bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Top Incomes in the Netherlands over the Twentieth Century1
Authors: Salverda W , Atkinson A B 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As a contrast to the rising income inequality in Anglo-Saxon countries (Chapters 4 to 8), the Netherlands (NL) is of particular interest. After attaining very high levels of unemployment in the early 1980s, it has seen an impressive growth of employment, and its unemployment rate has become closer to that of the US than to the EU average. It is natural to ask how far this change has involved increased inequality in market incomes. The developments of the past two decades have moreover to be seen in the light of the longer run evolution of the personal income distribution in OECD countries. For much of the first three-quarters of the twentieth century the dominant tendency had been for a decline in inequality.
The Right to Flexibility
Authors: Collins Hugh 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
European governments regard greater flexibility in labour markets as a key ingredient to the achievement of greater business competitiveness, full employment, and growing prosperity. Policies favouring flexibility have been central to the European Union’s employment strategy introduced by the Amsterdam Treaty,1 with detailed policy prescriptions initiated at Luxembourg in 1997, then developed at Lisbon in 2000 with the Open Method of Co-ordination,3 and most recently relaunched with reformulated guidelines in 2003. Through the Open Method of Co-ordination for the employment strategy, the European Union sets an agenda and exerts peer pressure on Member States to adopt these policies in national legislation, active manpower expenditures, and social practice.
Gender and Diversification of Labour Forms in Japan
Authors: Asakura Mutsuko 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The worker image which has been considered the ideal model by labour laws in European countries is the male head of household. These workers have held relatively stable positions, and have worked in forms of labour that make it possible to earn a family wage (a wage high enough to support a family’s livelihood).1 But this worker model, under the Fordist production regime, faced major change in the 1970s. Specifically, forms of labour diversified as never before due to the growth of the tertiary production sector, the new heterogeneity of family structures, women’s entry into the workforce, and the externalization of housework and child raising labour.
A New Gender Contract? Work/Life Balance and Working-Time Flexibility
Authors: Fudge Judy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Work/life conflict grew dramatically during the 1990s, fuelled by growing numbers of employed women, dual-earner, and single-parent families, and the increasing proportion of the population who are elderly and in need of care as well as employment restructuring, job insecurity, increased hours of employment, and technologies that blur the boundary between work and family. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, developing and implementing policies designed to help Canadians to achieve a better work/life balance moved to the top of the labour policy agenda. The emergence of work/life balance as a key issue for labour law and policy reveals the breakdown of the post-war ‘gender contract’ for resolving the tension that has always plagued advanced market economies-how to co-ordinate the competing demands of raising children and caring for and maintaining a healthy and cohesive population, on the one hand, and producing the goods and services necessary for a prosperous society, on the other. This gender contract was based upon a male breadwinner and female housewife model in which men worked full-time for a wage
A Woman’s World: What if Care Work were Socialized and Police/Fire Protection Left to Individual Families?
Authors: Fischl Richard Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A couple of summers ago, I was living in London and teaching a course on comparative labour and employment law to visiting American students. I was also finishing work on the first volume of INTELL essays-Labour Law in an Era of Globalization-and decided to take the ‘nigh completed manuscript for a test run, assigning it as a principal reading for the course. Judging from the quality of the final examinations, the students gained much from the book, and the experience of teaching my way through it benefited the editing process enormously. But my effort to mix scholarship and pedagogy had a difficult start.
The Cross-Border Insolvency Regulations 2006 (and Explanatory Memorandum)
Authors: Fletcher Ian F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
These Regulations are made in exercise of the powers conferred by section 14 of the Insolvency Act 2000a. In accordance with section 14(6) of that Act, the Lord Chancellor and the Scottish Ministers have agreed to the making of these Regulations. A draft of these Regulations has been laid before Parliament in accordance with section 14(5) of that Act and approved by a resolution of each House of Parliament.
Athanasius Kircher and his Shadow
Authors: Hamilton Alastair 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Coptic occupied an unusual, not to say unique, position among the various Eastern languages that were discovered, or revived, in the West in the early modern period. The normal pattern emerged with the study of Greek in the late fifteenth century: a native speaker of the language would come to Europe and provide instruction. This is what happened in the case of Ethiopic and Syriac, and the native speakers were priests who had been lured to Rome after the Council of Florence. Where Syriac and Ethiopic are concerned, moreover, the fact that they belonged to a discernible Semitic group and that a number of European theologians had some grounding in Hebrew made their study all the easier.
Liability in Tort for Harm to Reputation, Dignity, Privacy, and ‘ Personality’
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There have been major controversies over two questions concerning the scope of the rights which tort law should protect. One-the subject of this chapter-is whether and to what extent the law should protect rights to reputation, dignity, privacy and ‘ personality’. The other, which is the subject of the next, is the extent to which the law should exclude protection for pure economic loss. It will be helpful to begin by considering the protection extended to reputation and dignity, both traditionally and by modem law. We will then tum to a miscellany of other rights often described along with reputation and dignity as rights to ‘ privacy’ or ‘ personality’.
Promises
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although the 19th century will theorists ignored the question of why promises or expressions of will are binding, the question was reopened in the 20th century. The answers that the writers gave centuries ago are of help in resolving it. We will examine this question, and then tum to a modern one which the earlier writers never considered: whether a party could be bound without a promise as a result of what we would call preliminary negotiations. In what has been described as the most important law review article written in the United States, Lon Fuller and William Perdue discussed what they called ‘ expectation damages’, which was the amount necessary to put the promisee in the position in which he would have been had the promisor performed. They claimed that it would be odd to speak of damages for breaking a promise as ‘ compensation for an injury’ because then ‘ we “compensate” the plaintiff by giving him something he never had’. They argued: In passing from compensation for change of position to compensation for loss of expectancy, we pass, to use Aristotle’ s terms... from the realm of corrective justice... The law no longer seeks merely to heal a disturbed status quo but to bring into being a new situation. It ceases to act defensively, restoratively, and assumes a more active role.
The Principle Against Unjustified Enrichment
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A celebrated abstraction is the maxim from the Digest that no one should be enriched at another’ s expense. The late scholastics and then the northern natural lawyers thought that this principle could explain the law of unust enrichment. Since the 19th century, German jurists, in particular, have been trying to bring it down to earth. Windscheid and his contemporaries agreed that this principle is too broad, a ‘ false abstraction’, ‘ untrue at this level of generality’.2 3 The truth was suggested by another Roman maxim which said a person was liable for ‘ a thing which he has without a just basis (justa causa)’ D According to Windscheid, a person enriched at another’ s expense ‘ has the duty to justify (herauszugeben) to the disadvantaged party, why he has become richer’.4 That conclusion is expressed by the general principle of § 812(1) of the German Civil Code: one who has received something through another’ s performance or at his expense in some other way without legal basis (ohne rechtlichen Grund) is obligated to give it back’. Yet 20th century German jurists have found that statement too broad as well. In 1934, Walter Wilburg claimed that it was impossible to formulate any general rule as to when enrichment is unjustified. Ernst von Caemmerer agreed. It is not true that an enrichment is unjustified when the person enriched has no contractual or statutory claim to be. A person might lose his rights to another by prescription. Or he might renounce a right which is consequently acquired by someone else.
Introduction to Part I: Ideas in Police Intelligence
Authors: Grieve John GD 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For a subject that has dominated much of the theoretical rhetoric about policing in the UK since the 1900s (encapsulated in the sound-bite ‘intelligence-led policing’), there has been surprisingly little literature that attempts to collate and collect ideas about the profession of intelligence in policing, Ratcliffe’s edited collection on Strategic Thinking in Criminal Intelligence being a notable exception (Ratcliffe, 2004). The essays gathered here in Part I explore different aspects of ideas and theories in police intelligence work and, in doing so, set the scene for the remainder of the volume. For the practitioner audience a literature review of significant official inquiries and studies of the National Intelligence Model (NIM) will be found elsewhere (Harfield and Harfield, 2008). Here the editors have drawn together thoughts from various perspectives to provide a conceptual context.
Science or Sophistry: Issues in Managing Analysts and their Products
Authors: MacVean Allyson , Harfield Clive 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The theme underpinning this edited volume is that of consilience, the imaginative and innovative recourse to and utilization of ideas and learning from different disciplines to achieve new insights. It is born out of effectively contemporaneous epidemiology investigation (Johnson, 2006), and philosophical consideration (Whewell, 1847). This chapter, founded upon the concept that consilient thinking is a key attribute in effective analysis, reflects upon aspects of analysis as currently practised within the overall intelligence profession in British policing. It draws upon the personal experience of one of the authors (CH) as police intelligence manager and on the wider considerations brought to bear by an academic specialist on intelligence issues (AM). It sits within a context defined by Cope (2004) and Dunninghan and Norris (1999) and considers first how analysts are perceived and utilized, and then issues concerning the use of analytical product. Not unintentionally, more questions are posed than answered.
An Evaluation of the Role of the Intelligence Analyst Within the National Intelligence Model
Authors: Sissens Jacqueline 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents new research undertaken to establish whether the function of the intelligence analyst in relation to the requirements of the National Intelligence Model (NIM) has been achieved (on the NIM see ACPO, 2005). The overall aim of the research was to evaluate the role of analysts to establish if their function is rhetoric or reality and whether professionalism have been achieved through dedicated and specialized training. The objectives of the research were four-fold: to establish theory with regard to the role of analysis; to evaluate the role of intelligence analysts within UK police forces and other agencies; to determine any differences in theory and reality; and analyse why any disparity between theory and reality occurs.
The Rise of Eccentricity
Authors: Gill Miranda 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Eccentricity cuts across the boundaries of tragedy and comedy, elite and popular culture, masculinity and femininity. Both contradictory meanings and ambivalent responses were already associated with the concept in eighteenth-century England, the context in which the term ‘eccentric’ was first popularized in its modern sense. The identification of eccentricity with Englishness has proved to be so entrenched that the emergence of early nineteenth-century French perceptions of oddity from English tropes and models must be charted.
Etiquette and the Public Gaze
Authors: Gill Miranda 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Parisian bourgeois society, eccentricity of appearance or behaviour was synonymous with the phrase se faire remarquer (‘standing out’, ‘being noticed’, ‘drawing attention to oneself ‘). It therefore raised central questions about the relationship of the individual to public opinion and the public gaze, which functioned as a form of social control. Since eccentricity was often identified with individual self-assertion, it attracted censure in a culture in which emphasis on the self occasioned suspicion in everyday life and was vigorously attacked in social and political thought.
Madness and Medicine
Authors: Gill Miranda 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
French beliefs about the relationship between eccentricity and madness evolved considerably between 1830 and the fin de siècle. The notion that eccentricity might constitute a form of borderline madness was first explored during the July Monarchy, where it was linked to the fashionable new doctrine of monomania. After 1848 there was a significant evolution in attitudes towards borderline insanity or ‘demi-folie’, as French alienists concluded that madness was far more prevalent than had hitherto been assumed. Eccentric individuals appeared emblematic of an insidious form of pathology undermining society, and were pursued by alienists seeking both to expand their professional role and to counteract fears of social dissolution and national degeneration.
Where To From Here?
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M , Kostecki Michel M 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThe GATT was created by governments with a clear vision of the cooperation that was needed to foster economic growth and reconstruction after the Second World War. Although the vision called for an ITO, the GATT managed to fulfil the objectives of the original signatories quite well. It proved a very successful instrument to liberalize trade. High-income country tariffs were reduced very substantially under its auspices. As a result, trade-distorting aspects of domestic policies increasingly became the focus of attention. To return to Professor Robert Baldwin’s analogy, trade liberalization can be likened to the draining of a swamp: as the water level (average tariff levels) falls due to successful pumping efforts, rocks, stumps and all manner of other obstacles (NTBs) become visible (Baldwin, 1970). The GATT 1947 did much to drain the swamp for industrialized countries. It was much less successful in inducing developing countries to reduce tariffs—unilateral actions by governments many of such economies in the 1980s and 1990s also did much to drain the swamp there. The GATT was also less successful in clearing the drained land (eliminating NTBs) and keeping the water from flooding back (in the form of contingent protection and VERs).
Dispute Settlement And Enforcement Of Rules
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M , Kostecki Michel M 
Published: October 2023

AbstractIn contrast to most international organizations that rely on diplomatic means to resolve conflicts, WTO dispute settlement (DS) procedures are elaborate and legally binding. This chapter first briefly presents a number of conceptual considerations that help to understand the role and nature of the WTO dispute settlement system. We then describe the major features of the system and discuss its operation to date as reflected in the case load between 1995 and 2007. The chapter concludes with a discussion of systemic questions and proposals that have been made to make the system more effective, both in the context of a review of the DS system by WTO members themselves and by the academic community, practitioners, NGOs and the business community.
Sector-Specific Multilateral Trade Agreements
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M , Kostecki Michel M 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThe GATT was conceived as a general agreement that would apply to all merchandise trade. In principle, therefore, GATT rules on nondiscrimination, transparency, tariff bindings and so forth, apply to all sectors. In practice, however, industry-specific pressures for protection in major trading nations created strong incentives for governments to grant ‘special’ treatment to ‘special’ sectors. This chapter focuses on two key sectors where pressures for protection proved too strong for the trading system to handle—agriculture, and textiles and clothing. Over time these sectors were gradually removed from the reach of many GATT 1947 disciplines. It was only during the Uruguay Round that it proved possible to reintegrate them into the trading system. However, progress on agriculture since then proved very difficult to achieve.
Trade In Services
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M , Kostecki Michel M 
Published: October 2023

AbstractServices—which include activities as disparate as transport of goods and people, financial intermediation, communications, distribution, hotels and restaurants, education, healthcare, construction and accounting—are vital to the functioning of any economy. Even in the lowest income countries, services generate at least 40 per cent of GDP. Services account for 70 per cent or more of economic activity in high-income countries. Common explanations for the rise in the share of services in output and employment as countries become richer include increasing specialization and exchange of services through the market (‘outsourcing’), with an associated increase in variety and quality that may raise productivity of firms and welfare of final consumers, in turn increasing demand for purchased services and the fact that the scope for (labour) productivity improvements in the provision of many services is less than in agriculture and manufacturing. The latter implies that over time the (real) costs of these services will rise relative to merchandise, as will their share of employment (Baumol, 1967; Fuchs, 1968).
Clarissa’s Painter
Authors: Shepherd Lynn 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Samuel Richardson's novels have always been a particularly fertile seam for literary study, and in recent years they have been the subject of a whole range of different approaches, from the political and feminist, to those concerned with formal questions such as genre and epistolary technique. Richardson has also attracted considerable interest from an interdisciplinary perspective, with studies focusing on the pictorial and spatial elements of his works, and the illustrations he commissioned for Pamela. This extensively-illustrated monograph takes this approach one step further, and looks at issues of visual and verbal representation in Richardson from the perspective of eighteenth-century portraiture. Richardson first became conversant with the conventions of contemporary portraiture in the wake of the phenomenal success of Pamela. It was then that he commissioned his first portrait, and became involved in the process of producing illustrations for the lavish sixth edition of the novel. This study makes the case that these two events combined to give Richardson a new vocabulary for the depiction of individual character, and the articulation of power, affection, and control within the family, and between men and women. We can see the first signs of this in Pamela II, which is so often dismissed and so little read, but it reaches its full maturity in the rich three-dimensionality of Clarissa. Moreover it is Richardson's use of the conventions of contemporary portraiture in Sir Charles Grandison that explains many of the tensions and inconsistencies within that text, and makes the reader's response to Richardson's 'good man' so ambivalent.
Eighteenth-Century Portraiture
Authors: Shepherd Lynn 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In December 1751 Sophia Westcomb wrote to her long-standing friend and correspondent Samuel Richardson, describing an evening she had just enjoyed with his ‘admirable and worthy Nieces’: I had not only the satisfaction of having my Dear Papa, and his works, made choice of as the most pleasing subject for our conversation, but had likewise the additional one of beholding yr Person; yes sure it was your very self; for I think no coppy could ever be so like, however Mr Leake made me observe that it did not actually breathe, and was also enclosd in a frame with a Glass before it; the underwritten Lines are no less a Picture of yr Mind. I have seen one of these Prints at Mrs Jodrells, and earnestly wished for one, but was at a loss for the means. I found you would not give it unaskd and my modesty hindered me from that.
Richardson’s First Portrait
Authors: Shepherd Lynn 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There are five extant and authentic portraits of Samuel Richardson, all painted, as far as we can tell, between the early 1740s and the mid-1750s.1 The period spanned by the paintings thus correlates almost exactly with Richardson’s career as a novelist, which begins with Pamela in 1740 and ends with the final volumes of Grandison in 1754. And the fact that the portraits were all painted in the middle decades of the eighteenth century means that the production of these images coincides with a new and unprecedented level of debate about the function and meaning of portraiture. Thus at the time when Richardson was commissioning his own paintings, it was possible for the first time for such images to participate in two very different visual discourses and draw resonance from them both: from formal public portraiture on the one hand, to intimate private likenesses on the other. In fact Richardson’s five portraits mark an extraordinarily precise trajectory between these two extremes, from Highmore’s ‘feigned oval’ half-length now in the National Portrait Gallery, which may have been intended to hang in a literary ‘gallery of worthies’, to the small full-length portrait the same artist painted for Richardson’s friend Lady Bradshaigh, which includes within it an image of its intended spectator.2 The latter is one example of the portrait as private ‘relic’; another, equally intense, is the first of the five, Hayman’s conversation piece of the novelist and his family, now in Tate Britain (Figure 2.1).
Introduction
Authors: Manning Mark , Nier Erlend , Schanz Jochen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We’d always thought that if you wanted to cripple the US economy, you ‘d take out the payment systems. Banks would be forced to fall back on inefficient physical transfers of money. Businesses would resort to barter and IOUs; the level of economic activity across the country could drop like a rock. Alan Greenspan, Chairman of the Board of Governors of the US Federal Reserve System, 1987–2006. Today’s complex web of market infrastructures – payment, clearing and settlement systems is a response to frictions that arise when goods and financial securities are traded.