bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Electrostatic fields and voltage
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Physicists have discovered that, outside of the nucleus, there are only two types of two-particle force, electro-magnetic and gravitational, and on the molecular scale gravitational forces are far too weak to play any role. Thus on the microscopic scale of molecules, atoms and ions, all forces are either electric or magnetic. Other forces, such as those which are loosely called ‘chemical’ or ‘mechanical’, have their origin in electro-magnetic effects. For example, the mechanical integrity of a solid object such as a book or a table is due to electrical forces, and a book placed on a table experiences an upthrust from the table equal to its weight because the outer electrons of the book’s cover repel electrically those on the surface of the table. On the macroscopic scale of everyday life it would be unnecessarily complicated to express all forces in electro magnetic form and inventing other types of force such as ‘mechanical’ or’chemical’ is a convenient shorthand to describe familiar situations. The collective behaviour of some many-bodied systems can be explained by the tendency of all systems to move to a state which maximizes the entropy of the system and the surroundings, as briefly discussedin Appendix 2. This is sometimes described as due to the action of an entropic force (see Appendices 2 and 3), but on the molecular scale the only physical forces acting to bring about the maximization of the entropy are in fact electro-magnetic.
The calculation of electric fields and voltages in the presence of dielectrics
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the techniques developed in Chapter 4 to deal with the presence of dielectric material, are applied to situations involving charges, conductors and dielectrics. In particular, the enhancement of the capacitance of capacitors filled with dielectrics is discussed. Also the electrostatic self-energy of a single charged conductor is derived together with the extra electrostatic energy stored in an assembly of interacting charged conductors. An expression for the energy per unit volume stored in an electric field is deduced. The reason why the plasma membrane of an animal cell is such an effective barrier to the passage of small ions across it is shown to be electrostatic in origin.
Static magnetic fields
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces magnetism. Magnetic fields are generated when currents flow in conductors; in particular, the magnetic field of a small loop of current-carrying conductor is equivalent to that of a magnetic dipole. There are no magnetic unipoles corresponding to electric charges. The two fundamental laws which govern the properties of magnetic fields, Gauss’s law and Ampe’re’s law, are derived. A magnetic potential is introduced and the differences between the electrostatic potential and magnetostatic potential are discussed.
The Debye layer
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of the membranes found in biological cells are charged, and this has a profound effect upon the concentration of ions to be found in their vicinity. The layer of solution close to such charged surfaces is known as the Debye layer and many of its properties are discussed in this chapter, including the magnitude of the electric field when the surface charge density is known and the anomalous ionic concentrations that result from the presence of this electric field. The validity of some of the assumptions that have to be made in a simple theory of the Debye layer are discussed.
An introduction to the semi-classical theory of pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance
Authors: Edmonds D T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance is probably the most used analytical technique in chemistry and biology. It is concerned with the manipulation, by the application of magnetic fields, of the magnetic dipole moment associated with the nucleus of a particular type of atom within the molecule studied. The nuclear magnetic dipole moment may be thought of as due to a microscopic electric current loop created by a charged nucleus that has angular momentum and therefore spins. There is no exact classical analogue of the angular momentum associated with the quantum mechanical concept of spin, so that we will first predict the behaviour of the angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment associated with a single charged particle circulating in a loop, and later point out any differences between this classical orbital angular momentum and that created by a quantum mechanical spin.
Expansions of distributions
Authors: Andrews D F , Stafford J E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Edgeworth and saddle-point methods arc used to approximate the distribution of a statistic using its cumulants. Cornish-Fisher expansions are used to approximate quantiles of the distribution. The approximations are useful for application and, more importantly, for studying the properties of statistics. The approximations are elegant in the simplicity of their formulation and computation. This chapter shows how these expansions may be simply computed using the procedures of Chapters 3-5. No additional procedures are required for these calculations.
A Graphic Apology for Symmetry and Implicitness
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present book brings into focus the contrast between explicit and implicit algorithmic descriptions of objects. These themes are considered in a variety of settings, sometimes crossing traditional boundaries. Special emphasis is given to moderate complexity - exponential or polynomial - but objects with multi-exponential complexity also fit in. Among the items under consideration are graphs, formal proofs, languages, automata, groups, circuits, some connections with geometry of metric spaces, and complexity classes (P, NP, co-NP).
Mappings And Comparisons
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mappings between graphs are useful in part because they provide a general way to make comparisons, and to express the existence of certain kinds of patterns or symmetry. This is true in a purely geometric way, and also for constructions or computations in other contexts, including the use of feasibility graphs. We shall consider some basic illustrations of these principles in the present chapter
Adjacency Matrices And Counting
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let Gbe a finite oriented graph. It will be convenient to be a bit more functorial than in the standard literature, and so we write ℱ (G) for the vector space of real-valued functions on the set of vertices of G.In other words, we are basically looking at R, where nis the number of vertices in G,but it is convenient to use a realization of this vector space which is tied more directly to G.
Constructions With Graphs
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in Sections 14.2 and 14.3 how finite automata and regular languages are very close to oriented graphs and their visibilities, and how the notion of automata can be extended by allowing arbitrary graphs in the image instead of only alphabet graphs. In this chapter, we discuss this extension more formally, and describe some constructions for graphs which correspond to familiar properties of regular languages, and which work in the extended setting. These constructions are also related to the topics of Section 13.3.
Groups And Graphs
Authors: Carbone Alessandra , Semmes Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A fundamental class of examples of implicit descriptions of large objects in mathematics is provided by finitely-presented groups, A finite presentation is given by a finite set of generators and a finite set of relations, but then the resulting group can be an infinite object which may be quite complicated. In particular, the word problem — deciding whether a particular expression in the generators represents the identity element in the group is algorithmically undecidable for many finitely-presented groups. (See [Man77], for instance.)
Radiation environments
Authors: Holmes-Siedle Andrew , Adams Len 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we present a brief overview of the various environments likely to have a degrading effect on electronic devices and systems: space, nuclear reactors, processing, weapons, and controlled fusion. We also provide a description of the terrestrial environment, partly because of public concern regarding such events as the Chernobyl nuclear accident, and partly to place in context the various levels of radiation exposure which may be experienced by humans and equipment in these widely differing environments.
Guide to the interior
Authors: Tweed Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In unknown territory a good guide is indispensable, and a bad one can be disastrous. But ‘good’ doesn’t have to mean ‘infallible’; a guide that occasionally errs may be helpful all the same. I will discuss this idea as a methodological precept for neuroscience, but it is interesting to observe, as evidence of its validity, that the same precept was discovered long ago by the sensory systems in the brain itself, all of which rely on guiding assumptions or rules of thumb that are usually correct but sometimes mislead. Consider hearing. A stereo recording played through headphones can give you a vivid impression of sounds coming from points in your head or in space remote from the real speakers in your ears. In other words your brain is fooled into hearing things that aren’t there. Why does it fall for this? The headphones project into your two ears sound sequences that are similar but not identical.
Degrees of freedom
Authors: Tweed Douglas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
n Edwin Abbott’s Flatland,146 an inhabitant of a two-dimensional world is bewildered by a visitor from the third dimension, a sphere intersecting his plane. He has never seen anything like it. To his two-dimensional mind, the very concept of a sphere makes no sense. In this chapter I will argue that we are like Flatlanders, studying multidimensional sensorimotor systems whose remarkable properties are invisible, in fact unthinkable, unless we look at them in all their degrees of freedom. Most sensorimotor research in the twentieth century restricted itself to one or two dimensions, for instance to horizontal or vertical eye motion, or to the angle of a single joint in a moving limb.
Infinity
Authors: Silvester J R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are now going to look at some geometries in which, to see what is going on and to do calculations properly, we need to add to our plane one or more ‘points at infinity’. As a by-product, we shall find ourselves able to set up models for non-Euclidean geometry, where Euclid’s parallel axiom (see Section 1.3) fails to hold.
Empirical likelihood
Authors: Pawitan Yudi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given x 1 ,..., xn from N (θ, σ2) where σ2 is unknown, we can obtain an appropriate likelihood for θ by profiling over σ2. What if the normal assumption is in doubt, and we do not want to use any specific parametric model? Is there a way of treating the whole shape of the distribution as a nuisance parameter, and still get a sensible likelihood for the mean? Yes, the empirical or nonparametric likelihood is the answer. This is a significant result: as ‘shape ‘ is an infinite-dimensional nuisance parameter, there is no guarantee that it can be ‘profiled out ‘.
Adaptive distance sampling surveys
Authors: Pollard J H , Buckland S T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Distance sampling is especially effective for surveying objects that are sparsely distributed through a large region. However, if those objects tend to occur in a relatively small number of patches, standard distance sampling may yield both a low number of detections (because much effort is expended away from these patches) and high variance (because the main contributor to variance of abundance estimates from distance sampling surveys is generally variance in encounter rate; patchiness increases this component of variance appreciably).1
Some costs to grouping
Authors: Krause Jens , Ruxton Graeme D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Here, we consider the down-side of grouping, mechanisms that can lead to decreased fitness with increasing group size (see Box 3.1 for a summary). It is important to realize that the main fitness consequence of a potential cost, may not be that of paying the cost itself, but of the effort or constraint involved in avoiding this cost. For example, in gull colonies, egg and chick predation by other colony members can be an ever-present threat. Some parents will experience this cost directly, but some will not. However, all parents (whether their eggs suffer predation or not) will pay the costs of trying to minimize the risk of such cannibalism. This may be seen as a constraint on foraging, as at least one parent must remain on the nest at all times.
Conclusions
Authors: Krause Jens , Ruxton Graeme D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the final chapter of the book we selectively highlight several areas that might benefit from further research. Therefore, this chapter is only to a limited extent a general summary of the book. The emphasis is on the identification of unresolved problems. In particular, we point out where new and promising methodological approaches are available (Sections 10.2.1 and 10.3), and where the discussion would benefit from linking topics that up to now have been treated largely in isolation (Section 10.2.2).
Preclinical Alzheimer’s Disease: Cognitive and Memory Functioning
Authors: Small Brent J , Herlitz Agneta , Bäckman Lars 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the present time we direct our focus to a period of time during the evolution of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) and what was known about the cognitive neuropsychological profile of people who go on to develop the illness. Research in this area has produced mounting evidence to suggest that the preclinical phase is characterized by cognitive deficits, especially episodic memory.
Neurobiological Approaches to the Treatment of Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Lopez Oscar L , Bell Sandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dementia syndromes in older adults can be secondary to a wide variety of causes (e.g. infections, exposure to toxic substances, medications, avitaminosis, head trauma, cerebrovascular disease, tumors, or neurodegenerative disorders). However, the most frequent cause is Alzheimer’s disease (AD), which has been reported in up to 10% of the population age 65 or older (Jorm and Jolley 1998). Therefore, there is a significant effort to develop medications that can treat or ameliorate AD symptoms. All suspected known mechanisms of the metabolic cascade of AD have been explored with specific and non-specific treatments. In this chapter we review the experience of the last twenty years in the treatment of AD, from early hypotheses in the treatment of dementia to recent peripherally administered antibodies against amyloid. In addition, we examine, briefly, the neuropathological basis for cognitive disorders in AD. Table 22.1 shows the different biological mechanisms that have been and are under investigation in the treatment of dementia (see also chapters by Morris and by Curran, Rusted and Kopelman).
G protein structure diversity
Authors: Ho Maurice K C , Wong Yung H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Trimeric G proteins transmit signals from a huge group of heptahelical cell surface receptors to different categories of effectors such as enzymes and ion channels (Gilman 1987). The molecular diversity of trimeric G proteins signifies their pivotal role in numerous signal transduction pathways. To date, over twenty Gα , six Gβ , and thirteen Gγ subunits have been cloned (Hurowitz et al. 2000). The three subunits form two functional compartments— the Gα subunit and the stable Gβγ complex. Gα subunits belong to a group of enzymes known as GTP hydrolases (GTPases; Bourne et al. 1991). The GDP-bound form of Gα is associated with Gβγ in the resting stage. Ligand binding to an upstream receptor activates the GDP/GTP exchange of the Gα . GTP-induced conformational changes of Gα reduce its affinity for the Gβγ complex.
Neuropeptide Y receptors
Authors: Dumont Yvan , Redrobe John Paul , Quirion Rémi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) was isolated from porcine brain almost two decades ago (Tatemoto and Mutt 1980). This 36 amino acid residues shares high sequence homology and structural identity with two other peptides, namely peptide YY (PYY) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) (Tatemoto et al . 1982). All three peptides have thus been included in the same peptide family called the NPY family (Table 19.1). NPY is one of the most abundant peptide found in the central nervous system (CNS) of all mammals, including human (Chan-Palay et al . 1985; Chronwall et al . 1985) while PYY and PP are mostly found in endocrine cells of the intestine (Solomon 1985). Additionally PYY is present in the brainstem and various hypothalamic nuclei (Ekman et al . 1986). These peptides, especially NPY and PYY, are among the most conserved peptides during evolution (Larhammar 1996a ; Larhammar et al . 2001).
Serotonin receptors
Authors: Roberts Claire , Price Gary W , Middlemiss Derek N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pharmacology of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) was reviewed in 1986 (Bradley et al .) acknowledging the existence of at least three 5-HT receptor families: 5-HT1–3. In the 15 years following this classification molecular cloning has confirmed the existence of multiple 5-HT receptors subtypes. The 5-HT family is now divided into seven main classes, 5-HT1–7, comprising a total of 14 receptor subtypes. Apart from the 5-HT3 receptor subtype, which is a ligand gated channel, the 5-HT family are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Mammalian G protein coupled 5-HT receptors represent the results of more than 750 million years of molecular evolution. The evolutionary relationships between the subtypes has been determined by a phylogenetic tree analysis (Peroutka 1994).
Somatostatin receptors
Authors: Humphrey Patrick P A , Hoyer Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Somatostatin (Somatotropin-release inhibiting factor, SRIF) produced by neuronal, neuroendocrine, inflammatory and immune cells as well as tumours, produces its many (patho)physiological functions through activation of specific cell membrane receptors. There are two bioactive forms of SRIF; SRIF14 and the N-terminal extended form, SRIF28 (Fig. 23.1; see Schindler et al . 1996). Both peptides act as neuromodulators or hormones, depending on the site of action and/or the target cell type. SRIF produces its effects via activation of specific membrane bound receptors (see Bell and Reisine 1993) which have high affinity for the endogenous peptides, SRIF14 and SRIF28, and the related brain specific cortistatins (CST; Fig. 23.1).
The Liouville Theorem
Authors: Iwaniec Tadeusz , Martin Gaven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This result has a long history. For diffeomorphisms of class C in ℝ Liouville established the result in 1850 [204] along the lines we discussed in the chapter on conformal geometry. The relaxation of the differentiability hypotheses and the local injectivity assumptions are significant steps since the aim is to describe the higher-dimensional counterparts of analytic functions in the plane. For locally injective solutions the Liouville theorem was first proved in the above generality by Gehring in 1962 [101] and subsequently by Reshetnyak in 1967 [284] without the local injectivity assumption. These proofs used quite deep ideas and methods from the theory of quasiconformal mappings. An elementary, but rather involved proof of the result was given by Bojarski and Iwaniec in 1982 [42].
Continuity
Authors: Iwaniec Tadeusz , Martin Gaven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We shall see later that such an assumption is not accidental. The condition (7.5) turns out to be critical for many interesting phenomena concerning the regularity of Jacobians, properties of monotone functions, and the Hardy Orlicz spaces.
In order to ease various parts of the proofs that will follow we shall need to make an additional technical assumption:
Beltrami Equations
Authors: Iwaniec Tadeusz , Martin Gaven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter aims to present, in a relatively self-contained manner, some aspects of the planar theory of solutions to the Beltrami equation. This material is largely from our monograph [165]. We have discussed the history of this subject in our introduction. Here we aim to present some recent developments in a different light, in particular generalizations of David’s existence theorem for the Beltrami equation when the distortion is assumed exponentially integrable. We try to place these results in a modern setting, using some of the powerful results available from harmonic analysis, so as clarify the proofs of related results in higher dimensions as well as the various techniques used.
Picard And Montel Theorems In Space
Authors: Iwaniec Tadeusz , Martin Gaven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two of the more important results in the classical theory of complex analysis in one variable are Picard’s theorem concerning the number of omitted values of entire functions and Montel’s theorem concerning normal families of analytic functions. In this chapter we present the higher-dimensional analogues of both of these results.
Quasiconformal Groups
Authors: Iwaniec Tadeusz , Martin Gaven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We begin this chapter by outlining the basic facts; our first aim is to classify the elements in a quasiconformal group in terms of the classical of elliptic parabolic..loxodromic trichotomy. This is accomplished via the classification of the elementary groups. Continuing in this vein, we establish that loxodromic fixed points are pairwise dense in the limit set, [105].
The Statistical Evaluation of Medical Tests for Classification and Prediction
Authors: Pepe Margaret Sullivan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of clinical and laboratory information to detect conditions and predict patient outcomes is a mainstay of medical practice. Modern biotechnology offers increasing potential to develop sophisticated tests for these purposes. This book describes the statistical concepts and techniques for evaluating the accuracy of medical tests. Worked examples include applications to cancer biomarker studies, prospective disease screening studies, diagnostic radiology studies and audiology testing studies. The statistical methodology can be broadly applied for evaluating classifiers and to problems beyond medical settings. Several measures for quantifying test accuracy are described including the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve. Pepe presents statistical procedures for the estimation and comparison of those measures among tests. Regression frameworks for assessing factors that influence test accuracy and for comparing tests while adjusting for such factors are presented. The sequence of research steps involved in the development of a test is considered in some detail. Sample size calculations and other issues pertinent to study design are described for tests at various phases of development. In addition, the impacts of missing data and imperfect reference data are addressed. These problems often occur in practice, and modern statistical procedures for dealing with them are discussed. Additional topics that are covered include: meta-analysis for summarizing the results of multiple studies of a test; the evaluation of markers for predicting event time data; and procedures for combining the results of multiple tests to improve classification. This book should be of interest to quantitative researchers and practicing statisticians. The book also covers the theoretical foundations for statistical inference and should therefore be of interest to academic statisticians including those involved in statistical methodological research in this field.