bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reactions of the Skin: Rashes and Discoid Lupus
Authors: Wallace Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The skin is often an affected area in lupus, with 60 to 70 percent of lupus patients reporting some skin complaint. And there is a wide range of such complaints. This chapter discusses how the skin is damaged in lupus and what it looks like under the microscope. It reviews the classifications of skin disorders in lupus as well as their principal dermatologic features. A complete discussion of remedies used for skin disorders in lupus can be found in Part V, but specific interventions that are appropriate under special circumstances are mentioned here.
What About Hormones?
Authors: Wallace Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why are women disproportionally afflicted with SLE? Do men have milder or more severe cases than women? Are there hormonal imbalances unique to lupus? Is there any relationship between the disease and our endocrine (hormonal) tissues, such as the thyroid and adrenal glands? Since it was first observed that 90 percent of lupus patients are women and 90 percent of these patients develop the disease during their childbearing years, it seemed logical to study hormonal relationships in SLE. This section reviews these approaches.
The Blood and Lymphatic Systems
Authors: Wallace Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before rheumatology was recognized as a subspecialty of internal medicine in 1972, lupus patients were treated primarily by another group of subspecialists— hematologists. Hematology is the study of diseases of the lymph glands and blood components, all of which play a key role in the well-being of individuals with SLE. This chapter looks at why many lupus patients have blood and lymphatic abnormalities. Although rheumatologists supervise the overall management of SLE, hematologists still play an important role in managing the blood abnormalities seen in lupus.
Big Guns and Magic Bullets: Disease-Modifying Drugs
Authors: Wallace Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Up to this point, we’ve covered nonmedical aspects of therapy as well as the over-the-counter basics and prescriptions—NSAIDs—which help control symptoms and pain. Now we move on to other prescription drugs. Over 90 percent of all lupus patients will be given one of these agents at some time in the course of their disease. These drugs are termed “disease-modifying” because they can actually alter the course of lupus. Rheumatologists have nicknames for them such as DMARDs (disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs), among others. The DMARDs for lupus fall into three general categories: antimalarials, steroids, and immune suppressives.
Early Hominin Diets: Overview and Historical Perspectives
Authors: Walker Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Being a paleontologist rather than a historian, I decided to introduce this field and give some background about what had been accomplished over the last quarter century. This should show whether analytical techniques that were established by then or had been suggested then have improved or have been superseded, and it would also show what new techniques have been developed. I will also have an opportunity to suggest new avenues of research. I chose twenty-five years as that much time has elapsed since I presented at a Royal Society meeting in London an overview of the methods then available for deciphering the dietary habits of early hominins (Walker, 1981). We are interested in the evolution of hominin diets for several reasons. One reason is our fundamental concerns over our own present-day eating habits and the consequences of societal choices, such as unhealthy obesity in some cultures and equally unhealthy starvation in others. Another is that humans have invented many ways of feeding in extremely varied environments, and these adaptations, which are different in important ways from our closest biological relatives, must have historical roots of varying depths.
Mandibular Biomechanics and the Paleontological Evidence for the Evolution of Human Diet
Authors: Daegling David J , Grine Frederick E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many Darwinian biologists accept that organisms and their constituent parts exhibit optimal design (given certain architectural, developmental, and phylogenetic constraints) so as to maximize reproductive survival. Strictly adaptationist approaches to explaining design perfection in biological has been rightly criticized as Panglossian storytelling (Gould and Lewontin, 1979), but there is ample evidence that the configurations of at least some morphological attributes are explicable in reference to the function(s) that they serve. However, exactly how closely the structure of a trait can be related to its apparent biological function remains a topic of discovery. There is an abundant literature indicating that mechanical (as well as physiological) environments may profoundly influence skeletal structure (e.g., Frost, 1964; Cowin, 1986; Martin and Burr, 1989; Fung, 1993; Martin, Burr, and Sharkey, 1998; Currey, 2002). But while it is evident that mechanical loads influence the skeletal system, it is not clear to what extent the mechanical environment dictates a particular morphological configuration.
Meat Made Us Human
Authors: Bunn Henry T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The role of meat in the evolution of hominin diet and behavior is controversial. During the later reign of the “Man the Hunter” paradigm, fossil and archaeological evidence from Plio Pleistocene localities in southern and eastern Africa seemed at face value to corroborate significant involvement with meat and hunting early in human evolution (Dart, 1957; Isaac, 1971; Leakey, 1971). Leakey and Isaac interpreted the archaeological evidence as generally reminiscent of the behavioral adaptations of human foragers. Isaac (1971, 1978) attributed to Plio Pleistocene Homo a humanlike adaptation for the procurement and consumption of meat, including genderbased division of labor, food transport, and food sharing, which he called the homebase, or central-place model. Given the lingering image of Man the Hunter, it is perhaps unsurprising that these findings were challenged. If males usually provide the meat in foraging societies, and if meat was pivotal in the evolution of human diet and behavior, then what was the contribution of females? Alternative models based on analogies to nonhuman primates defined a significant role for females, particularly for australopithecines predating the known archaeological record (e.g., Zihlman and Tanner, 1978).
Limits to Knowledge on the Evolution of Hominin Diet
Authors: Ungar Peter S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What did early hominins eat? What are the limits to our knowledge of the diets of early hominins? Philosophers call these first- and second-order questions, respectively (Rosenberg, 2001). The chapters in this volume address both. The basic idea is that by reconstructing the diets of early hominins, we can understand something of the adaptations of our distant ancestors and how we came to be the way we are today. Further, by assessing the limits to our knowledge, and by taking stock in our approaches to reconstructing diet, we should be able to make better progress toward answering questions about the adaptations and behaviors of the early hominins. In this chapter, I summarize and synthesize some of the issues raised by the contributors to this volume. First, I consider what we actually know (or, at least, think we know) about early hominin diets. Second, I consider second-order questions raised by contributions in this volume. Why should we study early hominin diets? What are the limits to our knowledge? What directions might our research take in the future?
Introduction
Authors: Olmsted Kathryn S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If You Search for “9/11 conspiracies” on the Google Video Web site, you can learn some shocking things. You can learn that there were no commercial airplanes involved in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks— just drones and cruise missiles. You can link to Web sites that claim that the World Trade Center towers fell because bombs were secretly placed in their air ducts, not because planes, commercial or military, manned or not, crashed into them. You can watch documentary films that allege that 9/11 was an “inside job” perpetrated by the George W. Bush administration to justify its invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. If you look at the information on the most popular of these documentaries, called Loose Change, you will see that at least ten million people have already viewed it, and thirty-five thousand of them have written reviews, giving it an average rating of four and a half out of five stars.
Lying Us into War? The Second Battle of Pearl Harbor
Authors: Olmsted Kathryn S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
President Franklin Roosevelt gripped the podium and stared with determination at the entire leadership of the U.S. federal government—the House, the Senate, and the Supreme Court—arrayed before him. In the glare of floodlights for newsreel cameras, interrupted by roars from the audience, he spoke of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor the previous day, December 7, 1941, a “date which will live in infamy.” To the cheers of the crowd, he asked Congress to declare a state of war between the United States and Japan. The American people, he said, would fight to victory and make certain that “this form of treachery” would never endanger the country again.
Cabal of Soccer Moms: 9/11 and the Culture of Deceit
Authors: Olmsted Kathryn S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Four Widows from New Jersey were nervous as they sat down to meet with the man they privately called “everyone’s favorite war criminal.”It was late 2002, and the women and other 9/11 family members had just won their long battle to force President George W. Bush to appoint a blue-ribbon commission to investigate the unanswered questions of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. Their husbands died in those attacks, and these widows, known collectively as the “Jersey Girls,” wanted desperately to discover if the 9/11 conspiracy involved more people than the hijackers from Osama bin Laden’s al Qaeda terrorist group.
M&B 693
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Late in 1943, at the height of the Second World War, Winston Churchill visited the Middle East for conferences with Britain’s allies. He met Chiang Kaishek in Cairo, then flew to Teheran to talk with Stalin, and finally returned to Cairo for a meeting with President Roosevelt. Exhausted from work and travel, he boarded an airplane at 1 a.m. on December 11 for a flight to Tunisia, where he was to stay at Dwight Eisenhower’s villa near Carthage. Off course, the plane made an unscheduled stop forty miles from its destination. Churchill sat on his luggage on the runway in a cold wind for an hour before completing his journey. Later that day Churchill had a pain in his throat and a bad headache. The next day he had a fever of 101°F. Lord Moran, Churchill’s personal physician, called in nurses and a pathologist from Cairo. A portable X-ray machine was brought from Tunis. X-rays showed a shadow on Churchill’s lung, which the doctors diagnosed as pneumonia. Moran immediately put Churchill on one of the recently developed sulfa drugs manufactured by the British company May & Baker, a drug familiarly known as M&B. Churchill began to have heart trouble.
Acclaim and Expansion
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Behind the rising demand for M&B 693 in Britain lay not only favorable medical reports but also publicity in newspapers, magazines, and other media that began early and that loudly proclaimed the virtues of the new medicine. A sampling of British newspapers and magazines, particularly in the twenty months following publication of the first clinical trial in June 1938, conveys some sense of what the public was told about the meaning of the discovery, its import for the future of medicine, and the hows and whys of innovation in medical research. Also visible in the press accounts are the extent to which representation of the discovery for a lay audience incorporated reservations or cautions voiced by medical researchers, the likely role of popular demand in speeding the marketing of the new drug, the rapid diffusion of use of the new drug to distant sites including Africa, and the prominent role perceived for M&B 693 in the early war effort. The success of sulfapyridine that was reflected in, and reinforced by, its reception in the popular press also gave a powerful impetus to the expansion of research and development efforts in the international pharmaceutical industry. This expansion was under way before World War II, was accelerated by the war, and continued in the postwar decades. Its beginnings are visible in the histories of May & Baker in Britain and of Merck and Sharp & Dohme in the United States.
A Mechanism Revealed
Authors: Lesch John E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As evidence mounted during World War II that sulfa drugs could not prevent or eliminate localized wound infections, doctors often explained the failure by referring to a theory of the mode of action of sulfa drugs first advanced in 1940 by British medical bacteriologist Paul Fildes and biochemist Donald D. Woods. According to this view, sulfanilamide and, by extension, other sulfa drugs exerted a deleterious effect on bacteria by interfering with an enzyme that helped synthesize a nutrient the bacteria needed for growth and reproduction. Sulfanilamide closely resembled a compound (a “substrate”) acted upon by the enzyme to produce the needed nutrient, so sulfanilamide was able to compete with the substrate and displace it. In this way, Woods and Fildes claimed, sulfanilamide prevented the formation of the nutrient and thereby blocked the growth and reproduction of the bacteria. Unable to increase in numbers, the invading bacteria were then destroyed by the defenses of the human or animal host.
Discovering the Structure of Language: Syntax
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Children begin by producing utterances that consist of a single word, go on to two-word utterances, and gradually develop the ability to produce longer and more complex utterances. It is possible that this process is the result of the child’s developing short-term memory as a consequence of rapidly increasing brain size. Human infants are born very immature in contrast, for example, to young horses or sheep. For obvious survival reasons a young foal must be able to keep up with its mother as the herd moves about. The human infant, like the kitten or puppy, is helpless at birth and needs careful protection, nourishment, and preparation before being allowed to venture forth alone. Unlike the kitten and the puppy, though, the most spectacular development in the human infant during the period of immaturity is the increase in brain size. During the first two years the infant’s brain increases ten times, and then continues growing until about the age of puberty. As it increases in size the brain also becomes more complex. It is apparently this long period of brain increase that allows the process of language development to proceed as smoothly as it does.
Social Class
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past thirty years it has been shown quite clearly that in socially stratified societies there are systematic differences in the way people from different backgrounds speak. This is not a new phenomenon but goes back at least as far as Chaucer’s time. The invention of the portable tape recorder, however, has made it possible to investigate social differences in language more closely and to show exactly which features vary and under what circumstances. Briefly, the most common method has been to record samples of speech from people of different social backgrounds in a single community and to search the tapes for features of language that vary. Such features are labeled linguistic variables. For example, in New York City it is common to hear [t] instead of [0] in words such as think and three. This usage is not equally frequent among people from all social backgrounds but is more common among those lower down the social scale. The extent to which this is true can be shown by taking the contexts in which a choice is possible between [t] and [0] and counting the number of times [t] occurs. By converting this score to an average, it is possible to produce an index for this variable for each individual whose speech has been recorded. The indexes for individuals at the same socioeconomic level can then be combined and averaged to produce a score for that section of the community. The results for the (th) variable can be seen in figure 14.1.
Conversation
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the cleverest ways in which we use language is in conversation. It is such a common part of our everyday ordinary experience that it is hard to realize just what an achievement it is. Someone has compared it to a dance and as in a dance it is necessary to coordinate the movements carefully to avoid getting tangled up or in each other’s way. It is something that young children may not know how to do. The number of times an adult has to say to a child Don’t interrupt is an obvious indicator of this. Like most other aspects of language, the rules for conversation differ from society to society. The account in this chapter is based mainly on American and British middle-class conversations and may not be relevant to other speech communities. There is a general rule in British and American middle-class conversation that two people may not speak at the same time. If this happens there is overlap between the two speakers and one has to stop speaking. Avoiding overlap requires a mechanism for turn-taking. In orderly conversation the change from one speaker’s turn to another is usually accomplished smoothly and very quickly. Speed is important because silences are significant. A pause of more than a split second between turns may indicate some reluctance, opposition, or even rejection of what the previous speaker has said.
Indo-European
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1776 Sir William Jones, the founder of the Royal Asiatic Society and the chief justice of India, gave a lecture in which he drew attention to certain similarities which he had noticed between Sanskrit and European languages: The Sanskrit language, whatever may be its antiquity, is of wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either; yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could have been produced by accident; so strong that no philologer could examine all the three without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and Celtic, though blended with a different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family. Although Jones was not the first to notice this resemblance, his lecture is often seen as the public announcement of a long process of scholarship mainly in the first half of the nineteenth century which led to the postulation of a reconstructed ancestor for a number of languages that have been spoken in an area stretching from the British Isles and Scandinavia in the west across the whole of Europe to Siberia and a large part of the Indian subcontinent. This reconstructed language is Proto-Indo-European (PIE, for short). There are no records of PIE. It is a hypothetical language worked out on the basis of comparing examples of words from languages that have survived (or of which we have some records) with their equivalent in other Indo-European languages.
Children’s Lore and Language
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having begun this exploration of language and its uses by looking at children’s learning of language, it is only fitting that we should conclude it by considering how children use language. Adults tend to think of themselves as knowing more than those who are younger than they are, and generally they are correct in this belief. There are, however, things that children know that adults either do not know or have forgotten that they once knew. Evidence of children’s lore and language was compiled by Iona and Peter Opie, who collected information from about five thousand children attending seventy schools in different parts of England, Scotland, and Wales. They published the results of their investigations in The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren (1959), and their work has provided the basis for subsequent inquiries. One of their findings was the variety of truce terms in Great Britain (see fig. 34.1). Truce terms are the ways in which children call for “time out” in a game or a contest. The Opies found that, in addition to calling out a truce term, children in England often crossed their fingers, whereas in Scotland children put their thumbs up. The map shows that in the west of Scotland the term is keys, while in the rest of Scotland and much of the west of England and most of Wales the term is barley (presumably the same word as parley). In the eastern part of England the main term is either kings and crosses or kings.
Prologue
Authors: Dowbiggin Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As he watched urban civilization steadily close in on his cabin in New York State’s Adirondack Mountains, environmentalist Bill McKibben made a big personal decision: shortly after the birth of his only child, he chose to have a vasectomy. As McKibben confessed in his 1998 best-seller Maybe One, he underwent the operation to help slow population growth and prevent global warming.
Tarred and Feathered
Authors: Dowbiggin Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 1970s began on a high note for the sterilization movement. Like never before, legal, medical, religious, and cultural barriers to sterilization were crumbling in America and abroad. Studies indicated that a ‘‘sterilization explosion’’ was occurring in the United States, while a growing number of men and women in developing countries were also undergoing sterilization. In 1979, a Gallup poll found that two-thirds of adult Americans approved of voluntary contraceptive sterilization. Birth control in general and sterilization in particular were no longer ‘‘dirty words.’’
Origins of the American Slave System
Authors: Klein Herbert S , Ben Vinson III 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
African slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean is a late development in the evolution of slavery in human society. Since the origins of complex societies, slavery was known to most cultures and regions of the world. Typically, slavery has meant domestic slavery, in which the labor power of the household was extended through the use of non-kin workers. But slaves have performed all known tasks and in some societies even formed separate classes and groups beyond the household level. Few peoples have escaped slavery themselves, and almost all societies have treated their slaves as outsiders, rootless and ahistorical individuals ultimately held against their will by the threat of force. In all societies in which they existed, they were also the most mobile labor force available.
Sugar and Slavery in the Caribbean in the 17th and 18th Centuries
Authors: Klein Herbert S , Ben Vinson III 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The establishment of an independent Dutch nation in Europe had a major impact on the distribution of slaves and plantations in America. The long Dutch struggle from the 1590s to the 1640s against Spanish domination would profoundly affect Portugal, Africa, and Brazil. From 1580 to 1640 Portugal was integrated into the Spanish Crown. While this incorporation had opened up Spanish America to Portuguese slave traders and resident merchants, it also brought Portugal into direct confrontation with the rebellious Dutch, who were Brazil’s most important and powerful trading partner.