bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Clinical Aspects and Management of Gastric Carcinoma: Diagnostic and Staging Procedures
Authors: Waxman Irving , Parmar Kiranpreet S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The incidence of gastric carcinoma has decreased dramatically over the past 50 years; the reasons for this decrease are unclear. The prognosis, however, remains poor, with an overall 5-year survival rate of 17%.1 The mainstay of treatment is surgery, and the prognosis for early gastric carcinoma (50%, 5-year survival) is substantially better than that for late gastric carcinoma (3%, 5-year survival).2 Hence, optimal treatment for gastric carcinoma requires early diagnosis and staging.
Epidemiology and Molecular Epidemiology of Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: Li Donghui 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pancreatic cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in developed countries. However, the etiology of this cancer has been poorly understood for several reasons. First, difficulties in early detection and diagnosis have led to most pancreatic cancers being detected only at advanced stages. The prognosis at such stages is poor; many patients with this cancer die before they can be interviewed. Furthermore, clinical means of diagnosing pancreatic cancer have traditionally been unreliable, especially before the advent of advanced imaging techniques.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma: Diagnostic and Staging Procedures
Authors: Charnsangavej Chusilp , Lahoti Sandeep 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pancreatic cancer ranks twelfth among new cases of cancer diagnosed each year in the United States but is the fifth-leading cause of cancer-related death. In the United States, approximately 27,000 patients receive a diagnosis of pancreatic cancer annually; ductal adenocarcinoma is the most common type, accounting for about 75%–90% of the cases.1,2 The incidence of pancreatic cancer is highest in patients who are 65 to 80 years old, and the male-to-female ratio of patients is about 1.3:1.0.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Management Options: Potentially Resectable Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: Abdalla Eddie K , Pisters Peter W T , Evans Douglas B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pancreaticoduodenectomy, first described by Whipple et al. in 1935, remains the standard surgical treatment for adenocarcinoma of the pancreatic head. Pancreaticoduodenectomy was originally described as a two-stage procedure consisting of biliary diversion and gastrojejunostomy during a first operation and, after the patient recovered (usually about 3 weeks later), resection of the duodenum and pancreatic head.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: Rothenberg Mace L , Berlin Jordan D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of all malignancies tracked by the National Cancer Institute’s (NCI) Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program, pancreatic cancer has the lowest 5-year survival rate; 4.1%.1 The prognosis of this malignancy is poor because of the following factors: (1) the limited effectiveness of currently available therapies; (2) the lack of effective genetic screening tests that could identify individuals at increased risk of developing pancreatic cancer; (3) lack of specific early warning signs and symptoms directly attributable to the disease; (4) the inability to detect patients with premalignant lesions or asymptomatic, earlystage pancreatic cancer; and (5) the debilitated medical condition of the patient at the time of initiation of treatment that leads to decreased tolerance and increased toxicity from chemotherapy.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Cholangiocarcinoma and Gallbladder Carcinoma: Diagnostic and Staging Procedures
Authors: Raijman Isaac 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bile duct and gallbladder cancers are diagnosed primarily by combining the clinical presentation with laboratory work and cross-imaging studies of the abdomen. These studies determine the likely diagnosis, which can be then confirmed by direct cholangiography or choledochoscopy. Thereafter, the diagnosis is confirmed by cytopathologic assessment with or without associated molecular biologic techniques and immunochemistry. However, even with all the technological advances now available, tissue confirmation sometimes fails to detect disease even when the diagnosis is strongly suspected.
Molecular Biology of Hepatocellular Cancer
Authors: Grisham Joe W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common visceral neoplasms; more than 430,000 new cases occur worldwide each year. Detection of HCC is difficult in its early stages, and current treatment modalities are ineffective in late-stage cancers. Consequently, the number of deaths from HCC each year approximates the number of new cases identified. Despite this unsatisfactory situation, the major risk factors for HCC are better known than those for perhaps any other human cancer.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Hepatocellular Cancer: Management Options: Potentially Resectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma
Authors: Robke Jason M , Roh Mark S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) have been treated with a number of different modalities over the years, including observation, systemic chemotherapy, surgical resection with and without adjuvant chemotherapy, radiation, and chemoembolization. Surgical resection used to be the only hope of prolonging survival or curing this disease. During the 1980s, resection rates ranged from 15% to 60%, with recurrence rates of 50% to 70%.
Pathology and Natural History of Small Bowel and Appendiceal Cancers
Authors: Carr Norman J , Sobin Leslie H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, mesenchymal tumors and lymphomas will be discussed together. However, the differences between other lesions occurring in the appendix and small intestine are such that we have given them separate sections. The classification we use for gastrointestinal neoplasms is that of the World Health Organization. In general, the definitions are the same as for tumors of the large intestine.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Small Bowel and Appendiceal Cancers: Diagnostic and Staging Procedures
Authors: Horton Karen M , Fishman Elliot K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neoplasms of the small bowel continue to pose a significant diagnostic challenge to both the clinician and the radiologist for several reasons. First, these tumors are uncommon, with an annual incidence of only 0.5 to 1.0 per 100,000 people in the western hemisphere. Thus, small intestinal neoplasms are often overlooked. Second, these tumors typically result in nonspecific symptoms such as abdominal pain, gastrointestinal bleeding, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss. This contributes to a delay in diagnosis.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Small Bowel and Appendiceal Cancers: Management Options: Potentially Resectable Small Bowel and Appendiceal Carcinomas
Authors: Temple Larissa K F , Coit Daniel G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The small bowel makes up 75% of the gastrointestinal tract and contains 90% of the gastrointestinal tract’s absorptive surface. Despite the small bowel’s large surface area, tumors of the small bowel are relatively rare, constituting only 5% of all gastrointestinal tumors. In population-based studies, the annual incidence of small bowel tumors ranges from 9 to 13 cases per million people.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Rectal Adenocarcinoma: Diagnostic and Staging Procedures
Authors: Lahoti Sandeep 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the United States, colorectal cancer is the fourth most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death. Annually, approximately 129,000 new cases of colorectal cancer are diagnosed, with 57,000 associated deaths.1 Without preventive action, approximately 6% of Americans will develop colorectal cancer sometime in their lives. Unfortunately, at the time of diagnosis, more than half of these patients have either locally advanced disease (5-year survival rate, 50%) or metastatic disease (5-year survival rate, 10%).
Pathology, Molecular Biology, and Natural History of Anal Cancer
Authors: Agoff S Nicholas , Kiviat Nancy B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anal carcinoma is rare in the general population, accounting for only an estimated 1.5% of gastrointestinal cancers in the United States. Recent studies indicate that the incidence is rising.1,2 Overall, anal carcinoma is more common in women; however, the incidence of this neoplasia is significantly higher in populations whose members engage in anal intercourse, such as men who have sex with men.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Anal Cancer
Authors: Gaspar Laurie E , Mertens Wilson , Raben David , Evans Scott J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cancers of the anus are relatively infrequent, accounting for less than 0.2% of all cancers and approximately 2%–5% of all anorectal malignancies. While nonmalignant tumors can occur in the anal region, most tumors in this area are carcinomas. Squamous cell carcinomas account for 74% of all anal tumors. Adenocarcinomas and melanomas account for 19% and 4% of anal tumors, respectively. The remaining 2% of anal cancers are carcinoids, Kaposi sarcomas, leiomyosarcomas, lymphomas, and neuroendocrine tumors.
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphomas
Authors: Sepulveda Antonia R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract accounts for 4% to 20% of all NHL, making the GI tract the most common extranodal site of NHL presentation. Most of these lymphomas arise from mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). The stomach is the primary organ involved in GI lymphoma, representing more than 70% of cases of primary GI lymphoma in the United States; the remaining cases involve the small or large bowel.2,3 In a study reported by Papachristodoulou and colleagues, 66% of the MALT lymphomas occurred in the stomach, 29% occurred in the jejunum and ileum, and 6% occurred in the colon.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Gastrointestinal Sarcomas: Management Options: Unresectable or Metastatic Gastrointestinal Sarcomas
Authors: Patel Shreyaskumar R , Benjamin Robert S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sarcomas are malignancies of mesenchymal tissue, derived principally from the mesoderm with some contribution from the neuroectoderm. These tumors are rare and constitute less than 1% of all cancers. The annual incidence of soft tissue sarcomas, as estimated by the American Cancer Society, is 8300 new cases in the United States for the year 2002.1 Approximately 60% of these soft tissue sarcomas originate in the extremities, 30% in the trunk, and 10% in the head and neck region. About 40% of the soft tissue sarcomas of the trunk actually originate in the retroperitoneum.
Management of Obstructive Complications of Upper Gastrointestinal Tract: Esophagus, Stomach, and Biliary Tree
Authors: Giap Andrew Q , Chang Kenneth J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite extensive advances in diagnostic and treatment strategies, the 5-year survival rate of patients with esophageal, gastric, and biliary cancer remains unchanged. Most patients who present in an advanced stage are not candidates for curative resection. The principal goals of therapeutic intervention are oftentimes palliative therapy for malignant obstruction and maintaining the highest possible level of independence and quality of life. Traditional approaches to palliative therapy have included surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation.
Management of Obstructive Complications of Lower Gastrointestinal Tract: Colon and Rectum
Authors: Al-Antably Yasser , Lahoti Sandeep 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The highest risk of obstruction is with tumors located at the splenic flexure or in the descending colon, followed by the sigmoid colon, and the least risk, with tumors in the ascending colon and rectum.2,4,8 Tumors on the right side of the colon are more likely to grow in the form of a fungating mass projecting into the lumen, while tumors in the left colon tend to infiltrate the colonic wall. This pattern might help explain the lower incidence of obstruction in the right colon.9 Other contributing factors for the decreased incidence of right colonic obstruction include its larger diameter, as well as the liquid state of the stools in that side of the colon.
Estrogen Metabolism Genes: HSD17B1 and HSD17B2
Authors: Peltoketo Hellevi , Isomaa Veli , Ghosh Debashis , Vihko Pirkko 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oophorectomy in a woman’s early adult years substantially lowers her risk of breast cancer.1–4 This is an example of the abundant epidemiological and endocrine data which indicate that estrogens are involved in sporadic breast cancer and promote growth.5–8 Oophorectomy also reduces the risk of breast cancer among BRCA1 mutation carriers,9 which hints at the general role of estrogens in the proliferation of breast epithelial cells. Due to the striking effect of ovariectomy, it is assumed that the majority of breast cancers originate as estrogen-dependent lesions and later progress gradually to a hormone-independent state. Since 1896,10 estrogen-deprivation treatment has been used for the treatment of breast cancer. On average, one-third of nonselected tumors and the majority of estrogen and progesterone receptorpositive tumors, in advanced disease respond to endocrine therapy based on blocking estrogen receptors and/or deprivation of the estrogenic ligand.
Hormonal Chemoprevention with Tamoxifen and Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators
Authors: Bentrem David J , Jordan V Craig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prevention of disease is far superior to treating symptomatic illness. Until recently, the prevention of cancer focused on the identification of environmental carcinogens and the reduction of their exposure to the population. Education to avoid cigarette smoking is an example of primary prevention of lung cancer. Secondary prevention consists of screening individuals at increased risk for malignancy with the assumption that early detection and treatment will affect survival. Mammography and self-examination have been successful methods of secondary prevention, identifying early-stage breast cancers. A third mechanism of prevention, chemoprevention, involves intervention within the premalignant process with specific chemical agents to prevent the development of invasive cancer. Chemoprevention is designed to work as an adjunct to, rather than a replacement for, established modalities. In 1896, George Beatson demonstrated that the removal of ovaries from premenopausal women with metastatic breast cancer could cause regression of the disease and improve the prognosis; however, by 1900 Stanley Boyd established that only one in three patients would respond and only for 1 year. Despite this disappointment, a link was established between an ovarian factor and the growth of some breast cancers, which was to become the foundation of the modern clinical practice of using antiestrogens to treat breast cancer.3,4 Simultaneously, studies were being conducted in the laboratory to complement clinical efforts. Inbred strains of mice were being established for medical research, and certain strains had a high incidence of mammary tumors. Lathrop and Loeb5 reported that an early ovariectomy could prevent the spontaneous development of tumors, but not until Allen and Doisey identified the estrusstimulating principle were these hormones linked to the development of breast cancer. By 1936, Antoine Lacassagne, again working with high-incidence strains of mice, hypothesized that if breast cancer was caused by a special hereditary sensitivity to estrogen, then developing a therapeutic antagonist to estrogen action in the breast could prevent it.
Other Hormonal Prevention Strategies
Authors: Spicer Darcy V , Pike Malcolm C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A potential role for analogues of gonadotropin hormone–releasing hormone (GnRH) to prevent cancers of the breast, ovary, and endometrium was first suggested by Pike et al.1 The rationale for considering GnRH analogues is their ability to suppress ovulation and sex-steroid production. The suppression of ovulation should prevent ovarian cancer, and the suppression of sex steroids should prevent cancers of the breast and endometrium. However, the GnRH analogue–induced hypoestrogenic state will have associated symptoms (hot flashes) and morbidity (urogenital atrophy and osteoporotic fractures). To minimize the deleterious effects of hypoestrogenemia, addition of other agents, including bisphosphonates, selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMS), and lowdose add-back sex steroids, is under consideration for study. In this chapter, the epidemiological basis for considering GnRH analogues to prevent breast cancer and available preclinical and clinical data will be reviewed.
Progression from Hormone-Dependent to Hormone-Independent Breast Cancer
Authors: Schmitt Isabell A , Dolezal Milana , Press Michael F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women, and treatment is challenging. The potential role of hormonal therapy in breast cancer treatment was first demonstrated by George Beatson more than 100 years ago, when he showed that two of three premenopausal women with metastatic breast cancer responded to ovarian ablation. Subsequently, Huggins and Bergenstal demonstrated that postmenopausal women with metastatic breast cancer responded to ovariectomy and adrenalectomy. Despite the usefulness of hormonal ablation in some women, only approximately 30% of unselected women with metastatic breast cancer responded to the treatment. Thus, there was a need to distinguish those women whose breast cancers were hormone-dependent from those whose cancers were hormone-independent. Jensen and collaborators demonstrated that patient responsiveness to endocrine manipulative management was correlated with the uptake of estrogen in the breast cancer tissue. The first results showed that uptake of radioactive hormone was higher in breast cancer tissue compared to muscle tissue from four women who responded to hormonal treatment than from six women who did not respond. These findings were soon confirmed and extended by reports from other investigators.5–8
Testicular Cancer: Epidemiology and Molecular Endocrinology
Authors: Swerdlow Anthony J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Testicular cancer typically accounts for 1%–2% of cancers occurring in men in white populations and a smaller percentage in most non-white populations. At young adult ages, how-ever, it is the most common cancer in whites in many countries, constituting, e.g., a third of all cancers other than non-melanoma skin cancer in men aged 20–34 in England and Wales. The incidence in young white men has been increasing across the world for many decades, but its etiology remains largely unknown. Various hypotheses of hormonal influences in etiology have been put forward and considerable epidemiological research devoted to giving evidence about these, but none can yet be regarded as clearly confirmed. Complexity is added because the hypothesized relationships have been at three different periods of life (prenatally, childhood up to puberty, and adulthood) and in two different people (the case himself and his mother). This chapter first discusses the hypothesis that prenatal hormone exposures consequent on raised sex hormone concentrations in the mother may affect the risk of testicular cancer in the son, and the evidence relating to this hypothesis, and then discusses possible relations of testicular cancer risk to childhood growth and puberty and to adult hormone levels in men. The research published on genetic polymorphisms that may affect testicular cancer risks via endocrinological or metabolic mechanisms is then reviewed, but as this evidence is as yet very limited, the main emphasis of the chapter is on the potential hormonal relationships that might be the subject of future studies of polymorphisms. The descriptive epidemiology of testicular cancer, which is not reviewed here (see Swerdlow1), suggests differences in etiology between tumors occurring in three different age groups: the small peak of incidence around age 2 years, the large peak in young adults, and cases occurring after about age 60 or 65 (Fig. 22.1). Cases in children and young adults are largely of germ cell histology, whereas those in elderly men are mainly non-germ cell, principally lymphomas. There is little epidemiological information about non-germ cell malignancies or about testicular cancer at older ages, and the epidemiology of the cancer in childhood has been hampered by small numbers. Unless otherwise specified, the material in this chapter relates to testicular cancer in young adults and, by presumption (although not all studies restricted their analyses solely to these), to germ cell malignancies at these ages.
Cutting Out the Kinks: Surgical Treatment
Authors: Whorton James C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Edith Eastlake was a sickly child. Throughout her growing-up years in the English coast town of Brighton, she was plagued with coughing, sore throats—and constipation. From the age of 15, painful menstruation was added to her woes, along with headaches and tonsillitis, and her “constipation seemed to increase.” She left school at 18 and spent a year and a half con fined to home, submitting to a variety of both orthodox and homeopathic remedies. Periodically she improved enough to work a few months as a teacher, then as a secretary, but by 1906, now in her late twenties, she seemed to have fallen into a permanent state of “very unwell. Severe headaches and constipation worried me very much.” Though she engaged yet another doctor, and his drugs, Miss Eastlake continued to decline, until in 1908 there was nothing to be done but to move into a rest home.
South Slavic
Authors: Franks Steven , King Tracy Holloway 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The following SSI literary languages are treated in this book: Serbian/Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian, and Macedonian. Although these essentially form a dialect continuum, from Slovenian in the northwest to Bulgarian in the southeast, there is a major linguistic division between Slovenian (Sin) and Serbian/Croatian (SC), on the one hand, and Macedonian (Mac) and Bulgarian (Bg), on the other. One striking aspect of this division is that whereas Sin and SC display the kinds of extensive case phenomena typical of Slavic, Mac and Bg have impoverished case systems, comparable in many ways to that of English. Despite this superficial difference, all the SSI languages exhibit extremely robust and often quite diverse clitic phenomena, and for this reason SSI has been the focus of much traditional and recent work on Slavic clitics. Many of the comparative problems treated in part II of this volume thus depend on patterns and variation found in our examination of SSl clitic systems.