bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Race
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are accustomed to looking to the Supreme Court to resolve issues of racial discrimination, but the Court’s record in this area over the past two centuries has been modest. More often than not, elected officials have shaped the national discourse over race relations. The Court’s voice has been an important one, but it has been far from dominant. In many instances, the Court takes its cues from social and political forces. And when the Court and elected officials disagree with one another, lawmakers have been willing to countermand the Court by enacting legislation at odds with its decisions.
Adverse Events: A Basis for Litigation
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Physicians usually become defendants through their involvement, sometimes centrally, sometimes peripherally, in an adverse event. An adverse event is defined in the 1999 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report To Err Is Human as “an injury resulting from medical intervention . . . not due to the underlying condition of the pa- tient.” Such an event can throw physicians into what one describes as “the most stressful experience of my entire life.” Even if the untoward event never explodes into a malpractice claim, its impact is often so serious that it trips off powerful feelings in the patient as well as in all of the health professionals involved in the incident.
Meeting the Lawyers
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The attorney who defends the physician’s case is a critical player in determining the outcome of the litigation. His or her professional competence may well de- cide its success. An attorney who is an expert in litigation in general and the defense of physicians in particular and, most important, who has tried cases factually similar to the assigned case all the way to verdict is best prepared to defend a physician.
Contemplating Torture An Introduction
Authors: Levinson Sanford 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why should one take valuable time and expend equally valuable intellectual and emotional energy thinking about torture? Not only is the subject grim, but it is also the case, as almost all of the following essays point out, that torture is unequivocally and absolutely forbidden by the law of civilized nations (including the United States). Remarkable proof of sorts of this universal condemnation is provided by a rather unlikely source, an Argentinian torturer who said, even as he defended his participation in Argentina’s “Dirty War,” that “[t]he day we stop condemning torture— although we tortured—the day we become insensitive to mothers who lose their guerilla sons—although they are guerillas—is the day we stop being human beings.” Such abhorrence of torture is at the heart of the defense the United States and its supporters offered most strongly of Iraq and the deposing of Saddam Hussein—especially following the failure to find any weapons of mass destruction or otherwise substantiate any plausible threat posed by Iraq to American national security. Even opponents of the Iraq war (like myself) are reluctant to say that it would have been “better” had Saddam Hussein in effect been left free to continue torturing his enemies, a likely result of a failure to resort to war.
Torture
Authors: Shue Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whatever one might have to say about torture, there appear to be moral reasons for not saying it. Obviously I am not persuaded by these reasons, but they deserve some mention. Mostly, they add up to a sort of Pandora’s box objection: if practically everyone is opposed to all torture, why bring it up, start people thinking about it, and risk weakening the inhibitions against what is clearly a terrible business? Torture is indeed contrary to every relevant international law, including the laws of war. No other practice except slavery is so universally and unanimously condemned in law and human convention. Yet, unlike slavery, which is still most definitely practiced but affects relatively few people, torture is widespread and growing. According to Amnesty International, scores of governments are now using some torture—including governments which are widely viewed as fairly civilized—and a number of governments are heavily dependent upon torture for their very survival.
The Legal History of Torture
Authors: Langbein John H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Efforts to accommodate the use of torture within the Western legal tradition have a long history. For half a millennium the law courts of continental Europe tortured suspected persons to obtain evidence. They acted openly and according to law. Investigation under torture was a routine part of criminal procedure in late medieval and early modern times. The jurists and judges who elaborated and administered this system were aware of the dangers of coerced evidence, and accordingly, they framed rules of safeguard meant to make tortured confessions reliable. Across the centuries it became clear that the safeguards were far from safe. In the end, the European states conceded that the long experiment with torture was a failure, and across the eighteenth century they banned the use of torture from their legal systems.
Five Errors in the Reasoning of Alan Dershowitz
Authors: Scarry* Elaine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the center of Alan Dershowitz’s recent account of torture is the argument that a hypothetical case can be imagined in which saving a city from a nuclear, chemical, or biological bomb might depend on torturing the terrorist who placed it there or knew where it was hidden. His chapter “Should the Ticking Bomb Terrorist Be Tortured?” is the centerpiece of his book Why Terrorism Works, and his essay herein is again structured around the dramatic instance of the ticking bomb, which occurs at the beginning, middle, and end of his argument. He believes that in such a situation it would be permissible to torture if one first obtained a judicial or executive warrant; the prohibition against torture, dissolved by means of the warrant, would continue in place for any act of torture that had not been warranted. The first error in Alan Dershowitz’s argument is that he wrongly addresses us as a population whose members are morally impaired.
Questions of Method and Adequacy
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter takes a closer look at the general methodological question of the rationality of the choice one makes for or against a particular theory. A method of simple falsification is, though indispensable in principle, not enough. A wider range of criteria must be applied, not all of them formally definable: there is room for overall wisdom of judgment. Section 4.1 discusses the question of confirmation or disconfirmation of a “paradigm,” taken in the Kuhnian sense of an overall theoretical framework or architecture, as opposed to the (dis)confirmation of a smaller bit of theory, better called “hypothesis” or “analysis.” Chomsky has never answered that question in any satisfactory way, concentrating instead on the question of how not to falsify or have to reject his paradigm or his analyses.
What Is Functional about the MP?
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the primary goal of the MP is to show that the central notions developed in Chomskyan grammar over the years are determined by and thus derivable from boundary conditions on meaning and pronunciation, minimalism must be taken to be a form of functionalism, if the latter is seen as an attempt at reducing the properties of human language as much as possible to the demands imposed by the functions it is meant to serve in its natural habitat.
Cautionary Tales
Authors: Rosen Jeffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
John Marshall, America’s greatest chief justice, took office in 1801 at the most vulnerable moment in the Supreme Court’s history. Jeffersonian Republicans were determined to attack the independence of the largely Federalist bench by making judges entirely subservient to popular will; high Federalists, by contrast, viewed the judiciary as a monarchical protection against mob rule. Marshall’s genius as chief justice was to find a middle ground between the populist and aristocratic positions, establishing judicial independence by avoiding judicial unilateralism. In case after case, he reinforced the paradoxical lesson that courts can best serve democracy by enforcing only those limitations on governmental power that national majorities have already approved.
How Business Was Conducted on the Chinese Silk Road During the Tang Dynasty, 618-907
Authors: Hansen Valerie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1966, the first year of the Cultural Revolution, Chinese archeologists discovered a group of affidavits in a tomb in the Astana graveyard, some ten miles east of Turfan. Offering a needle-sharp close-up of the Silk Road trade, these documents highlight the legal system officials of the Tang dynasty (618-907) devised to handle commercial disputes between their subjects and peoples from other lands with equally complex legal systems. These innovations facilitated the commercial exchanges of the Silk Road and indeed may have contributed to the surge in trade in the seventh and eighth centuries, when the Tang state poured resources into Central Asia to support its officials and armies posted there. At the time Turfan was probably the largest oasis on the Silk Road with a population of forty thousand; today it lies in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of northwest China.
Transatlantic Paper and the Emergence of the American Capital Market
Authors: Downing Ned w. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Founding Fathers Robert Morris, Benjamin Franklin, Francis Hopkinson, Alexander Hamil ton, and other early American patriots designed and used a variety of paper financial instruments to fund the Revolutionary War (1775-83) and then, six years, later to refinance the resulting debt. This chapter dis cusses most of those financial instruments that were used internationally. Almost all of the rest of the financial instruments used in the Revolution circulated primarily in the states where they were issued. The use of transatlantic paper reveals the emergence of the United States first as an international loan seeker, and soon thereafter as an overextended and nearly bankrupt borrower. Only later did the country become the issuer of prime investment-grade securities that were in demand by financiers and investors throughout the world.
Mind, Brain, And Schizophrenia
Authors: Williamson Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the last two decades, molecular genetics and brain imaging have guided efforts to find the causes of schizophrenia. It is becoming increasingly clear that many genes are involved in schizophrenia and that they interact with other factors in very complex ways, which have not yet been elucidated. Neuroimaging techniques have allowed scientists and physicians to examine brain structure, function, and chemistry in living patients with schizophrenia but results so far have been disappointing. No two patients seem to share exactly the same combination of clinical symptoms or physical findings. Yet all have the syndrome recognized as schizophrenia. The author of this accessible, well-written book argues that it is time to set aside the search for a single cause of schizophrenia and focus on the disease’s final common pathway. He highlights clues from a wide range of research, including neurotransmitter, psychophysiological, and brain imaging studies. He then describes possibilities for the final common pathway at an understandable level in the context of what is already known about schizophrenia. While there are no preferred models of schizophrenia, a pattern is emerging which implicates those structures in the brain known to be important in integrating perception, cognition, and affect. A better understanding of these processes will be critical for developing mor effective treatments. This book will help advance that effort. It will be of great value to psychiatrists, psychologists, neurologists, neuroimagers, and basic scientists working in the field of shizophrenia research, and to their students and trainees. It will also be of interest to cliniciansand scientists concerned with other neuropsychiatric disorders, and to the families of those diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Hereditary Spherocytosis
Authors: Ideguchi Hiroshi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A 25-year-old Japanese man was admitted to the hospital because of fever, sore throat, and general malaise. He had been febrile for several days and had noticed that the color of his urine was unusually dark. On admission, his temperature was 37.8°C. The physician noted anemic conjunctiva (delicate membrane lining the eyelids and covering the eyeballs), injected pharyngeal mucosa (mucous membrane), cervical lymphadenopathy (swelling of the lymph nodes), and mild splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen).
Glucose 6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency and Oxidative Hemolysis
Authors: Burton Catherine , Kaczmarski Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A 50-year-old female presented passing black urine after having been unwell for 3 days with fever and headache. There was no previous history of blood disorders, anemia, or similar symptoms. Past medical history included a diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Treatment included steroids and high-dose vitamins and minerals. These had been given on five separate occasions over the preceding 2 weeks and included 200 mg vitamin B1,25 mg B2,250 mg B5,100 mg B6, 15 mg B12, 50 g C, 2.5 mg folic acid, 15 mg zinc, 11 mg magnesium, 10 μg molybdenum, 100 μg selenium, and 50 μg chromium. In her social history, she was of Arabic descent from East Africa, currently living in Kuwait. Her nephew was reported to suffer from favism (an acute hemolytic condition occurring after ingestion of a certain species of bean [Vicia faba] in individuals with glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase [G6PD] deficiency). There was no recent history of travel or malaria exposure.
Tangier Disease: A Disorder in the Reverse Cholesterol Transport Pathway
Authors: Lai Lien B , Gopichandran Vijayaprasad , Gopalan Venkat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
T. L. was a 5-year-old patient who underwent a tonsillectomy in 1960. His enlarged tonsils were yellowish-gray, with many septa running through multiple abnormally lobulated regions. On pathological examination, many foam cells (macrophages with lipid deposits) were found in and among the lymph follicles. This histiocytic appearance of the foam cells led to a tentative diagnosis of either Hand-Schüller-Christian (a multifocal eosinophilic granuloma) or Niemann-Pick (a lysosomal lipid storage) disease. Thinking that the tonsillar honeycomblike appearance was unusual for either of these diseases, the attending physician, Dr.Thomas Edmonds, referred T. L. for further analyses to the NIH and thereby initiated a series of investigations that led to the discovery of Tangier disease by Dr. Donald S. Fredrickson and colleagues in 1961.
Obesity: A Growing Problem
Authors: Rosenthal Miriam D , Pasquinelli Lawrence M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
T.F. is a 14-year-old girl who came into the office for a well-care examination accompanied by her mother. She had a history of asthma and used albuterol (a bronchodilator) as needed. She was concerned that her weight was too high, and that she was often teased at school by other children. Both T.F. and her mother have been reading about weight loss and exercise; they were ready to make a change to decrease T.F.’s weight.
Protein-Energy Malnutrition
Authors: Gopichandran Vijayaprasad , Lai Lien B , Gopalan Venkat 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A 22-month-old male child was seen in a pediatric clinic in the United States (Carvalho et al., 2001). He had been suffering from intermittent skin eczema since 2 weeks of age. After weaning at 13 months of age, he was given cow’s milk, and several episodes of vomiting were observed soon after. Since his parents suspected milk intolerance and were apprehensive about the cow’s milk causing a possible worsening of the eczema, he was immediately switched to a lactose-free diet that was primarily a rice milk beverage.This rice drink was extremely low in protein but (somewhat) adequate in caloric content. Although well educated, the parents mistakenly assumed that the beverage, because of its fortified contents and high cost,was a superior food product for their child even though the container stated that the rice milk beverage was not meant for use as an infant formula. Despite normal growth during infancy, poor weight gain was obvious during the second year, when the child was on a daily intake of 1.5 L of the rice drink, which is equivalent to 3 g protein and 790 calories/day (norm for ages 1–3, 16 g protein and 1300 calories/day). In the weeks before admission, he was irritable, was less active, and displayed an increase in skin lesions.
Abetalipoproteinemia
Authors: Rava Paul , Hussain M Mahmood 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A 28-year-old man who immigrated to the United States a few years ago saw his primary care physician for mild recurrent abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Past medical history was benign except for what the patient referred to as “occasional abdominal distress.” Further discussion revealed this to include diarrhea, flatus, and abdominal pains. He described the stool during these episodes to be greasy, pale, and foul smelling. Family history was unremarkable. Both of his parents, as well as three siblings, had no history of abdominal symptoms. The patient had been diagnosed with celiac disease and treated with a gluten-free diet at a previous visit. Even though he was compliant with dietary instructions, symptoms continued for the next year. The patient noted that he had experienced these symptoms periodically throughout his life, but that they had worsened since his arrival in the United States. He had not traveled since his immigration and had no pets or recent animal exposures, and there was no association between his abdominal discomfort and specific foods. He denied past or present use of drugs or alcohol and took no medications. Concerned that celiac disease may have been a misdiagnosis, a physical examination, blood tests, and a diagnostic procedure were performed.
Coming To Terms
Authors: Jack Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 21 December Every Year, Yevgeniya lvanova respectfully raises a glass of vodka to her persecutor on his birthday. She toasts the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, whose portrait still hangs on her wall even though his bloody regime condemned her to more than a decade in the country’s horrific Gulag labour camp system. In 1943, at the age of fourteen, Ivanova was arrested by the secret police in her native Leningrad, her only ‘crime’ that her uncle supposedly collaborated with the Germans. She passed through a series of prisons and work camps before arriving in the Kolyma river basin in Russia’s extreme north-east district of Magadan in 1949. Though freed in 1956, she long remained under police observation, and was only formally rehabilitated in 1993. For the past forty years, she has lived near Susuman, a township of crumbling concrete buildings constructed on pillars above the ground to withstand the extreme conditions. ‘I don’t consider myself an enemy of the people, but my conscience is not clean,’ she said, puffing on a papirosa, a Soviet-era cigarette made with coarse tobacco. ‘We studied Stalin’s words in school, sang ‘Thank you, Comrade Stalin” - and rightly so. I was raised in that tradition.
A Bridge Too Far
Authors: Jack Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As Millions Of People Reached for their remote controls on 11 September 2001, Vladimir Putin reached for his telephone. Russians, like others around the world, watched in horror and amazement as almost every television channel broadcast pictures of New York’s col­ lapsing Twin Towers. They were quick to offer their condolences, and many carried bouquets and messages of support to the US embassy in Moscow in the days that followed. But few understood how quickly and dramatically their president would react. Putin was the first foreign leader to reach George W. Bush, sheltered in Air Force One, his specially equipped plane, in the hours after the attacks. Relations between the two former Cold War enemies had sharply improved over the previous decade, but one relic of the old power struggle which could now be put to new use was the emergency ‘hot line’ directly linking the leaders of Russia and the USA. It had been designed to prevent ‘mutually assured destruction’ between the nuclear superpowers as the result of a communications error. While ordinary phone connections to Washington broke down in the wake of the attacks, the special connection became a tool for Putin in his willingness to reach out actively to the USA, linking him rapidly to Condoleezza Rice, Bush’s National Security Advisor.
Neural Crest, Great Arteries, and Outflow Septation
Authors: Kirby Margaret Loewy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The neural crest is a population of multipotential cells that delaminate from the dorsal neural tube and migrate widely throughout the body. Based on the cells’ axial level of origin from the neural tube, the neural crest is divided into cranial and trunk regions. Both cranial and trunk neural crest cells give rise to the peripheral nervous system and melanocytes. However, only cranial neural crest has the potential to give rise to “ECTOMESENCHYMAL” CELLS. Ectomesenchymal cells take part in development of a wide variety of structures in the head, neck, and heart. Because of the importance of neural crest-derived ectomesenchyme in heart development, a subregion of the cranial neural crest has been called “cardiac neural crest.” Cardiac neural crest cells also support development and final patterning of the great arteries of the thorax. Neural crest cells are essential for modulating signaling in the caudal pharynx, which is important for normal development of the arterial pole of the heart (see Chapter 6). A subpopulation of cardiac neural crest cells migrates from the caudal pharynx into the cardiac outflow tract to form the aorticopulmonary septum, which divides the common arterial blood flow into pulmonary and systemic streams in animals with lungs. In addition to these roles of ectomesenchymal cells derived from neural crest, neural derivatives provide the innervation of the heart. Cardiac innervation is covered in Chapter 13.
Innervation of the Developing Heart
Authors: Kirby Margaret Loewy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The heart has both AFFERENT (sensory) and EFFERENT (motor) innervation (Fig. 13.1). The motor innervation is part of the autonomic nervous system, which provides efferent information to all of the viscera. Because of the integration of signals that is now recognized in the AUTONOMIC GANGLIA, there has been a tendency to include the afferent nerves as part of the autonomic nervous system; however, this discussion maintains the classical separation, and the sensory innervation is considered as separate from the autonomic motor innervation.
Seneca Falls
Authors: McMillen Sally G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Standing before a crowd packed into Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls, New York, thirty-two-year-old Elizabeth Cady Stanton proclaimed: ‘‘We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men and women are created equal.’’ The intent of her statement was clear—to give new meaning to Jefferson’s of tenquoted phrase from the Declaration of Independence. For the first time in an organized public setting, women found their voices and directed their attention to the injustices that for centuries had defined and circumscribed their lives. Here, a group of women was insisting that they were men’s equal. This was a momentous assertion, a momentous event. The July 1848 Seneca Falls Convention and its Declaration of Rights and Sentiments formally initiated the struggle for women’s equality and justice.