bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Monetary Policy Strategies
Authors: Begg Iain 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Contemporary macroeconomic policy places a premium on achieving stability and largely eschews active demand management. In the pursuit of macroeconomic objectives, monetary policy has become relatively more dominant over the last two decades and central bankers have evolved from being shadowy figures who cultivated their own mystique, such as Montagu Norman at the Bank of England, in the inter-war years to become—in many eyes—the leading actors in economic policy-making. Some, such as Alan Greenspan, are revered, while others (such as European Central Bank President Jean-Claude Trichet) attract critics as well as fans, but notwithstanding Bank of England Governor Mervyn King’s stated ambition to make monetary policy boring, none is ignored.
Travelling On A Light Beam
Authors: Close Frank 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Michelson and Morley’s experiment showed that the Earth does not measurably move relative to the ether. Lorentz and Fitzgerald had proposed that the ether distorts the measuring apparatus so as to mask the motion, but Albert Einstein realized that there was a more radical explanation: there is no ether at all!
The fact that the velocity of light is independent of the speed both of the source and of the receiver was an enigma, though it is not clear to what extent Einstein was aware of this result. In any event he had begun to muse about the symmetry of things with respect to motion. If there is no ether there is no absolute space and hence no absolute motion: only relative motion has physical meaning.
The New Void
Authors: Close Frank 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One hundred and thirty-seven pages ago we started with the question ‘where did everything come from?’ Having surveyed over 2,000 years of ideas, we have arrived at the modern answer: ‘Everything came from nothing.’ Modern physics suggests that it is possible that the universe could have emerged out of the vacuum. ‘There could hardly be a more remarkable interconnection than this between “nothing” and “something” ‘, or more colloquially ‘The universe may be the ultimate free lunch.’ The idea is that our universe could be a gigantic quantum fluctuation with total ‘virtual’ energy so near to zero that its lifetime can be huge. This can occur because there are both positive and negative energies in the universe due to the all-pervading attraction of gravity. To illustrate this it is perhaps easiest first to recall how the electric forces within an atom discouraged invaders in Chapter 2.
International Economic Law
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As conflict and cooperation among states turn to an ever greater extent on economic issues, this fully updated and expanded second edition presents a comprehensive exploration of the legal foundations of the international economy. It not only examines the current status of the law, but also explores the origins, political tensions and development of outcomes that are often difficult to comprehend. Lowenfeld examines the major elements of economic law in the international arena including the World Trade Organization and its antecedents; dumping, subsidies, and other devices that alter the market; the International Monetary System, including the collapse of the Bretton Woods system; the debt of developing countries; the law of foreign direct investment, including changing perceptions of the rights of host states and multinational enterprises; and economic sanctions. The book also contains chapters on competition law, environmental law, and new chapters on intellectual property and the various forms of arbitration; demonstrating how these subjects fit into the framework of international economic law. Professor Lowenfeld brings to his task a lifetime of practice and teaching experience to produce a book that will be of use to international lawyers and non-specialists alike.
The GATT/WTO System after the Uruguay Round: A Preliminary Survey
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Final Act of the Uruguay Round was formally signed at a Ministerial Meeting in Marrakesh, Morocco on 15 April 1994. The Ministers, rep resenting 111 nations, declared the work of the Trade Negotiations Committee to be complete and the Uruguay Round concluded. They com mitted themselves to seek to complete all steps necessary to establish the new World Trade Organization by 1 January 1995, and (in contrast to all prior deadlines) that deadline was kept. Altogether, the Agreements, Annexes, Ministerial Decisions and Declarations, and Understandings take up 558 printed pages, not counting the schedules of tariff concessions, specific commitments, and MFN exemptions submitted by Contracting Parties in the course of the Uruguay Round.
Agriculture
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Agriculture was not formally excluded from the GATT, but it was never effectively brought within the GATT/WTO system. Many countries— developed and developing—granted subsidies of various kinds; import quotas were common; commodity agreements, which combined restraints on exports by developing countries with import restraints by developed countries, were accepted as a necessary departure from the GATT model; and wide-ranging waivers under GATT Article XXV(5) proliferated after an initial waiver granted to the United States in 1955 on products subject to the so-called Agricultural Adjustment Act. Both the United States and the European Community were committed to maintaining farm income by keeping domestic prices above world prices.
Intellectual Property Law and the World Trading System
Authors: Dreyfuss Rochelle C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The origins of intellectual property rights are buried in a mixture of guild rules, censorship practices, and government activities aimed at stimulating local industry and ensuring commercial morality. It is clear, however, that by the time of the Industrial Revolution, the creative sector strongly perceived a need for exclusive rights over the fruits of its intellectual endeavors. Those who invested money, time, and effort in developing new technologies sought protection from free-riders, who would otherwise compete down the price of new advances and erode the original creators ‘ opportunities to recoup their costs and capture compensation for the risky investments they made. The ease with which written materials could be reproduced led authors and composers to make similar demands. And the rise in impersonal trade required merchants to develop unambiguous signals with which to communicate with customers.
Evolving Standards of International Law on International Investment
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Several developments came together in the latter part of the twentieth century to change the perceptions concerning international investment, the investment climate in developing countries, and the prevailing international law. First, even as some of the premises of classical international law came under attack, as shown in the two preceding chapters, the World Bank launched a major effort to provide ground rules for international arbitration of investment disputes between foreign private investors and host states. Second, following the revolution in Iran, the reversal of the previous Iranian policy of attracting foreign investment, the seizure of American hostages, and the freezing of Iranian assets by the United States, a settlement was reached between the United States and Iran establishing a Claims Tribunal that heard hundreds of investor–state claims over a period of about 15 years and made major contributions to the corpus of international law.
Other Institutions of the International Monetary System
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
While the International Monetary Fund is the centrepiece of international monetary law, it would be misleading to suggest that it is the only institution, or that its Articles of Agreement form the only code of conduct relevant to the many participants in the international financial arena. This chapter contains brief sketches of some of the other institutions, formal and informal, that together constitute the international monetary system.
The European Monetary System and the Rise of the Euro
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Throughout the 1970s, the ups and downs of the US dollar described in the preceding chapter1 were in significant part reflected in downs and ups of the West German mark, much more than in the other European currencies. Thus the exchange rates among the currencies of the member states of the European Common Market underwent frequent changes, often quite unrelated to any developments within the European Community. Changes in the relative value of the currencies made agreement on such inherently controversial matters as agricultural support payments and contributions to community projects even more difficult to achieve, and subject to frequent need for realignment and recalculation.
United Nations and Other Collective Sanctions
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The drafters of the United Nations Charter, as mentioned in the introduction to this Part, made provision for economic sanctions, along with other provisions not involving the use of force, in Articles 39 and 41 of the Charter. But the decision on sanctions was to be taken only in the event of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression, and both the determination of the existence of such a situation and the determination of what, if any, measures should be taken in response were committed to the Security Council. Thus sanctions under Articles 39 and 41 could only be required with the concurrence (or as it came to be understood, the abstention) of the five permanent members of the Security Council (Art. 27(3)).
Economic Sanctions without Benefit of Treaty
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It was once contended that any measures taken by a state for purposes of foreign policy or national security were contrary to international law. Article 16 of the Charter of the Organization of American States of 1948 (Art. 19 of the 1967 revision) gives some support to this argument, in that it provides: No State may use or encourage the use of coercive measures of an economic or political character in order to force the sovereign will of another State and obtain from it advantages of any kind. But this provision has not been observed, and as Professor Barry Carter has written, the frequent use of sanctions by the United States and many other countries constitutes persuasive evidence that no clear norm exists in customary law against the use of economic sanctions.
British India’s Native Agents in Bahrain
Authors: Onley James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As I am shortly proceeding to India, I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to Agha Mahomed Rahim ibn Hajee Abdun Nabee [Safar], who has repeatedly proved of great use in obtaining correct information, the securing of which required much tact, delicacy of management, and personal influence. I have found him trustworthy, sincere, zealous, and ever willing to carry out any work entrusted to him to the best of his ability. He is well informed about local matters and, having a large circle of friends at Bushire, Busreh, & other ports in [the] Persian Gulf, correct information can always be obtained through him, & I feel quite certain that as a Confidential Agent his services are indispensable to the Bushire Residency.
Introduction: The Return of Energy Policy
Authors: Helm Dieter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It was fashionable in the 1980s and 1990s to treat energy as just another commodity, which could be left to market forces. The task of energy policy was to get the state out of the energy sector and the instruments were privatization, liberalization, and competition. The security-of-supply concerns which had dominated energy policy since the Second World War, and which had been ‘solved’ through public ownership and statutory mono-poly, were deemed to be illusory. Indeed, many went so far as to argue that state ownership and monopoly caused security-of-supply problems, and in Britain the dependency on coal (and coal miners) reinforced this view.
European Energy Policy: Securing Supplies and Meeting the Challenge of Climate Change
Authors: Helm* Dieter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For the past two decades Europe has focused overwhelmingly on the completion of the European energy market, and in particular on liberalization of electricity and gas markets (CEC, 1998, 1996). This process is close to completion, subject to the last phases of market opening and a number of ‘difficult’ cases. Europe’s energy is now supplied overwhelmingly by private companies competing in liberalized markets.
The Nature of Competitive Advantage
Authors: Mayson Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
I start from the proposition that law firms are know-how businesses (see Mayson 1997, chapter 3). From this flow certain fundamental preconditions for such a know-how business to be built and sustained (see chapter 3 above). But these preconditions cannot be met in the abstract: they require a context. This context is provided by common purpose, common values, and strategy. Common purpose and values are usually provided by a firm’s normative environment (see chapter 5). Strategy has two elements:
The Principles of Valuation
Authors: Mayson Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
My interest in valuation in this book is principally in the value of the whole business as a going concern. Even so, I am contemplating situations not only of outright sale or (ultimately) public offerings, but also of partial investment where a new investor may only acquire part of the overall value of the firm. I am therefore focusing on circumstances where the owner or owners will probably want to reach as high a valuation as possible in order to benefit from a sale to others, from an investment by others, or in order to increase the amount available by way of loan.
The Implications of Valuation: The Firm As An Entity
Authors: Mayson Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As demonstrated in chapters 10 and 11, valuation is not just about optimising the firm’s income; the perceived persistence of the income (and, as part of that, of the firm itself ) is also a central consideration. It is thus important for valuation purposes that individuals and teams should undertake activities and make contributions that will result in benefit for the firm rather than for themselves. This ‘split’ in beneficiaries suggests that the firm can and does exist independently of the individuals who comprise it. Valuation theory therefore assumes an entity to be valued—something that is, somehow, different and separate from the individuals who comprise it. There are theoretical challenges of such a proposition, and they are capable of having practical implications.
Aligning Strategy and Structure
Authors: Mayson Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Few areas of law firm management are so subject to fads, fancies and mimetic behaviour as governance and firm structure (see paragraphs 5.2.2.1 and 13.4.4.2).Where one firm leads, others will surely follow—irrespective of whether another firm’s governance arrangements and organisational structure suit the normative environment and strategy of those that follow. But this is the important point. Strategy should be a statement of intended competitive advantage, part of which is the firm’s difference (see chapter 8). The firm’s governance and organisational structure should fi t with delivering that advantage and difference. Simply copying another firm’s structural arrangements carries no certainty that they fi t with strategy or normative environment. As such, arrangements that are merely copied carry a significant risk that they will inhibit or prevent the firm from achieving its strategic objectives.
Final Thoughts and Prospects for The Future
Authors: Mayson Stephen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The emerging marketplace for legal services will be characterised by greater competition among established law firms, the advent of licensed new entrants, and consolidation of firms into larger entities. This increased maturity in the market will mean that law firms will have to work hard for their profit. We are facing:
• a redistribution of work (among law firms; from law firms to new entrants; from lawyers to non-lawyers; and from people to technology);
Introduction
Authors: Swift Helen J . 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In a verse debate between a Book and its Author, La Complainte du livre du Champion des dames à maistre Martin Le Franc son acteur, Martin Le Franc complains that his pro-feminine debate poem, Le Champion des dames (c.1442), was unjustly rejected by the Burgundian Duke, Philip the Good, whose patronage it sought to secure. Left on a shelf all alone to gather dust, the prosopopoeic Livre bemoans a fate which seems, in modern criticism as opposed to the medieval Burgundian court, to have befallen most imaginative literature written in defence of women that is now ranged under the umbrella term ‘la querelle des femmes’.3 Notwithstanding Livre’s complaint, literary defences enjoyed considerable popularity in fifteenth- and early sixteenth-century France and Burgundy: they featured frequently amongst the commissionsmade by two generations of prominent female patrons at the princely and royal courts; they were amongst the first works to go to press with the advent of printing in Lyons, and were subsequently reproduced copiously in Paris in the 1520s and early 1530s.
Haunting Text and Paratext: Performing Intertextuality in Querelle Debates
Authors: Swift Helen J . 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Champion des dames is a debate poem in five books by the Provost of Lausanne and secretary to Amadeus VIII of Savoy, Martin Le Franc. The poem presents a series of exchanges between the ultimately triumphant pro-feminine Champion, Franc Vouloir, and five adversaries representing the Champion’s arch-enemy, Malebouche. Towards the, end of his debate with Trop Cuidier, at the close of Book III, the Champion takes issue both directly and indirectly with the totemic figure of late medieval literary misogyny, Jean de Meun, the late thirteenth-century continuator of Guillaume de Lorris’s Roman de la rose.
Introduction
Authors: Hogarth Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Construction accounts for around ten per cent of the UK economy and is also one of its most hazardous industries. According to the Health and Safety Executive ‘s current statistics, the industry employs 2.2 million people. For the year 2006/7, seventy-seven out of 241 fatal industrial accidents recorded were construction related. In the previous year there were 4,607 non-fatal major injuries and 8,291 necessitating more than three days off work. Construction also entails a higher than average rate of occupational ill-health, with the emphasis on musculoskeletal disorders, vibration and hearing injuries, dermatitis, and asbestos- related illnesss.
Claims
Authors: Hogarth Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Policies intended to respond only to physical damage or personal injury, both physical liability and first party, will normally be written on an ‘occurrence’ basis. For the purpose of such policies an insured loss occurs when physical events cause injury or damage. This date will usually coincide with that of the event that caused the loss. For example, where a builder negligently causes a flood which damages the Works, the date of the flood and the date of the initial damage to property will be the same (although causally connected damage could continue to occur after the flood).
Product Recall, Product Guarantee, And Financial Loss Insurance Policies
Authors: Hogarth Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In contrast with product liability policies, which cover only liabilities to third parties, product recall policies insure first party expenditure incurred when, to prevent products causing personal injury or property damage, they are withdrawn from a direct customer or from a party further along the supply chain. However insurance cover for certain liabilities to third parties can be obtained by extensions to product recall policies. A product guarantee extension indemnifies the Insured for its costs of repairing or replacing the defective products. A financial loss extension covers liability for a third party ‘s financial losses, as opposed to liability for personal injury or damage to property, which are covered under a product liability policy. Neither injury nor damage to property is a prerequisite of financial loss cover, which covers liability for ‘pure economic losses’, for example where a third party has carried out a recall of its product and the Insured is liable for the cost of this.
Premises Pollution Liability Insurance
Authors: Hogarth Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although this form of cover is described as liability insurance it includes a significant first-party element and is written as a mixture of claims-made and occurrence- based cover. For those engaged in construction operations on brownfield sites there are a number of risks which neither a contractor nor an owner may be prepared to take. They include: a) The discovery during the process of preliminary clean-up or during construction work that the extent or harmfulness of pollutants on site is much greater than initial site investigation revealed.
Captive Insurance
Authors: Hogarth Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A typical large construction company will carry most of the covers described in this book. The total cost will be significant and subject to wide fluctuations in premium rates and terms according to market conditions. A common way for a large group to manage this cost is by using a captive insurance company. This is in effect a self-insurance programme through a separate corporate entity that receives premium and pays losses to the related Insured company. The role of a captive has been described by the International Association of Insurance Supervisors ( ‘IAIS’)
Standard Form Building Contracts: Introduction
Authors: Hogarth Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The primary objective of the contractual provisions is to make sure that a party is clearly identified to take the responsibility for insurance during construction, that means both placing and paying for the policy. A secondary objective is to achieve economy so that if possible the parties do not purchase multiple insurances to cover the same risk. At first sight multiple policies might appear good business for Insurers, but in practice ‘communal’ policies avoid the costs Insurers might otherwise incur arguing amongst themselves which of them should meet the costs of an accident. What the industry might gain in additional premiums would quickly be lost in duplication of claim costs. As an example of how things can become complicated, see the case of Tate Gallery v Duffy at para 3.30 above.
Foundations for the Future: the building of modern machinery in Shanghai after the Pacific War
Authors: Elvin Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The transfer of what was, by contemporary standards, high-level foreign engineering technology to Chinese firms in Shanghai was successfully accomplished in the two generations before the Pacific War in 1937. To the extent that mastering modem machine-building technology is the first phase of Kuznetsian modem economic growth, it may be concluded that in a restricted, though important, locality and in a qualitative though not quantitative sense, Chinese society had already created such a core in the pre¬ Communist period.