bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Checkers
Authors: Holland John H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Any serious study of emergence must confront learning. Despite the perpetual novelty of the world, we contrive to turn experience into models of that world. We learn how to behave, and we anticipate the future, using the models to guide us in activities both common and uncommon. Somehow, through learning, these models emerge from the torrent of sensations that impinge upon us at every moment. Certainly, a deeper understanding of learning will contribute to a deeper understanding of emergence. In attempting to understand the relation between learning and model building, we could scarcely find a better starting point than Art Samuel’s mechanization of learning in the checkersplaying program.
Salt marshes and mangrove swamps
Authors: Little Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On their upper tidal levels, most marine and estuarine mudflats are hidden by vegetation. In temperate zones, salt-tolerant grasses and other herbaceous plants form what is called salt marsh. Here in spring and summer the white flowers of scurvy grass or the yellow of asters and the purple of sea lavender form colourful swathes against a background of cordgrass, while in winter the vegetation dies back to brown remnants.
Estuarine habitats and coastal lagoons
Authors: Little Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sediments from coarse gravel to fine mud can be found in varying degrees both on relatively open coasts and in shelter. The greatest reservoir of sediments is in the sublittoral zone, stretching down to the deep sea. But the most easily accessible and most varied accumulations occur in estuaries, so not surprisingly a great majority of soft-sediment researchers have concentrated their efforts there. Estuaries are more than just indentations in the coastline, however, and provide a variety of characteristics that differentiate them from strictly marine environments.
Life in the estuarine water column
Authors: Little Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many ways, physical conditions in the estuarine water column are more rigorous than in the benthos. For example, there is no buffering by the sediment against sudden changes in salinity. But in fact the plankton does not often have to face the problem of great changes in salinity because the organisms travel with bodies of water rather than staying still while water of different salinity washes over them. There is also the constant problem that organisms may be washed out to sea. Nevertheless, some estuaries contain flourishing populations of plankton, fish, and swimming crustaceans, and as we shall see they often act as nursery grounds for fish species that mature in the sea.
Neutron crystallography of biological molecules
Authors: Pcbay-Peyroula Eva , A1yles Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the past decade, the number of protein structures solved at atomic resolution by X-ray crystallography has increased dramatically Developments in molecular biology, crystallization techniques, synchrotron radiation facilities and the associated progress in two-dimensional detectors now make possible the solution of very complex structures with a large number of atoms, at atomic or near atomic resolution, even from very small crystals. However, at the medium resolution limits (&gt; 1.5 A) typical of most X-ray protein structure determinations, these analyses are invariably incomplete: hydrogen atoms—which account for 50% of the contents of the cell—often cannot be seen at all.
Small-angle X-ray scattering by solutions of biological macromolecules
Authors: Vachette Patrice , Svergun Dmitri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter on the application of Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to biological macromolecules can be read independently from other contributions in the series of volumes of Hercules lectures but it does not ignore them. The general considerations on the phenomenon of light scattering by matter are kept to a minimum and focused on the case of particles in solution. The reader is referred to the contributions by Geissler (1994) and Williams (1993) for further developments presented from a different standpoint. The section on data analysis and the formalism of spherical harmonics can be complemented by reading the contribution by Stuhrmann (1994). The question of interactions between particles is barely touched upon since it has been dealt with byTardieu (1994). Finally this chapter is obviously not the place for an exhaustive presentation of the theory of SAXS. Beyond the other contributions already mentioned, the interested reader is referred to the textbooks listed in the bibliography.
The quest for high resolution phasing for large macromolecular assemblies exhibiting severe non-isomorphism, extreme beam sensitivity and no internal symmetry
Authors: Yonath Ada 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The translation of the genetic code into polypeptide chains is a fundamental life process. In rapidly growing bacterial cells the biosynthetic machinery constitutes about half of the dry weight of the cell, and the biosynthetic process consumes up to 80% of the cell’s energy. Among the over 100 different compounds participating in the biosynthetic process is a giant riboprotein complex which has been studied crystallographically for quite some time: the ribosome, an unstable 2350 kDa assembly of many proteins and RNA of diverse structures. This universal organelle mediates the translation step of the biosynthetic process by catalysing the sequential polymerization of amino acids according to the blueprint, encoded in the mRNA [for recent reviews see Wilson and Noller (1998), Yonath and Franceschi (1998)].
One-dimensional Variational Problems
Authors: Buttazzo Giuseppe , Giaquinta Mariano , Hildebrandt Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One-dimensional variational problems have been somewhat neglected in the literature on calculus of variations, as authors usually treat minimal problems for multiple integrals which lead to partial differential equations and are considerably more difficult to handle. One-dimensional problems are connected with ordinary differential equations, and hence need many fewer technical prerequisites, but they exhibit the same kind of phenomena and surprises as variational problems for multiple integrals. This book provides an modern introduction to this subject, placing special emphasis on direct methods. It combines the efforts of a distinguished team of authors who are all renowned mathematicians and expositors. Since there are fewer technical details graduate students who want an overview of the modern approach to variational problems will be able to concentrate on the underlying theory and hence gain a good grounding in the subject. Except for results from the theory of measure and integration and from the theory of convex functions, the text develops all mathematical tools needed, including the basic results on one-dimensional Sobolev spaces, absolutely continuous functions, and functions of bounded variation.
Broadening Electrochemical Horizons
Authors: Bond A M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electrochemistry is a well established discipline that has encompassed both applied and fundamental aspects of chemistry courses for nearly a century. In recent years, however, it has become obvious that even broader applications of this valuable technique are now available to advance knowledge and solve problems in organic, inorganic and biological chemistry. In this book, it is shown how a range of limitations that historically have restricted the use of voltammetric and related electrochemical techniques have been removed or minimised so that it is now possible to work in the gas and solid phases as well as the traditional liquid phase. Significant advances in theory, instrumentation and electrode design have also made the technique more user-friendly. The initial chapters of this book describe the basic theory and philosophy behind the modern, widespread use of voltammetric techniques. The later chapters provide examples of new areas of application and predict future possibilities for this exciting area.
Spin Choreography
Authors: Freeman Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, a technique widely used for structure determination by chemists and biochemists, is based on the detection of tiny radio signals emitted by the nucleus of an atom when immersed in a strong magnetic field. Every chemical substance gives rise to a recognizable NMR signature closely related to its molecular structure. This comprehensive account adopts an accessible, pictorial approach to teach the fundamental principles of high resolution NMR. Mathematical formalism is used sparingly, and everyday analogies are used to provide insight into the physical behaviour of nuclear spins. The first three chapters set out the basic tools for understanding the rest of the book. Each of the remaining chapters provides a self- contained reference to a specific theme, for example spin echoes, and traces the way it influences our understanding of high resolution NMR methodology. Spin Choreography provides a clear and an authoritative introduction to the fundamental princilples of high resolution NMR, which will appeal to all practictioners who wish to master this complex but fascinating subject. The book will also serve as supplementary reading for upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses on spectroscopy and physical methods.
Energy levels
Authors: Freeman Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Spectroscopy provides direct and incontrovertible evidence of quantization of energy, and nowhere is this more simply illustrated than in magnetic resonance experiments. Textbooks on quantum mechanics would surely have chosen spin systems as their starting point, rather than atomic spectra, had magnetic resonance been discovered at an earlier date. The resonance lines which we observe in high resolution NMR spectra are transitions between these energy levels. However, in contrast to conventional spectroscopy, the separation between levels is a function of the applied magnetic field. Many modern NMR experiments, for example correlation spectroscopy or multiple-quantum spectroscopy, become clearer if we think in terms of the appropriate energy level diagram. The populations of these energy levels are important in studies of spin-lattice relaxation, the nuclear Over hauser experiment and chemically induced nuclear polarization. On a more mundane level, the general form of the conventional NMR spectrum can be predicted on the basis of the energy level diagram appropriate to that particular spin system.
Water
Authors: Freeman Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In spite of the amazing abundance of chemical information offered by NMR, it might still be argued that the most important sample is water, since the vast majority of medical applications focus on the proton signal from water in the human body. Water gives one of the strongest signals in the liquid phase, being 110 molar in protons. Historically, water seemed the natural choice to the Stanford group for their first NMR experiments (rather surprisingly, the Harvard group decided to go out and buy a sample of paraffin wax from the local hardware store). In the days when scientists built their own NMR spectrometers, water was the obvious choice for locating an NMR response for the first time. Even today, if something has gone seriously wrong with a high resolution spectrometer and the resonance condition has been lost, any fresh search for the correct field usually focuses on the proton signal from water, or on the deuterium signal from heavy water.
Social relationships within the community
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Forest scene: One day in March 83, Malibu and Poupé e, two friends and both in oestrus, attracted all the males and led the whole crowd on their foraging trip. The desirable females regularly climbed in trees to rest, thus provoking high tension between the males. At 10.30, as they approached another tree, hostility arose again between alpha Brutus and Schubert. Macho immediately joined forces with Schubert. Both young males, their hair standing on end, faced Brutus and screamed at the top of their voices. Brutus had to choose between chasing them or remaining close to the females. Rousseau, another young male, bobbed and hoohed ten meters away without making it clear whom he was supporting. Falstaff, the senior male, approached Brutus in what looked like an attempt to quieten him. Brutus stretched his hand towards Falstaff, and Schubert had now to face both. Falstaff barked at him and Brutus chased Schubert and Macho up the big aerial roots of a Uapaca tree. Macho, farther away from Brutus, displayed above him. Schubert waited for Brutus to return to the females that had not moved and looked indifferent.
The origins of ecological diversity
Authors: Schluter Dolph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Adaptive radiation is the evolution of ecological diversity within a rapidly multiplying lineage. It is the differentiation of a single ancestor into an array of species that inhabit a variety of environments and that differ in traits used to exploit those environments. It includes the origin of new species and the evolution of ecological differences between them. It is regarded as the hallmark of adaptive evolution and may well be the most common syndrome in the origin and proliferation of taxa. The most dramatic living examples of adaptive radiation, such as the Galapagos finches (Fig. 1.1), the Hawaiian silverswords (Fig. 1.2), and the East African cichlid fishes (Fig. 1.3), rank with the dinosaur extinctions and the origin of our own species among the most celebrated events in the history of life.
The progress of adaptive radiation
Authors: Schluter Dolph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Does a recognizable progression exist in adaptive radiation or is each radiation unique? The idea of a characteristic sequence of events common to many radiations is appealing but has been little tested. One possibility proposed a number of times is that there should be a widespread trend toward greater niche specialization. Another is that the rate of morphological evolution should be highest early in a radiation and then decline steadily through time as species diversity builds. In this chapter I explore these and several other hypothesized trends using comparative and historical sources of data. This inquiry is necessarily descriptive, but its ultimate purpose is to establish whether there are regular features of ecological diversification that a complete theory of adaptive radiation eventually must explain.
Divergence and species interactions
Authors: Schluter Dolph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Interspecific competition for resources was regarded by the early naturalists as the second major cause of phenotypic differentiation in adaptive radiation. Under this view depletion of shared resources drives species to exploit new types, where they come under the influence of contrasting selection pressures. Lack (1947) was a strong proponent of this view. Interspecific competition was an important part of his overall interpretation of the extraordinary morphological variety of the Galapagos finches. His demonstration that the small and medium ground finches, which differ greatly in beak size where they occur together but converge in phenotype when present alone, remains among the most frequently cited examples of competition-induced divergence in phenotype. It pursuaded most naturalists of the time.
Collagen XII
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Collagen XII was discovered in a search at the nucleic acid level for an analogue of collagen IX in extracellular matrices containing collagen I [14, 49, 52]. Identified by screening a cDNA library constructed from tendon fibroblast mRNA [991], the corresponding pepsin-resistant fragments were isolated from embryonic chick tendons [921] and bovine periodontal ligament [953, 981]. Two collagen XII-like proteins, called TL-A and TL-B, were isolated from bovine skin and turned out to correspond to collagens XII, and XIV respectively [937, 1185]. The chick collagen XII molecule has also been designated as fibrochimerin [1045].
Systems with boundaries: compartments
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapters of this book we have analysed the variables of unlimited chemical systems: percentage composition (in terms of components), temperature and pressure, but we have not considered the size or shape of any system we observe. In effect we have often drawn hypothetical boundaries around liquids and solids or considered gases in containers to separate them from a passive environment with which only energy (heat) could be exchanged (see Fig. 5.2), but we did not ask if any consequences stemmed from the existence of real boundaries or from the limitation of their volumes.
Change and its control
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapters 1-6 we have described systems in equilibrium (stable) or in stationary states, where changes are not possible or so slow that they can be disregarded. We have also described systems in which there is fixed cyclic motion within stationary states. In Chapter 7 the discussion was extended to small amounts of materials in separated compartments at local equilibrium and included the effects of fields.
Heterogeneities in macroparasite infections: patterns and processes
Authors: Wilson K , ørnstad O N Bj , Dobson A P , Merler S , Poglayen G , Randolph S E , Read A F , Skorping A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Exhaustive empirical surveys have shown that, almost without exception, macroparasites (parasitic helminths and arthropods) are aggregated across their host populations, with most individuals harbouring low numbers of parasites, but a few individuals playing host to many (Shaw and Dobson 1995). Heterogeneities such as these are generated by variation between individuals in their exposure to parasite infective stages and by differences in their susceptibility once an infectious agent has been encountered. Experimental studies have shown that the extent of spatial aggregation in the infective stage distribution is reflected in the level of parasite aggregation across hosts (Keymer and Anderson 1979). Moreover, in the absence of any heterogeneity in exposure, even small differences in susceptibility between hosts can rapidly produce non-random, aggregated distributions of parasites (Anderson and May 1978). What is unclear at present, is the relative significance of these different mechanisms, and the importance of interactions between mechanisms in accentuating individual differences in parasite loads. Mathematical models that examine these problems rapidly become intractable (Grenfell et al. 1995), while experimental studies and computer simulations also become rather complex.
Evaluation of methods to design safer chemicals
Authors: Anastas Paul T , Warner John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The methods to design safer chemicals are based on an analysis of how the molecular structure works in achieving its function, versus its ability to cause harm to human health and the environment. It is through the manipulation of the structure, such that the efficacy of function is maximized while the intrinsic hazard of a substance is minimized. that the design of a safer chemical is achieved. There is a common saying among designers of everything from automobiles to furniture to appliances; ‘form follows function’. This statement is as true at the molecular level as it is at the macro level.
The question therefore becomes. what is the function one wants to accomplish? This was a straightforward question prior to the time when society became aware of the unforeseen consequences of some chemical products. If one wanted to create a certain shade of red dye. then a molecular structure could be and was created to produce that red dye. rr one wanted to create an effective pesticide, then a molecular structure could be generated to serve that function, and so on. The problem as we know it now is not that the solution was incorrect, it was that the question was incorrect and/or incomplete.
Future trends in green chemistry
Authors: Anastas Paul T , Warner John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The future of green chemistry is as broad as the future of chemistry as a whole and is therefore difficult to predict or summarize. Just as chemistry has always been a journey rather than a conclusion, green chemistry is also based on the premise that continual improvement, discovery, and innovation is the path towards the perfect goal of environmentally benign.
In this context there are, however, some areas of research that pose both a scientific challenge to chemists and have the potential for dramatic benefits as green chemistry alternatives to the current state of science.
While there have been notable advances in recent years, oxidation chemistry has had the mixed blessing of being both one of the most essential and one of the most polluting chemical technologies. It is certainly essential because oxidative transformations have been the basis of much of the necessary functionalization of fundamental chemical building blocks. Since the chemical industry currently relies almost exclusively on petroleum-based feedstocks, which are of course in their nearly fully reduced state, it is oxidation chemistry that allows these feedstocks to become the chemical products ultimately used by the consumer.
Regulation of gene transcription by hormones
Authors: Helmreich Ernst J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Water-soluble hormones, growth factors, and cytokines must bind first to cell-surface receptors, but lipophilic, fat-soluble hormones can pass through the membrane lipid bilayer. Once inside the cell, they are recognized by diffusible receptor proteins which bring them to the nucleus where they control gene transcription. Thus, regulation of gene transcription by lipophilic hormones seems quite simple. There is, in principle, no need for transducers, linkers, and adaptors for transmission of a signal.
Regulation of the cell cycle
Authors: Helmreich Ernst J M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cells have universal programmes to control growth, proliferation, and death. One of these programmes is the cell cycle which controls cell division. Progression through the cycle is controlled by external and internal signals. The cell cycle has a S phase, in which DNA is replicated, and an M phase, a mitotic phase, in which the replicated genetic information is divided into equal parts and passed on to the daughter cells. The interval between the S phase and the M phase in the cycle, in the right-handed direction of the clock, is the G2 phase, followed by the interval between the M phase and the next S phase, which is the G1 phase (Fig. 12.1; for more information, see ref. 1). However, in some cases, cited by Kim Nasmyth, biochemical and structural transitions of the cell-cycle machinery do not coincide with the cell-cycle phases to which they are assigned.
Psychobiological perspectives on early reactions to traumatic events
Authors: Shalev Arieh Y 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The neurobiology of human responses to extreme events involves mechanisms related to bodily survival, learned conditioning, autobiographical memory-formation and complex, socially modulated, adaptation to change. The breadth of the topic is revealed by examining the time frames of some of the typical responses. These extend from fragments of seconds (for defence reflexes, such as auditory startle), several seconds (for sympathetic activation), tens of minutes (for activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis), hours (for early gene expression), days (for memory consolidation) and months (for permanent changes in the central nervous system; Post, 1992).