bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Characteristics of smoke in different thermal regimes
Authors: Hill B J , McIlhagger R , Shields J , Silcock G , Stephens G G 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis paper examines the smoke emission and properties of polypropylene and flame retarded polypropylene injection moulded plaques. The prepared samples were irradiated in a Stanton Redcroft NBS type smoke box with an incident radiant energy of 2.5 W/cm2. Nucleating agents were also introduced to increase the particle size of the smoke produced. The conclusions reached from this work on the emission of smoke in a non‐flaming mode were that as the flame retardant additive content was increased, the optical density decreased, thus extending the time for escape. The emission of smoke from these polymers subjected to other radiant sources and in a flaming and non‐flaming mode is being investigated further.
Problems in retaining technical and economic benefits whilst improving fire safety
Authors: Hurd R. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractIn attempting to develop products of improved firesafety it is important that other properties which are essential forthe satisfactory performance of the product should not be sacrificed.In considering the improvements in fire performance possible in flexible foam for upholstered furniture, tests on sample foam/fabric composites may not be sufficient since design and the other components present in commercial furniture, plus the total room environment, may negate the improvements achieved in the foam itself.
The influence of aluminium oxide trihydrate particle size on the combustion of polydimethylsiloxane
Authors: Zdorikova G. A. , Kolesnikov A. A. , Troitskaya T. A. , Surov I. V. , Rudakova T. A. , Khalturinskiy N. A. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe regularities of thermal degradation of Al(OH)3 powders and the compositions of polydimethylsiloxane and fire retardant with different particle sizes (from 2 μm to 45 μm) were studied by the use of dynamic thermogravimetry (TG), mass spectrometry (MS) and high‐temperature pyrolysis. It was shown that the size of the flame‐retardant particles influences the physico‐mechanical characteristics and combustion of polymeric compositions based on polydimethylsiloxane. The filling of polymer with fine flame retardants improves the tensile properties of vulcanizates but the flame retardance is reduced markedly. The time of free combustion and the length of the burnt parts are increased, the oxygen index and time of ignition delay are decreased while the flame temperature near the surface of the burning sample rises.
Application of a transport and decay model for hydrogen chloride to hydrogen chloride generation in the presence of various fluids and surfaces but without poly(vinyl chloride)
Authors: Galloway F. Merrill , Hirschler Marcelo M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractIn a total of 63 experiments, all of them carried out in a 200 L Plastic chamber, a large amount of HCI (800–1000 ml) was injected. In no case was the HCI generated from decomposition of poly(vinyl chloride). The chamber contained a variety of surfaces. Furthermore, various fluids were injected into the chamber together with the HCI. The fluids used were: water, ethylene glycol, ethylene glycol/water 50/50 mixture, a model for airborne smoke particulates (and several partial models for such synthetic smoke) and mineral oil. The surfaces used were PMMA, painted gypsum board, ceiling tile and soot. The results showed the efficiency of many of these fluids as sinks for HCI: hydrophilic fluids are good HCI sinks, with water and synthetic smoke being the most effective. A previously developed zone model for HCI transport and decay, contained within the NIST fire model Hazard 1.1 and used most often to investigate HCI formation from PVC combustion or pyrolysis, was used to predict the results of the experiments in this work. The correlation between experimental and predicted atmospheric HCI concentrations was made without fitting any new parameters. The results were excellent. This work shows that the HCI transport and decay model is robust enough to be applied to a number of scenarios where HCI is present, even in the absence of PVC. The model is thus of particular use in fire hazard assessment.
Comparison of large‐and small‐scale heat release tests with electrical cables
Authors: Hirschler Marcelo M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA total of 21 electrical cables were made, all with identical construction but differing in the chemical composition of their plastic components, both jacket (or sheath) and insulation. All the compounds used were commercially available materials, but they covered a variety of polymers, both halogenated and non‐halogenated. All cables were tested in a large‐scale cable tray test, the proposed ASTM D9.21 test, based on the IEEE 1202 or the CSA FT‐4 test, modified to measure heat and smoke release in the duct and with a total length of 2.44 m. The peak rate of heat release measured served as an excellent criterion for distinguishing between cables passing and failing the test (the traditional criterion being char length). The average rate of heat released also served to distinguish the two classes of cables. Moreover, cables passing the test tended to release less smoke than those failing the test. The cables were also tested in the IEC 332‐3 cable tray test. The small‐scale fire test used for the cables was the cone calorimeter, ASTM E 1354. The trends observed in this heat release test were similar to those in the large‐scale test. The results indicate that cables with excellent fire performance can be made by using a variety of materials, so that it would seem to follow that it is important to specify fire performance and leave material choice to manufacturers.
Determining degrees of combustibility of building materials—national building code of canada
Authors: Richardson Leslie R. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractMany jurisdictions are attempting to replace the prescriptive specifications in their building codes with performance based requirements. However, if this transition is not carried out prudently, the changes could make the codes more difficult to interpret, harder to administer and, instead of providing an equitable foundation for the selection of construction materials and building designs, render those codes unnecessarily restrictive. To illustrate some of the difficulties which can be faced when changing prescriptive specifications to performance‐based requirements, suggestions about how the prescriptive specifications regarding combustible and noncombustible construction in the National Building Code of Canada could be replaced with performance requirements based upon ‘degrees of combustibility’ of building materials are outlined.
The importance of char‐forming reactions in thermoplastic polymers
Authors: Carty P. , White S. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe flammability and smoke generated from burning blends of acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) and polyvinylchloride (PVC) are discussed. Flammability was measured using standard oxygen index techniques and smoke production determined by the NBS method. The incorporation of some specific iron containing inorganic compounds into a range of blends of ABS and PVC considerably changes the burning characteristics of the polymer blend. Thermal stability at elevated temperatures and carbonaceous char formation are also discussed. The chemical role of iron compounds in reducing both the flammability and smoke production in ABS/PVC is considered.
Time—temperature profile across a lumber section exposed to pyrolytic temperatures
Authors: Shrestha D. , Cramer S. , White R. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis paper presents a closed‐form solution with empirical adjustments to predict the time–temperature profile across a lumber section when the exposure history of its surface is known. The formulation is based on the two‐dimensional heat‐conduction equation that includes the effects of moisture evaporation and pyrolysis of wood. The kinetic constants and adjustment factors needed in the model were estimated from the temperature profile test data of dimension lumber and other published sources. This technique offers a simple practical means to estimate the internal temperatures of structural lumber exposed to high temperatures, and has been effectively implemented in the analyses of protected wood assemblies exposed to fire situations.
Flammability of GRP for use in ship superstructures
Authors: Egglestone G. T. , Turley D. M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe burning characteristics of glass‐reinforced panels with an isophthalic polyester resin, the same resin with an inorganic flame retardant, two differing vinylester resins or a resole phenolic as the matrix were tested at a range of incident heat flux values using a cone calorimeter. The phenolic composite was superior at all levels showing a longer ignition time, reduced heat output, less contribution to a low‐level sustained fire (25 kWm−2) and lower smoke yield.
A model for predicting heat transfer through gypsum‐board/wood‐stud walls exposed to fire
Authors: Mehaffey J. R. , Cuerrier P. , Carisse G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractTo facilitate the development of cost‐effective and flexible design options there is a need to develop models to predict the fire resistance of wood‐frame building assemblies. Such assemblies often derive much of their fire resistance from a protective membrane composed of gypsum board. A simple two‐dimensional computer model is presented to predict heat transfer through gypsum‐board/wood‐stud walls exposed to fire. Input data for the thermophysical properties of gypsum board were measured exploying standard bench‐scale tests. Input data for wood were selected from the literature. Small‐and full‐scale fire resistance tests were conducted on gypsum‐board/wood‐stud wall assemblies to provide data for the validation of the model. The model is shown to predict heat transfer through these walls rather well.
On the evaluation of a ‘time constant’ for studying the smoke‐filling processes in atrium spaces
Authors: Chow W. K. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe time constant which has been previously proposed to characterize the smoke‐filling time in an atrium space for design purposes is further evaluated in this paper using the CFAST, FAST and CCFM. VENTS zone models developed at the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, NIST, USA. A design fire of thermal power and area related to the volume of the atrium space is proposed in order to evaluate the time constant. Results of the zone‐modelling simulation supported the fact that the time required to fill 80% of the atrium space with smoke is related to its time constant. Full‐scale experimental results on smoke‐filling processes in atria available in the literature are compared. Use of this quantity to specify the smoke‐filling time for an atrium space is recommended for design purposes.
Welding methods with reduced fire hazard for single‐ply polymer‐modified bituminous roofing materials
Authors: Oba Koichi , Duhrin Urban , Björk Folke 
Published: December 2004

AbstractFire accidents caused by the use of open gas torching during roof‐installation work have led to considerable costs, and between 1985 and 1990 such costs reached 249 Million SKr. The Swedish Fire Protection Association together with the roofing contractors association reached agreement on the education and certification of roofers. Meanwhile, the insurance companies started to demand welding methods with lower temperatures and less fire hazard. This resulted in a marked decrease in fires and in a sharp decrease in the amounts paid out by insurance companies (187 million SKr in 1989, 25 million SKr in 1990 and 2.4 million SKr in 1991). This paper summarises the results of a study of the new welding methods, replacing conventional gas torching, for the installation of polymer‐modified bituminous roof‐coverings on flat roofs. In all eight different welding methods were evaluated in Stockholm during the installation in October 1992. Four different products of single‐ply roof‐coverings, namely one of atactic polypropylene (APP)‐modified bitumen and three of styrene–butadiene–styrene copolymer (SBS)‐modified bitumen, were studied. The study comprises temperature measurements during welding jobs on‐site to evaluate fire hazard, and laboratory measurements of T‐peel strength of the seams in order to evaluate the quality of the seam samples prepared on‐site. The results showed that by these new welding methods a remarkable decrease in temperatures by weld was made without any significant change in the quality of the seams. However, the mechanical strength of the seam was related to welding speed, which should be limited to form sufficiently strong seams using heat welding.
Simulation of sprinkler—hot layer interaction using a field model
Authors: Chow W. K. , Cheung Y. L. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis paper reports a study of the interaction of a sprinkler water spray with the fire‐induced hot layer using the field modelling technique. Data obtained in the large test room of the recent Swedish experiments reported by Ingason and Olsson (1992) are used to validate the results. The problem is divided into a gas phase and a liquid phase. For the gas phase, the set of conservation equations for mass, momentum and enthalpy of air flow induced by the fire is solved numerically using the Pressure Implicit Splitting Operator (PISO) algorithm. For the liquid phase, the sprinkler water spray is described by a number of droplets with initial velocity and diameter calculated by empirical expressions for the nozzle at different operating water pressures and flow rates. The trajectory of each droplet is calculated by solving the equation of motions, by including the dragging and heat transfer with the hot layer. The water droplet is assumed to be non‐evaporating and only the source terms in the gas momentum and enthalpy equations of the air flow included the interaction effects with water droplets, i.e. the ‘Particle‐Source‐in‐Cell’ method. The predicted results include the gas flow, temperature and smoke concentration field; the shape of the water spray; and some relevant macroscopic parameters such as amount of convective cooling, drag‐to‐buoyancy ratio, etc. The average smoke layer temperature and the smoke layer interface height are also calculated. The effect of the mean droplet size on those parameters is illustrated. Finally, a comparison of the water density received at floor level in cases with and without the fire is made.
Communication: Autoignition temperatures of carbon‐filled fluoroelastomers at elevated oxygen pressure
Authors: Hshieh Fu‐Yu , Bryan Coleman J. , Pedley Michael D. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe autoignition temperature and composition of 15 carbon‐filled fluoroelastomers have been determined. These experimental data and three sets of literature data are used to examine the relationship between autoignition temperature and rubber composition. The autoignition temperature at an elevated oxygen pressure is strongly affected by the carbon black content in rubbers. An empirical equation is derived and can be used to predict the autoignition temperature of carbon‐filled fluoroelastomers based on the carbon black content.
Mechanism of action of phosphorus‐based flame retardants in nylon 6. I. Ammonium polyphosphate
Authors: Levchik S. V. , Camino G. , Costa L. , Levchik G. F. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractComparison of oxygen and nitrous oxide indices indicates that ammonium polyphosphate (APP) should act in the condensed phase when added to nylon 6 (PA‐6). A detailed study of the thermal degradation mechanism of PA‐6/APP mixtures is carried out. A polyphosphate ester is formed on heating, which is the precursor of an intumescent char. Evidence is given of the thermal insulating action of the intumescent char which slows down the rate of combustion of the polymer.
Effect of instrument response time on heat release rate measurements
Authors: Lyon Richard E. , Abramowitz Allan 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA linear hereditary integral technique provides simple analytic solutions for deconvoluting thermopile and oxygen consumption data to remove the effect of instrument response time on peak and integrated heat release rate values. A comparison of corrected and uncorrected thermopile and oxygen sensor data obtained on an Ohio State University (OSU) apparatus for various materials indicates that significant errors in peak and integrated heat release rate can result from delayed instrument response to repidly changing heat flows. However, correcting for temporal effects alone using this procedure does not account for differences between heat release rate values obtained by thermopile and oxygen consumption methods.
Mortars containing wood‐based fibres under thermal exposure using cone calorimeter heating
Authors: Sarvaranta Leena , Mikkola Esko 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe behaviour of concrete structures under fire can be improved by adding fibers. However, relatively little is known of the details of the possible beneficial features of the fibre addition. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of different wood‐based fibres on the thermal properties of a standard laboratory cement mortar at conditions of a developing fire. The cone calorimeter heating method was used, and the sample thickness and heat flux were varied (25 mm or 50 mm, 25 kWm−2 or 50 kWm−2) to compare test conditions. The fibres comprised chemical pulp, chemi‐thermomechanical pulp, recycled fibres and viscose fibres. The fibre content in the mortar was 0.15–0.5% by weight. Temperature and mass loos measurements of oven‐dried specimens (moisture content <0.1%) showed no differences between different wood‐based fibre mortars and plain mortar. With increasing moisture content (about 5%), however, the presence of fibres affected the release of moisture from the fibre mortar material. With rapid heating of mortars, which have a moisture content of about 5%, local pressures are easily built up. These pressures are mainly caused by free water vaporization. The rear surface temperature measurements indicate that in mortars containing wood‐based fibres (0.15–0.5% by weight) the vaporization temperatures may be 20 –25% lower than in the reference mortar. Some effects on heat transfer can also be observed due to differences in water vaporization and movement processes.
Transient plane source (TPS) technique for measuring thermal transport properties of building materials
Authors: Log T. , Gustafsson S. E. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe electrical circuit for the recently developed transient plane source (TPS) technique for fast and precise measurements of thermal transport properties of solids has been modified for more convenient and more automated measurements. The technique has been tested for measurements of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity for a series of building materials ranging from thermally insulating materials (extruded polystyrene and PMMA) to good thermal conductors (stainless steel and aluminium). The results obtained in this work agree well with other techniques and international standard materials. This agreement indicates that the TPS method is accurate to within ±5% over a thermal conductivity range of four orders of magnitude (0.02 W m−1K−1to 200 W m−1k−1).
Modelling the heat release rate of aircraft cabin panels in the cone and OSU calorimeters
Authors: Parker William , Filipczak Robert 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA computer model was developed to calculate the heat release rate of aircraft cabin panels in the OSU calorimeter based on their thermophysical, thermochemical and geometrical properties. It calculates the temperature profile through the panel as a function of time and uses the measured kinetic constants of the individual materials to deduce the mass loss rate. The mass loss rate is multiplied by the heat of combustion of the volatiles to obtain the heat release rate which would be measured in the Cone calorimeter. This heat release rate is used in an energy balance at the surface of the specimen to calculate the rise in enthalpy of the flue gases in the OSU calorimeter and thus the specimen's heat release rate in that apparatus. The calculated heat release rates are in reasonable agreement with measurements in the Cone and OSU calorimeters.
Neural network techniques applied to predict flammability limits of organic compounds
Authors: Suzuki Takahiro , Ishida Masaru 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe application of the neural networks to correlate lower and upper flammability limits with chemical structures or basic physical properties for 150 organic compounds of diverse structures and functionalities was investigated. The prediction results based on a three‐layer neural network with a back‐propagation algorithm were compared with those obtained by multiple regression analysis. The comparison showed showed that the neural networks gave better versatility (range of applicability) and reliability. The predictive ability of the methods developed were tested for a new set of 50 compounds not included in the training data set and good agreement with observed lower and upper flammability limits was confirmed. The required information for the calculation were six easily available properties: standard enthalpy of combustion, molecular weight, critical temperature, critical pressure, oxygen balance, and diffusion coefficient in air. By using these calculable properties from the molecular structure, the method could be used to predict flammability limits of new compounds containing C, H, O, N, S, Cl, F and Br atoms.
Modelling of polymer ignition and burning adopted for cone calorimeter measurments: The correlation between the rate of heat release and oxygen index
Authors: Rychly Jozef , Costa Luigi 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe model of polymer combustion based on heat (at two points in the polymer surface and in the gas), fuel and oxygen balance in the gas was used for a description of heat relese rate‐time curve observed in Cone Calorimeter measurements. It was shown that for the proper set of parameters, which were taken either form the Literature data or by a trial‐and‐error approach, a relatively good agreement with experimental heat release rate‐time curves may be obtained. The changes of various parameters of the model leading to different limiting oxygen indices as well as to different heat release rate‐time curves are discussed.
Specimen heat fluxes for bench‐scale heat release rate testing
Authors: Babrauskas Vytenis 
Published: December 2004

AbstractWhen a specimen is testd for its heat release rate (HRR) behaviour using a bench‐scale such as ISO 5660 or equivalent, one very important test condition is not pre‐standaridized and must be set: the heat flux to be imposed on the specimen by the heater. The heat flux cannot be ligitimately standardized, since the value appropriately to be used will differ according to purpose or application. The present paper sets forth the considerations which should govern the correct choice of heat flux. A discussion is given of minimum ignitiability level; statistical variability at low heat fluxes; the ranges of heat fluxes associated with small actual ignition sources; the heat fluxes associated with fires away from the ignition sources, all the way up to fully‐involved room fires; the application of the product; and the needs associated with mathematical modeling of room fires. Correlational approaches are also illustrated and contrasted to physics‐based ones. Finally, the empirical nature of the present situation is emphasized. Judged from first principles, it would appear that successful prediction of room fire results from bench‐scale test data would require both the testing at a large number of different heat fluxes and the use of algorithms to permit time‐dependent interpolation. Such algorithms have been proposed; however, some very successful predictions are noted with much simpler techniques.