bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Convents and Women Religious
Authors: Moutray Tonya J. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Irish and British women religious faced many challenges between 1746 and 1829, including the refugee migration of English religious orders from the Continent to England, the development of Irish congregations across Ireland, and the continued struggles of the Irish and English convents yet remaining in France, the Low Countries, and Portugal. The French Revolution’s dismantling of religious life had devastating impacts on the religious communities located in its pathway. English and Irish communities abroad contended with anti-Catholic legislation within both the country of exile and the country of refuge. Upon arrival in England, refugee communities encountered various receptions within local communities and moved about England seeking the best situation for their particular needs. Opening schools and secretly recruiting novices, Catholic nuns living and working in England were tolerated but remained controversial, particularly with the failed proposal of the Monastic Institutions Bill of 1800 which brought attention to both foreign and English nuns seeking safe asylum in England. Irish congregations gained in numbers in the late eighteenth century alongside the traditional contemplative orders. While Catholic emancipation of 1829 had no direct impact on religious orders, women religious were duplicating and growing congregations and convents across Ireland, recruiting significant numbers of novices across Ireland and England, and determining the long-term viability of the convents yet in exile abroad.
Colleges, Seminaries, and Male Religious Houses
Authors: Chambers Liam 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
In the mid-eighteenth century, networks of Irish, Scots, and English colleges, seminaries and male religious houses extended across Catholic Europe, providing access to education, centres for the formation of priests, and communities of regular clergy. These institutions faced significant external and internal challenges in the second half of the eighteenth century and many were already under severe pressure before the outbreak of the French Revolution. Almost all of the colleges closed in the 1790s, but this coincided with a political rapprochement between Catholics and the government in Britain and Ireland which facilitated the establishment of a network of domestic institutions, notably at Maynooth College in Ireland, Ushaw and Stonyhurst Colleges in England, and Blairs College in Scotland. This did not mean the complete abandonment or disappearance of the pre-Revolutionary Continental networks: centuries of investment ensured that British and Irish Catholic interests made substantial attempts at retrieval and revival. While many of the Continental colleges never reopened, a significant number survived and even where this was not the case, some financial investments were at least partially recovered. This ensured that alongside the establishment of a domestic college network, British and Irish Catholics retained a more modest, but nonetheless significant, Continental network into the nineteenth century.
Separation
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the impact of a period of separation on the spouse left at home when military personnel deploy on active service. In particular, it considers how Penelope’s experience as ‘waiting wife’ is depicted in the Odyssey of Homer, and how this might compare with the experiences of contemporary military spouses. The concept of ‘ambiguous loss’ is used to think about the psychological effects on those left behind—like Penelope in Odysseus’ absence—when a soldier is physically absent and there is uncertainty as to whether they will return home safely. The chapter also considers the Homeric representation of Penelope as the ideal wife, as well as the emotions associated with separation in a military context—in particular grief and anxiety around waiting for news—and the ways in which the partner at home may be expected temporarily to assume new roles. Finally, the chapter considers the significance of Penelope’s tactic for delaying her decision to marry the suitors—the trick whereby she weaves and unpicks a shroud—as both a coping strategy and as a mechanism by which her life, like that of modern-day military spouses, is placed on hold until Odysseus’ return.
Epilogue
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
The epilogue provides some brief reflections on key themes of the book as a whole, and in particular on the construction of gender roles within the context of armed conflict, both in ancient texts (Greek epic poetry and Athenian tragedy) which relate stories of the Trojan War and in modern military settings. It also reflects on the various ways in which the women who are married to soldiers have been silenced both in ancient texts and in contemporary society. It notes that, although their experiences are less visible than those of combatants, women are as profoundly affected by war as the men whose stories tend to be given most space.
Marian Counter-Reformation
Authors: Edwards John 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
It is undeniable that the brief reign of Mary I of England, accompanied by that of her husband Philip of Spain, was seminal in the relationship between England (with Wales and Ireland) and the rest of Europe, both religiously and politically. Two opposing historical narratives have to be confronted: first, the story of the growth of England’s Protestant identity and eventual world power, which Mary and Philip failed to halt; and second the Catholic story of a failure to keep England and Wales (and to some extent Ireland) within Catholic Europe. While outlining the events of the reign, this chapter concentrates mainly on the attempted restoration of traditional Catholic religion, including the roles of both Cardinal Reginald Pole and Philip’s Spanish ecclesiastical advisers, especially Friar Bartolomé Carranza. The Catholic successes of the reign are assessed, along with their long-term limitations, and due attention is also given to the painful subject of the violent and notorious repression of Protestants, including the burning of dozens of individuals, especially in England. An underlying theme is the continuing debate over the extent to which Mary and Philip’s reign saw a restoration of Catholic tradition and practice, and how far, in contrast, both England and Ireland became in this period, laboratories for what would later become Tridentine Catholicism.
Catholicism in Scotland to 1603
Authors: Spurlock R. Scott 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the distinctive nature of Catholicism in Scotland from the Reformation to the Union of the Crowns. After framing the nature of the Catholic establishment at the eve of the Reformation, it seeks to explain the particular social and political features that shaped the patterns of Catholic survival in the face of arguably the most rigorous anti-Catholic legislation in western Europe. In particular, the study highlights the essential roles played by the nobility, women, the domestic sphere, and the political imperative of the Commonweal within the Scottish context. This also serves to contextualize the Jesuit practice of permitting occasional conformity, and highlights the necessity of such an approach in the particular circumstances of early modern Scotland.
Printed Translations and Catholic Reformation
Authors: Goodrich Jaime 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a historical overview of the printed translations composed by British and Irish Catholics between Elizabeth’s accession in 1558 and the outbreak of the civil wars in 1640. Over the course of these eighty-odd years, British and Irish Catholics published over one hundred translations, which fit roughly into two distinct categories: devotional texts and polemics. Taken together, these works offer vital insight into the ways that Catholic translators from Britain and Ireland adapted the tenets of Catholic reform for a very specific context: nations where Catholicism had been banned by Protestant regimes. While some translators responded to the Protestant Reformation by translating medieval and patristic works that had been appropriated or dismissed by English reformers, others imported Counter-Reformation spirituality by popularizing cutting-edge texts from the Continent. Looking backward to the past glories of the Catholic Church and forward to Continental innovations, these translations responded to the unique needs of British and Irish Catholics, who faced governmental oppression as they sought to find their place within the wider Catholic Church.
Popery and Anti-Popery in Britain and Ireland
Authors: Lake Peter , Questier Michael , Ford Alan 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Historians often consider anti-popery in England as a prejudice. As such it is taken to have very little to do with the thing that it was designed to caricature and denounce, and everything to do with the condition and characteristics of the people who first devised and then employed it to create ‘popery’ as the organizing other, the thing against which Protestants could define themselves and affirm the legitimacy of their various spiritual, political, personal, and factional projects. Other historians have analysed it in terms of the internal dynamics and contradictions of Protestant thought and experience. This chapter argues that anti-popery in England can only really be understood in relation to the actions, characteristics, and claims of real Catholics, operating at a number of different levels to assert the legitimacy of their position and the primacy of their Church. In Ireland, Protestant attitudes towards Catholicism were of primary importance, since, after the Reformation, power in State and Church was in Protestant hands, while the vast majority of the population remained Catholic. It was not till the reign of Elizabeth that decisive choices had to be made, as the Dublin government increasingly viewed Catholics as potential traitors and responded to repeated risings with extreme violence. The extension of English power to the whole island in the seventeenth century saw efforts by Irish Protestant leaders to institute a forceful campaign of extirpation against Irish Catholicism. Restrained by the reluctance of the authorities in England to sanction harsh measures, religious persecution declined in the 1620s, but official anti-Catholicism remained strong.
Overseas Missions
Authors: Carey Hilary M. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
In the nineteenth century, the number of overseas missions conducted by British and Irish Catholics was very small but had considerable significance for the rising social and civic status of Catholicism in Britain and Ireland. This chapter examines the context for the emergence of overseas missions, the major religious organizations who contributed to the movement, and its imperial and devotional strands. It notes the impact of overseas missions on indigenous people as well as the contribution to education, social welfare, and internationalization beyond Britain. It suggests some directions for further research on the beginnings of the overseas Catholic missionary movement in Britain and Ireland.
Medicine in an Age of Revolution
Authors: Elmer Peter 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This work is the first major attempt since the 1970s to challenge the idea that the essential engine of medical (and scientific) change in seventeenth-century Britain emanated from puritanism. It seeks to reaffirm the crucial role of the period of the civil wars and their aftermath in providing the most congenial context for a re-evaluation of traditional attitudes to medicine. In the process, it rejects the idea that such initiatives were the special preserve of a small religious elite (puritans), claiming instead that enthusiasm for change can be found across the religious spectrum. At the same time, the work demonstrates that medical practitioners were increasingly drawn into contemporary religious and political debates in a way that led to a fundamental politicization of the ‘profession’. By the end of the seventeenth century, it was now commonplace to see doctors, apothecaries and surgeons fully engaged in everyday political and civic life. At the same time, religious and political orientation often became an important factor in the career development of medics, especially in towns and cities, where substantial benefits might accrue to those who found themselves in favour with the ruling elites, be they Whig or Tory. The body politic, a Renaissance commonplace, was now peopled by medical practitioners who often claimed a special authority when it came to diagnosing the ills of late seventeenth-century society.
‘Every Corporation a Politick Pest-House’
Authors: Elmer Peter 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the emergence of a rival medical culture to that described in the previous chapter focused on ‘loyalist’ medics who were committed supporters of the restored government of the Stuarts and the Anglican Church. Such commitment was demonstrated in a variety of ways, most notably in the growing numbers of loyal practitioners—physicians, surgeons and apothecaries—who became actively involved in corporate and urban government after 1660. Thus continued a process of politicization in which political rivalries often masked medical competition between the two factions. At the same time, loyalist medics became increasingly involved in writing and publishing political propaganda in a process which mirrored the support given by their opponents to the dissenting cause. The Exclusion Crisis and emergence of the first political parties in England had a profound effect on the careers of medical practitioners whose livelihoods were often dependent upon the shifting sands of party allegiance and patronage networks.
Conclusions
Authors: Elmer Peter 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This final chapter suggests some ways in which the creation of two distinct medical cultures—itself the product of a long process of politicization from mid-century onwards—became manifest in specific attitudes to medical issues. In particular, the focus here is upon the distinct attitude adopted by medical practitioners toward issues relating to the role of spirit in healing which in turn shaped distinct and different approaches to medical phenomena such as madness and witchcraft.
The Virtue of Trustworthiness
Authors: Simpson Thomas W. 
Published: September 2023

AbstractA goal of this book is to divorce evidentialism about trust from egoism about human motivation. Many evidentialist (and cognitive) accounts of trust have arisen from a background conception of human nature, on which it is presumed that people steadily and persistently pursue their self-interest; on such a conception, trust is gullibility, except if it is in someone’s interests to fulfil their trust. This chapter argues that trust is properly reciprocated when someone is trustworthy, such that trustworthiness may be a character trait. It consists in the robust disposition to acknowledge one’s commitments appropriately, and to act in light of them. This character trait is socially useful—and so a virtue—and the chapter explains how it helps trust to spread. Without the virtue of trustworthiness, it is unexplained why widespread patterns of trust would be rational.
Complex Event Nominals and inheritance
Authors: Wood Jim 
Published: September 2023

AbstractThis chapter presents the first half of the details of the analysis defended in the previous chapters. First, it shows how one structure can get multiple readings, accounting for both (partial) inheritance of argument structure and the systematic ambiguity of Derived Nominals. It then focuses primarily on Complex Event Nominals, where argument structure seems to be inherited. The claim is that this reading arises when v gets the normal meaning that it would get within a verb phrase, and n is semantically expletive. It is thus a noun with the meaning of a verb, so when it takes a complement, if forms an nP that is semantically just like a vP. Above the nP level, similarities between verb phrases and noun phrases stem from parallel interpretative principles, not direct inheritance. This chapter develops a novel proposal for the construction of event structure at the syntax-semantics interface.
Conclusion
Authors: Wood Jim 
Published: September 2023

AbstractThis chapter reviews the previous chapters, emphasizes broad take-away points, and sets up questions for future research. It emphasizes that even if some languages do have the Phrasal Layering structure, the fact that Icelandic does not has important architectural implications: it means that we cannot claim that Complex Event Nominals have the properties that they have because they contain verb phrases; these properties can arise independently. It also emphasizes the fundamentally syntactic nature of the theory of word formation adopted. While many of the points could probably be imported into a non-syntactic theory, there are several crucial places that strongly support a syntactic theory. It also provides some empirical and theoretical points for future research and expresses the hope that the architectural perspective defended throughout this work provides a fresh way of asking and answering old questions, and inspiration for new questions as well.
The Hindu Temple in the Diasporas
Authors: Baumann Martin , Wilke Annette 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Hindu temples in diaspora serve ritual, cultural, social, communal, and representational functions. These temples were founded by the great number of Hindu immigrants from South Asia and by converts to Hindu guru movements. The variety of Hindu temples in the diaspora is as multifarious as it is in South Asia, with temples displaying regional backgrounds, sectarian traditions, and saṃpradāyas of Hindu communities. While the majority of diaspora temples are located in converted factory halls, disused schools, and community centres, since the late twentieth-century purpose-built temples in South Asian architecture with domes, towers, and painted walls have emerged. These enable an emotional and sensory-aesthetic feeling of Hindu religion, and serve as places of pride, self-esteem, and representation of the Hindu minority. Different organizational models are employed in running a temple, some involving transnational networks. To the most incisive diasporic innovations belong the membership status and fees to finance the temple. Ritual changes involve shifting major pūjās and festivals to weekends instead of rigorously following astrologically fixed dates. Important social changes are new roles for priests and the increased empowerment of women in ritual practices and social functions. In general, the temples take on new social functions by providing common meals, Sunday schools, cultural classes, etc. They acquire a multifunctional character and become a place for community building. Congregational rituals were set up in many temples, some of them developing a universal or pan-Hindu orientation, being deliberately multi-ethnic and non-sectarian. Overall, diasporic temple cultures aim and manage to strike a balance between strategies of religious authenticity and of adaptation and innovation.
Atmospheric Thermodynamics
Authors: Bohren Craig , Albrecht Bruce 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This book presents a comprehensive treatment of thermodynamic processes operating in the atmosphere, and the core of the text focuses on water and its transformations. Four chapters lay the foundations, from energy conservation to the ideal gas law, specific heat capacities, adiabatic processes, and entropy. It presents applications of the first and second laws and describes the measurement of temperature, pressure, and moisture. An all-encompassing chapter treats phase transitions of water, including the effect of dissolved substances and size on water vapor pressure. The chapter on moist air and clouds discusses virtual temperature, isentropic ascent of saturated air, conserved parameters for moist processes, thermodynamic processes, thermodynamic diagrams, stability, and cloud formation. The final chapter covers energy, momentum, and mass transfer processes that are relevant to micrometeorology and biometeorology. Energy exchange between humans and their environments is treated with an emphasis on comfort in hot, humid conditions and cold, windy conditions (wind chill). Assumptions and approximations are carefully laid out, derivations are detailed, and equations are interpreted physically, and applied. More than 400 thought-provoking problems are included, along with about 350 references with annotations and suggestions for further reading.
Specific Heats and Enthalpy
Authors: Bohren Craig F. , Albrecht Bruce A. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Thermodynamics is based on impossible processes (adiabatic, reversible, isothermal) and nonexistent entities (perfect insulation, ideal gases) but must pass tests of consistency and agreement with experiment. ∂U/∂T defines a heat capacity C at constant volume or pressure per unit mass, volume, or mole number. C requires an equation of state U(p,V), either from microscopic theory or macroscopic measurements. A reversible adiabatic process (Q = 0) undergone by an ideal gas yields the Poisson relations between any two variables, for example, pressure and volume. pV is constant in isothermal processes, pVγ is constant in adiabatic processes, where γ=cp/cv. H=U+pV appears so often that it has acquired a name: enthalpy. Once called “heats” (of combustion, vaporization, etc.) are now more often called enthalpies. The stability of a fluid in a gravitational field g is determined by buoyancy. The boundary between atmospheric stability and instability is the dry, adiabatic lapse rate of temperature g/cp; “dry” means no change of phase
Entropy
Authors: Bohren Craig F. , Albrecht Bruce A. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Entropy has several definitions and interpretations, about which there is no consensus. Entropy behaves differently from energy. The entropy of a freely expanding isolated ideal gas increases, whereas its energy does not change. The entropy of an ideal gas in a reversible adiabatic compression is constant, whereas its energy increases. The entropy of an isolated incompressible solid depends only on its temperature, and hence, an initially arbitrary temperature distribution evolves to isothermal, which maximizes its entropy. Because the entropy of a gas depends on temperature and pressure, which vary with height in Earth’s atmosphere, the equilibrium temperature profile of an isolated air column is not isothermal. Constant potential temperature maximizes entropy. Real processes are irreversible, and hence, increase the entropy of a system and its surroundings. Notions that the equilibrium temperature profile of an isolated column of air is the same as that in a solid exemplify the solid atmosphere fallacy.
Energy, Momentum, and Mass Transfer
Authors: Bohren Craig F. , Albrecht Bruce A. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Conduction, convection, and radiation are not completely independent energy transfer modes. Energy transfer within a stationary medium is the product of its thermal conductivity and a temperature gradient. Except in thin stagnant films near solid boundaries, energy is transferred in fluids by buoyancy-driven convection at all scales. Film thickness depends on convection in a complicated way. All thermal insulation—cork, wool, foams—exploits the low thermal conductivity of air immobilized in pores. The thermal conductivity of moist air is somewhat less than that of dry air. Cooling of humans in water and air at the same temperature is not 24 times faster because the thermal conductivity of liquid water is 24 times greater than that of still air, even absent metabolism. Core temperatures of humans decrease only 2–4 times faster in water than in air. Odorants travel in perceptibly still indoor air much faster than by molecular diffusion.