bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Assessment of Nutrient Uptake, Metabolite Production, and Enzyme Activity
Authors: Gardner David K , Lane Michelle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ability to measure the uptake and production of substrates by single embryos is an important tool for understanding how embryos control metabolism and embryo production. Little is known about the control of metabolism in the mammalian embryo com- pared to somatic cells or embryos from marine species or Xenopus. One of the main reasons for this is that the small amounts of material in the early embryo make measurement technically difficult. In recent years microfluorometric techniques have been developed that are capable of quantitatively analyzing the nutrient uptake and metabolite release from single cells. These techniques are based on miniaturizations of conventional methods of enzymatic analysis and can therefore be adapted to measure a great variety of metabolites (1–3) (Figure 8.1). An advantage of these procedures over the radiolabel procedures described in Chapter 9 is that they are totally noninvasive. Thus, microfluorometric techniques have the potential to be used as viability assays for mammalian embryos (2).
Metabolic Pathway Activity
Authors: Rieger Don 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The early development of the mammalian embryo is directed by its inherent genetic programming and affected by its environment. Both the genetic program and the environment act as stimuli to the early embryo to induce developmental responses, initially in its intracellular biochemical activity, and ultimately in cell division, differentiation, and function. Techniques for manipulating gene expression and development, such as gene transfer, cloning, IVF, ICSI, and culture, similarly act as stimuli to induce the desired biochemical and developmental responses.
Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization for Detection of Aneuploidy in Single Human Blastomeres for Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis
Authors: Wilton Leeanda 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The impact of numerical chromosome errors, or aneuploidies, on fetal development is well documented. Approximately 60% of spontaneously aborted fetuses are aneuploid (1, 2), demonstrating the lethality of the condition. Aneuploidies of the sex chromosomes can be viable, such as X0 (Turner’s syndrome) and XXY (Klinefelter’s syndrome) and some, like XXX or XYY, have an essentially normal phenotype. However, autosomal aneuploidies are almost always lethal; the notable exception to this is trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome). Most of our knowledge of the effect of aneuploidies comes from analysis of spontaneously aborted conceptuses, but for many years there has been great interest in studying the chromosomal complement of early embryos before implantation. Initial studies using traditional karyotyping techniques were problematic because of the limited number of cells available and the difficulties in obtaining nuclei in metaphase (3, 4), which is essential for karyotypic analysis.
Characterization of Novel Genes during Early Development by Application of Differential Display RT-PCR
Authors: Natale D R , Watson A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The introduction and development of genomics and proteomics during the past decade have significantly changed the way in which biomedical, agricultural, and biological research is conducted. Genomics and proteomics, which represent the identification and sequencing of genes and the systematic analysis and documentation of proteins in a biological sample, have been recently combined to give rise to functional genomics. Functional genomics encompasses assigning function to genes identified by genomics as well as investigating the organization and control of genetic pathways and the modification of their resulting proteins. This approach is breaking down the distinction be- tween classic areas of study such as biochemistry, genetics, and physiology and bringing aspects of each field together to advance the understanding of biological systems. In this chapter we address the genomics aspect of functional genomics and its application to mammalian preimplantation-stage embryos by introducing and discussing methods designed to investigate and identify “new” genes involved in preimplantation development.
The Music of Strings
Authors: Zee A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the summer of 1984, my wife and I drove across the country with our children, stopping at various physics centers along the way, much like migratory wildebeests seeking out watering holes. At Aspen, Colorado, we stopped for a month. There, amid the splendors of the Rocky Mountains, physicists gather every summer to discuss the latest sense and nonsense. The atmosphere at Aspen always has been rather relaxed: The physics chitchat is mixed in with volleyball and picnics and hikes and music and the local scene, such as it is.
Final Commentary
Authors: Goldstone Robert L , Johansen Mark K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scientists studying adult concept learning are typically careful to analyze the entire pattern of responses given across all of the trials of an experiment. Oftentimes the early trials are the most diagnostic because categorization accuracy quickly reaches an asymptote. We take some pride in tackling the hard problem of accounting for adaptive processes that account for category learning, unlike many psychophysicists, who simply throw out the first 1,000 trials because steady-state performance has not yet been reached. However, lest we grow too smug, the chapters of this book provide a great service by reminding us that even though we analyze the very first trial of our experiment, we are still studying conceptual change that occurs almost imperceptibly close to the asymptote. By the time that our 20-year-old subjects come to our laboratories, they have learned the majority of the concepts that they will ever learn and virtually all of their truly foundational concepts. Relatively brief laboratory training suffices to teach students the rule “circle above square” (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956), a particular configuration of nine dots (Posner & Keele, 1968), or a new fact such as that grebes are birds, but this rapid learning is only possible because it builds upon a longer and more profound process by which concepts such as Above (chap. 3), bird (chap. 10), animal (chaps. 5,14), and animacy (chaps. 7, 13) are learned.
Stress, Rhythm, and Paralanguage
Authors: Wennerstrom Ann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter, I described a system of intonation in which meaningful tone components were associated with text based on the context of the discourse. In this chapter, we will see how that intonation system interacts with other systems of prosody. Fundamental to the association between intonation and text are the stress patterns of words because pitch accents link to stressed syllables. To understand stress, one must also understand the role of rhythm as an organizing force in language. Rhythm provides an underlying hierarchical structure upon which stress is built, while intonation components are associated with the high points of these rhythmic hierarchies. There is even evidence that rhythm is maintained across intonation boundaries and from one speaker to the next. Thus, although the assignment of stress is itself fairly mechanical, rhythm, or the alignment of stressed syllables in time, is an important resource in discourse interaction.
Metamorphosis From Birth to Medical School
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The children spent the day at grandfather Galton’s mansion, Duddeston, now and then dashing into the library to clamber onto a chair near the speaking tube to shout down to the servants in the pantry,“Mama had a baby and it was a Boy!” Little Frank, as his family called him, was born around 9 P.M. on February r6, 1822. His sister Adele later wrote her brother that their mother “had been taken ill at eight o’clock.”3 Dr. Joseph Hodgson was called and Adele was awoken by Dr. Hodgson around midnight to learn that she had a little brother. She fell back to sleep to find the next morning that he was “such a red little thing.”4 Francis was the last of Tertius and Violetta Galton’s nine children (Table 2-r), two of whom died in infancy.5 His brothers Erasmus and Darwin were six and eight years older while the youngest of his four sisters, Emma, was n years his senior. Like Emma, the other girls, Adele, Lucy, and Elizabeth, were crazy about him. Emma recalled that he “was the pet of us all, and my mother was obliged to hang up her watch, that each sister might nurse the child for a quarter of an hour and then give him up to the next.”6 Galton’s nursery was in Adele’s room. Delly, a frail creature with a spinal curvature that frequently forced her to lie on her back on a board, saw to his early education.
A Poll Degree from Cambridge
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In October 1840 Tertius and his son went up to Trinity College, Cambridge. With blessing of Henry VIII who dedicated it to “the Holy and Undivided Trinity” the venerable college was formed by fusing King’s Hall, founded in 1317 by Edward II, and Michaelhouse, established in 1324 by his Chancellor of the Exchequer, Hervey de Stanton. 2 Trinity, like King’s, would fly the royal standard, but, unlike King’s or any other college, the Crown appointed its master. The college endowment provided support for its fellows and a complement of 60 fellows and 60 scholars plus pensioners (students) who paid their own way were authorized. The statutes stipulated that the master and fellows must take Holy Orders and remain celibate, but exceptions were soon made for the master and marriage became the custom. The unfortunate fellows, however, were consigned to celibacy until 1882 with the marriage penalty being forfeiture of the fellowship.
South Africa
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Francis Galton was 27 in 1849 when the idea of a South African expedition came to him. Except for North Africa, parts of West Africa, and the southern rim of the continent, extending eastward from the Cape of Good Hope, little was known about this vast land mass. Galton learned that David Livingstone, a young Scottish medical missionary, had travelled far north in South Africa past the Kalahari Desert to a lake called Ngami. Since “the well-watered districts beyond this desert could now be reached by wagon from the Cape,” he “felt keenly desirous of taking advantage of this new opening, and inquired much of those who had recently returned from South Africa concerning the conditions and requirements of travel there.”
Making Peace with Jonker Afrikaner
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
on August 20, 1850, the Foam rounded Pelican Point, a fingerlike sandspit forming the western rim ofWalfisch Bay, so named by the Dutch for the humpback whales that were abundant there in breeding season. The schooner edged in gingerly for no proper nautical charts of the bay existed and the explorers glimpsed a desolate, sandy beach dancing giddily in the mirage. They anchored about a mile offshore as nightfall approached. On the east side of Pelican Point a shallow lagoon teemed with fish that were often stranded at low tide, becoming prey for the local natives who speared them on the tips of gemsbok horns affixed to slender sticks. Walfisch Bay was home to immense numbers of geese, ducks, countless flocks of sand­ pipers, myriads of flamingos, white pelicans, and several species of cormorants. American and British whalers frequented the bay and British ships, collecting guano on the small island of lchabo to the south, provisioned there. Although fresh water was absent near the beach, it was available three miles inland and supported abundant pasturage. Some enterprising individuals from Cape Town had established a facility for salting and curing beef, and they furnished cattle to guano traders and to Cape Town and contracted with the British Government to supply the island of St. Helena with livestock.
Hereditary Talent and Character
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For Francis Galton, approaching middle age, the publication of Dar­ win’s On the Origin of Species in 1859 “made a marked epoch in my own mental development, as it did in human thought generally.” He “devoured its contents and assimilated them as fast as they were devoured, a fact which may be ascribed to an hereditary bent of mind that both its illustrious author and myself have inherited from our common grandfather, Dr. Erasmus D arwin.” Galton was encouraged to investigate topics that had long interested him, which “clustered round the central topics of Heredity and the possible improvement of the Human Race.” From the outset Galton seemed to have been convinced that nature, and not nurture, determined human ability, but how was he to show it? He hit upon a fairly simple device, the pedigree, one that would remain an analytical mainstay for the rest of his life. He reasoned that if ability was determined by nature, a great man’s closest male relatives were the most likely to exhibit exceptional qualities, with ability diluting out with hereditary distance. Women were omitted in his analysis because his Victorian mindset viewed notable achievement as principally a male prerogative. This had certainly been true in Great Britain and elsewhere until that time, largely because opportunities for female advancement beyond the home were virtually absent.
Fingerprints
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Francis Galton’s interest in personal identification led him from composite photography, to the comparison of facial features (a life-long interest), and finally to fingerprints. On May 25, 1888, Galton presented a Friday Evening Discourse at the Royal Institution entitled “Personal Identification and Description” that dwelt on these interests. Standing before his audience resplendent in their evening finery, he began: “It is strange that we should not have acquired more power of describing form and personal features than we actually possess.” He illustrated the problem with a pair of con­ tour lines that failed to superimpose (Fig. 17-1). His goal was to determine the least discernible difference between two such lines. This could be done by drawing other contour lines between them until one finally superimposed with one of the original lines. By giving each of the intermediate contours a number, the “grades of unlikeness” between the two original contours could be determined. Realizing he was separating a continuum into discrete units, Galton imposed specific limits. The contours, now defined as human profiles (Fig. 17-1), might be sorted into classes, “gradually building up a well-selected standard collection.” Later he returned to this subject, demonstrating his mechanical selector, a kind of analog of the punchcard system, which one could use to enter quantitative comparisons of facial profiles.
The Birth of Biometrics
Authors: Gillham Nicholas Wright 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While personal identification and psychology represented one prong of Galton’s research agenda, the second involved the detailed analysis of the data he had obtained from his Anthropometric Laboratory and the development of statistical methods for its treatment. On the basis of this research Galton in 1888 completed his two most influential scientific works: a book, Natural Inheritance, and a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society describing the concept of correlation. Louisa remarked in her diary that while they enjoyed glorious weather at Vichy in early September 1888, “Frank was busy about his Book, ‘Natural Inheritance’ correcting Proofs and I led a quiet life, as suited the cure, taking the waters and we did so enjoy the fresh morning air.” That slim volume pulled together in one place all of Galton’s thoughts on heredity plus the results of applying his biometric methods to the copious data from the Anthropometric Laboratory.
Six-Minute Calculus
Authors: Benson Donald C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Paraphrasing Plato-nay, contradicting him Jacobi could be expressing the new central role of the real number system in mathematics that came about at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Euclidean geometry gave way to mathematical analysis-the calculus and its higher ramifications-as the principal mathematical tool for understanding the world. Plato’s view of a perfect universe gave way to the modem view a universe of endless detail and complexity that is understood only in various special contexts and only partially. The calculus was born in the latter half of the seventeenth century and became a confident young adult by the beginning of the eighteenth. Calculus could thrive when mathematicians finally grasped the real number system. Their use of the number system was pragmatic-the rigorous foundations came late in the nineteenth century. Newton preferred geometry; nevertheless, his work led to mathematics in which the arithmetic of the real numbers held, and continues to hold, the dominant position. Newton showed us a universe that runs numerically instead of geometrically.
The Theory of Life
Authors: Hey Jody 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter described biologists’ failure to measure species consistently, and how that persistent failure suggests a way to broaden our search for information that will help resolve the species problem. But still, even with an expanded search, the resolution of the species problem must lie within the domain of biology, the science of life. Even as we take a cue from investigators of human language and cognition, and allow our thoughts and speech to be included within the scope of our questioning, we must still recognize that imagination and language are processes of life and are just as biological as any other of our behaviors. Just as evolution has given rise to the diversity we see among organisms, so too has it given rise to the human capacities for imagination and language that we use to ponder the causes of biological diversity. This broad view of biology is not idle inclusivity. In this chapter, I begin a very basic description of life, and our understanding of it. In subsequent chapters, that description grows to include the causes of biological diversity and of our language about that diversity, and finally it will grow to where we have an understanding of the causes of the species problem. I recognize that some biologists would rather not search within human limitations for answers to the species problem, and this is one reason for stressing that we are not leaving the bounds of biology. But the more important reason is that the causes of biological diversity, and the causes of our limitations in assessing diversity, are mechanistically connected in the details of how evolution works.
The Cause of the Species Problem
Authors: Hey Jody 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The pieces are in place, and we can now join the results of the backdoor approach to species, as biological entities, with the results of our backdoor approach to categories in language. By starting with the theory of life, we have built a model of how evolution gives rise to groups of DNAs and organisms that share in competition, and thus also share in genetic drift and adaptation. This idea of evolutionary groups corresponds closely to a major theme that is common to various definitions of species, which is that a species is an entity within which the forces of evolution occur. We have also explored the existence of categories, Particularly the difficulties that arise if categories are taken as literally real, outside of ourselves. For pragmatic scientists, natural kinds and other categories are different from entities, and are not real in the way that entities are, though they do exist in the minds of those who devise and use them. The psychological investigation of categories have revealed that the mind wields a natural kind by drawing on some kind of internal representation of a typical, central member. Finally, anthropologists and psychologists have shown that people do this for kinds of organisms as well. Whatever else species are, they are quintessential natural kinds and they exist as categories in our minds, complete with prototypes.
Systematics
Authors: Hey Jody 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The species problem does not burden all biologists equally. The primary sufferers are those who study species and must deal with trying to connect our categories of organisms to real evolutionary groups. These issues are especially acute for many in the sub discipline of systematics. Before Darwin, and for quite a long time after as well, systematics was concerned simply with the classification of organisms. In the absence of biological principals, the field was a “specialized, rather narrow branch of biology, on the whole empirical and lacking in unifying principles” (Huxley 1940, 1), more like art than science (Stevens 1990). But as Huxley foresaw, it has grown with increasing knowledge of evolutionary processes. Today, systematists are concerned not only with devising categories of organisms and with the placement of organisms within those categories (identification), but they are also devoted to figuring out the evolutionary history of kinds of organisms. The two tasks, categorizing and history estimation, seem on the surface to be a natural fit for one another. In both, systematists are dealing with the similarities and differences among organisms. They use these patterns to identify kinds of organisms, and they also use them to develop branching models of the evolutionary relationships among those kinds. But in systematics, more than any other sector of biology, we find a severe clash between categories and an understanding of evolutionary processes.
Membrane Ion Channels and Ion Currents
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The electrical activity of nerve cells-indeed of all cells-depends on the movement of charge, carried by small inorganic ions, across the plasma membrane. The phenomena described in Chapter 3, the membrane potential, the firing of action potentials, and the grouping of action potentials in complex temporal patterns, all arise from such transmembrane ion flow. In addition, modulation of the endogenous electrical activity by external stimuli involves changes in transmembrane ion flow. But how is it that ions can move across the plasma membrane at all? The lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane is an excellent electrical insulator and is largely impermeable to charged species (Fig. 3-1). It requires an enormous amount of energy to move an ion through the hydrophobic interior of the bilayer, and accordingly the cell must make special provision to allow transmembrane ion current to flow.
Diversity in the Structure and Function of Ion Channels
Authors: B.Levitan Irwin , Kaczmarek Leonard K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thus far we have been discussing the axonal membrane as if it had only two kinds of ion currents, a voltage—dependent potassium current that is responsible for the axon’s electrical activity (or rather its lack of activity) at rest, and a voltage-dependent sodium current that underlies the large and rapid membrane depolarization during the action potential. Although the work of Hodgkin and Huxley demonstrated that these two currents could provide a reasonably accurate picture of the electrical activity of the squid giant axon, it is now evident that there is a considerable diversity of ion currents in axons, and even greater diversity in neuronal cell bodies and dendrites.