bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Jewish Refugees from the Nazi State in Shanghai, 1938–1949
Authors: Fetthauer Sophie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1938 and 1949 the Chinese port city of Shanghai saw an influx of refugees who escaped the Nazi regime. Upon rebuilding their lives in the cosmopolitan city, they formed a community in which classical music, operetta, and entertainment music were at the center. In addition, and together with these repertoires, music considered specifically “Jewish” was performed: synagogue music, Yiddish and Zionist song, and a specific kind of “Jewish” concert music. This chapter discusses how these genres marked the heterogeneous composition of the Jewish refugees, how they created opportunities to connect, and how, at the same time, they served as a means of demarcation, preservation, and remembrance. More so, this music reveals how aspects of argumentation from the European discourse on Jewish music transferred to Shanghai, in part without being significantly changed in light of the new environment, and how it was used to address contemporaneous issues.
Social Stratification of Retirement Transition
Authors: Turek Konrad , Henkens Kène 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the central role retirement plays in social stratification structures in later life. Retirement transition is embedded in social structures and affects an individual’s post-retirement position. In recent decades, retirement has departed from a traditional model of a clear-cut event and a static life period toward a more varied, dynamic, and unpredictable process. At the same time, public policies push to extend working lives but often ignore individual differences in the ability to work longer. These processes carry a risk of increasing inequalities at older ages. This chapter discusses theoretical approaches to social stratification at older ages, the diversification of retirement pathways, and the impact of aging policies on stratification. It argues that the stratificational role of retirement is increasing, and unified reforms can stimulate the development of inequalities and exclusions.
Antoinette Brown Blackwell
Authors: Pearce Trevor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will show that Antoinette Brown Blackwell’s criticisms of Charles Darwin and other evolutionists in the mid-1870s were based on views about the equivalence of the sexes that she had developed two decades earlier. The first section, after providing some context for Blackwell’s interest in reform, discusses her contributions to the struggle for women’s rights prior to the American Civil War. Taking up an unusual position, Blackwell argued that women ought to be involved in public life because they are essentially different from men. The second section focuses on how Blackwell repurposed these earlier contributions in The Sexes Throughout Nature (1875).
American Feminist Socialism 1830–1930
Authors: Whipps Judy D. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Critics have used the labels “socialism” and “feminism” to vilify American reform movements since the term socialism came into the American lexicon in the mid-nineteenth century. It was initially used to describe utopian communities that experimented with cooperative economic systems. Some of those communities challenged gender roles and sexual norms. Marxism later changed the way socialism was defined, but other socialist philosophies also flourished, such as those associated with late-century reform movements. Three social reformers, Florence Kelley, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and Emily Greene Balch, illustrate how feminism and socialism together shaped economic and social reform. Kelley’s influential workplace reforms were based in her philosophies of feminist socialism. Gilman’s feminist writing critiqued women’s domestic roles and promoted socialist cooperative economic systems. Balch used her feminist socialism to oppose imperialism, racism, and nationalism. All three worked toward social and economic equity. Rather than advocate Marxist revolution, they reimagined the role of government, using legislative means to promote social and economic equity.
American Idealists
Authors: Novakovic Andreja 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter charts the critical reception of Hegel’s social and political philosophy in the hands of Susan Blow, Anna Brackett, and Marietta Kies, members of a group known as the St. Louis Hegelians. It situates them in the philosophical movement of American idealism and argues that there is a common thread permeating their disagreements with Hegel, for each raises an implicit objection to Hegel’s delineation of a rational social order. Susan Blow challenges Hegel’s views on the institutional context of early childhood education; Anna Brackett, Hegel’s gendered division of labor; and Marietta Kies, Hegel’s differentiation of the motives in civil society and in the state. What their writings show is that Hegel’s concrete description of ethical life, specifically of the boundaries between its social spheres, needs to be amended to make it relevant to an American context in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Women’s Rights, Suffrage, and Feminism in Nineteenth-Century America
Authors: Rogers Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the interplay of activism and theory in the nineteenth-century women’s rights movement across ideological and racial and cultural lines. It points to the influence of (masculine) modern political theory in the liberal branch of the women’s rights and suffrage movement. It then moves to a discussion of progressive women’s activism and theory, particularly women’s opposition to the distinctions between the “public,” “social,” and “private” spheres of life that were accepted in both intellectual life and popular culture. The chapter then recognizes maternal views of women that remained influential throughout the nineteenth century—some of which were feminist and sought to “export” feminine virtues into public life to repair social and political ills. The chapter recognizes racial and cultural diversity within each branch of feminism, asserting that the women’s rights movement was multicultural at the start and must continue to be recognized as such.
The Protestant Reformations and Law
Authors: Witte John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation revolutionized not only theology and the church but also law and the state. This northern European reform movement, and its colonial expansion across the Atlantic, broke the international rule of the medieval Catholic Church and its canon law, permanently splintering Western Christendom into competing nations and regions. The Reformation also triggered a massive shift of power, property, and prerogative from the Catholic Church to the Protestant state. Protestant rulers now assumed jurisdiction over numerous subjects and persons previously governed by the medieval church. Using studies of Lutheran, Anabaptist, and Calvinist communities, this chapter illustrates the enduring reforms of church-state relations, constitutional law, criminal law, religious freedom, family law, education law, and social welfare that reflected this new Protestant theology. The chapter makes clear, however, that in formulating their new state laws, Protestant authorities also drew heavily on biblical law, Roman law, and medieval civil law and canon law, as well humanist and republican legal and political thought.
Christianity and Law in the Early Americas
Authors: Herzog Tamar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This article surveys the relations between religion and law in colonial English, Spanish, and Portuguese America. It shows that religion served to explain the colonial expansion. Religion justified the particular forms that colonialism took, the special regimes developed vis-à-vis both Indigenous peoples and individuals of African descent (including the basis for “just war” against native populations), and the creation of new legal and social categories. The importance of religion was noteworthy among colonialists who believed in an order made of both religious and civic norms, but it was no less noticeable among Indigenous peoples and individuals of African descent.
Christianity and Law in Latin America Today
Authors: Villalonga Cristián 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys the contribution of Christianity to modern Latin American law during the past two hundred years, exploring how the region has experienced debates in its institutional development in dialogue with Christian religious ideals. In concrete terms, the chapter addresses such an influence in four specific legal fields: (1) the transition from Catholic republics to the coexistence of public ecclesiastic law with religious freedom; (2) the regulation of social life, particularly family relations and freedom of association; (3) the legal contest over economic regulation during the twentieth century; and (4) the scope and protection of human rights since the late 1940s. In contrast to mainstream social-sciences scholarship, which looks at Christianity as an obstacle to modernization in the region, the chapter shows that Christianity has contributed to a distinctive religiously oriented version of legal modernity. In this orientation, Christian ideals about justice, the commonwealth, and human dignity have influenced the social mindset and the content of constitutions, legislation, and legal scholarship. And they have done so while facing a landscape that frequently has been plagued with political violence and state failures. The chapter concludes that understanding the contribution of Christianity is essential in order to comprehend some traits of the current Latin American legal culture, even when the place of Christian ideals in the public sphere has been called into question.
Christianity and Law in Africa Today
Authors: Odozor Paulinus I. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Christianity is one of the three main religions of Africa. Its history and impact are felt differently in various African societies. The complexity of the relationship between Christianity and each individual African country makes it difficult therefore to speak generally of the impact of Christianity on law in all African countries. There are, however, shared Christian assumptions about reality that motivate Christian input and emphases and provide a common Christian vision of what the law should look like in particular areas of African life. And there are particular areas of life—such as education, health, social services, sexuality, marriage and family, reproduction and abortion, and human rights—in which Christian views have been important, if not decisive, in formulating the policies and laws in the various countries on the continent. Important to note is that Christian advocacy for just laws in Africa is meant not to secure particular privileges for the faith but to ensure good governance and justice for all, irrespective of their faith or other affiliations. Finally, although the Christian impact on African legal systems is normally exhortatory, it can sometimes aim at enshrining particular statutes or at forbidding the enactment of laws on particular issues.
Christianity and Law in Northeast Asia Today
Authors: Jonghyu Jeong Ambrose 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys the many faces of Christianity across the countries in northeast Asia. On one hand, China and North Korea have ranked as countries with the most persecution of Christians over the past two decades. China is the scene of the most striking evangelization efforts in the two-thousand-year history of Christianity, and North Korea may well be called the catacombs of the twenty-first century. On the other hand, some countries are establishing diplomatic ties with the Holy See: Taiwan, where Christians are a minority; Mongolia, where Christianity has just begun to spread; Japan, where there is strong indifference to Christianity; and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), where both Catholicism and Protestantism are developed. Particularly in South Korea, Protestantism is at the center of many legal disputes, and secular law clashes with various medical, social welfare, and educational missions.
Christianity and Constitutional Law
Authors: Aroney Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern constitutional law is the product of several important historical influences. These include Greek philosophy, Roman law, Christian theology, and Enlightenment principles. Greek philosophy proposed a classification of the basic types of constitution and introduced the idea of the rule of law. Roman law contributed the legal concept of jurisdiction, which is an essential feature of contemporary constitutional law. Christian theology offered a conceptual framework in which the authority of civil government was effectively qualified by a higher natural or divine law, and in which the spiritual authority of the church posed a practical limit on the temporal powers of the civil authority. Christian theology also provided the context in which the powers of civil and ecclesiastical rulers were tempered through various means, including the administration of oaths of office and the issuing of charters guaranteeing the rights of religious, social, economic, and civil associations of many kinds. The principle of the separation of powers and the establishment of written constitutions enforced by judicial review, although associated with the Enlightenment, also owed a great deal to these earlier principles and practices. This chapter surveys the contribution of each of these influences and argues that although the Greek, Roman, and Enlightenment contributions have been important, constitutional law would not be what it is today if it were not for the influence of Christianity.
Christianity and Equity
Authors: Bray Samuel L. , Miller Paul B. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Equity is an important concept in the legal systems of the common-law world. The development of the concept has been shaped by Christian sources, which in turn have been heavily influenced by classical sources. This chapter surveys the line of development from Aristotle to the modern law of equity. In between, it traces equity through Roman law, the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament, scholastic theology, canon law, the Magisterial Reformation, and the early modern English Court of Chancery. Some of these contributions to the development of equity treat it as an exceptional correction to the law on account of its generality (the exceptional sense). Others are more likely to see equity as the justice that is the ultimate aim of law, and thus a guide to the law’s interpretation (the interpretive sense). Regardless of which sense is emphasized, these sources tend to link equity with justice, both as a political virtue and as a personal virtue—that is, as an essential condition for a just society and an essential characteristic of a just person. The contemporary law of equity still bears the imprint, even if faint, of the classical and Christian sources, and these sources offer insights for equity in the present.
Law and the Church Fathers
Authors: Lössl Josef 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present chapter covers aspects related to law and the Church Fathers. It begins with an overview of who the Church Fathers were and how they thought about and dealt with law. It understands the Church Fathers not merely as a group of people in history (specific early Christians, leading intellectuals, and bishops) but also as a quasi-normative entity, a body of teaching, which continues to shape legal thinking in the Christian tradition. Contrariwise, the chapter takes into consideration that law was something early Christians encountered in their secular environment but also something they themselves developed and cultivated as a form of Christian law, and it considers how these two are connected and differ. The chapter goes on to discuss relevant concepts developed by the Church Fathers, such as divine law, natural law, freedom of religion, citizenship, the common good, and moral conscience. It does so by considering classical and biblical sources and the late ancient contexts of these concepts as well as their reception in later periods. Particular attention is paid to Origen’s concept of a freedom of conscience and Augustine’s ideas on citizenship, law, and the common good. The chapter finishes by briefly touching upon the relevance of these ideas through today.
Christianity and Torts
Authors: Moreland Michael P. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys the relationship between Christianity and the law of torts. The field of tort law is briefly explained, then its relation to Christian legal thought is explored through a discussion of the tension between instrumentalist and noninstrumentalist accounts of tort law. The chapter shows how a Christian understanding of torts will tend toward noninstrumentalist explanations, and it discusses the revival of noninstrumentalist accounts and the rejection of reductive consequentialism in tort theory in the work of John Goldberg and Benjamin Zipursky. The chapter concludes with two examples of contemporary Christian tort theory: John Finnis’s insistence on the significance of intention and the morality of purposeful harm to persons, and the human face of the famous case of Palsgraf v. Long Island Railroad Co. as discussed by John T. Noonan Jr. in Persons and Masks of the Law.
Christianity and Economic Law
Authors: Crane Daniel A. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the first century forward, Christian thinkers and authorities have espoused many different views of economics, regulation, the role of the state, and economic law. Christian thought on economic regulation underwent systematic scholarly exposition during the Scholastic, Reformation, and modern eras, culminating in a wide array of perspectives on the role of markets and the government’s regulatory role. From Thomas Aquinas on just price theory to Martin Luther on cartelization and predatory pricing and Adam Smith on the nature of the market’s “invisible hand,” Christian and Christian-influenced thinkers worked out the ethical and moral implications of contracts, usury, exchange, and the role of government in economic matters. Christian thinkers thus laid the foundations for the modern economic world. However, in the modern era, Enlightenment rationalism, empiricism, and academic specialization gradually displaced a distinctive Christian influence on economic law. Even though many Christians continue to work on matters of economic law, modern scholarship on market regulation shows little evidence of an ongoing, expressly Christian influence. However, recent trends in political, social, and academic interests regarding economic law—particularly those related to the fallibility of human decision-making and wealth inequality—offer renewed opportunities for productive engagement by Christian thought.
Christianity and International Law
Authors: Walker Neil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The role of Christianity in the development of international law is complex and contentious. A crude but tenaciously relevant distinction holds between a perspective that views Christianity as marginal to international law and one that views it as fundamental. Support for each approach is found in more general orientations trading upon broader uncertainties and controversies about international law’s character. On the one hand, the marginalizing approach is supported by an underlying orientation that treats international law as a modern invention and, thus, free of the metaphysical assumptions that granted religion wide-ranging authority in premodern times. According to this approach, the paramount authorities of the modern world are sovereign states. From the late nineteenth century, international law has witnessed the construction by and among these secular “final” authorities of a legal bond within an institutional and cultural framework emphasizing common civilizational progress. On the other hand, there is a historical orientation that attends to the roots of international law in premodernity, prominently including the universalizing language and juristic impulses of the Christian faith. This longer perspective is sensitive to how modern international law remains conditioned by these roots and to the ways in which the narrative of convergence and progress in international law is challenged and complicated by encountering a pluralism of beliefs, interests, and identities partly grounded in religious faith. Only by addressing both approaches and their respective supporting orientations can there be a balanced understanding of the ways in which Christianity affects the theory and practice of international law.
Christianity and Byzantine Law
Authors: Wagschal David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the significance of the key developments in Christian law in the Eastern Roman Empire. Noting that the Greek empire is “ground zero” for the epoch-making emergence of church law, the chapter begins by exploring the importance and influence of the Antiochian corpus, the first quasi-official legal collection of the imperial church. It then considers some of the key characteristics of the mature Byzantine canonical tradition: its lack of professionalization and jurisprudence, its traditionalism, its sacralization, some of its distinctive substantive provisions, and its relationship with the civil law. The chapter suggests that the Byzantine canonical tradition should be understood as the central representative of a distant Christian legal world that, although later much eclipsed by the Western medieval developments, constituted a coherent and fascinating whole: a veritable “Old Catholic Law” of the first millennium.
Christianity and the Law of Religious Freedom
Authors: Smith Steven D. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Religious freedom understood as a natural or legal right is a modern development, but it is the product of ancient Christian themes, shaped by modern pluralism, and channeled through Enlightenment institutions, such as constitutional government and rule of law. Three themes in particular have been crucial: the inherent dignity of the person created in the image of God, the jurisdictional dualism of God and Caesar, and the sanctity of a sincere and uncoerced conscience. In the Middle Ages, these themes inspired a struggle for freedom of the church. Later, they supported a commitment to freedom of conscience. These freedoms have been the essential ingredients of the modern conception of religious freedom. Given its foundations in Christian themes, religious freedom faces uncertain prospects in an increasingly post-Christian world. In the United States, claims to religious freedom are challenged and often overridden in the name of other rights or interests framed in terms of equality or nondiscrimination. Scholars frequently conclude that there is no persuasive contemporary justification for singling out religion for special legal protection. And the uncertain prospects are hardly limited to religious freedom, narrowly conceived. The development of religious freedom has been closely associated with other rights—freedoms of thought and expression, in particular—and, as James Madison recognized, the logic of these rights is intertwined. Hence, the fate of religious freedom may influence the fate of other central elements of the constitutional tradition as well.