bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Wilson’s Disease
Authors: Stevens Florence , Ekvall Shirley W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Wilson’s disease (WD) copper is deposited in the liver, brain, kidney, and cornea instead of forming ceruloplasmin. The disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. Copper is an essential nutrient in promoting the formation of ceruloplasmin in the liver, but chronic copper poisoning occurs with hepatolenticular degeneration. The worldwide prevalence of WD is 1:30,000. This figure is higher in specific subgroups with consanguinity. The gene for WD, located on the long arm of chromosome 13 (13q14), is called ATP7B and has a variety of mutations. Affected children are identified between the age of 6 years and the early teens (50% before the age of 15). In adolescent females menstruation may not begin until the disease is treated. Menstrual irregularity, loss of menstruation, and infertility are common. In boys there is delayed puberty. For most children, the initial presentation is hepatic. The disease onset is neurological or psychiatric between the second and fourth decade of life.
Eye
Authors: Traboulsi Elias I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ocular malformations can occur in isolation or accompany other systemic abnormalities in the context of malformation syndromes. Several ocular malformations can coexist, resulting in complex but well-defined clinical ocular phenotypes such as persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous or aniridia. Other malformations such as Peters anomaly and the morning glory disc anomaly are extremely variable in clinical appearance and have been given a number of descriptive names over the years because of a failure to recognize the spectrum in their morphology.
Ear
Authors: Carey John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The auditory system is a highly interesting and complex structure. A single integrated anatomic unit serves both hearing and equilibrium. The ear develops as three distinct components: the external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. In these introductory comments, the morphogenesis of the three parts of the ear will be summarized in the context of the developmental genes currently known to be vital in ear development. In addition, some of the recently discovered genes, known to be expressed in the inner ear and causative in many syndromic and nonsyndromic forms of deafness in the human, will be tabulated and concisely discussed.
Lips
Authors: Jones Marilyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When reduced to the simplest construct, the human face forms from five mounds of tissue that surround the stomodeum or future mouth. The largest is the central and rostrally located frontonasal process that will give rise to the forehead, the nose, the central portion of the upper lip, and the premaxilla or primary palate. Lateral to the frontonasal process are the paired maxillary processes that form the cheeks, the secondary palate, and the lateral portion of the upper lip. The paired mandibular processes form the lower jaw and lower lip. The maxillary and mandibular processes are derivatives of the first pharyngeal arch. Over the last 10 years much has been learned about the genes that direct the process of facial formation as well as the interactions among cells that populate the face.
Tongue
Authors: Gorlin Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am surprised at how often one encounters the faulty perception that “the mouth begins at the tonsils.” In the medical curriculum, because little to no time is allocated to disorders of the mouth, we will devote some effort to the elucidation of this subject. The mouth can be easily examined digitally using a 2 2 gauze, a good light, and a mouth mirror. The tongue is the most important soft tissue structure within the oral cavity. Speech, deglutition, some taste (sweet, salt, bitter, sour, metallic, and so forth [most taste is really smell]), and participation in the immune system (through the lingual tonsils) are its main functions.
Ventral Wall of the Trunk
Authors: Curry Cynthia , Boyd, Ellen , Stevenson Roger E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the neural plate elevates, folds, and fuses dorsally in the embryonic week 4, folding also occurs ventrally to form the body tube. It is this ventral folding process by which the body cavities are positioned, thoracic and abdominal viscera are internalized, the embryo becomes enveloped within the amniotic cavity, and the body stalk becomes an elongated vascular lifeline. It appears that closure of the neural tube and closure of the body tube occur by very different mechanisms: neural tube closure by zippering along the dorsal midline; body tube closure by circumferential convergence in purse string fashion that brings folds from all directions toward a midpoint, the umbilicus.
Male Genital System
Authors: Martin Rick A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“ What is it?” is a question posed countless times each day after the birth of a baby. Of course the intent of the question is to know the sex of the baby. But is the questioner’s interest directed at the genetic sex, or is there more curiosity about the gonadal sex? Truth be told, it is the phenotypic sex people want to know about, and a quick peek under the diaper generally confirms the genital dimorphism of our species, correctly predicts both the genetic and gonadal sex of the child, and sows the first seeds of the gender identity process. Genital anomalies often impede this process and cause great anxiety. Of equal im-portance is the fact that such defects can herald considerable morbidity or mortality.
Other Systems and Structures Cutaneous Structures
Authors: Prendiville Julie S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The skin is a highly complex organ composed of many different structures and cell types. Developmental abnormalities may be isolated to the skin or associated with structural anomalies of the underlying tissues and syndromes involving other organ systems. Congenital anomalies arise when normal skin development is disrupted by genetic mutations or teratogenic agents. To begin to understand these malformations, a basic knowledge of cutaneous structure and morphogenesis is necessary. Identifica- tion of many of the gene mutations associated with inherited cutaneous diseases in recent years has improved our understanding of the molecular basis of skin development.
Endocrine Organs
Authors: Potter Amy , III John A Phillips 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Endocrine disorders that are associated with malformations are numerous and include defects of the central nervous system, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, skeleton, and a variety of other endocrine glands, tissues, or organs. These disorders are caused by genetic variations that interrupt different points of the hypothalamic–pituitary axis and other synthetic pathways that are required for normal development. Many metabolic pathways affect growth, and changes in any gene in any of the component pathways can lead to different phenotypes due to decreased or, in some cases, excessive expression of the perturbed gene.
Twins
Authors: Phelan Mary C , Hall Judith G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The increased frequency of pregnancy complications, prematurity, anomalies, and neonatal morbidity and mortality asso- ciated with multiple births has long been recognized. As noted by Duncan, twinning itself may be viewed as an “abnormity” or ab-normality of development; viewed as such, twinning is among the most common human malformations. With an incidence of about 1 in 80 births, twinning affects approximately 1 in 40 individuals.
Shifting Speakers: Negotiating Reference in Relation to Sexuality and Gender
Authors: Lunsing Wim , Maree Claire 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In what ways, if any, does a speaker’s personal sense of gendered and sexualized self influence language use? What gender and sexuality norms police the borders of Japanese language use? How do speakers negotiate these borders? How can we attend to the particularities of Japanese language, gender, and sexuality paradigms while at the same time problematizing prejudices within the sociocultural realm? These issues form the entry points of our inquiry into the intertwining of language, gender, and sexuality in spoken Japanese.
Lesbian Bar Talk in Shinjuku, Tokyo
Authors: Abe Hideko 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two decades ago, the difference between sex (as biological, natural, physical, real, actual, unrefined) and gender (as social, fictitious, refined, forced) was presumed to be clear and obvious for language and gender researchers. However, the distinction between the two was questioned and challenged most powerfully by Butler, who claims that sex “by definition has been gender all along” (1990:8) and that gender is a discursive practice unfolding in an ongoing interaction and, thus, open to intervention and re signification. An important aspect of Butler’s work is her claim that gender only exists in the service of heterosexism. Butler restructures gender as the performative effect of repeated acts, a cultural fiction, which can as such no longer privilege heterosexuality as the real or original sexuality at the expense of homosexuality (Jagose 1996). Ueno (1999:48) argues that one of queer theorists’ contributions is to demolish the distinction between heterosexuality as norm/origin and homosexuality as deviation/imitation. Jagose defines queer as follows.
The World’s Simplest Grammars Are Creole Grammars
Authors: Mcwhorter John h. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has long been a truism in creole studies that creoles are formally distinguishable from other languages only on the basis of their socio history and that there is no logically possible synchronic distinction between creole grammars and older grammars. In chapter l I argued that, in fact, a large subset of creole languages display a confluence of traits, predictable from the history of creoles in pidginization, which is unknown in any older language grammar and that creole creators strongly tend to eschew nonessential traits from their native languages when developing a creole.1 This research program dovetails with Bickerton’s Language Bioprogram Hypothesis (1981 and other works), which also proposes that creoles represent an underlying “layer’’ of language resulting from their roots in pidgins. Bickerton’ s main focus, however, was on the implications of his hypothesis for generative syntactic and ac quisition theory, and as such he had little occasion to examine creoles from a cross linguistic or typological perspective. My intention is a sustained investigation of creoles from the perspective of cross-linguistic configurational possibilities, beyond the Western European lexifier languages that have served as the primary focus of creolists’ attempts to define the term creole. The goal of the chapter is to render more precisely my grounds for the claim that creole grammars constitute a synchronically identifiable class.
The Diachrony of Predicate Negation in Saramaccan Creole Synchronic and Typological Implications
Authors: Mcwhorter John h. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I examine the diachrony of predicate negation in Saramaccan Creole (henceforth SM). It is possible, through reference to historical documentation in conjunction with comparative and internal reconstruction, to chart the emergence of the synchronic predicate negator allomorphy in SM. The diachronic process in question differs significantly from the relatively straightforward one which the synchronic facts would lead one to expect, an aspect of the analysis that makes the study particularly valuable in the area of diachronic syntax. In addition, the results are of interest for the light they shed on typology and creole studies.
Prospects for Emerging-Market Flows Amid Investor Concerns about Corporate Governance
Authors: Reisen Helmut 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While investor concerns have in the past focused on corporate governance practices in emerging markets, these concerns have now been redirected to the United States and other developed countries that are the core of the world financial system. During the 1990s, US and other countries’ economic performance had suggested that capital-market driven corporate governance generated higher productivity growth, finance for entrepreneurs, and dynamic competition. The problem of asymmetric information, the unique knowledge possessed by management, and the principal-agent dilemma, that minority shareholders must rely on somebody else to act in their interest, seemed solved by the concept of shareholder value and stock-related incentives for managers.
Corporate Governance Reform: Learning From Our Mistakes
Authors: Millstein Ira M , Gregory Holly J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Equity investors, no matter where they are situated or where they invest, share common expectations. Systematic failure to meet these expectations can result in a loss of investor confidence in entire markets. The challenge for all nations and corporations is to study these failures whenever they occur and apply their lessons to reform efforts. It is through shared learning from one another’s experience that meaningful convergence in governance practices will come about-and not by efforts to simply mimic one system or another.
Introduction
Authors: Jackson Robert H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Conceit Of Writing recollections may be forgiven only if the author has accomplished something memorable himself or has witnessed episodes of enduring importance. I invoke the latter excuse. At some critical moments during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, I occupied posts that afforded opportunities to observe, if not to influence, events and the words and deeds of those by whom they were enacted. Men differ, as they well may, about whether these measures were for better or worse in shaping our nation’s destiny. But no one can deny that the decisions of his administration were and are crucial in our history and, hence, that the future will want to learn all it can about them.
Not long ago I was sharply reminded that if I am ever to tell what I saw of the story of these times, I must be about it. In defending, before the Supreme Court, President Truman’s seizure of the steel plants, the Solicitor General cited President Roosevelt’s 1941 seizure of the North American Aviation plant in California and my justification of it as Attorney General. Turning to the record, it was a shock to realize that of those who participated in the conference at which that decision was made, I am the only survivor. That hinted to me that time does not wait upon our convenience.
That Man As Leader of The Masses
Authors: Jackson Robert H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It Was No Great Tribute to his skill, under the circumstances, that Roosevelt won a majority in the 1932 elections. But it was a tribute to his leader­ ship that he made a normally Republican country into a normally Democratic one. He was even able to take their following away from labor leaders when they opposed him, as John Lewis learned.1 He broke the firmly established two terms tradition. No President had obtained from Congress so much legislation it did not want as he had been able to do. How was it done?
There are those who think the sole secret is the “Santa Claus” theory. There is no denying that his Administration met with an extraordinary opportunity to extend government aid to an extraordinary number of persons, and that he took full advantage of the opportunity. Banks, railroads, and businessmen were aided through the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. Labor unions and their leaders were strengthened by enactment and administration of the National Labor Relations Act. Unorganized and inefficient labor was given the advantage of the Minimum Wage and Maximum Hour Act. Unemployment was relieved through a program of public works, and unemployed and aged persons received direct relief by the aid of the federal government. It bypassed the state governments and dealt directly with the municipal and local authorities and thereby established loyalties among local officials, who were enabled to solve their problems by direct contact with Washington. It would be idle to deny that these measures built up a strong popular following for the President based on benefits received.
On Cross-Sectional Determinants of Expected Returns
Authors: Lehmann Bruce N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is both a pleasure and a privilege, albeit somewhat daunting ones, to discuss Brennan, Chordia, and Subrahmanyam’s chapter “Cross-Sectional Determinants of Expected Returns” in this volume (see chap. 7). It is a pleasure because this is an interesting essay, one that challenges both the reliability of recent empirical evidence on risk/return relations obtained by Fama and French (1992) and others and the interpretation of postulated risk exposures in factor-pricing models. It is an honor because Fischer was one of the most extraordinary students of all areas of financial economics and of most of economics more broadly defined. I am somewhat intimidated, however, for Fischer was justly famous for his voracious reading of an extraordinarily large fraction of the published and unpublished research in finance and economics available at any point in time along with his detailed, insightful commentary on those aspects of any analysis he found either compelling or wanting.1 Fischer set a very high bar indeed for commentary on papers prepared for a conference in his honor.
The Supply and Demand of Immediacy: Evidence from the NYSE
Authors: Stoll Roger D Huang & Hans R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Participants in a trading market can be partitioned into suppliers of immediacy and demanders of immediacy, as Demsetz (1968) first noted. Suppliers of immediacy stand ready to trade at the prices they post, and demanders of immediacy place market orders and require immediate execution at posted prices. On the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), immediacy is supplied by specialists, who post bid and/or ask quotes for their own accounts, by securities firms that place quotes for their own accounts, and by public traders, who place limit orders. The bid–ask spread is often used as a measure of the cost of immediacy to investors, but it is rare that the supplier of immediacy earns the entire spread. A supplier of immediacy earns the difference between the bid (ask) at which he buys (sells) and the subsequent price at which he sells (buys). Because prices tend to move against suppliers of immediacy, revenues on a round-trip trade are less than the spread. Consequently, revenues of suppliers of immediacy are typically less than the spread.
Equity Options: The Black-Scholes Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Option pricing is an important subject. Stock options are traded on the exchanges. Many financial contracts contain options that cannot be detached and traded separately. These options are called embedded options. Many financial contracts have contingency features such that the holder has the right to pay for an instalment of the cost at a future date as a more complex form of an option.
Valuation of a Firm: The Business Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Corporate management begins with understanding the firm’s business model. A business model can be described as a contingent claim on the business risk by stating the underlying risks of the business, the cost structure (variable and fixed costs) of the business, and the allocation of the operating income to the claimants. The approach is an extension of the Merton model to include the operating leverage. Such a financial modelling of a firm enables us to appropriately determine the expected returns of equity; to explore arbitrage opportunities between equity and bond pricing; to determine the relative value of equities in similar market sectors; and to implement other equity portfolio valuation and strategies. In essence, financial modelling of the business model provides a framework to analyse equities as contingent claims, which has broad implications.
Thinking About Development
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Do development economists really know how to put things right? Although the development record exhibits many achievements, there are also failures. Beneath the statistics of the development record lie vigorous controversies in ideas. There are also historic endeavors to translate the thinking of development economists into problem-solving and policy action. We want to appraise the evolution in development thought, its effects on policy, and the successes and disappointments.
Early Development Economics 1: Analytics
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Paul Samuelson first published his leading textbook Economics in 1948, it had only three brief—almost parenthetical—allusions to matters of development.1 Shortly thereafter, the first generation of development economists began to analyze some of the leading issues in the subject of development and to establish the subject’s policy orientation. Their studies during the 1950s and 1960s gave rise to development as a special subdiscipline of economics.
Orthodox Reaction
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Concern about government failure became a landmark turning point in the thinking about development in the 1970s and 1980s. Contrary to the early development economists’ advocacy of centralized government interventions to remedy market failures, an orthodox reaction now focused on government failure and its antidote of neoclassical economics. A second generation of development economists criticized the first generation for having ignored fundamental principles of neoclassical economics. If pervasive market failures had earlier been seen to call for governmental remedies, by the 1970s the neoclassical case for the market-price system called for remedying government failures through policy reform. This “neoclassical resurgence” was based on both criticism of the earlier theories and disillusionment with the failed development strategies based on these theories. The subject of development economics— as known by the first generation—went into decline.
The New Development Economics
Authors: Meier Gerald M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Advances in general economic theory during the last two decades introduced marked changes in thinking about development. In both positive and normative analysis, the changed concepts are so different from traditional mainstream neoclassical economics that Joseph Stiglitz (1986) labels them the “new development economics.”1 He maintains that market failures, particularly those related to imperfect and costly information, may provide insights into why the LDCs have a lower level of income and why so many find it difficult to maintain existing current differentials, let alone to catch up. What is at stake is more than just differences in endowments of factors, but basic aspects of the organization of the economy, including the functioning of markets The kinds of market failures with which I have been concerned are markedly different from those that were the focus of attention some two decades ago. (1989: 201) In his Nobel lecture, Stiglitz recalls that his first visits to the developing world in 1967, and a more extensive stay in Kenya in 1969, made an indelible impression that turned him “away from the competitive equilibrium model to a concern with the imperfections of information, the absence of markets, and the pervasiveness and persistence of seemingly dysfunctional institutions, such as sharecropping” (2002: 460).