bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quark nuclear physics
Authors: Toki Hiroshi , Suganuma Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In traditional nuclear physics, protons and neutrons, the constituents of a nucleus, are assumed to be point particles and are described by a Hamiltonian with a kinetic term and an interaction term, possibly obtained from the Nucleon—Nucleon (NN) scattering data. The purpose is then to describe the binding energies of nuclei, their structures, decay properties, reaction rates, etc. The fundamental model used is the shell model [1].
About 20 years ago, other degrees of freedom were introduced to nuclear physics. The sensational one is pion condensation, in which the energy of pion becomes zero in nuclear matter, due to the interaction of pions with the nuclear medium, which includes also the delta isobar [2,3]. More recently, deep inelastic scattering has been used to probe the nucleons in nuclear medium and to study differences from their counterparts in free space, which is called the EMC effect [4]. A more drastic process is the production of high-density and high-temperature nuclear matter by relativistic heavy-ion collisions [5]. Such processes could even reduce nuclear matter from hadronic to a quark—gluon plasma phase.
The production of neutrons
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of the matter in the world around us consist of bound neutrons. The free neutron is an unstable particle, undergoing a three-body decay to a proton, an electron and an anti-neutrino, with a half-life of about 10 minutes. Neutrons are produced in a variety of nuclear reactions which includes fission, photofission, spallation and fusion. For scattering experiments the most significant of these are fission and spallation.
Liquids, glasses and amorphous materials
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we shall discuss the application of neutron scattering to the study of liquids, glasses and amorphous materials. Our principal concern will be the understanding of the ‘structure’, or the spatial distribution, of the atoms in these disordered systems. The dynamics of the systems can be investigated by inelastic neutron scattering, but we shall only discuss inelastic scattering processes in so far as they affected the interpretation of data relating to structure.
Coherent inelastic scattering from single crystals: study of phonons and magnons
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Experiments in inelastic scattering require the measurement of the energy transferred from (or to) the scattered neutron to (or from) the scattering system. In this chapter, we shall be concerned with the use of coherent inelastic scattering in the study of the lattice and magnetic excitations in single crystals.
Quasi-elastic scattering and high-resolution spectroscopy
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quasi-elastic neutron scattering (QENS) refers to those inelastic processes that are almost elastic. The term is usually considered to mean a broadening of the elastic line in the energy spectrum rather than the appearance of discrete peaks representing inelastic events. In the context of this chapter, it is also appropriate to include low-energy inelastic processes of energies up to 1 meV: this is because the energy and momentum transfers in both cases are similar and, therefore, the two kinds of measurement are usually carried out with the same type of spectrometer.
Basic plasma characteristics
Authors: Dendy R O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We start by considering an assembly that consists of an equal number of electrons with charge -e and ions (atomic nuclei) with charge +e. Suppose that these particles are initially uniformly distributed, so that the plasma is initially electrically neutral everywhere. Furthermore, let us assume that there is no random thermal motion, so that the electrons and ions are initially motionless. This idealized assembly is referred to as a cold plasma. We now perturb this system by transferring a group of electrons from a given region of space, leaving a net positive charge behind, to a neighbouring region which acquires net negative charge; see Fig. 1.1.
Motion of An Electron in An Undulating Magnetic Field
Authors: Luchini P , Motz H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first step in studying the interaction of an electron beam with an undulator is, of course, the calculation of the electron trajectories in its field. In this chapter we apply to the undulator problem a Hamiltonian formulation which will allow us to gain an advantage from the ultrarelativistic character of the electron motion we are interested in. The required basic elements of Hamiltonian mechanics are summarized, for the reader's ease of reference, in Appendix A.
Magnet Design
Authors: Luchini P , Motz H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter consideration will be given to magnet design. The principle has already been described in Chapter 1 in connection with the original undulator, which had intertwined soft-iron pole pieces of north and south polarity attached to soft-iron bars of the respective polarity, and kept at constant magnetic potential by permanent magnets (magnetron magnets). In recent designs both linear and helical undulators (twisters) have been realized, using either permanent magnets or electromagnets, with or without iron, or a combination of both. We shall examine the various options in turn
Experiments and Applications
Authors: Luchini P , Motz H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While the undulator used for its spontaneous emission is a mature device, the undulator used as a free-electron laser is, today, still at an experimental (although advanced) stage. We conclude with a survey of some of the first free-electron laser experiments performed, selected for the purpose of exemplification amongst the many which we do not have enough space to describe, and of their proposed applications.
Schrödinger And Dirac Hamiltonians For A Central Field
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
where t s is the kinetic energy operator. Since central field solutions are very important for the calculation of the electronic structure of solid matter, it seems quite appropriate to discuss some of the symmetry properties of eqn (3.2) and the consequences thereof. This seems also to be necessary in order to mark the inherent differences between these two cases, namely the Schrödinger-type and the Dirac-type Kohn-Sham equations.
Charge Self-Consistency And Total Energies
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within the 'constant k mode' the energy parameter E varies continously, implying that for a given order of the 'substitutional translational group', for example, the eigenvalues of an ordered system can in principle be determined exactly. This is important, because within this mode all van Hoove singularities caused by topological k points are properly described.
Applications Of Multiple Scattering II: Physical And Transport Properties Related To The Fermi Energy
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter a selection of physical properties will be discussed, all of which are related to the one-particle Green function at the Fermi energy. Also included is a short discussion of electrical conductivity, because quite frequently this quantity is described in terms of an integral over the Fermi surface. It should be noted that whenever other types of particles (phonons, etc.) are also involved in this chapter, the theoretical description will be restricted to the electronic part only.
Crystal-Field Excitations In The Light Rare Earths
Authors: Jensen Jens , Mackintosh Allan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A magnetic ion in a rare earth metal experiences a crystalline electric field from the surroundings, which gives rise to an overall splitting of the order 10-20 meV of the ionic ground-state J-multiplets. Crystal-field excitations are collective normal modes of the system, associated with transitions between the different levels of the ground-state multiplets. Even though there is an obvious qualitative difference between the crystal-field excitations in paramagnetic Pr and the spin waves in the isotropic ferromagnet Gd, it is not in general easy to give a precise prescription for differentiating between the two types of excitation.
Perspectives For Rare Earth Research
Authors: Jensen Jens , Mackintosh Allan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the last three decades, a remarkable transformation has occurred in our understanding of rare earth magnetism. This development has been described in the preceding chapters, and we conclude with a short epilogue, in which we attempt briefly to summarize the status of the field and the perspectives for future research in it. The close interplay between experiment and theory is particularly pronounced in rare earth research. It was measurements on pure materials and single crystals which stimulated the early development of the subject, but the construction of the standard model pointed the way to more refined and varied experiments, which in turn required more sophisticated explanations. At the moment, we appear to be in a period where the theory is in the ascendancy; it is able to account for the great majority of the observations, and also to suggest a wide variety of new investigations. Much of the following will therefore be concerned with the indication of promising directions for experimental study.
Two-dimensional excitons and non-equilibrium plasma
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At present, apart from the usual, straightforward procedures, non-equilibrium techniques have been widely practised in producing two-dimensional electron systems. Here, the desired conditions of electron excitation are achieved with the aid of various types of irradiation, impact ionization using an applied external electric field, etc. (Litovchenko 1980). These experimental techniques make it possible to realize some important patterns of a two-dimensional electron state, such as two-dimensional excitons and related phase transitions, to vary optical spectra in the exciton absorption region and to obtain a stable two-dimensional electron liquid (‘liquid plasma’). Under these conditions, processes of electron transport may exhibit peculiar features because non-equilibrium excitation is accompanied by a substantial variation of the population of scattering centres, by creation of the specific pressure due to collective electrons, and so on.
Surface region parameters for low charge carrier densities
Authors: Dobrovolsky V N , Litovchenko V G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At rather low densities of free carriers, along with a gas-like state, another electron state is possible. Wigner (1938) was the first to find that an electron gas of low density at low temperatures may become ordered (‘crystallized’) into a non-conducting localized state (see reviews by Mott and Davis (1979), Mott and Twose (1961), Mott (1974)). Such a process may take place even in the absence of a crystalline lattice, since ordering is caused by a long-range potential of the Coulomb type, i.e. by an interaction between charged free particles. Wigner’s considerations were based on a model of a conducting solid of ‘jelly’ type, where the charge of free electrons per unit volume is compensated by the background of homogeneously distributed positive charge.
Study of the Structure of a Solution by Small-Angle Scattering
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Small-angle scattering is defined by the fact that the intensity of a radiation scattered by a target varies strongly over a few angular degrees in the vicinity of the incident direction. According to A. Guinier, this forward scattering was observed for the first time in 1934 by C.V. Raman, in an experiment of X-ray scattering by carbon black. It has since been observed that colloidal substances and polymers in solution also scatter X-rays in the forward direction (this is called central scattering); moreover, it appeared that the width of the central peak is inversely proportional to the size of the scattering objects.
Repulsive Chains-Old Theories
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was then generally admitted, at that time, that Flory’s theory was crude but fundamentally correct. Soon, however, new difficulties emerged. In 1968, a new theory appeared, the Gaussian approximation (more general than the Brownian approximation!) which expressed in a calculable form the ideas that Flory had put forward twenty years before.
The Production of quarkonia
Authors: Gastmans R , Wu Tai Tsun 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The applications of the helicity method, which were presented up to now, dealt with processes in which either the masses were completely neglected or treated to leading order. In Chapters 4 through 6, we considered QED and QCD processes, in which the quark and lepton masses were put equal to zero, while, in Chapter 7, we studied the finite mass effects to leading order in m2• This is completely justified in the high energy limit, where these masses are small compared to the energies in the process. The technical reasons for the simplifications we encountered in the high energy limit is the concurrence of the facts that helicity states are Lorentz invariant concepts for massless particles and that the polarization vectors for the gauge particles which we introduced naturally combined with the helicity states of the fermions, because of the appearance of the combinations 1 ± γ5 in / ϵ.
Summary of QCD formulae
Authors: Gastmans R , Wu Tai Tsun 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All the following formulae are presented in the centre-of-mass system, with total energy denoted by 2E. Unless otherwise stated, we take the positive Throughout this chapter, we neglect the effects of a finite electron and/or quark mass, except in the Sections 10.57 through 10.77, where we present the formulae for the production of heavy quarkonia. Consequently, the formulae are not valid in certain kincmatical configurations. For a discussion of the ranges of validity of the approximation, we refer to Section 3.4. We also mention that, for the QCD processes in this chapter, the possible contributions due to Z-exchange arc not taken into account.
Patterns and trends in inequalities in health: an international phenomenon
Authors: Bartley Mel , Bobak Martin , Marmot Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many ways, international comparative data provide the closest we will ever have to ‘clinical trials’ on public health and health inequality. People are more or less randomly selected into the country in which they happen to be born, and differential migration patterns across countries are, in reality, too small to influence the degree of health inequality.
Social determinants and public health policy in the UK
Authors: Graham Hilary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As countries like the UK have become richer, they have become healthier. Over the last 150 years, living standards and life expectancy have risen dramatically. But while national wealth and population health are at record levels in the UK, the opportunity to enjoy a long and healthy life remains unequal. As in the nineteenth century, those in more advantaged circumstances have better health than groups lower down the socio-economic ladder.
The Cochrane Collaboration
Authors: Clarke Mike 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most interventions, in public health and health care more generally, do not have very large effects on major health outcomes for either individuals or populations. Typically, we should hope for small or moderate improvements, along with an occasional dramatically effective intervention that leads to large improvements. The latter will usually be fairly obvious without large-scale research. However, the former will require large studies in which the effects of chance and bias have been minimized. Systematic reviews, in which evidence from similar studies is brought together in a standardized way, sometimes with a mathematical synthesis or meta-analysis of the results from each study, help to achieve this. This chapter discusses this and the role of The Cochrane Collaboration in working towards this aim.
Research synthesis for tackling health inequalities: lessons from methods developed within systematic reviews with a focus on marginalized groups
Authors: Oliver Sandy , Thomas James , Harden Angela , Shepherd, Jonathan , Oakley Ann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A systematic review of the effectiveness of health service interventions aimed at reducing inequalities in health (Arblaster et al. 1996) found a number of interventions that improve the health of groups who are disadvantaged by socio-economic class, ethnicity, or age and, if properly targeted, could be expected to reduce health inequalities. This review of 94 studies and 21 reviews concluded that in addition to addressing the impact on health status, attention should be given to
Health Action Zones
Authors: Benzeval Michaela 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Health Action Zones (HAZs) were launched very early in the Labour Government’s first term in office (Dobson 1997). As such, they were one of the first area-based initiatives (ABIs) launched by New Labour, and the only one launched by the Department of Health. HAZs were central to New Labour’s strategy to tackle health inequalities. They had dual roles in this respect (Benzeval 2003a, 2005). First, they were meant to improve health outcomes and to
Bringing about social change: implications for health
Authors: Hanlon Phil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite economic prosperity and massive human development in the last century, peoples of every nation fail to reach their true health potential. The main reason is that the health of individuals is dependent on the health of the society that nurtures them (Marmot and Wilkinson 1999). Health emerges from an interaction of genetic inheritance, the physical circumstances in which people grow up and live (housing, air quality, working environment), the social environment (levels of support and trust), personal behaviour (smoking, diet, exercise), and, crucially, access to resources which give control over life (Evans et al. 1994). It is now well understood that these determinants operate over the whole life course (Kuh and Ben-Shlomo 1997).
The epidemiology of beliefs
Authors: Sperber Dan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I would like to bring together two sets of speculations: anthropological speculations on cultural representations, and psychological speculations on the cognitive organization of beliefs, and to put forward, as a result, fragments of a possible answer to the question ‘How do beliefs become cultural?’ I will not apologize for the speculative character of the attempt. At this stage, either the question is answered in a vague, fragmentary, and tentative way, or it must be left alone: there just is not enough sound theorizing and well-regimented evidence in the domain to do otherwise.
Conclusion: towards a new perspective on ethnic minority identity
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this book has been to bring together a diverse and scattered literature on ethnic minority identity. This review, of both the theory and the empirical research related to the field, has raised as many questions as it has answered and it is clear that there are many unresolved issues still to be tackled. However, the effort of this enquiry has been to clarify conceptual difficulties and to establish a number of empirical generalizations regarding the antecedent and consequent factors underlying ethnic minority identity. In this chapter an attempt will be made to sift through and integrate some of the ideas that have arisen from previous theory and research into a new perspective on ethnic minority identity. This new model will be put forward, therefore, as a framework for further research. The propositions are tentative, requiring refinement and greater precision. However, Festinger (1950b) has argued that the premature precision of a theory can lead to sterility. None the less an attempt will be made to avoid unnecessary ambiguity. Thus, the theory is presented formally only to facilitate verification or falsification in future studies.
Individual differences in musical behaviour
Authors: Kemp Anthony E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter takes personality studies as its central focus. My reasons for this reflect the view that aspects of personality interrelate with, if not drive, most aspects of individual differences. Besides, this chapter might help redress the notorious neglect of personality psychology by most music psychologists. If one scans the range of published material which has mushroomed in recent years in the field, a fact that cannot be overlooked is its main preoccupation with music cognition and the virtual exclusion of dynamic psychology and concerns with people’s less cognitive musical responses. Clearly musicians engage in highly cognitive processes and execute exceedingly complex skills, but the view developed here is that the development of these, in many respects, is dependent upon the existence or acquisition of unusual combinations of personality factors. By considering musicians’ personality and temperament we may well open up new ways of understanding their motivational drives, their single-mindedness, and their investment of so much of their self-concepts in music.
Autism: deficits in folk psychology exist alongside superiority in folk physics
Authors: Baron-Cohen Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume concerns our everyday understanding of other minds, and how neuro-developmental factors can interfere with this ability. Our understanding of other minds is sometimes referred to as our folk psychology. According to Pinker, among others, the evolution of the human mind should be considered in terms of its evolved adaptedness to the environment (Pinker 1997). On this view, the brain needed to be able to maximize the survival of its host body in response to at least two broad challenges: predicting the physical and the social environment. The specialized cognitive domains of folk physics and folk psychology can be seen as adaptations to each of these. In this chapter I explore the possibility that a cognitive profile of superior folk physics alongside impaired folk psychology could arise for genetic reasons. This assumes that some brains are equally well adapted to understanding both the social and physical environment, whilst others are better adapted to understanding the physical environment and yet others are better adapted to understanding the social environment. Both clinical and experimental tests of this profile in children with autism and Asperger’s Syndrome (AS) will be reviewed.
Pretending, imagery, and self-awareness in autism
Authors: Harris Paul L , Leevers Hilary J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we examine the idea that children with autism suffer from an impoverished imagination and lack awareness of their own mental states. Our starting point is the deficit in pretend play that Kanner included in his original description of the syndrome (Kanner 1943). We review evidence showing that although children with autism can engage in pretence and appear to understand its special logic, they do play in a restricted or stereotypic fashion. We then consider recent, longitudinal studies that have focused on the development of pretend play in the second year of life. When pretend play has not emerged by eighteen months, and is combined with social difficulties, notably problems in establishing joint attention, a subsequent diagnosis of autism is likely. However, evidence from older children shows that the problem with pretend play is not just a by-product of the social difficulties of children with autism.