bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sedan I September 1870
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prussia was the dominant state of Germany in the middle 1800s. It rose to prominence mainly through the quality of its military. Ever since its defeat at the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte at Jena and Auerstadt in 1806, the Prussian military had dedicated itself to becoming the best in the world, both to return to the glory days of Frederick rhe Grear and to ensure that no such embarrassment as that at the hands of the French was ever repeated. They developed the world’s first General Staff, promoting excellence in all phases of military activity. The system proved itself in 1866 when Prussia easily defeated their former ally Austria in a I pute over the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein; that war seemed almost a tune-up for a return match with France. Under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Prussia gathered the lesser German states around itself in a North German Confederation and aimed toward the unification of all Germanic principalities into one nation. A war with France would serve as a focus for that German nationalism.
Marne, First Battle (1914) 5-10 September 1914
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To ask what caused World War I is almost like asking, “Who killed John Kennedy?” The answers are numerous and varied: France’s desire for revenge after its humiliating loss in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871; the alliance system, which created an antagonistic balance of power resulting from France’s desire to gain allies for the inevitable next war with Germany; rampant nationalism, which begat militarism and imperialism; a lack of government leaders after the removal of the chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck, who had been somewhat able to control the erratic and aggressive nature of Kaiser Wilhelm; German desire for a navy that rivaled Britain’s; Germany’s desire to create Mitteleuropa, a central European customs union stretching from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf; the struggles of ethnic groups in the Balkans that involved their respective major-power champions, Austria Hungary and Russia; and Britain’s need for allies in an increasingly hostile world. Any or all of these answers apply.
Brusilov Offensive 4 June-20 September 1916
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When World War I began on 4 August 1914, German military leaders assumed that the extremely slow Russian mobilization process would keep it out of the war for weeks, if not months. Surprisingly, Russia launched its first offensive against East Prussia within 2 weeks. Poor Russian leadership kept the offensive from succeeding completely, but it made enough progress to frighten the German commander in the area, General Max von Prittwitz. He was replaced by General Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich von Ludendorff, who planned an immediate counterattack. The result was a double envelopment at Tannenberg (26-31 August) that cost the Russians 125,000 men killed, wounded, and captured. Two weeks later, the Russians lost a similar number of men at the battle of Masurian Lakes.
Pearl Harbor 7 December 1941
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Starting in 1931, Japan began aggressively expanding its domain. Its first acquisition was Manchuria, the resource-rich northeastern province of China. Although the League of Nations condemned the aggression, no international action was taken. As the United States and most of the industrialized world was suffering from a severe depression, any nations that might otherwise have acted were too busy with their own problems. Japan declared Manchuria to be the independent state of Manchukuo, under Japanese suzerainty.
Midway 4-6 June 1942
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After their attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese were successful in all their endeavors to control as much of the western Pacific area and Southeast Asia as possible. They met little effective resistance as they acquired U.S. islands from Wake to the Philippines. British forces at Singapore also put up little resistance to the Japanese invasion there, and the British were threatened by Japanese forces approaching India via Burma. For 6 months, the Japanese were unstoppable, but they met their first check in early May 1942 at the Coral Sea, northeast of Australia. There an attempt to bypass Australian forces and land on the southern coast of New Guinea was turned back by a U.S. fleet in the first naval battle in history in which ships never engaged, only aircraft against ships. Although tactically a draw, the battle proved a strategic defeat for Japan. It stopped the juggernaut.
Normandy 6June 1944
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the autumn of 1940, when Hitler postponed and ultimately abandoned the invasion of Great Britain, Allied forces had been looking forward to the day when they could take the war to the Germans on the Continent. With the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the Nazi declaration of war on the United States in December 1941, those two powers had been working with Britain on the planned assault on Europe. When Prime Minister Winston Churchill met with President Franklin Roosevelt in August 1941 at the Atlantic Conference, they had decided that, if or when the United States got involved in the war and if or when the Japanese got involved, the primary adversary was to be Hitler. U.S. Army Chief of Staff George Marshall proposed a landing in Europe in 1943, but Churchill wanted to postpone that until stronger forces could be amassed. As an alternative, the Americans landed in Morocco and Algeria in November 1942 and drove eastward toward the British, who began driving the German Afrika Korps backward from Egypt at about the same time. By May 1943, all German and Italian forces in North Africa were captured or forced out. This led to subsequent invasions of Sicily in June and Italy in September.
What Sociobiologists Study
Authors: Alcock John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a male tarantula hawk spends hours every day of its short adult life perching alertly on a paloverde tree, ever ready to dash out to meet intruders and challenge them to an elaborate aerial contest, the obvious question is, Why? What’s the point? As noted earlier, sociobiologists find this kind of question intriguing. They wish to understand why organisms like the tarantula hawk come with special attributes that seem designed to achieve particular social goals. What makes the tarantula hawk male especially interesting is the obvious costliness of its actions, the clear survival disadvantages associated with its particular brand of social behavior. Males spend hours and hours on their territories, and yet they almost never encounter females. By the end of a couple of weeks, the males’ wings are faded and worn from the wear and tear of their repeated flights out and back to their perches. In two more weeks, if they survive even that long, the wasps are barely able to fly. Why do it this way? What reproductive benefits come from territorial possession that might counterbalance the costs to survival that come with (defending) the territory?
What Have Sociobiologists Discovered?
Authors: Alcock John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For some time now, sociobiologists have been trying to figure out how natural selection might have been responsible for the evolutionary spread or maintenance of particular traits. As sociobiologists have examined social behavior from this perspective, they have uncovered no end of worthy puzzles—complex, apparently well-designed attributes of individuals that seem nevertheless to have major reproductive disadvantages. How could such traits spread or remain in species when the genes associated with their development would seem to have been selected against? These Darwinian questions provide challenges for evolutionary researchers, who gain social rewards from their fellow scientists if they can answer the questions convincingly. In this chapter I provide a few examples of the kinds of Darwinian puzzles that have been solved by sociobiologists working on organisms other than humans. In later chapters we will explore some sociobiological conclusions about our own species.
I claimed earlier that George C. Williams deserves primary credit for the revolution in evolutionary biology that led to the emergence of sociobiology as an active, vibrant discipline. His contributions were partly corrective in the sense of removing group-benefit selection theory as the basis for evolutionary hypotheses while restoring Darwinian individual-level selection to its rightful place of preeminence.
Playing in the Moment: Using Improvisation to Be Believable
Authors: Ostwald David F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Improvising is the single most potent technique you can use to improve your believability on stage. It gives you an opportunity to arouse and share your feelings in imaginary situations, to stimulate specific feelings, and to intuitively find the actions that express those feelings. It allows you to practice spontaneously acting and reacting in situations with predetermined circumstances.
“Unruly and Let Loose” Myth, Ideology, and Gender in Song of Solomon
Authors: Awkward Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN several respects, Song of Solomon is perhaps the most challenging text that Toni Morrison has yet produced. The interpretive challenges presented by the novel have as their primary source the nature of the author’s appropriation of the myth around which she structures what has been called a tale of Afro-American “genealogical archaeology” (Fabre 105). As Dorothy Lee asserts in her discussion of the epic qualities of Morrison’s text, the author “draws on specific Afro-American legends of Africans who could fly and who used this marvelous ability to escape from slavery in America; that is, literally to transcend bondage” (64). However, Morrison does not simply “draw on” this myth; rather, what she offers in the narrative of Solomon’s mythic flight is a radically transformed version of this legend which suggests the immense, and in many respects injurious, changes that have occurred over the course of the history of blacks in America. Indeed, a careful analysis of the subtle, appropriative nature of Morrison’s mythic figurations (including what is apparently a traditional heroic male act of archaeology−its protagonist Milkman Dead’s “archetypal search for self and for transcendence,” Lee 64) reveals her complex inscription of ideology or, more accurately, ideologies: the Afrocentric and feminist politics that inform Song of Solomon.
Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon A Blues Song
Authors: Wegs Joyce M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For Thos Enteres Ted in Toni Morrison and her work, a valuable side effect of her recent critical and popular success is the rush of interviewers to query her about her interests, themes, and purpose in writing fiction. One of the most valuable interviews is by Thomas LeClair in the New Republic for March 21, 1981. When LeClair asked Morrison how she conceived of her function as a writer, she replied by describing how her writing belongs to the continuing traditions of black communal life: I write what I have recently begun to call village literature, fiction that is really for the village, for the tribe. Peasant literature for my people, which is necessary and legitimate but which also allows me to get in touch with all sorts of people. I think long and carefully about what my novels ought to do. They should clarify roles that have become obscured; they ought to identify those things in the past that are useful and those things that are not; and they ought to give nourishment.
Dead Teachers Rituals of Manhood and Rituals of Reading in Song of Solomon
Authors: Krumholz Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Iambs Baldwin Argued Thirty Years Ago for the importance of teaching black history in the United States for ie construction of identity both of black and white students. He writes: So where we are now is that a whole country of people believe I’m a “nigger,” and I don't, and the battle’s on! Because if I am not what I’ve been told I am, then it means that you're not what you thought you were either!... What is upsetting this country is a sense of its own identity. If, for example, one managed to change the curriculum in allthe schools so that Negroes learned more about themselves and their real contributions to this culture, you would be liberating not only Negroes, you’d be liberating white people who know nothing about their own history. (8) Baldwin goes on to argue that the sense of identity in the United States is based on myths that have no basis in historical reality. His argument points out the power of pedagogues to control the definitions that shape identity, which today may be described as the perpetuation of hegemonic ideologies of oppression through the educational institutions.
The Reverent Leader
Authors: Woodruff Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pericles is no tyrant in Athens. He is a leader of a people who detest tyranny, who follow him freely because they recognize his wisdom and virtue (2.65). But there is a great irony in the story as the historian tells it: These people who hate tyrants have themselves become tyrants. The Athenians have made them- selves masters of an empire by brute force, and Pericles, who led the Athenians to the flowering of their democracy, has now led it to its precarious position as tyrant of an empire.
Phage and the Early Development of Molecular Biology
Authors: Summers William C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Molecular biology evolved from multiple origins including the antivitalist biology of the early twentieth century which attempted to explain complex biological phenomena in terms of physical and chemical phenomena (16, 21), the Rockefeller Foundation program, led by physicists and mathematicians who believed the ‘‘human sciences’’ were ripe for deeper understanding based on chemistry and physics (29), research by physicists and chemists who saw life as a challenge to their burgeoning understanding of the fundamental structure of matter (2, c22), and work by a few microbiologists and geneticists who sought better understanding of the natures of genes and microbes (23). Although on one hand profoundly reductionistic, molecular biology eventually drew its boundaries to encompass organizational principles of cells and even organisms. These research pathways took two distinct routes starting in the 1930s. One route employed the new macromolecular chemistry of proteins pioneered by Svedberg, Pauling and like-minded chemists, and X-ray diffraction analyses being developed by the mineralogists and physicists such as the Braggs, father and son, and Astbury and colleagues, mainly in Great Britain. Another route was taken by biologists and some curious physicists who approached complex biological problems with a combination of reductionism and holism.
Classification of Bacteriophages
Authors: Ackermann Hans-W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bacteriophages or ‘‘phages’’ were discovered twice in a short time. The British pathologist Frederick William Twort described in1915 the glassy transformation of ‘‘Micrococcus’’ colonies by an unknown agent. Fe¤lix Hubert d’He¤ relle, a French Canadian then working at the Pasteur Institute of Paris, observed the destruction of Shigella bacteria in broth (5). Contrary to Twort, he clearly recognized the viral nature of this phenomenon and devoted the rest of his scientific career to it. He coined the term ‘‘bacteriophage,’’ devised several techniques still in use, and introduced the phage treatment of infectious diseases. For him, there was only one bacteriophage species with many races: the Bacteriophagum intestinale (6).
ϕX174 et al., the Microviridae
Authors: Fane Bentley A , Brentlinger Karie L , Burch April D , Chen Min , Hafenstein Susan , Moore Erica , Novak, Christopher R , Uchiyama Asako 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sometime in the 1920s, a plaque was placed in a test tube labeled #174. It must have had a certain luster. Since then that phage has challenged genetic, biochemical, and biophysical dogmas. From the very beginning, it was unique. It was unusually tiny, readily passing through the smallest of ultrafilters. Sertic and Bulgakov (111) used its size to define a ‘‘race’’: race X (ten). Hence the name became fX174. The first electron micrographs revealed a small, isometric particle without an elaborate, and to some unseemly, tail structure. As the study of molecular biology progressed, the particle refused to behave. Its genome was single-stranded DNA (117), not a double stranded molecule. Although the data used to draw the first genetic maps were accurate, revealing the existence of the overlapping reading frames, the cistrons were arranged in an orderly and linear manner (12). However, when the genome was sequenced (1, 107) the raw data were proved correct. This complex genetic arrangement was so unexpected that many suspected an extraterrestrial origin. As the New York Times reported the theory (127), an advanced race engineered fX174 and disseminated it into the cosmos where it would ‘‘persist until the evolution of intelligent life and finally of investigators interested in the genetics of phage.’’ Attempts were made to find the hidden message in the genome, a holy truth or grail, maybe directions to an inhabited planet; however, none was uncovered. Perhaps the only aspect of fX174 that lends itself to science fiction is its name.
The P2-Like Bacteriophages
Authors: Haggård Ljungquist Elisabeth , Nilsson Anders S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bacteriophage P2 was isolated by G. Bertani, together with two other prophages, from the Lisbonne and Carrère re strain of Escherichia coli (the oldest known lysogen) (8). The three phages were named P1, P2, and P3, based on different plaque morphology, and their partial serological crossreactivity. Phage P1 was later shown by E. Lennox to be a general transducing phage and to belong to a group of phages that differs from P2 in many respects (82) (see chapter 24). Phage P3 has not been studied as extensively as the other two. Since that time, a number of temperate phages that grow on E. coli have been isolated that share some, but not all, characteristics with phage P2. These P2-like phages are similar in traits such as morphology and host range, are serologically unrelated to phage λ and not inducible by UV light. Of these P2-like coliphages P2 and 186 are the best characterized, and they have in addition the capacity to function as helpers for phage/plasmid P4. For a list of other known P2-like E. coli phages, see reviews by Bertani and Bertani (11) and Bertani and Six (12), and for phage/plasmid P4 see chapter 26.
The Satellite Phage P4
Authors: Deho Gianni , Ghisotti Daniela 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
P4, the Satellite Phage, the PlasmidIn the early 1960s Erich Six isolated a temperate bacteriophage, P4, that formed plaques only on Escherichia coli strains lysogenic for P2 or a P2-related phage (90, 91). Before long, it was established that P4 depended on the P2 helper phage for all morphopoietic and lysis ‘‘late’’ functions, and that the head and tail proteins of P4 virions were encoded by P2 (51, 92). Interestingly, the smaller P4 genome, encapsidated into a smaller head (figure 26-1), did not bear any substantial similarity to P2 DNA and was independent of the helper for DNA replication and host lysogenization (68, 91, 92). The functional and structural unrelatedness of the two replicons clearly indicated that P4 was not a defective P2 but an independent entity and the prototype of ‘‘satellite viruses,’’ genetic elements that exploit unrelated viruses for viral propagation.
Yersinia Phages
Authors: Hertwig Stefan , Mikael Skurnik , Appel Bernd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The genus Yersinia contains 11 species, of which Yersinia enterocolitica,Yersinia pestis, and Yersinia pseudotubercu-losis are pathogenic for humans and animals (5). While Y. pestis is the causative agent of plague, Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis are mainly enteropathogenic. In comparison with the other pathogenic Yersinia species, Y. enterocolitica is very heterogeneous, comprising pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains which belong to about 70 serogroups. In order to differentiateYersinia strains, a number of phages were isolated and used for typing. Several phage typing sets have been worked out for Y. enterocolitica (4, 30, 38). The sets contain temperate phages isolated from Yersinia strains (37, 39) or phages isolated from sewage (2, 8), whose origin is unknown. Three yersiniophages have been sequenced: phages fA1122, fYeO3-12, and PY54. This chapter is primarily an overview of the properties of those three phages.
The Listeria Bacteriophages
Authors: Loessner Martin J , Calendar Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bacterial viruses specific for the genus Listeria were discovered almost 60 years ago (57), and were early reported for their usefulness in phage typing (61) of isolates of the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes (65). In the following years, phage typing of Listeria isolates has proven to be a very useful method, and led to the isolation of more than 400 phages for L. monocytogenes, L. ivanovii, and the nonpathogenic species L. innocua, L. seeligeri, and L. welshimeri (5, 9, 16, 19, 22, 25, 26, 31^33, 48^51, 53, 55, 63). To date, no phages infecting organisms of the species L. grayi have been found. This chapter briefly summarizes our present knowledge on Listeria phages, and gives an overview on their general and particular properties, with respect to both the basic science and the various practical applications. Ultrastructure, Composition, and Taxonomy of Listeria Phages
Mycobacteriophages
Authors: Hatfull Graham F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mycobacteriophages are viruses of the Mycobacteria. The interest in these phages derives in large part from the medical significance and biological idiosyncrasies of their hosts. Mycobacteria are acid-fast staining bacteria with characteristic waxy cell walls that can be readily divided into two groups based on their growth rate: slowgrowers such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis that have a doubling time of 24 hours and fast-growers such as Mycobacterium smegmatis with 3^4 hour doubling times (for reviews see 8, 32) Several mycobacterial species are important human and animal pathogens, with the most notorious being M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae, the causative agents of tuberculosis and leprosy, respectively (8). The extent of these diseases is alarming-M. tuberculosis is the leading cause of human mortality from a single infectious disease and the increased prevalence of multiple drug-resistant M. tuberculosis strains greatly complicates its treatment. A study of the mycobacteriophages offers potential for the development of novel methodologies for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of these diseases as well as revealing interesting biological features of their unusual bacterial hosts (30, 32, 33).