bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Smith
Authors: Irwin Terence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Smith recognizes two main topics of inquiry in moral philosophy: (1) An inquiry into the character of virtue. (2) An inquiry into the faculty that ‘recommends’ virtue to us. The first topic is the primary concern of ancient moralists; the second is the concern of the moderns. In Smith’s view, only the first is of practical importance; the second is a purely theoretical question that makes no difference to practice. This attitude to the second question agrees with Hume’s attitude to the epistemology and metaphysics of morals. Hume takes the conception of moral properties as secondary qualities to be ‘a considerable advancement of the speculative sciences; though . . . it has little or no influence on practice’ (T iii 1.1.26). To show that the second question has no practical importance, Smith argues it makes no difference to our judgment about what is right and wrong in particular cases.
Individual differences in processing complex grammatical structures
Authors: Chipere Ngoni 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Other contributions in this volume have addressed the widespread assumption that all natural languages possess uniform grammatical complexity. My contribution addresses the equally widespread assumption that all native speakers possess a uniform underlying competence to process complex grammatical structures. I argue that this assumption is false. I develop the argument over three sections. In the first section, I present empirical evidence, drawn from fifty years of experimental research, that shows that native speakers vary extensively in grammatical ability. In the second section I note, however, that it has been argued that native speakers do not vary in grammatical competence but in the performance factor of working memory. Variations in working memory capacity, so the argument goes, lead to variable expression of an otherwise uniform underlying grammatical competence.
An efficiency theory of complexity and related phenomena
Authors: Hawkins John A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theories of complexity in language share the guiding intuition that “ more [structural units/rules/representations] means more complexity ”. Despite its plausibility, this intuition has proved hard to define. See, for example, the lively debate in the papers of Plank (2001) responding to McWhorter (2001a). The discussion went to the heart of the fundamental question: what exactly is complexity? and how do we define it?
On What Grounds What
Authors: Schaffer Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the now dominant Quinean view, metaphysics is about what there is. Metaphysics so conceived is concerned with such questions as whether properties exist, whether meanings exist, and whether numbers exist. I will argue for the revival of a more traditional Aristotelian view, on which metaphysics is about what grounds what. Metaphysics so revived does not bother asking whether properties, meanings, and numbers exist. Of course they do! The question is whether or not they are fundamental.
Evidence and risk: The sociology of health care grappling with knowledge and uncertainty
Authors: Rapley Tim , May Carl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues that decisions are not only to be understood as cognitive acts and interactional exchanges that are confined to the consultation, but that they are extended and distributed beyond its boundaries. We are, therefore, concerned with how patients and practitioners work with and manage the diverse sources of knowledge, uncertainty, and risk and mobilise these in the consultation. In this chapter, we offer a conceptual framework to understand the distributed nature of decisions (Rapley, 2008).
Professionalism and Medical Education in the Developing World
Authors: Pallangyo Kisali 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dr. Robert Martensen, I believe, was trained, practices, and teaches in the USA and therefore understands very well American medical education and practice. I have a very different background from that of Dr. Martensen, in that most of my medical training took place in a developing country, Tanzania; except for a few years of postgraduate training in the industrialized world, I have been practicing and teaching in Tanzania for almost three decades. I would therefore take the advantage of my different background and experiences to expand the scope of the discussions to include medical education in developing countries in order to enrich discussions on the subject.
Spatial Conservation Prioritization: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Moilanen Atte , Possingham Hugh P , Wilson Kerrie A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this final chapter, we first briefly review the development of spatial conservation prioritization and related scientific fields (Section 19.1). Then, we summarize the present state of the art by drawing on the chapters of this volume (Section 19.2). Based on a questionnaire distributed to the authors of chapters, we also outline expected future research trends (Section 19.3). Over the past decade, researchers have harnessed mathematical techniques, GIS and immense increases in the capacity of computers to facilitate rapid and diverse conceptual and practical advances in conservation prioritization, and we expect such rapid development to continue.
The Amazon Of The East
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Yangtze is one of the world’s most important freshwater ecosystems. It is the longest river in Asia and the third longest in the world; its headwaters rise high on the Tibetan Plateau, and 6,300 kilometres downstream almost a thousand billion cubic metres of water finally flow into the East China Sea every year. Its English name derives from a local term meaning ‘son of the sea’ used for the lower reaches of the river near Zhenjiang, and which may be derived from the name of the nearby ancient city of Yangzhou, which is mentioned as being close to a once more westerly situated delta in the earliest Chinese records. But in China it is more commonly called the Chang Jiang, which simply means ‘long river’.
East Meets West
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1981, shortly after Qi Qi had taken up residence with the River Dolphin Research Group in Wuhan, Professor Chen Peixun was invited to attend a conference on marine mammals in the United States. In order to repay the favour, she provided her host, Bill Perrin, with a reciprocal invitation to visit Wuhan. Although he didn’t manage to spot any wild baiji during the brief boat trip he took along the Yangtze, his experiences in China and discussions with Professor Chen alerted him to the huge gap in Western scientific knowledge about the river system and its dolphins—unstudied by outside researchers for sixty years—and also to the major limitations to understanding cetacean biology in China only a few years after the end of the Cultural Revolution. As chairman of the Cetacean Specialist Group for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Perrin was well placed to try to rectify this mutual shortfall.
The Hunting Of The Snark
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The two stags, their heads down, paced warily around each other. Grey steam stood frozen for a moment around their wet muzzles. Behind them, a herd of female deer stood motionless, long faces watching from the safety of the yellow reeds. Suddenly the males pushed into each other, their hooves slipping on the mud as they tried to maintain their grip. The clash of antlers drifted towards us over the marsh.
So Long, And Thanks For All The Fishing
Authors: Turvey Samuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the next few weeks, the survey slipped quietly into the past and became consigned to memory, the daily grind of life on the river ossifying around the story told by a handful of photographs. I had no desire to relive the experience and tried to avoid my work colleagues, who wanted to hear all the details. They were sympathetic, but asked whether maybe I was being too pessimistic, unable to separate the cumulative failures I had experienced throughout the whole sorry baiji saga from the ecological reality out there in the Yangtze. Surely, as Wang Ding had told the Chinese press at the end of the survey, there must still be a chance that a few animals might survive?
Before the Dawn
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the middle of the nineteenth century the lineaments of chemistry had been well enough defined. Many of the chemical elements of which all matter is made, and all of the most abundant ones, had been identified, and their atomic weights had been determined. These atomic weights were expressed relative to that of the lightest element, hydrogen, which was allocated a weight of 1. On this basis the weight of carbon was 12, nitrogen was 14, oxygen was 16, sulphur was 32, and so on. It was recognized that atoms of these elements combined with each other in defined proportions to make molecules, and that each element had a characteristic valence; its atoms, in other words, could unite with a fixed number of other atoms of the same or another kind.
The Modal Strength of Leibniz’s Principle of the Identity of Indiscernibles
Authors: Jauernig Anja 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anja Jauernig[AU]
The principle of the identity of indiscernibles (hereafter ‘PII’) is one of Leibniz’s most discussed principles.In Leibniz’s words, it says: ‘to suppose two things indiscernible is to suppose the same thing under two names’,or, similarly, ‘all substances are different in nature, and there are no two things in nature, which differ in number alone’.In its most general form, the principle can be formulated as stating that things are identical if, and only if, they are indiscernible in the sense that they agree with respect to all of their properties.
Plotinus On Astrology
Authors: Adamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plotinus’ own writings also testify to this interest. One of the first works he wrote, Enneads 3. 1 [6], is a treatise on fate which criticizes astrologers’ claims alongside other deterministic systems. Some time later, he devoted a lengthy section of a long treatise on the soul, Enneads 4. 4 [28]. 30–9, to a discussion of astral causation. And one of the last works he wrote, Enneads 2. 3 [52], is devoted entirely to the question of whether the stars cause things to happen in the sublunary world. These texts show a sustained engagement on Plotinus’ part, not just with the question of how the stars relate to the sublunary world, but also with the more specific question of whether it is possible for there to be a science that predicts particular events by observing the heavens.
The Oestrus that Never was
Authors: Dixson Alan F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A recurrent theme in discussions about the origins of human sexual behaviour concerns the concept of oestrus, as it applies to female mammals, and to the presumptive loss of oestrus during human evolution. Oestrus, as originally defined by Walter Heape (1900), denotes a period of heightened sexual activity in female mammals, in association with the likelihood that ovulation will occur and that mating will result in conception. Heape noted that ‘it is during oestrus, and only at that time, that the female is willing to receive the male.’ The term derives from the Greek word for the gadfly, whose bite drives animals into a frenzy; the implication being that females are in a state of sexual frenzy or in heat during oestrus. Ovarian hormones (and especially oestrogen and progesterone) control the onset and duration of oestrus, so that ovariectomy is usually associated with loss of the female capacity to display sexual receptivity in many mammals. This is the case, for example, in rodents such as the rat, in carnivores (e.g. the cat and ferret), in rabbits, ungulates (such as cattle and sheep), and in many others. It is not, however, a universal attribute, applicable to all mammalian groups or species.
Human Sexual Dimorphism: Opposites Attract
Authors: Dixson Alan F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
He also stressed that, as well as inter-male competition: ‘there is another and more peaceful kind of contest, in which the males endeavour to excite and allure the females by various charms.’ Darwin’s emphasis upon the effects of sexual selection on masculine body size, weaponry, attractive adornments and displays is consistent with the fact that females usually represent a limiting resource for males. Females invest a huge amount physiologically in reproduction and in the care of their offspring, so they are expected to be more ‘choosy’, whilst males may be expected to compete among themselves and to invest more in attempts to attract and control prospective mates. This is not to imply, however, that sexual selection does not act upon females. In the last chapter, the importance of female sexual skin swellings in mandrills, talapoins, chimpanzees, and other Old World anthropoids was discussed in relation to changes in female sexual attractiveness during the menstrual cycle. These extraordinary oestrogen-dependent swellings are prime examples of the effects of sexual selection acting upon females, to enhance their ‘charms’ during the ‘more peaceful kind of contest’ required to attract members of the opposite sex (Figure 6.6). Darwin (1876) was intrigued by these structures, and he recalled that ‘in my Descent of Man no case interested and perplexed me so much as the brightly-coloured hinder ends and adjoining parts of certain monkeys’. Even in this context, however, he emphasized the functions of brightly coloured areas of skin in male monkeys (notably in the male mandrill) rather than exploring the effects of sexual selection in relation to female sexual attractiveness.
Changes in sleep with age
Authors: Stores Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The nature of our sleep, and how much sleep we need, changes considerably during the course of our lives. Table 4.1 shows the average amount of sleep needed at different ages. However, it is important to realize that, at any age, people differ somewhat from each other in this respect. As part of their biological make-up, a few can function perfectly well on less than the average; others may need more without having a sleep disorder. The biggest changes occur during childhood (see Table 4.1). An understanding of children’s sleep is important for adults because their own sleep may be affected as part of being a parent (see Chapter 11). Children’s sleep problems can disrupt their parents’ sleep in various ways, which partly reflect the changes that occur in sleep during the course of early development. Studies of premature babies show that sleep begins well before birth. A fetus spends up to 20 hours a day asleep. This very high amount of sleep persists during infancy, with at least 50% of it taking the form of REM-type (‘active’) sleep. This compares with about 25% of REM sleep in early adult life, perhaps reducing somewhat in old age. Also, infants can pass directly into REM sleep when they fall asleep.
Treatments for insomnia
Authors: Stores Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The choice of treatment for insomnia should be based on the cause of the problem, i.e. the underlying sleep disorder. Principles of good sleep hygiene are important for helping anyone to sleep well, but they are also valuable in combination with more specific treatments, depending on the cause of your insomnia. Sleeping tablets have a very limited part to play in the treatment of insomnia and can be harmful. They are no substitute for treating the underlying cause of not sleeping well. Coming off sleeping tablets can be troublesome and needs careful supervision. Sleeping aids bought over the counter are of doubtful value and can cause daytime problems. With professional supervision, psychological and behavioural treatments can be very effective. As already stressed, it is essential that the basic cause of insomnia is identified and treated, whenever possible. However, you probably do not need to see your doctor if your sleep problem has lasted for only a short time and is a normal understandable reaction to your circumstances—such as those mentioned earlier as causes of transient insomnia. Jet lag is one of the few exceptions to this rule where prescribed medication in the form of a short course of sleeping tablets (or possibly melatonin) can be justified (see Chapter 11).
Particular groups at special risk of sleep problems and their consequences
Authors: Stores Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sleep problems can affect anyone, but certain groups of people, for particular reasons, are at special risk of disturbed sleep and its harmful effects. Parents’ sleep may well suffer if their child’s sleep is a problem. The nature of their child’s sleep disturbance, and ways in which it can be prevented or treated, vary with the child’s stage of development. Women may suffer sleeping difficulties related to pregnancy, menstruation, child care, and the menopause, but can often be helped during these times. Your bed partner’s own sleep disorder can also seriously disturb your sleep. Sleep problems are particularly common in elderly people, often because of a combination of social, medical, and psychiatric factors, although these can normally be corrected to some extent. Sleeping tablets are particularly hazardous at this age. Profound changes in sleep patterns often occur in people with dementia, causing much difficulty for carers.
Getting help with your sleep problem
Authors: Stores Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Satisfactory sleep is very important for various aspects of living, and for general health and well-being. Many of us may know that we have a sleep problem, but we might not always be fully aware of its possible consequences. You may overlook the fact that your sleep is unsatisfactory and that it is likely to be at least partly responsible for making you feel below your best and unable to function properly during the day. It is important, therefore, to consider whether you, or any members of your family (or even friends), are showing the signs of unsatisfactory sleep described in Chapter 5. If you suffer from insomnia and (possibly as a result) you are very sleepy during the day or affected in other ways, rather than treating yourself with over-the-counter products from the chemist or health food shop, see if you find it more helpful to try and improve your sleep hygiene (see Chapter 8). This may be all that is needed.
Mysteria
Authors: Scull Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Elizabeth Jackson’s conviction for witchcraft was not the end of the story. As we shall soon see, a radically different interpretation of Mary Glover’s afflictions had been proffered at her trial. The judge rejected that testimony, as did the jury. But it was an alternative account that had a long pedigree, and its proponent was a respectable man with powerful political allies. Mary was not bewitched, but hysterical, or so it was alleged. Where had that term come from? What is that disorder, whose biography is our subject? Hysteria is a pathological condition with a fascinating and tortuous medical and cultural history. If the malady seems to change its shape and its form over the centuries, who can be surprised? For here is a disorder that even those who insist on its reality concede is a chameleon-like disease that can mimic the symptoms of any other, and one that somehow seems to mold itself to the culture in which it appears.
American Nervousness
Authors: Scull Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
War, as the bumper sticker would have it, is not good for children and other living things. For medics, though, it is another matter entirely. The wounds of warfare, it goes without saying, require much medical attention—to keep up the morale of the troops, if not actually to cure many of those treated. (Prior to the spread of aseptic surgery, battlefield mortality was frightful, and medicine’s weapons against infectious diseases, which regularly decimated the troops, were equally weak and unsatisfactory.) But beyond that, war allows army medics to observe the impact of all sorts of trauma on the human body, an array of naturalistic experiments from which much can potentially be learned, and which could never be replicated on a similar scale in normal times, even among such vulnerable populations as the mentally ill and the mentally retarded.
Freudian Hysterics
Authors: Scull Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On October 13, 1885, the Orient Express, which had then been in operation a scant two years, pulled into the Gare de l’Est in Paris at the end of its long journey from Austria. A bearded 29-year-old man descended from his carriage and joined the crowds moving towards the Boulevard de Strasbourg. Poor but ambitious, he was making one last desperate throw of the dice before facing the grim prospect of exile, perhaps to the United States, a country he regarded as “a hopeless place for science” and one he would later dismiss as “gigantic, but a gigantic mistake.”
Ethical Neo-Expressivism
Authors: Bar-On Dorit , Chrisman Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A standard way to explain the connection between ethical claims and motivation is to say that these claims express motivational attitudes. Unless this connection is taken to be merely a matter of contingent psychological regularity, it may seem that there are only two options for understanding it. Either we can treat ethical claims as expressing propositions that entail something about the speaker’s motivational attitudes (subjectivism), or we can treat ethical claims as nonpropositional and as having their semantic content constituted by the motivational attitudes they directly express (noncognitivism).
The Court Play
Authors: Chambers E K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE foregoing chapters have illustrated the overflow of the Renaissance passion for drama, taking shape in the spectac11lar enrichment of elements in court life which were not originally mimetic in their intention ; the welcome, the exercise of arms, the dance. They are subordinate in their interest to us, as they were in fact subordinate by reason of their occasional character to the play itself, which formed, both in Elizabeth’s reign and in that of James, the staple amusement of the court winter. The ordinary season for plays was a comparatively restricted one. Traditionally it began with All Saints, but Elizabeth at least rarely reached her winter quarters by the beginning of November, and her revels began with the Christmas festival itself, the twelve days of ancient licence in Calends and Saturnalia that extended from Nativity to Epiphany.
The Struggle Of Court And City
Authors: Chambers E K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE foregoing chapter has endeavoured to define the practical and spiritual forces which underlay the controversy between Puritanism and the stage ; it remains to study the working of the constitutional forms through which, as a result ant of those forces, the ‘ quality’ of the player ultimately established itself as a recognized constituent of the polity. And first, for the social status of the players. The wittier Puritans were fond of twitting them, on the ground that, if all men had their rights, they would count as no better than vagabonds. There is little more than a verbal truth in the taunt. No doubt, in certain circumstances, players, like minstrels before them, might fall within the danger of a series of statutes which, in the course of formulating the provisions of a nascent poor-law, attempted also to regulate the wandering elements of society. It was part of the mediaeval conception of things to assign to every individual a definite function in the social organism and to expect from him the regular fulfilment of that function.