bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Height: short and tall stature—when to worry and refer
Authors: Cole Tim , Preece Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Adult stature is one of the least variable biological measures, yet an individual’s position in the height distribution is important for their self-image. This is particularly true during the growth period in childhood, where different rates of growth can exacerbate differences in height between individuals. Those who enter puberty early are for a time appreciably taller than their late maturing coevals, and a late-maturing short child is doubly disadvantaged. So both a child’s height and their growth tempo are important when assessing possible growth problems.
Orthopaedic problems
Authors: Jacobs Benjamin , Eastwood Deborah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Orthopaedics means ‘straight child’ in Greek. When the term was introduced by Nicolas Andry in 1741, the main bone problems were crippling childhood diseases such as rickets and tuberculosis (Andry 1742). Today’s orthopaedic surgeon treats children with a wide variety of conditions that range from simple growing pains to congenital malformations, developmental anomalies, inflammatory arthropathies, benign and malignant tumours, and the complications of metabolic diseases. Fractures remain a common problem and infection is a diagnosis that should not be forgotten.
Endocrine disorders
Authors: Massoud Ahmed 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both general paediatricians and healthcare professionals in primary care often think of paediatric endocrine disorders as being rare and rather esoteric. While there is an element of truth in this, it remains a fact that, collectively, paediatric endocrine disorders are common, though, individually, many are rare and may not ever be encountered within the practising lifetime of a primary care health professional.
Immunization
Authors: Elliman David , Bedford Helen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Immunization is one of the most cost-effective health procedures currently available. In countries with effective vaccination programmes with high uptake of vaccines, the incidence of vaccine preventable diseases and the associated morbidity and mortality has decreased to low levels. For example, polio has been eradicated from the Western hemi- sphere and the prospects for global eradication look good. As a result of a two-dose programme of MMR vaccination, indigenous measles, mumps, and rubella have been eliminated from Finland (Peltola et al.1994).
Growth and survival factors in malignant pleural mesothelioma
Authors: Edwards J G , Zangemeister-Wittke U , O’Byrne K J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Growth factors play a key role in the evolution and progression of malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) through the induction of increasingly well understood cell-signalling cascades (Fig. 8.1). Inhalation of asbestos or exposure to viral agents associated with transformation of mesothelial cells results in the induction of a number of growth factors and cytokines, which induce angiogenesis and a relative downregulation of cell-mediated immunity that may precede the development of malignancy [1,2]. In this regard, the resultant chronic exposure of mesothelial cells to growth factors may give rise to an environment favourable for the development of MPM. The surrounding stromal cells, particularly macrophages, play a crucial role in the secretion of and responses to growth factors and cytokines, acting in concert with the exposed mesothelial cells themselves.
Gene therapy for malignant pleural mesothelioma
Authors: DeLong D H Sterman P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is minimally responsive to most chemotherapy and radiotherapy regimens, and is almost uniformly fatal. Radiation therapy is primarily useful for palliation of localized chest wall invasion or after debulking surgery. Furthermore, radical surgical resection of all involved pleural surfaces, ipsilateral lung, pericardium, and diaphragm has not been demonstrated to prolong survival, although non-randomized large phase II studies have yielded encouraging results in highly selected groups of patients as part of multimodality treatment involving surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy . New chemotherapy drugs administered in combination may provide symptomatic relief and clinical/radiographic responses in a subset of patients with advanced disease, but have been shown to prolong survival at best by only a few months (see Chapters 14–16 and 18). In this context new therapeutic approaches to the management of MPM are urgently needed. The genetic revolution in biology in general, and in oncology in particular, over the past 30 years has facilitated the investigation of gene therapy as a new therapeutic modality. Investigations of the role of gene therapy in cancer have involved the insertion of ‘therapeutic’ genes via various delivery systems (‘vectors’) into tumour cells for the purpose of inducing apoptosis, necrosis, and antitumour immune responses.
Endovascular Brachytherapy
Authors: Coyle Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Coronary artery and peripheral vascular disease are major world health concerns. Sophisticated invasive techniques such as vessel wall stenting are increasingly utilized. Radiation treatment to impair neo-intimal proliferation is a rapidly expanding area of interest. Angioplasty and stenting, performed by interventional radiologists, has an in stent re-stenosis rate of 30 to 50%. It has been shown that under the guidance of angiography, and in some cases intravascular ultrasound (IVUS), low doses of gamma or beta irradiation can be used to significantly reduce the stenosis rate. It has been pointed out that intravascular irradiation is not a compensation for a technically poor angioplasty, and the angioplasty must be optimized before the brachytherapy is carried out. There are already multiple, randomized single, and multi-institutional studies evaluating many aspects of vascular brachytherapy.
Levorphanol
Authors: Davis Mellar P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Levorphanol [(-)-3-hydroxy-N-methyl morphinan] is a morphine analogue that has broad opioid receptor binding capability and is an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, as well as a monoamine reuptake inhibitor. It has been marketed since the 1950s and used anecdotally in advanced cancer patients. Unfortunately, it has become difficult to obtain. A recent positive trial of the use of levorphanol in neuropathic pain has rekindled interest in this opioid. Levorphanol is a mu opioid receptor (MOR), delta opioid receptor (DOR) and kappa opioid receptor (KOR 1+3) agonist. In animal studies, analgesia is predominantly related to MOR. There is also some analgesia derived from the kappa 3 receptor.
Oxymorphone
Authors: Glare Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oxymorphone (dihydrohydroxymorphinone) is a potent semisynthetic derivative of morphine that is available commercially in the USA and Canada, but not the UK or Australia. It is available as a solution for injection and as a rectal suppository (US trade name, Numorphan). Oxymorphone is synthesized from morphine by replacing the hydroxyl group at C6 with a methyl group and, like many other derivatives, there is a double bond between C7 and C8, and a hydroxyl group added to C14. Oxymorphone is also the -O demethylated metabolite of oxycodone, but is present in only small concentrations after oxycodone doses. It is believed to play a role in analgesia in rats administered oxycodone but not in humans.
Choice of opioids and the WHO ladder
Authors: Glare Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Approximately one-third of patients with advanced cancer receiving anticancer treatment and 70–90% of patients with far-advanced cancer experience moderate to severe pain. For such patients, guidelines recommend a trial of opioids. Which opioid they should receive and how it is best delivered remains controversial. Prior to the 1970s, neurosurgical and neurolytic techniques were the mainstay of cancer pain management. In 1976, Balfour Mount et al. showed that Brompton’s cocktail was superior to these traditional methods of pain relief , and by the late 1970s pharmacological management became the mainstay, with a resulting decline in neurosurgical procedures.
Differences in Prognostication Between Early and Advanced Cancer
Authors: Mackillop William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prognosis plays an important role in the management of patients with early, potentially curable cancer, and there is an extensive literature devoted to prognostic factors in that context. Prognosis is perhaps even more important in the management of patients with advanced and incurable cancer, but here it has received much less attention. This is unfortunate because, despite many advances in cancer treatment over the last century, 50 per cent of all cancer patients diagnosed today will die of their disease, and the quality of their end-of life care is often highly dependant on the accuracy of prognostic judgements.
Tools for Formulating Prognosis
Authors: Piccirillo Jay F , Vlahiotis Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Appropriate treatment methods and accurate prognosis become especially important in the palliative care of patients with advanced or terminal cancer, where clinical factors related to the tumour seem less important than those factors related to the individual with the disease. Doctors attempt to determine a so-called ‘cancer death trajectory’ by coupling individual factors such as quality of life and presence or severity of comorbid ailments with biological measures to facilitate more comprehensive prognostication. Much research has examined the individual prognostic importance of a host of clinical, biological, psychosocial and quality of life parameters.
Brain Cancer
Authors: Ohgaki Hiroko 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tumours of the nervous system amount to less than 2 per cent of the total human cancer burden, their overall annual incidence being in the range of 7–9 new cases per 100,000 population. More than 40 histological types of nervous system tumours have been classified by the World Health Organization (WHO), and this makes difficult the identification of factors with unequivocal prognostic value. The most frequent histological types of malignant brain tumour are diffusely infiltrating gliomas in adults and medulloblastomas in children.
Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Authors: Dumontet Charles , Thieblemont Catherine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas (NHL) constitute a diverse set of syndromes characterized by their morphology as well as their immunological, cytogenetic and molecular characteristics. The chances of cure are good in certain subtypes such as diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLCL) with an overall 5-year survival of approximately 60 per cent. Most of the prognostic work in lymphoma, as reflected in this chapter, relates to identifying the predictors of response to therapy. Despite this, lymphoma is still a common cause of cancer death, but little research has been done on prognostic factors in patients likely to be referred to palliative care (those with recurrent disease).
Pain Relief
Authors: Montoya Maria , Bruera Eduardo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pain is one of the major symptoms in patients with advanced cancer, and comprises a heterogeneous group of more than 100 syndromes with varying underlying pathophysiologies. Although in 80 to 90 per cent of patients, pain can be controlled by methods approved by the World Health Organization, at least 25 per cent of cancer patients die in pain, 1–5 mainly because of inadequate assessment, not enough knowledge about pain and its treatment, and physicians, and patients, misconceptions of opioid use.
Cancer-Related Fatigue
Authors: Yavuzsen Tugba , Davis Mellar P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fatigue is a non-specific subjective symptom that is often associated with many chronic illnesses and psychiatric disorders. It is one of the most prevalent cancer related symptoms and has a significant adverse impact on daily function, quality of life (QoL), and survival. There are a limited number of studies addressing the prevalence of fatigue in cancer which varies between 4 to 91 per cent, depending on the diagnostic criteria. Fatigue adversely influences tolerance to chemotherapy and impairs self-care, therefore an assessment of fatigue should be part of routine cancer care.2 Fatigue is poorly managed by physicians and there are few truly evidence based treatments.
Remarks on the equilibrium theory for the Cahn-Hilliard equation in one space dimension
Authors: Alikakos Nicholas D , McKinney William R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Equation (CH) is one of the most celebrated models devised to study the phenomena of separation and coarsening for a melted binary alloy under conditions of constant temperature, where the unknown function u is the concentration of one of the components (Cahn 1961; Cahn and Hilliard 1958). In this article we are concerned with the equilibrium theory for (CH) (Van der Waals 1893), i.e., the study of the stable time independent solutions of (CH).
Introduction to nearrings
Authors: Clay James R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even though man has been dealing with nearrings and using their properties since the development of calculus, it was not until about 1905 that steps were taken to formalize the key ideas important to nearrings. Then, Dickson was interested in the independence of the field axioms, and he showed by examples that commutativity of multiplication and a second distributive law were not a consequence of the other field axioms. His example would be called a nearfield today, which is a very important type of nearring. Its importance was signalled almost immediately when in 1907 Veblen and Wedderburn used Dickson's nearfields to give examples of nondesarguesian planes. Later, in the 1930s, H. Zassenhaus determined all the finite nearfields, a profound contribution, and used these in describing sharply transitive permutation groups.
The great unifier
Authors: Clay James R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the main points of this chapter is to demonstrate a very special place that traditional ring theory and module theory play within algebra, and even within mathematics. This is due to an abundance of symmetry in rings and their associated modules. More specifically, a ring enjoys the consequences of both distributive laws: the left, where a · (b + c) = (a · b) +(a· c),and the right, where (a + b) c =(a· c) + (b · c). We shall see that each of these is a consequence of different properties.
Some first families of nearrings and some of their ideals
Authors: Clay James R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In §2, we had the debut of many of the nearrings whose influence on the theory has been profound. Later, in Chapter 3, we explored an Eden for many of these influential families of nearrings. In this chapter, we wish to get better acquainted with some of these first families of nearrings. With a better understanding of these first families, one should be able to find the abstract structure theory more meaningful and alive. Also, these first families continue to provide geneses for important research. Before we explore these first families further, we shall first find it useful to develop the concept of a nearring module. It has been rather traditional to take one particular viewpoint on this subject, even though it was known that an alternative existed. With promptings from J. D. P. Meldrum [M], Gary Grainger [GG] explored the alternative viewpoint and has found ample evidence that the alternative deserves serious attention.
Avant-guarde families of nearrings
Authors: Clay James R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One can be confident that others will feel that certain families of nearrings should have been included in Chapter 4 among the ‘first families’. (For example, nearfields would certainly be among the first families, but they really do not have many ideals.) Also, among those families included in Chapter 4, one can assume with probability 0.9813 that others will feel that the best stories concerning these families were left untold. Decisions as to what to include were influenced by (1) what was already told in [Pl, [Ml, and [W], and (2) the directions and limitations agreed upon between the author and his publisher. Here in this final chapter, we touch only lightly upon various families of nearrings. These are but a small sampling of topics of current interest to rerearchers in nearring theory, but each of these topics shows promise of being a source for very interesting new mathematics and a strong potential for applications. As the name of the chapter suggests, topics included here have not yet been developed sufficiently to be among the 'first families'. It is hoped that others will be encouraged and even motivated to develop various families into prominence. With such development, we can only expect considerable enrichment of the theory.
The interpretation of L′
Authors: Chapman Jonathan , Rowbottom Frederick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An interpretation of a language is an operation mapping its terms to a context where a notion of validity, or truth, can be given. It is usual to interpret a language for a topos S directly in S, mapping terms (relative to certain strings of variables) to morphisms of the topos. Indeed, L′ —terms can be interpreted in a similar way, as partial functions-see Chapter 5. However, it is more convenient to map L′ —terms to partial elements (sets with at most one element) in L-then validity can be defined so that L′ is (immediately) a conservative extension of L. This idea is due to Zangwill (1980) and related to Fourman’s interpretation (1977), mapping terms of Scott’s language (mentioned in Chapter 3) to morphisms of S with codomain a set of partial elements. (See also Boileau and Joyal (1981), last section.)
Introduction to groups
Authors: Ellis Graham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we give a brief introduction to the theory of groups. Each of the results presented has for its movtivation some aspect of our account of Galois groups given in Chapter 7. The chapter can, however, be read totally independently of Chapter 7. To achieve this independence some material from Chapter 7 is repeated. A group is a set G with a binary operation ° (called multiplication) satisfying the following axioms.
Divisibility
Authors: Rose H E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The simplest results in number theory concern the division of integers. Everyone is familiar with this notion, for example, when a week is divided into days, hours, and minutes. We shall begin with this topic to emphasize its central and fundamental role. Divisibility has been studied for at least three thousand years. From before the time of Pythagoras, the Greeks considered questions about even and odd numbers, perfect and amicable numbers, and the primes, amongst many others: even today a few of these questions are still unanswered. On the other hand, some of their ideas have helped to lay the foundation of modern number theory. Their motivation was both practical and theoretical. the latter having a mystical or religious origin. Our motivation is •study for its own sake· even though many results have important applications in other branches of mathematics and science.
The complex Monge-Ampére operator
Authors: Klimek Maciej 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to explore some applications of the complex Monge-Ampere operator in investigations of fundamental properties of plurisubharmonic functions. In particular, we shall study the notion of maximality, and we shall show that, in the realm of several complex variables, the Monge-Ampere operator can serve the same purpose as the Laplacian in one variable.
Elementary properties of factorized groups
Authors: Amberg Bernhard , Franciosi Silvana , Giovanni Francesco De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this case we say that G is factorized by A and B. Clearly every homomorphic image of G is also factorized by the homomorphic images AN/N of A and BN/N of B. On the other hand, a subgroup of a factorized group G = AB will usually not be the product of a subgroup of A and a subgroup of B. Therefore the following elementary lemma is quite useful.
Products of periodic groups
Authors: Amberg Bernhard , Franciosi Silvana , Giovanni Francesco De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this section we shall prove that an arbitrary product of two periodic groups need not be periodic. In fact, Suchkov (1984 and l 985) has constructed non-periodic groups which are factorized by two locally finite subgroups. His examples are subgroups of the symmetric group on the set 𝕫 of integers.
Oscillations Of Equations With Piecewise Constant Arguments
Authors: Györi I , Ladas G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we shall see, within intervals of certain length, each of the above equations has the structure of a continuous dynamical system, while the continuity of the solution at the points that join consecutive intervals leads to difference equations. It is interesting to note that equations with piecewise constant arguments provide the simplest examples of differential equations capable of displaying chaotic behaviour.
Logic programming—whence it came
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Logic programming represents a point of convergence in the disciplines of logic, mechanical theorem-proving and computing science. Logic contributed, in particular, symbolic systems which enjoyed economy of syntax and for which the notions of deriving sentences and interpreting sentences could be independently articulated yet precisely related. For this we are indebted, in particular, to two famous logicians: Gottlob Frege, whose work led to what we now regard as the standard formulation of first-order logic; and Alfred Tarski, who clarified the long-standing semantic confusions between ‘truth’ and ‘proof’.
The language of first-order logic
Authors: Hogger Christopher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The language of first-order predicate logic is the set of all sentences constructible in accordance with the following (informal) grammar.
We assume some alphabet of constant symbols some alphabet of function symbols some alphabet of variable symbols some alphabet of predicate symbols -
Note-a tuple (or n-tuple) of n&gt;O items, where n is finite, is an ordered arrangement of those items. The three items b, Y and Z can be ordered, for instance, into the tuple &lt;b, Y, Z&gt;. Another possible 3-tuple is &lt;Y, b, Z&gt;, which is treated as being distinct from the previous one. The conventional tuple delimiters &lt; and &gt; are replaced by ( and ) in our logic language. A function symbol which applies to n-tuples for a specified value of n is said to be an n-ary function symbol or, equivalently, to have arity n. Thus, in the example above, ‘f’ is 3-ary.
Modularity of Knowledge
Authors: Tyugu É 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Merging different kinds of knowledge in problem-solving is discussed. Several formal calculi are considered as knowledge representation means, and uniting calculi in the NUT programming system is described. This paper has been inspired by the last book of Sergei Maslov [1] where he described a tower of deductive systems as a representation of scientific knowledge about the world. He illustrated the usage of formal calculi by numerous examples from biology, economics, and technology.