bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The economic rationale for intervention in the tobacco market
Authors: Jha Prabhat , Musgrove Philip , Chaloupka Frank J , Yurekli Ayda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Economic theory starts with the assumption that a consumer usually knows what is best for him or herself—the notion of ‘consumer sovereignty’. The theory also assumes that privately-determined consumption choices, including the decision whether to consume a particular product at all within a free competitive market, will most efficiently allocate sodety’s scarce resources. Within this framework, economic theory holds that if smokers consume tobacco with full information about its health consequences and addictive potential, and bear all costs and benefits of their choice themselves, there is no justification, on the grounds of inefficiency, for governments to interfere. However, in practice, the market for tobacco is characterized by three specfic ‘market failures’-that is, features that result in economic inefficiencies and that may therefore justify public intervention. First, there is an ‘information failure’ about the health risks of smoking: some consumers do not know the risks, and, even where consumers are informed, they may not appreciate the scale of those risks or apply the knowledge to themselves. Second, there is an information failure about the addictive potential of tobacco. Many smoken, and especially adolescents, under-estimate the risk of becoming addicted and, once addicted, face very high costs in trying to quit. These two information failures result in high private costs of death and disability for smokers. The third market failure is the external costs of smoking—that is, the costs imposed by smokers on others. External costs are most clearly apparent as the health effects of passive smoking. There are several ways that governments may intervene. In economic theory, ‘first-best’ interventions, which specifically address the identified inefficiency, should ideally be pursued. In the tobacco market, the first-best interventions would probably be to educate young people about the risks of addiction and disease from smoking, or to restrict their access to tobacco.
Consumer information and tobacco use
Authors: Kenkel Donald , Chen Likwang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses two related questions: first, are consumers well-informed about the consequences of tobacco use?; and, second, can public polides to improve consumer information reduce tobacco use? Although in many countries people are generally aware of the health risks of smoking, there are gaps in their perceptions of those risks. Individuals tend to under-estimate the risk of smoking relative to other causes of death. In addition, many smokers appear not to apply their knowledge of the health risks to themselves personally. Finally, evidence suggests that young people under estimate the addictive properties of tobacco. In some countries significant improvements in consumer information about the links between tobacco use and disease are still possible; while in other countries consumers are probably as fully informed as is realistically possible. In many countries, so-called ‘information shocks’-such as the publication of new reports on the health effects of smoking-have reduced tobacco consumption. If the experience of these countries can be applied elsewhere, consumer information polities appear to be effective instruments for tobacco control. This conclusion is buttressed by the success of specific interventions including mass-media campaigns and warning labels on cigarette packs.
Smoking cessation and nicotine-replacement therapies
Authors: Novotny Thomas E , Cohen Jillian Clare , Yurekli Ayda , Sweanor, David , Beyer Joy de 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Initiatives that help smokers to quit are key components in an effective tobacco-control program. Unaided, individuals’ chances of quitting are low, but success rates are higher when smokers use nicotine-replacement therapies (NRTs) and other pharmacological therapies. The current market for NRTs worldwide is small compared with the market for cigarettes, and is mostly concentrated in high-income countries. The small market largely reflects low levels of demand, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. However, the regulation of NRTs, for example through conditions of sale, also reduces access to them. Public policy options for increasing access to NRTs include the deregulation of conditions of sale. In addition, increased public information about the hazards of smoking and the benefits of cessation appear to be important for increasing demand for NRTs. Where studied, NRTs have been found to be cost-effective. Theoretically, these therapies could be publicly financed for the poorest smokers. In practice, however, it would be difficult to target those on the lowest incomes.
Pricing and taxation
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the various strategies that states and nations use to control alcoholrelated problems, the regulation of alcohol taxes and prices has been by far the most popular. This is not simply because governments need financial resources and by tradition acquire them by taxation; regulations on taxes and prices are relatively easy to establish in law and to enforce in practice. For more than a century, taxation of alcoholic beverages by many governments has also been used to reduce rates of harm from drinking. Economic studies conducted in many developed and some developing regions of the world have demonstrated that increased alcoholic beverage taxes and prices are related to reductions in alcohol use and related problems.
Drinking–driving countermeasures
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The automobile age has brought with it unprecedented prosperity and freedom of movement, but at a great cost. Motor vehicles have directly caused the death and injury of millions of people. When the driver of a motor vehicle has been drinking alcohol, the risk of injury and death is substantially increased. The generally favoured term for the criminal action of driving a vehicle under the influence of alcohol is ‘drinking–driving’ (WHO 1994). Drinking–driving accidents are a problem in any country that makes substantial use of motor vehicles for transportation. For this reason a variety of drinking–driving countermeasures have been developed, and many of them have been systematically evaluated.
The international context of alcohol policy
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic premise of this book, as laid out in Chapter 2, is that alcohol is no ordinary commodity. There was a moment in history, a century ago, when this was recognized at the international level. A series of agreements between the European colonial powers effectively controlled the market in ‘trade spirits’ by forbidding exports to Africa (Bruun et al. 1975). In recent decades, however, the operating assumption in international agreements has often been to treat alcoholic beverages as an ordinary commodity. In a world of increasing trade globalization, this operating assumption has meant that national and local alcohol policies, predicated on the extraordinary nature of alcohol, have increasingly come under pressure at the international level. This chapter describes how these pressures have arisen, and how they affect national alcohol policies and the prospects for alcohol control at an international level.
The policy arena
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caetano Raul , Casswell Sally , Edwards Griffith , Giesbrecht Norman , Graham Kathryn , Grube Joel , Gruenewald Paul , Hill Linda , Holder Harold , Homel Ross , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An arena is a place where contests, and at times conflicts, take place. When applied to policy, the word takes on the connotation of a sphere of action for opposing views, contending groups, and competing interests. In Section III (Chapters 5–12), we examined the evidence with regard to a wide range of prevention and treatment strategies that could serve as instruments of alcohol policies. While there is now a growing scientific basis to support alcohol policy initiatives, there is much less understanding of the way in which different countries and communities operate within the policy arena. In this chapter, we move from the economic context of alcohol policy (Chapter 14) to the process through which policy is implemented by governments and other players at the national and local levels. This chapter also considers the constituency groups, stakeholders, and social forces that affect both the development and maintenance of effective policy as it is formulated by national and local governments. Although private organizations have policies, our analysis here applies primarily to government actions in the areas of public health, public safety, and social welfare.
Current criteria for vascular dementia — a critical appraisal
Authors: Bowler John V , Hachinski Vladimir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three simultaneous sets of events converged to alter this. The first of these was the work of Blessed, Tomlinson and Roth who described both Alzheimer’s disease and multiple infarcts as separate causes of dementia (Blessed et al. 1968; Tomlinson et al. 1970).
Managing caries in enamel
Authors: Kidd Edwina , Nunn June 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is important to understand what caries is, to follow the logic of its suggested management. Dental caries is a process which may take place on any tooth surface in the oral cavity where a microbial biofilm (dental plaque) is allowed to develop over a period of time. Formation of the biofilm is a natural physiological process (see Chapter 4). It is important to remember that the biofilm is not a haphazard collection of micro-organisms, but a community with a collective physiology, which can solve the specific physico-chemical problems posed by the environment at the site. The bacteria in the biofilm are always metabolically active, causing minute fluctuations in pH. These may cause a net loss of mineral from the tooth when the pH is dropping. This is called demineralization. Alternatively, there may be a net gain of mineral when the pH is increasing.
Prevention of pulpal and periapical disease
Authors: Whitworth John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Apical periodontitis is a term to describe inflammatory conditions of the periodontal tissues that are caused by irritants in the pulp canal system. While the majority of these lesions develop around root apices, apical periodontitis can occur laterally or in furcal regions, associated with any natural or pathological communication between the pulp space and the periodontium.
Prevention in the ageing dentition
Authors: Steele James , Walls Angus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dental disease and tooth loss are not an inevitable consequence of increasing age, but both are almost universal and both are irreversible. Eventually, if a person lives long enough, disability through the functional impairment resulting from tooth loss will take its toll, to a greater or lesser degree. As age increases, the emphasis of dental care often moves away from preventing and managing every diseased tooth, towards a wider strategy aimed at the prevention of a more general condition: functional limitation and dental disability, which usually result from tooth loss. Preventive dentistry for older people, whether aimed at the individual or the whole population, is generally best viewed from this perspective. Preventing or minimizing this disability involves primary prevention (preventing disease, for example by fluoride use or oral hygiene), secondary prevention (preventing disease progression, for example by early detection) or tertiary prevention (preventing the impairment and disability resulting from disease, for example by treatment planning strategies and tooth replacement).
The Decline Of The Old English Monarchy
Authors: Stenton F M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Through the work of Edward the Elder and his sons the ascendancy of the West Saxon dynasty was so firmly established that it survived a crisis which threatened the unity of their kingdom. After a long illness King Eadred died on 23 November 955. He had no children, and the members of the royal house who stood nearest to the succession were Eadwig and Edgar, the sons of his brother Edmund. Edgar was only twelve years of age when Eadred died, and Eadwig, who was chosen king, can hardly have been more than three years older. His distant cousin, the chronicler JEthelweard, states that the common people called him the ‘all-fair’ because of his beauty.
The Reorganization Of The English Church
Authors: Stenton F M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his attitude towards the ecclesiastical politics of his day the Conqueror took the position that it was the duty of the secular ruler to supervise the government of the church within his dominions. The reconstruction of the Norman church after the disasters of the tenth century had been the work of his predecessors. From them he inherited an ecclesiastical supremacy which enabled him not only to appoint bishops and abbots and to summon councils, but to intervene in diocesan administration. William of Poitiers, his first biographer, records that he took action as duke against bishops and archdeacons who dealt too leniently with offenders convicted in their courts. In 1066 there was no part of the Continent where the ecclesiastical authority of the ruler was more firmly established than in Normandy.
German Singularity?
Authors: Kramer Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German history, according to an influential interpretation, developed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries along a fateful ‘special path’. In this view, advanced by German scholars (notably Hans-Ulrich Wehler), but also in related form by Anglo-American historians (such as A.J. P. Taylor), Germany diverged from the normal path of western societies which proceeded from feudalism to capitalism and liberal democracy.
I Disappear
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M 
Published: November 2023

abstract
On October 20th I was lunching with Tredwell at his house with the Noyevs when a ring came at the front door. Noyev’s young daughter went to the door and was given a small note by an unknown white-haired old lady. It was written in English in red ink- and was to say that we were all to be arrested again, and ended with the unpleasant sentence: ‘For Bailey the position is especially dangerous and shooting is not out of the question.’ This was not a nice dish to be served up at lunch. The message was dated October 18th, i.e. the day before my interview with Kolesov in his car. I am sure that had Kolesov received the message at the time of our interview, he would have ordered my arrest; but such things moved very slowly in the Turkestan Government, and it was usually a couple of days before a message had been decoded and brought up for action. This was the 20th, and events might be expected at any moment.
To The Mountains
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I Had been in Tashkent more than two months before these events happened. Apart from the soldier of the 11th Bengal Lancers who only brought private letters, I had received no communication from India or Kashgar except the wireless message ordering my return, and even this had been kept from me by the authorities and I had only heard of it secretly from not entirely reliable sources. I believed that the British force which had been supporting anti-Bolshevik Russians near Merv was coming on to Tashkent. How easy it would have been and what a welcome they would have had! I had received no news of any kind from them, consequently I was in the dark as to their intentions.
Spring Activities
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On March 27th a special train was sent from Tashkent to Moscow with any foreigners who wished to leave the country.
I was sorry to lose several friends, though I had not seen much of them lately. The greatest loss was that of Tredwell who had been in constant touch with me and whose support and encouragement had been of great value and comfort, and whose help, if l had been captured, might have been invaluable.
Back To The Mountains
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Private teaching such as that given by a governess was not allowed, being, as we all know, the worst form ofbouryoui activity which eventually leads to exploitation, imperialism, speculation and various other dreadful wickednesses. Private teaching, therefore, was forbidden. Many (especially Czech) prisoners of war were earning a little money by teaching music and foreign languages — among these Chuka, whose passport I had once held. A drive against this undemocratic· activity was carried out in September 1919. The teacher was called a speculator and the employer abourjoui. If you want either to learn or to teach, you should go to a school open to all. Teaching had to be on special lines; for instance in the teaching of history no mention could be made of kings. At the same time education was very keenly advocated and pushed forward. The streets were placarded with notices: ‘Education will be the saving of the Revolution’, ‘Get yourself educated’, etc. etc.
Frontier Skirmish
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We were now nearing the Persian frontier. Wells and inhabitants had been comparatively frequent. We left Gumbezli well at about nine in the evening and travelled along the direct and fairly well marked track leading to Sarakhs, the town on the Persian frontier. We could not travel directly there. A Russian town with a Bolshevik garrison stood on this side of the river which formed the frontier here. So after going for some way along this track, we left it and steered due west by the stars. We once passed a shepherd’s camp and hailed the people, asking them to let us have some grain for our horses. They were terrified of us and said they had none, that there was a well half an hour’s journey off in the direction we were taking, and that if we did not go at once they would shoot. We never found this well and I doubt whether it existed. This was serious, as we were getting desperate; we had given the very last of our grain to our ponies and had been hoping to buy some in this slightly more populous region. Soon after this we crossed a track of real desert twenty versts wide, on which nothing grew. The people called it Kerk, but whether this was a name for this peculiar type of land or the name of the locality I did not find out. We could not halt on this as there was no fuel and it was terribly cold. There was a moon shortly after midnight. By its light we saw that we crossed a well-worn track cutting across our direction. Our guides knew this and said it led to Sarakhs. At two-forty a.m. we came on saxaul bushes again and halted, lit fires, warmed ourselves and slept. The Russians spent a long time preparing tea, time which I think would have been better spent in sleep. We had travelled sixty-four versts this day — about forty-two miles.
Summer–Autumn 1940
Authors: Diamond Hanna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Awitness, then a child living in the small village in the Pyrenees, wrote the following account of the departure of the refugees from Trie-sur-Blaise:In July those going to other areas of the non-Occupied Zone departed. The proper process of repatriation took place in August. The people from Verdun who were staying with me left on 6 August by train. The Belgians who were with my grandmother went to Lourdes on 8 August and from there were taken back to Belgium in coaches. Some wrote back that the return journey was much harder than the exodus had been. Departures were spread out across the whole of August. Some stayed much longer, notably the foreign Jews who lived off American subsidies until they were rounded up and we never heard from them again.
Crashing out
Authors: Horne Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sleepiness can be fatal during driving. In fact, this is the most likely reason why sleepiness and sleep loss is harmful to health, and is a topic of much public interest and one where sleep research can be of particular benefit to society. Much of my own work has been in this area and is the reason why this chapter delves into what, at first glance, may seem to be straightforward issues. Until recently, and on dull and monotonous roads, such as UK motorways, US freeways, and European autobahns, many sleep-related crashes were simply attributed to ‘driver error’ or ‘inattention’. It is only in the last few years, with more careful investigations, that it has been realized that there is often more to this inattention than meets the eye, and in the UK, at least, falling asleep at the wheel accounts for around one in five crashes on these dull and monotonous roads.
Time travellers
Authors: Horne Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
About one in six working adults is a shift worker of one sort or another, and on various shift patterns. It takes about 10 days of continuous nights for the body clock and sleep to become fully adapted to night work, sleeping normally by day. Unfortunately, this is impractical for all except those who enjoy being on permanent nights. One alternative is for a rapidly rotating shift system, with no more than two, perhaps three, successive periods on any one shift. The body clock cannot possibly adapt to this and simply gives up doing so, staying where it is, and one copes as best as one can. Until recently one of the most common shift patterns was an eight-hour, rapidly rotating shift system of ‘earlies’ (starting about 6am), ‘lates’ (2pm), and nights (10pm), entailing two or three periods on each shift. It has the advantage not only of allowing for some additional overtime, but of being able to incorporate at least 24 hours (including a good recovery sleep) for a changeover from one shift to another.
REM sleep
Authors: Horne Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The link between eye movements and dreaming was first suggested a long time ago, with one of the earliest accounts appearing in 1892, from a Professor G.T. Ladd, a professor of mental and moral philosophy at Yale University. He reported, through pure introspection about his own sleep, that during deep dreamless sleep his eyes were stationary, but during dreaming sleep he was ‘inclined also to believe that, in somewhat vivid visual dreams, the eyeballs move gently in their sockets, taking various positions . . .’. How he came up with this idea is a mystery because neither Ladd nor his associates actually watched the eyes of sleepers.
Or REM wakefulness?
Authors: Horne Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Earlier, I mentioned that the similarity between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and wakefulness is the reason why, for most other mammals, REM sleep is also called ‘paradoxical’ sleep. Whereas the EEG of human REM sleep is slightly different, being more like that of very light sleep, in both humans and other mammals there are striking similarities between REM sleep and wakefulness. For example, other types of EEG activity in the brain, called ‘gamma’ and ‘hippocampal theta’ waves, normally found in alert wakefulness, are also to be seen in REM sleep, but not in the remainder of (non-REM) sleep. Hip- pocampal theta appears when an animal intends to move, and gamma activity indicates that different parts of the cortex are co ordinating themselves for action.