bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Imry Yoseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of the interesting and novel phenomena that occur in mesoscopic systems have been reviewed and discussed in this book. After a brief discussion in chapter I of the available experimental systems and “micro–” and “nano–” fabrication possibilities, the modification of the electronic properties, especially the transport, due to Anderson localization were considered in chapter 2. This is the first example where quantum interference has important consequences even macroscopically. Chapter 3 dealt with the general question of how inelastic scattering produces an uncertainty in the relative phase of partial waves, thereby eliminating their interference. An expression was produced which helps to evaluate the inelastic rate in terms of the dissipative response function of the system, which is usually known. As an application, the very nontrivial dephasing due to electron–electron interaction in the diffusive case was considered.
Superfluid helium-4
Authors: Annett James F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are only two superfluids which can be studied in the laboratory. These are the two isotopes of helium: He and He. Unlike all other substances they are unique because they remain in the liquid state even down to absolute zero in temperature. The combination of the light nuclear masses and the relatively weak van der Waals interactions between the particles means that at low pressure they do not freeze into a crystalline solid. All other elements and compounds eventually freeze into solid phases at low temperatures.
The BCS theory of superconductivity
Authors: Annett James F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1957 Bardeen Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) published the first truly microscopic theory of superconductivity. The theory was soon recognized to be correct in all the essential aspects, and to explain a number of important experimental phenomena. For example, the theory correctly explained the isotope effect:
in which the transition temperature changes with the mass of the crystal lattice ions, M. The original BCS theory predicts that the isotope exponent α is 1/2. Most common superconductors agree very well with this prediction, as one can see in Table 6.1. However, it is also clear that there are exceptions to this prediction. Transition metals such as Molybdenum and Osmium (Mo, Os) show a reduced effect, and others such as Ruthenium, Ru, have essentially zero isotope effect.
Invitations to Geometry and Topology
Authors: Bridson Martin R , Salamon Simon M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume presents an array of topics that introduce the reader to key ideas in active areas in geometry and topology. The material is presented in a way that both graduate students and researchers should find accessible and enticing. The topics covered range from Morse theory and complex geometry theory to geometric group theory, and are accompanied by exercises that are designed to deepen the reader’s understanding and to guide them in exciting directions for future investigation. The editors, M.R. Bridson and S.M. Salamon, have each written an article and are accompanied by A.J. Berrick; M.C. Crabb and A.J.B Potter; M. Eastwood and J. Sawon; M.A. Guest; N.J. Hitchin and J.Seade.
The Deformation of Metals by Sperical Identers: Ideal Plastic Metals
Authors: Tabor D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We may now consider the deformation of an ‘ideal’ plastic metal, of yield stress Y, by a hard spherical indenter of radius r (Fig. 21a). The friction between the indenter and the metal surface is again assumed to be negligibly small. When the load is applied to the indenter the metal surface and the indenter will both deform elastically according to the classical equations of Hertz (1881). The region of contact is a circle of radius a (see Fig. 21 b) as given by the equation
Dynamic or Rebound Hardness
Authors: Tabor D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dynamic hardness of a metal may be defined, by analogy with static hardness, as the resistance of the metal to local indentation when the indentation is produced by a rapidly moving indenter. In most practical methods the indenter is allowed to fall under gravity on to the metal surface. It rebounds to a certain height and leaves an indentation in the surface. Martel showed in 1895 that, over a wide range of experimental conditions, the volume of the indentation so formed is directly proportional to the kinetic energy of the indenter and these observations have been confirmed by Vincent (1900) and other workers.
The Friction and Lubrication of Solids
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This classic work, originally published in 1950, was a landmark in the development of the subject of tribology. When it was first published, one reviewer wrote that it 'marks the beginning of a new epoch in the study of friction and lubrication .... The most interesting and comprehensive work on a single branch of physics I have ever read.' For the 1986 reprint David Tabor wrote a new preface, reviewing developments in the subject in the 36 years since the book first appeared. He has also added an appreciation of the life and work of F.P. Bowden, who died in 1968.
Area of Contact Between Solids
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a very difficult matter to prepare surfaces which are really flat. Even on carefully polished surfaces, hills and valleys are present which a.re large compared with the size of a, molecule. If two solids are placed in contact, the upper surface will be supported on the summits of the irregularities, and large areas of the surfaces will be separated by a, distance which is great compared with the molecular range of action. Although the techniques of grinding and polishing have advanced in the past few yea.re, it is still a difficult matter to prepare surfaces of appreciable size which are flat to within 100 to 1,000 A. Most of the surfaces used in engineering practice have surface irregularities which are very much greater than this. Since the range of molecular attraction is only a few Angstroms, we may expect that the area of intimate contact, that is, the area over which the surfaces are within molecular range, will, even for carefully prepared surfaces, be quite small.
Friction and Surface Damage of Sliding Metals
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Returning again to the sliding of metallic surfaces, there are, as we have seen, two major experimental observations. First that the area of contact .between them is very small so that the pressure at the local regions of contact is very high and is sufficient to cause plastic flow of the metal, and secondly that at sliding speeds frequently used in practice the surface temperatures may rise to very high values. The third point we need to investigate is the type of interaction· between the moving surfaces and the physical changes which occur in them during sliding.
Synopsis: course and control of migration of a typical long-distance migrant passerine
Authors: Berthold Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Current findings on various aspects of bird migration were presented in detail in the previous chapters. They paint a general picture of the course and control of movements of a typical migrant which is summarized in this chapter. For clarity, the conditions prevalent during the first outward migration of a typical long distance migrant are portrayed using, as an example, a Sylvia warbler migrating from western Central Europe to central and southern Africa.
The Nucleation Problem
Authors: Aharoni Amikam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is very difficult to solve any non-linear differential equation, and it is even more difficult to choose the appropriate physical case among the various solutions which such an equation may have. Therefore, before trying any solution of Brown’s differential equations, it seemed desirable to define first the possible branch on which the required solution may be. For this purpose a solution was first sought of a set of linear differential equations, to be defined in section 9.1, which became known as the nucleation problem.
Numerical Micromagnetics
Authors: Aharoni Amikam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In all the numerical computations in micromagnetics, nearly all the computer time is spent on computing the magnetostatic energy term for the different magnetization configurations which are being tried. It must be emphasized that this feature is independent of the computational method, and is a result of the inevitable fact that the magnetostatic energy is defined by a six-fold integral, as explained in section 6.3, whereas all other energy terms involve only a three-fold integration.
Functional characteristics of eggs
Authors: Deeming D C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The egg is a key feature of avian reproductive biology and is theraison d’etre for the bird-nest incubation unit. As a consequence there has been a lot of interest in oology and egg composition and morphology have been extensively studied in a variety of species although, because it’s commercial significance, there has been a lot of emphasis on the eggs of the domestic fowl(Gallus gallus). This chapter only briefly reviews the morphology and composition of eggs from, where possible, non-commercial species; more extensive reviews of avian oology are provided by Romanoff and Romanoff (1949), Romanoff (1967) and Burley and Vadhera (1989). This chapter also describes the relationships between egg characteristics, embryonic development and various aspects of the incubation environment.
Parent-embryo interactions
Authors: Brua R B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During incubation, the embryo undergoes phenomenal transformations with specific senses developing in a well-defined progression. First, non-visual photic sensitivity appears followed by tactile, vestibular, proprioceptive, auditory, and finally, true visual capabilities develop (Gottlieb 1968). Eggs are also exposed to a variety of stimuli, including light, temperature changes, mechanical stimulation, and various auditory sounds. Thus, the ability of the embryo to react to certain stimuli is dependent on when the specific sensory system is functional. For example, an embryo is incapable of learning parental vocalisations if exposed to these stimuli prior to the development of the auditory sensory system. Lastly, the ability of an embryo to respond to certain stimuli may also be governed by its degree of maturity at hatching, i.e. altricial versus precocial.
Characteristics and constraints of incubation in hummingbirds
Authors: Calder III W A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reproductive fitness is the crucial link by which lineages persist and evolve. The fundamentals of every field of study are manifested in this linkage: genetics, embryology, development, physiological regulation, and the behaviour of nest siting and construction, incubation, and acquisition and management of energy and food matter·all quantities of which are size-dependent. Hummingbirds (Order Apodiformes, Family Trochilidae) are some of the smallest birds and they lay some of the smallest eggs, in small clutches (Table 14.1). Mass-specific metabolic rates (kJ d-1 g-1 body mass), like egg mass g-1 body mass, are inversely proportional to body size and are most intense in the size range of hummingbirds ( Calder 1996; Brown and West 2000). In order to collect floral nectar, its main energy source, a hummingbird usually relies upon hovering flight which is energetically very expensive. In fact, when hovering, the rufous hummingbird(Selasphorus rufus) has the highest metabolic rate recorded for animals (Suarez 1992). In order to support this activity, the hummingbird needs a high daily nectar intake.
Adaptive significance of egg coloration
Authors: Underwood T J , Sealy S G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The extreme variability in the colours and patterns on birds’ eggs captured the attention of early naturalists and oologists. Poulton (18 90) suggested, in relation to eggs, ‘... any description of colour and marking will be considered incomplete unless supplemented by an account of their meaning and importance in the life of the species.’ Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the adaptive significance of egg coloration. These include crypsis, egg recognition and mimicry, filtering solar radiation, eggshell strength, aposematism, and others. These hypotheses are reviewed for the adaptive significance of egg coloration as they relate to the variability in the ground colours and maculation of eggs. Except for immaculate blue and white eggs, and intraclutch variability, each hypothesis is discussed separately. Throughout the chapter, the following terminology is used. The ground colour of an egg shell is its uniform base colour, whereas maculation is the superficial markings or patterns (e.g. spots, scrawls, etc.) on top of the ground colour. Spots or spotting patterns describe a type of maculation composed of several round marks of various sizes. Pigmentation and coloration are general terms that refer collectively to the ground colour and maculation.
Indistinguishable Particles and Monatomic Ideal Gases
Authors: Wark J S , Glazer A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Up until this point we have been dealing with distinguishable particles. That is to say, we could tell which particle was which because they were localized within a solid. For instance, if one particle was in the ground state of a simple harmonic oscillator and a second was in the first excited state of another, we knew which was which (we could look and, for example, find the one in the ground state located at the corner of the crystal, and the excited one at some definite coordinate in the middle of the crystal).
Diatomic Ideal Gases
Authors: Wark J S , Glazer A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Polyatomic molecules can rotate and vibrate, as well as have translational motion. The number of degrees of freedom a molecule possesses depends on the number of atoms within it. Here we consider the simplest case - diatomic molecules. The single-particle partition function that we have dealt with thus far has only taken into account the translational motion of the gas, and has not included these rotational and vibrational effects.
Electrons in Metals
Authors: Wark J S , Glazer A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we consider an example, in fact the best known example, of Fermi-Dirac statistics: an electron gas. Electrons have a spin of 1/2, and are thus fermions. Now surprisingly, a good approximation for the physics of the conduction electrons in a metal is to treat them as gas particles, ignoring the Coulomb force between them and their interactions with the ionic cores: this is known as the free electron model.
Bose-Einstein Condensation
Authors: Wark J S , Glazer A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 8.3 we studied blackbody radation that is a thermal distribution of photons, which we recall are bosons. However, we noted in that case that a collection of photons need not conserve particle number. We now turn to the question of the statistics of bosons when particle number is conserved.
The molecular taphonomy of biological molecules and biomarkers of disease
Authors: Matheson C D , Brian D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Taphonomy is the study of the processes that affect biological material after death. Changes over time and how they alter the patterns of deposition, within the archaeological or palaeontological record, is the study of taphonomy (Reitz and Wing 1999). However, the broader use of this term now commonly refers to any post-mortem process that occurs, both biotic and abiotic. There are a number of taphonomic models (Davis 1987; Noe-Nygaard 1988) that all focus on the natural and anthropogenic factors leading to loss of information. This occurs firstly by natural alteration before, during, and after burial (first-order process); and secondly, during the excavation, sampling, storage, analysis, and presentation of the results (second-order process).
Twinning In Martensite
Authors: Bhattacharya Kaushik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we study a very important energy minimizing deformation – twins in the martensite. The purpose is two-fold. First, it gives a glimpse of the richness of the energy minimizing deformations in these martensitic materials. Second, it shows that the possible twinning modes in the martensite are determined as a consequence of the energy well structure. In other words, in this theory, one does not need to know the twinning modes a priori; instead, they are obtained as a result.
An overview of string theory and string models
Authors: Binétruy P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is widely believed that string theory provides the consistent framework which lies behind low energy supersymmetry. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a non-technical overview of the main ideas of string theory1, as well as to present some of the new concepts which arise and which might lead to new developments in the study of the low energy theory. Due to lack of space, there is no room for doing justice to the richness of the complete string picture and we refer the reader to other monographs for a more thorough treatment e.g. [312]. However, string models are to be considered very seriously because they provide a complete picture of fundamental physics, including gravity. As such, they should be considered in their entirety because they have an internal coherence. Thus using them for low energy phenomenology (or cosmology) requires us at least to be aware of the general consistency of the string picture.
What is public health?
Authors: Walley John , Wright John , Hubley John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imagine yourself as a health worker in a consultation room. In front of you is a sick person who has come to be treated. As a clinician you do everything you can to make that individual better. You have a similar attitude for the other patients sitting outside in the waiting room. You are committed to your job and are very busy every day treating those people that come for help. You give little thought to those people who haven’t come to the health facility— you assume that anyone who is really sick will visit you or other clinicians and so you are not concerned about those people who have not come to the clinic. In such a situation you would be taking an ‘individual case management’ approach to healthcare.
Future trends in global public health
Authors: Walley John , Wright John , Hubley John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much has been done to improve the health of populations throughout the world over the last century. Public health policies have provided healthier environments with clean water, effective sanitation, and better housing. Public health programmes have supported immunization campaigns to prevent diseases (such as tuberculosis, measles, diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, and polio) and to provide preventative health services (such as maternal and child health services). Health promotion campaigns have attempted to improve awareness about the factors that cause disease and how they can be avoided, and to change individual risk-taking behaviour.
Introduction
Authors: Glyde Henry R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantum fluids and solids play a special role in condensed matter physics and materials science. The many body theory of Fermi and Bose systems was largely developed in the late 1950s and 1960s to describe liquid 3He and 4He at a microscopic level. The concepts of superfluidity in Bose and Fermi systems have been thoroughly explored in liquid 4He and 3He (cf. Lifshitz and Pitaevskii 1980; Vollhardt and Wölfle 1990). This understanding, hard won in quantum fluids, has found wide application across many fields and in more complex quantum systems. Solid helium is the most quantum solid readily available in nature. It displays highly anharmonic dynamics and serves as a prototype for more complex anharmonic solids. The self- consistent phonon theory also found its severest test in solid helium. For these reasons there is a vast literature and many books on this topic. A list of recent titles and conference proceedings appears at the end of this book.
Microscopic Picture
Authors: Glyde Henry R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we outline the microscopic theory of an interacting Bose fluid. The aim is to provide a basis for a microscopic understanding of the excitations in superfluid and normal 4He discussed in the following chapters. The microscopic picture can be omitted on a first reading and referred to when desired.We assume that the reader is familiar with the theory of Bose-Einstein condensation in a Bose gas introduced in §7.2 and presented in many texts on statistical mechanics. In §7.2 we also discussed the generalization of Bose condensation to an interacting fluid by Penrose and Onsager (1956).Condensation was identified with macroscopic occupation of one of the eigenstates of the fluid and the appearance of an infinitely long tail in the one-body density matrix, denoted as off-diagonal long range order (ODLRO). For a homogeneous fluid it is natural to take momentum states as the eigenstates and to assume that the macroscopically occupied state is the state with momentum p = 0. In this case the criterion reduces to that for a gas but with a firm foundation.
Nature Of Excitations In Liquid 4He
Authors: Glyde Henry R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our goal in this chapter is to summarize the theory and experiment set out in Chapters 7-11 with the aim of understanding the nature of excitations in superfluid and normal 4He. Is there an essential difference between the excitations in superfluid and normal 4He? Does the condensate play a clear role in the existence of a sharp excitation in super fluid 4 He at higher Q(Q≳ 1 Å−1) and do we need to have n 0(T) appearing explicitly in S(Q, ω) to explain the data? Can we learn from a comparison between liquid and solid 4He? We set out to answer these questions in this chapter.
The Impulse Approximation
Authors: Glyde Henry R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the following three chapters we consider the response of helium at higher momentum transfer, Q ≳ 5 Å−1. At higher Q, helium responds like a collection of weakly interacting particles. In this chapter, we derive and discuss the impulse approximation (IA) to the dynamic structure factor, S(Q, ω). We will see that for systems in which the interatomic forces are not infinite anywhere, the IA holds at Q → ∞. In the IA, S(Q, ω) depends only on the momentum distribution, n(p), of the atom struck by the neutron.
Final State Contributions
Authors: Glyde Henry R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter we derived the impulse approximation (IA), to the dynamic structure factor given by (18.1). The corresponding intermediate structure factor is (18.8),where νiQ = (pi Q)/mQ is the initial velocity of the struck atom along Q. The IA holds exactly in the limit Q → ∞ for particles interacting via a potential which is not infinitely steep anywhere (e.g. does not have a perfectly hard core). Since the helium interatomic potential is steeply repulsive but not infinite, we expect the IA to hold at Q → ∞ but not be reached until very high Q.