bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conservation of Water
Authors: Babel Mukand Singh 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

When the ratio of water availability to demand exceeds certain limits, the stress on resources becomes noticeable, and the conflicts among users intensify and increase in frequency. A region that have water availability of about 1700 m
3
per capita/year faces periodic water scarcity, and this is considered a warning if the population continues to grow. Below this limit, “water stress” is periodic. If this limit is even lower, about 1000 m
3
per capita/year, the region is under “chronic water scarcity.” Economic development, well‐being, and health are affected at these levels. The situation is “extremely scarce” if the per capita availability is below 500 m
3
per year. Many countries that used to have plentiful water resources are facing water scarcity, that is likely to be aggravated in coming years.

Water is wasted nearly everywhere; there is great potential for better conservation and management, no matter how water is used. The term water conservation is associated mainly with the policy, managerial measure, or user practice aiming at conserving or preserving water resources and taking care of the degradation of water resources; water saving aims to limit or control water demand and avoid wastage and misuse. Both perspectives are complementary and interrelated in managing scarce water resources.
Water Infrastructure and Systems
Authors: Grigg Neil S. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Water infrastructure is the set of constructed elements that operate within water resources systems and interact with environmental elements, or natural systems, such as watersheds, streams, lakes, and aquifers.
In a watershed, sets of these structures may control water for different purposes. Most apparent might be a multiple‐purpose reservoir, that has a dam and hydroelectric plant connected to electric transmission lines. Below might be a diversion dam to enable a canal to take irrigation water from the stream, if it is located in a dry region. There might be a re‐regulating reservoir with locks for navigation. Dams are a special class of hydraulic structure, and they provide barriers to the flow to enable reservoirs to store water.
Application of the Precautionary Principle to Water Science
Authors: Sweet Leonard I. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The relative constraints and uncertainties of risk assessment suggest to some that risk managers should abandon the risk framework in favor of the precautionary approach. In water science, it is not prudent to propose one as an alternative to the other. An immediate concern is that the precautionary‐based approach fails to account for risk transfers, priority substances, and costs versus benefits. It is proposed that a variety of precautionary initiatives and decision analysis tools in risk management (e.g., life cycle assessment, weight of evidence, cost–benefit), as well as the open exchange of information and rational thinking, will aid in bridging the dichotomy between risk assessment and the precautionary principle.
Water Pricing
Authors: Renzetti Steven J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The price of water is measured by the value of the economic resources that must be sacrificed to acquire potable water. In many cases, this price is easily understood as the number of dollars and cents that must be paid to obtain a specific volume of water. In other cases, often in low‐income countries, the price of water is best understood as the combination of out‐of‐pocket expenses plus the time required for travel to and from a water source.
The purpose of this article is twofold. First, it describes the nature and range of water prices around the world. Second, it explains the significance of the price of water for decisions regarding the supply of water and the demand for water. The article concludes that, despite the potentially important role of water prices, a lack of attention to water pricing has been a major contributing factor to worldwide problems of water allocation and water quality.
Water Resources Challenges in the
A
rab World
Authors: Young M. E. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The water shortage in the Arab World (Fig. 1) is severe and worsening. The region receives only 1% of the world's renewable water resources yet contains more than 5% of the world's population. In most Arab states at the start of the twenty‐first century, the gross volumetric human and environmental demand for water exceeds natural replenishment. Per capita water availability is worsened by a high regional population growth; a 3% annual population growth rate halves the per capita availability every 24 years.
The paramount need, common to all states, therefore, is to find a sustainable balance between use and replenishment by a combination of measures to increase supply and to reduce demand. Both approaches involve technical (engineering) developments, legal and financial measures, improved water resources management through institutional interventions, and adjustments to national policies of water allocation.
Assessment of Ecological Effects in Water‐Limited Environments
Authors: Ryti Randall T. , Markweise James T. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
We consider that water‐limited environments include arid lands that have less than 250 millimeters (10 inches) of annual precipitation and semiarid lands that have annual precipitation between 250 and 500 millimeters. This paper discusses the characteristics of arid and semiarid environments, approaches for evaluating the potential ecological impacts from anthropogenic contaminant sources, and the issues that make such assessments complex in arid and semiarid environments.
Averting Water Disputes
Authors: Lipford Jody W. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Economists recognize the scarcity of valuable resources. Without prices on these resources, there is not enough to satisfy all who want to use them. In most settings, however, market prices allocate resources and allow them to move to those users who value them the most. This market process allocates resources to their most productive uses and maximizes society's wealth. In the case of the ACF River Basin water, however, market prices do not currently allocate water; it is allocated politically.
Economists also recognize that resources have multiple uses. Water, for example, may be used to generate electricity; aid oyster production; provide wildlife habitat; produce industrial products; provide channel depth for barges; provide recreational opportunities for boaters, skiers, and fishers; or supply households with water for drinking, watering lawns, or filling swimming pools. In the ACF Basin, some water is used in each of these ways.
Whether allocation occurs through market prices or other methods, it is rarely all‐or‐nothing. In the Southeast (and the United States generally), there is ample water to supply basic human needs, such as drinking water. Where conflicts occur, as in the ACF Basin, it is over shifting some water, not all water, from one use to another. Simply put, the ACF Basin issue is whether more water should be allocated to Atlanta, presenting Alabama and Florida with the prospect of less water but not complete deprivation.
Although compacts have some advantages over congressional or judicial apportionment, they are poorly suited to allocate water in ways that maximize water's productive value to society. Compacts are highly political and confront intractable information problems, and such was the case with the negotiations over the ACF Basin's waters.
Flood Control History in the
N
etherlands
Authors: Li Rongchao 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The traditional flood control approach in the Netherlands is fighting against natural dynamics or, restricting the natural dynamics of a river system by canalization and embankments. However, such an approach results in destruction of river scenery, damage to nature and cultural values, as well as continuous dike raising and strengthening. Changing societal views in the Netherlands have aroused discussion of alternative flood management strategies. Around the beginning of the twenty‐first century, new visions appeared such as “living with floods” and the “room for the river” policy.
Integration of Environmental Impacts into Water Resources Planning
Authors: Yurdusev Mehmet Ali 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Nature is so complicated that we need to idealize or simplify to understand, interpret, and benefit from it. Simplifications are carried out by modeling natural events. Models give us the opportunity to input values representing the observed values of natural phenomena to see what the possible outcome would be. Water is one of the few natural substances without which human beings cannot survive. Water use, therefore, is much more complicated because it has to reconcile an irregular or random natural phenomenon and humans attitudes towards it, which is not less complicated than water in nature itself. Therefore, it has to be managed by employing complicated computer‐based mathematical models. The spatial and temporal dimensions of this complicated issue can then be handled. These modeling studies are generally referred to as water resources planning (WRP). WRP can be defined as matching future demands to potential resources, satisfying some preset objectives such as cost‐effectiveness or environmental quality. The end product of water resources planning is a development plan for some future period, normally 20 to 30 years. As such, WRP mainly encompasses three types of activities:

assessment of available water resources,

assessment of future water requirements, and

matching between available resources and forecast demands.
Institutional Aspects of Water Management in
C
hina
Authors: Li Rongchao 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
In China, the water resource management organization has traditionally been organized along narrow, subsectoral lines. The national government determines the general legislative and policy framework for water management. The Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) is responsible for the state water management and issues the national water legislation and policies. Other ministries such as land and agriculture and electronic, etc. are also involved in water management.
Overview and Trends in the International Water Market
Authors: Piper Randy T. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The term “water market” is a slippery concept. Like water, the term water market is free flowing and can take a variety of forms, depending on the cultural environment and who invokes the term. In “The Importance of Getting Names Right: The Myth of Markets for Water,” Joseph Dellapenna argues for greater precision when using the language of water markets. Consequently, when we speak of water markets, we need to identify specifically the rules that governments employ and the roles that governments play in defining, divesting, and defending water markets. In most geographic settings, water markets do not exist without some formal role for government administration.
Land Applications of Wastewater in Arid Lands: Theory and Case Studies
Authors: Mexal J. G. , Rodriguez D. S. , Sammis T. , Picchioni G. , Zachritz W. , Erickson C. , Samani Z. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractLand application of wastewater is recommended by the Environmental Protection Agency as a method of recycling nutrients and organic matter while protecting freshwater resources (1). Wastewater has been applied to agronomic crops, rangelands, forests, and recreation areas, including parks and golf courses, and to disturbed lands such as mine spoils sites (2, 3, 4, 5). Benefits from recycling wastewater include creating a supplemental irrigation source, thereby conserving drinking water, and reducing fertilizer costs because wastewater contains nitrogen and phosphorus (6). As wastewater moves through the soil profile, the soil and plants act as filters that trap and treat, through various mechanisms, waste particles and contaminants allowing the remaining water to drain through the soil profile (7, 8). Wastewater provides an effective source of nutrients that vegetation roots can absorb and allow the plant to assimilate. The benefit of this system is both the effective remediation of wastes and the recycling of water, nutrients, and carbon via biomass production (4).
Landfill Leachates: Part 2: Treatment
Authors: Samaras P. , Zouboulis A. I. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe characteristics (composition) of sanitary landfill leachates are very different from domestic wastewaters, and their quality varies from landfill to landfill, as well as with the particular landfill age. Hence, their treatment is based largely on industrial wastewater treatment processes. However, no single treatment method is considered efficient enough to achieve the high removal rates of pollutants, usually required; therefore, several treatment trains are currently used, including combinations of aerobic/anaerobic processes and several modes of physical–chemical treatment systems. The selection and design of leachate treatment facilities requires knowledge of several parameters, such as leachate quantity and quality, degree of necessary treatment, disposal methods, and effluents guidelines. These are the main problems that have to be considered:Specific treatment schemes applied in a particular landfill may not be transferable to other sites.Leachate quantity and quality vary seasonally, depending on climatic and hydrologic factors.The composition of disposed of solid wastes greatly affects the composition of leachates.
N
ew
Y
ork
C
ity
H
arbor
S
urvey
Authors: Tonjes David J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
The New York City Harbor Survey, begun in 1910 and conducted continuously since 1912, may have the longest operational history of any annual water quality monitoring program in the world. Initiated to document decaying water quality in New York Harbor and, therefore, cause changes in waste management practices, it now demonstrates the effectiveness of New York City's comprehensive wastewater treatment program. Data from the 53 stations of the Survey (some of which are monitored year‐round using the dedicated Harbor Survey vessel) show general compliance throughout the Harbor with New York State water quality standards today, despite historical pollution problems.
Reclaimed Water
Authors: Kazmi Absar A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Reclaimed water is water from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) that has been treated and can be used for nonpotable uses such as landscape irrigation, cooling towers, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and fire protection. The inclusion of planned water reclamation, recycling, and reuse in water resource systems reflects the increasing scarcity of water resources to meet societal demands, technological advancements, increased public acceptance, and improved understanding of public health risks.

Benefits of Using Reclaimed Water

It saves millions of gallons of drinking water each day.

Its use for nonpotable (nondrinking) purposes is less expensive for the vast majority of of customers.

It delays the need for developing costly new water sources and building very expensive treatment plants.

There is no odor or staining from its use.

It allows a city to comply with permits relating to its water supply and wastewater treatment.

It minimizes negative effects around underground water sources, preserving the quality of life for plants and wildlife.

It reduces fertilizing costs because reclaimed water is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus.
Wastewater Treatment and Recycling Technologies
Authors: Ali Imram , Jain C. K. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Due to the continuous population growth, uneven distribution of water resources, periodic droughts, and water pollution, it is very important to develop water treatment and recycling technologies for economic, effective, and fast water treatment and reclamation. Different types of water treatment and recycling techniques and their basic principles, applications, costs, maintenance, and suitability are discussed. In addition, a systematic approach to water treatment and recycling, involving understanding, evaluating, and selecting parameters, is presented. A comparison of the technologies is discussed from the view points of performance, sludge production, life cycle, operation, and maintenance. Brief guidance for selecting appropriate technologies for specific applications is also evaluated.
Wastewater Treatment Techniques—Advanced
Authors: Valenzuela Miguel A. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

All advanced oxidation processes are characterized by a common chemical feature: production of OH
•
radicals.

These radicals are suitable for achieving complete abatement and mineralization of pollutants. AOP usually operate at or close to ambient temperature and pressure. The potentialities offered by AOP can be exploited to integrate biological treatments by oxidative degradation of toxic substances, entering or leaving the biological stage. The usual two AOP are the Fenton process and photocatalysis.
Integrated Capacity Building Needs for Water Supply and Wastewater Sanitation
Authors: Downs Timothy J. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract

Howe has identified key institutional water management requirements for a watershed scale: (1) coordinated management of surface water and groundwater resources, (2) coordinated management of both water quantity and water quality, (3) provision of incentives for greater economic and technical efficiencies in water use, and (4) protection of public values associated with water service (e.g., reliable, safe, clean, affordable supply). To achieve this, the water institutions must develop the following characteristics (after 1):

the capacity to coordinate water plans with other agencies (e.g., urban planning, agriculture, public health, environment, industrial);

the capacity to solve water problems creatively using a variety of options and approaches (e.g., laws, pricing, taxes, tradable supply and/or pollution permits, subsidies);

the foresight to separate roles and responsibilities for water resource planning and management activities from construction activities (i.e., avoid conflicts of interest);

the multidisciplinary capacity to undertake multicriteria/multiobjective planning and evaluation of alternatives;

devolve decision‐making power to the lowest practical level—national, state/regional (provincial), local or municipal—consistent with the scale of the water issue;

capacity and willingness to use appropriate participatory methods involving different stakeholders at different stages of a project (preplanning/conceptual, planning and design, implementation, maintenance, monitoring and evaluation);

ability to reward innovation and adapt to changing conditions and priorities.
Combined Sewer Overflow Treatment
Authors: Prochaska C. A. , Zouboulis A. I. 
Published: April 2005

Abstract
Combined sewer overflows (denoted hereafter as CSOs) occur when flows exceed the hydraulic capacity of either the wastewater treatment plant (denoted as WWTP) or the collection system that transports the combined flow of storm water and sanitary sewage to the WWTP. The principal components of a combined sewer system include (1) the contributing drainage area (catchment) and wastewater sources, (2) the combined sewer pipe network and interceptor(s), (3) the regulator and diversion structures, and (4) the CSO outlets.
When an overflow occurs, the excess flows tend to be discharged into the neighboring receiving body of surface water. CSOs typically discharge a variable mixture of raw sewage, industrial/commercial wastewater, polluted runoff, and scoured materials that build up in the collection system during dry weather. These discharges contain a variety of pollutants that may adversely impact the receiving waterbody, including pathogenic microorganisms, viruses, cysts, and chemical and floatable materials.
Degradation of Chloro‐Organics and Hydrocarbons
Authors: Castaldi Frank J. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractChloro‐organics include chlorinated aromatic and aliphatic compounds. The chemical characteristics of chlorinated aromatic compounds cover a range of compounds that include chlorophenols, chlorobenzenes, chloroanilines, polychlorinated biphenyls, and many pesticides. Chlorinated aliphatic compounds make up a major portion of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Hazardous Substances List of halogenated volatile constituents.The potential and extent of substance degradation of each of these compound groups differs with the complexity of the compound and the nature of the aquatic environment. The principal focus of this discussion is that of microbial degradation in water and wastewater.Chlorinated aromatic compounds are typically produced for direct commercial use and as chemical intermediates during chemical synthesis. They are used in industrial operations to produce dyes, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, synthetic rubbers, solvents, cleaners, deodorants, pigments, and related formulations.
One‐Dimensional Assemblies of Nanoparticles: Preparation, Properties, and Promise
Authors: Tang Z. , Kotov N. A. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractNanoparticle (NP) assemblies are of considerable interest for both fundamental research and applications, since they provide direct bridges between nanometer‐scale objects and the macroscale world. Unlike two‐dimensional or three‐dimensional NP assemblies, which have been extensively studied and reviewed, reports on one‐dimensional (1D) NP assemblies are rather rare, even though these assemblies are likely to play critical roles in the improvement of the efficiencies of various electronic, optoelectronic, magnetic, and other devices based on single NPs or their composites. Additionally, 1D assemblies of NPs, i.e., chains, can significantly help in the understanding of a number of biological processes and fundamental quantum mechanics of nanometer‐scale systems. The difficulties are very evident when one wants to realize anisotropic 1D assemblies from presumably isotropic, zero‐dimensional NPs. In this context, the authors present a systemic review of current research on 1D NP assemblies. Their preparation methods are classified and novel characteristics of NP chains, such as collective properties and directional transfer of photons, electrons, spins, etc., are elucidated. Current problems underlying the fundamental research and practical applications of 1D NP assemblies are also addressed.
Cover Picture: Lithography‐Free, Self‐Aligned Inkjet Printing with Sub‐Hundred‐Nanometer Resolution (Adv. Mater. 8/2005)
Authors: Sele C. W. , von Werne T. , Friend R. H. , Sirringhaus H. 
Published: April 2005

AbstractThe inherently low resolution of inkjet printing on unpatterned surfaces can be overcome by selective surface modification of a first printed pattern, resulting in hydrophobic repulsion of subsequently deposited aqueous polymer dispersions. This technique, reported by Sirringhaus and co‐workers on p. 997, is capable of achieving sub‐100  nm resolution without any lithographic step. The cover shows an array of polymer transistors patterned with this method on three different length scales, as well as a schematic of the process.