bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Remediation and Bioremediation of Selenium‐Contaminated Waters
Authors: Higashi Richard M. , Cassel Teresa A. , Skorupa Joseph P. , Fan Teresa W.‐M. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Selenium (Se) is a trace element that occurs naturally in soils, water, biota, and food. It is nutritionally required, but Se in excess is toxic to aquatic‐associated wildlife such as fish and birds. Exposure to Se primarily occurs through the diet, not by direct exposure to water; therefore it is vital to account for the “biogeochemistry” of Se—the complex paths by which it moves from contaminated water up the foodweb. As a consequence, waterborne Se is an inappropriate focus for remediation, and this entry illustrates how such a focus can inadvertently misguide major remediation efforts. In fact, there is no fixed “target concentration” for remediation to achieve, as universally accepted water or tissue threshold concentrations for the protection of wildlife are likely to remain controversial for some time to come. This can stymie the traditional remediation strategies of containment, removal, or treatment. One approach to Se remediation that functions under changing regulatory limits is mitigation of wildlife impacts through “alternative” and “compensation” habitats. Also, strategies that take advantage of the natural biogeochemistry, such as algal volatilization of Se, may provide cost‐effective management of contaminated water; however, this approach must be combined with foodweb interruption to prevent Se bioaccumulation.
Oil Pollution
Authors: Ketkar Kusum W. , Chair Rajiv Gandhi 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe word oil refers to hydrocarbons—crude oil, gasoline, heating oil, fuel oil, diesel, jet fuel, and other refined oil‐based products. Oil pollution refers to input of hydrocarbons into a water body, either on the surface of the earth or underground. Oil may directly enter surface water bodies like ponds, rivers, streams, and oceans, and it may leach into underground water. Recognizing that moving water cleans itself, oil pollution occurs when more oil enters water than natural, physical, and chemical processes can absorb it.Accidental oil spills by oil tankers are only one of many causes of oil pollution, but they attract a lot of media attention. Media attention is justified because accidents spill a lot of oil in a short period of time. For example, oil tankerExxon Valdezspilled 11 million gallons of crude oil in Prince William Sound, Alaska, in 1989. In addition to accidental oil spills, oil may enter marine environment through natural seepage, off‐shore oil drilling, illegal disposal of waste water containing oil from tankers, tank barges and other vessels, land‐based petrochemical industrial complexes, runoff containing oil from roads, oil‐contaminated stormwater, and sludge from municipalities and numerous other land‐based activities. Initially, oil‐contaminated water may enter local streams, rivers, lakes, or ponds, but ultimately it is dumped into the oceans. According to Oceana, 80% of oil dumped into the sea is from inland operators, of which 44% is the result of direct dumping or coastal drainage 33% is transported through the atmosphere, and the remaining 20% comes from accidental or deliberate spills from vessels and marine facilities (see Fig. 1) (1).
Salmonella: Monitoring and Detection in Drinking Water
Authors: Purohit Hemant J. , Kapley Atya 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSalmonellaare known to be etiological agents for typhoid fever, salmonellosis, and gastrointestinal infections, and are spread by water‐ and foodborne infections in humans and animals. Detection of the causative organism is important to control the spread of disease. Here, we review the methods for detection ofSalmonellain water samples.
Trace Metal Speciation
Authors: Lead Jamie R. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Trace metals may be defined as those metals whose concentration is low enough so that their presence exerts a negligible influence on the overall chemistry of a water body. They can be contrasted with major ions that are present in sufficient amounts to affect the chemistry of the system. Major metal ions include the alkali and alkaline earth metals (Na, K, Ca, Mg) and perhaps Al, Fe, and Mn. Although there is no strict definition of a “trace metal,” we usually consider the transition metals, certain metalloids, and lanthanides. Radioactive elements are often considered separately. The potential effects on ecological and human health created by a certain number of trace metals mean that these metals are of particular importance and are the subject of intensive study. The effects of these metals may often be deleterious, but many metals are also micronutrients. In no order, some of the most important and most investigated trace metals are chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), tin (Sn), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb).
Water Quality Management in a Forested Landscape
Authors: Williams Thomas M. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractForested watersheds produce the highest quality water of any land use. High rates of infiltration prevent surface runoff in most undisturbed temperate forests, resulting in little suspended sediment or dissolved nutrients in streams of forested areas. Suspended sediment from poorly designed logging, especially improperly located or constructed haul roads, is the most important cause of water quality impairment caused by management of forested watersheds. Using best management practices decreases the amount of sediment caused by logging or site preparation by 90%. Occasionally, dissolved nitrate‐nitrogen can be found at elevated levels. Generally, elevated nitrate has been found on soils with large amounts of soil organic nitrogen in cool climates where growth of the new forest is not rapid. Air pollution may also contribute to elevated nitrate in streams where nitrogen deposition is high.
Water Quality Management in the
U
.
S
.: History of Water Regulation
Authors: Alum Absar 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
One of the hallmarks of the last century is increased public awareness of water quality, which has been augmented by plummeting water quality and steadily increasing population. Though water has historically been considered a commodity free for all, in the recent past, water quality and quantity have emerged as the bases of major conflicts on local, regional, national, and international levels. Under the new paradigm, water is perceived as a marketable commodity. Like any marketable commodity, the quality of water is dictated by the type of usage and is valued based on market laws of supply and demand. In the United States, it is estimated that one acre‐foot of water used in agriculture and industry would generate revenue of $400 and $400,000, respectively. In the United States, the water quality management program has evolved over several decades. Based on the area of use and type of water, the history of water quality management can be divided into drinking water and wastewater regulations. Early legislation focused on ensuring the appropriate quality of drinking water, whereas the emergence of wastewater management is relatively new. Developing and implementing water quality standards and criteria achieve the appropriate quality of finished drinking water and reclaimed wastewater.
Road Salt
Authors: Eric Benbow M. , Merritt Richard W. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractRoad salt used for roadway and walkway deicing is typically sodium chloride (NaCl). The crystalline structure of NaCl lowers the freezing point of water during ice removal and prevention. Less commonly used, and more expensive, alternatives are inorganic salts containing chloride or calcium magnesium acetate (a mixture of calcium and magnesium acetates). The increased costs of these deicer alternatives dictate that, at present, NaCl is the most economical and practical agent for winter snow and ice removal. However, the impacts of NaCl on environmental resources are a concern and are understudied for many aquatic ecosystem parameters. Short‐term toxicity studies have shown that both mortality and nonlethal effects among aquatic zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, and fish are highly variable, species‐dependent, and related to test conditions. Larger scale and longer term studies that evaluate complex community and ecosystem level responses are needed for a better understanding of the effects of deicing agents in nature.
Harvesting Rainwater
Authors: Keremane Ganesh B. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Humankind's most serious challenge now might not be war or hunger or disease or even the collapse of civic order; it may be the lack of freshwater that justifies the present scenario that freshwater is a scarce resource. Although it is the commonest and the most critical stuff on the earth, water has been always an undervalued resource. For all our basic vital needs, a major portion of the water is drawn from less than 1% of the readily accessible part of the world's freshwater resources, thus making it a scarce resource. The prevailing water scarcity experienced in most of the arid and semiarid regions of the world can be attributed to high water stress and unsustainable rates of withdrawal. The trend toward irrigating farmland is responsible for much of the pressure on water supply, but poor water management and conservation practices have also contributed to the decline in the quality and availability of water. These are the reasons that water is a scarce resource in many parts of the world, mostly in the developing world. With widely available evidence of the crisis, rudimentary conservation measures, application of new technology, and sensible conservation practices could do much to stabilize water withdrawals. Harvesting rainwater is one technology.
Water Markets in
I
ndia: Economic and Institutional Aspects
Authors: Diwakara Halanaik 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
In India, where property rights to both surface and groundwater are ambiguous, informal selling and buying are popping up in different parts of the country. The illegal water markets are prominent because of the profit from the sale of water for nonagricultural purposes. There are no legal instruments to limit the volume of groundwater extracted, which has resulted in negative economic effects on groundwater irrigation in different parts of India. In the absence of marginal cost pricing, the true value of water is not reflected. Water is increasingly becoming a scarce resource, so water markets could be an important means of reallocating the resources to high value use. To this end, there is a dire need for suitable water laws to define property rights, regulate the volume of water extracted, implement marginal cost pricing for electricity and water, set well‐spacing norms, and promote self‐governing institutions for collective action to achieve sustainable use of resources.
Lessons from the Rising Caspian
Authors: Zonn Igor S. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The Caspian Sea is the biggest inland body of water in the world. Its surface area is roughly equivalent to the combined area of the Netherlands and Germany (about 400,000 km
2
, or 144,000 mi
2
). The surface water inflow into the sea is formed by the flow of the Volga, Ural, Terek, Sulak, Samur, and Kura Rivers, and small Caucasian and Iranian rivers. The watershed area of the Caspian Sea is 3.5 million square kilometers. The basin of the Volga River makes up nearly 40% of the territory of the catchment of the Caspian Sea, and it supplies about 80% of the total volume of annual water flow into the sea. All components of the Caspian ecosystem, directly or indirectly, to a greater or lesser extent, are influenced by river flow.
Reaching Out: Public Education and Community Involvement in Groundwater Protection
Authors: Nelson Jennifer 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Throughout its existence, The Groundwater Foundation (TGF) has identified public education and community involvement as vital ingredients to successful groundwater protection activities. TGF is an international nonprofit organization based in Lincoln, Nebraska, with a mission to educate and motivate the public to care about and for groundwater. Groundwater provides drinking water to nearly half of the U.S. population (1) and is critical for other economic uses such as irrigation, agriculture, and industry. Unfortunately, because it is a hidden resource, the general public knows comparatively little about groundwater or how to protect it. Providing education to stakeholders about the value of groundwater is an excellent way to illustrate how individual and group decisions and activities can have a direct impact on the quality and quantity of local groundwater resources.
Ecoregions: A Spatial Framework for Environmental Management
Authors: Salequzzaman Md. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Ecoregionization is a process of delineating and classifying ecologically distinctive areas of ecological land. Each area can be viewed as a discrete system that has resulted from the mesh and interplay of the geologic, landform, soil, vegetative, climatic, wildlife, water, and human factors where ecological functions and processes are continuing. The dominance of any one or more of these factors varies with the given ecological land unit. This holistic approach to land classification can be applied incrementally on a scale‐related basis from site‐specific ecosystems to very broad ecosystems (1). Ecological processes, evolutionary mechanisms, and geological forces are continually reshaping landscapes across various scales of time and space and result in distinctive but dynamic ecoregions. All of the world's food and most medicines and raw materials are derived from these processes and associated biodiversity. Thus ecoregions gain their identity through spatial differences in a combination of landscape characteristics. Several factors such as topography, hydrology, and nutrients are important to identify these characteristics that may vary from one place to another in an ecoregion.
Best Management Practices for Water Resources
Authors: Almasri Mohammad N. , Kaluarachchi Jagath J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThere is growing consciousness that water resources are susceptible to contamination from domestic, industrial, and agricultural wastes. The quality of water has become a major issue since the detection of many hazardous‐waste sites in the late 1970s. Sources of water contamination are widespread and include accidental spills, landfills, storage tanks, pipelines, agricultural activities, and many other sources. Of these sources, agriculture‐related activities produce nonpoint source pollution in small to large watersheds, especially due to nitrogen in fertilizers and various carcinogenic substances found in pesticides. Best management practices (BMPs) developed to protect the quality of water resources in agriculturally dominated areas are improvements in agricultural practices and land use patterns. Improving agricultural practices focuses on tillage practices, crop rotation, rational fertilizer and manure applications and timing, vegetation cover, and irrigation management. Land use changes include reevaluation of land use distribution and changes in the land use in areas that are vulnerable to contamination. BMPs for water resources are affordable, practical, and effective methods for minimizing the movement of contaminants from the ground surface to groundwater or surface waterbodies. BMPs assure sustainable use of water resources while minimizing the economic and social negative consequences. Due to its high mobility, nitrate is the primary nitrogen species lost from soils by leaching. Groundwater contamination by nitrate has been confirmed all over the world. Agricultural activities are the main source of nitrate pollution of groundwater resources. This study focuses on the development of BMPs to protect groundwater resources from nitrate pollution due to agriculture.
Landfill
Authors: Philp Jim 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
All countries rely to a greater or lesser degree on landfilling to dispose of the huge quantities of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated. For example, the United Kingdom has traditionally relied very heavily on landfilling of MSW as it has a relatively poor recycling infrastructure compared with some other European countries. The United Kingdom produces roughly 28 million tons of MSW per annum, of which about 80% is landfilled. Only some 12% is recycled and about 8% incinerated with energy recovery. Moreover, the amount of waste being generated is growing some 3–4% per annum.
Globally, landfilling has had a checkered history, and poor practice in design and operation of landfills has led to serious environmental problems. With regard to the threats to water bodies, the production of landfill leachate is by far the most significant. Liquid leachate develops at a site when its water holding capacity is exceeded. If the site is unlined, the leachate makes its way off‐site to groundwater or to a surface water body and can cause drastic water pollution.
Molecular Biology Tools for Monitoring Biodiversity in Wastewater Treatment Plants
Authors: Ciric Lena , Whiteley Andy , Philp Jim 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe group of organisms most directly associated with wastewater treatment is bacteria. They dominate all other groups, both in numbers and biomass, and lead to mineralization and elimination of organic and inorganic compounds (1). Therefore, it seems a natural progression to study the biodiversity and ecology of these organisms in relation to wastewater treatment.
Waste Treatment in Fish Farms
Authors: Brinker Alexander , Bergheim Asbjorn 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The removal of waste from aquaculture facilities presents both technical and management problems. Aquaculture effluents are generally very diluted and expensive to treat, and effluent loads are themselves a potential resource that should be recycled rather than wasted.
A multitude of technologies are available for the treatment and recycling of fish farm wastes. General information is provided on various methods for treating aquacultural effluents, ranging from the traditional to the technologically sophisticated and innovative. The suitability of the various treatments for different types of aquaculture, including intensive and to some extent semi‐intensive fish farms, is addressed. The potentials and limitations of the different techniques with respect to variable farm characteristics are discussed.
Radioactive Waste
Authors: Crocker James 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Radioactive contamination as it relates to drinking water and other water sources is explained. Radioactivity may come from natural or manmade sources. Natural processes include production of tritium in Earth's upper atmosphere and transport to the ground via rainwater. When Earth's crust was formed, other radionuclides were formed, including uranium, strontium, and radium. Manmade sources of radioactivity potentially include water effluent from nuclear facilities, medical sources, and nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons testing. Specific regulations used in the United States and general guidelines from the World Health Organization governing radioactive release limits are listed. Specific radionuclides of concern in water sources include uranium, radium, radon, strontium, and tritium. Treatment technologies to remove these contaminants to acceptable release limits are outlined. Treatment technologies ordinarily used for drinking water treatment remove most of the radioactive contamination in water sources, if such contamination is present. These technologies include membrane filtration processes, such as reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and electrodialysis; air stripping, carried out in tray towers, bubble columns, or packed columns; chemical precipitation; lime softening; ion exchange; and activated carbon treatment.
Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment
Authors: Hulshoff Pol Look 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAnaerobic digestion is a natural process in which different microorganisms of the biological kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea work together to convert organic compounds through a variety of intermediates into biogas, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide and small amounts of hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen. This ancient process, brought about by living species long before the presence of oxygen in the atmosphere, is presently gaining an increased interest because of its potential in the treatment of solid organic waste, sludge, and wastewater.
Nitrification in the Activated Sludge Process
Authors: Gerardi Michael H. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

There are two reduced forms of nitrogen that are of concern to wastewater treatment plant operators and state and federal regulatory agencies. These forms contain hydrogen and consist of nonionized ammonia or ammonia (NH
3
) and ionized ammonia or ammonium ion (NH
4
+
). Although ammonia and ammonium ions are both present in wastewater, the amount of each is dependent on the pH of the wastewater.
Sewerage Odors—How to Control
Authors: Striebig Bradley A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Odors result from the perception of chemicals by the olfactory system. The response to odorants present in the air depends on the odor concentration, intensity, persistence, and character. Most sewerage odors are formed under anaerobic conditions; typical odorants include hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, ammonia, amines, and volatile fatty acids.
The concentration of organic materials and nutrients in the sewerage, sulfate concentrations, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and residence time in the sewer system affect odor emissions. Control methods may be designed to prevent odors or control them from exhausted air. Oxygen and other chemical additives have been employed to reduce odors from sewers and wastewater treatment facilities. The additives reduce hydrogen sulfide emissions by chemical oxidation, microbial inhibition of sulfate reduction, precipitation, and pH control.
If odor prevention is not cost‐effective, various odor control technologies are capable of removing odorous compounds exhausted from confined sources. The most common technologies for treating sewer‐related odors are carbon adsorption, biofiltration, absorption, ozonation, and thermal oxidation. The cost associated with the control technologies, both capital and operational costs, must be considered. Research, experience, and comprehensive testing programs are important for determining the most cost‐effective odor control methods.