bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Herd Protection as a Public Good: Vaccination and our Obligations to Others
Authors: Dawson Angus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many contagious diseases can result in serious harm and even death for the affected individuals. However, several of these diseases can be prevented through vaccination. In developed countries routine childhood vaccination policies have been successful in reducing the incidence of such diseases.² The World Health Organization and other bodies are extending such benefits to the developing world (WHO 2002c). However, many individuals, especially children, die each year from vaccine-preventable illness. I would argue that there are many ethical issues that arise in relation to this topic.
The Battle of the Sexes Revisited
Authors: Cronin Helena 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A fruit fly delivers his sperm in a toxic cocktail that consigns his consort to an early death. A female dung fly, caught in a scrum of eager suitors, is ignominiously drowned in a cowpat. A spider eats her mate in the very act of copulation. Dramas such as these epitomize the battle of the sexes. Or do they? What is that notorious battle really about? And how can we tell it from life’s many other conflicts? In The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins invites us to take a gene’s-eye view of these and other Darwinian questions. Like Einstein’s imagined ride on a beam of light, this is an invitation to journey into unreachable worlds for a clearer understanding of reality. It envisages the strategies of genes as they take their paths down the generations, over evolutionary time; the eloquent biographies speak to us of natural selection’s design.
The Selfish Gene as a Philosophical Essay
Authors: Dennett Daniel C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One critic complained that my argument was ‘philosophical’, as though that was sufficient condemnation. Philosophical or not, the fact is that neither he nor anybody else has found any flaw in what I said. And ‘in principle’ arguments such as mine, far from being irrelevant to the real world, can be more powerful than arguments based on particular factual research. My reasoning, if it is correct, tells us something important about life everywhere in the universe. Laboratory and field research can tell us only about life as we have sampled it here. Probably most scientists would shudder at the prospect of having a work of theirs described as a philosophical treatise. ‘You really know how to hurt a guy!
Selfish Genes and Family Relations
Authors: Daly Martin , Wilson Margo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What did research on human family relations look like before Richard Dawkins made the advantages of taking a ‘gene’s eye view’ clear and widely accessible? We’d like to say that it’s hard to remember but, alas, it’s all too easy, for this field is still largely pre-Dawkinsian, indeed pre-Darwinian. The result is not a pretty picture. Whereas true scientific theories are reductionistic efforts to predict and explain phenomena from more basic facts and principles, what passes for theory in family studies is often just re-description with a veneer of jargon. When mothers are seen to differ from fathers in behaviour or sentiments, for example, the differences are routinely attributed to distinct maternal and paternal ‘roles’, as if relabelling the observations in this way somehow explained them.
“I Don’t Believe in Word Senses”
Authors: Kilgarriff Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is now a substantial literature on the problem of word sense disambiguation (WSD). The goal of WSD research is generally taken to be disambiguation between the senses given in a dictionary, thesaurus or similar. The idea is simple enough and could be stated as follows: Many words have more than one meaning. When a person understands a sentence with an ambiguous word in it, that understanding is built on the basis of just one of the meanings. So, as some part of the human language understanding process, the appropriate meaning has been chosen from the range of possibilities. Stated in this way, it would seem that WSD might be a well-defined task, undertaken by a particular module within the human language processor. This module could then be modelled computationally in a WSD program, and this program, performing, as it did, one of the essential functions of the human language processor, would stand alongside a parser as a crucial component of a broad range of NLP applications. This point of view is clearly represented in Cottrell (1989)
More Than One Way to Skin a Cat: Why Full-Sentence Definitions Have Not Been Universally Adopted
Authors: Rundell Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is almost 20 years since the first COBUILD dictionary burst upon the scene and changed the face of lexicography. Its most important innovation – the systematic use of corpus data as the foundation of its description of English – has fundamentally altered the way dictionaries are compiled. Despite some initial resistance, corpus lexicography has become the norm, and few lexicographic enterprises in English would now be undertaken without a basis in primary linguistic data. The effects of the corpus revolution are still being felt, as corpora grow larger and more diverse and the software for exploring them becomes increasingly powerful (see e.g. Kilgarriff et al. 2004; see also in this volume – Ed.). Most importantly, corpora are now available (or being developed) for dozens, if not hundreds, of languages, bringing the benefits of data-driven lexicography to an ever widening circle. There is no going back – but no-one who has worked with corpus data would ever want to go back. Among COBUILD’s other innovations, the most striking is its use of ‘full-sentence definitions’ (FSDs). As the name implies, FSDs present defining information in the form of a complete sentence in which the definiendum is embedded. While this approach is not entirely original – FSDs can be found in early English dictionaries, from a time when lexicographic conventions had not yet hardened – its use in the COBUILD range is both coherently motivated and systematically applied.
Corpus-based versus Lexicographer Examples in Comprehension and Production of New Words
Authors: Laufer Batia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In most linguistic analyses a word is described as a set of properties, or features (Lado 1972; Chomsky 1965; Gibson and Levin 1975; Richards 1976). Thus knowing a word would ideally imply familiarity with all its properties, as is often the case with an educated native speaker. When a person ‘knows’ a word, he/she knows the following: the word’s pronunciation, its spelling, its morphological components, if any, the words that are morphologically related to it, the word’s syntactic behaviour in a sentence, the full range of the word’s meaning, the appropriate situations for using the word, its collocational restrictions, its distribution and the relation between the word and other words within a lexical set. (For a discussion of word knowledge see, for example, Nation 1990 and Laufer 1991). Unlike an educated native speaker of a language, the foreign language learner knows a much smaller number of words. In some European countries and Israel lexical knowledge is about 2,000–3,000 word families, in some Asian countries 750–1,500 (Laufer 1991). In many cases, word knowledge is only partial, i.e. the learner may have mastered some of the word’s properties but not the others. In fact, the plurality of word features to be learnt increases the probability of a word being only partially learnt. One possible source of information about a totally new word or a partially learnt word is the learner’s dictionary. The phonetic script shows the right pronunciation, the grammatical specifications provide information about the syntactic behaviour of the word, the derivatives in the entry show which words are morphologically related to the looked-up word. The definition explains the meaning, or meanings of the word, register specification adds information about the affective and pragmatic aspects of meaning.
Word Association Norms, Mutual Information, and Lexicography
Authors: Church Kenneth W , Hanks Patrick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is common practice in linguistics to classify words not only on the basis of their meanings but also on the basis of their co-occurrence with other words. Running through the whole Firthian tradition, for example, is the theme that “You shall know a word by the company it keeps” (Firth, 1957). On the one hand, bank co-occurs with words and expression such as money, notes, loan, account, investment, clerk, official, manager, robbery, vaults, working in a, its actions, First National, of England, and so forth. On the other hand, we find bank co-occurring with river, swim, boat, east (and of course West and South, which have acquired special meanings of their own), on top of the, and of the Rhine. (Hanks, 1987: 127) The search for increasingly delicate word classes is not new. In lexicography, for example, it goes back at least to the “verb patterns” described in Hornby’s Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (first edition 1948). What is new is that facilities for the computational storage and analysis of large bodies of natural language have developed significantly in recent years, so that it is now becoming possible to test and apply informal assertions of this kind in a more rigorous way, and to see what company our words do keep. The proposed statistical description has a large number of potentially important applications, including: (a) constraining the language model both for speech recognition and optical character recognition (OCR), (b) providing disambiguation cues for parsing highly ambiguous syntactic structures such as noun compounds, conjunctions, and prepositional phrases, (c) retrieving texts from large databases (e.g., newspapers, patents), (d) enhancing the productivity of computational linguists in compiling lexicons of lexico-syntactic facts, and (e) enhancing the productivity of lexicographers in identifying normal and conventional usage.
Modal Logic
Authors: Portner Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why are we so interested in the semantics of modal words? An easy answer for a linguist to give might be that we’re interested in the semantics of all kinds of words, and we might as well attend to the modal ones now rather than later. From this perspective, we could have just as well begun with words expressing family relations or describing protein sources. Surely there are perspectives on language according to which these portions of the vocabulary have as much of a claim on our attention as the modal expressions, but such perspectives do not motivate the vast majority of contemporary work in semantics. Instead, semanticists tend to think that modality is really very important. Why?
The Music of Life
Authors: Noble Denis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is Life? Decades of research have resulted in the full mapping of the human genome - three billion pairs of code whose functions are only now being understood. The gene's eye view of life, advocated by evolutionary biology, sees living bodies as mere vehicles for the replication of the genetic codes. But for a physiologist, working with the living organism, the view is a very different one. Denis Noble is a world renowned physiologist, and sets out an alternative view to the question - one that becomes deeply significant in terms of the living, breathing organism. The genome is not life itself. Noble argues that far from genes building organisms, they should be seen as prisoners of the organism. The view of life presented in this little, modern, post-genome project reflection on the nature of life, is that of the systems biologist: to understand what life is, we must view it at a variety of different levels, all interacting with each other in a complex web. It is that emergent web, full of feedback between levels, from the gene to the wider environment, that is life. It is a kind of music. Including stories from Noble's own research experience, his work on the heartbeat, musical metaphors, and elements of linguistics and Chinese culture, this very personal and at times deeply lyrical book sets out the systems biology view of life.
The Organ of 30000 Pipes
Authors: Noble Denis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over 2000 years ago, the story goes, a Chinese Emperor was saved in battle by the action of a lowly farmer. Perhaps it was the Emperor Qin-Shi-Huang, who is sometimes called the ‘First Emperor’ because he was the first to unite China into something resembling the huge country we know today, and he must have fought many bloody battles to do so. Anyway, the story continues that when the battle was over and the Emperor had returned to his palace, he decided to summon the farmer for him to be rewarded. ‘You saved my life.
Curtain Call: the Artist Disappears
Authors: Noble Denis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose that we found life similar to ours on, say, one of the moons of Jupiter. The first humans to travel to this new world report back to earth the message that, against all expectations, the space travellers had found ‘God’ up there. For the people they find have what, to all intents and purposes, are cathedrals. There are ‘priests’ dressed in colourful robes. There are ceremonies of great spiritual importance for the big events in life and death. They practise a special form of ‘prayer’–– meditation –– that is of great psychological value.
The Minimalist Gamble
Authors: Boeckx Cedric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The goal of the present volume is to synthesize and clarify ideas that may seem to some to be more imaginative or more outrageous than anything to be found in the pages of modern novels; ideas that at first sound, in the words of Bill Bryson, ‘worryingly like the sort of thoughts that would make you edge away if conveyed to you by a stranger on a park bench’. The central idea to be discussed is that our human language capacity, our ‘language instinct’ as Pinker (1994) calls it, shows signs of optimal design and exquisite organization that may indicate the inner workings of very simple and general computational (physical and mathematical) laws in a mental organ. This idea was first formulated by Noam Chomsky in the early 1990s, and has been investigated systematically since then by linguists and other cognitive scientists under the rubric of the Minimalist Program. For now I want to refer to this enterprise as the minimalist gamble and tell you why a group of serious, professional, and well-informed scientists think their wild minimalist ideas have a chance of being true.
The Minimalist Core
Authors: Boeckx Cedric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The historical development discussed in the previous chapter highlighted the fact that until well into the 1980s, solving the acquisition problem was the paramount measure of theoretical success in linguistics. Once, however, this problem is taken as essentially understood, then the question is not how to solve it but how to solve it best. By its nature, this question abstracts away from the Poverty of Stimulus problem and points towards other criteria of adequacy (that is, going ‘beyond explanatory adequacy’, to use a popular phrase in the minimalist literature). Seen in this context, Minimalism emerges from the success of the Principles and Parameters (P&P) program. Because the P&P approach ‘solves’ the logical problem of language acquisition, more methodological criteria of theory evaluation can become more prominent. Such criteria revolve around simplicity, elegance, and other notions that are hard to quantify but, as we will see in Chapter 4, are extremely important. I cannot overstate the fact that minimalism presupposes the major findings from the early P&P period. In many ways, minimalism is but an attempt to find ways of gaining a better grasp of the same model. In this chapter I will examine the ingredients that were extracted from the P&P approach and show how these constitute the core of the minimalist program. This will allow me to discuss the nature of scientific programs as a whole.
The Minimalist Highlights
Authors: Boeckx Cedric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Minimalism is animated by the belief that the old adage ‘Least is best’ is not only methodologically desirable but also true of the design of the language faculty. Ultimately, the success of the minimalist program ought to be measured by the range and depth of analyses it has helped generate. As they say, the proof of the pudding is in the eating. In the words of Epstein and Hornstein (1999: ix), ‘the proof of a program ultimately rests in how good the detailed products that result from taking its strictures seriously look.’
Toward a More Fruitful Debate About Enhancement
Authors: Parens Erik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bioethical debates often seem to feature smart and decent people talking past each other. The debate about the enhancement of human traits and capacities is no exception. Too often we interlocutors seem keener on winning a point than on advancing our shared understanding of the question at hand. This chapter proceeds from the sanguine premise that if we get better at noticing the structure of the debate about enhancement, we might engage in a more fruitful debate.
Medical Enhancement and the Ethos of Elite Sport
Authors: Tännsjö Torbjörn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We should distinguish between negative medical interventions (intended to cure disease), positive interventions (intended to improve, within the normal range, functioning) and enhancement (where a person is pushed beyond species normal functioning). It seems that, within medicine in general, even if these distinctions can make a difference with respect to who shall pay for the service, they make no principled difference as to whether the services can be provided. However, in sports medicine, they do make a difference. In this chapter, I investigate what kind of difference. Negative interventions seem to be unproblematic, positive interventions problematic, and enhancement forbidden.
The meaning of lexical plurality
Authors: Acquaviva Paolo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The morphological overview in the previous chapter brought out the importance of lexemes as bases for inflection, and we have seen that every noun, as a lexeme, encapsulates a conceptualization of its reference domain in terms of its constituent parts. Inflectional number, in languages that have it, turns this lexeme-inherent information into a grammatically fixed set of function ally opposed features, primarily singular vs. plural. The content of this grammatical opposition appears in its pure form on pronouns, which have no lexemic content but consist entirely of grammatical information. With lexical nouns, on the other hand, the precise interpretation determined by number is sensitive to the conceptualities inherent in the lexeme: for example, exgs and wi11es are both plural, but their different countability preference implies that wines can mean ‘wine portions’ or ‘wine varieties’ much more readily than eggs can mean ‘egg portions’ or ‘egg varieties’. The interaction between grammatical and lexeme-inherent information is especially close when plurality brings about a distinct shade of meaning, or when a particular form of plural selects nouns with a specific lexical content. In these cases, plurality remains a grammatical category but its content shades into lexical semantics, determining or being determined by the information inherent in the lexeme. This chapter will chart the empirical content of this interaction between grammatical and lexical meaning.
Recovery and social inclusion
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In mental health services we are very used to thinking about ‘the patient in our services’. We usually think about what we do in terms of the things that services provide and the profession- als who provide them. We think about the people we work with in terms of their symptoms and what we need to do to reduce or get rid of their symptoms: the medication, inpatient care, community outreach services, the medical, nursing, psy- chological therapy, occupational therapy, and social care serv- ices that we consider might be effective. However, the UK government’s National Health Service (NHS) Plan (Department of Health [DH] 2000) and subsequent policy documents make it clear that this is the wrong place to start. The Plan states:
Breathing
Authors: Mccallum Jacqueline , Malcolm Ellen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the fundamental skills of assessing the patient’s respiratory status and using different techniques to aid breathing. This includes the observational and clinical skills required in detecting change or abnormality in the patient’s ability to breathe normally, and related documentation. As with most aspects of healthcare, respiratory care is constantly evolving and changing. To ensure that patients get the best and most appropriate care, nurses need to be aware of current and new therapies that are available.
Eliminating
Authors: Ballentyne Mary , Ness Valerie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides students with the fundamental skills of assessing and helping patients with elimination problems. Elimination is a basic human process, essential to life, which concerns itself with the excretion of waste from the bladder (urine) and evacuation of waste products from the bowel (faeces). The ability to control these processes is called continence. The maintenance of continence depends on many physiological factors, which will be discussed in this chapter. Problems with these processes affect other activities and can have devastating physical and psychological effects. Many of these problems can begin in childhood before the physiological processes have matured, for example, bedwetting (enuresis) and faecal soiling (encopresis), or can affect those with physical or learning disabilities.
The Geologic Time Scale
Authors: Gradsteinand Felix M , G. James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Time is an indispensable tool for all of us. The time kept by innumerable watches and a great variety of clocks regulates our everyday life, while the familiar calendar governs our weekly, monthly, and yearly doings. theseeventually condense into the historical record of the events over centuries. The standard unit of modern time keeping is the second, defined by a precise number of vibrations of the cesium atomic clock. The atomic second is defined as the duration of 9.192.631.770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the Cesium 133 atom. 7is value was established to agree as closely as possible with the ephemeris second based on the Earth’s motion. The advantage of having the atomic second as the unit of time in the International System of Units is the relative ease, in theory, for anyone to build and calibrate an atomic clock with a precision of 1 part per 1011 (or better). In practice, clocks are calibrated against broadcast time signals, with frequency oscillations in Hertz being the “pendulum” of the atomic time-keeping device.