bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Solders and Brazing Filler Metals
Authors: Rabinkin Anatol 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Solders and brazing filler metals are special alloys used to join parts, whether of metallic, ceramic, or composite material, into an assembly through metallurgical bonding. Solders melt below 723 K; brazing filler metals, above. The essence of the joining processes in which these alloys are used is described. Special attention is paid to joint design, part preparation before processing, and the specifics of soldering and brazing processes. A complete classification of solders and brazing filler metals, mostly based on composition of alloys and their compatibility with various classes of steel and alloys, is given, as are general recommendations for potential applications of each group of brazing filler metals and solders. Health and safety factors associated with usage during manufacturing processes are discussed.
Solvents, Industrial
Authors: Sullivan Don A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons are the most widely used industrial solvents; other solvent classes include alcohols, ketones, esters, ethers, glycols, glycol ethers, amines, and aldehydes. Solvents are used to dissolve polymers and other solutes for application or to remove grease and other contaminants in cleaning processes. Extraction processes employ solvents to separate one material from another by selective dissolution. Solvents also function as reaction media and heat‐transfer fluids for industrial processes. An important solvent use is as a raw material, in which the solvent reacts with other compounds to form new useful substances.
Proper solvent selection has a large impact on the success of the operation in which the solvent is used, including economic effects, technical adequacy, safety issues, and environmental impacts. Solvency characteristics, evaporation behavior, flash point, solvent balance, and solvent toxicity must all be considered. These requirements must be evaluated regardless of the specific use.
Regulations aimed at reducing ambient ozone concentrations have the greatest impact of any of the regulations on solvent usage. Even though industrial processes account for a minority share of emissions, regulations adopted at the federal and state level influence which solvents are used, the amount used, and the way they are used. Regulations have also given impetus to the development of new technologies and products that decrease solvent emission to minimize environmental impact. Regulatory pressures will gradually reduce overall solvent usage, and shift usage away from certain solvents, but industrial solvents will continue to be used.
Sorbic Acid
Authors: Dorko Catherine L. , Ford George T. , Baggett Madelyn S. , Behling Alison R. , Carman Harold E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSorbic acid, ie,trans,trans‐2,4‐hexadienoic acid, and its derivatives are commonly used as antimicrobials for food, pharmaceuticals, animal feeds, cosmetics, and industrial uses. Sorbic acid is a white crystalline solid having low water solubility but greater solubility in fats and alcohol. Potassium sorbate has greater water solubility than sorbic acid and is available as white granules or powder. Because the sorbic acid molecule contains two double bonds, oxidation occurs in the presence of molecular oxygen or peroxide compounds. Other reactions related to the chemical properties are also described. Sorbic acid can be found naturally in the oil of the ripened rowan berry. Commercially available sorbates are typically manufactured by the reaction of crotonaldehyde with a ketene to form an intermediate, which is further processed and purified. Purified forms include food and drug grades conforming to the specifications of theFood Chemicals Codexand theNational Formulary. Analytical methods to quantify sorbates include titration, gas chromatography, and high performance liquid chromatography. Sorbic acid is metabolized to carbon dioxide and water in the same way as other food fatty acids and has low toxicity. For most food products in the United States, there are no maximum usage levels for sorbates.
Soybeans and Other Oilseeds
Authors: Wolf Walter J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe four principal U.S. oilseed crops are soybeans, cottonseed, peanuts, and sunflower seed. The physical characteristics of the plants and seeds, chemical compositions of the seeds, harvesting and storage of the crops, and processing of the crops into oil and defatted meal are described for the primary products of the industry. Production figures and prices of the oilseeds and their products are presented. The oils of these crops are used primarily for human consumption. Minor quantities go into industrial products. The defatted meals serve mainly as protein sources in animal feeds, but small amounts are processed into protein ingredients used by the food industry. Nutritional properties and antinutritional factors of the oils and meals are reviewed. Direct food uses of soybeans, peanuts, and sunflower seed are also covered.
Space Processing
Authors: Naumann Robert J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The microgravity environment of a spacecraft in low Earth orbit has proved to be a useful tool for materials research because it allows processes to be carried out under better controlled and greatly simplified transport conditions. A brief historical overview is given describing how this discipline evolved from a plan for using space for manufacturing unique materials of great commercial value into one of utilizing it as a laboratory for studying the role of transport in various processes. Several case studies are presented in the areas of protein crystal growth, small‐molecule crystal growth from solution, Bridgman growth, vapor growth, electrodeposition, and tests of fundamental theories. A number of these experiments have produced surprising and unexpected results, whereas others have suggested improved processing techniques for use on Earth.
Spices
Authors: Rogers James A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This article emphasizes the use of spices in flavorings; other applications are known. The use of essential oils, derived from spices by various methods, and oleoresins, derived from spices by extraction, are components of flavor; their applications are included in this section. The quintessence of some spices, the essential oils, are described more fully elsewhere (see Essential oils).
Topics discussed include history of spice and spice trade; food and beverage labeling; production and economic considerations with comparison of past import and export levels of spices and oleoresins with 1993 levels; and presentation of source, usage, and flavor characteristics of common individual spices.
Coating Processes, Spray Coating
Authors: Coeling K. J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The devices used to apply a surface coating to a workpiece by spraying are discussed. Atomization methods include airless, supercritical fluid, air, electrostatic, and rotary. The principle of atomization, typical operating conditions, spray characteristics, and limitations are presented for each method. The use of electrostatic forces to increase the efficiency of spray particle transfer to the workpiece is also discussed. The best method to spray coat a given surface depends on the characteristics of the material to be sprayed, the part configuration, the surface characteristics desired, and the application rate required.
Stains, Industrial
Authors: Tucker Ron W. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Wood substrates vary in consistency and appearance, making it necessary for the finisher to depend on artistic skills to create an attractive piece of furniture. Formulating the materials to be used in the finishing process can only be done if the chemist has a knowledge of the art of wood finishing. Unlike metal, plastic, or other substrates that require coatings, wood is unique in that no two pieces are the same. Different grain patterns, cell structure, or multiple species used in making a piece of furniture require different finishing materials to be used to achieve the desired appearance. Each material used in finishing wood is an important part of a system. No part of the finishing system is more important than the role that the stain plays. Whether it is to make up for extreme differences in color or texture or to highlight and add contrast to the wood, stains and the manner in which they are used determine whether a particular furniture item will appeal to the consumer.
Nonwoven Fabrics, Staple Fibers
Authors: Vaughn E. A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article provides a comprehensive overview of the production methods, properties, and uses of nonwoven fabrics. The discussion includes a brief introduction, short history, and compilation of definitions of a nonwoven fabric. The processes used to manufacture nonwovens are grouped into four categories according to parent technology: textile, paper, extrusion, and hybrid, and into four sequences of operation: fiber selection, web formation, bonding, and finishing. Descriptions and illustrations of the manufacturing sequences follow. Production trends and product applications are discussed.
Steel
Authors: Paxton Harry 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPaxton, Harry (Carnegie Mellon University). Steel is the generic name for a group of ferrous metals composed principally of iron but containing some carbon and generally other elements as well. These iron–carbon alloys are the most plentiful and useful of the metallic materials, whether for infrastructure construction, consumer goods from automobiles to cutlery, or spacecraft. Durability and versatility are evidenced by the wide range of physical and mechanical properties.The manufacture of the two allotropes of steels is presented, including the electric furnace and the oxygen steelmaking process. Raw materials and addition agents, casting, plastic working, and metallography and heat treatment are described. The iron–iron‐carbide phase diagram is discussed, as are the various types of alloy steels, including stainless steels. Properties and composition are summarized.
Sterilization Techniques
Authors: Augurt Thomas A. , van Asten J.A.A.M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSterilization technology, rendering material devoid of contaminants, especially living organisms, is of primary importance in industries as diverse as food processing and space exploration. Generally, however, this technology is more readily associated with the health‐care profession and industry or the electronics industry. The focus herein is on the sterilization of materials and devices used in the former. The destruction of microorganisms, including the kinetics and thermodynamics of the process, the equipment necessary, and methods used for monitoring and testing such destruction, is discussed. Sterilants may be gases or liquids used at ambient or high temperatures, or ionizing radiation. The most frequently used sterilant is moist heat or steam. Packaging techniques and materials for sterile substances are presented. The roles of sterilization and comparable techniques used in the food processing industry are considered.
Steroids
Authors: Morgan Bradley P. , Moynihan Melinda S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSteroids are members of a large class of lipid compounds called terpenes that are biogenically derived from the same parent compound, isoprene, C5H8. Steroids contain or are derived from the perhydro‐1,2‐cyclopentenophenanthrene ring system and are found in a variety of different marine, terrestrial, and synthetic sources. Nonhormonal steroids, eg, sterols and bile acids; vitamin D; and hormonal steroids, eg, the human sex hormones (androgens, estrogens, and progestins) and corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids) play critical roles in the physiology and biochemistry of most living creatures. Other naturally occurring steroids, such as plant steroids, marine steroids, ecdysteroids, cardiac steroids, steroid alkaloids, and steroid antibiotics, have a plethora of biological activities and uses. Many synthetic steroids are the product of pharmaceutical research that has resulted in the development of several steroid‐based medicines with a market value over $10 billion. Among the medicinally important synthetic steroids, are antihormones, anesthetics, antiinflammatories, antiasthmatics, contraceptive drugs, antibiotics, anticancer agents, cardiovascular agents, and osteoporosis drugs.
Stimulants
Authors: Craig Charles R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA large number of chemical entities have the capacity to stimulate the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). These CNS stimulants are chemically diverse and usually categorized according to pharmacological properties as analeptics, psychomotor stimulants, and antidepressants. These agents, together with their structures and related potencies, are discussed. The analeptic stimulants, including strychnine, picrotoxin, bicuculline, and pentylenetetrazol, have few clinical uses, but are important laboratory tools. Psychomotor stimulants such as amphetamine and cocaine are widely abused for their psychomotor effects. However, other compounds having similar sympathomimetic but less, although significant, CNS stimulant properties are employed to treat asthma, attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder, and sometimes as an aid in weight reduction. Other psychomotor stimulants having even less CNS activity are widely consumed in caffeine‐containing beverages. Antidepressants, including monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, and newer compounds such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, are widely used to treat clinical depression.
Strontium and Strontium Compounds
Authors: Hibbins Stephen G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe main application for strontium, an alkaline‐earth metal, is in the form of strontium compounds. The carbonate, used in cathode ray tubes (CRTs) for color televisions and color computer monitors, is used both in the manufacturing of the glass envelopes of CRTs and in the phosphors which give the color. Owing to use as a eutectic modifier in aluminum–silicon casting alloys, rapid growth of metal production has occurred. The addition of strontium changes the microstructure of the alloy, resulting in improved ductility and strength in cast aluminum automotive parts such as wheels, intake manifolds, and cylinder heads. Strontium metal is also used as an inoculant in ductile iron castings. Other applications include modifying the structure of 6000 series aluminum extrusion alloys, reducing the shrinkage microporosity in magnesium gravity‐casting alloys, and as an addition to lead alloys used for starting, lighting, and ignition batteries. Chemical and physical properties and discussions of specific strontium compounds are provided.
Advanced Ceramics, Structural Ceramics
Authors: Pascucci Marina R. , Neil Jeffrey T. , Natansohn Samuel 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAdvanced structural ceramics are those ceramics intended for use as load‐bearing members. They are materials that combine the properties and advantages of traditional ceramics, such as chemical inertness, high temperature capability, and hardness, with the ability to carry a significant mechanical stress. Advanced structural ceramics are more expensive than traditional ceramics. Most of the advanced structural ceramics under development today are based on silicon nitride, Si3N4; silicon carbide, SiC; zirconia, ZrO2; or alumina, Al2O3. Advanced structural ceramics typically possess some combination of high temperature capabilities, high strength, toughness or flaw tolerance, high hardness, mechanical strength retention at high temperatures, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, thermal shock resistance, creep resistance, and long‐term durability. The relationship between processing and properties is especially critical for advanced structural ceramics because subsequent successful operation in severe environments often requires carefully controlled compositions and microstructures. Fabrication generally takes place in four steps: powder processing, consolidation/forming, densification, and finishing. The focus has been on applications for gas turbine, diesel, and spark‐ignited engines. Advanced structural ceramics are also under investigation for use in numerous other high performance applications including metal‐cutting and shaping tools, and various military applications. Exposure limits for silicon carbide and powders of zirconium compounds (including zirconium dioxide) have been established by ACGIH. The solid ceramics present no apparent health hazard.
Styrene
Authors: Chen Shiou‐Shan 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChen, Shiou‐Shan (Raytheon Engineers & Constructors). Styrene, the simplest and most important member of a series of aromatic monomers, is produced in large quantities for polymerization. Its versatility has resulted in the manufacture of plastics, including polystyrene, ABS, SAN, styrene–butadiene latex, SBR, and unsaturated polyester resins. Polystyrene accounts for 65% of total styrene demand. Rapid growth in styrene production has been seen worldwide since 1970, including, since the 1980s, in the Pacific Rim. Many factors contribute to its growth. Chief among these are that it can be polymerized and copolymerized under a variety of conditions by common methods and that the raw materials, benzene and ethylene, are produced in large quantities in refineries and can be supplied through pipelines. The two process routes used commercially for manufacture of styrene, dehydrogenation, and coproduction with propylene oxide, are covered. Both routes use ethylbenzene as the intermediate.The commodity nature of the product and easy access to licensed processes have enabled new producers in developing countries to enter the global styrene market. Timing is important as price fluctuates broadly and rapidly. A large number of styrene derivatives have been reported, and several have been used for manufacturing small‐volume specialty polymers, including vinyltoluene,para‐methylstyrene, α‐methylstyrene, and divinylbenzene.
Styrene Plastics
Authors: Priddy Duane B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article examines both styrene plastics, including such commodity styrenic resins as general‐purpose polystyrene, high impact polystyrene, styrene–acrylonitrile, and acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene, and specialty resins such as ionomers, styrene derivatives, and tactic polystyrenes. Topics discussed include styrenic plastic properties such as stress–strain, creep, stress relaxation, fatigue, impact strength, surface appearance, and melt properties, as well as rubber modification and glass filling of styrene plastics. Styrene plastics manufacturing processes and the chemistry of styrene polymerization are both described, the former with an emphasis on the most widely used continuous free‐radical reaction designs, the latter mainly on the industrially important free‐radical mechanism; other mechanisms by which styrene can be polymerized, ie, anionic, cationic, and Ziegler‐Natta, are also mentioned. The description of free‐radical polymerization of styrene covers spontaneous initiation, chemical initiators, chain‐transfer agents, and living free‐radical polymerization. Copolymerization of styrene with other monomers is also discussed. Other topics covered include fabrication processes, ie, injection molding, extrusion, thermoforming, and blow molding; additives; economic aspects; characterization techniques; health and safety issues; foamed polystyrene; and environmental issues, including recycling.
Sugar, Sugar Economics
Authors: Toth Laszlo 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Mass consumption of sucrose (table sugar) far outweighs by volume the consumption of other types of sugars marketed. Industrial production of sugar (sucrose) is based on sugarcane and sugar beet processing. Cane and beet sugars when properly manufactured are identical in physical, chemical, electric, and thermodynamic properties, though the histories of their development are very different. In addition to providing essential nutritional value, the sugar industry has had a large impact on human history and social evolution, and many records of its fascinating role in war and peace exist.
The major role of sugar in supplying the caloric needs of the world's population had evolved by the beginning of the twentieth century. Although the effect of World War II on the sugar industry was drastic, the healthy recovery that occurred during postwar years is indicated, along with the European sugar industry experiencing extensive automation and closing of many small factories. Numbers of processing facilities by country and type in 1995 are given, illustrating the extent of global recovery.
Despite a great expansion in the world sugar industry, U.S. processing suffered setbacks resulting from the appearance of corn sweeteners, noncaloric sweeteners, and the effects of generally misguided health movements.
World production, consumption, and price statistics, as well as the worldwide sugar balance, are provided.
Sulfoxides
Authors: Willer Rodney 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfoxides are compounds that contain a sulfinyl group covalently bonded at the sulfur atom to two carbon atoms. Sulfoxides represent an intermediate oxidation level between sulfides and sulfones. The naturally occurring sulfoxides often are accompanied by the corresponding sulfides or sulfones. The only commercially important sulfoxide is the simplets member, dimethyl sulfoxide.Sulfoxides occur widely in small concentrations in plant and animal tissues. Properties, synthesis and manufacture, health and safety factors, and uses are discussed.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Sulfur
Authors: Evans Francis E. , Mani Ganpat 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe two most commercially important sulfur‐containing inorganic fluorine compounds are fluorosulfuric acid and sulfur hexafluoride. Fluorosulfuric acid is used as a fluorinating reagent in the preparation of such compounds as boron trifluoride and silicon tetrafluoride, and as a catalyst in organic reactions for alkylation, acylation, polymerization, sulfonation, and isomerization. Fluorosulfuric acid is itself a strong acid. When combined with certain inorganic fluorides, the system exhibits superacid properties. Properties, manufacture, and uses are discussed.Of the known sulfur fluorides, sulfur hexafluoride and sulfur tetrafluoride are available commercially. Sulfur hexafluoride, nonflammable and of high chemical stability, has a high dielectric, and is used widely in electrical and electronic equipment such as circuit breakers, capacitors, microwave components, etc. Sulfur tetrafluoride is used as a fluorinating reagent. Properties, manufacture, and uses are described. Other sulfur fluorides are discussed.
Sulfonation and Sulfation
Authors: Knaggs Edward A. , Nepras Marshall J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfonation and sulfation are chemical processes for introducing the sulfur trioxide moiety into organic entities. These processes are utilized in both batch and continuous modes to produce anionic surfactants, cyclic intermediates, dyes, pigments, medicinals, pesticides, sweeteners, lubricant additives, and polymeric specialty chemicals.Reagents for sulfonation and sulfation include sulfur trioxide, its derivatives and adducts, and sulfur dioxide and its derivatives. Liquid sulfur trioxide is the most reactive available reagent and is moderated by vaporization and dilution with inert dry gases, by use of reaction solvents, or by using adducting agents.Sulfonation processes and products including alkylbenzene sulfonates lignosulfonates, petroleum sulfonates, and sulfosuccinates, are described, as well as sulfated and alkoxylated alcohols. Continuous falling film gaseous sulfur trioxide sulfonation/sulfation, the method of choice for sulfonating flowable liquid feedstocks, is emphasized. Choice of reagent depends on the chemistry involved, derived product quality, as well as economic and environmental considerations.