bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Magnetic Measurements Of Superconducting Magnets
Authors: Asner Fred M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of magnetic measurements coincides with the discovery of electromagnetism during the first half of the nineteenth century, notably of the laws related to electromagnetic induction by M. Faraday in 1831. If the measuring methods remained to a large extent unchanged, the measuring equipment has been steadily improved due to constant progress in new and better materials, precision mechanics, fast electronics, and computers. In this chapter we shall concentrate on high precision magnetic field (or induction) measurements of superconducting accelerator and large detector magnets, on the comparison of different measuring methods, and on the requirements the measuring equipment should satisfy. Error sources and their compensation will also be discussed. Although important to the magnet design, transient magnetic field measurements will not be dealt with.
Physics of Ferromagnetism
Authors: Chikazumi Sōshin , Graham, Jr C D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This textbook offers students and researchers an overview of the physical aspects of ferromagnetism. It emphasizes the explanations of physical concepts rather than rigorous theoretical treatments that require a more advanced background than is assumed here. The book includes recent developments and techniques in magnetics, and describes magnetic phenomena and engineering applications in magnetism.
Low-dimensional physics
Authors: Kelly M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce some of the key new physics principles that have dominated semiconductor physics research in the last two decades, namely the concepts associated with low-dimensional systems, i.e. systems that exhibit properties associated with less than three spatial dimensions. However, we start with an introduction to some of the length scales that are relevant to modem solid state physics. An appreciation of these length scales is an important prerequisite to a more detailed understanding of the new physics and when it is likely to apply in practice. Figure 4.1 shows, on a logarithmic scale extending over six orders of magnitude between 0.1 nm and 0.1 mm, an indication of lengths associated with a number of phenomena that occur in physics, technology, or everyday life.
Mesoscopic phenomena and Coulomb blockade
Authors: Kelly M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapters 6 and 11 we encountered structures in which there were very few free and mobile carriers. Certainly, the usual condition for statistical averaging, namely that the number N of particles satisfies 1 &lt; &lt; N &lt; &lt; N, is violated. In this chapter, we concentrate on the physics of few-carrier systems, assuming that the fabrication and measurement techniques are those already described. The physics contains a number of new aspects, and their investigation is far from complete. Many new effects appear undesirable in terms of eventual device applications, while others are being proposed as the basis for radically new device technologies. The term mesoscopic (meso=middle) has been introduced to describe those systems that are neither microscopic (one or a few atoms) nor macroscopic. In practice, we shall always be dealing with structures whose volume might be several tens of nanometres on each side, but which contain only a few carriers taking part in the relevant transport or optical processes. Until now, our discussion has concentrated on the wave . nature of electron transport behaviour and not on its charge nature. The capacitances encountered in these small structures are so small that the energy to charge a structure with even a single electron is such that e2!2C &gt; k T, and charge transfer into and out of the structure can be inhibited by this inequality, which is known as the Coulomb blockade.
Introduction
Authors: Ripka Georges 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The hadronic structure of the vacuum is governed by low-energy non-perturbative QCD and it determines the effective interactions of quarks, propagating in the vacuum. We have but scanty knowledge of the vacuum structure. We do, however, know the symmetries of the effective interactions, because they reflect the observed symmetries of the strong interactions (chapter 2). Symmetry is not sufficient to determine the effective quark interactions and additional assumptions are required to model them. Most of the effective interactions which have been used are inspired either by gluon exchange or by an assumed instanton structure of the vacuum. In some channels the two are similar but in other channels they differ significantly. They are described and compared in chapter 3.
Symmetry Conserving Approximations
Authors: Ripka Georges 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The one-loop approximation (7.34) of the effective action is but one of several symmetry conserving approximations. Other forms of symmetry conserving approximations exist which are briefly reviewed in this chapter. They were developed in the 1960s [101, 102]. For a review see [42]. Symmetry conserving approximations are conveniently be expressed in terms of Feynman graphs which have specific irreducibility properties. They proceed by expressing the partition function as a functional, either of the fields as in the effective action formalism, or of the quark propagators as explained in section 8.7. The self-energy of the quark propagator is then defined by the stationary point of the functional. When a symmetry of the action (typically chiral symmetry) is spontaneously broken by the self-energy, the correlation function acquires a pole at q2= 0 which corresponds to a zero mass Goldstone boson. Symmetry conserving approximations ensure that the existence of the Goldstone boson is maintained at any level of approximation.
Intrinsic Magnetic Properties
Authors: Franse J J M , Radwański R J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the intrinsic magnetic properties of iron-rich rare-earth intermetallics. We are concerned with rare-earth metals R where the magnetic properties of the ion cores are well defined; the 4f level lies deep below the Fermi energy, and hybridization with the conduction-band electron states is negligible. This situation is realized for most iron and cobalt-based compounds with 4f elements, with the exception of some Ce compounds that exhibit anomalies which can be ascribed to a mixed-valence state of the cerium atom. The emphasis here is on R2Fe14B compounds and on Nd2Fe14B in particular, although other RnTm series are discussed as well. The Nd2Fe14B family is rather extended. Isomorphous iron compounds exist for almost the whole rare-earth series, including Y and The, while isomorphous cobalt compounds exist for most of the light rare-earth elements and for Gd and Tb. Likewise, there are extended isomorphous series for rare-earth iron compounds with 2 : 17 and 1 : 12 structures.
Phase relations
Authors: Knoch K G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Metallurgical phase diagrams illustrate which phases coexist in equilibrium at a particular temperature and elemental composition. Knowledge of phase equilibria is important for an understanding of the processes taking place during casting, sintering and annealing of alloys for permanent magnets, and the resulting microstructures. Systems of most interest here are the binaries R-Fe, R = Pr, Nd or Sm, ternaries, especially Nd-Fe-B, and quaternary and higher systems where additional elements are incorporated in an effort to improve magnetic properties, corrosion resistance and processability.
Magnet processing
Authors: Harris I R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike their predecessors based on Sm-Co, the Nd-Fe-B alloys can be processed into permanent magnets by many different routes. The most important group of processing routes consists of variants of powder metallurgy, where monocrystalline powder with grains a few microns in size is oriented and sintered to yield a uniform, fine grain structure with a high degree of c-axis orientation, where each grain is isolated from its neighbours by Nd-rich grain boundary phases. Such a microstructure is necessary to achieve the greatest energy product for a particular magnet composition. A second group of processes yield polycrystalline powder or flakes composed of many submicron crystallites which are isotropic, or at best imperfectly oriented. Melt-spinning is used to make this material industrially, and it is particularly suitable for bonded magnets. A third type of process avoids the use of powders by hot-working cast ingots to achieve an appropriate microstructure with a high degree of c-axis orientation in relatively simple shapes such as arc segments.
Magnetomechanical devices
Authors: Yonnet J –P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The forces acting between permanent magnets are exploited in magnetic bearings, magnetic couplings and holding devices. For all these applications, the effects (force, torque) depend quadratically on the polarization of the magnet J. If a coupling is designed with SmCos magnets (J = 0.9 T), then replacing the magnets by Nd-Fe-B (J = 1.3 T), the torque is more than doubled. Magnetomechanical devices need high-polarization magnets. Moreover, these devices very often use repulsion forces between the magnets. The polarization must remain constant, even in a large reverse field. The coercive field must be high. Rare-earth iron permanent magnets are frequently the most suitable.
The diffraction of light
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diffraction as evidence of the wave nature of light-fundamental experimental facts. Grimaldi’s experiment. The Huygens principle. The Huygens-Fresnel principle. Fresnel’s diffraction integral. Fresnel zones. Graphical construction of diffraction patterns. Edge diffraction. The diffraction length of an optical beam. Near- and far-field zones of diffraction. The diffraction divergence of a beam in the far-field zone. The focusing of light as a diffraction phenomenon. Kirchhoff’s diffraction theory.
The analysis, transformation, and synthesis of optical fields
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The spectral description of the spatial structure of the field. The lens as an element performing Fourier’s spatial transformation. Optical image formation and Abbe’s theory. Porter’s experiments. The dark-field technique. The phase-contrast technique. The resolving power of a microscope and telescope. Holography: the recording and reconstruction of optical fields. The diffraction grating and the Fabry-Perot interferometer as spectroscopic instruments. Fourier spectroscopy. Light-beat spectroscopy.
Optics of anisotropic media
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anisotropic materials and the basic effects of crystal optics. The structure of an optical wave in an anisotropic crystal. The material equation of an anisotropic medium. Classification of crystals. The polarization eigenstates of an optical wave in an anisotropic crystal. Ordinary and extraordinary waves. Optical birefringence at the anisotropic medium boundary. The production and analysis of polarized light. The interference of polarized rays. Induced anisotropy.
Introduction
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is about the use of computers to solve problems in statistical physics. In particular, it is about Monte Carlo methods, which form the largest and most important class of numerical methods used for solving statistical physics problems. In this opening chapter of the book we look first at what we mean by statistical physics, giving a brief overview of the discipline we call statistical mechanics. Whole books have been written on statistical mechanics, and our synopsis takes only a few pages, so we must necessarily deal only with the very basics of the subject. We are assuming that these basics are actually already familiar to you, but writing them down here will give us a chance to bring back to mind some of the ideas that are most relevant to the study of Monte Carlo methods. In this chapter we also look at some of the difficulties associated with solving problems in statistical physics using a computer, and outline what Monte Carlo techniques are, and why they are useful. In the last section of the chapter, purely for fun, we give a brief synopsis of the history of computational physics and Monte Carlo methods.
Single crystal diffraction
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we consider nuclear Bragg scattering from single crystals and in the next chapter the same type of scattering from poly- crystalline materials. If the sample contains unpaired electrons, as in the elements of the first transition series with incomplete 3d electronic shells, then there is also magnetic scattering. We shall consider magnetic neutron diffraction in Chapter 9.
Dielectric description of cold plasma
Authors: Dendy R O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The macroscopic response of any medium to an applied electric field is determined by the sum of the microscopic responses of the individual particles that make up the medium. In a conducting medium, the macroscopic response is determined at a microscopic level by the separation between positive and negative charges that is produced by the applied electric field. If the applied field varies with time, so too will the microscopic state of the medium: the separation between the positive and negative charges will change with time, as will the electric field that is produced by their separation. Thus, particle currents and displacement currents are produced.
Kinetic description of plasma
Authors: Dendy R O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let us first look back at the different approaches that we have used for describing plasmas. After emphasizing the collective nature of plasma behaviour in Chapter 1, we considered the dynamics of single particles in Chapter 2. In order to achieve a collective description, we needed to sum the effects of single-particle dynamics for all the particles in the plasma. This summation was carried out in a simplistic, but nevertheless successful, way at eqn (3.21). By considering the current created by the sum of the individual electron velocities, we constructed the dielectric tensor of the plasma. This tensor was then employed in Maxwell's equations to yield the normal modes of the plasma. By including the contribution of the ions, this approach was extended to low frequencies.
Undulators and Free-electron Lasers
Authors: Luchini P , Motz H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a reference text for all those working in free-electron laser research as well as being a learning aid for physicists and graduate students who wish an introduction to this field. Only a basic understanding of relativistic mechanics and electromagnetism is presupposed. After an overview of early developments and general principles of operation, the different models that can be used to describe free-electron lasers are presented, organized according to their range of applicability. The relevent conceptual and mathematical constructs are built up from first principles with attention to obtaining the practically important results in a simple but rigorous way. Interaction of the undulator with the driving electron accelerator and the laser cavity and design of undulator magnets are treated and an overview is given of some typical experiments.
Introduction
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last 10 years have witnessed a remarkable development in the physics of disordered systems and, although the field is still in the process of rapid growth, it is worthwhile giving a theoretical overview of the field. In this book we have tried to describe what makes the physics of disordered systems so special in the realm of solid-state physics.
Cluster Calculations For Interacting Electron Systems
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To examine the interplay between disorder and electron-electron interactions, we can either formulate an approximate theory for infinite systems or perform a numerical simulation for finite systems. The advantage of the latter approach is that the method, although limited to systems of small sizes, can be derived from first principles. From this viewpoint, a computer simulation has been performed by Takemori and Kamimura (1983a,b) for finite clusters of donors. The calculation is performed for clusters, each of which contains six donors located randomly in space, with electron-electron interactions taken fully into account. The calculation for each donor concentration is carried out for an ensemble of samples with different geometrical configurations of donors. Although the cluster size is quite small, this does not cause serious limitations because, for the concentrations considered here, the localization length is of the order of the average donor separation and does not exceed the sample diameter. By examining electron configurations and wavefunctions, the validity of the picture presented in Chapter 4 can be confirmed. The electronic specific heat and spin susceptibility have also been obtained for comparison with the experimental results for Si: P.
Renormalization Approach For Disordered Electron Systems
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen that disordered systems give rise to a host of interesting effects related to the localization of states. Thus, from the outset we have explicitly to take account of the localization in the theoretical framework, which makes computer experiments on finite systems an important first-principles method. This situation immediately poses several essential questions, such as: (i) how can the properties of macroscopic systems be deduced from the results for finite systems; and (ii) how can the concept of Anderson localization be extended to disordered systems with electron-electron interactions in a numerical model in which disorder and electron correlation are treated on an equal footing? In this chapter we address these questions. In this section we introduce the concept of renormalization for disordered systems. Specifically, we examine real-space renormalization schemes.
Cholesterics
Authors: Gennes P G De , Prost J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The helical arrangement characteristic of the cholesteric phase has been presented in Chapter 1. In this ideal state the director n(r) varies in space according to the law where we have taken the helical axis along z. A cholesteric single crystal, described by eqns (6.1) and (6.2), can often be obtained in thin slabs (thickness d in the 100 µm range) provided that the boundary conditions on both sides of the slab are tangential. The configuration is represented in Fig. 6.1; it is usually called the ‘planar texture’ or ‘Grandjean texture’. Typical examples include the following.
Introduction And Relationships Of The Group
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are quite a few in the solid-state community who would call all those performing electronic structure calculations ‘quantum engineers’. On the other hand, there are also many who claim that, with the arrival of the age of fast computers, the traditional structure of solid-state physics has changed substantially. They claim that 'computational physics' nowadays is an increasingly important part of solid-state physics. Irrespective of whether one uses the expression ‘quantum engineering’ or ‘computational physics', there is no doubt that the emphasis of theoretical investigations concerning electronic properties of solid matter has shifted considerably towards direct calculations of physical observables and problems of materials science. Although perhaps ab initio calculations of phase diagrams in a routine manner are yet to come, the incorporation of surfaces, non-stoichiometry, and disorder is no longer a severe computational obstacle.
Resolvents And Green Functions
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the basic properties of resolvents and of Green functions are briefly reviewed. These properties are the formal basis of scattering theory to be discussed in the following chapters. Since no use will be made of time-dependent schemes later on, only time-independent (stationary) properties are considered here. For a treatment of timedependent schemes the reader is referred to Economou (1979) or Taylor (1972).
Spectral Densities
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous two chapters were devoted entirely to the concept of multiple scattering, the concept of structure constants, and approximations dealing with the problem of disorder. Since the same formal language was used for both ordered and disordered systems, it is now comparatively easy to discuss spectral densities quite generally. A spectral density is defined in terms of the imaginary part of a representation of a given resolvent. The configuration space representation of the resolvent of the (one-electron) Hamiltonian (see also Chapter 4), for example, yields the (second-order) Dirac density matrix γ(r, r′, ϵ).
Some Illustrations
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will illustrate the various theoretical concepts discussed in the previous three chapters. Here, results mostly for disordered systems will be presented. mainly because over the past two decades the solid state community has become very familiar with bands, densities of states, charge density contour maps, etc. for ordered systems. whereas the special features of disordered systems are perhaps not so well known.
Magnetic Structures
Authors: Jensen Jens , Mackintosh Allan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mean-field theory introduced in the previous section is used in this chapter as a basis for examining some of the magnetic structures assumed by the rare earth metals. The theory is presented at length in the first section. Beginning with the expression for the free energy, some general results are established for the magnetization, and applied analytically to the calculation of the susceptibility in the high-temperature limit. The mean-field approximation is then developed, and a numerical method for solving the resulting equations self-consistently, for magnetic structures which are commensurable with the lattice, is described. The Landau expansion of the free energy in terms of the order parameters of the magnetic system provides the starting point for a discussion of a number of the periodic magnetic structures which arise as a result of the long range of the indirect-exchange interaction. The ordering temperatures are calculated by analytical means, and the relative stability of different structures compared. In the following section, the important extension by Callen and Callen of the Zener power-law for the temperature dependence of the magnetic anisotropy is derived.
Linear Response Theory
Authors: Jensen Jens , Mackintosh Allan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to a concise presentation of linear response theory, which provides a general framework for analysing the dynamical properties of a condensed-matter system close to thermal equilibrium. The dynamical processes may either be spontaneous fluctuations, or due to external perturbations, and these two kinds of phenomena are interrelated. Accounts of linear response theory may be found in many books, for example, des Cloizeaux (1968), Marshall and Lovesey (1971), and Lovesey (1986), but because of its importance in our treatment of magnetic excitations in rare earth systems and their detection by inelastic neutron scattering, the theory is presented below in adequate detail to form a basis for our later discussion.