bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Neuropathology of Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Lucchinetti C , Lassmann H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory relapsing or progressive central nervous system (CNS) disorder characterized by focal areas of myelin destruction associated with astroglial scar formation (Figure 18.1). These lesions are scattered throughout the CNS with a predilection for the optic nerves, brainstem, spinal cord and periventricular white matter. The initial pathological descriptions of MS were reported in the first half of the 19th century (Cruveilhier, 1835; Carswell, 1838; Charcot, 1868). Later studies revealed that the classical clinico-pathological pattern of MS described in these early studies represented only one member of a family of closely related idiopathic inflammatory demyelinating diseases (IIDDs) (Weinshenker and Lucchinetti, 1998). These include fulminant demyelinating disorders such as the acute Marburg variant, Balo’s concentric sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM); the monosymptomatic IIDDs such as transverse myelitis or isolated optic neuritis or brainstem demyelination; and the recurrent disorders with a restricted topographical distribution including Devic’s neuromyelitis optica and relapsing myelitis. The literature is confusing with respect to the classification of these syndromes. Some studies emphasize specific clinical or pathological features to distinguish between these syndromes. However, there are examples of transitional cases which defy a specific terminology. For example, the typical concentric lesions ofBalo’s concentric sclerosis can be adjacent to more typical MS plaques (Marburg, 1906). In addition, there are patients with lesions demonstrating histological features of both ADEM and MS (Krucke, 1973). The presence of these transitional forms suggests a spectrum of inflammatory diseases which may share a pathogenetic relationship.
Restoring CNS Myelin by Glial Cell Transplantation
Authors: Blakemore W F , Franklin R J M , Noble M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Persistent demyelination is the major pathology of multiple sclerosis (MS) and the leukody-strophies, and is also a feature of spinal cord trauma where there is evidence that it contributes to the functional deficit (Bunge et al., 1993; Shi et al., 1997). There are potentially two approaches to achieve remyelination in a situation where it fails: enhancement of the inherent remyelinating capacity of the central nervous system (CNS), or transplantation of an exogenous source of myelin-forming cells. This chapter will focus on the second of these two approaches since this is the one closest to clinical application, not least as a result of the recent progress in manipulating human embryonic and neural stem cells in vitro and the demonstration of their myelinating and remyelinating potential in vivo (see Chapter 20).
Design considerations
Authors: Diggle Peter J , Heagerty Patrick J , Liang Kung-yee. , Zeger Scott L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we contrast cross-sectional and longitudinal studies from the design perspective. As discussed in Chapter 1, the major advantage of a longitudinal study is its ability to distinguish the cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between the explanatory variables and the response. The price associated with this advantage is the potential higher cost incurred by repeated sampling of individuals. At the design stage, we can benefit from guestimates of the potential size of bias from a cross-sectional study and the increase in precision of inferences from a longitudinal study. This information can then be weighed either formally or informally against the additional cost of repeated sampling. Then if a longitudinal study is selected, we must choose the number of persons and number of measurements on each.
Kinetic analysis of enzyme mutants for identification of catalytic residues
Authors: Wei Yansheng , Luo Lusong , Zhang Wenhai , Mariano Debra Dunaway 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This article will provide a guide for the experimentalist who wishes to define the specific roles of active site residues in catalysis by the enzyme that he or she is studying. This guide is based on the authors’ own experience in analysing the catalytic residues of Pseudomonas sp. strain CBS-3 4-chlorobenzoyl-CoA dehalogenase using a site-directed mutagenesis-transient kinetic analysis based approach. General methods that one might apply to any enzyme will be illustrated with experiments carried out with the dehalogenase.
Recollections and Perspectives
Authors: Boffi Giandomenico , Buchsbaum David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is neither a collection of results which we assume to be known nor the place to prove some results probably unknown to the reader, but needed in the following. Although it resembles a little of both things, it is essentially a selection of topics, some elementary, some more advanced, which we feel are adequate, or even necessary, to prepare the ground for the material of the chapters to come. Since it is almost impossible to tell which “basic” material is truly universally known, and which is not, we can only assure the reader that those terms in this chapter which are unfamiliar can be easily found in the book by D. Eisenbud, [41].
Evolution: insects and plants forever in combat
Authors: Schoonhoven Louis M , Loon Joop J A van , Dicke Marcel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ehrlich and Raven put forward their theory on the coevolution of insects and plants.43 The resulting discussion was intense and ample new investigations have been initiated so that our concept of how insect-plant interactions evolve is evolving as well. In this Chapter we present the state of the art of this ongoing debate that deals with specialization, speciation, and evolution of insect-plant interactions.
Early studies of brain anatomy in schizophrenia
Authors: Johnston Eve C , Owens David G C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Emil Kraepelin (1856–1927) is generally considered to have defined the disease concept that came to be known as schizophrenia. In defining dementia praecox, he drew together hebephrenic, as described by Hecker (1871), catatonia, as described by Kahlbaum (1874), and his own dementia paranoids, as he regarded them all as manifestations of the same disorder, which typically had its onset in early adult life and had a poor outcome (Kraepelin 1896). Kraepelin was working shortly after the first academic department of psychiatry in Europe had been sent up in Berlin in 1865, the first Chair being held by Wilhelm Griesinger, whose statement ‘mental illness is a somatic illness of the brain’ (Griesinger 1861) is often quoted. Investigations relating neuro-pathology to mental disorder were conducted in his department.
Diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging
Authors: Bastin Mark E , Lawrie Stephen M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A large body of evidence from in vivo imaging and post-mortem studies suggests that the brains of patients with schizophrenia are both structurally and functionally compromised. The most replicated gross morphometric findings from magnetic resonance (MR) imaging studies are enlarged lateral ventricles and reduced cerebral volume, specifically temporal lobe and amygdala/hippocampal complex, compared with age- and gender-matched controls (Lawrie and Abukmeil 1998). Segmentation studies suggest that these volume deficits occur more often in cortical grey matter than white (Zipursky et al. 1992; Schlaepfer et al. 1994). However, while abnormalities of white matter volume are not as widely reported (Wright et al. 2000), there are compelling data from other types of imaging to suggest that white matter function may also be substantially affected in schizophrenia.
Neuroreceptor mapping with PET and SPECT
Authors: Bantick R A , Montgomery A J , Grasby P M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neurochemical techniques can help to identify the underlying biochemical mechanisms involved in schizophrenia and its pharmacological treatment. Post-mortem neuro-chemistry, although highly sensitive, is limited by tissue changes after death, additional pathologies that have led to death and the use of generally elderly subjects who have had lengthy durations of illness and treatment. In contrast, neurochemical imaging, in addition to permitting comparisons of patients (including the drug na;ve) and controls, also enables a wealth of within-subject comparisons (see below). The modalities of in vivo neuroreceptor imaging comprise positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). PET and SPECT enable specific and highly sensitive (nanomolar to picomolar) delineation of in vivo neurochemistry. MRS is less sensitive (millimolar to micromolar) but non-invasive and without the exposure to ionizing radiation that limits subjects’ involvement in PET/SPECT studies. All three techniques have expanding applications within schizophrenia research.
Hierarchical Multivariate CAR Models for Spatio-Temporally Correlated Survival Data
Authors: Carlin Bradley P , Banerjee Sudipto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis of spatially referenced data has been an increasingly active area of both methodological and applied statistical research. As with many fields, advances in computing and software have been largely responsible. Modern database engines, often widely and publicly available to anyone with a web browser, provide an enormous supply of georeferenced data. Sophisticated computer programs known as geographic information systems (GISs) have revolutionized the analysis and display of such data sets, through their ability to “layer” multiple data sources over a common study area. Finally, Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms enable the fitting of complex hierarchical models in a Bayesian framework, permitting full posterior inference for underlying parameters in even complex model settings (e.g., those involving data that are highly multivariate, temporally correlated, and perhaps even spatially or temporally misaligned).
A Bayesian Analysis of Smooth Transitions in Trend
Authors: Zheng Pjngping , Marriott John M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many real time series exhibit changes in trend. However, because the observed changes are frequently not abrupt, models that specify step changes do not adequately represent the observed behavior. Smooth transition models allow for a smooth change from one linear regime to the next. This paper is concerned with parameter estimation and prediction for a linear trend model with a smooth transition in both the intercept and slope. The smooth transition is modelled using a logistic transition function. We present a Bayesian approach to inference for this model that allows for an autocorrelated error structure and uses the exact likelihood. We develop a slice sampler for the analysis.We apply the analysis to a published macroeconomic data set which exhibits a slowly changing time trend.
What is probability?
Authors: Haigh John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whatever it is, you cannot ignore it. The insurance premium for your house, car, or life reflects the probability the insurers will have to pay out, and how much. Should you have a vaccination against winter flu? You must balance the risks of side-effects or possible reaction to the vaccination against the consequences of declining the protection. Members of a criminal jury are asked to convict only if they believe guilt is established ‘beyond reasonable doubt’. In a civil case, the relevant criterion may be ‘on the balance of probabilities’. You buy, or do not buy, tickets for the National Lottery partly on impulse or for fun, but also partly on your assessment, however vague, of your chance of winning a substantial sum. In card games such as poker or bridge, you expect to play better if you can make a realistic judgement of the likelihood that an opponent holds certain cards.
Dice
Authors: Haigh John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dice have been used in gaming and recreation for thousands of years. They were used in board games in Egypt over 5000 years ago, and in various games of chance invented during the Trojan Wars to relieve the boredom of the soldiers. The Roman emperors played: Augustus wrote to Tiberius about his experiences, and Claudius had a board fitted to his carriage so that he could continue to play while driving. In Games, Gods and Gambling, F. N. David notes that in hoofed animals, the astralagus, or ankle bone, is fairly symmetrical, because of the way a foot takes up the strain placed on it. Dice from ancient times were often constructed from this solid and robust bone.
Anisotropies in the Microwave Sky
Authors: Weinberg Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We will now return to the theory of anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background, introduced in Section 2.6. In Section 7.1 we derive general formulas for the observed temperature fluctuation. Then in Sections 7.2 and 7.3 we combine these results with the analysis of cosmic evolution in Chapter 6 and introduce a series of approximations that simplify the evaluation of the multipole coefficients for scalar and tensor modes, respectively. Section 7.4 deals with the polarization of the microwave background.
Experiences good and bad: an introduction to psychopathology, classification, and diagnosis for philosophers
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The chapter has two aims. The first is to give philosophers (or anyone with no background practical experience of mental distress and disorder) a taste of the more formal aspects of psy- chopathology and the classifications of mental disorder used by professionals working in mental health. The materials in this chapter, it should be said straight away, are perhaps more characteristic of medical, nursing, and psychological professional work, than, say, social work. The mater- ials, it is true, are the result of over a hundred years of careful observation and development of ideas (covered in detail in Parts II and III). All the same, just as the concept of mental disorder remains subject to widely different interpretations (the various ‘models’ we explored in Chapter 2), so the classification of these disorders—the particular ‘symptoms’ identified, the groups and classes and clusters into which they are drawn together—remain much debated. The whole enterprise of classification of mental distress and disorder is indeed challenged by some (see, e.g. Kutchins and Kirk, 1997). As with all the materials in this book, then, this chapter is presented, not as a reflection of a settled or final view, but as a focus for critical engagement and collegial development of ideas.
A Brief History of Mental Disorder
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Part I of this book, we explored current ideas about mental disorder, the variety and subtlety of descriptive psychopathology (in Chapter 3), and the range of often competing ways in which the concept of mental disorder itself has been understood (Chapters 2, 4, and 6). In this part we will be looking at the historical origins of these ideas.We will be asking such questions as: how have we come to recognize the variety and subtlety of psychopathological concepts? Where have our categories of disorder come from? Who decided which phenomena are ‘symptoms’? And why? Are current classifications the last word on the subject?
From Bioethics to Values-Based Practice in Psychiatric Diagnosis
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Session 1 of Chapter 20, the case of Simon showed that values are inherent in psychiatric diagnosis, not peripherally but at the very heart of traditional psychopathology, in the differential diagnosis of schizophrenia. That value judgements are involved in this differential diagnosis is implicit in ICD. It is explicit in DSM, in the DSM’s additional Criterion B of ‘social/occupational dysfunction’.
Mind, brain, and mental illness: an introduction to the philosophy of mind
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mental health practitioners—users of services and carers, nurses, general practitioners, psychiatrists, psychologists, etc.—claim a spe- cial expertise in the mental. The philosophy of mind should thus be, uniquely, their philosophy. Conversely, mental health practice, given the remarkable range of abnormal mental phenomena with which it is concerned, should be uniquely interesting to philosophers of mind. Yet for much of the twentieth century, the two sides, philoso- phers and practitioners, have studiously avoided each other.
First-order quasilinear systems
Authors: Ockendon John , Howison Sam , Lacey Andrew , Movchan Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we use vector systems of partial differential equations, we can model many more physical situations than when we are restricted to the scalar case. For example, as well as looking at the simple kinematic wave models of Chapter 1, we can study situations which allow simultaneous wave propagation both backwards and forwards. A famous example is that of shallow water waves where gravity and fluid inertia balance each other in a shallow layer of water with a free surface, of depth h(x,t), flowing above a horizontal bed along the x axis (Fig. 2.l(a)). Let the fluid density be a constant p.
Introduction to second-order scalar equations
Authors: Ockendon John , Howison Sam , Lacey Andrew , Movchan Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2 we tried to describe, in the simplest possible terms, the only reason ably general framework that exists concerning the solutions of the Cauchy problem for arbitrary partial differential equations. Many pages could now be spent in explaining this framework in more detail, but we will instead devote the next three chapters to a more specialised analysis of three commonly occurring classes of second-order scalar equations. This will enable us not only to illustrate as simply as possible the subtleties that can arise when ‘non-hyperbolic’ equations are being solved, but also to look at the role played by the ideas proposed in Chapter 2 when they are viewed in a more concrete setting.
Elliptic equations
Authors: Ockendon John , Howison Sam , Lacey Andrew , Movchan Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will, as usual, begin by discussing some physical situations that are modelled by elliptic equations, as defined in a rather unfocused way in Chapter 3. Most of the examples involve scalar second-order equations, several of which are special cases, such as steady states, of evolution models discussed in Chapters 4 and 6.
The methods we will use in the subsequent analysis of these models are more ad hoc than those used on hyperbolic equations, for the simple reason that we have no general well-posedness statement analogous to that for the Cauchy problem for hyperbolic equations. Moreover, we will find that the influence of the data for elliptic problems, especially singularities in the boundary data, is much less localised and ‘coherent’ than it is for hyperbolic equations, where we recall that many kinds of singularities merely propagate along characteristics.
Non-quasilinear equations
Authors: Ockendon John , Howison Sam , Lacey Andrew , Movchan Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Several practical situations give rise to partial differential equations that are not quasilinear. For example, suppose u(x, y) is the elevation of a pile of dry sand that is heaped on a table in limiting equilibrium, so that if any more sand was
poured from above it would slide off. Then the angle between the normal to the surface u = u(x, y) and the vertical (0, 0, 1) is a prescribed constant 1, the angle of friction, so that
Miscellaneous topics
Authors: Ockendon John , Howison Sam , Lacey Andrew , Movchan Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our discussion over the past eight chapters has covered much ground but only scratched the surface of what is known about many methods for special classes of pdes.168 In this miscellany we will attempt to take the reader further into some of the ‘tricks of the trade’. However, before going into detail, we will make some general remarks about some areas of mathematics that are not only germane to the classical theory of pdes, but also so large and important as to warrant their own text books; yet we have scarcely mentioned them thus far.
Hardware for functional MRI
Authors: Glover Gary H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Task-driven changes in neuronal metabolism during a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment result in relatively small signal modulations, typically only a few per cent at 1.5 Tesla (Ogawa et al. 1990). Analysis of the data generally compares (in a statistical sense) the signal levels resulting from a sensory or cognitive task with those obtained during a baseline condition. Changes in the signal that result from system drift, physiological functions, basal metabolism fluctuations, and other sources add noise to the comparison process and reduce the significance of the results. Because the neuronal signal modulations are small, it is important that the scan technique is optimized to maximize the signal levels and reduce these spurious sources of noise as much as possible.
Selection of the optimal pulse sequence for functional MRI
Authors: Bandettini Peter A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since its inception in 1991, functional MRI (fMRI) has experienced an explosive growth in the number of users and a steady widening in its range of applications. A recent (2000) search of the National Library of Medicine database for articles with ‘fMRI’ or ‘BOLD’ in the title revealed over 1000 citations. The rapid rate of improvement in pulse sequence design, data processing, information content, data interpretation, and paradigm design can be overwhelming to the novice and even to the advanced user. This chapter is written to assist the fMRI user in making an informed decision regarding the choice of functional MRI pulse sequence. A second goal is to present the pulse sequence choices against a wider backdrop of relevant variables, ranging from paradigm timing to available hardware. The hope is to build a broader perspective of what the limits and possibilities of fMRI are.
Extracting brain connectivity
Authors: Buchel Christian , Friston Karl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the late nineteenth century the early investigations of brain function were dominated by the concept of functional segregation. This approach was driven largely by the data available to scientists of that era. Patients with circumscribed lesions were found who were impaired in one particular ability while other abilities remained largely intact. Indeed, descriptions of patients with different kinds of aphasia (an impairment of the ability to use or comprehend words), made at this time, have left a permanent legacy in the contrast between Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia. These syndromes were thought to result from damage to anterior or posterior regions of the left hemisphere respectively.