bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Austerity, Coalition, and Public Spending Control under the Cameron-Clegg Government, 2010–2015
Authors: Hood Christopher , King Maia , McLean Iain , Piotrowska Barbara Maria 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Starting with a vignette about a scheme for wider public engagement in a draconian post-election spending review (the 2010 ‘Spending Challenge’), this chapter explores how the fiscal constitution worked under the first formal coalition government in the UK since 1945, formed to enact ‘austerity’ measures to cut debt and deficit while protecting some favoured spending areas. The chapter then explores three key episodes relating to the fiscal constitution. They are: the Coalition’s adaptation of the expenditure planning process that it inherited from its Labour predecessor, to effect a major fiscal consolidation; the fate of an effort (reflecting election pledges by both Coalition parties in support of strengthening parliamentary control over spending) to modify parliamentary procedures for ex ante scrutiny of spending proposals; and the operation of a joint ‘corporate centre’ approach to control of key elements of public spending between the Treasury and an ‘Efficiency and Reform Group’ run from the Cabinet Office.
Hunting an Elephant with a Pea-Shooter
Authors: Hood Christopher , King Maia , McLean Iain , Piotrowska Barbara Maria 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Starting with a vignette about a 1994 English High Court case over a controversial overseas aid project (the Pergau Dam), this chapter explores what counted as ‘capital’ spending and how the handling of capital, infrastructure or project expenditure developed over the period. First, it looks at requests by Permanent Secretaries for formal Directions from ministers over such spending. Then it explores how official guidelines for appraisal and evaluation of project proposals developed, especially in relation to ‘optimism bias’. Third, it reviews evidence from other sources about how the formal rules and principles were applied. Clearly much effort went into economic appraisal and more systematic analysis of management and delivery issues in capital and similar spending, with the development of ‘traffic lights’, multi-staged evaluations and peer reviews. But high-profile, politically favoured ‘pet projects’ do not appear to have triggered many requests for Directions even when outsiders raised major question marks.
Science
Authors: Korenjak Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter explains the meaning of ‘science’ in early modern times and sketches the process by which a group of disciplines concerned with various aspects of the natural world coalesced into a unified field bound together by a number of common assumptions and standards. The different groups of people involved in early modern science are presented and its institutional background is discussed. The fluid boundaries between the disciplines dealing with the natural world and their intellectual context are explored, particular attention being devoted to the interaction of natural science, on the one hand, and history, philology, and theology, on the other. The chapter closes with a sketch of the various disciplines of early modern science and their evolution over time.
Presenting facts
Authors: Korenjak Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The five genres discussed in this chapter presented readers with fresh facts and data, which were typically presented in small, discrete units. Letters were a fundamental form in this respect. Exchanged in huge numbers by the learned, they informed correspondents about new plants, animals, diseases, astronomical observations, and so forth; they could also be printed to let the scientifically minded as a community participate in their new information. The next two genres show significant similarities with letters and often appeared in letter format. Reports were narratives of scientifically relevant personal experiences, such as travels, observations, experiments, or clinical cases. Journal papers appeared in the seventeenth century together with the first learned journals; many papers originated in letters to the journal’s editor and reported some noteworthy experience or observation. The last two genres to be discussed were books structured as paratactical sequences of discrete units. Natural histories presented series of plants, animals, or other natural entities according to a standardized scheme. Collections of tables and charts, often introduced by detailed instructions for use, were particularly important in mathematics and strongly mathematized disciplines such as astronomy.
Summarizing knowledge
Authors: Korenjak Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter is dedicated to three kinds of works which summarized the state of established knowledge in a given discipline or subdiscipline. The first genre to be discussed is the pandect, a type of book aiming at the fullest possible coverage of a given field and featuring a multilayered structure as well as copious indexes, which was written less to be read through than to be consulted. As the great scope of such works made them expensive as well as unwieldy in many circumstances, readers often preferred their minor counterpart, the compendium, which presented the gist of a discipline or subdiscipline in condensed form and was comparatively cheap and portable. Finally, textbooks superseded the older method of teaching by commentary on classical authors from the sixteenth century. Much energy was invested in making textbooks didactically efficient by means of thorough systematization, a catechistic format, Ramist charts, tables, and illustrations.
The Christian Right, Abortion, and Trump
Authors: Nili Shmuel 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter targets single-issue anti-abortion voters in the United States, heavily associated with the Christian right. It argues that, contrary to familiar progressive critiques, the fact that the Christian right has overwhelmingly backed Donald Trump in recent American presidential elections—and is very likely to continue to back Trump and his associates in any future election—does not, by itself, expose the Christian right to charges of hypocrisy or internal incoherence. The real incoherence lies with the Christian right’s anti-abortion rationale for backing Trump. This rationale has been decisive in right-wing Christians’ lining up behind Trump, but it does not align with the only rationale for anti-abortion laws which remains intact once one accounts for overwhelming empirical evidence regarding the consequences of anti-abortion laws. Since there is unequivocal evidence that anti-abortion laws do not actually stop abortions from happening, but merely push abortions into the shadows, the only possible rationale for anti-abortion laws is an expressive one: The thought must be that a legal ban on abortions has intrinsic moral significance insofar as it expresses the political community’s disapproval of abortions—and thus the community’s symbolic affirmation of the “equal human dignity” of abortion’s victims. However, even if one adopts the implausible idea that (any and all) abortion is tantamount to murder, this expressive rationale cannot align with a vote for Donald Trump, given the extraordinary expressive offense that is inherent in the very elevation of Trump into the highest elected office in the land.
Succession and Prolepsis
Authors: Nicosia Marissa 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Queen Elizabeth presided over the birth of the commercial theater in England, and after her death the life and times of the Tudor line were rich fodder for playwrights who were undeterred by the Bishops Act of 1599; this required all works of history to undergo an additional process of royal review. This chapter considers how prolepsis, a rhetorical figure for imagining the future, allows playwrights to theorize monarchical succession in two plays about Henry VIII. Although the Tudor and Stuart succession was well known when Rowley’s, and Shakespeare and Fletcher’s plays were first performed, these playwrights use prolepsis to feature the many heirs of Henry VIII who would ultimately sit on England’s throne. These multi-temporal moments transform what were dangerous conflicts about succession from the recent past into appealing and suspenseful plays for early seventeenth-century reading and spectating audiences.
What Is Life? The Vitalism–Mechanism Debate and the Origins of Life
Authors: Reber Arthur S. , Baluška František , Miller William B. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The definition of life remains a surprisingly contentious subject of scientific debate, and the exact sequence of events that led to the origin of life remains a confounding mystery. Many competing theories about the origin of life have been defended, and each concentrates on some specific aspect of biological activity essential to the living process. In particular, centuries of scientific and metaphysical reflection have centred on whether life should be considered a living machine, or instead contains an immaterial vitalistic spark within its structure, definitively separating it from mechanical objects. As this debate remains unresolved, uncertainty exists about the exact boundaries that separate the inanimate from the animate. Despite any ambiguities, it is apparent that life effectively equates with conscious self-referential awareness, present at all scales and endowed within all cells. Further, a compact set of biological rules govern all living processes including complementarity, recursion, reiteration (self-similarity), and reciprocation. These crucial processes underscore the consistent cellular behaviours of collaboration, cooperation, co-dependence, competition, and the willing trading of resources that permit all multicellularity and grant survival. All these living rules further conform to a narrow set of definable living principles that are the consistent guideposts of cellular life. The seamless concordance of these living principles testify that life cannot be adequately conceived as categorical structural form or precisely ordered materiality, but must be regarded as a set of intricately coordinated living processes driven by self-referential cognitive cells.
Emergence and Evolution of Cells
Authors: Reber Arthur S. , Baluška František , Miller William B. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the emergence of the very first cells from ancient vesicles and proto-cells, now estimated to have occurred approximately 3.8 billion years ago. These earliest competent cells, known as prokaryotic cells, invented most of the metabolic processes present throughout all subsequent life, including critical cellular respiration and photosynthesis based on excitable and mobile electrons and protons. Crucially, the specialized membranes that uphold life support the vectorial transport of protons, electrifying biomembranes. Bioelectric membranes perform bioenergetic processes, handling redox-based signalling and cellular energy fluxes as an inherent part of cellular respiration and photosynthesis. These foundational bioelectric and redox codes, based on discriminating, excitable membranes, are essential to cellular sentience. The first eukaryotic cells emerged by a crucial endosymbiotic event among ancient prokaryotic cells that required a two 2-billion- year evolutionary space. The authors postulate that this extremely long time frame was needed to integrate prokaryotic cellular clocks and sentiences into the supra-cellular unitary cellular clock that enables the capable, sentient, intelligent eukaryotic cell.
The Structural and Bioelectrical Basis of Cells
Authors: Reber Arthur S. , Baluška František , Miller William B. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Cells are assembled from hierarchically organized macromolecules, forming very complex, crowded, integrated, and self-organized networks of cytomatrix components known as protoplasts or cytoplasm. These assembled, ordered biological macromolecules embody historical aspects of cellular organization. Inherited patterns of structural templating derive from the very first ancient cells as initial forms of templated self-assembly, thereafter continuously reiterating through cell divisions. Clusters of intracellular ordered macromolecules form nano-protoplast units supporting nano-intentionality that represents a kind of subcellular proto-mind. In the evolution of first proto-cells, semi-independent units could have acted as a coacervate stage (small liquid droplets of two immiscible liquid phases) within cellular evolution. Moveable electrons and charged molecules generate a redox code which, together with the bioelectric code, comprise the bioelectricity-based cellular senomic fields. Excitable plasma membrane-generated bioelectric fields and associated dynamic actin filaments are closely integrated via endocytic vesicle recycling, and generate systemic long-distance signals known as bioelectrical action potentials.
The Biological Information Cycle
Authors: Reber Arthur S. , Baluška František , Miller William B. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Biology is driven by self-referential cognition, by which cells become aware of the uncertainties of environmental cues. Cells evaluate ambiguous information through a cellular information cycle as a crucial tool of cellular problem-solving. Since all information is imprecise, cells must measure it. A senomic cellular information architecture supports that intricate process as an integral component of its information management system. Cells have learned that the validity (measuring value) of their available information can be improved through shared assessment. This basal impulse is the stimulating factor that leads to multicellularity. Consequently, informational ambiguity constitutes the actual driver of biological and evolutionary development through its reverberations among sentient cells. There is a growing recognition that biomolecular processes represent information flow and that information flow equates with energy mobilization through useful predictions. However, any productive flow of biological information requires channelling. The epicentre of that information management is cellular consciousness. Accordingly, cells are informational interactomes. As all cells are conscious, and all macro-organisms are cellular architectures, any theory of consciousness or mind should be based on cell theory.
Plant Sentience
Authors: Reber Arthur S. , Baluška František , Miller William B. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Recent advances in plant biology have revealed that plants and their survival depend on plant-specific cognition and sentience. In fact, sessile plants need to monitor more signals from their environment than animals that might be able to run, fly, and hide from stressful environmental threats. Although plants are sessile, their organs are actively moving and use very complicated sensory systems to accomplish this plant-specific behaviour. From the perspective of our CBC theory, the assertion that plants enjoy plant-specific sentience should not be unanticipated. As noted several times, when successful traits are established they are maintained and become the foundations for further evolution. Hence, flora should display sentience. However, the dominant view is that plants are devoid of cognition, contingent behaviour, sentience—which the authors find surprising considering that the cognitive behaviours reviewed in Chapter 2 are more readily accepted in bacteria and protists than in plants. Perhaps, the best example of a primary obstacle for accepting sentient plants is the long history of misunderstanding plant sex and their sexual organs. Although plant sexuality was discovered by Rudolf Jacob Cramerarius in 1694, it was accepted by leading botanists only some 200 years later, at the end of the 19th century. Those prior sexualist versus asexualist hot debates are still mirrored in our contemporary reluctance to accept plants as truly living organisms relying on their plant-specific sensory systems, adaptive cognitive abilities, and sentience.
Issues of Ethics and Morality
Authors: Reber Arthur S. , Baluška František , Miller William B. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The CBC model requires us to engage in a complex topic, one that has been a mainstay of the concerns of scientists in a variety of fields, moral philosophers, governmental regulators, ethicists, naturalists, activists, and residents of planet Earth who are concerned about issues relating to life, suffering, mitigation, and the fate of life. However, by virtue of our core principle, that life and sentience are coterminous, our approach to these issues becomes much more inclusive, extensive, and more complex. As noted many (many!) times, the standard approach to consciousness is to begin the explorations with us, Homo sapiens, and then explore the evolutionary tree for evidence of sentience in other species. Once found, these species and others with similar cognitive capacities, are the ones where animal welfare and related principles should be applied. For us, this includes all living species—and a distinctly different cluster of issues is raised.
The Industrial Landscape of 1972 and Beyond
Authors: Barry Frank 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides details of the seventy to eighty manufacturing firms employing a workforce of 500 or more in 1972. They date from each of the various phases of Ireland’s economic history since the country’s integration into the United Kingdom in the early nineteenth century. Guinness is the oldest, and the Guinness Group is the largest manufacturing employer in Ireland after Cement Roadstone Holdings. The most recent are export-oriented foreign multinationals. Around half of the jobs in foreign-owned firms are in the latter group; the other half are in protectionist-era or older operations, or in relatively recent brownfield acquisitions. Within a decade or two of European Economic Community (EEC) accession, most of the leading protectionist-era employers would have closed or downsized dramatically. Among the leading indigenous firms of the time, several went on to become significant global multinationals. Export-oriented foreign multinational corporations (MNCs) that entered post-1973 were concentrated in what would become the major merchandise export sectors of the ‘Celtic Tiger’ era and beyond. Each of these sectors was already dominated by high-profile US MNCs on the eve of EEC accession.
Introduction
Authors: Kyriazis Dimitrios 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThis chapter introduces the reader to the topic of the book and sets out the key elements of its factual and legal background. Moreover, it develops the key argument of the book, by analysing the (il)legimitacy of the Commission’s use of an overexpansive interpretation of Article 107 TFEU in its campaign against harmful tax competition. By relying on examples from other areas of tax and competition law, the chapter illustrates how the Commission’s approach was different from similar past endeavours, and elaborates on why it failed to achieve its objectives. Using hard law tools to achieve broader soft law goals has been a leitmotif in the EU’s evolution, but in this case the Commission’s argumentation was based on shaky legal ground.
Recent EU and OECD Initiatives against Harmful Tax Competition
Authors: Kyriazis Dimitrios 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThis chapter examines how the EU and the OECD have more recently conducted their campaign against harmful tax competition by capitalizing on taxpayers’ demands for tax fairness and seizing the opportunities presented by the need for global convergence. The purpose of this chapter is to place the EU’s latest fiscal State aid initiatives, that is, the second fiscal State aid wave, in their broader political context, so that the way in which State aid rules interact with soft law instruments and EU legislative measures can become evident. This chapter also serves as a prelude to the Commission’s probes into multinationals’ tax rulings.
The Second Fiscal State Aid Wave
Authors: Kyriazis Dimitrios 
Published: October 2023

AbstractIn this chapter, the ongoing (second) wave of fiscal State aid investigations is examined in depth. It contains a detailed analysis of the factual and legal background of the three Commission decisions in the investigations in the Fiat, Starbucks, and Belgian Excess Profit ruling cases. Interestingly enough, these cases concern both individual aid (Fiat & Starbucks) and State aid schemes (Belgian Excess Profit), with all the corresponding differences as regards their selectivity analysis that this entails. This chapter also critically assesses the General Court judgements in all three cases, analysing the reasons why the Commission’s decision was upheld in Fiat but annulled in the other two cases. Moreover, it is asserted that the General Court’s argumentation was not compelling, with many questions left unanswered.
GREAT IS THE POWER OF STEADY MISREPRESENTATION
Authors: Steane Andrew 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Contemporary practice in the public presentation of science is addressed. In particular, the prejudiced use of the term ‘religion’ is considered, and the way evolution has been presented in a threatening way. A consideration is given of the nature of the education task and the generosity which has to accompany it; the pain and joy of animals and the overall shape of their life is looked at. An appeal is made to custodians of scientific societies, journals and the like to seek a more even-handed presentation of science to the wider community.
PRELUDE: PIEZOELECTRICITY BEFORE ITS TECHNICAL USE
Authors: Katzir Shaul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The chapter characterizes piezoelectricity as a quiet field of disciplinary research before World War I. The field was described as irrelevant for practical technology, and still found some laboratory usage in measuring instruments. A phenomenological theory well described the main findings in the field. It directed much of the research in the field to a few questions common in disciplinary study. These included the validity of its claims and assumptions like linearity and their consequences, its properties in other crystal specimens, and its relations to other effects. The field attracted mostly researchers connected to the early schools of its study of Woldemar Voigt and of Wilhelm Röntgen. Others, such as Schrödinger, Born, and Boguslawski, joined the field because they regarded piezoelectricity helpful for their study of crystal structures that evolved from developments in other fields of physics.
THE INVENTION OF BELL’S QUARTZ FREQUENCY STANDARD AND CLOCK
Authors: Katzir Shaul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Closely following the steps of Warren Marrison and his colleagues at AT&T’s research laboratory this chapter analyses their invention and construction of the first quartz clock, needed to monitor the corporation’s self-maintained crystal-controlled frequency standard. Circa 1924 a frequency standard was deemed essential for the monopolistic needs of the telecommunication giant in integrating its system and in controlling frequencies. Based on research notebooks and contemporary publications, the chapter provides a detailed examination of the various electronic methods used by the group and their improvements and of their origins in the previous tuning-fork systems, in common electronic techniques, in special methods of use in the corporation’s laboratory, and in the knowledge of piezoelectricity. Thereby, it shows how the modern, scientifically educated inventor, working within a large industrial laboratory and enjoying its rich material and intellectual resources, collected, combined, and adjusted the resources at his disposal to produce novelty.