bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Epilepsy in Our World: Stories of Living with Seizures from Around the World
Authors: Schachter Steven C , Andermann Lisa Francesca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nearly 60 million people around the world live with epilepsy. This collection of frank narratives by people with epilepsy from 21 countries offers unique perspectives on the personal and social aspects of seizure disorders. Reflecting a diverse array of cultures, the narratives reveal many common concerns and show the distinct ways that people around the world affected by epilepsy react to the diagnosis and cope with their families, friends and communities. The book includes chapters on the Global Campaign Against Epilepsy and a physician's firsthand experience in East Africa. Appendices list contact information for each affiliate of the International League Against Epilepsy and the International Bureau for Epilepsy. ABOUT THE SERIES: With the Brainstorms series, one of the world's leading authorities on epilepsy, Dr Steven C. Schachter, has gathered together the personal testimonies of patients, family members, and caregivers to create a poignant and gripping series of books on this misunderstood and often devastating disorder.
Epilepsy in Our World: An Ethnographic View
Authors: Andermann Lisa Francesca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Epilepsy, with its centuries of history dating back through recorded medical writings and oral tradition, has long been a subject of inquiry in the medical sciences as well as in works of art, literature, and religion. However, it is only in the twentieth century that the study of epilepsy entered the sphere of social sciences, and there is a growing body of literature in anthropology and sociology pertaining to the epilepsies. As an introduction to this collection of narratives from around the world describing personal experiences with epilepsy, this essay reviews some of the contributions of the social science literature and will attempt to answer the following questions: How is epilepsy viewed in the sphere of biomedicine? How do the social sciences view epilepsy? Why are narratives of epilepsy important? And how can an anthropological approach to the study of epilepsy inform medical practice and lead to a better understanding of persons with this disorder? Epilepsy is thought to have multifactorial mechanisms of causation based in the brain with a variety of different forms of expression and levels of severity, an episodic and recurrent course during which long-term pharmacological treatment generally plays an important role. Perhaps most importantly for this discussion, an altered state of consciousness or altered perceptions occur during a seizure and leads to differences in one’s subjective experience of the world. In addition, people with these disorders have often been marginalized within their societies, and have had reduced opportunities for education, employment, marriage, and social relationships. There have been extensive efforts from epilepsy support groups to educate people with epilepsy and their families, as well as health providers and the general public, in an effort to counteract the stigma frequently associated with this disorder. It is hoped that describing some of the different experiences with the epilepsies will stimulate further thought about the varieties of illness experience.
Horseshoes and Hand Grenades
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Humanity is fortunate that solving problems often does not require understanding how or why our solutions work. Being close is good enough. We used aspirin for centuries before medical science revealed its mode of action; the steam engine preceded the physicists’ understanding of vacuum pressure by years; and bronze was invented centuries before chemists and metallurgists could explain its properties. Likewise, for thousands of years, weapons of war were lethal enigmas. The ballistic equations describing the trajectory of a spear or arrow, the mechanical principles underlying a catapult, and the chemistry of gunpowder were mysteries, but scientific ignorance did not preclude using and refining these weapons. And no form of killing more clearly exemplifies our capacity to exploit natural processes beyond the limits of our knowledge than does entomological warfare.
Entomological Evil
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pingfan was an undistinguished cluster of eight or ten villages about 15 miles south of Harbin. That is, until the Japanese army made the residents sell their homes for a pittance, razed the hamlets, and forced 15,000 Chinese laborers to build Ishii’s dream. When completed in 1939, the facility was a bizarre cross between a biomedical death camp and a resort spa. Within its two square miles, Pingfan comprised more than 150 structures: headquarters building (with a moat), administrative offices, laboratories, barns, greenhouses, a power station, a school, a brothel, recreational facilities (including a swimming pool), housing for 3,000 scientists, dormitories for technicians and soldiers—and a prison for the inmates, along with the requisite crematorium (see Figure 9.1).
Japan’s Pleas and Lies
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The imminent conquest that Japan faced in 1943 had been unimaginable just a few years earlier. Indeed, 1941 had been a heady time for the Axis powers. In June, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, and Japan was anxious to prepare for its part in the offensive. From the highest levels of the Japanese military came the order for Unit 731 to accelerate its work on plague. The plan was to initiate massive epidemics within the Soviet Union, softening the enemy in preparation for a conventional offensive from the east, as the Third Reich invaded from the west. At 4:45 a.m. on June 22, 1941, 4 million German, Italian, Romanian, and other Axis troops poured over the Soviet border.
Aristotle: Justice and Virtue
Authors: Sandel Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite their differences, the rights-oriented theories we have studied so far share some important assumptions. One is the assumption that distributive justice is not a matter of rewarding virtue or moral desert. Both Hayek, a libertarian, and Rawls, an egalitarian liberal, emphasize this point. Another is the idea that the measure of a just society is not whether it produces virtuous citizens, but whether it provides a fair framework of rights within which individuals can pursue their own values. Aristotle (384–322 BC) rejects both of these assumptions. He believes that justice consists in giving people what they deserve, and that a just society is one that enables human beings to realize their highest nature, to attain the good life. For Aristotle, political activity is not simply one way among others to pursue our interests; it is an essential ingredient of the good life.
Moral Argument and Liberal Toleration
Authors: Sandel Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Political Liberalism (1993), Rawls argues that the case for detaching justice from substantive moral and religious controversies does not depend on accepting Kantian moral philosophy or a conception of persons as freely choosing, unencumbered selves. Instead, the need to find principles of justice that are neutral among competing conceptions of the good life arises from the fact that people disagree about moral and religious questions. Moreover, these disagreements are reasonable; we should not expect them to give way in the face of arguments that everyone can accept. Political liberalism, Rawls argues, is a response to the fact of reasonable pluralism about the good that prevails in modern democratic societies.
Morality and Law: Same-Sex Marriage, For and Against
Authors: Sandel Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The debate over same-sex marriage illustrates competing views, not only about the meaning of marriage but also about the relation of law and morality. What do you consider the best arguments for and against same-sex marriage? Is it possible to decide whether the state should recognize same-sex marriage without taking sides in the moral and religious controversy over the purpose of marriage and the moral status of homosexuality? If it is not possible to find a solution that is neutral on these moral and religious questions, what are the implications for the relation of law and morality? Hillary Goodridge & others vs. Department of Public Health Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, November 18, 2003 Marshall, C.J.
The creative tension between commercial freedom and Belligerent rights
Authors: Gathii James Thuo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the early part of the twenty-first century, the United States has been invoked less as a country that conforms to its international legal obligations than as an “exemplar of might.” This has not always been the case. The early U.S. republic of the late eighteenth century was a relatively weak military and economic country. The United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands and even Spain were more prosperous economically and militarily superior countries than the United States. In this chapter, I focus on the international legal jurisprudence of the Marshall Court during this period of U.S. military and economic weakness.
An examination of this jurisprudence leads to three conclusions. First, that the Marshall Court, primarily motivated by the young country’s relative economic and military weaknesses, adopted a policy of neutrality in international commerce. Second, that in seeking to ensure the United States’ commercial relations conformed to international legal obligations of a neutral nation, the Marshall court played a constructive role in solidifying the early regime of international economic governance through law.
Pathophysiology and Genetics of Migraine and Cluster Headache
Authors: Shapiro Robert E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Migraine is an episodic neurologic state with widespread effects on other body systems. The experience of migraine episodes or attacks is often recurrent and stereotypical for an individual sufferer, or migraineur. However, it is also true that migraine symptom patterns are clinically heterogeneous and highly idiosyncratic to each migraineur. Consequently, there is no single obligate clinical feature that defines the common form of migraine state by the diagnostic crite- ria now codified in the International Classification of Headache Disorders, 2nd edition (ICHD-2). Migraine is diagnostically categorized based upon the presence (MA) or absence (MO) of aura symptoms (see below) with attacks, though overlap between these entities is common since patients who experience aura rarely do so with every attack. In addition to MO and MA, there are multiple rarer varieties such as hemiplegic migraine, a disorder where aura symptoms may include temporary but prolonged hemiparesis.
Preventive Pharmacologic Treatment of Migraine and Tension-Type Headache
Authors: Tepper Stewart J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Daily migraine-prevention medication should be prescribed when migraine frequency and disability are high. Medications should be selected based on comorbidity to treat multiple disorders at the same time, using the highest level of evidence possible. Treatment is initiated at a low dose, with gradual escalation to the effective dose range, and maintained for at least 2 to 3 months, with headache calendars maintained to evaluate outcomes. Headache treatment fails when medication overuse headache or chronic daily headache is present, the wrong drug is selected, too high an initial dose is used, too low a final dose is maintained, too short a duration of treatment is completed, or the patient or doctor has unrealistic expectations. The highest level of evidence for preventive medications in migraine exists for amitriptyline, propranolol, timolol, valproate, and topiramate. Few randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have been performed on frequent or chronic tension-type headache, with the best evidence for amitriptyline.
Pharmacologic Treatment of Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalalgias and Other Primary Headaches
Authors: McGeeney Brian E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The headache disorders in this chapter are considerably less common than migraine and tension-type headache. Because of this, there are few good- quality blinded randomized trials from which to sculpt treatment guidelines, in contrast to therapeutic recommendations for migraine. Consequently, pharmacologic guidelines are based on unblinded or non-randomized trials, case series, reports, and anecdotal experience, which form the entirety of “evidence”; nevertheless, one needs to become familiar with the popular suggested options. The therapies presented presume that any underlying secondary cause such as a structural lesion has been ruled out. All of these syndromes may occur secondary to structural causes, and the literature is replete with examples. This chapter will cover all of the primary headaches recognized by the International Classification of Headache Disorders, 2nd edition, with the exception of migraine and tension-type headache, which have been covered earlier. The therapeutic suggestions are comprehensive but not complete, as there are many medications available. The pharmacologic suggestions made here have some support in the literature and should be given strong consideration.
Headache Treatment in Children, Pregnancy and Lactation, the Elderly, and Renal Disease
Authors: Ward Thomas N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter concerns the treatment of headache in special populations. It serves the practitioner well to be thoroughly familiar with the ICHD-II when approaching patients with headache as the presenting complaint because one must first be able to make correct diagnoses and then understand the underlying pathophysiology and anatomy to move to the next step in choosing treatment options. This is especially true in treating children, pregnant and lactating patients, and patients with other medical illnesses such as renal disease.
Inpatient Headache Treatment
Authors: Ward Thomas N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Headache patients are usually managed on an outpatient basis, but under certain circumstances inpatient treatment may be appropriate. There is limited literature about this, in part because few physicians and few facilities provide this option. If inpatient treatment is considered, then a clear plan for that admission with predetermined goals is necessary. Much can be accomplished in a short time with appropriate planning and patient selection.
Non-Pharmacologic Headache Treatment
Authors: Weeks Randall E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most clinicians agree that biobehavioral factors are important considerations in the assessment and treatment of headache patients. Psychological and behavioral issues become important treatment concerns if the frequency of a patient’s headaches increases, there is increased disability secondary to headaches, and/ or there is inadequate response to usually effective pharmacotherapy. Patients with long histories of chronic headache are candidates for comprehensive treatment strategies that include both pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic treatment modalities. This chapter will offer an introduction to relevant behavioral variables that the physician should consider in the assessment and treatment of headache patients and an overview of non-pharmacologic treatment options for headache patients, including when available the evidence base for such treatments.
Introduction
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thirty years ago, the United States inaugurated a bilateral investment treaty (BIT) program. Since the beginning of the program, the principal purpose of the BITs has been to protect U.S. investment in foreign countries. The BITs are successors to the Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation (FCN) treaties that the United States had been negotiating since its War of Independence.
In the first 30 years of the program, the United States concluded 46 BITs with coutries in every region of the world. During that same period the United States also concluded 11 free-trade agreements (FTAs) that included investment chapters modeled after the BITs.
Investment Treaties in American Foreign Policy
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The protection of American property in foreign countries has been an explicit goal of U.S. foreign policy since the earliest days of the Republic. Although this goal has remained constant, the means used to obtain such protection have varied. They have included diplomatic, military, legal, and economic remedies.
Protection for U.S. foreign property initially was obtained through the negotiation of a series of treaties known generically as Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation (FCN) treaties. The earliest such agreements were negotiated with European powers during the late eighteenth century. They were directed primarily at establishing maritime and trade relations with those countries.
As Spain’s colonies in the Americas achieved independence in the early nineteenth century, the United States sought to conclude FCN agreements to lay a foundation for commercial relations with these newly formed nations as well. Later in that century, commercial relations with the Far East and Africa also were established through FCNs.
Provisions to protect property owned by nationals of each party appeared regularly in early nineteenth-century FCNs and in successor treaties. Typical provisions guaranteed to such property “full and perfect protection” and imposed on the parties the obligation to pay compensation in the event of expropriation.
The Specific Treatment Provisions
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The bilateral investment treaties (BITs) contain two related provisions intended to facilitate an investor’s management of its foreign investment. One, the entry and sojourn provision, grants an investor and certain employees of an investment a conditional right to be admitted into the host state for purposes of establishing or managing the investment. The other, the employment provision, guarantees to an investment the right to employ the personnel of its choice in certain key positions. This section discusses the former of these two provisions, while the next section discusses the latter.
Although the language used varied considerably, nineteenth-century FCNs commonly guaranteed to nationals of each party the right to enter and reside in the territory of the other party.1 In the 1920s, however, Congress enacted a system of quantitative restrictions on immigration, a policy that was inconsistent with unrestricted entry for nationals of treaty partners. To provide some right of entry for such persons, Section 3(6) of the Immigration Act of 19242 authorized the admission on a nonimmigrant basis of aliens entitled to enter the United States solely to carry on trade under the provisions of an existing treaty of commerce and navigation. A 1932 amendment3 broadened this provision to apply to treaties entering into force after 1924. This provision for the admission of “treaty traders,” which was modified and continued by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952,4 permitted entry for purposes of trade but not investment.
The Currency Transfers Provision
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Customary international law does not require that countries permit foreign investors to transfer currency freely into or out of the host country. The imposition of overly burdensome controls on currency transfers, however, may constitute an expropriation giving rise to an obligation to compensate the investor. Regulations on currency transfers that fall short of a compensable taking nevertheless may cause investors considerable loss.
Provisions protecting U.S. investors against transfer restrictions were rare in the pre-modern FCNs. An 1881 FCN with Serbia guaranteed the right to “export proceeds of the sale of property” without paying higher duties than nationals of the host state or any third state. Thus, this earliest protection provided only a right to national and MFN treatment. Moreover, it restricted only the imposition of duties on currency transfers.
The uniform investment protection provision contained in the interwar FCNs made no specific mention of currency transfers. At least one interwar FCN, however, that with Liberia, did guarantee MFN treatment with respect to certain currency transfers.
The Investor-State Disputes Provision
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the absence of an agreement, an investor who has been expropriated or otherwise injured by a foreign government has few remedies. First, it can pursue any local administrative or judicial remedy it may have in the host country, in effect seeking redress directly from the government against which it has a claim. Because the very law that authorized the wrong may leave the investor with little or no remedy or because local officials may be unwilling to rule in favor of a foreign investor in a dispute with the host state government, this may not be a fruitful approach.
Second, the investor can attempt to negotiate a settlement with the host state. Such a settlement could include arbitration of the dispute by a third party. This remedy, however, obviously is available only where the host state is willing to reach an agreement.
Third, the investor can sue the host state in the courts of the investor’s state or a third state. Such suits, however, often are barred by the doctrine of foreign sovereign immunity, under which municipal courts have no jurisdiction over certain claims against foreign sovereigns. In the United States, the immunity of foreign governments has been codified by the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976 (FSIA).
Using Treaties To Define Rules Of Procedure In Investor-State Arbitration
Authors: Onwuamaegbu Ucheora O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Arbitration of disputes between foreign investors and host governments are conducted either ad hoc, typically under the UNCITRAL Rules, or under the auspices of an arbitration institution. According to publicly available information, a majority of such institutional proceedings based on a treaty are brought before ICSID.
Arms Control And The Legal Process
Authors: O’Neill Philip D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Technological developments in weapons continue to magnify today’s threats and eliminate warning time. Other changes in circumstances implicating force projection, such as the shift in the nature of potential combatants and proliferators from state to nonstate actors, or weapons development outside a treaty regime, seriously challenge the security-based legal processes as well. To meet such challenges, the tendency in modern arms control agreements addressing WMD proliferation has been to focus on agreements of limited scope, coupled with utilization of withdrawal or formal amendment provisions as a safety net. A current example of concern is the “breakout” potential for nuclear weapons development from enrichment activity for “peaceful uses,” as with Iran under the existing Non-Proliferation Treaty. Yet the need to amend or end a treaty relationship due to circumstantial/technological changes has not always been assumed. Rather, there have been myriad alternative legal processes available and utilized in past treaty regimes.