bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Daily Herald, 1911–1914
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 14 April 1912 at 10.25 p.m. New York time, the 46,382 ton flagship of the White Star line on her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York collided with an iceberg in mid-Atlantic at or near latitude 41 46., longitude 50 14., North Atlantic Ocean, and early on the following morning foundered with the loss of over 1,300 passengers and crew. The sinking of RMS Titanic, one of the greatest maritime disasters of the twentieth century, occurred on the very day that a new Daily Herald was published in Britain.
The Great War Years, 1914–1919
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 5 August 1914 the Daily Herald carried a short and utterly bleak headline on its front page: ‘ENGLAND AND GERMANY AT WAR’. Underneath it was the official government statement: ‘His Majesty’s Ambassador to Berlin has received his passports, and His Majesty’s Government declared to the German Government that a state of war exists between Great Britain and Germany as from 11 p.m. on August 4th’.
‘Poplarism’, 1921–1928
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 29 July 1921, preceded by a drum-and-fife band, George Lansbury and twenty nine Labour councillors-including Charlie Sumner, the deputy mayor, with mace bearer-headed a procession of over two thousand supporters the five miles from Poplar town hall to the Law Courts. Among the various banners, carried to explain their case to thousands of spectators lining the route, the largest one on that historic march proclaimed proudly and in defiance: ‘POPLAR BOROUGH COUNCIL, MARCH ING TO THE HIGH COURT, AND POSSIBLY TO PRISON, TO SECURE THE EQUALISATION OF RATES FOR POOR BOROUGHS’.
First Labour Government, 1924
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 22 January 1924 King George V made a famous observation in his diary on the first occasion he asked Ramsay MacDonald to form a government: ‘Today 23 years ago dear Grandmama died. I wonder what she would have thought of a Labour Government!’ His note reflected the panic and despondency in governing circles in this country in 1924 at the prospect of a Socialist administration full of revolution aries led by a Prime Minister who had never held even junior ministerial office. Cautiously, MacDonald chose moderate Labour politicians and trade unionists in assembling his first Cabinet, including as well some former Liberals and Conservative peers. However, there was no place in the first Labour Cabinet in Britain for George Lansbury, the most prominent representative of the political Left in 1924.
Backbench Rebel, 1925–1927
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Saturday 1 May 1926 over 800 delegates, representing more than 140 unions, gathered at a Special Conference of Trade Union Executives at the Memorial Hall in London. On that celebrated May Day they voted overwhelmingly by 3,653,529 to 49,911 to empower the TUC to call a national shut-down if the coal owners’ lock-out of almost 1 million British miners did not end within two days. On 3 May, the General Strike of 1926-the most famous industrial conflict in twentieth-century Britain-started at one minute to midnight. Over 1.5 million ‘first-line’ workers in transport, printing, iron and steel, power, building, and chemicals answered the TUC General Council’s summons to halt work.
Party Leader: Domestic Politics, 1931–1933
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general election of 1931 was the greatest electoral landslide in twentieth-century political history and by far Labour’s greatest defeat. The National government secured 67 per cent of the poll and a gargantuan total of 554 out of 615 seats. Only a rump of forty-six Labour MPs remained to survey the parliamentary scene. To cap ture the dramatic election result, two people were photographed scaling a pair of colossal ladders outside the main office of a daily newspaper. The National government figure had virtually disappeared from sight high in the sky while his Labour opponent was barely off the first rung.
Pacifism, 1935–1940
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Following his resignation as Labour leader after the Brighton party conference, George Lansbury was convinced that his association with the Labour party was over and that he would never hold any kind of office in the national organization again. Financially, he was in desperate straits and needed his son, Bill, to help clear up his election expenses with a temporary loan of £100. ‘I can’t ask the party for money. I am really finished with them. Most of the men and women at the centre have never accepted me as leader and have just used my influence with the masses for their own ends,’ he claimed bitterly to his son. Deserted by faithful followers at Brighton, Lansbury was scathing and contemptuous about ‘the loyalty of that little band’ of friends and supporters who in the end had ‘fallen in with the top dogs’, as well as those who opposed him in the leadership crisis.
Home and Family, 1881–1940
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The important part played in the public careers of prominent politicians by their families is often given little attention by historians, unless perhaps close scrutiny reveals scandal or similar indiscretion. Even then, it is the public figure that pre dominates, rather than the private life of the subject. In many memoirs and biographies, the male politician’s wife and family remain ‘hidden from history’. Rarely are the women forward and centre-stage.
George Lansbury’s Legacies
Authors: Shepherd John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After George Lansbury’s death, tributes world wide poured in-letters, telegrams, and messages-so numerous it was impossible for his family to acknowledge them individually. At Westminster, the debate on the Nazi invasion of Norway was interrupted for Neville Chamberlain, in one of his last acts as Prime Minister, to pay an official tribute to Lansbury’s contribution to parliamentary life-particularly his leadership of HM Opposition in 1931-5. Clem Attlee followed with the perfect accolade: ‘He was a great Londoner and a great Englishman and a Socialist who practised and preached the brotherhood of man. He was a sincere and devoted Christian who strove to follow in the footsteps of his Master.’
Gentlemen And Tarpaulins
Authors: Davies J D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first scholarly study of the Royal Navy during the reigns of Charles II and James II. Historians have long viewed the Restoration Navy through the eyes of Samuel Pepys, the greatest diarist and naval administrator of the age. Perceptive and intelligent as Pepys was, he presented only a one-sided view of the Navy, that of a bureaucrat attempting to reorganize it. J. D. Davies assesses this traditional picture of the Restoration Navy in the light of recent scholarship, using the evidence not only of Pepys but of his contemporaries. He examines the reactions of naval personnel to the demands imposed by Pepys, and analyses the structure of the service. He also explores the lives and attitudes of the men (the `tarpaulins') and their officers - the quests for promotion, enrichment, and glory; the very different problems posed by peace and war; the nature of life at sea; and the role of the Navy in national life. Gentlemen and Tarpaulins provides a fascinating glimpse into the history of the Royal Navy.
The Officers: Recruitment And Promotion
Authors: Davies J D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given the complex patchwork of ranks and posts held by officers of the Restoration navy, and the variety of authorities by which they held those offices, it was inevitable that the system for acquiring them and advancing through them would be an intricate one, with many loopholes and anomalies. There was no naval ‘career pattern’ per se. As far as the commissioned officers were concerned, there were two common routes by which to attain !hat status. The older system involved entry into the service at an early age, often 9 or 10, as a captain’s or other officer’s servant, rising through various petty and warrant posts. This system was regulated in 1662-3, transforming such servants into apprentices indentured for seven years, rather than merely being covenanted for each voyage.
Thseeamen
Authors: Davies J D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many respects, the manning of the navy was one of the most difficult administrative tasks which a seventeenth-century government could undertake: as Sir William Coventry once noted, ‘the greatest difficulty & vexation in a warrc is the manning of ships’. In wartime, up to 25,000 men had to be brought into naval service within a mat ter of a few weeks, got to the fleet, and retained for the duration of the campaign, all without disrupting the trade of the nation to an unacceptable degree.
Religion
Authors: Davies J D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Augustan polemicists, seeking the origins of what they perceived as the moral shortcomings of the navy of their own day, often contrasted the state of religious observance in the interregnum and Restoration navies, believing that the infectious libertinism of the court had transformed the latter into something ‘more like the suburbs of Hell than a Christian navy’. Whether the interregnum navy was really the bulwark of godliness which later pamphleteers claimed it to be is debatable; even so, it seems likely that the Restoration naval seaman was little more or less immoral, drunken, blasphemous, and ignorant in religious matters than his predecessors or successors.
The Restoration
Authors: Davies J D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the 1650s, the navy seemed to have become one of the bastions of the republican state. Many of its officers and men held advanced religious or political views, and were therefore well qualified to carry out the primary task of the unprecedentedly powerful fleet, namely the defence of the regime against the Stuarts and their potential foreign backers. Yet by May 1660, the same fleet was prepared to bring the Stuarts back to England with every outward show of compliance, and even enthusiasm, ‘with pendants loose, guns roaring, caps flying, and the loud Vive 1c Roy’s echoed from one ship’s company to another…’.
The Tiiird Dutch War
Authors: Davies J D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The war of 1664-7 had been supported, at least at its outset, by a broad consensus of opinion, which embraced the belligerent attitudes of the most influential sea-officers. The disasters of that war deflated the optimism even of some of the anti-Dutch ‘hawks’, however, and less unanimity was apparent at the outbreak of the third war in 1672. Deep divisions in public opinion, and widespread opposition to the French alliance created by the treaty of Dover of 1670, were evident, and these sentiments were reflected in the navy.
Confrontation and defeat
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN the summer of 1789 Heinrich Steffens was a sixteen-year-old schoolboy living in Copenhagen. He heard that the Bastille had fallen from his father, an army surgeon down on his luck, who tearfully told him, ‘You are to be envied-what beautiful, happy times lie ahead.’ And so, Heinrich later recalled, ‘I was pulled from the quiet solitude of childhood.’ Long after he had become disillusioned with the revolution, Steffens remembered his initial enthusiasm as ‘something pure, even sacred’. Johanna Schopen- hauer, the young wife of a wealthy businessman, learned about the Bastille when her husband rushed home to their suburban villa near Danzig with the news. Like Steffens, Schopenhauer was drawn into the world of politics by the events of 1789. From then on, she wrote in her memoirs, a new life, filled with unprecedented hopes for total change throughout the world, surged inside me Perhaps only a few of my contemporaries will immediately recall this event, but after a moment they too will bring to mind the burning enthusiasm and that sublime, reckless sense of Freedom which inflamed the sensibility of the noblest youth.
Growth and Stagnation in German Society
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Friedrich Engels (1820-95) was born and reared in Barmen, a fast-growing industrial city on the Wupper River, a few miles east of Diisseldorf. The Engels family had lived in the region since the sixteenth century, first as farmers, then as successful textile manufacturers. Like many of their neighbours, they were pious Calvinists, who combined commercial acuity with intense religiosity. But the Engels were also part of an economic network that extended far beyond the Wuppertal; their search for raw materials, markets, and capital led them to the Low Countries, Britain, and overseas. In 1837 Engels’s father opened a spinning mill in Manchester, the epicentre of the new industrial order. Here young Friedrich, after several false starts on a career closer to home, took a position in 1842. His observations of Manchester and its labour force were the basis for an influential book, The Condition of the Working Class in England, first published in 1845, and for his own life-long commitment to improving the conditions of working people.
The Cultural Establishment and its Critics
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Franz Kugler, a merchant’s son from Stettin, established his scholarly reputation with influential works on Greek sculpture, European painting, and Prussian history. In 1835, when he was just twenty-seven, he became a professor at the Academy of Art in Berlin; eight years later he took charge of artistic affairs in the Prussian Ministry of Culture. In 1847 Kugler wrote an essay on art as an administrative concern in which he called for a series of state-initiated cultural programmes, including the creation of art schools, passage of copyright laws, establishment of awards for creative achievement, construction of museums and monuments, and the renovation or preservation of important historical buildings. ‘Just as science is designed to make people spiritually free,’ Kugler argued, ‘art gives them the mark of spiritual nobility. Therefore since one of the government’s duties is to further and direct the education of the Volk, this duty must include art as well as science.’ But, while Kugler saw the need for state initiative in the promotion of art, he also recognized that another, no less powerful force was at work; in addition to being an object of ‘administrative concern’, art was also an object of what he called ‘mercantile speculation’. Kugler found nothing wrong with this: ‘a fresh, mobile commerce’ belonged to a well-developed national existence and had its place in the realm of artistic production. But Kugler, like many German liberals, feared that commerce might lead to chaos and corruption, so he advocated a variety of governmental measures to preserve art’s purity and honour from ‘the remorseless drive of speculation’.The state and the market, the two fundamental forces at work in nineteenth-century social development, provided the institutional matrix for nineteenth-century culture.
Society in the Age of the Bürgertum
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Germans do not have a theory of society, Lorenz von Stein wrote in 1842, because in Germany ‘the life of society and the struggle of its elements have not yet begun to develop independently’. Shortly thereafter Karl Marx made the same point when he explained German ‘ideology’ in terms of his society’s fundamental backwardness. But even as these theorists noted German underdevelopment, the social order was in the process of transformation. By the 1850s the concept of society-and the fact of social change-were part of the German scene. In 1851, for example, Robert von Mohl insisted that the autonomy of social forces made it necessary to study them outside the political realm. That same year Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl described ‘the emancipation of the idea of society from the despotism of the idea of the state’ as ‘the most genuine property of the present age, the source of a thousand conflicts and discontents, but also the hope of our political future’. This viewpoint was not universally accepted: political theorists like Heinrich von Treitschke regarded any effort to separate state and society as intellectually flawed and politically dangerous. Nevertheless, to radicals like Marx, liberals like Mohl, and conservatives like Riehl, the centrality of social forces was an inescapable fact oflife.
In Memoriam: Dr John Fletcher (1934-1996)
Authors: Denley Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unexpectedly on Good Friday, 5 April 1996, Dr John Fletcher died of a heart attack in the sixty-first year of his life. As colleagues and friends our sense of loss is only matched by our sense of gratitude for the many good things we owe him. John was a very active member of the Editorial Board of History of Universities, of the International Commission for the History of Universities, and of course of the international community of university historians. We shall remember him as an engaging colleague who possessed great dedication to his research and seemingly boundless energy, and who was forthright in expressing his ideas. He often pushed the proffered microphone aside in meetings: his natural voice carried the message unaided by technology. The continuing bibliography on all aspects of the history of universities was his brainchild and he invested an inordinate amount of time in the project. The idea was launched in the context of the International Commission. Members were annually asked to be on the look-out for publications in their own countries and to send appropriate notifications of these to John Fletcher. Between 1974 and 1981 he edited these lists of publications on the history of European universities in separate booklets. In 1988 he resumed this work: within the context of History of Universities. ‘ After a hiatus which reflects the great loss which his death represents, the Commission and the journal are establishing a mechanism for the continuance of the bibliography in both printed and electronic form.
Rewriting History? the Parisian Secular Masters ‘ Apologia of 1254
Authors: Traver A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In February 1254, the University of Paris promulgated a tract addressed to all the prelates of Christendom but more specifically aimed at influential university graduates who had been promoted to higher ecclesiastical dignities. This document summarizes, through the eyes of the secular masters of theology, the University ‘s relationship with the mendicant orders from their incorporation into the University of Paris until the early 1250s. Although often taken at face value by historians, it contains assertions which contradict prima facie certain known facts. Some contemporaries denounced the perceived discrepancies: the Master General of the Dominicans, Humbert of Romans, referred to it as a ‘letter of rare untruth and infamy ‘ . His confrere, Thomas of Cantimpre, simply dismissed it as plenas mendaciis-a pack of lies. Modern historians have likewise expressed their reservations about the letter ‘s veracity. One of the topics disputed by them, on the basis of this apologia, concerns both the exact number of magisterial chairs present within the theological faculty in 1254 and the percentage of these chairs held by the regular clergy. The 1254 letter reveals not only a subjective and selective version of recent history by the seculars, but also a dramatic shift in university strategy vis a vis the mendicant orders. When faced both with the rapid encroachments of the friars upon time honored academic procedures and the seemingly pro-mendicant policies of Pope Innocent IV (1243-54), the University set aside its traditional papal alliance and began to court the support of the secular clergy outside of the university milieu.
University Officers and the Universities ‘ Institutional Crisis: Caen (1450-1549)*
Authors: Roy Lyse 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
University officers have held little interest for historians of the university. Since they were not scholars, these officers were doubtless perceived as incidental to the corporate organisation and as lacking in influence upon the institution ‘s structure. My own research into the University of Caen, however, has revealed a different picture. The presence within the university of a privileged group of non-academics caused major and recurring conflicts with urban authorities throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. These clashes provided the parlementaires with the opportunity to meddle in the affairs of the institution and to subjugate it to their author ity.2 The study of this constituent segment of the university corporation allows us to understand better the studium/regnum relations during this period of institutional crisis. Since Charles VII ‘s reign, the State no longer tolerated the presence of a large autonomous body within its realm. Public authorities interfered more and more in universities ‘ internal affairs. Ultimately, universities lost some of their autonomy, their privileges were violated, and they were subjected to the examination of local parlements, which forced reforms upon them. Academics saw their ecclesiastical benefices threatened by local ecclesiastical powers and their fiscal and judicial privileges were infringed upon by local civil powers. However, in this conflictual situation, the officers of the university also played a crucial role that has to be examined. This article examines the nature and extent of the conflicts arising between the city of Caen and the University from 1450 to 1549, and highlights the role of university officers in their institution ‘s loss of autonomy. The research was made possible thanks to the availability of the many rich documentary sources of the University of Caen, most notably its register and minutes of the general assemblies.
Estate Management, Maps and Map-making in Oxford and Cambridge 1580-1640*
Authors: Bendall Sarah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What part did the universities and colleges of Oxford and Cambridge play in the early years of making manuscript estate maps in England? These colleges formed a group of educated landowners, who participated in the lively sixteenth-century land market and added former monastic lands to their holdings. They held estates across England and Wales and land was a vital source of income: the extent of a college ‘s landholdings was an indication of its wealth or poverty. Besides being major landowners, the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge might be expected to have contributed to carto graphic developments as they were the places in the country that provided the highest level of education, where there was considerable interest in mathematics, geography and maps. It is thus instructive to examine the extent to which the colleges patronized land surveyors and commissioned maps, the uses to which plans were put, and instances when maps were not drawn. Comparison of the two universities enables each to be seen in a wider context. Many men in sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Cambridge owned maps. One was Laurence Hitchcock BA, pensioner of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, who died in 1573 and left ‘a mappe of the whole world ‘ and four other maps together with five legal works and those of Cicero and Sallust. ‘ Hitchcock was one of those book owners whose probate inventories were presented in the Vice-Chancellor ‘s court between 1535 and 1601, over one-quarter of whom owned maps. About three-quarters of these people owned one or two maps; under one-quarter owned more than four. Among the map-owners were booksellers, clergymen and junior members, but the majority (77 per cent) were fellows or masters of colleges, or incumbents of Regius chairs. Some owned maps to help in particular studies; others used their maps as a form of decoration .