychlorination technology comparisons are made between processes involving either fixed‐ or fluidized‐bed reactors and either air or oxygen feeds. Intermediate 1,2‐dichloroethane purification requirements are described as are by‐product handling and disposal and environmental considerations. Technology trends are also briefly discussed. Economic aspects given include production and cost of vinyl chloride monomer, a listing of U.S. producers, and current worldwide capacity. Quality standards are also presented, along with toxicity and handling precautions.
Vinyl Alcohol Polymers
Authors: Marten F. L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPoly(vinyl alcohol) is a highly crystalline polyhydroxy polymer produced by the hydrolysis of poly(vinyl acetate) because the vinyl alcohol monomer is not available. The polymer is water‐soluble and possesses excellent tensile strength, abrasion resistance, and superior oxygen‐barrier properties. PVA has excellent emulsification and protective colloid properties. Solvent, oil, and grease resistance are matched by few other polymers.Poly(vinyl alcohol) undergoes chemical reactions in a manner similar to other secondary polyhydroxy alcohols, and is fully biodegradable. The polymer is considered a nonhazardous material according to the American Standard for Precautionary Labeling of Hazardous Industrial Chemicals.Industrial applications of poly(vinyl alcohol) are all based on and limited by the use of water solutions. The polymer is not considered thermoplastic as the degradation temperature is below the melting point.Poly(vinyl alcohol) is commercially available in granular and powdered form. Grades include both fully hydrolyzed and partially hydrolyzed products. A wide variety of molecular weight and hydrolysis is commercially available.Major end uses include textile sizing, adhesives, protective colloid for emulsion polymerization, paper coating, cement and mortar additive, poly(vinyl butyral), fibers, and films.
Vinyl Chloride Polymers
Authors: Summers James W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPVC has a large sales volume, second only to polyethylene. Its high chlorine content provides it with a high level of combustion resistance for building products, electrical enclosures, and wire and cable insulation. PVC has a unique ability to be compounded with a wide variety of additives, making it possible to produce materials in a range from flexible elastomers (the first thermoplastic elastomers) to rigid compounds, materials that are weatherable such as for siding and windows, compounds that have stiff melts and little elastic recovery for outstanding dimensional control useful in profile extrusion, or low viscosity melts which compete effectively with ABS and PC/ABS in thin‐walled injection molding parts such as computer monitor housings.Some PVC properties are attributed to unique morphology. The polymer precipitates from its monomer and grows into primary particles, which are later the melt flow units. Fusion into larger structures and product strength are controlled by breakdown of the grains into primary particles, by choice of additives, by amount of melting (temperature), and by number of tie molecules (molecular weight).The main type of polymerization is the suspension process, with significant polymerization made by the mass, solution, microsuspension, and emulsion processes. In the suspension process, the polymerization takes place in droplets of monomer suspended in water. From an environmental viewpoint, PVC is over 50% chlorine and as a result, is one of the most energy‐efficient polymers. PVC is an inherent flame retardant, and acts as a marker, enabling automated equipment to sort PVC containers from other plastics in the waste stream. Vinyl is recycled by at least 170 recyclers in the United States and Canada and more than 3,500 communities accept vinyl products in their recycling programs. The analysis from 155 large‐scale, commercial incinerator facilities found no relationship between the chlorine content of waste nor the addition of PVC, and dioxin emissions from combustion processes. New requirements from the U.S. EPA make scrubbers mandatory on all incinerators and are necessary whether or not PVC is present in the waste feed.
Vinylidene Chloride Polymers
Authors: Wessling R. A. , Gibbs D. S. , Obi B. E. , Beyer D.E. , DeLassus P. T. , Howell B. A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractVinylidene chloride is a versatile monomer used primarily for making Vinylidene chloride copolymers. These copolymers are mostly used in food packaging to provide a good barrier‐to‐mass transport. Most applications rely on the low permeation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. However, the polymers have also been shown to have good barrier to flavors and aromas. Thus, a barrier layer of one of these copolymers in a package structure not only prevents spoilage of the food item but prevents flavor “scalping” on the supermarket shelf. These copolymers are available in three forms. First, the resin for extrusion into film or sheet represents the largest segment. This segment includes monolayer and coextruded film and coextruded sheet. Second, a number of emulsion resins are used for solution applications. A thin layer is coated onto a substrate. Third, copolymer latexes are used for paper coatings, etc. The coatings from solution or latex dry clear. Vinylidene chloride homopolymer does not have commercial application because its melting temperature is too high to permit extrusion without degradation, and it does not dissolve in a suitable solvent for coating.
Vitamin A
Authors: Van Arnum Susan D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAn overview of the history of vitamin A is presented from its use in ancient times to structural elucidation in the 1930s. A description of commercially important retinoids and carotenoids is given. Owing to the presence of an extended polyene chain, the physical and chemical properties of these compounds are dominated by this feature and these characteristics are discussed. The current industrial syntheses of vitamin A as well as the syntheses of β‐carotene are compared and contrasted. A common element to the industrial preparation of vitamin A is that these processes have a common intermediate β‐ionone. Their differences lie in methodology to elaborate the side chain and in methods of preparation of β‐ionone. Biological aspects of vitamin A and β‐carotene in animal and plant systems are reviewed as well as important dietary sources of these substances. Analytical methodology is presented.
Vitamin E
Authors: Casani Robert 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA brief history of the vitamin from its discovery to the present is given. An overview of synthetic approaches to vitamin E is presented starting with the original work in the late 1930s. A review of the literature indicates emphasis on the development of the synthesis of the trimethylhydroquinone intermediate and of the critical condensation reaction to tocopherol. The occurrence of vitamin E and compounds with vitamin E activity in natural sources along with the isolation of natural forms of vitamin E from vegetable oil sources has been summarized. The greater prevalence of compounds with vitamin E activity in vegetable sources compared to animal sources is shown. A brief review of the physiological role of vitamin E is given. In addition to research on its historical role in reproduction, a discussion of recent activity on the antioxidant properties is presented. The uses and commercial forms of vitamin E are discussed. Its role in animal feed fortification, food preservation, and polymer applications is summarized. The traditional colorimetric analysis for vitamin E in foods, feeds, and product forms is reviewed. More modern chromatographic methods for various sample matrices are presented.
Vitamin B12
Authors: Scott John W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractVitamin B12is the generic name for a closely related group of substances of microbial origin. The compounds are octahedral cobalt corrin complexes varying primarily in one axial ligand. Vitamin B12functions as coenzyme in a number of rearrangement reactions, as well as in the methylation of homocysteine to methionine. A total synthesis of cyanocobalamin has been achieved. Commercial production, however, is entirely by fermentation of species such asPseudomonas dentrificans.
Wastes, Industrial
Authors: Eckenfelder W. Wesley 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Wastewater management is discussed in detail. A spectrum of parameters and characterization of wastewater is covered. Wastewater treatments include minimization of waste as a primary measure, followed by chemical and biological treatments. These treatments include equalization, neutralization, removal of oil and grease, suspended solids removal, heavy metals, removal of volatile organics, stripping, sorption, biodegradation, and nutrient removal. Alternative biological treatments include lagoon and aerated lagoons, activated sludge, fixed‐film processes, rotating biological contactors, and anaerobic treatment. Also given is information on advanced wastewater treatments, ie, chemical oxidation and adsorption, sludge handling, and disposal. A section on storm‐water control concludes the article.
Waste Treatment, Hazardous Waste
Authors: Kocurek Dianna S. , Woodside Gayle 
Published: July 2004

AbstractKocurek, Dianna S. (Tischler/Kocurek); Woodside, Gayle (IBM Corp.). The treatment of a particular hazardous waste often involves the integration of a number of unit processes to develop a comprehensive treatment system. This article gives a brief overview of the most common unit processes used for the treatment of hazardous wastes and discusses, as appropriate, how these unit processes are typically combined. Unit processes in this article are divided into three general categories: physical–chemical, biological, and thermal processes. Soil and ground water treatment technologies are presented as a fourth section and include only those technologies that are unique to these media or that are innovative or emerging technologies used most frequently with these media.Physical–chemical processes include air stripping, carbon adsorption, chemical oxidation, dissolved air flotation, distillation, evaporation, ion exchange, membrane filtration, neutralization, oil–water separation, oxidation and reduction, precipitation, sedimentation–clarification, solvent extraction, stabilization–solidification, steam stripping, supercritical fluid extraction, supercritical water oxidation, and wet air oxidation. Biological treatment focuses on the biodegradability of different compounds and the most widely used technology for organic wastewaters, activated sludge. Thermal processes include catalytic oxidation, fluidized beds, liquid injection, multiple hearth furnaces, rotary kilns, and thermal desorption. Soil and ground water treatment technologies include bioremediation (in situandex situ), electrokinetics, in situ air stripping, pump and treat, soil flushing, soil leaching, soil vapor extraction, soil washing, and vitrification. Vol. 25, pp. 284–324, 79 references to August 1996.
Nuclear Reactors, Waste Management
Authors: Murray Raymond L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe sources, treatment, storage and transport, and disposal of nuclear wastes are presented. Regulations are provided by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The principal sources of waste from nuclear reactors are fission products and neutron activation products. Many treatment methods are available to reduce waste volume whether it involves management of spent fuel or low level waste. Most spent fuel is stored in water pools at reactor sites, awaiting completion of a repository. Dry storage is an alternative. Disposal by deep burial is planned for spent fuel, and by enhanced confinement near the surface for low level waste. Site characterization is being carried out. Isolation of waste from the public is essential. The future of nuclear power depends in part on successful waste disposal. Vol. 17, pp. 466–478, 38 refs. through November 1994.
Nuclear Reactors, Water Chemistry of Lightwater Reactors
Authors: Hicks Jack H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractWater chemistry is an important factor in the safe and reliable operation of both pressurized water reactors and boiling water reactors used to generate electric power in the United States. The chemistry parameters for normal power operation for the PWR primary water and secondary water and for the BWR reactor water and reactor feedwater/condensate are presented and discussed. Significant experiences with water chemistry and materials and operations are presented. Sources of radioisotopes that have an impact on some of the radiation concerns are listed. Water chemistry has a large impact on the economic considerations of the plants.
Water, Waterproofing and Water/Oil Repellency
Authors: Howells Richard D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe general principles by which certain long‐chain nonpolar hydrocarbon/waxes, silicones, and fluorochemicals can provide water and oil repellency by lowering the surface energy of a substrate are described. Common applications are in the areas of textiles, leather, paper and paperboard, concrete and masonry, and wood. The focus is on materials that act as surface treatments rather than on constructions where impermeable materials are laminated or otherwise attached to a water‐ or oil‐receptive surface. Major suppliers of the surface treatments, chemical types, and test methods used for measuring performance are given.
Welding
Authors: Bowers Randy J. , Graff Karl F. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Welding and its allied processes represent a fabrication technology of extremely broad scope for metals and, increasingly, nonmetals. Common arc‐welding processes include shielded‐metal arc, gas–metal arc, flux‐cored arc, submerged arc, plasma arc, and gas–tungsten arc welding. Specific power supply and atmospheric shielding characteristics are associated with each of these processes. Laser and electron beam, oxyfuel–gas, resistance, electroslag, and friction are welding processes that do not use an electric arc. Brazing, soldering, plastics joining, and adhesive bonding are technologies allied to welding. The metallurgy of welding processes involves considerations of heat flow and solidification, as well as of the structure and properties of the metals being welded. Selection of welding‐process parameters is based on the particular weldability characteristics associated with major alloy groups, including steel, stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, titanium, copper, and refractory metals. Design for welding includes joint and weld types, residual stress, and distortion. Industry specifications discuss testing requirements for welds, limits on welding discontinuities, and safety.
Wine
Authors: Singleton Vernon L. , Butzke Christian E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractWithout qualifying terms, both legally and commonly, the word wine designates grape (particularlyVitis vinifera) juice fermented into an alcoholic beverage. There are many reasons to believe that grape‐growing and winemaking were among the causes and not just an effect of the development of nonnomadic agriculture and therefore of civilization in the Near East. By ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman times wine production was well known and it was associated with religion, the arts, and good living, an association maintained since then. Study of wines and their fermentation have been instrumental in the initial development of microbiology, biochemistry, stereochemistry, statistical sensory analysis, etc.Wine production is large and economically important, involving more than 8 × 106hectares of vineyard producing annually about 60 × 106metric tons of grapes, and about 26 × 109liters of wine (about 5 L for every human). About 24% of the world's wine is produced by Italy, 21% by France, 10% by Spain, and 6% by the United States (90%+ of that in California). Consumption is high in the major producing countries (except the United States); however, there has been excess production of the less‐than‐premium wines, depressing the world market and the economies of the producing countries. Premium wines, however, remain in demand and are an important source of not only trade, but also cultural exchange.There are many classes, subtypes, and styles of wine distinguished by the grapes used, the fermentation procedure, further processing, etc. Examples include white and red table wines, sparkling wines, fortified wines, oxidized types, eg, sherries, and flavored types, eg, vermouths. Gross composition covers the typical range of 7–21% alcohol, 0–20% fermentable sugar, 0–1 g/L anthocyanins, 0 to well over 3.92 g/L of CO2, and 0.1–1 g/L of tannins and other phenols, mainly flavonoids. Specific components are crucial to certain wines, eg, terpenoids for those from muscat varieties. To examine them, detailed chemical analysis by such techniques as gas–liquid and high performance liquid chromatographies are required, but sensory analysis remains very important as well.Every aspect of wine production and marketing is governed by regulation, which may differ among countries, states, and even counties. The U.S. agency of greatest importance is the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) of the Treasury Department, which validates good commercial practices and healthfulness, specifies limits, restricts components and treatments, provides for authentication, and levies taxes.
Wood
Authors: Durbak Irene , Green David W. , Highley Terry L. , Howard James L. , McKeever David B. , Miller Regis B. , Pettersen Roger C. , Rowell Roger M. , Simpson William T. , Skog Kenneth E. , White Robert H. , Winandy Jerrold E. , Zerbe John I. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractWood touches lives in many ways, from the paper we use to chemicals, such as acetic acid and methanol. Wood is an amazing resource and is renewable as well. This article covers many characteristics of wood and its products. Wood is either hardwood or softwood (angiosperm or gymnosperm) and is made of firmly bonded cells. The anatomical structure affects all characteristics. Wood is made of lignin and carbohydrates, along with minor amounts of other organic chemicals and minerals. Wood is highly hygroscopic. The adsorption and desorption of moisture causes wood to swell and shrink, respectively. Wood has unique physical properties, such as strength and stiffness, that are related to its density. Wood is subject to deterioration, caused by temperature, time, moisture, and/or organisms. Wood can be fire retardant treated to reduce the surface burning characteristics and the heat release rate. Organisms such as fungi, bacteria, insects, and marine borers can attack wood. Various strategies control these attacks, including chemical treatment and preservatives, optimum conditions, and physical barriers. Wood is used to produce lumber, manufactured and composite products, pulp and paper, charcoal, chemical compounds, fuel, and much more. These products support many industries that together contribute greatly to the U.S. gross domestic product.
Xanthene Dyes
Authors: Wight Paul 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe structure and properties of xanthene dyes are discussed. The dyes are classified according to their chemical structure as well as their application class, and the properties are related to the structural features. The uses of the important xanthene dyes are given, both historically and for recent developments. Uses of xanthenes in high technology applications are reported.The synthesis of xanthenes is summarized, giving an outline of the manufacturing processes for commercially important dyes such as Rhodamine B, Rhodamine 6G, eosine, and uranine. The toxicology and economic aspects of the common dyes is reported.
Xylenes and Ethylbenzene
Authors: Cannella William J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article reviews the properties, commercial manufacturing aspects, and uses of the three xylene isomers, ie,o‐xylene,m‐xylene, andp‐xylene, and the ethylbenzene present in mixed xylene streams. Chemical reactions discussed are migration of the alkyl groups, including 1,2 intramolecular shifts and transalkylation; reactions of the alkyl groups, including oxidation, polycondensation, and ammoxidation; reactions of the aromatic ring; and complex formation. Aspects of commercial manufacture that are covered include initial production of mixed xylenes; separation processes used to produce high purityp‐xylene,o‐xylene, andm‐xylene; and xylene isomerization processes. Catalytic reforming and toluene disproportionation/transalkylation are the primary mixed xylene production routes discussed. The xylene isomer separation processes of crystallization, adsorption, and complex formation are described. The commercially important xylene isomerization processes are reviewed. Worldwide production data for the three xylene isomers and ethylbenzene are presented along with a list of the U.S. producers and their production capacities. Analytical techniques and important health and safety factors are also summarized.