bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Markov Chains
Authors: Hage Per , Harary Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the classification of ceremonial exchange in Highland New Guinea we proposed the model of a non-numerical network to accommodate structures with multiple exchange relations. We now introduce a special case of a numerical network known as a Markov chain to simulate the flow of wealth through an exchange system. We use a chain to estimate the distribution of valuables in different communities of the kula ring for the purpose of showing the relation between access to wealth and the development of political hierarchy. In the Carolines the closeness of one island to all other islands and its position between all pairs of islands are structural determinants of economic and political dominance. In the kula ring we conjecture that the position of a community in the circulation of wealth is a structural determinant of internal stratification.
Combination and Enumeration
Authors: Hage Per , Harary Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a review of the state of kinship studies, occasioned by the publication of Scheffier’s (1978) book on Australian systems, W. Shapiro (1982) dismisses Levi-Strauss’s theory of marriage alliance as ‘philosophic posturing’, citing in particular what he believes to be the analytical superficiality and empirical disconfirmation of the configuration of relations known as the ‘atom of kinship’:
The analysis is glib in the extreme: a ‘plus’ sign represents dyads which are ‘free and familiar’, a ‘minus’ sign dyads ‘characterized by hostility, antagonism, or reserve .. .’ (Levi-Strauss 1963: 44). This all-too-simple notational system, lifted from Radcliffe-Brown’s student Warner (1931: 180), is used to assert the proposition MB/ZS : B/Z:: F/S : H/W (ibid.: 42).
Nuer Prophets
Authors: Johnson Douglas H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first major study of the Nuer based on primary research since Evans-Pritchard's classic Nuer Religion. It is also the first full-length historical study of indigenous African prophets operating outside the context of the world's main religions, and as such builds on Evans-Prichard's pioneering work in promoting collaboration and dialogue between the disciplines of anthropology and history. Prophets first emerged as significant figures among the Nuer in the nineteenth century. They fashioned the religious idiom of prophecy from a range of spiritual ideas, and enunciated the social principles which broadened and sustained a moral community across political and ethnic boundaries. Douglas Johnson argues that, contrary to the standard anthropological interpretation, the major prophets' lasting contribution was their vision of peace, not their role in war. This vision is particularly relevant today, and the book concludes with a detailed discussion of events in the Sudan since independence in 1956, describing how modern Nuer, and many other southern Sudanese, still find the message of the nineteenth-century prophets relevant to their experiences in the current civil war.
Prophetic Rivalries in the Western Homeland
Authors: Johnson Douglas H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most dramatic and best-known murder of a British officer in the Sudan, after that of Gordon in Khartoum, is the assassination of Captain V. H. Fergusson by two Nyuong Nuer on 14 December 1927. The events surrounding Fergusson’s death were immortalized in a memorial volume about his life, commissioned by his mother and introduced by no less a personage than the former governor-general Sir Reginald Wingate.
Urban Peasants: The Maharjans (JyŚpu) of Kathmandu and Lalitpur
Authors: Gellner David N , Pradhan Rajendra P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The three royal cities of the Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu itself, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur (to which one might add towns such as Kirtipur, Banepa, and Panauti) have more castes, involved in more complex sets of relationships with each other, than one finds in Newar villages. These cities are dominated—culturally, economically, and politically-by the high castes described in other chapters: Brāhmans, üresthas, Vajrācāryas, Śākyas, and Tuladhars. None the less, it is arguable that the backbone, or to change the metaphor, the pivot, of these large cities is constituted by the Maharjan caste.
The Art Nexus and the Index
Authors: Gell Alfred 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
where the four terms—Index, Artist, Recipient, and Prototype—coexist we have, so to speak, the ‘canonical’ nexus of relations in the neighbourhood of art objects, which the anthropology of art must describe and elucidate. But, as we will see, many instances can be cited in which ‘artists’ or ‘recipients’ or ‘proto types’ may be lacking or only ambiguously present.A theory of the kind being developed here consists primarily of a device for ordering and classifying the empirical material with which it deals, rather than offering law-like generalizations or predictions therefrom. The situations in which indexes of an art-like kind can form part of a nexus of social relations between agents are very diverse indeed, and it is necessary to classify them, before offering commentaries which will, in the nature of things, only apply to certain of the situations under consideration, and not to others.
Riches and Renunciation
Authors: Laidlaw James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How can one live by impossible ideals and values? The Jains of India are a flourishing and prosperous community, but their religion is focused on the teaching and example of ascetic renouncers, whose austere regime is actually dedicated to ending worldly life and often culminates in a fast to death. This book draws upon a detailed study of an urban Jain community in Jaipur, north-west India, to offer the fullest account yet given of Jain religious belief and practice. It shows how renunciation and asceticism play a central part in the life of a thriving business community, and how world-renunciation combines for Jain families with the pursuit of worldly happiness. The book is in five parts. Part I introduces the vivid mythology and doctrine of Jainism, and the traditions of Jain renouncers. Part II discusses the relations of Jains with other groups in Indian society, the politics of leadership on Jain communities, and the history, character, and composition of the Jain community in Jaipur. Part III contains detailed analyses of lay ascetic practices such as fasting and confession, traditions of imagery and iconography, and key religious ideas, such as the paradoxical doctrine of ‘non-violence’ (ahimsa). These are shown to turn on complex conceptions of the body and contrasting moral topographies of self. Part IV concerns relations between lay Jains and renouncers, and draws on recent writing on exchange and value to analyse the pivotal place of alms-giving in the Jain religion. Part V describes some of the closest connections between riches and renunciation, and shows how the pan-Indian festival of Diwali is adapted to distinctively Jain values and concerns.
Early Kleinworts and Bensons
Authors: Wake Jehanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Kleinwort name first became associated with banking in 1786 when Hinrich Kleinwort went into partnership with Otto Paul Mtiller and opened an office in Altona, which was then in Holstein. The Kleinworts were enterprising folk–a combination of ambition and good fortune had enabled them to improve their situation over the preceding centuries. They were not native Altonans, their history unfolding from the north of what is now Germany, a fertile but often inhospitable flat country ravaged by the icy winds that sweep down from Siberia. Over the centuries it has been much trampled by the manreuvres of marauding armies fighting in the recurrent dynastic wars that have scoured Western Europe. There was little stability for its occupants when even the unimportant small villages bordering the south bank of the River Elbe were rent by occasional spasms of warfare. In consequence there occurred a steady migration across the broad waters of the Elbe to what was perceived as a safer harbour on the other side.
Alexander F. Kleinwort and the Cuban Connection
Authors: Wake Jehanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alexander Friedrich Kleinwort, Hinrich’s fourth son, was a year younger than Robert Benson jnr. and, like him, would leave the family home in pursuit of better career opportunities elsewhere. He was born at Gerdeshagen in Mecklenburg at the dawn of peace in that momentous year of 1815, during which Napoleon’s second reign, the Hundred Days, had been brought to an end at Waterloo. Alexander was not a Kleinwort name; yet it was a reflection of the times that he should be named after his godfather, Alexander Petit, who had fled France during the Terror which preceded the rise of Napoleon. Petit had joined the swelling ranks of French émigrés who had settled in Hamburg and Altona and had established himself as a jeweller. As a Catholic, he had had to obtain the permission of the Danish king before marrying into the staunchly Lutheran Kleinwort family.
Kleinworts and the Urge to Merge
Authors: Wake Jehanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the war ended, the curtain of the post-war era opened onto a scene of economic disintegration. Physically shattered by German bombs, the City lay exhausted amidst the rubble of her former power as a financial centre of the world. Britain, now a debtor nation, could no longer lend money to the rest of the world, and foreign investment had largely been expended in the war effort. The pound was only worth halfits1914 value and quickly had to cede its place as a reserve currency to the American dollar. Attlee’s newly elected Labour Government was committed to fulfilling an election promise to nationalize steel, coal, transport, and the Bank of England. This policy did little to instill confidence in the City and over the next few years sterling lurched from crisis to crisis.
Labour Scarcity and Capital Markets in America
Authors: Temin Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been over thirty years since American and British Technologyburst on the scene. In that volume H. J. Habakkuk transformed the concept of labour scarcity from something like the weather— which everyone talks about but no one does anything about—to a serious research topic. The flow of articles on the subject has not stopped even now. Aside from this one—which might be excused as induced by the occasion—there have been two recent articles in the Journal of Economic History by Alexander Field and by John James and Jonathan Skinner. This is the appropriate place in which to survey the literature that has developed since Habakkuk’s seminal book, or at least the strand of this literature with which I have been identified, and then to attempt to contribute to it by re-examining one of the assumptions underlying the analysis, namely the assumption of independent capital markets in the United States and Britain in roughly the second quarter of the nineteenth century.
The Decline of the Small Landowner in England and Wales 1660–1900
Authors: Beckett J V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From 1660 if not earlier, according to a broad consensus of opinion on the matter, the small landowner was gradually dispossessed of his holding, and turned into a tenant farmer or wage labourer. Coincidentally land was accumulated into large estates so that by the second half of the eighteenth century a transformation had occurred within rural society. Capitalist class relations predominated. Territorial magnates let their property to substantial tenant farmers employing wage labour, while the traditional smallholding owner-occupiers had been reduced to an insignificant rump. The main purpose of this essay is to re-examine the existing consensus, and to suggest a slightly different interpretation of the evidence. The current view is that owner-occupiers possessed around 33 per cent of the acreage in the later seventeenth century, but perhaps only 10-12 per cent by the 1870s.
Men, Women, and Property: The Reform of the Married Women’s Property Act 1870
Authors: Morris R J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The family as a social and legal agency for managing, accumulating, and transforming property has received very uneven attention. The relevance of this aspect of the family to the changing nature of gender role specialization is easy to acknowledge in general terms. It is less easy to specify the exact social and economic mechanisms through which these relationships operated and through which they changed. The purpose of this essay is to identify some of these mechanisms by examining the Married Women’s Property Act of 1870. The nature and reform of married women’s property law has attracted a valuable and growing literature, but because this has usually been written in terms of ‘justice’ and ‘rights’, it has tended to obscure the part played by the practical processes of economic and social life. The question asked here is not so much why groups of women and their male allies made increasingly articulate attacks upon that law from the 1850s, but why in view of this attack a male-dominated Parliament, content with a dominant ideology which happily accepted male authority, granted substantial legal rights to women.
Colonies and Capital: Some Aspects of Anglo-Colonial Financial Relations after 1850
Authors: Cain P J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years there has been a considerable revision of historical opinion concerning British attitudes to colonies of new settlement in the nineteenth century. Most of the participants in the debate have been political historians, and the economic dimension of Anglo-colonial relationships after 1850 has been somewhat neglected. The trade dependence of many white colonies has been noted, of course, but the implications of this dependence within the context of an evolving system of ‘responsible government’ have not been seriously considered in Britain for many years. The present purpose is to spell out some of the consequences of colonial dependence on capital supply from Britain from mid-century, first in general terms, and then by looking briefly at two specific issues: the creation of a Canadian state independent of the United States; and the long-run effects of white colonial financial indebtedness on Britain’s free trade policy.
Elections: Legislation and Litigation
Authors: Butler David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once it was possible to teach British politics without knowing much about law. The most insightful commentators from Bagehot to Crossman were not legally trained, even though some of the more influential constitutional texts—Blackstone, Dicey, Jennings—have been the work of lawyers. The United Kingdom enjoys a system where the rules have always been based on a loose idea of what has been done in the past, on a notion of what is the generally accepted norm. Historians and political scientists have, therefore, felt able to cope with their subject while possessing only a marginal appreciation of legal niceties.
Imperial Subjects, Imperial Citizens: The British Nationality Act, 1948
Authors: Hansen Randall 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The story of post-war migration is the story of citizenship, which was defined in the United Kingdom for the first time in 1948. The British Nationality Act (BNA) of that year was, as Enoch Powell argues, a revolution in the constitutional status of British subjects within the United Kingdom and Empire and in the institutional links between Britain and the member states of the Commonwealth. It was such for two reasons: first, the legislation, in a manner which was not anticipated, created the conditions that facilitated a mass migration of New Commonwealth citizens to the United Kingdom; and second, it bequeathed to subsequent policy-makers a legal framework that shaped, and ultimately limited, their ability to articulate a policy response to this migration.
Immigration in the Indian Summer: Churchill and Eden
Authors: Hansen Randall 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The age of affluence was a defining period in the history of Commonwealth migration. Commonwealth migration occurred, broadly speaking, in two periods: a 1948-61 wave of primary immigration and a 1962–74 wave of secondary immigration (the spouses and dependants of immigrants already settled in Britain). As family reunification was unavoidable, the second wave of migration was largely the inevitable consequence of the first. The decisive period in the transformation of the United Kingdom into a multicultural nation was the fourteen years during which an open door for all British subjects was maintained.
The Simulation
Authors: Boer Bart de 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Simulating the development of a system of speech sounds in a potentially large population of agents requires a computer model that is at the same time realistic and fast. These are two contradictory requirements. Realism can only be increased by the carrying out of extra calculations, which reduces speed. Consequently, it is necessary to make a compromise. The properties that are really essential for getting results that are comparable with human speech will have to be kept, and the rest will have to be sacrificed. However, if realism is sacrificed in a sensible way, the results of the simulation will still be comparable with observations of data from real human languages. Of course, in doing this, one has to keep in mind which parts of the simulation were realistic and which ones were artificial. This chapter describes the computer model that was used for investigating the formation of vowel systems in a population of agents. It also describes and defends the choices that were made between realism and speed. In order that the reader may better understand the reasoning behind these choices, a short history of the simulation is first presented.
Simulated Evolution of Other Parts of Language
Authors: Boer Bart de 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters it has been shown that computer simulations can contribute to the understanding of the structure, the emergence, and the evolution of vowel systems. Of course, the evolution of other parts of language can also be investigated by computer simulations and this has been done by a number of researchers in recent years. Research with computer simulations is sometimes referred to as the modelling approach to the evolution of language, and has developed in the last ten years or so. Probably the first experiment with a population of communicating agents for linguistic research was described by Hurford (1987, section 6.6). The availability of cheap computing power on the desktop has made it possible to develop the relatively complex simulations that are needed to investigate linguistic phenomena. This work should not be confused with the older field of computational linguistics. Although there are many similarities between the two fields and although they use the same techniques, their research goals are different: computational linguistics is in general concerned with investigating theories about how language works. The kind of research that will be described in this chapter investigates the origins of language: how can the various structures and phenomena we find in human language have emerged? Usually a part of the simulations is concerned with the adaptive value of the linguistic phenomena under consideration, something with which traditional computational linguistics is not usually concerned.
An introduction to tropical rain forests
Authors: Whitmore T C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rain forests have crossed a threshold of perception. Reports on television, radio, or in the press of another piece of destruction, or a new message of gloom for the planet, have become commonplace. The public firmly believes that something nasty is happening down on the Equator, even that the once vast Amazon rain forests have all but disappeared. Man’s presentday impact on tropical rain forests is, however, just the last stanza of a saga stretching back into the past beyond the beginning of written history. European knowledge of tropical forests began when Alexander the Great crossed the Khyber Pass in 327 BC, into the Punjab, to establish the eastern limits of his short-lived empire on the banks of the Indus. ‘His army saw mangrove swamps (which upset conventional views on trees), jackfruit, mangoes, bananas, cotton, and banyans-which upset everybody’s views on what roots are supposed to do.’
What are tropical rain forests?
Authors: Whitmore T C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The German botanist A.F.W. Schimper was one of the great nineteenth century naturalists. In. 1898 he wrote a monumental book, translated in 1903 into English as Plant geography upon an ecological basis, which built upon the hundred years and more of European scientific discoveries in the tropics. To Schimper we owe the term tropical rain forest (tropische Regenwald) for the forests of the permanently wet tropics. He recognized in total four major sorts of woody vegetation in the tropics. Rain forests, then in progressively drier and more seasonal climate, monsoon forests, savanna forests, and thorn forests. In still drier climates nonwoody vegetation, tropical grasslands, and deserts, were recognized. This classification is still useful as an outline framework in all parts of the tropics.
Plant life
Authors: Whitmore T C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The traveller walks out of an abandoned rest house on to what was a lawn 18 months before, to find selfsown saplings of Tectona grandis [teak] 5 m high. They have long internodes, and leaves the size of dinner plates. He feels like Alice in Wonderland. Or he notices the weeds growing on abandoned farm land, including such objects as Vernonia conferta, a composite with vegetative parts like a rosette of Taraxacum officinale [dandelion] 3 m across, on a stalk up to 4 m high..
Rain forest anima/S
Authors: Whitmore T C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Animal life is, on the whole far more abundant and varied within the tropics than in any other part of the globe, and a great number of peculiar forms are found there which never extend into temperate regions. Endless eccentricities of form and extreme richness of colour are its most prominent features, and these are manifested in the highest degree in those equatorial lands where vegetation acquires its greatest beauty and fullest development.
Interconnections between plants and animalsthe web of life
Authors: Whitmore T C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Animals are dependent on plants for food, consumers on producers, heterotrophs on autotrophs, and forests also provide diverse living space for their animal denizens, as was outlined in Chapter 4. But tropical rain forests are more than just a restaurant and a home. In this chapter we explore aspects of the complex web of interconnections within rain forests which scientists have begun to disentangle over recent years. Plants make use of animals as pol-linators (very few are wind-pollinated in contrast to temperate forests), and many use them also as dispersers (though wind dispersal also does occur). It has recently been fashionable to invoke the term co-evolution, in a one-to-one relationship of specialization, as a driving force for species evolution. Some symbiotic relationships do bear this stamp, but in most cases the forces of natural selection are now realized to be more diffuse.