bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Globalization, Technological Change and the Spatial Organization of Economic Activity
Authors: Dunning John H. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractPresents a further analysis of globalization in relation to technological change. The author takes issue with the all‐too‐persistent notions that only locationally immobile assets and arm's‐length transactions determine the international division of labour and competitive advantages of firms and nations, preferring to stress the important roles of created assets (including how they are created and deployed) and of multinational enterprises in the international economy. The historical roots of inadequate explanations are traced before addressing more recent developments in the theory of spatial specialization of economic activity. The role of firms in coordinating activities and in governing transactions is explored in some depth, and the place of government in this scheme of things is introduced. None of the main modalities of organizing economic activity (markets, hierarchies, inter‐firm alliances and governments) is argued to escape the profound effects of globalization, and from largely having been regarded as alternatives, it is suggested that it is now more realistic to view these modalities as having complementary roles in the organization of resources and capabilities.
Regional Clusters and Firm Strategy
Authors: Enright Michael J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The focus of this chapter is clearly defined regional clusters of firms, and how the characteristics of these help to shape the strategy of individual firms. An extensive review leads to the conclusion that this link has largely been ignored in the mainstream literature on the subjects of clusters and of firm strategy. The author observes that critical resources and capabilities are more often found to be spatially determined rather than simply existing within any single firm, and that moreover, activities are shared across firms, and this leads to interdependence among firms in a given cluster. Apart from strategic interdependence, the tendencies for rapid information flows and a unique mix of competition and cooperation existing within clusters have important implications for firm strategy and the study thereof. The author demonstrates how events in clusters highlight significant issues such as the scope of the firm, levels of cooperation and competition, and external sources of firm advantage.
The Geographic Foundations of Industrial Performance
Authors: Scott Allen J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Takes a broader and more conceptual approach to the effect of the local environment on firm performance than that taken by Fujita and Ishii in the previous chapter. The firm is treated as a player in regional production systems in line with the avowed objective of explaining the collective performance of these regional systems, and dovetailing the argument of the previous chapter, Scott finds that geographical space has become more, not less, important in terms of its economic effects in today's global economy. However, he raises a more fundamental point in that the observed patterns of locational differentiation and specialization, and of inter‐regional trade have in effect become more finely grained. Spatial characteristics are argued to underpin much of industrial performance, as illustrated by the localized clusters of economic activity (regional development) that have appeared historically and continue to do so; these are identified as being transactions intensive, feeding off increasing returns and agglomeration economies. Scott goes on to develop the notion of path dependency of regional clusters over time, and the dangers that may hold, before proposing a generic policy agenda that boosts the critical system of formal and informal collective order found in clusters.
International Diffusion of Knowledge: Isolating Mechanisms and the Role of the MNE
Authors: Sölvell Örjan , Zander Ivo 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The overriding issue in this chapter is one of the international diffusion of knowledge (information) or, rather, the isolating mechanisms that may retard such diffusion. In view of earlier contributions to this volume, Sölvell and Zander provocatively argue that multinational enterprises are not particularly well equipped to transfer knowledge between local innovation systems. The observed difficulty of transferring tacit knowledge and process technology and the localized nature of knowledge creation are used to establish the importance of local systems. The authors also believe that there are isolating mechanisms operating at the national level, and in addition to identifying problems with knowledge transfer within the multinational enterprise, it is pointed out that such a firm is likely to neglect its own subsidiaries in its endeavour to become an insider in the local (regional) innovation cluster. Rather closely echoing Scott's view in the previous chapter, but from a slightly different vantage point, Sölvell and Zander suggest that the international competitive advantage of firms is in fact more intimately linked with dynamism within discrete local systems than is commonly recognized.
The Geographies of Strategic Competence: Borrowing from Social and Educational Psychology to Sketch an Activity and Knowledge‐Based Theory of the Firm
Authors: Spender J.‐C. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractSketches a consistent knowledge‐based theory of the firm where geography matters so that organizational knowledge must then also have a spatial dimension. The author differentiates four types of knowledge (objectified, conscious, automatic, and collective) by employing the dichotomies of explicit/implicit, and individual/social knowledge. The argument that rents arising from knowledge differences, rather than those arising from efficiency differences, are at the heart of competitive advantage allows the association of each type of knowledge with a particular type of rent. All firms are described as containing all four types of knowledge that have been differentiated, although the principal reason for the existence of firms is said to be the rents that accrue from activity‐based learning. This neatly identifies implicit and social knowledge (i.e. collective knowledge), as the key type for firms; it follows that this type of knowledge can best be created in dense, cluster‐like environments with ample opportunity for direct interaction, and successful, new industrial districts (regional clusters) are offered as good illustrations of this argument; other types of knowledge have other geographical implications for firms.
The Role of Geography in the Process of Innovation and the Sustainable Competitive Advantage of Firms
Authors: Porter Michael E. , Sölvell Örjan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis final chapter presents the authors’ view of how to link geography, innovation, and firm competitive advantage. Porter and Sölvell span many of the themes raised in the foregoing chapters, and highlight several of the more contentious issues as seen from their vantage point. The stress is on the geographical dimension and its importance for technological development in a broad sense, and, by implication, for sustainable firm competitive advantage. The dense, localized (regional) clusters reappear, as does the geographical embeddedness of firm activities and knowledge. Among other things, the authors look at the interesting things that go on outside the legal boundaries of the firm in this environment, and in particular, explore extra‐firm innovative activities and their determinants.
Globalization and National Government Policies: An Economist's View
Authors: Lipsey Richard G. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The view of globalization taken in this chapter is that it is but a subset of the immense number of structural adjustments that the world is undergoing as a result of the evolution of a related group of new technologies usually referred to as information and communications technologies (ICT). Since the ICT revolution is causing many structural adjustments, including globalization, and since the rethinking of the role of governments is to a great extent driven by all of these structural changes, it is often hard to know what is due to globalization and what is due to other aspects of the adjustments wrought by the ICT revolution. So, the scope of this chapter is the nature of the ICT revolution, the deep structural adjustments that it is inducing, including globalization, and the rethinking of the place of the government in the economy—one major driving force of which is globalization. Sect. 2 of the chapter looks at technological and structural change in general and ends with globalization in particular, and Sect. 3 deals with what economists have traditionally regarded as the functions of the nation state. Sect. 4 develops the chapter's main theme,i.e., how technological change and globalization are altering views about the place of government in the economy and, in the process, leading to a new clash of ideologies.
The Architecture of Globalization: State Sovereignty in a Networked Global Economy
Authors: Kobrin Stephen J. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Stephen Kobrin looks directly at the impact of globalization on the sovereignty of nation states. He, like Richard Lipsey in Ch. 3, sees globalization as the structural fusion of economic activity across national boundaries, and argues that it is qualitatively different from previous forms of internationalization that linked discrete economic activities by a series of arm's‐length market transactions. He views technological advances as providing both the rationale and the impetus for this integration; views MNEs (multinational enterprises), cross‐border alliances and the networking of firms as the vehicles by which it is achieved; and views governments as the creators or facilitators of the institutional framework in which production and exchange can be effectively organized. Kobrin believes that the sovereignty of nation states is being compromised—if not undermined—by globalization, and particularly by the emergence of electronic networks. He believes that this is leading to an asymmetry between political and economic space, and between the structural power of firms and national governments, both of which may be difficult to resolve without the establishment of some sort of supra‐national order.
The United Kingdom
Authors: Hood Neil , Young Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This case study on the impact of globalization on the UK views the question of the evolution of macro‐organizational policies from the perspective of its approach to FDI (foreign direct investment) policy, and covers related issues with that in mind; this is because FDI is a particularly relevant driver of globalization and an arena within which government and business interaction can be readily studied in the UK. The chapter is in five main sections, starting with a review of the background to inward and outward FDI and reviewing its contribution. The second section provides an overview of the radical directional policy changes that were implemented in the UK between the late 1970s and the early 1990s in order to enhance competitiveness; this includes a more detailed and critical review of five ingredients of the policy: macroeconomic management; FDI; technology and R&D; employment, training and the labour market; and regional economic development. The third section briefly reviews three sectoral cases, which amply illustrate some of the policy challenges that have emerged for UK governments over this period as a consequence of the growing globalization of economic activity: these are the electronics industry in Scotland, the automotive industry and the financial services sector represented by the City of London. The fourth section explores the degree to which EU (European Union) policies have aided or retarded FDI and competitiveness in the UK, while the final section sets out some conclusions and propositions regarding UK competitiveness and the policies that have been adopted to enhance it.
The United States of America
Authors: Ham Rose Marie , Mowery David C. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In this case study, Rose Marie Ham and David Mowery suggest that the response of the US federal government to globalization has been extremely piecemeal and directed more to the creation of firm‐specific mobile competitive assets than to the upgrading of country‐specific, location‐bound assets (which, inter alia, influence the ability of a country properly to exploit the benefits of the mobile assets). Ham and Mowery illustrate their argument with reference to US policies towards technology, intellectual property rights, and human‐resource development. They suggest that, in response to the increasing internationalization of intangible assets, and the growing competition between governments for these assets, the US government has evolved what it perceives to be a ‘best of both worlds’ strategy, which, while supporting the creation and upgrading of the former assets (notably technology), tries to restrict their cross‐border mobility. Ham and Mowery believe the outcome may in fact be a ‘worst of both worlds’, contending that attention would be better directed towards the development of a more effective and feasible strategy of strengthening the quality of relative immobile assets and supporting the adoption and absorption of technology based assets.
Germany
Authors: Welge Martin K. , Holtbrügge Dirk 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This case study analyses the possible impact of globalization on the state governance of FDI (foreign direct investment) and NEC (non‐equity forms of cooperation) in Germany in six sections. The first is an introduction, and the second looks at the German economy after unification, and gives an overview of the major influential factors on this issue—the economic situation and the international competitiveness of the German economy. The third section estimates the role of outward and inward FDI with special reference to the new Länder (Neue Bundesländer), and attitudes and policies of the German government towards FDI are discussed in the next section. The features of globalization are then outlined and challenges for federal state governance of FDI are deduced; because of the important role of trade unions in Germany, their position is also briefly discussed. The chapter ends with a short summary and outlook.
Sweden
Authors: Blomström Magnus , Kokko Ari 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The purpose of this case study is to describe the traditional Swedish model of industrial policy and FDI (foreign direct investment) policy, to discuss why the trade unions were so positive towards Swedish investment abroad, and to speculate about the reasons for the changes that have occurred, or are under way. In doing this, some of the channels through which governments and institutions influence the globalization of private firms are also illustrated. After an introduction, the second section of the chapter discusses the role of inward and outward investment for the Swedish economy. The third section looks at Swedish industrial policy, and its role in the globalization of Swedish industry. The fourth section focuses on the Swedish labour movement's (trade unions’) attitudes towards FDI, and the fifth concludes the chapter by discussing why the Swedish model of FDI policy began to fade away in the late 1980s.
Japan
Authors: Ozawa Terutomo 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This case study takes a dynamic view of the interface between the Japanese government and the global market. Terutomo Ozawa emphasizes Japan's particular political ideology that national governance should help to harness and steer market forces in a way that promotes national economic goals and the comparative dynamic advantage of indigenous resources and capabilities. At the same time, as the Japanese industrial structure has moved from being national‐asset based to knowledge based, the government's macro‐organizational role—and particularly that of the Ministry of Industry and Trade (MITI)—has changed from being that of a ‘national industrial architect’ to a ‘trade‐conflict negotiator’, and ‘a vision‐builder’. Ozawa also observes that the outcome of the managed market has not always been as intended, In fact, it has created two differently structured sectors: the first is an outward‐focused super‐efficient sector, which drives Japan's Schumpeterian‐type exports and foreign investments; the second is an inner‐dependent sheltered and over‐regulated sector, which has been trapped in a vicious circle of declining competition. While the pragmatic and adaptive style of Japanese governance has done much to foster the former sectors, it has also done little to discourage large uncompetitive sectors of industry, which can survive only by investing abroad in low‐cost environments.
Latin America
Authors: Frischtak Claudio R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The object of this case study is to discuss the response of Latin American governments to the forces of globalization and increasing competition. The first main section, Sect. 2, discusses the role of governments in industrializing and developing country contexts, and the next and largest, namely, Sect.3 attempts to assess the recent Latin American experience, arguing that the road to reform—in the sense of changes in the regulatory environment, trade regimes, and asset‐ownership structures—has advanced to the point of irreversibility. Latin economies have become relatively open and increasingly competitive, and to a large extent, the wedge of reform has been driven by the globalization process; there is now a much more hospitable environment to international business in most Latin American countries, particularly to MNEs (multinational enterprises) able to link countries effectively to trade, technology, and investment networks. However, the road to macroeconomic stability has been far more difficult, and there remain persistent problems of fiscal largesse, accommodating monetary policy, low savings (public and private) and excessive domestic absorption; combined, these have led to renewed balance‐of‐payment crises in several Latin American countries since short‐term capital, which would be helpful to make the transition to macro‐stability less painful, and which has been made abundant with globalization, has proved to be a poor basis to offset persistent current‐account deficits. Financial systems have also become fragile in some countries because of excessive and non‐sustainable public‐sector borrowing and a lack of confidence of private agents.
Implications for National Governments
Authors: Stopford John M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In this chapter, John Stopford points to both similarities and differences in the reactions of national governments to globalization. On the one hand, there has been a largely universal movement towards the deregulation and liberalization of markets for all kinds of assets, goods and services, which, itself, has aided the cross‐border mobility of some firm‐specific assets—notably of technology and organizational capabilities—and most countries have also introduced a series of macroeconomic reforms more attuned to the needs of the international market place. On the other hand, the actions of governments to reconfigure their macro‐organizational policies better to harness and upgrade the resources and capabilities within their jurisdiction have been much more piecemeal and disparate: some have confined their attention to ensuring that the main vehicles of globalization (trade and foreign direct investment) helped to promote, rather than inhibit, their national economic goals; others have concentrated on improving the competitive advantages of their firms; but relatively few appear to have given much attention to how best nations might create or restructure institutions or improve the quality of general‐purpose inputs. Stopford also takes up some of the issues raised in the introductory chapter and explored in more detail in the country case studies: he shows particular interest in the alternative policies of governments to reconfigure dynamic comparative advantage, and in the different reactions to globalization of leading and catch‐up nations; he elaborates on a number of paradoxes of contemporary global markets, and also gives some attention to the consequences of globalization for the organization of firms and states, and the extent to which cross‐border alliances between these entities is likely to promote a more heterarchical organizational structure of each. More generally, Stopford believes that globalization is leading to a range of conflicting trends, acting simultaneously at global, regional, national, and sub‐national levels.
Should There Be Multilateral Rules on Foreign Direct Investment?
Authors: Graham Edward M. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The surge of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the late 1980s and first half of the 1990s and the associated expansion of the activities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) has left the world a somewhat different place than it was as recently as 15 years ago; what has changed is that the ‘globalization’ of business, a term that had become a well‐worn cliché by the early 1990s, has come to look more and more like a description of reality. All of this has resulted in much debate over whether the rules and institutions of the world's multilateral trading system should be augmented to cover more explicitly FDI and the international activities of MNEs. While there is no complete consensus on what the substance of new rules should be, there is a general feeling among specialists that at least three issues should be addressed: first, the extent to which national governments should be allowed to engage in discriminatory treatment towards foreign‐controlled enterprises (including initial entry of these via FDI) needs clarification and, if possible, the establishment of international standards; second is the question of whether there should be limits on the abilities of national governments to create and apply measures to foreign investors that have the potential to distort world allocation of resources; and third, it is widely felt that a more effective international mechanism to resolve disputes between foreign direct investors and governments would be useful. After an introduction that discusses these matters, the next section of the chapter examines the history of efforts to create some sort of international regime regarding FDI and MNEs; the approach of this section is largely historical, but an effort is made to detail some of the specific issues that are raised; the different subsections discuss the WTO (World Trade Organization) and GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), the UN (United Nations), the World Bank and the IMF (International Monetary Fund), regional approaches to FDI (the EU (European Union), NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) and APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation)). The last section of this chapter examines the issue of where we might be going from here.
2 Traditional Class Voting in Twenty Postwar Societies
Authors: Nieuwbeerta Paul , De Graaf Nan Dirk 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis is a major piece of work that forms the baseline with which to compare the more detailed case studies. It sets the terms of the debate in that it indicates that there has been a decline in levels of class voting in certain countries but not in others. It also addresses certain social structural explanations of these variations, which focus on cross‐national variations in the changing composition of classes. The elaboration of national variations in the extent of continuity in class politics is then pursued in more depth in the detailed case studies that follow.