bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Informal Models, Informal Logic
Authors: Russell Gillian K. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces and motivates the idea of informal counterparts to the formal barriers to entailment established in the earlier part of the book: barrier theses, as opposed to barrier theorems. It develops the idea of an informal logical model and uses this to define informal logical properties directly onto natural language constructions. It is argued that the definition of logical consequence should neither be understood as quantifying over possible worlds, nor over possible interpretations of the language, but rather over both. A novel proposal is made as to which aspects of meaning should be preserved over informal models, and which allowed to vary.
Informal Barriers
Authors: Russell Gillian K. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues for informal barriers to entailment for natural languages, modifying the formal logical techniques developed in the first two parts of the book. It provides arguments for each of the barriers, making use of informal counterparts to the model-theoretic R-relations for each of the barriers, and in particular defines normative sentences as sentences that are sensitive to shifts in the normative standards. It shows how to establish Hume’s Law on this interpretation. The book finishes with analysis of some informal counterexamples and by looking at the relationship between the metalogical barriers from the first two parts of the book and the intuitive folk-logical theses normally treated as barriers to entailment.
The Fundamental Processes in Ecology
Authors: Wilkinson David M. 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThis book raises and attempts to answer the following thought experiment: ‘For any planet with carbon-based life, which persists over geological timescales, what is the minimum set of ecological processes that must be present?’ The main intention of this book is to use an astrobiological perspective as a means of thinking about ecology on Earth. Its focus on processes contrasts with the commoner focus in ecology textbooks on entities such as individuals, populations, species, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. The book suggests that eight ecological processes are fundamental (not including natural selection and competition, which characterize all of life rather than only ecology): energy flow (energy consumption and waste product excretion), multiple guilds (autotrophs, decomposers, and parasites), trade-offs (specialization versus generalization, leading to biodiversity within guilds), dispersal, ecological hypercycles (i.e. auto-catalytic cycles), merging of organismal and ecological physiology (as life spreads over the planet, biotic and abiotic processes interact so strongly as to be inseparable), photosynthesis (which is likely in most biospheres but not inevitable), and carbon sequestration. These fundamental processes lead to the emergence of nutrient cycling. The integration of Earth system science with ecology is vitally important if ecological science is to successfully contribute to the massive problems and future challenges associated with global change. The book is heavily influenced by Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis—with recent theoretical work on Gaian systems discussed in the final chapter.
Trade-offs and biodiversity
Authors: Wilkinson David M. 
Published: October 2023

AbstractTrade-offs are a fundamental aspect of biodiversity as they prevent a few species from monopolizing the planet. Well-known ecological concepts, such as the niche, only make sense in the context of this more fundamental idea of trade-off. The resulting biodiversity will have a positive Gaian effect; that is, it will tend to make an ecological community more stable than if it was composed of a smaller number of species. Biodiversity does not evolve to help stabilize the system (except in the limited sense that taxon-poor systems may be more prone to extinction); it is an inevitable by-product of trade-offs and other processes such as geographical isolation. One potentially important way to think about the Gaian effect of biodiversity is the idea of the ‘portfolio effect’ from economics, although other ideas, such as Grime's ‘transient species’, are also important.
Dispersal
Authors: Wilkinson David M. 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThis chapter argues that dispersal is a fundamental process—as the environment changes (e.g. glacial/interglacial cycles) organisms that cannot move will become extinct. So dispersal is important in the context of climate change. Classic modelling work by Hamilton and May in the 1970s suggests that even if conditions are good at its home site an organism will benefit from a proportion of its offspring dispersing. More recently, dispersal has been seen as an important process in population ecology with the rise of ideas of metapopulations. Such ideas can be speculatively extended to solar system or even galactic scales.
Introduction
Authors: Gustafson Sandra M. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A reading of Abraham Lincoln’s last public speech provides a view of the challenges facing the United States after Lee’s surrender to Grant at Appomattox. More concrete than the Second Inaugural Address, the “Speech on Reconstruction” highlights the difficulties of ending a civil war and confirms the need for Black suffrage as a central component of national Reconstruction. A discussion of this pivotal moment in US history lays the ground for a brief account of the early peace movement, followed by definitions of key terms from leading peace researcher Johan Galtung, including direct and indirect violence, as well as negative and positive (or just) peace. The Introduction also provides an overview of the book’s contents, including historical background and chapter summaries.
Regeneration through Nonviolence
Authors: Gustafson Sandra M. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After tracing a central tension between nonviolence and resistance to oppression in the early US peace movement, this chapter focuses on the writings of Quaker writers William Penn and John Woolman, as well as the “Peaceful Kingdom” painter Edward Hicks. Turning to the late frontier novels of James Fenimore Cooper, the chapter highlights the Quaker background of his parents and his friendship with William Jay, a leading peace and anti-slavery activist, and Henry Wheaton, a specialist in international law and translator of Immanuel Kant. The central sections of the chapter examine the themes of peace and violence—and their relationship to human rights and republican ideals—in The Deerslayer (1841) and The Oak Openings (1848). The chapter closes with a discussion of the connections between Cooper and the Ojibwe author and activist Kah-Ge-Ga-Gah-Bowh (George Copway).
Violence, Direct and Indirect
Authors: Gustafson Sandra M. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Emphasizing class- and gender-based conflicts, this chapter highlights a distinction between direct (physical) and indirect (structural or cultural) types of violence. In 1848 Karl Marx called for direct violence and the establishment of a “red republic.” Previously, William Ellery Channing had responded to economic crisis in the United States with an argument for republican self-culture, while Orestes Brownson called for the violent elimination of inheritance. Like Brownson, Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote about “the heart” and reform (including peace) in “Earth’s Holocaust” (1844) and considered class conflict and inheritance in The House of the Seven Gables (1851). Hawthorne explored indirect violence as it relates to gender in The Blithedale Romance (1852). His 1862 essay “Chiefly about War Matters, by a Peaceable Man” draws out the implications of “the heart” for the Civil War. Similar contradictions are present in the life and work of Francis Lieber, author of the Lieber Code regulating modern warfare.
Arbitration and Alliance
Authors: Gustafson Sandra M. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the American peace movement’s emphasis on arbitration and international alliance-building after the Civil War and considers its impact on the literary culture of the United States. Opening with a discussion of the Alabama claims case in connection with the peace advocacy of Senator Charles Sumner, the chapter turns to the writings of Henry Adams, including his “secession winter” correspondence, his post-war political writings about civil service reform, and his novel Democracy: An American Novel (1880). The chapter concludes with a discussion of John Hay’s novel The Bread-winners: A Social Study (1883), with its themes of elite leadership and Anglo-American alliances, and his later diplomatic work, closing with a focus on his address to the Thirteenth International Peace Congress of 1904.
Failing at Peace
Authors: Gustafson Sandra M. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Ulysses S. Grant’s campaign slogan in the 1868 presidential race conveys the central message of the era: “Let us have peace.” As Grant’s Commissioner for Indian Affairs, Seneca leader Ely Parker promoted an alternative vision of US–Native American relations. Author Helen Hunt Jackson presented a scathing history of the nation’s treatment of Native peoples in A Century of Dishonor, and she offered Mexican Catholicism as an alternative to Anglo-Saxon law in Ramona. In Queen of the Woods, Potawatomi author Simon Pokagon echoed themes of interwoven cultures and harmonious expressions from Ramona in the context of the Native Michigan woodlands. In Pokagon’s novel, Catholic priests pose a threat to these harmonies, while alcohol presents a common enemy with the potential to unite Americans in a battle for social peace.
Probability
Authors: Upton Graham , Brawn Dan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the data analyst to probability. An event with a probability of zero will never occur; an event with a probability of one is certain to occur. Most events have probabilities of occurrence that lie between those extremes. This chapter provides the rules that allow the data analyst to determine the probability that combinations of events occur: for example, the probability that just one of two events occur; the probability that two events both occur; the conditional probability that one event occurs given the information that the other event has occurred. The chapter closes by introducing the important Bayes theorem. Denoting the events by A and B, this theorem links the probability that B occurs given the information that A occurs to the probability that A occurs given the information that B occurs. An application of this theorem is to the probability of false positives and false negatives when testing for the presence of a disease.
Models, p-values, and hypotheses
Authors: Upton Graham , Brawn Dan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with testing hypotheses concerning relevant features of the unknown population. Examples are: the hypothesis that the population mean has a certain value; the hypothesis that the probability of a particular event is a specified amount; the hypothesis that events occur at random times, the hypothesis that two samples have been drawn fro the same population. The framework for testing such hypotheses requires the analyst to specify an alternative to the ‘null’ hypothesis of interest. The alternative might be ‘the value is not the one specified’ or it might be one-sided: ‘the value is greater than that’. The key to testing a hypothesis is the so-called pvalue which is the probability of the observed value, or a more extreme value, occurring by chance if the null hypothesis were correct. A p-value of between 1% and 5% should alert the analyst to look closely at the situation, while any smaller p-value would be regarded as a clear sign that the null hypothesis was incorrect.
Relations between two continuous variables
Authors: Upton Graham , Brawn Dan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This long chapter is concerned with how the value of a continuous variable (e.g. height) is related to the value of another such (e.g. weight). Often the relation is linear (or can be made linear using, for instance, a logarithmic transformation). In such cases the strength of the relation can be measured using the correlation coefficient, r, which takes values between -1 and 1. If r is equal to zero then the two variables are not linearly related. If r equals 1, then there is no random variation and, as one variable increases, so does the other along a straight line. The parameters of the best fitting line to data displaying random variation can be found using the method of least squares. The chapter also discusses the detection of outliers (observations that appear anomalous or incorrect), the confidence with which the current linear relationship is being estimated, and the extent to which future values can be predicted
Several explanatory variables
Authors: Upton Graham , Brawn Dan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter concentrated on the relationship between two variables. However, frequently there are several relevant variables that may be affecting the response variable (the variable of particular interest). The question is then which of the potential explanatory variables are most relevant and which are irrelevant. A measure that balances model complexity with goodness of fit is AIC. This long chapter introduces many vital tools for the data analyst: the use of dummy variables to incorporate non-numeric explanatory variables (such as gender), the incorporation of interactions between explanatory variables, and the avoidance of multi-collinearity (where two explanatory variables are essentially providing the same information). The robustness of models can be tested by cross-validation where the data are randomly divided into parts and the model that fits one part is examined to see how well it fits the other part. The chapter finishes by demonstrating that the same approach can also be used when the response variable is not continuous
Preaching on the Coronation
Authors: Bennett Alastair 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter reads the coronation scene from the Prologue to Piers Plowman and Conscience’s account of Christ’s nativity from the seventh vision as two interrelated scenes where preachers identify a turning point in public life and then work to explain its significance as part of a larger narrative. The preachers in these scenes encourage their listeners to understand their own experience as part of a shared, public history, and establish a discourse in which they can speak about just and rightful rule in the time to come. This chapter also reads the angel’s speech from the Prologue in Lambeth Palace MS 61, where it is copied as an excerpt after a sermon by Henry Harclay; Harclay’s sermon, too, presents an extended history of public life, organized around a turning point in the life of the community, and makes its own calls for good governance in the future.
Preaching on the Lifetime
Authors: Bennett Alastair 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers scenes in Piers Plowman where the dreamer’s interlocutors encourage him to think about the narrative shape of his own life using discursive resources drawn from preaching: the dreamer’s encounter with Holy Church, his double encounter with Scripture before and during the first inner dream; his meeting with Ymaginatif; and his meetings with Elde and Kynde as he approaches his death. These interlocutors encourage Will to recall his baptismal vows as ethical commitments that endure for a lifetime, an injunction also found in contemporary sermons. They also teach him to take consolation from his early, catechetical instruction as he encounters fearful or difficult doctrine in later life. This chapter also considers the relationship between narrating a life story and composing Piers Plowman, an issue that arises in the dreamer’s encounter with Ymaginatif, and in John But’s continuation of the A text.
Introduction
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This introductory chapter explores the nature of legal philosophy. It argues that jurisprudence contributes to philosophy and through philosophy to the humanities in general. It addresses H. L. A. Hart’s challenge to develop a legal theory that is more than ‘a book about books’, that makes theoretical progress, and is of educational value. Green defends the importance of conceptual analysis to these aims and articulates three ‘marks of progress’ in the subject. While jurisprudents often import ideas and techniques from general philosophy, they should remember that jurisprudence can also ‘export’ results to other fields, including moral and political philosophy, the study of practical reason, and the theory of action.
The Concept of Law Revisited
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter opens the discussion of the concept of law through a re-assessment of H. L. A. Hart’s book of that title. Hart’s account of law is social constructivist and anti-essentialist but, contrary to common readings, does not offer a ‘practice theory of rules’ nor does his defence of a ‘broad’ concept of law amount to a normative case for legal positivism. The political significance of Hart’s theory rests, instead, on the way it foregrounds the role of an elite consensus in creating the sources of law. Hart holds that legal systems do share content with morality, but he stops short of allowing that law has an overall moral function. In the Postscript to his book, however, Hart makes some unnecessary, and confused, concessions to Ronald Dworkin. Hart’s book contains errors, but it makes significant progress in its subject and contains ideas and insights that transcend the language, tone, and particular examples it uses.
Should Law Improve Morality?
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The question whether law should enforce social morality is much discussed. This chapter assesses whether law can, and should, change a society’s morality. After explaining the nature of social morality, it argues that law can indeed change it. Attitudes to homosexuality provide one such example. Yet there are sound arguments for leaving a morality undisturbed: rule of law arguments that expectations should be protected, and arguments for conserving an imperfect but adequate morality in deference to a society’s culture. These weak constraints, however, do not apply to grossly homophobic or sexist moralities. Taking consent to sex as an example, it is argued that law could improve our morality by securing the background conditions in which ‘no’ is properly and generally understood as a refusal to engage in sexual activity. But we should not suppose that only the law of rape could do this; law may be more efficacious when it secures women’s economic autonomy. Law may need to improve morality by indirection.
Hume on Allegiance
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses David Hume’s view of the basis of political authority and his criticisms of consent theory. He offers a negative argument based on the claim that no one believes that their duty to obey rests on consent, and positive argument based on the claim that everyone believes that they have such a duty and that, in politics, common opinion is decisive. The negative argument has merit, but the positive argument fails. Consent theory is neither objectionably incomplete nor redundant. Hume is wrong to accord common opinion ultimate evidentiary status. Just as there are religious superstitions there are political superstitions. Some common political beliefs are unreliable for that reason. Nothing in Hume’s theoretical views excludes consent as a possible ground of authority, and his historical works even acknowledge that it may be the best one.
The Forces of Law
Authors: Green Leslie 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues that the force of law is the sum of three different forces: the imposition of duties, the provision of coercion, and the exercise of power. Contemporary jurisprudence has shown that coercion is central to law in important ways, even though coercion is not part of the concept of law. Frederick Schauer accepts the truth but not the importance of this claim. He thinks the central fact worth knowing about law is that it makes people do things they would not otherwise want to do, and insists that people act in accordance with its wishes. The chapter responds along two fronts. First, Schauer underestimates the role coercion plays even in the theories of writers like H. L. A. Hart or Ronald Dworkin. Second, his concept of coercion is too broad: it includes as ‘coercive’ almost every law-caused change to behaviour. Jurisprudence needs to distinguish coercion, power, and duties. These can, but need not, be present together. Disentangling them requires conceptual analysis: we cannot count how much coercion goes on in law until we know what counts as coercion.
Introduction
Authors: Stoyanova Vladislava 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This introduction explains that the European Court of Human Rights has produced a rich body of case law on positive obligations, placing the Court at the centre of many polycentric issues that raise difficult questions about the functioning of societies, the role of the State, and the distribution of resources. This book aims to explain when a State can be found responsible under the European Convention on Human Rights for failure to fulfil its positive obligations. The book identifies and explains the key analytical issues (ie state knowledge, causation, and reasonableness) that need to be considered in determining whether a State is responsible under the European Convention on Human Rights for omissions. In addition to this technical analytical question, the book also reflects upon what is at stake for the political community when the triggering, the content, and the scope of positive human rights obligations are determined.
State Knowledge
Authors: Stoyanova Vladislava 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyses the role of state knowledge in the framework of positive obligations. To do so, it first provides an adequate frame of reference. This is achieved by clarifying the role of fault in the law of state responsibility more generally. The chapter then clarifies whether fault is a necessary factor for triggering positive obligations under the ECHR or for determining a breach. Since fault in the context of these obligations has been framed as actual or putative knowledge by the State of risk of harm, the chapter examines how state knowledge is established in the case law and what principles are used in establishing the knowledge of an abstract organizational entity such as a State. The chapter considers whether any requirements have been imposed as to the nature of this risk. It also examines the role of the victim’s contributory fault, and how it relates to state fault.
Causation
Authors: Stoyanova Vladislava 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter explains why causation is important. No clear test has been articulated by the Court for verifying the place of state omissions in the chain of events. An inspiration from other areas of the law on state responsibility is used by making a parallel with the rules on attribution. These rules are founded on the principle that control implies responsibility and the same principle can be extended in the context of positive obligations. Since the question as to how much control the State should have could imply normative judgments in which the Court might not want to see itself implicated, and since empirical and epistemological uncertainly might hamper assessments of causations, the Court can resort to techniques that avoid the direct resolution of these normative issues and uncertainties. Such techniques are domestic legality and procedural guarantees. The distinction between systemic as opposed to incidental failures is also explained.