bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Contact Lenses
Authors: Lai Yu‐chin , Wilson Alan C. , Zantos Steve G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractContact LensesContact lenses are small, hemispherical‐shaped optical devices placed in contact with the transparent tissue at the front of the eye called the cornea. Contact lenses are used to correct vision deficiencies such as myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), presbyopia (loss of near focusing power with age), and astigmatism. An increasingly common use of contact lenses is to change the color of a normal eye or to improve the appearance of an eye disfigured by injury or disease. Contact lenses can also be used as therapeutic devices in the medical treatment of certain eye diseases or injuries. The 1980s saw the widespread introduction of lens products made of more oxygen‐permeable materials, ie, rigid gaspermeable (RGP) materials that made PMMA lenses virtually obsolete and high water content hydrogels that competed with HEMA‐based lenses. Research continues for materials having improved oxygen permeability, deposit resistance, and comfort. In addition, there is the search for breakthrough lens designs, such as bifocal contact lens products. Competition includes developing new surgical techniques, eg, excimer laser refractive surgery that modifies the shape of the cornea to correct vision, potentially without the use of eyeglasses or contact lenses. No particular contact lens type or product is considered universally superior. To remain safe and efficacious on the eye, contact lenses must maintain clear and wetted surfaces, provide an adequate supply of atmospheric oxygen to and adequate expulsion of carbon dioxide from the cornea, allow adequate flow of the eye's tear fluid, and avoid excessive abrasion of the ocular surface or eyelids, all under a variety of environmental conditions. Clinical experience has shown that certain types of lens materials are more prone to deposit problems. All contact lenses can be divided according to the wearing modality. It is convenient to classify lenses according to whether they are rigid (hard) or flexible (soft). Some newer materials give rise to lenses that can be termed semirigid, semisoft, and the combination soft–rigid. The flexibility of a contact lens material dictates, to a large extent, the design of the lens. Not every polymer can be manufactured successfully into a contact lens. Several important properties for both ocular physiology and patient handling are required of a material for a contact lens application. Various lenses are discussed:rigid (hard) lenses; hydrogel contact lenses (includes silicone and fluorohydrogels); flexible nonhydrogel lenses; Tinted lenses; and surface‐modified lenses.Today, most contact lens materials, including xerogels, ie hydrogels in their dry state, can by produced in a disklike form (button) that allows lathe cutting for accurate manufacture of contact lenses. Cast molding is an increasingly used manufacturing process for both rigid gas‐permeable and hydrogel contact lenses.
Packaging, Containers for Industrial Materials
Authors: Olsson David L. , Chapman A. Ray 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Packaging fulfills several important functions in the safe delivery of chemical products through the distribution system to customers: containment, protection, use features, and communication. Development of industrial packaging with these functions in mind is critical for the safe efficient delivery of industrial products.
There are many regulations making demands on package development, including domestic rail and motor freight classifications as well as other carrier requirements, and U. N. recommendations for international transport of dangerous goods (perhaps virtually all chemicals), which are restated in U.S. Department of Transportation regulations.
Many types and sizes of industrial packages for chemicals are in use, ranging from small boxes, pails, and drums, through intermediate bulk containers, to specialized rail cars. The variety of packaging alternatives, sizes, materials, and applications are all discussed.
Packaging, Converting
Authors: Batelka Joseph J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Various types of paper and paperboard packaging are discussed with respect to the various package manufacturing processes and the materials and chemicals used in these processes. Specific package types described include corrugated paperboard boxes, solid fiber paperboard boxes, multiwall paper bags, paper grocery sacks, paper retail bags, folding paperboard cartons, fiber drums, and fiber cans. The principal categories of uncoated, coated, nonwet‐strength and wet‐strength paper and paperboard substrates are discussed. The various typical paper mill and package plant coatings and chemical additives applied to achieve various package properties are listed. The package performance characteristics covered are moisture resistance, humidity resistance, oil and grease resistance, abrasion resistance, adhesion release properties, nonskid properties, flame‐retardant properties, static electricity control, noncorrosive properties, and gloss. Printing inks and process steam boiler chemicals are specifically excluded from the discussion.
Coordination Compounds
Authors: Fromm Katharina M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article reviews coordination compounds starting with their definition. It gives an overview on the classification of ligands, deals with the most common examples of nomenclature, and describes the possible isomers encountered with the described ligand types. A new chapter of examples of representative coordination compounds throughout the Periodic Table of elements has been added in order to show the different behavior of coordination found for alkali and alkaline earth metal ions, main group elements, transition metals, and rare earths. These examples are followed by the theories of coordination and bonding, as well as their chemical and physical properties, ie, stability, steric selectivity, reactivity comprising oxidation and reduction, photochemistry and magnetism. In a later section, applications of coordination compounds will be given. The role of these compounds in industrial processes as well as potential applications in research are described, and examples are shown. This article also gives some examples of supramolecular compounds, which are part of coordination chemistry, however, supramolecular chemistry is given a chapter on its own elsewhere in this series.
Copper
Authors: Kundig K. J. A. , Dresher W. H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCopper and its various alloys are used in industrial and consumer applications because of high electrical and thermal conductivities, wear and corrosion resistance, and mechanical and aesthetic properties. These metals are vital to nearly every industrial sector. Uses of copper and alloy mill products may be broken down into five principal markets: building construction, electrical and electronic products, industrial machinery and equipment, transportation, and consumer and general products. In addition, copper and its alloys are a strategic material essential to the production of equipment critical to the U.S. economy and national defense.The various copper minerals, mining, ore treatment, smelting, and refining are discussed as is fabrication of products and the chemical reactions specific to these processes. There have been significant process innovations in the copper industry, particularly in hydrometallurgy, solvent‐extraction technology, and continuous casting production methods.Pure copper is most often produced by electrorefining. Sulfuric acid is a principal by‐product of copper smelting. The United States is a world leader in smelting and refining capacity. It is the second largest copper ore producer and repository of one‐fifth of the world's recoverable reserves. U.S. and world production is discussed.
Corrosion and Corrosion Control
Authors: Natishan Paul , Moran Patrick 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article discusses the various types of corrosion and the fundamental mechanisms responsible for corrosion. The importance of electrochemical reactions in causing and controlling corrosion phenomena is emphasized. The influence of environmental factors and metallurgical variables is reviewed and the predominant corrosion modes for technologically significant metal and alloy systems are discussed. The various methods of corrosion prevention such as cathodic protection, coatings, and inhibitors are also described. Throughout the article, references to additional information are included.
Cosmetics
Authors: Rieger Martin M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractGeneral cosmetic industry regulations and practices, and cosmetic compositional details of various products (except fragrances) are presented. Coverage emphasizes U.S. regulations concerning the use of color additives and the differences between cosmetics and over‐the‐counter (OTC) drugs. Safety testing procedures, means for preventing microbial contamination, and the usage of several groups of cosmetic ingredients are discussed. The preparation of emulsions and of products in stick form is reviewed. The formulations of cosmetic and OTC skin preparations, cleansing products for skin, hair, and the oral cavity, nail‐care products, hair preparations for styling, waving, and coloring, and makeup products is described.The utility and benefits of cosmetic ingredients in various types of cosmetics are discussed and those ingredients are listed. Literature references to specific cosmetic formulations are provided.
Packaging, Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals
Authors: Rosette Jack L. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Cosmetics and pharmaceuticals each have their own special packaging requirements, although the primary purpose of packaging for both is to provide a means to store and distribute the product until the entire contents of the package are used. Cosmetic packaging is used to enhance the image of the product, and though pharmaceutical packaging has the same basic objectives, product stability and safe packaging requirements dictate different parameters regarding tampering prevention and child safety requirements of the FDA and the Consumer Product Safety Commission.
The FDA Rule requires the use of tamper‐evident packaging on all over‐the‐counter drugs and some cosmetics. However, if a product in an adulterated form could harm a consumer, manufacturers have the responsibility of protecting the product and consumer against tampering, meaning that tamper‐evident packaging transcends FDA regulations. No single feature is best for all products and all features can be violated in some manner, but effective tamper‐evident features provide greater difficulty in doing so. Consumers should be aware of what to look for in tamper‐evident packaging and pay attention to what product is being used.
Coumarin
Authors: Boisde Paul M. , Meuly Walter C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCoumarin is an important aroma chemical widely used in the perfumery, soap, and cosmetic industries for its characteristic herbaceous odor and as a valuable odor fixative. It also has several other unrelated industrial uses. It occurs naturally in many plants and was first extracted from Tonka beans in 1820. Coumarin is a crystalline solid. The commercial product is manufactured synthetically and the usual preparation methods start fromo‐cresol, phenol, and most currently from salicylaldehyde. The perfume‐grade product is highly purified and purification methods are given as well as the manufacturers' specifications. Production figures and commercial prices in the United States are listed since the 1940s.Health and safety data are reported. Since 1954, the use of coumarin in foods has been banned in the United States by the FDA. The carcinogenicity of coumarin has been debated. Recent studies have led IARC to classify coumarin as a Group 3 chemical indicating insufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans.In addition to its use in the fragrance industry and as an industrial odorant or odor masking agent, coumarin is also an electroplating adjuvant. Coumarin and some of its derivatives are used as fluorescent brighteners and as pharmaceuticals in anticoagulant therapy. Several of the most important coumarin derivatives are described including 3,4‐dihydrocoumarin, 3‐ and 6‐methyl coumarins, 4‐hydroxycoumarin, umbelliferone, dicoumarol, and warfarin.
Cumene
Authors: Hwang S. Y. , Chen S. S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractProduction of cumene was considered a rather dull business for many years, but has generated considerable excitement recently for two reasons. First, the demand for cumene in the production of polycarbonates is accelerating, owing to the broadening applications of polycarbonates. Second, successful development and commercialization of the zeolite‐based technology for the production of cumene has rendered obsolete the older processes based on solid phosphoric acid and aluminum chloride. Within a period of just over 2 years during 1996–1998, over one‐half of the cumene capacity in the world was converted to the new technology. This article provides technical insights into the successful new zeolite‐based process, as well as the older processes based on solid phosphoric acid and aluminum chloride.
Cyanides
Authors: Pesce Lawrence D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe industrially important cyanides are hydrogen cyanide; sodium, potassium, and lithium cyanide; ammonium cyanide; and calcium cyanide. These compounds have been variously used as poisons and fumigants, in electroplating baths, in extractive metallurgy, and in the synthesis of such diverse chemicals as pharmaceuticals, dyes, and chelating agents.Hydrogen cyanide is the most used cyanide, and it is produced by the Andrussow process. The other cyanides are generally prepared by the neutralization or wet process. Compounds differ in reactivity, purity, price, and stability. Safe practices for handling these compounds are discussed.
Dyes, Cyanine
Authors: Sturmer David M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCyanine dyes and the related merocyanines and oxonols are commercially important dyes for high technology uses, including spectral sensitization of photographic films, optical filtering/light modulation, dye lasers, and biological staining agents. The primary chromophores and heterocycles in these dyes are outlined with specific reference to chemical reactions that allow the synthesis of almost every type of cyanine and related dye. Known structure–property relationships for the cyanines are extensive, and examples are included for properties such as color, substituent effects, solubility, self‐association (aggregation), electrochemical behavior, photochemical reactions, and biological uses.
Cyanocarbons
Authors: Webster Owen W. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Cyanocarbons are organic compounds in which a substantial portion of the total functionality consists of cyano groups. As a consequence of the large number of cyano groups, the cyanocarbons are highly reactive electrophilic molecules. The most important members of the cyanocarbon family are tetracyanomethane, hexacyanoethane, tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), tetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQ), hexacyanobutadiene, dicyanoacetylene, hexacyanobenzene, tetracyanoquinone, tricyanomethanide, pentacyanopropenide, pentacyanocyclopentadienide, tetracyanoethylene oxide, tetracyanofuran, tetracyanothiophene, tetracyanodithiin, diaminomaleonitrile (DAMN), diiminosuccinonitrile, tetracyanopyrazine, diazotetracyanocyclopentadiene, diazodicyanoimidazole, tetracyanopyrole, tricyanoimidazole, and pentacyanopyridine.
Examples of unusual reactivity are numerous. TCNE forms colored charge‐transfer complexes with aromatic hydrocarbons, tetracyanoethylene oxide adds to olefins by cleavage of its carbon‐carbon bond, and TCNE and TCNQ react with metals to produce anion radicals.
Cyanuric and Isocyanuric Acids
Authors: Wojtowicz John 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCyanuric acid has been known for over 200 years, but achieved commercial importance only in the mid‐1950s primarily via its derivatives. The chemistry of cyanuric acid is diversified because of multiple reaction sites.N‐Chlorination of cyanuric acid produces chloroisocyanurates that are widely used as disinfectants, sanitizers, and bleaches. The triallyl and tris(2‐hydroxyethyl) derivatives are employed as cross‐linking and curing agents, and tris(2,3‐epoxypropyl)isocyanurate is used in weather‐resistant powder coatings. Melamine cyanurate finds significant use as a fire retardant in plastics. Considerable interest has developed in the use of cyanuric acid for reduction of nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases from combustion of oil, gas, and coal.Nomenclature is based on the keto–enol tautomers. The trihydroxy form is variously designated cyanuric acid,s‐triazine‐2,4,6‐triol or 2,4,6‐trihydroxy‐s‐triazine. The trioxo structure, ors‐triazine‐2,4,6(1H,3H,5H)‐trione is the basis for the isocyanuric acid nomenclature. The triazine‐based system is preferred in the scientific literature and is used by government regulatory agencies; however, the less cumbersome (iso)cyanurate designations persist in commerce. The keto form normally predominates in cases of keto‐enol tautomerism. In alkaline solution, the anion formed is that of the hydroxy tautomer. Through common usage, both forms are collectively called cyanuric acid (CA).
Cyclohexanol and Cyclohexanone
Authors: Fisher William B. , VanPeppen Jan F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCyclohexanol is a colorless, viscous liquid with a camphoraceous odor. It is used chiefly as a chemical intermediate, a stabilizer, and a homogenizer for various soap and detergent emulsions, and as a solvent for lacquers and varnishes. Cyclohexanone is a colorless, mobile liquid with an odor suggestive of peppermint and acetone. It is used chiefly as a chemical intermediate and as a solvent for resins, lacquers, dyes, and insecticides.Both cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone are produced commercially by the catalytic oxidation of cyclohexane or the catalytic hydrogenation of phenol. Information presented includes physical properties; manufacture; reactions, derivatives, and uses; economic aspects; specifications and analysis; and health and safety factors.
Cyclopentadiene and Dicyclopentadiene
Authors: Cheung T. T. Peter 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCyclopentadiene and dicyclopentadiene, which occur as byproducts in the steam cracking process in ethylene plants, are the major ingredients in the production of hydrocarbon resins, unsaturated polyester resins, elastomers, pesticides, flame retardants and a host of specialty chemicals. The versatility of cyclopentadiene as the building block in so many chemicals stems from the high reactivity of its conjugated double bonds. They react readily with dienophiles, compounds with ethylenic or acetylenic unsaturation, to give Diels‐Alder adducts, with oxygen and halogen to give oxygenates and halide derivatives. Cyclopentadiene dimerizes readily, via the Diels‐Alder mechanism, to dicyclopentadiene at ambient conditions. The dimerization is highly exothermic. Because of its reactivity, cyclopentadiene is normally available only in the stable dimer form. Pure cyclopentadiene can be produced in‐situ by the thermal cracking of the dicyclopentadiene at a temperature near the normal boiling point of the dicyclopentadiene.
Dairy Substitutes
Authors: Harper W. James 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Dairy substitutes encompass a wide range of products and are manufactured by most food companies, utilizing fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and functional food additives including starches, gums, and emulsifiers. The specific requirements for individual ingredients is dependent on the type of product being manufactured and the processing methods employed. Substitutes are available for every common dairy food.
Products that have gained the largest markets are substitutes for butter and creams. Substitute evaporated milk and whole milk powders have become widely established in Far Eastern countries, where they can replace up to 80% of standard dairy foods. Much of the basis for the development of substitute dairy foods lies in the lower cost of vegetable fats compared to butter fat. In certain cases the substitute food products have largely replaced dairy products. This is particularly true for vegetable‐based spreads (such as oleomargarines and related products, whipped toppings, and coffee whiteners).
Casein, a milk protein, is widely used in many dairy substitutes. Imitation dairy foods that are considered to be important in human nutrition must be nutritionally equivalent to the dairy product that they imitate.
Defoamers
Authors: Owen Michael J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA review is presented of the materials used to control or eliminate foam in industrial processes and how they function. These materials are classified by their chemical type. Main active liquid‐phase components are hydrocarbon oils, polyethers, and silicone fluids; main solid‐phase components are waxy hydrocarbons and hydrophobic silica. Ancillary agents such as surfactants and carriers are also incorporated in some defoamer formulations. Sources of significant commercial defoamer products are listed. The theory of foaming and defoaming is outlined with emphasis on surface behavior such as entering, spreading, and dewetting phenomena. The role of dispersed hydrophobic solids is highlighted. Applications in various areas are briefly reviewed, including adhesives and sealants, chemical processing, cleaning compounds, construction, fermentation processes, fertilizers, food and beverages, leather, metal working, oil and petrochemicals, coatings, polymers, pulp and paper, textiles, and wastewater treatment. Economic and health and safety factors are considered. Test methods, such as pneumatic, dynamic, shaking, pour, stirring, and blending methods are also briefly reviewed.
Dentifrices
Authors: Pader Morton 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Dentifrices are compositions used in conjunction with a toothbrush to remove stains from teeth and to leave the mouth feeling clean and refreshed after toothbrushing. A dentifrice has little to do with the control of dental plaque by toothbrushing; the toothbrush plays the primary role. In recent years dentifrices have become vehicles for the delivery of agents to fulfill specific therapeutic and cosmetic functions. These agents include fluoride, to inhibit the incidence of dental caries; pyrophosphates and zinc salts, to inhibit tartar formation; antimicrobial agents, to reduce plaque accumulation; and potassium nitrate, to reduce dentinal hypersensitivity.
Toothpaste, the most popular form of dentifrice, contains an abrasive, a humectant system, a surfactant, one or more gums or resins for cohesiveness and structure, flavor, color, and agents for specific effects. Two types of dentifrice predominate. One contains a relatively low level of an amorphous hydrated silica abrasive and a high level of humectant; the other has a high level of abrasive and a low level of humectant. Dental rinses are adjunctive to toothbrushing with dentifrice, and are discussed briefly. Tooth whiteners are on the market.