bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Seasonal Variability of Teleconnection Patterns
Authors: Frederiksen Jorgen S. , Branstator Grant 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
The seasonal variability of 300-hPa global streamfunction fields taken from a 40-yr period of reanalyzed observations starting on 1 January 1958 and from long 497- and 900-yr general circulation model (GCM) datasets forced by sea surface temperatures (SSTs) is examined and analyzed in terms of empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs), principal oscillation patterns (POPs), and particularly finite-time principal oscillation patterns (FTPOPs). The FTPOPs are the eigenvectors of the propagator, over a 1-yr period covering the annual cycle, that has been constructed by fitting a linear stochastic model with a time-dependent matrix operator to atmospheric fluctuations based on the daily or twice-daily 300-hPa streamfunction datasets.
The leading FTPOPs are large-scale teleconnection patterns and by construction they are the empirical analogs of finite-time normal modes (FTNMs) of linear instability theory. Hence, by comparing FTPOPs to FTNMs, the study provides insight into the ability of linear theory to explain seasonal and intraseasonal variability in the structure and growth rates of large-scale disturbances. The study finds that the leading FTPOP teleconnection patterns have similar seasonal cycles of relative growth rates and amplitudes to the leading FTNMs of the barotropic vorticity equation with 300-hPa basic states that change with the annual cycle; the largest amplitudes of both theoretical and empirical modes occur in late boreal winter or early spring, and minimum amplitudes in boreal autumn, with the GCM-based FTPOPs having additional secondary maxima in early boreal summer. In each month, there are leading POPs and EOFs that closely resemble the leading FTPOPs. Also, the growth rates of leading FTNMs and FTPOPs during each season are generally similar to those of respective leading normal modes and POPs calculated for that season. Thus the perturbations are reacting to the seasonally varying basic state faster than the state is changing and this appears to explain why linear planetary wave models with time-independent basic states can be useful. Nevertheless, intermodal interference effects, as well as intramodal interference effects, between the eastward and westward propagating components of single traveling modes, can play important roles in the evolution of FTPOPs and FTNMs, particularly in boreal spring.
This study has examined the roles of internal instability and interannual SST variability in the behavior of leading FTPOPs and has also used comparisons of FTPOPs and FTNMs for GCM simulations with and without interannually varying SSTs to assess the role of internal instability and SST variations in organizing interannual atmospheric variability. The comparison indicates that both factors are significant. The results found here also support a close relationship between the boreal spring predictability barrier of some models of climate prediction over the tropical Pacific Ocean and the amplitudes of large-scale instabilities and teleconnection patterns of the atmospheric circulation.
Multiplicative Noise and Non-Gaussianity: A Paradigm for Atmospheric Regimes?
Authors: Sura Philip , Newman Matthew , Penland Cécile , Sardeshmukh Prashant 
Published: June 2005

AbstractAtmospheric circulation statistics are not strictly Gaussian. Small bumps and other deviations from Gaussian probability distributions are often interpreted as implying the existence of distinct and persistent nonlinear circulation regimes associated with higher-than-average levels of predictability. In this paper it is shown that such deviations from Gaussianity can, however, also result from linear stochastically perturbed dynamics with multiplicative noise statistics. Such systems can be associated with much lower levels of predictability. Multiplicative noise is often identified with state-dependent variations of stochastic feedbacks from unresolved system components, and may be treated as stochastic perturbations of system parameters. It is shown that including such perturbations in the damping of large-scale linear Rossby waves can lead to deviations from Gaussianity very similar to those observed in the joint probability distribution of the first two principal components (PCs) of weekly averaged 750-hPa streamfunction data for the past 52 winters. A closer examination of the Fokker–Planck probability budget in the plane spanned by these two PCs shows that the observed deviations from Gaussianity can be modeled with multiplicative noise, and are unlikely the results of slow nonlinear interactions of the two PCs. It is concluded that the observed non-Gaussian probability distributions do not necessarily imply the existence of persistent nonlinear circulation regimes, and are consistent with those expected for a linear system perturbed by multiplicative noise.
ITCZ Breakdown in Three-Dimensional Flows
Authors: Wang Chia-chi , Magnusdottir Gudrun 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is observed to undulate and at times break down into a series of tropical disturbances in several days. Some of these disturbances may develop into tropical cyclones and move to higher latitudes, while others dissipate, and the ITCZ may reform in the original region. It has been proposed that the ITCZ may break down because of its heating-induced potential vorticity (PV) anomalies. Here this process is examined in three-dimensional simulations using a primitive equation model. A simulation of the ITCZ in a background state of rest is compared to simulations in different background flows. The effect of different vertical structures of the prescribed heating is also examined.
Deep heating induces a positive PV anomaly in the lower troposphere, leading to a reversal of the PV gradient on the poleward side of the heating, while the induced PV anomaly at upper levels is negative, leading to a reversal of the PV gradient on the equatorward side of the heating. The response at upper levels leads to a weaker PV gradient change, but the response is greater in areal extent than the lower-tropospheric response. For shallow heating, the lower-tropospheric PV response is greater than that for deep heating, and there is no upper-tropospheric PV response. The ITCZ lasts longer before breaking in this case than in the deep heating case.
Effects of the background flow are mainly felt in the deep heating cases. When the background flow enforces the PV-induced wind field, ITCZ breakdown occurs more rapidly, whereas when the background flow is opposite to the PV-induced flow, ITCZ breakdown takes longer and the ITCZ may dissipate before breakdown.
The Stratiform and Convective Components of Surface Precipitation
Authors: Tremblay André 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
One year of precipitation records taken from a subset of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) global rain gauge network has been analyzed. This analysis has shown that the distribution of accumulation of precipitation with the rainfall rate is characterized by an exponential law. This relationship seems to be universal and is present regardless of the averaging interval considered. The data structure suggests that this exponential distribution can be used as a basic state to partition surface precipitation into stratiform and convective components. The physical basis of this approach is investigated and discussed using Monte Carlo simulations based on a simple cloud model. The methodology is validated using a Fourier analysis in time, and average global monthly maps of convective and stratiform precipitation are presented to illustrate the feasibility of the technique.
Excitation Mechanism of Mixed Rossby–Gravity Waves in the Equatorial Atmosphere: Role of the Nonlinear Interactions among Equatorial Waves
Authors: Raupp Carlos F. M. , Silva Dias Pedro L. 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
One possible explanation for the relatively high signal of the mixed Rossby–gravity waves observed in the tropical atmosphere is explored in this paper. This explanation is based on the nonlinear interactions among equatorial waves, and is made by adopting the nonlinear shallow water equations on the equatorial β plane. These equations are solved by a spectral method that uses the eigensolutions of the linear problem as the expansion basis. Numerical simulations are performed with a specified stationary mass source representative of the tropospheric heating associated with the typical convective activity over the Amazon Basin during the austral summer period. The numerical results show that the mixed Rossby–gravity waves are excited by a nonlinear mechanism in which the slow modes excited by the thermal forcing generate a quasigeostrophic basic state that supplies energy especially to the mixed Rossby–gravity waves with zonal wavenumbers 4 and 5, which have periods of the order of 4 days. The phase propagation of these unstable mixed modes leads to a periodic energy exchange between the mixed Rossby–gravity waves and the quasigeostrophic modes (Rossby and ultralong Kelvin modes). This regular nonlinear energy exchange implies a 4-day-cycle vacillation in the solution, which might be linked to the 4–6-day local oscillations in the dynamical field data throughout the Amazon region found in observational studies. Besides the importance of quasigeostrophic modes in the excitation of mixed Rossby–gravity waves, the numerical results also suggest that the predominance of the slow modes is crucial for maintaining the high signal of the unstable mixed modes, since these waves are strongly suppressed by the inclusion of the fast modes in the integration.
Observations and Modeling of Banded Orographic Convection
Authors: Kirshbaum Daniel J. , Durran Dale R. 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
Radar images and numerical simulations of three shallow convective precipitation events over the Coastal Range in western Oregon are presented. In one of these events, unusually well-defined quasi-stationary banded formations produced large precipitation enhancements in favored locations, while varying degrees of band organization and lighter precipitation accumulations occurred in the other two cases. The difference between the more banded and cellular cases appeared to depend on the vertical shear within the orographic cap cloud and the susceptibility of the flow to convection upstream of the mountain. Numerical simulations showed that the rainbands, which appeared to be shear-parallel convective roll circulations that formed within the unstable orographic cap cloud, developed even over smooth mountains. However, these banded structures were better organized, more stationary, and produced greater precipitation enhancement over mountains with small-scale topographic obstacles. Low-amplitude random topographic roughness elements were found to be just as effective as more prominent subrange-scale peaks at organizing and fixing the location of the orographic rainbands.
Numerical Simulations of Interactions between Gravity Waves and Deep Moist Convection
Authors: Eitzen Zachary A. , Randall David A. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractThis study uses a numerical model to simulate deep convection both in the Tropics over the ocean and the midlatitudes over land. The vertical grid that was used extends into the stratosphere, allowing for the simultaneous examination of the convection and the vertically propagating gravity waves that it generates. A large number of trajectories are used to evaluate the behavior of tracers in the troposphere, and it is found that the tracers can be segregated into different types based upon their position in a diagram of normalized vertical velocity versus displacement. Conditional sampling is also used to identify updrafts in the troposphere and calculate their contribution to the kinetic energy budget of the troposphere. In addition, Fourier analysis is used to characterize the waves in the stratosphere; it was found that the waves simulated in this study have similarities to those observed and simulated by other researchers. Finally, this study examines the wave energy flux as a means to provide a link between the tropospheric behavior of the convection and the strength of the waves in the stratosphere.
Wave Response during Hydrostatic and Geostrophic Adjustment. Part II: Potential Vorticity Conservation and Energy Partitioning
Authors: Chagnon Jeffrey M. , Bannon Peter R. 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
This second part of a two-part study of the hydrostatic and geostrophic adjustment examines the potential vorticity and energetics of the acoustic waves, buoyancy waves, Lamb waves, and steady state that are generated following the prescribed injection of heat into an isothermal atmosphere at rest. The potential vorticity is only nonzero for the steady class and depends only on the spatial and time-integrated properties of the injection. The waves contain zero net potential vorticity, but undergo a time-dependent vorticity exchange involving latent and relative vorticities.
The energy associated with a given injection may be partitioned distinctly among the various wave classes. The characteristics of this partitioning depend on the spatiotemporal detail of the injection, as well as whether the imbalance is generated by injection of heat, mass, or momentum. Spatially, waves of a scale similar to that of the injection are preferentially excited. Temporally, an extended duration injection preferentially filters high-frequency waves. An instantaneous injection, that is, the temporal Green’s function, contains the largest proportions of the high-frequency waves.
The proportions of kinetic, available elastic, and available potential energies that are carried by the various waves are functions of the homogeneous system. For example, deep buoyancy waves of small horizontal scale primarily contain equal portions of available potential and vertical kinetic energy. The steady state contains more available potential energy than kinetic energy at small horizontal scale, and vice versa. These qualities of the wave energetics illustrate the mechanisms that characterize the physics of each wave class.
The evolution and spectral partitioning of the energetics following localized warmings identical to those in Part I are presented in order to illustrate some of these basic properties of the energetics. For example, a heating lasting longer than a few minutes does not excite acoustic waves. However, Lamb waves of wide horizontal scale can be excited by a heating of several hours. The first buoyancy waves to be filtered by an extended duration heating are those of the deepest and narrowest structure that have a frequency approaching the buoyancy frequency. The energetics of the steady state depends only on the spatial and time-integrated properties of the warming. However, the energetics and transient evolution toward a given steady state depend on the temporal properties of the warming and may differ widely.
Moisture Tendency Equations in a Tropical Atmosphere
Authors: López Carrillo C. , Raymond D. J. 
Published: June 2005

AbstractDirect diagnostic evaluation of the moisture tendency in the moisture equation is very difficult in practice because two poorly measured terms, moisture convergence and precipitation, dominate the equation. Using the near constancy in space and time of the tropical temperature profile, a variety of energy and entropy based equations have been employed to obtain indirect estimates of the moisture budget. In this paper rigorous versions of the energy and entropy equations are developed. The strengths and weakness of these two formulations are complementary, allowing the authors to estimate moistening and drying tendencies with high confidence when the two formulations are used together.This study applies the theory to data from Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE). The results demonstrate how convection regulates the tropospheric humidity, drying the atmosphere when it becomes too moist, and moistening it when it becomes too dry.
A Baroclinic Instability that Couples Balanced Motions and Gravity Waves
Authors: Plougonven Riwal , Muraki David J. , Snyder Chris 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
Normal modes of a linear vertical shear (Eady shear) are studied within the linearized primitive equations for a rotating stratified fluid above a rigid lower boundary. The authors' interest is in modes having an inertial critical layer present at some height within the flow. Below this layer, the solutions can be closely approximated by balanced edge waves obtained through an asymptotic expansion in Rossby number. Above, the solutions behave as gravity waves. Hence these modes are an example of a spatial coupling of balanced motions to gravity waves.
The amplitude of the gravity waves relative to the balanced part of the solutions is obtained analytically and numerically as a function of parameters. It is shown that the waves are exponentially small in Rossby number. Moreover, their amplitude depends in a nontrivial way on the meridional wavenumber. For modes having a radiating upper boundary condition, the meridional wavenumber for which the gravity wave amplitude is maximal occurs when the tilts of the balanced edge wave and gravity waves agree.
A New Look at the Pacific Storm Track Variability: Sensitivity to Tropical SSTs and to Upstream Seeding
Authors: Orlanski Isidoro 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
There is a fairly well defined stationary wave and storm track response to El Niño SSTs over the Pacific. In this paper, the case is made that this response is a direct result of increased baroclinicity in the central Pacific and that changes in the stationary wave pattern farther east are primarily forced by changes in these transient eddies. There is also a lot of natural variability that is not associated with El Niño. The paper also stresses the point that much of the variability can be understood as forced by variations in the upstream seeding of the storm track. The question of whether these seeding variations should be thought of as chaotic noise or forced by identifiable mechanisms is not addressed. Thus, the claim is that the storm track variability and its feedback to the quasi-stationary circulation depends on two key parameters: mid-Pacific baroclinicity, controlled by SSTs, and the strength of the upstream seeding.
The approach is to first examine the effect of storm track seeding by waves entering from the Asian continent during normal years (non-ENSO years). The results show that two mechanisms operate to distribute eddy energy along the storm track: downstream development and baroclinic development. The large effect on baroclinic development at the storm track entrance results from a combination of factors: surface baroclinicity, land–sea contrast, and strong moist fluxes from the western subtropics. Experiments show that sensitivity to the seeding amplitude is large. The larger the seeding amplitude, the closer the more intense baroclinic waves flux energy downstream to upper-level waves. These barotropic waves tend to break anticyclonically and produce a ridge in the eastern Pacific.
Sensitivity to SST anomalies shows qualitative and quantitative similarity with the observed anomalies. Simulations show increased mid-Pacific baroclinicity because stronger convection in the midtropical Pacific enhances a large pool of warm air over the entire mideastern subtropical ocean. Waves with sources at the storm track entrance break anticyclonically and produce the ridge in the eastern Pacific. On the other hand, baroclinic waves generated or regenerated in the mid-Pacific tend to break cyclonically, produce a trough tendency, and reduce the eastern ridge amplitude in the Pacific–North American (PNA) sector.
These results strongly suggest thatthe variability of the quasi-permanent circulation indeed could be produced by the high-frequency eddy feedback, andtwo mechanisms are primarily responsible for the forcing of the quasi-permanent circulation: downstream development from the western Pacific and the anomalous baroclinicity in the mideastern Pacific.
The intensity of these counteracting forcings gives the different flavors of the El Niño response over the PNA region. Regardless of the SST anomaly strength, the PNA patterns seem unique but obviously have different intensities.
Structural Characteristics of Convective Systems over South America Related to Cold-Frontal Incursions
Authors: Siqueira Jose Ricardo , Rossow William B. , Machado Luiz Augusto Toledo , Pearl Cindy 
Published: June 2005

Abstract
International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP DX) and microwave sensor data collected by the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) are used to identify and describe structural characteristics of convective systems (CSs) over continental South America (SA) related to cold-frontal incursions in a 3-yr period. An austral wet-season climatology for CS events of the three most important types of front–tropical convection interaction is built by applying latitude–time diagrams and a cloud-tracking method to DX data. Type 1 is characterized by the penetration of a cold front over subtropical SA that interacts with convection and moves with it into lower tropical latitudes. Type 2 refers to Amazon convection and its enhancement in a quasi-stationary northwest–southeast-oriented band extending from the Amazon to subtropical SA along with the passage of a cold front in the subtropics and characterizes the synoptic formation of the South Atlantic convergence zone. A quasi-stationary cold front over subtropical SA that has only weak interaction with tropical convection corresponds to type 3.
Results show that the three types of front–tropical convection interaction strongly modulate deep convection over SA, producing mesoscale CSs with significant fractions of deep convective clouds and rain at their mature phase. Type 2 CSs (type 1 CSs) are constituted of larger deep convective cloud fractions with weaker (stronger) vertical development compared to type 1 CSs (type 3 CSs) in the Tropics (subtropics), resulting in larger rain fractions and less (more) presence of convective rain. Type 1 CSs have larger fractions of deep convective clouds and rain but with weaker vertical development in the subtropics than in the Tropics, showing that cold fronts organize convection more in area in the subtropics, but more in vertical extent in the Tropics. Life cycle variations of CS cloud and rain properties show tropical CSs with a more intense initial development and similar structural differences between the CS types and those found at their mature phase.