bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Emotional Learning Circuits in Animals and Humans
Authors: LaBar Kevin S , LeDoux Joseph E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imagine living in a world in which sensory events occurred haphazardly. Without a means to evaluate the predictability of stimuli in the environment, it would seem impossible to determine where to focus one’s attention and how to use external cues to obtain behaviorally relevant goals. In the complex and changing real world, the regularity and salience of the environment must be established to handle the bombardment of sensory stimulation in a limited-capacity brain. A primary function of an emotional learning system is to assess the predictive outcome of external events relevant for the organism’s survival and to mobilize the body’s resources to coordinate appropriate actions. In particular, situations that warn of impending danger (or lead to unbridled pleasure) must be reacted to quickly and stored into long-term memory in the event that they are encountered again in the future. Recent advances in neuroscience have enabled a detailed account of the brain circuits that underlie emotional learning and memory. Much of what we know has been discovered through studies of fear conditioning, a procedure in which animals learn that certain stimuli reliably predict noxious stimulation. In this chapter, we review the neural basis of fear conditioning, beginning with the systems-level anatomy and proceeding to the cellular and molecular substrates. Both simple and complex forms of conditioning are considered, including the control of conditioned responses as a function of their contextual relevance. We conclude with applications offear conditioning paradigms to human cognitive neuroscience and comment on the implications of this approach for understanding emotional psychopathology in clinical populations.
On The Automaticity of Autonomic Responses in Emotion: An Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: O¨ hman Arne , Wiens Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An evolutionary perspective on emotions emphasizes their function in promoting survival and procreation. Because meeting evolutionary challenges often requires vigorous behavioral responding, metabolic resources must be recruited as a support for action. For example, to escape the attacking predator, the potential prey must activate energy-demanding flight-or-fight responses. By modulating the state of the autonomic nervous system, the emotion of fear can assure that there are metabolic resources at hand to cope with dangers through defense responses appropriate for a given situation. Furthermore, if the organism can learn to utilize cues that signal emotional events, autonomic responses can be recruited well before the actual occurrence of the event that has to be coped with. From this perspective, the flow of emotion that is inherent in the interaction between an organism and its environment results in a continuous adjustment of autonomic effectors to meet actual or potential demands posed by the situation. Attended stimuli, including those that are sensitized by emotional states, elicit autonomic responses, often as components of the orienting response. These unspecific responses alert the organism and can then be channeled into more specific response patterns to assist emotional actions that are invited by the situational contingencies. An important point is that much of this finetuning of the autonomic nervous system to meet situational demands is controlled from information processing mechanisms that are inaccessible to conscious deliberations. Depending on circumstances, the body is automatically adjusted to meet whatever challenge may emerge. In this chapter, we start out by giving emotion an important role in the control of evolutionarily derived behavioral systems. Much of the burden on emotion in an evolutionary perspective is to recruit metabolic support for action via the autonomic nervous system, which we discuss with particular reference to fear. We go on to discuss the interplay between attention and emotion, using the orienting response as a bridge between the two domains. We then focus on how fear can become attached to new stimuli through Pavlovian conditioning. We particularly emphasize the role of evolutionary constraints on associations in Pavlovian conditioning and the role of nonconscious processes in the recruitment and learning of fear. Finally we integrate the findings on fear into a concept of a fear module and discuss how activation of this module provides input to higher cognition, such as decision making, and to the conscious experience of emotion.
Dynamic Development Of Component Systems Of Emotions: Pride, Shame, And Guilt In China And The United States
Authors: Mascolo Michael F , Fischer, Kurt W , Li Jin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three-year-old Danny and his mother are putting together the pieces of a puzzle. Danny places a piece in its correct location. Immediately, he looks up to his mother, smiles, and says “Oh! I did it!” Looking up from her work, his mother smiles and says “You did it!” Danny claps his hands, after which his mother applauds and says, “That’s great!” (Pride exhibited by U.S. child and mother). Mother asks 3-year-old Lin to sing a song for guests. After she finishes, with smiles and exaggerated expressions, the guests say, “Wonderful! You sing nicer than my child!” Mother replies, “Haihao, she is O.K. Her voice is kind of off the tune, though. But she likes to sing.” To Lin, “You did all right, but now you need more practice. Play down your success!” (Chinese mother and guests reacting to child’s song). Reactions of college students to compliments about their class presentations in science (Chen, 1993): “Thanks. I feel good about it. I’m so glad you enjoyed it” (American students). “No. It’s not that great. I didn’t do it well. I know I bored you. I’m embarrassed” (Chinese students). These vignettes depict typical emotional reactions to accomplishment in American and Chinese children and adults. In so doing, they not only show the very different ways in which socialization agents react to children’s accomplishments in the United States and China, but they also illustrate typical developmental outcomes spawned by these practices. The third set of responses described in the vignettes demonstrate differences in the ways in which American and Chinese adults respond in the context of being praised for producing worthy outcomes. The modal response in Americans is to accept praise and even to express their own pride in their accomplishments. In contrast, the modal response to praise among Chinese individuals is modest self-effacement and embarrassment (Chen, 1993). The first two vignettes suggest ways in which American and Chinese parents socialize these disparate emotional orientations. Parents of children in the United States tend to praise their children’s accomplishments and encourage positive self-expression (Mascolo & Harkins, 1998; Stipek, 1995). In contrast, in the presence of their child, Chinese parents often make effacing remarks to others about their children’s efforts. Guests and relatives, however, generally lavish praise on the child, often effacing their own children in the process.
Introduction: Expression Of Emotion
Authors: Keltner Dacher , Ekman Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If Charles Darwin were alive today, he would certainly have been pleased, and probably blushed, to witness the empirical and theoretical developments that his 1872 book, Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals, generated. The first four chapters in this part pay homage to Darwin, reviewing literature on how emotion is expressed in the face (Keltner, Ekman, Gonzaga, & Beer), by voice (Scherer, Johnstone, & Klasmeyer), and in language (Reilly & Seibert) in humans, as well as in displays across various nonhuman species (Snowdon). These four chapters generally suggest, with the occasional qualifications that empirical study inevitably requires, that select emotions are communicated in distinct facial and vocal displays and in language, and that this is so across different cultures and in different species. The last two chapters of this part broaden the meaning of emotional expression and ask how emotion is expressed in different art forms, a question that dates back to Aristotle, and certainly earlier. Gabrielsson and Juslin apply methods used in the study of facial expression and voice (i.e., encoding and decoding studies) to address whether and how emotion is communicated in music. Oatley explores the thesis that emotion, and especially misunderstood emotion, inspires expression in pictorial arts, architecture, and literature. Much in these chapters would likely have been familiar to Darwin—in particular the interest in the evolutionary history of expression, culture and universality, the biological roots of expression, and the focus on discrete emotions. At the same time, the chapters consistently reveal how scholars are taking the study of expression in striking new directions. Scholars are exploring how emotion is communicated in new modalities (language, odor, music). They are exploring relations between expression and central nervous system activity. Careful, observational research is revealing new functions of emotion (e.g., see Snowdon on how expression regulates reproductive physiology). And there are now systematic studies of how emotion varies according to culture, personality, and development. In this chapter, we bring together the convergent insights offered by the different authors of this part. We summarize where the field stands on many of the questions that Darwin posed (e.g., How is emotion is expressed? Are these expressions universal?). At the same time, we highlight new developments in the field and suggest directions for future research. The field of emotional expression looked very different 20 years ago. Most of the literature focused on the face, and most of the research was judgment studies of a limited set of emotions. There was little examination of how emotion is expressed in the voice, body, or language. Scholars in the nonhuman literature were reluctant to ascribe emotion to displays of nonhuman species.
Affective Influences on Attitudes and Judgments
Authors: Forgas Joseph P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writers, artists, and laypersons have always been fascinated by the subtle influence of feelings on attitudes and behavior. This question has also occupied the minds of such classic philosophers as Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Descartes, Pascal, Kant, and others. Many of these theorists saw affect as a potentially dangerous, invasive force that tends to subvert rational judgment and attitudes, an idea that was to reemerge in Freud’s psychodynamic theories early this century. However, during the past few decades important advances in neuroanatomy, psychophysiology, and social cognition research produced a radically different view. Rather than viewing affect as a dangerous and disruptive influence on our attitudes and judgments, recent evidence suggests that affect is often a useful and even essential component of adaptive responding to social situations (Adolphs & Damasio, 2001; Damasio, 1994; Ito & Cacioppo, 2001). The research I review here shows that affective states have a powerful influence on the way we perceive and respond to social situations. Most of the time these influences are adaptive and helpful in guiding attitudes and judgments (Clore, Schwarz, & Conway, 1994; Forgas, 1995a, 2000; Zajonc, 2000). The past two decades saw something like an “affective revolution” in psychological research. Indeed, one could argue that most of what is known about the influence of affect on attitudes and judgments has been discovered since the early 1980s. One of the key objectives of contemporary research and of this chapter in particular is to explore how, when, and why affective states will influence attitudes and judgments. In a broader sense, my aim is thus to make a contribution to the age-old quest to understand the relationship between the rational and the emotional aspects of human nature (Hilgard, 1980; see also chapter 31, this volume). Affect has a particularly important influence on people’s attitudes and judgments, two constructs that most directly touch on how we respond to social stimuli. The concept of attitudes has long been considered as one of the “most distinctive and indispensable” concepts in social psychology (Allport, 1954, p. 43), and its importance to understanding human social behavior remains undiminished to this day (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Terms such as attitude and judgment appear to be closely related, in the sense that judgments involve the on-line, immediate, and dynamic evaluation of social stimuli, whereas attitude refers to more enduring, stable, and crystallized responses to the social world. Most attitudes have their origin in social judgments, and social judgments in turn are frequently influenced by preexisting attitudes.
Remembering Emotional Events: A Social Cognitive Neuroscience Approach
Authors: Ochsner Kevin N , Schacter Daniel L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How we respond emotionally to the peaks and valleys of life reveals much about who we are now, who we have been, and has implications for who we could be in the future. The question of how we remember these emotional events is thus of central importance to understanding human experience, and is the subject of this chapter. In addressing this question, our goals are to understand the specific neurocognitive mechanisms that preserve records of significant experiences, the motivational and contextual factors that influence their operation, and what their interaction tells us about the relationship between memory and emotion more generally. We begin with a brief historical sketch of previous approaches to emotion and memory and then move to our own multileveled social cognitive neuroscience approach. We then apply this approach to understanding how the emotional nature of an event influences the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information about it. We conclude with suggestions for ways in which a social cognitive neuroscience approach can guide future research. Most investigations of emotion and memory have begun with the same question: How do we remember emotionally evocative events? But investigators have framed this question differently and, as a result, have reached different conclusions. Three approaches have dominated past research, and the strengths and weaknesses of each are rooted in the ways in which their questions have been posed. Debate over whether emotional memories, and especially traumatic ones, are remembered poorly or well has a long history and is central to current discussion about the recovery of supposedly repressed memories of sexual and physical abuse during childhood (for discussion, see Conway, 1997; Loftus & Ketcham, 1994; Schacter, 1996). The question of whether emotion improves or impairs memory often is framed in terms of the question of whether emotional memories are indelible or reconstructed. Debate concerning this issue has played out in three different arenas.
Information Processing Approaches to Emotion
Authors: Dalgleish Tim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychological theorists typically draw on widely agreedon sets of assumptions and concepts when constructing models of psychological processes. The range of assumptions and concepts places parameters on the type of model that is generated and constitutes the scientific paradigm within which modeling occurs (Kuhn, 1962). Of course, a paradigm in psychology is neither true nor false. Rather, its worth to the discipline is a function of how fertile the paradigm is for the generation of models and of programs of empirical research to test those models. Within the broad area of cognitive psychology, the dominant paradigm is the information processing approach. Information processing psychologists conceptualize the mind as a multipurpose processing system. Mental representations, which relate to or designate structures outside themselves and ultimately relate to things in the external world, are acted on in the system by various cognitive processes (Johnson-Laird, 1993). These processes manipulate and transform the representations and give rise to the range of psychological phenomena. Different types of information processing theory instantiate mental representations within different types of cognitive architecture, such as localized or distributed connectionist systems (e.g., McClelland, 1995) or symbol processing systems (e.g., Anderson, 1992). The information processing paradigm had its genesis in the 1940s and 1950s and gathered considerable momentum from the publication of seminal texts such as Broadbent’s book, Perception and Communication (1958) and Neisser’s Cognitive Psychology (1967). Development of the paradigm in psychology has also paralleled the development of computer science, and the existence of commonalities in the information processes that are employed by computers and the mind is a strong theme that permeates recent developments in psychology (see Johnson-Laird, 1993, for a discussion). At the end of the 20th century, there was a consensus in cognitive psychology that the information processing paradigm is an appropriate and informative way to study human cognition. The enduring popularity of the information processing approach is largely a result of its successful instantiation in a range of models that cover the waterfront of cognitive psychology. The paradigm has been successfully applied to such cognitive processes as basic vision, higher level vision, attention, memory, spoken and written language, judgment, reasoning, and higher level thought (see Eysenck & Keane, 1995, for a broad introduction to cognitive psychology across these different domains). Information processing theories have been informed by a wealth of empirical data and, in turn, have generated a host of testable predictions.
Information Processing Approaches To Individual Differences In Emotional Reactivity
Authors: Derryberry Douglas , Reed Marjorie A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Individual differences in emotional reactivity are commonly approached from two contrasting perspectives. Cognitive approaches emphasize the perceptual and conceptual processes thought to cause emotion, while temperament approaches are more concerned with emotional and arousal processes. Although these approaches have developed independently, they are complementary in that they adopt different levels of analysis and focus on different processes. This makes it possible to employ a broader framework and an intermediate level of analysis to integrate the two approaches. This chapter employs current models of information processing as such a comprehensive and integrative framework. Information-processing approaches have several advantages. Regarding the levels of analysis, temperament models tend to view individual differences from a bottom-up perspective grounded in physiological processes. In contrast, cognitive approaches adopt a top-down approach that emphasizes higher level conceptual processing. Fortunately, information-processing models provide an intermediate-level language that can accommodate processing expressed in terms of both interacting neural systems and abstract conceptual structures. Regarding the different processes, cognitive models focus on the perceptual and conceptual processes, whereas temperament models emphasize emotional, arousal, and response processes. Modern information-processing models are based on extensive study of many aspects of human performance, ranging from the earliest perception to the latest response. This provides the flexibility to incorporate emotion-related factors at all phases of processing. Finally, information-processing approaches provide detailed models of certain crucial processes, such as attention, that tend to be neglected in most temperament and cognitive approaches. In short, information processing provides a framework for enriching as well as integrating the major approaches to emotional reactivity. In this chapter we take a broad view of information processing approaches to emotional reactivity. We work within the framework of a general processing system, schematically illustrated in Figure 35.1. At the center of the network are pathways devoted to different emotions. Many temperament models assume that individual differences in the reactivity of these “emotional systems” are pivotal to personality and clinical problems. As illustrated on the diagram’s left side, the emotional systems receive perceptual inputs conveying exteroceptive and interoceptive information, as well as conceptual input concerned with appraising the information’s significance and with developing coping options. Most cognitive theorists focus on the perceptual, and in particular conceptual, inputs as the primary source of individual differences. Upon activation, the emotional systems feed back to activate the perceptual and conceptual processors.
The Neurobiology of Affiliation: Implications for Autism
Authors: Insel Thomas R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A decade from now, when we look back at the early years of affective neuroscience, we may wonder about our conspicuous preoccupation with “negative” emotions. Fear and anxiety, sadness and depression, anger and aggression have received considerable attention in the past few years. By contrast, the neurobiology of “positive” affects, such as joy, affiliation, and love, seem almost taboo subjects. No doubt our focus on negative emotions derives from a need to understand psychopathological states. Most major forms of psychopathology, such as the anxiety and affective disorders, involve an excess of one of the negative emotions. Recently, we have begun to appreciate that most mental disorders also involve a loss of positive affect, whether it is the anhedonia of major depressive disorder, the absence of affiliation in autism, or the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. An important first step toward accounting for the loss of positive affects will be to understand their normal expression. Clearly, joy is not just the absence of sadness, and love/affiliation is much more than the absence of hate or fear. Positive affects will undoubtedly have a circuitry and a neurochemistry that is unique from what we have already learned about fear, sadness, and anger. But how can we study these complex affects with the modern tools of neurobiology? In this chapter, I review one approach based on animal studies. This approach demonstrates that current molecular and cellular tools, when combined with comparative, ethologically relevant studies, can reveal some intriguing leads into the neural basis of affiliation in nonhuman animals. Affiliation is an ethological term generally used to describe membership in a conspecific group. In fact, there are two quite different uses of the term affiliation. The first, relevant to all species, is sociality. Some highly affiliative species, including our own, cluster in flocks or herds in which group membership is essential for survival. Other, nonaffiliative species, such as orangutans or certain cats, are loners, living solitary lives except when mating or caring for young. A second use of the term affiliation describes specific aspects of behavior within a species. In this latter sense, affiliative behaviors include side-by-side or huddling behavior, parent-infant attachment, and pair bonding. Because these behaviors are most relevant to understanding the basis of the powerful human experiences of acceptance, attachment, and love, this chapter focuses on this second meaning of affiliation.