bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
What Does Logic Have to Tell Us about Mathematical Proofs?
Authors: Feferman Solomon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern logic provides a theoretical analysis of mathematics which cuts across its traditional subdivisions into algebra, geometry, analysis, etc. Actually, there is no single logical theory but a variety of such whose aim is to model the reasoning of, say, an idealized platonistic (set-theoretical) mathematician or an idealized constructivist mathematician at work in one of these areas of mathematics. What is common to the various theories is the use of formal systems to describe that activity, namely, as being one of drawing consequences within a specified class of symbolic expressions called formulas from certain formulas called axioms by use of certain specified rules of inference. Some logicians call themselves formalists and think that there is nothing more to mathematics than what is pictured as the production of derivations within formal systems. But those who take seriously the platonistic, constructivist, or other such views (for example, finitist, predicativist, etc.) also concern themselves with the meaning of what is expressed in formal languages. There is then the question as to which choices of axioms and rules are legitimate and-in case the systems are incomplete-how they might be legitimately extended. This leads one into controversial areas of the foundations of mathematics. I stress here the syntactic (formal) aspect as opposed to the semantic (and/or foundational) aspect of the logical description of mathematical activity. This is more neutral territory, but one within which there are a number of notions and results concerning the logical structure of mathematical proofs that are relevant to the remarks by Y. Manin in “Digression: proof” (Manin 1977, pp. 48-51). It should be added that I found those remarks both refreshing and stimulating.
Infinity in Mathematics: Is Cantor Necessary? (Conclusion)
Authors: Feferman Solomon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By Godel’s doctrine I mean the view first enunciated in footnote 48a of Godel (1931) that the “true reason” for the incompleteness phenomena is that “the formation of ever higher types can be continued into the transfinite,” both in systems explicitly using types and in systems of set theory such as ZF for which the (cumulative) type structure is implicit in the axioms. For, as Godel says, the “undecidable propositions constructed here become decidable whenever appropriate higher types are added.” Since the undecidable propositions are of finitary character, Godel ‘s doctrine says in effect that the unlimited transfinite iteration of the power-set operation is necessary to account for finitary mathematics.
Mind And Order In The Universe
Authors: Young Louise B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are times when nature appears to revel in chaos and destruction. Breaking abruptly into the reassuring rhythm of quiet days and peaceful nights, a summer storm can suddenly materialize out of a blue and tranquil sky, shattering it like a fine crystal bowl into a thousand shards. Last summer I saw such a storm descend on gentle Ohio countryside. It was late afternoon; the sun, low in the sky, had been flooding the fields with warm evening light, gilding the little pond with its soft fringe of bull­rushes and willow trees. All at once dark cumulus clouds ap­peared on the western horizon, blocking out the light; the storm descended with an earth-shaking clap of thunder and swiftly turned the landscape into a torn and turbulent scene. Lightning rent open the boiling sky; the air was filled with flying leaves and branches. Sheets of raindrops, driven by wind gusts, fell like daggers on the field of ripening wheat which just a little while before had been rippling beneath the caress of a summer breeze. Clouds of thistledown, torn from the plants, were plas­tered in gray lumps against the treetrunks and fence posts and windowpanes.
Implications For The Future Of Man
Authors: Young Louise B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lines quoted above were written in 1883 by a man whose intellectual imagination placed him at least a century ahead of his time. Grandson of Erasmus Darwin, first cousin to Charles Darwin, Galton is best known as the founder of the science of eugenics. The idea that mankind could be improved by genetic control is still considered a radical proposal today. In another revolutionary insight Galton recognized the remarkable phenomenon of whole-making and the mysterious relationship between the whole and its parts. “We as yet understand nothing,” he wrote, “of the way in which our conscious selves are related to the separate lives of the billions of cells of which the body of each of us is composed. We only know that the cells form a vast nation, some members of which are always dying and others growing to supply their place, and that the continual sequence of these multitudes of little lives has its outcome in the larger and conscious life of the man as a whole.” Galton suggested that mankind may become part of an even more important whole the cosmic mind. This is a thought that is just beginning to take shape in some of the most forward-looking philosophies of the present day.
Experimental Physiology and the Medical Context
Authors: Tuchman Arleen Marcia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The institutionalization of experimental physiology at the University of Heidelberg occurred within a medical context. Helmholtz had been the favored candidate in part because of his reputation in medical circles, his position was in the medical faculty, and the same year of his appointment the government totally revamped the rules and regulations dictating the examination and licensing requirements for anyone wishing to practice medicine in the state. Academically trained physicians throughout Germany had been fighting since the mid-1840s to raise educational standards and tighten the examination and licensing requirements. One of their major goals was to replace the multiple categories of health-care practitioners with a single unified profession of highly trained physicians. Several states had already begun to comply. In 1852, for example, Prussia abolished its tripartite classification of physicians into doctors, surgeons of the second class, and surgeons of the first class, replacing it with a single category of university educated physicians.1 In 1858 Baden followed suit, but it added a provision not yet required anywhere else: in stipulating the course of study university students were to follow, it made two semesters in the laboratory-one in chemistry and the other in physiology-a prerequisite for anyone wishing to practice medicine in the state.
Socratic Epistemology
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Socratic scholars have often expressed puzzlement at what Socrates says about human epistemic possibilities and his own epistemic states.1 Their puzzlement is understandable, for the texts themselves are quite confusing. On the one hand, Socrates frequently proclaims his own ignorance;2 on the other, he occasionally, but quite explicitly, claims to know something and even more often appears to assert opinions with the utmost confidence. Socrates claims both that he is the wisest of men (Ap. 23b2–4) and that he is “wise in no way great or small” (Ap. 2lb4–5). It is possible that the apparent incoherence of Socrates’ various claims is quite real; even the most careful philosophers sometimes err, if only by overstating their position. Perhaps Plato is not always careful to provide Socrates with a consistent position. Perhaps Socrates gets caught up in his own rhetoric and exaggerates his real view. Perhaps he is occasionally confused. But one should not too easily be discouraged by the appearance of paradox; something important might be at work beneath it, which once seen would both dissolve the appearance of inconsistency and edify the one who got beyond that appearance.
The Palms The Amazon
Authors: Henderson Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The palms are among the most abundant diverse, and important families of plants found in the Amazon. This book, based on extensive field work, provides a systematic treatment of all the palms that occur naturally in the Amazon region. Information is presented genus by genus, by species, and variety. There are keys to genera. Each species is described, its distribution, habitat, and ecology are reviewed, and its common names and uses given. The systematic account is preceded by chapters on the physical setting of the Amazon region (geology, climate, etc.), and notes on the palm family. There is a historical review of the botanists who collected and studied palms, together with a discussion of their species concepts. This book provides a definitive account of the ecology, uses, biogeography, and taxonomy of all 135 species of Amazon palms, for botanists, ecologists, agronomists, and conservation biologists.
Palm Collectors, Palm Botanists, and Species Concepts
Authors: Henderson Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The starting point of modern botanical systematics, the classification of plants, was 1753, the year in which Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) published his Species Plantarum.There he began the practice of using a binomial system to name species and of placing supposedly related species in groups. Linnaeus knew few palms and included only nine species in his work, one of which was a cycad and none of which were from the New World. He at least recognized, however, that palms formed a natural group, the Palmae. Linnaeus’s son Carl (1741-1783) was the first botanist to use the binomial system to describe an Amazon palm. In 1781, he published Mauritia flexuosa.He was also, unwittingly, the first botanist to emphasize the importance of field work in palm systematics. He did not see Mauritiain the field, and described it as having almost no leaves: “Valde singularis haec arbor fere aphylla” (This tree is alone in being nearly leafless) (Linnaeus, 1781). The first botanists actually to collect Amazon palms, at least those from the northern fringe of the region, were Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) and Aime Bonpland (1773-1858).* These celebrated naturalists traveled in the New World between 1799 and 1804. They reached San Carlos de Rio Negro in southern Venezuela and investigated the Rio Casiquiare, which links the Orinoco with the Amazon. Humboldt was greatly impressed by palms. Unlike Linnaeus’s son, he saw Mauritia flexuosagrowing in the wild and wrote of the dependence of Indian tribes on it: “The benefits of It is possible that the first botanist to collect Amazon palms may have been Alexandre Ferreira (1756-1815). He traveled extensively in the Amazon region of Brazil between 1783 and 1792, 10 years before Humboldt and Bonpland (Ferreira, 1972; see also Prance, 1971). To be both patriotic and pedantic, however, I should point out that Sir Walter Ralegh collected a fruit of Mauritia flexuosafrom South America and brought it back to England in 1595 (Humboldt, 1850).
Truth in Law: A Modal Account
Authors: Patterson Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In one way or another, each of the perspectives considered in the earlier chapters of this book attempts to explain the truth of propositions of law in terms of conditions (e.g., communal agreement) or states of affairs (moral reality) that make the proposition in question true. For various but quite related reasons, this approach to the nature of truth in law has been rejected. The present chapter starts us down the road to an alternative account of the nature of truth in law.
The specific context for this chapter is constitutional argument. As will be seen, the argument under consideration sweeps far more broadly than—and is in no way limited to—constitutional law. The argument begins with the central problematic of constitutional law, the legitimacy of judicial review. In his first book of constitutional theory, Constitutional Fate, Philip Bobbitt argued that the debate over the legitimacy of judicial review proceeds from a faulty premise. Despite seemingly deep and irreconcilable divisions of opinion, all sides to the debate are wedded to a false premise: that the key to the propriety of judicial review lies in a theory oflegitimacy. In other words, in the absence of a theory of legitimacy, judicial review cannot be justified.
Postmodern Jurisprudence
Authors: Patterson Dennis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters, I have considered the leading contemporary answers to the question of what it means to say that a proposition of law is true. With one exception, all the views discussed proceed from a “modernist” perspective on the question of truth. From the modernist point of view, “truth” names a relation between an asserted proposition and some state of affairs that makes the proposition true. The view I identify as “postmodern” rejects the project of unraveling the connection between propositions and what makes them true. From a postmodernist point of view, to say that some proposition is true is to say that “a sufficiently well placed speaker who used the words in that way would be fully warranted in counting the statement as true of that situation.” The first part of this chapter is devoted to providing an account of modernism and postmodemism.
Preface
Authors: Ezell Margaret J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The following Poems were written at several Times, and on several Subjects: If the Ladies, for whom they are chiefly design’d, and to whose Service they are intirely devoted, happen to meet with any thing in them that is entertaining, I have all I am at. They were the Employment of my leisure Hours, the innocent Amusement of a solitary Life: In them they’ll find a Picture of my Mind, my Sentiments all laid open to their View; they’ll sometimes see me cheerful, pleas’d, sedate and quiet; at other times griev’d, complaining, struggling with my Passions, blaming my self, endeavouring to pay a Homage to my Reason, and resolving for the future, with a decent Calmness, and unshaken Con- io stancy, and a resigning Temper, to support all the Troubles, all the uneasinesses of Life, and then by unexpected Emergencies, unforeseen Disappointments, sudden and surprizing Turns of Fortune, discompos’d, and shock’d, till I have rallied my scatter’d Forces, got new Strength, and by making an unweary’d Resistance, gain’d the better of my Afflictions, and restor’d my Mind to its former Tranquillity.
Of Humility
Authors: Ezell Margaret J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of all the Virtues which adorn the humane Nature, there is none more amiable than Humility:‘Tis the most charming Ornament of the Mind, that which gives the finishing Stroke to all its other Perfections; it invites the admiring Spectator, and joins Love with Veneration; while Pride,like the fiery Guardian of Paradise,keeps us at a Distance, and mixes Fear and Aversion with the Honours we pay the Great.
Of Death
Authors: Ezell Margaret J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since I’ve a long time thought, that the Fear of Death is the occasional Cause of the greatest part of those mean dishonourable Actions which are done in the World; none will, I believe, think it a Misemployment of my time, seriously to consider, what ‘tis renders it so formidable, makes it so dreadful not only to the Vicious, but also to the Goods as are accommodated to Rational Beings, and perfective of their Nature: such as will contribute to my present Happiness and future Felicity, to my unspeakable Satisfaction here, and the transporting Delights of a blessed Eternity: Where Night her sable Wings shall ne’er display, Nor rising Vapours hide refulgent Day; Where Health, and Peace, and Pleasures all divine, Shall mix their Charms, shall all in one combine, Then dart themselves into each happy Breast, And give them Raptures not to be exprest; Inebriating Joys, too great for Sense, Which heav’nly Forms can only bear, and God dispense; Where Hopes shall cease, and Wishes have an end, And our Fruitions our Desires transcend; Where no Disgusts, no Griefs, shall Entrance find, Nothing disturb the Quiet of the Mind; Where Death’s unknown, and Life is only found, Where with immortal Wreaths the Good are crown’d, And all together join in Songs of Praise, Together tune their sweet melodious Lays; The grateful Tribute of their Voices bring, And find no other Business, but to Love and Sing.
Of Friendship
Authors: Ezell Margaret J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the numerous Blessings which our bountiful Creator has bestow’d on Humane Kind, there’s none in which a pious and well-regulated Soul takes a greater Complacency, than in the Union she has with such as by their acquir’d Excellencies approach nearest to Perfection; that is, such as by a constant Contemplation of Truth, a steady Adherence to the Dictates of Reason, and a chearful and unweary’d Exercise of Virtue, have enlarg’d their Views, enlighten’d their Understandings, freed their Minds from Prejudices, from mean, narrow, and unbecoming Sentiments, from false Notions of Things, and who by submitting their Passions to the Government of their nobler and more exalted Faculties, have obtain’d a happy, an unshaken Serenity, an inward Purity, a great, firm and well-grounded Satisfaction, and who, without being byass’d by Interest, elated by Pride, made restless by Ambition, cramp’d by Avarice, or sour’d by Envy, are sweetly and gently led on to a Degree of Eminence, resembling, as near as may be, that of the Divine Nature.
On The Creation And Expansion Of Registers: Sports Reporting In Tok Pisin
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines a case of register creation in Tok Pisin, an English-based pidgin/creole spoken in Papua New Guinea, which has come to serve as the most important lingua franca spoken by more than a million people in a highly multilingual society. The register in question is sports reporting, as found in the news paper Wantok. Begun in 1970 and published weekly, it is the country’s most important secular publication and the only newspaper appearing today in Tok Pisin. All of the early written materials in Tok Pisin, which date from the 1920s, and the majority of published works today are religious in nature. Wantok carries most of the features one would expect of a newspaper: world and local news, letters to the editor, and so on. More recently, however, new items have appeared such as sports reports. The emergence of new registers and genres is a manifestation of more general stylistic expansion that has accompanied the nativization of the language over the past few decades.
I will look at the language of sports reporting through samples from an early year of Wantok, 1982, and later years, 1987 and 1990 (see the Appendix for two short sample texts). My discussion will focus on the lexical and syntactic features which make this register distinctive. I will also consider the extent to which conventionalization of this register can be detected in the later reports. Finally, I address the question of the extent to which the similarities of sports reporting in English and Tok Pisin are due primarily to the diffusion of conventions for the register across language boundaries, or to more general constraints imposed by the context of situation, subject matter, and so forth.
Metals in Cuticular Structures
Authors: Schofield Robert M S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Inorganic building materials have shaped the evolution of groups such as mollusks, vertebrates, and radiolarians. The functional and evolutionary significance of the calcium and silicon minerals filling the shells, skeletons, and teeth of these and many other organisms is well explored. In contrast, the significance of a distinct inorganic structural material that is also widely employed has not yet been explored. This alternative structural material is distinguished from space-filling calcium and silicon biomineralizations by relatively low tissue concentrations of less common elements such as manganese, copper, and zinc.
Loops, Polymer Statistics, and Helix-Coil Transitions
Authors: Dewey T Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As seen in the previous chapter, proteins follow scaling laws for collapsed polymers. These extremely compact structures have a mass fractal dimension of 3. The scaling laws of polymer physics were derived for extremely high molecular weight homopolymers that show no branching. Perhaps it is fortuitous that proteins have a scaling law similar to collapsed polymers? The diverse nature of amino acid side­ chains allows for a number of different types of interaction between subunits. Consequently, most proteins show loop structures. Covalently attached loops can be formed as a result of disulfide bond formation between cysteine residues. Often, the protein will fold back on itself and form hydrogen bonds. The presence of such loop structures presents another question. Perhaps proteins are really extended polymers forming loops? Maybe the loop structures give an anomalously high fractal dimension? Tlhe answer to these questions can be found in cell renormalization studies of looped polymers (Family, 1982, 1984). This simple and elegant renormalization technique will be explored later in this chapter.
Chaos in Biochemical Systems
Authors: Dewey T Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chaos is a companion discipline to fractals. In the popular science literature, chaos and fractals are used almost interchangeably. Yet they are distinct topics that borrow heavily from each other. Fractals are used to describe complex topographies, whether they be temporal or spatial. Chaos, on the other hand, is concerned with the dynamical processes that show an exquisite sensitivity to initial conditions and which can generate complex fractal topographies in phase space. The language of fractals provides a natural descriptor for chaotic systems. Chaotic behavior has appeared in a number of biological settings (see May, 1976; Bassingthwaighte et al., I 994) and may confer specific physiological advantages. The goal of the present chapter is to provide the reader with a nonmathematical entree into the subject and to discuss how fractal patterns arise naturally in chaotic systems. The emphasis will be on biochemical systems the chemical kinetics of which have been reasonably well defined. There are now a large number of introductory treatments of chaos, but Baker and Gollub’s book (1990) remains one of the more attractive and approachable. For more mathematical treatments, see Rasband (1990) and the rigorous treatment by Lichtenberg and Lieberman (1983). For discussions of chaos in chemical and biochemical systems see the edited volume by Field and Gyogyi (1993), the monograph by Bassingthwaighte et al. (1994), and the introductory texts by Scott (1991) and Gray and Scott (1990).