bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Body Temperature
Authors: Alexander R McNeill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is about how the temperatures of animals ‘ bodies are affected by the environment and by the animal ‘s metabolism, and how body temperature in turn affects the rates of physiological processes.Enzyme-catalysed reactions are affected by temperature. If the temperature is low, reactions proceed slowly. Increasing the temperature increases the rate of the reaction, typically doubling it for every 10 K rise (see Box 6.1). Figure 6.1(a) shows, as an example, the rate of the reaction catalysed by citrate synthase from two species of moth. This is one of the enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle that is so important in aerobic metabolism. The graph has a logarithmic vertical axis and is a straight line, showing that the relationship is exponential. Over the range of temperatures investigated, the rate is multiplied by a factor of 1.85 for every 10 K rise in temperature (but at higher temperatures the rate would fall as the enzyme was denatured).
Energy budgets
Authors: Alexander R McNeill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Previous chapters have told us how much energy is needed for particular functions such as growth, maintaining body temperature, or running at some particular speed. Now we ask how much energy animals use in their everyday lives, and how it is divided between functions.We have seen how animals ‘ rates of energy consumption have been measured in laboratories, generally by measuring oxygen consumption or heat production, but now we want to know about the energy consumption of animals that are ranging freely in their natural environments. For this purpose, the doubly labelled water technique has been especially useful. It enables biologists to find out how much oxygen an animal has used between two occasions on which it is captured, without attaching any apparatus to it. The animal is given a harmless injection and released. When it is recaptured, a sample of its blood or other body fluids is taken for analysis.
Fundamental concepts
Authors: Cowan Glen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this book is to present the most important concepts and methods of statistical data analysis. A central concept is that of uncertainty, which can manifest itself in a number of different ways. For example, one is often faced with a situation where the outcome of a measurement varies unpredictably upon repetition of the experiment. Such behavior can result from errors related to the measuring device, or it could be the consequence of a more fundamental (e.g. quantum mechanical) unpredictability of the system. The uncertainty might stem from various undetermined factors which in principle could be known but in fact are not. A characteristic of a system is said to be random when it is not known or cannot be predicted with complete certainty.
The Chemistry of Star Forming Regions
Authors: Hartquist T W , Caselli P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first generation of stars formed in gas that was almost entirely hydrogen and helium, and the chemistry that was important during their births, is treated in Chapter 3. In this chapter we focus on star forming regions in which elements more massive than helium a.re important in the chemistry that controls star formation and creates molecules ‘‘which are observed to diagnose the process of stellar birth.
The Magnetohydrodynamics of Outflows from Low-mass Young Stellar Objects
Authors: Hartquist T W , Ruffle D P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Winds of high-mass main sequence and highly evolved stars are probably driven primarily by radiation pressure acting on the wind gas (e.g. Lucy and Abbot 1993), while the sustained winds of low-mass and intermediate-ma1;1s highly evolved stars may be affected substantially by radiation pressure acting on dust (cf. Chapter 12). However, radiation pressure is incapable of inducing the high mass-loss rates of 10-9 M0 yr-1 to 10-4 M0 yr-1 characteristic of low-mass (;≲ 4 M0) young stellar objects (YSOs) in some phases of their evolution. The highest mass-loss rates are often associated with clearly defined bipolar flows (e.g. Bachiller 1996); some low-mass YSOs are also seen to possess jets and Herbig-Haro objects (cf. Chapter 10).
Molecular Synthesis in the External Envelopes of AGB Stars
Authors: Millar T J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Observations of molecules in the circumstellar envelopes (CSEs) of late-type asymptotic giant braach (AGB) stars provide a natural laboratory in which to apply and test astrochemical models. Such regions, particularly C-rich (i.e. C/0 &gt; 1) CSEs, are rich in molecular species, have a known, usually spherically symmetric, geometry, are bathed in the interstellar radiation field, and undergo a simple expansion at constant velocity in the outer CSE, so that single-dish observations are able to give some information about the spatial locations of molecules from the line profiles (Olofsson 1997). In addition, for an increasing number of molecules, interferometer measurements are available and give detailed maps of the molecular distributions in the CSE (Bieging and Tafalla 1993; Gensheimer et al. 1995; Lucas et al. 1995; Guelin et al. 1996). Observati ns and models of the CSEs can be used as an input into studies of the later stages of stellar evolution when the AGB stars evolve through the proto-planetary nebula phase to planetary nebulae, a subject discussed in Chapter 16. Table 1 shows a list of molecules observed to date in CSEs.
Vortices in nonlinear Fields
Authors: Pismen L M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although natural phenomena can be described by a few simple and symmetric basic laws they exhibit an astounding variety of behaviours. This can be explained by a process known as symmetry breaking, which can cause an ordered state to form with topological defects. The dynamics of further evolution are determined to a large extent by the dynamics of such defects. This book covers the structure and dynamics of vortices in a variety of nonlinear field models with spontaneously broken symmetry. Point vortices or vortex lines can correspond, depending on the physical setting, to quantized vortices in superfluids or superconductors, dislocations in non- equilibrium patterns, rotating spiral waves, disclinations in liquid crystals, singularities in optical fields or strings in relativistic field theories. This book is unique in considering vortices in these different settings, but also emphasizes the analytical methods that allow an understanding of the common theoretical structure underlying defect dynamics.
The Quantum Theory of Light
Authors: Loudon Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This third edition, like its two predecessors, provides a detailed account of the basic theory needed to understand the properties of light and its interactions with atoms, in particular the many nonclassical effects that have now been observed in quantum-optical experiments. The earlier chapters describe the quantum mechanics of various optical processes, leading from the classical representation of the electromagnetic field to the quantum theory of light. The later chapters develop the theoretical descriptions of some of the key experiments in quantum optics. Over half of the material in this third edition is new. It includes topics that have come into prominence over the last two decades, such as the beamsplitter theory, squeezed light, two-photon interference, balanced homodyne detection, travelling-wave attenuation and amplification, quantum jumps, and the ranges of nonliner optical processes important in the generation of nonclassical light. The book is written as a textbook, with the treatment as a whole appropriate for graduate or postgraduate students, while earlier chapters are also suitable for final- year undergraduates. Over 100 problems help to intensify the understanding of the material presented.
Planck’s radiation law and the Einstein coefficients
Authors: Loudon Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Another main stream in the initial formulation of the quantum theory was concerned with the interpretation of atomic spectral lines. The interaction of electromagnetic radiation with atoms was discussed by Einstein f4] in 1917. His theory of the absorption and emission of light by an atom depends upon simple phenomenological considerations but it leads to predictions that are reproduced by the more formal quantum mechanics developed later. The use of quantum theory is, of course, essential for even a gross description of the nature of the states of an atom and the theory is outstandingly successful in its ability to predict the finest details of atomic energy-level structures.
Optical generation, attenuation and amplification
Authors: Loudon Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A typical optical experiment consists of three main components. The light is provided by a source, which may be a thermal source that emits chaotic light, but is most often a laser that emits coherent light in quantum-optical experiments. The light is processed in some interaction region of the experiment, where it may, for example, be subjected to attenuation, amplification, beam splitting, or one of the various nonlinear optical processes. The processed light beam is finally detected, for example by the direct or homodyne schemes covered in Chapter 6.
Linear transformations
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this part of the book, we will study linear transformations in the same spirit as we studied inner products and quadratic forms. In this chapter we will see how a linear transformation can be represented by a matrix, with respect to a particular basis, and in later chapters we will discuss how to find the ‘best’ basis, so that the corresponding matrix is as simple as possible, with applications to the solution of many kinds of differential and difference equations, and to quadratic forms. Our vector spaces will be over a field F. For this chapter, F can be any field whatsoever. If it helps, it is possible to think of F as either ℝ. or ℂ without much being lost. In later chapters, we will need some further properties of the field, taking the form that certain polynomials have roots; these properties are always true of the field ℂ, so it is safe to think of F as ℂ throughout the rest of the book.
The minimum polynomial
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The central result of this chapter is the remarkable and important fact that for any n × n matrix A there is a polynomial p(x) of degree at most n such that p(A) is the zero matrix. This can be proved either from results in the previous chapter on upper triangular matrices, or more directly. Because of this, it turns out that we can define a special minimum polynomial m A(x) (i.e. of least degree) such that m A(A) = 0. The properties of this minimum polynomial will be central to all the material in the remainder of this book.
Diagonalization
Authors: Kaye Richard , Wilson Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our basic aim is to find as nice a matrix as possible representing a given linear transformation. That is, given a vector space V and a linear transformation f: V → V, we want to find a basis for V with respect to which the matrix off is ‘nice’. In this chapter, ‘nice’ will mean diagonal, if possible. The process of diagonalization is where one tries to transform a matrix A to a matrix P−1 AP which is diagonal, or to find a basis with respect to which the matrix representation of a given linear transformation f is diagonal. We have already seen in examples that this process is often useful or necessary for solving certain kinds of simultaneous equations, such as the example in Section 10.1.
The Self-Made Tapestry
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why do similar patterns and forms appear in nature in settings that seem to bear no relation to one another? The windblown ripples of desert sand follow a sinuous course that resembles the stripes of a zebra or a marine fish. In the trellis-like shells of microscopic sea creatures we see the same angles and intersections as for bubble walls in a foam. The forks of lightning mirror the branches of a river or a tree. This book explains why these are no coincidences. Nature commonly weaves its tapestry by self-organization, employing no master plan or blueprint but by simple, local interactions between its component parts - be they grains of sand, diffusing molecules or living cells. And the products of self- organization are typically universal patterns: spirals, spots, and stripes, branches, honeycombs. This book explains, in non-technical language, and with profuse illustrations, how nature's patterns are made.
Bubbles
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am quite sure that a fascination with patterns in nature is as old as civilization. When the Egyptians began to keep bees in clay pipes 5000 years ago, they cannot have failed to notice the astonishing hexagonal pattern of the honeybee’s dwelling {Fig. 2.1). Charles Darwin declared it ‘absolutely perfect in economising labour and marvelled at the bees’ instincts for producing such a masterpiece of engineering. If you want to fill up a plane space with identical, equal-sided and equalangled cells, there are only three choices: triangles, squares or hexagons. Only these regular polygons can be packed together to fill space without leaving gaps. Pentagons, for example, will not work, and neither will octagons (Fig. 2.2). Bees making a pentagonal honeycomb would be constantly leaving gaps, and it is not hard to see why these aberrant bees would not be very successful in the Darwinian struggle for survival. The same is true for circular cells.
Waves
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Amongst the sprawling modern myth of Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow is a fleeting reference to a man who tried to make patterned paint. The reference is clearly meant to document a quixotic, absurd ambition, for we all know that paint does not unmix into the separate pigments that went into its making. But life is always stranger than we think. Take a look at Plate 4. Pynchon's ill-fated entrepreneur would have done well to follow the recipe that produced these blue and yellow stripes; for this is indeed a stable pattern that emerges spontaneously from a mixture of chemical compounds. This brew of chemicals is just one of many that have been found to generate spatial patterns. Some of these, like that in Plate 4, are stationary; others are dynamic, releasing waves of colour to a pulse as regular as a clock's tick.
Branches
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Mike Leigh’s film Nuts in May, a pair of gauche campers named Keith and Candice Marie discover how a kind of modern-day vitalism colours our preconceptions about complex growth and form. They take a trip to a local quarry to search for fossils in the ancient Purbeck limestone of Dorset. At the prompting of a quarryman, the unsuspecting couple find a delicate, plant-like pattern traced out in the stone. Took at that—seaweed!’ exclaims Keith. ‘Yar, well, ‘tis not seaweed, see’, drawls the quarryman, adding that it is manganese oxide—a mineral—they are looking at. Keith is not convinced. It's looks like a living organism to me.’ ‘Yar,’ the quarryman rejoins, ‘most people think that.’ You can see why Keith and Candice Marie jumped to the wrong conclusion. The structures they saw are called mineral dendrites, and they look for all the world like the kind of forms we associate with ferny plants.
Breakdowns
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When things break down, they tend to do so spectacularly. I don’t just mean that bridges fall down, that ships sink, that cities are levelled by earthquakes. I mean that we may be left with stunningly rich patterns, sometimes on an awesome scale (Fig. 6.2). Cracks are amongst the most familiar of branching patterns. They are also amongst the least well understood. It is only very recently, in fact, that scientists have begun to understand why it is that cracks form at all. For a long time, the science of fracture and failure of materials limped along with just a handful of basic concepts, most of which failed to provide any predictive power for what was seen in the real world. This was much more than an academic embarrassment: society wanted strong, tough materials, but scientists still had no clear concept of what it was that made a material tough. They would earnestly apply what seemed to be sensible criteria, only to end up with substances ‘about as strong as stale hard cheese’. On the other hand, their experience with materials that were genuinely strong sometimes flew so much in the face of what seemed like common sense that they had some persuading to do. The materials scientist James Gordon, to whom I owe the acerbic quote above, recalls the response of a British Air Marshall in 1943 to the idea that Lancaster bombers were to have glass-fibre domes: ‘Glass!-Glass! I won’t have you putting glass on any of my bloody aeroplanes, blast you!’.
Grains
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the 17th of October 1989 the residents of the Marina district of San Francisco Bay discovered the wisdom of the advice that Jesus offered to house builders-beware of building on sand. A shudder of the San Andreas fault centred in the mountains to the north-east of Santa Cruz brought many of the houses in this district tumbling to the ground. Miraculously there was no loss of life, but hundreds of millions of dollars’ worth of damage was done by the magnitude-6.9 earthquake. Unlike most other buildings in the Bay area, those in the Marina district stood on sand-more precisely, on sand-rich landfill sites. The ground certainly felt solid enough, and under normal circumstances it was. But when the earth shook, these wet, sandy soils turned to a slurry that flowed like treacle.
The Standard Model in the Making
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years quantum field theory has been very successful, not only in the critical but also in the popular sence. However, this book is not a systematic presentation of quantum field theory from first principles. To some degree it is a celebration of the fact that the theory agrees with the data and currently the numerical agreement is unequivocal.
From this point of view this book is somewhat unusual in that we discuss the structure of the perturbative expansion by viewing the theory in its true relation with precision experiments. There is every reason to believe that the Standard Model describes elementary processes with g1eat accuracy. The sensitivity in radiative corrections allows precision tests at the level of the quantum structure and, therefore, they require the highest standards on . the theoretical side. This book may be understood as concluding a certain period of theoretical development and providing a consensus about the present situation in the calculation of precision observables and estimates of their theoretical errors. In summary, the book provides a basic documentation on the sizeable amount of theoretical work that has contributed to a steady improvement of the foundations and of the predictions of the SU(3) × SU(2) × U(l) theory that finally took shape also during recent decades.
Pure Qed Processes
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the main goals of this book will be to present and discuss a multitude of realistic cross-sections based on the Standard Model (SM) for the electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions. To start a complete presentation of the perturbative expansion for gauge theories we will consider the simplest case of a gauge theory, quantum electrodynamics (QED), describing the interaction of spin-½ particles with photons.
One-Loop Neutral Current Amplitudes
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this_section we derive the complete one-loop expressions for the amplitude Z → ff in the GMS and OMS renormalization schemes. Using this amplitude we construct the partial widths of the Z boson, Tf, which&#x97;through some procedure&#x97; can be extracted from the experimental data. To make this statement more precise we will introduce the following definitions:
One-Loop Corrected Partial Widths Of The w Boson
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we shall consider the one-loop corrections to the partial widths of the W boson. The total width is dominated by decays into fermion-antifermion pairs and in the lowest order the partial width into two fermions of masses mi and mj is given by
Mathematical Analysis During the 20th Century
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For several centuries, analysis has been one of the most prestigious and important subjects in mathematics. The present book sets off by tracing the evolution of mathematical analysis, and then endeavours to understand the developments of main trends, problems, and conjectures. It features chapters on general topology, 'classical' integration and measure theory, functional analysis, harmonic analysis and Lie groups, theory of functions and analytic geometry, differential and partial differential equations, topological and differential geometry. The ubiquitous presence of analysis also requires the consideration of related topics such as probability theory or algebraic geometry. Each chapter features a comprehensive first part on developments during the period 1900-1950, and then provides outlooks on representative achievements during the later part of the century. The book provides many original quotations from outstanding mathematicians as well as an extensive bibliography of the seminal publications. It will be an interesting and useful reference work for graduate students, lecturers, and all professional mathematicians and other scientists with an interest in the history of mathematics.
General Topology
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Limit processes are basic features of mathematical analysis; so the elaboration of convergence and continuity concepts is mandatory. By the end of the XIXth century, the study of functions represented by convergent trigonometric series led G. Cantor to prove his uniqueness theorem’. Given a function, the trigonometric series representing it is unique. He then showed the statement still holds if finite subsets, certain countable subsets, are removed and went on establishing further extensions (Ausdehnungeri).
Prehistoric Calendars
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our knowledge of calendars before the invention of writing is meagre and speculative; the very existence of such calendars can only be inferred from evi dence that is equivocal at best. It may be surmised that man had to take heed of the seasons and the effect of these on his food supply while he was still hunting and gathering, and the invention of agriculture can only have accen tuated this. When cities and civilizations arose, the need for keeping proper records of taxes and the logistics of building works demanded writing-and the invention of calendars. Sure enough, soon after the invention of writing, calendars begin to be mentioned.