bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Future of Space Security
Authors: Moltz James Clay 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines the future prospects for peaceful outcomes in space by surveying the history of international cooperation, current political dynamics, and emerging technological challenges. It begins by reviewing the international relations literature on space, identifying five main schools of thought on the sources of space stability and instability. It then briefly summarizes the conditions that supported stability and conflict avoidance in space during the Cold War. The chapter next analyzes the set of political, technical, and geostrategic factors that are creating new concerns about possible twenty-first-century space conflict. Finally, it highlights a series of markers to follow in tracking the prospects for peaceful outcomes in space in the future, based on international success or failure in dealing with orbital debris, space weapons, and the rise of new actors, including particularly the growing commercial sector. The chapter’s conclusion summarizes a set of possible recommendations for preventing conflict and promoting more institutionalized forms of space security.
From Passive to Active Space Powers
Authors: Stubbs Matthew , Gancheva Desislava 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Australia and New Zealand are making a transition from passive consumers of space services to active space powers. This chapter explores that evolution and uses eclectic theorization to seek explanations for the drivers of this process from a range of theoretical perspectives including neoliberalism, cosmopolitanism, and neorealism. It examines the development of New Zealand’s commercial domestic launch capability through Rocket Lab and critique some of the provisions of the Technology Safeguards Agreement with the United States that enabled this. The chapter examines Australia’s journey to the position where it is investing heavily in sovereign satellite capabilities and considers Australian and New Zealand multilateral engagement on space security. Ultimately, the chapter reveals the influence of a complex mixture of factors—economic development, internal and external balancing, cosmopolitanism, neorealism and neoliberalism—driving the transition that Australia and New Zealand are making to being active space powers.
Planetary Defense
Authors: Schmidt Nikola 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Planetary defense, the activity of defending the planet Earth from asteroids and comets, constitutes a challenge combining knowledge of astronomers, ingenuity of engineers, and globally cooperative policy. States fund and support national and international efforts in astronomical observations and planetary defense demonstration missions but are cautious about developing a truly international or even cosmopolitan planetary defense governance. While planetary defense is inherently a global issue, as asteroids do not discriminate, the current state of planetary defense governance favors undesirable unilateral actions with international security consequences. The last resort methods based on nuclear explosive devices are reserved for nuclear states, the liability treaty hampers unilateral missions due to possible failures with related consequences and the possibility of 200 planetary defense infrastructures as a possible result if no planetary defense governance and predictable decision-making system is put in place would be a threat to international security. This chapter argues that planetary defense can be understood and used by every state on this planet as a unique opportunity to practice a responsible foreign policy based on cosmopolitan ideas on the shoulders of the decades-long ongoing scientific efforts. To unfold the argument, we apply the IR theoretical debate around security cosmopolitanism to planetary defense to demonstrate how the international community can effectively govern global security issues that require security sensitive technologies and how such policy could contribute to human flourishing.
Sufism in Republican Turkey
Authors: Soileau Mark 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter surveys the evolution of Sufi institutions in Turkey in the 20th century as they were impacted by the modernist, secularist, and nationalist ideology and movement of the Republican era. The many Sufi orders, prominent during the Ottoman period, were abruptly closed by law in 1925 as part of the new Republic’s modernizing reforms, and with their traditions now relegated to the past, the various orders and their members responded in different ways—by accepting the closure, by continuing underground, or by finding opportunities to assert themselves and their traditions. This chapter assesses these developments by focusing on the aspects of Sufism that were officially banned by the law—the tombs of saints and the pilgrimage practices occurring at them, the dervish lodges and the rituals performed in them, and the Sufi orders as units of social organization and as traditions—as well as the transmission of Sufi knowledge.
Biopolitics and Illiberalism
Authors: Yatsyk Alexandra 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter examines how the biopolitical approach can help to unpack the illiberal backsliding of national states. It demonstrates the Russian state’s illiberal degradation toward totalitarianism from the beginning of Putin’s presidency in the 2000s, moving from the “power of life” to the “power of death.” The chapter argues that the biopolitical approach revealed the Kremlin’s totalitarian potential during the presidency of Dmitry Medvedev in 2008–2012. Since 2012, Moscow has been intensively applying biopolitical regulations to consolidate Russian society on the basis of conservative values and imperial ressentiment. Body-oriented discourse has become popular among Russian politicians due to its ability to substitute post-ideological forms for public politics. As Putin’s regime continues to solidify, it replaces politico-ideological arguments with force and violence against political opponents. This chapter tells the story of the Kremlin’s zoe- and thanatopoliticization through the normalization of violence, its ultimate manifestation being the full-fledged war with Ukraine.
Russia’s Illiberal Conservatism
Authors: Bluhm Katharina 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
In recent years, illiberalism as a counter-hegemonic movement against contemporary Western liberalism and global capitalism has developed into a right-wing, national-conservative project which, once again in history, stands in opposition to liberalism and communism. Russia’s illiberal conservatives constitute a more radical part of this larger movement. This chapter analyzes two major ideological strands of Russia’s illiberal conservatism: (1) a conservative-revolutionary strand that views Russia as an empire with a unique civilization, and (2) an evolutionary nationalist conservatism aiming at construction of a nation-state. Proponents of the first strand aggressively oppose the West, while supporters of the second have hoped for a transformation of Putin’s regime without completely breaking with the West. Both strands position themselves in relation to contemporary Western liberalism and its perceived crisis. While both embraced the annexation of Crimea and the “Russian Spring” in Donbas, they have responded differently to the 2022 war in Ukraine, which has finally ended the evolutionary nationalist project.
The International Politics of Illiberalism
Authors: Aron Hadas , Snyder Jack 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Illiberalism has become an increasingly important force in global politics in recent decades. Though it draws its legitimation from the foundation of liberalism—the sovereignty of the people—it nonetheless represents a backlash against liberal values and the global liberal order. Illiberals in power in different countries share a similar discourse of rejection of liberal values, cosmopolitan globalism, and neoliberal economics. They employ similar methods of rule, including an authoritarian concentration of power, the elimination of checks and balances, and clientelist practices. However, the inherently transactional nature of illiberalism and its preoccupation with national sovereignty limit cooperation among illiberals. This puts them at a disadvantage with liberal states in many aspects of international competition. The chapter lays out a theory of the international behavior of illiberal regimes, demonstrating the points of similarity and connection between illiberals in power and their ultimate lack of a strong basis for mutual cooperation.
Illiberalism and Fear
Authors: Doyle Natalie J. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The notion of illiberalism has become increasingly influential in discussions surrounding the dysfunction of the party-based political systems of Western liberal democracies, which increasingly favor the election of populist anti-establishment figures, among them Donald Trump in the United States and Viktor Orbán in Hungary. Illiberalism is now associated with the resurgence of right-wing conservative values, which appear extremist in light of the accelerated social change experienced by Western societies with respect to individual rights or cosmopolitanism. The Covid-19 pandemic and the measures used by Western governments to respond to this presumed existential threat —lockdowns, surveillance technology, mask mandates, and vaccination mandates—have challenged this narrow understanding of illiberalism and highlighted its connection to the loss of legitimacy of democratic politics, which is increasingly managed through a politics of fear. Illiberalism is the byproduct of the destabilization of Western societies (both culturally and economically) by neoliberalism and concomitant attempts by elites to reassert their political authority over fragmented and scared populations.
International Environmental Law in the Americas
Authors: Garcia Beatriz , Pereira Ricardo 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the origins, evolution, and implementation of international environmental law in the Americas. Following the process of decolonization, countries in the Americas started to adopt bilateral and regional treaties to address the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. However, certain areas, such as forest conservation, remain primarily regulated through national laws. Currently, climate change and other global environmental concerns have become integral to the policy agendas of regional institutions in the Americas. Nonetheless, regional environmental cooperation tends to occur in a fragmented, and often ineffective, manner. This can be attributed to the lack of an overarching regional environmental treaty or organization and the presence of numerous regional and subregional organizations that focus on specific species or ecosystems.
Refugees, Freedom of Assembly, and the Right to Have a Place in the World
Authors: İkizoğlu Erensü Asli 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Refugees have been described as ‘speechless emissaries’, not allowed to speak on their own terms under humanitarian structures. Relations of protection not only de-historicize refugees and reduce them to mere bodies to be kept alive, but also deny them political representation. Under these circumstances, how does freedom of assembly matter for refugees’ participation in their own governance? This chapter traces two refugee assemblies to illustrate assembly as an embodied attempt to claim the right to a place in the world. Going against their emplacement by national and international governance regimes, both assemblies search for and at times make different kinds of place, which restore their political agency and allow refugees to engage in foundational politics. The relation between assembling and claiming the right to a place in the world is perhaps self-evidently central in the case of refugees as they are people-out-of-place par excellence. Yet, the relation is not exclusive to refugees.
A Problem of Utopia
Authors: Mutua Makau W. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the interrelation between human rights and transitional justice. It starts by highlighting that human rights are deeply political even though advocates sought to distance it from politics due to its birth in the vortex of the cold war. Moreover, human rights are inextricably and inherently tied with the larger project of Western political democracy and the free market norms that underline liberalism. The idea and practice of transitional justice became a religion within the human rights community, which is decidedly interventionist. The chapter explains how human rights and transitional justice are presented as a doctrine of emancipation.
Contesting Histories
Authors: Wilson Richard Ashby , Petrović Vladimir 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Mass political violence unsettles the past like no other comparable event and the contestation over the historical framing of a conflict continues long after the final peace is signed. Transitional justice institutions actively partake in this contestation as they inevitably broach the most sensitive historical issues. Their conclusions can foster peaceful coexistence or actively forestall public debate about the past. Some scholars have asserted that because truth commissions are released from the criminal justice impulse to adjudicate guilt, they are more able to address the structural causes of the conflict. The authors find to the contrary: truth and reconciliation commissions do not in themselves represent an improvement on courts with respect to the historical accounts they produce. The chapter compares the historical inquiries of domestic and international justice institutions and finds that international institutions are less prone to nationalist distortions and more open to the voices of all those affected by mass violations. International institutions often have capacious rules of evidence, allowing them to admit a wider range of relevant material evidence. Process matters as much as product, and in their investigations, they have gained access to government intelligence archives, revealed the inner workings of a security apparatus, and prompted social movements for accountability. Recognizing the importance of the contested process of history-writing moves us away from a rigid dichotomy between law and history, and towards an actor-centered and empirical approach that focuses on the specific context of the transition from conflict, and the strategies of legal actors that seek to achieve certain identifiable goals through writing history.
Executive-Legislative Relations
Authors: Lee Don S. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter outlines executive-legislative relations in East and Southeast Asian countries where presidents are popularly elected separately from legislators, namely Indonesia, Mongolia, the Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, and Timor-Leste. The chapter first examines two main types of presidential powers along the executive-legislative dimension—constitutional and partisan powers—and then discusses their influence in the context of cabinet formation. The statistical analysis shows that the political dynamics of executive-legislative relations—executive dominance or legislative control—have a powerful impact on cabinet appointment decisions, after controlling for several political and economic factors. The results suggest that greater presidential constitutional and or partisan powers lead to a greater number of non-partisan cabinet ministers, who are viewed as more loyal agents to presidents due to their tendency of less likely putting their individual political ambition above presidents’ policy agenda. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the implications of the main findings.
Sri Lanka
Authors: Welikala Asanga 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Rapid economic development and the peaceful management of communal pluralism were the rationales for Sri Lanka’s 1978 Constitution when enacted. This chapter considers the Sri Lankan constitution’s performance over the last forty-five years and argues that the constitution has not reinforced the legitimacy of the Sri Lankan state in managing political conflict through democratization and minority accommodation, nor has it achieved sustained and consistent economic development by minimizing agency costs and maximizing public goods. The chapter goes on to argue that the form of semi-presidential government established by the 1978 Constitution promotes competitive authoritarianism and delegative democracy as the norm, which also makes the system prone to backsliding episodes.
Coercion and Foreign Policy
Authors: Machain Carla Martínez , Allen Susan Hannah 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores how scholars define coercion as a foreign policy action. By doing so, it addresses the difference between deterrence and compellence. The major distinctions and differences between these definitions depend on whether a threat is actually carried out or not as well as on whether the aim is to prevent the target from taking a given action or to force them to cease on-going behaviour. The chapter addresses the question of which actors actually are able to coerce: individuals, the state, a coalition of states, or a combination of these actors. In addition, the chapter examines when coercion is used, the range of coercive strategies that can be employed (ranging from military force to economic sanctions), and the conditions under which coercion succeeds.
Foreign Policy and Global Health
Authors: Worsnop Catherine Z. , Marion Summer 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic clearly illustrates the centrality of politics to outbreak response. From state-level policies, to the World Health Organization (WHO) and other multilateral mechanisms emerging to govern the global response, political considerations shaped policy and outcomes during the pandemic. This chapter shows how foreign policy analysis (FPA) approaches can be used to shed light on key outcomes during the pandemic including border policy, WHO actions, and COVAX—the mechanism for global vaccine development and distribution. The chapter demonstrates both connections between FPA and traditional International Relations theory and the added value of FPA for explaining challenges in outbreak response. Furthermore, we make clear that FPA approaches can be applied beyond government decision-making to small-group decision-making within international organizations (IOs) as well as IO and non-state actor behaviour, and macro-level outcomes like the design of cooperative mechanisms like COVAX.
Foreign Policy and Climate Change
Authors: Harden Alexandra , Boyer Mark A. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
There is an on-going disjuncture in the conceptualization and study of climate change that focuses too much attention on the global. That disjuncture produces the negative side-effects of shaping the popular discussion on climate-related problems, their veracity and severity as policy problems, and the solutions developed to tackle them on the ground. Moreover, given how climate change manifests itself physically and socio-politically, it creates an urgency for policy action to be taken at appropriate governmental levels relative to the problem. This chapter will explore how climate change fits squarely in the domain of foreign policy analysis as a field of study within both policy and scholarly circles, allowing analysis and policy to focus in the temporal places where action is needed.
Foreign Policy Analysis and Ontological Security Studies
Authors: Steele Brent 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Ontological security is a sense of continuity and order in events, and involves both psychological and sociological features. Psychologist Ronald D. Laing developed ontological security as an approach to studying patients the 1960s. It was further conceptually articulated as a sociological approach via Anthony Giddens’s work throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. The approach was imported and increasingly utilized in International Relations in the mid-2000s, and now ‘ontological security studies’ (OSS) represents a growing research community in IR. This chapter examines the overlaps between FPA and OSS and offers a way forward for a more robust dialogue between the two research fields. Two themes in FPA scholarship, bureaucratic politics and the use of ‘history’ in decision-making, are conceptual areas that have already proven useful for bridging with ontological security. The chapter concludes by pointing to further ways to deepen the dialogue between FPA and OSS within existing academic practices.
Burns Biography, 1949–2019
Authors: Baraniuk Carol 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter, the third on the development of Burns’s biography, will discuss the principal book-length studies of the poet's life from the mid-twentieth century until the second decade of the twenty-first, showing how his progress and development in both personal and public roles have been portrayed. The essay will demonstrate how representations of the poet altered as cultural, social, and political attitudes and values changed over time, and as eighteenth-century life and manners grew increasingly distant from the experience of audiences. It will show that many biographers have supplied fresh reinterpretations of earlier scholarship, and will identify some innovative recent approaches and research. The essay will indicate the evolution of different traditions in Burns biography in this period, and consider what progress has been made towards a definitive evaluation of the poet’s life.
Catholics in Northern Ireland, 1921–1969
Authors: Elliott Marianne 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Starting out with a discussion of the sectarian violence which accompanied partition and early failures in peaceful cooperation, this contribution looks at the grievance culture which characterized northern Catholicism thereafter. In many ways the position of Catholics in Northern Ireland had been preordained centuries earlier: a largely poor grouping, looking to the Catholic Church for leadership in a state which considered them ‘disloyal’. The religion itself was their politics and until the 1960s this deterred the development of anything like normal nationalist politics. A form of ghetto religious culture developed, enclosed, comforting, uncritical. Such a church was not well-prepared for the social and religious revolution of the welfare state and the reforms of Vatican II.
A New Start, 1000–630 BCE
Authors: Bietti Sestieri Anna Maria , Giardino Claudio 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Late Italian protohistory is characterized by innovative scenarios, in which the decline of the Aegean presence, which had characterized the previous phases in various areas of the peninsula, and the establishment in its place of trade with the eastern Mediterranean are significant elements. During the initial phases of the final Bronze Age, the Italian peninsula is characterized by substantial cultural homogeneity, with the appearance of the proto-Villanovan archaeological facies. In the early Iron Age, processes of differentiation will develop, and the archaeological facies become more widespread. The common elements in both ceramic and metallic production will be examined in detail, region by region, in this chapter.
Latium and the Latini
Authors: Maras Daniele Federico 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Ancient historians portrayed the Latins either as faithful allies or as rebels envious of Rome’s power. In reality, this situation was the end result of a long-lasting historical process that progressively transferred the Latins’ cultural, political, and religious identity to Rome. This chapter examines the reasons for—and the steps of—this process, highlighting the characteristics of the Latin communities and the formation of their common ethnic identity from their origins to the fourth century, with an overview of the main changes in the Hellenistic period. Special attention is given to settlement patterns in proto-historic Latium, the historical role of the Latin League, sanctuaries and religion, Latin rights, and colonies.