bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Thermal radiation
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main experimental facts and methods of investigation of thermal radiation. Emissivity and absorptivity of physical bodies. Equilibrium thermal radiation. Kirchhoff’s law. Spectral density of thermal radiation. Thermodynamics of equilibrium thermal radiation. The Rayleigh-Jeans formula. The “ultraviolet catastrophe”. Planck’s formula. The necessity of a quantum-mechanical approach. Thermal radiation laws (Stefan-Boltzmann law, Wien’s displacement law).
Diffraction in the far-field zone
Authors: Akhmanov S A , Nikitin S YU 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The formation of a stable diffraction pattern in the far-field zone. Fraunhofer diffraction as a spatial Fourier transformation. Fraunhofer diffraction by unidimensional structures—slit diffraction. Fraunhofer diffraction by two-dimensional structures. Diffraction by a rectangular aperture. Diffraction by a round aperture. Diffraction by a Gaussian beam.
The Principles of Monte Carlo Out-of-equilibrium Simulations
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Part I of this book we looked at ways of measuring the equilibrium properties of model systems using Monte Carlo simulations. The next few chapters of the book are devoted to systems which are out of equilibrium. In studying these out-of-equilibrium systems we are commonly interested in one of two things. Either we want to know how the system relaxes from an initial state to equilibrium at a particular temperature, or we are studying a system which never reaches equilibrium because it has a driving force which continually pushes it into states which are far from equilibrium. We will see examples of both these types of simulations in the following pages.
Multispin Coding
Authors: Newman M E J , Barkema G T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Multispin coding is a programming technique which allows us to speed up some Monte Carlo simulations (or other programs) by a significant factor by making use of the low-level bit manipulation functions provided by the CPU of our computer. These functions include logical operations like AND (∧), OR (v) and exclusive-OR (⊕), as well as things like shifts, additions and subtractions.
Lepton nuclear physics
Authors: Ejiri H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lepton nuclear physics studies the fundamental properties of leptons, weak interactions, and related subjects in the nuclear microlaboratory. Thus, being complementary to the quark nuclear physics as discussed in Chapter 11, it is one of the important new fields in nuclear physics.
Several interesting topics of the lepton nuclear physics are currently under study at RCNP, Osaka. The subjects discussed in the present chapter include neutrinos (v’s) studied by double beta (ββ) decays, spin-coupled dark matter (DM) studied by nuclear elastic and inelastic scatterings, nucleon instabilities and nucleon decays studied by exotic nuclear transitions, and so on. It is interesting to note that charge non-conservation is also studied by searching for exotic X-rays and y-rays.
Over 70 years of neutron scattering
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the 1920s James Chadwick undertook a series of experiments in search of the neutron, whose existence had been predicted by Rutherford in his Bakerian lecture to the Royal Society of London in 1920. It was not until 1932 that Chadwick finally achieved his goal, announcing the possible discovery of the neutron (Chadwick, 1932a) and conﬁrming its existence later in the same year (Chadwick, 1932b).
Instrument components
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall describe some of the components that are used to tailor the neutron beam to satisfy the requirements of the experimentalist. These components perform such functions as limiting the wavelength range or the degree of collimation of the beam striking the sample. We shall be concerned with unpolarized beams only: the devices for producing polarized beams are described later in Chapter 9.
The powder diffraction method
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Shortly after the discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by a single crystal, Debye and Scherrer (1916) and Hull (1917) independently showed that a characteristic diffraction pattern is also given by a sample consisting of a polycrystalline powder. This method of examining materials is known as the Powder diffraction Method. Much crystallographic information is lost by condensing the three dimensions of reciprocal space, which are explored in single-crystal diffraction, into the single dimension of the powder pattern. However, for some materials it may not be possible to prepare a suitable single crystal. For example, zeolites, fastion conductors, high-Tc superconductors, fullerenes, etc. may be available only in powder form. Other materials may undergo a series of phase transitions on cooling, making it impossible to retain the integrity of a single crystal. In spite of its inherent limitations, powder diffraction can give not only the detailed atomic arrangement, but also the texture and composition of the sample. It can be used for in situ studies of chemical reactions and processes. With the increasing power of computers, advances in instrumentation, and the trend towards the study of more complex materials, powder diﬀraction has undergone a transformation since the 1980s.
Neutron reflectometry
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neutron reflectometry, in which neutrons are reflected from planar structures, is a powerful method for investigating properties of interfaces. It is one of the neutron techniques in most demand today and neutron reflectometers are amongst the first instruments to be commissioned at the new pulsed sources SNS and J-PARC. The technique has been applied to a wide variety of materials, including surfactants adsorbed at solid/liquid interfaces, Langmuir–Blodgett and polymer flims, lipid bilayers in biological cell membranes, and magnetic ultrathin flims and multilayers. By measuring the reflected specular intensity as a function of the incident angle or wavelength, the scattering proﬁle normal to the surface is obtained. Non-specular scattering yields information on the lateral structure of the interface.
Inelastic neutron scattering spectroscopy
Authors: Willis B T M , Carlile C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, we have seen how coherent inelastic neutron scattering can be used for the study of collective excitations, such as phonons and magnons, in single crystals. This spectroscopic technique was pioneered in the 1950s by the Canadian physicist, Bertram Brock-house, and much of the earlier work was confined to the field of physics. However, the interest today in inelastic neutron scattering (INS) has shifted to include the fields of chemistry, materials science, geology and biology, where work is carried out in areas such as polymers, hydrogen bonding and catalysis. In a paper presented at an IAEA meeting in Trombay (IAEA Bombay 1959), Brockhouse described a time-of-fiight rotating crystal spectrometer, which would nowadays be used for molecular spectroscopy.
Undulator Radiation
Authors: Luchini P , Motz H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the electromagnetic radiation generated by an electron beam passing through an undulator will be quantitatively determined in the absence of electromagnetic fields other than the undulator's, and neglecting the effect of the field produced by the electrons upon each other. Radiation obtained in this way bears the name of undulator radiation. ('Spontaneous' undulator radiation when it is to be opposed to the 'stimulated' radiation emitted under the influence of an external electromagnetic wave, which we are going to consider in subsequent chapters.)
Electronic States Of An Isolated Impurity
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In studying doped semiconductors, we start by briefly describing the shallow impurity states of an isolated donor atom in silicon and germanium. Both these elements possess a diamond crystal structure (Fig. 2.l(a)), in which (ns)(np ) valence electrons form covalent bonds between sp hybridized orbitals.
Historical Development Of Localization Theories In Impurity Bands
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When an isolated donor atom is doped in Si or Ge, a hydrogen-like ls state is formed just below the conduction band, as seen in Chapter 2. As the concentration of the dopant is increased, the number of such states also increases. James and Ginzbarg (1953) first pointed out that the overlap of wavefunctions of impurities becomes larger with increasing impurity concentration, so that carriers are no longer localized at individual impurities. In the energy spectrum there is a continuous distribution of energy levels, which is called the impurity band (Fig. 3.1). At about the same time, Huang and Gliessman (1950, 1954) experimentally obtained the first evidence for conduction in an impurity band. The wavefunctions for different impurities overlap at higher concentrations in a manner dependent on the spatial distribution of the impurities (Fig. 3.2). In this sense the impurity band is quite different from ordinary energy bands in periodic crystals in which the wavenumber is a good quantum number.
Electron-Electron Interactions In Impurity Bands
Authors: Kamimura Hiroshi , Aoki Hideo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen in Chapter 3, the metal-non-metal transition in doped semiconductors has attracted renewed interest in the light of the localization problem. We mentioned in Chapter 1 that recent theoretical work in the field has followed two main lines of approach. The first approach starts from the nearly free electron picture in the metallic regime and then covers the effect of localization due to disorder. The second line of approach, on the other hand, covers the insulating phase and starts from the Anderson localized regime itself. This approach, which describes the system by a tight-binding picture, is particularly suitable for the donor concentration region where the localization length is of the order of average donor separation. Thus these two approaches for disordered systems may be compared with the two complementary approaches for perfect crystals, i.e. the Bloch electron approach and the tight-binding approach. The final goal of both approaches is of course the same—an accurate description of the metal-non-metal transition.
Defects In Smectics And Columnar Phases
Authors: Gennes P G De , Prost J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At a temperature higher than 232°C, the compound is in its isotropic state and the field of view altogether black. Below 232°C, the ̒texture d fils̓ (Schlieren) that we described in Chapter 4 appears. It corresponds, of course, to a nematic phase. Some of the regions may stay perfectly black (homeo- tropic regions) which shows that the system is uniaxial. If we keep on cooling down, below 213.5°C, a new texture appears (Fig. 9.1).
Applications of Multiple Scattering III: Ferromagnetic Alloys And Finite Temperature Magnetism
Authors: Weinberger P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This final chapter deals with some applications of multiple scattering to problems of magnetism. Of course only those applications are discussed here which can be viewed in the context of the rest of the book. However, since there are several excellent review articles stating these problems at a fundamental level (in particular see Gyorffy et al. 1985), this does not seem to be a severe restriction. Two cases are chosen to illustrate this rapidly developing field of research: the ab initio calculation of the well known Slater-Pauling curve; and the case of moment formulation within the (still simple) framework of a temperature dependent homogeneous CPA approach. For further applications the reader is referred to Gyorffy et al. (1984) and Staunton et al. (1989).
Open Systems
Authors: Pike frs E R , Sarkar Sarben 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the interactions of electromagnetic radiation with matter which we have considered so far, we have almost invariably known accurately the state of the system before interaction. As a result the notion of an open system with an external environment did not have to be systematically discussed. In the quantum electrodynamics of elementary particles, the scattering events are predominantly affected by only few-body interactions and the concepts of temperature and environment are irrelevant. (The resolution of the problem of infra-red divergences is an exception where the environment of soft photons is crucial.) For very small numbers of atoms it may be possible to know the initial state of the system, but in a macroscopic device this is essentially impossible. Although for transitions at optical frequencies the temperature of the environment may be negligible, this will not necessarily be the case for microwave transitions. We have already seen how atomic linewidths can be produced by interactions with the bath of photons at zero temperature. In the general case a quantum-mechanical system will show not only fluctuations due to the non-commutative nature of quantum theory but also thermal fluctuations and dissipation due to interactions with the environment. For complicated systems it will not be possible to know with certainty the initial state of the system, and so the approach of studying the evolution of a state vector through the Schrodinger equation has to be replaced by a consideration of the time evolution of the density operator introduced in Chapter 4. We will formulate a systematic way of treating the dynamics of a quantum-mechanical open system interacting with a heat bath, which will be illustrated with important examples.
The Grand Canonical Formalism
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whenever the Hamiltonian of a system obeys a global conservation law, like the conservation of energy or of the number of particles, one might be tempted to describe the statistics of the system by giving a well defined value to the conserved quantity. However, such an approach would be clumsy because, in this case, any local fluctuation of the conserved quantity must be compensated elsewhere by fluctuations with the opposite sign, and thus the conservation law would entail correlations devoid of interest and difficult to take into account. In order to break free from these correlations, larger ensembles are used in which a chemical potential or fugacity is associated with each conserved quantity so as to fix only averages of these conserved quantities. Thus, when the energy is conserved in the system, canonical ensembles are used; when, more¬ over, the system consists of particles whose number is also conserved, we use grand canonical ensembles.
Polymers in Solution in Good Solvents: Theoretical Results
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many theoretical results concerning the behaviour of polymers in good solvents have been found in the framework of the standard continuous model by using perturbation and renormalization techniques. It seems that S.F. Edwards was the first to realize (before 1965) that it is fruitful to use continuous curves to model polymer chains, and he was also the first to understand (around 1965) that interacting polymers in solution screen one another when they overlap. However, this theoretical progress acquired its full meaning only when it was fully recognized (between 1975 and 1985) that a set of long polymers can be considered as a critical system and therefore may have universal properties. Of course, the existence of critical exponents had been accepted much earlier, but the existence of universal functions and universal ratios was really recognized only after 1975. At the same time appeared the concept of semi-dilute solution. Such a solution has a low concentration with a strong chain overlap; the screening effects then play an essential role in agreement with Edwards’s ideas.
Polymers in Good Solvents: Experimental Results
Authors: Cloizeaux Jacques des , Jannink Gerard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The structure and the behaviour of polymer chains in solutions have, since the 1930s, been the object of intensive experimental work. The main effort has been carried out on the isolated chain in good solvent, and the swelling caused by repulsive interaction between monomers. The effect had already been predicted by Kuhn, in an article published in 1934, describing the spatial occupancy of chains (RaumerfU/lung). The swelling of a rubber (cross-linked chains) in a solvent can be observed directly with the naked eye. In the case of linear chains, the observation of all aspects of this effect has, however, required the use of instrumentation which has grown heavier, year by year.
Polarization
Authors: Gastmans R , Wu Tai Tsun 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Beam polarization gives information on the electron’s inclination to behave with aberration. In the preceding chapters, we expounded a convenient way to calculate helicity amplitudes for various processes at high energies. In this chapter, we show how those helicity amplitudes must be combined for the description of processes in which arbitrary spin polarizations occur. We first treat the case of fermion polarization in detail and then analyse the polarization effects for photons and gluons. Throughout this chapter, we again neglect the finite mass effects for simplicity. The positive helicity states for fermions, introduced in Chapter 3 [eqns (3.1)], describe particles with spin polarization along the direction of motion, where as negative helicity states have their spin polarization opposite to the direction of motion. This can be seen as follows.
Fracture Strength of Disordered Solids
Authors: Chakrabarti Bikas K , Gilles Benguigui L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For many engineering applications, an important aspect of the choice of the load-bearing material and the engineering design is that the solid material should not fracture or fail in service. As the material contains natural disorders or defects, produced during the preparation or synthesis of the solid, solids contain built-in microcracks (where the interatomic interactions become vanishingly small due to large separation distances etc.) produced due to the defects. Fracture properties of the solids containing these microcracks, under different loading conditions, are therefore of extreme importance in civil and other engineering design problems. We will discuss the statistical aspects of the fracture properties of such solids in this chapter. There are three modes of loading a solid, as shown in Fig. 3.1, where the arrows denote the stress directions. We will mostly discuss here the fracture strength of randomly disordered solids under stress or loading condition in mode I. However, because of the mixing of tensile and shear stresses in disordered systems, the results discussed in this chapter are, in effect, valid for all the modes.
Earthquakes in Model Systems
Authors: Chakrabarti Bikas K , Gilles Benguigui L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We discuss in this chapter several model studies for earthquakes. Earthquakes are large scale failures, occurring mainly as a consequence of frictional slips in the upper region of the earth’s crust, to adjust the stress accumulated by the large scale tectonic plate motions over long periods of several decades of years (see e.g. Guttenberg and Richter 1954, Kostrov and Das 1988, Scholz 1990). Like in the cases of fracture or breakdown (discussed in the previous chapters), where the stresses or fields are redistributed within the surviving or unbroken portions of the material, the stresses on the sticking tectonic plates are readjusted after each individual slip in any region (plate). However, unlike in the fracture or breakdown case where a fractured, broken or fused bond is permanently broken and remains unable to sustain any stress any further, the slipped or failed blocks in the earthquake can again stick and participate again in sustaining stresses. An earthquake occurs when a large number of the blocks of the earth’s crust slip simultaneously, releasing a large amount of elastic energy. Such stick-slip frictional instability of a large number of blocks, as in the case of earthquakes, is a typical dynamic failure phenomenon.
Teenage pregnancy policy and practice: the application of evidence
Authors: Dennison Catherine , McCormick Geraldine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years there has been increasing recognition of the significance of teenage pregnancy and parenthood as a marker of health and social inequalities, and a risk factor for social exclusion. In addition to public health professionals, the media, politicians of all parties, and family values campaigners have all taken an interest and a position on the topic. Many of these groups have used teenage pregnancy as a vehicle to signify declining moral standards in today’s young people, and as a result it is essential that policy and practice in relation to the issue is firmly evidence based.
Tackling health inequalities at the community level: neighbourhood renewal and the new deal for communities
Authors: Peters Jean , Goyder Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reducing health inequalities has been an enduring concern of UK governments. Current policies make explicit the Government’s present commitment to reduce inequalities in health. Such a reduction is also integral to the wider cross-government policies that are addressing issues of poverty and deprivation. However, evidence of what programmes and interventions are most likely to help achieve long-term targets to reduce health inequalities remains uncertain. It is also often difficult to evaluate the contribution made by particular local programmes and initiatives or to tease out the relative impact of individual project contributions within an overall programme.
Sweden
Authors: Andrèasson Sven , Bremberg Sven , Källestål Carina , Lundgren Bernt , Nordgren Paul , Elinder Liselotte Schäfer , Wallin Eva 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter documents the Swedish experience of moves towards an evidence-based approach to public health. It comprises a description of the Swedish welfare regime and the new Swedish public health policy, followed by some case studies: reduction of social inequalities in child accidental injuries through environmental preventive measures, community-based prevention of alcohol problems, smoke-free restaurants, assessment of the health impacts of the European Union Common Agricultural Policy, and the challenge of knowledge-based public health work.
Speech
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Speech is the most impressive example of human voluntary action. We spend much of our time freely generating words, and we talk for long periods without repeating a sentence. And nobody tells us what to say or when to say it. This chapter pursues this simple notion. If the frontal lobe is a mechanism for selecting responses, one can ask what modifications were needed for it to be able to select verbal ones. Evolution works by modifying existing systems so that they can serve new purposes. The speech system was developed by hijacking the mechanisms for directing non-verbal responses.