bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Second World War,1940–1944
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cession of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina at the end of June 1940, added to the undisguised aversion of the National Peasant and Liberal parties to the royal dictatorship and the homicidal tendencies of the Iron Guard toward the royal person. obliged Carol, whose prestige had reached its nadir, to turn to General Ion Antonescu as the one person capable of controlling the dangerous situation. The choice of Antonescu was not an easy one, for the dedicated career officer had made no secret either of his contempt for Carol or of his own ambition.
The Transition, 1944–1947
Authors: Hitchins Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The institutions and the spirit that had guided their country’s evolution since the middle of the nineteenth century had brought Rumanians closer to Europe. In politics parliamentary government had served as their model, even if practice had sometimes fallen short of the ideal; the economy, slowly but no less deliberately, had moved toward a Western capitalist-entrepreneurial and market-oriented system; the social structure had gradually assumed a Western pattern, as manifested by the predominance of the middle class in inter-war political and economic life; and the majority of intellectuals and politicians had not wavered in their belief that they were a part of Europe. The process of nation building itself-the creation of Greater Rumania and its defence was a quintessentially European phenomenon. This Rumania was replaced by another beginning in 1944. After the overthrow of the Antonescu dictatorship the country’s course of development took an abrupt turn away from Europe toward the East.
The Place Of Paris In A Divided France
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On I December 1420 King Henry V of England made his formal royal entry into Paris as regent of France and heir to the throne. The French king, Charles VI, was beside him; just behind rode the duke of Burgundy, foremost peer of France. The Parisians lined the streets, glad to welcome their king and his new ally, and the duke whom they regarded as their special leader. Although the chapter of Notre-Dame, irritated by the efforts of Henry and the duke of Burgundy to impose their nominee as bishop, declined to step more than a few yards outside the cathedral, the rest of the population was welcoming, even enthusiastic, decorating the streets and as far as possible dressing in red as a sign of celebration.
Paris And England: The Search For Independence
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of Henry V’s objectives following the treaty of Troyes was to ensure that the kingdoms of England and France were kept as independent as possible. Indeed, his subjects would have expected nothing less, for a basic principle of the treaty, ratified by the Estates-General in France and the Parliament in England, was that all the customs and laws of each kingdom should be preserved. Plainly essential to the French, who had had to accept the imposition of a foreign monarch, this was no less important to the English, who wished for assurance that they would never be subject to the kingdom of France and that they would not be required to continue paying for the fighting overseas. The question of money was therefore of fundamental importance, because in English eyes the war could now properly be regarded as a strictly French affair, with the regent of France (Henry) subduing a troublesome rival (the dauphin).
Politics And Society
Authors: Thompson Guy Llewelyn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The image of Anglo-Burgundian Paris we have developed so far is that of a society administered and governed largely by consensus. Given the limited resources available, this was inevitable. A token presence of English and Burgundian soldiers and a few dozen erratic sergeants from the Chatelet could not keep an unwilling population in subjection and, though a dizainier could doubtless contribute much in the way of local knowledge, his primary loyalty was to his friends in the street and, after that, to the prevot des marchands and the Hotel de Ville. Thus, without some measure of agreement from the population at large, there could be little chance of action with the necessary common purpose. The final section of this book will describe the sources of this consensus and indicate its limitations. Inevitably, we will consider the relations between the Parisians and the English: how far they were able to act as allies and how, in the end, the regime could not be sustained. We will also discuss the cohesive effect of religion, and especially the large publicceremonies that were so numerous in this period. Before this, however, we should establish a more general picture of Parisian society at the time of the Burgundian ascendancy and the English intervention.
Prologue
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ROGER MARTYN lived at Long Melford in Suffolk through much of the sixteenth century. He died there in 1615, aged 88. Towards the end of his long residence he wrote a brief description of ‘the state of Melford church and of Our Lady’s chapel at the east end, as I, Roger Martyn, did know it’. It is a nostalgic evocation of village religion, as remembered from his childhood in the 1530s. The church’s interior had been dominated by the great rood or crucifix, standing high in the rood-loft between nave and chancel, and flanked by images of the Virgin Mary and St John the Evangelist. On the front of the loft, facing the congregation, the twelve apostles were painted, and the roof above was decorated with gilded stars. Beyond the rood was the high altar; to the left of it was a large statue representing the Trinity, patron of the church; to the right were images of saints. Above the high altar stood a gilded carving of Christ’s passion, closed behind painted doors except on high feast days. In the aisle was the Jesus chapel, maintained by the Martyn family; on its altar was a crucifix with the two thieves, to the left an image of Christ, and to the right a pieta, an image of the Virgin bearing her crucified son.
Parishes and Piety
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN 1530 the London printer Robert Redman published a best-seller. It was A Work for Householders, or for them that have the guiding or governance of any company. Despite its unpromising title, the book went through two editions in 1530 and three more in 1531; by 1537 it had been printed eight times. A convenient little handbook of practical family religion, A Work for Householders was one of the most popular new publications of the decade. It had been written by Richard Whitford, a scholar-monk at the fashionable Bridgettine house of Syon in Middlesex. Whitford’s earlier writings had been specialist works of piety for monks and nuns, but his new book had been drafted for the household of a lay friend; this friend had seen its sales potential, and encouraged publication. Whitford was an instant success. As well as A Work for Householders, in I 530 he also published his own adaptations of short works of private devotion by St Bonaventura, Bernard Sylvester, and St Bernard, the last reprinted twice in the following year.
The Priests and Their People
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN 1530, the year when Richard Whitford published his devotional best-seller and Robert Jannys gave half his wealth to religion, the English Church nevertheless faced problems. John Stokesley, the newly appointed and energetic bishop of London, conducted a personal examination of curates in his diocese. He assessed their educational and pastoral qualifications to serve as parish priests, and of the fifty-eight curates whose examinations survive only fourteen were declared adequate. Twenty-one priests, including two Frenchmen and an Irishman, were banned from service in the diocese because of their ignorance, and sixteen others were suspended as unsuitable; one curate resigned, and four were told to undertake further study and present themselves for re-examination later. Stokesley’s survey seems to confirm the criticisms of parish priests by some contemporaries and many later historians; only a quarter of London curates were thought to be satisfactory, and two-thirds were found in some way inadequate. It was apparently a damning indictment of the capital’s clergy.
Books Banned and Heretics Burned
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN 1530 Nicholas Field, a Londoner who had recently travelled in Germany, addressed a small gathering of Chilterns Lollards at the house of John Taylor in Hughenden. He read to them from an English Bible, probably Tyndale’s New Testament, and told them what he had seen and learned ‘beyond the sea in Almany’. Pilgrimages, images, saints’ days, fasting, and offerings to the church were unnecessary observances; services should be in the vernacular; and the eucharist ‘was not, as it was pretended, the flesh, blood, and bone of Christ, but a sacrament, that is a typical signification of his holy blood’.
Resistance and Rebellion, 1530–1538
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
HENRY VIII took part in the trial of the heretic John Lambert in November 1538 as a dramatic demonstration of his Catholic orthodoxy. The king told Lambert, ‘If you do commit yourself unto my judgement you must die, for I will not be a patron unto heretics. ‘ The gesture was a reminder to the monarchs of Europe that, despite schism from Rome and suppression of monasteries, Henry was no heretic. It was also a warning to English evangelicals and Protestants that though the king would reform abuses he would not tolerate heresy, especially on the eucharist. And primarily it was a signal to Henry’s Catholic subjects that he was, after all, one of them. The proclamation of16 November pronounced the same message: by condemning the free circulation of the Bible, denial of the real presence, and the marriage of priests, Henry was endorsing popular hatred of the ‘new learning’ and its supporters. By the autumn of 1538 he really had no choice. He had to make concessions to that fear and resentment of religious change which had been a growing political problem for six years and more.
Evangelists in Action
Authors: Haigh Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN 1574 the earl of Huntingdon appointed Peter Eckershall curate of Measham, a mining village in the archdeaconry of Derby. The new curate was the parish’s first Protestant minister, and, as villagers soon admitted, ‘at his coming to them they were ignorant and obstinate papists’. Eckershall began a campaign of Protestant evangelism, preaching sermons, holding catechism classes for the young, and teaching the adults the essentials of the faith. Within two years all communicants could recite a basic Protestant confession, and some had been led ‘to a comfortable feeling of their salvation in Christ’. In 1576, when Eckershall was threatened with suspension for failing to wear a surplice at services, the parishioners successfully pleaded with their bishop not to remove the minister who had brought them the truth. A Protestant patron had given Measham a Protestant preacher, and ‘obstinate papists’ had been made into defenders of the gospel. But only a minority of parishes had experienced the evangelistic efforts of a preacher such as Eckershall, for in the mid-1570s about four-fifths of ministers could not preach.
A New Middle Ages
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Readers may find the title of this first chapter pretentious, but it claims no more than to provide an outline of ‘a’ new middle ages, a particular view of the period, and one of many alternative and valid perspectives. It has some slight connection with ‘the’ new middle ages of the cultural historians, which offers new insights based on the close analysis of texts. But it has nothing to do with ‘the’ New Middle Ages hailed as the next phase of history by a school of German philosophers who are expressing their frustrations with the impersonal and individualistic spirit of the modern age. The choice of title is partly designed to attract the curiosity of non-specialists, as one of my concerns is to create links between medieval historians and those of the modern period.
Community and Privacy
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In all societies—and that of medieval England was no exception—a tension existed between public obligations and private rights. Collective activities, family interests, and communal values were of great importance, but at the same time individuals had possession of land, and private space was maintained, for example, in houses. At the end of the middle ages an episode that has attracted much attention was the appropriation of common pastures by the lords of manors, the enclosures of common fields, and the exclusion of the peasantry. This seems to represent a triumph of private interests over the common good.
Authority and Freedom
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first part of this chapter is about those who exercised the strongest authority in medieval society, especially the landed aristocracy, both laymen and clergy. It attempts to make some assessment of their influence as producers in their own right, and their impact on the production of others. It makes a brief consideration also of the economic role of the state. The final section considers those below the ranks of the gentry.
It is easy to gain the impression that the lords controlled the heights of the economy in the thirteenth century. We are told directly of their ability to command others, notably in the various treatises on estate management.
Consumption and Investment
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of consumption in the middle ages is a relatively new field of enquiry; it repays investigation because it tells us about material conditions, levels of individual wealth, the dynamic forces behind production, and mentalities. In this chapter I have linked consumption and investment, partly so that I can consider the relative importance of these rival claims on resources, but also because investment was closely linked to the demand for consumer goods.
Consumption has been studied by anthropologists and sociologists who specialize in field of material culture, as well as historians. Much of the enquiry into material culture in the later middle ages has been advanced by archaeological research into structures and artefacts.
Work and Leisure
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This final chapter explores the nature of work, and especially employment, at the end of the middle ages. It will address the question, central to the ‘transition from feudalism to capitalism’ debate, about the existence of a proletariat, and about the increase in the number of wage-earners in the long term. The discussion will be extended to consider attitudes to work, leisure, and charity, with the aim of understanding the ‘work ethic’.
Historians have come to emphasize the number of wage-earners in preindustrial English society. For example, Hoskins, writing about the early sixteenth century, stated that two-thirds of the population ‘consisted of wage-earners and their dependants’.
Agricultural Production: The Limits of Growth?
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jn 1842, on the death of Thomas Coke, the second earl of Leicester, his tenants erected a monument to celebrate his encouragement of agricultural ‘improvement’. A column was surmounted by a sheaf of wheat and flanked by a massive cow, plump sheep, and modem plough; the frieze around the base showed Coke passing on his advice to a prosperous and grateful tenantry. The monument symbolizes one view of the process and chronology of agricultural growth: a ‘modernizing’ landowner swept away ignorance, breaking the shackles of tradition, and allowing yields and output to rise at the close of the eighteenth century. But should the monument be read instead as an exercise in deference and self-justification? The analysis of Malthus and Ricardo would suggest a different interpretation: by the end of the eighteenth century, growth of output could only be achieved at the expense of decreasing marginal returns, and prices and rents rose as population growth outstripped the capacity of the land to provide food. Perhaps the monument, on the hill above Coke’s lavish Palladian house, symbolized Ricardian rent rather than an agricultural revol¬ ution, marking the increased power and wealth of great landowners at the expense both of consumers who paid more for their food and of farmers who paid more for the use ofland.
Integration and Specialization
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prosperity, argued Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations, depended on the pursuit of ‘comparative advantage’. No family would make at home any article which it could buy more cheaply: a tailor would not make his own shoes, or a shoemaker his own clothes, for they would produce more, and be more prosperous, by specializing on the tasks at which they were most adept. ‘All of them’, argued Smith, ‘find it for their interest to employ their whole industry in a way in which they have some advantage over their neighbours.’ What was true of the conduct of families applied equally to national policy: each country should specialize in the goods to which it was most suited, removing barriers to free exchange of goods and allowing comparative advantage to flourish.
The Visible Hand: The State and the Economy
Authors: Daunton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Britain in the eighteenth century, it was sometimes suggested, had a ‘Venetian constitution’, with a small, closed group of landowners dominating the state like the elite of Venice. Britain, contended Benjamin Disraeli, suffered from a combination of ‘Venetian politics, Dutch finance and French wars’ by which Whig aristocratic landowners controlled the state, raising loans in London to finance war on the lines established by Dutch financiers who had been introduced into England by William of Orange. The ‘triumph of the Venetian oligarchy’ has been linked, above all, to the political career of Robert Walpole who, according to his modern biographer, ‘fused the interests of aristocracy, high finance, and executive government’:The Revolution of 1688 and all that followed were retrogressive from the point of view of the emergence of the middle class into political power. Socially and economically they continued to thrive, but not politically. The power of the land and of commerce fused to create a paradise for gentlemen, for the aristocracy of birth; it thus became much easier for England to adopt an imperial authority, to rule alien peoples, and to train its ruling class for that purpose, rather than to adjust its institutions and its social system to the needs of an industrial society.
Background and Family Origins
Authors: McGrew Roderick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Paul I was born in St Petersburg on 20 September/I October, 1754, but his story actually began thirteen years earlier when Elizabeth, Peter the Great’s youngest daughter, captured the throne in a coup d’état. There had been no law of hereditary succession in Russia since 1722 when Peter legislated the tsar’s right to choose his own successor. Peter then died without making a choice, but a court faction headed by his close lieutenant, Alexander Menshikov, placed his widow, Catherine, on the throne. Until Paul himself reestablished the hereditary succession in 1797, the Russian crown became a prize which was contested among various parties seeking to protect their several interests. Foreign diplomats were often involved, the elite guards regiments provided conspirators with military support, and the coup d’état became a political art form. The candidates were not wholly without credentials. In one way or another, at least until 1762, they were linked with Peter the Great, the last unequivocally legitimate tsar, who had already become a Russian legend. In Elizabeth’s case, this connection was both close and very important to her success. As great Peter’s daughter, she could present herself as Russia’s defender against the foreign adventurers who had gained control over the Russian state, a posture that was particularly attractive to discontented officers, to the guards who were imbued with the Perrine heritage, and to that segment of the privileged class which had been displaced by the ruling clique.
On being Grand Duke at Home and Abroad: I776-I783
Authors: McGrew Roderick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the decade from 1773 to 1783 Paul’s situation was transformed. At the beginning of the period, he was the acknowledged heir and a person of recognized importance. He had been raised to maturity by one of the most powerful men in the empire, and he retained close ties with his governor after the household was dissolved. Catherine accepted her son’s standing. She put herself on a footing of intimacy with him, she briefed him on affairs, and she mildly astonished court observers by giving Count Razumovskii and Prince Alexander Kurakin, Paul’s nearest friends, appointments of some importance. Paul’s health and welfare, as in earlier years, remained a matter of concern for everyone with political interests in Russia, while after his first marriage, the intrigues and conspiracies which swirled around his small court attracted wide attention. By 1783, virtually none of this was true. Paul’s court was drawing away from the great court into isolation. Personal relations between Catherine and Paul were strained to the breaking point. They never significantly improved. What status Paul retained owed entirely to Catherine’s reluctance to change the succession, a decision which she repeatedly considered from as early as 1782.
The Long Wait: I783-I796
Authors: McGrew Roderick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Paul and Mariia returned from Europe to a cold, even hostile, reception. Their first meeting with Catherine was very brief, and over the next several months she continued to show that she was out of countenance with them. The English minister remarked that ‘From all I can learn, they [Paul and Mariia] are as displeased at their Reception as the Empress is sorry for their Return’, and, a few days later, that ‘nothing the Great Duke and Dutchess can do seems to please the Empress … who apparently made up her Mind to be displeased with them and insists on being so’. Indeed, the empress, it was said, was so irritated with her son that she was considering removing him from the succession, though there was no independent confirmation for this assertion.
Tsar Reformer
Authors: McGrew Roderick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Paul entered on his inheritance quietly. Neither peals of bells nor cannonades announced him. To have indulged in public celebrations (as was done when his mother seized the throne) woulq have insulted the memory of a deceased ruler and was unnecessary to the investiture of a legitimate heir. Or so Paul declared. Legitimacy and the revolution of 1762 were very much on his mind. Even as the oath of allegiance was administered he noticed that Count Alexis Orlov, a central figure in the conspiracy thirty-four years earlier, was not present to be sworn. He did not want Orlov to forget that 23 June. When the ceremony was ended, he sent two of his most trusted subordinates, Fedor Rostopchin and General Nikolai Petrovich Arkharov, to find him. There was nothing sinister in his absence. Though still physically active, Orlov was 80 years old and feeling the burden of his years. He had maintained the vigil as long as he could through Catherine’s last hours, but fatigue finally drove him home and into bed. It was there Paul’s emissaries found him. Arkharov wanted to put him under arrest and drag him back to the palace, but Rostopchin stopped him. Once Orlov had been made to understand what had happened, he insisted on taking the oath at once. He did so in a loud voice before an ikon in his bedroom.