bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Varieties of non-inflectional plurals
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since ‘lexical’ can mean so many different things, we cannot take lexical plurality to be a self-explanatory concept which could support an unequivocal definition. It seems much more practical to begin by the simple observation that not all plurals are alike, and that we are more willing to describe as lexicalized some of them rather than others. Pre-theoretically, the most straightforward sense in which a plural is lexical consists in not being some thing else; namely, in not being the regular outcome of a deterministic grammatical rule. To start our survey, therefore, this chapter will describe and categorize the many different ways in which plurals can look non-inflectional because of listedness and lack of regularity.
Conclusion: Plurals and lexicality
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout this book, l have been using the expression ‘lexical knowledge’ advisedly, skirting attempts to define the concept of lexicon or lexical item. The reason is that the lexicon is necessarily a multi-dimensional concept. Even understood simplistically as a repertoire of meaningful linguistic building blocks, it would have to encompass various kinds of listemes, each equally justified at different levels of analysis: syntactic, morphological, semantic, psychological (see Section 2.2). Por our investigation, there is no gain in isolating one dimension of analysis and decreeing that the units in that dimension are lexical items. The real issue is not the lexicon, but lexicality: the properties characterizing knowledge of substantive ‘words’, as opposed to constructional principles and to functional expressions with syncategorematic value. The study of plurality as an ingredient of nominality strongly suggests that what we know about words does not fall into a deterministic grammatical part and a totally idiosyncratic and non-linguistic lexical part. Rather, lexical knowledge is linguistic, not just encyclopaedic, and it is not disjoint from the knowledge encapsulated in the grammatical system but subsumes it in important respects.
Working in partnership
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Developing and sustaining positive therapeutic relationships with service users, their families, and other carers is central to the role of the mental health nurse. This is emphasized in England with the Chief Nursing Officer’s review of mental health nursing (Department of Health [DH] 2006a), in Wales within Standard 8 of Raising the Standard (Welsh Assembly Government 2005), in Scotland within Key Aim No. 4 (Promoting and Supporting Recovery) of the National Programme for Improving Mental Health and Well-Being (Scottish Executive 2003).
Risk assessment and management
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is designed to assist you in understanding and implementing effective risk assessment and management. The focus of the chapter is on adult mental health care. However, many of the principles can be applied to other groups. The chapter includes reference to government guidelines, research evidence, and good practice. Risk assessment must be undertaken systematically and risk management should set out clear strategies including the rationale and intended outcomes. The emphasis is on indi- vidualized care that engages the service user and their car- ers throughout.
Introduction
Authors: Docherty Charles , Mccallum Jacqueline 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a nursing student beginning the first year of your course you require theoretical knowledge of health and illness to explain how an individual person functions at a variety of levels, from the biological to the social and psychological. You will also learn some of the fundamental principles of caring and treatment, and through this become aware that nursing is a very practical profession, encompassing a large number of clinical skills that must be mastered. This theory and practice together constitute what you are required to learn and these are the skills that are needed for a term that you may have heard: ‘fitness for practice’ or ‘fitness for purpose,’ which, basically, means that at the end of your nursing education you have the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to work as a nurse in your chosen branch. In the first year of the programme (referred to as the common foundation programme), there are common clinical skills that you are required to master prior to entering the second and subsequent years of your course (usually called the ‘branch’ years). This book has been specifically designed to enable you to learn and perform these valuable and necessary skills and give you the best start.
Land plants (Embryophyta)
Authors: Magallón Susana , Hilu Khidir W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Land plants (embryophytes) constitute a monophyletic group that is well supported by morphological and molecular characters. Numerous vegetative and reproductive traits directly associated with life on land characterize the group (1) (Fig. 1). Embryophytes are mainly diagnosed by the presence of multicellular sporophytes, cuticule, archegonia, antheridia, and sporangia, as well as by details of spermatozoid ultrastructure and cell division, and the presence of sporopollenin in spore walls (2). All living land plants are placed in four major taxa: Marchantiophyta (liverworts; 5000–8000 species), Bryophyta (mosses; ca. 13,000 species), Anthocerophyta (hornworts; 100 species), and Tracheophyta (vascular plants; 285,000 species) (3). theliving tracheophytes, in turn, are distributed in four groups. theearliest diverging lineage constitutes the Lycopsida (lycophytes, or club mosses; 1230 species), which is the closest relative to a clade that includes ferns and spermatophytes (seed plants). Ferns (sometimes called monilophytes; ca. 10,000 species) include whisk ferns, horsetails, and eusporangiate and leptosporangiate ferns. Spermatophytes include cycads (105 species), ginkgos (one species), conifers (540 species), gnetophytes (96 species), which are the gymnosperms, and angiosperms (Magnoliophyta, or Powering plants, 270,000 species). Angiosperms represent the vast majority of the living diversity of embryophytes. Here, we review the relationships and divergence times of the major lineages of embryophytes.
On (in)animate noun phrases
Authors: Hoop Helen De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Small people talk about people, average people talk about events, great people talk about ideas.’ The above philosophical saying has been challenged by linguists, who instead say: ‘All people talk about people.’ Indeed, statistical studies of spoken language have shown that the subject of most sentences is human, or at least animate. For example, Dahl (2000) reports that in a corpus of spoken Swedish about two thirds of all subjects are animate.
The Division of C-I and the Nature of the Input, Multiple Transfer, and Phases∗
Authors: Munakata Takashi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I argue that the language faculty is connected not to a single Conceptual-Intentional System (C-I) on the meaning side, but to two different external cognitive systems, a Conceptual System (C-S) and an Intentional System (I-S). Furthermore, I argue that these two systems compel the syntactic computational mechanism to make use of different types of syntactic inputs (lexical elements for a C-S and functional elements within the CP domain for an I-S) and produce corresponding syntactic outputs (i.e. phases). A syntactic derivation consists of two types of “phases” (lexical phases and functional phases). Consequently, Transfer should apply to these different types of phases separately (hence, multiply). In other words, I argue that the existence of phases is derived from interface conditions (IC) and the properties of external cognitive systems on the meaning side, which implies that phase status should be determined by these properties.
Rawls and Moral Psychology
Authors: Baldwin Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his obituary of John Rawls Ben Rogers remarked that after completing A Theory of Justice (TJ )¹ Rawls intended to develop his ideas on moral psychology.² In the event the debates aroused by TJ kept Rawls fully occupied and he never wrote an extended account of the subject. But there are discussions of it throughout his writings and it merits more attention than it has received (for example, the four-volume collection of papers on Rawls edited by Chandran Kukathas contains no papers directly on this theme³). My aims here are to elucidate Rawls’s conception(s) of moral psychology and then to explore critically some of the complexities and tensions inherent in his uses of it, especially those arising from its roles in his moral and political theories. Some of these questions are focused around the ‘problem of stability’, the problem of showing how a just society is likely to be stable because it provides a basic framework for the activities of its members which they recognize as congruent with their individual interests; and at the end of this paper I will discuss Rawls’s treatment of this issue, both in TJ and in his later writings, and, in this context, consider how far the moral psychology Rawls relies on to address this problem has an essential social dimension.
Inheritance and genetic counselling
Authors: Emery Alan E H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The muscular dystrophies are all genetic and may be inherited as: autosomal dominant (both sexes affected, transmitted from one generation to the next); X-linked recessive (males only affected, transmitted through females); autosomal recessive (siblings only affected).
Roughly 1 in 5000 individuals in the general population is severely affected with some form of muscular dystrophy.
Stress, Juncture, and Syllabification in Phonemic Description
Authors: Rischel Jørgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In spite of numerous theoretical divergences, phonemic descriptions are, on the whole, considerably uniform in the basic framework. This is especially true of the large-scale activity in the USA in the last decades, which has had considerable influence elsewhere. The bulk of phonemic work reflects a tradition which has largely favoured the study of segmental units: vowels and consonants. The highly refined techniques of contrasting sounds by means of paradigmatic substitution and of classifying sounds on the basis of distribution and phonetic similarity have been evolved primarily for the purpose of setting up segmental phoneme inventories and transcribing texts in terms of these. Toneme systems have proved a fruitful field for the application of similar techniques, but certain phenomena—stress, pause, and the like—do not fit well into the framework.
Structural and Functional Aspects of Tone Split in Thai1,2
Authors: Rischel Jørgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is overwhelming evidence (from orthography, from earlier sources, from internal reconstruction, and from comparative work) that early Proto-Thai had an inventory of three tones functioning distinctively on a par with vowels and consonants to keep lexical items apart. A minimal set may suffice to demonstrate this: if we symbolize the tones of the proto-language by *A, *B, and *C, there isa three-way contrast between */khaa,A/ ‘leg’, */khaa,B/ ‘galangal (plant species)’, and */khaa,C/ ‘servant’.
Phoneme, Grapheme, and the ‘Importance’ of Distinctions.
Authors: Rischel Jørgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Scandinavian runic inscriptions dating from before 700 AD are nearly all written in a graphic system comprising 21 to 24 runes (originally and when presented as an alphabet or ‘futhark’ it comprised 24 runes (see Fig. 14.1), but some of these, notably the p and the k, fell out of use rather early).
Diphthongization in Faroese1,2
Authors: Rischel Jørgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The diphthongs of Faroese are interesting from a general linguistic point of view, both because the inventory is typologically remarkable and because a comparison of the proto-language (OWS) and Modern Faroese (abbreviated MF) reveals some very puzzling developments of this system. The phonetic changes involved are in part very difficult to explain, at least if the case of each MF diphthong is considered in isolation. It is the aim of this paper to demonstrate that the various diphthongizations and other sound changes which can be observed are manifestations of a thorough reorganization of the whole vowel system that took place in the Faroese language of the Middle Ages (here termed ‘Old Faroese’: OF).
Devoicing or Strengthening of Long Obstruents in Greenlandic
Authors: Rischel Jørgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a well-known characteristic of West Greenlandic Eskimo that this type of Eskimo (unlike North Alaskan Inupiaq, for example) has complementarity of voiced and voiceless fricatives, short fricatives being voiced and long ones voiceless (in the new Greenlandic orthography, which is used in this paper. g and r symbolize voiced velar and uvular continuants, and gg and rr their long voiceless counterparts, whereas the corresponding labial set is distinguished orthographically as v versus ff). In accordance with the principle of feature distribution just stated we find that voiced fricatives are automatically replaced by voiceless segments in environments where they are long by true gemination (or by assimilation), for example iga- ‘to cook’ – iggavik or igaffik ‘kitchen’, neripput ‘they ate’ – nerripput ‘they shared a big meal’.
How much grammar does it take to sail a boat?
Authors: Gil David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human languages are of much greater complexity than the communicative systems of great apes, dolphins, bees, and other animals.1 Similarly, human culture, technology, and civilization are also immensely more complicated than anything observed in other species, such as the ways in which chimpanzees fashion tools to crack nuts or fish for termites. Clearly, these two facts are related: comparing humans to other species leads inexorably to the conclusion that linguistic complexity is correlated with complexity in other, non-linguistic domains. But what exactly is the nature of this correlation?
Linguistic complexity: a comprehensive definition and survey
Authors: Nichols Johanna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The long-received truism that all languages are ultimately about equal in complexity has taken some serious criticism in recent years. McWhorter (2001a) shows that one set of languages (creoles) are systematically less complex than most languages. Gil (1994, 2001; and cf. Chapter 2 above) shows that a non-creole variety of Indonesian is strikingly devoid of most kinds of morphosyntactic specificity and complexity, and Gil (2008) shows that isolating languages vary considerably in aspects of syntactic complexity. Ross (1996, 1997) and Dahl (2004) show that the sociolinguistics of contact and acquisition can greatly affect the complexity and amount of irregularity in a language. Hyslop (1993) shows that complexity in one lexical area (the number of distinctions in spatial demonstrative systems) varies inversely not with some other grammatical or lexical factor but with the size of the speech community; and Kaius Sinnemäki, in Chapter 9, below, demonstrates a subtler relationship between community size and a specific grammatical domain. Shosted (2006) and Sinnemäki (2008) select two components of grammar that might be expected to exhibit inverse levels of complexity if overall grammars were equally complex, and they show that there is little or no evidence of a negative correlation.
Health literacy – achieving consumer ‘empowerment’ in health care decisions
Authors: Edwards Michelle , Hill, Sophie , Edwards Adrian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘health literacy’ was first used in a monograph describing the impact of health information on the educational system, the health system, and mass communication (Simonds, 1974). Since the United States’ National Adult Literacy Survey (Kirsch et al., 1993) identified 90 million adults as having inadequate literacy skills to meet the needs of the 21st century, there has been a concern about people’s abilities to function in health contexts. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (Darcovich et al., 2000) reports results from the International Adult Literacy survey showing that in 14 out of 20 industrialized countries more than 15 per cent of adults have only rudimentary literacy skills, making it difficult for them to cope with the demands of the information age. The implications of these results for health have instigated a refocus on health literacy and its meaning.
Decision analysis – utility for everyday use?
Authors: Thomson Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The challenge in health care choices, from system-wide decisions on new treatments through to individual decisions on treatment options, is to find ways of supporting good – or better – decisions. Decision-analytic (DA) techniques can address questions about the use of treatment for groups of patients, for example to underpin health policy decisions, or might be used to guide the management of individual patients (Ginsberg and Lev, 1997; Lilford and Royston, 1998). Their use to support individual treatment choices, though, is far less developed. This chapter will describe the potential value of decision analysis in shared decision-making, critique the method with reference to both practical and theoretical concerns, and consider the implications for practice and research.
Decision aids and shared decisionmaking in inflammatory bowel disease
Authors: disease Anne KennedyInflammatory bowel , decision-making consumer involvement in 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) that affect about 240,000 people in the United Kingdom (Carter et al., 2004). The cause is unknown and current medical treatment is to ameliorate rather than cure. Many patients take long-term drug treatment to control their condition, but surgery is sometimes an option when such treatment becomes ineffective. Symptoms include bloody diarrhoea, abdominal pain, and weight loss, and often follow a relapsing course with periods of remission. Management guidelines (Carter et al., 2004; Wexner et al., 1997) state that patients should be provided with information on treatment options and choice, with recognition of the patient’s perspective, experience, and expectations. In this chapter, I will look at how this can be achieved.
Decision support in the treatment of aneurysms of the abdominal aorta
Authors: Stiggelbout Anne M , Kievit J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An aortic aneurysm is local dilatation of the aorta–the main artery supplying blood from the heart to all the major organs of the body–usually representing an underlying weakness in the wall of the aorta at that location. While the stretched vessel may occasionally cause discomfort, a greater concern is the risk of rupture, which causes severe pain, massive internal bleeding, and, without prompt treatment, quickly results in death. Abdominal aortic aneurysms, hereafter referred to as AAAs, are the most common type of aortic aneurysm. They are mostly detected as an incidental finding by ultrasound in the course of physical examination or imaging, e.g. for urological or bowel symptoms, although some screening programs are being initiated both in the United States and the United Kingdom and are being discussed in other Western countries. A Cochrane systematic review has shown evidence of a significant reduction in mortality from AAA (but not in all-cause mortality) in men aged 65–79 years who undergo ultrasound screening (Cosford and Leng, 2007).
Decision aids and shared decisionmaking in mammography screening
Authors: Barratt Alexandra , Austoker Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mammography screening is offered in many developed countries to women aged approximately 50–69 years to reduce mortality from breast cancer. The main benefits and harms of mammography screening are outlined in Box 45.1 (Barratt et al., 2005a) (for relative frequencies of these benefits and harms see Appendix 45.1). Information about screening generally emphasizes benefits and generally understates the harms (Jorgensen and Gotzsche, 2006), and there is a need for balanced, evidence-based patient decision aids on this topic, especially for younger women (Elmore and Choe, 2007; Qaseem et al., 2007).
Shared decision-making in cardiovascular risk management: Experiences and challenges
Authors: Weijden Trudy van der , Steenkiste, Ben van , Loon Marije S Koelewijn-van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is focused on patients without CVD but at an elevated risk of CVD. Public knowledge about symptoms and signs of myocardial infarction and stroke, or its risk factors, is limited, even among more highly educated and experienced patients (Bachmann, 2007). CVD is perceived as an undetectable or ‘sneaky’ disease in its earlier stages (Angus, 2005).
Decision aids for MMR vaccination
Authors: Trevena Lyndal , Leask Julie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Measles is a highly contagious disease which is contracted by almost all exposed non-immune children and those affected bear considerable risk of serious illness or death (Table 48.1). Prior to the development of a vaccine for measles in the 1960s, there were approximately 135 million cases and over 6 million measles-related deaths around the world each year (Wolfson et al., 2007). By 1987, the World Health Organization estimated that this had fallen to 1.9 million and a new combined vaccine for measles, mumps, and rubella became available (MMR). Global health.
Quantitative Approaches to Spatial Conservation Prioritization: Matching the Solution to the Need
Authors: Ferrier Simon , Wintle Brendan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a growing interest in quantitative approaches to spatial conservation prioritization, from conservation scientists and practitioners alike. Subsequent chapters of this book explore, in considerable technical depth, the state-of-the-art of such approaches and describe software tools commonly used for their implementation. Here we step back from the details of specific techniques and tools to consider the general nature and role of quantitative prioritization from the perspective of conservation planning, and related disciplines of environmental planning and management.
The Zonation Framework and Software for Conservation Prioritization
Authors: Moilanen Atte , Kujala Heini , Leathwick John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Zonation is a recently developed approach and software for spatial conservation prioritization (Moilanen et al. 2005; Moilanen and Kujala 2006, 2008; Moilanen 2007). Zonation effectively addresses a maximum utility type of problem (Chapter 3), taking into account distributions of features, connectivity responses, priorities for features, and variable emphasis placed on highest local quality (Sections 15.4–15.7). One main output of Zonation is a hierarchic ranking of conservation priority for all cells through the landscape, which can be visualized as a zoned map (Section 15.3). Zonation can, for example, inform the user of where to place or expand conservation (or restoration) areas, but it can also be used for the evaluation of existing or proposed conservation areas (Sections 15.8 and 15.9). Zonation is characterized by the ability to function on relatively large raster grid maps, facilitating a direct link from remote-sensing data and statistical distribution modelling. Using terminology of Chapter 1, Zonation primarily supports priority ranking and optimal plan generation, but it can also be used for scenario evaluation via load of solutions developed elsewhere.