bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Index Numbers: Issues and Alternatives
Authors: Shiller Robert J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter addresses the fact that creating index numbers for settlement of contracts requires some judgement, and that no single method is likely to be applicable to all circumstances—there are trade‐offs, and choices have to be made with limited information. Before applying a repeated‐measures method like the ones defined in the preceding chapter, a decision has to be made as to whether there are enough repeated measures to ensure that the standard errors are not going to be too high, and whether there is enough unmeasured quality variation across subjects to warrant the increase in error variances caused by the addition of many subject dummies. A choice has to be made as to which kinds of hedonic variables, if any, to include in the analysis, and not all quality measures are appropriate for index number construction, so a choice needs to be made as to whether these variables or the subject dummies are to be constrained in any of various ways. Prior information of an imprecise nature may be used to put probabilistic, rather than rigid, restrictions on the regression coefficients. There are also some fundamentally different variants of the hedonic repeated‐measures regression methods that could be considered, methods in which quality is inferred as an observed factor associated with each subject (factor analytic methods), and methods in which a separate selection equation is used to correct for possible selection bias in the mechanism by which it is determined which subjects are to be measured (selection bias correction methods).
The Employment Relationship
Authors: Marsden David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The employment relationship is flexible because it is open‐ended or ‘incomplete’, but no workers would agree to be become employees unless there were some agreement over the limits to which managers can direct their work. Simon argues that jobs are based on a ‘zone of acceptance’ consisting of tasks that a worker is willing to carry out. However, this is too prone to opportunistic behaviour. To counter this, the parties develop work rules that enable workers and their line managers to identify the set of tasks individual workers may normally undertake. The chapter ends with a short analysis of the sub‐contract systems that preceded the employment relationship in many countries.
Societal Diversity of Employment Systems: Comparative Evidence
Authors: Marsden David 
Published: October 2003

AbstractEvidence of wide diffusion of the four types of employment systems is presented for major sectors within different countries, based on secondary data. It shows wide diffusion of both the ‘production’ and the ‘training’ approaches to skill organization, as well as for the ‘task‐oriented’ and ‘function‐oriented’ approaches to performance management, and their effects on wage structures. The countries surveyed included Britain, France, Germany, Japan, and the US.
Pragmatism Against Morality: Ethnicity in the Aztec Empire
Authors: Grillo R. D. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn Mesoamerica, conquest, predatory or segmentary expansion, and migration frequently brought together heterogeneous social, cultural, and linguistic populations under a single ruler. In the Aztec (Mexica) empire, ethnic distinctions were made, but little was made of them. Far from being a proselytizing, normatively mobilizing, moralistic polity, the Aztecs, like other patrimonial societies in Mesoamerica and elsewhere, were principally interested in extraction: ‘little more than a band of pirates’, Eric Wolf called them. Though Aztec rulers were interested in the formation of an identifiably Mexica ruling class, there was no policy of cultural homogenization affecting subject populations: there was no reason for one, nor could it have been easily implemented. Ethnicity was not a significant factor in the organization of inter‐city Mesoamerican politics and political relations.
Pluralism in a Patrimonial Bureaucracy: The Ottoman Empire
Authors: Grillo R. D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Some of the most horrifying episodes of ethnic violence of the twentieth century occurred in a territory originally part of the Ottoman Empire. Although for later generations the Empire was a byword for ramshackle, corrupt organization, and by the nineteenth century this was probably correct, in its heyday, in the 150 years or so from the fall of Constantinople in 1453, many regarded it as a symbol of harmony, and indeed for Jews fleeing persecution in Spain it offered a safe haven. During that period the Empire incorporated ethnic and religious differences into its system of rule in ways that gave formally subordinate groups relative autonomy in their cultural, religious, economic, and political affairs (the millet system), and allowed some of their members to rise to positions of great power and eminence, e.g. the slave elite created by the devshirme.
A ‘Magpie Society’? from ‘Assimilation’ To ‘Integration’ In Britain and France
Authors: Grillo R. D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Like the US, Britain and France have had a shared concern with the assimilability of peoples of immigrant origin. Although there are important differences between them, in the last decades of the twentieth century all three abandoned policies of out‐and‐out assimilation and espoused more pluralistic solutions described variously as ‘integration’, ‘insertion’, or ‘multiculturalism’. The impact from c. 1960 onwards of immigrants from the so‐called ‘New Commonwealth’ was addressed in Britain through a legislation controlling entry, redefining British nationality; outlawing racial discrimination; and introducing anti‐racist and multicultural policies and practices, especially in education. Designed to combat what were seen to be outstanding problems of day‐to‐day living in contemporary multicultural Britain, they represented a coming to terms with the end of empire.
Pluralism and the Postmodern Condition
Authors: Grillo R. D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In the last third of the twentieth century, contrary to what modernity predicted, ethnic and cultural difference had a high salience, and contemporary societies in Europe and North America felt compelled to recognize this and implement policies of multiculturalism to cope with the demands that emanated from it. The reasons for this shift to the recognition of difference are complex, but it may be partly ascribed to the vast social, economic, and technological changes associated with post‐industrial economies under conditions of neoliberalism and globalization. In countries of immigration, transnationalism, too, enhanced the space of ethnic and cultural pluralism. Yet, pluralism may take many forms, and it is unclear whether the difference that will prevail in contemporary post‐modern societies will take the form of an essentialist version of multiculturalism, or some kind of ‘hybridity’.
Trade in Goods
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe main GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) rules on specific instruments of trade control––tariffs, quotas, subsidies, customs procedures, and product standards are described, and the political economy rationale underlying them are discussed. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Tariffs, para‐tariffs and indirect taxes; Quantitative restrictions and import licensing; Customs clearance‐related provisions; subsidies; State trading enterprises; Technical regulations and product standards; Sanitary and phytosanitary measures; Trade‐related investment measures; and Conclusion.
Trade in Services
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter starts with brief overviews of global trade flows in services, the barriers that restrict such trade, and the economics of service sector protection and liberalization. This is followed by a summary of the main elements of the GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services) and a discussion of the experience obtained in the first five years of the operation of the GATS in expanding the coverage of the agreement. The chapter ends with a brief assessment of the usefulness of the GATS as an instrument for the pursuit of service sector reform. The different sections are as follows: Conceptual and empirical issues; Barriers and potential gains from reform; The Uruguay Round negotiations; The GATS; Sector‐specific negotiations and agreements; Electronic commerce; The challenge of expanding the GATS; and Conclusion.
Protection of Intellectual Property
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAn overview is provided of the economic rationales for protection of IPRs (intellectual property rights) and the reasons behind moves to adopt multilateral rules in this area. Some of the major conflicts of interest that shaped the TRIPs (Trade‐Related Intellectual Property Rights) agreement on this are summarized, as are the basic elements of the substantive disciplines imposed. The agreement is unique in the WTO (World Trade Organization) context in that it imposes obligations upon governments to adopt a set of substantive rules in an area that traditionally has been regarded as the purview of domestic regulation. It is an example of what Tinbergen (1954) has called ‘positive integration’; this is in contrast with the ‘negative’ integration found in the GATT, which involves agreements not to use certain policies that directly affect (distort) trade flows––such as export subsidies or quotas––or if used, imposes constraints on when and how trade policies may be applied. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of implementation‐related questions, focusing in particular on the options that exist to reduce the potential negative aspects of stronger IPRs on national welfare. The different sections are as follows: Intellectual property and international trade; International conventions and GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) history; The Uruguay Round negotiations; WTO rules on intellectual property rights; Implementation concerns and challenges; and Conclusion.
Plurilateral Agreements
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe provisions of the WTO (World Trade Organization) for allowing for the negotiation of so‐called ‘plurilateral agreements’ are discussed. These apply only to those members that sign them. The most important of these is currently the Agreement on Government Procurement. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Government procurement; The civil aircraft agreement (Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft); and Conclusion.
Towards Deeper Integration? The ‘Trade and’ Agenda
Authors: Hoekman Bernard M. , Kostecki Michel M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe general issue of dealing with ’behind the border’ regulation is discussed in the WTO (World Trade Organization) context, and an introduction provided to the main issues that are likely to be prominent on the multilateral negotiating agenda in the coming decade. A key question is to identify the rationale for––and objectives behind––proposals to address a specific issue in the WTO, and determine what type of cooperation is appropriate, if any. Various issues that are likely to be on the negotiating agenda for some time to come, including competition (anti‐trust) policy, labour standards, trade facilitation, and investment and environmental policies, are discussed. The sections of the chapter are as follows: Contestability of markets as a criterion; Foreign direct investment policies; Competition law; Trade facilitation; Environmental policies; Social policies and labour standards; Domestic regulation; and Conclusion.
Spain: Still the Primacy of Corporatism?
Authors: Molinaxs Álvarez De Cienfuegos Ignacio 
Published: October 2003

AbstractStarts with an account of the Spanish administration over the last two decades (to 1997); includes a definition of the Spanish civil service bureaucratic élite as composed at the top level (which must be filled by public employees) and of senior civil servants who hold political posts. Followed by an analysis of the historical legacy of the Spanish civil service. The next section looks at exactly who the senior civil servants are in relation to the other public employees in the central administration, and in relation to educational background: three different circles of senior bureaucrats are distinguished: a political circle, a politico‐administrative circle, and a bureaucratic circle. Further sections discuss the sociological characteristics of senior officials, the position of the civil servant in the organization, and Spanish civil servants in relation to politics. The conclusion discusses the main structural problems of the Spanish civil service and the constant demands for transformation that there have been over the last two centuries.
Italy's Senior Civil Service: An Ossified World
Authors: Cassese Sabino 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The beginning of the twentieth century saw a progressive southernization of jobs in the Italian public sector, with a sizeable migration of personnel from South to North. In 1995, some 35% of civil servants worked in the North and 65% in the Centre‐South, but 27% of civil servants in the North were from the Centre‐South, which, in this way, contributed to the administration and the provision of public services in the North; in the top echelons of the state administration, the disequilibrium was even stronger. State employees in general, therefore, and senior officials, in particular, are not representative in territorial terms, resulting in the paradox of a senior civil service that administers the nation, but which is not national. This chapter aims to illustrate this paradox. It looks first at the subject to be analysed (the senior civil service) and its organizational context, and then defines a profile of senior officials, illustrating the characteristics of the category in which they are found; finally it analyses the two (failed) attempts of reform.
The Senior Civil Service in France
Authors: Rouban Luc 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn France, the notion of a senior civil servant is a social rather than a legal one, and senior civil servants may be defined through their role as privileged partners of political power and participation in government decision‐making; they are a heterogeneous group of senior managers of the state public administration, whose members share neither the same careers nor prestige nor professional culture, and regard themselves generally as intellectuals rather than as managers. The relationship between senior civil servants and politicians is more ambiguous and closer in the 1990s than it was during the 1960s, and the politicization of the senior civil service has been considerably strengthened, but senior civil servants still consider themselves as representing the permanence of the state, and are still reluctant to talk freely about their political involvements. Whatever the social changes that have occurred during the last 15 years and whatever the political changes, the senior civil service remains strong. An overview of the higher French civil service has to take into account three variables that interact simultaneously: the fundamentally individualistic culture acquired during years of professional training; the decisive role of the grand corps in the career path and in the representation of what is ‘good administrative work’; and the privileged social rank of the higher civil service. This chapter presents the main characteristics of senior public managers in France by trying to highlight signs of an evolution since the 1960s; the different sections look at recruitment and promotion methods, the political activity and mobility of senior civil servants, the internal hierarchy of the civil service, the sociological characteristics of senior public managers, the professional relationships of senior civil servants, the absence of any higher civil service policy, and the debated question of the erosion of higher civil service social status.
The Senior Civil Service in Belgium
Authors: Brans Marleen , Hondeghem Annie 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe Belgian senior civil service is in transition, with external pressures clearly pushing the government firmly towards a reform agenda and improving public confidence in the administrative system, in terms of democracy and accountability and of economy and efficiency. In addition, budgetary pressures have combined with political will to ensure that the operation of the administration complies with the new managerialist paradigm. This chapter gives an overview of the position of senior civil servants in the Belgian federal ministries (the federal civil service). It consists of three main sections: the first describes the coexistence of two opposing civil service models, a formal bureaucratic one and an informal politicized one, and assesses the implications of the clash between these models for the position (job definition, classification, and security; the career ladder; salaries; political appointments; and ministerial cabinets) and role conceptions of top civil servants; the second addresses the issue of representativeness of the senior civil service in terms of education, language, and gender; the third deals with the two major challenges to the Belgian senior civil service (external pressure and internal constraints) and the resulting structural reform agenda.
Senior Officials in the German Federal Administration: Institutional Change and Positional Differentiation
Authors: Goetz Klaus H. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This account of institutional change and positional differentiation of senior officials in Germany's Federal administration is presented in five sections. Section I, ‘Senior Officials and the Reassertion of Political Authority’, is introductory and discusses the causes and implications of change in the organization and in the political and administrative roles of the senior civil service; changes identified include party politicization, parliamentarization and federalization of the national policy process, modernization initiatives, European integration, and unification. Section II gives a brief survey of the Federal senior ministerial personnel (looking at pay grade and rank, and centrality), and section III considers paths to the top, paying particular attention to the procedures for recruitment and promotion and the consequences of weak formal structures for personnel planning and development. Following on from the definition of political craft as a defining attribute of effective top officials, section IV highlights the central position of political coordination units as training grounds in the Federal administration and comments on the informal positional differentiation that they encourage. The discussion concludes in section V with an assessment of the implications of the partition of the ministerial bureaucracy between Bonn and Berlin.
The Senior Civil Service in the Netherlands: A Quest for Unity
Authors: Van Der Meer Frits M. , Raadschelders Jos C. N. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Dutch society takes pride in its egalitarian character, and political and administrative officeholders are neither separated off nor placed on a pedestal. This general attitude originates in the predominantly middle‐class nature of Dutch society, in which the idea of formal incorporation of top civil servants in a separate class of administrative personnel is foreign; however, at the same time, there is a striving for unity in the national administration. The issue of tension between unity and fragmentation forces an assessment in this chapter of current developments in the higher civil service in comparison with the situation as it existed from the Second World War up to the early 1990s, with the emphasis on developments in the past two decades in which the most important event was the formation of a Senior Public Service (the Algemene Bestuursdienst, or ABD) after 1 July 1995. The first main section of the chapter (section II) examines what is meant by a ‘senior civil service’ in the Dutch context, where even the creation of the ABD does not provide a conclusive answer, since there are many senior civil servants outside it. In order to address this issue, the characteristics of the Dutch personnel management system are examined, and a brief outline given of the ABD and of the number of top civil servants working at central government level in the period 1976–1995. Section III turns to the political–administrative organization and the consultative structures at the top of the central government departments, and discusses the structure of the ABD, while section IV discusses the political affiliation (politicization) of top civil servants, and section V looks at functional mobility at the top, with special attention to the functional motives for creating the ABD. Finally, the social political structure of the civil service is reviewed, with sections on social (VI) and educational (VII) background.
The Welfare State Managers: Senior Civil Servants in Sweden
Authors: Pierre Jon , Ehn Peter 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first part of this chapter discusses retrenchment, recent institutional changes, and senior civil servants in Sweden; it attributes the recent changes in the senior civil service to the budgetary crisis of the state and the emergence of a less interventionalist control regime, in which the heyday of state‐driven economic and social change has gone. The main source of uncertainty now concerns the final destination of the rapid changes in many core aspects of Swedish politics and public administration. The different sections of the chapter look at: the size and structure of the Swedish civil service; ranks of senior civil servants; systems of recruitment and promotion; party membership among senior civil servants; inter‐ministerial mobility of civil servants; status in the civil service; the social and educational backgrounds of top officials; informal contacts across ministries and between ministries and agencies; the relationship between national and sub‐national officials and those working in agencies; political party policies towards the civil service; and the social status of the senior civil service.
Kant and Welfare
Authors: Kaufman Alexander 
Published: October 2003

AbstractTwo formal arguments in favour of the traditional (libertarian) interpretation of Kant's political thought remain influential. The first argument asserts that Kant's metaphysical principles of right severely constrain the authority of the state to intervene to influence subjective welfare. The second claims that Kant's account of right cannot guide the positive content of the law, since positive law is by definition contingent. The first argument, however, is inconsistent with Kant's explicit arguments in the Rechtslehre, while the second argument confuses contingency of content with contingency of form in Kant's account of positive law.
Happiness and Welfare
Authors: Kaufman Alexander 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Many scholars view Kant's explicit rejection of the principle of ’welfare’, as a basis for legislation, as decisive in favour of the traditional (libertarian) interpretation of Kant's political thought. This reading, in fact, misconstrues both the subject matter and analytical level of Kant's claims. First, the traditional interpretation conflates the notion of welfare to which Kant objects with the general notion of social welfare. Second, the traditional interpretation misconstrues the level of generality of Kant's argument: Kant argues against a principle of welfare as the ground of a system of legislation, not as the ground of individual legislative acts.