bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gelation
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A gel is a material composed of subunits that are able to bond with each other in such a way that one obtains a network of macroscopic dimensions, in which all the subunits are connected by bonds. If one starts out with isolated subunits, and successively adds bonds, one goes from a liquid – a sol – to a material with a non-zero shear modulus – a gel. A gel has the mechanical properties characteristic of a solid, even though it is structurally disordered and indeed may contain a high volume fraction of liquid solvent. If the gel consists of linear segments joined together at cross-link points, and the linear sections are flexible and long enough to be considered as random walks, the mechanical properties of the gel may be described by the theory of rubber elasticity described in the last chapter. Gels may also go through a glass transition; gels with a high density of short rigid segments are likely to be glassy. Within this broad framework there are many different types of gel, with different classes of subunit, and with different types of bonding between them. For example, the subunits may be multi-functional monomers, which are connected together by covalent bonds to form a three-dimensional network. An example would be an epoxy resin. Alternatively, the subunits may themselves be linear polymers, which are connected together by covalent cross-links to form a rubber. Linear polymers may be connected by physical, rather than chemical, bonds, giving a thermoreversible gel such as gelatin. The subunits themselves may be colloidal aggregates of many molecules, which then are linked together by physical interactions.
Supramolecular self-assembly in soft condensed matter
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most spectacular properties of soft matter systems is their ability to self-assemble on a hierarchy of length scales: molecules arrange themselves in supramolecular assemblies, and these assemblies in tum pack in structures that may be highly ordered, even though the units that are being packed are noncrystalline and of dimensions considerably bigger than atomic scales. The most common examples of these self-assembled phases are found in soap and other materials that are formed by mixing water with a class of molecules known as amphiphiles, which have the property that part of the molecule has an affinity to water and another part of the molecule is repelled from water. When such molecules are dissolved in water, the way the system attempts to satisfy these two irreconcilable tendencies leads to a rich array of possible structures. Many amphiphilic molecules are relatively small, but polymers too can display this tendency if they are composed of two or more chemically different blocks covalently linked together. In solution such block copolymers behave in very similar ways to small-molecule amphiphiles. However, the large size of polymer molecules has important consequences for the thermodynamics of mixing. Even when the chemical units making up a pair of polymers are relatively similar, and the unfavourable energies of interaction between them small, the entropy of mixing is usually not large enough to promote mixing and the polymers will phase separate. If the two polymers are linked together covalently, this constraint prevents them from phase separating on a macroscopic scale and the result is microphase separation, an ordered arrangement of domains of the two polymer types on mesoscopic length scales. This is another example of self-assembly-complex ordered structures arising solely from the requirement that the system minimises its free energy.
Magnetism in Condensed Matter
Authors: Blundell Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An understanding of the quantum mechanical nature of magnetism has led to the development of new magnetic materials which are used as permanent magnets, sensors, and in information storage. Behind these practical applications lie a range of fundamental ideas, including symmetry breaking, order parameters, excitations, frustration, and reduced dimensionality. This superb new textbook presents a logical account of these ideas, starting from basic concepts in electromagnetism and quantum mechanics. It outlines the origin of magnetic moments in atoms and how these moments can be affected by their local environment inside a crystal. The different types of interactions which can be present between magnetic moments are described. The final chapters of the book are devoted to the magnetic properties of metals, and to the complex behaviour which can occur when competing magnetic interactions are present and/or the system has a reduced dimensionality. Throughout the text, the theoretical principles are applied to real systems. There is substantial discussion of experimental techniques and current research topics. The book is copiously illustrated and contains detailed appendices which cover the fundamental principles.
Order and magnetic structures
Authors: Blundell Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter the different types of magnetic interaction which operate between magnetic moments in a solid have been presented. In this chapter we will consider the different types of magnetic ground state which can be produced by these interactions. Some of these ground states are illustrated in Fig. 5.1. The different ground states include ferromagnets in which all the magnetic moments are in parallel alignment, antiferromagnets in which adjacent magnetic moments lie in antiparallel alignment, spiral and helical structures in which the direction of the magnetic moment precesses around a cone or a circle as one moves from one site to the next, and spin glasses in which the magnetic moments lie in frozen random arrangements. This chapter will be concerned with showing how, in broad terms, the interactions discussed in the previous chapter lead to these differing ground states. In the following chapter the phenomenon of order will be examined in a more general context and it will be seen that order is a consequence of broken symmetry.
Pulse eldor and related experiments
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many EPR experiments require larger excitation bandwidths than can be realized with pulses at a single frequency. For example, if cross-relaxation processes transfer non-equilibrium magnetization to transitions outside the excitation window, only a loss of magnetization at the observer position is noticed. Cross relaxation then cannot be distinguished from other relaxation processes and we cannot establish which cross-relaxation pathways are significant. Molecular reorientations may also shift a transition frequency out of the window in which spins can be excited and detected, so that information regarding the type of the reorientation process is lost. Furthermore, couplings between electron spins can only be detected if the two spins are excited in the same experiment. Such measurements are of particular interest since the dipolar coupling between two electron spins is related to their distance.
Transient nutation techniques
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in Chapter 3 that not only the transition frequencies but also the transition amplitudes depend on the parameters of the spin Hamiltonian. The transition amplitudes can thus be used to determine these parameters. They quantify the strength of the interaction of the radiation field with a transition and can in principle be measured by the transient nutation experiment introduced in Chapter 7. In this chapter we first discuss the complications which arise in multi-level systems due to the mixing of more than two levels by strong irradiation. In such cases the nutation frequencies are no longer proportional to transition amplitudes, rather they have to be considered as transition frequencies of a dressed spin in analogy to the concept of dressed states in coherent optic We then introduce three methods for the observation of nutation frequencies and explain in detail how information on spin quantum numbers, the magnetic quantum numbers associated with the observed transition, and g values can be obtained from the nutation frequencies. Finally we present several pulse sequences and examples for their application. Special emphasis is given to the application of transient nutation experiments to short-lived paramagnetic species. These experiments provide a high time resolution and information about the coupling of electron spins in radical pairs as well as about nuclear frequencies.
Antioxidant intervention studies in animals
Authors: Pettersson Knut S , Witting Paul K , Stocker Roland 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pathology of atherosclerosis is multi-factorial, with several risk factors affecting the likelihood and severity of the disease. Recently, much attention has been placed on oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) as an early event in the development of the disease. Oxidative modification of LDL is known to change the LDL particle into a more atherogenic type than native LDL.(l) Shortly after it was reported that the lipid-lowering agent probucol could protect LDL from becoming oxidized in vitro,(2) it was also shown that this agent can protect LDL receptor-deficient rabbits against atherosclerotic lesion development&lt;3- 4) independent of its lipid-lowering effect.&lt;3) This finding was the most prominent experimental support for the ‘oxidation theory’ of atherogenesis.&lt;(l)
Vascular dysfunction and its contribution to atherogenesis
Authors: Celermajer David S , Vita Joseph A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Traditionally, attention in atherosclerosis research and clinical practice has focused on vascular structure - plaque size and composition - with particular regard to the degree of arterial obstruction. In recent years, however, there has been a realization that vessels are dynamic, especially at the sites of plaque. Further narrowing in response to exercise and mental stress, for example, may underlie many episodes of ischemia and even acute coronary syndromes.
Gene therapy for vascular diseases: closer to delivering the goods?
Authors: Rasko John E J , Celermajer David S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The excitement surrounding the potential application of gene therapy to cardiovascular disease has been sustained since the first in vivo animal trials were published in 1990. The ideas and techniques of gene therapy build on some of the most important scientific advances of the twentieth century - molecular biology and the human genome project. However, despite steady progress, the promises of gene therapy have not yet been realized.
The endothelial cell in atherosclerosis
Authors: Bannon Paul , James Natalie , Jessup Wendy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Originally blood vessels were viewed as simple conduits, regulated at a distance by circulating hormones and the sympathetic nervous system. This view has now greatly expanded to recognize the central role of endothelial cells as active participants in vascular function. Endothelial cells form a continuous single-cell-thick layer lining blood vessels of the entire vascular tree, located between the circulating blood and the underlying vascular cells and tissues. As such, it is an important interface which controls the passage of molecules and cells and participates in signal transduction.
Macrophage lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis
Authors: Kritharides Leonard , Jessup Wendy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Atherosclerotic lesion development is preceded by intimal penetration of blood borne mononuclear cells which subsequently undergo transformation into macrophage foam cells in fatty streak lesions.&lt; The macrophage is an early and persistent feature of atherosclerosis and is therefore likely to be pivotal in the disase development. Indeed, the importance of the macrophage in atherosclerosis was revealed in the osteopetrotic (op) mouse (lacking macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and thus severely deficient in monocytes) in which a profound inhibition of atherosclerosis development was observed.(2)
Smooth muscle cells and the connective tissue matrix of the intima
Authors: Campbell Gordon R , Bingley John A , Hayward Ian P , Campbell Julie H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diffuse intimal thickenings in large and medium-sized arteries are sites for the development of atherosclerosis. For the first one to two decades in most humans, the thickening is composed of smooth muscle cells completely surrounded by extracellular matrix and covered by an endothelium. Occasionally, isolated macrophages are observed beneath this endothelium layer. The extracellular matrix provides two primary functions for cells: (i) it maintains the spatial relationships between cells; and maintains their differentiated state. In this context, it is intriguing to consider the fact that most of the extracellular matrix in the human intimal thickening is synthesized by the smooth muscle cells themselves. The consequences of this relationship mean that if under pathological circumstances there is a change in the function of either the smooth muscle cells or the extracellular matrix, then one could expect a concomitant change in the other component.
Some basic concepts
Authors: Severini Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to review some basic concepts of probability and statistics that will play a central role in the subsequent chapters, as well as to introduce some notation and terminology.In statistical inference observational or experimental data are modeled as the observed values of certain random variables. Let Y denote a random variable with density function p(y); here the term ‘density function’ will be used to mean a density function with respect to either Lebesgue measure or counting measure.
Large-sample approximations
Authors: Severini Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many cases it is difficult or impossible to find the exact sampling distribution of a statistic. In these cases, we may use a large-sample approximation. Let Y 1,..., Y n denote a sequence of real-valued random variables and let F n denote the distribution function of y n. Consider the problem of approximating F n. In typical applications, n denotes the underlying sample size so that, for example, Y n may be the sample mean based on n independent observations.
Asymptotic theory and conditional inference
Authors: Severini Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The asymptotic theory developed in the preceding sections was concerned with the marginal distributions of various likelihood-based quantities. In this chapter we consider the conditional distributions of likelihood-based quantities given an ancillary statistic.There are at least two motivations for such conditioning. One is that, by keeping certain functions of the underlying random variable fixed at their observed values, it makes the probability calculations more relevant to the data at hand; this is discussed in Section 1.6 and illustrated in Example 1.23.
The modified profile likelihood function
Authors: Severini Thomas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 8 it was shown that, in some cases, inference about a parameter of interest ψ may be based on a marginal or conditional likelihood function. Those methods are only available however when the model has a particular structure. Furthermore, even when a marginal or conditional likelihood function exists, calculation of the likelihood function is often difficult.In this chapter, we consider the modified profile likelihood, a pseudo-likelihood function that is available for general models. The modified profile likelihood may be derived as an approximation to either a marginal or conditional likelihood when either of those likelihoods exists. Furthermore, the calculation of the modified profile likelihood function does not require the existence of a marginal or conditional likelihood and, hence, it has been adopted for general use.
Measurements in flat space–times
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall now make quantitative the properties of the space-time of special relativity introduced in the previous chapters. To do so we shall use a simple formalism introduced by Herman Bondi, called the A’-calculus. We can represent faithfully all physical effects in these flat space-times, except gravity.
The Lorentz transformation and the invariant interval
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some people would claim that man’s destiny, if he does not destroy himself before he has time to attain it, is to explore the Galaxy. As always, in venturing into the unknown, accurate surveying and mapping will be of vital importance for the safety of those engaged in this enterprise. Thus, it will be necessary to collate observations from many observatories.
Spherical stars and stellar collapse
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we are concerned with two problems of astrophysical importance: firstly, the description of the gravitational field of the Sun, which dominates the dynamics of the solar system; and secondly the issue of the nature of the gravitational field of a massive star, and how stellar collapse takes place leading to the formation of a ‘black hole’. The analysis of these topics is based on an exact solution of Einstein’s field equations, the Schwarzschild solution (discovered by Karl Schwarzschild in 1917, shortly before his death in the First World War).
Finale
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The content of relativity theory is very surprising. It is an example of the hidden nature of reality - namely, the true way things are is not at all obvious; but we can find it out if we investigate carefully enough. Indeed relativity theory is a classic case of the counter-intuitive nature of physics. The major such features in fundamental physics are Newtonian theory, special relativity, quantum theory, and general relativity (together with a feature of somewhat different character: its capacity to create self-organizing structures). In each case it has taken the best and most creative scientists to break out of the ‘obvious’ mould and determine the true pattern that underlies the regularities of nature (see Lewis Wolpert: The Unnatural Nature of Science (Faber, London, 1992) for further discussion).
How to measure dispersal: the genetic approach. The example of fire ants
Authors: Ross Kenneth G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dispersal and gene flow were studied in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta by combining population genetic analyses and natural history information. In introduced and native populations of this ant, local genetic structure is evident in the polygyne social form (multiple queens per nest) but not the monogyne form (single queen per nest), a pattern particularly evident for the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
Dispersal in pikas (Ochotona princeps): combining genetic and demographic approaches to reveal spatial and temporal patterns
Authors: Peacock Mary M , Ray Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Demographic studies of dispersal lack the spatial and temporal breadth necessary to characterize the full patterns of movement, settlement and mating within and between populations. Genetic studies can provide some of these missing data on mating patterns and gene flow, allowing us to address certain evolutionary questions. However, genetic inference of dispersal is not yet an exact science, and there is no one-to-one correspondence between patterns of gene flow and dispersal. In order to determine the details of dispersal, it is useful to use demographic data to guide genetic inference. This paper uses dispersal data from a small, territorial lagomorph to explore several examples of the potential interplay between genetic and demographic data, from pattern detection through hypothesis testing.
Dispersal, intraspecific competition, kin competition and kin facilitation: a review of the empirical evidence
Authors: Lambin Xavier , Aars Jon , Piertney Stuart B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theory suggests that intraspecific competition and kin competition are keys processes shaping the evolution of dispersal. Based on a review of the empirical literature we derived the following generalizations. The plasticity within taxa in the presence and direction of sex-biased dispersal revealed by recent empirical studies argues against a single factor accounting for interspecific patterns in dispersal. If they can be parameterized, models exploring the interactions between competitive interaction and inbreeding avoidance will provide rigorous predictions for different groups.
Parasitism and predation as causes of dispersal
Authors: Weisser Wolfgang W , McCoy Karen D , Boulinier Thierry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past 30 years, much theoretical and empirical work has been devoted to exploring the relationship between intraspecific interactions and dispersal. As a consequence, kin competition, inbreeding, and demography have been shown to be major factors in the evolution of dispersal (see Gandon and Michalakis, chapter 11; Ronce et al., chapter 24; Perrin and Goudet, chapter 9).
T’he genetic basis of dispersal and migration, and its consequences for the evolution of correlated traits
Authors: Roff Derek A , Fairbairn Daphne J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Dispersal and migration’ cannot be considered a single trait: it comprises physiological, morphological, behavioural, and life history components, all contributing to the probability that an organism will move from one location to another. Furthermore, traits that form the suite of ‘migration’ characters may themselves influence other fitness-related traits.
Formal Description of Crystal Structures
Authors: Dove Martin T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In earlier chapters we met some of the fundamental concepts involved in describing crystal structures, but only in a case-by-case way. The purpose of this chapter is to properly formalize the description of crystal structures. Formalism can be like reading the instructions that go with a new gadget – it is nice to avoid reading them when starting out, but eventually there are many good reasons for studying them in detail. We can get quite far in our study of crystalline materials without worrying too much about the details of the formalism, but eventually the power behind the formalism makes it sensible to come to terms with it. So the reader should feel free to skip over this chapter when first approaching the study of crystalline materials, but bookmark it for future reference when there is a need to grasp some of the finer details needed to appreciate the arguments used in the deeper applications of the subject.
Experimental Methods for Measurements of Vibrational Frequencies
Authors: Dove Martin T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main experimental approach to study the structure of materials is through scattering of radiation, as was discussed in some depth in Chapter 6. It was noted that several different types of radiation beams can be used in diffraction, including electromagnetic radiation and beams of neutrons, each with its own relative merits. It is not surprising that scattering of radiation also proves to be one of the main techniques for studying dynamics. Nor is it surprising that, like in structural studies, there are several types of radiation that can be used, with each radiation type giving complementary information. Our purpose in this chapter is to review the various spectroscopic techniques that are in common use for the study of dynamic processes in solids.