bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Monitoring Dictionary Use
Authors: Atkins B T S , Varantola Krista 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two direct routes to more effective dictionary use: the first is to radically improve the dictionary; the second is to radically improve the users. If we are to do either of these things – and obviously we should try to do both – the sine qua non of any action is a very detailed knowledge of how people use dictionaries at present. What do people actually do when they use a dictionary in the privacy of their own home? At the moment, we have no way of discovering this: dictionary use is a highly individual activity. We know from our own experience that the main steps include deciding which entry to look up, searching the entry for the information needed (usually not consciously articulated at this point), and either selecting what one hopes is the correct information, or moving on to another entry, perhaps in another dictionary. Yet there are many aspects of our use of dictionaries that we cannot describe in any detail. What kind of information do we usually look for? How do we decide where to look for it? What strategies do we adopt when the dictionary does not tell us exactly what we want to know? A number of projects have had as their goal to add to the facts known about how people use dictionaries. Béjoint (1981, 1988, and 1989) discusses from the language teacher’s perspective the way in which language students use dictionaries, and the skills they require if they are to do this effectively. Hatherall (1984) also studies the way in which students use dictionaries, and applies the knowledge gained to make some proposals about the contents and format of dictionary entries and about skills required by dictionary users. Hartmann (1989) discusses inter alia a taxonomy of dictionary reference acts and offers a flowchart for lexical look-up strategies.
Reproductive effort
Authors: Grubb Thomas C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we review eight reports concerning a variety of ways that ptilochronology has led to new insights about a conceptual area of reproductive biology termed reproductive effort. Sometimes called parental effort, reproductive effort was defined by Trivers (1972) as “any investment by a parent in an individual offspring that increases that offspring’s chance of surviving at the cost of the parent’s ability to invest in other offspring.” Inherent in this definition is the notion of trade-offs to be made by parent birds. For example, does a parent invest its efforts equally in all this year’s offspring or does it favor only a few? A number of raptorial birds seem to take the latter course. At least, they do not make an effort to distribute food equally among offspring. The result is that while in a year of abundant food all nestlings survive to fledging, in a lean year the first-hatched young use their temporal advantage to take a disproportionate share of the food brought by the parents, leaving their later-hatched, smaller siblings to die of starvation. A second trade-off, more difficult to detect, is one in which the extent of a parent’s reproductive effort in one year is traded off against such effort in succeeding years. The argument goes that reproductive activities have a cost in a decreased chance of surviving until the next breeding season. Thus, there is a trade-off between engaging in more reproductive effort this year and, perhaps, raising more offspring this year, or engaging in less reproductive effort this year and having a higher probability of surviving until the next and succeeding breeding seasons (Bryant 1979; Nur 1984).
Sleepless toddlers and preschool children (1–4 years)
Authors: Stores Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many children of this age are difficult to get to sleep at bedtime and/ or wake in the night insisting on their parents presence.
These problems can be prevented or, if already established, treated in various ways. Often such problems can be prevented or treated by means of appropriate measures on the part of the parents.
Strange behaviour or experiences at night (parasomnias)
Authors: Stores Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are many different conditions in which children may behave strangely or have unusual experiences in relation to sleep.
Although some may be dramatic and worrying to parents, they do not usually mean that the child is psychologically disturbed or medically ill in any way.
Very often, parasomnias stop of their own accord after a while, but safety measures may be necessary in the meantime in some of them.
Occasionally, sleep disorders of this type are part of a medical or psychological disorder that needs treatment in its own right.
Many parasomnias can be grouped according to when at night they occur.
Misinterpretation of children’s sleep disorders
Authors: Stores Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is important to recognize sleep disorders for what they really are and not mistake them for other conditions. Failure to recognize sleep disorders can mean failure to provide the correct advice or treatment for a child’s condition, which may well result in upset and frustration for both the child and his family. As it is possible for a child to have more than one sleep disorder (or a sleep disorder and also some other type of problem), careful assessment of a child’s overall condition is essential.
The Epidemiology And Cost Of Severe Headache Disorders
Authors: Stovner Lars Jacob 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Resources for healthcare services will in the foreseeable future be smaller than the demands, and reliable data on the individual and societal impact of different disorders are crucial for a rational distribution of means. Several initiatives have recently been launched to raise the awareness that headache entails widespread suffering and loss of opportunities for patients and their families, and large cost for the society. Data on headache prevalence and burden globally will be important premises for the campaign ‘Lifting the burden (LtB): The Global Campaign to reduce the burden of headache’, as it is in the European Brain Council initiative ‘Cost of Brain Disorders in Europe’ in which migraine is treated along with many of the other (neurological and psychiatric) ‘brain disorders’. The present paper will summarize some important results from headache epidemiological and health economic studies with the aim to allow for a realistic assessment of the size of headache as a medical, social, and economic problem.
Headache Management In A Neurological University Clinic Without A Specialized Headache Centre
Authors: Lundqvist Christofer , Grande Ragnhild Berling , Aaseth Kjersti , Gulbrandsen Pål , Russell Michael Bjørn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Headache patients in Norway are primarily managed by general practitioners (GP), while the more complicated or severe headache patients usually are referred to a department of neurology. The management of headache varies between settings and is dependent on several factors such as headache severity and type, local refer- ral traditions, economic factors, patient background, and not least on the GP’s skills and enthusiasm. The primary healthcare system in Norway is based on GPs who are paid primarily by the national health insurance system. Each patient is assigned to a GP as his ‘family doctor’.
Migraine Management In A 10-Year Perspective: An Interim Analysis
Authors: Dahlöf Carl , Casserstedt Susanne , Motallebzadeh Tina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The primary objective of this longitudinal study is to analyse the natural course of migraine in a 10-year perspective with respect to patient’s characteristics, migraine symptoms, management, and possible predictors of migraine disappearance. Data on natural history of migraine and the prognosis of migraine is very limited. The Gothenburg Migraine Clinic (GMC) is a specialized tertiary headache clinic that provides a comprehensive service for the diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of headache patients.
Social Care: Litigation, Compensation, Disability Claims
Authors: Ramadan Nabih 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Litigation, compensation, and disability claims are every day occurrences in modern medicine, and their impact on healthcare is far-reaching. Defensive medicine is widely practised in the USA, whether the complaint is headache, back pain, or shortness of breath. Indeed, one study in the USA indicated that 17 per cent of computed tomography scans are ordered in patients with chronic headache upon patients’ request or for medicolegal reasons. This contrasts with the practice in other countries such as Spain where medicolegal causes are not mentioned as common reason for ordering imaging studies in patients with chronic headache.
Colonialism, Imperialism, Constitutionalism
Authors: Dubow Saul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last quarter of the nineteenth century is perhaps the most intensively studied in South African history, justifiably so given its importance for the making of modern South Africa. It is also the most argued over. Amongst the most dramatic and contentious events of the era one must include Carnarvon's failed attempts at confederation; the discovery of diamonds and gold; the final wars of conquest against the Pedi, Xhosa, and Zulu; the annexation of the Transvaal and the associated rise of Afrikaner nationalism; the Jameson Raid, and the crises leading to the outbreak of war.
Is Selection of Children Wrong?
Authors: Brock Dan W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The following case is derived from Derek Parfit: a woman is told that if she gets pregnant now her child is almost certain to be seriously mentally retarded. However, if she takes a relatively simple medication with no significant side effects for two months and then gets pregnant there is every reason to believe that she will have a non-disabled child. Some time ago at a meeting of a research project on disability issues I presented this case with the expectation that all would agree that she ought to take the medication and wait to get pregnant, and that it would be morally wrong not to do so. To my surprise, one disability rights advocate argued not only that it would not be wrong to fail to take the medication and wait to get pregnant, but that it would be wrong to take the medication and wait to get pregnant.
Caring: the essence of mental health nursing
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the concept of caring in mental health nursing and locates the art of caring in twenty-first century practice. First we examine the language of ‘caring’ in health care settings, and identify the core ethical principles and val- ues that underpin the concept of care. We then describe and explain the skills associated with a caring approach to mental health practice.
Leadership and management
Authors: Callaghan Patrick , Playle John , Cooper Linda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the day that a mental health nurse qualifies, they will require skills in both leadership and management. This chap- ter discusses the range of managerial and leadership activities that mental health nurses may engage with and some of the specific skills that are required to make those roles effective. The aim of the chapter is to enable readers to be able to iden- tify the difference and similarity between leadership and man- agement skills, to identify activities that will require those skills to be applied, and to consider which skills they themselves possess or may need to develop in the future.
Calibrating And Constraining Molecular Clocks
Authors: Benton Michael J , Donoghuea Philip C J , Asher Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For well over 200 years, natural scientists have used fossils with varying degrees of confidence to date the evolution of life. The field has advanced dramatically in the last few years, and it would be useful now to review some of the key issues and to suggest an outline of a modus operandi for the future. In explaining the role of fossils in establishing timescales, it is useful to review the historical sequence in which key observations were made. Much of this early history predates the 1960s concept of the molecular clock; but the way in which fossils should be used today depends crucially on those earlier geological and paleontological observations. In presenting these observations in a logical sequence, we highlight what can and cannot be done with fossils, and link this to the relative strengths and weaknesses of molecular data. The value of carrying out this survey now is that it is not framed in the old and rather worn narrative of a “conflict” between fossils and molecules (e.g., 1, 2). It is no longer a question of which is better than the other, or how far one can go with one or the other source of data. It is evident that both fossils and molecules have great strengths, but in recognizing the weaknesses of each source of data, a realistic plan for collaboration between paleontologists and molecular biologists can be proposed (3, 4).
Cnidarians (Cnidaria)
Authors: Rogers Alex D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Phylum Cnidaria is ancient and diverse in terms of size and body shape, and includes the sea fans, sea pens, sea anemones, corals, hydroids, and jellyAsh (Fig. 1). Cnidarians possess two cell layers (diploblastic), the outer ectoderm and the inner endoderm, separated by an acellular mesoglea, or partially cellular mesenchyme (1). theanimals are radially symmetrical, although this may be modiAed, and have two basic forms, the polyp and the medusa. thesessile polyp is sac like, with a single body cavity (coelenteron) opening through the mouth which is surrounded by one or more rows of tentacles. thepelagic medusa is umbrellaor bell-shaped with a mouth located in the center of the concave underside surrounded by tentacles positioned around the margins of the animal. In polyps and medusae, the tentacles are armed with stinging or adhesive structures called cnidae, each produced by a stinging cell, the cnidocyte (1, 2).
Spiders (Araneae)
Authors: Ayoub Nadia A , Hayashi Cheryl Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Spiders (Araneae) constitute one of the most diverse orders of animals with greater than 39,000 described species, which are found worldwide in virtually all terrestrial habitats (1). 7ey are members of the Class Arachnida, which also includes orders such as ticks and mites (Acari), scorpions (Scorpiones), and harvestmen or daddy long legs (Opiliones). Arachnid phylogeny is poorly understood, but the current consensus is that the closest relative of spiders is the Pedipalpi, which is a group of arachnids composed of whip-scorpions (Uropygi), tailless whip-scorpions (Amblypygi), and short-tailed whipscorpions (Schizomida) (2, 3). Monophyly of spiders is strongly supported by a number of shared-derived characters, including cheliceral venom glands, male pedipalpi modiAed for sperm transfer, lack of a trochanter-femur depressor muscle, and abdominal spinnerets and silk glands (2, 4). Spiders are arranged into two suborders: the Mesothelae (one family with 87 species), which retains signiAcant traces of abdominal segmentation, and the Opisthothelae (107 families with 39,638 species), which has lost all traces of abdominal segmentation (5). Here, we review relationships and divergence times among families of the highly diverse Opisthothelae.
True flies (Diptera)
Authors: Bertone Matthew A , Wiegmann Brian M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Order Diptera (true Pies) comprises an ecologically and morphologically diverse assemblage of holometabolous insects. A number of morphological characters unite this lineage (1–3), the most recognizable one being the extremely reduced, knob-like, metathoracic wings, or halteres (Fig. 1). themajority of true Pies also bear specialized sponging mouthparts that diBer markedly from the chewing mouthparts found in most insects. Approximately 150,000 species of Diptera have been described in 180 families, although total species diversity undoubtedly exceeds twice that number (1, 2, 4). Myriad species of Diptera are economically important vectors of human and animal pathogens (e.g., Culicidae) and many are destructive to crops and livestock (e.g., Tephritidae and Oestridae, respectively). Flies are also important ecologically as predators, decomposers, parasitoids, and pollinators (5, 6). Here we review the relationships and divergence times of major events in dipteran evolution, including the origin of the order and its constituent suborders, infraorders, and families. Traditionally Pies have been divided into two suborders: Nematocera (“thread-horn” Pies) and Brachycera (“short-horn” Pies). 7is division was based primarily on characters of the adult antennae and larval head capsule (1, 2, 7). Although a number of shared-derived characters support the monophyly of the Brachycera, the Nematocera is now widely regarded as a paraphyletic assemblage of infraorders, or suborders (8), from/within which the Brachycera originated (7, 9, 10). For a detailed overview of the current state of Diptera systematics, see Yeates and Wiegmann (1, 2).
Vertebrates (Vertebrata)
Authors: Hedges S Blair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The vertebrates (58,000 sp.) comprise a phylum of mostly mobile, predatory animals. The evolution of jaws and limbs were key traits that led to subsequent diversification. Atmospheric oxygen change appears to have played a major role, with an initial rise in the late Precambrian (580–542 million years ago, Ma) permitting larger body size, followed by two Paleozoic pulses affecting prey. The First Pulse (430–390 Ma) brought fishes to brackish and freshwater environments where they diversified, with one lineage giving rise to tetrapods. The Second Pulse (340–250 Ma) led to a Permo-Carboniferous explosion of tetrapods, adapting to diverse terrestrial niches. The Phylum Vertebrata includes 58,000 living species in seven evolutionary clades that diverged in the latest Precambrian and in the Paleozoic Era, 600–360 Ma. Approximately one half of the species (28,183 sp.) are Ashes—not an evolutionary group—and the other half (29,638 sp.) are tetrapods, which comprise a monophyletic group. Vertebrates (Fig. 1) are mobile animals that possess a cranium (skull) and, at least ancestrally, a backbone consisting of vertebrae protecting the nerve cord (1–4). thecyclostomes (85 sp.) are jawless Ashes (agnathans) and include lampreys and hagAshes. Chondrichthyans (1200 sp.) are the cartilaginous Ashes and include the sharks, rays, and chimaeras. Actinopterygians (26,890 sp.) are ray-Anned Ashes and include bichirs, sturgeons, paddleAshes, gars, bowAns, and teleosts, with the latter group comprising nearly all species of actinopterygians. Actinistia (two sp.), which is alternatively called Coelacanthimorpha, includes lobe-Anned Ashes (coelacanths). Dipnoans (six sp.) are the lungAshes. Lissamphibians (6200 sp.) are the living amphibians and include the frogs and toads, salamanders, and caecilians. Amniota (23,438 sp.) comprises the mammals, tuataras, squamates (lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians), turtles, crocodilians, and birds). Here, the relationships and divergence times of these major lineages of vertebrates are reviewed.
Salamanders (Caudata)
Authors: Vieites David R , Zhang Peng , Wake David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Salamanders form a monophyletic group, constituting one of the three orders of modern amphibians (Lissamphibia), together with frogs and caecilians. Salamanders comprise the second most species-rich order of amphibians (1) and are typically classified in 10 families, with ca. 68% of the species belonging to the Family Plethodontidae. thebody plan has remained relatively stable since the Jurassic (2, 3) (Fig. 1), displaying several features that in combination distinguish it from the body plan of other amphibians: presence of a tail both in larval and adult phases, two pairs of limbs of equal size (when present) set perpendicular to the body, presence of teeth on both jaws, presence of ribs on most trunk vertebrae, and absence of several skull bones (4). Here we review the phylogenetic relationships and the divergence times of salamander families. thefamilies are grouped into Ave suborders: Cryptobranchoidea (Cryptobranchidae and Hynobiidae), Sirenoidea (Sirenidae), Salamandroidea (Salamandridae, Ambystomatidae, Dicamptodontidae), Proteoidea (Proteidae), and Plethodontoidea (Plethodontidae, Rhyacotritonidae, and Amphiumidae). Despite the increasing number of studies and data addressing the phylogeny of salamander families, their relationships are di1cult to resolve. Several relationships are consistently recovered with diBerent data sets, while the positions of others, in particular the sirenids and proteids, have remained contentious.
Ratites and tinamous (Paleognathae)
Authors: Baker Allan J , Pereiraa Sérgio L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Superorder Paleognathae consists of the Pightless ratites and the volant tinamous. It is the closest relative of the remaining birds in the Superorder Neognathae. Ratites are named for their raJ-like (ratis) sternum that lacks a keel, whereas the tinamous have a keeled sternum. Tinamous share with the ratites a complex bone structure in the roof of the mouth termed a paleognathous palate. theratites include the Emu and four species of cassowaries in Australia and New Guinea (1), Ave species of kiwis (2) and possibly 14 extinct species of moas from New Zealand (3), two species of rheas from South America, the Ostrich (Fig. 1) now restricted to Africa but once more widely distributed across Europe and Asia, and Ave extinct species of elephant birds from Madagascar. Forty-six species of tinamous occur in South and Central America (1). Eight fossil species possessing a paleognathous palate occur from the late Paleocene (66–56 Ma) to the middle Eocene (40 Ma) of the Northern Hemisphere (4). However, they appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage, and have been placed basal to the ratites (5). Here, we review the phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of the extant clades of ratites, the extinct moas and the tinamous.
Pikas, hares, and rabbits (Lagomorpha)
Authors: Matthee Conrad A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pikas, hares, and rabbits (Fig. 1) are united into the monophyletic Order Lagomorpha based on the presence of a second peg-like upper incisor and foot morphology showing a unique calcaneal canal running diagonally through the lagomorph calcaneus (1). Based on the latter observation, which is also present in lagomorph fossils, it has been proposed that the order has had a long evolutionary separation from other related mammalian orders such as the Rodentia (1–3). The Lagomorpha currently comprises two extant families, the Ochotonidae (pikas, 30 species and one genus) and Leporidae (rabbits and hares, 60 species and 11 genera) (4). themonotypic pikas have a northern hemisphere distribution with most taxa conAned to Asia, where the upliJing of the Tibet Plateau probably played a major role in the diversification of taxa (5). the11 genera of rabbits and hares have a nearly global distribution (Holarctic, Ethiopian excluding Madagascar, northern Neotropical and Oriental) and their diversification is more than likely due to a series of dispersal and vicariance events that could be correlated to the formation and disappearances of intercontinental landbridges (6). From a paleontological perspective, evidence suggests either an Asian or North American origin for the order, but the pinpointing of the exact location is hampered by a scattered fossil record for the early and middle Eocene (7). It has been postulated that the Arst expansion of Leporidae occurred in North America during the Miocene (7), a notion supported by at least two recent fossil discoveries (8, 9), whereas the Ochotonidae probably originated in Asia. Here I review the available information on the timing of the Ochotonidae and Leporidae divergence.