bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Do Lemmings Commit Suicide?
Authors: Chitty Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike nearly all science books which tell of successful ventures and satisfactory conclusions, this book reveals the harsher but more common side of scientific research. Written by one of this century’s most distinguished small mammal ecologists, it is both a personal history of and an apology for a life in science spent working on problems for which no final dramatic closure was reached. Included along the way are important anecdotes and history about Charles Elton and his pioneering work at the Bureau of Animal Population at Oxford University, from which much of modern population has grown, and insights on the philosophy and practice of science. This eye-opening account of a scientific career should be read by everyone in life sciences or the history and philosophy of science.
Pioneering observations, 1929–1939
Authors: Chitty Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1929-1930 voles destroyed a million young conifers on a single Scottish plantation of the Forestry Commission.4 These plantations had been started to ensure a home-grown supply of timber, which had been in short supply in World War I. They were among the few vole habitats sufficiently undisturbed to be useful for long-term research; and thanks in part to economic losses due to voles, the Forestry Commission provided modest support for a program of pure research. Collecting basic knowledge would have to precede any practical applications, and would not guarantee success in replacing the current ineffective methods of trapping and poisoning. One possibility (remote, as it turned out) was that forecasting peak years might enable a forester to postpone a planting program; but the war put an end to such schemes.
Varying the Circumstances, 1952–1959
Authors: Chitty Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For someone studying behavior, the reclusive vole was a poor choice of animal; despite its merits, it was difficult to observe in nature. Partridges are easier to watch though less easy to experiment with. Having both species under study at Oxford gave us the best of both worlds. Partridges were one of the game animals whose fluctuations in numbers were studied by Doug Middleton early in the history of the Bureau. On some estates partridges are managed by gamekeepers, and records of numbers shot have been kept since the 18th century. Shooting is a different sport in England from hunting game birds in North America. Local people are hired as beaters to drive the par tridges over the shooters, who usually have two guns and a man to load them. After the massacre, the birds are laid out in rows while well-dressed ladies and gentlemen sit down to an al fresco lunch spread on trestle tables laid with white linen and groaning with food and drink.
Introduction : Taward a Second Century of the Scientific Analysis of Self and Identity
Authors: Ashmore Richard D , Jussim Lee 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the many gems of William James’s The Principles of Psychology (1890), is chapter 10, “The Consciousness of Self.” Although it is risky to give a single person or publication primacy with regard to any important idea, it is fair to say that this chapter marks the introduction of self as both a major determinant of human thought, feeling, and behavior and as susceptible to understanding by empirical research procedures. In 1900, Mary Whiton Calkins, a student of James, published a paper entitled, “Psychology as Science of Selves.” It is possible, therefore, to identify the 1890s as the beginning of the scientific analysis of self and identity.
Introduction: The Paths Diverge
Authors: Egnal Marc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For Peter Kalm, the Swedish traveller and scientist, New France seemed no less prosperous than the northern Thirteen Colonies. Kalm, a student and friend of the great Swedish naturalist, Carl Linnaeus, travelled in North America between I 748 and I 751. He married a woman of Swedish descent in Philadelphia, and published his journals in three volumes after his return. Kalm was unstinting in his praise of Canadian farmers. The high meadows in Canada are excellent and by far preferable to the meadows round Philadelphia and in the other English colonies, he remarked. And he observed in August 1749 that the country on both sides [of the St. Lawrence] was very delightful today, and the fine state of its cultivation added greatly to the beauty of the scene. More generally, he felt that French Canadians lived as well as their English neighbors to the south. Kalm noted that the French here eat nearly as much meat as the English on those days when their religion allows it.
Learning Control Strategies for Object Recognition
Authors: Draper Bruce A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the field of computer vision has made significant advances over the past 30 years, there remains one notable exception, an area whose major unsolved problems and lack of advancement are severely limiting the application of computer vision technology to problems of practical importance. We have gained little or no insight—at either a theoretical or practical level—into how the many aspects of vision are integrated into functioning systems.
The most dramatic advances in the field have come not from researchers building task-focused systems, but rather from those who concentrate on better-defined subproblems that admit to “clean” solutions. As a result, although the catalog of image understanding algorithms keeps growing, relatively few complete computer vision systems are built, and when they are, it is almost always a major effort that is costly in terms of design, integration, and development time. Unfortunately, we will not see the benefits of breakthroughs in the component technologies until we understand, at both theoretical and practical levels, how the many components of a complex vision system are integrated and controlled. It is as though we have the supplies and tools to build a house, but lack the architectural drawings.
Germany A Nonpunitive Model
Authors: Wolff Reinhart 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern child protection initiatives in Germany developed early in the 19th century as a reaction to the growing exploitation of children in the expanding industrial system and to widespread neglect of children as a consequence of poverty and family breakup in the early years of capitalism. At the beginning of the 19th century, many Child Saving Houses (Rettungshiiuser) were established to provide group care for children. In 1829 the first Society for the Betterment of Morally Neglected Children - later to be called Child Saving Association (Verein zur Besserung sittlich verwahrloster Kinder or later Kinderrettungsverein )- was founded in the small town of Koslin near Berlin.
The society was more concerned with the “demoralization of children” than with the economic and social situation, which produced child labor and poverty that led to a high incidence of child neglect and early child death. It prepared the ground for a moralistic approach that has become prominent in many upper-class-oriented child-saving movements in modern society. With a view of the child as being both endangered and dangerous or morally imperfect, the Child Saving Association typically depoliticized and individualized the problem of child maltreatment. The same conceptual orientation governed the beginnings of institutional child care in the middle of the 19th century; these efforts were dominated by religious movements that sought to save children from the poisonous influence of the growing working class and socialist movements.
Theoretical issues
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If asked to evaluate the relative degrees of linguistic simplicity of, say, a conversation between an adult and a child on the one hand and a legal document on the other, most people would probably and consistently rate the former as simpler than the latter. When it comes to language use, teachers and caregivers, airline pilots and market traders all take it for granted that producing and understanding simple, easily accessible language is a routine aspect of communication, whether the ability to do this comes instinctively or has to be acquired through training.
Conventionalization
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have just shown that a dominant characteristic of CAR texts is their minimal level of syntactic elaboration, a feature that the register shares with other simple varieties such as pidgins, for example. Given that this characteristic is widespread in many simple varieties of language, it is tempting to follow Ferguson (1982) in positing a possibly innate sense in language users of what is dispensable whenever form must be tailored to what spatial, temporal, or cognitive constraints will permit. For their part, sociolinguists and discourse analysts in general tend to assume that form will be responsive to the situational and functional circumstances of each text type.
Initial Evaluation and Follow-Up
Authors: Arditii Douglas E , Paauw Douglass. , Spach David H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides general guidelines for the initial evaluation and routine follow-up of an HIV-infected patient. All HIV-infected individuals who are establishing care will require a thorough health history and physical examination. Because of the time required to gather data and the need to establish rapport, many clinicians limit the first visit to obtaining the health history, perfonning a physical examination, and ordering appropriate laboratory studies. During the second clinic visit, which is usually about 1 week later, the clinician should review pertinent laboratory data, the patient’s stage of disease, and, if applicable, the need for vaccinations, antiretroviral therapy, and opportunistic infection prophylaxis. Generally, during this follow-up visit, an overall plan of care is developed and reviewed with the patient These first two visits provide an excellent opportunity for the clinician to establish rapport with the patient.
Alternative Therapies
Authors: Laury Lili A Sacks , J.Markbray Mckean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alternative medicine encompasses a broad group of therapies beyond the realm of traditional western medical practice. These therapies include drugs with unproven efficacy, drugs obtained through unconventional means, herbal medicines, high-dose vitamins, and manipulations such as acupuncture, massage therapy, and imagery. These therapies may be viewed by patients and providers as truly “alternative” and thus mutually exclusive of conventional western medicine or as complementary adjuncts to traditional therapy.
Fever
Authors: Sheffield John V L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fever occurs frequently in HIV-infected patients, particularly those with advanced immunodeficiency. For patients early in the course of HIV disease, the occurrence of a new fever is approached in a similar fashion to that employed in immunocompetent HIV-negative adults except that tuberculosis and community-acquired pneumonia merit special attention. Late in the course of HIV disease, many patients report occasional temperature spikes and frequent low-grade temperature elevations. These occasional temperature spikes and low-grade fevers are usually not of clinical significance.
When unexplained fever persists for longer than 2 weeks in a patient with a CD4 count less than 200 cells/mm3, it usually heralds an opportunistic infection or AIDS-defining condition. In one study, the most common diagnoses in patients whose fever exceeded 2 weeks were Pneumocystis carinii
pneumonia (PCP), disseminated Mycobacterium avium
complex, and lymphoma. Other important causes of prolonged fever include drug reactions, central venous catheter infection, and bacterial sinusitis.
HIV infection itself is thought to be an infrequent cause of sustained fever, except in the setting of acute HIV infection. Therefore, the new onset of localized or systemic symptoms associated with a clearly different and persistent temperature elevation in an HIV-infected person should always prompt a thorough evaluation. Although limited data exist regarding the yield of a fever work-up in this setting, published information suggests that a thorough search for a source of fever usually identifies a cause.
Blastomycosis
Authors: Panther Lori A , Skerrett Shawn J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Blastomycosis is caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis,
a dimorphic fungus that appears as a yeast in tissues at 37°C and as mycelia at room temperature. The reservoir of this organism is probably moist soils enriched with organic matter, particularly along riverbanks and lakeshores. There appears to be an association between blastomycosis and outdoor occupations. Acquisition of blastomycosis usually occurs by inhaling spores.
Endemic disease is found in populations of the midwestern and southeastern United States, especially those bordering the Mississippi and Ohio River basins. Currently, blastomycosis infrequently develops among HIV-infected persons. Nevertheless, as the prevalence of HIV infection increases in the regions endemic for blastomycosis, the incidence of blastomycosis among HIV-infected individuals will likely increase.
Most HIV-infected patients with blastomycosis have significant immunosuppression and have CD4 counts less than 200 cells/mm 3 Host defenses against B. dermatitidis
include intracellular killing by alveolar macrophages and neutrophils and by cell- mediated granuloma formation. HIV-related abnormalities in both B cells and T cells may allow B. dermatitidis
to disseminate. Blastomycosis in HIV-infected patients may represent primary infection or reactivation of prior infection.
Candidiasis
Authors: Paauw Douglass. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
infections frequently occur among HIV-infected patients, especially those who have a CD4 count less than 300 cells/mm3 or an AIDS-defining diagnosis. The presence of oral candidiasis reflects clinical immunodeficiency and predicts the development of AIDS independent of the patient’s CD4 cell count. This does not apply if the patient develops oral candidiasis as a result of antimicrobial or corticosteroid use.
Pneumocystis Carinii
Authors: Kitahata Mari M , Curtis J Randall , Bramante John P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although initial studies suggested that Pneumocystis carinii
was a protowan parasite, recent phylogenetic analyses of ribosomal RNA indicate that P. carinii
is more appropriately classified as a fungus. Because P. carinii
cannot be cultivated in vitro, it is difficult to study. Testing of P. carinii
for susceptibility to antimicrobial agents has been performed in animal models. There are three stages in the life cycle of P. carinii:
cysts (5 to 8 µm in diameter and crescent shaped), sporozoites (found only within cysts), and trophozoites (2 to 5
µmin diameter and found outside the cyst). At each of these three stages, the organism has different staining properties.
According to seroprevalence studies, most people in the United States have acquired infection with P. carinii
by age 2 to 3 years. Clinical disease probably results from reactivation of latent infection in immunocompromised hosts. Therefore, prevention is based on chemoprophylaxis of susceptible individuals.
In 1994, P. carinii
pneumonia (PCP) remained the most common AIDS-defining diagnosis (other than a diagnosis of AIDS based on CD4 cell count). Among high-risk patients who do not receive PCP prophylaxis, 60 to 80 percent will develop PCP. The risk of developing PCP increases as a patient’s CD4 cell count declines below 200 cells/mm3 Despite the widespread use of PCP prophylaxis, there were more than 13,000 cases of PCP in 1995.
Although earlier reports showed poor outcomes in those patients with severe PCP, recent survival rates have improved. Even patients in respiratory failure (as defined by PaO2 less than 60 on an FiO2 greater than 40 percent) have a 30 to 50 percent episode survival rate; of those who survive hospitalization, the median survival is approximately 18 months.
Dermatophytosis
Authors: Vandevelde Karen M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most common forms of dermatophytosis that occur in HIV-infected persons are tinea pedis, onychomycosis, tinea cruris, and tinea corporis. Less commonly, patients may develop a fungal folliculitis (Majocchi’s granuloma). Among HIV-infected individuals, these disorders often have a similar clinical presentation when compared with HN -negative individuals, but they may be more severe and more difficult to treat.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Tinea pedis usually presents as interdigital maceration and scale, accompanied by fine, dry scale in the “moccasin distribution” of the foot (plantar surface and sides). In addition, tinea pedis can manifest as bullous, vesicular, or hypertrophic (thick) lesions. Focal hypertrophic lesions may resemble a wart or callous; diffuse hypertrophic lesions may resemble keratoderma blenorrhagicum (involvement of palms and soles seen in Reiter’s syndrome).
Onychomycosis, a dermatophyte infection of the nails, commonly occurs in association with tinea pedis. This disorder, which most frequently involves the great toenails, typically manifests as thickened, dystrophic, yellow or opaque nail plates with concomitant formation of subungual debris.
Tinea cruris, which refers to dermatophyte lesions in the groin and genital region, appears as an erythematous, well-demarcated plaque with an elevated, arcuate, scaly border. As the lesion progresses, central clearing frequently develops. The scrotum is spared in most patients. Among patients with low CD4 cell counts, the erythema and central clearing may be absent. In severely immunosuppressed patients, the plaques may involve the scrotum and large areas of the trunk and thighs.
Psoriasis and Reiter’s Syndrome
Authors: Vandevelde Karen M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The frequency and severity of psoriasis is increased among HIV-infected individuals. In addition, an estimated 30 to 40 percent of AIDS patients with psoriasis develop either psoriatic arthritis or Reiter’s syndrome. Patients with CD4 counts less than 400 cells/mm3 often develop more severe psoriasis.
Although there appears to be no HLA predominance in patients who develop psoriasis, some authors report an increase in HLA B27 in patients with psoriatic arthritis.
Psoriasis has historically been considered a “bad prognostic sign” in HIV-infected persons. There is often a striking temporal relationship between onset or exacerbation of psoriasis and the development of profound immunodeficiency and opportunistic infections. In contrast, some reports indicate psoriasis may clear in end-stage AIDS.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Although HIV-infected persons with psoriasis may have variable clinical manifestations, most present with classic psoriasis. The classic psoriatic lesions are characterized by pink to red plaques with adherent thick, white scale. They usually occur in a symmetric fashion with a predilection for extensor surfaces, especially the elbows and knees. Less commonly, patients develop small, well circumscribed plaques known as guttate lesions.
These lesions can be precipitated by streptococcal pharyngitis.
Seborrheic Dermatitis
Authors: Velde Karen M Van De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Seborrheic dermatitis is a common dermatologic disorder among HIV-infected persons, with a reported prevalence between 20 and 80 percent In contrast, it occurs in 5
to 10 percent of immunocompetent males.
Patients with HIV infection may develop seborrheic dermatitis de novo, or a preexisting condition of seborrheic dermatitis may exacerbate with increasing immunosuppression.
The severity of seborrheic dermatitis often correlates with the degree of immunosuppression, and treatment may be more difficult in those individuals with a low CD4 cell count.
The cause of seborrheic dermatitis is unknown; it has been suggested that the fungus Pityrosporum
may play a role in pathogenesis. Alternative hypotheses include alteration in sebum secondary to HIV infection, candidal overgrowth, or a neurotrophic effect of HIV that causes secondary alteration of the skin.
CLINICAL FEATURES
The typical rash consists of symmetric pink to red erythema with fine scale. Although the rash can appear at various body sites, it most commonly develops at the scalp, ears, glabella, eyebrows, beard, facial folds, central chest, axillae, and groin. Patients frequently develop pruritus that may become severe. Compared with immunocompetent individuals, HIV-infected patients with seborrheic dermatitis generally have more widespread and prominent manifestations.
Adrenal Function
Authors: Moss Gregory B , Weigle D Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Adrenal insufficiency can be classified as either primary (adrenal gland failure) or secondary (pituitary or hypothalamic failure), with the former most often caused by autoimmune destruction, hemorrhage, tumor, or infection and the latter most often from exogenous steroids.
Although many HIV-infected individuals have symptoms that resemble adrenal insufficiency, relatively few (less than 20 percent) meet cosyntropin stimulation test criteria for adrenal insufficiency and require steroid replacement. HIV-infected individuals, however, frequently have subtle and, as yet, poorly classified disorders of cortisol secretion.
In autopsy studies, 33 to 88 percent of AIDS patients demonstrate adrenal pathology (usually caused by infection with cytomegalovirus or Mycobacterium avium
complex), but the amount of tissue destruction is rarely enough to produce symptomatic adrenal insufficiency. ·
Among HIV-infected individuals without specific symptoms of adrenal insufficiency, slightly elevated basal cortisol levels and subnormal responses to synthetic ACTH tests appear to be common. In these individuals, however, prolonged ACTH infusions usually result in normal cortisol responses. Posssible explanations for these observations include chronic illness and stress, altered glucocorticoid receptors producing peripheral resistance, and anticorticosteroid antibodies.
Nutrition
Authors: Horwitch Carrie A , Maurice Joanne E , Hooton Thomas M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nutrition plays an important role in the overall outcome of RN-infected individuals. There is growing evidence that metabolic and nutritional factors resulting in malnutrition start early in the course of HIV disease, probably during the asymptomatic phase of infection. ·
Nutritional deficiencies alter many aspects of immune function and may result in both a higher incidence and a more severe course of a wide variety of infectious processes. Malnutrition severely compromises the ability of the host to respond effectively to an infectious challenge and greatly increases the chances of more frequent and severe complications as well as increased mortality.
Vitamins are a group of organic substances, other than proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and minerals, that are essential for normal metabolism, growth, and development. They are indispensable for normal function and maintenance of health. They act principally as regulators of metabolic processes and play a role in energy transformation, usually acting as co-enzymes.