bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Teachers and readers
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Children usually first experience drama as performance, and for some the fun leads happily into play-reading with a lively sense of per formative possibilities; but most people first read drama seriously at school, and though many teachers recognize in casting and reading aloud that plays require a different way of reading than novels and poetry, the reductive approach too often embodied in criticism and examining stunts the development of play-reading. There is also a regrettable tendency to treat (expensive) theatre-visits or video resources as either authoritative or culpably ‘unfaithful’ to the sanctioned edition of the text, rather than variant possibilities.
The play-text since the 1950s
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All canons are ideologically constructed; in contemporary canons it shows. With limited hindsight and partial experience of unresolved political debates, all critics inevitably project illusion as well as revealing actuality. That contemporary Anglophone playwriting has roots in the 1950s, when certain playwrights (Brecht, Beckett, Genet, Ionesco, Osborne, Pinter) began to make an impact on stages in Europe and the US, is easily agreed, but the degree of discontinuity created by that impact is moot.
Period and special papers
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For timed essays (usually one hour) in closed exams many of the points made in the last chapter apply: the economy of technical jargon, the need to scrutinize rubrics with care, time-watching, and so on. The formulation of TEQ rubrics varies from place to place and paper to paper: in Shakespeare papers genre-based questions are common (‘Discuss X in any three comedies’), but in period papers author-based questions are often preferred (‘ “Z was no playwright, but a frustrated novelist.” 1 Every candidate should, however, know before entering whether to guess if they don’t know: sometimes it’s good strategy, but many multiple-choice papers have deductions for wrong answers specifically to make it a liability.
Sample answers
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These five timed TEQs and practical criticisms were written either during their authors’ preparation for the Cambridge English Tripos 2001 or in the exams themselves. The questions all come from Tripos papers of recent years, in Shakespeare, Literary Criticism, and Tragedy; the answers were all written in one hour except number 5, which takes the Tragedy paper option of a single three-hour answer. Spelling mistakes and solecisms attributable to haste have been silently corrected, and the style of quotations and emphases standardized, but answers have otherwise been transcribed without alteration. Passages set for comment were not identified in the question-papers, but for the benefit of readers we have supplied authors, titles, and dates in crotchets.
Renaissance genres: Commedia dell’arte, tragicomedy, masque, and opera
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Renaissance or rebirth of classical culture was founded on its physical recovery: statues were dug from the ground, texts system artically rescued from obscurity and saved from progressive physical decay. As recovered knowledge flowed north from fourteenth-century Italy to sixteenth-century England, artistic practice and theory, like national/cultural self-perceptions, were profoundly altered. Painters developed perspective, musicians harmony, poets rhyme and stanza forms, and prose-writers a new punctuation leading to the grammatical sentence; joined-up writing replaced gothic scripts, printing began international standardization and revolutionized the commerce and materiality of written texts, and recognizably modern science began, prompted by classical architecture, engineering, and medicine. In theatre too the recovery of classical drama played a vital part, combined (as in all arts) with survivals and legacies of mediaeval practice; but Renaissance theatre was birth as much as rebirth.
Sociolinguistic Patterns
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT has been known for some time that differences in language are tied to social class. In the 1950s, for example, it was suggested that certain lexical and phonological differences in English could be classified as U (upper class) or non-U (lower class), e.g. serviette (non-U) v. table-napkin (U), to take what was then one of the best known of all linguistic class-indicators of England. Notable pairs are have one’s bath (U) v. take a bath (non-U), writing paper v. note paper (non-U), pudding (U) v. sweet (non-U), or what would be called ‘dessert’ in the USA. Previously, most studies of variability were concerned with regional variation or dialectology.
Pidgin and Creole Languages
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN his speech to the English-speaking Union Conference in Ottawa, the Duke of Edinburgh made reference to one of the best known pidgin and creole languages in observing that he was ‘referred to in that splendid language as “Fella belong Mrs. Queen”‘. Although the Duke was right to consider Tok Pisin (‘talk pidgin’) spoken in Papua New Guinea as a language rather than a dialect of English, he was wrong about his designation. He would be called ‘man bilong kwin’. Contrary to what many Europeans think about Tok Pisin,fella cannot be used in this way at all to mean ‘man’ or ‘husband’, so the Duke’s statement is ungrammatical. Fella can be used only as a suffix in Tok Pisin and has a number of grammatical functions, e.g. to mark adjectives and numerals, as in tupela blakpe!a pik ‘two black pigs’, and to mark the second person plural form of ‘you’, as in yupela i no ken go ‘you (plural) cannot go’.
Religion: The Useless Hypothesis
Authors: Gaskin J C A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Section XI of the Enquiry (‘Of a Particular Providence and of a Future State’) is concerned with religion and the existence of a deity. It is designed both to show that the supposition of God’s existence is useless as an hypothesis for explaining the phenomena of the universe or the vicissitudes of human life, and to show that belief in a provident God is not an essential part of the functioning of morality.
Numbers and Classes
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conceptual clarification described in the previous chapter dispenses with infinitesimals. But that was not felt to be good enough: some account of the real numbers was also needed. This chapter first explains that need and presents the two best known accounts of real numbers. That is followed by a sketch of the way in which the ideas for the transfinite ordinal and cardinal number systems grew out of the study of classes of points, and the rudiments of those number systems are presented. Finally, we look at accounts of the natural numbers. This will complete an account of the nineteenth-century movement to clarify mathematical concepts and to place the accepted practices and theorems of mathematics on a sound footing.
Principia Mathematica
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the aims of Principia Mathematica (PM) is the reformulation of mathematical propositions in terms of a minimal number of undefined elements and the deduction of all established mathematics, thus reformulated, from a minimal number of unproved premisses.Russell took the undefined elements to be logical and inferred that the success of the project would show that mathematical truths are truths of logical form:
Mathematics, therefore, is wholly composed of propositions which only contain variables and logical constants, that is to say, purely formal propositions-for the logical constants are those which constitute form.
Ramsey’s Attempt to Rescue Logicism
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Just when the first volume of the second edition of Principia Mathematica was published, Frank Ramsey, a Cambridge philosopher and mathematician then only 22 years old, published his own view of the foundations of mathematics.1 Agreeing with Whitehead and Russell that the truths of pure mathematics are truths of logic, he proposed that a theory of simple types be taken as our foundational system, thereby avoiding the obstacles posed by the order restrictions. These views are elaborated and defended in one substantial paper on the topic, The Foundations of Mathematics.2 In this chapter I consider first Ramsey’s justification for his claim that a foundational system may ignore order distinctions, and then his defence of the claim that pure mathematics is logic, as realized in a system of simple types.
Zermelo’s Axiomatic Set Theory
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As Russell and Whitehead were preparing the first edition of Principia Mathematica, Zermelo was formulating axioms for Cantorian set theory without type restrictions. The result was a seminal paper published in 1908. The project was motivated by the paradoxes. Set theory, Zermelo wrote, was an indispensable part of mathematics, but ‘the very existence of this discipline seems to be threatened by certain contradictions, or “antinomies”, that can be derived from its principles—principles necessarily governing our thinking, it seems—and to which no entirely satisfactory solution has yet been found.’
A satisfactory solution would require the articulation of an alternative to the conception of a set as the extension of a concept, an alternative that would not give rise to the offending principles. At the time, Zermelo frankly admitted, no such alternative conception had been found. How in this circumstance would it help to provide an axiomatization of set theory? Zermelo envisaged a two-stage programme. The first task was to formulate axioms that, taken together, would be generous enough to allow the development of arithmetic and analysis within set theory, thus preserving its foundational role, but which would be too strict to reproduce the paradoxes. The second task was to prove that the axioms would give rise to no new paradox, that is, to prove the axioms consistent. Zermelo’s paper of 1908 achieved the first stage.
Blitz on Paradise
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the discovery of the paradoxes around the end of the nineteenth century, Cantor’s set theory continued to be developed in the following years and used fruitfully both in clarifying the infinitesimal calculus and in the study of sets of spatial points and its generalization to the study of topological spaces.There is no doubt that set theory, including the theory of the transfinite, has an intuitive content that reveals an apparent realm of considerable beauty, ‘Cantor’s paradise’, in Hilbert’s memorable phrase.Zermelo’s axiomatization of the theory dispelled immediate concern about the paradoxes, as those routes to contradiction were not passable in Zermelo’s system. But confidence in the theory would remain shaky as long as positive reason for believing the theory consistent was lacking. And new attacks were on the way.
Hilbert’s Programme
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hilbert aimed to justify acceptance and use of arithmetic,analysis, and set theory. A natural way of approaching this task is to look for indubitable truths to serve as axioms for a comprehensive theory, along with inference rules that are indubitably truth-preserving. This may have been Frege’s approach, but following discovery of the contradiction, Russell concluded that some element of doubt about the truth of the axioms is unavoidable. The best one could hope for, on Russell’s view, was that the axioms were inductively well supported by their known consequences. Accordingly, Russell distinguished between epistemological foundations and deductive foundations. In making this move, Russell had performed a half-revolution. The epistemological basis was now regarded as comprising the simplest and most immediately evident truths of mathematics, together with quasi-empirical induction. The goal, however, was still to establish the truth of the axioms, beyond reasonable doubt if not beyond all doubt. For this goal the permitted means were inadequate. Russell never found a sufficiently powerful set of axioms that he felt met the required standard. Had he abandoned the goal of a comprehensive theory and decided to treat the subjects of real analysis and transfinite sets separately, he would have fared no better: recall the troubles over Dedekind’s Continuity Axiom, the Axiom of Infinity, and the Axiom of Choice.
Solving the Class Paradoxes
Authors: Giaquinto M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Zermelo’s view of a universe of sets, there are many of them, as there is no restriction on the class of atoms that can constitute the initial stage of a universe. But even if we hold the initial stage fixed, there will be a plurality of universes, on Zermelo’s view. There is no absolute all-inclusive universe (for a fixed initial stage), as any candidate for the title of ‘universe’ can be taken as a starting point for further iterations of the procedures by which higher stages are formed, so that the candidate universe is just an initial segment of a more extended universe. As stages are indexed by ordinal numbers, the idea can be expressed in terms of the series of ordinals: ‘This series reaches no true completion in its unrestricted advance,’ Zermelo wrote, ‘but possesses only relative stopping-points.’1 The proper classes of a universe U, such as the class of all its sets and the class of all its ordinals, are not sets in U but are sets in any universe that extends U, as the proper classes of U will be sets in the stage formed from U by adding to U all selections of members of U. In this Zermelo saw a solution of the class paradoxes. Thinking of a universe of set theory as a model of the theory, Zermelo wrote:
Hume to Hegel
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shortly after Berkeley, in Dublin, gave the world his empiricist metaphysics, there was born in Edinburgh a philosopher who was to take empiricist principles to an anti-metaphysical extreme, David Hume. Hume was born in 1711 into a junior branch of a noble Scottish family. As the younger son of a mother widowed early he had to make his own way in the world. Between twelve and fifteen he studied literature and philosophy at Edinburgh University, falling in love, he tells us, with both subjects. He then set out to prepare himself for a legal profession, but soon gave up because, in his own words, he found ‘an insurmountable Aversion to anything but the pursuits of Philosophy and General Learning’.
The Ridiculousness Of Being Overcome By Pleasure: Protagoras 352 B 1-358 D 4
Authors: Wolfsdorf David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Socrates ‘ celebrated denial of akrasia in Protagoras precisely criticizes the condition commonly conceived as knowingly being overcome by pleasure, i.e. knowledge-akrasia-through-pleasure. The critique crucially employs the argument form reductio. The argument and its immediate context are structured as follows:
That is, while that act contains aspects of both goodness and badness, on balance the act contains more bad than good.
Archytas Unbound
Authors: Barker Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No One till now has devoted a whole book to Archytas’ thought. Specialists in Greek mathematics and related sciences comment often enough on certain of the fragments and reports about him, but he has tended to be marginalized and rather oddly contextualized by historians of philosophy. His work falls squarely into the fourth century bc, yet as Carl Hu·man notes in this admirable volume (44–5), he has regularly been treated as a sort of honorary Presocratic. The Archytan fragments and testimonia are included in the standard collection of texts on the Presocratics by Diels and Kranz (hereafter DK); and Guthrie, for example, discusses him (briefly) just before Xenophanes, who was more than a century his senior.3 Further, in both these books and many others he appears as a ‘footnote to Pythagoras and Presocratic Pythagoreanism’, despite the fact that Aristotle, one of our most authoritative witnesses (who mentions him on several occasions, and devoted a three-book treatise and part of another to his work), never calls him a Pythagorean, and never mentions him in the same context as those to whom he does give this title.
With friends, ‘ more is going on than meets the eye’
Authors: Dancy R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
More is going on than meets the eye’ is a major theme of this book, for while the authors are by no means followers of the cult of Leo Strauss, they are wedded to finding subtexts. Indeed, it appears that people have complained to them about this very feature of their work (see their comments on the accusation of ‘overinterpretation’, 172). And they are also wedded to certain highly controversial philosophical theses that govern various aspects of their interpretation.2 The theses in question come forward as part of a running polemic against people variously called ‘modern philosophers’, ‘analytic philosophers’, ‘moderns’, and so on. The culprits are not always explicitly identified, but it is pretty clear that among them Gregory Vlastos would be prominently included.3 There is no hope of covering this dense book adequately in anything short of another book. I shall focus on some central features of the dialogue and Penner and Rowe’s interpretation of them, and on some of the philosophical views they take to underlie that interpretation.
Cardiopulmonary bypass simulation
Authors: Morris Richard , Pybus Andy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is characterized by a relatively low frequency of rapidly evolving but potentially serious critical incidents. In a recent American study, Stammers and Mejak surveyed the results of over 650,000 perfusions carried out at nearly 800 institutions, and reported that serious injury resulting from perfusion-related incidents occurred in approximately 1 in 2000 cases.
Creating virtual reality medical simulations
Authors: Alverson Dale C , Caudell, Thomas P , Goldsmith Timothy E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the step-by-step approach to creating a virtual reality (VR) simulation for medical education, training, and performance assessment, as well as an example of the tools and methods that can be applied. VR simulations can be used onsite as part of a simulation centre or independently offsite, by individual learners or teams of learners, as well as used interactively by teams over distance at different sites in distributed VR environments. VR allows students and trainees to be uniquely immersed and engaged in lifelike situations where they can learn without suffering the consequences that may occur due to lack of experience(1).With VR, as with simulation in general, students are offered a type of experiential training that would otherwise be impossible to achieve, a safe environment to make mistakes and improve performance through practice. Simulation training is especially important in medical education where students are expected to learn how to react in high-risk situations where human lives are potentially at stake. VR simulation for training and education represents ‘serious games’ that provide an opportunity for students to apply important concepts while thinking on their feet without endangering themselves or others, opportunities to improve understanding, gain confidence in application of their knowledge and skills. In addition, through a process called reification, VR can create environments in which participants could not normally interact, environments that are not normally accessible but that could be produced for improving comprehension of otherwise abstract concepts, making them appear concrete with which the learner can interact(2).Virtual reality simulations of complex or abstract concepts offer powerful tools to improve human comprehension and understanding of those concepts, through the process of ‘reification’ in which those abstractions can be made to appear concrete and with which the learner can interact.
Basic Categories: The Noun–Verb Distinction
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within the neuropsychological literature, a great deal of research on word processing and the neural representation of words has focused on issues of categorization. For example, selective impairments observed in particular patient populations (or in single case studies) have been used to argue for distinct representations of categories such as nouns vs. verbs (Daniele et al. 1994; Miceli et al. 1984), content vs. function words (Caplan, Hildebrandt, and Makris 1996; Gardner and Zurif 1975), concrete vs. abstract words (Eviatar, Menn, and Zaidel 1990; Funnell, Corballis, and Gazzaniga 2001; Tyler, Moss, and Jennings 1995; Villardita, Grioli, and Quattropani 1988; Warrington and Shallice 1984), and different semantic categories (e.g. animals vs. tool names; Warrington and McCarthy 1987).
Syntax and Morphology at the Word Level: Summary and Critical Evaluation
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As already mentioned at the beginning of this section, the main theoretical and empirical debates regarding the neurocognition of syntax and morphology at the word level have revolved around the distinction between ‘‘rule-based’’ and ‘‘network-based’’ approaches. Whereas both of these model types come in several different flavors, the basic controversy between them pertains to the question of whether linguistic regularities are generated by rule-based knowledge or not. Crucially, this debate should not be taken to suggest that proponents of connectionist models deny the existence of regular structures in language.
On the functional interpretation of late positive ERP effects in language processing
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we depart from our functionally-oriented discussion in order to focus on a particular language-related ERP effect (or perhaps even class of ERP effects), namely the late positivity. Late positivities are often observed in response to (morpho)syntactic violations, either as monophasic components or following an (E)LAN. As will have become clear throughout the preceding chapters, however, late positivities are by no means restricted to this type of sentential environment. Rather, they have been observed in response to a wide range of language-related manipulations, thereby warranting a componentoriented chapter of their own.
The mechanisms of RNA virus evolution
Authors: Holmes Edward C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many ways, this chapter is the heart of the book. In particular, it is arguable that the more ‘macroevolutionary’ patterns described in Chapters 2, 5, and 6 cannot be under- stood without a firm grasp of the processes of microevolution in RNA viruses. My specific aim here is therefore to describe the rates, determinants, and consequences of a variety of fundamental evolutionary processes in RNA viruses, particularly mutation, recombination, natural selection, and epistasis. Perhaps to the relief of many working with RNA viruses, debates concerning the respective roles played by natural selection and genetic drift—what John Gillespie has called the ‘great obsession of population genetics’ (Gillespie 1998)—have not dominated evolutionary arguments. This is probably because students of RNA virus evolution have spent more time considering how frequent mutation may play an even more important role in shaping evolutionary dynamics. However, no discussion of the mechanics and dynamics of viral evolution is complete without at least picking at the great obsession.