bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Napoleon’s Empire and the International System
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Apoleon’s Empire reached its zenith in 1809; all his later annexations and campaigns really weakened it. This is therefore the point at which to discuss its nature and its impact on Europe. Both subjects are controversial, and include the question of whether it had any lasting impact at all. Thomas Nipperdey begins his magisterial history of nineteenth-century Germany with the words, ‘In the beginning was Napoleon’. With him came Germany’s breakthrough to modernity, bourgeois society, and the strong centralized state. But Nipperdey’s view has been challenged, and Louis Bergeron’s equally authoritative work on French history in the Napoleonic era suggests in its title, L’ Èpisode napoléonien, his belief that Napoleon changed little in the deeper rhythms of French life—demography, social structure, religious, cultural, and intellectual life, and economics. Not only the Empire’s overall results, but also the individual aspects of its putative legacy in France and Europe—modernization, centralization, the rationalization of politics and public life, industrialization and economic progress, advances toward social and legal equality, democracy, nationalism, state-building—remain topics of debate.
Beginning and End, 1812-1813
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A single continuous theme seems to run through the story from June 1812 to August 1813, starting with the destruction of the Grand Army in Russia and continuing with the formation of a great new coalition to liberate Europe: the beginning of the end of Napoleon’s Empire. For purposes of general history and military history this theme serves reasonably well. In international history, however, the dominant note is discontinuity: the story is one of three successive failures and the changes they brought to international politics. Napoleon’s defeat in Russia was the first and most spectacular failure, but two others, less well known, also affected the emerging pattern of European politics: the failure of the allied effort to win the war in the spring of 1813, and the failure of an Austrian attempt to negotiate a Continental peace. The period 1812-13 therefore involved not only the beginning of the end for Napoleon’s Empire, but also the end of the beginning in the search for a new basis for European international politics, in which two avenues to peace were tried and found wanting.
The Congress of Vienna,1814-1815
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Congress of Vienna was supposed to be a brief formal meeting to confirm the Paris peace treaty, fill in some gaps, and tie the pieces of the settlement together. Instead it lasted nine months without ever convening officially, and turned into a marathon of difficult negotiations punctuated by crises. Contemporary observers blamed this either on the congress’s spending too much time on festivities and too little on work, or on the powers being so divergent in their aims that they were barely able to reach a settlement at all and could easily have fallen back into war.
Deceptive Calm and Storms, 1833-1841
Authors: Schroeder Paul w. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After the 1830 revolutions a general calm settled over most of Europe, broken only by stormy weather at its opposite ends, the Near East and the Iberian peninsula. Both kinds of weather were misleading. The tranquillity, apparently a sign of stability and peace, actually was more an indication of stagnation and frustration. Yet one quiet progressive development came about in central Europe which changed European politics in the long term far more than the violent conflicts did. As for these conflicts, they made Europe appear to be ideologically sharply divided into two camps and threatened by war-likewise misleading impressions. The contests in the Iberian peninsula, which involved some ideological rivalry among the powers, were never a threat to the system or the general peace. The Near Eastern crises did seriously endanger the European equilibrium and the general peace, but they had little to do with ideology, and when the threat of European war arose, the Near East was not the prime issue.
The Crusade in North-Eastern Europe 1274–1382
Authors: Housley Norman 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Amongst the memoirs written in response to Pope Gregory X’s plea of 1272 for advice on the crusade, one originated in Moravia. Its author, Bishop Bruno of Olmiitz (Olomouc), was anxious to point out that it was just as important to defend the Church in eastern Europe from attack by pagans and schismatics, as it was to recover the Holy Land; otherwise, wishing to avoid Charybdis, the Christians would fall prey to Scylla. Bruno knew that the Curia had accepted, since the time of the Second Crusade, that crusades should be preached to further the Christian cause in eastern Europe. He also knew that while, in practice, nearly all these crusades had been associated with conquest, the Curia preferred to place crusading of all kinds within a just war framework, and that it was advisable to adopt a defensive stance; this was particularly true in the early 1270s, when the question was one of the relative needs facing the Holy Land and eastern Europe. Bruno therefore took care to enumerate the dangers to the Church in the East: the Cumans who raided Hungary, the Orthodox Russians and their Tatar lords, and the Prussians and Lithuanians who threatened the dioceses of Poland. We shall see that the relations between at least some of these peoples and their Latin Christian neighbours did indeed keep the crusading movement alive in the Baltic region for many decades to come. But viewed objectively, and over a long perspective, Bruno’s attempt to portray eastern Europe as a region just as embattled as the Holy Land was tendentious in the extreme.
The End of the Baltic Crusade 1382–1562
Authors: Housley Norman 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Iberia and the Baltic present, from the point of view of the crusades, an interesting study in contrasts. As we have seen, Spanish crusading enthusiasm attained new heights in the conquest of Granada, and went on to find novel channels of expression in both the Old and the New Worlds. By contrast, the Baltic region experienced what one historian has aptly termed ‘the withering of the crusade’. By 1500 crusades had all but ceased to be preached, the Ordensstaat was in the last stages of decay, and the Teutonic Order itself faced a grave crisis. Few would have predicted such developments in 1382, when the Christian states of Iberia were enmeshed in internecine disputes, while the Teutonic Order was flourishing, and its war against Lithuania was regarded by almost all of Catholic Europe as a praiseworthy endeavour. Unlike the other fronts examined in this book, the Baltic crusade had no discernible life after about 1520. In this chapter we shall therefore be looking at the effective demise of a crusading tradition (see maps 13 and 14).
Conclusion
Authors: Russell Conrad 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The search for the causes of the English Civil War has taken us into a very disparate series of times and places, from the Guildhall buttery in January 1642 to Moreton Corbet (Shropshire) in the 1560s, from the militia in Somerset under Elizabeth I to the Synod of Linlithgow in Scotland under James VI. It is time to ask what all these threads had in common, and how they came to form cords stretching to the King’s raising of the standard at Nottingham in August 1642. The first chapter of this book argued that it was hard to see what all these things had in common, save only the fact that Charles I had to deal with them.
Renaissances and Revolutions: Europe and Italy between Antiquity and Middle Ages
Authors: Jones Philip 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Italy during the Middle Ages was remarkable as scene of a conflict between two rival systems and principles of government, monarchy and city republic: first of realm (regnum) and republic or city-state, then within city-states of republic and despotism-in contemporary terms government ‘a comune’, ‘a popolo’, or ‘a liberta’ and government ‘a tiranno’, signoria, or principato. It was a singular experience, without parallel since antiquity, without sequel until the modern age. In Europe generally the dominant ideal of government was everywhere princely rule (princeps in republica et respublica in principe) and outside political theory, imbued with Greco Roman thought, the central issue of politics, of liberty and authority, was the balance of power between monarchy and aristocracy (or aristocracy and commons), of constitutional restraints on divinely sanctioned kingship. And so it remained for centuries. Even in Italy itself the struggle of republicanism and principality proved only a parenthesis in the prolonged progress of European monarchy. From the viewpoint of later history it was an episode, an eccentricity, significant less for itself than as sign of a deeper difference, something alien or anomalous in medieval Italy, for some prophetic, for others rather backward-looking, but in any case anachronistic. Whereas for most countries the Middle Ages marked the beginning-or resumption-of a distinct identity, Italy (where Langobardia did not replace Romania) has appeared by contrast a lard of ambiguous character: for Jacob Burckhardt the home of a people both atavistically ancient and precociously modern; for Stubbs a ‘strange borderland’ between ‘dead’ and ‘living history’, leading a ‘double existence’, part antique part medieval, placed in a special relation to Europe by a special relation to the past; for Renan more simply a country without a Middle Age, just antiquity and Renaissance: ‘II n’y a pas eu de moyen age pour l’Italie; ii ya eu decadence de la civilisation ancienne, et renaissance de cette civilisation aux lieux memes OU elle etait tombee en poussiere.’
Church and People c.650–850
Authors: Blair John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Minsters interacted with the lay communities around them in a variety of ways. This chapter will trace four rather disparate strands linking monastic to secular life: the mutually influencing traditions of material culture; the cults of saints; the framework within which church dues were paid and pastoral care provided; and the extent to which minsters and laity participated in each others’ devotional and ritual lives. What they all seem to illustrate is the inappropriateness, in the world of early Christian England, of the kind of explanatory model which sees ‘clerical culture’ as something inherently alienated from ‘popular culture’: each strand suggests areas of integration and contact between the lives of ecclesiastics and laity.
The Agrarian Interest
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Mid-Victorians were less dominated by the aristocracy and landed gentry than their forefathers had been. Equally, they were less subject than later generations to dictation from the upper middle-class gladiators of modern capitalism. Instead, they lived at a time when a variety of social and economic interests contended for mastery, sometimes overtly, often not. In this process, not only were all sections of society changed, but—just as important—the way in which each section was perceived by the others changed also. For none was this more true than those who owned the soil, the men (they were mostly men) who had long piped tunes for others to dance to.
Reform and Electoral Politics
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the twenty years before 1865 the cause of franchise reform, though it generated sporadic bouts of ill-coordinated activity, came at times to resemble nothing so much as a corpse on the dissecting table. Its supporters—bereft of influence, cohesion, and staying power—remained rich only in the ability to irritate and to bore. After the collapse of Chartism as a major political phenomenon in 1848 there was no general or effective reform movement. Under Sir Joshua Walmsley, and with occasional support from Cobden and Bright, the Parliamentary and Financial Reform Association organized a strikingly unsuccessful campaign between 1849 and 1852. The announcement in 1848 by Lord John Russell that he no longer thought the reforms of 1832 ‘final’ failed to arouse the nation. Only Westminster seemed at all keen. Some seventy Radical MPs doggedly supported motions brought forward by members like P. J. Locke King aimed at assimilating the county to the more generous borough franchise and introducing the secret ballot. Official bills issued forth from Russell’s Liberal administration in 1852, Aberdeen’s coalition in 1854, Derby’s Tory government in 1859, and Palmerston’s Liberal government in 1860. All sank beneath the waves. Indifference rather than opposition stood in the way. Almost no significant leader was completely opposed. Some, like Russell, were committed. Some, like Derby and Disraeli, hoped to revive party fortunes with superficially bold but practically anodyne proposals. Some, like Palmerston, were at least prepared to take up the question as a flag of truce towards more radical elements. But while a growing body of MPs wanted reform, they did not want it very much and could not agree as to the shape it should take. The nation, however, seemed apathetic. In 1856 Cobden thought one ‘might as well call out for the millennium’. Even the one substantial piece of reform legislation from these years—the Irish Franchise Act of 1850 (which greatly altered the nature of the electorate in Ireland) —was passed, not because of public pressure or official enthusiasm, but because the Great Famine had so reduced the number of voters that something simply ‘had to be done’.
The Evolutionary Moment
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The characteristics of any past age are revealed not simply by political and social developments, but by the manner in which contemporaries tried to explain their situation in time and place and by the language and concepts in which such explanations were formulated and discussed. In the case of mid- and late Victorian Britain the ambiguous and slippery notion of ‘evolution’ generated perhaps the most striking cluster of concepts around which the governing ideas of the time were put together and assessed. Indeed, the appearance of views of society constructed out of an engagement with certain kinds of evolutionary analysis constitutes a division between the later Victorian period and what had gone before at least as significant as the movement towards electoral democracy or the development of the party system.
The Investment Management Business
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
1.1 Wiley’s Dictionary of Banking defines investment management as a service entailing the management of an investment portfolio on behalf of a private client or an institution, the receipt and distribution of dividends and all other administrative work in connection with the portfolio. These investment ‘accounts’, as they are usually called, may be conducted on either a discretionary basis (in which case the investment manager acts at his own discretion in the management of a portfolio., without referring to the client) or non-discretionary basis (in which case the manager will recommend investment sales and purchases to the client and await the latter’s approval).
Summary and Conclusions
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
1.1 This report has examined the role of capital requirements in investor protection. 1.2 The task that we were set was to establish whether capital requirements are an appropriate form of investor protection, and whether the amounts that IMRO has required of its members are correct. In undertaking this analysis, it has been’ necessary to evaluate capital requirements in relation to other forms of investor protection.
Growth and Business Cycles: A Quest for the Right Explanation
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Very rapid economic growth is perhaps the most important charac¬teristic of the post-war Japanese economy. Although its growth rate in the pre-war period was already among the highest of the developed countries, this accelerated in the post-war era; 3.2% for 1889-1938 as against 6.7% for 1955-88. Fig. 2.1 shows the growth rate of real GNP for Japan in comparison with the United States.
Household Saving
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The saving rate in Japan has long attracted the attention of econo¬mists-in the 1950s and 1960s as a ‘source’ of rapid economic growth, and then in the 1980s as a ‘cause’ of huge current account surpluses. This chapter considers the household saving rate in Japan. The neoclassical theory actually implies that it is the aggregate saving rate that matters, not the household saving rate. But in the real world, the household saving rate appears to have a life of its own, and in any case broadly determines international differences in the aggregate saving rate.
The Former German Democratic Republic: the Standardized Family
Authors: Wendt Hartmut 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In spite of all the similarities in what constitutes the family in both the new eastern and the former western parts of today’s Germany, a clear differentiation of characteristics and potentials in family life-styles is bound to be distinguishable, considering the respective social, economic, and cultural as well as political and institutional differences that had existed prior to unification.
Great Britain: the Lone Parent as the New Norm?
Authors: Clarke Lynda , Henwood Melanie 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the 1980s there were marked changes in the structure and dynamics of the British family. These changes started in the 1970s and look as though they will continue. Although fertility, the major component of family creation, remained constant over the 1980s, there were dramatic changes in the nature of families. Such changes are not unique to Britain but have occurred in most developed Western countries, certainly in much of the rest of Europe. Revolutionary changes in ideas about birth, marriage, divorce, child-rearing, gender and death have been so dramatic that they have been termed by some the 'Second Demographic Transition’ (Lesthaeghe, 1991).
Switzerland: the Family Neglected by the State
Authors: Fux Beat 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter summarizes family change, family life and family policy in Switzerland during the 1980s, based on various data sets. As in other European countries, traditional living arrangements retain their importance, especially during the early family-formation phase. The increase of new life forms (pluralization) seems a phenomenon that occurs most of all in earlier stages (e.g. unmarried cohabitation) or in later biographical phases (e.g. lone-parent families). Furthermore, there is little evidence for changes in the intrafamilial division of labour between spouses. However, low extra-marital fertility, a comparatively late first marriage age of men and women, a rapid increase of voluntary childlessness and a rather high rate of part-time employed women are peculiarities of the Swiss case. Some of these trends might be influenced by certain deficiencies in family-related policies that clearly favour marital life forms. In this respect, I try to formulate some tentative impact hypotheses.
Comparing Family Life in the Frame of National Policies: An Introduction
Authors: Kaufmann Franz-Xaver , Schulze Hans-Joachim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is our collective remembrance: forty years ago family life was still an unquestioned part of both social order and individual biographies. In the last thirty years most of that order has changed, if not broken down. This perception is not totally wrong, however, it is highly selective. The 1950s were, in many countries of western Europe, the heyday of the nuclear family as the dominating form of private living, &‘the golden age of marriage&’.
Induced Abortion and Family Forma tion in Europe
Authors: Knudsen Lisbeth B 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The topic for this chapter is induced abortion as a demographic behaviour with consequences for both nuptiality, fertility, and population growth. Contemporary demographic studies often deal with pregnancy interruption, being performed legally or illegally, as a topic per se, while the demographic consequences of induced abortion, especially on fertility level and population growth, more seem to be objects for study when countries or regions are experiencing heavy changes in the legal status of induced abortion. At present, the superior considerations on population dynamics seems to be heavily influenced by the ageing of populations and the differences among countries as regards life expectancy.
Rural Poverty and Approaches to Poverty Alleviation
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Poverty alleviation, and its eventual elimination, are central objectives of development. But there remains considerable doubt about how these objectives can be achieved in practice. In the 1990s poverty remains a pervasive problem in many developing countries, and—although by no means exclusively so—it is predominantly a rural phenomenon. In the early 1970s it was widely assumed that the benefits of sustained economic growth would gradually percolate down to the poor; particular programmes targeted on the poor therefore received scant attention. However, during the decade it was increasingly acknowledged that growth in itself may not produce a significant reduction in poverty in the absence of direct programmes of assistance, especially when there is an unequal distribution of land and other assets. Then in the 1980s in many parts of the developing world, the motor of economic growth slowed, exposing still further the extent of poverty and raising with more urgency the question of how best to address and resolve its problems.
Evaluating NGO Performance
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Any organization dependent upon voluntary contributions attempts to assess the extent to which its goals are being achieved, and to do so as efficiently and openly as possible. Development NGOs are no exception. In fact, both they and their supporters would rate them highly in all these respects, but the benefits of assessment are both broader and deeper than this. To the extent that goals are not being achieved or performance is sub—optimal, the practical lessons can be fed into current decision making, thereby enhancing future performance. Furthermore, if voluntary organizations are able to show that the funds made available to them are well spent, support will tend to be strengthened and funding based on a firmer footing, while, at the same time, criticisms of poor performance can be more substantially met.
The Impact of NGO Poverty-Alleviation Projects: Overview of the Results of the Case-Studies
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It is widely assumed that NGOs are able to reach and improve the well—being of the poorest who are the subject of NGO assistance. Overall, the sixteen evaluations of NGO projects paint an encouraging picture. Twelve of the sixteen broadly achieved their objectives, and had a positive impact in alleviating poverty, even if only one was clearly successful in achieving all its objectives. In contrast, only two can be said to have failed both to meet their overall objectives and to make headway in reducing poverty. The final two achieved some of their objectives, but fell short in others, with the result that it was not possible to derive a firm assessment of their overall contribution to poverty alleviation.