bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Semantic Approaches to Anaphora
Authors: huang Yan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is largely concerned with semantic approaches to anaphora. One significant development in recent linguistic theorizing is that there has been an increasing involvement of syntactic theory in semantics and of semantic theory in syntax. Consequently, the sorting of data on the one hand, and analyses on the other, into syntactic and semantic has become a more difficult and less theory-neutral task (e.g. Larson et al. 1992). This is particularly true of (studies of) some linguistic phenomena such as VP-ellipsis. The organization of this chapter is as follows. Section 3.1. discusses a number of analyses of VP-ellipsis including the derived VP rule analysis by Sag (1976) and Williams (1977), the binding theory analysis by Kitagawa (1991), the dependency analysis by Fiengo and May (1994), and the equational analysis by Dalrymple, Shieber, and Pereira (1991). For ease of exposition, the discussion covers both syntactic and semantic approaches. Section 3.2. then reviews a few semantic accounts of binding and control. Finally, Section 3.3. considers the phenomenology of logophoricity, focusing on logophoric pronouns in African languages and logophoric, long-distance reflexives in East Asian languages.
An Outline of the Survey’s ICE Parsing Scheme
Authors: Buckley Justin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Another form of annotation applied to ICE-GB (the British component of the ICE corpus) was parsing, in which our aim was to analyse each of the utterances in the corpus according to their form, or category, and their function, and according to the relationships between their component parts. ICE-GB was initially parsed using the TOSCA automatic parser, which provided one or more analyses to be checked and selected manually. Most utterances were parsed in this way, but for those that could not be parsed by the TOSCA parser, a new parser was created at the Survey of English Usage (cf. Chapter 11). The Survey parser offers one analysis for each utterance, either a complete parse or a partial parse. ICETREE, a manual tree editor, was compiled at the Survey to cater for the analyses produced by the Survey parser. It is used to check and correct parses and to complete partial parses. Manual tree editing has given us the opportunity to introduce new parsing terms that enable us to complete the analysis of problematic constructions, or of constructions hitherto not catered for. The new scheme also applies to the Survey parser. The Survey parsing scheme is based on the TOSCA system, but differs from it in many respects. What follows is a general overview of the Survey parsing scheme, which includes many of the new terms introduced into the ICE parsing hierarchy.
Frequencies and FEIs
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In setting out what I learned about the distribution of FEIs from investigating a corpus, I want to emphasize again the limitations of the study in order to contextualize my findings. OHPC was an idiosyncratic corpus, but useful as a means to an end. My findings were intended to be benchmarking statistics; to provide some framework which could be used in further studies—for example, of different corpora, whether matched typologically or constructed from different kinds of text. Some cross-corpus comparisons are given in the last sections of this chapter. It is my contention that the general tenor of the distributions I observed are borne out by other corpora, and anomalies can be explained.
Discoursal Functions of FEIs
Authors: Moon Rosamund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The description and quantification of FEIs and their characteristics helps to define them in relation to the lexicon, but not in relation to discourse. An analysis of the worm turns in OHPC shows that it occurs 6 times, or once in every 3 million words, just above the significance threshold; that its clausal structure of fixed lexical subject and verb occurs in only 1% of predicate FEIs in the database; that it is metaphorical; and that while its lexical verbal process is material and denotes an event, its deep process is also relational as it implies an attribute. A look at the expression in context, however, suggests other aspects.
Introduction
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has long been recognised that a theory of semantics is probably not complete without either a characterisation of the different verb types that appear in language (Vendler 1967; Dowty 1979), or some classification of the argument types appearing with particular verbs (Belletti & Rizzi 1988; Jackendoff 1990). Within the syntactic tradition, lexical semanticists have made use of the notion of thematic relations {or 0-roles) as a classification of argument types ever since Fillmore (1968) and Gruber (1965). The idea behind many ‘strong’ thematic role theories is that a certain restricted set of role types exists, and that knowledge of the role types ‘assigned’ by a particular lexical verb allows us to predict core aspects of that verb’s syntactic behaviour. The kind of classification that results from syntacticians’ use of traditional 0-role labels employs categories such as ‘unaccusative’, ‘unergative’, ‘middle\ ‘active transitive’, and ‘experiencer’ verbs. However, despite the general acknowledgement of such classes in the literature, the traditional notions of 0-roles have remained notoriously vague and undecidable. Moreover, the syntacticians’ classes often seem totalJy unrelated to the formal semanticists’ categories of ‘state’, ‘activity’, ‘achievement’ and ‘accomplishment’ which result from a basically aspectual classification of events. It seems that in general, syntacticians have sought to make sense of the phenomenon of different verb types in terms of primitive argument types or roles, while the semanticists have classically seen the problem in terms of primitive aspectual verb phrase and sentential types.
Conclusion
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book, I have been asking the following question: what, if any, are the systematic correspondences between syntactic structure and semantic interpretation in the domain of predicate-argument relationships? Specifically, I have taken to heart well-known data concerning the effect of nominal interpretation on aspectual semantics, pursuing the intuition that these facts are just the most obvious effects of a more pervasive and systematic interaction between the aspectual event structure of a predicate and its arguments. If the results of this research are correct, they suggest that in the construction of predicate-argument relationships, there is a deep structuring analogy with spatiality and path definition at work.
Prototypical Polysemization and the Isomorphic Principle
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The functional classification of semantic changes that was presented in the previous chapter contains conflicting principles: as noted, the various realizations of the efficiency principle need not be in harmony with each other. This seems to apply particularly to the relationship between isomorphism as emanating from a structuralist conception of the lexicon, and prototypicality as emanating from a cognitive conception. To begin with, let us note that prototype semantics seems to imply that natural languages have a tendency to enhance the polysemic character of lexical items. At least, this is the case when the prototype-theoretical characteristics of lexical structures are considered at the level of word senses rather than at the referential level-see Section I .2 for the distinction. As a set of closely connected semantic nuances that are grouped together round a prototypical core, prototypical categories exploit their own polysemic potentialities; any nuance that can be incorporated into the category because of its resemblance to the prototype increases the polysemy of the item in question by raising the number of semantic variants grouped together round the prototypical core. That is to say, the flexibility of prototypically organized lexical items is to a large extent a mechanism of polysemization.
Lost Intuitions and Forgotten Intentions
Authors: Grosz Barbara J , Sidner Candace L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides historical and intellectual context for the remaining chapters in this volume by summarizing the main goals of the original research on global focusing and centering. It then describes several un solved problems in the theory of centering which we consider the most important areas for future work. It argues in particular for additional empirical research, analysis of more complex types of discourse. and more detailed examination of the interaction of centering with other discourse processes at both the local and global levels.
Discourse Coherence and Shifting Centers in Japanese Texts
Authors: Iida Masayo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In languages such as Japanese, the use of zeros, unexpressed arguments of the verb, in utterances that shift the topic involves a risk that the meaning intended by the speaker may not be transparent to the hearer. However, this potentially undesirable conversational strategy often occurs in the course of naturally occurring discourse. In this chapter, I report on an empirical study of 250 utterances with zeros in twenty Japanese newspaper articles. Each utterance is analyzed in terms of centering transitions and the form in which centers are realized by referring expressions. I also examine lexical sub categorization information, and tense and aspect in order to test the hypothesis that the speaker expects the hearer to use this information in determining global discourse structure. I explain the occurrence of zerosin RETAIN and ROUGH-SHIFT centering transitions, by claiming that a zerocan only be used in these cases when the shift of centers is supported by contextual information such as lexical semantics, tense and aspect, and agreement features. I then propose an algorithm by which centering can incorporate these observations to integrate centering with global discourse structure.. and thus enhance its ability for non-local pronoun resolution.
Non-transparent Constraint Effects in Gere: From Cycles to Derivations
Authors: Paradis Carole 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the case of a constraint in Gere which holds across the board—that is, an undominated (unviolated) constraint in Optimality Theory‘s (OT) terms—but whose effects are none the less non-transparent on the surface in some cases, although easily recoverable in a derivational framework. I will show that the often non-transparent effects of this constraint evidence the need for a cyclic application of constraints, and support more generally a derivational approach as advocated in Paradis (1995, 1996). More precisely, I aim at showing that phonological rules / constraints may refer to phonological properties that never come to the surface, which is in essence one of the claims of the cyclicity hypothesis in Lexical Phonology (see e.g. Booij, Chapter 8 above). We will see that evidence in favor of such a hypothesis questions the adequacy of non-derivational constraint-based theories. The argumentation will be partially based on a comparison between the Theory of Constraints and Repair Strategies (TCRS; see e.g. Paradis, 1988a; 1988b; 1993), a derivational framework, and OT (Prince and Smolensky, 1993; McCarthy and Prince, 1993), a non-derivational one.
A Linguistic Anthropology of Praxis and Language Shift
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lukas D. Tsitsipis explores a case of linguistic shift in the Balkans. He focuses on Arvanitika, an Albanian variety spoken in Greece which is under threat through a process of attrition. Various factors relating the linguistic to the non-linguistic aspects of the shift are examined in detail. The emphasis is on both the macro-processes responsible for the shift as they emerge from the broader sociopolitical conditions of the Greek nation-state, and on the local communities' discourse as a complex response to these forces. Pragmatic aspects of discourse, power relations, the surfacing of linguistic ideology, and aspects of performance all figure prominently in a synthesis which shows that speakers are active respondents to social and political pressures. The author derives his inspiration from theoretical and methodological traditions in linguistic anthropology, but with political theory becomes as a central concern. In a period when linguistic anthropology is becoming reflexive and facing its social responsibilities, language shift is a locus for critical reflection: discourse about languages is ultimately discourse about human beings and the political process. Series Information Series Editor: Professor Suzanne Romaine, Merton College, University of Oxford Series ISBN: 0-19-961466-0 Series Description: Most of the world's speech communities are multilingual, and contact between languages is thus an important force in the everyday lives of most people. Studies of language contact should therefore form an integral part of work in theoretical, social, and historical linguistics. This series makes available a collection of research monographs which present case studies of language contact around the world. As well as providing an indispensable source of data for the serious researcher, it contributes significantly to theoretical developments in the field.
Introduction
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Signs shape our lives. This is true not only of the signs of language: we are surrounded by signs, we surround ourselves with signs, and usually we are completely unaware of them. Frequently, we become aware of the complete semiotic saturation of our lives only when the signs we use, and with which we surround ourselves, lead to unexpected interpretations. My car is a sign, and so is my bicycle. Even if I have no car, this too is a sign. Eating oysters is just as much a sign as gobbling hamburgers. It’s a sign when I wear a tie, and just as much so when I refrain from wearing one. The same is true of jeans, suits and corduroy pants. Some people might protest, “Does everything I do have to mean something? I refuse to play along!” But there are styles of dress even for those of this opinion-individualists can be identified by means of their clothing just as easily as the followers of fashion. There’s no getting away from interpretability. One is reminded of Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson’s famous assertion, “one cannot not communicate” ( I 967: 5 I; emphasis in original). This view, however, will not be endorsed here. It assumes a judgment whose inaccuracy will become evident, namely, that everything interpretable must have been communicated. This is not the case. Important for our lives is not only how something is interpreted, but also what is interpreted. Cultures and subcultures can be distinguished according to those areas of life that they subject to interpretation as signs, and the degree to which they do so. The amount of symbolic character accorded by a group to certain aspects of life is used as a virtual measure of the level of civilization that group is believed to have attained. The more life in a group has been “semiotized,” the more cultured we perceive that group to be.
The Epistemic Weil
Authors: Keller Rudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Save the Causal Clause” is the name of an action group in Hamburg, Germany, whose members have taken upon themselves to prevent adult speakers of German from uttering sentences like this: “Ich muβ noch einkaufen, weil wir bekommen heute abend Besuch” (‘I still have to go shopping, because we’re having guests tonight’). The background of the problem is as follows. In German main clauses or coordinate clauses, the finite verb is always in second position: Er hat ein Auto ‘He has a car’. However, in subordinate clauses, the finite verb comes last: Ich weiβ, daβ er ein Auto hat ‘I know that he a car has’. In colloquial German, weil ‘because’ is undergoing a process of change from a subordinating to a coordinating conjunction. “Normal” speakers notice only the resulting “incorrect” word order, often interpreted as evidence for the decay of the German language. The change of the conjunction weil will be the subject of this chapter. I will try to show that it has less to do with syntax decay than with semantic enrichment. This enrichment is created with the application of the metaphorical technique to the causal conjunction weil.
Phonology of Eighteenth-Century English: Evidence from Spence’s Grand Repository and Contemporary Pronouncing Dictionaries
Authors: Beal Joan C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We saw in § 3.4 that pronouncing dictionaries such as the Grand Repository arc a particularly valuable source of evidence for linguistic changes which were in progress in the eighteenth century, since, in providing a full ‘lexicon’, they allow us to trace the lexical diffusion of those sound changes. Wherever the entries in the Grand Repository show two or more different realizations of what was a single phoneme in ME or even ENE, then we may suspect that lexical diffusion is at work, particularly if those realizations correspond to what we know from other sources (e.g. seventeenth-century orthoepists) to be ‘older’ and ‘nevver” or conservative and innovative sounds. A thorough examination of the Grand Repository entries will allow us to ascertain whether the diffusion is phonetically (i.e. environmentally) rather than strictly lexically conditioned. whilst a comparison of these entries with the same words in other contemporary pronouncing dictionaries will enable us to judge whether Spence is so far out of line with the other orthoepists as to be the ‘lone voice I warned against in §3.2, or whether his distribution of the variants is simply more conservative (closer to that of earlier sources) or more northern (closer to that of other northern or Scots sources) than others.
James Howell’s dictionary for the genteel (1660)
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
James Howell’s (?1594-1666) place of birth in Wales is uncertain. He matriculated at Jesus College, Oxford, in 1610 and took his degree there in 1613. He was appointed steward of a glassware factory in London. In this capacity he travelled to Holland, France, Spain, and Italy in order to obtain materials and skilled work men for the firm. It seems that this experience laid the foundations of his later linguistic knowledge and interests. He held various posts in the orbit of the court.
Multilingual dictionaries and nomenclators
Authors: Hullen Werner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1477 the first onomasiological dictionary which was not devoted to teaching Latin (or Greek or Hebrew) appeared in Venice as a printed book. It used the new technique for propagating a book-genre which had already been extant in hand written manuscripts, for example in 1424, and in early prints, for example in 1533. Roughly speaking, the tradition of late-medieval vocabularies terminated at the beginning of the sixteenth century (e.g. with Murmellius’s Pappa, see below) and gave way to a new tradition of topical word-lists (nomenclators) in the light of Humanist studies (de Smet 1985).
Hierarchies and Competing Motivations
Authors: Kirby Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter examined a solution to the problem of linkage in the domain of word-order universals, using Hawkins’s metric of processing complexity as an example of a partial explanation. This chapter extends the scope of the linguistic selection approach by examining an implicational hierarchy in another domain–accessibility to relativization. Once again, Hawkins (1994a) provides us with a plausible explanation for the cross-linguistic facts in terms of structural complexity, and this will be the starting point for an investigation of the origins of hierarchies in general.
A Richer Characterization of Dictionary Entries: The Role of Knowledge Representation
Authors: Pustejovsky James , Boguraev Branimir 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Making disciplined use of linguistic theory in the process of writing dictionary entries is not only intuitively desirable: studies have shown how important distinctions in the lexical behaviour of words can, and should, be systematically encoded by a lexicographer (Atkins et al. 1988). These are not abstract proposals. A dictionary embodying detailed analyses of syntactic and semantic properties within a fixed theoretical framework would be a beneficial improvement on the current generation of learners’ dictionaries, and recent large scale undertakings in lexicography have taken seriously this notion. For instance, the Cobuild project not only implements a methodology of corpus-driven dictionary design and compilation (known as ‘corpus lexicography’); the Cobuild dictionary is a creation of a particular linguistic framework, which closely associates meaning with the use of a word in context (Sinclair 1987; Hanks 1987).
E
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Eager = ‘showing a strong desire to do, attain, or hear sth.’ It is used alone, eager faces, They are very eager, or with for, eager for success, or an infin. (Cf. 2.) Keen means ‘showing interest or enthusiasm’ and is a syn. of eager. It is used attributively, a keen student/chess player/gardener, and predicatively, They are very keen. Fervent and ardent mean ‘enthusiastic, displaying strong feelings’. An ardent sup porter of the Labour Party. A fervent admirer of the Chancellor. Zealous is applied to people who spend a lot of time or energy in supporting something, especially a political or religious ideal, that they believe in very strongly. He was a zealous anti¬ smoker .
K
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
keep, maintain, preserve vs. Although halten also means ‘to hold’ and ‘to stop’, it and its derivatives express many of the meanings of keep. This article first deals with those senses of halten for which E. uses keep, but treats at the same time derivatives and other words with a related meaning. Order of treatment: 1. Keep = ‘observe, abide by’. She kept her promise. 2. Keep animals, oneself/one’s family, maintain roads, keep accounts, a diary, etc., keep/maintain a house in proper order. 3. Keep= ‘cause to remain in a condition’. Keep your room tidy! 4. Keep= ‘restrain from going away’. I don’t want to keep you. 5. Keep = ‘remain in good condition’. Milk keeps for several days. 6. Keep = ‘remain in a specified position’. Keep to the left! 7. Keep= ‘retain in one’s possession’ and ‘withhold from present use’. Keep the change! I’ll keep a piece of cake for you. 8. Keep, maintain, preserve= ‘save or guard from harm’.
U
Authors: Beaton K B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
understand v. The main equivalent is verstehen. A common syn. in several senses is begreifen. In general begreifen is stronger and more emphatic and emotional than verstehen. It can always be replaced by verstehen, but the nuance it conveys is then lost. Understand, verstehen, and begreifen can be trans. and intr.Understand means ‘to grasp the meaning of sth. spoken or written’. Did you understand that explanation? This sense can always be expressed by verstehen. Ich verstehe, was du sagen willst. Begreifen often refers not only to a particular instance but to someone’s ability to understand explanations etc. in general.