bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Bacterial pathogens of man
Authors: Parkhill Julian 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Bacterial pathogens of man can be found in a number of different phylogenetic groups of bacteria, although their distribution amongst all the known genera of prokaryotes is somewhat patchy, and there is still a great deal of debate as to whether there are any pathogenic archaea. Genomic study of these pathogens has begun to identify some common themes amongst these organisms, but none that are truly universal, and has also served to underline the diversity of mechanisms utilized for virulence and host interaction. Comparative genomic analysis has also begun to indicate the different mechanisms by which these organisms may have evolved their specific interactions with the human host. Bacterial pathogenicity is not a discrete state, and these interactions can range from commensalism, where the disease outcome is accidental, through occasional, opportunistic pathogenicity in a generalist organism, to specialist pathogens that are dependent on the host. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that organisms can move between these categories over the course of evolution.
The nuclear genome of apicomplexan parasites
Authors: Ajioka James W. , Brooke‐Powell Elizabeth T. , Wan Kiew‐Lian 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe Apicomplexa is a highly diverse phylum of parasitic protists that includes the causative agents of malaria and other important human and animal diseases. These unicellular pathogens have been shaped by a key evolutionary event: the secondary endosymbiosis of a single eukaryotic cell and photosynthetic algae. From this event and subsequent evolution, most species in the phylum retain a single mitochondrion and a plastid‐like organelle known as the apicoplast (seeThe organelles of Apicomplexan parasites). The reduced function of these organelles is mirrored by their highly compact genomes, where genes have been lost or transferred to the nucleus, making the nuclear genome a mosaic of former organellar genes embedded in chromosomal DNA from both endosymbionts. Natural selection on this basic cellular and genetic plan has led to a diversity of parasitic life cycles, each with adaptations that specify host range and mechanisms of transmission. Comparative genomics is beginning to reveal the similarities and differences between member species, enhancing our capability to treat and control the devastating diseases they cause.
NormalDNAsequence variations in humans
Authors: Kidd Kenneth K. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractWithin the past quarter century, researchers have been able to study variation directly in the human DNA sequence. Though almost all of the human DNA sequence is identical in all humans, the small fraction, less than 1%, that does vary is more than sufficient to make each independently conceived human genetically unique. Many types of normal variation exist, from differences in a single nucleotide to the presence or absence of blocks of DNA hundreds of nucleotides long. The distributions among populations of the variant forms can differ but overall, they are consistent with a pattern of human expansion from an origin in Africa to occupation of all major continents.
Evolutionary modeling in haplotype analysis
Authors: Donnelly Peter 
Published: July 2005

AbstractData that captures genetic variation at closely spaced markers in samples from a population is the result of various evolutionary and chance forces. Interpretation of such data is often aided by an understanding of these evolutionary processes, and statistical methods that explicitly model aspects of the evolutionary history, including coalescent‐based approaches, are often more powerful than available alternatives, even for applications such as disease gene mapping when the evolutionary processes are not of primary interest.
Finding and using haplotype blocks in candidate gene association studies
Authors: Stram Daniel O. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Recent discoveries (Daly
et al.
,

; Jeffreys
et al.
,

; Gabriel
et al.
,

) that there is considerable heterogeneity in the amount of linkage disequilibrium (LD) between single‐nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers over the genome and the implication that recombination rates themselves may also be considerably heterogeneous suggest specific analysis strategies for design and analysis of genetic association studies of disease. This article focuses upon the implications for such studies of the existence of well‐defined “haplotype blocks” covering much of the genome over which there is little evidence for recombination and within which there is limited haplotype diversity. The main topics addressed are:

SNP and haplotype discovery

Picking of haplotype‐tagging SNPs (ht SNPs) for large‐scale genotyping (e.g., in a case‐control study)

Testing and estimation of haplotype‐specific risk in a large‐scale case–control study.
Sample preparation for
MALDI
and electrospray
Authors: Langridge J. I. , Snel M. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The role of mass spectrometry in the analysis of biomolecules was revolutionized by the development of electrospray (ESI) and matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) ion sources. The advances made since then, in both source and mass analyzer design, have made modern mass spectrometers inherently sensitive instruments. The limiting factor for the detection of many biological compounds is not the instrumentation itself, but rather the preparation and presentation of the sample to the mass spectrometer. Sample preparation for MALDI is vital to obtaining good‐quality information. The level of contaminants, choice of matrix, and spotting technique used all contribute to the sensitivity and quality of the data required. By comparison, much of the sample preparation for ESI is done using HPLC coupled on‐line to the mass spectrometer. This provides a sensitive technique for the analysis of biomolecules, if performed on the micro‐ or nanoscale, and can be easily automated. High‐sensitivity work has also been performed using microcolumn separations prior to infusion‐based analysis using nanoelectrospray.
Separation‐independent approaches for protein expression profiling
Authors: Jenkins Rosalind E. , Pennington Stephen R. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The field of proteomics has expanded enormously in the last few years, but many of the methods used to investigate proteins are based on relatively old technologies such as two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis. While such approaches have been extremely useful in protein expression mapping, and still generate useful data today, global coverage of protein expression, activity, and protein interactions both temporally and spatially will require the continued development of higher‐throughput approaches. The analysis of gene expression has been revolutionized by the advent of DNA chip technology, and it is now becoming apparent that a similar approach would be invaluable for the analysis of the dynamic proteome. This article introduces the concept of protein and antibody chips and, by comparison with nucleic acid–based microarrays, highlights the practical issues to be addressed if this technology is to become widely applicable.
Getting the most out of protein family classification resources
Authors: Mulder Nicola J. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractProtein family classification resources include the following protein signature and protein clustering databases: Pfam, PRINTS, PROSITE, ProDom, TIGRFAMs, SMART, PIR SuperFamily, SUPERFAMILY, and CluSTr. SCOP and CATH classify protein structures, and Merops, Transport Classification, and so on, are specialized protein family resources. All of them have their individual websites and databases available for searching, and are intuitive to use. Some of them are integrated into InterPro, which serves the data and software from a single source, and thus makes using the individual data and software quick and easy to access. All of them are represented in SRS (sequence retrieval system), which provides an interface for simple and complex queries and facilitates linking between results and new data. The resources are simple to use and include help pages for users.
Silicon and Silicon Alloys, Chemical and Metallurgical
Authors: Dosaj Vishu , Kroupa Michael , Bittar Reinaldo 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSilicon is a low density element having nonmetallic characteristics. The production of silicon from silica is discussed as is silicon refining technology. The primary uses of silicon are in the chemical, aluminum, and electronics industries. Silicon is the chemical precursor of silicones, a versatile, fast‐growing market, and of advanced ceramics such as silicon nitride. Silicon forms an integral part of the aluminum parts industry; aluminum–silicon alloys are readily cast. Silicon is also important to aluminum production. Silicon forms alloys with a large number of metallic elements. Many of these alloys are of utmost importance to the production and refining of irons and steels. The most prevalent are the ferrosilicons, production of which is discussed.
Polyamides, Fibers
Authors: Anton Anthony , Baird Bennett R. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractPolyamide fibers are melt spun from linear semicrystalline thermoplastic polymers having recurring amide groups made from diamines and dicarboxylic acids or lactams. Poly(hexamethyleneadipamide), designated as nylon‐6,6, and poly(caprolactam), nylon‐6, account for 98% of the 4 million metric tons of the worldwide annual production of nylon fiber. The attributes of nylon such as high strength, durability, abrasion resistance, resilience, moderate hydrophilicity, ease of dyeability, and low specific gravity have been recognized since its introduction in 1938. Both the inherent properties and those properties that can be engineered into the fiber manufacturing and ultimately into the fabric in downstream mill processing combined with reasonable market pricing account for the diverse end uses and market longevity of nylon. Nylon fiber is offered in the forms of continuous flat and textured filaments, staple, tow and flock for hosiery, apparel, home, flooring, industrial and transportation fabric applications. The physical appearance, functionality, and end‐use performance of nylon fibers can be modified by incorporating additives, eg, delusterants, colorants, antioxidants, or antistats in the polymer, by designing a spinneret hole configuration to impart a desired luster, surface effect or specific dtex‐per‐filament, by spinning bicomponent or biconstituent fibers, and by chemically or mechanically treating the surface of the fiber or fabric.
Paper
Authors: Hubbe Martin A. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe process of paper formation involves dewatering an aqueous fibrous suspension, followed by drying. In most cases, the fibers are cellulosic, and paper’s strength is primarily due to hydrogen bond formation. The term paperboard is used in cases where the product is relatively thick and less flexible. In addition to fibers, modern paper often contains substantial amounts of minerals, such as calcium carbonate or kaolin clay. Other components, usually at lesser quantities, can include starch, modified starch products, synthetic polyelectrolytes, and a variety of other additives.Though there is a tradition of hand‐made papermaking, going back almost two millennia, most modern paper is manufactured on large, highly automated machines. The fiber slurry is formed and dewatered on a continuous fabric screen or sandwiched between a pair of such screens. Though most of the water used in this process is recycled multiple times, the paper industry remains a major user of fresh water. Substantial gains have been achieved to minimize the loss of fibers and other solid components from the process. Likewise, progress has been achieved in reducing the amount of energy expended in the drying of paper, primarily through increases in the proportion of water that is removed by pressing, rather than evaporation.After reviewing paper’s distinguishing characteristics and history, this article describes paper’s chemical composition, physical properties, preparation of the fibers, the use of chemical additives, formation, pressing, and drying of the sheet, coating and converting of paper, issues related to the environment and manufacturing efficiency, and a summary of common grades of paper and paperboard.
Phosphoric Acids and Phosphates
Authors: Gard David R. ,   Updated by Staff
Published: July 2005

AbstractMost commercial applications of phosphorus‐containing materials are based on phosphoric acids and the phosphates. Uses, other than as fertilizer, include applications in detergency, foods and food processing, dental materials, dentifrices, metal surface treatments, flame retardency, etc. Structures and properties of orthophosphoric acid and condensed phosphoric acids are presented. The manufacture of technical‐ and food‐grade phosphoric acids by thermal and wet acid purification processes, as well as some of the uses of the various phosphoric acids, are discussed.The chemistry and properties of orthophosphates and condensed phosphates are presented. Emphasis is placed on alkali metal and calcium salts and their solution properties. Properties specific to condensed phosphate salts such as hydrolysis and metal ion complexation are outlined. Manufacturing schemes for the phosphates are described and attention is given to the control of product properties.
Quality
Authors: Silverstein Irwin 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Quality in the chemical industry has come to encompass three areas: (
1
) quality control, (
2
) quality assurance, and, (
3
) quality systems. The importance of quality to the chemical industry is in its use as a competitive tool in domestic and international trade. Industrial quality in the late twentieth century emphasized competition with Japan due to Japanese quality improvement efforts. Quality in the twenty‐first century is driven by competition from low wage countries particularly in the Far East causing the need for our industries to reduce costs while maintaining or improving product quality. Quality improvement activities not only provide corporations with economic gain, but save jobs.

Quality control responsibilities involve issues, such as sampling plans, calibration, and replicate analyses. Statistical quality control and laboratory information management systems are often employed. Quality assurance, which encompasses quality control, covers such activities as employee training, quality system documentation, preparation and transfer of test methods, the application of the tools of quality, performing quality audits, and addressing customer complaints.
Different quality systems are compared. The corporate quality initiative for the beginning of this century is Six Sigma, while the product quality system Good Manufacturing Practices, the quality system ISO 9000 standard, and quality performance recognition by the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award are also widely used.
Microirrigation
Authors: Haman Dorota Z. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Microirrigation includes all methods of frequent water application, in small flow rates, on or below the soil surface. The terms drip, trickle, and spray irrigation have been supplanted by the term “microirrigation.” Microirrigation is usually characterized by (1) low water application rates, (2) high frequency of water application, (3) water applied near or into the root zone, (4) low pressure delivery system, and (5) delivery of fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals with irrigation water (fertigation and chemigation). Systems are classified by the types of emitter. These are drip, bubbler, spray jet, and microsprinkler. The system can also be subdivided into the point source emitters and line source emitters. In microirrigation systems, only a portion of the total field area is wetted. The goal is to only wet the root zone of the crop of interest. Microirrigation systems have many potential advantages compared to other irrigation methods, including very high potential efficiency of water application. Most of the advantages are related to the low rates of the system. Usually, microirrigation requires a higher management level than other irrigation systems. One of the biggest problems encountered under microirrigation is the clogging of the emitters.
Agriculture and Land Use Planning
Authors: Seidl Andy , Freedgood Julia , Hunt Fen C. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The American public values agricultural land for many reasons beyond its ability to produce food, fiber, and timber. Public values for agricultural land preservation have translated into public support for establishing agricultural land preservation programs at the local, state, and federal levels. A mixture of both regulatory and incentive‐based approaches have resulted in the permanent protection of nearly 1.5 million acres of agricultural land from conversion to nonagricultural uses and the concentration of millions of more acres in agricultural production through zoning. The failure of land markets to reflect the social value of extensive land uses relative to intensive uses and the irreversibility of land‐use intensification decisions create a particularly fluid and pressing policy environment for lay people, land‐use practitioners, and researchers alike. We provide a brief overview of the issues and resources and ongoing programs directly influencing agricultural land protection and land‐use policy. We pay particular attention to resources and information available on the Internet, recognizing the rapidly changing environment in this policy arena.
Maintaining Salt Balance on Irrigated Land
Authors: Kijne Jacob W. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe salt balance compares the movement of dissolved salts into and out of an area over a specified period of time. The ratio of the amount of drainage water, percolating from the root zone of an irrigated field, and the amount of water entering the root zone as irrigation and rainfall is the leaching fraction. For steady‐state conditions, when the salt concentration of the soil solution remains the same, this ratio equals the ratio of the electrical conductivity (EC) of the applied water to that of the drainage water. The EC of a salt solution is a proxy for its salt concentration and easier to measure than its concentration. These measurements can be made with a conductivity meter and for bulk soil in the field by means of electromagnetic induction sensors.To sustain irrigated production, the root zone's salt concentration must be controlled by leaching of the salts beyond the reach of roots. Excessive irrigation leads to high water tables and the mobilization of natural salt residues of arid and semiarid lands. Irrigation‐induced salt transport contributes to river salinity as illustrated for four rivers.The salts carried in irrigation water come from salts that are continuously released from rocks and soils by mineral weathering and dissolution. Because of their low rainfall, most arid and semiarid lands are rich in these primary salts. The salts were deposited over time in sedimentary rock layers and are dissolved in the waters of aquifers. Unfavorable salt balances are common in arid lands: The global extent of salt‐affected lands is considerable. It has been estimated that worldwide 100 million ha of irrigated land suffer from salinity, 20% of which is severely affected (2). Annually some 2 to 3 million ha of potentially productive agricultural land are taken out of production because of salinization. How much of this land is reclaimed (to various degrees) and then cultivated again is unknown. Wide divergence in the salinity figures is reported by different institutions, probably because of incomplete data and different definitions of salinity‐affected lands; e.g., estimates for salt‐affected land in India, according to different sources, range from 7 to 26 million ha, or between 17% and 60% of the irrigated land. For Pakistan, the most likely figure is some 40%, Israel 13%, Australia 20%, China 15%, Iraq 50%, and Egypt 35% of the irrigated land (3).
Soil Erosion and Control Practices
Authors: McHugh Marianne , Clarke Michelle , Duzant Julia , Morgan Roy , Rickson Jane 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Soil erosion involves a two‐phase process of soil detachment and transport, both of which require an energy input. Much of the energy of erosion derives from water or wind flow over the soil surface or is provided by gravity. Although reducing the energy of erosive forces is the most effective way of controlling soil erosion, one consequence of reducing energy may be the deposition of any material already eroded. As eroded sediment is often enriched with nutrients, organic matter, and contaminants preferentially adsorbed onto the sediment surface, sediment deposition may allow contaminant release into the environment. It is necessary, therefore, to reduce erosive energy at the source areas of sediment rather than after the sediment has been detached and transported.
Vacuum Gauge Tensiometer
Authors: Alam Mahbub 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Soil water plays an important role in providing water for plant growth. The vacuum gauge tensiometer is a soil water measuring device that is sensitive to soil water change. The quantity of soil water that adheres around soil particles determines the energy level at which it is being retained or pulled. In other words, the plant root has to exert energy to pull water out of a soil matrix. This energy is also expressed as tension the roots experience in removing the water. Tensiometer is like a mechanical root but shows the tension in the vacuum gauge attached to it. It is an indirect method to determine soil water status. Direct measure of water content is time‐consuming and labor‐intensive, and the result lags behind the current time. Hence, irrigators depend on indirect methods. Vacuum gauge tensiometer is inexpensive, easy to use, and a preferred measurement method, especially for course‐textured soils.
Water Table Contribution to Crop Evapotranspiration
Authors: Madramootoo Chandra 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the transfer of water vapor from the soil root zone to the atmosphere via the process of photosynthesis. Water vapor can also move directly from the ground surface to the atmosphere. The rate of ET depends on several climatic, soil water, and crop factors, including rainfall, relative humidity, wind speed, air temperature, solar radiation, cloud cover, soil moisture, and stage of crop growth. The plant transpires at the potential rate if soil water is not limiting, which depends on the soil water content.
Water is held in the soil root zone in three distinct phases: hygroscopic water, capillary water, and gravitational water. Because of the high tension of the hydroscopic water, it is not available to plants. Both capillary water and gravitational water are available for crop uptake in the ET process.
Vapor Transport in the Unsaturated Zone
Authors: Tillman Fred D. , Smith James A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
In this section, we focus our attention primarily on the fate and transport of volatile organic vapors in the unsaturated zone. Organic vapors can arise from soil and groundwater contaminated with fuel hydrocarbons, organic solvents, pesticides, or other organic pollutants. Transport of these vapors occurs primarily by some combination of gas‐phase Fickian diffusion (driven by organic vapor concentration gradients) and advection (driven by air pressure gradients). Other processes such as sorption to soil surfaces and air–water interfaces and biodegradation by soil microorganisms can further influence the fate and transport of organic vapors. We review these processes along with organic vapor sampling methodologies and chamber devices used to quantify organic vapor fluxes from the subsurface to the atmosphere.