bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Using interspecies phylogenies to test macroevolutionary hypotheses
Authors: Purvis Andy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Have species differed in their chances of speciating and going extinct? If so, do any features, either of organisms or of environments, correlate with the differences? Have speciation and extinction rates changed significantly over the course of history? Such macroevolutionary questions have held an obvious fascination for centuries but, while the study of evolution within gene pools has moved on apace, attempts to study rigorously evolution at any higher level have generally been thwarted by a lack of information about the past. Recently, the cladistic and molecular revolutions have caused phylogenetic research to snowball. These new phylogenies, coupled with the development of suitable statistical null models, are enabling evolutionary biologists to revisit with profit fundamental questions about the evolution of diversity. Interspecies phylogenies differ from within-species genealogies in two respects that impact upon how they can be used: they can include all living members of a clade, but they are usually small. Within-species genealogies, which are considered in other chapters of this book, generally include only a very small fraction of extant lineages but this may none the less be a large number. Complete phylogenies allow more questions to be asked, but the small size of the datasets will limit the precision of the answers.
Defects in crystals and their influence on X-ray structure analysis
Authors: Aslanov L A , Fetisov G V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may seem that the topic to be discussed is only slightly associated with experimental methods of X-ray structure analysis considered in this book. However, an experimentalist, especially one who is carrying out precision crystal structure studies, must understand the nature of the results obtained and avoid any artefacts arising from the fact that he has to deal with a real crystal, not with its idealized model. Having an idea what defects can be in the crystal, one can better plan the diffraction experiment and choose the methods for data processing. A knowledge of defects in crystals and their diffraction effects is also essential for the improvement and development of methods for X-ray structural analysis. The high sensitivity of X-ray diffraction with respect to the distribution of valence electrons makes it an attractive method for investigation of the electron density redistribution in crystals under the action of electric, electromagnetic and magnetic fields. This problem has been an important one for a long time in studies of the properties of ferroelectric, non-linear and laser crystals. Experimental techniques for X-ray diffraction nowadays can provide researchers with the opportunity to solve the problem.
Drift Flux Model
Authors: Whalley P B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The drift flux model is a type of separated flow model which looks particularly at the relative motion of the phases, and was developed by G. B. Wallis. The most complete reference available to the method is undoubtedly Wallis (1969). It is most applicable to flows where there is a well-defined velocity in the gas phase, for example in bubbly flow and plug flow. It is not particularly relevant to a flow like annular flow which has two characteristic velocities in one phase—the liquid film velocity and the liquid drop velocity. Nevertheless it has been used for annular flows, though with no particular success.
The Assembly-configurations of Serial Robot-arms
Authors: Davidson Joseph K , Hunt Kenneth H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In typical applications of robots, the tool must move through a succession of locations. Often it is sufficient to specify these locations with a succession of positions for a point, a plane, or a line; sometimes a combination of two or more of these geometrical elements is used. For a ball-ended milling cutter or an acoustical sensor in an anechoic chamber, it is sufficient to specify a succession of positions for a point, namely the geometric center of the cutter or sensor. As noted in §§5.7.4 and 6.6, when the tool is a welding rod or the conical nozzle of a spray-gun, both the location of the axis of symmetry (a line) and the distance of the nozzle (represented by a point) from the surface are important, but angular location about the symmetry axis is unimportant. In another application, a sanding disk (a plane) that is used for removing flash from a casting must be orientated properly and positioned along its spin-axis, but the tangent point of the disk to the casting can be anywhere within a range of radii (for efficient removal of material) and be at any angular location about the spin-axis.
Finite Element Procedures for Contact-Impact Problems
Authors: Zhong Zhi-Hua 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first book on FEM modelling of contact-impact events and deals with finite element procedures for solutions to both static and dynamic contact-impact problems. Langrangian formulation is introduced and explicit and implicit solutions are presented. Numerical algorithms are implemented in computer programs to simulate industrial applications such as metal-forming processes and crashworthiness analysis of automobiles. This book is strongly engineering oriented and contains much new work and analysis based on practical experience which will make it invaluable to engineers, researchers and students.
Theoretical Treatment Of Component Elements
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We presented a general outline of the ultrasonic motor in the previous chapter. In this chapter, we shall study the basic principles governing the action of each component of a motor to develop an overall theory of the ultrasonic motor in later chapters. In a social context, ‘friction’ denotes something undesirable, such as ‘trade friction’ or ‘friction among people’. However, mechanical friction is not only desirable but indispensable to us. For instance, friction between rubber tyres and the road surface allows an automobile to run. Similarly, friction between steel surfaces enables a train to travel fast. If friction and gravity did not exist, we would not be able to walk.
Equivalent-Circuit Analysis For The Travelling-Wave Motor
Authors: Sashida Toshiiku , Kenjo Takashi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic principles of the ultrasonic motor, which were discussed in Chapter 1, are not difficult to grasp, at least qualitatively. They are much simpler than the principles of a.c. electromagnetic motors such as the induction motor or the hysteresis synchronous motor. (This is the subject of Chapter 8.) A mechanical engineer, for instance, should have no difficulty in understanding how the ultrasonic motor works. However, as we have seen in Chapters 2 to 5, the details involved are fairly complex and many aspects of the motor are as yet unresolved. In this chapter we present a method that allows us to determine the characteristics of a travelling-wave motor in a quantitative manner, while leaving room for a few unresolved problems. For this purpose, we shall advance the theory of equivalent circuits discussed in Chapters 2,3.
Transmission Lines For Quasi-Tem Fields
Authors: Olyslager Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the transmission line equations are derived immediately from Maxwell’s curl equations. This will not be possible for all types of waveguides and under all circumstances. The discussion has to be restricted to electric wave guides and, furthermore, for these waveguides, to the fundamental propagation. By fundamental propagation is meant propagation that reduces to the classical wire interconnection picture at zero frequency, where one conductor guides the return current and where the other conductors carry the signal currents. In modal language, the fundamental propagation is propagation by the fundamental modes of the waveguide. In an electric waveguide with N + 1 conductors, there are N fundamental modes.
Bitransmission Lines For Quasi-Tem Fields
Authors: Olyslager Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the theory of Chapter 2 is generalized to bi-isotropic and bianisotropic waveguides. It will be shown that for electric waveguides and fundamental wave propagation, the Maxwell equations yield a unequivocal generalized transmission line representation, at least under certain restrictions. These generalized transmission lines are called bitransmission lines.
A
Authors: Perrot Pierre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Absolute—Without reference to any particular system, as opposed to ‘relative’. Among the physical quantities characterizing a system, some, such as volume or entropy, are defined in absolute value and are directly accessible to experiment. More often, thermodynamic quantities (energies, potentials) can only be defined in relative value, experiment giving access only to their changes. An absolute scale of temperature is a scale defined independently of any material. The expansion of mercury, the electrical resistance of platinum, or the potential difference of a thermocouple do not allow the definition of an absolute scale, but only of a relative scale of temperature.
H
Authors: Perrot Pierre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
H theorem—A famous theorem, established by Boltzmann in 1872, on which is based every discussion about the irreversibility of the behaviour of a large number of particles. Letf(p, q,t) be a distribution function, or probability of finding, at a given time t a particle with position q and momentum p. The distribution evolves with time, owing to the proper motion of molecules and their collisions.
U
Authors: Perrot Pierre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Uncompensated heat—The entropy created during an irreversible process is given, according to the second law, by: A sphere on a frictionless plane surface is a good example of a mechanical system in an undifferentiated equilibrium state. In thermodynamics, such states occur when it is possible to modify an extensive parameter while keeping intensive parameters unmodified. At constant temperature, a liquid-vapour equilibrium is undifferentiated with respect to a change in volume of the system. In a more general way, an invariant equilibrium is undifferentiated with respect to any change in an extensive parameter. This is also true for a monovariant equilibrium, provided that an external constraint keeps (n -1) intensities constant; the nth intensity will be then kept constant by the system.
Bessel Functions
Authors: Andrews Larry C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The German astronomer F. W. Bessel (1784-1846) first achieved fame by computing the orbit of Halley’s comet. In addition to many other accomplishments in connection with his studies of planetary motion, he is credited with deriving the differential equation bearing his name and carrying out the first systematic study of the general properties of its solutions (now caUed Bessel functions) in his famous 1824 memoir. Nonetheless, Bessel functions were first discovered in 1732 by D. Bernoulli (1700-1782), who provided a series solution (representing a Bessel function) for the oscillatory displacements of a heavy hanging chain (see Sec. 6.7.1). Euler later developed a series similar to that of Bernoulli, which was also a Bessel function, and Bessel’s equation appeared in a 1764 article by Euler dealing with the vibrations of a circular drumhead. J. Fourier (1768-1836) also used Bessel functions in his classical treatise on heat in 1822, but it was Bessel who first recognized their special properties.
Flow Around Circular Cylinders
Authors: Zdravkovich M M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Flow Around Circular Cylinders, Volume 2: Applications is a comprehensive guide through flow phenomena, experiments, applications, mathematical models and computer simulations. Aimed at practising engineers in industry and research laboratories; it deals with several parameters including the effects of aspect ratio, finite height, free end step change in diameter, taper, cooling towers, rotation cylinders, and suction.
The many faces of cohomology
Authors: Guest Martin A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is a brief essay on homology and cohomology, emphasizing those aspects which will reappear when we study quantum cohomology. The chapter can be skipped by the knowledgeable reader, although a brief glance at the notation in section 1.5 should be helpful, as we shall use it systematically throughout the book. In addition, section 1.6 mentions a less well known ‘function-theoretic’ point of view which contains a hint of our eventual approach to quantum cohomology.
Quantum differential equations
Authors: Guest Martin A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In section 1.6 we mentioned the curious fact that the cohomology of certain symplectic manifolds can be computed by ﬁnding the differential operators which annihilate the symplectic volume function. According to A. Givental (see [47] and [48]), the symplectic volume function for the Floer homology of the free loop space of a symplectic manifold should play the same role for quantum cohomology. It should be a formal generating function for Gromov–Witten invariants, and the differential operators annihilating this function should produce the quantum cohomology algebra.
Quantum cohomology as an integrable system
Authors: Guest Martin A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen that the quantum cohomology of a manifold can be described as a flat connection or D-module. We have hinted that this puts it on the same footing as a solution of an integrable system. In this chapter we shall describe the WDVV (Witten–Dijkgraaf–Verlinde–Verlinde) equations, which provide suitable partial differential equations.
Island Biogeography
Authors: Whittaker Robert J , Fernández-Palacios José María 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Island biogeography is the study of the distribution and dynamics of species in island environments. Due to their isolation from more widespread continental species, islands are ideal places for unique species to evolve, but they are also places of concentrated extinction. Not surprisingly, they are widely studied by ecologists, conservationists and evolutionary biologists alike. There is no other recent textbook devoted solely to island biogeography, and a synthesis of the many recent advances is now overdue. This second edition builds on the success and reputation of the first, documenting the recent advances in this exciting field and explaining how islands have been used as natural laboratories in developing and testing ecological and evolutionary theories. In addition, the book describes the main processes of island formation, development and eventual demise, and explains the relevance of island environmental history to island biogeography. The authors demonstrate the huge significance of islands as hotspots of biodiversity, and as places from which disproportionate numbers of species have been extinguished by human action in historical time. Many island species are today threatened with extinction, and this work examines both the chief threats to their persistence and some of the mitigation measures that can be put in play with conservation strategies tailored to islands.
Island environments
Authors: Whittaker Robert J , Fernández-Palacios José María 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Islands come in many shapes and sizes, and their arrangement in space, their geology, environments, and biotic characteristics are each extremely variable, simply because there are vast numbers of them in the world. If this makes them marvellous experimental laboratories for field ecologists and biogeographers, it also means that attempting to make generalizations about islands holds the danger—almost the certainty—that one will be wrong! Defining the term ‘island’ for the purposes of this book is not as straightforward as it seems. Many biogeographical studies treat isolated patches of habitat as de facto islands, but if we take the simplest dictionary definition then an island is a ‘piece of land surrounded by water’.
The biogeography of island life: biodiversity hotspots in context
Authors: Whittaker Robert J , Fernández-Palacios José María 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term biodiversity is a contraction of biological diversity, and broadly defined refers to the variability of life from all sources, including within species, between species, and of ecosystems (Matthews et al. 2001). We may at times be concerned with higher or lower points in the taxonomic hierarchy, such that familial, generic, subspecific, or even gene frequency data may be analysed under the header ‘biodiversity’, but the most commonly used diversity unit is undoubtedly the species. As a first-order generalization, islands are species poor for their size but rich in forms found nowhere else, i.e. endemic to that island or archipelago. They are thus ‘hotspots’ of biodiversity (see Box 3.1).
The physiology of preference
Authors: Berthoz Alain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unable to decide between two bales of hay, Buridan’s ass1 died a victim of its inability to choose. This happens to us when, faced with a sumptuous buffet, dazzled by so many dishes, we do not know where to start. Feeling gluttonous, but also desiring not to gain weight or to appear greedy to the other guests, we must decide what will satisfy us for an evening. Deliberation is difficult; it means choosing between the possibility of returning for a second serving, the fear that the dishes will be removed or consumed, and taking our ‘preference’ into account.
Music for children in zones of conflict and post-conflict: A psychobiological approach
Authors: Osborne Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The idea of using the creative arts to help children deal with experiences of danger and conflict is by no means new. Therapeutic art was a focus of activity for the children’s colonies (colonias infantiles) of the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), and work of courage and vision was initiated by artists for children in the camps and ghettos of Nazi-occupied Europe; examples include painter Friedl Dicker-Brandeisová and composer Hans Krása in Terezin (Theresienstadt), and physician Henryk Goldszmit, alias writer ‘Janusz Korczak’, in the Warsaw ghetto.
Musicality in talk and listening: A key element in classroom discourse as an environment for learning
Authors: Erickson Frederick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I will begin by reviewing some basic principles. I assume as a premise that human social interaction is organized musically, i.e., speaking and listening behaviour is performed in real time in patterns of regular rhythm, and pitch and volume changes in speech are part of the same verbal and non-verbal timing frame. This ‘musicality’ is what linguists call ‘speech prosody’. The musicality of social interaction functions to enable participants to coordinate their attention and action and to signal interest in various kinds of information to one another (Auer et al. 1999; Scollon 1982).
Quadrilateral and triangles
Authors: Bradley Christopher J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The First problem that we consider in this chapter is the analogue for parallelograms of the Heron triangle. That is, we consider when a parallelogram has integer sides, integer diagonals, and integer area. Since such parallelograms are the union of two triangles with integer sides and integer or half odd integer area, the difflB01culty lies in making the second diagonal an integer. Solutions in particular cases are given below, but a general solution seems unlikely. Since the problem is trivial when the parallelogram is a rectangle, we exclude this case from consideration.
More on triangles
Authors: Bradley Christopher J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now embark on an analysis of some more advanced properties of integer-sided triangles. Though there are a large number of problems that could be treated, it is hoped that the selection covered in this chapter is representative of the difflerent types of problem that exist and includes an account of the most signiFB01cant ones. There are nine sections in this chapter, each covering a difflerent problem. They include problems involving transversals, Cevians, the pedal triangles of a point, the pivot theorem, and the symmedians. An account is given of the Euler line and another line in the triangle in which the ratio 2: 1 also appears. Finally, we consider whether certain distances between key points in the triangle can be made integers by choosing the sides of the triangle suitably.
Finite Geometries
Authors: Bradley Christopher J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 4.2 it was shown how to embed R2 into the projective plane P2 by writing x = X/Z and y = Y /Z, and making the equations of lines and curves homogeneous in X, Y , and Z. The points (x, y, z) and (kx, ky, kz) (k = 0) are identiFB01ed as the same point. In this way Z = 0 is regarded as the line at inFB01nity, and the line lX + mY + nZ =0 meets Z = 0 at a point P at inFB01nity with co-ordinates (m, l, 0). Likewise, two lines which are parallel in R2, with equations lx + my + n = 0 and lx + my + p = 0 (p n) meet in P2 at P . This procedure served the purpose it was needed for in the sections on cubic curves and elliptic curves. The disadvantage of proceeding in this way is that points with Z = 0 are singled out as being something special, and one might rightly ask the question why X, Y, and Z are not on an equal footing.
Nonlinear models in social processes: the model of Volterra-Lotka and some of its variants in ecology
Authors: Bertuglia Cristoforo Sergio , Vaio Franco 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Around the mid-1920s, the American biologist Alfred Lotka (1925) and the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra (1926) independently proposed a nonlinear model of the dynamics of a prey species interacting with a predator species, which although still rather abstract, like the linear model (11.1) described in 11, was more realistic than the latter. The model, which is very well known and which has been extensively applied in a variety of areas, is known by the name of the Volterra-Lotka model.
Riemann’s Habilitationsvortrag at the Crossroads of Mathematics, Physics, and Philosophy
Authors: Ferreirós José 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Et his principiis via sternitur ad majora. And by these principles the road is open to higher things. (Newton, quoted by Riemann in 1861)1 With Dirichlet and Riemann, Göttingen has remained the plantation of the most profoundly philosophical orientation in mathematical research that it became with Gauss. (Wilhelm Weber)2 There is no doubt that Bernhard Riemann was one of the main architects of modern mathematics, a visionary planner who delineated new outlines for quarters like complex analysis or abstract geometry, and designed magnificent modern avenues to link mathematics with physics. Riemann’s work emerged from a most noteworthy interaction between the three disciplines of physics, mathematics, and philosophy – the ‘magic triangle,’ as Sánchez Ron has aptly put it in a paper about Einstein. In fact, the evolution of Riemann’s ideas affords a better example of the magic triangle at work than Einstein’s in 1905–1916. We shall examine this in the relatively localized domain of mathematical and physical geometry, but also at the more global level of Riemann’s epistemology of mathematics.