bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Vanadium Compounds
Authors: Woolery Mike 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Vanadium is widely dispersed in the earth crust. Primary industrial compounds produced directly from vanadium raw materials are principally fused pentoxide, air‐dried pentoxide, and technical‐grade ammonium metavanadate. Recovery of vanadium from dolomitic shale by salt roasting, acid leaching, and amine solvent extraction is common. Conversion of fused pentoxide to alloy additives is by far the largest use of vanadium compounds. Air‐dried pentoxide, ammonium vanadate, and some fused pentoxide are used as such, purified, or converted to other forms for catalytic, chemical, ceramic, or specialty applications. Physical and chemical properties, manufacturing, health and safety factors, and economic aspects are discussed.
Fibers, Vegetable
Authors: Young Raymond A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Plant‐derived vegetable fibers are classified according to their source in plants as bast, leaf, or seed‐hair. The fibers in bast and leaf plants are integral to the plant structure, providing strength and support. The principal chemical component of vegetable fibers is cellulose, with varying amounts of lignin and hemicelluloses also usually present; thus the fibers are also referred to as cellulosic or lignocellulosic. Vegetable fibers are usually stiffer but less tough than synthetic fibers. The fibers are grown throughout the world but mostly in tropical and subtropical climates in developing countries. The principal bast fibers are flax, jute, and hemp which are utilized primarily for fabrics (linen‐flax, hessian‐jute), bags, ropes, in newer biobased composites and as a source of papermaking fibers, principally cigarette papers. The primary leaf fibers are abaca and sisal, which have uses similar to bast fibers, except fabrics are not produced from the leaf fibers. Cotton, coir, and kapok are the principal seed‐hair fibers, with cotton by far the most important commercial vegetable fiber. Bast fibers are obtained from the plant, after harvest, by water retting (rotting) in ponds or streams. The leaf fibers are obtained by crushing and scraping followed by washing. Vegetable fibers are generally graded according to color, luster, cleanliness, strength, fineness, and uniformity. The world market for vegetable fibers has dropped dramatically in recent years because of periods of economic recession and synthetic fiber replacements.
Vinegar
Authors: Webb A. Dinsmoor 
Published: July 2004

AbstractVinegar is a dilute (4–10%) water solution of acetic acid plus other organic and mineral constituents which vary greatly with the source material from which the vinegar comes.Acetobactercatalyzes oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid. Ethanol comes fromSaccharomycesfermentation of sugary plant materials and from solutions of hydrolyzed starch. Ethanol also is synthesized from petroleum or other basic raw materials.Prehistoric vinegars likely came from ambient microorganisms contacting sugary solutions such as diluted honey. Pasteur found in the mid‐nineteenth century that microorganisms were responsible for both alcoholic and acetous conversions, and modern technology has made possible the wide range of vinegars available today. Traditional Balsamic and Orleans types, with their complex and estery odors, are appreciated for table use, as are the simpler, less costly types produced by generator and submerged culture techniques. Many of these depend upon added herbs and spices for complexing the simple acid taste. For industrial and pickling purposes, very highly concentrated vinegars are available.Techniques of vinegar production parallel those used in processing other clear liquid foods. Crushing, pressing, fermenting, heating, cooling, centrifuging, filtering, clarifying, stabilizing, blending, pasteurizing, and filling into bottles are the principal steps involved. Since vinegars are quite acid, contacting equipment must be stainless steel, plastic, glass, or wood.
Vinyl Acetate Polymers
Authors: Cordeiro Cajetan F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article provides information related to the chemistry, manufacture, and use of poly(vinyl acetate). Summary information is provided on vinyl acetate as the primary ingredient in the manufacture of the polymer. This information focuses on the chemical and physical properties of the material and the handling and safety aspects pertinent to its use in a polymerization system. The key material properties of poly(vinyl acetate) homopolymer and copolymers are described. The influences of key components of the polymerization recipe are discussed, such as the effect of the stabilizers, comonomers, and chain‐transfer agents on the reaction and product. Polymerization process aspects are covered with a focus on emulsion polymerization. The mechanisms involved in the vinyl acetate polymerization reaction are discussed. An overview is provided of the applications of the homopolymer and copolymers in adhesives, paint, paper, and other areas. General information is provided in these areas with references which can be used to obtain more specific information.
Vinyl Acetal Polymers
Authors: Knapczyk Jerome W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPoly(vinyl acetal) resins are made by the acid‐catalyzed acetalization of poly(vinyl alcohol) with aldehydes. The reaction favors formation of the 1,3‐dioxane ring, which is a characteristic feature of this class of resins. As of this writing (ca 1997), only poly(vinyl butyral) and poly(vinyl formal) are made in sizable commercial quantities. Most poly(vinyl butyral) is plasticized and made into interlayer for vehicle and architectural safety glazing. The primary use for poly(vinyl formal) is as an important component in coatings for electrical wire and cable insulation. Applications for poly(vinyl butyral) and poly(vinyl formal) resins make use of their toughness, resilience, optical clarity, high pigment/filler binding capacity, and the high adhesion the resins may provide when appropriately formulated.The history and general characteristics of poly(vinyl acetal) resins are briefly reviewed. Chemical and physical characteristics, manufacture, and principal applications are discussed. Special attention is given to poly(vinyl butyral) and its use for safety glazing interlayer, because glazing interlayer is by far the largest single application for the poly(vinyl acetal) class of resins.
Vinyl Ether Monomers and Polymers
Authors: Login Robert B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe history of vinyl ether homopolymers has been more involved with the progress of polymer science than in the generation of highly successful commercial products. The reason appears to be economic, as less‐expensive monomers such as acrylic and vinyl ester types have dominated end‐use polymer technologies. Copolymers of methyl vinyl ether, especially with maleic anhydride, continue to be important in personal care and pharmaceutical markets. The polymerization of vinyl ethers, because of the strong electron‐donating oxygen, can be readily accomplished with cationic initiators to produce polymers and copolymers having the potential for significant variety. Only poly(methyl vinyl ether), however, achieved commercial success among the homopolymers, though its commercial importance has faded. Divinyl ethers are emerging as important ingredients in radiation‐cured coatings because they are more insensitive than acrylates to atmospheric oxygen present during cationic polymerization. Copolymers based on methyl vinyl ether/maleic anhydride, easily prepared by free‐radical initiation, continue to hold academic interest. The observation in 1949 that isobutyl vinyl ether can be polymerized with stereoregularity ushered in the stereochemical study of polymers, eventually leading to the development of stereoregular polypropylene. In fact, vinyl ethers were key monomers in the early polymer literature. Academic interest in living cationic polymerization and in the unusual compatibility of poly(methyl vinyl ether) with polystyrene continue to demonstrate that vinyl ether‐containing polymers are still valuable for contemporary interest.
N‐Vinylamide Polymers
Authors: Login Robert B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractN‐Vinyl lactams and their corresponding polymers and copolymers have received considerable attention in the academic literature and significant commercial success. However, until recently this interest centered onN‐vinyl pyrrolidinone and its polymers and copolymers.N‐Vinyl caprolactam is now emerging commercially because copolymerization withN‐vinyl pyrrolidinone results in copolymers with high levels of lactam functionality but with controlled hydrophobicity desired in many hair‐fixative products designed to resist drop in high humidity environments. Polyvinylpyrrolidinone (PVP) is a unique water‐soluble polymer that forms lustrous, continuous films on dry‐down that are very adhesive because of hydrogen‐bonding to substrates such as skin and hair. This adhesive characteristic also results in a wide variety of useful applications such as pharmaceutical tablet binding, hot‐melt, and paper adhesive applications. PVP is relatively nontoxic and contributes mildness to formulations. PVP will also complex with a variety of small and large molecules because the pyrrolidinone carbonyl group can accept a proton in the presence of large anions, becoming pseudocationic. In addition, because of lactam polarity where significant charge can appear on the nitrogen and oxygen atoms, it can interact with electron‐rich aromatics. Ligands such as anionic dyes and surfactants or triiodide or phenolic or polynuclear aromatics or polyacids, etc, will interact and complex with PVP. PVPHI3or povidone‐iodine is probably the most successful of these complexes, retaining a reservoir of iodine even in dilute solution, affording fresh germicidal iodine as free iodine is consumed. Cross‐linked PVP or crospovidone can be employed to remove bitter tannins (phenolics) from beer and wine. Dry crospovidone can be compressed because of interhydrogen‐bonding, only to rapidly swell when exposed to moisture. For this reason it has achieved success as a tablet disintegrant.
Vitamin K
Authors: Van Arnum Susan D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA brief history of the vitamin is presented from its early discovery to structural and, finally, stereochemical determination. An overview of synthetic approaches to vitamin K1is discussed. Work by researchers in the late 1930s largely forms the basis of the modern‐day industrial synthesis. Since this early work, industrial research has been directed toward process improvements in the basic methodology. Of particular note is the search for improved condensation catalysts, refinements in the oxidation of the naphthohydroquinone to the naphthoquinone, and more environmentally attractive routes to vitamin K3. In the case of vitamin K3there has been significant work on replacements to the historical chromium reagents. A number of patents on biotechnological approaches to the K vitamins have appeared. A synopsis of this work as well as a review of the biosynthesis is discussed. A brief review of the physiological role of vitamin K is presented. In addition to its well‐understood role in blood coagulation, its specific importance in bone mineralization as well as its general metabolic function are active areas of research.
Vitamin D
Authors: Hirsch Arnold L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractVitamin Ds are a group of secosteroids which are precursors to hormonal substances that control calcium and phosphorus homeostasis and participate in the process of regulation of gene transcription in animals. Animals convert 7‐dehydrocholesterol stored in the skin to vitamin D3upon irradiation by sunlight or obtain supplemental supplies of ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) or cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) from dietary sources.Recent research has elucidated the complicated pathway by which the vitamin D structure is converted to hydroxylated metabolites which serve to control the calcium intestinal absorption and bone mineralization or resorption to maintain calcium blood levels. The metabolites have been implicated in disease states relating to calcium homeostasis, such as rickets, osteomalacia, and other bone diseases. The metabolites have also been shown to function like other steroid hormones to support selective cell differentiation. They have thus been implicated in diseases such as cancer, psoriasis, diabetes, etc.Vitamin D3is manufactured by the chemical conversion of cholesterol to 7‐dehydrocholesterol. Ultraviolet irradiation of the 7‐dehydrocholesterol produces a mixture of photoisomers. The two active isomers, previtamin D3andcis‐vitamin D3form a 20:80 equilibrium mixture. Vitamin D is best assayed by high performance liquid chromatography.Vitamin D3is active in all animals, whereas Vitamin D2is active in cattle, horses, swine, and particularly poultry. Pure vitamin D3has a potency of\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${40\times 10^{6}}$\end{document}international units per gram. It is relatively active in most animals at levels of 40–400 IU per day. Vitamin D3is generally recommended as safe.
Silica, Vitreous Silica
Authors: Sempolinski Daniel R. , Schermerhorn Paul M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractVitreous silica is a high temperature, single‐component glass commercially available in a wide range of purities. It has superior chemical resistance, low thermal expansion, and excellent optical transmission from the uv to the near‐ir. Thermal history and trace contamination can have significant effects on a number of properties, ranging from electrical conductivity to absorption characteristics.Vitreous silica is the material of choice for a variety of commercial and scientific applications, including tubing and containers for chemical processing, uv‐optical elements, envelope material of mercury vapor lamps, and windows for space vehicles. Vitreous silica's high viscosity, even at its melting point, precludes the use of traditional glass‐forming techniques. Manufacture usually involves specialized methods, such as flame hydrolysis or high temperature sintering in helium or vacuum.
Water‐Soluble Polymers
Authors: Glass J. Edward 
Published: July 2004

AbstractWater‐soluble polymers find application in a wide variety of areas that include polymers as food sources, plasma substitute, and as diluents in medical prescriptions. Other areas of importance for water‐soluble polymers include detergents, cosmetics, sewage treatment, stabilizing agents in the production of commodity plastics, rheology modifiers in the various processes for petroleum textile, paper, and latex coatings production. This article discusses the general features of polymers that influence their water solubility and solution properties. Carbohydrate polymers, cellulose, synthetics, cationic polymers, inorganic polymers, new commercial polymers, and hydrophobe‐modification polymers are discussed.
Aeration, Water Treatment
Authors: Rajenden Richard 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAeration for water treatment, the transfer of oxygen, O2, from air to water, is well‐studied. The basic purpose of aeration, used primarily for the treatment of wastewater, is to improve water quality for subsequent usage. Aeration can bring about the physical removal of taste‐ and odor‐producing substances such as hydrogen sulfide, H2S, and other volatiles as well as the chemical removal of metals (iron, manganese), gases (hydrogen sulfide), and other compounds (organics and inorganics) through oxidation and settling. Additionally, aeration is used extensively for the biological oxidation of both domestic and industrial organic wastes. The function of aeration in a wastewater treatment system is to maintain an aerobic condition. Methods developed to estimate the oxygen demand are biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total oxygen demand (TOD), total organic carbon (TOC), and theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD). The oxygen transfer rate for aerators is normally reported at standard conditions. Thus, in order to make meaningful comparisons, the oxygen required for treatment under working or field conditions should be adjusted to standard conditions.
Waxes
Authors: Cottom William P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA review of waxes is provided, including classification, source, composition, production, testing, and applications. Waxes are generally classified according to source, such as natural waxes derived from animals or vegetables; mineral waxes derived from petroleum, coal, and peat; and synthetic waxes derived through polymerization of feedstocks such as ethylene, methylene, and α‐olefins. The composition varies widely among the different classifications. Most of the natural waxes are mixtures with long‐chain alcohols, long‐chain carboxylic acids, and long‐chain esters as the major constituents. Waxes derived from coal and peat are similar, while the petroleum waxes consist almost exclusively of long‐chain hydrocarbons. Petroleum‐derived waxes are produced in massive quantities throughout the world. The synthetic waxes are generally low molecular weight polymers (400 to ca 10,000\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}$\overline{M}$\end{document}n), with ethene polymers being the largest volume product. Since all waxes are fairly complex mixtures, physical properties are often used to describe the products. Uses vary from consumer products such as chewing gum, cosmetics, and candles, to industrial applications such as hot‐melt adhesives for carton sealing, flow modifier for plastic resins, and process additive for suspension polymerization.
Weighing and Proportioning
Authors: Leahy Tom 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This article presents a broad overview of weighing technologies used in traditional industrial, retail, and laboratory weighing applications, and in proportioning and processing of bulk materials. Basic weighing technologies are discussed, including mechanical, hydraulic, analogue, and digital strain‐gauge load cells, electromagnetic force compensation, and nuclear. Scale performance is discussed, along with the requirements for commercial scales. Factors that affect weighing accuracy are discussed, including variations in gravity, moisture content, temperature, and influences resulting from buoyancy and electrostatic or magnetic disturbances. The most important industrial, retail, and laboratory scales and balances are described. Various weighing methodologies are discussed, including weighing predefined quantities, controlling package weight, continuous weighing and controlling, and material proportioning. Some typical weighing applications are discussed to illustrate the range of scale functionality presently available. Tank and hopper scale design considerations are discussed, including weigh modules, tension and compression arrangements, weigh module capacity, mechanical considerations, scale calibration, feeding and discharge equipment, and indicators and controllers.
Wood‐Based Composites and Laminates
Authors: Lehmann William F. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The pioneers and settlers of America found forests which seemed to go on forever. The forests provided low cost building materials and shelter in those times and continued to do so on through the industrial revolution and up to the present day. Thanks to the foresight of a few foresters and politicians in the 1900 era, vast forestlands across the country were set aside on a multiple‐use basis; an important precept of which was to provide a sustained and renewable timber harvest to bolster the nation's need for wood and wood products. Properly managed, these lands and those of private landowners can supply these needs indefinitely.
The wood resources also must be utilized effectively, so that the various wood products and papers will continue to be available in the necessary quantities at reasonable cost. Practices which better utilize smaller trees and wood residues, which were formerly wasted, to create useful composite materials are an extremely important segment of this entire system.
The wood composites industries in the United States have grown steadily for approximately 100 years. Product development has grown into production of a family of composites which can fill virtually every niche in the construction field, in furniture and cabinetry, as well as in numerous other applications for these products. The industry began with hardwood plywoods and has progressed through softwood plywood, insulation boards, hardboards, particleboards, medium‐density fiberboards, waferboards and oriented strand boards, and finally structural composite lumber. From their beginnings, these products have filled needs in applications to which they were well suited. Some later arrivals have competed with earlier products and in some cases have partially or totally displaced them because they were more suited to the application or more economical, or sometimes both. Whereas it may not yet be totally practical, it is possible to build and furnish entire structures such as homes and businesses using only products from the wood composites group.

As the United States begins to rely more heavily on use of smaller trees for construction materials, the products from the composite industries form a most important portion of the country's needs for these products. As an example of the size of these industries, in 1994 wood‐based composite products made with small logs, wood veneer, chips, shavings, and sawdust were produced at a level of 39.1 × 10
6
m
3
.

Primarily owing to availability of economical wood products and building practices which utilize these products efficiently in warm, comfortable, and affordable housing, the United States is possibly the best housed nation on Earth.
Wool
Authors: Naughtin Patrick T. , Huson Mickey G. , Bateup Brett O. , Jones Francis W. , Christoe John R. , Jones Les N. , De Boos Allan G. , Millington Keith R. , Denning Ron J. , Phillips David G. , Evans David J. , Pierlot Tony J. , Guise G. Bruce , Rippon John A. , Harrowfield Barry V. , Rottenbury Rob A. , Humphries Bill , Russell Ian M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractWool is unique among clothing fibers; it is not only the oldest, it is also the only fiber to have been used continuously and universally. The relative importance of wool as a textile fiber has declined as synthetic fibers are increasingly used in textile production. This article discusses raw wool specifications, fiber growth, and morphology, physical and chemical properties, processing, spinning, and dyeing.
Copper Alloys, Wrought
Authors: Caron Ronald N. , Robinson Peter W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe mechanical and physical properties of wrought copper and wrought copper alloys are surveyed according to alloy composition and the temper to which the alloys are processed. Properties important for manufacturing include: formability (bending, drawing, and springback) joining (welding, brazing, and soldering) machinability, and resistances to softening and hydrogen embrittlement. Properties relating to performance of manufactured products are strength, electrical and thermal conductivities, solderability, and resistances to stress relaxation, fatigue failure, and corrosion.Alloy designations are defined and tensile properties of alloys within the several compositional groups are provided. Wrought copper (99.3% minimum copper); the high coppers (no < 96% copper); zinc and tin brasses; tin, aluminum, and silicon bronzes; specially modified copper–zinc alloys; copper nickels; and nickel silvers are discussed together with the several commercially available precipitation hardenable alloys that are distributed among the compositional groupings. Selected applications and the relative costs of commercial alloys are discussed.