bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reconceptualizing Democratization: Access to Power Versus Exercise of Power
Authors: Mazzuca Sebastián L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most democracies are ‘low-quality democracies’. Such is the diagnosis commonly offered in the literature on the quality of democracy. The most prominent symptoms of the alleged deficit in democratic quality are corruption, government by executive decree, clientelism, and ineffective checks and balances. And, according to this analysis, most democracies in Latin America display more than one of these symptoms, several democracies embody the full syndrome of symptoms, and democratic quality is confined to small countries like Costa Rica, Chile, and Uruguay. Indeed, the standard analysis goes something like this.
The mechanics of credit scoring
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our first two chapters focused on: (i) the use of credit scoring within the business; and (ii) the history of credit, credit bureaux, credit rating agencies, and credit scoring. Ultimately, credit scoring is used to aid decision-making, but is often more associated with the statistical techniques and processes used to develop the scorecards. This next chapter delves more into the latter, and provides an overview of topics covered in subsequent modules. The primary goal is to familiarise the reader with terminology used in the rest of the book, skipping over the detail where possible.
Segmentation
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Segmentation is something usually associated with marketing, where companies adjust the marketing mix to improve the appeal to different groups of customers. Similar concepts are used in credit, but not always for the same reasons. At this point, it is assumed that the purpose of the scorecard (risk, response, revenue, or retention) and the objective (default, bankruptcy) is known. Most of the concepts are common, but to aid understanding this section focuses on credit risk assessment and default prediction, where segmentation’s primary goals are to: (i) improve the assessment; and (ii) ensure an appropriate product offering, in terms of loan rate, repayment term, collateral, and other requirements (see Section 26.5, on Risk-Based Pricing). It must be stressed that the resulting segmentation will often not agree with that used for marketing, and may impact upon marketing.
Marketing
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite many years of recognizing the mutual advantages of communication between credit and marketing strategies, it still happens too infrequently and to too little effect. Thomas et al. 2002:154 Marketing is the starting point of this module’s little adventure. It includes functions like research and development (R&D), advertising, and sales. It is usually a vibrant area, often with a cowboy mentality, that is driven by sales volumes, asset growth, or some other income statement or balance sheet measure. This is also an area that consumes considerable analytical tools, and data mining resources.
Collections and recoveries
Authors: Anderson Raymond 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to psychological studies, death, public speaking, and asking for money are people’s greatest fears. It is no wonder then, that so many businesses have such a hard time collecting what is due. They are afraid to ask! Fortunately, in the credit industry this only applies to late payers, who enter the realm of collections and recoveries (C&R). Lenders’ challenge is to decide upon the appropriate treatment, as some self-cure, some just need a nudge (or counselling), and only a few require drastic action. Their numbers may be low, but costs can be high, and credit providers have to develop extremely thick skins.
The Language Gene That Wasn’t
Authors: Taylor Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Specific Language Impairment (SLI) tends to run in families but even by the standards of SLI the KE family are an exceptional example. Elizabeth Auger’s special educational needs unit at a primary school in Brentford, west London, was inundated with them. At one point, in the late 1980s, she had seven children in her unit at the same time, all from this one extended family. Several family members from the older generations had been previously referred to her.
Povinelli’s Gauntlet
Authors: Taylor Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his book Our Inner Ape, the primatologist Frans de Waal takes a close look at the best and the worst of human nature and invites us to consider what light our two closest primate relatives, the chimpanzee and the bonobo, can shed on it. He took the title for his book from an interview quote given by the English actress Helena Bonham-Carter, who played Ari in Planet of the Apes.
The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: remembering the past and imagining the future
Authors: Schacter Daniel L , Addis Donna Rose 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Episodic memory is widely conceived as a fundamentally constructive, rather than reproductive, process that is prone to various kinds of errors and illusions. With a view towards examining the functions served by a constructive episodic memory system, we consider recent neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies indicating that some types of memory distortions reflect the operation of adaptive processes.
Basic statistical methods
Authors: Thomas Duncan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before describing the basic approaches to the analysis of epidemiological data, we need to establish some fundamental concepts from probability theory. Let us denote a random variable (a quantity that varies between observational units—individuals, times, and so on—in some manner that is not completely predictable) by the symbol Y and use the corresponding lower case letter y to denote the specific value a particular observation may have. Three kinds of random variables that will be particularly important in epidemiology are binary (dichotomous), count, and continuous variables. A binary variable is one with only two possible values, for example, present (Y 1) or absent (Y 0). A count variable is one which can take any nonnegative integer value, such as the number of cases of disease in a group. A continuous variable can take any real value (although possibly over some restricted range, such as only positive numbers).
Mechanistic models
Authors: Thomas Duncan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The empiric models discussed heretofore have not explicitly incorporated knowledge of specific biological mechanisms, although in some cases, the form of the dose–response model may be motivated by theoretical considerations, such as the linear-quadratic cell-killing model used in radiobiology (see Chapter 6). In some instances, however, the underlying disease process may be well enough understood to allow it to be described mathematically. Probably the greatest activity along these lines has been in the field of cancer epidemiology. Two models in particular have dominated this field: the multistage model of Armitage and Doll (1954) and the two-event clonal-expansion model of Moolgavkar and Knudson (1981). For thorough reviews of this literature, see Whittemore and Keller (1978), Peto (1977), Moolgavkar (1986), and Thomas (1988); here, we merely sketch some of the basic ideas.
Self-Regulation in a World of States
Authors: Brown Dana L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The growth of corporate self-regulation has become a hallmark of globalization in the twenty-first century. Especially since the late 1990s, large global firms increasingly are integrating into their regular business practices ‘codes of conduct’, ‘corporate social responsibility’ mandates, or are participating in ‘voluntary initiatives’ that aim to improve their social, environmental, and human rights record. These efforts have largely been prompted by increasing pressure on firms to account for the persistence of social deprivation, environmental decay, and corruption that has accompanied their own enrichment from the global expansion of market activities.
Wallace’s Unfinished Business*
Authors: Smith Charles H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In February 1858 a then little-known bird and insect collector named Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) was struck with a startling revelation while fending of an attack of malaria in the Moluccas. As soon as the fit passed he prepared an essay on the idea—natural selection—and sent it off to a man he figured would be interested in the concept: Charles Darwin. The rest of the story is well enough known not to bear repeating; in the end it was Darwin whose name became most associated with the principle, with Wallace relegated to “other man” status, and his ideas to the dustbin of history.
Wallace’s Dilemmas: The Laws of Nature and the Human Spirit*
Authors: Benton Ted 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After many years of neglect, Alfred Russel Wallace has recently been the subject of a food of scholarly studies. Earlier efforts often focused on one or another aspect of his exceptionally diverse intellectual and practical engagements, with a particular emphasis on the timing of his independent discovery of the key mechanism of organic evolution. More recent scholarship—most notably the work of Charles.
The Retreat of the State
Authors: Clark Gordon L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eric Hobsbawm (1994) refers to the twentieth century as a ‘short century’, dating its onset with the First World War and its conclusion with the ‘end of the Soviet era’. He suggests that the early years of this century were dominated by events that owed their origins to nineteenth-century European imperialism, while the last decade of the twentieth century seems to be best understood as the beginning of a new era whose features and logic will only be fully revealed next century. Between 1914 and 1989, wars, revolutions, economic catastrophes, and economic growth engendered extraordinary experiments in social and economic organization, many of which are now thoroughly discredited by virtue of the lives lost forcing through their implementation.
Pension Fund Capitalism: A Causal Analysis
Authors: Clark Gordon L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rise and significance of pension funds has been described in various ways. Drucker (1993) thought that their growth presaged an era of ‘pension fund socialism’: because pension plans own large tranches of corporate equities, workers now own the means of production by virtue of their status as the beneficiaries of pension plans. This is an intriguing idea, one that reappears every so often in debates about the proper scope of pension fund investments. But the idea of ‘pension fund social ism’ is an exercise in political rhetoric rather than reality. Pension funds depend upon the performance of national and international markets for their accumulated wealth. Their assets are the product of the employment relation, and agency relationships with the investment management industry.
Contested Terrain
Authors: Clark Gordon L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Community development advocates often look to pension funds as significant, albeit untapped, sources of finance. More than twenty years ago, Rifkin and Barber (1978) claimed that community control of workers’ pension fund assets could promote alternative forms of corporate ownership, and reverse the decline of the lJS industrial heartland. Notwithstanding the enormous loss of unionized jobs and community dislocation occasioned by corporate restructuring, the Northeast and Midwest have seen a renaissance in terms of labour productivity and investment in value-added production. Even so, labour leaders continue to lament the fact that ‘workers’ own pension funds’ have fuelled ‘the continuing spiral of corporate mergers and downsizing’, and have called for strategies to take control of ‘our money in support of long-term, quality jobs’ in local communities.
Community Solidarity
Authors: Clark Gordon L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whereas twenty years ago the financing of local economic development was a combination of direct government spending and community lending by banks, pension funds are seen by many as the only institutions capable of filling the gaps left by the retreat of the state and first order intermediaries.1 In this respect, it could be argued that pension funds have, in effect, promoted US regional economic development. See Black and Gilson (1997) and Gilson (1998) on the significance of pension fund investment in high-risk low-cap stocks and initial public offerings for the development of Silicon Valley. Venture capital firms, in particular, have relied upon the positive and reinforcing agglomeration economies evident in the Silicon Valley innovation process to capture and sustain high rates of return.
Paying for Health, Education, and Housing
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
England is unusual in relying so heavily on central government to finance its social services. Citizens expect to be able to access services of similar standards wherever they live. This raises difficult theoretical and practical issues. How are the needs of different areas to be measured? How are the different costs of providing services in very different parts of the country to be assessed? This book reviews the economic theory that underpins thinking about the problem. It then traces the way governments have distributed resources from the end of the last century until today. It critically analyses current methods for three services - the National Health Service, schools, and housing.
Funding in the NHS: Life after RAWP
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We saw in the previous chapter that the publication of the Resource Allocation Working Party (RAWP) Report in 1976, and the essential acceptance of its recommendations, was something of a milestone in establishing a quantifiable measure of relative need. However, it was only the beginning of an evolutionary process. Though the new RAWP formula allocated the greater part of the NHS recurrent budget, about three-quarters, the remaining quarter continued to be allocated to general practitioners and to dentists on quite different principles. They were not salaried employees of the service. They were individual contractors with it. The sums they received to run their essentially private businesses were designed to give them an average income negotiated with their trade unions each year. It was not until right at the end of the period we are studying that an attempt was made to bring these allocation systems together in a tentative way. We discuss that at the end of this chapter.
The Development of Education Needs Formulae from 1958 to 1990
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The year 1958 saw the beginning of modern local government grant systems in England. The 1958 reform of central grants to local authorities had a single, efficiency-driven, objective. Whereas before there had been a number of percentage grants (that is, where the more a council spent on schools, the more grant it would receive), the post-1958 arrangements created a new, general, grant for education, health, fire, child care, planning, road safety, traffic controls, electoral registration, training, recreation, residential care, and school crossings. The proportion of all grants-in-aid which were not tied to specific services increased from one-sixth of all grants to almost two-thirds (Travers 1986: 9). There was also a (separate) grant to assist authorities which had low taxable resources.
Three Services, Eight Formulae: Common Themes and Differences
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For those who have followed the story so far, not to mention those who have preferred to avoid the detail in the preceding three chapters, this is a useful moment to recap and summarize the funding systems for our three services as they had evolved by the late 1990s. In effect this means looking at eight different ways in which financial resources are allocated from Whitehall to service-providers at one level or another:
District health authorities (and some primary care groups from April 1999) for hospitals, community health services, and pharmaceutical costs.
General practitioners for GPs’ income and practice costs.
Local education authorities, largely for local schools.
Shared Values: Views from within the NHS
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in earlier chapters that equality of access to health care was an explicit founding principle of those who created the NHS in 1946. The abolition of fee-paying, an unequal financial barrier, was the major step, of course. Yet, the unequal geographical distribution of health-care resources was a natural consequence of the private market for health care that had existed pre-war. It came a close second in political concern.
In the very first memorandum Aneurin Bevan presented to the new Labour Cabinet after the Second World War, he stated: ‘We have got to achieve as nearly as possible a uniform standard of service for all’ (PRO/CAB 129/3 5, Oct 1945: quoted by Buxton and Klein 1978). We also saw that some initial steps were taken to achieve the stated goal in the 1940s’ health service. Limits were put on GPs setting up practices in ‘over-doctored areas’, rather as there were limits put on local education authorities employing teachers in favoured areas like London.
Central and Local Views of the Education Funding System
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of public education services in England (and indeed the rest of Britain) has for much of the two hundred years since 1800 involved a balance of central intervention and degrees of local autonomy. As Chapter 5 showed, this local autonomy has, at different times, involved control by local authorities and at the level of schools themselves. The development of needs-based grants for education (considered in Chapters 3 and 5) has, by implication, meant a move towards a concern for ever-greater degrees of ‘fairness’. The reduction of differences in resources in relation to the need to spend of individual authorities has become a key goal of policy.
Struggling to Identify Objectives: Local Authority Housing
Authors: Glennerster Howard , Hills John , Travers Tony , Hendry Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As Chapter 6 explains, subsidy for social housing involves different systems for two subsectors: those for local authorities and for housing associations (or registered social landlords, RSLs). Between the two, arrangements for transfers of housing from local authorities to associations involve what is, in effect, a third subsidy system through the financial terms on which transfers are made. Further, in contrast to the education and health sectors, where the bulk of spending is on current services, a large part of housing finance concerns capital assets—either the financing of new provision (or of repairs treated as capital spending) or the treatment of existing assets and liabilities. Adding to the complexity, a substantial part of the revenue of social landlords comes from the rents they charge (backed for the majority of their tenants by housing benefit). This means that issues like the ‘affordability’ of rents, or relativities between rents for different tenants, are major issues in a way which is not true for health or education finance, where charges are relatively insignificant. All this means that the sector offers a rich—and at times confusing-variety of subsidy and financial allocation systems through which the centre tries to influence and control the behaviour of social landlords.
Checking the Party Policy Estimates: Reliability
Authors: Hearl Derek J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter has emphasized procedural continuity and control as the key guarantors of the stability and reliability of the estimates reported here. It is hard to quarrel with this, particularly as this assertion could be generalized to all content analyses and indeed all coding exercises of whatever kind. It is just that in the context of collecting and coding manifestos indefinitely into the future, over such an extended range of countries and time points, procedures assume even more prominence than they do in more limited one-shot analyses.
B
Authors: Bix Brian H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
bad man The term usually refers to a brief statement in Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. ‘s (1841-1935) 1897 lecture, ‘The Path of the Law ’, published in the Harvard Law Review the same year. Holmes offers, in contrast to a moralistic view of the law or one viewing it as a matter of logical deduction, ‘the view of our friend the bad man ’, who ‘does not care two straws for the axioms or deductions ’, but who ‘does want to know what the ... courts are likely to do in fact. ‘ Holmes adds: ’I am much of his mind. The prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more pretentious, are what I mean by law. ’
J
Authors: Bix Brian H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jhering, Rudolf von Rudolf von Jhering (1818-92) was a German legal philosopher whose important works in legal history and theory included The Spirit of Roman Law (Der Geist des rdinischen Rechts) (1852-8) and The Struggle far Law (Der Kampf uns Recht) (1872). His influence on English-language legal theory came primarily through his efforts to incorporate utilitarian ideas into his approach to law-that law should serve, and is best understood as serving individual and community interests. This seemingly obvious point none the less had critical force in response to formalist approaches to law that viewed law as primarily being about the correct analyses of abstract legal properties.
S
Authors: Bix Brian H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
satisficing A term within economic analysis that derived from the investigations of bounded rationality, and is usually associated with the work of Herbert A. Simon (1916-2001), who introduced the term in his article, ‘Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment ’ (Psychological Review (1956)). While neoclassical economics assumes that individuals are maximizing the satisfaction of their preferences, some theorists note that in real-world situations decisions are often made in a context of limited time and limited knowledge, and so individuals often seek not so much to maximize (or optimize), but to find an alternative that would at least be satisfactory on one or more criteria; this is ‘satisficing ’.
Desert Diversity
Authors: Goudie Andrew S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The motives that entice people to deserts are many. For some, like Moses, Elijah, David, St John the Baptist, Jesus himself, or the monks of Santa Katarina in Sinai, the motive has been spiritual and religious (Pyper, 2000). For others, often of rather different persuasion-engineers, arms pedlars, and oil men-the motives have been material and financial. For men like Wilfred Thesiger and T. E. Lawrence, the attraction has, in part, been to find and live with that sometimes elusive noble Arab.
The Deserts of Central Asia and China
Authors: Goudie Andrew S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the mid-latitudes of Asia, astride the 45°N parallel, and extending around about one-fifth of the world’s circumference between 45°E and 115°E, is a great belt of aridity that occupies the southern states of the former Soviet Union, China, Tibet, and Mongolia. Huntington (1907: 8) stressed the homogeneity of this enormous stretch of terrain:
The rainfall of Central Asia is so small that the rivers fail to reach the sea. Hence the whole of a vast region, stretching three thousand miles east and west, and having an area nearly equal to that of the United States, is made up of enclosed basins, from which there is no outlet.