bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘Naturalism’
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Having discussed prescriptive language in Part I, Hare turns to value‐words in Parts II and III. He begins by arguing that though value‐words are ‘supervenient’ or ‘consequential’ (i.e. if two situations are exactly alike in their non‐evaluative features, then they cannot be different in their evaluative features), they are so not as a matter of analytic entailment, e.g. because ‘good’ means ‘most conducive to pleasure’. Hare's argument for thus rebutting all forms of naturalism (in G.E. Moore's sense) is that any definition of ‘good’ in this way would prevent us from commending something we want to commend.
Meaning and Criteria
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Hare argues that ‘good’ is not a simple property as e.g. ‘red’, for unlike ‘red’, ‘good’ does not always refer to a common (non‐evaluative) property whenever it is applied. The same holds for ‘instrumentally good’. At the same time, though, we are able to learn the use of ‘good’ without being taught what in a particular class of objects entitles us to apply ‘good’ to a member of that class. Hence, Hare claims, all uses of ‘good’ must have a common meaning, but different criteria of application (depending on the class of objects it is applied to).
Description and Evaluation
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter distinguishes two sorts of things we can say about objects, something (1) descriptive (‘red’), and (2i) evaluative (‘good’). Both, Hare notes, have descriptive function in that they can be used to convey factual information (compare ‘red car’ and ‘good car’). Value‐words, however, also have prescriptive meaning, and this meaning is primary to their descriptive meaning, because in contrast to its descriptive meaning, it remains constant in all uses and can also be employed to change the descriptive meaning of a class of objects. Finally, Hare notes that value‐words can be used with no commendatory meaning at all: the inverted commas use (e.g. irony) and the conventional use (e.g. paying lip service to what everyone else says).
‘Good’ In Moral Contexts
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Hare first argues that his theory applies equally to instrumental and intrinsic goodness. He then goes on to show that his theory also holds for ‘good’ in both the non‐moral and moral context. People are falsely led to believe that ‘good’ is used differently in these contexts, Hare claims, because its descriptive meaning differs. Its evaluative meaning, however, is the same: in the moral context (‘good man’, ‘good act’) ‘good’ is always used to directly or indirectly commend people or human characters.
‘Ought’ and Imperatives
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Defends Hare's claim that value‐judgements entail imperatives. He does so by first showing that cases appearing to undermine his claim are not genuine value‐judgements but rather statements of sociological fact (the conventional use of ‘good’) or of psychological fact (‘I have a feeling that I ought to X’). Second, Hare argues that value‐judgements cannot be reduced to statements of fact because (1) we do use value‐judgements evaluatively (entailing at least one imperative), but (2) no imperatives can be derived from indicatives.
Descriptive Meaning
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Outlines the features of descriptive terms and judgements. The role played by descriptive meaning in moral statements is elucidated by examining the general nature of descriptivist statements and the connection with universalizability. It is argued that any singular descriptive judgement is universalizable in the sense that it commits the speaker to making the same judgement about relevantly similar subjects. Value judgements and generally descriptive judgements share descriptive content and are therefore universalizable in the same way. But in the case of moral judgements, the universal rules that determine the descriptive meaning are not mere meaning‐rules, but rules of substance. The logical connections between descriptivism, prescriptivism, naturalism, and the thesis of universalizability are explored.
Principles
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Further examines the sense in which moral judgements are universalizable. Distinguishes between moral and logical theses of universalizability and shows how the moral does not follow from the logical. Universalizability, in the form maintained in this book, is a logical, not a moral, thesis; furthermore, nothing substantially moral follows from the logical thesis. The chapter presents the exact import of the thesis and considers the role of moral principles.
Backsliding
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses an important objection to the view that moral judgements are prescriptive: the existence of cases in which people act in ways that they know to be wrong. The objection is that if moral judgements are prescriptive, it is impossible to accept a moral judgement and yet act contrary to it; therefore prescriptivism must be wrong. It is argued that cases of moral weakness do not constitute a counterexample to prescriptivism.
A Moral Argument
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Examines the nature of moral argument and how arguments might be brought to a conclusion. It is argued that moral reasoning is a kind of exploration akin to Karl Popper's concept of deduction; the only inferences that take place are deductive. This approach allows for the defence of the neutrality of ethics, which appears to be ruled out by its practical relevance. It lays the ground for the possibility of moral reasoning in terms of moral rules, corresponding to prescriptivity and universalizability. These are taken to task in the context of a concrete example of a moral conflict.
Toleration and Fanaticism
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In the broader sense, morality includes the pursuit of ideals as well as the reconciliation of interests. This chapter examines the arguments needed to be brought against people who, in pursuit of their ideals, trample on other people's interests. The differences between ideals and interests are set out, and the relations between the two investigated. The discussion presents the case against a paramount example of untrammelled idealism—fanatic fascism—as argued by a liberal, and in doing so shows the scope and limits of moral reasoning.
Logic and Morals
Authors: Hare R. M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Revisits the question of the relation between ethics, considered as a study of the logical character of moral concepts, and substantive moral questions. It covers much of the ground of previous chapters in an attempt to forestall confusion and clarify the theses embraced in the course of the book. The naturalist theory of ethics is contrasted at length with the thesis on moral argument outlined in this book.
The Inequality of Pay
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractWhy does or why should any one person earn eight times as much as another? The economist's answer relies mainly on supply and demand in the labour market, but the sociologist finds more significance in the differentiation of the labour force by class, status, and power, and in his or her view, there is a much greater possibility of reducing inequality than in the view of the economist. The aim of this book is to examine both these ways of accounting for the inequality of pay, not at an abstract level but in the light of a wide and detailed study of the evidence. What can we learn, for instance, by comparing the pay structures of different countries, including those of the Soviet economies, China, and the West? How can we account for the general agreement between rank order in the pay structure and the social hierarchy? The study of such questions focuses attention on the factors that differentiate the individual's capacity to earn, and especially the way in which social and economic differentiation is transmitted through the family, both genetically and by early upbringing. The forces moulding personal development are built into a theory to account for the remarkable properties of the distribution of individual earnings. The insights gained into the sources of the inequality of pay in these ways are used finally to assess the possibilities of achieving a more equal society. In relating a mass of empirical evidence from a wide range of countries to economic, sociological, and psychological theory, the author has produced a comprehensive and thought‐provoking examination of the question of relativities in pay––a question that continues to present itself more and more acutely to governments, employers, and employees.
The Problem
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is an introductory chapter. The first three main sections outline the growth of interest in the inequality of pay, the economist's approach to pay determination, and the sociologist's approach to pay determination. The fourth section discusses the practical issue of whether differences in pay can be reduced substantially and generally on conditions not in themselves acceptable. Sociologists hold that there is nothing in the nature of things to prevent this, while most economists would rejoin that the imposition of pay equalization would bring about disruptive consequences that could only be contained by non‐egalitarian measures. The last section of the chapter outlines the plan of the book, which is in two main sections: inequality of pay presents itself in two main aspects, differences between the average pay in different occupations (pay structure), which are addressed in Chs. 2–7, and the distribution of individual earnings, which is addressed in Chs. 8–9; Ch. 10 brings together the main findings that have been reached in these two ways.
A Survey of the Pay Structure by Occupation
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter surveys occupational pay structure in various types of economy, and together with the next chapter (which surveys the changes that have come about in pay structure in the course of time), brings out the interconnection between pay structure and social structure that is formed by status and class. The different sections of this chapter are: Grouping by occupation; The comparability of figures of pay by occupation; A conspectus of the pay structure by occupation in Western countries; The pay structure by occupation in the Soviet‐type economies; Material and moral incentives in China and Cuba; Egalitarianism in Israel; Yugoslavia: a special case; and The relative pay of particular occupations. The last section reviews and discusses the material presented, drawing out seven main points.
Pay Structure and Status
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe study of status presented in this chapter centres upon the question that the economist and sociologist approach so differently: why there is generally so close an agreement between the rank orders of occupations by status and by pay. The different sections of the chapter are: The ordering of occupations by average earnings; The ordering of occupations by status; Pay differentials and the scale of status; The nature of status; Station in life as a basis of assigned income; Is status prior to pay?; Evidence for status moulding pay in modern societies; The influence of custom; and Divergences between the rank orders of status and pay––Instances of pay and status offsetting one another, and Stratification by status differing from ranking by pay. The last section reviews and discusses the material presented, drawing out seven main points.
Discrimination
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractWhat has been held to be an outstanding instance of differences of pay being dependent upon differences of status is examined in this chapter on discrimination. Of the various aspects of class, that taken as most pertinent to the present inquiry is the grouping of occupations by class according to the tendency of the children of those in a given occupation to enter occupations in the same class. The different sections of the chapter are: Forms of discrimination; Discrimination against women––before and within the market; Discrimination against minorities––discrimination against blacks before and within the market; and The effects of raising minimum wages, as a test for the presence of discrimination. The last section reviews and discusses the material presented, drawing out six main points.
Social Class and Intergenerational Mobility
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter is concerned with intergenerational mobility between occupations, a theme that is further developed in the next chapter. The different sections of this chapter are: The assignment of occupations to social classes; Intergenerational mobility between occupations; Changes in intergenerational mobility over time; and The extent of intergenerational movement into and out of the top grade. The last section reviews and discusses the material presented, drawing out five main points.
Social Class, Mental Ability, and Education
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter studies the connection between social class, mental ability, education, and entry into employment, and is a further development of the previous chapter on intergenerational mobility between occupations. The different sections of this chapter are: The association between occupation and IQ; Evidence for the genetic determination of IQ potential; The effects of differences between classes in the upbringing of children on the development of IQ; The relation between parents’ class and their children's IQ; Class differences in the use made of education; Class differences in extent of education; Education as investment: human capital theory; and Entry into employment. The last section reviews and discusses the material presented, drawing out eight main points.
Conclusions Concerning the Sources and the Malleability of the Inequality of Pay
Authors: Phelps Brown Henry 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis final chapter brings together the main findings that have been reached by approaching the inequality of pay in two ways: differences between the average pay in different occupations (pay structure), and the distribution of individual earnings. The two different sections of the chapter are: The sources of the inequality of pay––in which nine conclusions are presented; and The possibilities of reducing the inequality of pay.
Russia's Stillborn Democracy?
Authors: Gill Graeme , Markwick Roger D. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The period since Gorbachev came to power has been a tumultuous time for Russia. It has seen the expectations raised by Gorbachev's efforts to bring about change in the Soviet Union dashed, the collapse of the Soviet superpower and the emergence of a new Russian state claiming to base itself on democratic, market principles. It has seen a political system shattered by a president turning tanks against the parliament, and then that president configuring the new political structure to give himself overwhelming power. These political upheavals took place against a background of social dislocation as the Russian people were ravaged by the effects of economic shock therapy. This book analyses this process, showing how the policies of perestroika, glasnost and democratization failed to bring about the renewal Gorbachev sought. It traces how, in the absence of active civil society forces, Yeltsin built up a hegemonic, but unstable, presidential system that sought to concentrate political power in the presidency. It explains how the quest for a market‐based democracy was undermined by the way in which political elites were able to act largely independently of the wishes of the mass of the population. It was this gulf between mass populace and elite political actors that shaped the course of developments under both Gorbachev and Yeltsin.
Party Decline in the Parties State? The Changing Environment of German Politics
Authors: Scarrow Susan E. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The 1949 (West) German Basic Law established a system of party‐based democracy that has now endured for more than half a century, yet today's political system is not identical to that of earlier years. Since the beginning of the 1980s, new party alternatives have made coalition politics harder to manage, the established parties have lost votes and members, and waning public support for all the parties has drawn unfavourab1e attention to the parties’ entrenched positions. These changes grew more pronounced in the 1990s, exacerbated, though not caused, by German unification, and developments reached a new stage in 1998, when one of the new parties of the 1980s, the Greens, became a party of government—an event made possible at least as much by the transformation of the Green Party itself as by a revolution in German politics. Nevertheless, despite the recent challenges to traditional political patterns, Germany remains very much a parties state, with parties still serving as the central mechanisms for political linkage and political decision‐making, and the same big parties being the principal players in state and federal coalition politics. The introductory sections discuss German parties and political institutions; the next three sections cover the same topics as the other country case studies in the book, and examine party legitimacy, party organizational strength (finance, staffing, members, mass media, parties in eastern Germany), and party functionality (in governance, interest articulation and aggregation, political participation, political recruitment and patronage, and political communication and education).
The Scandinavian Party Model at the Crossroads
Authors: Sundberg Jan 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Scandinavian party systems have often been seen as ‘ultra stable’, a view that was certainly justified between 1945 and the early 1970; however, the general election of 1973 in Denmark signalled a new era of instability as the three major parties saw their aggregate share of the vote slashed; soon similar developments became visible in Norway, to some extent in Finland, and (a little later) in Sweden. The main political actors in the Scandinavian democracies are organized around conflicts between labour and capital, and between the rural peripheries and urban centres; the five party families of the classic Scandinavian model (social democracy, conservatism, liberalism, agrarian ‘centrism’, and communism) are deeply anchored in these social bases, with class especially having been a more important determinant of party loyalty than in other west European democracies; in particular, the mutual tolerance and moderation that parties typically accord each other in consensus democracies has resulted in the creation of an extensive and well‐known mixed welfare economy. However, the classic five‐party model no longer provides a comprehensive account of party politics in Scandinavia: since the early 1970s a variety of other parties, old and new, have emerged, and this has led to doubt as to whether the Scandinavian party systems remain distinctive, although they may still be located in the category of moderate pluralism. The increasing fragmentation of parliaments has also affected governments in different ways in the four countries. The introduction discusses these changes; the next three sections cover the same topics as those in the other country case studies in the book, and examine (the erosion of) party legitimacy, party organizational strength (finance, members), and the systemic functionality of political parties (in governance, political recruitment, interest articulation and aggregation, political participation, and political communication).
Party Politics in Ireland
Authors: Murphy R. J. , Farrell David M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Until as recently as the mid‐1970s, Irish party politics had an unchanging nature and was characterized as a two‐and‐a‐half party system (Fianna Fáil, Fine Gael, and the smaller Labour Party) dominated by Fianna Fáil. However, the last part of the twentieth century has seen dramatic changes. The dominance of Fianna Fáil ended, and whereas governments from 1932 to 1969 changed only four times, in the last 30 years, no government has been fully returned to power, and there have been coalition governments—a normal experience of proportional representation systems (Ireland has a single transferable vote system) although it had not previously occurred in Ireland. There has also been a host of new parties, although recently there has been some rationalization (with a formal merger between Labour and the Democratic Left in January 1999) and the party system has become more unpredictable, while at the same time showing signs of becoming more regulated. The introduction discusses these changes; the next three sections cover the same topics as those in the other country case studies in the book, and examine party legitimacy, party organizational strength (party finance, staffing, members, access to/control of the media) and the systemic functionality of parties (governance, political recruitment, interest articulation and aggregation, political participation, and political communication and education).
Canada's Nineteenth‐Century Cadre Parties at the Millennium
Authors: Carty R. Kenneth 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe electoral explosion that overthrew the established patterns of Canada's national party system in 1993 marked the end of yet another cycle in Canadian party system development, for there had been similar reshapings in the early 1960s and in the 1920s. In each case, the party transformations were about more than shifting electoral alignments and party fortunes, they also involved radical changes in the organization and activities of the parties concerned. However, although the formal organizational structure of Canadian parties has varied considerably, they have all been essentially cadre‐like in their structure and character, and the core linkage problem has been one of tying an American society to European‐style governing institutions. Electoral realignments have also been cast in geographic rather than social structural terms, and recent decades have seen the disintegration of the party system in a different sense as federal (national) politics has become increasingly disentangled from provincial politics. The introduction discusses these topics; the next three sections cover the same topics as those in the other country case studies in the book, and examine the possible crisis in party legitimacy in Canada, the cadre organizations of the Canadian cadre parties, and the functions of the Canadian cadre parties in a modern polity (governance, political recruitment, interest articulation and aggregation, participatory organizations, and political communication and education).
Parties and Society in New Zealand
Authors: Vowles Jack 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first introductory section discusses the evolution of the current party system in New Zealand, from a system dominated by the two parties around which it had aligned in the 1930s, to the consequences for party composition and representation of the change from the first past the post (FPTP) or single‐member plurality (SMP) electoral system, to the new mixed‐member proportional (MMP) system under which the 1996 and 1999 elections were fought. The second introductory section discusses theoretical issues associated with party system dealignment that has resulted. The next three sections cover the same topics as those in the other country case studies in the book, and examine party legitimacy, party organizational strength (party finance, staffing, membership activity, and media), and systemic functionality (governance, interest articulation and aggregation, political recruitment, and political communication and education).