bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Theory And Parameterization Of Solar Radiative Transfer
Authors: Liou K N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electromagnetic radiation emitted from the sun’s photosphere, having an equivalent blackbody temperature of about 6000 K, has its peak energy located at about 0.47 μm, according to Wien’s displacement law, which has been discussed at the beginning of Chapter 2. The total solar flux that is available to a planet is commonly represented by the solar constant. The solar constant for the earth has been discussed in Section 1.1. The distribution of solar fluxes averaged over a certain period of time (e.g., one solar day) is referred to as solar insolation. Solar insolation is a function of latitude and the characteristics of the earth’s orbit around the sun (see Section 6.1).
Functions of the Sympathetic Innervation of the Skin
Authors: Janig W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The skin is the interface between the body and the external environment, acting as a medium for the exchange of information and energy between the two, protecting the body against physical and chemical damage, and assisting in the retention of body fluids. The functions of the skin are of utmost importance for the constancy of the internal milieu and for its adaptation during perturbations in the environment. The central nervous system contains the neuronal mechanisms that regulate these functions.
W.E B. Du Bois and American Political Thought
Authors: Reed Adolph L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This groundbreaking study of W.E.B. DuBois simultaneously analyses the political thought of one of the leading black American intellectuals and activists of this century, provides a model for the study of the history of political thought, and by examining recent DuBois scholarship, offers a penetrating interpretation of contemporary black thought. The book departs from existing DuBois scholarship by locating the sources of DuBois’s thinking in the cauldron of reform-oriented American intellectual life at the end of the nineteenth century, and follows through the course of his career the ways that his early commitments persisted in his basic views regarding such pivotal issues as the relation of science and progress, social stratification among black Americans and in general, and rational social organization. While DuBois’s substantive political programmes changed over time, for example in his support for defensive organizing behind the walls of segregation during the 1930s and his rapprochement with the Communist left in his last two decades, Reed argues that those changes do not reflect fundamental shifts in the structure of his thinking but were pragmatic responses to concrete political circumstances. When situated within their own constitutive contexts, these changing responses reveal their compatibility, if not coherence, with DuBois’s basic, essentially Fabian socialist world view as first elaborated in The Philadelphia Negro. W.E.B. DuBois and American Political Thought’s interpretation of DuBois is also an argument about the fundamental connections between Afro-American political debate and broader patterns of political discourse. This argument is linked to a path-breaking critique of dominant tendencies in Afro-American intellectual historiography and their ideological foundations, as well as to a sophisticated argument in support of an alternative, historically generativist approach to the study of the history of political thought.
Hormonal and Social Determinants of Adolescent Sexual Initiation
Authors: Udry J Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The overall purpose of our study is to examine how biological and social factors interact to affect the development of sexuality in adolescence. Our model for adolescent sexual behavior postulates two sources for motivation for sexual behavior in adolescence. The source everyone but social scientists knows about is biological libido, resulting from hormones associated with puberty and adulthood. The second is socially generated motivation, in which social influences specify the rewards of sex and to whom they apply. But in the face of this motivation, there is a set of social controls to prevent adolescents from becoming sexually active. No adults approve of sex for the early adolescent. If the controls are universally effective, there is no sexual behavior. Inevitably some adolescents escape the controls-either because they experienced less effective control behavior on the part of adults, or because some characteristics of their own produced sexual motivation strong enough even to overcome the adult controls they experienced.
Changing Patterns of Psychiatric Disorders During Adolescence
Authors: Rutter Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For many years it was generally thought, following the views of G. Stanley Hall (1904), that adolescence was a time of “storm and stress” characterized by emotional turmoil and psychic disturbance. It is now clear that this stereotypical view of the teenage years is mistaken (Rut­ ter et al., 1976; Rutter, 1980; Graham & Rutter, 1985). Most young people pass through adolescence without developing any form of significant mental disturbance. Nevertheless, adolescence is an age period during which there are striking changes in both the frequency and form of psychiatric disorder. It is not so much that there is any general in­ crease in overall prevalence but, rather, that there are substantial alterations in pattern.
Mayors: Driving Force Versus Guiding Force
Authors: Svara James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The mayor occupies a position of great visibility, and constituents have high expectations about the leadership that the mayor will give to the city. The mayor is viewed as the “problem-solver-in-chief” in city government. Unfortunately, for incumbent and citizen alike, the power available to “his or her honor” to get things done autonomously is either (1) more or less insufficient or (2) nonexistent depending on the form of government. If we define executive leadership to include the initiation of proposals to deal with problems in the community and the implementation of policy through control of the bureaucracy, then such leadership is a challenge for the strong mayor, difficult for the weak mayor, and impossible for the council-manager mayor.
Conclusion: Improving the Quality of Urban Governance and Management
Authors: Svara James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are great differences in the governmental process between city governments of different forms. At the most fundamental level, there are likely to be different patterns of interaction among officials. The mayor-council form of government often experiences conflict, whereas council-manager governments typically are cooperative. Within these patterns, official leaders in city government develop roles and orientations that are shaped by the form of government. These roles in context are not better or worse when judged against each other, but rather they are more or less complete and appropriate in terms of the characteristics of the form and the particular city served.
Shared Thinking and Guided Participation: Conclusions and Speculations
Authors: Rogoff Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In these final pages, I summarize the primary points made in previous chapters and extend them with speculations on topics that flow from the approach of this book. I consider ways in which we conceptualize the individual “residue” of shared thinking—as external ideas imported to an internal plane or as a natural product of participation in joint thinking. I discuss creativity in the process of guided participation, with active individuals seeking their own understanding.
Reflections of a Petroleum Geologist
Authors: Drew Lawrence J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest event in my life that I can connect to my interest in forecasting the occurrence of natural resources was when I filled out an order form for a book that promised to tell how to discover uranium deposits on the Colorado Plateau. Where the order form came from is a mystery now, but I can clearly remember buying a postal money order for $4.16, sending it off to the bookseller, and waiting each day for the mailman to bring my treasure. After what seemed an eternity, the book finally came, and I read it as best as my junior high school education would allow. I had an immediate interest in how geiger counters and geochemical surveys were used to discover uranium deposits and little interest in how to operate a uranium mine for profit after its discovery.
Discovery Rate Forecasting, Part 2: The Gulf of Mexico Offshore
Authors: Drew Lawrence J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the completion of the Permian basin report in 1978, the work of the Inter agency Oil and Gas Supply Task Force was finished. The working relations between the discovery process modelers and the engineers in the Dallas field office of the EIA were maintained on an informal basis through the completion of the second phase of work, which was forecasting the supply of oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico, as set forth in the original task force agreement. Forecasting the future supply of oil and gas from the Gulf of Mexico offshore region turned out to be more involved than a simple variation on the theme that had been established by forecasting the future rates of discovery in the Permian basin. We took the time to improve our forecasting techniques and the collection and analysis of the wildcat drilling data.
Liquid He
Authors: Isihara A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Soon after his successful liquefaction of a helium gas in 1908 Kammerlingh-Onnes noticed that the liquid was strange because it started expanding as the temperature was reduced below around 2.2 K. Later discoveries of the discontinuity in the thermal expansion coefficient and the A-type specific heat anomaly made it appropriate to distinguish the high-temperature side (He I) from the low-temperature side (He II) of the A-point. In 1938 Kapitza observed that the viscosity measured by the capillary flow method dropped below the A point by many orders of magnitude to an extremely small value. Thus, thirty years after its liquefaction, it became evident that the liquid makes a transition into a new superfluid phase.
Inclusive Fitness, Seed Resources, and Maternal Care
Authors: Haig David , Westoby Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Natural selection should favor that allocation of resources among all the activities of a plant that maximizes the plant’s fitness.43 However, we wish here to consider only the allocation of a given maternal investment MI among alternative expenditures within a single season. The seeds produced by a mother in a single season will be referred to as a “brood.” Maternal investment is not restricted to seed provisioning but includes all costs associated with the production, protection, and dispersal of seeds.
Gender Diphasy (“Sex Choice”)
Authors: Schlessman Mark A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with diphasy, a sexual system in which “ ... individuals belong to a single genetic class but choose their sexual mode in any season according to circumstances.”37 In well-documented cases, the female phase produces ovules and seeds while the male phase does not. The female phase may bear only female (pistil­ late) flowers, only hermaphroditic flowers, a mixture of male (staminate) and female flowers, or both unisexual and hermaphroditic flowers (Table 7.1).
Patterns of Genetic Variation and Breeding Systems in Rare Plant Species
Authors: Karron Jeffrey D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rare plants have long fascinated evolutionary biologists, who developed a wealth of theories concerning the causes and consequences of rarity (Darwin 1859; Fernald 1926; Stebbins 1942, 1980; Cain 1944; Drury 1980). Only recently, however, have the genetics and population biology of these tax .a been documented in detail. Often the most informative studies involve comparisons between closely related rare and common congeners (Mehrhoff 1983; Kruckeberg and Rabinowitz 1985; Karroo 1989). Such species pairs are likely to have similar ecological features and phylogenetic histories. Thus they may approximate “natural history experiments,” with the common species serving as a control.
Strategies for Long-Term Management of Germplasm Collections
Authors: Eberhart S A , Roos E E , Towill L E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Through natural evolutionary processes, thousands of plant species have developed. Only a small percentage of these have been selected and utilized as agronomic, horticultural, ornamental, or forestry crops. Hence, most plant genetic resources exist in natural ecosystems according to the principle of “survival of the fittest,” with no inventory and no managed preservation. As the world’s population continues to expand, the areas required for intensive agriculture and forestry will increase at the expense of habitats for other plant species. Because in situ preservation may not be adequate in the future, ex situ preservation must be expanded.
Off-Site Breeding of Animals and Implications for Plant Conservation Strategies
Authors: Templeton Alan R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are living in an era of mass extinction that is due primarily to large-scale habitat destruction caused by human activity. Accordingly, the best remedy to prevent extinction is habitat preservation. Such a strategy preserves not only species that have been targeted because they are endangered, but also the entire ecological community in which the target species lives. This community will often include additional endangered species of which we are not even aware. There is little controversy that this is the ideal strategy for preserving species, but unfortunately habitat preservation is not an option in many cases. The natural habitats of many species have already been completely destroyed, and those of many others have been so reduced in size and so fragmented that the species are in imminent danger of extinction.
Multiple Determinants of Tobacco Use and Cessation
Authors: Warner Kenneth E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Considering the easy availability of cigarettes, the billions of dollars spent marketing them, the ease with which they are consumed in almost every setting of daily life, and their strongly addictive properties, it is no wonder that over a quarter of the adult population smokes. Considering all of these forces, however, it is remarkable that a campaign of public information and related community efforts to encourage nonsmoking has helped a substantial number of smokers to quit. The 1989 Surgeon General’s Report estimated that 50% of all adults who had ever smoked regularly had quit. Dr.C. Everett Koop suggested in his preface to the 1989 report that “This achievement has few parallels in the history of public health. It was accomplished despite the addictive nature of tobacco and the powerful economic forces promoting its use” (USDHHS 1989, p. iv).
Interpreting Law: The Problem of Constitutional Adjudication
Authors: Perry Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I tum to the problem of adjudication and focus on the sort of adjudication most controversial in American society: constitutional adjudication. Among other things, I elaborate and defend my claim that constitutional adjudication, at its best, is a species of deliberative, transformative politics. And I address a question like the one addressed in chapter 4, where I asked: On what moral beliefs ought a person to rely, in her capacity as policymaker, in reasoning about and ultimately determining public policy? The predicament of the policymaker is also, sometimes, the predicament of the judge. Every judge, like every policymaker, indeed like everyone, is inevitably a member of some moral community, in the sense that everyone shares with some other persons some conception of human good.
The Era of Creativiry
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Four centuries after Gilbert we stand at an awesome time in the history of humankind. Four hundred years of increas ingly persistent questioning of nature has brought us to a re markable threshold. In the words of Stephen Hawking, there are “grounds for cautious optimism that we may now be very near the end of the search for the ultimate laws of nature.”However unlikely or even arrogant this claim may seem to some readers, it may contain more than a germ of truth.
Changing Concepts of Brain Function
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the second century, Galen associated imagination, intellect, and memory with the brain substance in his Commentaries on Hippocrates and Plato (see Chapter 1). In De usu partium, he stated: Galen contended that these functions could be affected independently by injury and disease, but he stopped short of differentially localizing them in different parts of the encephalon.
Holism and the Critics of Cortical Localization
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The idea of cortical localization was very slow to develop, especially before 1861, when Paul Broca presented his famous case of Tan and sided with the localizationists (see Chapter 3). The strong bias against cortical localization up to Broca’s time might seem somewhat surprising given that a theory of localization of higher functions was broadly embraced from the fourth century through the Renaissance. The schema accepted by the Church Fathers and their followers, however, did not involve the cortex or even the brain substance. Rather, it concerned the ventricles, and it most often held that the two lateral ventricles (treated as a single cavity) served as the common receptacle for sensory information; that the middle ventricle mediated fantasy, ideation, and cognition; and that the posterior ventricle was responsible for memory (see Chapter 2).
Vision: From Antiquity through the Renaissance
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Ancient Egyptians suffered from a high incidence of eye problems, and their records contain a plethora of descriptions of eye diseases and statements about how they were treated. Among the diseases encountered in the “land of the blind” were conjunctivitis, “barleycorn” (probably cataract and glaucoma), and leucoma (a white scarring on the cornea). They also suffered from trachoma, an infectious disease caused by a microorganism, which might have left 50 percent of its victims blind.
The Nature of Dreaming
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The earliest written records pertaining to dreaming are those of the Ancient Egyptians. One “dream book” has been ascribed to Pharaoh Merikare, who lived around 2070 B.C. The Chester Beatty Papyrus, dated approximately 1250 B.C., contains the records of some 200 dreams (omina) and their interpretation according to the priests of the god Horus. This papyrus, which is in the British Museum, is known to be based on centuries of tradition. Unfortunately, the records compiled by the priests of another important god, Set, have been lost. Thus, the extent to which the interpretations of the different gods overlap is not known.
Intellect and the Brain
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the relationship between intellectual functions and the brain, with particular emphasis on brain size. Although “intellectual functions” can be defined in many ways, the intent here is to look at functions that relate to the concept of general intelligence, problem solving, and the ability to adapt to the ever-changing challenges of life. For example, the idea that some individuals or races are better equipped than others to master the problems of civilized life because of greater brain development is among the topics considered in this chapter.
The Neuropathology of Memory
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pathological side of memory was occasionally mentioned by the Greeks and Romans, who seemed especially impressed with the vulnerability of memory. They observed that only some aspects of memory were affected after certain injuries. For example, in the first century Pliny the Elder said that he knew of a man who had forgotten only the names of the letters after he received a blow from a stone; another who, after falling from a roof, could not even remember his mother, his neighbors, or his friends; and yet another whose disease left him unable to remember his servants.
Speech and Language
Authors: Finger Stanley 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As noted in Chapter 1, the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written approximately 3,600 years ago, was composed of much older records (Breasted, 1930; Woollam, 1958). It has been suggested that the author of the original papyrus, upon which this document was based, might have been Imhotep, a contemporary of King Zoser (Djoser, twentyeighth to late twenty-seventh century B.C.) and the first physician-like figure to emerge from antiquity.1 Two cases described by the author of this papyrus (Numbers 20, 22) specifically associated head injury with loss of speech.
Liberalism, Fascism, or Social Democracy
Authors: Luebbert Gregory M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This work provides a sweeping historical analysis of the political development of Western Europe in the late nineteenth and twentieth century. The author argues that the evolution of most European nations into liberal democracies, social democracies or fascist regimes was attributable to a discrete set of social and class alliances within individual nations. In Britain, France, and Switzerland, countries with a unified middle class, liberal forces established political hegemony before the First World War. In countries with a strong, cohesive working class and a fractured middle class, Luebbert points out, a liberal solution was impossible. In Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Czechoslovakia, political coalitions of social democrats and `family peasantry’ emerged as a result of the First World War, resulting in social democracies. In Spain, Italy, and Germany, on the other hand, the urban middle class united with a peasantry hostile to socialism to facilitate the rise of fascism.
3D Solar Nebula Models: Implications For Earth Origin
Authors: Boss A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The physical properties of the early solar nebula determined much of the subsequent course of terrestrial planet fonnation. A survey of the parameter space for three-dimensional ( 30) models of early phases of the solar nebula has been completed recently; the implications of these models for Earth formation are presented here. The models show that nebula evolution may have been dominated by angular momentum transport through gravitational torques, even during only mildly nonaxisymmetric phases, implying that the turbulent diffusion and mixing associated with viscous solar nebula models might be obviated. little or no evidence is found for planet fonnation through giant gaseous protoplanet instability; rather, Earth fonnation through planetesimal accumulation and impacts is indicated. Surface densities at 1 A.U. are typically quite adequate for Earth formation in a minimum mass ( -0.05 Mo) nebula The models also imply that the inner solar nebula may have been heated initially to temperatures on the order of 1500 K ( or even higher) through the compressional heating associated with nebula fonnation. Temperatures at 1 A.U. may have been regulated to values around 1500 K by a thermostatic effect produced by the vaporization of iron grains; the thermostatic effect minimizes the thermal gradient in the inner nebula and hence suppresses production ( through subsequent condensation) of a strong compositional gradient in the terrestrial planet region. A hot inner nebula is consistent with the gross depletion of volatiles on the Earth compared to solar abundances.