bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Subglacial
L
ake
V
ostok
Authors: Christopher Brent C. , Priscu John C. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Recent studies have revealed that several subglacial lakes exist beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. The largest of these lakes, Subglacial Lake Vostok, is ∼4 km beneath the ice surface, with a surface area near 14,000 km
2
and a depth exceeding 800 m. A permanent ice sheet covered the lake at least 15 million years ago, which isolated it from the atmosphere. Because of concerns for contaminating this pristine environment, no direct samples of lake water have yet been obtained. The accreted ice retrieved from an ice core drilled at Vostok station, which represents lake water frozen to the bottom of the ice sheet, has provided the only material for microbiological and geochemical investigations. The presence of microorganisms within the accreted ice has been confirmed independently by several laboratories; however, the question remains whether a flourishing microbial ecosystem exists within Lake Vostok. Subglacial lake exploration represents one of the last unexplored frontiers on our planet, and the unusual microbial ecosystems that may exist have much to tell us about the limits of life on Earth and on icy planets and moons in the solar system.
Acidification—Chronic
Authors: Sullivan Tim 
Published: July 2005

AbstractChronic acidification is a long‐term decrease in the pH or acid‐neutralizing capacity (ANC) of surface water. ANC reflects the extent to which a lake, river, or stream can buffer, or neutralize, added strong acid. Waters that are low in pH and ANC are often susceptible to acidification in response to geologic or atmospheric sources of mineral acid anions, especially sulfate and nitrate. Here, the processes that acidify fresh waters are described, along with the watershed features most commonly associated with acidification sensitivity. Effects of acidification on aquatic life are also discussed. Sensitive waters are usually found at moderate to high elevation, in areas of mountainous topography, where minimal opportunity exists for contact between runoff water and the soils and geologic materials that might contribute base cations to solution. The contribution of base cations to runoff water is the principal mechanism for neutralization of added acid. Retention of sulfur and nitrogen in watershed soils and/or vegetation can also lessen the amount of water acidification that occurs.
Fish Consumption Advisories
Authors: Buchanan Gary A. , Stern Alan , Post Gloria 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Fish consumption advisories can be defined as government health advice issued to the public concerning deleterious substances in fish and/or shellfish (e.g., crabs). These advisories typically provide advice on avoiding or limiting the consumption of certain types, sizes, or parts of fish, or on the number of fish meals to consume over a period of time in order to limit health risks. Fish consumption advisories were first issued in the United States in the mid‐1970s, and currently, more than 3,000 species‐specific, water body‐specific, and general advisories exist nationwide. This entry provides a brief summary of the history and scope of fish advisories from the recognition of harmful levels of mercury in fish at Minimata Bay, Japan to PCB advisories in the United States. Subtopics include the theory behind issuing fish advisories, risk assessment techniques, and information on sampling, analysis, and outreach methods. An example of a state advisory is provided, as well as appropriate and more detailed references (e.g., national guidance).
Fishing Waters
Authors: Tompkins Mark R. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

The term
fishing waters
refers to all bodies of water where fish are legally captured by humans. Fishing waters can be defined and regulated internationally, nationally, and locally. The four primary categories of fishing that occur in fishing waters are commercial, recreational, subsistence, and indigenous. More than one category of fishing can occur in a given fishing water, and extractive fishing does not have to occur in all fishing waters.
Flood Source Mapping in Watersheds
Authors: Saghafian Bahram 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Flood control projects are designed to protect people and properties against floods' adverse effects. No unique methodology exists, however, to identify flood source areas and to evaluate their contribution to the flood characteristics at any downstream point of interest. The number of nested hydrometric stations and the amount of available flood data measured simultaneously at the stations are usually insufficient for ranking flood source areas. This constraint leads us to take advantage of hydrologic simulation models.
Lumped modeling approach in flood studies precludes spatial prioritization with respect to downstream flood response. Thus, semi‐ or fully distributed modeling approaches are appropriate for flood control studies in large watersheds. However, the main issue is how to identify and prioritize watershed flood source areas based on their contribution to the flood response at the main outlet. The proposed methodology is also useful to determine source erosion and pollution areas.
Hydrological Processes and Measured Pollutant Loads
Authors: Jha Ramakar , Sharma K.D. , Singh Vijay P. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
It is essential for water resources planners and managers to look for water pollution generated in different variables of hydrologic cycle because of human activities. It has been found that among various hydrological variables, rainfall, runoff (including snowmelt runoff), seepage, and groundwater flow are affected, and the water quality has been degraded beyond permissible limits in many instances.
Kinematic Wave Method For Storm Drainage Design
Authors: Wong Tommy S.W. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractEver since Lighthill and Whitham showed that the main body of a natural flood wave moves as a kinematic wave, there has been continual interest in applying the kinematic wave theory to drainage design. A drainage design method based on the kinematic wave theory has several inherent advantages: physically based parameters, facility for hydrograph prediction, and feasibility of obtaining analytical solutions for certain idealized basin and channel conditions. In this article, based on the theory, a drainage design method is developed for estimating the design discharge for a series of overland planes and for a V‐shaped basin.
Calibration of Hydraulic Network Models
Authors: Lingireddy Srinivasa , Ormsbee Lindell E. , Wood Don J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe validity of a hydraulic network model of a water distribution system depends largely on the accuracy of input data and the assumptions made in developing the model. Although much of the data can be obtained with a high degree of certainty, certain parameters exist that are either not readily available or difficult to obtain. Such parameters typically include pipe roughness factors and nodal demands and their spatial and temporal distribution. As a result of the difficulty of obtaining economic and reliable measurements of both of these parameters, final model values are normally determined through the process of model calibration. Model calibration involves adjustment of these and other uncertain network model parameters until the model results closely approximate actual observed conditions as measured from field data. This article describes a seven‐step procedure for optimal calibration of water distribution network models. Historically, one of the most difficult steps in the process has been the final adjustment of pipe roughness values and nodal demands through the process of microlevel calibration. With the advent of recent computer technology, it is now possible to achieve good model calibration with a reasonable level of success. As a result, little justification remains for failing to develop good calibrated network models before conducting network analysis.
Pumping Stations
Authors: Bankston Joseph D. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Surface water pumping stations are employed either to move water from an available surface location to where it is wanted or to remove it from a location where it is not wanted. Examples of the former include municipal or industrial water supply and irrigation, whereas municipal drainage pumps are examples of the latter.
Although differing in purpose, all have similarities of function and components. A pumping station must provide a water inlet for water to flow to the pump, a pump suitable for the water and delivery requirements, and a means of powering the pump.
Rivers
Authors: Julien Pierre Y. , Yang Chih Ted 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Rivers are natural streams typically larger than a creek. The distinction may be somewhat subjective, but creeks cannot be traveled by boat and rivers can. Rivers are the result of precipitation and runoff over land surfaces, followed by surface erosion and sediment transport. As water runs off to lower elevations, the erosion of the underlying earth and soil carves channels into the landscape. These natural channels convey the floodwaters from rainfall and snowmelt and also drain the aquifers during periods of low flow. Rivers are perennial when there is flowing water all year round. Rivers that dry out during part of the year are ephemeral streams, also called arroyos. Related nouns include riverbank or riverside to describe the banks of a river, as well as riverbed to designate the stream bottom. Other adjectives related to rivers include riverine, riparian, fluvial, and fluviatile.
Rock Glacier
Authors: Brenning Alexander 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Active rock glaciers are the geomorphological expression of creeping mountain permafrost. They consist of a debris–ice mixture that slowly creeps downslope, and they develop therefore a tongue‐shaped or lobate landform with a front scarp and characteristic surface structures such as furrows and ridges. The lower limit of rock glacier distribution is associated with the lower limit of mountain permafrost, which is often attributed to the −1 to −2°C isotherm of mean annual air temperature. Unlike “true” glaciers, rock glaciers do not present surface ice or exposed ice in general but contain only supersaturated ground ice, mainly interstitial and segregation ice. Rock glaciers contain between 40 and 60% of ice by volume and constitute therefore unsuspicious stores of water. The amount of water stored within rock glaciers per unit mountain area is one magnitude higher in semiarid mountain areas such as the Andes at 33°S than in the more humid Swiss Alps.
Storage and Detention Facilities
Authors: Fang Xing 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
A storage and detention facility (pond or basin) is a low‐lying area (natural or constructed), which is designed to hold a specific amount of runoff temporarily and used to attenuate peak flow rate. Stormwater runoff is released to downstream conveyances in a controlled manner such that downstream flooding and other adverse impacts are prevented or alleviated. Detention facilities can be surface and underground storage basins, and they can be classified as wet or dry ponds. Detention storage design need consider determination of the size of pond, site selection, design of outflow structure, construction of pond, maintenance cost, and estimates of service life. The most common outlet structures for detention ponds can be of orifice‐type, weir‐type, or a combination of the two. The pond should be located where the topography of the site allows for maximum storage at minimum construction cost. Multiple ponds may be necessary to achieve the detention requirement.
Streamflow
Authors: Fang Xing 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Streamflow is an important component of the hydrologic cycle. Streamflow typically quantifies as volumetric discharge in cubic meter or feet per second. Streamflow, at a given location on a stream, is usually represented by a hydrograph. A streamflow hydrograph is a graphical representation of instantaneous discharge at a given location with respect to time. Two types of hydrographs are particularly important: the annual hydrograph and the storm hydrograph. A storm hydrograph is the response of a watershed under certain rainfall input and is affected by the watershed's physical, geological, vegetation, and climatic features. The unit hydrograph is the hydrograph that results from unit rainfall excess distributed uniformly over the drainage area at a constant rate for an effective duration. For a hydrological design, a hydrologist is required to provide peak rates of discharge, a stage height of a hydraulic structure, or a complete discharge hydrograph for a design frequency.
The Medicinal Properties of the Waters of Saratoga Springs
Authors: Millet A. Trent 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water has been clinically and anecdotally proved to possess medicinal properties for centuries. The great medical universities and doctors of Europe included “taking the waters” to improve health and to heal maladies as a matter of course. This is a brief, and by no means comprehensive, overview of the medicinal uses of water, particularly those of Saratoga Springs, New York. Accompanying charts corroborate the claims that water does indeed heal.
A History ofHawaiian Freshwater Resources
Authors: Benbow M. Eric , McIntosh Mollie D. , Burky Albert J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe history of Hawaiian freshwater resources begins 1500–1600 years ago, when the first Hawaiians arrived from Polynesia. Early Hawaiian freshwater management balanced human needs with ecological sustainability through community‐based taro farming. In this system, water was never diverted out of the watershed. Instead, freshwater was the lifeline that connected the mountains to the oceans. Western discovery of Hawaii brought with it privatized natural resources, cultural diversity, and a shift of agriculture from within the watersheds to sunny, but arid, landscapes. The rise of sugar cane facilitated political changes that led to the fall of the Hawaiian Monarchy and eventual statehood in the United States. However, this new agriculture was economically impossible without diverting irrigation water from the windward sides of each island, resulting in a permanent loss from the watersheds. Stream water removal eliminates habitat and disrupts a specialized life cycle of several endemic species, a life cycle that requires migration to and from the ocean. Recent petitions to enforce existing water law have sparked political debate of freshwater allocation in the face of diminished agriculture. Future management will require compromise and scientifically based strategies to bring back ecological balance and long‐term sustainability.
Water Between
A
rabs and
I
sraelis: Researching Twice‐Promised Resources
Authors: Lipchin Clive D. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The majority of Israel's water resources are transboundary and are thus, in a sense, shared with her neighbors. The most contentious are the underground aquifers of the West Bank shared between Israel and the Palestinians and the tributaries to the Jordan River that originate in the occupied Golan Heights, which belonged to Syria prior to the 1967 Six‐Day War. Since 1948, Israel has embarked on an ambitious development program for the country. The drive behind this program was the Zionist ethos of developing the land to create an attachment between the Jew and the soil. Massive agricultural and water projects ensued in the mid‐1950s and 1960s in realizing the Zionist dream. The most significant was the National Water Carrier completed in 1964. The National Water Carrier is a complex system of pipes, pumps, and canals that transfers water from the Sea of Galilee in the north to the arid Negev Desert in the south for irrigation. The repercussions of this interbasin transfer have been the decline of the flow of the Jordan River that flows south from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. Today, the Jordan River is a trickle of its former self, and the Dead Sea is at its lowest level ever.
Water and Well‐Being
Authors: Haley David 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Using poetry and statements from eminent people representing many disciplines and supported by United Nations and World Health Organisation documents, this article explores the role of water as a human right, necessary to achieve the most fundamental standard of well‐being. It also addresses the part played by water in sustaining ecological well‐being and how this is integral to the relationship between humans and the environment.
Every culture expresses the very important relationship it has with water in some form or other. Here we focus on the ancient Chinese art of “geomancy,” Feng Shui, that pays particular attention to achieving well‐being through the relationship with water. However, this reverence for water as a heavenly gift, spiritual source, or common resource may be diminishing as many societies value water only as a commercial commodity that may be controlled and sold for private, industrial, and agricultural use.
Finally, the relationship between water and well‐being is considered a flowing system, a major dynamic element in the structure, pattern, and process of evolution, life, and well‐being.
If well‐being is defined as “… the maximisation of the pleasure available to us” (2) and is related to health, safety, welfare, comfort, security, happiness, goodness, and contentment, then water must play an important part in maintaining this desirable state. For without water, none of these qualities of life can be achieved. Water connects all life and water connects all aspects of well‐being, including social, economic, environmental, health, and aesthetic well‐being, as a basic human right.
Article 25, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (3) states: “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well‐being of himself and his family” (3). Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary‐General confirmed that (a)ccess to safe water is a fundamental human need and therefore, a basic human right.
Regulatory Issues and Remediation: Risk, Costs, and Benefits
Authors: Vance David B. , Jacobs James A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Major regulatory changes have occurred over the past decade regarding enforcement and cleanup standards. These changes have occurred in part, because of the realization that enormous financial and human resources were being spent on the remediation of properties with low concentrations of residual fuel hydrocarbon (primarily gasoline and diesel) contamination with low impact to human receptors. A major report from a national laboratory in 1995 changed the regulatory approach to focus attention on the risk benefits and exposure pathways associated with subsurface fuel contamination. Risked based decision making takes into account the risk, costs, and benefits when evaluating regulatory approaches to remediation.
Islamic Water Law
Authors: Zaharuddin A. , Sabri S. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Water is considered one of the most profound elements in Islam. Water is also necessary for cleaning one's home and personal effects, as well as for general hygiene. It is indispensable to agriculture and industry:
He it is who sends down water from the sky. With it, we bring forth plants of every kind
(6:99). It cannot be denied that all human beings rely on water for life and good health, but for Muslims, water is first and foremost, a social good in Islam. It is also regarded as a blessing from Allah that gives and sustains all life in this world. Furthermore, the word “water” appears sixty‐three times in the holy book of Muslims, Al‐Quran. This indicator shows the importance of water in our daily life.
The Clean Water Act
Authors: Ryan Timothy J. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The Clean Water Act established the priorities and structure for regulating pollution releases into the waters of the United States. The Act's major subchapters include six Titles: (I) Research and Related Programs, (II) Grants for Construction of Treatment Works, (III) Standards and Enforcement, (IV) Permits and Licenses, (V) General Provisions, and (VI) State Water Pollution Control Revolving Funds. The Act continued requirements to set water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters and made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a single, or point, source into navigable waters, unless permitted. It also funded the construction of sewage treatment plants under the construction grants program and recognized the need for planning to address the critical problems posed by diffuse, or nonpoint, sources of pollution.
Activated Carbon: Ion Exchange and Adsorption Properties
Authors: Saha Basu 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Several techniques have been developed and used to remove and/or recover a wide range of micropollutants from water and a variety of industrial effluents. Adsorption using activated carbon is well established for the removal of organic molecules from aqueous solution, but to a much lesser extent for the removal of toxic heavy metals.
Here, the preparation, properties, and metal sorption performance of a range of as‐received and oxidized samples of granular activated carbon that were either prepared or modified in the author's laboratory are discussed. Samples were evaluated for the removal of trace toxic metal ions from aqueous solutions. Batch and column experiments have been performed to elucidate the relationship between sorptive performance and the physical and chemical structure of these materials.
Bromide Influence on Trihalomethane and Haloacetic Acid Formation
Authors: Chellam Shankar 
Published: July 2005

AbstractAn undesired consequence of adding chemicals such as chlorine to disinfect drinking water is the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Exposure to high doses of DBPs has been shown to cause cancers as well as adverse reproductive effects in laboratory animals. In contrast, epidemiological studies have not been able to conclusively establish a causal link between chlorinated drinking water containing DBPs to an increased cancer risk in humans consuming them. Regardless, federal regulations restricting the concentrations of several DBP classes (including four trihalomethanes and five haloacetic acids) have been established by the Environmental Protection Agency to reduce any potential risks they may pose. This section briefly describes the effects of changes in the relative concentrations of bromide ion and natural organic matter on the formation and speciation of trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. Special emphasis is given to the formation of all nine haloacetic acids containing chlorine and bromine even though current and regulations anticipated in the near term do not address them. Additionally, it is shown that even though water treatment processes such as nanofiltration and granular activated carbon reduce the total concentrations of DBP precursors, they shift the relative speciation of THMs and HAAs toward the more brominated ones.