bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the premier biomedical research organization in the world. It serves as the U.S. government’s lead agency in the war on human disease. It carries out its mission of providing leadership and research direction to biomedical research programs through its clinics, in-house laboratory research, and extramural programs. In doing so, NIH is the largest supporter of biomedical research in the country. Of its total budget of over $8 billion in fiscal year (FY) 1991, over 80 percent was allocated for the support of extramural grants and contracts. These are awarded to thousands of institutions and scientists around the world, but mostly in the United States.
Extramural Support Mechanisms
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A substantial array of extramural support mechanisms is available covering every stage of the research career spectrum. An overview is provided in this chapter and a brief summary of the various mechanisms included in Appendix 2, along with FY 1991 success rates and average costs per award. There are three major categories of awards, detailed below. Research grants, the largest category, includes awards for a variety of research projects and research training activities. The important features of a grant are: The idea for the research or training project is initiated by the investigator and not by the NIH. In the case of Requests for Applications (RFAs), the NIH identifies the general objective of the solicitation and depends on the creative talent of the principal investigator (Pl) to provide the approaches and meth odology.
The Referral System
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The policy of the NIH requires that grant applications, with few exception’s; be received centrally by DRG. The grant decision process begins in the Referral Office. This office’s responsibility for the receipt, processing, and referral of grant applications extends beyond NIH in that other PHS organizations with grant pro grams, such as the ADAMHA utilize these services.
The Peer Review System
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The peer review system is an administrative creation first utilized by the NIH over forty years ago. It has enabled the NIH to recruit large numbers of prominent, primarily nonfederal scientists from institutions of higher learning, hospitals, re search foundations, and industry within the United States and neighboring countries. This impressive array of expertise is used by the agency to evaluate the scientific merit of grant and contract proposals. It represents a unique partnership between the NIH and the biomedical research community. The scientific expertise contributed by the nation’s biomedical researchers would be impossible for the NIH to duplicate with its own staff. On the other hand, the NIH represents an ideal rallying point for the research community for advocating strong, continuing support for biomedical research.
National Advisory Councils
Authors: Schwartz Samuel M , Friedman Mischa E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Historically, national advisory councils were the first on the peer review scene. In 1937, Congress created the National Cancer Institute (NCI), along with an advisory council, and authorized the support of research and research training. With the passage of the Public Health Service Act in 1944, the NCI became part of NIH and a National Advisory Health Council was directed to provide support for other areas of biomedical research. After World War Il, the NIH inherited a variety of research activities supported by other agencies. The National Advisory Health Council felt the need for scientific assistance in the review of grant applications. In 1946, NIH created the Office of Research Grants, which eventually became the DRG of today, and twenty-one study sections to help the National Advisory Health Council carry out its mandate to make grant awards. This briefly is how it all began and may help to place in perspective the origin of national advisory councils, study sections, and other similar scientific review groups.
The Early Cherokee–Carolina Trade, 1700–1730
Authors: Hatley Tom 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
THE first colonists who came to the Cherokee villages were clearer about their entrepreneurial ambitions than their ultimate destinations. The Cherokee towns were stop-over points along the way west or north, wherever the fuzzy maps of the interior led these questing and often anonymous individuals or officials. Only after the 1690s did the deerskin trade begin to expand dramatically along the rivers which drained the east face of the Cherokee Mountains, bringing the tribe face to face, on an irregular basis, with Carolinians. The distance from the Lower Towns to Charlestown was a serious obstacle to sustained encounter. There is no indication, however, that the tribal villages were uncomfortable in those early years with their isolation, or that they sought rapprochement or even regular contact with the colonists, then barely occupying the fringe of the Atlantic coast. Instead, the early pattern of middleman trading persisted in which broker tribes, often situated at the fall line, buffered the Cherokees from direct contact—whether with the Spanish in the first years of trade, or their eighteenth-century competitors, the English.
The Last Game
Authors: Echevarria Roberto González 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Dawn was cool and bright in Havana on Tuesday, February 25, 1947. A brisk wind whipped away the high clouds remaining from yesterday’s rains as a golden glow began to unveil the skyline of the city. Newspaper vendors broke the silence with their cries, and bottles clinked on sidewalks and in doorways as milkmen completed their rounds. The rumble of buses and the clanging of streetcars were just beginning. Soon, as if driven by a sudden migratory urge, thousands would board them, joining others on foot and in cars. The thousands would head to the Gran Stadium de la Habana, the new baseball park built not far from downtown, to the south. The most dramatic ending in the nearly seventy-year history of the Cuban League was about to take place that afternoon, in a contest that-no one knew it then-would be the most important baseball game yet played on the island, perhaps the last of such portent.
The Russians are Coming! The Russians are Coming!, Pageantry and Patriotism in Cold-War America
Authors: Fried Richard M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
At a time when Americans dedicate their national holidays to barbecues, sporting events, and driving madly on crowded interstate highways to vacation homes and theme parks, it may be difficult to remember an era when patriotic observance was a matter of high seriousness and legislated pageantry. But now the memory is restored in fascinating detail by Richard M. Fried in the eye-opening The Russians Are Coming! After summarizing such patriotic developments as the sanctification of the American flag and the wide--and occasionally coercive--acceptance of the Pledge of Allegiance, Fried describes how the Ad Council, the American Heritage Foundation, and other organizations created "campaigns to sell America to the Americans" through carefully constructed "rededication" celebrations like "Know Your America" Weeks, Freedom Weeks, and traveling exhibitions such as the Freedom Train, which in the late 1940s brought original copies of seminal American documents directly to cities and towns across the country. He vividly recreates the spectacle of clashing New York City parades involving thousands of participants, as celebrants of the newly-created Loyalty Day marched in opposition to pro-Communist May Day demonstrations just blocks away. Most startling, though, is Fried's account of how Mosinee, Wisconsin was "invaded" by Communists in a staged media event sponsored by the American Legion. Citizens allowed themselves to be searched at random while local officials acted the part of Stalinists, and the town restaurants were required to serve only potato soup and black bread. Meticulously researched and colourfully told, The Russians Are Coming! recreates an absorbing--and revealing--dimension of American history.
The Cultural Consequences of Americanism
Authors: Nolan Mary 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For many Weimar observers, Americanism and Fordism symbolized much more than a stunningly efficient, modern system of production; they repre, sented a world view, a way of life, and a set of gender relations organized around the primacy of economics and consumption and the devaluation of high culture.1 They embodied a spirit of pragmatism and materialism, an acceptance of-indeed, a desire for-uniformity, and a thoroughly ratio, nal, unromantic attitude toward production, work, and the factory as well as reproduction, leisure, and the home. The majority of Americans seemed to approach their lives in the same way that a minority of German artists and intellectuals in the N_eue Sachlich eit movement analyzed modern soci­ ety. They soberly accepted industrialization, urbanization and mass culture, eschewing angry protest or utopian fantasies. To most German commenta, tors, the American political system was irrelevant to American economic success and thus was not discussed at length; however, American culture, gender, and everyday life were not ignored. Economists, journalists, engi, neers, and social workers debated whether economic modernity in its American guise inherently required or inevitably produced not only new products and styles of consumption but also new men and women.
Winners and Losers
Authors: Nolan Mary 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Foreign observers recognized that Germany had implemented the doctrines of rationalization more extensively than any other European country, and they lavished relatively uncritical praise on the results.1 The Englishman Meakin even insisted that “what has been accomplished in Germany will be attempted in every country where similar industrial problems have to be faced.”2 By decade’s end such positive sentiments found few echoes in Germany, for the paradoxical results of the productivist strategies pursued by industrialists, engineers, and the RKW greatly intensified the contro, versies surrounding rationalization. Debate primarily centered on the closely intertwined issues of prices, costs, wages, and profits, for capital and labor had each made different assumptions about when and how much each of these variables should rise or fall. Industry anticipated that rationalization would lower costs, which would translate into somewhat lower prices and higher profits. This, in tum, would fund further rationalization and lower costs and prices yet again. At some point late in the process, wages would be raised. The trade unions wanted to start the cycle with higher wages, which were to spur rational, ization that would lower costs and prices, enabling still higher wages as well as greater profits. Throughout the 1920s, capital and labor disagreed on what was actually happening to costs, prices, wages, and profits and what was possible-economically and politically. These debates also involved three related concerns: how rationalization affected working conditions; how it altered the composition of the labor force; and whether it created structural unemployment.
Post-War Legal Thought 1945-1960
Authors: Horwitz Morton J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Post-World War II legal thought was shaped by three broad sets of influences. First were the varying reactions to the unsettling legacy of Legal Realism that encountered the persistent pressure of professional orthodoxy to restore a sharp distinction between law and politics. Second were the varying interpretations of and reactions to the horrors of fascism, Nazism, and Stalinism. The emergence of totalitarianism abroad not only revived broad interest in the meaning of the rule of law; it also rekindled thought about the relationship between democratic political culture and legal theory. An even more specific result of the rise of totalitarianism was the astonishing spread of McCarthyism, a form of anti-Communist authoritarianism that came to represent not only a major domestic political response to the cold war but also a powerful catalyst to political repression in post-war culture. Finally, post-war legal thought was powerfully shaped by efforts to square the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education 1 (1954) with the half-century-old, post-Lochner, Progressive commitment to judicial restraint.
The Multinational Challenge to Corporation Law
Authors: Blumberg Phillip I 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Traditional corporation law formulated centuries ago by an agricultural society fails to deal effectively with modern society in which business is being predominantly conducted by affiliated corporations doing business around the world. Rejecting the traditional law that would treat each affiliated company as a separate and distinct legal entity unrelated to the group of which it is an integral part, American law, and to a lesser extent European law, is responding with new decisional and statutory law focusing on the enterprise rather than on its constituent parts. The application of legal controls to multinational enterprises has a further major dimension. National law regulating world business inevitably leads to serious international controversies over the boundaries of national jurisdiction and regulation. Multinationals challenge not only national law but the world legal order as well. This volume comprehensively reviews the newer system of enterprise law being developed by the legal systems of the world to deal with the modern corporations and its implications for international law and foreign relations law. It concludes with the very first discussion of the jurisprudential implications of this major legal development.
Scientific Issues in Biomedical Research with Children
Authors: Kauffman Ralph E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The dynamic process of growth, differentiation, and maturation is what sets children apart from adults. In addition to overall growth, dramatic changes in body proportions, composition, and physiology take place during childhood. Growth and development are particularly rapid during the first two years of life. Major organ systems differentiate, grow, and mature. Body weight typically doubles by five to six months of age, and triples by the first birthday. Body length increases by 50 percent during the first year. Body surface area doubles by one year of age. During the first eighteen months of life, the child becomes ambulatory, develops socialization, and learns verbal language.
The New York City Draft Riots
Authors: Bernstein Iver 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For five days in July 1863, at the height of the Civil War, New York City was under siege. Angry rioters burned draft offices, closed factories, destroyed railroad tracks and telegraph lines, and hunted policemen and soldiers. Before long, the rioters turned their murderous wrath against the black community. In the end, at least 105 people were killed, making the draft riots the most violent insurrection in American history. In this vividly written book, Iver Bernstein tells the compelling story of the New York City draft riots. He details how what began as a demonstration against the first federal draft soon expanded into a sweeping assault against the local institutions and personnel of Abraham Lincoln’s Republican Party as well as a grotesque race riot. Bernstein identifies participants, dynamics, causes and consequences, and demonstrates that the “winners” and “losers” of the July 1863 crisis were anything but clear, even after five regiments rushed north from Gettysburg restored order. In a tour de force of historical detection, Bernstein shows that to evaluate the significance of the riots we must enter the minds and experiences of a cast of characters—Irish and German immigrant workers, Wall Street businessmen who frantically debated whether to declare martial law, nervous politicians in Washington and at City Hall. Along the way, he offers new perspectives on a wide range of topics: Civil War society and politics, patterns of race, ethnic and class relations, the rise of organized labor, styles of leadership, philanthropy and reform, strains of individualism, and the rise of machine politics in Boss Tweed’s Tammany regime. An in-depth study of one of the most troubling and least understood crises in American history, The New York City Draft Riots is the first book to reveal the broader political and historical context—the complex of social, cultural and political relations—that made the bloody events of July 1863 possible.
Production Frontiers and Productive Efficiency
Authors: Lovell C A Knox 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When discussing the performance of production units, it is common to describe them as being more or less “efficient,” or more or less “productive.” In this chapter1 I discuss the relationship between these two concepts, and I consider some hypotheses concerning the determinants of producer performance as measured by efficiency and productivity. I then tum to an analysis of some of the techniques that have been developed for measuring efficiency and productivity. Since these techniques are discussed in detail in the next three chapters, and illustrated in subsequent chapters, my analysis of them is brief and nontechnical. It focuses on the differences among the techniques, and on their relative strengths and weaknesses.
The Mathematical Programming Approach To Efficiency Analysis
Authors: Ali Agha Iqbal , Seiford Lawrence M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In his classic paper, M. J. Farrell (1957) argues that the measurement of productive efficiency is of theoretical and practical importance; a satisfactory efficiency measure allows both empirical testing of theoretical arguments and economic planning to im­ prove the productivity of particular industries. Farrell ‘s approach, largely inspired by Koopmans (1951), was based on a production possibility set consisting of the conical hull of input-output vectors. This framework was generalized to multiple outputs and reformulated as a mathematical programming problem by Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes (1978, 1979, 1981) thus initiating the mathematical programming approach to efficiency measurement known as data envelopment analysis (DEA).
Efficiency And Productivity
Authors: Grosskopf S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of productivity measurement. This overview is selective: productivity measurement has a long history, much of which is not touched on here. Instead, the focus here is on relatively recent developments; especially those dealing with the measurement of total factor productivity and the relationship between productivity and efficiency. The goal is to sketch the empirical options with special emphasis on those which explicitly include consideration of efficiency. By worrying about efficiency as a component of productivity I obviously have a particular definition of productivity in mind. Although many consider productivity growth and technical progress as synonymous, I belong to a small but growing group who distinguish the two concepts. I define productivity growth as the net change in output due to change in efficiency and technical change, where the former is understood to be the change in how far an observation is from the frontier of technology and the latter is understood to be shifts in the production frontier.
A Production Frontier Model With Flexible Temporal Variation In Technical Efficiency
Authors: Lee Young Hoon , Schmidt Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Stochastic frontier models originated with Aigner, Lovell, and Schmidt (1977) and Meeusen and van den Broeck (1977). These models were intended for cross-sectional applications, and they rested on strong assumptions about the errors. Statistical noise was assumed to be normally distributed, while technical inefficiency was assumed to be distributed according to a specific one-sided distribution, such as exponential or half-normal. Furthermore, statistical noise and technical inefficiency were assumed to be independent of each other and of the explanatory variables (inputs). This line of research has been continued, with an emphasis on alternative distributional as­ sumptions for technical inefficiency. For examples, see Stevenson (1980) and Greene (1990). Surveys are given by Schmidt (1986), Lovell and Schmidt (1988), and Bauer (1990), and by Greene in Section 2.4 of this book. It is now well understood that the basic parameters (regression coefficients) of the model can be estimated under weaker assumptions, but the separation of technical inefficiency from statistical noise [as in Jondrow, Lovell, Materov, and Schmidt (1982)] intrinsically requires strong distributional assumptions.
Technical Efficiency In New Jersey School Districts
Authors: McCarty Therese A , Yaisawarng Suthathip 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Expenditure per pupil in U.S. public schools has risen dramatically in recent years. Between l 960 and 1983, expenditure per pupil for current services rose by 135 percent in real terms [Hanushek (1986, p. 1146)]. At the same time, achievement levels, as measured by test scores, have not risen proportionally, suggesting that resources are not being allocated to schools or utilized by them as productively as possible. Recent concern about the achievement of U.S. students and concern about the size of public budgets underline the importance of using resources allocated to public education effectively. This chapter explores one possible source of inefficiency in the operation of public schools, namely, productive or technical inefficiency.
Technical Efficiency In Veterans Administration Hospitals
Authors: Burgess James F , Wilson Paul W 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Local units of central government operations are subject to frequent changes in regimes of control. In many cases, new regimes are intended to induce greater efficiency in the local units; typically, however, evaluation of policy initiatives after the fact is not done systematically. One method for such efficiency evaluation is the mathematical programming approach described in Chapter 2. In particular, the efficiency of the network of federally operated veterans hospitals in the United States is evaluated over a short panel while the regime of control for setting the budgets of local units was changing. The presence of multiple outputs and the lack of good information on input prices are aspects of the hospital industry in general that make nonparametric approaches fruitful, as in Sherman (1984), Grosskopf and Valdmanis (1987), and Sexton et al. (1989). Specific theoretical problems addressed here include a method for assessing the significance of changes in average efficiency over time and a method for assessing the relative strength of outliers.
Efficiency and competition in o.e.c.d. Financial services
Authors: Fecher Fabienne , Pestieau Pierre 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It seems widely accepted today that productivity growth in banking and insurance services, herein called financial services, is very low, if not negative. In a recent paper on the U.S. insurance industry, Baumol (1991) has argued that this is by no means attributable to managerial slack or “other form of misbehavior,” but to what he calls the cost disease.2 The cost disease plagues many other service industries, such as education, artistic performance, and police protection; it affects activities which are inherently resistant to technical change.