bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Defining the Revolution
Authors: Balbi Gabriele 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter aims to provide a definition, or several definitions, of the digital revolution. There are very few definitions that are widely accepted, with the exception of the famous transition from atoms to bits, especially as theorized by Nicholas Negroponte. Uncertainty prevails, starting with names and periodization. The digital revolution has been given different names over time; the three most famous ones are “the information revolution” (especially in the 1960s and 1970s), “the digital revolution” (especially in the 1990s and 2000s), and “the digital transformation” (which has become very popular since the 2010s). The beginnings and the ends of the revolution are also uncertain and, according to some “prophets,” the true digital revolution is yet to come. This uncertainty, rather than being problematic, is a crucial strategy to keep the idea attractive and sexy.
The Many Paths of Change in International Law
Authors: Krisch Nico , Yildiz Ezgi 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
How does international law change? This question, fundamental but empirically understudied, is the focus of the volume. This introductory chapter sets out the conceptual and theoretical framework for understanding change processes and it develops specific conjectures about how and when change occurs. It centres on an ideal-typical model of five ‘pathways’ of change through which change attempts are usually channelled, and it highlights the importance of theorizing change as the result of different stages with distinct dynamics and sets of actors involved. It also outlines four core factors influencing the likelihood of success of change processes, thereby drawing together theoretically derived expectations with insights from a wealth of cases of change over the past decades. The chapter concludes with an overview of the chapters of the volume, highlighting their particular contributions in the context of the project framework.
The Making of Lawmaking
Authors: Werner Wouter 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the ILC Draft Conclusions on the Identification of Customary Law. The Draft Conclusions seek to discipline the way in which international law is found. This makes the Draft Conclusions, quite literally, ‘foundational’, and thus also more openly political than most of the other projects of the ILC. The Draft Conclusions are not just registrations of past practices. They construct certain practices as relevant and exemplary, while they ignore or delegitimize others. They instruct the reader where to look and how to look for role models, thus making the past ‘present again’ as a guide for the future.
The Appellate Body’s Judicial Pathway
Authors: Kucik Jeff , Puig Sergio 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter looks at twenty years of practice of the global trade regime to illustrate the limits of change in international law. It is noted that, despite a strong norm to follow prior rulings, the World Trade Organization’s Appellate Body modified precedent regularly—especially in the face of past non-compliance. This finding has at least two implications for the framework proposed by Krisch and Yildiz. On the one hand, judicial change is limited by the receptors of legal change. These receptors (here, respondent governments) might express dissatisfaction by failing to comply, rendering courts’ decisions and proposed changes ineffective. On the other hand, adjudicators must also be strategic with respect to the changes enabled by their decisions. Importantly, the judicial pathway is conditioned by the ability of their decisions to result in compliance. A judiciary that prioritizes change over authority might see a backlash that renders them ineffective.
And Yet It Moves
Authors: Fisher John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
James Bradley’s discovery of stellar aberration established his status at the forefront of astronomical science in Europe. His work for Edmond Halley on the motions of Jupiter and its satellites, and his discovery of the gravitational resonances between the innermost three Galilean satellites prepared him, technically and theoretically, to apply his knowledge and perceptions to the counter-intuitive problems posed by the motions of the object star γ Draconis. Bradley’s account of his isolation of ‘the new discovered motion’ was addressed to his mentor Halley, the second Astronomer Royal. The Wanstead programme of observation was perfectly designed to resolve the problematic findings of the Kew experiment. The chapter discusses the reception of Bradley’s hypothesis in the Papal States.
On the Figure of the Earth
Authors: Fisher John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
When Bradley was sure he was observing a lunar-induced nutation of the Earth’s axis, he sought corroboration, some clear indication that the Earth was an oblate spheroid. This led to his work with George Graham in London and Colin Campbell in Jamaica to test Newton’s earlier calculations, based on Jean Richer’s questionable observations in the 1670s at Cayenne. Meanwhile a bitter dispute in Paris led to two geodesic expeditions being sent to Lapland and Peru leading to further disputes. In reality, the arguments were about the interpretation of what counted as evidence. The Cartesians sought confirmation of evidence, whereas the Newtonians sought the establishment of new evidence based entirely on observation and experiment.
If Such a Man Could Have Enemies
Authors: Fisher John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Bradley’s appointment as the third Astronomer Royal came one day after Sir Robert Walpole lost a division in the House of Commons, the first action the outgoing prime minister made before resigning from office a few days later. As well as Bradley’s evidentially high skills as an astronomer, he had also acquired influential patrons and friends in high places, an important factor in Hanoverian society. He discovered that the state of the Royal Observatory was chaotic with most of the instruments in a dire condition. After Bradley was awarded the Copley Medal by the Royal Society in 1748 for his work on nutation, his reputation was without equal. This enabled him to successfully petition both King George II and the government to finance the commission of new instruments and the building of a ‘New Observatory’ fully equipped to modern standards.
Regressive Movements in Times of Emergency
Authors: della Porta Donatella 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The introductory chapter builds on social movement studies in an attempt to illuminate the dynamics of anti-vax protests during the Covis-19 pandemic throughout the various steps of their emergence, growth, and decline. After having defined the object of the studies, it conceptualize regressive social movements, as rooted in extreme forms of individualism, and contentious politics during times of emergency, as characterized by deep disruption to everyday life and rapid structural transformations in society. In order to understand how specific strains are transformed into actions, the author consider the opportunities and challenges faced by different actors in moments of intense mobilization in which various, contrasting claims are put forward. The chapter presents then the research design and the structure of the volume.
Fusion and Structure of Hilbert Space
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we begin the detailed structure of anyon theories, or TQFTs. We introduce the concept of fusion and explain how it is related to the Hilbert space of the anyon systems. We emphasize the importance of locality as a principle for understanding anyons. Associativity is a strong constraint on possible particle fusion rules. As examples, we introduce both Fibonacci anyons and Ising anyons. We explain how the fusion rules of an anyon theory can be used to calculate the degeneracy of the ground state on arbitrary 2-manifolds.
Change of Basis and F-Matrices1
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Continuing our exploration of the detailed structure of anyon theories, we explain how one can describe the same Hilbert space with different basis sets. Changing between these bases is done with the so-called F-matrix which is a gauge dependent quantity. The F-matrices satisfy a set of consistency equations known as the pentagon equations which are “rigid” up to Gauge transformations (i.e., solutions are discrete and cannot be deformed small amounts to produce other solutions). We again use Fibonacci and Ising anyons as simple examples.
Further Structure1
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
TQFTs, or anyon theories, have a large amount of addition mathematical structure which we explore in this chapter. We show that the quantum dimension which defines the weight of a loop in the diagram algebra is the same as the quantum dimension that describes the size of the many-anyon Hilbert space. We define the S-matrix in terms of diagrams, and the T-matrix in terms of twists. We show how the S- and T-matrices are related to the modular group of diffeomorphisms of the torus, and related further to the notion of central charge. We discuss how the many constraints on TQFTs enables one to develop a table of all possible sufficiently “small” TQFTs given certain very general conditions. We give tables for both modular and super-modular theories. We introduce the Kirby Color or Omega Strand as an important tool.
Formal Construction of TQFTs from Diagrams: Surgery and More Complicated 3-Manifolds1
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
We have constructed diagrammatic rules for evaluating labeled knots and links (and graphs) embedded in S3. However, a 3D TQFT should be able to give us information about any 3-manifold. In order to describe arbitrary 3-manifolds we use Dehn surgery — a manifold is represented as a link embedded in S3. To obtain the manifold, the strands of the link are thickened to a solid torus which is excised from the manifold and replaced with longitude and meridian exchanged. The Lickorish-Wallace theorem assures us that any closed orientable 3D manifold can be obtained in this way. The link representation a 3-manifold is not unique — links related by a series of Kirby moves represent the same manifold. The Witten-Reshitikhin-Turaev invariant is a link invariant which remains unchanged by Kirby moves and therefore corresponds to a manifold invariant of the represented 3-manifold. This invariant is the formal construction of the Chern-Simons manifold invariant which does not require reference to ill-defined concepts like functional integrals. The surgery approach also gives a nice proof (using a construction known as Chain-Mail) of the Turaev-Walker-Roberts theorem that the Turaev-Viro invariant for a Chern-Simons theory is the absolute square of the Chern-Simons (or Witten-Reshitikhin-Turaev) invariant.
Introducing the Toric Code
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
We introduce the toric code as an example of a quantum error correcting code. The system is a lattice of spins on a torus. We use a basis of spin up/down spins which we translate into diagrams of colored (or uncolored) edges of the lattice. We introduce commuting vertex and plaquette operators, and explain that particular eigenstates of these operators define our code-space which in the diagram language corresponds to sums over loop configuration. The code space decomposes into four orthogonal wavefunctions which are distinguished by the parity of the number of colored loops around each of the two cycles of the torus. Quantum information is stored in the coefficients of these four wavefunctions in superposition. We then turn to consider error processes. We discover that errors occur in pairs locally and are moved apart from each other by “strings” of additional error operators. We discover that it is easy to identify when physical errors have occurred and correct them before a logical error occurs. We extend the discussion to consider irregular “lattices” of spins and surfaces with arbitrary genus (and make the connection to the Shor Code). Finally we turn to consider the ZN generalization of the toric code.
The Toric Code as a Phase of Matter and a TQFT
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The Toric Code can also be interpreted as a phase of matter. The vertex and plaquette operators become terms of the Hamiltonian, and the ground state space becomes the code space. The various types of errors become the various types of quasiparticle excitations. We explore the braiding properties of these excitations and identify properties of the TQFT described by this phase of matter such as the S- and T-matrices. We also describe this anyon theory with a simple charge-flux model. We repeat the exercise for the ZN toric code.
Doubled-Semion Model
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The Doubled-Semion model is another simple example of generalizing the toric code. Here we start with a planar diagram algebra that is the d=-1, Z2 loop gas. I.e, here a loop is given the value of -1. This is also known as the nontrivial cocyle of Z2. This model can be thought of as the simplest case of a twisted Kitaev Quantum Double, and it is also the simplest example of the Drinfeld double of a modular anyon theory (the double of the semion theory). In this case we construct a Hamiltonian such again we have a loop gas, but now flipping over a plaqutte incurs a sign in the wavefunction if we change the parity of the number of loops. We again turn to the tube algebra to identify the excitations of the model, which are both right- and left-handed semions. We run into a problem related to the nontrivial Frobenius-Schur indicator of the input diagram algebra. However, here we can resolve the issue by choosing a convenient gauge.
Topological Entanglement
Authors: Simon Steven H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
If we partition a Hilbert space we can define the entanglement entropy (both von Neumann and Renyi) between the two pieces. We consider breaking up a system into two or more distinct spatial regions and ask about the entanglement between these two regions. Studying the toric code ground state as an initial example, we show that there is an entanglement that scales as the length of the cut between the two regions, but there is also a sub-leading term, known as the topological entanglement entropy, which depends only on the topological properties of the system. While the leading term is nonuniversal, the topological term is robust and can be generalized to any other TQFT. We give three different derivations of the topological entanglement entropy.
Christianization and Latinization
Authors: Wiśniewski Robert 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter investigates the mutual impact of Christianization and Latinization in the western provinces of the Roman Empire. First, it explains why Christian communities switched from Greek to Latin and why this process was relatively slow. Second, it shows that in the West there is no evidence of a missionary design focused on the population speaking in vernacular languages, resembling the one in the East. It attributes this difference mostly to a lack of western vernacular-speaking elites. Finally, it argues that religion played only a minor role in either speeding up or slowing down the Latinization in the West in late antiquity. Overall this chapter claims that Latinization smoothed the way for the spread of Christianity, but the inverse impact was not strong. Christian cult and church institutions may have played a role in familiarizing people with Latin and in some places could have tipped the linguistic balance towards it. However, their role in the broader, ongoing linguistic change, which resulted in the Latinization of a large part of Western Europe, was limited.
Understanding Legislative Assemblies
Authors: Martin Shane , Strøm Kaare W. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the challenges of legislative capacity and accountability. The chapter outlines the history and political functions of elected parliaments and legislatures and discusses at greater length the challenges of capacity and accountability in legislative assemblies. Focusing on the three most critical classes of actors that shape or inhabit legislative assemblies, the chapter develops three ideal-typical models of legislative assemblies: the members’ assembly, the leaders’ assembly, and the voters’ assembly. It then discusses the institutions and operations that characterize these models and how they relate to the challenges of capacity and accountability, respectively. Briefly put, one model prioritizes capacity, a second accountability, whereas the third represents more of a compromise between these concerns.
Executive Oversight
Authors: Martin Shane , Strøm Kaare W. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
To help us understand better the challenges of legislative capacity and accountability within the three ideal-typical models of legislative assemblies developed in Chapter 1 (the members’ assembly, the leaders’ assembly, and the voters’ assembly), this chapter focuses on oversight of the executive and government. The capacity to oversee the executive shapes the fundamental nature of the legislative assembly. A voters’ assembly, for example, should have a high capacity to monitor the executive. This follows from the emphasis on transparency that characterizes such assemblies, and this demand for transparency should pertain to the executive as well as to the legislative branch. Specifically, we explore the existence in our various assemblies of (1) questions and interpellations, (2) investigations and hearings, (3) a legislative audit office, (4) powers to make war, (5) powers to make treaties, and (6), arguably the ultimate form of oversight, powers to dismiss the executive (typically meaning the cabinet) or individual members of the executive.
Incumbency and Re-election
Authors: Martin Shane , Strøm Kaare W. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the effects of legislative institutions on an outcome that is both proximate to the operations of all democratic assemblies and critical to their accountability to the citizens: the rate at which elected representatives are re-elected to their offices in subsequent elections. This is an issue that matters to members as well as to leaders and voters. The variance in re-election rates is large, and that there is every reason to think that it may be consequential. There is a range of assembly features that we expect to have a predictable impact on such incumbent re-election rates. We examine the effects of member resources, institutional features, and citizen confidence on legislative re-election rates across our 68 assemblies and find that member resources facilitate incumbent re-election but only under conditions in which citizen confidence can be expected.
Introduction
Authors: Bourne Angela K. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Introduction: Opposing Populist Parties in Europe discusses challenges of studying opposition to contemporary populist parties, shortcomings of existing approaches, and a new model of democratic defence as ‘normal politics’. ‘Militant democracy’ and ‘democratic defence’ approaches for studying responses to those challenging the liberal democratic status quo tend to focus on exclusionary, rights-restricting responses by public authorities and party-political responses such as ostracism, policy cooptation, and collaboration in government. While suited for studying responses to relatively small, extremist parties, with little chance of governing alone, a different lens is needed for larger and governing populist parties. Additionally, existing approaches generally fail to acknowledge the ambiguity of populist orientations to democracy. democratic defence as normal politics builds on earlier approaches but also focuses attention on international and civil society responses, and emphasizes routine or ordinary repertoires of opposition in democratic societies, including use of constitutional checks and balances, public protest, and negative framing.
Enforcement through the Constitution, Courts, and Coercion
Authors: Bourne Angela K. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Chapter 4, Enforcement through the Constitution, Courts, and Coercion examines how initiatives opposing populist parties (IoPP) may affect populist parties by reducing or increasing their support, diminishing or boosting their resources, inducing moderation or radicalization, and/or curbing their ability to implement illiberal or anti-democratic policies. Constitutional rules, and international human rights and EU law, may allow opponents to block illiberal or undemocratic policies. Populists be convicted, fined, or imprisoned for holocaust denial, racism, corruption, or electoral fraud. Legal strife can taint a party, reducing its support, and force it to moderate, at least ‘front stage’. Agreeing appropriate responses can create internal conflicts. Alternatively, legal troubles may attract sympathy for ‘martyred’ leaders. Coercion or the threat of it may reinforce anti-establishment critiques. The ‘oxygen of publicity’ may be a useful resource and legal problems may both unify and radicalize members. Cases involving European populist parties illustrate these processes.
Restoration of Fallen Soldiers to the Pantheon of National Heroes
Authors: Yoder Jennifer A. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The five commemorations discussed in this chapter illustrate revisionist strategies that both whitewash the history of Nazi collaboration and homegrown fascism and blackwash the history of communism. Fascist forces and Nazi collaborators, such as the Ustaše in Croatia and the Waffen-SS in Latvia and Ukraine, are the focus of commemorations that construct an exculpatory and anti-communist memory narrative. Two additional anti-communist forces, Poland’s so-called “cursed soldiers” and resistors of the Red Army’s siege of Budapest, have been mythologized in the service of a national-conservative agenda. These memory challenges operate in a different environment than their counterparts in Western Europe, where the dominant Holocaust-centered memory culture and official commemorations became targets of right-wing mnemonic instrumentalization. In Eastern Europe, the memory cultures are still in flux; they are moving away from Soviet and communist era narratives as they seek to accommodate their national pasts in the broader European mnemonic landscape.
The Present Meanings of the Wartime Past
Authors: Yoder Jennifer A. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The concluding chapter reflects on the distinctive characteristics of mnemonic contestation in each of the three meso-regions. While important differences remain, we must recognize that across the case studies discussed in the previous chapters, there were some common characteristics in the emergence of memory challenges and the strategies of memory challengers. What are those differences and what are the implications of their shared features? Are there common circumstances that have produced similar grievances in the three meso-regions? This chapter will consider the potential that memory contestation holds within and between mnemonic regions for producing misunderstanding, animosity and, in the extreme, the deterioration of relationships; but memory contestation could also potentially be harnessed to foster more complex, pluralistic understandings of the difficult past.