bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Benzyl Alcohol and β‐Phenethyl Alcohol
Authors: Mookherjee Braja D. , Wilson Richard A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBenzyl alcohol and β‐phenethyl alcohol (2‐phenylethanol) are the simplest of the aromatic alcohols, and, as such, are chemically similar. Benzyl alcohol occurs widely in essential oils both as the free alcohol, and, more importantly from a fragrance standpoint, in the form of various esters. Although benzyl alcohol itself is rather bland in odor, combined with its much more fragrant esters it is an important part of the odor of jasmine, ylang‐ylang, gardenia, some rose varieties, narcissus and peony, as well as castoreum, balsams of peru and tolu, and propolis. Benzyl alcohol occurs primarily in flower oils and tree exudates. Benzyl alcohol readily undergoes the reactions characteristic of a primary alcohol, such as esterification and etherification, as well as halide formation. In addition, it undergoes ring substitution. Today benzyl alcohol is almost universally manufactured from toluene which is first chlorinated to give benzyl chloride. This is then hydrolyzed to benzyl alcohol by treatment with aqueous sodium carbonate. In the soap, perfume, and flavor industries benzyl alcohol is primarily used in the form of its aliphatic esters. Benzyl alcohol is commercially available in five grades. The largest proportion of benzyl alcohol is for use in the photographic and textile industries although the latter use has been declining. The textile grade is used as a dyeing assistant for wool and nylon. The pharmaceutical industry makes use of benzyl alcohol's local anesthetic, antiseptic, and solvent properties. The technical grade of benzyl alcohol is used in rug cleaners as a degreasing agent, in leather dyeing, in ballpoint inks, as a cleaner for soldering, and as an extractive distillation solvent for xylenes and cresols. In addition, benzyl alcohol is used extensively in the polymer industry and in the manufacture of automobile tires. This material has a Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) status indicated by the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers' Association for use in flavors and by the Council of Europe for use as a flavor. Benzyl alcohol satisfies the most current guidelines published by the International Fragrance Association (IFRA). Of all the aromatic organic molecules β‐phenethyl alcohol (PEA) is probably the most prestigious aroma chemical in the world of perfumery. This is because of its exquisite odor of natural rose petals. The compound undergoes the usual chemical reactions of alcohols or aromatic compounds. In insect control, PEA has been considered as a mosquito repellant. The alcohol also has antifungicidal properties. Because of factors of low cost, stability, and odor quality, PEA is ideally suited for use in bar soap fragrances. Current commercial methods for making PEA include Grignard synthesis, Friedel‐Crafts process, and catalytic hydrogenation of styrene oxide. Approximately 85% of the PEA is employed for fragrance use. The use of β‐phenethyl alcohol generally presents no health problems.
Benzaldehyde
Authors: Opgrande Jarl L. , Brown Edward , Hesser Martha , Andrews Jerry 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Benzaldehyde is the simplest and quite possibly the most industrially useful aromatic aldehyde. It is manufactured from toluene, either by chlorination, followed by hydrolysis, or by liquid phase air oxidation. The air oxidation of toluene to produce benzoic acid is the source of most of the world's synthetic benzaldehyde.
Benzaldehyde is widely used directly, as a synthetic flavoring substance, or as a raw material in the synthesis of industrially important derivatives such as benzyl alcohol, benzoin and benzil and several benzyl amines. The hydrogenation of benzaldehyde to form benzyl alcohol is the largest single use of benzaldehyde.
In addition, benzaldehyde serves as the major raw material a wide variety of fragrance compounds are derivatives of benzaldehyde. The major products in the fragrance category are cinnamic aldehyde and a number of substituted cinnamic aldehydes; such as methyl, butyl, amyl, and hexyl cinnamic aldehydes.
Benzoic Acid
Authors: Opgrande Jarl L. , Brown Edward E. , Hesser Martha , Andrews Jerry 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe simplest member of the aromatic carboxylic acid family, benzoic acid was first described in the 17thcentury and initially used extensively as a medicinal substance. Currently the main uses for benzoic acid are as a chemical additive in alkyd resins and as a raw material in the manufacture of phenol, caprolactam, glycol dibenzoate plasticizer esters, and in the production of the food preservatives, sodium and potassium benzoates.The liquid phase air oxidation of toluene provides most of the world's supply of benzoic acid. Large quantities of benzaldehyde can be recovered in the same process.Other major derivatives of benzoic acid include benzoyl chloride, benzoic anhydride, and a number of benzyl esters, used in fragrances and personal care products. These include methyl, ethyl, butyl and hexyl benzoate as well as alkyl (C12‐15) benzoate.
Bioremediation
Authors: Prince Roger C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBioremediation seeks to use biological processes to restore contaminated environments to productive use. Many contaminants at industrial, agricultural, and accident sites are amenable to bioremediation. Most organic contaminants are biodegradable under some conditions, and optimizing this biodegradation is the principal thrust of bioremediation to date. Widely used treatments for hydrocarbons include the addition of oxygen or alternative electron acceptors, and the provision of limiting nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. More recalcitrant organic contaminants, such as some halogenated products and some pesticides, herbicides and explosives, require more sophisticated approaches. These have included the addition of co‐substrates to stimulate the growth of degrading organisms, various treatments to increase the bioavailability of the contaminants, and sequential anaerobic and aerobic degradation. Inorganic contaminants are also amenable to bioremediation, since they may be sequestered or extracted from soils and waters by microbes and plants. Bioremediation competes in the marketplace with a range of chemical and physical treatments for cleaning contaminated sites and waters; in general bioremediation is among the least expensive and most benign, but also one of the slowest options.
Bioseparations
Authors: Ladisch Michael R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe large scale purification of proteins and other bioproducts is the final production step, prior to product packaging, in the manufacture of therapeutic proteins, specialty enzymes, diagnostic products, and value added products from agriculture. These separation steps purify biological molecules or compounds obtained from biological sources, and hence, are referred to as bioseparations. The essence of large scale bioseparations is both art and science. Bioseparations often evolve from laboratory‐scale techniques. These are adapted and scaled up to satisfy the need for larger amounts of extremely pure, test quantities of the product for analysis, characterization, testing of efficiency, clinical or field trials, and finally, full‐scale commercialization. The uncompromising standards for product quality, driven by commercial competition, end‐use applications, and regulatory oversight, provide many challenges to the scale‐up of protein purification. The rigorous quality control of manufacturing practices embodied in current good manufacturing practices, and the complexity and lability of the macromolecules being processed provide other practical issues which must be addressed.This article gives an overview of manufacturing approaches for selected bioproducts by the new biotechnology and how these approaches impact their recovery and purification using various bioseparation techniques. The basic theory of the most prevalent bioseparations method, chromatography, is described. Since the literature has presented the theory principally for analytical systems, application which are useful in scaling up process chromatographic separations are reviewed here. Also the reader is provided with practical tools that can be used to initiate the scale‐up of liquid chromatography starting from a minimum amount of laboratory data. The use and mechanisms of action of selected bioproducts are summarized to illustrate how recombinant biotechnology provides unique tools and facilitates new products which could not be obtained by other means.
Aeration, Biotechnology
Authors: Nienow Alvin W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe supply of oxygen to a growing biological species, aeration, in aerobic bioreactors is one of the most critical requirements in biotechnology. Aeration is usually accomplished by transferring oxygen from the air into the fluid surrounding the biological species, from where it is in turn transferred to the biological species itself. During the course of a batch bioreaction, oxygen demand often passes through a marked maximum when the species is most biologically active. The main reason for the importance of aeration lies in the limited solubility of oxygen in water. The basic principles that underlie oxygenation (aeration) are exactly the same as those that determine the rate of transfer of any sparingly soluble gas (oxygen) from the gas stream (air) to the unsaturated liquid (broth). The rate at which this transfer takes place is dependent on the area of contact between the gas and the liquid, the driving force available (ie, the difference in concentration of oxygen in the two phases), the two‐phase fluid dynamics, and the chemical composition of the liquid. A huge variety of bioreactors have been developed; a useful subdivision has been made into three generic types. These are bioreactors driven by rotating agitators (stirred tanks) that are by far the most common, bioreactors driven by gas compression (bubble columns/loop fermenters), and bioreactors driven by circulating liquid (jet loop reactors). Aeration is used in bacterial, aerobic yeast, polysaccharide and mycelial fermentations, mammalian and plant cell culture, single‐cell protein production, and biological aerobic wastewater treatment.
Biotin
Authors: Outten Robert A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBiotin is a water‐soluble B complex vitamin originally isolated from a variety of natural sources. In biological systems, biotin functions as a cofactor for enzymes involved in carboxylation reactions. A lack of biotin results in deficiency diseases in humans and animals. Daily intakes of biotin are recommended in the maintenance of optimal health. Several synthetic pathways to biotin have been developed since its stereochemical determination. The modern industrial synthesis is based on work done by researchers in the late 1940s. Since this work, industrial research has been directed toward process improvements in the basic methodology, particularly in the area of methods to form optically pured‐lactone. Research has also been directed toward elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway to biotin. Various microorganisms have been evaluated for use in biotin synthesis via fermentation. Recently, a number of patents have appeared on the synthesis of biotin using biotechnology. Several analytical methods, including microbiological, chemical, and chromatographic assays, are used to determine biotin levels in food and body fluids.
Blood Coagulation and Anticoagulant Drugs
Authors: Walenga Jeanine M. , Jeske Walter P. , Bacher Peter , Fareed Jawed 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe process of blood coagulation is not a simple transformation of fibrinogen to fibrin by the action of thrombin. Rather, this remarkably complex process is a result of numerous transformations mediated by enzymes, activators, inhibitors, platelets, endothelial cells, and leukocytes. Newer studies have also shown that some hemostatic responses are regulated through autonomic control mechanisms. Congenital abnormalities, acquired risk factors, medical procedures, and surgical interventions produce stimuli for hemostatic activation. These conditions necessitate the use of anticoagulant and antithrombotic agents to maintain blood fluidity. Heparin, an anticoagulant that possesses a complex mode of action, has been the only drug available to control thrombosis for many years. Low molecular weight heparin represents a refined and more optimized heparin where the pharmacokinetics and safety have been improved. Vitamin K antagonists are the only drugs available for long‐term anticoagulation. Understanding of the hemostatic activation processes, as well as appreciation for the importance of hemostasis in health, has occurred only recently and discoveries still continue. This has led to the development of newer pharmacologic approaches to inhibit and control thrombosis. Synthetic heparin‐derived drugs (fondaparinux), thrombin inhibitors, and antiplatelet drugs, have recently become available. The near future should bring factor Xa inhibitors, other coagulation protease inhibitors, additional antiplatelet drugs, non‐heparin drugs, and oral formulations. Because of the high morbidity–mortality associated with cardiovascular disease (thrombosis), it will be important to continue the development toward optimized antithrombotic drugs targeted to specific mechanisms with improved pharmacologic properties.
Boron Halides
Authors: Alam Fazlul , Evans Francis , Mani Ganpat , Papcun John R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe boron trihalides boron trifluoride, BF3, boron trichloride, BCl3, and boron tribromide, BBr3, are important industrial chemicals having increased usage as Lewis acid catalysts and in chemical vapor deposition (CVD) processes. Boron halides are widely used in the laboratory as catalysts and reagents in numerous types of organic reactions and as starting material for many organoboron and inorganic boron compounds. Reactions of boron trihalides that are of commercial importance are those of BCl3and, to a lesser extent, BBr3, with gases in chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Boron trichloride is prepared on a large scale by the reaction of Cl2and a heated mixture of borax,, and crude oil residue in a rotary kiln heated to 1038°C. Boron trihalides, BX3, are trigonal planar molecules which are (sp)2hybridized. The X–B–X angles are 120°. The boron trihalides are strong Lewis acids; however, the order of relative acid strengths,, is contrary to that expected based on the electronegativities and atomic sizes of the halogen atoms. Boron tribromide is produced on a large scale by the reaction of Br2and granulated B4C at 850–1000°C or by the reaction of HBr with CaB6at high temperatures. Approximately 75–95% of the BCl3consumed in the United States is used to prepare boron filaments by CVD. Another important use of BCl3is as a Friedel‐Crafts catalyst in various polymerization, alkylation, and acylation reactions, and in other organic syntheses. BCl3is also used for the production of halosilanes, in the preparation of many boron compounds and in the production of optical wave guides. BBr3is used in the manufacture of isotopically enriched crystalline boron, as a Friedel‐Crafts catalyst in various polymerization, alkylation, and acylation reactions, and in semiconductor doping and etching. Boron subhalides are binary compounds of boron and the halogens, where the atomic ratio of halogen to boron is less than 3. The boron monohalides and boron dihalide radicals have been studied. Diboron tetraflouride, B2F4, diboron tetrachloride, B2Cl4, diboron tetrabromide, B2Br4, and diborontetraiodide, B2I4, are well‐known but thermally unstable compounds.Fluoroboric acid and the fluoroborates are commercially important to a variety of industries. The acid is used in plating circuits, in metal finishing, in the production of aluminum, and as an acid catalyst. Main group metal and ammonium fluoroborates find use as fluxes, as catalysts, and in flame‐retardant manufacture. Transition‐ and other heavy‐metal fluoroborate salts are used in the plating industry and as catalysts. Properties and manufacture are described.
Hormones, Brain Oligopeptides
Authors: Childers Steven R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOligopeptides exist in mammalian brain in a variety of forms, and represent the most numerous of the neurotransmitter and neuromodulator candidates. Most of these peptides are relatively small, ranging from three to approximately 40 amino acids in length. As such, they are relatively simple to synthesize in the laboratory using solid‐phase peptide synthesis. Such syntheses have produced large numbers of analogues that are more potent or more stable than the native peptides, or may be specific antagonists at the peptide receptors. All of these neuropeptides are derived from large molecular weight protein precursors, which are cleaved into active products by the action of specific proteases. Many of the native peptides are extraordinarily potent in affecting different aspects of brain function, and have been implicated in central nervous system (CNS) disorders involving areas like Alzheimer's disease, control of appetite, clinical depression, and pain. A brief discussion of the various groups of brain oligopeptides is presented.
Bromotrifluoroethylene
Authors: Elliott Arthur J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Bromotrifluoroethylene is a colorless gas that is spontaneously flammable in air and polymerizes at room temperature unless inhibited. It undergoes reactions typical of fluorinated olefins, including halogenation and hydrogenation, and addition of nucleophiles such as alkoxides. It is conveniently prepared in good yield in four steps starting with chlorotrifluoroethylene. Bromotrifluoroethylene is a valuable reagent for the synthesis of trifluorovinylic compounds by means of its intermediate organometallic compounds. Its homopolymer and several copolymers have been reported but find no commercial utility. However, telomers of bromotrifluoroethylene are useful as flotation and damping fluids for gyroscopes and accelerometers in inertial guidance systems. These fluids are expensive but are made in small volume for the aerospace industry.
Bromine
Authors: Grinbaum Baruch , Freiberg Mira 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDiatomic bromine, Br2[7726‐95‐6], is the only nonmetallic element that is a liquid at standard conditions. Bromine is widely distributed in nature but in relatively small amounts, mainly as soluble bromide salts. It occurs in the form of bromide in seawater and in natural brine deposits, always together with chloride. Its concentration ranges from 65 mg/L in seawater up to 6.5 g/L in the Dead Sea and was discovered in 1826. Historically it has been important as an agent for removal of lead from combustion chambers. Nowadays, an important use of bromine compounds is in the production of flame retardants and drilling fluids, and as a component in intermediates for pharmaceutical, biocide and photographic industry, dyes, disinfectants, water treatment, and so on. Bromine is a heavy liquid, hardly soluble in water. It tends to acquire an electron to form either a negative ion, Br−, or a single covalent bond, Br. Nonmetal bromides are generally hydrolyzed to a hydrogen halide and to an oxy‐acid containing the other element. Bromine combines directly with hydrogen at elevated temperatures, when this is the basis for the commercial production of hydrogen bromide. Bromine reacts with essentially all metals, except tantalum and niobium, and also with some metal oxides. The addition of bromine to unsaturated carbon compounds occurs readily. In alkaline solution, bromine reacts rapidly to produce hypobromite. In all current methods of bromine production, chlorine, which has a higher reduction potential than bromine, is used to oxidize bromide to bromine. The price of bromine is ∼ 1.3 $/kg. The annual worldwide production is > 500,000 ton and growing slowly, with the United States and Israel as the leading manufacturers. Bromine is highly toxic and corrosive, and utmost care should be taken when handling it.
Magnetic Materials, Bulk
Authors: Wernick Jack 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMagnetism is classified according to the nature of the bulk magnetic response in a magnetic field. Types of magnetism are defined as are the terms of magnetic behavior. Bulk magnetic materials may be classified as either soft or hard. The important soft magnetic materials, characterized by high permeability and low coercivity, include iron and low carbon steel, iron–silicon alloys, iron–aluminum and iron–aluminum–silicon alloys, cobalt–iron (Permendurs) and nickel–iron alloys (Permalloys), ferrites, and amorphous magnetic alloys. The iron‐based alloys are used for power distribution transformers and magnetic shielding. The ferrites are used at high frequencies for inductors and communication transformers as well as for microwave devices. Moreover, the use of MnZn ferrite cores in power transformers is increasing rapidly.The hard of permanent magnet materials are characterized by high coercivity and high energy product. Materials in use include the hexagonal barium and strontium ferrites, alnicos, the modified binary cobalt‐base intermetallics containing rare earths, and the ternary neodynium iron‐base intermetallics. Motors, loudspeakers, and disk drives are the largest consumers of hard magnetic materials. The exceptionally large values of maximum energy products and coercivities of the Nd–Fe–B magnets permit use in devices where small size and superior performance are desired. Many of the semihard permanent magnet materials are sufficiently ductile for forming into requisite shapes. Information is presented for several important materials which can be cold formed, rolled to thin foil, and can be stamped into precision parts at high speeds.
Butyraldehydes
Authors: Billig Ernst 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe two isomeric butanals,n‐ and isobutyraldehyde, C4H8O, are produced commercially almost exclusively by the Oxo reaction of propylene. They also occur naturally in trace amounts in tea leaves, certain oils, coffee aroma, and tobacco smoke. The butanals are highly flammable, colorless liquids of pungent odor. These aldehydes are miscible with most organic solvents, eg, acetone, ether, ethanol, and toluene, but are only slightly soluble in water. The reactions ofn‐ and isobutyraldehyde are characteristic aldehyde reactions of oxidation, reduction, and condensation. The majority of the butyraldehyde produced in the United States is converted into 1‐butanol and 2‐ethylhexanol (2‐EH). The remainingn‐butyraldehyde production of the United States goes into (in decreasing order): poly(vinyl butyral), 2‐ethylhexanal, trimethylolpropane, methyl amyl ketone, and butyric acid. A large portion of the total U.S. consumption of isobutyraldehyde goes into the production of isobutyl alcohol and isobutyraldehyde condensation and esterification products. The other principal isobutyraldehyde derivative markets are neopentyl glycol, isobutyl acetate, isobutyric acid, isobutylidene diurea, and methyl isoamyl ketone. The merchant market for the two aldehydes is relatively insignificant, most of the production being employed captively. The most activen‐butyraldehyde derivatives were expected to be PVB, as more regions require automotive safety glass, and trimethylolpropane. Although tests have shown thatn‐butyraldehyde causes some adverse physiological effects, there is no danger to health in normal plant practice. Both aldehydes have a pungent, penetrating odor. Their vapors as well as the neat liquids can cause skin, eye, and respiratory organ irritation. Stainless steel, baked phenolic‐lined steel, or aluminum are often used for storage and handling ofn‐ and isobutyraldehyde. Storage of the aldehydes under nitrogen preserves the integrity of the material.