bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Hallam Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The origin of biogeography as a scientific discipline has been attributed to the great French naturalist of the Enlightenment, Buffon. In 1761 he pointed out that the Old and New Worlds have no mammalian species in common. This led to a generalization sometimes known as Buffon’s Law, that different regions of the globe, though experiencing the same environmental conditions, were inhabited by different species of animal and plant. Such a ‘law’ implies that the key factor controlling organic distribution is history rather than ecology. It was actually the French botanist Candolle who was the first to make this generalization, early in the nineteenth century, and his 1820 publication can be taken as marking the true birth of biogeography (Nelson 1978). In this work Candolle lists twenty botanical regions across the world, defined by endemic species. Despite Nelson’s promotion of Candolle, Brundin (1988) considers that another botanist, Joseph Hooker (1853), was the real founder of causal historical biogeography. From the results of his comprehensive taxonomic analysis of southern floras, he inferred that those at the southern tip of South America, New Zealand, and southern Australia were closely related. As a result of investigating possible dispersal mechanisms he became convinced that dispersal was not a significant agent and concluded that the southern continents must once have been connected - an anticipation of Suess’s concept of Gondwanaland, put forward at the end of the nineteenth century. Hooker’s explanation was based on vicariance biogeography, thus anticipating a school of thought that has arisen within the last two decades.
Late Palaeozoic
Authors: Hallam Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a result of the so-called ‘conquest of the land’, the Late Palaeozoic was the time when a substantial biota of vascular plants and vertebrates became established on the continents, thereby expanding the range of organisms whose biogeography can be studied. As regards plate tectonics, the supercontinent Pangaea had been created in the Permian, as a consequence of successive coalescence of continental blocks. Reconstruction of Pangaea for Permian times has proved problematic, because of an apparent disparity of geological and palaeomagnetic results. When plotted on a conventional Pangaea reconstruction the palaeomagnetic poles for Gondwana are clearly distinct from those of the other major component, Laurussia, consisting of North America, Greenland, and Europe. Attempts have been made to avoid unacceptable overlap of these components by invoking right-lateral shear movement on a huge scale in Late Permian and Triassic times. Morel and Irving (1981) proposed a pre-shear reconstruction in which the northern margins of South America lay adjacent to eastern North America and West Africa against southern Europe. Even more extreme, Smith et al. (1981) had South America against Europe and Africa against southern Asia (Fig. 6.1).
Modelling groundwater flow and transport in the Chalk
Authors: Barker J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At this stage it is convenient to review the transport mechanisms in the Chalk and the factors that have to be considered when creating models of the Chalk’s flow systems. Modelling is a discipline that requires a clear understanding of the processes occurring in the Chalk. The increasing ability to construct sophisticated models has focused attention on these processes and led to more rigorous and realistic conceptual models of the aquifer for examining both flow and pollution problems.
Chalk water and engineering geology
Authors: Mortimore R N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To assess the potential engineering hazard created by water in the Chalk it is first necessary to identify the range of engineering operations. It is also necessary to establish the engineering characteristics of chalk that generate particular hazards in combination with pore-water and/or fissure water. Engineering operations that are relevant cover underground excavations, surface earthworks, slope stabilization, preparation of foundations, waste disposal, water disposal in soakaways, and the abstraction of both water and hydrocarbons. Each of these operations is dependent on a knowledge of pore and fissure structure, porosity and permeability, and the degree of saturation. A knowledge of water chemistry and the interaction between the ‘dual porosity’ of pores and fissures is also often needed. This is in addition to understanding the gross lithology and structure of chalk and chalk terrain evolution.
The Chalk aquifer—its vulnerability to pollution
Authors: Foster S S D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The very property of the Chalk that makes it an excellent aquifer—its well-developed fractures and fissures—also renders it especially vulnerable to pollution. The unusual characteristic of having superimposed and contrasting porosity/permeability elements results in distinctive behaviour in terms of pollutant transport, and greatly prolongs the persistence of pollution incidents by non-degradable contaminants. This chapter identifies those properties of the Chalk, in its various common lithological and structural variants, which determine its capacity to transport, store, and attenuate water contaminants, and reviews the impact of different sources of pollution on the aquifer. Saline intrusion in coastal areas is not considered, although the controlling factors will be similar to those affecting the transport of mobile contaminants in the saturated zone, which are dealt with in this chapter.
South-East Asian Oil, Gas, Coal and Mineral Deposits
Authors: Hutchison Charles S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first and only book to give a regional analysis of the oil, gas, coal, and mineral deposits of South-East Asia. The hydrocarbon-bearing basins are described in the complicated regional Tertiary tectonics, for which the region is the world's foremost field laboratory. The book is a companion to the author's 1989 Geological Evolution of South-East Asia. (Now to be reissued by the Geological Society of Malaya.) The stratigraphy, structures, hydrocarbon and coal deposits of the major Tertiary basins are described. Regional similarities and differencs are analysed. Important ophiolite-related chromium, nickel and copper deposits, and volcanic-related porphyry copper and epithermal gold-silver deposits are described from the island-arc terrains of the Philipines and Indonesia. The Sundaland continental peninsular core has been the world's foremost source of tungsten and tin. The great placer tin mines of Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are now in decline. Iron, antimony, non-volcanic gold, fluorite, barite, lead-zinc and gemstone deposits are also described.
Basins of Eastern Indonesia
Authors: Hutchison Charles S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are several basins lying between the eastern margin of Sundaland and the northern margin of Australia. The Savu Basin lies in a fore-arc setting and the Bone Basin is a Tertiary rift basin. The basins of Irian Jaya are unlike the basins described in the foregoing chapters and are integral parts of the continental shelf of Australia.
Fossil non-human primates
Authors: Colin P. Groves 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is probably too much to hope that, except in the later stages where stratigraphic resolution is greatest, modes of evolution can be worked out in fossil primates. Gingerich and others tried it for Pelycodus and Plesiadapis, and it is still controversial. But no book of human and primate evolution would be complete without them, for obvious reasons; and we may yet be able to deduce something about what made the system run.
Species and clades in human evolution
Authors: Colin P. Groves 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general assumption of most writers I mentioned earlier has been that human evolution was largely unilineal. This assumption is so deeply ingrained that, even among those who do not espouse this view, communication is most readily achieved by talking in grade terms; which is why I did the same in Chapter 6, section 6.1. But this may not be how it did actually happen: here, I would like to test the unilineal view by cladistic analysis assisted by a realistic (section 6.3) view of variation.
Syntactic Nuts
Authors: Culicover Peter W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book investigates the architecture of the language faculty by considering what the properties of language reveal about the mental abilities and processes involved in language acquisition. The language faculty, the author argues, must be able not only to accommodate what is general, exceptionless, and universal in language, but must also be capable of dealing with what is irregular, exceptional, and idiosyncratic. In Syntactic Nuts Peter Culicover shows that this is true not only of the lexicon, but for syntax. Marginal and exceptional cases, where there is no straightforward form-meaning correspondence, are dealt with by the language faculty easily and precisely as the general cases. In considering how and why this should be the author argues against the prevailing trend in generative grammar, which takes the learner as either incorporating maximally global generalisations as part of its innate capacity for language, or projecting global generalisations from a very limited input on the basis of innate mechanisms. He suggests that the learning mechanism does not generalize significantly beyond the evidence presented to it, and further that it seeks to form generalizations based on all and only the evidence presented to it. Syntactic Nuts makes a fundamental contribution to generative grammar and syntactic theory. It situates syntactic theory within cognitive science in a novel way. It contributes to an alternative, and yet in many ways traditional, perspective on the manner in which knowledge is represented and processed in the mind.
The Verb
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The stem. The form of the verb cited in the dictionaries is the infinitive in -mek, e.g. bilmek ‘to know’, bulmak ‘to find’, görmek ‘to see’, anlamak ‘to understand’. When one is describing the conjugation of the verb it is more convenient to omit this ending and cite only the stem: bil-, bul-, gör-, anla-. The verb ‘to be’. We shall first deal with those parts of the anomalous and defective verb ‘to be’ which are used as auxiliaries in the conjugation of all verbs. In the oldest texts the infinitive ‘to be’ was ermek, but the stem er-, abraded in the course of time, now appears as i-. Some grammarians consequently speak of ‘the verb imek’, but no such form ever existed.
The political world of the absolutist state in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Authors: Symcox Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Italy’s fragmented political geography, enshrined in the peace treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559, persisted through the Old Regime. On the eve of the Napoleonic invasion in 1796 the political map still looked much as it had two centuries earlier. Apart from the Habsburg-first Spanish, later Austrian-imperial possessions (Lombardy, and the kingdom of Naples and Sicily until 1734), most states were ruled by autonomous princes aspiring to absolute authority. The old and increasingly inert city-republics of Venice, Genoa, and Lucca coexisted with the rising dynamic of princely absolutism. ‘Italy’ was in fact a system of regional states, republican or princely, competing for territory and status.
France overseas
Authors: Boulle Pierre H , Gillian Thompson D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of Louis XIV’s personal reign, France overseas consisted of a somewhat haphazard collection of territories under the half-hearted control of the metropolis. The principal possessions were New France and some islands in the Caribbean. By the end of the reign, France’s empire was made up of colonies and commercial factories controlled from the centre and connected to the mother country by complex economic ties. It would continue to grow in the eighteenth century, when competition with the British for colonial empire reached its climax. By the mid-eighteenth century, France challenged British ambitions to control world trade. While Britain was victorious in North America and India, elsewhere, and notably in the West Indies, France more than held its own.
Conclusion
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1788, Maximilien Robespierre was a 30-year-old lawyer in sleepy provincial Arras, overeducated for his prospects, surviving on the occasional earnings of hopeless briefs and a petty part-time judge ship, reading Rousseau, and dreaming of utopia. Six years later, almost as much to his surprise as anyone’s, he dominated the government of France, still dreaming, but now in a position to massacre anybody who did not share his dreams. The French Revolution would be the midwife of countless other life changes scarcely less astonishing. ‘Political writers’, Robespierre would later declare, ‘ ⃛ had in no way foreseen this Revolution’, much less any other sort. For the vacuum of power produced by the collapse of the old monarchy forced everybody who lived in France to rethink every aspect of their existence. The authority to which the French instinctively looked had suddenly disappeared, and they had to reconstruct their world from its very foundations.
Introduction
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this study, I have two main objectives. One is to supply an introductory survey of British economic and social history between 1050 and 1530, registering the principal achievements of the last fifty years in improving our data and refining its analysis through discussion and debate. I hope that my treatment will be sufficiently approachable to interest students and other readers in finding out more about the topics covered in the book, sometimes all too briefly. The reading lists have been designed to enable readers to carry some topics much further than an introductory text like this can take them, and include numerous important items not referenced in the main text. I have also supplied, in the bibliographies for Chapters 13 and 23, details of original source material available in English. I hope that this will enable students interested in the period to find suitable topics for dissertations; the problem of finding translated source material has, in my experience, often driven students to later periods against their stronger inclinations.
Contours of Development
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The years 1050–1300 were years of considerable, if erratic, economic expansion. As in any period of such length, people had considerable diversities of experience, including times of acute political uncertainty, warfare, and local destruction. Nevertheless, comparisons between Britain in 1050 and 1300 demonstrate many signs of development, particularly during the hundred years between about 1160 and 1260. The number of inhabitants of Britain grew, the use of land for agriculture intensified, as woodland was cleared and marshland drained, the number and size of towns increased, the circulation of money was almost everywhere growing, and writing became extensively used to record contracts, exchanges, and administrative details. These are all signs that the quantity of goods and services being produced in Britain increased. The total output of goods and services grew perhaps by between two and three times between 1050 and 1300.
Government
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although governments had no concept of an economic policy designed to facilitate economic growth, there can be no doubt that their activities affected the economy in various ways. Many measures both in war and peace affected transaction costs, and so had a bearing on levels of profit that traders could expect. Other activities, notably through taxation, directly affected the level and distribution of incomes. These two aspects of the impact of government deserve separate consideration to determine how rulers responded to commercial development between 1050 and 1300, and also to assess how they enhanced or dampened productive and commercial incentives.
Towns, Industry, and Local Trade
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Though urban historians have long tried to establish some consensus of opinion relating to urban fortunes through the period 1300–1525, the task has proved more difficult than for the preceding 450 years. Securing agreement about the period between the ninth and the thirteenth centuries is facilitated by circumstances generally favourable to urban growth—increasing international communications, increasing population and internal trade, and expanding money supply. After 1300 such ease of generalization over time and space is no longer feasible. There was no sustained growth of internal or external trade, but neither was there any other pattern of development common to all towns. They varied markedly in the extent of their dependence on long-distance or local trade, and these differences affected their capacity for enterprise and growth.
Government
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the period 1050–1300 the impact of central governments on the economy had increased through the extension of its range. The power of English kings had reached northwards into northern England (finally checked only by the Scottish wars of independence) and westwards into Wales and Ireland. By the time of Alexander III’s death in 1286 Scottish kingship stretched westwards and northwards to embrace almost the whole of modern Scotland. Only Orkney and Shetland remained as fiefs of Norway. Between 1300 and 1530 there were significant differences in the capacity of the two monarchies to retain these earlier extensions to their authority. The range of the English crown’s authority contracted, both because the government revenues required to maintain its former extended rule were no longer available, and because the more peripheral parts of Britain and Ireland could no longer produce surpluses sufficiently large to justify heavy expenditure.
Introduction
Authors: Holt MackP 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume aims to provide a general overview of French history in the century and a half between 1500 and 1648. Neither its title nor its terminal dates are meant to suggest that this is a period without significant continuities with both what came before as well as what followed. Moreover, the adjectives Renaissance and Reformation in the volume’s title should also be understood in other than purely traditional ways. It is certainly true that in 1500 many contemporaries saw France as the state most likely to dominate Europe in the coming century. Except for die nominal port city of Calais, English troops had been forced out of France altogether by 1453 at the end of the Hundred Years War, and Louis XI had restored royal authority shortly thereafter.
Rural, urban, and global economies
Authors: Hoffman Philip T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What was life like in early modern France? Were men and women rich or poor? How did they support themselves? Did the economy produce enough for them to eat or did they go to bed hungry? Did their material circumstances improve or worsen over time? Could they expect to survive to a ripe and healthy old age or did they often die young?
Economic historians ask questions such as these. They might pose others as well: why reputations played a peculiarly important role in early modern markets, or why the French monarchy sold government offices in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. At bottom, though, all of their questions have something to say about economic growth, the key issue of economic history. It lies at the heart of economic history, and for obvious reasons.
Social history
Authors: Kaelble Hartmut 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
European societies in the second half of the twentieth century were characterized by extraordinary, to some extent intended, social dynamics within a hot peace. This period had some quite particular social features, especially compared to the turbulent first half of the twentieth century. First, this was an unusually long period of peace in Europe, but it lay in the shadow of one of the most catastrophic wars in European history, and also under the threat of intensive rearmament and of military conflicts in former European colonies. European society was first seen by Europeans through the lens of their experience of wartime, and was highly appreciated as a peacetime society. At the same time, peace was rarely seen as assured.
The south
Authors: Paterson Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the twelfth century, King Louis VI ‘s rule beyond the borders of the royal domain of the fle-de-France was nominal. Even if Philip Augustus had succeeded in gaining control over much of modern-day France by the end of it, many areas, such as Aquitaine and Montpellier, long remained outside it, and both north and south comprised a considerable diversity of smaller regions. The most marked division was the distinction between north and south, between what those sensitive to twenty-first-century regionalism prefer to call ‘France ‘ and ‘Occitania ‘.
Introduction
Authors: Lyttelton Adrian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new century in Italy brought a fresh start, in the economy, in society, and in politics. Italy benefited more than most nations from the international economic upswing which began in 1896. Until the crisis ofi907, the pace of ltaly’ s economic growth was faster than that of any other major state. Industrial production grew at around 7 per cent a year between 1896 and 1908. After the financial crises of the 1890s, a reformed banking system proved efficient both in managing the currency and in channelling funds to industry. It was possible for the state to return to a policy of actively promoting economic growth without, as before, incurring dangerously large budget deficits. For important sections of Italian liberal opinion, this role of the state was an anomaly, a distortion of the natural course of economic development.
A Theory of Simple Conditionals; Non-Assertoric Conditionals
Authors: Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If possible worlds theories, and the theory that the truth-conditions of Simple Conditionals are those of the material conditional are rejected, we are left, first, with the view that Simple Conditionals are to be explained as being used to make conditional assertions, so that they do not express propositions to which a truth-value may be ascribed (though a truth-value may be assigned to the consequent in the event of the antecedent’s truth); and second the view that such conditionals do have truth conditions of a relativized kind relativized to the epistemic state of the speaker.
Sketch of a Theory of ‘Counterfactual’ Conditionals
Authors: Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 2, I argued that the Counterfactuality Thesis is false; and in Section 5, I argued against the attempt to explain ‘counterfactual’ conditionals in terms of possible worlds. Having, in the last section, developed an account of the meaning of ‘if’ when it occurs in Simple Conditionals, it remains to sketch a theory of ‘counterfactuals’ that meets the requirements identified in Section 5. So I begin by returning to the question of the logical form of conditionals employing ‘would’.