bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Parties and Defence Policy
Authors: Brand Jack 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As in economic policy, most key decisions on defence are taken with practically no intervention by Parliament. They are usually announced, but often not even this courtesy is observed. While monetary policy, such as fixing the Bank Rate or the regulation of the money supply, is also determined with no more than a notification, the Budget and even the decisions on Public Expenditure are subject to considerable debate. Parliament becomes the site of great pressure on the Treasury before and after the Finance Bill is published. By contrast, reasons of security justify the secrecy surrounding defence policy-making. The classic examples of this are Britain’s decisions to manufacture atomic weapons and later to develop her nuclear arsenal.
Conclusion
Authors: Brand Jack 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 I suggested that Parliament was important for the development of public policy. With King, I argued that this influence was exercised mostly by the parliamentary parties and especially by the back-benchers of the party in power. The central chapters examined six areas of policy to estimate the extent and nature of this influence. This final chapter will review these findings and conclude whether these activities can be explained or usefully thought of in terms of the contemporary debate on power and by using the concept of a policy community.
Introduction
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Religious rituals can provoke a deeply ambiguous reaction in those who practise them. This book attempts to see what this kind of reaction can tell us about ritual. What happens in religious traditions when the nature of ritual is questioned, but the practice of performing rituals is not itself abandoned? Much anthropological analysis simply equates religion and ritual, or regards them as forming some kind of indissoluble whole, yet in many cases a religious attitude, a searching for spiritual perfection perhaps, can turn upon its own vehicle, ritual, to regard it with distrust, deprecation, or even fear.
What Kind of Theory Do We Need?
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Ritual has been seen by anthropologists and others in broadly two ways: as a distinct category of events; and as an ever-present aspect of all actions. In this chapter we explain why we think both these approaches are mistaken. In both cases, moreover, the assumption has been that ritual is intrinsically a form of communication, and we further argue that ritual can be characterized without reference to communication. On these general conceptions, as if on two shifting underlays of fertile mud, a luxuriant jungle of theories about ritual has grown up. Though we may seem a bit like crocodiles snapping in the undergrowth, what we actually want to do is to cut through to find some firmer ground, without becoming entangled in the densely entwined branches of the theories, and without even attempting to clear the whole terrain.
Looking for Meanings
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Jains of modern Jaipur are a highly literate community and behind them stand two and a half millennia of religious speculation. Puja has never been central to Jain doctrinal tradition and contemporary religious writing is devoted mostly to ethics and philosophy, but as we noted in Chapter 2, there is now also a substantial body of literature giving instruction on the subject of puja: treatises by learned ascetics, small manuals for the performance of the rite, prayer books, and hymnals. In addition there is a large, loose body of didactic narrative in which rituals such as puja often play a decisive part.
Sayyid History and Historiography
Authors: Dresch Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Each enclave of learned families is contained within a local protection pact. But the Zaydi tradition reproduced in protected enclaves used once to extend far beyond the borders of any one tribe, or even group of tribes, and was sustained for several centuries uninterruptedly. This tradition made tribal concerns subordinate to learned interests. It produced, from the learned viewpoint, a reversal of the moral order one sees in field-work, and the tribesmen, too, accepted the value of formalized Islamic learning, for all that they were often at odds with its proponents. The tribes, in short, formed part of a larger whole. This was centred on the Zaydi Imams, who themselves were sayyids.
The September Revolution and the Post-War Republic
Authors: Dresch Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It was not purely internal factors that spelled the end of the Imamate and of the tribes’ subjection to the last Imams. Nor was it external ‘causality’ in the form, say, of trade or conquest, all of which Yemen had seen before. Such considerations are important. But more important still is that certain Yemenis acquired a different view than previously of the country’s place among other countries, which rn turn had implications for the tribes within it.
Village Life and Means of Livelihood
Authors: Dresch Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A generation has now grown up for whom the last Imams are not even a memory. A great deal has changed, not least that emigrant labour and imported grain mean that few people under middle age can imagine famine.
Throughout the period we know anything of (which extends back to pre-Islamic times), the population of Upper Yemen has lived mainly in villages and has depended in large part on agriculture. These villages now each contain of the order of two or three hundred people. Some villages are larger, some smaller, and none can fairly be presented as typical, but a sketch of a single village will at least give an idea of these units which underpin the whole tribal system.
Conclusion
Authors: Alexander Claire E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
I HAD been in ‘the field’ less than a month when I was taken on my first expedition with ‘the boys’ into the West End for their usual Friday night outing. Outside a pub in Covent Garden, I was introduced to two new members of the group, Nathan and Arif: ‘This is Claire; she’s an anthropologist and she’s studying black men. She wants to know why we all hang around on street corners with ghetto blasters, mugging old white women.’ Nathan, who is about 6’2”, and very fierce looking, fixed me with a steely glare and said, ‘We don’t all do that, you know.’ After a dramatic pause he added, ‘Any white woman will do.’
Constitutional Reform in Germany after the Revolution of 1989
Authors: Grimm Dieter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Unlike the situation in other socialist Eastern European states, the revolution of 1989 did not lead to an internal rejuvenation or to a new constitution in the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Instead, the GDR acceded to the Federal Republic of Germany and the West German Constitution was adopted. At the end of the post-war era, therefore, the particular position which the GDR had occupied from the start once again becomes apparent. After the Second World War, only the smaller part of Germany had come under the control of the Soviet Union. What had been intended as an administrative division into occupation zones led to the emergence of two states with antagonistic constitutions, an outcome representing not the wish of the Germans but the will of the Allied Powers. Both German states, however, stressed in their respective constitutions reunification as a goal, albeit under different assumptions about the political order.
Building the Regional State: Europe and Territorial Organization in France
Authors: Balme Richard , Jouve Bernard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to identify the relationship between European Community interventions dealing with regional development and the changing pattern of French public policy in this area. Indeed, while France has long been the archetype of a centralized state organization, two structural trends seem to question the pyramidal organization of power which has existed for the last two centuries: the decentralization reform launched in 1982 and the development of the European Union (EU). Some believe that due to these developments, the substance of the state is being eroded from the ‘top’ (EU) as well as from the ‘bottom’ (local communities). Consequently, the French pattern for formulating and implementing public policies, the French ‘policy style’, seems to be in turmoil (Muller 1992). The state and its administrative élite appear to be losing their central position in the social mediation process, in the articulation and conciliation of different and sometimes conflicting interests.
Econometric Modelling with Cointegrated Variables: an Overview
Authors: Hendry David F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Until recently, the vast bulk of econometric theory has been based on the assumption that the underlying data processes are stationary and ergodic, despite the manifest non-stationarity of, say, the aggregate time series to which that theory was applied in economics. Over the last century, most economic variables have changed radically in mean and often in variance so that their first two moments are far from constant. The consequences for the statistical properties of estimators and tests are profound as evidenced by the substantial literature on ‘spurious regressions’ discussed in Section II of this overview.
Cointegration and Tests of Present Value Models
Authors: Campbell Johny. , Shiller Robert J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Application of some advances in econometrics (in the theory of cointegrated vector autoregressive models) enables us to deal effectively with two problems in rational expectations present value models: nonstationarity of time series and incomplete data on information of market participants. With U.S. data, we find some relatively encouraging new results for the rational expectations theory of the term structure and some puzzling results for the present value model of stock prices.
War Economy, Welfare State, and Full Employment
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The government’s management of the economy during the Second World War had a major impact on the economic-policy ideas of both Kaldor and the English Keynesians in general. The British government, in fact, implemented a number of planning policies that enabled the country to bear the economic brunt of the war: the mobilizing of idle resources; the easing of the State’s financial burden through low interest rates on government securities; the containment of inflation by means of a strict policy of prices and incomes control; the levying of taxes on all forms of income (taxes which were generally regarded as fair). One might say that these principles would henceforth become ‘Holy Writ’ for the economic policies of the English Keynesians.
The ‘Agriculture-Industry’ Model and the Instability of the World Economy
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is a first issue; but there is another. Kaldor’s growth models of the 1950s were one-sector models of a closed economy with no government. Exogeneity was given by the technical-progress function. The models represented a mature industrialized economy, where full utilization of plant was matched by full utilization of the work-force; and its only sector was the manufacturing sector.
Underdevelopment, Industrialization, and Policies for Development
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The principal problem faced by economically backward countries is how and when they can industrialize. Kaldor was fully aware that a theory of development must include elements of history, society, and culture in any explanation as to why certain regions of the globe have been unable to participate in the prolonged process of growth that has accompanied the rise of capitalism, and why in many parts of the world this process is still being obstructed.
The Interest Rate, Monetary Policy, and the Supply of Money
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Kaldor first dealt with monetary policy in his writings of 1939 on interest rates, speculation, and economic stability. As we saw in Chapter 2, sections 3 and 4, these articles had a manifold purpose: first they sought to define those hypotheses concerning speculation that, in a competitive market, were necessary in order to validate Keynes’s principle of savings-investment re-equilibrium via changes in income rather than in the rate of interest; secondly, they sought to define the relations that held between the short-term rate of interest and the demand for money and between short- and long-term rates; finally, they sought to define the conditions that must apply if the rate of money interest is to represent the standard to which returns on other assets must conform, and the conditions that must be fulfilled for the rate of money interest to influence the level of activity. It was this latter aspect, the so-called ‘trans mission principle’, that forms the link between these strictly analytical considerations and monetary policy. It is, therefore, a convenient point to start from before we move to analysis of what Kaldor held to be the determinants of the demand for and the supply of money.
Ian Little—A salute Inter Vivos
Authors: Seton Francis 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The title is intended to put the reader on notice not to expect an éloge. Happily Ian Little is still among us and likely to remain so for many years to come. De mortuis nil nisi bonum must be replaced by de vivis nil nisi verum, an injuction vastly more difficult to follow, even to the extent that verum may be granted an objective meaning in what can only be a personal impression rather than a biography.
Commodity Price Stabilization
Authors: Newbery David M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1976, inspired by the success of OPEC in raising the price of oil, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) passed a resolution calling for an Integrated Programme for Commodities (IPC) as part of the more ambitious establishment of a New International Order. The developed countries confined their discussions to the problems of primary commodities and supported the negotiation of international commodity agreements, and agreed in principle on the need for a Common Fund to finance international commodity stocks (see Little, 1982, ch. 17 and Gordon-Ashworth, 1984, pp. 42-6). The IPC was always intended to be more than just a solution to the problem of commodity price instability, and its prime aim, at least as perceived by the developing countries, was undoubtably to raise commodity prices to levels which were ‘remunerative and just to producers and equitable to consumers’.
The Theory of Political Economy, Economic Policy, and Foreign Investment
Authors: Bhagwati Jagdish N 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I consider recent developments in the analysis of foreign investment that reflect the new thinking in economic theory along the lines of political economy. Section 1 provides an overview of the developments in the theory of political economy generally, focusing equally on its pro-found implications for the theory of economic policy. Section 2 turns then to the analysis of foreign investment in light of this overview, discussing how analysis of foreign investment changes in light of political economy-theoretic considerations, drawing particularly on the new theory of quid pro quo foreign investment.
International Capital Flows and Economic Development
Authors: Lal Deepak 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The role of international capital in economic development has been one of Ian Little’s major interests. His 1965 book, International Aid, with Juliet Clifford still provides one of the few balanced discussions of ‘the flow of public resources from rich to poor countries’ (as stated in its subtitle). Since then he has developed the well-known Little-Mirrlees method of project analysis (Little and Mirrlees, 1969, 1974) which is now widely used in the appraisal of aid-financed projects in developing countries. He has also provided clear-headed accounts of the costs and benefits of direct investment in developing countries in Little (1972), and his 1972 study with David Tipping of the Kulai palm-oil estate was one of the first empirical social cost benefit analyses of a major foreign investment in a developing country.
On Social Objectives
Authors: Tuomala Matti 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
‘A good way of governing is to agree on objectives, discover what is possible, and to optimize’, writes Mirrlees (1986). This chapter is about how to agree on objectives. Many of us would certainly agree—at least after reading only standard textbooks on welfare economics—that if we could find the income tax structure, say a, that is preferred to b by all individuals we should adopt a. This choice, based on the Pareto principle, is not necessarily entirely innocent. First, it has to be remembered that, although the Pareto principle is a weak value judgement, it is a value judgement. Secondly, we know from Sen’s famous paradox that the Pareto criterion may easily conflict with individual rights. In any case, economic situations (for example, income distribution) cannot be socially ordered without someone making prior value judgements.
Optimal Redistribution in the Two—Class Economy
Authors: Tuomala Matti 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Some of the basic issues of the optimal income tax problem can be illustrated in the context of a simple model of an economy in which there are only two types of individual, labelled 1 and 2, and a single produced commodity. Individuals are regarded as identical except that they vary in their ability to supply labour. The ith individual obtains utility from consumption goods: x, and disutility from the time spent at work, y,
i = 1, 2, (4.1)
Optimal Linear Income Taxation
Authors: Tuomala Matti 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Linear income tax is the simplest redistributive programme that the government is likely to consider employing. The linear income tax function contains two elements: a lump sum subsidy or a guaranteed minimum income financed by a proportional tax on all income. Linear income tax imposes tax at a constant rate on the difference between the taxpayer’s income and some critical level of income, say z* in Figure 5.1. Individuals whose income falls below the critical income level receive a guaranteed mininum income in the form of a social dividend or grant from the government which is equal to the tax rate multiplied by the shortfall between their income and the critical level. Someone whose income barely exceeds z* pays virtually no tax, and hence his (or her) average tax rate, the ratio of total tax payments to the individual’s income, is very low (although his marginal tax rate is constant, see Figure 5.1). As income increases, an increasingly large proportion of it is taxed. At a high income, the role of the minimum guarantee becomes inessential. Thus the average tax rate is almost equal to the marginal tax rate.
Optimal Income Taxation and Educational Decisions
Authors: Tuomala Matti 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In public economics there is quite a large literature on optimal public provision of education, beginning with Arrow’s (1971) paper and developed further, for instance, by Bruno (1976) and especially by Ulph (1977) and Hare and Ulph (1979a, b) (see also Grout (1983)). Hare and Ulph simultaneously optimized both taxation and educational expenditures. In this chapter we do not focus so much on the question of how to allocate educational resources to each individual but on the other side of the coin, on decisions made by individuals concerning their education. Our aim is to examine the various kinds of educational decision schemes and their connections to optimal income tax policy. In other words, we are interested in seeing how optimal income tax policy results are affected by taking into account individuals’ alternatives in making educational choices.
Optimal Non-linear Income Taxation and Uncertainty
Authors: Tuomala Matti 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the standard optimal income tax model it is difficult (if not impossible) to find a convincing argument for a progressive marginal income tax rate structure throughout. This is despite the fact that such a structure is commonly in practice. In the standard income tax model, the choice of an optimal income tax structure involves a trade-off between the equity effect of influencing the distribution of income and the efficiency effect of reducing incentives. However, there are good reasons for not accepting the situation whereby these factors are the only ones to be taken into account in the design of the optimal income tax schedule. Another effect which we would like to emphasize and which is not present in the standard model is the ‘insurance effect’. Hence the optimal redistributive taxation involves a trade-off between the benefits due to ‘social insurance’ and the costs due to reduced incentives. Redistributive taxation as an insurance system may also have adverse effects on incentives. In the standard optimal income tax model (see Chapter 6) the incentive effect arises when labour is rewarded by less than its marginal product. In the uncertainty situation we face the second kind of incentive effect. It arises because insurance will reduce the risk cost faced by the individual. Insurance reduces the expected wage to work effort and probably reduces labour supply. The standard model treats differences in observed income as being due to unobserved differences in ability, which means that this model assumes that the individual knows exactly what income he will receive at each possible level of effort. However, there are a number of situations in real life where this description is not sufficiently accurate. In particular, more long-term decisions, such as those regarding education, must be made without accurate information about resulting income potential. When an individual invests in his human capital by acquiring education, this action, along with ‘acts of nature’, determines the income he receives.
Peasant Farming in Kenya, 1974—1982
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The period 1974-82 straddles the largest income shock ever experienced by Kenyan peasants. Between 1976 and 1979 the world prices of coffee and tea were temporarily high as a result of a frost in Brazil. The terms of trade gain during these years was worth one-third of 1975 GDP. Due to President Kenyatta’s decision not to impose a windfall coffee tax, this boom was experienced directly in coffee- and tea-growing small farm areas. Some households received income windfalls, and all households faced changed relative crop prices and enhanced opportunities for employment and migration. These shocks induced behavioural responses in the form of investment and changes in the deployment of resources between activities, of which the most obvious was extra planting of coffee. To identify these changes, let alone to understand them. is a demanding undertaking because of the paucity of data on peasant households. For example, extra coffee planting might have been induced by changed price expectations, or by an enhanced capacity to finance the investment involved in tree crops. Our first task was therefore to secure a data set adequate to investigate processes of change.