bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Issues in Comparative Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have noted, the Comparative Method has been employed, and continues to be employed, in reconstructing the earlier stages of languages and language families in all parts of the world. The fact that it still enjoys the confidence of the majority of historical linguists suggests that it is considered to produce useful and reliable results. There are, however, a number of fundamental questions that need to be discussed which relate to the nature of the assumptions on which the method is based, and the extent to which these assumptions can be reconciled with what we know, or believe, about the processes of language change. We have already discussed (in Ch. 1) the status of reconstructed forms themselves, and considered differing views about their validity, but serious doubts have also been raised about the status of the methods used to establish these forms, which seem to demand an interpretation of the nature of language change which is at variance with currently acceptable theories. This chapter will therefore examine briefly the main issues involved here.
Applications and Implications of Internal Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like the Comparative Method, Internal Reconstruction is most commonly, and most effectively, applied in phonology, reconstructing pre-phonemes on the basis of sets of alternating phonemes. How ever, alternation of this kind, though characteristically phonological, is found elsewhere, and it should be possible to generalize these principles, so that any alternation-whether phonological, morphological, syntactic, or semantic-can be used to reconstruct an abstract non-alternating source, which can then be ascribed to the pre-language in question.
Reconstructing Language Relationships
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Apart from the reconstruction of the forms and systems of protolanguages, a further task of comparative reconstruction is to determine the historical relationships between languages themselves. The reconstruction of proto-languages on the basis of the Comparative Method does, of course, presuppose that the languages compared are related, and indeed, successful reconstruction provides a demonstration of such relationship, but it is not concerned with the nature and degree of the relationship; it assumes that the languages belong to the same family but does not require us to know the nature of the internal relationships within the family.
Reconstruction, Culture, and Society
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In previous chapters we have considered the principles of linguistic reconstruction in so far as they affect the language itself, seen as a complex of systems, rules, structures, and so on. But a language does not, of course, exist independently of its speakers and of the speech community in which they live, and there is a further role for reconstruction in relation to this social and cultural dimension. In the early stages of the historical study of language, in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, language and culture were not, in fact, considered separately; the work of the Schlegel brothers on Sanskrit and the Grimm brothers on German, for example, was not confined to the languages concerned but embraced the whole culture of the people, where the language was merely an expression of the 'spirit' of that people.1 We saw that, by the second half of the nineteenth century, linguists had come to pride themselves on the scientific status of their discipline, with the development of the Comparative Method, but this development was achieved by emancipating the study of language from the study of culture.
Semantic Complexity and the Role of Ostension in the Acquisition of Concepts
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In modern semantics, progress seems to have been impeded, more than anything else, by unrealistic expectations. Familiar analyses of meaning along the lines of to killequals ‘to cause to die’ or bachelorequals ‘unmarried man’ have seldom been regarded as satisfactory, but they have helped to perpetuate the illusion that if the meaning of a word cannot be stated sat-isfactorily in a simple formula of three or four words, then what is needed is a longer and more complex one, of five or six words.
The Semantics of Natural Kinds
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
How is knowledge stored and organized in the human mind? In particular, does the mind draw a distinction between “linguistic knowledge” and “nonlinguistic knowledge”, or between a “mental dictionary” and a “mental encyclopaedia”? For example, what do ordinary people know and how do they think about mice, crocodiles, or moths? Can the knowledge encapsulated in the everyday meaning of words such as mouse, crocodile,or mothbe separated from the knowledge that people may have aboutmice, crocodiles, and moths?
Semantic Rules in Grammar
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As I have tried to show (see in particular Chapter 5), a word’s syntactic behaviour reflects, and depends on, its meaning. Thus, it is no accident that one can ask, beg,or applyFOR something, but not order, demand,or commandFOR something; or that one can both orderand asksomeone TO DO something, but not demandor applysomeone TO DO something.
A Semantic Basis for Grammatical Description and Typology: Transitivity and Reflexives
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Grammar encodes meaning. Categories of grammar known, traditionally, as “plural”, “dual”, “past”, or “imperative” encode semantic distinctions which in a given speech community are deemed (at a subconscious level) particularly important. The difference between a swallow and a lark can (at times) be ignored by the speakers of English because they can both be subsumed under a more general label “bird”; but the difference between a birdand two or three birdscannot be similarly ignored: for the speakers of English, the distinction between singular and plural is obligatory (for “count nouns”).
Comparing Grammatical Categories across Languages: The Semantics of Evidentials
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I am going to illustrate and document the claim that grammar encodes meaning by analysing one area of grammar in a number of different languages of the world: that area which is usually associated with the term “evidentiality”. As the goal of this chapter is mainly theoretical, not empirical, my data will be drawn exclusively from one source: the volume entitled Evidentiality,edited by Wallace Chafe and Johanna Nichols (1986). I will re-examine the data presented in some of the chapters of this volume by experts on a number of languages, and I will try to show how these data can be reanalysed in terms of universal semantic primitives, and how in this way they can be made both more verifiable (that is, predictive) and more comparable across language boundaries.
Key to Coursebook Exercises
Authors: Coles Waltraud , Dodd Bill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the Federal Republic of Germany one does not only speak German (= not only German is spoken). Many foreigners live in Germany and they speak, of course, their own mother tongue. One hears e.g. (for example) Turkish, Greek,Spanish, Italian, and Polish. In Germany many people understand and speak English.
The Miser and the Prodigal Son
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From a purely utilitarian point of view, polysemy-(as well as homophony which we shall look at in a moment)--amounts to an economy in the number of signs used, evoking the image of the miser. Several differ ent signifieds can correspond to the same signifier. The price we have to pay for this is the risk of ambiguity, a feature systematically exploited by cross word compilers and the mainspring of the riddles handed down from gen eration to generation of schoolchildren:
X’-Theory
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The structure of a phrase X’-theory is a theory of phrase structure. That is, it is a theory of what constitutes a possible phrase in natural language. Phrase structure concerns the hierarchical and left-to-right relationships between syntactic categories. For example, in English one type of verb phrase (VP) consists of a verb that precedes its NP complement. Early ap¬proaches to phrase structure in generative grammar stipulated both types of relationship for every category of every language.
Head Movement and Minimalism
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the most part we have focused in this book on the movement of phrasal constituents, a phenomenon that is central to both A-movement (e.g. NP movement) and A’-movement (e.g. wh-Movement). In this chap¬ter we turn to the movement of X0 categories, which is usually referred to as head movement.
Notation: documentation, layout, and the preserved
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writing was for centuries the only way of recording a spoken text. Most actors need a cue-script, a copy of their lines and cues, from which to learn a role; and all revivals depend on the availability of the play-text (and perhaps also on the survival of costumes, sets, or a star actor associated with a role). Text can now be stored electronically and printed as necessary, but must still be available; and since the Renaissance there has been a steadily growing trade in the sale of play texts, both in individual and omnibus or collected editions, in whatever medium currently sells best.
Text II: the process of reading
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Everything we have said so far applies to each moment (speech, action) of a play in itself, and to write accurately about drama one must maintain in reading a constant awareness of the filters and interventions which affect every word of every play. But another aspect of reading works outward from each moment, connecting an individual line or action with what one already knows of the speaker and auditor(s), the plot, themes, verbal motifs, and theatrical ambitions on show. Plays are relatively short works which need economic construction, and in most canonical plays every moment is both itself and resonant with other moments.
Social genres: political theatre, agit-prop, documentary drama, and epic drama
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All plays are implicitly political by virtue of the subject-matter, form, and linguistic registers they contain, and the audience for whom they are intended; all productions are implicitly political because the resources they consume are denied to another play, company, and space. Plays may also explicitly deal with governmental policy, as the anti-apartheid play Siswe Bansi is Dead (1972) by Athol Fugard (b.1932) and the socialist plays Maydays (1983) and The Shape of the Table (1990) by David Edgar (b.1948) do. An author may use explicit politics to cover implicit ones, as Miller’s The Cmcible (1953) explicitly deals with superstitious seventeenth-century witch-hunts but implicitly concerns anti-communist witch-hunts led by Joseph McCarthy (1909-57). A director’s interpretation can make an implicitly political play explicit, or impose an agenda different from anything the play wright intended:
Playwrights
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Authorship in theatre-making is complicated. Even setting aside col lective creation of performance and the question of anonymous texts, and asking only about published texts, it is often difficult to assess how many hands took part in writing and what section/s are attributable to whom. Post-Romantic readers trained on poetry tend to think writing a solitary task, but on the Jacobethan stage collaboration was normal: Thomas Dekker (?1570-1632), for example, contributed to at least 50 plays; 20 have survived; six are usually credited to him alone; only two or three feature in most constructions of ‘the playwright Thomas Dekker’.
Audiences
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All plays are written for the audiences of their day, but audience research is methodologically difficult and documentation rapidly becomes scarcer the further back in history one reaches. Nevertheless, the social compositions, behaviours, and responses of playgoers at particular times are vital to understanding how a play was first received, and how its reception changes over time. Every performance has a new audience, and subjective accounts of spectating must always be treated carefully and whenever possible compared with other accounts: different venues, casts, and acting- or stage conventions all affect reception, and a play’s potential meanings can be obscured if its social contexts are not researched. Journalism is helpful in some respects, but theatre-critics have their own agendas, playing to their readers, and angling commentaries to fit the market profiles of particular media. Under-researched in the past, issues of play going have in the last twenty years increasingly become an academic preoccupation.
Challenges to the play-text
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Play-texts have traditionally conformed with certain conventions privileging the presentation of a narrative, more-or-less coherent, and assuming its representation on stage by actors playing specific roles. Their appearance in print conforms with other conventions of dramatic layout, which vary in detail but have fundamentally changed little since the sixteenth century; their look and sound in performance fulfils common expectations about the way plays are staged.
Alternatives to the play-text
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Current post-Modernist trends in theatre broadly reflect interests in interdisciplinarity (the creation of dialogues between disciplines such as dance, music, fine art, architecture, writing, performance, sculpture, and film) and in radical explorations of space, time, and the meanings of spectating and auditing.1 Outcomes may be expressed within a single medium or in multi-media work, combining, for example, live performance with film and recorded sound. Robert Lepage (b.1957) in Canada, Robert Wilson, Richard Foreman (b.1937), and the Wooster Group in America, Forced Entertainment in England, and Brith Gof in Wales are all notable practitioners whose interests extend and re-work the aesthetic agendas of Modernist experiments.2
The Derivation of Ideas from Impressions
Authors: Pears David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the analysis of Hume’s account of the derivation of ideas, which is the topic of this chapter, there are two points to look out for. Both were made in the previous chapter, but it is worth repeating them before starting the analysis. First, an idea, like a mental image of blue, may occur not as a bearer of any meaning, but as something less than that, a mere datum, for example, which just floats into your mind in daydreaming. Secondly, when this same idea does occur as a bearer of meaning, when, for example, you use it to recall that sapphires exhibit that distinctive shade of blue, it is often, at the same time, more than a bearer of meaning. In fact, in this particular case it is evidently more than a bearer of meaning, because you are making the general memory-judgement that those jewels exhibit this colour. You do not confine yourself to thinking that they might exhibit this colour. You believe that they actually do so.
Personal Identity: The Problem and Hume’s Rejection of Current Solutions
Authors: Pears David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Book I of the Treatise Hume applies his theory of the derivation of ideas to three difficult problems, causation, personal identity, and our perception of the world around us. Personal identity may well be the most difficult of the three. Certainly, it produces a starker situation, in which there is less room for compromise than there was in the case of causation.
Quantifiers
Authors: Bostock David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The logic to be studied in this chapter is standardly called ‘predicate logic’, as the logic of the last chapter is standardly called ‘propositional logic’. But a much better name for it is the logic of quantifiers, or, more fully, the logic of ‘elementary’ or ‘first-order’ quantifiers. However, there is a more basic notion to be considered before we can come to the quantifiers, and that is the idea of a name, or more generally of a logical subject. For the elementary, or first-order, quantifiers take the place of names, and sentences containing these quantifiers are most easily understood in terms of the simpler sentences that result from them, when the quantifiers are dropped and names restored in their place.
Sequent Calculi
Authors: Bostock David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let us think, in a general way, about what happens in a natural deduction proof. As a whole the proof is an array of formulae, which we say establishes some sequent (namely the sequent which has on its left all the formulae which are undischarged assumptions in the proof, and on its right the single formula proved at the bottom of the proof). Moreover, the rules of inference too are rules about sequents. A proof always starts with an assumption, say q&gt;, and if we add nothing more, then this itself counts as the proof of a sequent, namely So the rule which allows us to get started is a rule which tells us directly that all sequents of this kind are correct.
Hume on Testimony concerning Miracles
Authors: Garrett Don 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Scientific Revolution not only posed questions about the relation between nature and human actions; it also posed questions about the relation between nature and divine action, and about the existence of divine actions in or alongside nature. In the face of a mechanistic universe from which God appeared to stand aloof, many theologians claimed that the historical occurrence of miracles in conjunction with divine revelation, as established by the testimony of scripture, was a primary source of evidence for the truth of Christianity.
Physics
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the eleventh book of the Confessions there is a celebrated inquiry into the nature of time. The peg on which the discussion hangs is the question of an objector: what was God doing before the world began? Augustine toys with, but rejects, the answer ‘Preparing hell for people who look too curiously into deep matters’ (Conf. XI. 12. 14). The diYculty is serious: if Wrst God was idle and then creative, surely that involves a change in the unchangeable one? The answer Augustine develops is that before heaven and earth were created there was no such thing as time, and without time there can be no change. It is folly to say that innumerable ages passed before God created anything; because God is the creator of ages, so there were no ages before creation. ‘You made time itself, so no time could pass before you made time.
Sixteenth-Century Philosophy
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The decade beginning in 1511 can well be regarded as the high point of the Renaissance. In the Vatican Raphael was frescoing the walls of the papal apartments, while Michelangelo covered the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel with his paintings. In Florence the Medici family, exiled since the time of the reformer Savonarola, returned to power and patronage. One of the officers of the former republic, Niccolo` Machiavelli, now under house arrest, used his enforced leisure to produce a classic text of political philosophy, The Prince, which offered rulers frank advice on the acquisition and retention of power. Renaissance art and Renaissance ideas travelled northward as far as Germany and England. A colleague of Michelangelo’s designed Henry VII’s tomb in Westminster Abbey and the foremost scholar of the age, the Dutchman Desiderius Erasmus, lectured at Cambridge early in the reign of his son Henry VIII.
Political Philosophy
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two works of the decade 1511–20 mark the beginning of modern political philosophy: Machiavelli’s Prince and More’s Utopia. Both books are very different from the typical scholastic treatise which seeks to derive, from first principles, the essence of the ideal state and the qualities of a good ruler. One is a brief, stylish, how-to manual; the other is a work of romantic fantasy. The two works stand at opposite ends of the political spectrum. A Machiavellian prince is an absolute autocrat, while Utopia holds out a blueprint for democratic communism. For this reason, the two treatises can be regarded as setting out the parameters for subsequent debate in political philosophy.
God
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problem of reconciling human freedom with God’s foreknowledge of human actions had baffled all the great scholastics of the Middle Ages. Thomas Aquinas maintained that God foresaw what we would do because all our actions were present to him in the single moment of eternity. Duns Scotus complained that this solution would work only if time was fundamentally unreal. Instead, he proposed that God knew creatures’ actions by knowing what he himself had decreed from all eternity. Ockham objected that such knowledge would provide foreknowledge of human actions only if our actions were predetermined and therefore unfree. He himself offered no solution to the problem: divine foreknowledge was just a dogma to be blindly believed. Peter de Rivo had tried to preserve freedom while accepting divine omniscience by denying that future contingent propositions had any truth-value to be known even by God; but this was a weasel way out and was condemned by the Church. Lorenzo Valla, Erasmus, and Luther were no better able than their predecessors to reconcile liberty and omniscience.
Logic
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
John Stuart Mill’s System of Logic falls into two principal parts. The first two books present a system of formal logic; the remainder of the work deals with the methodology of the natural and social sciences. He begins the first part with an analysis of language, and in particular with a theory of naming.
Mill was the first British empiricist to take formal logic seriously, and from the start he is anxious to dissociate himself from the nominalism that had been associated with empiricism since the time of Hobbes.
Language
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the course of the nineteenth century, philosophers turned their attention ever more intensely on the topic of meaning. What do words and sentences signify? How do they signify and do they all signify in the same way? What is the relationship between meaning and truth? These questions were now asked with an urgency that had not been felt since the Middle Ages.
A seminal work in the theory of meaning was Frege’s paper of 1892, ‘Sense and Reference’. That paper starts from a question about statements of identity.
Epistemology
Authors: Kenny Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mill described his System of Logic as a textbook of the doctrine that derives all knowledge from experience. He was, therefore, a proponent of empiricism, though he did not like the term. Indeed, in an import- ant respect, he was one of the most resolute empiricists there have ever been. He went beyond his predecessors in claiming that not only all science, but also all mathematics, derived from experience. The axioms of geometry and the first principles of mathematics are, he says, ‘notwith- standing all appearances to the contrary, results of observations and experiences, founded, in short, on the evidence of the senses’ (SL 2.3.24.4).
The definition of each number, Mill maintained, involves the assertion of a physical fact.