bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Plio-Pleistocene proboscideans from the southern bight of the North Sea and the Eastern Scheidt, The Netherlands
Authors: Essen Hans Van , Mol Dick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Netherlands and the adjacent part of the North Sea are well known for their abundant remains of late Pleistocene mammals. On the other hand, fossils of Pliocene and early Pleistocene age are comparatively rare in this area. This chapter deals with dredged remains of proboscideans from the Plio-Pleistocene in the North Sea area.
Dredging operations in the floodplains of the rivers Rhine, Waal, IJssel and Meuse (Fig. 20.1) still yield many mammalian fossils. In most cases they are typical of the late Pleistocene (Weichselian, 100 000-12 000 years BP) and characterized by the woolly mammoth, Mammuthus primigenius and the woolly rhinoceros, Coelodonta antiquitatis. Other elements of this assem¬ blage are the bovids, Bison priscus and Bos primigenius; giant deer, Megaloceros giganteus; red deer, Cervus elaphus; reindeer, Rangifer tarandus, and carnivores such as hyaena, Crocuta spelaea, and lion, Panthera spelaea. Age determinations of such collections are necessarily based on the results of geological survey. As yet there are no 14C data on these fossils.
Loxodonta africana: range and distribution, past and present
Authors: Douglas-Hamilton Iain , Michelmore Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite its great size and ecological requirements, the African elephant has been a supremely successful survivor amongst Africa’s megafauna. The species, until recently, occupied almost every habitat south of the Sahara, with the exception of extreme desert and high alpine montane. This is in contrast to other parts of the world where certain proboscideans disappeared with the ascent of man.
Introduction
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ethological research can have widely different goals, and accordingly, the collected data have different forms. In most instances, however, it involves detailed observation and recording of the behaviour of one or more individuals. In this book, we will consider the analysis of such detailed, continuous time records of behaviour. (For an example of an advanced statistical method for a different type of ethological data, see Hemelrijk and Ek, 1991.) The types of research questions may vary widely. One may, for instance, be interested in the way in which different individuals affect each others’ behaviour, or the effects of seasonality, or experimental treatment, e.g. drug administration. In spite of these differences in research questions, there is a universal requirement of accurate observational data and methods of analysis for such data. Over the past few decades, these requirements have led to improved facilities for acquiring and processing data, turning ethology into an increasingly quantitative science. Most behavioural experiments involving direct observations of sequences of events and the time at which they occur require (computer) event recorders. See Appendix II for examples of bard- and software, available under the names Camera, Observer and Analyst, see also Fig. 1.1. The application of these recorders saves time, increases the accuracy and reduces the number of errors considerably. A huge amount of data is readily produced and to analyse these data, statistical procedures are needed. Accordingly, the analysis of behavioural data has received much attention in the literature (e.g. Hazlett, 1977, Colgan, 1978, van Hooff, 1982, Colgan and Zayan, 1986, Martin and Bateson, 1986, Siegel and Castellan, 1988).
Analysis of Time Inhomogeneity
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Frequently, behaviour shows systematic and profound changes during the observation period. Such changes may consist of the appearance and/or disappearance of certain acts (e.g. meals or sleep) or characteristic sequences of acts (e.g. courtship behaviour). Changes may also concern the mean bout length. The day-night cycle of mosquitoes, for example, is accompanied by a change in the mean bout length of flights (Peterson 1980). However, behaviour may also change in a less obvious way, under externally constant circumstances. In that case, unless bouts have a deterministically determined length (like in pacing), changes in the time structure are hard to detect. It is very important to take time inhomogeneities into account since otherwise they may mask treatment effects and make the results of an analysis ambiguous. Furthermore, from an ethological point of view, the occurrence of inhomogeneities can be of importance in itself since it may indicate that there are motivational changes. From a mathematical point of view, to know whether or not the assumption of homogeneity is justified is of great practical importance as homogeneity reduces the complexity of the modelling and the data analysis considerably.
Tests for Exponentiality
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss methods for analysing the bout length distributions of the recorded behavioural categories. Since the CTMC is used as the basic model, these distributions are exponential under the null hypothesis (see Box 1.3). We therefore focus on detecting deviations from exponentiality. Our strategy is to investigate this for each act separately. In a CTMC or a semi-Markov chain the process of alternation between one state and the group of other states is a so-called alternating renewal process (e.g. Cox and Lewis, 1978). Thus, we give tests for the exponentiality of the residence times in one state of an alternating renewal process, irrespective of the residence times in the other state. We restrict our attention to so-called scale-invariant tests which do not depend on the recording time unit. Furthermore, we have chosen procedures that can easily be applied, since either the exact null distribution or the asymptotic distribution is known. The (approximate) critical values are listed in the tables in Appendix I.
Tests of Sequential Dependency Properties
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a CTMC there is, at most, a first-order dependency in the sequence of states. Consequently, when it is applied to a behavioural record where states correspond to acts, it is assumed that is independent of the sequence of preceding acts (section 1.2). This implies that given the sequence of acts the about durations are mutually independent. In this chapter we discuss tests against possible additional dependencies that are relevant in ethological applications. In most of these tests it is not assumed that the bout length distributions are necessarily exponential.
Simultaneous Tests
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In analysing large data sets, for instance when testing for goodness of fit of a (semi-)Markov model, one can follow two different strategies. The first is to test every assumption or subhypothesis separately. Afterwards all results are combined by means of so-called omnibus or combination tests. This strategy can be considered as a ‘bottom-up’ approach. The second strategy is to apply an ‘overall test’ and to split up significant results, to find out which of the (sub)hypotheses have to be rejected, by means of so-called multiple comparison methods. This strategy is a ‘top-down’ approach. The two strategies are complementary to each other. Which one is to be preferred depends on the special characteristics of the problem under study. Combination tests and multiple comparison methods are called ‘simultaneous tests’ in the literature. We shall illustrate and discuss the procedures for the case of Markov modelling.
Examples of Analyses Based on Continuous Time Markov Chain Modelling
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we give some examples of practical applications of analyses based on CTMCs and their generalizations. The examples are partially based on our collaborative projects with experimental research groups (i.e. the Ethopharmacology Group, Leiden University, and the Primate Research Centre, TNO, Rijswijk, The Netherlands), the rest are derived from the literature.
Breeding behaviour: preliminaries to nesting
Authors: Short Lester L , Horne Jennifer F M , Gilbert Albert Earl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we highlight various behaviours that occur prior to egg-laying. Most barbets and toucans breed on territories, in some cases a small area around the actual nest, but usually a larger area in which the pair or group nest and forage. The large Whitethroated Toucan Ramphastos tucanus lives in social groups in a ‘home range’, within which the primary pair hold a territory during the breeding season. Territory in honeyguides is treated in Chapter 7.
Capitonidae — barbets, tinkerbirds
Authors: Short Lester L , Horne Jennifer F M , Gilbert Albert Earl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Description ADULT M: forehead to midcrown dull red on black, as is superciliary area; ear coverts with more red usually showing; lores with only sparse short, black feathers; hindcrown, nape and sides of neck glossy blue-black. Brown-black back, feathers when fresh tipped glossy blue-black; rump and uppertail coverts brown-black, sometimes with sparse yellow feather-tipping.
The group system
Authors: Matthews John D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The group system like the uniform system, produces crops that are of even-aged type by the time the pole stage is reached. During the thinning stages the treatment of crops under both systems is identical, and it is not until the regeneration stage is reached that they differ. Under the group system the first step is to go over the compartment and search for any promising groups of advance growth which may have appeared in gaps caused by wind, snow, or other agencies. If these groups of advance growth require freeing, the gaps are widened by felling trees around their edges (Ger. Umsaumungshieb) while at the same time, or as soon as a seed year occurs, a seeding felling is made in the form of a ring round each gap (Ger. Randelhieb). If there are not sufficient natural gaps over the compartment further gaps are created by felling trees in small groups. In this way numerous gaps are distributed over the regeneration area, which may be a whole compartment, or more commonly, only a portion of a compartment at a time.
Introduction
Authors: Hongfu Yin , Yuji, Liang , Guirong Xu 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Palaeobiogeographical studies began late in China (Grabau 1932; Sun 1963). During the 1970s, after the acceptance of plate tectonics, research in this area acquired a great impetus. Among the pioneers were Lu (Lu et al. 1974) who, basing his conclusions on the Cambrian biota of China and the world, argued that palaeobiogeographical distribution and provincialization were controlled by biotic-environmental factors such as source regions, parallel evolution, and physical environments. Later Mu (1983) claimed that palaeobiogeographical provincialization resulted from ecological differentiation. He summarized and subdivided the Ordovician marine biotas of China into several modes of life adapted to different marine environments and occupying different tectonic units of China. Application of palaeobiogeographical results to the interpretation of plate tectonics resulted in a large number of publications during the past decade, including a symposium (Editorial Committee of Treatise on Basic
Sinian
Authors: Yiyuan Chen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the complete sequence and widespread distribution of diversified Sinian sediments within China, the research on Sinian metazoan fossils in China has been a weak link all along, which partly hinders the study of the Sinian system. The finding of hyolithids in the Dengying Formation in Emei Mountain, Sichuan1 (Liao Shifan 1958) has drawn attention to the existence of Pre-Cambrian metazoans in China. However, if Anabarites, an important representative of the first assemblage of small-shelled fossils in China, is referred to the Sinian, the earliest report should date back to 1941
Silurian
Authors: Xinyi He 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Early-Middle Llandoverian was similar to the end of the Late Ordovician in the general features of palaeogeography and biotas. In the southern hemisphere, Gondwana was still integral, except for a number of small separate plates along its margins, and it was situated mostly in the middle and high latitudes south to 30°S. Present-day northern Africa and southern South America were situated in the polar circle. The late Late Ordovician is noted for widespread glaciation, especially in Gondwana. Under the influence of the immense glaciation, global sea-level underwent a sharp drop of up to more than 100 m during the late Ashgill of Late Ordovician (Rong Jiayu et al. 1984). The environmental changes were so dramatic as to cause the decline or extinction of many marine groups. The most obvious example by which to illustrate this phenomenon is the almost complete extinction of the widespread Dalmanitina-Hirnantia fauna during the late Ashgill. Furthermore, up to the 90 per cent of the Late Ordovician trilobite genera disappeared during late Ashgillian. Nautiloids also showed a sharp decline.
Quaternary
Authors: Bexun Cao 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the Cenozoic, the continents of the northern hemisphere shifted towards the North Pole, and Antarctica occupied the south polar section. This situation, plus climatic changes, were favourable for the formation of the permanent polar ice sheets of Arctica and Antarctica in the Pliocene and Miocene, respectively. World temperature further declined after the Pliocene and the Earth has been experienced the late Cenozoic ice age. Quaternary biogeographical distributions were controlled by the above-mentioned plate-tectonic and palaeoclimatic changes. Thermophilous faunas migrated to low latitudes, temperate floras shifted southward and psychrophilous herbs and coniferous trees significantly increased in numbers. The modem provincialization therefore formed through addition of these alterations to the Tertiary biogeographical provincialization.
Implications Of Palaeobiogeo Graphical Provincialization For The Mesozoic And Cenozoic Palaeoclimate And Palaeodrainage Of China
Authors: Hongfu Yin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Figure 15.1 demonstrates an important phenomenon of palaeoclimate distribution in the geological history of China. There are two distribution patterns of tropical, arid tropical, humid subtropical, and humid temperate zones in the northern hemisphere. In the central and western portions of the Afro-Eurasian supercontinent and western North America, where the humid NE trade winds from the ocean cannot reach, the four belts are arranged in a regular south north order (A, B, C of Fig. 15.1). In eastern Asia and eastern North America, however, the wet trade winds from the Pacific and Atlantic oceans have pushed the arid belt further westward, so that here, from south to north, are arranged wet tropical, humid subtropical, and humid temperate zones.
Growth and energetics of brown trout
Authors: Elliott J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The literature on fish energetics and growth has increased markedly during the last 20 years and has been summarized in several excellent reviews, mostly as chapters in larger, multiauthored books (Webb 1978; Brett and Groves 1979; Braaten 1979; Elliott 1979, 1981, 1982; Fischer 1979; Ricker 1979;Ursin 1979; Cho et al. 1982; Pitcher and Hart 1982; Brafield 1985; Jobling 1985; Soofiani and Hawkins 1985; Weatherley and Gill 1987; From and Rasmussen 1989; Wootton 1990). As these reviews include a large amount of work on salmonids in both their natural environment and in captivity, this chapter does not attempt to survey all the literature on brown trout. Instead, emphasis is placed on the basic principles of energetics and growth, and the complex interrelationships that must be a part of any growth model. Although many factors can influence the growth of brown trout, it is generally agreed that water temperature, fish size and the level of energy intake (ration size) are the three most important variables.
Case-study: growth and production of migratory brown trout in Black Brows Beck, 1966-90
Authors: Elliott J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The long-term study of brown trout in Black Brows Beck was introduced in Chapter 3. Emphasis was placed on the chief factors affecting population density and survival for different life stages and year-classes. A similar approach is now applied to the growth, size and production of the trout. This chapter begins by considering the length-weight relationships for different life stages of trout. Growth is then examined in relation to population density, water temperature, fish size, and level of energy intake. It has already been shown in Chapter 4 that the three latter factors are the most important variables affecting the growth and energetics of brown trout. One of the growth models [eqn (4.4)] described in Chapter 4 is shown to be an effective model for the trout population in Black Brows Beck. Without such a model, interpretation of the changes in growth would have been impossible.
Mechanisms responsible for population regulation in young brown trout
Authors: Elliott J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of population stability is central to most theories of population dynamics. It is usually accepted that an ecologically stable population is one that persists for many generations (e.g. May 1973; Nisbet and Gurney 1982). Stability does not mean constant and unchanging but, as stated in Chapter 3, it is the ability of a population to return to an equilibrium density following a transient perturbation. Highly stable populations return rapidly to pre-impact densities, but there may be also stable cycles of different periods (even chaotic fluctuations are theoretically possible but once zero occurs, the population is extinct; see Section 3.6.4). Such stability implies that the population is regulated in some way. Density-dependent processes are usually suggested as the chief mechanism for such regulation. Several excellent reviews of the fish literature, chiefly for marine species, have shown that populations are rarely regulated by density-dependent variations in female size or fecundity,
Ground beetles and the soil: their adaptations and environmental effects
Authors: Evans M E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ground beetles form a reservoir of predators in the upper soil levels of most terrestrial habitats. Although best known as surface runners, ground beetles may burrow into the soil to find prey, to store food such as seeds, for concealment (from predators or prey), or to reach deep hibernation sites. The most specialized burrowers are the Scaritini, which have elongate, pedunculate bodies and a range of digging adaptations. Their tunnels may reach over 70 cm, but most carabids penetrate only the more superficial layers of the soil, especially the litter and humus layers. This intrusion is facilitated by a horizontal pushing ability which differs widely between species. All carabid locomotor capabilities are compromises at various levels between the reciprocal abilities of running and pushing. Scaritines have emphasized the force component and tiger beetles the speed component, but most carabids exhibit a medium-speed/medium-force compromise. In all ground beetles the horizontal pushing ability is enhanced by a strong or weak wedge pushing ability. The ground beetle technique of wedge-pushing has been compared to the more sophisticated methods shown by two distinct groups of millipedes. The effect of all these wedge-pushers is to split up matted leaves and slow down the annual compaction of the litter layer. As with deep burrowers, their activities aid soil drainage, aeration and the movement of nutrients.
The banana cyst nematode, Heterodera oryzicola (Rao & Jayaprakash, 1978)
Authors: venkitesan J S K charles,T S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Musa spp. or cultivars are hosts of two species of Heterodera, namely H. oryzae (Luc & Brizuela 1961), reported by Taylor (1978) in Senegal, and H. oryzicola (Rao & Jayaprakash 1978), reported by Charles & Venkitesan (1984) from India. Before these pests were isolated from bananas, they were considered to be important pests only of rice. Species of Heterodera are to date the most destructive pests among the plant parasitic nematodes. Infestation with H. oryzicola is more serious when paddy-banana and nee crops are rotated and grown in traditional wetlands. The nematode infects only the secondary and tertiary feeder roots and not the primary fleshy lateral roots of banana. Morphological characters and measurements of males, juveniles and cysts are presented in Table 1.
Mode of action of the wing apparatus
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the insect is flying forward, without accelerating, a balance of forces is observed, such that lift counterbalances body weight and thrust compensates total drag (Fig. 2.1). The long axis of the body is at an angle to the direction of flight, and the body drag experienced by the flying insect is a function of both body shape and conditions of airflow. A study of airflow around different insects by Brodsky and Ivanov (1974) showed that vortices are formed behind any body shape.
The origins of flight and wings in insects
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No structure in the Arthropoda, an extensive group of animals, has given rise to such a variety of hypotheses about their origin as have insect wings. Interest in the more than 150-year-old theories of insect flight has not faded, and is impelled by the importance of the colonization of the air for the evolution of insects. Without understanding the origin of flight we cannot establish the relationships between insects and other groups of Arthropoda nor follow the path of evolution which insects have followed since they acquired wings.
Arrival Of The British
Authors: Desmond Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In October 1579, Father Thomas Stevens (1549-1619), a Jesuit priest, stepped ashore at Goa from a Portuguese ship, the first Englishman to sail the sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope. In a letter written in October 1583 to his brother Robert in Paris he praises the ubiquitous coconut palm and its refreshing milk: ‘this is so abundant that after drinking the contents of one nut, you scarcely feel the need of another’. His intervention helped to obtain the release of four of his countrymen from a Portuguese prison. John Newbery, Ralph Fitch, William Leedes, and James Storey, financed by the Levant and Muscovy Companies, had left London in February 1583 as the first English trade mission to India and the East, furnished with letters of introduction from Queen Elizabeth to Akbar and the Emperor of China. Suspected of spying, they were arrested on the island of Ormus in the Persian Gulf-a strategic Portuguese entrepot for goods from the East-and sent to Goa where they were imprisoned. Through the intercession of Father Stevens and Linschoten they were released on parole after having assured the authorities that they were good Catholics. Fearful that their liberty would be short-lived, three of them fled to the safety of neighbouring Bijapur.