bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Cerebellum
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The conspicuous location and distinct shape of the cerebellum (Latin for little brain) had attracted the attention of neuroanatomists long ago; at the time it was even considered as the seat of the soul, although this was soon rejected: ‘… this marvelous instinct, which is developed by education into mind, and which always has its seat in the brain … and never in the cerebellum; for I have often seen the cerebellum injured … when the soul has not ceased to fulfill its functions’ (La Mettrie 1748). Others thought that the spirits which put the body in motion flow from the cerebrum for voluntary movements, but from the cerebellum for unconscious movements (Hoffman 1695, cited in Brazier 1984). This latter proposal (spirits excluded) was not too far from certain more recent notions of cerebellar function. But the picture is changing. And so is the view of the role of the cerebellum in learning.
Cerebral cortex
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cerebral cortex (Latin for bark, rind, shell) is a multi-layered, convoluted sheet of tissue overlaying the cerebral hemispheres. In humans it is 3–4 mm thick, covering cm2. It contains at least 1010 neurons and about the same number of glia cells. From a phylogenetic perspective, three types of cortices are about 100 years ago. The cytoarchitecture of the cortex is usually described in term of laminar and columnar organization. A six-layer classification, I–VI, first introduced by Brodmann, is conventionally used to describe the laminar structure of the neocortical sheet (Figure 10b).
Classic
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Classic’ in its classical sense is borrowed from the Romans. ‘Classici’ were citizens who possessed a substantial income. The word was used also to refer to the armed forces, and ‘classicum’ was the trumpet call signalling the battle. The Latin author Aulus Gellius (second century AD) was probably the first to refer to writers of worth and distinction as classic writers (Saint-Beuve 1850). The French philologist Littre later adapted the term to refer to literary works ‘used in the classes of colleges and schools’ (Harvey 1937).
Classical conditioning
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pavlov and his dogs are probably the first association that comes to mind in most people when prompted to contemplate experiments on animal learning. Indeed, a century after its formalization (Pavlov 1906), the *paradigm of classical conditioning1 (alias Pavlovian conditioning, conditioned reflex type I, respondent conditioning, type S(timulus) conditioning) is still a cornerstone of learning research. Following the pioneering work of Sechenov (1862), the father figure of Russian physiology, Pavlov (Figure 13) led a systematic attempt to *reduce the study of higher brain function to that of quantifiable atoms of reflexive behaviour.
Coincidence detector
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many brain faculties depend on the ability to detect and encode associations and correlations among events. Coincidence detectors are essential for this ability. The most straightforward type of coincidence detector senses the occurrence of two events at the same time (definition 1). However, what is meant by ‘at the same time’ depends on the scientific discipline and on the *level of analysis.
Conditioned taste aversion
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Farmers know, probably from the dawn of farming, that animals tend to avoid poisonous bait if they survive their first encounter with it. The farmers themselves may have probably noticed that foodstuff comes to evoke disgust if consuming it results in nausea and intestinal distress. However, common knowledge does not always penetrate academic barriers: it has taken John Garcia and his colleagues several distressful years to convince the referees of respectable scientific journals that conditioned taste aversion (CTA) does occur (Garcia 1981). This almost became a case of CSA (conditioned submission aversion).
Drosophila melanogaster
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are over 3000 different species of Drosophilidae (Greek for ‘dew lovers’), but none is as popular as Drosophila melanogaster, which became the pet organism of geneticists already a century ago (melanogaster is ‘black belly’ in Greek, referring to the colour of the male’s bottom).
Episodic memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Episodic recollection is conscious time travel into the subjective past1. This is considered by many as the most sophisticated faculty of memory, and the one most characteristic of humans. Further, a minority of authors even use the term ‘memory’ and ‘episodic memory’ as synonyms. These authors would usually concede that the *declarative memory of impersonal facts is also ‘memory’, but refuse to consider many other types of use-dependent change in behaviour, such as *classical conditioning, *habit and *skill, as bona fide memory. This is evidently not the stand taken in this book (*memory).
Experimental extinction
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pavlov noted that once one of his famous dogs (and there were many) had been conditioned to salivate to the sound of a metronome by associating the sound with food, the sound alone came to elicit salivation, as expected (*classical conditioning). However, when the metronome continued to be played without subsequent reward, with time salivation diminished. Pavlov termed this phenomenon ‘experimental extinction’ (Pavlov 1927). Ever since, experimental extinction (which can easily be demonstrated in *instrumental conditioning as well) became one of the most fundamental problems in learning theory.
False memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
memory item is retrieved in a new context, ‘implicit’ could particularly provide an opportunity for new information to modify the initial trace (Nader et al. 2000; Sara 2000; Berman and Dudai 2001). The cues available in retrieval could also cause subjects to select, rearrange and distort the retrieved information (Tulving 1983; Loftus 1996). The introduction of improved neuropsychological assays of false memory, especially (*a priori) and endogenously generated representations. In addition, the static ‘storehouse’ *metaphors are passé; many biological memories are *biased, dynamic reconstructions of past occurrences.4 What comes out of the ‘storehouse’ is not what was deposited there.
Forgetting
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Herman Ebbinghaus, the progenitor of quantitative experimental psychology (Gorfein and Hoffman 1987), remarked that ‘all sorts of ideas, if left to themselves, are gradually forgotten’ (Ebbinghaus 1885). Whether this statement is acceptable by laypersons and scientists alike, depends on what is meant by ‘forgotten’. If ‘forgotten’ means ‘erased from memory’, then many, including professional psychologists, tend to believe that everything we learn is never erased (Loftus and Loftus 1980). In contrast, others, starting with Plato (Theaetetus 191), trust that memory traces can indeed be obliterated (‘drowned in the waters of Lethe’, Galton 1879).1 As it is much more difficult, and frequently impossible, to distinguish an obliterated memory from a non retrievable one, the use of ‘retrieval’ in the definition of ‘forgetting’ (definition 2 above) is therefore a safer bet.
Homunculus
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Homunculi (Latin, diminutive of *homo, man) have a rich history in science and philosophy, but not all homunculi were created equal. As a term in biology, ‘homunculus’ is a close relative of ‘animalculus’ (‘little animal’). The latter was a generic term used by the early microscopists of the seventeenth century to refer to the microorganisms discovered under the magnifying lens (Wilson 1995). Guided by a combination of naive observations and wishful thinking, animalcule were occasionally depicted as miniature editions of full-sized animals. Probably the most famous one was invented by the Dutch microscopist Nicolaas Hartsoeker.
Intracellular signal transduction cascade
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Intracellular signal transduction cascades (Tra-nsdu-cere, Latin for ‘to transfer’), also termed ‘signalling pathways’, are intracellular molecular pathways that decode and distribute within the cell specific information conveyed by distinct extracellular *stimuli, such as hormones, growth factors, and *neurotransmitters. (Special types of signal transduction cascades are activated by sensory stimuli in specialized sensory receptor cells, but they will not be further discussed here.) Intracellular signal transduction cascades span multiple cellular compartments, from the cell membrane via the cytoplasm to the nucleus. They are ubiquitous in all species and tissues, and involved in all aspects of cellular life, from differentiation and proliferation, via *homeostasis and *plasticity, to death.
Level
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Level’ originated in lı-bella, diminutive of ‘balance’ in Latin. It was adapted to denote gadgets used to establish flat surfaces. That led to the use of ‘level’ to denote a stratum in a hierarchy, because components at the same level are considered, mostly *metaphorically, to be at the same height or rank. The question whether the *taxonomy of levels in a *system follows natural divisions or is merely a convenient *artefact of human cognition, is an issue that needs to be addressed separately in each case. Whatever the particular answer is, in real-life levels in any system are dependent on each other.
Maze
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mazes (amasian, ‘to confound’ in old English) are for some current students of learning what the pen is for a literary critic: indispensable but occasionally abused. Although employed mainly to probe the memory of rodents (Olton 1979), over the years, mazes have been applied to the analysis of other species as well, ranging from flies (Dudai 1988) to monkeys (Murray et al. 1988) and humans (Woodworth and Schlosberg 1954). The systematic use of mazes in the psychological laboratory was initiated by Kline in Clark University in 1898.
Metaphor
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metaphora is ‘a transfer’ in Greek, the transference consisting ‘in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else’ (Aristotle, Poetics 1457b7–8). In a more formal notation, metaphors can be described as statements in figurative language, composed of two juxtaposed elements, the ‘tenor’ and the ‘vehicle’, which are presented as sharing common attributes or ‘ground’ (Richards 1936). The tenor is the subject of the metaphor, while the vehicle is the means by which the subject is referred to.
Monkey
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘This is what I see in my dreams about final exams: /Two monkeys, chained to the floor, sit on the windowsill/ The sky behind them flutters,/The sea is taking its bath./The exam is History of Mankind./I stammer and hedge./One monkey stares and listens with mocking disdain,/the other seems to be dreaming away—/But when it’s clear I don’t know what to say/He prompts me with a gentle/Clinking of his chain’ (Szymborska 1995). It is the appreciation that monkeys are our closest phylogenetic relatives and share some of our intimate biological secrets, that fuels Szymborska’s irony.
Noradrenaline
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The noradrenergic innervation in the brain is diffused and reaches a large variety of targets. The majority of the noradrenergic innervation originates in the locus ceruleus, in the pontine central grey (Figure 50). This cluster contains about 3000 neurons in the rat and 25,000 in human. Several major noradrenergic tracts travel from the locus ceruleus and innervate targets in most of the brain. Noradrenergic neurons also reside outside the locus ceruleus, in the lateroventral tegmentum. Much of their output inter-mingles with that of the locus ceruleus but the targets are not identical.
Recognition
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Similarly to *recall, recognition (re-cognoscere, Latin for to get to know again) refers to a type of memory (definition 1, Mandler 1980), a brain process (definition 2), and a memory test (definition 3). To judge that something has occurred previously may mean different things, ranging from the detection of familiarity or recency to the identification of the specific attributes of the target in its proper *context. Imagine entering a classroom and detecting a new student in the front row. Her face looks familiar, but you have no idea who she is.
Red herring
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A bundle of smelly smoked (red) herrings drawn across a fox’s trail confuses the hounds (Cowie et al. 1985). Discovering that a *metaphorical red herring had been hiding in one’s path is a scientist’s nightmare, although not discovering it if it is there is even worse. It possibly tends to materialize more frequently on the fringe of hectic, fast-advancing disciplines that attract risk-takers (*scoopophobia). The diversionary data or concepts could pose a real treat to academic careers. Indeed one may toy with the arithmetic of the red herring phenomenon: the magnitude of damage is likely to be proportional to the significance of the research topic, the time elapsed since the diversion, the ego-driven stubbornness of the investigator, and the number of scientists that managed to become enticed by the misleading clue. Red herrings come in multiple sizes.
Reinforcer
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Reinforcer’ (fortis,’strong’ in Latin), which is an agent or event, and ‘reinforcement’, which is the process that this agent is assumed to trigger and sustain, are among the most loaded terms in the behavioural literature. This is not because the concepts involved are necessarily more complex than certain other behavioural concepts, but because frequently their discussion connotes particular theoretical constructs, some of which have gravitated toward the status of a religious sect with all the convictions and emotions involved (*paradigm, *zeitgeist).
Scoopophobia
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scoopophobia (sometimes manifested as prioritymania) is a common occupational hazard in contemporary science. The term stems from ‘scoop’, which literally means to gather or collect swiftly, and *metaphorically, to top or outmanoeuvre a competitor in acquiring and publishing an important news story (it all originated in schope, Old Dutch for ‘bucket’). Scoopophobia is a very focused phobia: the victim does not fear scoops in general, only those of the competitors. The first signs could become apparent already in Graduate School (‘early onset’), but more commonly in postdoctoral training or immediately afterwards (‘late onset’, but not senile).
Simple system
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interest in the intelligence of simple organisms, and their use to investigate problems of learning and memory, draws mainly from two conceptual frameworks: Darwinism (Boakes 1984), and *reductionism. The simple systems may come to include also bionic hybrids of neural tissue and printed circuits (Kuwana et al. 1995; Maher et al. 1999).
Spaced training
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many situations, multiple training sessions with intercalated rest intervals (also termed ‘distributed training’) result in a more robust and long-lasting memory than the same amount of training with no rest intervals (‘massed training’). This phenomenon was noted already in the early days of experimental psychology (Jost 1897). It has been observed in species far apart on the phylogenetic scale, from the most primitive to the most advanced (Melton 1970; Carew et al. 1972; Cornell 1980; Perruchet 1989; Payne and Wenger 1992; Yin et al. 1995; Kogan et al.
Transfer
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Teachers have appreciated transfer much before neurobiologists did. The teachings of the *classics, when practised, were not necessarily for school children to become experts in Homer or Virgil. The idea was that such studies have a general disciplinary value that will be transferred to the intellect at large. This is why educational psychologists were driven to investigate transfer. They had to prove that some educational *methods do have merit. In doing so they have also developed basic research methodologies of tremendous value. Consider, for example, the use of *control groups: it was introduced in research on transfer in schooling (Thorndike and Woodworth 1901a,b; Coover and Angell 1907).
Working memory
Authors: Dudai Yadin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Working memory’ is one of the most important and exciting concepts in modern neuroscience, and rightly so. It refers to a cognitive faculty that is essential for mentation and complex behaviour. This faculty subserves much of our ability to interact with the world in a flexible and intelligent manner, and is essential for thought, planning, and language. For example, reading these lines and combining them into a meaningful message, requires working memory. It is doubtful whether without working memory there would have been a Homer, a Shakespeare, a Mozart, or a Newton, and an audience to appreciate them. A mind without working memory is thus expected to be a rather dull place.
Local Behavior in the Finite Element Method
Authors: Babuška Ivo , Strouboulis Theofanis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 3 we derived a-priori estimates for the global energy norm of the error. In this chapter, we will further analyze the properties of the error. In Section 4.1, we construct estimates for the nodal errors of the finite element solution, which prove that, for sufficiently smooth input data and elements of quadratic degree or higher (p ≥ 2), the nodal values of the finite element solution are superconvergent, namely, we have This means that, as the mesh size h tends to zero, the nodal errors converge to zero with a rate higher than the rate of convergence of the maximum error.
Bounds on global solutions
Authors: Cazenave Thierry , Haraux Alain , Martel Yvan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of the behaviour at infinity of global solutions is one of the most important problems in the study of non-linear evolution equations. The problem can be formulated as follows. If u(t), 0 t &lt; oo is a solution of an equation of the form In the following subsection, we gather some preliminary results that will be useful in establishing the main result.
The invariance principle and some applications
Authors: Cazenave Thierry , Haraux Alain , Martel Yvan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Notes. See Ball [3], Dafermos [1-3], Dafermos and Slemrod [1], Hale [1], Haraux [1, 2], Henry [1], LaSalle [1], and Sell [l]. Thew-limit sets also appear in the theory of maximal attractors. Consult Babin and Vishik [1-3], Ghidaglia and Temam [1, 2], Hale [2], Haraux [2], and Ladyzhenskaya [2]. The invariance principle is also very useful in the study of the behaviour at infinity of positive solutions of reaction-diffusion systems.
Asymptotic approximations
Authors: Evans Michael , Swartz Tim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Asymptotic methods for integrals have long been used to approximate the special functions of mathematical physics that have integral representations. Two of the most common techniques are the Laplace method and the method of steepest descent or saddle-point method. In this chapter we will describe the essence of these methods so that they can be used in applications. For a more complete treatment, see for example, de Bruijn (1981), Murray (1984), Bleistein and Handelsman (1986) and Wong (1989).
Some topics incommutative algebra
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unless otherwise specified, all rings in this book ,.will be supposed commutative and with unit. In this chapter, we introduce some indispensable basic notions of commutative algebra such as the tensor product, localization, and flatness. Other, more elaborate notions will be dealt with later, as they are needed. We assume that the reader is familiar with linear algebra over a commutative ring, and with Noetherian rings and modules.
General properties of schemes
Authors: Liu Qing , Erné Reinie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce the notion of schemes. The first three sections are devoted to the definitions of schemes and morphisms of schemes, as well as to examples. After that, in Sections 2.4 and 2.5, we consider some elementary properties, more particularly topological properties (irreducible components, dimension), of schemes.
Overview
Authors: Rott Hans 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
General theories of belief change—or, more aptly, of opinion change—and of non-monotonic reasoning-or, more positively, of defeasible reasoning—have been flourishing for 20 years now. Today they are actively studied by researchers in philosophy, logic and artificial intelligence. Though not devoid of toilsome logical details, the present book is primarily meant to be a philosophical contribution to the field. Being a philosopher means offering new perspectives. I accordingly attempt to open up two new perspectives on the formation and transformation of belief. The first view focuses on the problem of how to generate, with the help of sophisticated inference operations, coherent belief systems from information bases which may be both incomplete and inconsistent. This aspect is static in so far as no pieces of information are added to, or retracted from, the current stock of beliefs in response to some ‘perturbation’ from an external source. The sophisticated statics makes it possible to capture dynamic processes by very simple means. The alternative, second view is based on simple, essentially classical inference operations and lays the emphasis on the dynamic side, on non-trivial coherence requirements for the choices which are necessary to resolve incompatibilities between old and new information. From both perspectives close connections may be exhibited with the area of nonmonotonic reasoning in the abstract style of D. Gabbay (1985), D. Makinson (1989) and S. Kraus/ D. Lehmann/M. Magidor (1990). The drawing of inferences represents the static aspect; learning something or calling something into question ( accepting or rejecting something) represents the dynamic aspect of the topics covered in this book. Due to the choice-theoretic perspective taken in major parts the book, one might say that it is about the making up and the changing of one’s mind, where these idiomatic phrases are being ( re-)interpreted here as respectively referring to the static and the dynamic aspects of the change of doxastic states.