bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Dawn of Scientific Forestry
Authors: Tsouvalis Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the course of history, the term ‘forest’ referred to numerous ‘things’. Some of these ‘things’ or formations will be investigated in this chapter. After a gen eral survey of the etymology of the term ‘forest’ and its reference to uncivilized places, forests as legal institutions (taking the form of Royal Forests) and forests as spatiotemporal entities (taking the form of plantation forests) will be discussed. The geography of scientific forestry knowledge in the context of the British Empire will then be examined, focusing on the role played by the surgeons and German foresters of the East India Company in disseminating it to Britain. Finally, the formalization and institutionalization of scientific forestry knowledge in Britain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries will be described.
Moments of Crisis 11: The Ancient Woodland Debates
Authors: Tsouvalis Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers how a long-forgotten reality was rediscovered and made visible once more. As in the previous chapter, scientific forestry practice and the way in which it transformed the world was challenged. Here, the construction of reality through processes of conceptualization and classification were of even greater importance. To classify means to group objects into classes according to certain principles.
The Dawn of Postmodern Forestry
Authors: Tsouvalis Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relations of the FC of Britain to trees and forests are changing. ‘[I]n the 1990s, we have seen a new social agenda begin to shape forestry policy’, the Chief Conservator of England recently observed. ‘As we reach the year 2000, foresters are coming to terms with new issues such as social inclusion and com munity engagement.’ No doubt, he concluded, ‘the world has changed-and the Forestry Commission has changed with it’ (Rollinson 1999: 14). The purpose of section 9.1 of this final chapter is to reflect on the formative context of forestry at the beginning of the twenty-first century, and to consider the place of the FC and what are now differentially delineated as ‘forests’. The question whether present-day forestry can be considered as a postmodern phenomenon is discussed in section 9.2, and section 9.3 returns to the symbolic role of forests and trees in the period 1919-2000.
John Palsgrave as Renaissance Linguist
Authors: Stein Gabriele 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The year 1530 saw the publication in London of one of the most remarkable books of the Renaissance: Lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse. The author of this vast work of over 1,000 pages was John Palsgrave, graduate of Cambridge, Paris, and Oxford, priest and chaplain to Henry VIII, and tutor to the King's sister. His book is the first dictionary of two neighbouring vernaculars, English and French, and simultaneously the first contrastive grammar of the two languages. It reveals him as a pioneering and exceptional linguist with a sharply observant and analytical mind, who goes far beyond the traditional application of Latin grammar-writing to two living languages. The book is also remarkable for the liveliness with which Palsgrave discusses and illustrates the social aspects of language use, dialectal variation, and the vigour of colloquial idiom. In this uniquely detailed study Stein sets the author and his book in their wider sociohistorical context and discusses Palsgrave's syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic analyses, some of which anticipate the findings of modern linguistics by over 400 years.
Reasoning, Mappings, and Meta-metaphorical Conditionals
Authors: Sweetser Eve 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Charles Fillmore’s work on conditional constructions (1986; 1990a; 1990b) has laid out ways in which verb forms and other aspects of conditional structure are mapped onto different aspects of conditional semantics and pragmatics. In some of my own work (Sweetser, 1990) I have examined aspects of conditional interpretation, and even (Sweetser, forthcoming) attempted to build on Fillmore’s analysis, and to find added compositionality in the relationship between the forms and meanings of the varied manifestations of conditionals in English. This particular paper is about a class of conditionals which has not to my knowledge been considered in the literature, and which affords a unique glimpse of the power of conditionals in building cognitive structures. In particular, I shall argue that examples like (1-4) provide interesting evidence that metaphorical statements share crucial properties of reasoning structure with literal statements.
The Case for ‘Effector’: Case Roles, Agents, and Agency Revisited
Authors: Van Valin Robert D , Wilkins David P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although they may call them case roles, participant roles, thematic roles (8-roles), thematic relations, proto-roles, or role archetypes, most current theories of grammar have some account of semantic roles and their relation to syntax. As Newmeyer (1986: 106) notes: ‘Fillmore and the case grammarians deserve credit for impressing upon the linguistic community the importance of these roles.’ Further, in all discussions of the ‘semantic side’ of grammar, beginning with Fillmore 1968 and Gruber 1965, ‘agent’ plays a central part. Since virtually every theory which incorporates a thematic-relations component invokes this role, its status as one of the vital elements in linguistic theory and description has gone largely unchallenged.
Natural Law and Virtue: Theories at Cross Purposes
Authors: Hittinger Russell 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This essay will explain how the subjects of virtue and natural law have become quite different foci for theories about human conduct, not only placing different requirements on the theorist, but requirements which seem to be at cross purposes. Natural law can be reserved for an important, but narrow problem: the articulation of some basic human goods or needs that any system of positive law must respect, promote, or in any case protect. Natural law theory, on this assignment, would disclose the overlap of law and morality requisite for legislation and for the public and legal vindication of individual rights. The term ‘nature’ can carry the relatively weak meaning of what is not a mere artefact of our practical reasoning. The goods of life, or freedom of speech, are not generally regarded as values simply by dint of subjective preference or the idiosyncracies of private life plans. In this sense, they could be treated as publicly recognizable ‘natural’ values which guide legal judgements. Hence, in American constitutional law principles of natural justice are summoned to highlight moral requirements of the legal and political order, to defend individual rights against the utilitarian interests of a political majority, or to guide the adjudication of hard cases which fall into textual gaps or open-ended clauses of the Constitution.
Formalism and the Rule of Law
Authors: Raz Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Except at the hands of its detractors the ideal of the rule of law is today a minority preoccupation among legal and political thinkers. Its theoretical marginality can, however, be misleading. The ideal is deeply entrenched in the common ‘official’ culture of liberal democracies. It is a potent political ideal, whose validity is accepted and implementation assumed and taken for granted. Occasional violations of the rule of law are admitted and condemned by all the main political groupings as a matter of great concern and urgency, which can mobilize political action across party lines. Though not uncommonly it will be disputed whether a violation occurred, hardly anyone will actually argue that it was justified if it took place.
Why Legal Formalism
Authors: Weinrib Ernest J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Legal formalism postulates the coherence of juridical relationships.1 Drawing on the connection discerned in antiquity between form and intelligibility, the formalist seeks to elucidate the forms, i.e. the coherent structures of justification, immanent in a sophisticated legal system. For the formalist, these forms go to the intelligibility of legal concepts and institutions, and they are therefore crucial to understanding the law’s content. Because the forms are justificatory structures, they provide normative frameworks for legal argument. and inasmuch as they are immanent to the juridical relationships they inform, they shed light on the traditional claim of natural law theory that law is an ordering of reason.
Prometheus’s Bounds
Authors: Meinwald Constance c. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Philebus piques the interests of students of Plato’s remarks on method with its artful combination of sameness and difference. The sameness comes from its recommendation to engage in work on genus—species trees, which is the late period version of study of Forms.1 We in fact get a glimpse of the structure in question as early as the Euthyphro (ueff.). There Socrates suggests, in leading his interlocutor to his last attempt at definition, that Euthyphro try to say what part of Justice Piety is. By the late period we find that tree structures are receiving direct attention, and have become the subject of explicit discussion. Thus Phaedrus 265e crowns its discussion of the project of dividing kinds into their subkinds with the famous declaration that the dialectician is able to carve reality at the joints, rather than hacking like an incompetent cook.
Language Mixing: Some Linguistic, Psycholinguistic, Neurolinguistic, and Sociolinguistic Issues
Authors: Lanza Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I present a survey of the strengths and weaknesses of studies that have lent support to the one-system hypothesis (2.1) and empirical studies that have criticized this hypothesis, thereby promoting the two-system hypothesis (2.2). This review is not exhaustive; I concentrate on well-known studies that are inevitably cited in discussions of either hypothesis. Instead of merely comparing the different results of the studies, I have chosen to review the studies individually, the rationale for this being that different studies often operate with different assumptions. An essentially historical approach is adopted in reviewing these works because each has in many ways built upon the prior studies.
A Study in Infant Bilingualism
Authors: Lanza Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although methodological questions concerning the investigation of infant bilingualism are brought up throughout the following chapters, this chapter will focus on the procedures involved in this particular investigation. The choice of place and the two languages involved are presented in 3.1 while the search and selection of the participants in the study are described in 3.2. In 3.3, the data collection methods are discussed, including the types of data involved as well as the recording schedules for the children. Drawing up a transcript in the case of bilingual child language data offers a challenge to the analyst. The steps involved and the problems incurred in this investigation are covered in 3.4 and 3.5.Norway forms the backdrop for this study of the simultaneous acquisition of English and Norwegian. Norwegian, the majority language, enjoys societal prestige; however, English, as a language of international communication, also boasts high status in this country in which multilingualism and multiculturalism are carving a distinguishable profile.
Language Choice by the Young Bilingual Child: Form and Function in Discourse
Authors: Lanza Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion of language choice is at the heart of the sociolinguistic approach to language. As Fasold (1984: 180) states, ‘A moment’s thought will make it clear that sociolinguistics only exists as a field of study because there are choices in using language.’ The notion of language choice is implicit in most studies of infant bilingual language differentiation; however, the pragmatic parameters for such choice are rarely discussed. The onset of metalinguistic awareness, or bilingual awareness, was invoked as providing the cognitive underpinnings for language differentiation (cf. Vihman 1985). As I argued in 2.5.2, bilingual awareness is reflected in the child’s conversational discourse.
Language Mixing and Language Input: Parental Discourse Strategies
Authors: Lanza Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The notion of input has already been drawn into the discussion of language mixing in the preceding chapters. A more careful examination of language input as a context for language mixing in infant bilingualism will be the aim in this chapter. How do the parents respond to their child’s language mixing in conversation? What signals do they give the child regarding the appropriateness of mixing languages in conversation? How do parent and child negotiate language choice in discourse? In this chapter, we will build upon the findings from Chapters 4 and 5, and incorporate them within an interactional context.
Conclusion
Authors: Lanza Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whether or not the child acquiring two languages simultaneously initially has one system or two systems has been an area of controversy in studies of infant bilingualism. This controversy has focused on language mixing and explanations for it. The bilingual child’s morphological and lexical mixing have been by far the types of mixing most often invoked as evidence for a single system and for the claim that the child is not aware of operating with two languages. My case study investigation of language mixing in infant bilingualism traced the simultaneous acquisition of Norwegian and English by two 2-year-old children in Norway from families in which the fathers were Norwegian and the mothers American.
Syntax in Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I address some aspects of the treatment of syntax and syntactic categories in cognitive grammar, especially as these bear on the possessive construction. I begin by devoting a few pages to a distinction, fundamental to cognitive grammar, between two kinds of linguistic unit: those that designate things, and those that designate relations. All linguistic units belong to one of these two categories. Nouns and nominal expressions designate things, whilst expressions of other syntactic categories (clausal, prepositional, adjectival, adverbial, etc.) designate relations. The distinction is fundamental, not only to a characterization of syntactic categories, but also to the mechanism by which symbolic units combine to form units of increasing internal complexity.
Subcognition and the Limits of the Turing Test
Authors: French Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alan Turing, in his original article about an imitation-game definition of intelligence, seems to be making two separate claims. The first, the philosophical claim, is that if a machine could pass the Turing Test, it would necessarily be intelligent. This claim I believe to be correct. His second point, the pragmatic claim, is that in the not-too-distant future it would in fact be possible actually to build such a machine. Turing clearly felt that it was important to establish both claims. He realized, in particular, that if one could rigorously show that no machine could ever pass his test, his philosophical point, while still true, would lose a great deal of significance. He thus devoted considerable effort to establishing not only the philosophical claim but also the pragmatic claim.
The Normativity of Instrumental Reason
Authors: Korsgaard Christine M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most philosophers think it is both uncontroversial and unproblematic that practical reason requires us to take the means to our ends. If doing a certain action is necessary for or even just promotes a person’s aims, the person obviously has at least a prima-facie reason to do it. Just as obviously, this reason is what we nowadays call an ‘internal’ reason, one which is capable of motivating the person to whom it applies. So those who hold that practical reasons must be internal point to the instrumental principle as a clear case of a source of reasons which pass that test.1 But philosophers have, for the most part, been silent on the question of the normative foundation of this requirement. The interesting question, almost everyone agrees, is whether practical reason requires anything more of us than this.
Zermelo’s Conception of Set Theory and Reflection Principles
Authors: Tait W W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Zermelo (1930) is concerned with impredicative second-order set theory. He treats the general case of set theory with urelements, but it will be enough to consider only the case of pure set theory, i.e. without urelements. In this context, Zermelo’s theory is the axiomatic second-order theory T2in the language of pure set theory whose axioms are Extensionality, Regularity, Null Set, Unordered Pairs, Union, Power Set, Second-order Separation, Second-order Replacement, and Choice.
Semiotic Grammar
Authors: McGregor William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The label `semiotic grammar' captures a fundamental property of the grammars of human languages: not only is language a semiotic system in the familiar Saussurean sense, but its organizing system, its grammar, is also a semiotic system. This proposition, explicated in detail by William McGregor in this book, constitutes a new theory of grammar. Semiotic Grammar is `functional' rather than `formal' in its intellectual origins, approaches, and methods. It demonstrates, however, that neither a purely functional nor a purely formal account of language is adequate, given the centrality of the sign as the fundamental unit of grammatical analysis. The author distinguishes four types of grammatical signs: experiential, logical, interpersonal, and textural. The signifiers of these signs are syntagmatic relationships of the following types, respectively: constituency, dependency, conjugational (scopal) and linking (indexical, connective). McGregor illustrates and exemplifies the theory with data from a variety of languages including English, Acehnese, Polish, Finnish, Japanese, Chinese, and Mohawk; and from his pioneering research on Gooniyandi and Nyulnyul, two languages of the Kimberleys region of Western Australia.
Constituency: The Experiential Semiotic
Authors: McGregor William B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins the detailed elaboration and explication of the SG model with an investigation of constituency relationships, the syntagmatic relationships which define and are defined by, the experiential semiotic. We begin, in section 4.1, by identifying the building blocks of experiential grammar, the units and syntagmatic relationships among them, which go together in the construction of human beings’ representations of their worlds of experience. In the process of doing this, we attempt to provide a clearer notion of which linguistic phenomena fall within the experiential semiotic and are analysable in terms of constituency.
A Sensible Subjectivism?
Authors: Wiggins David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Usually—if only for the purpose of having the position summarily dismissed as soon as possible—the doctrine of subjectivism is reported as claiming that ‘x is good’ or ‘x is right’ or ‘x is beautiful’, as uttered by speaker S, says that S approves of x, or that x induces in S a certain sentiment of approbation. The first and perhaps most obvious objection, that ‘good’, ‘right’, and ‘beautiful’ do not themselves mean the same, might be countered by distinguishing different species of approbative sentiment. But there is a more familiar and more considerable second objection: at least when it is given in this form, subjectivism makes a difficulty for itself about disagreement.
The Concern to Survive*
Authors: Wiggins David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Under the influence of well known thought experiments modern inheritors of John Locke’s conception of personhood have recently been led to draw a distinction between questions of the identity of a person and questions about survival. ‘Certain important questions [about such matters as survival, memory, and responsibility] do presuppose a question about personal identity.But they can be freed of this presupposition. And when they are, the question about identity has no importance’.
Rights and Reproductive Choice
Authors: Harris John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reproductive choice is an idea that is respected more in the breach than in the observance. It is when people, particularly women, actually want to exercise choice that the trouble starts. The trouble is well under way, particularly because technology is rapidly increasing the range and the nature of available choices. Recently a number of new possibilities have entered the market place of ideas, and some are already being offered in the bazaar, raising issues of market regulation, personal freedom, and fundamental ethics.
Letter from a Post-menopausal Mother
Authors: Beaufort Inez De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For your eighteenth birthday, this milestone of adulthood, I’m writing you this letter. A plea for the accused? An explanation for more under standing, if need be posthumously? A justification? A testament for later, for when you are in more reflective mood? I think that mothers always look back at the birth on the occasion of the birthdays of their children; it is such an overwhelming event that you want, maybe have to relive it.
Words and Word-Formation: Morphology in OED
Authors: Kastovsky Dieter 
Published: November 2023

abstract
The Proposal for the Publication of a New English Dictionary by the Philological Society of 1859 not only formally inaugurated this project, it also laid down the basic principles which should govern the work on the NED (later OED) itself. Of these, the following two are regarded as the most important ones by Craigie and Onions in their ‘Historical Introduction’ to the Supplement volume of the OED (Craigie and Onions 1933: p. viii):
Principle I: The first requirement of every lexicon is that it should contain every word occurring in the literature of the language it professes to illustrate. Principle IV: In the treatment of individual words the historical principle will be uniformly adopted. Both principles do not seem to be unreasonable, especially if one takes into account the historical context in which they were formulated. Previous dictionaries had always been relatively restricted in their coverage, and it should therefore come as no surprise that the compilers of the New English Dictionary wanted it to be more comprehensive than its predecessors, ideally even all-comprehensive. After all, the number of words listed has always been a major factor in advertising a lexicon until today (Stein 1978a: 103 f.).