bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
How steam locomotives really work
Authors: Semmens P W B , Goldfinch A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Steam locomotives were developed in the early part of the 19th Century, initially by Trevithick, and then most successfully by George Stephenson, whose engine Locomotion inaugurated the famous Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. For the next 150 years, steam locomotives were further developed and refined, until the advent of new electrical technology superseded them. Although British Railways operated its last main-line steam locomotives in 1968, there is still immense interest in the large numbers of locomotives which have been privately preserved, and which run on heritage railways and in various parts of the world. This book describes the anatomy and physiology of the steam train, to enable all train enthusiasts to understand the workings of the various types of engines in use. It covers the design of the engine, the process of converting fuel into mechanical tractive effort to haul passenger and freight trains, and the function and design of the various components of the engine. The authors also outline the reasons behind the safe and efficient operation and maintenance of steam locomotives. Although the steam locomotive originated in the UK, there were parallel lines of development in North America and in various other European countries, many of which introduced their own individual features. These are dealt with in the book, which will appeal to railway enthusiasts throughout the world.
Isotopic enrichment of uranium
Authors: Upson P C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Early interest was of course focused on enrichment to much higher levels, when isotope separation became a necessary and key stage of the development programme for nuclear weapons (the Manhattan project). Early in the Second World War, parallel development was carried out on several different processes, including gas centrifuges and gaseous diffusion, but also on other techniques such as electromagnetic separation, thermal diffusion and chemical processes. In fact, the electromagnetic method was used early in the US programme, but as it proved suitable only for very small throughputs, it has not been used commercially. It operates on the same principle as a mass spectrometer; a stream of uranium ions, passed through a transverse magnetic field, separates into different isotopes as the ions follow trajectories depending on their charge-to-mass ratio. The process is now used only for small quantities of special isotopes for medical or other research purposes.
Disposal of fuel or solid wastes
Authors: Richardson S , Curd, P , Kelly E J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every industry produces waste, some of it highly dangerous. For example certain heavy metals and chlorinated hydrocarbons are toxic, remain so indefinitely, and need to be kept from the human environment effectively for ever. Although radioactive materials and the associated potential dangers are in principle different, decaying through time, the half-lives of some nuclides are so long that similar precautions may be needed. Others are short lived, or present in such low concentrations as to present little hazard, and precautions may then be relaxed accordingly.
Time Domain Wave-Splitting Green’S Function Approaches
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The scattering kernels introduced in Chapter 1 and determined by means of the imbedding approach provide a framework for solving direct and inverse scattering problems, but the full wave propagation problem, i.e., including the determination of the field inside the scattering region, is not solved by the scattering kernels. However, during recent years the time domain wave-splitting approach has been extended to include the determination of the fields inside the inhomogeneous region. This extension, called the Green’s functions approach, is one of the main themes of the presentation in the rest of this book. The term Green’s functions refers to the regular parts of the split components of the fundamental solution. These regular parts are determined by the initial and boundary values of the propagation problem under consideration. Furthermore, the boundary values of the Green’s functions are related to the physical scattering kernels studied in Chapter 1, and thus a close connection with the imbedding approach is established. The system of equations for the Green’s functions is linear (and thus is one order faster to solve numerically than the non-linear imbedding equation for the reflection kernel), and is suitable for parallel processing. Thus it provides an approach to both direct and inverse scattering problems, which has some advantages as compared to the imbedding approach. In particular, in the three-dimensional case the Green’s function approach allows a simpler handling of the singularities (see Chapter 7).
Extensions Of The One-Dimensional Wave-Splitting Approaches
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the one-dimensional wave-splitting approaches described in the previous two chapters are extended and applied to structures which lead to onedimensional problems such as propagation along non-uniform LCRG transmission lines, cases with obliquely incident plane waves, and propagation of plane electromagnetic waves in dispersive media.
Wave-Splittings Combined With Optimization Techniques
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent developments and applications of various optimization methods have provided efficient tools for obtaining numerical solutions to various types of inverse problems (see, e.g. Frank and Balanis (1987), Kleinman and van den Berg (1990), Chew and Otto (1992), He and Kabanikhin (1995)). Optimization methods can be grouped into two types, namely, global search methods and gradient search methods. Global search methods include simulated annealing (see, e.g. Gamero et al. (1991)), neural network methods (see, e.g. Lu and Berryman (1990)), and genetic algorithms (see, e.g. Weile and Michielssen (1997)). A global search method is based on a stochastic algorithm, and its convergence can be very slow. A gradient search method is usually based on a deterministic algorithm, and it converges rapidly (though it may converge to a local minimum). In this chapter, wave-splittings are combined with gradient search optimization techniques. The procedure of deriving an explicit expression for the gradient of an objective functional through dual functions is described. The conjugate gradient method is used to reconstruct the line parameters, or spatial source distributions on a non-uniform line. The time domain inverse problem of reconstructing the temporal behaviours of a bi-isotropic slab is also considered, and a matrix formalism is introduced to derive an explicit expression for the gradient. A multi-dimensional acoustic inverse problem is also considered, and numerical reconstruction of a two-dimensional density profile is given. The Newton-Kantorovich procedure with a wave-splitting process is applied to a time domain inverse problem for a quasi-linear acoustic wave equation. Finally, a measurement system is described and the measurement data are used to reconstruct the susceptibility kernel of a polar liquid (1-buthanol).
Time-Harmonic Wave-Splitting Approaches
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters we have treated time domain wave-splitting approaches and that is the main theme of the present book. However, the time domain results have their frequency domain counterparts, which can be obtained by means of a Fourier transform. One may also develop wave-splitting approaches directly in the frequency domain. The frequency domain treatments are of interest in them selves and they also serve to illustrate additional aspects of the time domain treatments. In view of this, several frequency domain wave-splitting techniques are described in this chapter. Besides direct and inverse scattering problems, some design problems will also be considered in this chapter. A design problem may also be formulated as an inverse problem, in which prescribed scattering data or patterns are used instead of measured scattering data. Relevant design problems are, for example, design of a wide-angled high-pass radome in a given frequency band, a frequency selective anti-reflection coating, etc. There are a few aspects in which a design problem differs from an inverse problem. In an inverse problem, measured (physical) data are used as given data. Usually at least one solution exists if the data are free of noise and the physical model is accurate enough. However, non-uniqueness of the solution can often not be excluded, and in many cases the inverse problem is ill-posed (which means in particular that noise-contaminated data may give an erroneous ‘reconstruction’). In a design problem, exact prescribed data are used, and thus the problems associated with noisy data do not appear. Non-uniqueness may still appear, but that means that several alternative designs are possible, and this is not a problem but rather an advantage. However, the existence of a solution may not be guaranteed in a design problem (in many cases one can only reach an optimal ‘solution’, instead of an exact solution). Another concern in a design problem is the feasibility of the solution obtained, from both a physical and a practical point of view (for instance, the specified data as well as the reconstructed parameters have to obey certain general conditions, which follow from, e.g. passivity and causality).
Three-Dimensional Wave-Splitting For The Scalar Wave And Telegraph Equations
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In view of the results presented in Chapters 1–5, and obtained by application of different versions of the one-dimensional time domain wave-splitting approaches, an obvious question is whether these approaches can be extended to the corresponding three-dimensional problems. In Chapters 7 and 8 we present the current status concerning three-dimensional generalizations. The Green’s function approach is emphasized in these chapters. The imbedding approach in the time domain is not given because early investigation (Weston 1990) and subsequent work on the subject indicate that it is not a useful approach to apply in three dimensions.
It is inevitable that the mathematics of the presentation becomes more demanding. An effort is made to bring out, whenever possible and appropriate, analogies with the concepts, methods, and results from the one-dimensional case.
Wave-Splitting Of Maxwell’S Equations In Ir,3 And Applications
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Sections 8.3 and 8.4 the splitting is extended to a medium where ϵ = ϵ (x), μ = μ (x) and to a dispersive medium. For these cases the splitting is strictly mathematical. The splitting is applied to the inverse problem in Section 8.5. Finally in Section 8.6, non-planar wave-splitting is developed for Maxwell’s equations in free space, and the results are applied to obtain a non-planar absorbing boundary condition.
The implications of the nutrition transition for obesity in the developing world
Authors: Popkin Barry M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dietary and physical activity patterns around the world have shifted at accelerated rates over the past decade. Rapid increases in the globalization of the food supply and food distribution networks, technology related to work and leisure, and the coverage of modern mass media are key global causal factors. Each of these global forces, along with urbanization and other shifts at the local level, underlie the quickening of the rate of change of diet and activity patterns of large subpopulation groups among most countries in the world. The resultant shifts in dietary patterns and away from energy-intense, market-oriented economic and home production-oriented work, travel, and leisure toward increased sedentarianism and lower overall physical activity levels have occurred concurrently.
Population approaches to increasing physical activity among children
and adults
Authors: Salmon Jo , King Abby C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Along with the evolution of the technological industry, the last 100 years have seen incredible transitions at the industrial, social, and cultural levels of society. Unlike our ancestors of long ago, however, our current adaptations to changes in our environment may not be as favorable to our survival as a species. Cars and machinery have reduced the need for physical labor both at home and in the workforce. Living in sprawling suburban housing developments that do not make it easy to walk, concerns about traffic and safety from personal crime, being time-poor, and a lack of individual confidence and motivation are all potential contributors to people being more likely to drive their cars rather than walk or bicycle to most destinations.
Population approaches to obesity prevention
Authors: Jeffery Robert W , Linde Jennifer A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The body of intervention research directed towards the modification of eating and physical activity behaviors in the population is quite substantial. However, considerably less research has specifically focused on population obesity prevention. The purpose of this chapter is to present a conceptualization of the causes of population obesity, to discuss the implications of this conceptualization for public health interventions, and to review empirical work that has attempted to address obesity treatment and/or prevention in entire populations.
The cost-effectiveness of obesity prevention
Authors: Carter Rob , Moodie Marj 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to explore the economics of obesity prevention, particularly the available evidence on the cost-effectiveness of interventions and how the economic credentials for obesity prevention might be developed. The chapter begins with a discussion of the contribution that the discipline of economics can offer to an understanding of obesity prevention, explaining the separate but related tasks of description, prediction, and evaluation. Using these concepts, the chapter then explores what is known about the economics of obesity prevention. First, the depth and quality of the available economic literature on obesity is reviewed, and then Australia is used as a case study to illustrate the application of economic methods to describe the disease burden and to evaluate options for change.
Opportunities to prevent obesity in children within families: an ecological approach
Authors: Davison Kirsten Krahnstoever , Campbell Karen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Preventing the development of obesity among children is an international priority. This reflects the fact that rates of obesity among children have reached epidemic proportions in developed (1) and developing (2) countries, that obesity during childhood is associated with negative health and psychological outcomes (3), and that obese children tend to become obese adults (4). As outlined in Chapter 1, eating, physical inactivity, and sedentary behaviors (e.g. TV/video viewing, computer usage, video game playing) are established risk factors for the development of obesity among children and adults.
Drawing possible lessons for obesity prevention and control from the tobacco control experience
Authors: Mercer Shawna L , Khan Laura Kettel , Green Lawrence W , Rosenthal Abby C , Nathan Rose , Husten Corinne G , Dietz William H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While tobacco control experts in many developed countries announce remarkable reductions in tobacco consumption, nutrition and physical activity experts in these same countries bemoan the growing epidemic of obesity. Food and physical activity differ substantially from tobacco in that they are essential to life.Whereas the goal with tobacco control is therefore to eliminate all use, obesity control focuses on reducing some behaviors (excessive and unhealthful food intake) and increasing others (physical activity). Moreover, tobacco control involves preventing use of a single product while controlling food intake requires addressing a variety of products, and engaging in sufficient physical activity may require encouraging a range of activities and dedicating a period of time daily.
The potential for policy initiatives to address the obesity epidemic: a legal perspective from the United States
Authors: Fried Ellen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 2000, two prominent voices in the fields of public health and nutrition advocacy, Marion Nestle and Michael Jacobson, proposed measures to halt the obesity epidemic through the lens of public health policy (1).Halting the obesity epidemic: a public health policy approach chronicled a half century of US government recognition of obesity as a risk factor for chronic health conditions, yet revealed that governmental guidelines regarding diet, activity, and maintenance of healthy weight were both infrequent and, when offered at all, focused primarily on individual behaviors.Worse, the advice was typically banal and by all accounts, ineffective.
The potential of food regulation as a policy instrument for obesity prevention in developing countries
Authors: Lawrence Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The prevalence of obesity and its non-communicable disease (NCD) complications is increasing rapidly in many developing countries (1-8). Tragically, hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity persist in developing countries. The coexistence of the acute diseases associated with undernutrition and NCDs associated with overnutrition has been described as the ‘double-burden’ of disease (9). The immediate cause of obesity is a dietary and physical activity behavior pattern resulting in energy intake exceeding energy expenditure. The underlying etiology of obesity is multifaceted, being embedded in environmental determinants rather than an individual’s behavior or genetic make up. The rise in the prevalence of obesity in developing countries is one indicator of the so-called ‘nutrition transition’ which itself is attributed to changes in socioeconomic, demographic, and political circumstances (10). The nutrition transition is characterized by shifts in food consumption patterns away from diets based on traditional indigenous foods towards diets comprising increasing amounts of high fat and energy dense, imported foods (11).
Avian Flight
Authors: Videler John J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bird flight has always intrigued mankind. This book provides an up-to-date account of our existing knowledge on the subject, offering new insights and challenging some established views. A brief history of the science of flight introduces the basic physical principles governing aerial locomotion. This is followed by a treatment of flight-related functional morphology, concentrating on the difference in shape of the arm and hand part of the wings, on the structure and function of tails, and on the shape of the body. The anatomy and mechanical properties of feathers receive special attention. Aerodynamic principles used by birds are explained in theory by simply applying Newton’s laws, and in practice by showing the direction and velocity of the attached flow around an arm wing cross section and of the leading edge vortex flow above a hand wing. The Archaeopteryx fossils remain crucial in our understanding of the evolution of bird flight despite the recent discovery of a range of well-preserved ancient birds. Avian Flight offers a novel insight into the interactions between wings and air which challenges established theories relating to the origin of bird flight. Take-off, flapping flight, gliding and landing are the basic ingredients of bird flight, and birds use a variety of flight styles from hovering to soaring. Flight muscles are the engines that generate the force required to keep the wings and tail in the gliding configuration and perform work during flapping motion. The energy required to fly can be estimated or measured directly, and a comparison of the empirical results provides insights into the trend in metabolic costs of flight of birds varying in shape and mass from hummingbirds to albatrosses. The book will be of interest to biologists, ornithologists, and bird watchers. It will also be of relevance and use to physicists, mathematicians, and engineers involved with aerodynamics.
The Origin of Nerves
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An account of a demonstration of an anatomical dissection during which a philosopher, in order not to have his faith in Aristotle undermined, refuses to believe what a surgeon is showing him—namely, that nerves originate in the brain and not in the heart. This provides Galileo with the opportunity for an invective against knowledge based on dogma and tradition (ipse dixit), in which his fundamental ideas on the role and methodology of true science emerge.
Almost Free Fall
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Using a piece of reductio ad absurdum reasoning which was to become a historical landmark, Galileo proves that, contrary to the Aristotelian conception, all freely falling bodies descend with the same velocity and take equal times to reach the ground. He describes the motion of such bodies as uniformly accelerated. Any divergences in behavior of bodies of different weight and shape falling in media other than a vacuum, he attributes to alterations caused by friction.
In the Moonlight
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In contrast to what was commonly believed at the time, Galileo demonstrates that the extreme brightness of the part of the lunar surface lit by the sun at any moment is proof that it is irregular and rugged, rather than perfectly spherical and mirror-like, as Aristotelians would have had it. The faint “cinereous light” of the part of the surface not lit by the sun he attributes to light diffusion by the earth. Galileo dares come to the almost sacrilegious conclusion that the earth and the moon are identical in nature. The arguments used provide him with the opportunity to express his great admiration for the human mind and his confidence in its powers.
An Ingenious Wrong Theory
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Galileo believed he could provide incontrovertible proof that the earth moves using a model in which the rise and fall of the waters of the seas is caused by the accelerations and decelerations that points on the earth’s surface are subjected to, as a consequence of the planet’s combined motions of rotation and revolution about the sun. The model is as ingenious as it is flawed. Other phenomena capable of demonstrating the earth’s rotation were right there in front of Galileo, but, as far as we know, either he did not notice them, or he deemed them not worth considering. Simplicio’s comment in closing the dialogue offended the sensibilities of Pope Urban VIII.
The Seized Atmosphere
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Yet another dialogue on whether or not the earth rotates. In support of the hypothesis that it does, Galileo advances two arguments, one conceptual and one practical: the former holds that it is more rational that it should be the earth that moves, as opposed to the unlikely proposition, favored by Aristotelians, that it is all the stars that move collectively; the latter is based on the existence of the trade-winds which, over the vast expanses of the surface of the oceans, blow permanently towards the west, just as might be expected if the atmosphere were not quite keeping pace with the earth’s rotation. Galileo’s explanation seems simple and straightforward, but, as was the case with his far more elaborate theory concerning tides, it is wrong.