bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fair Trial
Authors: Bentley David , Thomas Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The right to a fair trial embodied in Article 6 ECHR is central to the establishment and maintenance of a free and democratic society. Its object and purpose is ‘to enshrine the fundamental principle of the rule of law’and should be given a broad and purposive interpretation, rather than a restrictive one. While the discussion for the purposes of this book is on its role in ensuring that individuals are not unjustly punished and that convictions are well-founded, it also has a central role in the protection of many other freedoms enshrined in the Convention. Article 6 is primarily concerned with procedural fairness, and involves an examination of the proceedings as a whole, including any appeal. The broad guarantees of a fair trial contained in Article 6(1) afford rights to those involved in civil, as well as criminal proceedings, but those charged with criminal offences benefit from the presumption of innocence in 6(2) and the minimum rights guaranteed in 6(3), such as legal assistance and interpreters.
The Media
Authors: Hudson Anthony 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the role of the media in the criminal justice system. It examines the extent to which proceedings must be transparent and the restrictions that can be imposed on the publication of reports of criminal proceedings so as to avoid undermining a defendant’s right to a fair trial. It also looks at the increasingly common topic of journalists as witnesses. Anonymity of Defendants and Witnesses The right to a fair trial and the principle of open justice are frequently perceived to be in conflict. Properly understood, the two rights are complementary.
The Application of The Echr to Appeals
Authors: Southey Hugh 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Article 6 of the ECHR results in many of the rights that apply at the trial stage of criminal proceedings being applied to appellate proceedings. The application of Article 6 is not, however, straightforward. That is because account is taken of the fact that there will inevitably have been a trial at first instance. As a consequence, this chapter essentially seeks to identify how Article 6 is modified to take account of the special nature of appeals In addition, Article 13 of the ECHR provides that ‘Everyone whose rights and freedoms as set forth in this Convention are violated shall have an effective remedy before a national authority notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by persons acting in an official capacity.’ As a result, it might be thought that Article 13 gives rise to a right to challenge a decision of a trial court that violates Article 6. However, Article 13 does not entitle a person to an appeal against a violation of Article 6 at first instance.
American patriot
Authors: Philp Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A few days later Paine joined a body of Penn sylvania volunteers who marched towards New York. The anticipated British attack never mate rialized, and Paine spent the summer as secretary to Daniel Roberdeau, the commander of the flying camp. When it was disbanded he travelled to Fort Lee and served as aide-de-camp to General Nathanael Greene, who became a close friend. He also served as a field correspondent, puffing American successes in small skirmishes and supporting the decisions of Greene and George Washington despite their frequent military blunders.
An age of revolutions
Authors: Philp Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When he had arrived in France in 1787, Paine had formed a friendship with the secretary of the archbishop of Toulouse, the Abbé André Morellet, to whom he had written at length on the prospects for peaceable relations between France and Britain. Paine had suggested that there was no interest in war in either court, but that France had an enemy in the vulgar prejudices of the British. He accordingly planned a pamphlet to rectify the misunderstanding between the two peoples.
Death of a democrat
Authors: Philp Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Paine arrived in Baltimore on 18 October 1802 to a seemingly friendly reception. But the impression was fleeting. He was temporarily arrested on a dubious charge of indebtedness, and the federalists immediately sought to make capital of Paine’s irreligion and Thomas Jefferson’s offer of a public vessel. When he arrived in Washington only Jefferson and the most ardent republicans welcomed him. Even old colleagues, such as Benjamin Rush and Samuel Adams, turned against him because of his religious heterodoxy.
Government debt and the portfolios of the rich
Authors: Su¨ssmuth Bernd , von Weizsa¨cker Robert K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Differences in attitudes to risk between the wealthiest individuals and the least wealthy individuals have a potentially important effect on the evolution of the economy, and on the public finances in particular. The aim of this chapter is to investigate heterogeneity in risk aversion, its relationship to wealth levels, and government debt policies.
Introduction: The Problem of London
Authors: Freeman Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Edward Ponderevo, the cynical peddler of patent medicine in H. G. Wells’s Tono-Bungay (1909), is not a man given to understatement; yet, in a revealing aside, he confesses to his nephew George that London ‘takes a lot of understanding’.1 George becomes fascinated by the city, and later in the novel muses that he could ‘fill a book, I think, with a more or less imaginary account of how I came to apprehend London, how first in one aspect and then in another it grew in my mind’.
‘Inclusion and Confusion’: Empiricist London
Authors: Freeman Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is show how two very different forms of realist writing engaged with the London that was becoming the regular haunt of social explorers, journalists, and evangelical campaigners. ‘Slum novels’ and the detective fiction of Arthur Conan Doyle would approach their task in markedly differing ways, but both represented means of invigorating the subject matter and techniques of realist art. They were sustained by a fundamentally positive belief that London could be understood, represented, and communicated if only the correct methods could be discovered and employed, but their faith in such an enterprise was often challenged by the unsavoury details of city life.
The Infinite Sea
Authors: Close Frank 
Published: October 2023

abstract
In 1687 Isaac Newton laid down the first universal laws of gravitation in his Principia. By the mid-nineteenth century, James Clerk Maxwell had united a multitude of electric and magnetic phenomena with his elegant theory of electromagnetism. ‘There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now,’ William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, asserted at the British Association meeting in 1900. Within five years Einstein had invented relativity theory. Ironic then that Albert Michelson, whose own experiments had helped form the paradoxes that led to that new world view, had also insisted that ‘The grand underlying principles have been firmly established; further truths of physics are to be looked for in the sixth place of decimals.’
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade: Origins and Overview
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The modern law of international trade may fairly be described as a product of World War II, or to be more precise, of the perceptions of the Allied planners of the post-war world. While the details do not fully conform to the general perceptions, the architects of the post-war settlement saw the nineteenth century as a time of relatively open trade, and of peace, in contrast to the first half of the twentieth century, a time of high tariffs, discriminatory economic arrangements, import quotas, unilateralism and bilateralism—plus a global depression and barely two decades between two devastating world wars.
Evolution of the GATT and GATT Law
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the GATT was being drafted and negotiated in 1947–48, the Cold War between the Western democracies and the Soviet bloc was just beginning; the recovery of Western Europe from the ravages of World War II was in its early stages; Japan was essentially outside the international economy; most of Africa and major parts of Asia and Oceania were subject to colonial rule; and the European Common Market was a decade away. The United States was the unchallenged leader of the world economy—in capital, technology, and resources, and with an apparently permanent trade surplus. Indeed, the United States was a net exporter of petroleum, and the price of crude oil stood at well under $3 a barrel. The US dollar itself stood as a firm anchor of the international trading system, tied to gold, and most other currencies were linked to the dollar by the par value system, established pursuant to the Articles of Agreement of the IMF.
The International Exchange of Services and the Creation of GATS
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The interest in rules for trade in services comes largely as a result of two economic trends. First, many developed countries, and particularly the United States, came to recognize that, measured by percentage of gross domestic product, their economies produce more services than goods. Thus services viewed collectively have become the dominant sector of the major industrial—or rather post-industrial—economies. The Economist reported in 1994 that manufacturing firms employed only one worker in six in the United States, one in five in Britain, and one in three in Germany. Well over half the gross domestic product of the OECD countries as a whole is made up of service industries, and new job creation has been predominantly in service-related fields, particularly those that require high levels of education, such as telecommunications and health care.
The Question of Subsidies
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
No question in international trade law is as contentious, and as complicated, as the question of subsidies. In part, the question is political. Subsidies are transfers of wealth from the general treasury to a particular group of beneficiaries, who, it is believed, could not survive, or at least could not maintain their standing, on the basis of market forces alone. Though most such transfers take place within a given state, they may have adverse impact on the economies—or on particular sectors—of other states, because they distort the flow of goods that would take place without government intervention. At the most general level, the questions for international law are to what extent states may make, or should be restrained from making such transfers, and on the other hand, to what extent other states may take measures to counteract such transfers. Beyond that, definition and measurement of subsidies turns out to be extraordinarily difficult.
Competition Law
Authors: Fox* Eleanor M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Competition law regulates business practices and transactions that create or abuse market power and interfere with the free play of market forces. In the United States, this body of law is called antitrust law. The law was enacted at the end of the nineteenth century in response to the formation of trusts by Rockefeller, Morgan, and others to control major sectors of the American economy, such as railroads, steel, oil, farm machinery, sugar, and banking. Until the end of World War II, the United States alone was a prominent enforcer of antitrust law. At the end of the war, in connection with US assistance programmes, Germany and Japan adopted antitrust law as an antidote to political authoritarianism.
The Bretton Woods System
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It would not be accurate to say that before 1945 there was no international monetary system. States and their enterprises traded with one another, currencies were exchanged, and states held monetary reserves—in gold, in silver, and in foreign currencies. It would be accurate, however, to say that prior to the close of World War II no international legal regime governed the conduct of states with respect to monetary affairs.1 For about 35 years prior to the outbreak of World War I, the major western countries—the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the United States—all tied their currencies to gold, so that the rates of exchange among the franc, the mark, the pound, and the dollar were essentially fixed.
The International Monetary Fund as Amended
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
From 15 August 1971 on, it was clear that fundamental changes were needed in the rules of international monetary law. The system had been unable, from the mid-1960s onward, to achieve anything like sustained equilibrium, and when its main anchor, the United States, acted contrary to the rules, the other states had been neither able nor willing to uphold the rules themselves. It was the rules that had to change. Three tracks were followed in the aftermath of 15 August. The first track aimed at restoring the fixed exchange rate system, but with wider margins, i.e. with more flexibility for marker movements around a target or central rate, but with a continued (or renewed) obligation on states to maintain the agreed rates.
Oil Markets and the Future
Authors: Stevens Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Oil remains a key source of primary energy. Figure 1 illustrates its dominance. This pre-eminence arises because of oil’s physical characteristics (Frankel, 1946; Stevens, 2000). As it is a liquid which flows in three-dimensional space all stages in the value chain attract large technical economies of scale leading to low costs relative to other fuels. Oil has a relatively high energy content compared to other fuels—some 50 per cent more than coal on a weight basis and 170 times more than natural gas on a volume basis. Oil is also a truly international business.
Policy Uncertainty and Supply Adequacy in Electric Power Markets
Authors: Brunekreeft Gert , McDaniel Tanga 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Supply adequacy in the power markets takes on added importance with liberalization. Relevant episodes illustrating inadequacies in the electricity supply industry include the California power crisis of 2001, which raised questions of whether liberalized power markets include the incentives needed to induce investment in new assets, and the recent blackouts in both the USA and Europe, which raised concerns about the adequacy of the high-voltage transmission networks. The OECD (2003) reports that, globally, new electricity investment to 2030 will amount to some dazzling $10 trillion.
Effect of Liberalizing UK Retail Energy Markets on Consumers
Authors: Price* Catherine Waddams 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Retail energy markets in the UK were opened between 1996 and 1998 and from 1990 to 2004 retail energy prices in the UK fell. This was partly because feedstock costs were falling world wide, but the government claims that at least some of the price decrease results from the introduction of supplier choice and the removal of price controls. However, the new energy paradigm, described elsewhere in this book, will involve rising costs, in which residential consumers face increasing energy prices, and these will be experienced within a market structure very different from that which prevailed 10 years ago, before retail competition was introduced.
Nuclear Energy
Authors: Grimston Malcolm 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One of the most startling recent characteristics of the energy debate in many developed countries is the speed and extent to which nuclear power, for many years effectively ignored as a major option, has returned to the agenda—’with a vengeance’ in the words of UK Prime Minister Tony Blair.1 From its emergence in the late 1950s and early 1960s nuclear energy underwent a period of rapid growth.
Corporate Finance In Europe: A Survey
Authors: Maug François Degeorge Ernst 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This survey takes stock of research on corporate finance in Europe. The ambition is to provide the reader with an overview of what we have learned about the subject, particularly since the beginning of the 1990s. We focus on two themes when studying corporate finance in Europe. First, the practice and institutions in Europe are heterogeneous and difierent from those in the United States and we demonstrate the importance of this observation.
The Economics Of The Eu’s Corporate Insolvency Law And The Quest For Harmonization By Market Forces
Authors: Sussman Oren 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The European Parliament and the Council of Ministers shall endeavour to achieve the objective of free movement of capital between Member States and third countries to the greatest extent possible. (Constitution for Europe, draft, 2003, Article III-46). I would like to thank Julian Franks, Colin Mayer, Gabriel Moss, and Ken Okamura for helpful comments.
Technology, Regulation, And The Geographical Scope Of Banking
Authors: Degryse Hans , Ongena Steven 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We received many valuable comments from Xavier Freixas. This chapter updates Degryse and Ongena 2004, a paper published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy issue on European Financial Integration edited by Xavier Freixas, Philipp Hartmann, and Colin Mayer (Volume 20, No. 4). Writing that paper we received comments from an anonymous referee, Chris Allsopp (editor), Jan Bouckaert, Xavier Freixas (issue editor), Philipp Hartmann (issue editor), Colin Mayer (issue editor), John Muellbauer, David Myatt (discussant), and participants at the editorial seminar at SaØd Business School (Oxford).
The Euro Money Markets
Authors: Valla Philipp Hartmann Natacha 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Money markets are an important part of modern financial systems. Paradoxically, this is not well reflected in the economic literature in that in particular equity markets but also bond markets usually receive much greater attention. The most important function of money markets is to allocate liquidity in the economy. Eﬃcient and stable money markets allow economic agents to elastically meet payment and short-term financing needs and profitably invest short-term revenues, even in times of great uncertainty and associated large liquidity shocks.
Equity Returns And Integration Is Europe Changing?
Authors: Danthine Kpate Adjaouté Jean-Pierre 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
How significant is the mark left by the all-important process of economic and financial integration, including the advent of the euro, on equity markets? From the viewpoint of equity investors, can one assert that the promises of European integration are materializing? Our strategy to shed light on these questions is to analyse sequentially the efiects of economic and financial integration on the fundamentals being priced in European financial markets (Section 2) and on the characteristics of the pricing mechanism (Section 3), before turning to the observations that can be made on equity returns themselves (Section 4). Section 5 summarizes the answers we provide to these questions.
The Supervision Of An Integrating European Banking Sector Theory, Practice, And Challenges
Authors: Tsatsaronis Kostas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The single market objective for financial services in Europe dates back to the earliest days of the European Economic Community. Given the dominant position of banks in the European financial landscape, the objective has always efiectively implied the closer integration of national banking markets. Nevertheless, progress along in this dimension, and in particular in retail deposit and loan markets, has been slower compared to other industries.
Dying for French Soudan
Authors: Taithe Bertrand 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the end, their tracks became clearer. Burnt villages signalled the progress of their journey. Occasionally, hanging bodies marked the entrances of villages while corpses littered the places they had visited. In the first few settlements beyond the uncertain borders of French Soudan the corpses had been arranged in shallow mass graves, a long dark blood stain hinting how the bodies had been dragged to their burial ground. Later on the corpses lay where they fell. To Colonel Klobb and his small squad of native troops of the French in West Africa, the so-called tirailleurs, it became obvious that the men they were looking for had lost their ways in every conceivable manner.
On 25 April 1899, Arsène Klobb had been sent after a much larger military ‘mission’ or ‘colonne’ led by two men: Captains Voulet and Chanoine, whose fates were so entwined that they have become almost a twin entity sharing a common tragedy: Voulet–Chanoine. These men were the kind of colonial figures known for their daring and initiative, the nationalists lionized. Indeed only a few years earlier they had been welcomed back in Paris as heroes. From heroes these men became villains, worse still, a national embarrassment. There had been early signs that the mission they led would encounter ‘difficulties’.
Privateering for France
Authors: Taithe Bertrand 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The author of these lines, Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, was the most prominent economist of the pro-colonial lobby and the (unsuccessful) political rival of Paul Vigné d’Octon for the constituency of Clermont l’Hérault. In this highly fanciful dream of systematic development of the Sahara, apparently rich with untapped resources and water, he went as far as describing the River Niger as the French Nile. To support his vision of potential wealth, he systematically exaggerated the writings of army officers and missionaries who were often equally enthusiastic about the lands they had conquered for the empire. Like many others he then used these assertions to campaign for the expansion of the new colonies. Unverifiable claims established an echoing circle of fancy which ran continuously between the colonial lobbyist and the soldiers, the conquerors and their Parisian backers.
Introduction
Authors: Mayson Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Historically, lawyers haven’t needed to think much, or in a very sophisticated way, about strategy, competitive advantage or the value of their businesses. protected professional status—sometimes accompanied by regulated scale fees for work done—created a benign environment in which entry into legal work was restricted, competition was constrained, and rewards all but guaranteed. however, increasing regulatory attention to restrictive and anti-competitive practices, particularly in the uk and within the european union, has removed much of the historical protection. as the twenty-first century proceeds, lawyers must expect an increasingly competitive environment. the evolution of the market for legal services will impose a requirement to think and act in ever more business-like ways, including contemplating competitive advantage over rivals, the value of law firms as businesses, and strategy as the definition of a firm’s response to competitive forces and the aspirations of its owners and staff.
Regulation and Competition
Authors: Mayson Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The decline I refer to here is not that in the protection of clients but rather the increasing tendency of governments and regulators of the professions to remove the protection of those professions from competition. Professions are usually founded on the basis of some ‘compact’ or agreement with the state that secures a monopoly on the provision of advice and services to clients as well as the privilege of regulating entry into the profession and the standards of those who practise within it. This monopoly assumes that a body of knowledge and skills can be defined to determine the ‘territory’ of the profession. This is increasingly difficult in these days of ever-expanding development and dissemination of knowledge.