bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Biographical Overview
Authors: Anesko Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As they reach their years of full maturity, Howells and James must readjust to a rapidly changing literary marketplace. After decades of reluctance, in 1891 the United States finally signs a copyright agreement with the United Kingdom, ending the wholesale piracy of British fiction in America that had kept many firms (including Harper Sc Brothers) in the black. The nineties also witness a proliferation of truly mass-market magazines, greatly expanding the number of outlets available for manuscripts but also imposing new restraints upon them. The “popular” format, cheaply designed for easy reading and quick consumption, requires brevity and concision–qualities that James, especially, can seldom achieve. The “five thousand word tale” becomes his editorial nemesis. To help place stories and negotiate with white-collar professionals whom he now seldom knows firsthand, James engages a literary agent. By virtue of his long connection with Harper’s (renewed after the firm’s reorganization in 1900 following bankruptcy), Howells has more privileged access to their magazines; but even he is not immune from the new competitive pressures. With the exception of The Son of Royal Langbrith (1904), none of his later novels appears as a serial in Harper periodicals. Travel articles and briefer columns of literary and social commentary form the bulk of his magazine contributions for the rest of his life.
“Those Badly Assorted Siamese Twins”
Authors: Anesko Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his holiday letter of 1880 James complained about the paucity of personal news and professional gossip that Howells had been providing. James would hardly have suspected that his friend’s reticence concealed a growing discontent with his comfortably prosperous literary situation; but by the end of that year, Howells had resolved to sever the primary bond that tied him to Boston. Resigning from the Atlantic granted Howells greater freedom; in these altered circumstances,the novelist recognized a profound need to break new ground. In some of his other letters dating from this time he spoke almost resentfully of the “international” subject that, by now, he seemed condemned to repeat. Praising another novel for its vivid depiction of New York (not, incidentally, Washington Square), Howells envied the author for having that field to himself. “No one can say that you are working up the tracts of those badly assorted Siamese twins, J. and H., who happened to treat inter-continental passion (or bi-continental passion) before you.”1 In writing A Modem Instance, Howells was attempting to defeat what had already become a customary classification and distance himself from a comparison in which he would always suffer. As The Portrait of a Lady sailed majestically through number after number of the magazine, Howells surely recognized that James was laying more exclusive claim to the trans-Atlantic novel of manners–if not, indeed, exhausting the genre
The Great Goethe, the Good Schiller
Authors: Anesko Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having accumulated a quantity of material during his 1897 European sojourn, Howells planned to rework his recent travels into literary form, which would take the shape of Basil and Isabel March’s twenty-fifth-anniversary sequel to Their Wedding Journey. Provisionally entitled “The Discovery of Europe,” this work signaled Howells’s return to a field–the “international”–he had long since surrendered to James. With a salesman’s bravado, he told the editor of Harpers Magazine (while asking for more “elbow room”–and substantially more money), “I hope to make it so light, new, and gay, so unique in conception and execution, that it will be successful, and that you will wish to continue it as long as I shall.”1 The waters at Carlsbad may not have cured him of anything else, but Howells was soon disabused of this optimism. Returning to his “early method of mixing travel and story” proved hazardous, as he told James. Getting the right start was especially troublesome; once under way, however, the book became diffuse and unmanageable. Critics have justifiably ignored this novel (when they have not dismissed it), but an author’s failures still can speak to us if we ask the right questions of them. Why, contrary to all his expectations, should this book have been so difficult for Howells to write? Perhaps because, unlike any other, it betrays acute symptoms of the anxiety of influence.
Egyptian Mathematics
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While Mesopotamia experienced many changes in its ruling peoples, with resulting new cultural influences, the Egyptian civilization developed unaffected by foreign influences. The origins of the civilization are unknown but it surely existed even before 4000 b.c. Egypt, as the Greek historian Hero-dotus says, is a gift of the Nile. Once a year this river, drawing its water from the south, floods the territory all along its banks and leaves behind rich soil. Most of the people did and still do make their living by tilling this soil. The rest of the country is desert.
The Alexandrian Greek Period: Geometry and Trigonometry
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The course of mathematics has been very much dependent on the course of history. Conquests launched by the Macedonians, a Greek people living in the northern part of the mainland of Greece, led to the destruction of the classical Greek civilization and paved the way for another essentially Greek civilization of quite different character. The conquests were begun in 352 b.c. by Philip II of Macedonia. Athens was beaten in 338 b.c. In 336 b.c. Alexander the Great, son of Philip, took command and conquered Greece, Egypt, and the Near East as far east as India and as far south as the cataracts of the Nile. He constructed new cities everywhere, both as strongholds and as centers of commerce. The main one, Alexandria, centrally located in Alexander’s empire and intended as his capital, was founded in Egypt in 332 b.c. Alexander chose the site and drew up the plans for the buildings and for colonizing the city, but the work was not completed for many years thereafter.
The Beginnings of Projective Geometry
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The resurgence of significant creative activity in geometry lagged behind that in algebra. Apart from the creation of the mathematical system of perspective and the incidental geometrical work of the Renaissance artists (Chap. 12, sec. 2), very little of consequence was done in geometry from the time of Pappus to about 1600. Some interest was created by the appearance of numerous printed editions of Apollonius’ Conic Sections, especially the notable Latin translation by Federigo Commandino (1509-75) of Books I to IV in 1566. Books V to VII were made available by other translators, and a number of men, including Vieta, Willebrord Snell (1580-1626), and Ghetaldi, undertook to reconstruct the lost eighth book.
Ordinary Differential Equations in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mathematicians sought to use the calculus to solve more and more physical problems and soon found themselves obliged to handle a new class of problems. They wrought more than they had consciously sought. The simpler problems led to quadratures that could be evaluated in terms of the elementary functions. Somewhat more difficult ones led to quadratures which could not be so expressed, as was the case for elliptic integrals (Chap. 19, sec. 4). Both of these types fall within the purview of the calculus. However, solution of the still more complicated problems demanded specialized techniques; thus the subject of differential equations arose. Several classes of physical problems motivated the investigations in differential equations. Problems in the area now generally known as the theory of elasticity were one class. A body is elastic if it deforms under the action of a force and recovers its original shape when the force is removed. The most practical problems are concerned with the shapes assumed by beams, vertical and horizontal, when loads are applied. These problems, treated empirically by the builders of the great medieval cathedrals, were approached mathematically in the seventeenth century by men such as Galileo, Edme Mariotte (1620 ?-84), Robert Hooke ( I635–1703), and Wren.
Partial Differential Equations in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of partial differential equations, which had its beginnings in the eighteenth century, burgeoned in the nineteenth. As physical science expanded, in both the variety and depth of the phenomena investigated, the number of new types of differential equations increased; and even the types already known, the wave equation and the potential equation, were applied to new areas of physics. Partial differential equations became and remain the heart of mathematics. Their importance for physical science is only one of the reasons for assigning them this central place. From the standpoint of mathematics itself, the solution of partial differential equations created the need for mathematical developments in the theory of functions, the calculus of variations, series expansions, ordinary differential equations, algebra, and differential geometry. The subject has become so extensive that in this chapter we can give only a few of the major results. We are accustomed today to classifying partial differential equations according to types. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, so little was known about the subject that the idea of distinguishing the various types could not have occurred. The physical problems dictated which equations were to be pursued and the mathematicians passed freely from one type to another without recognizing some differences among them that we now consider fundamental. The physical world was and still is indifferent to the mathematicians’ classification.
Galois Theory
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic problem of algebra, the solution of polynomial equations, continued to occupy the center of the stage in the algebra of the early nineteenth century. In this period, the broad question of which equations are solvable by algebraic operations was definitely and comprehensively answered by Galois. Moreover, he not only created the first significant coherent body of algebraic theory but he introduced new notions which were to be developed into still other broadly applicable theories of algebra. In particular the concepts of a group and a field emerged from his work and Abel’s.
Quaternions, Vectors, and Linear Associative Algebras
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Galois’s work on equations solvable by algebraic processes closed a chapter of algebra and, though he introduced ideas such as group and domain of rationality (field) that would bear fruit, the fuller exploitation of these ideas had to await other developments. The next major algebraic creation, initiated by William R. Hamilton, opened up totally new domains while shattering age-old convictions as to how “numbers” must behave. To appreciate the originality of Hamilton’s work we must examine the logic of ordinary algebra as it was generally understood in the first half of the nineteenth century. By 1800 the mathematicians were using freely the various types of real numbers and even complex numbers, but the precise definitions of these various types of numbers were not available nor was there any logical justification of the operations with them. Expressions of dissatisfaction with this state of affairs were numerous but were submerged in the mass of new creations in algebra and analysis. The greatest uneasiness seemed to be caused by the fact that letters were manipulated as though they had the properties of the integers; yet the results of these operations were valid when any numbers were substituted for the letters.
Determinants and Matrices
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though determinants and matrices received a great deal of attention in the nineteenth century and thousands of papers were written on these subjects they do not constitute great innovations in mathematics. The concept of a vector, which from the mathematical standpoint is no more than a collection of ordered triples, nevertheless has a direct physical significance as a force or velocity, and with it one can write down at once mathematically what the physics states. The same applies with all the more cogency to gradient, divergence, and curl. Likewise though mathematically dy/dxis no more than a symbol for a lengthy expression involving the limit of Δy Δx,the derivative is in itself a powerful concept that enables us to think directly and creatively about physical happenings. Thus though mathematics superficially regarded is no more than a language or a shorthand, its most vital concepts are those that supply keys to new realms of thought. By contrast, determinants and matrices are solely innovations in language. They are shorthand expressions for ideas which already exist in more expanded form. In themselves they say nothing directly that is not already said by equations or transformations albeit in lengthier fashion. Neither determinants nor matrices have influenced deeply the course of mathematics despite their utility as compact expressions and despite the suggestiveness of matrices as concrete groups for the discernment of general theorems of group theory. Nevertheless, both concepts have proved to be highly useful tools and are now part of the apparatus of mathematics.
The Foundations of Geometry
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Criticism of Euclid’s definitions and axioms (Chap. 4, sec. 10) dates back to the earliest known commentators, Pappus and Proclus. When the Europeans were first introduced to Euclid during the Renaissance, they too noted flaws. Jacques Peletier (1517-82), in his In Euclidis Elementa Geometrica Demonstrationum (155 7), criticized Euclid’s use of superposition to prove theorems on congruence. Even the philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer said in 1844 that he was surprised that mathematicians attacked Euclid’s parallel postulate rather than the axiom that figures which coincide are equal. He argued that coincident figures are automatically identical or equal and hence no axiom is needed, or coincidence is something entirely empirical, which belongs not to pure intuition (Anschauung) but to external sensuous experience. Moreover, the axiom presupposes the mobility of figures; but that which is movable in space is matter, and hence outside geometry.
The Theory of Functions of Real Variables
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of functions of one or more real variables grew out of the attempt to understand and clarify a number of strange discoveries that had been made in the nineteenth century. Continuous but non-differentiable functions, series of continuous functions whose sum is discontinuous, continuous functions that are not piecewise monotonic, functions possessing bounded derivatives that are not Riemann integrable, curves that are rectifiable but not according to the calculus definition of arc length, and nonintegrable functions that are limits of sequences of integrable functions-all seemed to contradict the expected behavior of functions, derivatives, and integrals. Another motivation for the further study of the behavior of functions came from the research on Fourier series. This theory, as built up by Dirichlet, Riemann, Cantor, Ulisse Dini (1845-1918), Jordan, and other mathematicians of the nineteenth century, was a quite satisfactory instrument for applied mathematics. But the properties of the series, as thus far developed, failed to give a theory that could satisfy the pure mathematicians. Unity, symmetry, and completeness of relation between function and series were still wanting.
Divergent Series
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The serious consideration from the late nineteenth century onward of a subject such as divergent series indicates how radically mathematicians have revised their own conception of the nature of mathematics. Whereas in the first part of the nineteenth century they accepted the ban on divergent series on the ground that mathematics was restricted by some inner requirement or the dictates of nature to a fixed class of correct concepts, by the end of the century they recognized their freedom to entertain any ideas that seemed to offer any utility.
Tensor Analysis and Differential Geometry
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tensor analysis is often described as a totally new branch of mathematics, created ab initio either to meet some specific objective or just to delight mathematicians. It is actually no more than a variation on an old theme, namely, the study of differential invariants associated primarily with a Riemannian geometry. These invariants, we may recall (Chap. 37, sec. 5), are expressions that retain their form and value under any change in the coordinate system because they represent geometrical or physical properties.
The Emergence of Abstract Algebra
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In abstract algebra, as in the case of most twentieth-century developments, the basic concepts and goals were fixed in the nineteenth century. The fact that algebra can deal with collections of objects that are not necessarily real or complex numbers was demonstrated in a dozen nineteenth-century creations. Vectors, quaternions, matrices, forms such as ax + bxy + cy , hyper-numbers of various sorts, transformations, and substitutions or permutations are examples of objects that were combined under operations and laws of operation peculiar to the respective collections. Even the work on algebraic numbers, though it dealt with classes of complex numbers, brought to the fore the variety of algebras because it demonstrated that only some properties are applicable to these classes as opposed to the entire complex number system.
The Beginnings of Tapology
Authors: Kline Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A number of developments of the nineteenth century crystallized in a new branch of geometry, now called topology but long known as analysis situs. To put it loosely for the moment, topology is concerned with those properties of geometric figures that remain invariant when the figures are bent, stretched, shrunk, or deformed in any way that does not create new points or fuse existing points. The transformation presupposes, in other words, that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the points of the original figure and the points of the transformed figure, and that the transformation carries nearby points into nearby points. This latter property is called continuity, and the requirement is that the transformation and its inverse both be continuous. Such a transformation is called a homeomorphism. Topology is often loosely described as rubber-sheet geometry, because if the figures were made of rubber, it would be possible to deform many figures into homeomorphic figures. Thus a rubber band can be deformed into and is topologically the same as a circle or a square, but it is not topologically the same as a figure eight, because this would require the fusion of two points of the band.
Introduction: Situating the Study, Mapping the Argument
Authors: Himley Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theories of Mikhail M. Bakhtin and Patricia F. Carini present a challenge to literacy teachers, theorists, and researchers. They both insist that we start our enterprise from the argument that all actual language use, from marginalia in a cookbook to a child’s first story to book-length scientific treatises or literary works, must be studied and understood as both/and: both social and psychological, personal and cultural, unique.
Thinking Seriously about Children Writing: Constructing an Object of Study
Authors: Himley Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With Read’s results so tidily confirmed, I ventured enthusiastically into the new field of inquiry-early written language development-that had been legitimated by Donald Graves in his pioneering investigation into the composing processes of seven-year-old children. I eagerly read composing process studies (Graves, 1973, 1983); analyses of children’s evolving hypotheses about the relationship of talk to print (Clay, 1975; Ferreiro and Teberosky, 1982); ethnographic and case studies of individual writers and particular classrooms (Bissex, 1980; Calkins, 1983; Dyson, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985; Gundlach et al., 1985); semiotic and sociolinguistic accounts of early development (Kress, 1982; Harste, Woodward, and Burke, 1984)—and many others. The journey proved intriguing.
Promises of Coherence, Weak Content, and Strong Organization: An Analysis of the Students’ Texts
Authors: Kantz Margaret J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a fact of life that students interpret writing tasks in different ways. These task representations matter because they affect the written products. Differences in task representation lead to marked differences in papers that may, in turn, determine whether individual papers fulfill a teacher’s expectations and how they are evaluated. Sometimes, however, students appear to think about a task in one way but do it in another way, producing papers that send. conflicting textual signals that confuse the teachers who read them. In the study being reported in this chapter, teachers who operated on the basis of seemingly reasonable expectations for structure and coherence found themselves temporarily unable to agree about the differences in particular papers-and, hence, unable to agree on how the writers had interpreted the assignment.
The Cultural Imperatives Underlying Cognitive Acts
Authors: Mccormick Kathleen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 7, we began to place reading and writing in a social context involving academic and nonacademic influences. We focused on how students’ first responses to the Time Management text were rooted in practices they had learned-and learned well-in school. This chapter explores some ways in which both those very educational practices that students say influenced them and their varied responses to the time management talk are symptomatic of broader ideological practices. By largely focusing on the "interstices" of students’ reading and writing-their class comments, interviews, and protocols, as well as some less easily studied aspects of their time management essays-this chapter investigates some of the cultural imperatives that may underlie the particular cognitive acts our students performed.
Introduction
Authors: Kraemer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is meant to be a particular kind of history of the Babylonian Talmud (the Bavli). It is, first, a literary history. It traces the development of the literary forms and conventions by which rabbinic sages in third-through sixth-century Sasanian Iran (which Jews still referred to as Babylonia) recorded their opinions and rulings. What motivates this examination is the assumption-spelled out at length in chapter 1-that literary conventions are reflections of ideological choices and that by tracing the history of literary developments we can say something of the history of ideas.
The Bavli Considered as a Whole
Authors: Kraemer David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If reasons, justification, and argumentation were already a focus of attention for the amoraim, as demonstrated in chapter 3, then what was the innovation of the authors of the anonymous gemara (the stam)? (By “the authors of the anonymous gemara” I mean those who compiled the earlier amoraic traditions and created for them an extensive, unattributed literary context as well as those who arranged these texts to form the final product.