bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comparative Reconstruction of Morphology, Syntax, and the Lexicon
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have so far considered the application of the Comparative Method only in the area of phonology. This is natural, since it is in the phonological sphere that the method has been most extensively employed, and where its usefulness has been most clearly demonstrated. The closed, limited systems of phonology (as compared with the open and unlimited systems of the vocabulary), coupled with the relatively 'concrete' criteria for establishing genetic continuity presented by the phonetic affinities of sounds, make the reconstruction of phonology rather more secure and more straightforward than that of any other part of language. The detailed correspondences established in phonological reconstruction are also a more reliable basis for determining genetic relationships between languages themselves. Nevertheless, the Comparative Method should in principle be more widely applicable, and we shall now consider the ways in which it can be used in other areas of language: morphology, syntax, and the lexicon.
Introduction
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Language is an instrument for conveying meaning. The structure of this instrument reflects its function, and it can only be properly understood in terms of its function. To study language without reference to meaning is like studying road signs from the point of view of their physical properties (how much they weigh, what kind of paint are they painted with, and so on), or like studying the structure of the eye without any reference to seeing.
A Survey of Semantic Primitives
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The set of primitives presented and discussed in this chapter has evolved in the course of nearly three decades of research by myself and colleaguesand it is still evolving. Some of the primitives proposed here are better established than others. Of the fourteen primitives posited in my Semantic Primitives(1972) ten have survived nearly a quarter of a century of critical assaults (by myself and others), and (with one exception: PART) the position of these original members of the set can be regarded as particularly strong. This old guard includes the “substantives” I, YOU, SOMEONE, and SOMETHING, the “mental predicates” THINK, WANT, FEEL, and SAY, and the demonstrative THIS.
Universal Grammar: The Syntax of Universal Semantic Primitives
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most grammatical patterns in any language are language-specific, but there may also be some patterns which are universal. In fact, if cross-cultural understanding is possible at all, despite the colossal variation in language structures, there must be a common core of “human understanding” relying not only on some shared or matching lexical items but also on some shared or matching grammatical patterns in which shared lexical items can be used. Arguably, this common core defines a set of “basic sentences” which can be said in any language, and which can be matched across language boundaries, and the grammar of these basic sentences consists in the possible distribution patterns of the “atomic elements” (that is, the lexical indefinables). To discover those patterns we have to look at the lexical indefinables themselves, to see what their possibilities of co-occurrence are. Therefore, in searching for universal grammatical patterns, we should not be looking for universals of form, but rather for universals of combinability. This chapter is a tentative and preliminary attempt to do just that.
What Language is For
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before considering how language is structured and how it works, we need to ask ourselves-as with any tool-what language is used for. The answer seems self-evident: language is for communication. But, for human beings, communicating is never merely a question of conveying information. Often we talk for the sake of talking, or we say the opposite of what we mean, or say something the addressee already knows. A good deal of the information we convey, moreover, is implicit: that is, it is absent from the message itself. Indeed, people speak for all sorts of reasons which have nothing to do with the act of informing: in order, for instance, to emphasize a position of power or to establish a relation of solidarity. The spoken word is not only a tool, but also a means of self-expression, a form of action, a way of asserting one self as a social being, and a locus of pleasure or suffering.
Pink Elephants
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When playing this game, it soon becomes clear that consonants are much more helpful and provide much more information than vowels, which can easily be worked out from the context formed by the consonants. To a considerable extent we can predict what the vowels are going to be,1 whereas the opposite is not the case. As a result, we can say that the information conveyed by consonants and vowels is proportional to their number in the alphabet. Generally speaking, there are more consonants in a language than vowels2-a difference which is made more obvious in the written language. In English, only five written vowels (a, e, i, o, u) are used to represent 20 vocalic sounds (see Chapter 6, Figure 6.1).
The Canny Canner
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When recognizing the word boundaries we also recognize the fact that in a sequence such as can a can, can he?, three different units of meaning cor respond to the same word form can-an instance of homophony. Indeed, identifying the word boundaries goes hand in hand with recognizing the homophony: if word boundaries become blurred, homophony turns into a puzzle, trap or pun: and it is, of course, often used deliberately in this way. In the written form of the language, word boundaries are made material as gaps-gaps whose absence makes a text quite unreadable.
Did You Say Pig or Fig?
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The converse of a misunderstanding, on the speaker's side, is the 'slip of the tongue'. The speaker may mistakenly transpose two sounds, either within a phrase (our queer dean for our dear queen) or over a whole sentence. The former case is an example of the classic 'spoonerism', so named after the Reverend W. A. Spooner (1844-1930), an Oxford don who is famous for saying 'I have never addressed so many tons of soil' at a workers' meet ing; or who, when telling off a student, is supposed to have said 'You have hissed all my mystery lectures. You will leave by the next town drain.' It is well known that these slips of the tongue occupy an important place in Freudian theory. It is perhaps less obvious that they should also hold a special interest for linguists.
A Rose by Any Other Name
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have just seen, the link between sound and meaning, between signi fier and signified, is a purely conventional one, because it is cultural. And yet, for the speakers of any given language, since words map onto reality, the idea that the link between the two sides of the linguistic sign is not nat ural and cannot be taken for granted, is rather difficult to accept. The fact is well illustrated by the following Jewish anecdote:
The House that Jack Built
Authors: Yaguello Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What ability is it that the Duchess is so proud of? Many of us have, at some point, found ourselves standing between two mirrors and been unsettled by the infinite regression of images produced. Or again, we may have seen on television, a presenter flanked by a monitor on whose screen he appears with, at his side, a monitor in which he appears with a monitor at his side, in which he appears with a monitor at his side, in which ...
Lesson III
Authors: Mcgregor R S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In each of the Listening and Reading Exercises which follow Lessons III, VI, IX, XII, XV, XVIII, XXI, and XXIVyou are asked a series of questions in Hindi. Each question is followed (after a short pause) by a set of four responses in Hindi labelled A to D, only one of which is appropriate. Each question and response is heard twice. Tick the most appropriate response for each set. Correct responses are given in the Key (p. 246).
Barriers
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 6 we determined that movements are subject to constraints. In particular, we saw that certain configurations created extraction is¬ lands, that is, syntactic domains, extraction from which produces ungrammaticality. Ross’s constraints, and later, the constraints of the Conditions framework, provided characterizations of these configurations, but failed to provide a deeper explanatory account of why just those configurations constitute extraction islands. Moreover, the various constraints are rather heterogeneous, in that it does not appear possible to reduce them to one or two simpler formulations. The Barriers framework seeks to remedy these deficiencies.
The Drama Handbook
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a compact guide to reading plays, and to the art and techniques of drama. Ranging from classical Greece to modern Drama and performance, but with particular emphasis on the playwrights (including Shakespeare) who are most widely taught and performed, the Handbook covers the whole range of literary, aesthetic, and political questions attending drama, from theatre designs and acting styles to audience composition and editing printed texts. Looking closely at both text and performance, successive sections give clear and detailed information about the conventions of playtexts, the histories of genre, performance spaces, and theatre personnel, as well as current theatre practices. Each chapter also provides an appropriate technical and critical vocabulary, conveniently gathered in a full, indexed glossary. A final section, dealing with drama essays and exams, includes sample student essays, and the bibliography includes targeted further reading as well as extensive guides to playwrights in print and plays on film. Lucid, practical, and thorough, this book is an invaluable resource for anyone who reads plays.
Is Descartes a Libertarian?
Authors: Ragland C P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his Theodicy, Leibniz complains: ‘M. Descartes demands a freedom which is not needed, by his insistence that the actions of the will of man are altogether undetermined, a thing which never happens.’¹ According to Spinoza, Descartes believes that ‘man … has absolute power over his actions, and is determined by no other source than himself.’² The view of freedom that Leibniz and Spinoza attribute to Descartes strongly resembles what philosophers now call libertarianism: the view that people have free will, that free will is incompatible with determinism, and hence that determinism is false.
The Evolution Of EiroŌ Neia In Classical Greek Texts: Why Socratic EiroŌ Neia Is Not Socratic Irony
Authors: Lane Melissa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper argues that eirōneia and its cognates should nowhere in Plato be translated as ‘irony’2 (defining ‘irony’ as ‘saying something with the intent that the message is understood as conveying the opposite or an otherwise di·erent meaning’).
Simulation and skill centre design
Authors: Horley Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Simulation and skills centre design can be broken into a number of key components, which include building form, room usage (function) and technology. Building form references how the building or space appears. Room usage is the actual function of the room or space referencing the types of training or the types of activity that will be carried out in those rooms. The technology component focuses on using technology to best enhance the educational process. A simulation and skills centre is an educational facility in a clinical setting; the technology, the location and relationships of the rooms should all be taken into account during the design process to facilitate augmenting the educational process.
Constituent Structure
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psycholinguistic investigation at the sentence level essentially began with the question of how the processing system structures individual input items (words) into larger constituents. One of the initial motivations for this research focus was the need to explain why words in a sentence are processed more quickly and recalled more easily than words in a list containing the same number of items (Johnson 1970; Miller and Isard 1964). It was assumed that, by providing a means to quickly structure input elements into larger chunks, constituent structuring reduced the number of elements needing to be maintained in working memory, thus facilitating processing (Frazier and Fodor 1978). In addition, the structures built in this way are clearly not arbitrary in their internal makeup, but rather follow known regularities of constituent structuring.
The processing of complex structures
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By way of analogy with Friedrich Nietzsche’s 1872 book Die Geburt der Trago¨die aus dem Geiste der Musik (‘‘The birth of tragedy from the spirit of music’’), one might well speak of the birth of psycholinguistics from the spirit of complex sentences. Thus, the interest in examining how sentences are processed had its origins in the classical debate on linguistic competence vs. performance (Miller and Chomsky 1963; Chomsky 1965). From this perspective, it was primarily important to differentiate between linguistic and non-linguistic (e.g. working memory-based) factors in the comprehension of complex sentence constructions (e.g. multiple center embeddings), rather than to model the mechanisms operative in simple sentences.
Overview
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most fundamental questions within the study of languagearchitecture concerns the nature of the interfaces between diVerentsubdomains of the grammar. Thus, both in theory of grammar (e.g.Chomsky 1995; Prince and Smolensky 1997; JackendoV 2002; Van Valin2005) and in psycholinguistics (see Box 7.1), it has been debatedwhether the relationship between distinct grammatical componentsis interactive or modular in nature.
Future directions
Authors: Bornkessel-Schlesewsky Ina , Schlesewsky Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The neurocognition of language is a rapidly developing field. Had this book been completed five years earlier, for example, the discussion in the preceding chapters would have been very different. In view of this highly dynamic nature of the field, with relevant new results coming in on almost a daily basis, it is somewhat difficult to draw conclusions about the current state of the art in the domains of syntactic and morphological processing. In this final chapter, we nevertheless attempt to take stock of where the field stands at present and what progress has been made over the last years.
Four basic types of predicative possession
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapter we have delineated the boundaries of our inquiry by defining a cross-linguistically applicable domain of predicative (alienable) possession. On the basis of this definition we can now proceed to build a data base, which comprises the relevant linguistic material from the languages in the sample. Once this task has been completed (and we will assume here that it has) our next step is to construct a typology of predicative possession, on the basis of observable similarities and differences among the constructions included in the cross-linguistic database.
Non-standard variants
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter I have introduced the four major types which will form the basis of my typology of predicative possession. As I remarked there, for each of these four types a standard encoding can be identified, which can be seen as the default manifestation of the type. For the sake of clarity I have thus far restricted myself to these standard encodings, but I have made it clear that not all languages necessarily exhibit all the criterial characteristics of the standard encoding.
Adnominalization
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In addition to the four types that were introduced in Chapter 2, most of the earlier typologies of predicative possession recognize a fifth type, which has been referred to as the genitive possessive (Locker 1954: 502; Clark 1978: 115; Heine 1997: 58); for reasons which will become clear below, I prefer the term adnominal possessive for this construction. Like the Locational Possessive, the With-Possessive, and the Topic Possessive, this Adnominal Possessive is an intransitive construction, which has – at least in its standard form – a locational/existential item as its predicate.
With-Possessives
Authors: Stassen Leon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As I have pointed out several times in the foregoing chapters, the Locational Possessive and the With-Possessive are mirror images of one another, in that the syntactic functions of the two NPs in the possessive construction are switched. However, as regards their relation to the balancing/deranking parameter, I hold that this switching of syntactic functions does not create a difference between the two types.
Preparing patients for elective and emergency surgery
Authors: Wilson lain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Elective surgery is performed at a time that is suitable to the patient and the hospital team. The surgeon will have explained the intended operation during the outpatient consultation and detailed some of the risks and benefits of the procedure. The time between the consultation and hospital admission varies from days to many months. Investigation and assessment of underlying medical problems are best dealt with at this stage, including referral to relevant specialists. Organization of this phase varies between hospitals and surgeons. Elective surgery in patients with chronic medical disorders should only be performed when the medical condition is optimized, and the risks minimized.
Day surgery
Authors: Wilson lain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past 20 years, day surgery has increased in popularity owing to changes in medical practice and developments in anaesthesia and surgery. It is often preferred by patients and is efficient in terms of hospital bed utilization and theatre throughput. The frequency and scope of day surgery is expected to rise considerably over the next two decades. Careful selection of patients in surgical outpatients will prevent problems with unexpected cancellations or the need for postoperative admission due to medical problems. In general, patient selection should be based around the principles outlined in Table 8.1. Common medical factors leading to cancellation on the day of surgery are acute upper respiratory tract infections, uncontrolled hypertension, or fast atrial fibrillation.
Preoperative optimization of high-risk patients
Authors: Munn Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent work has suggested that critical attention to cardiovascular and respiratory function in the perioperative period improves postoperative outcome. Selected patients may benefit from assessment and manipulation of their cardiorespiratory systems by preoperative invasive monitoring and haemodynamic optimization in the HDU/ICU. The following risk factors identify those patients who may benefit: pre-existing severe cardiovascular disease pre-existing severe respiratory disease aortic surgery major surgery for malignancy (oesophagectomy, cystectomy, etc.) septic patients undergoing unplanned surgery haemodynamic instability due to an acute abdominal problem.
Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism
Authors: Campbell Bruce 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Venous thromboembolism is a major cause of death and morbidity among surgical patients. Most deep vein thromboses (DVTs) produce no clinical signs, and most pulmonary emboli (PE) are caused by clinically silent DVTs. DVT may be followed by troublesome postphlebitic syndrome with leg swelling, lipodermatosclerosis, and ulceration. There is now plentiful evidence from good randomized studies that prophylactic measures are effective in reducing (but not eliminating) the risk of thromboembolism. If a patient at risk develops DVT or PE and demonstrable prophylaxis was not used, then the responsible clinician may be successfully sued. Risk factors for DVT include major abdominal and pelvic surgery and major orthopaedic and cardiovascular surgery.
Prevention and management of infection in the surgical patient
Authors: Morgan Marina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nosocomial (hospital acquired) infections are expensive, largely avoidable, and can have a high mortality. In origin, 42% are from the urinary tract, 24% surgical wound infections, 10% pneumonia, and 5% bacteraemia. Infection control consists of basic commonsense measures to prevent or limit development and spread of infection between patients. The infection control team is made up of a doctor (usually a microbiologist) and an infection control nurse(s) who liaise with clinical staff to advise on prevention of cross-infection. Most hospitals publish local infection control and disinfection policies in a manual. If you have a potentially infectious patient to deal with, seek the help and advice of the infection control team.
Cardiovascular disorders
Authors: Dean John , Telford Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cardiac disease is the commonest cause of morbidity and mortality among surgical patients, increasing the risk of perioperative death by 25-50%. Careful preoperative assessment and perioperative monitoring are crucial to minimize mortality. Accurate information about risk must be given to patients before they give consent to surgery. Despite the increased risks, intervention by way of coronary artery bypass grafting or angioplasty is only rarely necessary to reduce the risk of surgery. Perioperative risks are determined by the combined effects of the underlying cardiac disease (Table 24.1) and the type of surgery planned (Table 24.2). Table 24.1 highlights the important perioperative cardiac risk factors.
Haematological disorders
Authors: Lee Richard , Purday John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Defined as a haemoglobin concentration below the normal for the age and sex, anaemia is common in patients undergoing surgery. It usually results from blood loss (acute or chronic) but also from failure of production or haemolysis and is conventionally diagnosed when the haemoglobin (Hb) concentration is &lt;13 g/dl in an adult male and &lt;12 g/di in an adult female. However, most anaesthetists would be happy with a Hb &gt;10 g/dl depending on the patient’s physiological reserves and the expected blood losses. If in doubt, the anaesthetist must be contacted. The common causes of anaemia in the surgical patient are: Blood loss which is either acute, as in trauma when the body will often also show signs of hypovolaemia, or may be chronic when compensatory mechanisms have increased plasma volume thereby preserving circulating volume.