bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chromogenic Materials, Electrochromic
Authors: Samat A. , Guglielmetti R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectrochromism is a reversible color change in a material, often a thin film, that accompanies an oxidation–reduction reaction driven by a small current at low voltage. It occurs at or near room temperature in both cathodically colored and anodically colored inorganic and organic compounds. It is accompanied by ion insertion/extraction (doping/undoping) for charge balance in thin solid films.Electrochromic chromogenic materials are divided into two groups based on whether or not insertion/extraction occurs or does. For the smaller,noninsertion group, reversible coloration occurs in solution or is associated with reversible electrodeposition from solution. The best known members are viologens, polymers systems such as polyheterocycles, metallopolymers, metal phthalocyanines, and inorganic electrodeposition of silver halides.In the insertion/extraction group, three main categories of systems have been investigated:Cathodically colored inorganic materials usually color with either H+or alkali ion insertion. The best known film is amorphous tungsten oxide, in part, because of its relatively high coloration efficiency in the visible region.Anodically colored inorganic materials, including Prussian blue, also having a high coloration efficiency, and hydrated oxides of iridium and nickel. Often, K+is inserted for Prussian blue. There is a lively debate about whether H+or OH−is active for the hydrated oxides.Doped/undoped organic films color both anodically and cathodically in general. There is much less known about this type of electrochromism in literature which, as a whole, has been reviewed through 1990. Polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene or tetrathiafulvalene systems with dopants as proton, alkaline metal or ClO4−, BF4−anions have been studied.A recent system concerns the preparation of electrochromic layers by using sol–gels formation controlling the variation of the viscosity of the electrolyte and polymer.Many potential applications are possible but some technical aspects have yet to be improved for a commercial availability.
Electroplating
Authors: Schlesinger Mordechay 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectroplating has, over recent decades, evolved from an art to an exact science. This development is seen as responsible for the ever‐increasing number and widening types of applications of this branch of practical science and engineering. Some of the technological areas in which means and methods of electroplating constitute an essential component are all aspects of electronics: macro and micro, optics, opto‐electronics, and sensors of most types, to name only a few. In addition a number of key industries such as the automobile industry (that uses, for example, chrome plating to enhance the corrosion resistance of metal parts) adopt the methods even where other methods, such as evaporation, sputtering, chemical vapor deposition (cvd) and the like are an option. That is so for reasons of economy and convenience. By way of illustration it should be noted that modern electroplating equips the practitioner with the ability to predesign the properties of surfaces and in the case of electroforming those of the whole part. Furthermore, the ability to deposit very thin multilayers (less than a millionth of a cm) via electroplating represents yet a new avenue of producing new materials.A brief historical discussion, the process of electroplating, preparatory (cleaning) steps required, bath formulations, operation conditions as well as the properties of deposits are presented. Recent key changes in the electroplating industry receive special emphasis.
Electroless Deposition
Authors: Durkin Brad , Steinecker Carl 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectroless plating is the formation of a metallic coating on a metallic or nonmetallic surface by means of a chemical reaction between metal ions and a reducing agent in an aqueous solution. Also called autocatatalytic plating, the process is useful for improving the properties of metallic substrates and providing conductivity to nonmetalic ones. Although it is more costly than more commonly used electrolytic plating, electroless deposits are able to provide functional properties not obtained in any other manner, such as wear and corrosion resistance as well as uniformity of deposition. A broad range of industry utilizes electroless technology including automotive parts, computer hard drives and electronic circuit boards and components.
Advanced Ceramics, Electronic Ceramics
Authors: Newnham Robert E. , Shrout Thomas R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Electronic ceramics is a generic term describing a class of inorganic, nonmetallic materials utilized in the electronics industry. The term electronic ceramics generally pertains to polycrystalline inorganic solids comprised of randomly oriented crystallites (grains) intimately bonded together. This random orientation of small, micrometer‐size crystals results in an isotropic ceramic possessing equivalent properties in all directions. Electronic ceramics are often combined with metals and polymers to meet the requirements of a broad spectrum of high technology applications, computers, telecommunications, sensors, and actuators. Electronic ceramics encompass a wide range of materials and crystal structure families used as insulators, capacitors, piezoelectrics, magnetics, semiconductor sensors, conductors, and the recently discovered high temperature superconductors. The development of multifunctional three‐dimensional ceramic arrays called monolithic ceramics (MMC), continues the miniaturization process to provide a new generation of robust, inexpensive products. Rapid advances in integrated circuit technology have led to improved processing and manufacturing of multilayer ceramics (MLC), which consist of alternating layers of dielectric and metal electrodes, especially for capacitors and microelectronic packages. Presently, multilayer capacitors and packaging make up more than half the electronic ceramics market. Advances in the field of electronic ceramics are being made in new materials, novel powder synthesis methods, and in ceramic integration. The continuing miniaturization of electronic packaging should see the replacement of components and processes using such thin‐film technologies developed for semiconductors as sputtering, chemical vapor deposition, and sol–gel.
Electroanalytical Techniques
Authors: Sandifer James R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectroanalytical techniques may be classified as involving active or passive measurements. Active measurements, such as those obtained in coulometry and voltammetry, result from the application of a voltage or current. Passive measurements, such as those from an ion‐selective electrode, are made independently of external waveforms. The various electroanalytical techniques are described, as is the assembly of electrochemical cells for electroanalysis. Electroanalytical cells employ at least two electrodes placed in either aqueous or organic media. Analyte concentrations may be in the picomolar to millimolar range. Electroanalytical systems may be employed independently or in conjunction with a separation technique such as chromatography.
Ceramics, Electronic Properties and Material Structure
Authors: Schwartz Robert 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The properties of a ceramic material that make it suitable for a given electronic application are intimately related to such physical properties as crystal structure, crystallographic defects, grain boundaries, domain structure, microstructure, and macrostructure. The development of ceramics that possess desirable electronic properties requires an understanding of the relationship between material structural characteristics and electronic properties and how processing conditions may be manipulated to control structural features.
Ceramic insulators are materials used to support electrical conductors and to prevent the flow of electrical charge between them. Ceramic materials suitable for capacitor (charge storage) use are also dependent on the dielectric properties of the material. Materials that show an induced polarization (electric charge) resulting from an applied stress, are referred to as piezoelectric materials, and the effect is referred to as the direct piezoelectric effect. Pyroelectrics are a subset of piezoelectric materials. The most commercially important application that takes advantage of the pyroelectric effect in polycrystalline ceramics is infrared detection. Ferroelectrics, materials that display a spontaneous polarization in the absence of an applied electric field, also display pyroelectric and piezoelectric behavior. Magnetic ceramics or ferrites may be classified according to crystal structure and the type of magnetic properties. The most commonly used ferrites, the so‐called soft ferrites, are used in soft magnet and low field telecommunication applications, low power transformers, television tube scanning yokes, recording heads, magnetic recording media
Varistors are devices that exhibit nonlinear current–voltage behavior. The majority of the electronic ceramics that are used for electronic applications crystallize in the perovskite structure.
Electrophotography
Authors: Stolka Milan , Mort Joseph 
Published: July 2004

AbstractElectrophotography is a copying and printing technique employing electrostatic forces and photoconductivity. Photoreceptor materials include amorphous silicon, organic polymers, and main group alloys. Organic photoconductors have almost entirely displaced traditional photoconductive materials such as selenium alloys. The light sensitivity of modern photoconductors in the near infrared region of radiation is so high that low power inexpensive solid‐state lasers are used as light sources for digital imaging. Developer materials and the development process are discussed. Toner triboelectrification and the ability to control the uniformity of toner charge have progressed to the point that stable, reliable operation is achieved over a broad range of environmental conditions. Electrophotographic image quality, even in color, is approaching that of lithographic images. The roles of carrier materials, imaging media, and fusing are defined.
Embedding
Authors: Wong C. P. , D'Ambra Paul 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAdvances in electronic technology have had great technological and economic impact on the electronic industry throughout the world. The rapid growth of the number of components per chip, the rapid decrease of device dimension, and the steady increase in IC chip size have imposed stringent requirements not only on IC physical design and fabrication, but also in electronic packaging and embedding. Electronic embedding is one of the most common processes used to encapsulate and protect electronic components. With advances in VLSI technology and multichip modules packaging, embedding of high density packages in electronics has become a challenge. Various polymeric encapsulants are used for embedding these types of electronic components. These materials, such as silicones, silicon‐carbon thermosets, epoxies, polyurethanes, polyesters, polysulfides, and advanced thermoplastics, and their electrical, mechanical, and rheological properties as well as material processes related to molding, potting, casting, and saturaton coating processes, are discussed in detail. Furthermore the studies of material curing by differential calorimetry, ftir, and microdielectrometry are described.
Emulsions
Authors: Kostansek Edward 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
An emulsion is a dispersion of one liquid in another, immiscible liquid usually in the presence of stabilizer molecules called emulsifiers. Emulsions may be either oil droplets dispersed in water or water droplets dispersed in oil, wherein the droplet diameters are in the 0.05–100‐µm range. The droplets are usually formed by high shear mechanical processes and stabilized against coalescence by electrostatic and/or steric barriers around the droplets provided by the emulsifiers. Emulsifiers may be anionic, cationic, nonionic, or combinations of ionic and nonionic. Emulsions often require complex mixtures of emulsifiers and are not thermodynamically stable, therefore preparing them is still somewhat of an art. When an emulsion is destabilized, it is said to “break” into its separate liquid layers. A less severe form of instability called “creaming” involves the droplets rising to the top of the sample where they can be redispersed with proper mixing. The formation and stability of emulsions can be described and explained using the theories of colloid science, the science of small particle dispersions. Emulsions are encountered in a very wide range of applications including food (milk and mayonnaise), personal care and household products (cold cream and furniture polish), coatings (latex paint), pharmaceuticals (lipid emulsions), agricultural chemicals (emulsifiable concentrates), and road surfacing (asphalt).
Enamels, Porcelain Or Vitreous
Authors: Faust William D. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Porcelain enamel is a glassy coating applied to various metal substrates through a high temperature fusion process, usually greater than 425C. Enamel glass formulations are primarily alkali borosilicates. The firing, metal selection and preparation, application processes including electrostatic powder and electrophoretic deposition, and various mechanical, physical, and chemical properties are discussed. Standardized test procedures are listed. Porcelain enamels are used as protective, decorative, and functional coatings on steel, cast iron, aluminum, and other alloys. Products produced using porcelain enamel coatings include domestic appliances such as ranges and dishwasters, hot water tank interiors; industrial devices such as heat exhangers, chemical vessels, cast‐iron pipe, and electronic substrates; architectural applications such as interior and exterior panels; and institutional applications such as chalk boards, marker boards, and toilet partitions.
Engineering, Chemical Data Correlation
Authors: Mullins Michael E. , Rogers Tony N. , Radecki Peter P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMethods for correlating experimentally observed data to the known physical, chemical, or molecular properties of a substance or a mixture of substances are discussed. These correlations, once drawn, can be used to estimate values not experimentally obtainable. The correlation methods may be theoretically, semitheoretically, or empirically based. The theoretically based correlations, most often rooted in thermodynamics, are usually preferred.Data correlation may result from the empirical use of basic mathematical and numerical techniques, nomographs, or reference substances. Alternatively, the methodology may incorporate group contributions, structure‐activity relationships, molecular connectivity indexes, and graph theory. A significant amount of investigation is devoted to the assessment of the degree to which mathematical constructs faithfully mimic real systems.
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Authors: Borchardt John K. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe petroleum industry is becoming more dependent on increasing oil production from existing oil fields beyond the recovery in primary production and water flooding. Enhanced oil recovery employs various chemicals to increase the reservoir volume contracted by oil well injected fluids, ie, to increase the volumetric sweep efficiency, and thus increase production. Increases in the oil displacement efficiency can be brought about by a variety of mechanisms. The primary processes used to increase oil displacement efficiency are miscible gas flooding and steam flooding. Micellar polymer flooding and alkaline flooding may also be used. Miscible gas flooding most often employs carbon dioxide and/or hydrocarbon gases. Polymer flooding increases the volumetric sweep efficiency of waterflooding. The two most commonly used polymers used are partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides and xanthan gum. Polymer injection followed byin situcross‐linking reduces the permeability of fractures and rock thief zones increasing volumetric sweep efficiency. Injection of surfactants and noncondensible gases to generate foamin situalso increases volumetric sweep efficiency.
Enzymes In Organic Synthesis
Authors: Zaks Aleksey 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article describes applications of enzymes as catalysts in organic synthesis. It outlines the general mechanistic principles that govern enzyme‐catalyzed asymmetric synthesis and enantioselective resolutions and offers a special emphasis to the widely practiced hydrolytic reaction for the synthesis of monoesters of dicarboxylic acids and monoacylated diols. The use of hydrolytic enzymes for acylations in nonaqueous media is illustrated by the synthesis of chiral lactones and polyesters and regioselective acylations of polyhydroxy compounds. Utilization of hydrolases is also extended to resolution of racemic amines and amino acids, and enzymatic hydrolysis of nitriles. Thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of enzymatic peptide synthesis are analyzed and the most recent trends in enzyme‐catalyzed peptide condensations are illustrated by a number of examples. The synthetic utility of lyases is demonstrated by a number of aldolase‐ and ketolase‐catalyzed condensations of carbon‐carbon bonds and by the synthesis of cyanohydrins by oxynitrilases. Oxidoreductases are represented by dehydrogenases commonly used for the synthesis of chiral alcohols, lactones, hydroxy, and amino acids; by cyclohexanone monooxygenase, the enzyme that catalyzes Baeyer‐Villiger oxidation of ketones; and by lipoxygenase, which incorporates dioxygen into polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Epoxy Resins
Authors: Gannon John 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEpoxy resins are characterized by the presence of a three‐membered cyclic ether group commonly referred to as an epoxy group, 1,2‐epoxide, or oxirane. The most widely used epoxy resins are diglycidyl ethers of bisphenol A derived from bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin. The outstanding performance characteristics of the resins are conveyed by the bisphenol A moiety (toughness, rigidity, and elevated temperature performance), the ether linkages (chemical resistance), and the hydroxyl and epoxy groups (adhesive agents). In addition to bisphenol A, other starting materials such as aliphatic glycols and both phenol ando‐cresol novolaks are used to produce specialty resins. Epoxy resins may also include compounds based on aromatic amine, triazine, and cycloaliphatic backbones.A variety of reagents have been described for converting the liquid and solid epoxy resins to the cured state, which is necessary for the development of the inherent properties of the resins. The curing agents or hardeners are categorized as either catalytic or coreactive. Catalytic curing agents initiate resin homopolymerization, either cationic or anionic, as a consequence of using a Lewis acid or base in the curing process. Coreactive curing agents are polyfunctional reagents that are employed in stoichiometric quantities with epoxy resins and possess active hydrogen atoms. The important classes include polyamines, polyamides (formed from polyamines and dimerized fatty acid), polyphenols, polymeric thiols, polycarboxylic acids, and anhydrides.The largest single use of epoxy resins is in the protective coatings market where high chemical resistance and adhesion is important. Epoxies have gained wide acceptance in protective coatings and electrical and structural applications because of their exceptional combination of properties such as toughness, adhesion, chemical resistance, and superior electrical properties.
Ethanol
Authors: Logsdon John E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEthanol's unique combination of physical and chemical properties has led to its use as a solvent, a germicide, a beverage, an antifreeze, a fuel, a depressant, and a chemical intermediate for other organic chemicals. Ethanol from fermentation processes is the most important source. Most industrial ethanol is produced from ethylene by the direct hydration process. The subsidized (federal and state) use of fermentation ethanol in gasoline has fueled a rapid growth in U.S. production, which has provided some ethanol for crossover to the industrial market. The 1990 Clean Air Act requiring the use of oxygenates in gasoline has further fueled this growth. Corn is the principal feedstock for fermentation in the United States, and sugar cane is the most important raw material outside the United States. This rapid growth has also caused a renewed interest in research into this ancient process. The main uses for industrial ethanol are as an intermediate for the production of other chemicals and as a solvent. The United States Treasury, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms oversees the production, procurement, and use of ethanol in the United States.
Ethers
Authors: Karas Lawrence , Piel W. J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAn overview of ethers is provided that covers the general types of ethers, their synthesis reactions, properties, and some general uses in industry. More detail is provided on ethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran (THF), and methyltertiarybutyl ether (MTBE), which represent three of the ethers with the highest commercial volumes. One of the fastest growing and largest uses of ethers is for gasoline blending. Though initially developed to provide octane in gasoline, fuel‐grade ethers are now used to add oxygen to the gasoline mixture, which helps improve combustion and reduce tailpipe emissions from automobiles. Besides MTBE, other possible fuel ethers such as ethyltertiarybutyl ether (ETBE) andtertiaryamyl ether (TAME) are also noted.
Polyethers, Ethylene Oxide Polymers
Authors: Back Darlene M. , Clark Elke M. , Ramachandran Ramesh 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEthylene oxide polymers are high molecular weight (\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{>}}100,000}$\end{document}) water‐soluble thermoplastic polymers. This article reviews the effect of shear, pH, salt, and temperature on the physical and chemical properties of poly(ethylene oxide) solutions and melts. Industrial uses of the unique properties of poly(ethylene oxide) in fields such as flocculation, pharmaceutical excipients, adhesives, coatings, and personal care are summarized.
Ethylene Oxide
Authors: Dever J. P. , George K. F. , Hoffman W. C. , Soo H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEthylene oxide is a colorless gas that condenses at low temperatures into a liquid and is miscible with water and most organic solvents. Its vapors are flammable and explosive. Ethylene oxide can be relatively toxic as both a liquid or gas, and is considered as a potential human carcinogen and reproductive hazard.Ethylene oxide was first prepared from ethylene chlorohydrin and aqueous potassium hydroxide in 1859. It was first produced commercially during World War I in Germany by the chlorohydrin process. In 1931, direct oxidation of ethylene to ethylene oxide was achieved by using a silver catalyst. The chlorohydrin process was quickly replaced by the direct oxidation process, and is still the dominate technology.Ethylene oxide is a highly reactive compound; it is used industrially as an intermediate for many chemical products. The total world consumption in 2002 was 14.7 × 106metric tons, about 73% was used in the production of ethylene glycol. Other derivatives of ethylene oxide include glycol ethers, ethanolamines, and surfactants. Ethylene glycol for polyester production is still a firm market.