bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Basic notions: luminescence
Authors: Aitken M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The prime motivation that led to the initial trial of optical dating (Huntley et al. 1985) was to achieve a better method of dating sediment than was possible with thermoluminescence; subsequently it has also been found advantageous in dating pottery and for radiation dosimetry, as well as for detecting the artificial irradiation of foodstuffs. Whereas in thermoluminescence the dating signal of emitted luminescence is obtained by heating the sample, for optical dating the signal is obtained by shining a beam of light onto it; in both cases the signal, which is luminescence emitted by constituent mineral grains, is measured by means of a highly sensitive device, usually a photomultiplier. In the context of sediment dating, the primary focus of this book, the date refers to the last deposition of the sediment at which the constituent grains were exposed to daylight (Fig. 1.1);
Basic notions: radioactivity and irradiation
Authors: Aitken M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not the intention to give a comprehensive discussion of radioactivity and irradiation, the reader being referred elsewhere (e.g. Aitken 1985; Berger 1988). However, a brief outline is appropriate, particularly since some characteristics of the radiation flux have a bearing on luminescence measurement procedures. It should be noted at the outset that in luminescence dating the radioactivity providing the natural dose-rate is long-lived compared with the sample age span. This is in contrast to radiometric dating proper, such as by radiocarbon, where the half-life must be comparable with the sample age span and the basis of dating is that the radioactive content of the sample changes with time.
Nerve growth factor and cholinergic neurons of the mammalian brain
Authors: Hefti F , Hartikka J , Knusel B , Laplume, M O , Mash D C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the past few years, it has become evident that endogenous molecules called neurotrophic factors play important roles in development, maintenance of structure and function, and plasticity of neurons in the mammalian nervous system. The number of well-characterized trophic factors is still very small and most of the general concepts are derived from the function of nerve growth factor (NGF) which serves as paradigmatic example. NGF is a protein of known structure and amino acid sequence. The gene coding for NGF has been cloned, sequenced, and its location in the human genome has been determined. The biochemistry and molecular biology of NGF have been subject of recent reviews (Thoenen and Edgar 1985; Thoenen et al. 1987; Yankner and Shooter 1982). In the peripheral nervous system, NGF affects growth and differentiation of sympathetic and sensory neurons. NGF is synthesized by target tissues of these cells and acts on specific receptors on their terminals.
Responses of primate nucleus basalis neurons to water rewards and related stimuli
Authors: Richardson R T , Delong M R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Numerous electrophysiological studies have helped to further our understanding of the basal forebrain cholinergic system (BFCS). Some of the basic physiological and pharmacological properties of basal forebrain neurons have been examined in anaesthetized rats (Aston-Jones et al. 1984; Lamour et al. 1986; Reiner et al. 1987) and in a slice preparation (Griffith 1988). Other studies have provided useful information regarding the role of the BFCS in conditioning (Rigdon and Pirch 1986) and cortical desynchronization (Detari and Vanderwolf 1987; Szymusiak and McGinty 1986). The focus of this chapter is on studies of neuronal activity in the nucleus basalis of Meynert in awake behaving monkeys. These studies have also provided insights to the possible functions of the BFCS, particularly its role in reinforcement and arousal mechanisms.
Spatio-temporal patterns of activity on the motor map of cat superior colliculus
Authors: Guitton D , Munoz D P , PÉlisson D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reticular circuits responsible for generating saccadic eye movements are thought to be commanded directly by only two supra-reticular structures acting in parallel: the superior colliculus (SC) and the frontal eye field (FEF). The prime evidence supporting this hypothesis is that simultaneous bilateral destruction of the SC and FEF severely impairs monkeys’ ability to generate saccades (Schiller et al. 1980). Each structure appears to dominate the control of saccades generated in a specific behavioural context.
Self-motion and ocular motor disorders affect motion perception
Authors: Brandt T , Dieterich M , Probst T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is evidence that the perception of object motion is impaired by the perception of concurrent self-motion, by eye movements, or by ocular motor disorders (Dieterich and Brandt 1987; Brandt and Dieterich 1988; Sekuler et al. 1990). Under natural, environmental conditions one moves freely, with the two-fold perceptual task of controlling self-motion and perceiving object motion simultaneously. Experimental studies of motion perception, however, have a laboratory tradition in which thresholds for the detection of object motion are determined with the head stationary.
Selection within populations
Authors: Nicholas F W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since animals were first domesticated, humans have been attempting to alter animal populations by means of artificial selection. The vast array of different breeds and strains of domestic animals in existence today is testimony to the effectiveness of such selection. Despite the many changes that have already occurred as a result of artificial selection, there are still many improvements needed, especially in terms of the economic efficiency of production of milk, eggs, wool, meat, and other animal products. And there is also a continual demand for faster horses, better showjumpers and more intelligent guidedogs. In most situations, the traits to be improved are quantitative traits.
Extinction of finite metapopulations in correlated environments
Authors: Gilpin M E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Richard Levins (1970) introduced the notion of a metapopulation, a population of populations. The populations of such a metapopulation are located on discrete patches of the environment. Local extinctions on these patches are possible so not all suitable habitat patches need to be occupied. But from the system’s other occupied patches colonization of empty patches can occur. Therefore, the metapopulation is an interactive, dynamic entity with a continual turnover of local populations. Levins, as many after him, was primarily interested in the question of group selection (see Gilpin 1975 for a discussion), which involves the behaviour of gene frequencies over a metapopulation. The typical model of group selection investigates the fate of an ‘altruistic’ gene that loses out within its local group, but which confers on its home group a lower extinction rate, thereby, under certain parameter configurations, allowing it to prevail throughout the metapopulation.
Alternative models
Authors: Hastings Harold M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We briefly describe several alternative models for dynamics and time series and compare them with fractal models: cellular automaton models (see Wolfram 1984, 1985, 1986), linear models, including stochastic linear models; low-dimensional nonlinear prediction (Sugihara and May 1990b) based on low-dimensional chaos (see Grassberger and Procaccia 1983). Cellular automaton models are used in Section 8.2 (on earthquake models) and Chapter 10 (on vegetative ecosystems). Chapter 11, on models for single-species population dynamics, compares the use of fractal models, low-dimensional nonlinear prediction, and linear models for predicting local species extinction.
Social heterogeneity and sexually transmitted diseases
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A central theme in this chapter is that most sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) cannot be understood without acknowledging the marked heterogeneity in degrees of sexual activity within the overall population. We first consider the endemic maintenance of STDs, with particular attention to gonorrhoea. The second (and larger) part of the chapter focuses on the epidemic dynamics of STDs, using AIDS as an example.
Endemic infections in developing countries
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic model discussed in Chapters 4, 5, and 6 contains the assumptions that the infection is not itself a cause of mortality and that the human population has zero growth, with net births exactly balancing net deaths such that the population is of constant size. Essentially all conventional mathematical models for endemic or epidemic infections of humans contain this assumption (Waltman 1974; Bailey 1975; Hoppensteadt 1975; Anderson and May 1982zz). Given that the epidemiological time-scales (such as the average age at infection) are typically much shorter than the time-scales characterizing demographic change (such as population doubling time), the assumption of an unchanging host population is often a useful approximation.
Biology of host-macroparasite associations
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many important diseases of humans, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, arise from infection by macroparasites or metazoan (multicellular) organisms. The major parasites belong to the helminth and arthropod groups, and include flukes (the trematodes), tapeworms (the cestodes), nematodes, lice, fleas, and ticks. These organisms tend to have much longer generation times than microparasites; they often possess complex life cycles involving two or more obligatory host species, and direct multiplication within the definitive or final host (i.e. humans) is either absent or occurs at a low rate. Sexual reproduction often occurs in the human host, but this process entails the production of transmission stages, such as eggs or larvae, which leave the host to complete further development and maturation. Direct asexual reproduction may occur in intermediate hosts such as in the life cycle of the digenetic flukes (e.g. the schistosome parasites).
Heterogeneity within the human community
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The importance of heterogeneity within the host community, with respect to the way in which individual people either are exposed to infection or respond to parasite invasion, has been alluded to in the three previous chapters. The overt manifestation of its relevance is aggregation in the frequency distribution of parasite numbers per person (see Fig. 15.17 and Table 15.5). We have already seen how a clumped distribution enhances the net impact of density-dependent constraints on parasite population growth, influences the likelihood that female worms find mates within hosts, affects the design of control programmes based on chemotherapeutic treatment to reduce morbidity and transmission, and determines the observed relationship between the two main epidemiological statistics, prevalence and average intensity of infection.
Experimental epidemiology
Authors: Anderson Roy M , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the previous three chapters that much uncertainty surrounds the epidemiological interpretations of changes in average worm loads with respect to human age. The importance of acquired immunity, or other density-dependent constraints on parasite establishment, survival, or fecundity, in shaping observed patterns is not at all clear at present. To a very large extent this gap in our knowledge arises from the simple fact that, for obvious ethical reasons, it is rarely possible to obtain quantitative measures of the population processes influencing the abundance of an endoparasite within a human patient. Rapid advances in research on human immune responses to infectious agents raised the hope in the 1970s that new techniques would facilitate quantitative measurement of parasite abundance and effective immunity within human communities. In the case of macroparasities this hope has not as yet been realized, although recent advances in immunology and molecular biology may yet provide the epidemiologist with the practical tools required for the rapid quantification of parasite abundance and distribution under field conditions.
Ticks and disease: susceptible hosts, reservoir hosts, and vectors
Authors: éAeschlimann Andr 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ticks (both Ixodidae —hard ticks, and Argasidae —soft ticks) play an important role as vectors of diseases. They transmit pathogenic agents to wild or domestic animals and to humans (e.g. viruses, rickettsiae, borreliae, tularemia, piroplasmida, filariae). Since Smith and Kilbourn’s historical discovery in 1893 that an arthropod can transmit a pathogen (transmission of Babesia bigemina by Boophilus annulatus), the list of micro-organisms transmitted by ticks has become so long that inexperienced people may wonder if it is not exhaustive. However, the 800 tick species described world-wide (Fig. 8.1; Hoogstraal and Aeschlimann 1982) have not revealed all their secrets in this field. Surprises are always possible.
Metabolic deficiencies in parasites and their relation to host metabolism
Authors: Wang C C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Endoparasites are organisms incapable of growing, differentiating, or even surviving in a natural environment such as soil or water. They must live in nutritionally enriched surroundings such as the intestinal lumens, the bloodstreams, or the cytoplasms of other organisms. This unusual requirement for luxurious living conditions is clearly related to deficient metabolic activities in parasites, which necessitate a reliance on supplies of a variety of exogenous nutrients from the hosts. Unfortunately, consistent failures in the past to cultivating parasites free of their hosts have created the myth of a certain mysterious dependence of the parasites on their hosts. This myth has been broken only during the last two decades, when numerous parasites began to be cultivated successfully in vitro. This in vitro growth of many parasites free of contamination has been intensive and focused biochemical investigations on these parasites possible (Wang 1984). The feasibility of cloning single protozoan parasites has enabled the isolation of a genetically homogeneous population of a parasite species. The capability among some of the parasites to grow in a defined medium has further facilitated metabolic studies. The biochemical investigations performed in the past few years have accumulated a wealth of knowledge, enough for us to elucidate some interesting metabolic deficiencies among parasites and their relations to host metabolism.
Genetic engineering: progress, promises, and precepts
Authors: Heap Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Professor Brian Heap, CBE, FRS, was Director of the Biotechnology and Biological Science Research Council’s (BBSRC, formerly AFRC) Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics Research at Babraham, Cambridge and Edinburgh and AFRC Director of Science. After graduating and then taking his Ph.D. at the University of Nottingham, Professor Heap moved to the University of Cambridge, where he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Science for his research in 1980. In 1963 he had begun his association with his present Institute, near Cambridge, which was to last over 30 years. After several years at Babraham asa research fellow, Professor Heap became head of the Institute’s Physiology Department in 1976 and subsequently Director. Currently, he is senior visiting fellow in the School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, and Special Professor in the University of Nottingham. Professor Heap has published numerous papers on reproductive biology and endocrinology and has advised the WHO and the government of the People’s Republic of China in these fields. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1989 and appointed CBE in 1994.
Women: the neglected factor sustainable development
Authors: Senanayake Pramilla 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dr Senanayake has worked for the International Planned Parenthood Federation since 1975. Having served as Medical Director for ten years, in May 1987 she took up the post of Assistant Secretary Genera/for Technical Services, and has overall responsibility for the programme development, medical, AIDS prevention and evaluation functions of the IPPF.
Human adaptability research among African agriculturalists
Authors: Huss-Ashmore Rebecca 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the 1950s, much research has been carried out in Africa on questions relating to human adaptability, and a great deal of this work has targeted populations who depend on agriculture, wholly or in part, for their living. Despite this, there is, strictly speaking, no such thing as the human adaptability of African agriculture. While there has been significant attention paid over the last 30 years to the biology, ecology, and adaptability of African foragers and pastoralists, there is no comparable body of co-ordinated research on African agriculturalists. There is, to be sure, a substantial body of knowledge on African agriculture, most of it derived from cultural geography and anthropology (e.g. de Schlippe 1956; Thomas and Whittington 1969; Ruthenburg 1971; Hill 1972 or from agricultural development (e.g. Upton 1973; Low 1986). For the most part, this literature has little or no interest in adaptation. Conversely, little of the work on adaptation has been concerned directly with agriculture. There is in addition a substantial literature on measures of biological function in African populations, things such as growth, nutrition, morbidity, and mortality, written from an interventionist rather than an adaptationist point of view (Akhtar 1987; Hill and Hill 1988; UNICEF 1988 Feachem el al. 1992). While some of these public health studies have explicitly considered the impact of agriculture on health (Kennedy and Cogill 1987; Kennedy 1989; von Braun et al. 1991), human adaptability researchers have made little use of such data.
Human adaptability studies in Papua New Guinea: original aims, successes, and failures
Authors: Norgan N G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a country of rich variability and striking contrasts, so much so that for this and other reasons it has been called ‘The Small Cosmos’ (Attenborough and Alpers 1992). It lies in the ‘Tropics’ between 2 and 10°S and forms the half of the island of New Guinea, east of 141°E. In its coastal and lowland areas it has much in common with such regions in other parts of Melanesia and the Pacific, but the Highlands of PNG are unique. There are several other ecozones and further contrasts occur in subsistence patterns, degree and duration of contact with outside influences, and in rural-urban differences.
Coming of age of human adaptability studies in Samoa
Authors: Bindon Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Studies of populations subjected to specific environmental stressors such as hypoxia, hypothermia, or seasonal hypocaloric intake are fundamentally different from studies of populations undergoing the stress of culture change. While the field-work is no easier in the former cases than in the latter, at least there arc clear-cut models from ecology, physiology, and nutrition predicting how these stressors operate on human populations. How ever, in Samoa, where the principal stressor of interest is culture change the predictive models available are problematic in many respects. This chapter begins with a discussion of the adaptation paradigm used in many of the studies done in Samoa, then considers issues of social forces as stressors. Next a review is provided of some of the progress made in 20 years of studies of Samoan response to cultural change, and finally some assessments of this research are offered and some cautions and hopes for the future tendered.
The future of human adaptability research
Authors: Huss-Ashmore Rebecca , Thomas R Brooke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All scholarship is a product of the time and place in which it was conceived and carried out. The recognition that science is culturally and historically situated has been one of the major contributions of philosophers of science during the late twentieth century, with writers from Kuhn (1970) to Quine (1969) to Haraway (1988) challenging our epistemic biases. Despite this, articles treating the social and temporal context of research are relatively rare in science. One of the goals of this volume has been to place human adaptability research within a time and place, in order to understand why particular questions were asked and particular projects undertaken in specific ways and specific places. We contend that the future cannot be charted without an understanding of the past; we must know where we arc and how we got here in order to see where to go next.
Worlds apart
Authors: Diamond Jared 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is often little love lost between the exponents of the so-called hard sciences—physics, chemistry, molecular biology and the like—and their colleagues in what they think of as the softer disciplines, such as ecology. The experimental camp considers the field sciences to be little more than stamp collecting, while the massed ranks of botanists and bird-watchers are equally uneasy about limitations of the reductionist approach. The two philosophies rarely occupy the same building, let alone the same department. So, to find an individual who subscribes to both is remarkable.
A very tidy desk
Authors: Pilbeam David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the age of big science; high-tech science. Of particle physicists using vast machines to mimic the very act of Creation; of molecular biologists unravelling the secrets of DNA, from the mutations which cause inherited disease to the relentless clock of random genetic change which has been ticking away, independent of environmental pressures, since life began. Where, I wanted to ask David Pilbeam, did the study of human evolution fit into a picture like this? The popular image of palaeoanthropology is still one of charismatic, driven figures, combing the Earth’s wild places for fossils, the few mute fragments of teeth and bone which are all that remain of our remote past; of tentative and even rather romantic accounts of humanity struggling painfully to be born.
Of mice and mothers
Authors: McLaren Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are remarkably few outstanding women scientists. Anne McLaren is one of a small group which forms the exception. She went up to Oxford just after the war to study zoology, and became interested in the complex interface between genetics and reproduction. In the early fifties she and her then colleague, Donald Michie, were among the first to use the technique of embryo transfer in animal experiments, and were associated with the early research leading to in vitro fertilization. More recently she has been working on sex determination in mice, and in a series of very elegant experiments, carried out in collaboration with Elizabeth Simpson, showed that the favoured view that maleness resided on a particular part of the Y chromosome was wrong. Her work for the Agricultural Research Council, and as Director of the Mammalian Development Unit of the Medical Research Council has played a major role in making Britain pre-eminent in the area of mammalian developmental biology.
Interference
Authors: Sutherland William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interference is the decline in resource use resulting from the behaviour of other individuals. This does not include depletion, in which the resource is removed. Entomologists have long known that parasitoids at high densities are less efficient at finding hosts (Hassell 1978) but there has been much less work studying the role of interference in vertebrates. In this chapter I will consider the process of interference and its consequences in determining the distribution of individuals.