bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Psychological Behaviorism Theory of Personality
Authors: Staats Arthur W. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The psychological behaviorism (PB) theory of personality is part of a larger overarching theory that includes a philosophy of science. Applied to personality the philosophical analysis shows the field to be in a primitive state methodologically and in content. There are no rules of theory construction, no goal of unification, and a plethora of different, unrelated theories, studies, and tests. The analysis serves as a foundation for general discussion of theory needs in the field and for the particular description of the PB theory of personality.

The PB theory began in research extending learning principles to the study of human behavior and was one of the originating foundations of the field of behavior therapy. It is different in method and content than any other theory in the field, following an explicit science methodology. Thus, there is an explicit, empirical definition of personality, as learned
basic behavioral repertoires
(BBRs). The task then is identification of the personality repertoires, how they are learned, and how they function in the determination of the individual's behaviors. The PB theory and its findings serve as a unifying bridge between traditional personality theory (and personality tests) and behaviorism's rejection of those efforts.

The last part of the chapter describes how the PB theory provides a program for different avenues of research for the personality field, just as the approach did in beginning the behavior therapy field.
Cognitive‐Experiential Self‐Theory of Personality
Authors: Epstein Seymour 
Published: November 2003

AbstractCognitive‐experiential self‐theory (CEST) is a psychodynamic theory of personality that achieves a high degree of integration through a synthesis of the psychodynamic, emotional unconscious of psychoanalysis, the affect‐free unconscious of cognitive science, and principles of learning theory. According to CEST, people operate by two information‐processing systems, a predominantly conscious, verbal, rational system and a predominantly preconscious, automatic, experiential, learning system. The two systems operate in parallel by different rules and are interactive. The influence of the experiential system on the rational system can account for everything that the psychoanalytic unconscious can and, unlike the latter, to do so in a manner consistent with evolutionary principles and cognitive science. An extensive research program is described that provides support for many of the assumptions in CEST, including the operating principles of the experiential system and the interaction of the two systems. The implications of the theory are discussed for psychotherapy and psychological research. According to CEST, there are three basic ways in which psychotherapeutic change can occur: by using the rational system to correct the experiential system, by learning directly from emotionally significant experience, and by communicating with the experiential system in its own medium (e.g., fantasy, imagery, metaphor). It is important in research to take into account the two processing systems and their influence on each other, rather than following the more customary procedure of assuming there is a single, unified system.
Structures of Personality Traits
Authors: Hofstee Willem K. B. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractOver the past decades, the concept of personality has been subject to implicit redefinition through a set of operations labeled “Big‐Five Taxonomy” or “Five‐Factor Model” of personality. A first module of the set of operations that constitute this paradigm consists of the questionnaire construction of personality, whereby someone's personality is defined through answers to standardized questions. A second, more specific, operational module contains the lexical approach that consists of selecting items from acorpusof language, particularly a dictionary of that language. A third operational characteristic consists of reliance on the linear model, particularly principal component analysis of Likert item scales. This is probably the most constitutive operation of the paradigm. A fourth set of operations contains models for structuring, interpreting, and communicating trait information. The major rivals are the hierarchical and the circumplex models of personality structure. I judge structure models by their capacity to produce clear and communicable trait concepts. I conclude with sketching a family of models that may serve as a base for capturing personality structure. It consists of a hierarchy of generalized semicircumplexes, with one generalp‐component of personality at the top and including 2‐D circumplex, giant three, 5‐D, and other‐dimensional structures.
Social Cognition
Authors: Bodenhausen Galen V. , Macrae C. Neil , Hugenberg Kurt 
Published: November 2003

AbstractSocial cognition research studies the cognitive structures and processes that shape our understanding of social situations and that mediate our behavioral reactions to them. The fundamental assumption of social cognition research is the idea that internal mental representations of other persons and of social situations play a key causal role in shaping behavior. The central task of social cognition research is thus to provide a specification of the nature of these mental structures and the processes that operate on them. Stated at the most general level, a social cognition analysis incorporates a consideration of: (1) the informational cues that are currently experienced in the social environment; (2) mental representations that are constructed on the basis of current or previous experience; (3) the ways these representations are manipulated and the processes through which they influence other aspects of attention and cognition; and (4) the decisions, judgments, intentions, and behaviors that result from the application of these processes. We review competing theoretical views of the nature of mental representation and describe the automatic as well as deliberative processes that act on these representations. We conclude by considering the effects of the motivational and affective contexts within which social cognition occurs.
Emotion, Affect, and Mood in Social Judgments
Authors: Fernández‐Dols José‐Miguel , Russell James A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractWe first outline researchers' different implicit philosophical positions on the issue of the relation between language and emotion. Does language accurately describe emotion? Influence emotion? Constitute emotion? Or does everyday language conceal and obscure emotion?One position, that we call “ontological realism” assumes that emotions are pre‐existing entities and words such as “anger” or “sadness” are simply labels for these entities. A second position, that we call Nominalism, assumes that emotion and language about emotion are a same cultural product. A third position, that we call Conceptualism, assumes that emotions are pre‐existing entities but words like “anger” or “sadness” are concepts rather than labels for these entities. A fourth position, that we call Formalism, assumes that language about emotion consists of some universal semantic primitives.An alternative to “emotion” is “affect”, a concept that is mostly related to the pleasure‐arousal theory of emotion but has also been independently developed as a concept with broad applications in social psychology. In this chapter affect is considered as the basic, elemental component of emotion in an emerging paradigm that does not relegate emotion to a particular philosophical position. This paradigm includes various psychological mechanisms—including attribution, automatic and controlled processing, affect as information, appraisal, and core affect—that underlie specific emotional episodes.
Attitudes in Social Behavior
Authors: Olson James M. , Maio Gregory R. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe social psychology literature on attitudes is reviewed. The structure of attitudes is examined in terms of two conceptual issues: whether attitudes are made up of one or three components and whether the evaluative aspect of attitudes is unidimensional or bidimensional. The possible functions of attitudes are considered, and the relations between attitudes and higher‐order constructs such as values and ideologies are discussed. Numerous characteristics of attitudes are defined, including accessibility, ambivalence, and strength. The processes involved in attitude formation are summarized, and the effects of attitudes on information processing are discussed. Finally, the issue of attitude‐behavior consistency is examined, focusing on the conditions under which attitudes predict behavior strongly.
The Social Self
Authors: Baumeister Roy F. , Twenge Jean M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe self has a significant interpersonal component, and indeed a principal function of the self is to enable the person to maintain interpersonal relationships. The need to belong is a fundamental motivation that shapes the self. Rejection and social exclusion elicit destructive consequences. This chapter reviews extensive research on the interpersonal dimension of selfhood, including reflected appraisals, self‐esteem and narcissism, self‐presentation, social identity, interpersonal influence, self‐evaluation maintenance, self‐monitoring, expectancies, self‐handicapping, and how self‐views affect a person's treatment of others. Cultural and historical variations in selfhood are also discussed.
Persuasion and Attitude Change
Authors: Petty Richard E. , Wheeler S. Christian , Tormala Zakary L. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter reviews contemporary issues in attitudes and persuasion. We describe controversies regarding the underlying bases of attitudes and the debate over whether attitudes are stored memorial representations or constructed on the spot. We review the notion of implicit attitudes with particular attention paid to the various ways in which researchers conceptualize this construct. Next, we review current research on attitude change using the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) as an organizing framework. The ELM postulates that various motivational and ability factors affect the likelihood of thinking about a persuasive message in either a relatively objective or a biased way. When the likelihood of thinking is low, processing such as classical conditioning, affective priming, mere exposure, balance, self‐perception, persuasion heuristics influence. When the likelihood of thinking is high, more cognitively effortful processes are responsible for attitude change. When thinking is high, the number, valence, and confidence in thoughts are important determinants of persuasion. Attitude change can occur in the absence of an explicit persuasive message as research on role playing, mere thought, and dissonance processes demonstrate. A number of theories describe the processes by which information is integrated and combined into an overall summary evaluation. The chapter concludes with a discussion of whether attitudes literally change, or whether old and new attitudes can coexist and jointly influence behavior.
Social Influence and Group Dynamics
Authors: Nowak Andrzej , Vallacher Robin R. , Miller Mandy E. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Social influence is fundamental to group dynamics and is arguably the core feature of interpersonal relations generally. This chapter outlines the key aspects of social influence and depicts their manifestation in dyadic, group, and societal contexts. We first distinguish among influence processes based on external control (e.g., differential power, reward and punishment), manipulation (e.g., flattery, commitment, reciprocity), and interpersonal coordination (e.g., conformity, suppression of individuality). We then discuss how global properties of a social system (e.g., norms, public opinion) emerge from influence processes operating between individuals, and how these group‐level properties in turn influence individual thought and behavior. This reciprocal influence between the individual and society is discussed in terms of recent developments in the study of complex systems and illustrated in research employing models of cellular automata. Different scenarios of societal change (e.g., incremental vs. catastrophic) are documented in terms of the complex systems perspective, as are basic dimensions of cultural variation (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism, stability vs. change). In a concluding section, we suggest that although the various forms of social influence can be understood and investigated in terms of distinct mechanisms and consequences, they all represent manifestations of a press toward coherence in mental and social systems.
Environmental Psychology
Authors: Moser Gabriel , Uzzell David 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis review of environmental psychology looks to the past, present, and future of this growing and important area of psychology. The environment, far from being a silent witness to human actions, is an integral part of the plot. The interdisciplinary origins and applied emphasis of environmental psychology have both conspired to prevent a straightforward and uncontentious definition of the discipline. Recent definitions adopt an inclusive, holistic, and transactional perspective on people‐environment relations. Various theories have been developed in environmental psychology: arousal theory, environmental load, adaptation level theory within a behaviorist and determinist paradigm; control, stress adaptation, behavioral elasticity, cognitive mapping, and environmental evaluation within an interactionist paradigm; and behavior settings, affordance theory, and theories of place, place identity, and place attachment within transactionalism. Environmental psychology deals with people's homes, the workplaces and leisure settings, the visual impact of buildings, the negative effects of cities, the restorative role of nature, and environmental attitudes and sustainable behavior. The issues at the forefront of the political and environmental agenda at the beginning of the twenty‐first century—human rights, well‐being and quality of life, globalization, and sustainability—need to be addressed and tackled by environmental psychologists in a way that incorporates both cross‐cultural and temporal dimensions.
Close Relationships
Authors: Clark Margaret S. , Grote Nancy K. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter begins with a discussion of contemporary views of what constitutes a high‐quality close relationship. The presence of interpersonal processes that facilitate the well‐being of the members emerges as the defining element. These processes appear when the members are responsive to one another's needs, i.e., communal rather than exchange or distributive justice norms predominate. From this perspective all relationships can be profitably characterized as involving differing strengths of communal ties, ranging from virtually none with strangers, more with neighbors and then even more with friends, eventuating in the strongest with one's spouse and children. A longitudinal panel study of married couples supports the hypothesis that the perception of unfairness in relationships appears as a symptom of prior conflicts rather than as a prior cause. The evidence presented in this chapter leads to the conclusion that recordkeeping of contributions and outcomes together with the emphasis on fairness in the relationship can lead to the erosion of trust and responsiveness to one another's needs that are essential for the members of close relationships sense of well‐being.
Altruism and Prosocial Behavior
Authors: Batson C. Daniel , Powell Adam A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractProsocial behavior covers the broad range of actions intended to benefit one or more people other than oneself—actions such as helping, comforting, sharing, and cooperation. Altruism is motivation to increase another person's welfare; it is contrasted to egoism, the motivation to increase one's own welfare. There is no one‐to‐one correspondence between prosocial behavior and altruism. Prosocial behavior need not be motivated by altruism; altruistic motivation need not produce prosocial behavior. Over the past 30 years, the practical concern to promote prosocial behavior has led to both a variance‐accounted‐for empirical approach, which focuses on identifying situational and dispositional determinants of helping, and the application of existing psychological theories. Theories invoked to explain prosocial behavior include social learning, tension reduction, norm, exchange or equity, attribution, esteem‐enhancement, and moral reasoning theories. In addition, new theoretical perspectives have been developed by researchers focused on anomalous aspects of why people do—and don't—act prosocially. Their research has raised the possibility of a multiplicity of social motives—altruism, collectivism, and principlism, as well as egoism. It has also raised questions—as yet unanswered—about how these motives might be most effectively orchestrated to increase prosocial behavior.
Social Conflict, Harmony, and Integration
Authors: Dovidio John F. , Gaertner Samuel L. , Esses Victoria M. , Brewer Marilynn B. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
This chapter examines psychological perspectives on intergroup relations, their implications for reducing bias and conflict, and their potential applications for enhancing social integration. Psychological research on social conflict, harmony, and integration has adopted one of two general perspectives. One perspective places an emphasis on functional relations between groups, typically pointing to competition and consequent perceived threat as a fundamental cause of intergroup prejudice and conflict (e.g., realistic group conflict theory). Another approach focuses on the roles of social categorization and collective identity, indicating that whereas different group identities tend to promote conflict, a common ingroup identity promotes harmony (e.g., social identity theory). Although functional and social categorization theories propose different psychological mechanisms, these approaches offer complementary rather than necessarily competing perspectives. For example, within the context of the Contact Hypothesis, appropriately structured intergroup contact can reduce bias and conflict by creating cooperative relations between groups while producing more individuated and personalized perceptions of others (decategorization) or creating a shared sense of identity (recategorization). Pragmatically, understanding the nature of bias and the processes that underlie it can suggest ways that these forces can be harnessed and redirected to promote social harmony.
Prejudice, Racism, and Discrimination
Authors: Dion Kenneth L. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter organizes the psychology of prejudice, racism, and discrimination under two main rubrics: (1) the psychology of the bigot, which seeks to understand why some people are prejudiced and discriminatory toward certain groups and their members and (2) the psychology of the victim of prejudice and discrimination, which focuses on the psychological correlates and consequences of perceiving oneself to be an object or target of prejudice and/or discrimination. Under the first rubric, classic and contemorary theories of prejudice are considered, including theories of the authoritarian personality, just world theory, belief congruence theory, ambivalence approaches (e.g., aversive racism, symbolic and modern racism, ambivalence amplification, ambivalent sexism, and blatant vs. subtle prejudice), automatic and controlled processing (e.g., the dissociation model and critiques of this model), and integrative approaches (social dominance theory, integrated threat theory, and the multicomponent approach to intergroup attitudes). Under the second rubric, the topics include attributional ambiguity perspectives, the personal‐group discrimination discrepancy, perceived prejudice and discrimination as stressors, stereotype threat, and relative deprivation and perceived discrimination as predictors of victims' desires to take protective action.
Applied Developmental Science
Authors: Wertlieb Donald 
Published: November 2003

AbstractDevelopmental psychology's emergent identity as an applied developmental science reflects the field's rich and complex history and forecasts significant challenges and opportunities as we begin our second century of science, practice, and promoting human welfare. A brief history of developmental psychology documents how the “applied developmental science” umbrella and framework foster progress in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary scholarship consistent with contemporary contextual and bioecological theories. Several examples of substantive areas of inquiry and action articulate theoretical, empirical, and professional issues. These include parenting and early care and education, as well as developmental psychopathology and developmental assets. Applied developmental science requires and provides special methods (e.g., outreach scholarship, innovative community partnerships), ethical imperatives, and considerations for training and credentialing. As part of applied developmental science, developmental psychology is increasingly well poised to realize its potential for enhancing the well‐being of children, adolescents, and their families.
Infant Perception and Cognition
Authors: Cohen Leslie B. , Cashon Cara H. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter examines methods, theories, and research on infant perception and cognition. The focus is on developmental changes during the first two years of life, and no sharp distinction is made between perceptual development and cognitive development. The chapter emphasizes a set of information‐processing propositions, according to which early perceptual and cognitive development is a constructive, nonlinear process involving successive levels of information integration over age. Several popular techniques for assessing infant perception and cognition are described, including visual preferences, habituation, and conditioning. Similarities and differences among these techniques are mentioned along with a number of misconceptions regarding them. Several theoretical approaches are outlined, including Piagetian theory, dynamical systems, connectionist modeling, and cognitive neuroscience. Specific research topics covered in the chapter include infant perception of color, form, size, and shape and the development of perceptual constancies. Next discussed are topics related to infants' perception of entire objects, including object permanence, object unity, object identification, and the special case of infant face perception. How infants group multiple objects into categories is covered next. The final section describes research on individual differences and the degree to which one can predict childhood performance from scores on infant tests.