bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ethics in Clinical Decision Making: The Care of the Very-low-birth-weight Baby*
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given that doctors are called upon to make decisions in the management of patients, what I am concerned with here is what makes these decisions right or wrong, or more right than wrong, in a moral sense. Specifically, I am concerned with decisions involving the care of very-low-birth-weight (VLBW) babies.Merely to pose this question is to prompt another, more fundamental one. Can we sensibly or profitably discuss the rightness and wrongness of clinical decisions? There are still those, both within and outside the medical profession, who argue that we cannot.
Transsexualism and Single-sex Marriage*
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘We all know when someone has died, it is perfectly obvious.’ ‘We all know whether someone is a man or a woman. How can there be any doubt?’Such certainty is reassuring. Some things may change, but at least fun damental truths remain. They are, after all, laid down by Nature. The chink in this otherwise disarming argument is that Nature exists only to the extent that we comprehend it. Our comprehension, however, based as it is on observation, intuition, and guesswork is always only partial. From time to time evidence appears which challenges received notions of the truth. It is received with fear; for it threatens that comforting security and certainty which hitherto have shaped our actions. It is denounced, and scorn and more is poured on its protagonists. But ineluctably it gains acceptance. It infiltrates our conception of things, sometimes slowly, sometimes with dramatic rapidity. A further dimension is added to our understanding. In this way there are always fundamentals, but they may change.
The Law Relating to the Treatment of the Terminally Ill*
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a lawyer is invited to comment on the continuing care of those dying from cancer, the first reaction of many is surprise. The assumption is commonly made that the decisions to be taken in caring for such patients, the therapeutic strategy to be adopted, are wholly medical matters, and thus wholly for doctors to make, with or without discussion with the patient. Of course, such decisions are medical matters in that they arise in the context of the professional relationship of doctor and patient, and they are for doctors to make in that the doctor is the professional ‘on the spot’ caring for the patient. But it cannot be stated too emphatically that the principles by reference to which decisions are made are not within the unique prerogative of doctors to lay down.
Monetary Obligation: The Extent of Liquidated Sums (Nominalism)
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE debtor of a monetary obligation, as has been shown, is under a duty to pay money, i.e. chattels which, among other peculiarities, incorporate a reference to a distinct unit of account. The latter is not a quantity of metal, but an abstract unit of measurement which in this country cannot even be defined by the historical method. It has, therefore, been said with justification that ‘a debt is not incurred in terms of currency, but in terms of units of account’, or that ‘contracts are expressed in terms of the unit of account, but the unit of account is only a denomination connoting the appropriate currency’.
Methods of Excluding the Effects of Nominalism
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE conclusion to be drawn from the discussion in Chapter IV is that the effects of nominalism can to a very limited degree only be averted by the general principles of private law. It is therefore not surprising that contracting parties often agree upon special stipulations for the purpose of protecting themselves against fluctuations in the value of money. This is particularly so in long-term contracts, such as bonds, insurance policies, or charterparties, especially if they have an international character. In this country, it is true, such provisions are rare. Only two purely internal contracts containing such a clause have come up for judicial decision, and even in international transactions British creditors were in the past generally content to provide for payment in pounds sterling and to rely on the stability of the British currency.
The Determination of the Money of Account: Initial Uncertainty
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHEN one approaches the problem of identifying the money of account, it is essential to differentiate between the three types of circumstances which may give rise to uncertainty. They depend on whether one has to consider the money of account of a monetary system common to the territories concerned or of monetary systems that were at all material times distinct, or of monetary systems which at the time of payment are distinct, but were originally identical.
The Nominalistic Principle, its Scope, Incidents, and Effects
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHEN on the strength of the principles explained in the preceding chapters, the money of a certain currency system has been found to be due by the debtor, the substance of the obligation is in geheral clearly fixed and no further comment is required: if it, for instance, appears that the debtor owes 10,000 French francs, it will generally be easy to determine what such 10,000 French francs are. But the matter may become more difficult if between the time when the contract was made and the time when payment becomes due the monetary system with reference to which the parties contracted, or its international estimation, suffers a change. It may then become necessary to scrutinize the question what is legal tender of the currency and how much of such legal tender the creditor is entitled to claim.
The Protection of Foreign Currency Systems
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A STATE’S duty to protect the monetary systems of other States may arise from treaties or even from informal arrangements such as used to characterize the sterling area; a duty of this type has been laid down by the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund, particularly by Art. VIII, in so far as certain aspects of exchange control are concerned, and is often created by bilateral treaties.
However, apart from treaties, it would at present not be possible to maintain that customary public international law imposes upon the State the general duty of affording protection to the monetary systems of the other members of the family of nations. The existence of such a duty could be asserted only if the development of international law had progressed so far as to outlaw all activities injurious to a foreign state or even to demand the. adoption of positive measures to safeguard a foreign state’s interests.
Patterns of Monetary Organization
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Monetary Agreements, the lowest form of monetary organization, are treaties which, without creating a distinct institution with its own rules, regulate specifically and exclusively monetary matters.I Such Agreements frequently have an almost political flavour or, contrariwise, are of a highly technical character.
l. The former type is exemplified by the Declaration establishing the ‘gold block’ which between 1933 and 1936 was formed by France, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Poland. These States confirmed ‘their intention to maintain the free functioning of the gold standard in their respective countries at the existing gold parities and within the framework of existing monetary laws’. They asked their Central Banks to keep in close touch to give the maximum efficacy to this Declaration.2 In 1936 a Declaration which was still more frankly political was made by the United States of America, France, and Great Britain, and subsequently adhered to by Belgium, Switzerland, and the Netherlands.
Malaysia
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Malaysia is a classic example of stratification of policy and law affecting the ethnic groups of refugees and their date of arrival in the country. Colonized by the British in the nineteenth century, Malaya gained independence in 1957. In 1963 the Federation of Malaysia was formed, uniting independent Malaya with Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah. In 1965 Singapore left the Federation and became an independent state.
Singapore
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Together with Malaysia, Singapore was a British colony. In 1963 it became a part of the Federation of Malaysia, but in 1965 it left the Federation to become the Republic of Singapore. Immigrants, in particular Indians and Chinese, have reached Singapore for centuries. The social structure of Singapore is very multi-cultural, with people of Chinese, Indian, Malay, and European origins living side by side. Traditionally, there was no delineation between refugees and immigrants.
Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea
Authors: Collier John , Lowe Vaughan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dispute settlement provisions in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ( the ‘1982 Convention’) are remarkable for their detail and variety, which surpass even that of the 1899/1907 Hague Convention. The range of potential disputes is such that no single procedure for dispute settlement is appropriate. For example, there may be inter-State disputes of the kind that have in the past been brought before the International Court of Justice. These may be essentially legal in nature, as are disputes concerning jurisdiction over fishing on the high seas; or they may be inter-State disputes that involve the appreciation of a host of non-legal factors, such as disputes over maritime boundaries. They may, on the other hand, not be inter-State disputes. For example, a case arising from the seizure of a foreign vessel and its crew for fishing in a State’s exclusive fisheries zone would initially be brought before the arresting State’s own domestic courts, although it is possible that the case might subsequently, and after the exhaustion of local remedies, be taken up by the fishermen’s national State and pursued as an inter-State claim in the International Court or some other international tribunal.
Constitutionality
Authors: Fleming John G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relationship between courts and legislature has obvious constitutional implications. Being conditioned by current political perceptions, it is apt to vary with time and place. In most countries, even those priding themselves on an in­dependent judiciary as a badge of legality, governments (executive and legislature) are jealous of pretensions by the judiciary to make rather than to merely administer law. In Western democracies, the subordination of courts to the legislature has a venerable political tradition, reinforced in most of them by the absence of any entrenched constitution which would make the courts, or at least a constitutional court, the final arbiter of powers exercised by the other branches of government.
Stalinism as Crime
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The political organization set up for Poles by Stalin in the aftermath of the Second World War lacked not only legal continuity—that remained with the Polish government in exile in London, tolerated by its old wartime ally though kept outside the frame of international diplomacy—but also its legitimate borders. Red Army field-maps at the time showed a strange state of affairs. The border with Germany in the north and west dated from 1918, while the eastern frontier, based on the 1939 German-Soviet partition, reduced Poland to half its pre-war size.
After Stalinism: Organized Injustice
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Communist party held de facto power in the Polish state from 1944, but until the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1950 the Communists made changes in the legal system in a piecemeal way. ‘The Party in Poland did not need to fight against a long judicial tradition based on case law, as in the Anglo-Saxon systems, or against court powers of judicial review as specifically in the American system.’1 The pre-war Polish legal order was based on statutory laws which, once properly promulgated, were binding in the courts. It was thus a typical Continental European system which, after French, Prussian, Austrian, and Russian impositions during the 125 years since Poland lost its independence and its native common law, had been wisely unified and modernized in the form of the statutory codification that took place after the First World War, when Poland regained its inde-pendence in 1918.
Union Democracy in ‘Solidarity’
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For those who are familiar with the debate initiated by Robert Michels and his Iron Law of Oligarchy1 it is surprising that in the literature on Solidarity, both in Polish and in other languages, so little attention has been paid to the internal democracy that is one of the most conspicuous features of the movement. This may result from the fact that, as the movement was strongly oriented towards democracy in the political life of the society, it might have been obvious that the corollary of this was bound to be the stress on internal democratic organization. One may point in vain to the fact that even sympathizers with organized labour accept as an unwelcome weakness, perhaps attributable to some innate trait of working-class character, a lack of respect for proper procedures.
Images of the ‘Lady Manager’
Authors: Roper Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gender segregation in employment is usually considered either as a function of women’s domestic responsibilities, or as the result of direct discrimination by men. Whereas the first approach concentrates on women’s role in reproduction, the second focuses on production, and how men as workers exclude women. In the culture of post-war management these aspects of segregation were woven together. Organization men explained the dominance of men in senior management as the result of women’s domestic role. A vision of motherhood as the proper fulfilment of femininity provided them with a powerful rationalization of exclusion.
C
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Art. 36 EC provides that the provisions of the Treaty relating to competition, i.e. Arts. 81–89 inclusive, ‘shall apply to production of and trade in agricultural products only to the extent determined by the Council’ within the framework of measures adopted for the organization of agricultural markets, due account being taken of the objectives of the common agricultural policy (CAP) set out in Art. 33 EC. Although the adoption of the CAP and the institution of a system of undistorted competition are two general Treaty objectives of equal status (see Art. 3(1)(e) and (g) EC), Art. 36 nevertheless recognizes the special importance of agriculture and gives it (limited) precedence over competition policy. At the same time, it establishes the principle that the Community competition rules are applicable in the agricultural sector, and confers wide discretion on the Council in deciding how far those rules should apply to that sector (see Case 139/79 Maizena v. Council [1980] ECR 3393 at p. 3421; Case 114/76 Bela-Mühle [1977] ECR 1211 at p. 1236 per A.-G. Capotorti; Case C-137/00 Milk Marque and National Farmers’ Union [2003] ECR I-7975 at p. I-8030).
H
Authors: Toth A G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of horizontal concen tration refers to mergers involving activities carried out by previously independent competing firms, that is to say, to the merging of the whole or part of undertakings situated at the same level of the production or distribution chain of goods or services (for a detailed assessment of the notion of real and potential competitors, see further under Vertical agreement). Horizontal concentrations give rise to specific competition concerns related to the fact that a competitor in the relevant market affected by the concentration ceases to exist (the so-called ‘horizontal effects’). The most relevant concerns refer to the overlapping of activities (and market shares), and the combination of the assets (industrial and intellectual property rights, production facilities or distribution networks) of the competitors that merge.
Foreword
Authors: Earl Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Information Management enthusiasts tend to claim that IT has changed, or will change, organizations both in structure and behaviour. The more sceptical organizational theorists often argue that fundamentals of social organization will defeat any technological forces. Their more open, but critical, colleagues, may suggest that IT tends to enable organizational change, but very much in the spirit of an almost dialectic journey between organizational adaptations and experiment on the one hand, and technological diffusion and learning on the other. Other theorists see a convergence of information and organization, as exemplified by the work of Galbraith (1973). This school can be called the information processing view of organizational design.
Information Systems in Global Business: Evidence from European Multinationals
Authors: Earl Michael J , Feeny David F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the literature of international business a recurring theme is the need for co-ordination of operations and their management in global organizations. Such co-ordination is indeed central to the whole concept of globalization. Co-ordination of activity in order to achieve supra-national efficiencies is argued by many writers to distinguish the global business from the ‘multinational’ (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989) or ‘multidomestic’ (Porter 1986). And co-ordination in the strategic planning domain is at the heart of the ‘strategic intent’ which defines global businesses for Hamel and Prahalad (1989). These authors have expanded on the nature and complexity of global co-ordination required in the successful organizations of the future. Such organizations, it is claimed, exhibit the simultaneous achievement of global scale, responsiveness to markets and governments, world-wide transfer of learning, and innovation (Prahalad and Doz 1987; Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989). In place of organizational uniformity, each geographical unit will have a distinctive role within the overall business (Hamel and Prahalad 1985; Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989). In the ‘transnational’ corporation of Bartlett and Ghoshal the organization is neither centralized nor decentralized; it represents an integrated network in which there are intensive and complex interactions between physically remote but interdependent units. As Porter (1986) recognizes, the ability to co-ordinate globally is seen to be dramatically increased through advances in information technology (IT). The wide-scale use of IT is also implicit in Bartlett and Ghoshal’s (1987) vision of the transnational as an organization in which there is ‘collaborative information sharing and problem solving, co-operative support and resource sharing, collective action and implementation’.
The Foundations
Authors: Olowofoyeku Abimbola A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Judges individually shall be free, and it shall be their duty, to decide matters before them impartially, in accordance with their assessment of the facts and their understanding of the law without any restrictions, influences, inducements, pressures, threats or interferences, direct or indirect, from any quarter or for any reason. The statement quoted above is Article 2: 02 of the Universal Declaration on the Independence of Justice (the ‘Montreal Declaration’). The declaration was adopted at the first plenary session of the 1st World Conference on the Independence of Justice which was held at Montreal on IO June 1983. It was a universal statement of principle. It stated the independence which ‘national judges’ ought to enjoy. This generic statement is followed by more specific statements. For example, Article 2: 04 states that ‘the judiciary shall be independent of the executive and the legislature’. More pertinent to our present purpose,
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Russell G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book set out to examine the GMC’s professional conduct jurisdiction throughout its history in terms of the nature of the jurisdiction and the manner in which cases of misconduct are disposed of by the PCC, and to assess whether the jurisdiction has in the past operated, and at present operates, justly in the terms previously defined. The overall impression of the jurisdiction is that those who operate it seek to act justly and are aware of the need to comply with the various aspects of justice under consideration. Where injustices and illegalities have occurred in the past, they have been, on the whole, promptly eradicated, although legislative changes have invariably been slow to appear.
Starting Off
Authors: Taylor Avril 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Drug using careers, like any others, have a starting-point at which the novice enters and begins a process of learning the skills necessary to achieve the status of a competent member. This chapter focuses on this process, from the women’s first encounters with illicit substances, following their progress up to the point where they perceived themselves as addicted. The women recollect how they were introduced to drug taking, their move to ‘hard’ drugs, and their subsequent move to injecting. The women’s own active involvement at each stage becomes apparent, and the stereotypical image o( women drug users as ‘passive victims’ is thus refuted.
Social Networks
Authors: Taylor Avril 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter indicated that it is through social networks that information essential to obtaining drugs becomes available to the women. Rather than being simply instrumental in the pursuit of drugs, however, social networks and the relationships which characterize them serve other functions in the women’s lives—functions which simultaneously tie the women more securely to the drug life style. But whilst a drift away from ‘straight’ relationships is inevitable as more and more time is spent with other drug users, there is no complete severance from non-drug users in their community, Like Hanson et al.’s inner-city black heroin users (1985), the women inhabit two worlds, that associated with drug-taking and the ‘straight’ world. Being a drug user is one, albeit important, role played by the women. But they still continue to fulfil the roles of partner, daughter, neighbour and—not least importantly—mother.
The Women and Their Children
Authors: Taylor Avril 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Feminists have argued that illicit drug use is abhorred in women precisely because it is regarded as a threat to the stability of the family, that women drug users are seen as rejecting the traditional role of motherhood (Ettore, 1985; News Release, 1979; Perry, 1979). With few exceptions (Bauman, 1980; Carr, 1975; Faires, 1976-7; Kaufman, 1985; Perry, 1987; Stewart, 1987), the drug using mother is generally regarded in negative terms. Some regard drug use by the mother as at least putting children at risk (Black et al., 1987; Carr, 1975; Mondanaro, 1989; Wilson el al., 1979), whilst others see it in stark terms of outright unfitness to be a mother (Densen Gerber and Rohrs, 1973; Densen-Gerber et al., 1972).