bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Consequences of Mexico's Mixed‐Member Electoral System, 1988–1997
Authors: Weldon Jeffrey A. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractMexico has experimented with mixed‐member electoral systems for many years, is probably the second oldest mixed‐member system after Germany, and has modified its mixed system more than any other country. The purpose behind the electoral reforms has always been the same: to open up the system enough to satisfy political demands, but not so much that the hegemonic party loses control. Although the latter could to a large extent be controlled by electoral fraud, the former objective still had to be addressed, and over the last 35 years Mexico has seen a gradual but consistent expansion of proportional representation, so that by 1997, the electoral laws, together with electoral preferences and the general democratization of the country, had led to the end of majority control by the official party in the Chamber of Deputies, and Mexico now has a strong two‐ or three‐party system. However, there have been seven fundamentally different electoral systems in Mexico this century, with a different electoral system for each of the last five elections, which makes it impossible to distinguish the effects of electoral rules from those of voter preference; furthermore, most of the reforms are highly endogenous with the party system. Discusses reforms from 1964 onwards, and is arranged as follows: it first describes the party (minority) deputy system that operated under single‐seat district plurality rules in the period 1964–1976, and then the minority representation system of 1979–1985 (mixed‐member majoritarian (MMM) rules were introduced for the 1979 election); next it gives accounts of the 1988, 1991, 1994 and 1997 mixed‐member electoral laws, and details of the senate formulas for the period 1994–2000; it then discusses the consequences of the four mixed‐member electoral laws (effects on party competition and Duvergerian effects), the effects of the change to an MMM system on legislative behavior, and the prospects for future electoral reform.
Electoral Rules and Electoral Reform in Canada
Authors: Weaver R. Kent 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The puzzle addressed by this chapter is why electoral reform for the Canadian House of Commons has so rarely made it to the agenda, let alone to adoption, despite the existence of widely recognized problems with the current electoral system, the experience of several rounds of constitutional reform in which the issue could have been raised, and relatively weak constitutional barriers to reform. The first section, ‘Electoral Rules and the Party System’, provides background on how the Canadian party system has evolved under the current set of single‐seat district (SSD) plurality electoral rules. The second section, ‘Explaining the Limited Electoral Reform Agenda in Canada’, examines why electoral reform for the Canadian House of Commons has so rarely been on the political agenda. The final section, ‘Prospects for Electoral Reform in the Future’,discusses conditions under which electoral reform might come onto the agenda in the near future, and whether it is likely to do so.
The New Economy: A European Perspective
Authors: Soete Luc 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In this chapter, the account of the emergence of the new learning economy is based on research carried out within the framework of the European Commission's Targeted Socio–Economic Research (TSER) project ‘Technology and Employment’. In the first section, some aggregate economic evidence is briefly reviewed that shows a remarkable divergence in growth pattern between the USA, and Europe and Japan over the last decade. In the second section, some of the main new features of the economy as identified by Business Week (globalization and digitization) are reviewed. The third section discusses the challenges posed to traditional economic concepts, and in particular, to the functioning of markets by a more open, immaterial economy in which value generation is less related to material production than to information content, distribution, and consumer interaction. Lastly, some policy conclusions are drawn.
Europe at the Crossroads: The Challenge from Innovation‐Based Growth
Authors: Fagerberg Jan 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Europe's performance relative to the USA and countries in Asia is a topic that greatly preoccupies policy makers who are concerned that the European Union (EU) is losing ground compared with other, more dynamic parts of the world. This chapter points to disconcerting trends in EU performance: productivity growth has slowed down relative to competitors; export competitiveness has deteriorated in all areas except agriculture and raw materials; losses have been manifest in the technologically most sophisticated industries, particularly in ICT (information and communication technology), which requires innovation‐based growth; and a failure to create employment on a scale at all comparable with that of the USA or Japan, with obvious repercussions for unemployment. While until recently there was a tendency towards convergence in productivity and income between European regions, there are now signs of a reversal of this trend. These issues are discussed including the possible role of European economic integration in lack of market competitiveness.
The Production of Technological Knowledge: New Issues in a Learning Economy
Authors: Cohendet Patrick , Joly Pierre‐Benoît 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Investigates the new ways of producing technological knowledge that are now operating in society. Beyond understanding the mechanisms at stake in transformation, major conclusions can be drawn for the science and technology policy, particularly for the organization, and incentives within the public research domain. From this perspective, in the first part of the chapter, the main features of the traditional vision of knowledge production are briefly recalled; these are based on the distinction between science and technology on the one hand, and public and private research on the other. The second part is devoted to an analysis of the new mode of production of knowledge, which involves (1) increased ways of codifying knowledge that increase the level of externalities, (2) changes in the role and behaviour of private (industrial) and public research, and (3) a reconsideration of incentive mechanisms towards coordination. The last part deduces the consequences of the change of paradigm on public policy.
Universities in the Learning Economy: Balancing Institutional Integrity With Organizational Diversity
Authors: Conceição Pedro , Heitor Manuel 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Suggests two important ideas: first, it is proposed that the institutional integrity of the university needs to be preserved, since universities are a special type of learning organization specialized in producing and diffusing knowledge in unique ways; second, it is argued that, important as universities are, they are not enough to guarantee prosperity, and there is a need to promote a diversity of organizational arrangements, even at the higher education level, which could then be a major contributor to ensuring the institutional integrity of the university. The analysis is based on the way organizations deal with knowledge, i.e. the way they promote ‘learning’, where learning is understood as the mechanisms through which knowledge is produced and diffused. Hence, the chapter starts by describing a conceptual framework where the understanding of learning as a process of knowledge accumulation is made explicit. Next, the application of this model to the context of the university is discussed. The concluding section summarizes the main arguments of the chapter.
A New Role for Business Services in Economic Growth
Authors: Tomlinson Mark 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Attempts to synthesize and summarize the main results of some recent quantitative macroeconomic analyses of the impact of business services (and knowledge‐intensive business services, in particular) on economic performance. Some background explanations are provided of the phenomena considered and some policy issues adumbrated that arise from this new research. It has been shown that although there are differing levels of knowledge‐intensive service activity in different countries, the impact that these services have on economic performance is highly significant in all the countries studied so far; this has several implications regarding the way in which services are viewed vis‐à‐vis manufacturing, and it also has important consequences for industrial policy. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of the traditional role of services in economic development and of how the theoretical underpinnings of older debates are now being challenged. A selection of the results of analysing knowledge‐intensive services from more recent literature at the macroeconomic level is then discussed, and conclusions drawn.
The Globalization of Technology and National Policies
Authors: Archibugi Daniele , Iammarino Simona 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn the last few years, many heterogeneous phenomena have been put together under the label ‘technological globalization’ and the concept has thus lost much of its original clarity. This chapter aims to identify three different categories that compose the globalization of technology, with a view to understanding what the impact of each is on national economies, and what public policies can do to exploit the available technological knowledge for welfare and growth. The first section analyses the effects of globalization of innovation for single nations according to a taxonomy that breaks down into three categories: the international exploitation of technology, the global generation of innovations, and global technical collaborations. The next section explores the implications of each of these three typologies of the globalization of technology for public policies, and suggests that no single strategy can be used to address all three globalization processes. However, contrary to what is held to be the dominant laissez‐faire view, it is argued that the dynamics of globalization need a more active role of governments and a much broader battery of public policy instruments to allow national economies to exploit the available opportunities.
Social Exclusion in the Learning Economy
Authors: Schienstock Gerd 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
An analysis is made of the impact that the emerging learning economy may have on the processes of social exclusion with the focus on the sphere of work, since employment is seen as the core of the social tie that links individuals within society. The first section of the chapter discusses globalization and the learning economy. Next, the changing patterns of (un)employment (flexible employment, as exemplified by part‐time work, temporary work, home‐working, and self employment) and career structure are addressed that are caused by global competition, moves towards a learning economy, individualization of work in the labour process, and restructuring. The next two sections address first, regional exclusion, and second, social exclusion arising directly from the learning economy as the result of the formation of a new underclass of workers whose knowledge can be codified and automated, so that they become unnecessary. The last three sections address the policy implications of social security, and individual‐targeted and general strategies for combating social exclusion.
Innovation Policy in the Globalizing Learning Economy
Authors: Lundvall Bengt‐Åke 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In the introductory chapter, it was argued that an even broader set of policies needs to be integrated in a strategy to cope with the challenges of the learning economy. In this concluding chapter, the focus is on policies aiming directly at enhancing the capability to adapt and innovate. The first section discusses a new theoretical rationale for innovation policy by analysing different sources of competence building at the firm level. In doing so, it locates five areas where there is a special need to intervene in order to enhance the learning capability of the economy (human resource development, creating new forms of organization, building innovative networks, reorienting innovation policy towards service sectors, and integrating universities in the innovation process); these are discussed in the second section. The last two sections of the chapter address innovation policy in a wider perspective, and a European agenda for innovative policy.
The Equation Attacked
Authors: Bennett Jonathan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractPresents and evaluates a series of attacks on The Equation, i.e. the view that an indicative conditional ‘If A, C’ is a proposition whose subjective probability for you is always your conditional probability for C given A. Work by Lewis, Carlstrom and Hill, Stalnaker, Edgington, and Hájek is considered. The attacks succeed, but only if indicative conditionals are propositions with truth values.
Forks
Authors: Bennett Jonathan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractUnless something to the contrary is explicitly said in a given subjunctive conditional, the closest antecedent worlds are ones that are exactly like the actual world until shortly before the time of the antecedent and then fork away from such likeness in some inconspicuous manner. The alternatives are: the closest world is unlike the actual world through all pre‐antecedent time; at the closest world, the antecedent comes to be true with a ‘bump’. This chapter discusses what goes on at a fork and the temporal locations of forks.
Truth at the Actual World
Authors: Bennett Jonathan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDiscussion of a range of problems about subjunctive ‘If P, Q’ in cases when P is actually true and in cases when Q is actually true. The particular‐fact problem concerning subjunctives about indeterministic events (‘If you had bet heads, you would have won’); its solution, involving notion of ‘same causal chain’. Independent subjunctives are identified and snubbed.
Subjunctive Conditionals and Probability
Authors: Bennett Jonathan 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
By Lewis's account, it may be unduly hard for subjunctive conditionals to be outright true. We could weaken them by deeming each one to be true if its antecedent makes its consequent highly probable. Or we could follow Edgington's proposal that subjunctive conditionals should not be thought of in terms of truth at all but only of probability. It is shown here that adopting this proposal would not significantly narrow the chasm between subjunctives and indicatives.
Subjunctive Conditionals and Time's Arrow
Authors: Bennett Jonathan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractLewis tried to use his analysis of subjunctive conditionals to explain time's arrow: our sense of the fixity of the past and non‐fixity of the future. This required him to state his analysis—and thus his conditions for closeness of worlds—without using any temporal‐order concepts, only temporal‐metric ones. Criticism of his ingenious attempt to do this, especially his thesis about what it takes for there to be a convergence of two previously unalike worlds.
The Need for Worlds
Authors: Bennett Jonathan 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Comparison between the ‘worlds’ approach to subjunctive conditionals and the Goodman approach. Much of each of them can be restated in terms of the other; but some requirements for a plausible account of subjunctives can be satisfied in terms of worlds but not in Goodman's terms. Also, Goodman's vexatious cotenability problem dissolves in the world's framework. A special feature of Pollock's account subjunctives is discussed.
Relating the Two Kinds of Conditional
Authors: Bennett Jonathan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractPresents Bennett's theory about the different kinds of bases upon which indicative conditionals may be accepted; bases that enable one to explain the antecedent, or the consequent, or some other fact not expressed in the conditional. It is shown that bases of two of these kinds also support the corresponding subjunctive, while bases of the third kind do not; and that the classification of bases does not yield a classification of conditionals. This destroys the only persuasive reason for accepting the relocation thesis, according to which subjunctives should be grouped with indicatives of the type ‘If it rains tonight, the roads will be wet in the morning’.
Abandoning the Levels Conception: First Steps
Authors: Heil John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractProponents of the idea that reality is hierarchical appeal to the ‘multiple realizability’ of higher‐level properties. The ontology of multiple realizability is fuzzy, however, and in any case, we can accommodate putative examples of multiple realizability without positing higher‐level properties. Predicates taken to name such properties are better understood as being satisfied by diverse but similar properties. Ontological reduction does not imply analytical or explanatory reduction.
Universals
Authors: Heil John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAn ontology that admits properties can treat properties as universals or particulars. Universals can be transcendent Platonic entities or in rebus: wholly present in each of their instances (and nowhere else). If properties are universals, similarity is reducible to identity: objects are similar by virtue of sharing constituents. This advantage is not enough to compensate for striking disadvantages, however.
Modes
Authors: Heil John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Suppose Locke were right: ‘All things that exist are only particulars’. Properties are modes; modes (tropes, abstract particulars), particularized ways objects are. Objects ‘share’ or possess ‘the same’ property in the way two brokers can wear the same tie to work. Objects are similar by virtue of possessing similar modes; modes are similar tout court.
Imperfect Similarity
Authors: Heil John 
Published: October 2003

AbstractUniversals provide an explanation of similarity: similar objects share properties. Imperfect similarity among complex properties is explained by ‘partial identity’ of their constituents. What if simple properties could be imperfectly similar? This manifest possibility suggests that even proponents of universals require brute (imperfect) similarities, and a principal advantage of universals over modes evaporates.
Philosophy and Politics
Authors: Kuklick Bruce 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
During the Revolutionary and Constitutional period, politics dominated the intellectual elite in a way that almost excluded religious claims. After this time, social and political thought developed in their own more practical, less philosophical tradition, oriented to the secular concerns of the Founding Fathers and following the interests of Benjamin Franklin. The tradition of philosophical theology, dominated by students of Jonathan Edwards only studied politics and society as a study derivative of its ideas about religious knowledge, and this tradition was eventually critical in American philosophy.
Theological Dispute, 1750–1858
Authors: Kuklick Bruce 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
From 1750–1850, a philosophical theology rooted in the work of Jonathan Edwards dominated speculative thought in America. A group of Edwards's students, followers of ‘New Divinity,’ were led by Joseph Bellamy, Samuel Hopkins, and Nathaniel Emmons, who defended both God's sovereignty and human free will. They eventually professionalized in schools of theology led by Charles Hodge at Princeton, and, at Yale by Nathaniel William Taylor, a brilliant innovator and expositor of ideas that injected Scottish realism into theological debate.
Pragmatism in Cambridge, 1867–1923
Authors: Kuklick Bruce 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The most successful idealistic response to Darwin occurred in Cambridge, Massachusetts and, soon thereafter, at Harvard University. At first promoted by a group of amateurs in ‘the Metaphysical Club’, this version of idealism was called pragmatism, and its first champion was Charles Peirce. Pragmatism defined the mental as a form of behaviour, allowed for a religious dimension to exist, and (for Peirce) looked to the practice of natural scientists and logicians for the paradigms of knowledge.
Passions of the Soul
Authors: Clarke Desmond M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Cartesian explanation of emotions relies on the theory of animal spirits that is central to his account of sensation and a hypothesis about innate desires and aversions. Emotions are the distinctive feelings we experience in response to the apparent perception of things that satisfy or frustrate our natural desires. These feelings, similar to internal sensations, correspond systematically to patterns in the flow of animal spirits from the heart to the brain.
Describing Thought: The Subjective View
Authors: Clarke Desmond M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Any explanation of human mental operations requires an adequate description of what is to be explained. Descartes devotes much of his work to describing characteristic features of human mental activity, such as the transparency of consciousness, the intentionality of thought, and the human capacity for abstraction that makes possible a form of thinking that is so independent of images that it may be called ‘pure’.
US–UN Relations in the UN Security Council in the Post‐Cold War Era
Authors: Malone David M. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractAn examination is made of the evolution of US behaviour in the United Nations Security Council since the 1990s; this behaviour shows an inconsistency born out of a general suspicion of the organization, particularly of its General Assembly, and the author demonstrates that US historical experience of the UN largely explains that suspicion. First provides some evidence of this US inconsistency of behaviour, with reference both to conflict resolution and humanitarian issues. Then goes on to explain the primary influences on this behaviour, arguing that US ambivalence towards the UN has been more affected by struggles over a New International Economic Order in the 1970s and US perceptions of unbalanced UN approaches to the Arab–Israeli dispute than by the end of the cold war. Having made special reference to America's chequered historical experience of the UN, the chapter examines the ways in which negative perceptions of the UN have played out in US domestic politics, particularly since the late 1990s. Finally, America's experience of the UN's expanded post‐cold‐war security agenda is reviewed, noting that the inherent tensions between the promotion of values and the promotion of interests, and the difficulties of relating means to ends, have come sharply to the fore during this period.