bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Visions of Empires, 1798-1801
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origins of the Persian Connection should not be sought in British fears that their Indian territories might have to be defended against overland invasion, even though the Connection was passed off on the board of control and the East India Company as a defence against Afghan, French, and even Russian plans to invade India. Like the subsidiary alliances made between the government of India and other Indian states, the treaty made by Captain John Malcolm on behalf of the government of India in 1801 was meant to lead to British control of the Qajar dynasty, its army, and its foreign relations. Its origins are to be found, therefore, in India rather than in the Middle East, in what admirers of the governor-general, Lord Wellesley, called his ‘extensive views’: ‘schemes so vast that they exceed the compass and reach of ordinary understandings’.
West against North-West, 1809-1810
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Persian connection reached its apogee in the five years after the signature of the preliminary treaty of Tehran, the nadir of Great Britain’s fortunes in the Napoleonic Wars the years of the Continental System and the Orders in Council. In I 8 ro it had its moment of highest comedy in an unseemly dispute between the government of India and the cabinet, known after its subject, Harford Jones, as the Harfordian Controversy. The dispute accompanied the exchange of a western strategy for the north-western strategy Minto borrowed from his former patron, Lord Grenville, and adapted to Indian conditions. Minto expected the rulers of Sind, the Punjab, and Afghanistan to copy the behaviour Grenville had expected of the Emperor and the tsar in the First and Second Coalitions. They should treat the enemy the British chose as a threat to all of them, and the rivalries between them as secondary to the need for joint action in the region, as well as the cause, the British had chosen. They should face west, not east.
Imperial Retreat, 1814-1822
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Marquis Wellesley’s attempt to use the Persian Connection to turn the tables on the East India Company for thwarting him in India was challenged, as he should have expected, as soon as his goal was revealed by the terms of the definitive treaty of Tehran. One cannot know whether, or how, Wellesley would have bothered to defend the treaty, for in the spring of 181, after a final moment of glory while he tried to form a government at the invitation of the prince regent and failed miserably, his career fizzled out into two terms as lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the 1820s and 1830s. Having undermined Spencer Perceval’s administration, partly by refusing to be bound by cabinet, partly by laziness, he fatally compromised his reputation by resigning on 16 January without explaining why, then allowing the speech he had written, but not made, to be published after Perceval’s assassination on 11 May. The Grand Lama, as Wellesley was known, was left out o(the earl of Livcrpool’s administration. The foreign office was offered to Viscount Castlereagh, who, in ten years of office until his suicide in r 822, broke decisively with long-established traditions in British foreign policy.
Shows of Strength, 1818-1823
Authors: Ingram Edward 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the foreign office Castlereagh was failing to persuade the Russians to treat Europe and the Middle East as one states system or to concede that Great Britain, as an Asiatic power, had as much right as Russia to influence in the Ottoman Empire and Persia. At the same time the government of India, following Lord Minto’s rule, was trying to separate the Middle East from India. A forward policy designed to protect trade in the Persian Gulf should not be jeopardized by Qajar claims to sovereignty. By 1822, however, the government of India was asking the question the foreign office would try to avoid answering for another ten years: what would happen if the Qajars, crossed by the British, turned to Russia for support? And if Russia did take up the issues left unresolved by the treaty of Bucharest in I 8 I2 and the treaty of Gulistan in I8I3, would the Qajars give way to Russia in Transcaucasia in return for compensation in areas in which Great Britain must bar their way?
Anglo-French Naval Rivalry 1840-1870
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the middle years of the nineteenth century, there seem to have been few places on the globe where British and French commercial, colonial, or religious interests could not clash; and thanks to the extent and flexibility of their sea power the two rivals were able to support these interests with naval force virtually wherever there was enough water to float a warship. The Crimean War brought the British and French navies, the most technologically advanced in the world, into alliance after many years of common hostility. It was a period of enormous technological innovation and development, witnessing the transition from sail to screw, and the birth of the ironclad. In this extensively researched and thorough study, C. I. Hamilton traces the technological development of both British and French navies and analyses the political and diplomatic policies which formed the backdrop to the naval history of the period 1840-1870. Dr Hamilton compares the two navies in a variety of important ways: their recruitment and training systems, dockyard facilities, naval administrations, strategy and tactics. His book makes a noteworthy contribution both to naval history and to our knowledge of Anglo-French relations in the nineteenth century.
Introduction
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Frenchman speaking around 1815 of une ennemie puissante et perfide or, even more obviously, une nation de boutiquiers, was clearly referring to only one state. And who can doubt who was being marked out when an Englishman of the same period spoke of ‘an ancient rival, envious and unscrupulous’, or ‘an immoral and fickle people’? After a long war, the two nations had much reason to think ill of each other, and the coming of peace did not entirely soften acerbities. British responsibility for the return to their original owners of some of the loot gathered by the French government during hostilities laid the foundation for the new and flourishing myth of hypocrisie anglaise. And the old British belief in the lightness and loose living of the folk across the Channel was soon to be reinforced by the ‘scrofulous French novels’ that Victorian society so liked to shock itself with.
Inheritance
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Born on 22 September 1411 Richard of York was early orphaned. His mother Anne, sister of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, died soon after his birth. His father, Richard earl of Cambridge, died on the scaffold at Southampton, the penalty for the failure of his plot against Henry V. The child’s future was precarious. The one great lord who had an interest in his prospects, his uncle, the childless Edward duke of York, fell at Agincourt, and in November 1415 Richard’s father was posthumously attainted. To the great credit of Henry V this act was in no way extended to the young and helpless heir. Henry’s motives can only be guessed, but Duke Edward’s death had somewhat redeemed the house of Yark, and there was no reason to suppose that the boy would not grow to be a useful peer of the realm. There was the further consideration that Cardinal Beaufort had an interest in the duchy estates. The 4-year-old Richard succeeded, therefore, to the duchy of York.
Piety And Charity In Late Medieval Florence
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book explores the relationship between the secular and sacred in late medieval Florence. The vehicle through which this theme is examined is the religious confraternity, one of the most popular and ubiquitous forms of lay association of late medieval Europe. Known variously as gild, fraternity, society, company, brotherhood, and school, the confraternity fused two areas of life which are frequently portrayed by historians as mutually exclusive, but which to contemporaries formed parts of a complementary whole, the spiritual and temporal. If the main functions of a confraternity may seem pious (to perform devout works in honour of a patron saint and provide spiritual insurance for members in the after-life), they also did much to foster social relations.
Introduction
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book explores the relationship between the secular and sacred in late medieval Florence. The vehicle through which this theme is examined is the religious confraternity, one of the most popular and ubiquitous forms of lay association of late medieval Europe. Known variously as gild, fraternity, society, company, brotherhood, and school,1 the confraternity fused two areas of life which are frequently portrayed by historians as mutually exclusive, but which to contemporaries formed parts of a complementary whole, the spiritual and temporal. If the main functions of a confraternity may seem pious (to perform devout works in honour of a patron saint and provide spiritual insurance for members in the after-life), they also did much to foster social relations.
Fraternity and Fraternities in Medieval Italy
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ubiquity of the fraternal model, as emphasized in the Introduction, underlines the fact that the late medieval Italian confraternity did not emerge out of a vacuum. Scattered references have survived to a number of congregationes and scholae of the tenth to twelfth centuries in cities such as Ivrea, Lucca, Modena, Ravenna, and Venice. These associations are often represented as exclusively pious in scope and condemned for moral laxity when contemporaries recorded members indulging in more secular pursuits, as in the case of the orgiastic meals of the Tuscan confraternity dedicated to S. Ilario. The Florentine grammarian Buoncompagno recorded in the early thirteenth century that when the rectors of this company presented the accounts at the end of their annual feast, one member stood up and said ‘Blessed is God who shall perform miracles for us and through us because nothing remains in the cashbox to cover the expenses, except for one copper (un solo asse)’.
Penitence and Penitents
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The popularization of voluntary flagellation through the foundation of confraternities has been linked by many historians of medieval Italy to the movement of 1260.1 But a spontaneous outburst of religious fervour does not in itself explain why a particular form of devotion should have been adopted either by the clergy or the laity. It does no more than reflect some of the themes of contemporary piety. One of the most important and relevant to the popularity of lay penitence was the emphasis on the incarnate life of Christ. This devotion helped to underline the central role of the mass in Christian practice, and in particular the significance of the celebration of the Eucharist as a visible reenactment of the Passion. In time, the recently introduced practice of the elevation of the host became the focal point of the ceremony; the laity frequently timed their arrival at church in order to ‘greet’ the body of the Saviour.
Charity in Fifteenth-Century Florence
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historians, following contemporary panegyrics, have depicted the Quattrocento as a golden age for Tuscan charity, inspired by a ‘new direction in Christian piety’. This growth in poor relief has been explained by the increased intervention of the commune and the expansion of charitable confraternities. The moral underpinning for the new ‘direction’ is seen as having stemmed from a combination of the civic humanism of the governing classes and the Observant reform movement of the friars. The leaders of Church and State are portrayed as having demonstrated a mutual concern for the health of the community, which led to a novel awareness of poverty as a social rather than a purely religious problem.
Latin Siege Warfare In The First Crusade
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some notable ingredients of the success of the First Crusade are manifest in that expedition’s siege warfare. Complex sieges were waged in circumstances made arduous by hostile field forces and limited logistical support. Not only did supply problems affect war materials, but on occasion the provisioning of foodstuffs especially to the indigent became an overriding concern. While these difficulties were inherent in the first mass movement of the Crusades, they were exacerbated by the crusaders’ ad hoc organization and occasional inability to agree on military and territorial objectives. Although these factors influenced many aspects of the armed pilgrimage, they brought particular complications to siege operations.
Birmingham to Leeds
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Chamberlain delivered his famous speech at Birmingham on l 5 May l 903, he instantly converted Tariff Reform, which had for a quarter of a century been smouldering in a Britain beginning to lose confidence in her economic strength and supremacy, into a fiercely burning political issue. The result was the first major debate on an economic issue since the battle over the Corn Laws, and the first electoral contest on an economic issue in the new age of mass democracy. In this it can be represented as the most significant single step in the transition towards a twentieth-century politics dominated by continual conflict over economic policy. The economics of the Tariff Reform question were inherently complicated, especially when compounded by the imperial considerations which were integral to the political debate. This worked heavily in favour of the Free Traders, who had the tremendous advantage of defending the status quo. Free Trade had become an institution defended at many levels. At the lowest, which counted most in electoral terms, the Free Traders could invoke the image of a Christian defence of the poor man’s loaf, a tactic as old as the Free Trade movement itself.
The Chambers of Commerce and Tariff Reform, 1903-1913
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys the trend of opinion on the fiscal issue in the chambers of commerce before the First World War, and gives a clearer picture of the factors which influenced the formation of Tariff-Reform sentiment over time than has been possible so far. Detailed treatment is necessarily restricted to a narrow range of sources covering nine Chambers, but references to other Chambers in those sources, and the piecing together of the story of Tariff Reform in the twice-yearly meetings of the Associated Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom (ACCUK), enables a wider perspective. The surviving evidence has its limits, particularly due to the fact that Chambers were not one-trade. Since votes were almost never ascribed to individuals, it is usually impossible to discern interest- or industry-alignments within each Chamber: the examples of Macclesfield and Bradford below are very much the exceptions. Chambers generally had a mixed membership, in which merchants and accountants could count alongside the representatives of large, nationally known firms. This weakness of the evidence would not be overcome by a wider survey of Chambers than has been attempted here. On the other hand, study of Chambers of Commerce does allow an insight into fiscal attitudes in those small- and medium-sized firms which, though so characteristic of British industrial structure, are prone to be overlooked.
Interpreting The East German Dictatorship
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Wednesday, 21 September 1961, Sieglinde M., a sixth-form pupil in Anklam, Neubrandenburg, came to school wearing a black pullover. For this, she was expelled from school and forced to ‘work in production’. Sieglinde M. was not alone. The entire class 12b came to school on that day wearing black. This was precisely the problem, as far as the East German political leadership was concerned. Most teachers chose to ignore this surprising display of uniformity. But in a break between classes, one teacher asked the reason why the class was dressed in black.
The Fragmentation Of Political Opposition
Authors: Fulbrook Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Opposition ‘in Eastern European societies is a complex phenomenon. It may mean many different things, depending on who is designating what views, for what purposes: the spectrum thus ranges from principled factionalism within ruling communist parties, through a variety of theoretical critiques from the sidelines, to outright rejection of the aims and methods of the system in its entirety. In examining the history of the GDR, it is important to bear several distinct questions in mind. What forms of political opposition were present, and what were the organizational and structural, as well as ideological, characteristics of different types of opposition? My analysis would suggest that patterns of organization were at least as important as ideas in determining the degrees of impact made by different forms of opposition: being ‘against the system’ might mean virtually nothing, if it was an isolated and easily suppressed expression of discontent. Moreover, in seeking to explain the failure of any form of opposition prior to I989, it is just as important to examine the responses of authorities as the forms and aims of opposition. Patterns of political reaction and repression by the regime were arguably equally important in influencing the outcomes of oppositional outbursts.
Did the Ancients have an Antiquity? The Idea of Renaissance in the History of Classical Art
Authors: Settis Salvatore 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Few passages in Western art literature can have been more influential than Pliny the Elder’s celebrated remark in his Natural History (xxx1v. 52): ‘Cessavit deinde ars, ac rursus Olympiade CLVI revixit’ [my emphasis]: (‘In the 121st Olympiad [i.e. 296-293 BC] art ceased to exist, to revive again in the 156th Olympiad [i.e. 156-153 BC]’). According to one current interpretation,1 Pliny points here to a period of stasis in the history of ancient art lasting 140 years, from about 296 to about 156 BC. Curiously enough, this is precisely the period in which the Pergamum school of sculpture flourished, which he nevertheless goes on to mention (xxx1v. 84).
Burckhardt Revisited from Social History
Authors: Cohn Samuel K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since publication of Jacob Burckhardt’s Civilization of the Renaissance, social historians have extended the boundaries of his ‘civilization’ to encompass social groups and interests that at best he subsumed with vague phrases such as ‘the faith of the people’.1 New avenues of research, perhaps most importantly the history of the family, have recently used but have qualified Burckhardt’s Renaissance, some fitting new findings into the old paradigm,2 others rejecting it altogether.3 The social historian might, however, go beyond a simple affirmation or negation of Burckhardt (which a psychohistorian would argue is the same thing4) to penetrate the categories of his generalizations, showing inconsistencies in the match between, say, individualism and modernity.
The Italian Renaissance Tale as History
Authors: Mar Tines Lauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Twenty years ago, coming from a historian, the title of this essay would have seemed odd indeed. Nowadays we live easily with the assumption that fiction and fictional modes have something to do with history. On the one hand, historians tell ‘stories’; they use narrative techniques; on the other, they deal with the stories of others, whether in state papers or private accounts. But wherever we find sustained historical testimony, there the resources of language—or of semiotic systems such as ritual—are being used not only to convey meaning but also to present a narrative structure.
Postscript
Authors: Scribner R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is often a moment in academic research when a territory that seems to have lain dry and un watered for many years suddenly receives a downpour of life bringing rain and blossoms into new life. The general field of this book, the image as historical evidence, is a good case in point. Few historians were interested in images in the 1970s and the soil was thought to be rather arid, yielding few returns of significance for any who chose to till it. During the 1980s, however, interest in the historical image flourished as never before as historians began to appreciate the value of images as historical sources, not least medievalists seeking to fill out a corpus of evidence that was often disconcertingly thin.
Overseas
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the end of the seventeenth century clubs and societies advanced across the English-speaking world, making their presence felt not just in the principal plantations of America and the Indies, but in remote islands and tiny British enclaves around the globe. The accelerating pace of change was identified in Figure 4.z in Chapter 4. As well as the numerous associations of the old and new empire, we find a small number in British expatriate communities in continental Europe. Under George Ill the club was the greater British ruling class at social prayer. By looking at the general dynamics, processes, and problems of diffusion, and focusing on the special complexities of the overseas experience, we can shed further light, in rum, on the core features and function of British voluntary associations in the early modem period.
Impact
Authors: Clark Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Clubs and societies were clearly among the most numerous, divots, and dynamic organization in la1e Georgian society. Challenged only by drinking houses and churches in their level of support, they flourished throughout the urban system, and came to occupy a central position in British social life.where as diaries of the late seventeenth century recorded largely traditional social activities, with only minor reference to clubs and societies, by 1 800 association meetings figure time and again in the pages of private journals. That of the American Samuel Curwen, who lived in London after 1775, shows him to have been a keen devotee of voluntary societies. Over two months, in February and March 1781, he took part almost twenty times in a society-related event, going to meetings of the SPG, the Je Ne Sais Quoi Club, and his great love, the masonic order, with it lodge nights and less formal gatherings of brethrtcn. Though he went in smart company to auction rooms, teams, coffee-houses, eating houses, and church, only private sociali7.ing, usually at home with fellow lodgers, surpassed his society commitments. Another London diarist, the artist Joseph f’arington, noted how luring the winter of 1793-4 he spent much of his time (apart from private socializing) at meetings of the Royal Academy, the Royal Academy Club, and the Society of Antiquaries. Particularly striking (as with Curwen) was the amount of time spent informally with other dub members, way from formal meetings, suggesting a wider, tipple effect across social life.