bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sociolinguistic Settings of Language Planning
Authors: Ferguson Charles A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All language planning activities take place in particular sociolinguistic settings, and the nature and scope of the planning can only be fully understood in relation to the settings. This paper will offer a discussion of the settings of the three languages and nation in which the international study of language planning processes was carried out: the Indonesian language in Indonesia, the Hindi language in India and the Hebrew language in Israel. Also, the study of language planning processes rests on a number of assumptions about the structure and use of languages in human societies; before the sociolinguistic settings are discussed, two of these assumptions will be made explicit.
Prologue
Authors: Tushnet Mark V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a tribute to Thurgood Marshall on his retirement from the Supreme Court in 1991, Chief Justice William Rehnquist expressed a common judgment about Mar shall’s career: “Almost everyone who sits on the Supreme Court is remembered for some contribution to American constitutional law. But Thurgood Marshall is unique because of his major contributions to constitutional law before becoming a member of the Court.” Three years after he graduated from Howard Law School in 1933, Marshall joined his mentor Charles Hamilton Houston on the legal staff of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
“We Are Dealing with a Man’s Life”
Authors: Tushnet Mark V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The big stories about the death penalty were major cases like McCleskey v. Kemp. Inside the Court, however, the smaller details proved to be more irritating. The guerilla campaign against the death penalty was conducted in the theater of procedure. Litigators did all they could to keep their clients alive. They appealed convictions to state supreme courts and then sought Supreme Court review. After that they went back to state court, using state postconviction procedures to raise new challenges. Again, they tried to get Supreme Court review, and then they shifted to the lower federal courts. Federal law allows people convicted in state courts to get federal courts to consider constitutional challenges to their convictions through the procedure known as habeas corpus.
The End of Myth: Historians and the Yishuv (1918-1948)
Authors: Heller Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the earliest days of the state, the historiography of the Yishuv, the Jewish community of Palestine, has been characterized by a conflict between two schools of thought-the first engaged in myth-making and the second seeking to loosen the hold of myths. Interestingly, a certain blurring of these two schools has also been apparent from the outset. One example of myth-fostering combined with critical historiography is the official history of the Haganah military organization that was written in the 1950s by an editorial team headed by Ben-Zion (Dinaburg) Dinur, a historian who was also the Israeli minister of education and culture.
Small Forays, Grand Theories and Deep Origins: Current Trends in the Historiography of the Holocaust
Authors: Aschheim Steven E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This essay does not purport to provide an overall history and evaluation of Holocaust historiography, nor does it even pretend to cover comprehensively the present state of research. The beginning of this complex task has been competently undertaken by others. Rather, an attempt will be made to analyze certain key works and place into context some of the major interpretive issues that define the fluidindeed, rather bewildering-condition of the field.
Saussurean Roots, Structural Linguistics, and Basic Concepts
Authors: Kronenfeld David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We begin our consideration of this volume’s Saussurean underpinnings with Saussure’s original conception of the opposition between langue and parole-or, language and speech. Langue refers to the common system of expectations that we all share, and that we each induce from the practice of our speech community when we learn to speak. Langue is analogous to a code as opposed to a message (though it differs in significant ways from “artificial” codes such as computer languages or Morse Code1). In the Saussurean system, native speakers’ knowledge oflangue is similar to what Chomsky later called “competence” (with the reservation that Chomsky defines as intrinsic to this system certain syntactic operations (1965: 4, 1964: 59-60), that Saussure did not know existed). Parole (cf. Chomsky’s “performance”) refers to actual messages that we individually and uniquely construct on the basis of the regularities (or code) provided by langue, joined with various other code-like systems (which Saussure did not name, but which presumably include social class markers, situation markers, and so forth), various communicative intents,2 and chance factors.
Defining Structures: Taxonomies and Componential Paradigms
Authors: Kronenfeld David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The original aim of the linguistic anthropologists who developed ethnoscience in the late 1950s and early 1960s was to apply advanced linguistic methodology to the study of culture. Ethnoscientists began this application with semantics, because it was part of both language and culture. As the part of culture directly present in conversation, semantics provided a relatively easy linguistic entry point to the study of culture. In its linguistics aspect, ethnoscience was a natural extension of structural linguistics. Its descriptive methodology came from American structuralism, while its analytic meth odology“ componential analysis—came from Prague phonology {the only genuinely analytic device anyone in linguistics then had). But both schools of structuralist linguistics shared a focus on signifiers (as opposed to signifieds); members of both schools commonly conveyed a sense that semantics was too complex, too hard to study, and too enmeshed in psychology to be dealt with in any formal manner by contemporary linguistics, even if they held out hope for future advances. Since culture includes both the phenomenal entities-the “;stuff’-speakers use language to refer to and the meanings speakers use language to convey, anthropology’s focus on culture ensured that ethnoscience, as a part of anthropology, would have to deal squarely and primarily with meaning in language. It is interesting to note that, by virtue of this focus on meaning, ethnoscience came closer to implementing the Saussurean program than had any of the linguistics that preceded it.
Marking
Authors: Kronenfeld David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relationship between marked and unmarked categories was first described by Trubetzkoy1 (see Trubetzkoy 1969, also Jakobson 1939). He noticed that in German the distinction between voiced and unvoiced stops disappeared (was “;neutralized”) in word final position. Thus the Id/ of Biider contrasted with the /ti of beten on the feature of voicing (/d/ being voiced and /ti being unvoiced). But, in word final position, the Id/ of Bad had the same pronunciation as the /ti of bet. Moreover, the common pronunciation of /d/ and /ti in word-final positions was not some kind of average or random mix or random choice of the two word-medial pronunciations, but instead for all such pairs was consistent and predictable. In our example, the common pronunci ation of Id/ and It/, when their contrast was neutralized, was the pronunciation of /ti. To understand why /ti rather than /d/ or something else represented the neutralized pair, we need to briefly introduce a little information about Prague linguistic theory of the time and to look at the physical specification of our contrasting sounds in terms of that theory. We have already noted that componential analysis in American anthropology was borrowed from Prague School phonology, and in particular from Trubetzkoy’s work. Instead of providing a universal list of phone types (i.e., sounds) in which all the sounds of any language could be described and then grouping these phone types into sets to describe the phonemi system of a particular language (in the manner of American linguistics of the period), Trubetzkoy and his colleague Jakobson described the phonemes of a language directly in terms of the distinctive features by which they contrasted with one another (or were distinguished one from the other). In Trubetzkoy’s work, these were articulatory features, though later Jakobson switched to acoustic features; Jakobson, through his connections with Halle (Jakobson, Fant, and Halle 1951), provided the basis for modem transformational phonology.
Languages of South America
Authors: Campbell Lyle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Languages Of South America are also not strictly confined geographically to South America. Members of the Chibchan family extend as far north as Honduras; Cariban languages reach far into the Caribbean, and Arawakan (Maipurean) languages are found throughout the Antilles and as far as Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The classification of South American languages presents several difficulties. First, South America, to the extent that it is understood at present, exhibits considerably more linguistic diversity than North America and Middle America together: there are 118 distinct genetic units in South America (by Kaufman’s count [1990a]) as opposed to some 58 in North America and 18 in Middle America.
Distant Genetic Relationships: The Proposals
Authors: Campbell Lyle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Methods For Investigating (and attempting to establish) possible distant genetic relationships were discussed and evaluated in Chapter 7. In this chapter I survey most of the better known distant genetic proposals involving Native American languages and attempt to assess their accuracy. In such an assessment, it is good to bear in mind that (1) “questioning evidence for a proposed genetic relationship is not the same as denying that relationship” (Callaghan 199la:54) and (2) inadequate evidence cannot serve to establish such relationships.
Linguistic Areas of the Americas
Authors: Campbell Lyle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Goal Of This Chapter Is To survey the linguistic areas of the Americas, to the extent that they have been identified. Areal linguistics is very important to the study of Native American languages, for the primary goal of historical linguistic investigations should be to find out what really happened-to determine the real history, be it genetic or contact, that explains traits shared by different languages (Bright 1976). Areal linguistics is concerned with the diffusion of structural features across language boundaries: “The term ‘linguistic area’ generally refers to a geographical area in which, due to borrowing, languages of different genetic origins have come to share certain borrowed features-not only vocabulary but also elements of phonological, grammatical, or syntactic structure” (Bright and Sherzer 1978:228). Linguistic areas are also referred to at times by the terms “convergence area,” “diffusion area”, “Sprachbund”, and “adstratum.”
Interracial Marriage as a Civil Right
Authors: Pascoe Peggy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Connie Hoffman was arrested, she simply didn’t believe it. Her outrage barely under control, she told the detectives that she had “never heard of any law that a Negro and a white woman couldn’t live together.” But unfortunately for Connie Hoffman, her landlady, Dora Goodnick, had. And in February 1962, when Dora Goodnick reported Hoffman and her lover, Dewey McLaughlin, to the Miami Beach Police Department, the officer on duty listened with interest as Goodnick poured out her story.
Conclusion: The Ghost of the Past
Authors: Pascoe Peggy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the last act in the historical drama of miscegenation law finally took place, it reflected a half century of transformation in the links between civil rights and constitutional equality, shaped by old and new debates about race discrimination, colorblindness, and same-sex marriage. In 1999, Curtis Inabinett, a Black legislator in South Carolina, sent legislative aides searching for remnants of racism in South Carolina law, and he was appalled to learn that the state constitution still contained a provision, enacted in 1895, that “the marriage of a white person with a negro or mulatto, or person who shall have one-eighth or more negro blood, shall be unlawful and void.” Inabinett, a sixty-six-year old Democrat, vowed to “expunge the constitution of the language” of this “extremely offensive” provision. In nearby Alabama, his contemporary Alvin Holmes was every bit as angry, though Holmes, who had built a career in electoral politics on his history of arrests in early civil rights demonstrations, was not at all surprised. Holmes and the Alabama chapter of the NAACP had already tried to get Alabama to repeal the section of its state constitution providing that “the legislature shall never pass any law to authorize or legalize any
Chapter Three
Authors: Williams Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For thirty years feminists have focused on defending the rights of women who experience discrimination despite their ability to perform as ideal workers. Price Water, housev. Hopkins shows the continuing importance of such work. Ann Hopkins worked for six years at Price Waterhouse and “was generally viewed as a highly competent project leader who worked long hours [and] pushed vigorously to meet deadlines.” None of the other candidates in her year “had a comparable record in terms of successfully securing major contracts for the partnership”; one contract alone was worth $25 million. The only woman among the eighty-eight candidates for partner, ship the first year she was considered, ultimately she was denied partnership. The record showed that one partner had advised her to take “a course in charm school”; another had advised her to “walk more femininely, talk more femininely, dress more femininely, wear make-up, have her hair styled, and wear jewelry.”
Do Women Share an Ethic of Care? : Domesticity’s Descriptions of Men and Women
Authors: Williams Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One day a little boy went to school wearing pink barrettes. The other boys con, fronted him. “You’re a girl,” they said, “you have pink barrettes.” He protested he was a boy, to no avail. Finally he pulled down his pants and showed them his penis. They were unimpressed. “Everybody has one of those,” they said. “You’re still a girl. Only girls wear pink barrettes.”
Communication Equipment
Authors: Yamada Haru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Not long ago, a college friend, Mark, told me about a misunderstanding he had with a Japanese engineer he called “Masa” who worked for him. The two music engineers were talking about picking up some video tapes that were at their other studio. As Mark tells it, the conversation went like this.MARK: How are we going to get the tapes back here? In this harmless miscommunication, Mark and Masa just seem to have different agendas. Foremost on Mark’s mind is the immediate pick-up of the tapes. Checking twice on his understanding that Masa will not be able to go and pick them up until tomorrow, he suggests that Amanda, an engineer of similar rank to Masa, go in his place. But because Masa has seen Amanda put in a number oflate nights in the previous week, his concern is about how busy Amanda is, and he presumably tries to take some pressure off Amanda by volunteering to go pick up the tapes himself.
Taking Care of Business
Authors: Yamada Haru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some people believe that the primary job of business managers is to deal with numbers. But as the sociologist Mintzberg notes, “verbal contacts, face-to-face and on the phone, account for 75% of a managers’ time, and 67% of their activities.”1 Business is as much communication as it is quantification because at the end of the day, numbers are defended, negotiated, and sold; they are interpreted and communicated. American and Japanese business and business communication is, then, really an example of the larger society in which it takes place. Because business communication takes place in a particular language such as English or Japanese, in this chapter, I argue against the popular notion of a universal “Business Culture” that floats above nations. Instead, I demonstrate how American and Japanese business are each subject to their own criteria for evaluation.
Role Models: Working Man, Nurturing Mother
Authors: Yamada Haru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lnguage reflects our social histories-how we understand them, how we hope to continue or change the way we live, and how we set up role models to achieve our ideals. We seek out these ideals. Living in London, I have seen many an American come to search for his ideals in a British heritage, perhaps as landed gentry. The British caricature such Americans, mocking them as cultureless. But as we do when we use any stereotype, they overlook the complexity of such a search-that it is as much a confirmation of an American identity as it is a search for roots in the old country. Understanding the origins of an American heritage gives its researchers the means to evaluate how and why Americans came to be, and more importantly, an individual reason for being American. For what better proof is there than a story about a successfully bootstrapped individual-your great, great grandfather-who came to America, and made it. It’s a story of how he left the social constraints of the old regime in favor of new social rules-com petitive and fair ones-that granted wealth and prestige through merit rather than through the inegalitarian means of birth and heredity. Because paid work represented fairness in the new world order and distinguished Americans from the British, it became the American measure of success and social standing.
The Growth of R&D Investment and Organizational Changes by Japanese Pharmaceutical Firms, 1975-1993
Authors: Roehl Thomas , Mitchell Will , Slattery Ronald J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we examine the growth of R&D investment and organizational changes undertaken by Japanese pharmaceutical manufacturers during the past two decades. Many firms in the Japanese pharmaceutical industry have taken great strides toward world levels of R&D intensity and product output, but contrary to many other industries discussed elsewhere in this volume, the industry leaders remain below the sales volume of leading global players in the industry. In 1990, for example, the largest Japanese firm spent about $350 million (9% of sales) on R&D, whereas Bristol-Myers Squibb spent $854 million (9% of sales) and Merck spent $881 million (11% of sales).
Nippondenso Co. Ltd.: A Case Study of Strategic Product Design
Authors: Whitney Daniel E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nippondenso Co. Ltd. (NDCL) is Japan’s foremost manufacturer of automotive components. It faces the challenge of manufacturing mass production-volume products in an unpredictable model mix to meet the high-variety just-in-time (JIT) production requirements of its customers, notably Toyota. Over the past 25 years, it has increased its ability to meet this challenge and, indeed, has made conquering variety a prime corporate goal. Although flexible manufacturing of this type is usually attacked as a problem involving factory floor operations, NDCL has defined and solved it mainly as a problem of product design. For the most part, production is made flexible by manipulating the assembly process, which in most cases is highly automated. The close coordination of top management objectives, product design, and production technology is required to carry out this approach. As a result, NDCL has taken concurrent engineering well beyond the goal of improving fabrication or assembly. Instead, NDCL has learned how to use design to achieve the essentially strategic goal of meeting the demands of its dominant customer.
Competing in the Old-Fashioned Way: Localizing and Integrating Knowledge Resources in Fast-to-Market Competition
Authors: Fruin W Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the basic ingredients for market success in manufacturing have not changed exceptionally in the last 50 years-price, quality, and availability fairly well cover all the bases-time to market has changed remarkably. Being first to market or, at least, fast to market in rapidly changing, technically driven industries is increasingly critical as product life cycles are shortening and consumer preferences are multiplying. In these circumstances “late to market” all too often means “dead in the market.”
Reflections on Organizational Learning in U.S. and Japanese Industry
Authors: Cole Robert E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Organizational learning is a concept that has become extraordinarily fashionable in the last few years (Senge, 1990). The purpose of this chapter is to examine the nature of organizational learning in Japanese and American manufacturing firms. I identify broad differences in their characteristic approaches and propose some approaches to maximizing corporate performance in this area. Unfortunately, the popularity of the organizational learning concept is not matched by any great intellectual rigor in its application. The distinction between individual and organizational learning is often not clearly made. Interestingly, it is a concept that captivates scholars as well as managers and thus has the potential for serving as a bridge between the two communities.
The Mass-Count Distinction for Verbs and Adverbial Quantification over Events
Authors: Moltmann Friederike 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with the question of whether a mass-count distinction obtains for verbs with respect to their event argument place. In relation to that, it also gives a formal semantic analysis of certain types of adverbial quantifiers ranging over events such as a lot and frequently.
Let me first clarify what exactly the issue is. As was mentioned in Chapter 1, there is a syntactic and a semantic mass-count distinction. Verbs (at least in English) obviously lack a syntactic mass-count distinction. But still one may ask whether it makes sense to apply a semantic mass-count distinction to verbs. In order to answer this question, let us consider the ways in which a semantic mass-count distinction may be relevant. First of all, a semantic mass-count distinction constitutes the content of the syntactic mass-count distinction. But there are other ways in which a semantic mass-count distinction may play a role in natural language. Whether a category is classified as semantically mass or count may be relevant in two respects: [ l] the category may have to be classified syntactically as mass or count for some purposes — for example, for the purpose of agreement; [2] the category may classify semantically like categories that are ‘mass’ or like categories that are ‘count’ in contexts that are sensitive to the distinction.
Diagnosis as Storytelling
Authors: Ainsworth-Vaughn Nancy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In chapter 6,1 introduced the idea that story can refer to localized storytelling— talk about an actual sequence of events. I reviewed theories about stories and narratives (the larger category into which stories fit). A narrative can be simply a report of events. But when the speaker evaluates the events by suggesting their cultural or emotional importance, the narrative becomes a story. In this chapter, I will make a proposal that is entirely new in the literature on medical discourse. My suggestion is that a social, deeply human activity—joint localized storytelling by patient and doctor—can be part of developing a diagnosis. This claim specifies one way in which the speech activity of diagnosing can be carried out. It also modifies the usual view that diagnosing is solely done by the physician and is solely cognitive.