bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gladstone and Disraeli 1868–1880
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The period 1868–80 was remarkable for the starkness with which political differences were epitomized by dramatic confrontations between its two leading men. Even when the behaviour of the ministries led by Gladstone and Disraeli converged under the impress of circumstances, the passion of colliding philosophies and rhetoric usually managed to disguise the fact. Not that the general election of 1868, which cleared the way for such things, was itself either especially fierce or especially novel in character. If more constituencies were fought than at any election since 1832, this was because extensive franchise reforms always made it necessary to survey the political map anew. In almost every other respect contests followed familiar lines. There was much electoral violence. About eighty seats remained under the control of landed patrons, while in the industrial North factory owners were emerging as political godfathers in their own right. The Tory campaign showed few signs of imperialist stridency. Religion still counted for much (and Disraeli, despite attempts to rally the ‘Protestant’ vote, lacked finesse in that department). Most of the members returned came from the usual backgrounds: aristocracy, landed gentry, and (but no more than before) the purple of commerce.
‘J’equippe une flotte tres considerable‘: The Dutch Side of the Glorious Revolution
Authors: Groenveld Simon 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The years between 1660 and 1715 form a distinct period in European history: the period of French expansion under Louis XIV. The decades before had seen the spectacular decline of the two Habsburg princes: the German Emperor and the King of Spain. By the Peace of Westphalia the Emperor had been forced to allow the German princes to create policies of their own; the Spanish king had had to recognize the independence of the Dutch Republic and to accept an unpleasant peace with France in 1659. Louis XIV, who on this very occasion had married a Spanish princess, thus became a potential heir to his father-in-law, Philip IV. In 1661 he decided to govern France on his own. From that time onwards he ruled over his 20 million subjects with the help of a strong, bureaucratic system of government, though one which was not as powerful as is often alleged. His country had enormous resources at its disposal, but, notwith-standing the efforts made by capable ministers such as Colbert, the overall character of its economy was old-fashioned and remained so for a long time.
Market Failure and Investor Protection
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
1.1 The previous chapter described the rationale for the imposition of capital requirements on banks. This chapter examines whether similar considerations apply to investment managers. 1.2 The feature of banks that gives rise to a capital requirement is the holding of assets that are less liquid than liabilities. The potential shortfall in liquidation values of bank assets over liabilities creates risks of ‘runs’. A ‘run’ develops when an insolvency of one bank precipitates withdrawals by depositors of solvent banks because they are unable to distinguish-between solvent and insolvent firms. The run itself increases the number of insolvencies. Investment managers that hold client balances may be prone to similar disturbance. But if investment managers do not hold client balances, the bank model is not directly relevant. Notwithstanding, investment managers are subject to other risks that were described in Chapters 3 and 4. The questions they raised are, first, whether there are market failures associated with these risks and, second, whether capital adequacy requirements are the appropriate response.
Capital Requirements in the UK and USA
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
l.1 The purpose of this chapter is to analyse the rules regarding capital that are currently required of investment managers in the UK. 1.2 Section 2 begins by describing the capital requirement rules of the relevant regulatory organization, the Investment Management Regulatory Organization (IMRO). Section 3 assesses the extent to which the rules provide the investor with protection against the risks described in Chapters 3 and 4 and the costs associated with each form of protection. It is argued that there are serious deficiencies, both in principle and practice, in the design of rules as currently formulated. Section 4 then considers how capital rules should be determined, assuming that capital is the preferred approach to investor protection. However, this assessment mainly reinforces the assertion made in the previous chapter that capital is not the appropriate form of protection for most of the risks that IMRO is seeking to neutralize. Section 5 describes regulation of IM firms by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in the USA. Section 6 summarizes the results of this chapter.
The Japanese Labour Market
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The labour market in Japan is said to differ in many respects from those of other advanced economies. Japanese workers, for example, seem to have much longer employment tenure-allegedly, ‘lifetime’ employment. The unemployment rate in 1994 was 3%, the highest it has been since 1950, and is generally very low by OECD standards. Wages of primary labour, though they are determined by union bargaining, are flexible.
Trade Imbalance and the Exchange Rate
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Current account imbalances among major countries significantly widened during the 1980s, and have become the major economic problem today. Table 8.1 shows the record for Japan, the United States, (West) Germany, and the United Kingdom. In 1980 Japan’s current account was in deficit after the second oil embargo the previous year, while that of the United States was in surplus. The situation reversed in 1982, and the gap abruptly widened in 1983-4. These imbalances continued throughout the 1980s. The prolonged boom in Japan in the late 1980s caused the current account surplus relative to GNP to decline to 1% by 1990, but then the subsequent recession once again forced it back above 3%. Germany (then West Germany) also kept its current account surplus at a high level¬ above 4% as a ratio relative to GNP-in the late 1980s; the Unification, however, turned it to deficit.
Conclusion
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book has argued that real demand constraint is essential to an understanding of the macro economy. No doubt, a part of demand is determined endogenously within any given period, but there is always an exogenous component in real aggregate demand which constrains the economy as a whole. Wars are obviously exogenous real demand shocks (though they are supply shocks as well), without which we cannot reasonably explain the century-long developments of any advanced country. Exports are another example. The Keynesian approach begins with exogenous real demand.
Denmark: the Land of the Vanishing House-wife
Authors: Knudsen Lisbeth B 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since the late 1960s family forms have changed in Denmark. One remarkable sign of this change is the increased proportion of children born to single (never-married or divorced) women. Twenty years ago, in 1970, this proportion was only 11 per cent of all live-born children. By 1980 it had grown to 33.2 per cent, and in 1990 almost half of all births (46.4 per cent) took place outside marriage (Danmarks Statistik, 1992).
The Federal Republic of Germany: Polarization of Family Structure
Authors: Federkeil Gero 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Like most other industrialized countries, Germany witnessed the demographic changes that characterize the ‘second demographic transition’ (Van de Kaa, 1987). Ever since the end of the 1960s, fertility has been below replacement level. At the end of the last decade, the net reproduction rate in Germany has been among the lowest in the world (1989: 0.67). Within twenty-five years (from 1960 to 1985), the total fertility rate dropped from 2.41 to 1.28 (Birg et al., 1987), while the average age of women at first birth increased from 24.9 years in 1965 to 26.2 years in 1985. Furthermore, between 1960 and 1986, the marriage rate fell from 9.4 to 6. 1 per 1,000 inhabitants and this was accompanied by an increase in age at marriage since the mid-1970s, from 25.3 years in 1975 to 27.2 years in 1985 for men, and from 23.7 to 24.6 years for women (Birg et al., 1991).
Italy: Changing the Family from Within
Authors: Menniti Adele , Palomba Rossella , Sabbadini Linda Laura 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Italian family shows signs of a continuity of tradition, and there is not much statistical evidence of new family behaviour. Pluralization of living arrangements and polarization between marriage and alternatives to marriage are concepts that are inadequate to describe the changes that have taken place in Italian family patterns. In addition, family patterns in Italy show an increasing tendency towards a simplification of structure. Our analysis, focused on living arrangements of women at the early parental phase and at the beginning of the post-parental phase, showed that during the 1980s many changes did take place, but mostly within the framework of a unique life choice: to get married and to have children. Changes in family patterns and living arrangements of women in Italy are mainly changes in the timing of marriage and childbirth.
The Netherlands: the Latent Family
Authors: Kuijsten Anton , Schulze Hans-Joachim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There can be no doubt that millions of people in the Netherlands live in families or family-like situations. At present, however, the most characteristic feature of the Dutch family is its latency, in three different senses: political, public and private. Political latency is indicated by the fact that there is no explicit family policy, family seldom being an issue on the political agenda. Public latency refers to the fact that it is not considered acceptable to talk or write in public about ‘het gezin’ (the family) as this would be regarded as old-fashioned. Private latency in everyday life is illustrated by the tendency to refer to a spouse or partner as ‘life companion’, ‘relation’, ‘boy friend’ or ‘girl friend’ even, and for children to be introduced casually just by their first names, instead of by saying ‘This is my son/daughter’. The national consensus about this family latency gives rise to political measures that have conflicting impacts on families. One of the consequences of the fact that family is no longer a manifest point of reference is that, in times of structural unemployment, individualized social security makes the unemployed family head vulnerable and easily pushes families of the unemployed towards the poverty line.
Ten Countries in Europe: an Overview
Authors: Kuijsten Anton , Strohmeier Klaus Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As we mentioned in our introductory chapter, aggregate demographic figures such as birth rates or marriage and divorce rates are only very superficial indicators of changes in the structures of family life. Nevertheless, they are important as indications of convergences or divergences in a significant aspect of the societal context in which structures of family life are embedded: changing between-country differentials in prevalence of demographic events contribute to changing between-country variation in familial and household structures.
Lone-parenthood and Social Policies for Lone-parent Families in Europe
Authors: Torremocha Isabel Madruga 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The aim of this article is to examine policies towards lone-parent families within an European framework. The first part will describe the main characteristics of lone-parenthood as a growing phenomenon. Second, a description of the different problems associated with lone-parenthood will be given. Third, the policies towards these families will be discussed, and the difficulties associated with the emergence of a specific pattern highlighted. Finally, a description of the four main policies on these families in the European countries will be given. To conclude, a preliminary classification of countries according to three different patterns will be provided.
Paths Towards a Modernization of Gender Relations, Policies, and Family Building
Authors: Kunzler Jan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Seemingly, all or most modem, industrialized countries faced the same developments in the area of family and gender relations in the last decades. All industrialized countries faced deep demographic changes: a second demographic transition caused birth rates to fall below replacement level. Marriage rates fell and divorce rates rose to an unforeseen extent. At the same time, all industrialized countries developed an increasing commitment to gender equality in all areas of society. But until now, a glass ceiling prevented women everywhere from catching up with men and stalled the final abolition of discrimination against women.
The New Fathers: What Does it Mean for Children, Marriage, and for Family Policy?
Authors: Herlth Alois 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Recently it seems to be common place to say that the woman&’s role has changed especially during the last three decades. A lot of statis tical data show that this change happened in more or less all coun tries of the EU, although it has different results in different countries (see Table 9.1), which might be influenced by specific national conceptions of family policy (Schulze & Kunzler, 1997). Never the less we do not only observe an increasing number of women but also of mothers with young children who are in gainful employment. Furthermore married women have become more independent of their husbands and their importance in family decision making has grown.
Which Models of the Family are En couraged or Discouraged by Different Famil Policies?
Authors: Fux Beat 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the course of the past three decades, the traditional family has undergone several transformations. The fertility decline, the development and spread of new living-arrangements, increasing divorce rates, and female labour force participation were predominant subjects of scientific research. The particular focus of this project follows on from the collection of comparative data for a sample of European countries which considered changes of family structures, everyday life of families, and family policies during the 1980s (Kaufmann et al.,1997).
Non—Governmental Organizations and Rural Poverty Alleviation
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There has been considerable interest in recent years in the ability of non-governmental organisations to work with the rural poor in developing countries in order to improve their quality of life and economic status through the provision of credit, skills training, and other inputs for income-generation programmes. This book brings together the results of 16 evaluations in 4 countries (Bangladesh, India, Uganda, and Zimbabwe) to provide a detailed assessment of the contribution that NGOs make to rural poverty alleviation. The results indicate that NGO projects are successful when they build in a high degree of participation, when the staff are committed to the goals of the project, and when they are managed by strong and competent leaders. Many of the projects studied contributed to increases in income and welfare. However, not all projects were successful, contrary to received wisdom about the efficacy of NGO interventions. many failed to reach the very poorest, most were costly to implement, and few of the projects demostrated an ability to continue once external funding was withdrawn. These findingd provide string support for viewing NGOs as a mechanism for helping to reduce rural poverty, but also demonstrate that many of the interventions are isolated or one-off. The impact of NGOs could be heightened by increasing the size of the intervention, encouraging greater cooperation among NGOs, and by fostering closer cooperation with governments. This study will make an impact in the development community, and its conclusions will help shape NGO and poverty agendas in the coming years. The book will appeal to all those concerned with rural development, NGOs, and development programmes.
Old-Age Mortality in Japan: Demographic and Epidemiological Perspectives
Authors: Goldman Noreen , Takahashi Shigesato 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The dramatic increase in Japanese longevity over the past several decades has received considerable attention from social and medical scientists (Marmot and Smith, 1989; Mario and Takahashi, 1986; Okino, 1978; Ohno, 1985; Shigematsu and Nanjo, 1993). As shown in Table 8.1, life expectancies for Japanese men and women have more than doubled over the past century. During the past 40 years alone, life expectancy has increased by more than 15 years for men and by almost 20 years for women, reaching levels of 75.9 years for men and 81.9 years for women in 1990. A comparison of all national populations reveals that Japan has experienced the highest life expectancy in the world during the past decade.
Strategies for the Provision of Social and Health Care Services for the Elderly
Authors: Golini Antonio , Vivio Roberta 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Population ageing, for its numerical importance, its proportional weight, the speed of its growth, its geographical differentiation, and its multidimensional aspects will, demographically speaking, characterize this last part of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first in Western countries. However, starting from the early decades of the next century it will also increasingly characterize many of the countries which are currently classified as ‘developing ‘, so that while the twentieth century will be remembered as the century of great and rapid population growth, the twenty-first will be remembered as the century of population ageing.
Pastoralists and the Spirit of Enterprise
Authors: Spencer Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Traditional pastoralism in East Africa popularly conveys a leisurely way of life that contrasts with the spirit of enterprise shown by more progressive settled peoples such as the Kikuyu. This contrast is well illustrated in early accounts of trading between the pastoral Maasai and their agricultural neighbours. The Maasai benefited from this trade, but their men especially displayed a self-contained pastoralist life style and despised others who tilled the ground and traded their products. The actual trading was conducted between Maasai woman and visiting traders, and when these traders were men, this confirmed the visitors’ lack of self-esteem in Maasai eyes. Trading caravans risked being harassed by Maasai warriors (moran), who tended to dominate neighbouring agricultural peoples. Nevertheless, care was taken not to disrupt the trading itself, and the more persistent raids were directed against semi-pastoral peoples with cattle and no mutual trading arrangements. While Maasai men engaged in male activities, the women were protected by custom and continued to trade for their own domestic purposes, notably for grain to tide their families over the hunger of the dry season, and notably with neighbours that shared an uneasy peace with the Maasai.
The Thrust of Pastoral Innovations
Authors: Spencer Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The general absence of cattle among the Chamus up to this point reflects their vulnerable position. The nomadic livelihood of their pastoral neighbours was ideally suited for flexible grazing in a region where rainfall was unpredictable and raiding was a constant threat. Because they were not tied down by cultivation, the pastoralists could expand, contract, or shift their ground as they jostled strategically for control over the best grazing areas and in defence of their herds. The region was dominated by nomadic pastoralists, and the Chamus could minimize the risk of harassment by avoiding cattle and limiting their flocks of sheep and goats. Originally as foragers, they appear to have relied on their intricate knowledge of their area and then irrigation farming placed an added restriction on their movement. Having no cattle avoided the problems of grazing away from the villages and tempting their pastoral neighbours to raid. But there could be no final guarantee of security, and there are early reports of former Chamus settlements that had been deserted because of marauding pastoralists. However, the two substantial villages, Lemeluat (Down-River Chamus) and Lekenyuki (Up-River Chamus), still survived, and each was protected by a sturdy double ring of thorn fence. Other Chamus living on the islands of the lake needed less protection, but they also had little to protect.
Population Growth, Development, and the Malthusian Dilemma
Authors: Spencer Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The final part of this work considers the relevance of three related debates over the future of pastoralism in East Africa. These concern the impact of the growth of population and technology (Chapter 7); dependency theories which bear on the increasing marginalization of pastoralists in the remoter areas (Chapter 8); and the conditions under which pastoralists destroy their own environment (Chapter 9). Uncontrolled population growth, the penetration of world capitalism, and the threat of ecological degradation are the basic premisses of what follows.
The Doctrine of Jus Cogens in International Law
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Fundamental laws are not only inalienable, but, by virtue of their authority, character and content, also exist independently of any text which may attempt to formulate them, and bind the community, whether or not it submits to them. The Ten Commandments are fundamental laws: their binding and law-making force is universal and eternal and would be so even if they had not been given formal expression.
The question whether there are fundamental laws which form part of or underlie public international law or, to put it differently, which, while included in public international law, have a higher status and sanction than the ordinary rule of international law—that question does not seem to have arisen before the present century. On the contrary, until very recently it was believed by many that it is open to States by their treaty to derogate from every rule of international law. The impetus for a reconsideration of the problem2 came, when the codification of the law of treaties and its implications had to be pondered.
State Corporations in International Relations
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Increasingly during this century, governments throughout the world have established separately constituted legal entitities to perform a variety of tasks. The organisation and control of these entitites vary considerably, but many possess a number of common features. A typical government instrumentality, if one can be said to exist, is created by an enabling statute that prescribes the powers and duties of the instrumentality and specifies that it is to be managed by a board selected by the government in a manner consistent with the enabling law. The instrumentality is typically established as a separate juridical entity, with the powers to hold and sell property and to sue and be sued. Except for appropriations to provide capital or to cover losses, the instrumentality is primarily responsible for its own finances. The instrumentality is run as a distinct economic enterprise; often it is not subject to the same budgetary and personnel requirements with which government agencies must comply.