bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Takeyh Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“The late imam was the greatest political and military analyst and a great politician. Imam Khomeini was the best possible pattern for all people in all ages and eras,” declared President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad in 2008. It is rare for a revolutionary leader to exercise such influence over the imagination of his successors two decades after his pass-ing. However, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was no ordinary leader, as his vision and words continue to resonate with generations of Iranian politi-cians. All of this raises the following questions:
Khomeini’s Ideology and Iran’s Grand Strategy
Authors: Takeyh Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On june 6, 1989, the founder of the islamic republic, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, passed away. The announcement of his death was greeted with mass demonstrations and a remarkable display of grief and passion throughout the country. However, nearly two decades after his death, Khomeini remains one of the central figures in Iran’s political narrative. By creating a web of institutions and nurturing a dedicated corps of disciples, the enterprising cleric has managed to implant his vision in Iran’s social fabric.
Relations with the “Great Satan”
Authors: Takeyh Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the inception of the islamic republic, no decade has left a greater mark on U.S.-Iranian relations than the 1980s. During this period, Iran held fifty-two American diplomats hostage for 444 days, engaged in a proxy war with the United States in Lebanon, and even indulged in skirmishes with the U.S. Navy in the Persian Gulf. However, the decade was not a story of unrelenting animosity, as the two powers managed to come together in a peculiar exchange of arms for hostages, culmi-nating in the Iran-Contra scandal.
Iran-Iraq War
Authors: Takeyh Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The iran-iraq war remains one of the longest conflicts in the history of the modern Middle East. The war would define Iran’s foreign policy orientation, as the exigencies of the conflict conditioned its approach to the United States, the Arab world, and even Israel. Iran fought the war with remarkable disadvantages in view of the fact that it lacked reliable allies, a dependable supply of arms, and the goodwill of the superpowers. The regime’s ability to sustain an eight-year conflict reflects its resilience and ability to mobilize the society and consolidate its power under duress.
Reconciliation Diplomacy and Its Limits
Authors: Takeyh Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As rafsanjani assumed the presidency, he sensed that the imperatives of economic reconstruction would have to guide his pri-orities abroad. Iran would have to be part of the global economy, mend fences with its neighbors, and come to terms with its erstwhile foes. Given the contentious nature of relations with the United States, he hoped that reconciliation with the European community and the Gulf states and the forging of constructive ties with Russia and China would be sufficient to meet Iran’s requirements.
September 11 and the Politics of Fear, Hope, and Necessity
Authors: Takeyh Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The terrorist attack on the american homeland on September 11, 2001, was a defining moment in recent U.S. history. For decades, successive administrations had relied on unrepresentative regional governments to provide stability. The United States had exempted itself from paying too close attention to the Arab order with its decaying institu-tions, religious extremism, and a political culture that often condoned vio-lence against the “infidels.” George W. Bush, who had hoped his presidency would focus on domestic problems and great power rivalries, now had to confront a Middle East with all of its pathologies and resentments.
Bee Bombs and Wasp Warheads
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first era of entomological warfare saw insects drafted into battle to directly afflict the enemy. More sophisticated tactics of transmitting diseases and destroying crops would have to wait for breakthroughs in human knowledge. However, we shouldn’t disparage the cleverness of ancient peoples. After all, they laid the foundations for modern weaponry—and insects were the first organisms used to wage biological warfare. The military historian John T. Ambrose contends that insects have long “served as models for man to emulate in . . . the art of warfare.” The social insects (those living in complex groups: ants, bees, wasps, and termites) were praised by early military strategists, as these creatures were thought to be unwaveringly loyal to their kin, extremely courageous, and exquisitely lethal. Early evidence of insects being held in military esteem is seen in Egyptian hieroglyphics dating to the first dynasty, more than 5,000 years ago. Some scholars contend that King Menes—the “Scorpion King” (so named for his family totem)—chose a hornet (subfamily Vespinae) as a symbol of his rule, reminding both countrymen and enemies of the pain that he could inflict.
The Victories of the Vectors
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Insects have carried disease onto the battlefield for more than two thousand years. For example, during the Peloponnesian War in 429 bce, fleainfested rats on Greek warships brought plague from Ethiopia and hastened the collapse of the Athenian state.1 The beneficiaries of this and other such fortuitously timed epidemics were apt to interpret outbreaks as divine interventions. The ancient Hittites and Babylonians were particularly explicit in this regard, paying homage to Irra, the archer-god who could fire arrows of disease into the enemy. The Greeks had even deeper insights, believing that Apollo decimated enemies by using invisible plague-arrows and sending infestations of rodents.2 So while the rodent-disease association had been made, fleas remained as invisible arrows. In 396 bce, the citizens of Pachynus, Sicily, implored Apollo to loose his biological weapons on the approaching Carthaginians. Their prayers were answered when a pestilence—most likely bubonic plague—irrupted on the invaders’ ships and the fleet turned back before reaching Sicily.3
A Most Uncivil War
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An entomologist started the U.S. Civil War.1 At 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, at the harbor entrance to Charleston, South Carolina, a cannon shot rang out from Fort Sumter. The man who pulled the lanyard was Edmond Ruffin, the editor of the Farmers’ Register and a naturalist who had devoted himself to the study and control of grain moths. The bombardment continued for 34 hours, and the next day the United States officially declared war on the Confederacy. It is oddly apropos that an entomologist fired the first shot in a war during which insects would kill far more soldiers than would canons, firearms, and bayonets. The Civil War showcased forms of entomological warfare that military commanders had been refining for centuries. The bloodiest of American conflicts not only marked a culmination of insect prowess on the battlefield but also provided an ominous glimpse of what was to come in the next century. To understand the place of this conflict in the drama of entomological warfare, we must first appreciate the insect actors and their supporting cast of pathogens.
All’s Lousy on the Eastern Front
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During World War I, the European continent provided history’s largest experiment in entomological warfare tactics. For the first time, scientific understanding of insect-borne diseases allowed these agents to be exploited as “passive weapons,” demonstrating that the best offense could be a good defense. Rather than forcing the enemy into infested habitats, science provided the means for military leaders to protect their own forces from the ravages of disease-carrying insects that were part and parcel of war. The advantage of metal armor had been known for centuries, but biological armor now transformed the battlefield. The grand experiment, however unintentional, allowed military historians to compare the course of war when an army was vulnerable versus when it was protected from the ravages of lice. From 1914 through 1918, the Eastern Front was a worst-case scenario for typhus, while the Western Front was relatively vermin free—an utterly unique experience in the annals of entomological warfare.
A Monstrous Metamorphosis
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1894, bubonic plague irrupted in Canton, China, and spread to Hong Kong. From this port city, the lethal trio of fleas, rats, and bacteria stowed away on ships heading around the world. As the ensuing pandemic began claiming 12 million lives, two scientists raced to discover the microbe responsible for the Black Death. The winner beat his rival by a matter of days, and the victor’s name is now known to every student of microbiology. Alexander Yersin, an eccentric French doctor, shares his name with the plague bacterium, Yersinia pestis. And the loser? Kitasato Shibasaburo is no more than a footnote in the chronicles of science. This Japanese microbiologist was, however, a vital link in a chain of events that led to the most diabolical program of entomological warfare ever devised.
Cuban Missiles vs. American Arthropods
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On October 22, 1962, President John F. Kennedy addressed the nation with this chilling announcement: Good evening my fellow citizens. This Government, as promised, has maintained the closest surveillance of the Soviet Military buildup on the island of Cuba. Within the past week, unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is now in preparation on that imprisoned island. The purpose of these bases can be none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western Hemisphere. So began a game of brinkmanship the likes of which the world had not seen before. Tensions escalated when Kennedy ordered a naval blockade and the Russian Premier, Nikita S. Khrushchev, responded by authorizing his field commanders in Cuba to launch the nuclear missiles if U.S. forces attacked the island.
“Vigilant and Ready”?
Authors: Lockwood Jeffrey A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In today’s world, entomological terrorism is not perceived as a clear and present danger. However, historical and recent events strongly suggest that western nations would be well advised to take seriously the possibility that insects could be used to attack people and agriculture. In this context, the United States has developed several lines of defense, but whether these are adequate is not at all clear. The first—and arguably least effective—tactic is the law.1 As early as the seventh century bce, the rules of war prohibited destruction of forests, orchards, herds, and even beehives. The dishonorable nature of starving a populace became reified in the 20th century by the Geneva Protocol. In broader terms, the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC) forbids using living organisms, presumably including insects (although not explicitly named), as weapons. But there are serious problems with such accords.
Justice, Community, and Membership
Authors: Sandel Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Contemporary critics of Kant and Rawls challenge their political theory on two grounds. First, they argue that the liberalism of Kant and Rawls rests on a notion of persons as freely choosing, individual selves that does not leave room for loyalties and obligations antecedent to choice. Because these critics emphasize the moral claims that may arise from our membership in particular communities and traditions, they are sometimes called communitarians. They also challenge the idea, shared by Kant and Rawls, that principles of justice can be defined and defended without affirming a particular conception of the good. Arguments about justice and rights, say the critics, cannot be neutral with respect to competing conceptions of the good life.
The Effect of Conquest on Private Property and Contract Rights
Authors: Gathii James Thuo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The confiscation of private property during wartime is prohibited under customary international law. This chapter examines how well this rule has held up. To do so, I will discuss a 1905 House of Lords decision that explicitly found the rule against extinction was preempted by the prerogatives of the Crown. I will also discuss how Native American ownership of land in early American history was treated as mere possession upon conquest and in the various peace treaties between the United States and Spain, whereas similar possession of land by white colonial settlers was held to constitute unimpeachable private property interests.
War, Investment, and International Law
Authors: Gathii James Thuo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent scholarship has celebrated the peaceful consequences of regimes of the international economic order. The advent of the Bretton Woods institutions and the United Nations were in fact, institutional responses to the World War II that embodied a set of goals and principles as alternatives to resolving conflict by war. It is not therefore surprising that the pragmatism and functionalism of the post-World War II period also regarded these institutions as a victory over the dark forces and passions that led to the outbreak of World War II.
Rules and institutions of international trade and investment also provide alternatives to the role of territorial conquests as ways of facilitating access to resources in formerly colonized countries needed by multinational firms. In addition, as shown in this chapter, rules of international investment law and arbitral forums were seen as alternatives to the forcible collection of debts. In short, although territorial conquest in the nineteenth century facilitated the extraction of mineral and other resources from poor countries, in the twenty-first century international legal regimes ensure their continued nonviolent access.
Commercializing War Private Military and Security Companies, Mercenaries and International Law
Authors: Gathii James Thuo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century, the commercialization of war has greatly expanded and accelerated. In fact, as shown in the discussion of resource wars in Chapter 6, war is as much a business as is the secretive trade in high-end resources, such as diamonds. In addition, although the work of mercenaries and mercenary-like groups is not new, the commercialization of war is increasingly becoming privatized within corporations with global operations managed by former military professionals offering a whole range of services. The following chapter discusses this commercialization of war, and the limits and potential for holding its wielders accountable for violations international law.
Although transnational commerce has been increasingly militarized, States have lost their monopoly over the use of legitimate force, particularly in poor countries where violence and war have increasingly become commercialized. Thus, investors and States buy the services of paramilitary and other groups like they would buy other inputs to enable them to do what they do.
International Classification of Headache Disorders and Classification and Diagnosis of Migraine
Authors: Levin Morris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In designing a comprehensive and useful headache classification, the largest obstacle is the lack of reliable diagnostic markers for even such thoroughly studied illnesses as migraine. Thus, any diagnostic system must rely on subjective data, which leads to the essentially descriptive approach of all headache classifications to date, including the most recent and best system, the International Classification of Headache Disorders, 2nd edition (ICHD-II). This is a limitation of the classification system, but it has become clear that to further our under- standing of the headache disorders, we need to divide them into types using some system of classification. To improve upon this system of defining the various headache types, it is important to subject the ICHD-II itself to systematic study. In other words, to learn more about headaches, they must first be separated into more or less discrete categories, then examined with the best tools available; next rearranged into more accurate categories based on evidence accumulated in this way; and then re-examined, in a reiterative process.
Classification and Diagnosis of Secondary Headaches: Substances, Metabolic Disorders, EENT Causes, and Neuralgias
Authors: Newman Lawrence C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the ICHD-II, substance-related headaches are divided into four subtopics: headache induced by use of or exposure to acute substances, medication over- use headache, headache as an adverse event attributed to chronic medication, and headache attributed to substance withdrawal.
The definitive diagnosis of headache attributed to a substance can be made only after the headache resolves or greatly improves after 3 months has passed after termination of the exposure; if the headache does not resolve or signifi- cantly improve after 3 months the diagnosis “chronic post-substance exposure headache” (included in the ICHD-II appendix) is considered.
Procedures for Headache
Authors: Ward Thomas N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Various “procedures” can be employed to help alleviate headache. This section will focus on neurosurgical options and anesthetic blockade. These options vary from relatively noninvasive (e.g., neural blockade) to destructive and/or invasive to a significant degree. They rarely cure headache; medical manage- ment is usually still necessary. All carry some degree of risk, and therefore the age and general medical condition of the patient must be kept in mind.
The Burlesque Stage
Authors: Frankel Noralee 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Gypsy’s autobiography, the band at the Gaiety Theater in Toledo played “Little Gypsy Sweetheart.” Slowly and sensuously removing black-headed dressmaker’s straight pins from her lavender dress, Gypsy dropped the pins into the tuba in the orchestra pit below. They pinged as they hit the brass bell. Just as the music halted, she removed her shoulder straps and her filmy net dress fell on the floor. “Wrapping the curtain around me I disappeared into the wings,” explained Gypsy, describing her first striptease.
For another act, she dressed as a bird. She started at the top of the stairs and slowly descended. The applause grew. Gypsy flapped her wings and exposed parts of her lovely body. “It was the least I could do, I thought, to show my appreciation,” she explained. From the beginning, she acted like a star. “As the curtain began to close in I stepped forward and took the folds and brought them slowly together, smiling out at the audience until the two sides met.” Playfulness with the curtain remained a part of her act throughout her career. Gypsy was probably nineteen.
The Most Famous Former Stripper in the World
Authors: Frankel Noralee 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As she moved into her forties, Gypsy began to perform her classic routine “Psychology of a Strip-Tease Dancer” behind a screen so her audience saw her in silhouette and was forced to use its imagination. She constructed a shadow box out of aluminum beams and scrim with discreet pink satin on the sides that prevented unwanted peeking. But as always, Gypsy worked hard mugging and coaxing laughter. By the finale, perspiration covered her entire body. Amazingly, she still performed at least ten to twelve weeks a year.
With great fatigue, she explained to her son that she felt “too old to be taking my clothes off in front of strangers.” Longing to end her stripping career, she conceded wearily, “There’s nothing left for me to show.”Although Gypsy still thrilled the crowds, the cultural milieu had changed by the 1950s. Gypsy’s satirical routines became more difficult for audiences to appreciate. In the postwar political climate, people took what Gypsy referred to as “nudity and the sanctity of American womanhood” seriously. Popular culture constructed the roles of women quite rigidly. Equally important, Gypsy’s routines were parodies of burlesque. Audiences too young to remember the original acts did not comprehend the cleverness of Gypsy’s satire. In 1951 at age forty, she told an interviewer, “Don’t ask me what’s new in burlesque—I’m what’s old in burlesque.” But Gypsy kept the act current.
The Scope of BIT Protections
Authors: Vandevelde Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The bilateral investment treaties (BITs) contain a number of provisions that prescribe the scope of the protections they accord. First, Article I defines several terms that determine the scope of treaty protection. Because the BITs generally require a party to provide certain protections to investment of nationals and companies of one party in the territory of the other party, terms that establish the scope of treaty protection include “investment,” “national,” “company,” and “territory.” Beginning with the 2004 model, the terms “national” and “company” sometimes are referred to collectively as “investors.” Section 4.1 below discusses the definition of the terms “investment” and “covered investment.” Section 4.2 discusses the definition of the term “national” while section 4.3 discusses the definition of the terms “company” and “company of a Party.” Section 4.4 discusses the definition of the term “territory,” which, as will be seen, was left undefined in most BITs. Sections 4.5 and 4.6 discuss certain other terms that are defined in some of the BITs. The State Department has explained that, “[a]s a general matter, [the definitions] are designed to be broad and inclusive in nature.”
National Security and The Legal Process
Authors: O’Neill Philip D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Today, as in the savage past, conflict often blurs the principle of distinction between civilians and combatants. We in the U.S. again live in an age of insecurity where seemingly anyone may come under attack—anywhere, any time, with almost any amount of damage imaginable. Although the existential threat of Cold War nuclear confrontation between Super Powers is now largely dissipated, our national sense of vulnerability grew in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. In the second half of the 20th century, deterrence had protected some populations by effectively holding them hostage; our assured destruction helped to prevent it. But security as a “shared destiny” now yields to the principle of self-defense. Through such self-defense, “proportionate response” permits civilian “collateral damage” when militarily necessary in lawful attacks on targets.
Partnership
Authors: Ribstein Larry E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the basic uncorporate form—the partnership. The chapter has three objectives. First, it describes how the modern general partnership (as it took shape in the United States and the United Kingdom in the nineteenth century) provides a coherent contractual framework for the governance problems discussed in Chapter 2. General partnership law provides rules designed for a particular type of relationship among multiple owners who, as the statutes say, are “carrying on a business for profit.” This distinguishes partnerships both from sole proprietorships and from nonbusiness and nonprofit relationships such as the tenancy in common. More importantly for present purposes, general partnership provides for a specific type of business co-ownership that differs from centrally managed firms—that is, a relationship among active owners.