bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Geothermal Water
Authors: Priyadarshi Nitish 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
From earliest times, hot geothermal water or geothermal springs have been used for bathing and cooking. The first technological success in using geothermal energy was in Italy in 1904 where the worlds first geothermally driven electrical plant was opened and operated. Today, applications of low‐ and moderate‐temperature (100 to 300°F) geothermal waters have expanded enormously to include heating large tracts of homes and buildings (district heating), heating greenhouses for growing vegetables and flowers, fish farming (aquaculture), drying foods and lumber, and many other uses. In the United States alone, there are 17 district heating systems, 38 greenhouse complexes, 28 fish farms, 12 industrial plants, and 218 spas that use geothermal waters to provide heat. The district heating system in Boise, Idaho, has been operating since the 1890s and continues to provide heat today. In Iceland, most of the homes and other buildings are connected to geothermal district heating systems, and in the Paris basin in France, many homes are heated by bringing geothermal water to the surface. Geothermal greenhouses are prominent in Italy and in the western United States.
Worldwide, there are about 12,000 thermal megawatts of installed direct uses of geothermal fluids in nearly 30 countries, replacing the combustion of fossil fuels equivalent to burning 830 million gallons of oil or 4.4 million tons of coal per year. This illustrates the trend of countries switching to alternative energy sources such as geothermal energy.
Geothermal water discharges from numerous springs located mostly in mountainous or plateau areas. The springs are connected by faults to deeply buried reservoirs that contain geothermal water, which moves upward along the fault zones to discharge at the land surface. Much geothermal water discharges as hot springs that flow steadily instead of erupting at intervals.
Groundwater and Vadose Zone Hydrology
Authors: Dannwolf Uwe 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The vadose zone is the geologic media between the land surface and the regional water table.
The vadose zone includes the weathered soil horizon and the unconsolidated sediments and rocks below. The capillary fringe separates the water saturated zone from the unsaturated zone. The water saturated zone is often referred to as an aquifer if it allows significant amounts of water to be transmitted. Several processes take place in the vadose zone.

The processes, which influence the vadose zone and the recharge to groundwater include

precipitation,

evapotranspiration,

surface water runoff, and

infiltration and groundwater recharge.
Groundwater Remediation:In SituPassive Methods
Authors: Jacobs James A. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractPassivein situremediation technologies (PIRT) use a variety of physical, chemical, or biological processes that act without significant human intervention in the subsurface to reduce the mass, toxicity, mobility, volume, or concentration of contaminants in soil or groundwater. Passive remediation uses the natural movement of water to disperse treatment chemicals or to move contaminated groundwater through a treatment zone.
Groundwater Contamination from Runoff
Authors: Priyadarshi Nitish 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Not too long ago, urban runoff was considered an insignificant contributor to groundwater contamination. Urban runoff is now recognized as a significant source of contamination in water. Effluents from urban areas contain large concentration of oils, greases, nutrients, heavy metals, and detergents. Detergents that are soluble can pass through the soil and pollute groundwater. Raw sewage dumped in shallow soakpits and seepage from polluted lakes, ponds, and streams also pollute groundwater. Rainfall could pick up substantial contaminants from dust and air and join the aquifer below. The infiltration of liquids containing toxic pollutants may cause pollution in sandy soils and well waters.
Groundwater Quality
Authors: Moore John E. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe value of groundwater lies in its widespread occurrence and availability and also its consistent good quality. Groundwater, on the whole, is cleaner than most surface water and maintains a nearly uniform temperature.As groundwater moves through the subsurface, physical, chemical, and biological processes interact to change its original quality. The earth materials through which groundwater moves act as natural filters to screen out some bacteria and some impurities from the water. Groundwater is usually clear and colorless and of excellent sanitary quality, making it drinkable directly as withdrawn. This does not mean, however, that groundwater is completely free of impurities. In fact, all groundwater contains some dissolved minerals.
Groundwater Sampling with Passive Diffusion Samplers
Authors: Divine Craig E. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Passive diffusion‐based sampling methods have been used to monitor environmental contaminants, particularly trace metals and certain lipophilic compounds including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and pesticides, for many years. In particular, dosimeter‐type and semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) are commonly used in limnology, oceanography, and ecotoxicology for evaluating ultralow concentrations and potential bioavailability of contaminants. These types of samplers are most frequently used for sampling sediment porewater and surface water (i.e., rivers, estuaries, harbors) and have occasionally been used for groundwater characterization in contaminant toxicology studies. These types of sampling devices are composed of a “trapping” phase, such as hexane, activated carbon, or triolein (a prominent fish lipid), contained within a semipermeable membrane (such as dialysis‐type cellulose or a synthetic polymer). Upon deployment, contaminants diffuse through the membrane and are subsequently retained in the trapping phase until analysis. After the SPMD is removed, the contaminants must typically be extracted from the trapping phase before analysis. A significant disadvantage with SPMDs and dosimeter‐type devices for groundwater sampling is that back‐calculation to actual
in situ
aqueous concentrations may not be straightforward due to nonlinear and/or nonequilibrium sorption behavior of the trapping phase.
Groundwater Sampling Techniques for Environmental Projects
Authors: Jacobs James A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Groundwater sampling techniques are important for accurate project results and understanding aquifers whether the project is sampling a groundwater monitoring well as part of an environmental assessment or regular sampling of a potable water supply well.
Groundwater sampling techniques are important for accurate project results and understanding aquifers whether the project is sampling a groundwater monitoring well as part of an environmental assessment or regular sampling of a potable water supply well.
Groundwater samples are collected for a variety of reasons. Groundwater can be collected as a “grab” sample or from a monitoring well.
A “grab” groundwater sample is collected without the use of a fully installed groundwater monitoring well. Methods include using a bailer or jar to collect groundwater from an excavation or trench made with a backhoe or excavator. Other “grab” samples can be collected using a drilling rig wherein a sampler is drilled or pushed to the target depth and the sampler is pushed a bit further into the aquifer.
Hot Springs
Authors: Moore John E. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
A spring is a source of water that flows naturally from an aquifer or soil onto the land or into a body of surface water. Its occurrence depends on the nature and relationship of rocks (especially permeable and impermeable strata), on the position of the water table, and on topography.
Springs are generally classified as gravity springs and artesian springs. Thermal springs are typically considered a type of artesian spring. The vast majority of springs are gravity springs. Gravity springs are created by water that moves downgradient (downhill) and emerges at the surface. Two gravity springs, contact and fault springs are shown in Fig. 2. Artesian (nongravitational) springs occur when the potentiometric level of the groundwater system is above the land surface and water flows at the land surface under pressure either at the aquifer outcrop or from fractures or faults.
Hydraulic Conductivity/Transmissibility
Authors: Dielman Steven A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Hydraulic conductivity is a fundamental parameter that governs the flow of liquids such as groundwater through aquifers and other porous media. Specifically, hydraulic conductivity is a quantitative measure of the capacity of a geologic formation or other porous media to transmit a specific fluid. It is determined by the characteristics of both the porous medium and the fluid of interest.
Transmissibility (or transmissivity) is a property closely related to hydraulic conductivity that describes the capacity of a specific water‐bearing unit of a given thickness, such as an aquifer, to transmit water. Transmissibility is most simply defined as the effective hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer or other water‐bearing unit multiplied by the thickness of that unit.
Hydraulic Head
Authors: Uliana Matthew M. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Hydraulic head
is defined as the fluid energy per unit weight at a given point in a fluid system (like a pipe filled with flowing water or an aquifer). In simple, everyday terms, we can conceptualize (and measure) hydraulic head as an elevation—more specifically, the elevation to which water rises in a manometer, in a pressurized water pipe or in a piezometer.

Water elevations is a manifestation of the fluid energy in a groundwater system, and measuring a water elevation in a piezometer is really a measurement of the energy in the fluid at a certain point in a groundwater system.
Infiltration/Capacity/Rates
Authors: Holden Joseph 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Infiltration is the process of water entry into the surface of a soil. It involves surface water entry, transmission through the soil, and depletion of the soil water storage capacity. Surface water entry is influenced by surface vegetation cover, soil texture, soil porosity, soil structure (e.g., cracks, surface crusting), and compaction. Land management can influence all of these parameters and therefore influence infiltration.

The infiltration rate is the volume of water passing into the soil per unit area per unit time and therefore has dimensions of velocity (e.g., m s
−1
; mm h
−1
). The infiltration rate is often measured using an infiltrometer and is one of the most easily and frequently measured soil water processes. Despite the units of velocity, the values of infiltration rate are actually volume fluxes expressed as volume flux density and therefore do not indicate the effective velocity of vertical water movement in the soil.

The maximum rate at which water soaks into or is absorbed by the soil is the infiltration capacity.
Artesian Water
Authors: Commander David P. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Artesian water is groundwater that flows freely at the surface from an artesian bore or well. The name artesian comes from the flowing wells constructed in the twelfth century at the Carthusian monastery near Lilliers in the northeastern French province of Artois.
The artesian condition is, however, an accident of topography, not necessarily a property of the water, the bore, or the aquifer. For this reason, it is preferable now to use the term ‘confined’ to refer to the aquifer. ‘Confined’ implies the presence of a low permeability confining bed above the confined aquifer, which allows a positive (above ground) hydraulic head to be maintained. Rarely, flowing water can be obtained from an unconfined aquifer without a confining bed, provided there is a sufficient upward head gradient.
Artesian water is common in sedimentary basins, where there are extensive aquifers overlain by confining beds. The classic artesian basin is shaped like a saucer; the aquifer crops out around the elevated margins of the basin, where it can be recharged by rainfall or stream flow. The cities of London and Paris lie at the centers of their basins and were among the first cities to exploit artesian water on a large scale. The Great Artesian Basin in eastern Australia is one of the largest examples; it is 1500 km across. However, artesian conditions can occur in other geological formations.
Innovative Contaminated Groundwater Remediation Technologies
Authors: Boving Thomas B. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

The development of improved methods for remediating of contaminated aquifers has become a major environmental priority. Many innovative remediation technologies have emerged that promise fast and cost‐effective cleanup of contaminated ground water. According to, there are two general types of new technologies, those that destroy or immobilize contaminants
in situ
(e.g., chemical oxidation, chemical reductive dehalogenation, cometabolic and other bioremediation processes) and those that bring the contaminant mass to the surface for treatment or disposal (e.g., enhanced‐flushing technologies, thermal treatment).
Land Use Impacts on Groundwater Quality
Authors: Trojan Michael D. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe manner in which humans use land has important consequences for groundwater quality. Using land for waste disposal, recreation, agriculture, residential development, and industry releases different types and quantities of chemicals to the environment. These chemicals often end up in shallow groundwater, where they may impair water quality.Groundwater impacts from point sources, such as landfills and hazardous waste sites, are well understood. Impacts from “routine” land use, such as residential, commercial, industrial, or agricultural use, are not fully understood or readily apparent. Sources of chemicals from these land uses are called nonpoint or areawide sources. Examples include fertilized urban lawns or all feedlots in an area. This discussion focuses on water quality impacts in shallow groundwater resulting from routine land use.
Organic Compounds in Groundwater
Authors: Boving Thomas B. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Virtually all natural waters contain at least some amounts of organic compounds. However, as human impact on the environment increases, the concentration of organic compounds, such as solvents or petroleum products, in the hydrosphere has increased in many places. Consequently, many aquifers experience a degradation of groundwater quality, and there is strong concern how to protect this valuable natural resource effectively from further contamination.
Organic compounds in groundwater can be of natural or anthropogenic origin. Naturally occurring organic compounds in terrestrial water include carbohydrates (sugars and cellulose), lipids (neutral fats), and proteins. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, whereas functional proteins that act as biological catalysts are enzymes. Proteins are biopolymers that can form complexes with other organic compounds. Such compounds include tannins, which are phenolic compounds that occur naturally in bark, wood, leaves, or roots of many plants. The presence of elevated tannin levels in water results in a yellowish‐brown discoloration. The parameter, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), is a commonly used measure for the concentration of organic compounds in aqueous solution. DOC is the fraction of total organic carbon (TOC is all carbon atoms covalently bonded in organic molecules) in water that passes through a 0.45 micron pore‐diameter filter. Typical DOC concentrations for ground water range from a few micrograms to several 10 mg per liter and more. DOC concentrations depend on various factors, such as climate, soil and vegetation coverage, and land use.
Phytoremediation of Lead‐Contaminated Soils
Authors: Ioannidis Th. A. , Zouboulis A. I. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Several treatment technologies have been investigated for treating heavymetal‐contaminated soils, such as lead. Recently, among the most promising methods is “phytoremediation,” the use of certain plants to remove/accumulate or neutralize/degrade pollutants, of inorganic or organic nature. The systematic examination of plants, especially for removing lead from polluted soils has drawn serious attention, especially during the last decade. The overview of the specific technology and a brief description of the results obtained so far is briefly presented. Specific aspects that are of critical importance, such as the chemistry of soil and the interaction with the toxic metals, are also outlined.
Recharge in Arid Regions
Authors: Leonhart Leo S. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractGroundwater recharge in arid regions or deserts is a process that requires a favorable combination of hydrologic factors. Accordingly, recharge, in arid regions occurs more rarely and supplies annual quantities of water to the groundwater table lower than typical of more humid regions. Many of the processes by which recharge occurs, such as surface infiltration, stream channel loss, and seepage from impounded water bodies, however, are common to both regions.By definition, the aridity of a region is determined by the ratio of mean annual precipitation to mean annual potential evapotranspiration (PET). As shown in Fig. 1, arid regions in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres are situated mostly between 10° and 35° latitude worldwide. Regions that have average annual precipitation (P) totaling less than 250 mm (10 in) make up an estimated 25% of the worldwide land areas outside of the polar regions. Arid regions are sometimes further classified as hyperarid, arid, or semiarid, according to the ranges in theP/PET ratio.For several reasons, estimates of mean annual precipitation are difficult to relate directly to recharge in arid regions. Largely, this difficulty arises from characteristically high temporal and spatial variability in both the distribution of precipitation and recharge in arid regions. Longer term recharge to precipitation ratios (R/P) for various arid regions in the United States generally are typically less than 5%.
Remediation of Contaminated Soils
Authors: Sarkar Dibyendu , Datta Rupali , Davani Ali H. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Soil contamination is caused by a variety of industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities, and poses a major threat to the environment. Although soil contamination can result from a variety of organic and inorganic chemicals, this article focuses on remediation of metal‐contaminated soils. Heavy metals such as Pb, Cr, Cd, Zn, Cu, and Hg can cause significant damage to environmental and human health, particularly because of their indefinite persistence in the environment. In the United States alone, 1200 sites are on the National Priority List (NPL) for remediation of contaminated soils, of which 63% are contaminated with toxic heavy metals. A plethora of remediation techniques are now available for the cleanup of such contaminated sites. The selection of the most appropriate site remediation technique depends on various factors such as site characteristics, concentration, types of pollutants to be removed, and end use of the contaminated medium. The major technologies available to date can be grouped under the following categories: isolation, immobilization, toxicity reduction, physical separation, and extraction. This article provides an overview of the various sources of heavy metal pollution in soils, the common remediation technologies available for soil cleanup, and the various factors that influence the type of remediation method that would be most appropriate for effectively remediating metal‐contaminated soils.
Use of Anaerobic‐Aerobic Treatment Systems for Maize Processing Plants
Authors: Durán‐de‐bazúa María‐del‐carmen 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

After the discovery of the American continent by the Spaniards in the fifteenth century, corn (
Zea mays
), an indigenous plant from Mexico, spread all over the world and became a staple food for many human groups. Due to globalization, one of these maize products, “tortillas,” is now an extremely popular food that can be found in most countries of the world. The traditional production of “tortillas” involves a Precolumbian technique, known as “
nixtamalization
,” derived from the Aztec words
nextli
= lime ashes and
tamalli
= cooked corn dough. This ancient process, almost as old as corn domestication and cultivation, is a time‐ water‐ and energy‐consuming technique. Modernization of the traditional process to produce cornmeal instead of dough to lengthen its shelf life as well as some other changes for mass production have been introduced in the last 50 years. Some innovative processes that maintain these desirable nutritional and sensory characteristics, and at the same time, reduce energy and water consumption, and most importantly, processing time, have also been developed and started to be used. However, the traditional plants (more than 100,000 small‐scale and 25 large‐scale in Mexico) are still in operation, so methods to treat and stabilize the wastewater generated in the traditional process (so‐called “nixtamal” mills that process around 0.5 to 4 metric tons maize per day) or in its industrial modifications (so‐called precooked cornmeal or masa‐harina factories that process from 100–1,000 metric tons maize per day) and contain appreciable amounts of soluble and insoluble organic matter. These methods are based on anaerobic and aerobic systems, and the interesting issue is that by‐products from the treatment can be further used, giving added value to these treatment processes. For cornmeal industries, the anaerobic and the aerobic ones are compact and easy to operate. The saving in water and energy consumption, wastewater disposal costs, and the sale of biomass for fish protein‐rich feedlots make the treatment and recovery process economically feasible. The turnover rate is 1.5 years, that is, the money invested in the wastewater treatment plant together with the accessories to recover biogas and biomass and to reuse them is recovered in 18 months. Due to the size of nixtamal mills, it is not so economical to install an anaerobic‐aerobic process for treating their wastewaters (between 2.5 to 20 m
3
). An aerobic system is then used for these small establishments. The solid material collected from the filter press can be fed directly to small farm animals and, although the protein cannot be directly assimilated by the animals, it does not damage them. In this case, partially treated wastewater is sent to the municipal sewer system.