bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evolution of Altruism in Optional and Compulsory Games (1995)
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contemporary biological discussions of the evolution of altruism define altruistic behavior as that which increases the fitness of another animal at a cost in fitness to the animal engaging in the behavior. In the past decades, study of the evolution of genetic dispositions to altruistic behavior in this sense has been advanced by considering two special instances: (i) cases in which the animal’s own reproductive losses are made up through increases in the reproductive successes of kin, and (ii) cases in which the short-term losses of altruistic actions are made up through a system of reciprocation. Separating these instances is heuristically helpful, but artificial, since it is possible that interactions with relatives might involve short-term fitness losses that are made up through contributions from both sources.
National Environmental Performance Measurement and Determinants
Authors: Esty Daniel C , Porter Michael E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Environmental performance, encompassing the control of pollution and stewardship of natural resources, is of growing concern in both advanced and developing economies. Environmental quality plays a major role in quality of life, with a direct impact on the health and safety of a nation’s citizens as well as its attractiveness as a place to live. Many governments work hard to address environmental issues, but public expectations often outstrip results. As a result, pollution control and natural resource management have increasingly become core governmental challenges.
Under The Banyan Tree
Authors: Segal Sheldon J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this concise, understandable and hard-hitting analysis of human affairs affected by population growth, Sheldon Segal lays out the problems and suggests the solutions. In topics ranging from global food supply, to environmental problems, to urbanization, he gives us his take on the importance of moving a society from high fertility to low fertility. By using the Banyan Tree as a metaphor for nature’s classroom, often the only schoolroom in impoverished rural villages, Segal highlights the role of education in uplifting women and reducing the birth rate. In the near future the world will require food for 3 billion more people - the major proportion of this population increase occurring in societies with current existing high levels of malnutrition. Dr Segal traces the evolution of the population movement from an emphasis on demographic issues to the pre-eminence of women’s health and empowerment. The book includes an authoritative analysis of the biology of human reproduction and contraception, including the potential for new contraceptive methods for both women and men. Segal urges a coaliltion of concerned leadership in the field, reminding us that we face real antagnosists who are zealous opponents of population policy. Laced with entertaining anecdotes and eyewitness descriptions of key events of the last half of the 20th century, this is a remarkable account of the global transition to lower fertility, told by someone who has been both a participant and an observer in this historic epoch.
The Future of Feminist Liberalism 1
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Giribala, at the age of fourteen, then started off to make her home with her husband. Her mother put into a bundle the pots and pans that she would be needing. Watching her doing that, Aulchand remarked, “Put in some rice and lentils too. I’ve got a job at the house of the babu. Must report to work the moment I get back . . . “ Giribala picked up the bundle of rice, lentils, and cooking oil and left her village, walking a few steps behind him. He walked ahead, and from time to time asked her to walk faster, as the afternoon was starting to fade.
The Scope of Moral Requirement
Authors: Herman Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of this article is the duty of beneficence: the obligation we have to promote one another’s good. It is generally agreed that there is a duty of easy rescue; we are required to provide aid when that will prevent or relieve dire conditions for someone, when the cost to us is slight or moderate. And also that there is a companion duty of consideration or helpfulness, a requirement that we “lend a hand” to persons whose permissible activities or projects would founder without some small help we might easily provide.
Killing in the Heat of Passion
Authors: Baron Marcia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The supposition that, other things being equal, the “cooler” the homicide, the more culpable the killer, is well entrenched in the law. As Justice Powell observed in Mullaney v. Wilbur, “heat of passion ‘has been, almost from the inception of the common law of homicide, the single most important factor in determining the degree of culpability attaching to an unlawful homicide.’” Nonetheless, the defense is the subject of vigorous debate among legal scholars. Somewhat surprisingly, it has caught the attention of only a few philosophers.
A Defense of Skepticism
Authors: Unger Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Skepticism that I will defend is a negative thesis concerning what we know. I happily accept the fact that there is much that many of us correctly and reasonably believe, but much more than that is needed for us to know even a fair amount. Here I will not argue that nobody knows anything about anything, though that would be quite consistent with the skeptical thesis for which I will argue. The somewhat less radical thesis which I will defend is this one: every human being knows, at best, hardly anything to be so. More specifically, I will argue that hardly anyone knows that 45 and 56 are equal to 101, if anyone at all. On this skeptical thesis, no one will know the thesis to be true. But this is all right. For I only want to argue that it may be reasonable for us to suppose the thesis to be true, not that we should ever know it to be true.
Toward a Psychology of Common Sense
Authors: Unger Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though the Eleatics tried to do so, it is extremely hard to speak effectively against our beliefs, or apparent beliefs, that there are stones, that there are chairs and tables, that there is wood and water, and that there are cats and dogs. Let’s say that beliefs in such things as these, in their existence, are existence beliefs as to ordinary entities. Then, like Parmenides and Zeno well before me, I too have endeavored to argue against existence beliefs as to ordinary entities. But, in almost any context, it is hard even for me to find such arguments convincing. Why is this? While it is not very illuminating to say so, the cause of my resistance to these negative efforts may be summed up like this: Supposing that there are people with beliefs, these existence beliefs as to ordinary entities are among my most basic beliefs. They are, it appears, extremely powerful beliefs; they are quite firm, persistent, confidently held, and influential upon the ebb and flow of our other beliefs and attitudes.
Contextual Analysis in Ethics
Authors: Unger Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When assessed by an appropriate ethical standard, most of us usually behave quite acceptably. Or, so we generally judge. And, when assessed by an appropriate epistemological standard, most of us usually do quite well, too: First, we know many things about the world and, second, we’re usually justified in holding those of our confident beliefs that aren’t quite instances of knowledge. Or, again, so we generally judge. As we generally judge, then, both in our behaving and in our believing, things are usually quite acceptable.
A Footnote to “Plato”
Authors: Sorensen Roy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most philosophers think that a paradox involves an argument that moves from acceptable premises to an unacceptable conclusion via acceptable reasoning. I have already objected that this definition is too narrow; it precludes the perceptual paradoxes of chapter one and the meaningless paradoxes of chapter three. I now want to criticize this reigning view as also being too broad.
Augustine’s Pragmatic Paradoxes
Authors: Sorensen Roy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I cannot start this chapter. This opening sentence is undermined by my very act of writing it. Yet my opening sentence describes a possible state of affairs. Pragmatic paradoxes are contingent sentences that behave like contradictions or tautologies. In Aristophanes’s The Clouds, the debt-ridden Strepsiades swears that after Sokrates teaches him enough sophistry to evade creditors, Strepsiades will pay him a huge fee. Strepsiades’ promise to pay for knowledge of how to break his promises resembles a contradiction, but it is not a logical falsehood like “Someone promised something and no one promised anything.” After all, Strepsiades could keep his promise if Sokrates is trusting enough to accept a self-undermining assurance. Pragmatic paradoxes were common in Greek comedies. Greek orators used them as rhetorical devices. But Greek philosophers did not take pragmatic paradoxes seriously.
Leibniz’s Principle of Sufficient Reason
Authors: Sorensen Roy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Pascal, we are wise enough to appreciate our contradictions but not wise enough to resolve them. He winds up using probability calculations as a ladder to heaven—a ladder that is kicked away after religious conversion. The philosophers in these next three chapters are more optimistic about our ability to solve the paradoxes. Their basic strategy is conservative. Each identifies some successful area of human thought and holds it up as a model of how we ought to think. Paradoxes are diagnosed as failures to absorb the lessons the model tacitly demonstrates. For rationalists, the model is mathematics and logic. The traditional problem with this model is application. How can lofty a priori reasoning instruct us about the nitty-gritty empirical world? This gap was widened by increasing reluctance to view the world of the senses as having a lesser degree of reality than the world of triangles and frictionless planes.
The Common Sense of Thomas Reid
Authors: Sorensen Roy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
War and civil unrest became increasingly prominent in European consciousness after the Protestant Reformation. Paradoxes became described in militaristic terms. Rationalists defended themselves from atop a citadel of mathematics and pure reason. The empiricists retreated to the growing fortress of physics. Thomas Reid takes the battle out to the plains of common sense. Reid prefaces his Inquiry into the Human Mind: On the Principles of Common Sense by remarking, that I never thought of calling into question the principles commonly received with regard to the human understanding, until the “Treatise of Human Nature” was published in the year 1739. The ingenious author of that treatise upon the principles of Locke—who is not sceptic—hath built a system of scepticism, which leaves no ground to believe any one thing rather than its Ironically, Sextus’s survey of sites slated for demolition is much responsible for their preservation. Like the other accidental historian of ancient philosophy, Diogenes Laertius, Sextus’s works were widely and persistently circulated because he had a flair for paradoxes.
The Concept of Heed
Authors: Graham George , Valentine Elizabeth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Do the words and expressions that the subject uses when he makes his introspective report refer to internal events going on inside him? If they do, it is difficult to see why we should not use the subject’s statements in order to formulate and verify hypotheses about such processes. If they do not, it is difficult to see what reason we should have for believing in the existence of the sort of events that are described in the textbooks of introspective psychology. If, as is suggested in this paper, some of them do and some do not, it becomes extremely important for the psychologist to be able to discriminate between the two cases.
Token-versus Type-Identity Physicalism
Authors: Graham George , Valentine Elizabeth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to think clearly in philosophy one must constantly bear in mind the distinction between talking de re about the things themselves and talking de dicto about the language we use to talk about them. Thinking in terms of the symbol­ ism of formal logic can often lead us astray in this respect. An example where formal logic leads us to treat what is really de re as de dicto is the widespread assumption that all conditionals including causal counterfactuals are to be analyzed according to the formula ‘If p then q.’ The effect of this is to convert what is in fact a specification of the de re conditions governing the occurrence of an event or the existence of a state of affairs into what Ryle (1949) calls an “inference licence” or “inference ticket” that talks de dicto about the conditions under which one statement or proposition q can be inferred, namely, if another statement or proposition p is true.
The Two-Factor Theory of the Mind-Brain Relation
Authors: Graham George , Valentine Elizabeth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a recent article (1999b) I criticized Ryle’s failure, acknowledged in his Dilemmas (Ryle 1954), to develop an adequate account of the notion of a “category” in the following paragraph: Ryle’s failure to sharpen up the notion of “a category” is unfortunate for two reasons. Firstly, because he needs to rebut the claim made by Descartes and his followers that the distinction between the mental and the physical, between the res cogitans and the res extensa, is a distinction of category, using the term “category” in its Aristotelian sense in which a category is the kind of thing you end up with if you go on asking the question “And what kind of a thing is that?” and of which the category of substance (oucria) is the prime example. Secondly, because the distinction he himself draws be­ tween “disposition verbs,” “activity verbs” and “achievement verbs” corresponds to the· distinction between states of affairs of which dispositions are an instance and which persist unchanged over a period of time, processes which are extended over time with continuous change and instantaneous events (stops and starts) whereby one state or process ends and another begins, which occur at moments of time, but are not extended over time. Not only do these groupings have a much better claim to be de­ scribed as “categories” than do the mental and the physical, it is evident that the distinction between these three basic categories can be drawn on either side of the mental/physical divide. That means, if I am not mistaken, that if they are categories, “the mental” and “the physical” are not.
On the Social Relativity of Truth and the Analytic/Synthetic Distinction
Authors: Graham George , Valentine Elizabeth R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The issue that I shall be addressing in this paper is a philosophical puzzle that confronts and is extensively discussed by specialists in such disciplines as the history of ideas, the history of science, the sociology of knowledge, and the sociology of science, but which with one or two honorable exceptions has tended to be neglected by professional philosophers. The puzzle is generated by a peculiarity of the verb ‘to know,’ which has been familiar to philosophers ever since it was first pointed out by Plato in the Theaitetus. If I say of some other person­ let us call him Baralipton-that “Baralipton knows that p,’’ I thereby commit my­ self to asserting the truth of the proposition to the truth of which I am claiming that Baralipton is committed. If I want to avoid that commitment to the truth of the proposition I am attributing to a third party, I have to say, in the case where I am uncertain as to whether p is true or false, that Baralipton thinks or believes that p or, where in my view p is false, that Baralipton thinks or believes that he knows that p but he doesn’t.
First-Rate Second-Class Composer
Authors: Steinberg Michael , Rothe Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
More than most music lovers, I suppose, I’m inclined to think of Johannes Brahms and Richard Strauss in the same breath. This is probably because, just as my father was born roughly three months before the death of Brahms, in 1897, I was born three months before the death of Strauss, in 1949. That is nothing more than obscure coincidence, but it makes a convenient place to begin talking about Strauss.
Stravinsky’s Ear-stretching, Joy-giving Legacy
Authors: Steinberg Michael , Rothe Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first time I heard Stravinsky’s name was when I was eleven or twelve and saw Fantasia, the original, good 1940 version. (I say more about that in “How I Fell in Love with Music,” beginning on page 3.) I had no context, no awareness of what else he had composed or what it sounded like, and of course no idea that what Stokowski served up in that film was far removed from The Rite of Spring as Stravinsky had written it. I was both excited and puzzled by this music, which was so unlike any I had ever heard before. I spoke about it to my mother, who, like a lot of intellectual and artistic types, disapproved of Fantasia without having seen it, but she did recall that some time in the 1920s Furtwängler and the Berlin Philharmonic had brought the Firebird Suite to Breslau, where my parents lived, and how adventurous that had made them feel. My own first encounter with Stravinsky’s music in the dingy Cosmopolitan Theater in Cambridge, England, was the start of a lifelong love affair.
A Quintet for American Music
Authors: Steinberg Michael , Rothe Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writing a program note on William Schuman’s Violin Concerto for some concerts in November 1992, I had, for the first time, to include the date of his death, 15 February 1992. That brought to mind other recent losses—Virgil Thomson, Leonard Bernstein, Aaron Copland, John Cage. They were all more than just composers. All were possessed by a lust, through some form of teaching, to change the face of American music, and they all left a mark. And they were, all five—this is dangerous because so hard to define—so essentially American.
Loving Memories of Movie Music
Authors: Steinberg Michael , Rothe Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Had it not been for a movie, I might have had to wait another ten years before I knew how completely the sound of an orchestra can immobilize everything in your life but the present moment. The movie was The Seven Wonders of the World, the third in that series of Cinerama epic travelogues made during the 1950s. Cinerama, if you don’t recall, was the ultimate wide-screen process, and some film buffs maintain that it has not been equaled. This was the original moviegoing experience, one that promised to give viewers a genuine sense of reality. The Cinerama camera was loaded with three synchronized film magazines positioned side-by-side, in an arc. When the images captured by this trio were put together—cast by three synchronized projectors on a huge curved screen—the resulting panoramic montage duplicated the arc of human vision. Cinerama promised to put “you” in the middle of the action, and when the unwieldy camera was perched in a car on a Coney Island roller coaster or at the head of a rubber raft finding its way through the rapids of the Indus River, Cinerama delivered. A big part of the successful duping of the eye was the way Cinerama duped the ear. Seven channels of sound, fed through speakers distributed behind the screen and throughout the theater, created a sonic image as realistic as the picture.
Why We are Here
Authors: Steinberg Michael , Rothe Larry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is now more than twenty years since I came across an article in the Sunday paper on how the rock generation of the 1960s and 1970s, approaching middle age, was turning into “the pop cultural establishment.” It discussed such phenomena as Paul Simon’s album Hearts and Bones and Linda Ronstadt’s What’s New, her recording of pre-rock standards such as “Someone to Watch over Me”—and that does seem to be something aging stars do, record songs that have aged better than they have. Of Hearts and Bones, the writer noted that it was “marketed as a pop record, but . . . in its sophistication is more like a collection of art songs.” I bought Hearts and Bones, listened to it, and found it quite engaging but not a bit like Winterreise or Winter Words.
As Stravinsky once remarked in another context—and with no intent of denigration—it is a different fraternity. I intend no denigration either, but I do want to make a distinction. The music we are involved with in the concert hall, that music we have never managed to agree on a name for, neither “classical” nor “serious” serving quite convincingly, but the music responsible for bringing us by such diverse paths into concert halls and to read books like this one—in sum, Why We Are Here—this music has aspirations beyond those of Hearts and Bones.
The Evolution of Ethnic Markers
Authors: Boyd Robert , Richerson Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of the debate about human sociobiology has been framed as a binary opposition. Sociobiologists argue that evolutionary theory is useful for understanding humans because much of our behavior is currently adaptive, or was adaptive under food-foraging conditions. To be sure, they aver, culture occasionally causes human behavior to drift away from the fitness-maximizing optimum, but in the long run behaviors that have important effects on Darwinian fitness should tend to be adaptive. Critics of this view argue that the existence of culture has allowed the human species to transcend ordinary evolutionary imperatives. Culturally transmitted behavior must not be so maladaptive as to lead to the extinction of the social group, but as long as this rather weak constraint is satisfied, it is argued, people are free to elaborate their culture more or less as they please.
Was Agriculture Impossible during the Pleistocene but Mandatory during the Holocene? A Climate Change Hypothesis With Robert L. Bettinger
Authors: Boyd Robert , Richerson Peter J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Evolutionary thinkers have long been fascinated by the origin of agriculture. Darwin (1874) declined to speculate on agricultural origins, but twentieth-century scholars were bolder. The Soviet agronomist Nikolai Vavilov, the American geographer Carl O. Sauer, and the British archaeologist V. Gordon Childe wrote influential books and articles on the origin of agriculture in the 1920s and 1930s (see Flannery, 1973, and MacNeish, 1991:4–19, for the intellectual history of the origin of agriculture question). These explorations were necessarily speculative and vague but stimulated interest in the question.
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Authors: Mendelson Carole R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The capacity of a cell to respond to a particular hormone depends on the presence of cellular receptors specific for that hormone. After binding hormone, the receptor is biochemically and structurally altered, resulting in its activation; the activated receptor then mediates all of the actions of the hormone on the cell. The steroid and thyroid hormones as well as retinoids and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 diffuse freely through the lipophilic plasma membrane of the cell and interact with receptors that are primarily within the nucleus. On activation, the receptors alter the transcription of specific genes, resulting in changes in the levels of specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs), which are in tum translated into proteins. Hormones that are water soluble, such as the peptide and polypeptide hormones, catecholamines, and other neurotransmitters, as well as the relatively hydrophobic prostaglandins, interact with receptors in the plasma membrane. After hormone binding, the activated membrane receptors initiate signal transduction cascades that result in changes in enzyme activities and alterations in gene expression.