bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Drugs Are Our Business
Authors: Herlihy Patricia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
By the 1890s, the perceived dimensions of the liquor problem demanded the ever closer attention of the medical profession, especially, but not exclusively, of psychiatrists. In 1897, the eminent professor of psychiatry I. A. Sikorskii called alcoholism “the disease of our century.” In 1913, Dr. D. P. Nikol’skii, a factory doctor, instructor of industrial hygiene at the Technological, Metallurgical, and Polytechnic Institutes, and a specialist in alcoholism among the youth, proclaimed that “alcoholism is the greatest social disaster, bringing with it economic destruction, physical degeneration, and moral and mental decline into the midst of the population.” He stressed that “alcohol is a poison, destroying the organism, acting de structively not only on those who drink but also on the descendants of drinkers.”
Tea and Symphony
Authors: Herlihy Patricia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As if to balance the large number of virtually unknown lay temperance leaders, perhaps the most famous writer in Russia, Count Leo Tolstoi, organized his own temperance society, the Union against Drunkenness (Soglasie protiv P’ianstva), in 1887. It preceded the establishment of the State Vodka Monopoly by eight years and the first large lay temperance society in St. Petersburg by three years. Significantly, the regime that would later subsidize the Guardianship of Public Sobriety refused to recognize his organization. The state’s interest in temperance came only with the introduction of the vodka monopoly in 1894.In 1896, nearly ten years after creating his own temperance society, Tolstoi was made an honorary member of the First Moscow Temperance Society, which was organized by laymen, but he was expelled after his excommunication by the Orthodox Church in 1901.
It is understandable that Tolstoi would take action to combat alcoholism: drunkenness for the philosopher was not simply one of a host of sins but the cardinal sin, the root of all evil, for without drunkenness violence and sins of the flesh would not occur.
Senior Apprentice and Assistant, 1830-1836
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Now Was Seventeen When he read John Frank Newton’s essay The Return to Nature: A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen. The argument convinced him that a vegetarian diet would reduce irritation of the intestines and promote personal health. Newton’s form of vegetarianism included a fastidious attention to drinking water, purifying it by distillation and testing its purity chemically. Newton’s essay convinced Snow that diet, pure water, and a healthy colon were essential to one’s well-being.
Newton wrote Return to Nature to popularize an “important discovery” by the physician William Lambe. Newton, a lawyer, believed that Lambe had shown that all medical and social problems result from “the dire effects on the human frame of animal food, cooperating with that baneful habit, the use of water, or of something more pernicious [fermented drinks], to allay the thirst which that food occasions.” When Newton shifted to a “regimen of distilled water and vegetable diet,” his chronic intestinal distress disappeared within two years. In gratitude he wrote Return to Nature to make Lambe’s hypothesis known to a wide audience.
Forging a London Career, 1838–1846
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In October 1838 John Snow “nailed up his colours” as a surgeon at 54 Frith Street, part of the parish of St. Anne-Soho, one of Victorian London’s most densely populated areas. A jumble of trades, shops, markets, offices, and residences, Snow’s new neighborhood was a mixture of the genteel and the humble, of family and industry. Once home to foreign aristocrats and Huguenot immigrants, this part of Soho was by the 1830s an area in flux. At its northern end was Soho Square, built around a central garden, with houses occupied by lawyers, dentists, architects, the publisher Routledge, and Crosse and Blackwell’s manufactory of condiments. At the northwestern edge of the square was the Soho Bazaar, a closed market originally established at the end of the Napoleonic Wars as a venue where the widows and daughters of army officers could rent stalls cheaply by the day to sell their handicraft, mainly jewelry, millinery, gloves, lace, and potted plants. Snow lived at the opposite end, near where Frith dead-ends into King Street.
Ether
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
On Saturday, 19 December 1846, a London dentist, James Robinson, demonstrated the use of ether for the first time on his side of the Atlantic. The demonstration occurred in the study of Dr. Francis Boott, an American living in London, who had learned of the new drug from friends in Boston. Sponges saturated with ether were placed in a glass vessel attached to an elastic tube and a mouthpiece. Robinson held this apparatus while Miss Lonsdale inhaled the gas and was rendered unconscious. Robinson quickly extracted a firmly fixed molar from her mouth and just as quickly she regained consciousness. The procedure had taken a scant three minutes. The patient had felt no pain and had not even moved a muscle.
On receiving his letters from America, Boott had also notified Robert Liston, professor of surgery at University College Hospital. Liston and his medical student assistant, William Squire, arrived after the dental surgery performed on Miss Lonsdale, and they observed Robinson administer ether with considerably less success to three or four other patients. Liston then consulted Peter Squire, William’s uncle, the queen’s pharmacist, at his shop in Oxford Street. After another unsuccessful trial of ether (from a cloth), Liston had Squire construct an inhaler from part of a Nooth’s apparatus, a device for carbonating water. This apparatus worked better.
Cholera and Metropolitan Water Supply
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Of All The Conveniences that the modern industrialized world takes for granted, the availability of free-flowing water in every kitchen and bathroom is surely one of the foremost. During Snow’s lifetime few in London were so fortunate. Many continued to haul water from a neighborhood pump, and those who had water piped to their residence frequently received it, albeit with intermittent flow, in cisterns or butts in a courtyard rather than inside. Nevertheless, a water supply directly to one’s house was a much desired commodity in London, and private companies had competed for the opportunity to provide it since the previous century. In 1817, however, this open market was replaced by a regional patchwork of monopolies within which a single company laid pipes. When water rates under this cartel system rose considerably, limited competition was reintroduced in the mid-1830s. In north London the Hampstead and New River water companies were permitted to lay pipes in the same streets and solicit customers. In south London the Lambeth and Kent water companies were given similar access to neighborhoods previously reserved for the South London Water Works. Elsewhere, the monopoly system remained in force.
Further Developments In Anesthesia
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
John Snow May Have Been The First physician to “specialize” in anesthesia. In principle if not always in practice, his approach mandated that anesthesia should be performed by a trained physician exclusively dedicated to its safe administration. A surgeon or dentist operating on a patient had too much to do to take on the responsibility of inducing, monitoring, and reviving the chloroformed or etherized patient. In the 1850s surgeons began performing longer and more complex procedures that could not have been done without anesthetics. Surgery without pain made surgery both more popular and more common. Procedures that were formerly an excruciating last resort—amputations, removal of tumors, abdominal surgery—were now offered and performed routinely and repeatedly. Snow worked frequently with William Fergusson, an early practitioner of conservative surgical interventions (such as excision of joints or removal of dead bone tissue) that would have been impossible without anesthesia. During a span of five Saturdays in the autumn of 1848, Snow gave chloroform four times to one little boy for repeated surgeries on an “un-united fracture” of the humerus requiring resection (CB, 22–26).
The Harameyin, the Caliphate, and the British Search for an Arab Caliph
Authors: Karpat Kemal H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After 1880 the Hicaz became crucial, both practically and symbolically, to Sultan Abdulhamid’s policy of integrating the Ottoman Muslims into a cohesive community and expanding his religious influence overseas. As the holy sites for the annual Muslim pilgrimage, Mecca and Medina (nineteenth-century neo-Sufism made the latter especially important) both became centers of indoctrination and legitimization of the sultan’s efforts to turn the caliphate into a de jure universal Ottoman Muslim institution. More efficient and less expensive transportation increased the number of pilgrims in the second half of the nineteenth century, while the availability of written information and more advanced education had enhanced the hacis’ intellectual development and political awareness. As a result, Abdulhamid now faced a new generation of politically awakening Muslims.
Ottomanism, Fatherland, and the “Turkishness” of the State
Authors: Karpat Kemal H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the era of modernization, the sultan and the Ottoman elites made use of both traditional and newly introduced concepts, institutions, and titles in order to recast the multiethnic and multilinguistic traditional Ottoman comity into a relatively homogeneous united political body. Usually referred to as “reform,” this effort was neither undertaken according to a well-defined plan nor carried out by an organization created specifically for the purpose but resulted from the belief that change was better than preserving the status quo. The Tanzimat reforms of 1839–56 created a momentum that led to a great expansion of their initial scope. After 1870, a small but constantly growing number of both modernist and Islamist intellectuals, educated mostly in the modern schools, expanded their interest beyond political institutions to the social, cultural, and philosophical aspects of society. Despite growing dispute about its nature, there was a basic agreement that change was inevitable and would have to include the acceptance of dünyevilik, or the worldly aspect of human and social life. The Hungarian Arminius Vambery, who had followed events in the Ottoman Empire for forty years, claimed that Ottoman society had changed in a very fundamental manner and achieved a high degree of progress toward diversity of thought, lifestyle, and patterns of organization.1 He failed to note that Ottoman change was not a predetermined, unilinear absorption of solely Western concepts but a multidimensional evolution that incorporated values and ideas of the traditional culture and history as well.
Introduction: April 19, 1995
Authors: Linenthal Edward T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This poem has haunted me since I began working in Oklahoma City in the spring of 1997. The powerful images of dark and lonely places and people clawing their way out of them capture well the mood of this book. When I first thought of writing about the bombing, it was in the familiar terms of a biography of memorial processes. Having written about changing interpretations of American battlefields, the making of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and the controversy over the ill-fated Enola Gay exhibition at the National Air and Space Museum, I envisioned a book in which I would tell the story of the creation of the Oklahoma City Murrah Federal Building Memorial Task Force-now the Oklahoma City National Memorial Foundation -and how it navigated the shoals of contending memorial visions in order to create a public memorial. That fascinating story is a part of this book.
“A Single Chord of Horror”: The Memorial Vocabulary of American Culture
Authors: Linenthal Edward T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Four days after the bombing, on April 23, 1995, a Canadian social worker wrote a note to “Friends” in Oklahoma City: “In the face of this tragedy we are not two or three. WE are twenty million Canadians and two hundred million Americans entwined into a single cord of horror, disbelief and resolve that this will not happen again.
Real People
Authors: West Elliott 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The attack came during breakfast. On a high bluff, a scout wheeled his horse in a tight circle while waving a blanket, the signal that an enemy was right on the Nez Perces. Almost immediately, the first cavalrymen were there. They came at a full gallop out of the south, the Bear’s Paw mountains behind them. In the “wild stir” that followed, Yellow Wolf (Hemene Moxmox) and several other warriors sprinted for the horse herd pastured on the far side of the camp from the attack, but soldiers and their Cheyenne scouts were soon there. Women and children, including Yellow Wolf’s mother, were with the horses when the cavalry charged, and he helped send them off to escape to the north, toward Canada— forty miles away. Back in the camp, other warriors stopped the cavalry’s charge, drove back a second attack, and dug in for a defense. It began to snow. After midnight, Yellow Wolf slipped between sentries and joined the besieged camp.
“Conquering by Kindness”
Authors: West Elliott 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Senate took four years to approve the treaty of 1863, and even when government agents took their place among the Nez Perces they at first were almost comically inept. A later investigation found that Idaho’s governor and superintendent of Indian affairs, Caleb Lyon, acted with “an ignorance unparalleled.” He once provided the Nez Perces with forty dozen pairs of elastic garters—but no stockings. In a public dressing-down in 1864, Lawyer said his support of Washington had left him humiliated: “I stand here . . . naked.”
Toward Buffalo Country
Authors: West Elliott 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Meanwhile, Howard was camped at the upper end of the Bitterroot valley, three days and a hundred miles behind. On August 6, when he was at some hot springs on the eastern side of Lolo Pass, a courier had arrived with Gibbon’s plan of pursuit and a request that Howard come ahead with cavalry support. Howard told his infantry to hurry along behind him, and during the next three days he and two hundred mounted men covered about seventy-five miles. “We live on hard bread, bacon and occasional potatoes, one wrote.” On the tenth, as Gibbon’s men were dug into their thirsty bench land staving off disaster, Howard cut loose with twenty of his best horses and seventeen Indian scouts and made fully fifty- three miles, camping over the divide at Ross Hole, less than twenty miles from the Big Hole.
That night, seven refugees from the battle stumbled in and reported that Gibbon was barely hanging on. Howard sent word for his cavalry to catch up quickly, then set off before dawn on August 11 to find Gibbon.
“The Best Skirmishers in the World”
Authors: West Elliott 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the sojourn in Yellowstone, telegraphic dispatches had kept the public informed, and there was a gathering confidence. A Montana editor found the situation “in the highest degree gratifying.” Sherman, “the lion in him roused,” had his quarry boxed into the high country: “We wait now hopefully for news that the Nez Perces have been struck hard and fatally.”
Under the Bear’s Paw
Authors: West Elliott 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Nez Perces were in no hurry to leave Snake Creek on the morning of September 30. During the night, Wottlen (Hair Combed Over Eyes) dreamed of being in this very camp, but now gloomed with battle smoke hanging dark and low and with the creek running red with the blood of his people and of soldiers. He awoke and walked among the sleeping families, then returned to dream again of smoke and blood, this time also with fallen leaves and withered flowers followed by springtime grass, sunshine, and peace. In the morning, he went about the camp call- ing out his dream to the people. Looking Glass scoffed, as he had with Shore Crossing’s and Lone Bird’s premonitions before the attack at the Big Hole. Build fires and give the children plenty of time for breakfast, he told the women. It was after eight o’clock before some families began to bring pack horses in from their pasture on a grassy plateau a few hundred yards to the west. Guards had been posted as usual to the south, but with any pursuers presumably days behind them, they felt no urgency. Some played cards.
Introduction
Authors: Angel Shlomo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Housing has lost its voice. Not because housing needs have been satisfied. They have not: the 1995 urban housing stock will need to double by 2030 [United Nations, 1998, 97]. Not because housing has become more affordable or easier to acquire, either. It has not: in both richer and poorer countries, housing now requires a larger, not a smaller, share of family incomes, and the very poor are expected to pay a greater share of their incomes for housing, a major cause for homelessness. Housing has simply squandered its voice on defective visions. The slum tenements of the poor were a potent symbol for revolutionaries—the most visible sign of the unjust society they wanted to destroy. The high-rise apartment block was the ultimate vision of modernity, the choice weapon of postwar utopian dreamers who believed they could impose order and design on the chaos and decadence of cities bursting at their seams. Public housing was the battle cry of paternalistic governments vowing to overpower monstrous housing deficits and dedicating themselves to providing decent housing for all those in need. For a while, sites-and-services mimicking the housing process of the poor were the rage at the World Bank, that, while committed to the development of housing markets unencumbered by government intervention, lent money to governments-and only to governments-for”public” projects. And now, atthe start of the new millennium, with the cooling of revolutionary fervor, the disillusion with urban utopias, the shrinking of government ambitions, and the miserable performance of a great number of projects, housing visions have been blurred and tired housing voices have fallen silent. Exasperated housing advocates have deserted the field in droves in search of more fashionable development alternatives, and reborn urban planners have found a new mission in the commitment to protect nature from the assaults of housing. And good riddance.
The Enabling Approach to Governing Housing
Authors: Angel Shlomo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the absence of a clear and accepted definition of what constitutes housing policy and who attends to it, we can only speak of the housing policy environment-the setof policies or government interventions that motivate, enable, and constrain housing action. We define the housing policy environment as follows: The housing policy environment is the set of government interventions that have a critical and measurable effect on the performance of the housing sector.
Housing Policy and the City
Authors: Angel Shlomo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There is no question that municipalities and local governments play a key role in the formulation and execution of housing policy, but this role is often glossed over or rendered invisible in the now-common perception-both in the housing literature and among policy-makers-that housing policy is a national concern and a national prerogative. This perception has been dominant in international forums, such as the United Nations and the World Bank, which, since their creation in the mid-twentieth century, have been held hostage by nation-states insisting on being the sole source of legitimate authority over their internal affairs, housing being one of them. In turn, the World Bank’s insistence on central-government guarantees of all its loans further reinforced this perception.
The Property Rights Regime
Authors: Angel Shlomo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The establishment of a regime of individual property rights in land and housing is the cornerstone of an enabling housing policy regime. The formal and informal rules governing property acquisition, sale, development, and use are of critical importance in creating predictable, vibrant, and efficient housing markets; adherence to these rules is what makes these markets work. In the absence of such rules, housing development is subjectto the whims of unpredictable political intervention. And intervention by decree, as we shall see, usually impedes and constrains housing sector performance.
The Housing Finance Regime
Authors: Angel Shlomo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The mortgage, which uses the house as collateral for fully securing a long-term loan, is an invention that has transformed housing beyond recognition, much as the internal combustion engine has transformed transportation. It originated with the self-help” terminating” building clubs in eighteenth century England,1 where participants pooled their savings to finance the house building of individual members. As the clubs grew and matured, they were gradually displaced by the more impersonal building societies, which could no longer rely on peer pressure to enforce compliance and needed the mortgage contract as a way of reducing lender’s risk. The growth of building societies provided increased financial resources for building complete houses and enabled borrowers to pay for houses over a long period of time. Housing producers could now operate with improved cash flow. As transactions grew in volume, the courts were called upon to enforce and secure these transactions through the legal sanction of foreclosure in the case of default. Governments acted to support the development of mortgage markets by promoting the establishment of financial institutions, by regulating them, by guaranteeing and insuring mortgages, and by providing numerous subsidies to home owners. Mortgage instruments were further modified to withstand inflation and financial liberalization, and secondary mortgage markets were created to increase the flow of long-term funds to the housing sector. As a further refinement, a new generation of policies to remove discrimination and other inequities created by the home mortgage system were adopted, directing mortgage credit to lower-income families. In a broad perspective, the evolution of housing finance can be viewed as an interplay of complementary and mutually supportive actions of the private sector and the public sector.
Residential Infrastructure
Authors: Angel Shlomo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Discussions of urban infrastructure do not generally look at it from the perspective of the housing sector, even though the housing sector is the primary consumer of infrastructure services. In industrialized countries, residential buildings typically constitute more than half of all non-infrastructure investment in con shuction, and occupies more than half of all developed urban land not in use for roads and highways. The efficient and equitable provision of residential infrastructure is, without doubt, an essential component of an enabling housing policy environment. In other words, the housing sector cannot function at an adequate, let alone optimal, level unless it is supported by an adequate supply of infrastructure services. Conversely, as we shall see, infrastructure services cannot be optimally produced and paid for if their symbiotic relations with the housing sector are ignored.