bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Nowhere Man
Authors: Wigger John 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts how the search for D.B. Cooper, one of the largest and longest manhunts in American history, was still ongoing and on everyone’s mind as the hunt for the hijacker of American 119 got under way. The Cooper case provided a model, not just for perpetrating the crime but also for enforcing the law against it. The FBI held nothing back as it looked for Cooper, and the same determination guided the new investigation. From the beginning, the FBI was convinced that Cooper had not survived his jump. In March 1972, four months into the investigation, the FBI set out to determine, once and for all, whether Cooper’s body and the money were in the projected drop zone. However, they found nothing. As the hunt for the hijacker of American 119 got under way, the failure to find Cooper and the presumption that he was dead loomed large in the FBI’s thinking.
The Sketch
Authors: Wigger John 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the unreliability of the eyewitnesses’ descriptions of the hijacker of American 119. As it had done in the D.B. Cooper investigation, the FBI quickly produced a composite sketch and a physical description of the American 119 hijacker based on the eyewitnesses who had gotten a good look at him. Three factors limited the accuracy of the sketch and description. First, the hijacker had worn a wig and sunglasses most of the time he was on the plane and certainly when people would have noticed him. Second, the eyewitness accounts varied significantly in certain details. Third, the news stories published immediately after the hijacking singled out two identifying traits that turned out to be wrong.
The Plan
Authors: Wigger John 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter details Martin McNally’s plan to hijack American Flight 119. The initial plan included his friend Walter Petlikowsky, but Petlikowsky backed out after thinking about it for a while and just agreed to drive McNally for $25,000. Additionally, Petlikowsky offered some weapons for McNally to use, including a modified .45-caliber Spitfire machine gun and a smoke grenade. The chapter notes McNally’s attempt to hijack a TWA flight but refraining after TWA installed metal detectors. Instead, McNally forged a fake Michigan birth certificate in Detroit, bought a ticket with American Airlines, and boarded Flight 119 without any issues.
Fallout
Authors: Wigger John 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the fallout of Martin McNally’s arrest. After the arrest, Neil Welch praised his agents for their work and minimized the role Detective Robert Krichke had played in the investigation, despite his information on Jim Petty and McNally himself. Meanwhile, McNally’s arrest unnerved Walter Petlikowsky, so he turned himself in. He was unable to escape prosecution. The chapter also notes that Walter McNally found his son’s house in a mess and his son’s fish and parrot left to die. The FBI denied any blame, and agent Roger Schweickert was convinced that someone else had been in the house before the arrest.
Hijacker’s Heaven
Authors: Wigger John 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes how the airport in Reno, Nevada, received the moniker “Hijacker Heaven” due to its lack of security. Despite Martin McNally’s trial, the epidemic of airline hijacking continued unhindered. Frank Markoe Sibley hijacked a United Airlines 727 flight at Reno and was subsequently punished and caught by the FBI in Seattle. Sibley refused to plead guilty or insanity as the money was allegedly intended to help children. The chapter notes how Sibley fit the hijacker profile of age, airplane knowledge, previous military experience, and recent triggers of divorce and job loss. Airlines continued to refuse to tighten airport security, so the government opted to pass harsher punishments instead.
The Trial
Authors: Wigger John 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Martin McNally’s trial for hijacking American Flight 119. McNally’s prospects took a turn for the worse when Walter Petlikowsky pleaded guilty and admitted that he had helped plan the hijacking and had driven McNally to the St. Louis airport and from Peru, Indiana. Most of the hijackers arrested in the US pleaded guilty or not guilty by reason of temporary insanity. The chapter also mentions the efforts of McNally and his lawyers to file a motion to suppress evidence from his house, which they argued had been searched illegally. McNally remained defiant to the end, issuing a statement claiming that President Richard Nixon had conspired with the FBI to frame him.
The Political Development of Benito Mussolini
Authors: Williamson Peter J. 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts Mussolini’s political development prior to his becoming prime minister, concentrating upon the ideas that subsequently shaped his thinking as Italy’s leader. It considers how during his early political career he was a member of the Italian Socialist Party but that his revolutionary thinking was influenced by anti-Enlightenment ideas, placing him outside the mainstream of socialism. It highlights that, rather than social progress, his principal concern was on the nature of political power in which he emphasized the inevitability of elite rule over democracy, the significance of the intuitive insight of leaders, and the importance of the will to power and violence in taking over the state. It explains how after he was expelled in 1914 from the Socialist Party, where he held an important leadership position as editor of the Party newspaper Avanti!, his radical nationalist and subsequently Fascist thinking developed during the First World War and its aftermath, partly influenced by his experiences during this period. The chapter concludes by setting out the main tenets of Fascism he held that he brought to his leadership of Italy.
Russia in Africa
Authors: Ramani Samuel 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Three decades after the Soviet Union’s collapse, Russia has transformed from a fringe player to a resurgent great power in Africa. The October 2019 Russia-Africa Summit in Sochi highlighted the appeal of Russia’s normative agenda, the ubiquity of Russian military technology, and the breadth of Moscow’s presence on the continent. Beneath the pageantry, a darker side of Russia’s African resurgence looms large. From Libya to Madagascar, Russia has used sinister tactics to expand its influence, such as private military contractors, shadowy mining and energy deals with authoritarian regimes, and election interference campaigns. This book presents a chronological examination of Russia’s post-Cold War foreign policy towards Africa, and outlines the factors that have enabled and impeded the growth of its influence. It pays special attention to the non-material factors behind this rising power; the domestic drivers of Russian decision-making; Moscow’s relationships with fellow external powers; and African perspectives on Russia’s geopolitical role. Samuel Ramani’s analysis cites extensively both Russian-language media and academic sources, and his own interviews with Russian and African elites. His fascinating study challenges popular depictions of Russia as an opportunistic anti-Western actor, instead emphasizing Moscow’s strategic commitment to Africa and the endurance of historical memory.
Introduction
Authors: Ramani Samuel 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
Russia’s foreign policy towards Africa is commonly described as transactional and reactive to its growing isolation from the West. This chapter challenges these assumptions by highlighting continuities in Russian foreign policy over the past three decades and emphasizing the ideational drivers of Russia’s influence in Africa. These factors ensure that Russia is a “virtual great power” in Africa. Russia is Africa’s leading arms vendor and leverages its UN Security Council veto to protect isolated autocracies from sanctions. However, its trade with Sub-Saharan Africa lags Turkey and India, and its counter-terrorism operations have largely failed to produce lasting stability. The chapter concludes by providing a brief outline of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union’s strategies in Africa, as historical legacies and experiences profoundly shape Putin’s current approach.
The Dawn of Russia’s Resurgence in Africa
Authors: Ramani Samuel 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines Russia’s renewed assertiveness in Africa during Vladimir Putin’s first two terms as president. Russia’s strategic ambitions in Africa were largely overlooked by the U.S. and allegedly welcomed by France, which allowed it to advance its goals with little Western pushback. Putin’s approach to Africa blended former Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov’s playbook with inputs from the Federation Council and experts affiliated with the Moscow-based Institute of African Studies. Russia strengthened its ties with African countries facing isolation from the West, such as Sudan and Zimbabwe, and reasserted itself as a great power in North Africa by resolving debt disputes with Algeria and Libya. However, Russia also revealed continent-wide influence aspirations, which saw it deepen partnerships with key regional powers, such as South Africa, Ethiopia, and Nigeria. Russia also directly engaged with Western partners. An early example of this strategy was Putin’s April 2001 meeting with Gabon’s President Omar Bongo, who had a decades-long partnership with France. Putin’s April 2005 meeting with his Egyptian counterpart Hosni Mubarak in Cairo strengthened Russia–Egypt relations.
The Medvedev Interregnum
Authors: Ramani Samuel 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the intensification of Russia’s outreaches to Africa during Dmitry Medvedev’s presidency from 2008–12. As Russia and the West sought to reset relations following the 2008 Georgian War, combatting piracy in Somalia emerged as a rare area of cooperation. This collaborative spirit was eviscerated by the end of Medvedev’s tenure. Russia’s counter-revolutionary position on the Arab Spring, opposition to NATO’s 2011 military intervention in Libya and media criticisms of France’s 2011 intervention in Cote d’Ivoire exacerbated tensions with the West. Despite this volatility, Russia’s influence in Africa made some significant strides under Medvedev’s leadership. Medvedev’s 2009 four-day trip to Egypt, Namibia, Nigeria, and Angola reaffirmed Russia’s continent-wide aspirations, while development assistance and strengthening alignments with fellow critics of U.S. unilateralism in Libya broadened Moscow’s coalition of partners.
Russia Rebuilds Its Influence in North Africa
Authors: Ramani Samuel 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter lays out how Russia preserved its influence in North Africa after the Arab Spring. Despite concerns that Mohammed Morsi’s June 2012 election triumph would beget Islamic extremism, Russia opted to pragmatically engage with Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood government. Russian commentators initially welcomed General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi’s July 2013 coup but suspicions about his pro-Western orientation lingered. Egypt’s growing tensions with the US over human rights and desire to purchase Russian arms reversed this negative dynamic and contributed to Vladimir Putin’s endorsement of Sisi’s May 2014 election bid. Sisi’s election was followed by Rosatom’s development of the El Dabaa nuclear energy project, ideational bonding on moderate Islam with Chechnya’s leader Ramzan Kadyrov, and closer cooperation on Syria and Libya. Algeria’s endorsement of Russia’s 2015 military intervention in Syria helped assuage energy market competition in Europe. Russia managed to reverse its isolation in Libya after Muammar al-Gaddafi’s overthrow by establishing closer ties with the Tobruk-based House of Representatives and Libya National Army chieftain Khalifa Haftar. Russia’s outreaches to Tunisia and Morocco were less fruitful but Moscow’s diplomatic engagement with Western Sahara’s Polisario Front separatists expanded.
Russia’s Africa Policy in the Age of COVID-19
Authors: Ramani Samuel 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents an in-depth analysis of Russia’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa and efforts to preserve the momentum generated from the 2019 Sochi Summit. Russia’s swift unveiling of Sputnik V gave it a unique opportunity for vaccine diplomacy. Regulatory setbacks, such as South Africa’s resistance to adopting the vaccine, the Russian Direct Investment Fund’s unrealistic distribution targets and price-gouging scandals derailed Russia’s Sputnik V distribution efforts. The election of President Joe Biden sharpened US efforts to contain Russian influence in Africa and the Kremlin’s inability to meaningfully cooperate with China and Turkey undercut its power projection aspirations. Nevertheless, Russia’s diplomatic agility in Africa, which was evidenced by its balancing strategy between Egypt and Ethiopia, remained a significant asset for the Kremlin.
Governing Commodity Flows in the Somali Borderlands
Authors: Kefale Asnake , Rasmussen Jacob 
Published: September 2023

AbstractThe authors of this chapter scrutinize the processes and practices that shape the governance of cross-border trading within Somali East Africa. Focusing on livestock, sugar, charcoal, electronics, and other goods traded across the Somali–Ethiopian and Somali–Kenyan borders, the chapter analyzes the shifting roles of state and state-like authorities in regulating, facilitating, and interrupting the circulation of goods. The chapter highlights how Somali traders and a host of other actors along the Berbera and Kismayo corridors have specialized in maintaining the flow of goods, releasing them when they encounter friction(s), and putting them back into circulation.
Afterword
Authors: Little Peter D. 
Published: September 2023

AbstractThis chapter, written by Peter Little who inspired the Trade Makes States book, critically reflects on the strengths and weaknesses of the book’s arguments, and the wider applicability of these. The chapter addresses three interrelated themes from the book—economy; globalization and global networks; and governance and state building—and identifies important gaps that future researchers must give attention to. These concern the relationship between trade and economic inequality; gender analysis that examines the role of Somali women in urban and import/export trading and other economic sectors; and consideration of the quality and democratic depth of different governance structures, in other words, whether there are autocratic, oligarchic, and other undemocratic tendencies embedded in new governance structures which have evolved in Somali East Africa.
Introduction
Authors: Hansbury Paul 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter uses three incidents to illustrate the nature of the Lukashenka regime and its use of propaganda. These incidents are: the shooting down of a hot air balloon in 1995; the forced landing of a passenger plane to arrest a critic, Raman Pratasevich, in 2021; and the media campaign against an Olympic athlete, also in 2021. It also outlines the key arguments made in the book—that Belarus’s post-2020 political crisis was rooted in a weak political culture and that western policy towards Belarus has been motivated above all by human rights concerns rather than geopolitical considerations, while recognizing that the 2020 crisis—especially through its relationship to the Russia–Ukraine war—has geopolitical consequences.
Lukashenka’s Rise
Authors: Hansbury Paul 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the political landscape in Belarus when it attained independence, the election campaign that brought Alyaksandr Lukashenka to power in 1994, and the ways he consolidated his grip on power in the 1990s. It explains his use of referendums to push through constitutional changes. The chapter’s coverage also includes an assessment of the appeal of the Belarusian Popular Front, the early carriers of a national idea anchored in the territory’s shared history with Lithuania and Poland, and the forced “disappearances” of a small number of Lukashenka’s opponents in 1999. In particular, it explains how Lukashenka strived to prevent the emergence of civic and political institutions that engaged the public and how this stymied the development of a richer political culture in the county.
The Opposition’s Rise?
Authors: Hansbury Paul 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues that, in the years leading up to Belarus’s 2020 presidential election, it became apparent that the population was gradually withdrawing its consent from the autocratic regime of Alyaksandr Lukashenka. In the context of a struggling economy, Belarus’s leader made a number of mistakes, including in his handling of the Covid-19 pandemic. The chapter further argues that the organized political opposition had long struggled with a lack of cohesion and in many respects 2020 was no different; the eventual challenger on the ballot paper, Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya, reflected a zeitgeist more than the product of political acumen. Mass street protests against the patently rigged result persisted despite the fact that most opposition leaders were either detained in prison or had fled the country to avoid arrest. The protests took in all parts of society, from workers’ strikes to pensioners’ protests to officials quitting their jobs, with crowdfunding initiatives and encrypted messaging apps (e.g. the Telegram messaging app) as key instruments of mobilization.
Civil Society
Authors: Hansbury Paul 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses the state of civil society in Belarus and the challenges it has faced in a repressive political environment, an environment in which the state has used mass re-registration requirements as a means of vetting NGOs, civic initiatives, and political parties. This has meant the situation has always been precarious for third sector organizations. In the 2010s the Belarusian state, seemingly in an effort to intensify nation building and strengthen national identity in ways marking differences from Russian identity, experimented with a gentle embrace of some cultural and historical symbols traditionally associated with the opposition and civil society in a process dubbed “soft Belarusisation” (or “soft Belarusianisation”). The chapter also looks at religion in Belarus and the relationship between the state and the Belarusian Orthodox Church. Finally, the chapter summarizes the key factors that led to the political crisis in 2020.
International Relations
Authors: Hansbury Paul 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This short chapter assesses Belarus’s international relations in the years leading up to its 2020 political crisis. It pays particular attention to how the Ukraine crisis, beginning in 2014, affected Belarus’s international relations. The chapter argues that Belarus’s relations with the United States and European Union were better than they had been for a long time when the political crisis broke, whereas relations with Russia had become unusually strained. The chapter also looks at how Belarus has invested energy in relations with China as both an economic and security partner.
The United Nations Cannot Rest on Past Laurels
Authors: Blackett Adelle 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
In their quest for racial justice, African Americans and Pan-Africanist leaders have repeatedly turned to international organizations like the United Nations and the International Labour Organization. This chapter unmasks how these organizations are falling short of their founding documents, which link international peace, security, and social justice. Rather than relying on ad hoc statements and past antiracist efforts, the United Nations should take action to redress anti-Black racism throughout the United Nations system. This chapter recommends that a fitting place to initiate necessary internal work would be to name a Special Representative to the United Nations Secretary-General on People of African Descent, with a mandate to look closely and carefully at the United Nations’ past, present, and future role in addressing anti-Black racism while building proactive measures to ensure critical representation of people of African descent throughout the United Nations and its specialized agencies.
Sacrifice
Authors: Bridges Emma 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the meaning of sacrifice in the context of military families. It examines the notion of the family and the military as ‘greedy institutions’ which place considerable, and often competing, demands on service personnel. After considering some of the ways in which, in contemporary society, being married to a member of the military places particular demands on the spouse of the serving partner, the chapter focuses on the myth of Agamemnon’s sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia as an ancient worked example of the impact of the ‘greedy’ military on Clytemnestra as Agamemnon’s wife. It discusses two Athenian tragic plays of the fifth century bce—Aeschylus’ Agamemnon (from the Oresteia trilogy) and Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis—and examines the ways in which these plays consider Iphigenia’s sacrifice as a motivating factor in Clytemnestra’s later murder of Agamemnon.
Isotopic Fractionation
Authors: Cotrufo M. Francesca , Pressler Yamina 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
“Isotopic Fractionation” explores the processes that control how stable isotopes cycle through components of the environment. The chapter describes the emergence of isotopic discrimination during physical processes and chemical reactions involving open and closed systems. Mass-dependent isotope effects in non-equilibrium processes and in thermodynamic equilibrium are discussed. The fractionation factor (α) and the heavy isotopic discrimination (Δ) and their equations are introduced. Photosynthesis is presented as a comprehensive example for understanding isotopic fractionation during both physical processes, such as diffusion, and chemical reactions in the environment. The chapter examines variation in natural abundance of stable isotopes due to fractionation processes.
Measuring Stable Isotopes
Authors: Cotrufo M. Francesca , Pressler Yamina 
Published: September 2023

Abstract
“Measuring Stable Isotopes” describes principles and methods for quantifying stable isotopes in ecological systems. The chapter examines how mass differences of isotopocules are used for their quantification via isotope ratio mass spectrometry, while differences in their absorbance are used for the quantification via laser absorption spectroscopy. A brief historical overview of the development of both methods is provided. Common preparation methods and instruments required to enable isotope analysis of samples of ecological interest in gas, liquid, or solid states are illustrated. Further, nano secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) approaches are introduced. Foundational concepts and practical guidance for quantifying stable isotopes are given.
Trust and Evidence
Authors: Simpson Thomas W. 
Published: September 2023

AbstractIt has frequently been claimed that what is distinctive about trust is that, in some sense, it goes beyond the evidence for another’s trustworthiness. This chapter argues for the contrary. There is a kind of trust which is proportioned to the evidence that the trustor has for the trustworthiness of the trusted, which I call ‘evidence-constrained’ or ‘evidence-following’ trust, and which is illustrated by a case in which an explorer depends on someone to resupply him when his life is at stake. Not only are there situations where one’s trust may permissibly be constrained by the evidence, there are other situations where it ought to be. The chapter closes by considering some initial incompatibility objections, which argue that following the evidence is incompatible with trust.