bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction: on the Grand Tour
Authors: Marino John A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Guercino’s fresco of Aurorain the Casino Ludovisi in Rome depicts the charioteer Dawn ushering in a virile Day to dispel the furtive Night. Guercino’s Dawn,commissioned by the cardinal nephew of the newly elected Pope Gregory XV (1621-3), celebrates the beginning of his Bolognese compatriot Alessandro Ludovisi’s pontificate as a new golden age, while it marked the high point of baroque painting among the Bolognese school in Rome-Annibale Carracci, Guido Reni, Francesco Albani, Lanfranco, Domenichino, as well as the young Guercino himself. Dawn, boldly streaking across the sky above the pope’s casa,a house in the sense both of family and of property where social relationships and power politics were one, chases away the darkndess.
Religion, spirituality, and the post Tridentine Church
Authors: Schutte Anne Jacobson 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At first sight, 1580 may seem a year of no particular significance in Italian religious history: no pope died, no ecumenical council met, no major doctrinal or disciplinary directive was promulgated, no important bureaucratic organ was established, no new religious order was founded, no famous heretic was executed, no saint was elevated to the honour of the altars. In recent historical writing, such conventional chronological markers matter less than they once did. Rather than looking for critical moments associated with persons or institutions, scholars now focus on processes. From this perspective, 1580 or thereabouts appears to mark the beginning of a distinctive phase in early modern Italian Catholicism.
Mare magnum:the arts in the early modern age
Authors: Snyder Jon R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Italian art, architecture, literature, and music were never more influential abroad than during the years 1550-1796. The first truly international aesthetic, which is conventionally called the ‘baroque’, was born in Italy as Renaissance culture metamorphosed by the mid sixteenth century. This new aesthetic-especially in art, architecture, and music-spread quickly across a large swath of the planet, from Rome to St Petersburg, from Madrid to Lima, from Manila to Mexico City, from Goa to Salvador (Bahia).
Science and society
Authors: Findlen Paula 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Italian peninsula could easily lay claim to being the centre of the scientific world in western Europe. Home to the oldest and most venerable universities, nascent Jesuit colleges, a thriving print industry, and academies where learned men congregated to discuss books and present their own work, Italy was institutionally and intellectually fertile ground in which ideas could thrive. Northern European scholars routinely made the pilgrimage to Italy to benefit from its unique intellectual resources.
The Taiping Rebellion 1850–1864
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the last decades of the eighteenth century and the first decades of the nineteenth in China, scarcely a year passed without violent protest or armed rebellion. Some of this protest was scarcely distinguishable from banditry. Much was of the spontaneous rice-riot kind. On several occasions, however, small groups raised the banner of the Ming dynasty and marched against the foreign rulers. The Taiping Rebellion of 1850 was only the greatest of many outbreaks. A major rebellion broke out in 1796.
Reform and revolution
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Defeat by Japan in 1894–5 was the greatest shock that the Chinese had suffered since the Opium War. The victor was not a great Western power, but a small Asian country. The defeated Chinese forces were as modern as those of the enemy. The old excuses would not work this time. The conservatives were at last put on the defensive. These were the circumstances in which the Hundred Days of Reform commenced, led by young graduates.
The war-lord era
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From 1916 to 1931 the political history of China as a united country virtually ceases. There was a shifting system of quasi-independent states concerned to maintain or improve their positions in a struggle to control the national government, whose authority these very rivalries prevented from being more than nugatory. It was a situation which called forth explanations inspired by disillusionment and despair, explanations which stressed the selfishness of the war-lords, their lack of political principle and their indifference to the national interest. Explanation in these terms, because it could serve as propaganda for the Nationalist Party by representing the conflict between the Nationalists and war-lords as a struggle between good and evil, has become the almost unchallenged interpretation. The truth, however, is much more interesting.
The Chinese Communist Party, 1935–1949
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of the 90,000 men who broke out of Jiangxi, only one in ten reached the new base in the north. The Long March is often described as an epic victory. An epic it was, but to call it a victory is only wisdom after the event. In itself it was a disastrous retreat following a devastating defeat. The three main soviets had been rooted out; now nine out of ten of the Red Army were killed or scattered.
The Chinese People’s Republic 1949–1957
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new Chinese People’s Republic was proclaimed in Tian An Men Square, Beijing, on 1 October 1949. Mao Zedong from the rostrum announced, ‘China has stood up.’ It was the nationalist message which most Chinese wanted to hear; to most of his vast audience, socialism in 1949, as in 1919, was first and a foremost a means to national revival.
China since the death of Mao
Authors: Gray Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the death of Mao in September 1976, Hua Guofeng succeeded. His position as Party Chairman was publicly confirmed one month later. He claimed, and the Party leadership accepted, that Mao had nominated him as successor. Mao had always emphasized his belief that experience of government in the provinces was the best preparation for power at the centre. Hua had served virtually his entire career in Mao’s own home province of Hunan, where he had conscientiously carried out Maoist policies. He had been brought to Beijing by Mao and appointed Minister of Public Security on 17 January 1975.
Languages of Pleasure
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The removal by death of the dictator and subsequently of formal censorship facilitated experimentation from the second half of the 1970s with erotic and pornographic writing. Such was the compelling power of the drama of the death, and such the emphasis subsequently placed in popular speech and by a gleeful liberal and rueful conservative press on the phenomenon of destape (with the two meanings of ‘release of pressure’ and ‘going topless’), that it is all too easy to entertain the misconception of a Spain under tight moral lock and key right up until the punctual event of November 1975. Whereas it is certainly true that with the relax¬ ation of censorship nudity in the theatre and cinema (and not just, as it had been for years, on the smarter tourist beaches) and pornography in the news kiosks (and not just under the counter) were suddenly a presence, the process of acclimatization is one with no easy point of origin and with many trajectories. Although many literary narratives and dramatic works of and about the Franco years are concerned with the denial and repression of pleasures, other texts were able to construct alternative spaces in which to explore fantasies or pursue ideals (even within the domains of religion, as is clear from the sensual, religious poetic writings of Adriano del Valle appearing in Vertice in the early 1940s and, at the end of the decade, in the poetry of the Cantico group of poets).
The economy
Authors: Félix Joël 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the school of classical liberal thought which arose in France in the middle of the eighteenth century, the goal of enlightened government was to substitute a rational economic order for an older, inefficient economic system. In this older system, so the liberals claimed, the dominant principles were those of the royal financiers, who, to help their sovereign slake his thirst for grandeur, were plundering their country’s wealth through a multitude of unnecessary taxes, internal customs arrangements, and cumbersome regulations. In contrast, the liberals held forth the promise of a more harmonious society, and of a resolutely modern state which would be able to reform the nation’s economic structures by allowing private initiative and the free play of the market to generate an endless spiral of wealth. The king would thus accomplish what he had been set on earth to do: preserve his country’s health and his subjects’ happiness.
Culture and Economic Constraints
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even if rational economic calculation, in some sense, is common to all men, there have been contrasts both between and within societies concerning what is worth doing. There have been differences in the extent to which people quantify the results of their activity and learn from the past. In different societies, too, there have been variations in the extent to which social institutions have encouraged or inhibited change. These differences have coincided to some extent with those of religion and education, social status, and ethnic identity. The beliefs and allegiances of the period 1050–1530 were sufficiently unlike those of our own day to deserve some discussion from this point of view.
Procedural Routines and the Uses of Literacy
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Opportunities for studying the economic and social history of Britain between 1050 and 1300 become progressively more favourable because of a huge increase in the number of written records during the course of the period. Archaeological evidence also improves; more structures were built and more material remains were deposited with the growth of total population and wealth. But for the first time in British history, from the eleventh century written records begin to outstrip archaeological evidence as a source for economic and social history, supplying new sorts both of quantitative and qualitative evidence. They also supply an increasingly precise chronology of change, though the study of timbers by dendrochronologists is now also permitting the fine dating of some types of unwritten evidence.
Britain and Ireland in the Early Fourteenth Century
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The economic development achieved in Britain and Ireland between 1050 and 1300 represented a lasting achievement in many respects. It is true that the levels of trade and population reached then were not maintained. Yet many of the innovations that had made population growth possible during these 250 years made a lasting contribution to the technical and institutional resources of later generations, benefiting their levels of productivity, their standards of living, and the quality of their collective culture in a wide variety of ways. It is impossible to envisage life in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries without ethical norms, administrative and political institutions, systems of money and credit, levels of literacy, and industrial and agrarian technologies, that had been absent in 1050.
Rural Settlement and Society
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since, as we saw in Chapter 4, the population of Britain declined between 1300 and 1530, we should expect abundant tangible evidence from rural sources. If total numbers in England fell from 4.5–6 m. in 1300 to around 2 m. in 1524, and if at least four-fifths of the population lived in rural settlements of various kinds, then rural population fell by at least 2.0–3.2 m. in the course of the period, and the decline was probably even greater between 1348 and the nadir of fifteenth-century contraction around 1450. If, too, many of the problems of the thirteenth-century countryside in southern England had resulted from shortages of land, we should expect those problems to be alleviated as the relationship between population and the land altered to increase per capita resources. Since Wales, Scotland, and Ireland experienced similar demographic contraction we should expect parallel evidence in their documentary and archaeological evidence. We should nevertheless expect the effects of rising resources per capita to be less marked in regions that had suffered less from land hunger before 1348 and that benefited less from manufacturing development and urban demand thereafter.
Procedural Routines and the Uses of Literacy
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of records and record keeping between 1050 and 1300 is one of dramatic growth, as so often with the origins and early development of new techniques. The following two centuries, by contrast, have less novelty to offer. By 1300 the use of writing as an aid to communication and administrative control was so thoroughly embedded in the way government and legal institutions worked that it would have taken greater catastrophes than those of the fourteenth century to undermine it, and historians using records of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries have generally been more impressed at the degree of continuity with the past than by change, except in regions of severe political instability like parts of Ireland.
Stability and Crisis
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contrasts between the periods 1050–1300 and 1300–1520 are inclined to be exaggerated because of the superior information available for the later period, which enables fluctuations of all sorts to be identified with greater clarity. Yet there were real differences between the two periods, if only because the crises of 1300–1530 had such a deleterious effect upon the long-term development of population and arable farming. No single cause can account for the reduction in numbers in all parts of Britain and Ireland during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, even if epidemic disease outstrips all others in severity and the permanence of its impact. There were interludes of economic and demographic recovery, but recurrent crises repeatedly subverted earlier gains.
Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe, 900-1300
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This study is an exploration of the collective values and activities of lay society in Western Europe between the tenth century and the thirteenth. Arguing that medieval attitudes and behaviour have been too readily defined in terms of hierarchical structures of government, clerical thought, or a narrow notion of kinship, the author instead places new emphasis on the horizontal bonds of collective association which permeated society in medieval England, France and Burgundy, Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy. By refocusing attention on the social and political values that characterized lay collective activity, this book offers a stimulating new approach to the history of medieval Europe. The second edition of this important study incorporates a substantial new introduction, which amplifies the arguments of the original edition and takes account of recent research. ON THE FIRST EDITION `all students of the Middle Ages and of collective organization will be indebted to Reynolds for this rich and original book. It will be a starting-point for discussion and the reference point for information', Times Literary Supplement.
Lay Collective Activity, 900-1300: A General View
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of the arguments set out in the preceding chapters are vulnerable to criticism from specialists in the various fields into which my subject has led me, so that the accumulation of errors may leave any general conclusions looking distinctly weak. In spite of that danger, I hope that it may be agreed that between 900 and 1300 lay society and government depended in a mass of different ways on the collective activities of a wide range of people; that this activity was undertaken as a matter of course in support of government, as well as in opposition to it; and that in all its aspects it reveals a very homogeneous set of values, which combined acceptance of inequality and subordination with a high degree of voluntary co-operation. These values, moreover, continued to dominate collective activity throughout the period. Although the twelfth and thirteenth centuries brought new forms of collective activity, clearer articulation of the duties owed to and by communities, and somewhat clearer expression of the values they embodied, the evidence of any fundamental change of values is surprisingly small. By 1300 there are hints of novelty, but no more: rash as it may seem to try to disentangle cause and effect on such a topic, it looks, in other words, as if new practice evoked new theory, not the other way round.
The Kingdom of France in the sixteenth century
Authors: Holt MackP 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How do we define the French nation at the beginning of the sixteenth century? Is it even possible to think in such terms when the nation state, not to mention nationalism, are still nearly three centuries away? Moreover, in the year 1500 nearly one-fourth of the kingdom’s roughly 450,000 km2 had only been recently acquired in the previous fifty years. Five principal languages were spoken - French, Occitan, Basque, Breton, and Flemish-not to mention scores of local and regional dialects all across the kingdom. So, just what can the term ‘nation’ mean in the sixteenth century, when the state was based much more on the king’s sovereignty over his subjects rather than on a defined territory with fixed boundaries? If the nation of France in 1500 was simply all those people who declared Louis XII to be their sovereign king-that is, a community of people rather than a defined segment of real estate-what ties, if any, united these diverse people together into a community? For many scholars a nation can only be built upon a shared culture and common social organization, because the latter are universal and perennial while states and nations are not.
Religion and the sacred
Authors: Benedict Philip , Reinburg Virginia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Amid the patchwork of provinces that made up France in 1500, in a world where country folk were very different from town dwellers, the learned from the unlettered, and nobles from commoners, Christianity defined the country’s common culture like nothing else. For much of the Middle Ages the French kings had tolerated a small minority of Jews, but they had been definitively expelled in 1394. Small pockets of Waldensians (vaudois) lived in the hills of Dauphine and Provence. These dogged descendants of a heretical movement of the twelfth century remained loyal to their barbes (lay preachers). Their refusal to pray to saints, honour images, or submit to priests they considered immoral brought them intermittently afoul of the law. Still, they conformed to most features of the established religious order, regularly attending mass and receiving the sacraments.
Catholic reform and religious coexistence
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara , Reinburg Virginia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until the middle of the sixteenth century, Christianity had been a major source of France’s common culture. But the dramatic growth of the Protestant movement, the division of French Christians into two separate confessions, and decades of civil war had undermined that collective identification with Christian symbols and practices. The Edict of Nantes, decreed by Henry IV and registered by the parlements, established a truce between Catholics and Huguenots, within the framework of Catholicism as the kingdom’s majority and officially established religion. The wording of the edict’s preamble refers obliquely to the collective religious life of all the king’s subjects.
The Sensible
Authors: Stoneham Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the outset, Hylasand Philonous agree on a criterion of unacceptability in metaphysics, namely that someone ‘denies the reality of sensible things or professes the greatest ignorance of them’ (DHP1 173). Since Philonous does want to deny the reality of material things, he must address the important question: What do we perceive with our senses? He must find an answer to this question which is (a) sufficiently general to encompass everything we do or might perceive, and (b) sufficiently specific for Philonous to be able to prove something about all the sensible things, namely that they are none of them material, that they are all mind-dependent.
Beginnings: From Pythagoras to Plato
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of philosophy does not begin with Aristotle, but the historiography of philosophy does. Aristotle was the Worst philosopher who systematically studied, recorded, and criticized the work of previous philosophers. In the Worst book of the Metaphysics he summarizes the teachings of his predecessors, from his distant intellectual ancestors Pythagoras and Thales up to Plato, his teacher for twenty years. To this day he is one of the most copious, and most reliable, sources of our information about philosophy in its infancy. Aristotle offers a classification of the earliest Greek philosophers in
accordance with the structure of his system of the four causes.
How Things Happen: Physics
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In earlier chapters we saw how Greek thinkers, from Thales to Plato, developed an elaborate picture of the universe we live in. Though of great historic interest, their physical theories have been superseded by the progress of science, and can no longer offer us enlightenment about the world. The same is true of Aristotle’s world-picture; but in addition to physical speculation, Aristotle offered, to a much greater extent than any of his predecessors, a philosophical examination of underlying concepts that are basic to physical explanation of many different kinds. His philosophy of physics, unlike his physical system itself, contains much that remains of abiding interest.
God
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Homer’s poems gods and goddesses figure prominently among the cast of characters. Zeus, the king of the gods, with his consort, Hera, and ten members of their extended family, including his daughter Athena, Aphrodite the goddess of love, and Poseidon the sea-god, all live together in a blissful abode on Mount Olympus. They take a keen partisan interest in the doings of the human heroes of the Iliad and the Odyssey. These gods and goddesses are simply human beings writ large, with all the emotions and vices of human beings. They interact both mentally and physically with ordinary humans, often with disastrous results. The only fundamental difference between gods and men is that men die while gods are immortal.
The State: Its Elements and Purposes
Authors: Finnis John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aquinas’ most important treatment of political matters is perhaps his treatise on law (I-II qq. 90-108), a discussion shaped by a methodological decision and a theoretical thesis. The thesis is that law exists, locally or centrally, only in complete communities {perfec- tae communitates}. The methodological decision is to set aside all questions about which sorts of multi-family community are ‘complete’, and to consider a type, usually named civitas, whose completeness is simply posited. It is not a decision to regard the civitas as internally static or as free from external enemies. Revolutions and wars, flourishing, corruption, and decay are firmly on the agenda.