bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Turkish Language Reform
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is the first full account of the transformation of Ottoman Turkish into modern Turkish. It is based on the author's knowledge, experience and continuing study of the language, history, and people of Turkey. That transformation of the Turkish language is probably the most thorough-going piece of linguistics engineering in history. Its prelude came in 1928, when the Arabo-Persian alphabet was outlawed and replaced by the Latin alphabet. It began in earnest in 1930 when Ataturk declared: Turkish is one of the richest of languages. It needs only to be used with discrimination. The Turkish nation, which is well able to protect its territory and its sublime independence, must also liberate its language from the yoke of foreign languages. A government-sponsored campaign was waged to replace words of Arabic or Persian origin by words collected from popular speech, or resurrected from ancient texts, or coined from native roots and suffixes. The snag - identified by the author as one element in the catastrophic aspect of the reform - was that when these sources failed to provide the needed words, the reformers simply invented them. The reform was central to the young republic's aspiration to be western and secular, but it did not please those who remained wedded to their mother tongue or to the Islamic past. The controversy is by no means over, but Ottoman Turkish is dead. Professor Lewis both acquaints the general reader with the often bizarre, sometimes tragicomic but never dull story of the reform, and provides a lively and incisive account for students of Turkish and the relations between culture, politics and language with some stimulating reading. The author draws on his own wide experience of Turkey and his personal knowledge of many of the leading actors. The general reader will not be at a disadvantage, because no Turkish word or quotation has been left untranslated. This book is important for the light it throws on twentieth-century Turkish politics and society, as much as it is for the study of linguistic change. It is not only scholarly and accessible; it is also an extremely good read.
Conclusions
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Urbanization tends to promote both linguistic diversity and uniformity. It promotes diversity inasmuch as occupational specialization and the consequent social stratification are greater in towns than in the countryside, and inasmuch as this social stratification is inevitably reflected by linguistic diversity. Further, towns serve as magnets for migration by speakers of different regional varieties of the same language and by speakers of different languages. At the same time, urbanization promotes uniformity because, working through mass education, it fosters the diffusion of standard languages, and because linguistic diversity gives rise to mediating languages of wider communication.
Autonomy and Rights
Authors: Spector Horacio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Moral and political theorists who espouse egalitarianism and Marxism tend to assume that it is extremely hard, if not impossible, to put forward an original and plausible moral justification of classical liberalism. Professor Spector is concerned to build just such a justification. He reconstructs and then criticizes a familiar approach to the moral foundations of classical liberalism which rests on the maximization of negative freedom, and then frames an alternative theory centred in the obligation to protect positive freedom. In doing so he parts company not only with utilitarianism and contractarianism, but also with the theory of natural rights. Among the topics he discusses are the concepts of negative and positive freedom, the notion of a moral right, the connection between positive freedom and personal autonomy, the axiological uniqueness of each human being, and the agent-relativity of moral reasons.
Where and When
Authors: Williams C J F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Suppose that the universe consists of nothing else but a set of chess men, and that history is nothing but a prolonged game of chess. For our present purposes we need not concern ourselves with the questions who moves the pieces, and whose are the strategies and the wise or foolish moves. Whoever they are, they are not part of the universe as we have described it. The chess-men simply move, obedient always to the laws of the game. When a piece is taken, it disappears from the board-only there is no board. The pieces are in the positions they would occupy at the beginning of a game on a board, if there were a board. That is to say, the order in which they are arranged is the same, and the relative distances between them are the same, as they are in a normal game of chess. For instance, the distance between any two rooks at the beginning of the game is seven times that between any rook and the piece nearest to it. After the initial move-a pawn advances two squares we can talk of the place where that pawn was at the start of the game. Indeed, at any time there are at least as many unoccupied positions as occupied, and these positions may be referred to either as the position occupied so many moves back by a particular piece, or, according to the usual conventions, as ‘Queen’s Bishop 5’, etc.
Medical Ethics Can the Moral Philosopher Help?
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1.1 If the moral philosopher cannot help with the problems of medical ethics, he ought to shut up shop. The problems of medical ethics are so typical of the moral problems that moral philosophy is supposed to be able to help with, that a failure here really would be a sign either of the uselessness of the discipline or of the incompetence of the particular practitioner. I do not want to overstate this point, however. It could be the case that, so far as practical help goes, philosophy is at the stage now at which, not so long ago, medicine was. It has been said that until fairly recently one was more likely to survive one’s illnesses if one kept out of the hands of the doctor than if one allowed oneself to be treated—and this was at any rate true of the wounded on battlefields, because the surgeons’ instruments were not sterilized. Yet all the same medicine has now progressed to a stage at which it saves lives. The change came when certain methods got accepted: I mean, not merely such things as aseptic surgery, but also the application to medicine of the scientific method in general, which meant that firm and reliable procedures were adopted for determining whether a certain treatment worked or not; and also the relation of medicine to fundamental knowledge about physiology and biochemistry, which made possible the invention of new treatments to be tested in this way.
Little Human Guinea-Pigs?
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
9.1 There is, or at least should be, a close relation between ethical theory and the discussion of practical moral issues. The benefit is mutual. If an understanding of ethical theory (that is, of how to tell good from bad arguments about moral questions) is lacking, our arguments will be reduced to the bandying of one unsupported opinion against another, and victory will go to the side that can command the biggest claque. On the other hand, the ethical theorist who neglects to try out his proposals on moral issues of importance is often left maintaining views which would not remain attractive if submitted to this test.
Health Care Policy Some Options
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
14.1 I have argued elsewhere (H 1993a, 15.2 and refs.) that a viable ethical theory is going to have to contain elements drawn both from the utilitarians and from Kant. There is in my view no inconsistency between a carefully formulated Kantianism and a carefully formulated utilitarianism. It is the purpose of this paper to try out such a theory on a pressing practical problem, that of how health care should be provided and distributed. I will start with some discussions of distributive justice in general. For only when we have decided what distribution of goods in general, equal or unequal, is just or right, can we go on to the particular question, well phrased by Norman Daniels (1985: ch. 1), ‘Is health care special?’. But I shall not spend much time on the general question.
Morphology
Authors: Rubach Jerzy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we introduce the basic facts of Slovak descriptive morphology. Our intention is to prepare the ground for the discussion of cyclic phonological rules in the subsequent chapters of this book. Consequently, the presentation of the facts is not complete and we concentrate primarily on inflection. Our aim is to establish the underlying representations of the most important morphemes and to state basic allomorph rules.
Political Discourse: The Language of Right and Left in Germany
Authors: Jäger Siegfried 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I shall analyse the political discourse of the right and of the left in Germany. Elements of these forms of political language may also be found in ‘independent’ newspapers and in the rhetorics of members or sympathizers of several political parties of the centre. However, I shall deal in particular with contemporary texts and talk of the right and, with some reservations, of the left. I say ‘with reservations’ because there is no (strong) movement of the left in Germany today. Public discourse in contemporary Germany is predominantly coloured by conservative and right-wing ideologies and ideas, especially as regards everyday thinking and debate. Leftist ideas and ideologies survive only in the niches of little groups and circles, and relics of them can be found in a small number of journals and pamphlets. Thus it is a reflection of the political landscape of contemporary Germany if the analysis of right-wing political discourse dominates the following discussion. However, there is also some justification for this in the fact that right-wing thinking and debate in the new larger Germany can be seen as a danger for the democratic development of society in this country, and I think that it is also necessary for linguists such as myself to see their own political responsibility, especially in a country in which large sections of the population and many politicians today tend to deny its past political history and to suppress its responsibility for the Holocaust and the ‘Third Reich’ and other crimes. Furthermore, after the ‘fall of the Wall’, feelings of national ism and chauvinism are growing again, and new right-wing political groups are emerging, while the whole political map is drifting towards the right.
Vocabulary
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reflection in language of extra-linguistic reality is easier to demonstrate on the lexical level than on any other, and the social motivation of linguistic change is consequently most easily demonstrated by change in vocabulary. The appearance of new things, concepts, qualities, activities, etc., is always accompanied or quickly followed (and sometimes even preceded) by changes in the lexical system. New words appear and old words change their meaning, often reflecting the changes in the outside world. But, as we have mentioned already, language varies not only along the scale of time, but along social, functional, and regional scales, too. Lexical innovation can therefore operate in many different ways, including the transfer of words and meanings from one variety to another.
Why Do Applied Ethics?
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT is becoming quite common nowadays to see writers, whether popular or academic, speaking of a happy period which has just dawned, in which philosophers actually try to say something relevant to practical issues. This rather patronizing pat on the back is not really intended as a compliment to our profession. It is intended, rather, as a rebuke to those in the recent past who, allegedly, did not say anything relevant to practice. As one who came into philosophy in the Forties with the dominant motive of doing something to help us resolve practical moral problems, I may perhaps be forgiven for finding this a little irritating. My first published philosophical contribution to a practical issue (that of what the duties of citizens are when their governments are acting immorally) was delivered in the Fifties, first in Germany, then on the BBC Third Programme (H 1955b); and since then I have published many papers on practical topics. I do not think that I am alone in this among moral philosophers. It is true that some of them have confined their attention to ethical theory; but their theoretical contributions, none the less, may have been valuable indirectly in helping those of us who were applying theory to practice to improve the theory. On the other hand, they may not have been valuable, if the theoretical work was poor, as it may have been for reasons I shall be discussing. But what the writers I am complaining about fail to say is that there can be no helpful intervention of philosophers, as philosophers, in practical issues unless the philosophy has been well done. It is not easy to make any useful application of theory to practice unless one has a viable theory, or at least a firm and coherent grasp of the theoretical moves.
Principles
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I AM not going to say much in this paper that is new. I am going to draw attention to some distinctions which are so obvious that no competent philosopher will have failed to make them. My only reason for mentioning them is that while reading moral philosophy (especially recent moral philosophy) I constantly come across arguments which seem to depend on a neglect of these distinctions; they therefore do seem to need emphasizing. I shall also have some positive things to say (though these will not be new either) which have a bearing on the controversies which have been taking place about what is called ‘rule-utilitarianism’. The main thing I am going to say about principles is that they can be more or less general. The only person who does not find this an all too familiar truth is one who has failed to make the distinctions that I have in mind.
Attributive and Existential Change
Authors: Pivčević Edo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
it is now necessary to look more closely at the logical grammar of attribution of change. The substance of the Zenonian argument, as we saw, was that the conditions of a significant attribution of change are not fulfilled, because there can be no unequivocal, let alone reliable, criteria of causal continuity, and hence no coherent notion of the conditions under which such an attribution could be said to be true. But why, one might ask, does one have to accept the Zenonian premisses? Why should one have to tie the meaningfulness of statements about change to their truth conditions? And why in particular should such truth conditions have’ to include the criteria of causal continuity? To insist on the criteria of causal continuity is like asking for the criteria whereby one could establish that a perceptual object, say this lamp on my desk, is causally continuous with its earlier existence before one can meaningfully refer to it as a spatiotemporal particular inhabiting an objective world out there. lt is an absurd demand. What WP should be focusing on instead are the conditions under which the very question about such criteria can be intelligibly asked, and, if we do this, we shall soon discover that the possibility of referring to enduring external objects is included among such conditions. And the same, surely, applies to change. One cannot rationally insist that a definition be produced of the criteria of causal continuity of change before the existence of objective change can be meaningfully asserted, If one has to posit the possibility of objective change before one can even begin to ask meaningful questions about the criteria of causal continuity. Any scepticism in such cases is self-defeating, for in the end one is reduced to presupposing what one is trying to question.
The Reality of Change
Authors: Pivčević Edo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What reply should we give to the sceptic? The key issue that emerges from our discussion in the preceding chapter seems to be one of the interpretation of ‘indexical’ time; in particular, what inferences, if any, regarding real time and real change can be drawn from the distinctions of tense? The sceptic is likely to approve wholeheartedly of our criticism of naturalism. He might even go as far as accepting not just that indexical temporal notions are centrally involved in the way we explain ourselves to ourselves, but, moreover, that their availability is an essential pre-condition of the intelligibility of change in general. But this is about as far as he is likely to go. His position remains that no propositions that depend for their intelligibility upon indexical temporal notions, and hence none of what might be called ‘irreducibly tensed’ propositions, need ever be true; and therefore that no affirmative inferences are warranted regarding the reality of time or objective change. He is trying to undermine any such inferences by, in effect, inviting us to contemplate the possibility of a self which, though conceiving of itself and its own activities under the aspect of time, nevertheless remains extra-temporal in essence.
Leibniz on Divine Perfection and Freedom
Authors: Rowe William L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1715 a series of written exchanges began between the eminent, highly original German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz and the brilliant British theologian Samuel Clarke. Halted by Leibniz’s death in 1716, the series was edited and published by Clarke in 1717. The occasion for the exchange was Leibniz’s remark in a letter to Caroline, Princess of Wales, that Newtonian physics had contributed to the decline of natural religion in England. Since Clarke, a learned theologian and philosopher, was both closely associated with Newton and had been personally acquainted with the Stuart royalty through serving as chaplain to Queen Anne, he took up the defense of both natural religion in England and Newtonian views of absolute space and time. In the process of their discussions a deep divergence emerged in their respective views of freedom, both human and divine. From these exchanges, as well as their other writings, much can be learned about the philosophical similarities and differences between these two great exponents of theological rationalism.
Introduction: Conceivability and Possibility
Authors: Gendler Tamar Szab ó , Hawthorne John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have, it seems, a capacity that enables us to represent scenarios to ourselves using words or concepts or sensory images, scenarios that purport to involve actual or non-actual things in actual or non-actual configurations. There is a natural way of using the term ‘conceive’ that refers to this activity in its broadest sense. When we engage in such conceivings, the things we depict to ourselves frequently present themselves as possible, and we have an associated tendency to judge that they are possible.
Desire in Imagination
Authors: Currie Gregory 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Moral truths, if there are any, may all be necessary truths. But that ought not to stop us imagining alternative moralities. After all, plenty of strict impossibilities in the purely factual realm are, or seem to be, perfectly imaginable, as with stories in which it turns out that Godel misled us about the unprovability by finite means of the consistency of arithmetic. None the less, imagination is peculiarly inhospitable to alternative moralities. We are not, Hume remarked, repelled by the factual errors of writers from other times and places; with’a turn of imagination’we enter easily into all their opinions.
What is it Like to be a Zombie?
Authors: Stalnaker Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Zombies are creatures that are physically exactly like ordinary people, but that have no phenomenal consciousness. A zombie world is a world physically exactly like our world, but with no phenomenal consciousness at all. The sun shines in such worlds, but the lights are out in the minds of the unfortunate creatures who live in them. These beings behave just as we do, and their internal physical and functional properties are exactly the same as ours. They make judgments, and perhaps have beliefs (or at least functional analogues of beliefs: states that represent the world), but their states have no qualitative character, no ‘inside’. There is nothing it is like to be a zombie.
Introduction
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is an ethnography of the native people of the Bajo Urubamba river in eastern Peru. The people of this area of Peruvian Amazonia frequently say that they are de sangre mezclada, ‘of mixed blood’. In so doing, they seem to place in doubt the cultural continuity between themselves and the ancestral Piro, Campa, and other indigenous peoples of the region. Such rejection of cultural continuity is pervasive in the speech of native people. When discussing the organization of their communities, they talk most about the village school and their legal title to land. No recourse is made by these people to what we might term “traditional” models of community organization, familiar to anthropologists through ethnographies of other indigenous Amazonian peoples. Indeed they contrast their current ‘civilized life’ in legally recognized settlements with a school, called Comunidades Nativas, to their ancestors’ lives in the forest, where they lacked ‘real villages’. In this book I present an account of how the institutions of the school and the Comunidad Nativa operate in the organization of native people’s communities.
Mixed People
Authors: Gow Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The native people of the Bajo Urubamba frequently assert that they are ‘mixed people’ (gente mezclada) or ‘of mixed blood’ (de sangre mezclada). The idiom of ‘mixing’ refers to the collapse of pure ‘kinds of people’ existing at the beginning of history through intermarriage, and that of ‘mixed people’ asserts that kinship is a historical product. This intermarriage is productive of new settlements and hence of new generations, which differ categorically from those of previous generations. The personal identities of contemporary people on the Bajo Urubamba are ‘mixed’ in the sense that each person is of several ‘kinds of people’ simultaneously. This opposes them to prior ‘pure’ generations, and thus marks kinship as a historical process.
Modes of Livelihood
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN Laxdrela saga the reason given for the emigration of Ketill flatnefr and his family from Norway is the expansionist policy of King Harald Fairhair. The author of Laxdrela saga thereby reaffirms the tradition that the tyranny of Harald was the main reason for leaving Norway in the ninth century. However, would-be emigrants not only had to decide to leave; they also had to decide upon a proper destination, and Laxda:la saga gives us some reasons for choosing Iceland.
Foreign Relations
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ALTHOUGH virtually isolated in the North Atlantic, Icelandic society was always part of a larger cycle of social reproduction. In the early Middle Ages Icelanders were engaged in extensive commerce, linking Scandinavia, the British Isles, and the North Atlantic communities through trade (cf. Foote and Wilson 1970; Gelsinger 1981). The import of grain and timber was vital to Icelandic society, and the concurrent cross-cultural dialogue was equally vital to the maintenance of a distinct Icelandic identity (Hastrup 1985a: 227ff.).