bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Religion, Religions, And World Religions Religious Studies-A Critique
Authors: Fitzgerald Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book has a number of related purposes. The first is to argue that there is no coherent non-theological theoretical basis for the study of religion as a separate academic discipline. The major assumption lying behind much comparative religion, also called phenomenology of religion, is that ‘religion’ is a universal phenomenon to be found in principle in all cultures and all human experience. This conception of a world of faiths involves a claim about human responses to the divine or the transcendent. Examples of ‘religions’ as putatively distinct systems or semantic fields can be listed and distinguished from ‘quasi-religious’ and ‘non-religious’ (secular) ideologies and institutions, as can specifically ‘religious’ experiences be distinguished from ‘non-religious’ ones. There are a plethora of definitions attempting to isolate these claimed religious phenomena from their non-religious contexts, though many authors and editors of books and encyclopaedias on religions and world religions seem unconcerned with any methodological principles governing their decisions. Generally, however, explicitly or implicitly, religion is assumed to be a phenomenon that is distinctive and separate and requires special departments and methodologies for its study.
Ninian Smart And The Phenomenology Of Religion
Authors: Fitzgerald Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In chapter 1 asked the reader to consider a spectrum of usages for the words ‘religion’ and ‘religions’. At one end of the spectrum the R-word is used by comparative religionists who derive their program from Mueller, Otto, and others. Sharpe’s history of comparative religion (which I looked at in the previous chapter) indicated that there is a theology of religions and it can be called liberal ecumenical theology, with a strong tendency toward monotheism though combining with a genuine scholarly interest in non-European and non-Christian languages and institutions, for example Sanskrit and Pali. However, the emphasis of comparative religion has been on fitting the non-Christian institutions, especially texts and their interpretation, into the framework of liberal ecumenical theology, and into a classification system dominated by Judaeo-Christian concepts of worship, sacrifice, and so on, though incorporating other concepts from such modem movements as neo-Vedanta.
Religion, Family Resemblances, And The Use Context
Authors: Fitzgerald Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter I pointed out that Smart had appealed to Ludwig Wittgenstein’s “family resemblances” as a solution to the problem of the definition of ‘religion’. While on the one hand many scholars feel intuitively that religion or religions can be fundamentally defined by belief in God or the supernatural or some other essential characteristic such as a special faculty of experience, there is an equally strong intuition that a whole range of institutions that do not involve belief or God or even the supernatural are also called religions or at least religious. The R-word in its various manifestations-’religion’, ‘religions’, ‘world religions’, ‘religious phenomena’, ‘religiosity’, and so on-is used by scholars in a bewildering variety of contexts, often with little or no critical reflection. Smart was attempting to redress this problem; though, as I suggested, there is an unresolved conflict in his writing between an essentialism deriving from the ecumenical theology of religions project and on the other hand his recognition that the world is full of cultural and ritual institutions that do not fit into the religion construct. This dichotomy is reproduced by the family resemblances type of definition on the one hand, which is an attempt to extend the notion of religion to include as many of these cultural institutions as possible while retaining a distinct meaning, and on the other hand by his implicit use of the characteristic idea of a sui generis set of beliefs, experiences, and institutions to ensure the continued distinction between a religious and a non-religious ideology.
Buddhism In India Ritual, Politics, And Soteriology
Authors: Fitzgerald Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Here I shall discuss the issues of ‘religion’ and ‘society’ in relation to my own re­ search on Ambedkar Buddhism. In studying this movement I found the concept of religion unhelpful and instead have analyzed it in terms of the concepts ritual, politics, and soteriology. Put very simply I define these terms as follows. Ritual: the concept of hierarchical order that is conceived in the ancient texts to permeate the cosmos, indeed to be the cosmos and thus to be equivalent to dharma, in­ cluding varna and jati (chaturvarnya, varnasramadharma); ritual systems of division of labor (such as jajmani and balutedari); the opposition between the pure (Brahmin) and the impure (untouchable); ritual relationships with deities; the status of texts such as Veda, Upanishad, Sruti, and Smriti; rules of endogamy, commensality, and living space; and concepts of legitimated power including kingship. All those are subsumed within this large conception of order. Politics: modern politics, as distinguished from the traditional legitimation of power, for example, the king and the dominant caste. Modern political conceptions include the egalitarian constitution; an independent judiciary founded on equality before the law; democratic representative legislatures and universal suffrage; the principle of human and civil rights; the sovereignty of the nation state; and the right to self-rule by groups claiming historical, linguistic, ethnic, and cultural independence.
Hinduism
Authors: Fitzgerald Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters I discussed attempts by various writers in the religion genre to Jliind a clear and distinct meaning, use, and demarcation point for religion as a cross­ cultural analytical concept. I looked at Smart’s distinction between a religion and a religion like ideology; at his distinction between a religion with a social dimension and the religious aspects of a society; at Byrne’s version of the family resemblance argument; at Smith’s distinction between religions and quasi religions; and at Juergensmeyer’s distinction between religious and secular nationalism. Nowhere could I find a clearly articulated, consistently used, theoretically useful cross cultural analytical concept.
Constructing A Collective Identity
Authors: Fitzgerald Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I tried to show in the previous chapter that the category religion operates at a superficial level with Japan and serves to obscure rather than illuminate Japanese realities. The idea that there exist a number of separate religions in Japan that can be studied and analyzed in a decontextual way is a category mistake deriving from the history of western imperial expansion, the imposition of a western ideological distinction between religion and the secular, and the Japanese reaction to western threats at the time of Meiji. And, if we follow Chalmers Johnson, then it becomes possible to see that it is not only religion but also the categories of politics and economics that have to be articulated in a different way if an analysis of Japanese social and cultural realities is to be possible.
The Bible and Slavery
Authors: Noll Mark A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A brief observation in Abraham Lincoln ‘s Second Inaugural Address highlighted the greatest theological conundrum of the Civil War. Both North and South, he said, “read the same Bible.” The profundity of this statement was twofold. Most obviously, both North and South read the Bible, almost universally in the Authorized Version. More important for a theological understanding of the Civil War, both read the Bible in the same way.
‘Wholesome Reading Purifies and Elevates the Man” The Religious Military Press in the Confederacy
Authors: Berends Kurt O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout the second half of the Civil War, the religious military press (henceforth referred to as (RMP) sought to provide beneficial reading for the Confederate army. ‘Wholesome reading purifies and elevates the man,” wrote the Rev. John Leyland, editor of The Soldier ‘s Visitor. “It inspires him with better thoughts and impulses, it encourages him to that which is good, it restrains him from evil.” Leyland and other editors defined purity as more than just conformity to the evangelical lifestyle. Purity, for the editors of the RMP, suggested a certain type of soldier.
The Body Broken
Authors: Elwood Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This study of controversy over the eucharist in sixteenth-century France argues that Calvinist interpretations of the Lord's Supper played a crucial role in the development of early modern revolutionary politics. Focusing on new understandings of signs and symbols conveyed in Protestant eucharistic writings, Elwood shows how eucharistic doctrine facilitated new conceptions of the nature of power and the relation between society and the sacred and contributed to the development of the divergent religious, social, and political ideals that threatened to destroy France in the second half of the sixteenth century.
Immanent Majesty:The Eucharist and the Body of Christ in Late Medieval Society
Authors: Elwood Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a treatise published in 1565 on the Roman Mass and the Holy Supper as instituted by Christ, the Reformed minister Pierre Viret identified as “the greatest superstition and idolatry which has ever appeared since the beginning of the world” the belief that after the consecration in the Mass of the bread and wine, the sacramental elements become “Jesus Christ him self in flesh and bones, both God and man together.” The idolatry was made complete by the practice of showing the elements to the congregation, “lifting them up, and causing them to be worshiped by all, as idols.” If this error were not considered grave enough, Viret pointed out that those who per verted Christ’s Supper were not content to confine their idolatry to the moment of consecration but reserved the consecrated bread in monstrances, pyxes, and ciboria “not only to make it worshiped there as God or to carry it for the same purpose in processions with great pomp and solemnity, as the Persians of old carried their sacred fire, but also in order by it to ward off bad weather, storms, and devils and to use it for other such superstitions, as it occurs to them by their fantasy.”
Heavenly Things In Heaven:The First Wave of French Protestant Propaganda,1533-1535
Authors: Elwood Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the morning of january 21, 1535, “the most beautiful and solemn procession ever held in France” set off from the church of St. Germain l’Auxerrois in Paris. Moving through streets lined with tapestries and lighted torches, merchants, artisans, members of the mendicant orders, and religious from all the parishes of the city carried torches, crosses, banners, and the most prized shrines and relics of the city’s impressive collection. The array of holy objects included the reliquary caskets of all the saints associated with the city, the rod of Aaron, the tablets of the Decalogue, a vial containing the milk of the Virgin Mary, the holy crown of thorns, two pieces of the true cross, the head of the spear that pierced Christ’s side, Christ’s burial shroud, and swaddling cloths, and a drop of his blood. Behind this display of sacred objects came representatives of the University of Paris and the cardinals of Tournon, Lisieux, Chatillon and Givry. At the center of the procession, removed from the other participants by a short distance, was the corpus Domini, “the true and precious body of our Lord and Redeemer Jesus Christ.” Cardinal Jean du Bellay, the bishop of Paris, carried a monstrance in the form of a cross, which held the host. Stretched over the sacrament was a crimson canopy embossed with gold fleurs-de-lis, the symbol of the royal house of France. The canopy’s staves were carried by the king’s three sons and Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vendome. Surrounding them were some two hundred guards carrying lighted torches. Immediately behind this contingent walked “the most Christian king” himself, Francis I, escorted by the cardinal of Lorraine. In keeping with the solemnity of the occasion, the king appeared before his subjects bareheaded, wearing a black robe and carrying a lighted torch.
Seeds of Discord:The Diffusion of the Refarmed Doctrine,1540-1560
Authors: Elwood Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The devil is abroad in the land, warned the Catholic controversialist Gentian Hervet in a treatise on the eucharist published in 1562. The evidence for this was more than apparent: the “unruly disobedience of subjects toward their superiors,” envy, hate, rancor, discord, and dissension in all places-even within families. The Protestant ministers, “ministers of the devil,” were accomplishing Satan’s work by attempting to abolish the holy sacrifice of the Mass, cause “the simple people” to rebel against “their prince and sovereign lord,” and reduce the commonwealth to a state of confusion. Their strategy was to prey on the most vulnerable-people of low estate and women-and the “most attractive means that these miserable ministers of Satan have to corrupt and ruin the simple people and these little women is principally by these wicked books written in vernacular French which are full of impiety and blasphemy against the Holy Mass.” Of these works Hervet noted that there was an abundant supply. By flooding the country with their pestilent and poisonous ideas, these ministers had become “the cause that the subjects revolted against their lord,” the king of France.
The Eucharist, Reformed Social Formation, and the Ideology Of Resistance
Authors: Elwood Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jean calvin began ms career as A reformer defending Reformed Protestantism against the charge of sedition. Reflecting more than twenty years later on his initiation into the world of public religious controversy, Calvin gave as his reason for writing his Institutes in 1535 not only the persecution in France of his religious comrades but, more important, their misrepresentation in the court of public opinion as “Anabaptists and seditious persons, who by their dreams and false opinions were overturning not only religion but the whole political order.” This impression had to be corrected through a persuasive presentation of the heads of Reformed doctrine that would show it to be an eminently pure and faithful expression of Christian piety that posed no danger to the established political order. It was with this end in view that Calvin inserted into his book the dedicatory epistle to the French king Francis I. He acknowledged in that letter the difficulty of his task, seeing the advantage the opponents of the Reformed enjoyed by virtue of their ability to falsely define for the king the teaching of the Protestants. Their reports were extremely damaging: “It is as if this doctrine looked to no other end than to subvert all orders and civil governments, to disrupt the peace, to abolish all laws, to scatter all lordships and possessions-in short, to turn everything upside down!”
Some Basic Principles
Authors: Zimring Franklin E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The chapter addresses the basic principles that should govern a wide range of harmful acts that occur in an age range from about 12 to 20. This is a very broad spectrum of policy and behavior, so these remarks cannot be considered comprehensive coverage. Instead, what is offered is usually called “notes toward” in the academic tradition, by which the author implies that a complete jurisprudence is his or her next project (but one, of course, that never seems to get written). The general discussion in this chapter is preliminary to the specific questions considered in chapters 6, 7, and 8. My version of “notes toward” comes in four installments. The first discusses the substitution of debates about procedure and court jurisdiction for issues of substantive principle. The second discusses the policy for youth violence as an extension of the legal policy for crime, as well as an extension of policy for youth development. The question is not which of these two perspectives should control thinking about youth violence but how they can jointly determine appropriate responses to particular circumstances. The third part is the heart of this chapter, in which an attempt is made to identify two clusters of policies in more detail than in previous efforts (Zimring 1978). The fourth part considers whether special dispensations for youths should not also be extended to violent youths. The aim of the chapter is to provide a framework to inform the large number of specific questions that a useful policy must address one by one.
Firearms Policy for the Young
Authors: Zimring Franklin E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most alarming statistics about recent American youth violence concern the increasing rate of homicide, which is wholly the result of increasing gun use in assaults. During the eight years after 1985, when the homicide rate for persons over the age of 24 did not increase, the total homicide rate attributable to juvenile offenders more than doubled. But this statistic was itself an aggregation of two quite divergent trends. Juvenile homicides committed by all means other than guns were remarkably stable through out the 1980s and the early 1990s. As we saw in chapter 3, however, the rate of gun killings resulting in the arrest of an offender under 18 years of age more than tripled over a nine-year period.
Youth Violence and the Future of the Juvenile Court
Authors: Zimring Franklin E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As chapter 1 reported, youth violence has dominated legislative debate and activity concerning juvenile justice throughout the 1990s. This chapter explores the consequences of that domination on the principles and processes of the juvenile court in the United States and on the types of future reform currently being discussed. This chapter considers the broad question of how concern about youth violence may modify the processes and prospects of the juvenile court in its entire delinquency jurisdiction. After a century of development, the juvenile court now operates in the shadow of intense concern about adolescent violence. This chapter addresses the implications of that shadow for the theory and practice of juvenile justice.
Youth Violence and Youth Policy
Authors: Zimring Franklin E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is about a subject of only modest importance. Just as violence is a small part of the process of growing up, government policy toward youth violence is not a major element in the complex of government policies that influence the development and welfare of young persons in the United States. Although a substantial minority of American boys are involved in fights and as saults, for the most part these are not important developmental mile stones and the transition away from violence is a normal part of social maturation. The legal rules that have major impact on adolescent development in the United States concern education, job training, medical care, employment, and driving privileges. Policy toward youth violence should be only a small piece of a large puzzle. It should be consistent with the general principles that inform youth policy in its many other contexts, but it should not govern youth development.
Aethra And Theseus
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now, while Pittheus was still living at Pisa, Bellerophon had asked to marry his daughter Aethra, but had been sent away to Caria in disgrace before the marriage could be celebrated; though still contracted to Bellerophon, she had little hope of his return. Pittheus, therefore, grieving at her enforced virginity, and influenced by the spell which Medea was casting on all of them from afar, made Aegeus drunk, and sent him to bed with Aethra.
Chimalman and Quetzalcoatl
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The great high priest and monarch of the Golden Age in the Toltec city of Tula, the City of the Sun, in ancient Mexico, whose name, Quetzalcoatl, has been read to mean both “the Feathered Serpent” and “the Admirable Twin,” and who was fair of face and white of beard, was the teacher of the arts to the people of pre-Columbian America, originator of the calendar, and their giver of maize. His virgin mother, Chimalman the legend tells-had been one of three sisters to whom God, the All-Father, had appeared one day under his form of Citlallatonac, “the morning.”
Siegfried
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
King Sigmund of Tarlungaland, on his return from an expedition, ban ishes his wife Sisibe, the daughter of King Nidung of Hispania, who is accused by Count Hartvin, whose advances she has spurned, of having had illicit relations with a menial. The king’s counselors advise him to mutilate the innocent queen, instead of killing her, and Hartvin is ordered to cut out her tongue in the forest, so as to bring it to the king as a pledge. His companion, Count Hermann, opposes the execution of the cruel command, and proposes to present the tongue of a dog to the king.
Kunti and Karna
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The chief of the Yadus, named Sura, had a son, Vasudeva, and a daughter, Prtha, whose beauty was matchless on earth. As had been promised, Sura gave Prtha in adoption to his childless cousin and close friend, the high-souled Kuntibhoja. Hence she also came to be known as Kunti. In her adopted father’s house Kunti’s duties were to worship the family deities and look after the guests.
Buddha
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now during the time that Gautama had been dwelling in the forest near by Uruvela, the daughter of the village headman, by name Sujata, had been accustomed to make a daily offering of food to eight hundred Brahmans, making the prayer-May the Bodhisatta at length, receive an offering of food from me, attain enlightenment, and become a Buddha? And now that the time had come when he desired to receive nourishing food, a Deva appeared in the night to Sujata and announced that the Bodhisatta had put aside his austerities and desired to partake of good and nourishing food, “and now shall your prayer be accomplished.”
Isaac Tens
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I went up into the hills to get firewood. While I was cutting up the wood into lengths, it grew dark towards the evening. Before I had finished my last stack of wood, a loud noise broke out over me, chu-----, & a large owl appeared to me. The owl took hold of me, caught my face, & tried to lift me up. I lost consciousness. As soon as I came back to my senses I realized that I had fallen into the snow. My head was coated with ice, & some blood was running out of my mouth.
Ananse
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sky-god called a council of elders and explained that Ananse the Spider had paid the price-Python, the Hornets, Leopard, and a Fairy. Also, as promised, he had brought his old mother. The elders sang Ananse’s praises and the sky-god handed over the stories. “From now on,” he said, “they will not be called the sky-god’s stories. They will be known as Spider stories.”
Pele, Hiiaka, And Lohiau
Authors: Leeming David Adams 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At one time Pele fell in love with a mortal; and this is the story of the fiery wooing. Pele, her brothers, and sisters one day, to amuse themselves with a taste of mortal enjoyments, left their lurid caves in the crater of Kilauea, and went down to the coast of Puna to bathe, surf-ride, sport in the sands, and gather squid, limpets, edible seaweed, and like delicacies. As they had assumed human forms for the time, so for the time they experienced human appetites.