bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Poincare´ Recurrences
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Poincar´e recurrences, or simply recurrences, are one of the most important notions for kinetic theory and dynamical analysis of random-like motion. For a long time after the famous discussion between Boltzmann and Zermelo recurrences did not play any serious constructive role in the study of dynamical systems. The situation has drastically changed in recent decades after developing new tools for time series analysis and for kinetic description of non-linear systems with chaotic dynamics.
Fractal Time
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fractal time can be considered as one of the most important concepts in the description of fractal properties of chaotic dynamics. One can consider any time series as a set of samples tjimbedded into one-dimensional space and determine the box or Hausdorfic dimension of the set. The notion of fractal time was coined in Berger and Mandelbrot (1963) to characterize transmission in telephone networks. Some time later the notion of fractal time was linked to the intrinsic structure of the set tjand the so-called Bernoulli scaling and Weierstrass random walk (Montroll and Shlesinger (1984); Shlesinger and Hughes (1981); Shlesinger (1988)).
Renormalization Group of Kinetics (RGK)
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters we discussed in detail how the dynamics forms a specific topology of phase space, which leads to self-similar patterns in time and phase space. The existence of scaling properties in the space-time behaviour makes it possible to apply the renormalization group approach which we call Renormalization Group of Kinetics (RGK).
Fractional Kinetic Equation: Solutions and Modifications
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This section presents mainly technical material on how to operate with the fractional kinetic equation. We provide only some preliminary information addressing details in special literature (see the book by Podlubny (1999) and references therein). There are three different approaches to the solutions of FKE: series, Fourier–Laplace transform, and separation of variables. We consider a simplifiled form of them with respect to some simple models (Note 18.1).
Complexity and Entropy of Dynamics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to the extension of notions of entropy and complexity of Hamiltonian dynamics that can be chaotic or pseudochaotic. We have partly set out this discussion in Section 4.5, but for strongly intermittent motions of Hamiltonian systems, we need more specific details of trajectories to perform the entropy analysis. The notion of complexity has a rigorous meaning and it presents a quantity that characterizes systems and that can be measured. In an oversimplified way, one can say that the less predictable a system is, the larger the complexity that should be assigned to the system. The original version of the complexity of dynamics was closely linked to the system’s instability and entropy (Kolmogorov and Tikhomirov (1959), Tikhomirov (1963), Bowen (1973)). A typical situation of the chaotic dynamics could be associated with a positive Kolmogorov–Sinai entropy, or be similar to the Anosov-type systems (Sections 4.5 and 4.6). This type of randomness and complexity of the systems can be characterized by the exponential divergence of trajectories in phase space.
Chaos and Foundation of Statistical Mechanics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is a chapter dedicated to a very special topic of theoretical physics and statistical mechanics: the role of chaos in the foundation of laws of statistical mechanics. Any kind of a physical object, particle, or field can be described by the corresponding equations, Newton equation, Maxwell equations, etc. These equations are reversible in time and fully deterministic, i.e. there exists a unique solution (trajectory) at any time instant t &gt; 0 if some initial conditions are given at t = 0. How, when, and why can an ensemble of a large number of such objects be described in a statistical or probabilistic way, with time irreversible equations, growth of entropy, relaxation to the equilibrium, and other features of the kinetics? The question implies two sides of the problem: one formal and one real.
Advection by Point Vortices
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A system of point vortices is a specific type of flow with singularities at the points of the vortices location. Being an exact solution of the Euler equation, a set of point vortices is a convenient model to study different problems of fluid dynamics and turbulence. Such types of models occur in other areas of physics: condensed matter, statistical physics, plasma physics, oceanography, meteorology, etc. Advection of tracers by point vortices is an important and constructive way for the resolution and diagnostic of the vortices states. At the same time, systems with point vortices present a special and interesting types of Hamiltonian dynamics as well as dynamics of advected particles. In this chapter we demonstrate how the fractional kinetics and anomalous transport appear for advection of tracers and vortices (Note 24.1).
Subcortical Brain Mechanisms In Speech Motor Control
Authors: Murdoch Bruce E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Speech production requires smooth coordination of orofacial, laryngeal, and respiratory muscles. Clinical data indicate that initiation and precise execution of articulatory movements depend upon the integrity of various neural subsystems involving both cortical and subcortical structures, such as the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, the basal ganglia, and the cerebellum. It is well established that neurological disorders considered to be attributable primarily to lesions involving subcortical structures such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum are frequently associated with the occurrence of motor speech disorders (Darley et al. 1975; Murdoch 1998).
The Differential Diagnosis Of Apraxia Of Speech
Authors: Mcneil Malcolm R , Pratt Sheila R , Fossett Tepanta R D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of apraxia of speech (AOS) has received renewed interest in the past 5 or 6 years, as evidenced by several large critical reviews (McNeil et al. 1997, 2000; Code 1998; Ballard et al. 2000; Miller 2000). This interest was preceded by earlier description (e.g. Itoh et al. 1979; Katz 1987; Odell et al. 1990, 1991), experimentation (e.g. Monoi et al. 1983) and hypotheses about the nature of AOS (e.g. Darley et al. 1975; Kelso and Tuller 1981; Wertz et al. 1984) and has been expressed in a recent flurry of theoretical formulations (van der Merwe 1997; Dogil and Mayer 1998; Whiteside and Varley 1998; Rogers and Storkel 1999; Miller 2002; Ziegler 2002, 2003a, b; Ballard et al. 2003). These formulations follow a history, encompassing 30 years and more, of perceptual, acoustic and physiologic descriptions of AOS, and comparisons to other similar populations.
Excitons In Conjugated Polymers
Authors: Barford William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of excitons in conjugated polymers has often been inspired by the treatment of excitons in bulk three-dimensional semiconductors (as described in Knox (1963)). A particle-hole excitation from the valence band to the conduction band in a semiconductor leaves a positively charged hole in the valence band and a negatively charged electron in the conduction band. The Coulomb attraction between these particles results in bound states, or exactions. In three-dimensional semiconductors the excitons are usually weakly bound, with large particle-hole separations, and are well described by a hydrogenic model. Excitons in this limit are known as Mott-Wannierexcitons.
The epidemic in India
Authors: Gupta Prakash C , Ray Cecily S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tobacco was introduced in India during the late sixteenth-century into the kingdom of Adil Shah, with its capital at Bijapur, presently in Karnataka. The Ambassador of the Mogul Emperor Akbar in Delhi, after a visit to Bijapur, brought for him tobacco and jewel-encrusted European style pipes. The appreciation at court was marred only by the Emperor’s physicians who forbade him to inhale the smoke, since tobacco was an unknown substance. A compromise was reached wherein the smoke was to be first passed through water for purification, resulting in invention of hookah. Hookah smoking became popular in parts of India where a strong Mogul influence prevailed; it was especially favoured among the aristocratic and elite classes, mainly in North India. Ornately crafted in engraved silver, brass, or other precious materials and decorated with enamel or jewels, the hookah became a status symbol. Paintings of the Mogul period show both men and women smoking hookahs.
The future worldwide health effects of current smoking patterns
Authors: Peto Richard , Lopez Alan D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Worldwide, there are only two or three major causes of death whose effects are now increasing rapidly: tobacco and HIV (and, perhaps, obesity). If current smoking patterns persist, there will be about 1 billion deaths from tobacco during the twenty-first century, as against ‘only’ about 0.1 billion (100 million) during the whole of the twentieth century. About half of these deaths will be in middle age (35-69) rather than old age-and, those killed by tobacco in middle age lose, on average, more than 20 years of non-smoker life expectancy (Box A). First, the world population in middle and old age will increase. Second, the proportion of the deaths in middle and old age that is caused by tobacco will increase substantially over the next few decades, due to the delayed effects of the large increase in cigarette smoking among young adults over the past few decades (Doll et al. 1994; Peto et al. 1994, 1999; Murray and Lopez 1996; World Health Organization 1996, 1997). Among cigarette smokers,
Tobacco and women
Authors: Amos Amanda , Mackay Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Smoking is still seen mainly as a male problem, since in most countries smoking prevalence is lower among women than men. Yet, it is currently estimated that there are already about 200 million women in the world who smoke, and in addition, there are others who chew tobacco (WHO 1999). Approximately 15% of women in developed countries and 8% of women in developing countries smoke, but because most women live in developing countries, there are numerically more women smokers in developing countries. Unless effective, comprehensive and sustained initiatives are implemented to reduce smoking uptake among young women and increase cessation rates among women, the prevalence of female smoking in developed and developing countries could rise to 20% by 2025 (Lopez A., personal communication 1997).
Laryngeal cancer
Authors: Boffetta Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
More than 160 000 new cases of laryngeal cancer are estimated to occur each year worldwide, and 89 000 people die from this disease. Tobacco smoking is the main cause of laryngeal cancer in all populations among which studies have been conducted, and at least two-thirds of cases among men and one-third of cases among women are attributable to tobacco smoking. The risk of laryngeal cancer among heavy smokers is at least 20 times higher than that of non-smokers. Both the amount of cigarettes smoked per day and the duration of smoking are important determinants of the risk; a protective effect of quitting smoking is clear after five years. Several studies have suggested a higher risk among deep inhalers; smokers of hand-rolled cigarettes and smokers of black-tobacco cigarettes have a higher risk than other smokers. An increased risk has been shown following smoking of cigar and pipe, as well as of bidi and other local tobacco products.
Cigarette smoking and colorectal cancer
Authors: Giovannucci Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our understanding of the potential association between tobacco and risk of colorectal cancer has had an interesting history. The landmark early studies, which covered the 1950s and 1960s, consistently did not support an association between tobacco and colorectal cancer risk (Hammond and Horn 1958, 1966; Higginson 1966; Kahn 1966; Staszewski 1969; Weir and Dunn 1970; Doll and Peto 1976; Williams and Horm 1977; Graham et al. 1978; Doll et al. 1980; Haenszel et al. 1980; Rogot and Murray 1980). Many of these studies had been instrumental in demonstrating important associations with other cancer sites. Generally, by the 1970s, tobacco was not considered an important risk factor for colorectal cancer. However, around this time colorectal adenomas had become established as cancer precursors through careful pathologic studies (Morson 1974; Lev 1990). Epidemiologists began studying risk factors for colorectal adenomas in studies conducted in the 1980s and 1990s, and smokers were consistently found to have an appreciably elevated risk
Smoking and cervical neoplasia
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Cuzick Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Squamous cell cervical cancer is primarily related to sexual activity (reviewed by Brinton 1992). Important risk factors are the number of sexual partners (of both the woman and her male partner) and early age at first intercourse. Use of barrier methods of contraception appears to be protective, whereas long-term use of the combined oral contraceptive pill appears to increase risk (Moreno et al. 2002; Skegg 2002). Overwhelming evidence now implicates the human papillomaviruses (HPVs), particularly certain so-called ‘high-risk’ types (e.g. 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, and 68) as the causal sexually transmitted agents (Walboomers et al. 1999) although other sexually transmitted infections such as chlamydia, herpes simplex virus (HSV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) may also have a role. The high frequency of infection with HPV and the relative rarity of cervical cancer suggest that other factors are needed to facilitate the carcinogenic process.
Tobacco and alcohol interaction
Authors: Lowenfels Albert B , Maisonneuve Patrick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the world, tobacco and alcohol abuse are responsible for an appreciable proportion of avoidable deaths. Alcohol has been used in all cultures throughout recorded history, but tobacco only became widely available after the discovery of the New World. At first, tobacco use was restricted to the wealthy class, but by the beginning of the seventeenth century, combined exposure to alcohol and tobacco was common in all classes (Figure 36.1). Both agents are addictive, although nicotine, the major addictive compound contained in tobacco, is probably more so than alcohol. Both agents are widely used: nearly 80% of Americans over age 12 have consumed alcohol at some time, which is similar to the percentage of persons who report ever using tobacco. However, less than one-third of adults are current smokers-much smaller than the proportion of current alcohol users.
A brief history of legislation to control the tobacco epidemic
Authors: Roemer Ruth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The protection and promotion of the health and welfare of its citizens is considered to be one of the most important functions of the modern state (Rosen 1958). In no sense is this more true than with respect to the role of governments in combating the world-wide tobacco epidemic. This chapter seeks to trace the evolution of tobacco legislation in the second half of the twentieth century, from 1950 to 2002. Our object is to analyse the progress made, the deficits still existing, and the challenges facing the countries of the world in the future.
Effective interventions to reduce smoking
Authors: Jha Prabhat , Ross Hana , Corrao Marlo A , Chaloupka Frank J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cigarette smoking and other tobacco use currently accounts for one of every ten adult deaths world wide. Given current trends, about 500 million people alive today will die prematurely as a result of tobacco use, with one billion deaths from tobacco expected during this century (WHO 1997; Peto and Lopez 2001). Future tobacco mortality depends largely on current smoking patterns. The increase in tobacco deaths is the result of both increases in the susceptible population size and increases in age-specific disease rates.
Polymer molecules
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we have our first in-depth encounter with a specific fluid structure: the flexible chain molecules known as polymers. The basis for much of their distinctive behaviour lies in their flexibility and randomness. This chapter focus on the properties of individual molecules that embody this flexibility and randomness. The next chapter focuses on the further properties that emerge when large numbers of polymers interact in a liquid. There we will also treat the basic motions of a polymer solution: diffusion and flow. The Preface notes a number of other texts covering these polymer phenomena.
Polymer solutions
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter has shown how a polymer chain behaves when it is by itself in a solvent. But the properties seen in a macroscopic fluid result from many polymers interacting in the solvent. In this chapter we turn to a survey of how polymer structure, energy, and motion are altered by their mutual interactions. We first describe the energy associated with interaction in dilute solution. The following section discusses the new structural and energetic features that appear when the polymers interpenetrate. Then we turn to dynamics. The first subsection discusses the Brownian motion of a sphere, the starting point for understanding how objects move in a liquid. We show how spontaneous thermal motions are related to the work needed to create motion.
Colloids
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Colloidal dispersions are homogeneous suspensions of solid particles in a Historically colloids referred to any sticky, fluid. Most inks and paints are colloidal dispersions. The particle size ranges from nanometers to microns. Such a particle is large enough to approach its bulk properties on the atomic scale but small enough that its thermal gelatinous material. Here, we follow the more recent usage. energy dominates its gravitational energy colloid science is concerned with maintaining the dispersed state. This is the problem of colloidal stabilization. Stabilization is achieved by modifying the particles’ surfaces to prevent aggregation. Thus understanding and control of interfacial forces is central to colloid science and to this chapter.
Interfaces
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of our experience with liquids arises not from the bulk of the liquid but from its interfaces with other media. As we gaze onto the ocean or into our cup of coffee, it is the surface of the liquid that catches our eye. The property that distinguishes a liquid from a gas is the existence of this surface. This chapter deals with such interfaces—how they are structured, how much energy they have, and how fast they move and relax. Most importantly, it deals with how solute molecules, both simple and complex, affect these properties.
Classical Elasticity
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The deformation tensor λ has arisen naturally in the derivation of classical rubber elas-ticity. In the form given by eqn (3.20) it is appropriate for small and large strains alike, which is as well since rubber is capable for strains up to many hundreds of percent. Since the remainder of this book is concerned with elasticity of a new and unexpected form, with hitherto unsuspected phenomena to be summarised in the next chapter, we devote some space to reviewing the symmetry character of λ, from whence the effects will arise. We also examine the structure of non-linear elasticity and the connection with linear elasticity commonly used to describe solids at small strains. In contrast to classical elasticity, nematic rubber elasticity relies on the coupling of the rotations of internal degrees of freedom (the director n) to not only elastic strains but also body rotations. We thus illustrate the geometry of deformations and local rotations in order to prepare for this new type of elasticity. We note that incompressible distortions are all essentially shears; even the simple extensions and compressions of the rectangular block in Fig. 3.9 are shears, just viewed from a rotated coordinate frame. Deforma-tions, not in general symmetric or anti-symmetric, can be broken down into symmetric (pure shear) and rotational components. This will be useful in considering the mechano orientational responses and instabilities of nematic elastomers. Intimately related to this symmetric/anti-symmetric resolution of strains are the square roots of tensors. We dis-cuss them in this context, though principally to introduce them for the later treatment of soft elasticity. Finally, we discuss the (limited) role of compressibility in this elasticity.
Nematic Rubber Elasticity
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nematic networks can be highly rubbery, that is capable of large extensions and com-posed of molecules with liquid-like mobility. The difference between nematic and clas-sical elastomers is principally only that of molecular shape anisotropy induced by the liquid crystalline order. The simplest description of nematic rubber elasticity is essen-tially an extension of classical molecular rubber elasticity, reviewed in Chapter 3. We shall accordingly call it a 'neo-classical' theory of rubber elasticity, referring to the identity of approach. It will be introduced in this chapter and its richness explored in subsequent chapters of this book. This chapter will conclude with simple illustrations of the neo-classical free energy not involving rotations of the director and complex strains. Already remarkable phenomena arise, for instance we describe spontaneous thermal distortion, optical distortions, complex thermal history and relaxation, the Landau the-ory of transitions and the influence of mechanical stress on thermal effects. The nematic rubber elastic free energy is simple, even if the thermo-mechanical history has been complex. Readers unconcerned about the details of how this is so should omit Sect. 6.3, marked :j:, only reading its main conclusion which is stated in its opening paragraph.
Soft Elasticity
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new element is that changing the director orientation allows a significant reduction in the elastic energy. The first example, Sect. 6.7, was the nematic-mechanical instability seen by Mitchell where the director jumps discontinuously to allow the rubbery network to accommodate the imposed strain. More generally, the director rotates in a continuous fashion. In this chapter we initially illustrate the role of rotation by discussing the relative rotation coupling constant D1(briefly mentioned in Sect. 2.8). The analogous coupling D2 of symmetric network strains to relative rotations is also discussed here. We then address the singular nematic rotational response to strains and the apparent liquid-like mechanical response (low storage moduli) observed for some strain geometries. We call this effect ‘soft elasticity’. Section 6.7 sketched some deformations that apparently cost little or no energy, provided the director changed. Experiments confirm it is indeed nematic rotations that make the new elasticity possible.