bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Novelties, Frauds, and Protections
Authors: Kevles Daniel J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, only a limited number of commercial seed, fruit, and flower houses and nurseries were operating in the United States. Their catalogues did littlr to differentiate and brand their products. Practices changed in the 1820s as a result of the transportation revolution, westward migration, and expanding markets which enlarged competition and put a premium on innovation. Seed houses and plant nurseries sought to protect their investments in the creation or acquisition of novelties by branding their products. However, cheats could offer fraudulent or adulterated seeds, fruit trees, or vines under the branded name. Purchasers would be none the wiser because it was virtually impossible to tell what plant or plant quality seeds or seedlings would eventually produce. This chapter shows the strategies that nurseries and seed houses devised to protect their brands and ultimately to recognize and begin to defend the intellectual property in the products the brands represented.
Maxwell’s equations
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We introduce Maxwell’s equations and we begin to extract their consequences. We assume that the reader already has an elementary knowledge of the basic phenomenology of electrostatic and magnetostatic phenomena, from a first course of electromagnetism, and we proceed in a more formal and advanced manner. We first present Maxwell’s equations, both in the local and the integrated form. We then show how they imply conservation laws for the electric charge and for energy, momentum and angular momentum, and we identify the energy, momentum and angular momentum of the electromagnetic field, with the latter two written in terms of the Poynting vector. We then introduce the gauge potentials, which play a fundamental role at the conceptual level. Their introduction also brings in the notion of gauge invariance, of which electromagnetism is the prototype, and which is fundamental to all modern theoretical physics.
Does Peace Take Care of Itself?
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This review-essay offers a critical analysis of F. H. Hinsley’s 1963 book, Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States. Wight notes that peace could in principle be established through imperial dominance or agreements providing for a federation or confederation. The failures of these efforts—and recurrent wars—could ultimately lead to one power imposing “a durable hegemony” or even “a universal state.” In contrast, Hinsley embraces the Kantian argument that “peace will take care of itself,” thanks to “a fundamental historical trend … towards the containment and obsolescence of war.” In Hinsley’s view, the enhanced power of public opinion will promote peace in conjunction with “the increased administrative control of increasingly cautious and responsive state-machines over the means of violence.” Moreover, “growing cultural approximation … will make political unification unnecessary,” at least in the short term. In the end, Wight observes, Hinsley presents “only a short-term forecast” that disregards “how every known system of states hitherto has ended in political unification through an ascending series of wars.” Wight concludes that Hinsley’s work will not undermine the belief that “foreign policy should have some concern with bringing war under political control and strengthening the rudiments of international government.”
War and Peace: Nuclear Weapons and Change in International Politics
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Wight asked, “Have international politics fundamentally changed by reason of the application of nuclear power to war since 1945?” According to John Herz, Wight observed, in “the twentieth century … the hard shell of the territorial state … dissolved, owing to economic blockade, ideological penetration, air warfare, and finally atomic warfare.” Wight pointed out, however, that “territorial impermeability in politics and strategy, like sovranty in the sphere of law, was never more than an imperfectly attained ideal for most states in international society. We easily forget that most states in international society, at most times, are small and weak, and that Great Powers are few, elite, and in a sort of aristocracy. … It might be argued that territorial impermeability has been the mark not of any state but only of Great Powers. … The change that has taken place in international politics, then, is not so much that the state has ceased to be the ultimate protector of our lives and interests, since for the most part it has never been that, except notionally; but that Great Powers have ceased to be exceptions to this rule and have been downgraded and assimilated to Minor Powers. … In international affairs every country has always had, in principle, two alternatives to peace. One is submission. The other is war.”
From the League to the UN
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If Britain and France had opposed Germany on the principles of the Covenant of the League of Nations, they would have put resistance to Hitler upon “a higher footing.” “It is insufficiently recognized that the resistance to Hitler was morally and legally identical with the resistance to the previous attempts to dominate Europe, from imperial Germany back to Counter-Reformation Spain. … None of Hitler’s opponents went to war with him for a moral or juridical principle; all of them acted in desperation and self-defence; Britain and France when they saw that their betrayal of Czechoslovakia had failed of its purpose, and all the other Powers when they were individually attacked. … Nevertheless the League idea … kept on creeping back. National self-defence against aggression was not enough. The idea persisted that the Allied powers were a collective body with standards and aims that distinguished them from the Axis. … Under the UN … the small powers have fewer rights than they had under the League; the Great Powers on the other hand accept fewer restraints than they did under the League and retain an unqualified right to go to war whenever they please. … Our retrogression has been so rapid and has gone so far that it is still difficult to take the measure of it. There are still those who do not want to face it and who talk of the UN being an advance upon the League.”
The Power Struggle within the United Nations
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Wight saw the three-cornered power struggle in the United Nations as dominated by the Communist Powers led by the Soviet Union; the status quo Powers such as Britain, France, and the United States, bound together by “neither constitutional government nor democratic values, but a common interest in the existing international distribution of power and wealth;” and the “have-not powers,” often termed “the Afro-Asian bloc or the Bandung Powers.” In Wight’s words, “Perhaps the essence of the have-not powers is to be found in a state of mind, a motive, in which resentment, a sense of inferiority, and self-pity are prime ingredients.” As Wight observed, “It was not contemplated at San Francisco that the United Nations should be an organization for collective intervention in the domestic affairs of its members. Yet … the United Nations is tending to become an instrument of the have-not and Communist Powers for promoting revolutionary movements. … The United Nations is useful as a clearing-house for minor disputes. It cannot settle big issues; these are settled, if at all, as they have always been, in direct negotiation between the powers directly concerned; thus the Korean armistice was reached, and thus the Indo-China crisis was handled at Geneva in 1954. No government or army chiefs regard membership in the United Nations as adding anything to the security of their country, except in so far as the rulers of weak states calculate its publicity advantages.”
Review of Barbara Ward, Policy for the West (London: Penguin, 1951)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the inter-war period, collective security was regarded as “the only means of transforming the international anarchy into a rule of law.” Since the Second World War, owing to the division of the world into two blocs, the West’s policy become one of containment. This policy assumes that “war is not inevitable, and that a combination of strength and patience in the West will control further Communist aggression.” In Ward’s words, the West’s pursuit of this policy ought to be “sustained, calm, and supremely positive.” In Wight’s view, Ward’s merits in making this case for containment stand out as “clarity of principle—a fervent but critical attachment to the traditions of the West; intellectual span—the power of seeing the political and economic world-picture as a whole; and hopefulness of temper.”
Review of John H. Herz, International Politics in the Atomic Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Wight’s view, “Herz’s estimate of the contemporary strategic revolution follows from his picture of the classical state-system. Ideological conflict and nuclear weapons have, in principle, replaced territorial impermeability by mutual pervasion, ‘so that the power of everyone is present everywhere simultaneously,’ and in the two Great Powers the extreme of military strength coincides with the extreme of vulnerability. But here, once again, it might be permissible to reduce the emphasis on discontinuity with the past. In every age the majority of Powers have been Small Powers, and for them territorial impermeability, like legal sovereignty, has been largely a fiction. Effective impermeability has been a mark of Great Power status (witness Soviet anger over the U2). Similarly, the Clausewitzian doctrine of war as imposing your will on the enemy may need reformulation. It might be truer if transposed into the negative, saying that most Powers in most ages have seen war as the means to prevent the enemy (usually a neighbouring Great Power) from imposing his will on them, by maintaining forces to discourage any but the most determined attack. This is what we now call deterrence. On such a view, the chief political consequence of the strategic revolution has been to reduce the Great Powers to the Small Powers’ condition of permeability, and to adopting a deterrent instead of an acquisitive conception of war.”
Expanding Empire: Curiosity, Power, and Prestige
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the genealogy and different modes of extractive colonial collecting. It develops a typology of takings and forms of violence. It illustrates practices from the sixteenth century to the mid-nineteenth century through selected micro-histories of objects taken, including the Rosetta stone, the Koh-i-Noor, and Benjarmasin diamonds, the Gweagal shield, or the Parthenon Marbles. The different stories show that the objectification and taking of things was not only driven by curiosity, exoticism, commercial interests, or an urge for preservation of cultural heritage (‘rescue’ ideology, nostalgia), but an inherent part of inter-colonial rivalry, performative features, and the method of colonization, bolstering the colonizers’ claim to superiority and involving a taking of ownership and cultural identity.
The Scramble for Cultural Colonial Objects: Other Types of Acquisition
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates how collectors, traders, or missionaries benefited from colonial contexts. It argues that market labels, such as purchase or the idea of a ‘gift’ do not necessarily reflect the context of colonial transactions. It also traces forms of resistance to colonial narratives and the social transformation of objects. It demonstrates entanglements through object histories from different colonial contexts (settler colonialism, extractive colonialism, and colonial occupation), namely: (1) the Māori ancestral house from Tūranga; (2) Moai Hoa Hakananai (1868); (3) the ‘Great Zimbabwe Birds’; (4) the Bangwa ‘Queen’ and the Ngonnso statue; (5) the grand canoe from Luf in German New Guinea; (6) missionary collecting of minkisi power figures in the Congo; (7) the gifting of King Nsangu’s throne; (8) the ‘sale’ and return of the Olokun head from Ife; (9) the removal of Nefertiti from British occupied Egypt; and (10) the Venus of Cyrene and the Axum Obkelisk.
Acknowledging the Past, Righting the Future: Changing Ethical and Legal Frames
Authors: Stahn Carsten 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter traces the dialectics between ethics and law in the return of cultural colonial objects. It challenges the claim that takings were acceptable according to the ethics or laws of the time. It analyses changing ethical frames and museum guidelines, before presenting different legal models to engage with past and ongoing injustices: responsibility for past wrong, complicity in ongoing structures, and contemporary duties to provide access to cultural heritage. It shows that the dual focus on acknowledgement of the past, and righting the future, challenges the ‘fatalistic view’ which ‘sees the people of today’ imprisoned ‘by a past that pre-dates their own existence’. It claims that the social biography of objects may turn museums into spaces of transitional justice. It illustrates at the same time some of the critiques of existing frameworks, such as the risk of neutralizing violence or seeking guilt relief, and proposes a rethinking of semantics.
Establishing a Channel of Communication
Authors: Scharff Sebastian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Starting from the observation that an athletic victor from Aphrodisias is praised for the remarkable fact that he received his victor prize ‘from the hands of the emperor’, this chapter asks if, how and why athletic representation changed from the Hellenistic to the Roman imperial period and what part material culture (i.e. victor inscriptions) played in this process. It analyses how Roman emperors of roughly the first three centuries ad used athletic festivals as a means of establishing a channel of communication with the people of the Greek-speaking parts of the empire. It is also looks at the manners in which emperors were present at these festivals and investigates how they intervened in the agonistic circuit. The final section takes the athletes’ perspective and reveals four new trends in the self-presentation of athletes of the Roman imperial period: the expansion of the frame of reference (‘first of the inhabited earth’), an explicit reference to multiple citizenships and council memberships, an emphasis on the victor’s status as part of an empire-wide aristocracy (‘father of senators’), and a prominence of the motif of the athlete’s proximity to the emperor. No doubt, the way athletes of the imperial period wanted their victories to be understood clearly changed in comparison to their predecessors. Athletes were now part of an empire that was composed of almost the entire inhabited earth. Their self-presentation is indicative of this aspect.
Breaking the Domination of the Word over the Human Spirit
Authors: Fritz Peter 
Published: October 2023

AbstractA case is made for regimenting talk of properties and relations, alongside propositions and modalities, in a formal language. Focusing on properties, a number of desiderata of such a formal language are developed. It is shown that these desiderata are jointly inconsistent, using an analog of the inconsistency of naive set comprehension for properties. One of the desiderata is singled out as the least important one. The remaining desiderata motivate the introduction of a formal language which is a version of higher-order logic in the form of relational type theory. This language is introduced in such a way that its sentences are meaningful, with the relevant metasemantic constraints involving connections to natural language expressions and stipulative logical principles.
A Formal Language
Authors: Fritz Peter 
Published: October 2023

AbstractA restricted version of the higher-order logic motivated in the previous chapter is introduced. The language includes variables in the position of sentences, and quantifiers binding them; these propositional quantifiers can be used to formalize talk of propositions. Similarly, the language includes variables in the position of sentential operators and quantifiers binding them, which can be used to formalize talk of modalities. The language also provides Boolean connectives and lambda abstraction, and an extension provides a connective for propositional identity. Proof systems for these languages are defined, and a schematic comprehension principle is derived. A general class of possible worlds models are introduced, and a soundness result is established for a suitable subclass. It is noted that model-theoretic consistency results can be seen as relative consistency proofs, and so do not rely on the existence of set-theoretic models.
Metaphysical Necessity
Authors: Fritz Peter 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThe notion of metaphysical necessity is widely appealed to in metaphysics. Nevertheless, a number of authors have questioned whether there is a unique modality which is picked out by talk of metaphysical necessity. It is argued, first, that if there is a broadest notion of necessity, then this is metaphysical necessity. Second, on the basis of the theory Classicism motivated in the previous chapter, it is argued that there is indeed a broadest notion of necessity, which can be defined as being identical to the tautologous proposition. The resulting theory of metaphysical necessity is shown to support the principles of S4 modal logic, as well as propositional versions of the converse Barcan formula and the necessity of identity. It is argued that this way of determining which notion of necessity is at issue in metaphysics cannot be extended to counterfactuals without collapsing counterfactuals to strict conditionals.
A Coarse-Grained World-View
Authors: Fritz Peter 
Published: October 2023

AbstractThe theory motivated in the previous chapters is summed up. What emerges is a familiar modal view of metaphysics, on which a proposition is necessary just in case it is true in all possible worlds, and propositions are identical just in case they are true in the same possible worlds. A number of questions are noted to be left open by the view, including questions of a mathematical character such as higher-order versions of the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis. Two general objections to such modal views of metaphysics are considered: The first concerns the central role possible worlds play, which leads to a problem identified by Kaplan. The problem is noted to be much more general, due to a theorem by Prior. The second concerns the challenge of making sense of type-neutral quantification. In response, an extension of standard type theory is sketched which allows relation terms of infinite arity.
Translatio and the Afterlives of Translation in Chrétien de Troyes’s Cligés
Authors: Campbell Emma 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers how the logic of continuity and rupture associated with Benjamin’s definition of translation as textual afterlife illuminates Chrétien de Troyes’s depiction of translatio in Cligés. In a way that critically reflects on such logic, Chrétien’s romance exposes tensions between the model of historical progression associated with translatio and its application to the translational agencies that inform his writing practice and that shape the world of his romance. Exploring translatio’s relationship to historical survival on textual and personal levels, Chrétien raises ethical questions about how far earlier textual models should determine the afterlives of characters as well as texts. Cligés thus engages with issues of translatability and agency such as those in Benjamin’s description of translation as afterlife; yet, it offers a counterpoint to Benjamin’s depersonalized formulation by examining how textual afterlives are experienced on a human scale and involve the agencies of individual characters as well as writers.
Conclusion
Authors: Herd David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The conclusion carries the arguments of the book into the present moment as a means of addressing the new politics of expulsion. The book’s origins are located in a property in East London, which, in 2014, housed two men forced to seek asylum in the United Kingdom. The discussion outlines the stories of the two men and shows that they have been systematically failed by contemporary geopolitics, a failure measured by their lived relation to space. The argument considers how the production of such contemporary non-places, the attempt through negative spatiality to produce non-personhood, has led to a new politics of expulsion. The discussion then addresses the implications of dismantling human rights in a UK context. It points back to a discourse in which the principles underpinning such rights were actively at issue and calls for attention to political imaginaries that looked to resist the expulsions of the sovereign and colonial state.
The strategies financiers devise to initiate relationships
Authors: Meyer David R. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Experienced financiers possess sophisticated means to reach people they want to initiate a relationship with, either contacting them directly or using one referral. Their personal networks give them access to substantial relational and structural social capital through which they request referrals for initiating a relationship. Financiers’ network contacts accumulate over their career. Colleagues in a firm provide valuable referrals because they possess external networks. Clients offer the best referrals because they personally vouch for the veracity of the person they refer. Cold calling is uncommon because referrals offer a higher probability of successfully reaching a target, although it does work in some contexts. Nevertheless, most financiers in firms with a high reputation/brand and/or a prestigious personal reputation use referrals a majority of the time. Financiers operate in a small world, which allows them to reach almost any target in one referral, that is, two degrees of separation.
The strategies financiers devise to build and maintain relationships
Authors: Meyer David R. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Financiers devise strategies to build and maintain relationships. They use non-face-to-face mechanisms such as emails and phone calls and face-to-face meetings. The contexts for building and maintaining relationships in face-to-face settings diverge. Personal encounters may occur in offices or over meals and coffees/teas. Relationships can range from highly personal and deep friendship to purely professional. Financiers employ a tertius gaudens strategy when they are the pivot of networks. They also employ a tertius iungens strategy and bring people together for collaborations. Face-to-face contact always ranks as the best way to build and maintain relationships. To maximize the benefits of relationships, financiers must manage them. The financier’s goal is to strengthen these ties and build relational social capital which they can access. They spend more time and effort on strong ties with valuable contacts and limited time and effort is spent on less valuable contacts.