bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Hereditary Prostate Cancer: The Search for Major Genes and the Role of Genes Involved in Androgen Action
Authors: Chang Bao-Li , Turner Aubrey R , Isaacs William B , xu Jianfeng 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed noncutaneous cancer in men in Western countries. Both genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in the etiology of this disease. A genetic component of prostate cancer has been suggested by both twin and segregation studies.1–6 About 9% of all prostate cancer cases have been proposed to be due to mutations in prostate cancer susceptibility genes, and the overall effect of heritable factors has been estimated to be higher for prostate cancer than for other common cancers. So far, linkage studies of prostate cancer families have provided evidence for several major prostate cancer susceptibility loci.7–12 In addition to major gene effects, common polymorphisms that result in minor quantitative and qualitative functional differences in gene products most likely modify the risk of prostate cancer. As a hormone-related cancer, genes involved in the androgen-metabolism pathway are particularly compelling candidates for prostate cancer risk factors and have been the focus of many case-control studies. However, few studies have investigated the role of androgen-pathway genes in the etiology of hereditary prostate cancer (HPC), in which genetic factors may play more important roles compared to sporadic cases. This chapter reviews the search for HPC genes and recent efforts to understand the interrelationship of HPC and the androgen-action pathway.
Hormonal Therapies for Prostate Cancer
Authors: Quinn David I , Raghavan Derek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prostate cancer is the commonest malignancy among men in developed countries and the second commonest cause of cancer death. As populations age, prostate cancer becomes an even greater demographic problem. Hormonal therapy has been the mainstay of therapy for prostate cancer for the past century. New applications of such treatment to earlier stages of the disease may be altering its natural history. Normal prostate development and growth as well as the development of prostatic neoplasia are dependent on the action of the testicular androgens testosterone (T) and dihydrotestos terone (DHT). Testosterone, secreted by the testicular Leydig cells, is taken up by a variety of tissues, including normal prostate and prostate cancer. The type II 5a-reductase enzyme acts within the prostate to metabolize T into the more potent androgen DHT. Dihydrotestosterone and T form complexes with the androgen receptor (AR), which then interact with DNA via coactivator recruitment and RNA polymerase II to induce protein synthesis and cell replication. The major mechanism for regulation of serum and tissue androgen concentrations is control of testicular Leydig cell T secretion via the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis. The testes produce T in response to the serum luteinizing hormone (LH) concentration. This hormone is secreted from the anterior pituitary based on pulsatile and phasic production of LH-releasing hormone (LHRH) by the hypothalamus. In turn, and to complete the loop, LHRH secretion is suppressed by feedback at the hypothalamic level directly either by sex steroid hormones or by hormones released by their end-organ effect, such as inhibin and activin.
Ovarian Cancer: Epidemiology and Molecular Endocrinology
Authors: Whittemore Alice S , McGuire Valerie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the sixth most common cancer and the sixth most common cause of cancer death among women worldwide, accounting for 4.4% of incident cases and 5.5% of cancer deaths. In 1999, an estimated 166,000 new cases of ovarian cancer and 101,000 deaths from this disease occurred throughout the world. Incidence and mortality rates are highest in North America and western Europe and lowest in developing countries and Japan. The overall 5-year survival probability is less than 40%, largely because most cancers are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Thus, ovarian cancer is a major health problem, and there is a need to improve our understanding of the etiology of this disease. In this chapter, we focus on epithelial ovarian cancers, which comprise about 90% of all ovarian cancers. The cell of origin of epithelial ovarian cancers is thought to lie either in the surface epithelium covering the ovaries, in the epithelium lining ovarian inclusion cysts, or possibly in residual mullerian tissue in or near the ovaries. Our objectives are to review the current evidence on the roles of steroid hormones and gonadotropins in the etiology of epithelial ovarian cancers and to discuss some of the obstacles to improving our understanding of these roles.
Inner Hygiene in the Nineteenth Century: Causes and Cures of Constipation
Authors: Whorton James C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On November 14, 1635, the most storied character in the long history of hygiene died in London. Thomas Parr—“Old Parr, the old, old, very old man”—lived for 152 years in the Shropshire hamlet of his nativity, and lived in robust health. As recently as his 130th year he had been engaged “lustily in every kind of agricultural labour,” and apparently had still been lustfully engaged as well: at age 105, it was recorded, he had been ordered to do penance for fathering a bastard, and 17 years later had taken a new had he ceased to embrace her frequently.”
The Never-Ending Quest for Regularity: Constipation in the Late Twentieth Century
Authors: Whorton James C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In July 1972, a middle-aged bank executive arrived at the Mayo Clinic, in Roehester, Minnesota, seeking treatment for persistent diarrhea. For nearly 2 years, he had experienced a dozen or more loose watery stools a day, aggravated by abdominal cramps and frequent vomiting, and he had lost 100 pounds in weight. Mayo gastroenterologists performed a comprehensive physical examination, extensive laboratory tests, X-ray studies, an intestine biopsy, and finally exploratory surgery: “No intra-abdominal disease was found.” Several courses of treatment were then experimented with—antibiotics, prednisone, gluten-free diet—but all were “without benefit.” Consultation with several other clinic gastroenterologists led to suspicion of a pancreatic tumor, but when further exploratory surgery was proposed, the patient chose to return home. His problems continued, and in October he submitted to surgery at another hospital. No tumor was found.
West Slavic
Authors: Franks Steven , King Tracy Holloway 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the major clitic phenomena of the West Slavic (WSl) literary languages, which fall into three discrete groups. Here we survey the clitic systems of near neighbors Czech (Cz) and Slovak (Slk), the (east) Lekhitic language Polish (Pol) and, to complete the picture, the isolated pair of Upper Sorbian (USor) and Lower Sorbian (LSor). As in SSl, there is considerable diversity among these WSl systems, from the fairly strict second-position placement displayed by clitics in Cz, Slk and the Sorbians, to the striking freedom of Pol clitics. In discussing these languages, we provide somewhat more detailed description for Cz and Pol than the other WSl languages. The reasons for this are because in relevant respects Slk is highly similar to Cz, for which we have much more accessible information and hence take as a point of departure, and because for the Sorbians there is not much literature available (and virtually none written in any generative paradigm) on syntax in general, let alone on the Clitic systems.
The Nominal Domain
Authors: Franks Steven , King Tracy Holloway 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we review the data about clitics associated with and situated inside the nominal domain. These are clitics dependent in some way on nouns. Pronominal clitics can function as possessive pronouns or, as most clearly seen in Pol, as arguments of the noun, and clitics can serve as reflexive markers on deverbal nouns. These are surveyed in section 9.1. The postpositive articles and demonstratives that occur in Mac and Bg are also sometimes regarded as clitics, although in section 9.2 we argue that these are inflectional affixes. Section 11.3.3 reconsiders the nominal domain data.
Although full pronouns are acceptable as arguments of nouns wherever NPs might appear, as in (la), clitic pronouns cannot function in this way, as shown by (lb-c). The same is true of most other Sl languages, such as Cz, Slk, and Sln. Why clitics should be impossible in NPs is quite mysterious, as we would expect them to occur with the same distribution as other pronominal elements.
Apparent Last-Resort Effects
Authors: Franks Steven , King Tracy Holloway 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses three purported cases of last-resort effects. These occur when the clitic finds itself syntactically in a position where its prosodic requirements are not met (e.g., in initial position). The main theoretical issue is whether these structures are saved by syntactic means, such as movement of a lexical item to a position where it will support the clitic, are saved by prosodic means, such as Prosodic Inversion, or simply crashes. In addition, there is disagreement over which constructions in fact represent last-resort situations.
Setting the Public Agenda
Authors: Beckett Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Crime and drug use are not naturally or inherently “social control” issues but are constructed as such by social actors; the institutionalization of the get tough approach reflects the ascendance of this interpretation of their causes and solutions. Recognizing the importance of the symbolic dimensions of the crime issue does not imply that crime is not a “real” problem; particularly for the poor and nonwhite, the threat of criminal victimization and the harm associated with drug abuse are all too real. At the same time, the extent to which members of the public express concern about these social problems and, more importantly, become more supportive of punitive anticrime policies is clearly linked to the pervasiveness of imagery and rhetoric that depict these problems as the consequence of excessive lenience. What came to be known as “the crime issue” emerged on the national political scene during the 1964 presidential campaign and continued to play an important role in national politics through 1972. The reported rate of crime also increased throughout the 1960s; for many, this trend provided more than ample support for the democracy-at­ work thesis. By contrast, the war on drugs of the 1980s was waged at a time when the reported incidence of drug use was declining. This chapter investigates this puzzle and summarizes two main bodies of evidence that cast doubt on the conventional interpretation of these events.
Creating the Crime Issue
Authors: Beckett Katherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While it is clear that attitudes about crime and punishment are linked to public discourse on those topics, the question remains: how and why were crime-related issues constructed as problems of in­ sufficient punishment and control? Drawing on an analysis of political rhetoric on crime, this chapter traces the emergence and application of this ideological framework and suggests that the discourse of law and order was initially mobilized by southern officials in their effort to discredit the civil rights movement. As the decade progressed, opponents of the welfare state also used this rhetoric to attack President Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society programs and the structural explanations of poverty with which they were associated. Discussions of crime were a particularly effective vehicle for promoting the view that poverty and crime are freely chosen by dangerous and undeserving individuals “looking for the easy way out.” Somewhat contradictorily, conservatives also identified the “culture of welfare” as an important cause of “social pathologies”-especially crime, delinquency, and drug addiction.
Responsive Regulation
Authors: Braithwaite John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Basic Idea of Responsive Regulation is that Governments Should Be Re- sponsive to the conduct of those they seek to regulate in deciding whether a more or less interventionist response is needed (Ayres and Braithwaite 1992). In particular, law enforcers should be responsive to how effectively citizens or corporations are regulating themselves before deciding whether to escalate intervention. Responsive regulation is not only something governments can do; private actors in civil society can also regulate responsively, indeed, even regulate governments responsively (Gunningham and Grabosky 1998). Regulatory formalism is the important contrast to responsive regulation. The formalist says to define in advance which problems require which response and write rules to mandate those responses. The formalist might say, for example, that armed robbery is a very serious evil. Therefore it should always be dealt with by taking it to court, and if guilt is proven, the offender must go to jail. Responsive regulation requires us to challenge such a presumption; if the offender is responding to the detection of her wrongdoing by turning around her life, kicking a heroin habit, helping victims, and voluntarily working for a community group “to make up for the harm she has done to the community,” then the responsive regulator of armed robbery will say no to the jail option.
World Peacemaking
Authors: Braithwaite John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues that both the restorative justice paradigm and the responsive regulation paradigms are useful for reconfiguring how to struggle for world peace. I argue that this is especially true of the conditions since 1989, where war has been widespread but not about confrontations between major powers. While it remains true that major powers can use their clout to mediate disputes in the shadow of a pyramid of coercive interventions, this rarely solves the underlying sources of late modern wars.
When Firms Change Direction
Authors: Sigismund Anne , Huff Huff James Oran , Barr Pamela S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Firms within the same competitive environment (industry) respond in different ways to changing environmental (competitive) conditions. The authors of this book argue that the strategy field has not found answers to the questions that flow from this observation. They answer these questions by using what they call a “cognitively anchored theory of strategic change.”
Towards a Common Semantics for English Count and Mass Nouns
Authors: Gillon Brendan S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The distinction between mass nouns and count nouns, first remarked upon by Jespersen (1909, vol. 2, ch. 5.2) in connection with English, is found in a number of the world’s languages, including Chinese, Tamil, German, and French. In English, the most common way to distinguish these two classes of words is syntactic. Cardinal numerals and quasi-cardinal numerals (e.g., “several”) modify count nouns, never mass nouns. Moreover, “little” and “much” modify mass nouns, never count nouns, whereas “few” and “many” modify count nouns, never mass nouns. Count nouns admit a morphological contrast between singular and plural; mass nouns do not, being almost always singular. The pronoun “one” may have as its antecedent a count noun, not a mass noun (Baker 1978. ch. 10.1). Mass nouns with singular morphology do not tolerate the indefinite article, whereas singular count nouns do. Finally, mass nouns occur only with the plural form of those quantifiers whose singular and plural forms differ.
Reference and Proper Names
Authors: Burge Tyler 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is perhaps surprising that one needs to theorize about proper names.They seem to present a straightforward, uncomplicated example of how language relates to the world. During the last eighty years, however, there has been considerable disagreement on issues surrounding them. The disagreement has centered on three broad questions: (a) the question of how to explicate the conditions under which a proper name designates an object; (b) the question of how best to speak (semantically and pragmatically) about nondesignating proper names; and (c) the question of the logical role of proper names in a formal theory of language.
Two Theories about Adjectives
Authors: W. (HANS) Kamp J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I will discuss two theories about adjectives. The first theory dates from the late 1960s. It is stated in Montague (1970a) and Parsons (1968). According to this theory, the meaning of an adjective is a function which maps the meanings of noun phrases onto other such meanings; for example, the meaning of clever is a function which maps the meaning of man into that of clever man, that of poodle onto that of clever poodle, and so on. Predicative uses of adjectives are explained as elliptic attributive uses. Thus This dog is clever is analyzed as This dog is a clever dog—or as This dog is a clever animal, or perhaps as This dog is a clever being. Which noun phrase ought to be supplied in this reduction of predicative to attributive use is in general not completely determined by the sentence itself, and to the extent that it is not, the sentence must be regarded as ambiguous.
Scorekeeping in a Language Game
Authors: Lewis David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“The king of France is bald” requires the presupposition that France has one king, and one only; “Even George Lakoff could win” requires the presupposition that George is not a leading candidate; and so on. We need not ask just what sort of unacceptability results when a required presupposition is lacking. Some say falsehood, some say lack of truth value, some just say that it’s the kind of unacceptability that results when a required presupposition is lacking, and some say it might vary from case to case.
Epidemiology, Etiology, Genetic Patterns, and Genetic Counseling
Authors: Reardon William , Toriello, Helga V , Downs Catherine A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wilson (58) estimated in 1985 that there were 70 million people in the world with a hearing loss of more than 55 dB. We have calculated that during the year 1985 between 2500 and 4500 profoundly deaf infants were born in the United States. It has been suggested that there are about 2 million deaf individuals and 12 million hearing-impaired individuals in the United States (15). Many of the earlier epidemiologic studies carried out in both Europe and the United States indicate that at least one-third of all cases are hereditary. However, about 90% of people with congenital hearing loss have normal hearing parents. Since acquired forms of congenital and early-onset hearing loss comprise another one-third, it has been estimated that unknown factors are responsible for the remaining one-third. Estimates that one-third of cases are hereditary must be a minimal figure because a considerable proportion of isolated cases of unknown cause may, in reality, be hereditary. More recently the literature suggests that half of congenital hearing loss is genetic, and half is environmental (42). Among known hereditary examples, at least 15%-30% are syndromic, i.e., associated with other anomalies (I 0,11,13,14,19,36,37,40,42,47-50,55).
Genetic Hearing Loss With No Associated Abnormalities
Authors: Smith Shelley D , taggart R Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the basis of the number of known X-linked hearing loss genes, Morton (2) calculated that there would be about 120 different genes causing nonsyndromic hearing loss, 60 prelingual and 60 postlingual. More complicated estimates based on the analysis of mating types, inbreeding coefficients, and mutation rates have indicated that there may be about 36 recessive loci for hearing loss, most of them nonsyndromic. Although the assumptions behind these estimates were uncertain, the predictions appear to be quite accurate, as there are at least 67 Mendelian loci defined currently: 32 dominant (primarily postlingual), 31 recessive (primarily prelingual), and 4 X-linked. Additional loci are listed as “reserved,” and information on those should be forthcoming.
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Eye Disorders
Authors: Kimberling William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Usher syndrome is the most commonly occurring disorder in this category. Patients with this syndrome have sensorineural hearing loss and loss of vision due to retinitis pigmentosa. Estimates of its prevalence among profoundly deaf children range from 3% to 8%. In addition to their association with eye disease and hearing loss, some syndromes discussed in this chapter involve the nervous system while others involve different, sometimes multiple, systems. For example, Refsum syndrome and Alstrom syndrome could have been assigned to Chapters 12 or 13, Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders. Gordon syndrome is included in Chapter 10 on genetic hearing loss associated with nervous system disorders. The IVIC syndrome might easily have been assigned to Chapter 8, Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Musculoskeletal Disorders, but it seemed best to include the syndrome here.
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Musculoskeletel Disorders
Authors: Gorlin Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Craniometaphyseal dysplasia was erroneously reported in the early literature as Pyle disease. It is characterized by an unusual face and clubshaped metaphyseal flaring of long bones. Autosomal dominant and recessive inheritance patterns have been observed. Extreme variability in the dominant form does not allow for differentiation from the recessive form, whereas the latter appears to be somewhat less variable. Although some recessive cases appear to be more severe than dominant examples, in a sporadic case it is not possible to clinically distinguish between the two forms (18,40). About 80 cases have been reported. The basic defect is altered bone turnover (21,32,33). Clinical findings. Usually within the first year of life, the root of the nose begins to broaden and an elevated wing of bone gradually extends bilaterally over the nasal bridge to the zygomas. Increasing bony sclerosis narrows the nasal lumen, leading to obstruction, with resultant open mouth (2,23) (Fig. 8-1 A-D,l,J).
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Neurologic and Neuromuscular Disorders
Authors: Toriello Helga V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many progressive neurodegenerative diseases are associated with sensorineural hearing loss, but the classification of these disorders remains controversial. This chapter combines reports of families with similar disorders and different ages of onset, but separates similar families if the pattern of inheritance was different. It is apparent that some neurological manifestations of these diseases tend to cluster. For example, ataxia is frequently associated with spastic paraplegia (“spinocerebellar ataxia”) and with motor and sensory neuropathy. Pigmentary retinopathies (which include retinitis pigmentosa) are often associated with optic atrophy. Some are considered in this chapter, but others were assigned to Chapter 7. In many older reports, modern neurodiagnostic tests often were not available, making clinical distinctions more difficult. Because of the clinical similarity, it is possible that some disorders described in this section represent unrecognized mitochondrial encephalomyopathies.