bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Central and Eastern Europe between Liberation and Soviet Occupation
Authors: Piffer Tommaso 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The arrival of the Red Army sealed the fate of the Eastern European countries which had fought alongside Germany. Neither the resistance groups nor the communist parties played a particularly meaningful role in the liberation of Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania. While the British were focused on the Mediterranean and especially on Greece, Moscow retained the upper hand in the region. With the support of the Red Army and Soviet intelligence, the communists easily gained the strongest positions inside the governments of their respective countries, from which they eventually achieved the elimination of their opponents and the takeover of power. The history of Czechoslovakia and Poland took two opposite paths, which eventually led to the complete sovietization of both countries. In December 1943, Beneš thought that he had no option but to appease the Soviets and sign a Czechoslovak–Soviet treaty of friendship and cooperation. It was a fatal miscalculation, which eventually gave Moscow control of the entire country. The Polish Government-in-exile, in contrast, still had an important card to play in the confrontation with Moscow: namely, the Home Army, which was still a considerable force on the ground and was ready to support the government-in-exile. But the core of the Polish resistance, the very first movement supported by the British in 1939, was in essence destroyed by Stalin’s refusal to support the Warsaw Uprising in August 1944.
Propositions
Authors: Mahtani Anna 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter begins by outlining the various roles that propositions are expected to play, before describing a range of different accounts of propositions. The idea that a proposition might be simply a sentence is discussed in brief, and then Gottlob Frege’s account is discussed in more depth, covering his theories of sense and reference (‘Sinn’ and ‘Bedeutung’). Then follows a summary of Bertrand Russell’s account of definite descriptions and the descriptivist account of names, and this leads to a more general discussion of structured propositions and guise Russellianism (focused on Nathan Salmon’s account). The chapter finishes with an extended description of possible world semantics, including centred possible worlds.
The Credence Framework
Authors: Mahtani Anna 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter introduces the credence framework. It begins with a description of the probability framework, introducing states, events, algebras, and probability functions. The probability axioms are defined and some of their implications explored. The question of how to interpret the probability framework is addressed, with a focus on interpreting probabilities as credences. This is followed by a discussion of the nature of credences and their relation to betting and choice behaviour more generally. Various further questions and details are addressed, including the problem of logical omniscience; the question of whether the credence framework is designed to apply to real or ideally rational agents; and whether it is supposed to be a description or a model. Various arguments for probabilism (dutch-book arguments, accuracy arguments, and the representation theorem) are set out, and some problems with these are briefly raised. Finally, some other rules for rationality are discussed, including conditionalization, the Principal Principle, and the Reflection Principle.
Credence Claims Are Opaque
Authors: Mahtani Anna 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter argues for the central tenet of the book—namely that credence claims are opaque (or ‘hyperintensional’). In the first part of the chapter, three sorts of reasons to accept this tenet are put forward: firstly, reasons relating to betting and/or choice behaviour; secondly, reasons relating to omniscience; and finally, reasons (as discussed by David Chalmers) relating to the principle of conditionalization. The second part of the chapter is focused on a potential rival view on which the tenet would fail, inspired by guise Russellianism (as advocated by Nathan Salmon and David Braun, amongst others). Guise Russellianism is described and some of its virtues and shortcomings discussed, before the chapter turns to the question of how guise Russellianism might be adapted to apply to credence rather than belief. Several such adaptations are explored, but each adaptation either entails the tenet or faces serious problems. The chapter ends by concluding that the tenet holds.
Implications for Rationality
Authors: Mahtani Anna 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter traces some of the implications of the tenet (that credence claims are opaque) for principles of rationality. A brief outline is given of how the tenet affects our understanding of the credence framework, and then the rest of the chapter focuses on two principles of rationality: the Reflection Principle and the Principal Principle. An objection is raised to the Reflection Principle, and the tenet plays a central role in refining the Reflection Principle to handle this objection. Implications are explored for other puzzles in the literature, including the Sleeping Beauty problem, and the discussion is extended to cover cases of peer disagreement. The chapter then turns to a discussion of the Principal Principle, which relates chance and credence, and it is argued that chance claims are intensional but not hyperintensional. A related problem involving the contingent a priori is raised, and a solution proposed, drawing on the idea that chance is an analyst rather than a database expert. The implications of this solution are explored.
States as Something Else
Authors: Mahtani Anna 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers whether the credence framework could accommodate the tenet by dropping the assumption that states are metaphysically possible worlds, and explores some of the difficulties for this view. The chapter begins by restating the apparent problem in reconciling the tenet with an interpretation of the credence framework on which states are metaphysically possible worlds, and then proceeds to explore alternative ways of interpreting states. A natural first idea is that states might be fine-grained possible worlds, and an argument is given that these fine-grained possible worlds must be ersatz worlds (to use David Lewis’s terminology), and linguistic rather than pictorial representations. Various difficulties for the idea are discussed—including the role of context and problems interpreting an artificial ‘world-building’ language. The chapter then turns to the question of whether the worlds should be coherent and/or complete, and here there is engagement with the literature on impossible worlds, logical omniscience, and content. With these issues in mind, it is shown that standard arguments for probabilism (dutch-book and accuracy arguments) are not cogent, and the chapter ends with a discussion of whether an account on which propositions are structured entities can be reconciled with the views discussed in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Meyer Robin 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
The history of Parthian-Armenian contact and its linguistic results have been studied for almost 150 years now, but a number of questions remain still unanswered, especially concerning the extent of the impact Parthian and other Iranian languages had on Armenian syntax. In laying out the structure of this book, this chapter gives a brief aperçu of the key questions addressed: was the Parthian-Armenian ruling class in and before the 5th century AD bilingual? Does the existence of Iranian-based constructions in Armenian suggest more intense contact than previously assumed? Can contact with Parthian explain the idiosyncrasies of the Armenian perfect?
Sociohistorical evidence for Iranian influence on Armenian
Authors: Meyer Robin 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
While the linguistic evidence on Parthian-Armenian contact provides information about which domains of language were affected most, it does not of itself permit any conclusions concerning the circumstances of the contact situation, its extent, or its time-frame. This chapter collects and discusses evidence from diverse documents-literary, historical, and epigraphic-to elucidate these circumstances, taking into account Iranian, Armenian, Greek, Latin, and Chinese sources. Direct evidence of Iranian-Armenian multilingualism is limited, but numerous facts point to a close integration of Parthian and Armenian speakers after the middle of the 3rd century: Christianization, intermarriage and the exchange of wards, wars against the Sasanians, to name only the most central points. At the same time, a lack of Parthian sources from this time and region raises questions as to the fate of their own language
Conclusions
Authors: Meyer Robin 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter draws together all the pieces of evidence presented in this book for a final analysis, reflection, and mise en garde. While the arguments presented thus far speak clearly in favour of the keystones of this book–a Parthian superstrate shift to Armenian, an elevation of the Parthian variety of Armenian to prestige status, coloured by syntactic Iranianisms created by pattern replication–this explanation is inevitably only a hypothesis, based on limited data, both linguistic and historical. It represents a reasoned approach to the question of the linguistic interaction between Iranians and Armenians, and suggests plausible solutions, but cannot claim to have the final word in this matter. On the contrary, it is but the first step in the more detailed consideration of the diachrony of Classical Armenian syntax.
Privacy, the Public, and the Private
Authors: Véliz Carissa 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Views of privacy that rely on the distinction between the private and the public spheres may seem intuitive at first, if only because they recognize the etymological kinship between the concepts of privacy and the private sphere. Such views, however, quickly run into trouble. This chapter will argue that appealing to the private and public divide is unhelpful both in defining what privacy is and in determining what ought to be protected by privacy. The objective of this chapter is to show that it is not a contradiction in terms to say that privacy issues are not concerns that only and always belong to the private sphere. Section 1 critically assesses William Parent’s view as an example of a philosophical account that relies on the public and private divide to determine what privacy is. One might think that the problems with Parent’s view stem from an incorrect way of dividing the public from the private. Sections 2, 3, and 4 examine three alternative ways of marking out the divide—spatially, financially, and with respect to the roles we play. These sections argue that none of these ways of separating the private and the public can justify a definition or a defence of what ought to belong to the realm of privacy. Section 5 argues that the distinction between the private and the public is especially unhelpful in the digital age, when the paradigms of the private sphere are collapsing into the public sphere.
Ten Accounts of Privacy—And Their Shortcomings
Authors: Véliz Carissa 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter goes through some of the definitions and accounts of privacy that are most influential in the literature in law and philosophy—those that turn on the concepts of the right to be left alone, control, possession of information, and limited access, as well as reductionism, contextual integrity, and the attempt to understand privacy as a “family resemblance” concept. For each account, the chapter points out its strengths and weaknesses. This chapter serves as preliminary work for the next chapter, which presents its own definition of privacy, building on the strengths of some of the accounts reviewed here.
The Hybrid Account of Privacy
Authors: Véliz Carissa 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Although philosophical accounts of privacy come in many shapes, most of them can broadly be divided into access and control theories. The most important advantage of access theories is that they capture the intuition that we lose privacy when someone learns about our personal information or enters our personal space, regardless of whether we are in control. In turn, the most important advantage of control theories is that they capture the intuition that it is wrong of others to make us lose control over our personal information, even when they do not access that information. An adequate theory of privacy should incorporate both access and control elements. This chapter argues that privacy itself and losses thereof are better explained by an access theory, while the right to privacy and violations thereof are better explained by appealing to control. The chapter will call the sum of both theories the hybrid account of privacy. An adequate access theory is a descriptive account that can help us answer questions related to when we have lost privacy. An adequate control theory is a normative account that can help us answer questions related to when our right to privacy has been violated. We need both to make sense of privacy. The chapter will first give a snapshot of the hybrid account of privacy. The chapter will then argue in detail for why we should understand privacy in terms of remaining personally unaccessed.
Criminalization, Stigma, and Normalization
Authors: Heidt Jon , Wheeldon Johannes 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides a history of cannabis prohibition. These efforts were instigated and aided by the moral reform movement, which preached abstinence from all intoxicating substances. This movement played an important role in defining drug use as a problem, perpetuating ethnic stereotypes and antipathy, and creating the infrastructure from which cannabis prohibition was realized first in the United States and later worldwide. Beginning with the Netherlands in the 1970s, countries started to chart their own course on cannabis. From Portugal to Canada and Uruguay to Germany, numerous countries and American states have begun a moral-legal renegotiation of the rules and regulations surrounding cannabis use. Understanding this process means revisiting concepts such as stigma and normalization and exploring cannabis policy throughout history.
In the Valley of the Kauravas
Authors: Sax William S. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question, “How is radical alterity best understood?” and answers it by discussing “three problematic terms” in anthropology: culture, ontology, and ritual. It criticizes the “ontological turn” for failing to take seriously the idea of “multiple worlds” and, following the philosophers Mol and Hacking and the ethnosociologist Marriott, argues that these can be theoretically grasped only when sufficient attention is given to practice. This is, however, not the case in most discussions of “ontology,” which remain stuck at the level of representation. Further, the chapter argues that a nuanced/revised notion of “culture” is able to account for the existence of multiple worlds, and suggests a conceptual framework for doing so. This framework requires us to identify the necessary preconditions for “real-izing” a world.
Brexit’s Northern Ireland Problem
Authors: Whitten Lisa Claire 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This introductory chapter sets out the key features of the environment in which the Northern Ireland constitution and Brexit intersect before, briefly, outlining the methodological approach taken and the consequential structure of the book. The contextual factors set out can be summarised as follows: (1) Brexit exposed a previously under-studied lack of settlement in the UK constitution and, as a result, fault lines emerged between parties with differing views of what that constitution requires; (2) the significance and vulnerability of Northern Ireland facing Brexit was multifaceted and derived from its constitution and its constitutionally contested history; (3) the Northern Ireland constitution is unique in the UK and internationally; (4) the high profile granted Northern Ireland in the context of Brexit marks a shift away from an established norm in UK politics of paying minimal attention to the constitutional particularities of the place.
Triggering Article 50
Authors: Whitten Lisa Claire 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter sets out the impact of the triggering of Article 50 of the Treaty on the European Union, and the process leading up to it, on the four components of the Northern Ireland constitution: the principle of consent, devolved government, the North–South and the East–West dimensions. Findings can be summarised as follows: (1) the orthodox position of the Supreme Court in Miller regarding the territorial constitution failed to account for sui generis aspects of the Northern Ireland constitution, including its basis in international law; (2) the aftermath of the UK’s EU referendum exposed the fragility of the Strand One institutions which, catalysed by existing policy failures, led to the breakdown of devolved government in Northern Ireland; (3) an initial strengthening of North–South and East–West relations ended with the collapse of power-sharing government, paving the way for a deterioration in political and diplomatic relations in the next phase of Brexit.
Brexit and the Northern Ireland Constitution
Authors: Whitten Lisa Claire 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter presents a summative analysis of the impact of Brexit on the Northern Ireland constitution by setting out the twelve key findings that arise from this research. In brief, Brexit: 1. Established the EU as ‘protector’ of the 1998 Agreement. 2. Exposed and exacerbated discrepancies between domestic and international law provisions for the Northern Ireland constitution. 3. Reaffirmed a narrow interpretation of the principle of constitutional consent. 4. Added a new dimension to the principle of consent. 5. Exposed the fragility of devolved government in Northern Ireland to external shocks. 6. Strengthened the executive powers of the UK Government vis-à-vis those of the devolved government in Northern Ireland. 7. Resulted in more specific legal protections for aspects of Strand Two than for Strand One or Strand Three. 8. Incentivised deeper North–South cooperation as a means of addressing ‘gaps’ in the post-Brexit arrangements for Northern Ireland. 9. Catalysed a shift in the nature of UK and Ireland approaches to Northern Ireland. 10. Resulted in a new mechanism for resolution of disputes regarding Northern Ireland in non-devolved areas. 11. Led to some clarification about the nature of ‘East–West’ intergovernmental cooperation and incentivised putting aspects of British-Irish cooperation on a more secure legal footing. 12. Caused a discursive reframing of ‘East–West’ relations to now include ‘GB–NI’.
Gaulish in the Late Empire (c. 200–600 ce)
Authors: Blom Alderik H. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
Gaulish was a Celtic language widespread in pre-Roman and Roman Gaul. It is widely assumed that it continued to be spoken alongside Latin and the various other vernaculars of Gaul for two, or possibly more, centuries after its written use had petered out, probably in the third or fourth century ce. This makes it the only Palaeoeuropean language to have coexisted in writing alongside Latin until far into the imperial period. Moreover, during that period Gaulish must have constituted a substrate influence on the regional variety of spoken, if not so much of written, Latin. This chapter discusses the rather limited source material on which this generally accepted scenario is based. Thus, the chronology and the likely course of the process of this, in the end, unstable Latin–Gaulish bilingualism, resulting in the eventual disappearance of Gaulish, will be established for as much as the available evidence allows.
Death and Survival of Latin in the Empire West of the Rhine (Belgicae, Germaniae) and the Rise of the Frankish-Theodisc Languages
Authors: Haubrichs Wolfgang 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter deals with the regionally restricted survival of Latin and Gallo-Romance after the fall of the Western Empire and their replacement by varieties of West Germanic languages (especially Frankish), mainly in the regions of persistent contact between Romance and Germanic, i.e. in the regions between the Rhine, Moselle, and Meuse in Merovingian and Carolingian times. The phases of this linguistic change are attested by four sets of evidence: firstly, contemporary Germanic-Frankish loanwords, personal names, and Frankish toponyms; secondly, toponyms originating from Latin or Gallo-Romance dialects, received by target languages such as Frankish, Old High German, and Dutch; thirdly, Latin or Gallo-Romance loanwords in the Germanic-Frankish target languages; fourthly, Frankish loanwords in Old French and in Gallo-Romance dialects of Eastern and Northern France. Most of the Latin-Romance language islands in these regions came to an end in the eighth century, with the exception of the area around Trier and the River Moselle, called Mosella Romana, the densest and longest-lived zone of Latin-Roman continuity, ending only at the end of the tenth century. West of this region and the later Romance–Germanic language border, a huge number of Frankish loanwords and some West Germanic toponyms attest to the extent of contacts between Franks and Romans in Northern and Eastern Gaul until the extinction of the Frankish language (in around the eighth century, except for the elites), contacts that involved agriculture, military affairs, law, but also everyday terms, whose reception into Late Latin can only be explained by long-lasting bilingualism of the speakers.
The Romance of Early Britain
Authors: Parsons David N. 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter considers the survival of Latin as a spoken language in Britain during the two centuries following the breakdown of Roman rule. Such material as survives to illustrate this obscure period is described and evaluated in two principal sections. One deals with the ‘British’ side of the equation, which comprises a few contemporary literary texts and a collection of (mostly short and formulaic) inscriptions, together with the evidence for early contact with Latin afforded by the later-recorded Celtic languages. The other addresses the ‘English’ dimension to the problem, seeking to examine linguistic traces that might have been passed to the Anglo-Saxons, whose own tongue came largely to replace whatever came before, whether it had been Celtic or Latin. Although the sum total of the two kinds of evidence is rather meagre, it is possible tentatively to conclude that a British variety of Late Latin, a nascent ‘British Romance’, was probably rather widely spoken, in bilingual situations if not as a preferred vernacular, across the fifth century and into the sixth.
The 2010–14 European Debt Crisis
Authors: Mitchell Christopher 
Published: January 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores how the 2010–14 European Debt Crisis, as a crisis which both originated in flaws in the European financial regulatory architecture and posed a severe threat of disintegration of the European Union, provided the most likely scenario for truly substantial moves toward deeper integration, via the creation of the European Stability Mechanism, Single Supervisory Mechanism, and Single Resolution Mechanism. These new institutions created a permanent state bailout mechanism and centralized bank supervision and resolution for the European Union, moves toward deeper integration that states were willing to make because failure to reform would produce recurring severe crises in the future. The chapter also traces how attempts at additional reform, including creating a European Deposit Insurance Scheme and Capital Markets Union, failed because the emergency period of the crisis ended before their implementation, and neither subsequent reform could win sufficient support in the absence of an immediate threat.