bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Comparison with Tanzania
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters we have produced an account of the peasant economy in each country during the period of the coffee boom and its aftermath, and produced a detailed analysis of responses to the boom in Kenya. This chapter brings out some comparisons with Tanzania. Prior to the boom the two peasant economies had similar structures and had inherited many common features of ecology and culture. Yet these initially similar economies produced radically divergent outcomes during our period. This chapter attempts to draw out some of these divergences and discuss to what extent they are attributable to differences in economic policies.
Introduction to Part III
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In many developing countries, governments have engineered a deterioration in the terms of trade faced by peasant farmers, for example by imposing taxes on export crops. Much theoretical and empirical research has been devoted to analysing how peasant supply would respond if this deterioration were reversed, and the consensus is that supply would respond positively. These analyses usually assume, at least implicitly, that peasants trade on markets which clear. In practice, there are often problems of availability, both of imports and of consumer goods. This Part considers the implications of such problems, and extends the usual analysis to cover them. It shows that supply response may well be perverse in these circumstances, even, when it is positively related to price in the case where markets clear.
Cross-section Tests of Household Supply Response
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
While our panel survey for 1976 and 1983 provides too few data for time series testing, it does permit cross-section tests which cannot be undertaken on the aggregate data deployed in the previous chapter. Recall that the theory being tested is that instead of income and expenditure both being determined endogenously as functions of endowments and prices, planned income is adjusted so-as to equal exogenously constrained expenditure plus any desired change in monetary assets. However, cross-section evidence that planned cash incomes are associated with expected expenditure fails to establish the direction of causality. Evidence of a positive association could reflect expectations of exogenously constrained expenditure inducing an income adjustment (our hypothesis) or exogenous changes in income inducing changes in expenditure. We must therefore identify and test those hypotheses of the model which are causally distinguishable from the expenditure-determined income account.
The Distribution of Public Services in Kenya and Tanzania
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This and the following chapter are devoted to analysing the impact of public expenditure. The present chapter reports the results of the public expenditure component of our surveys and provides a descriptive basis for a discussion of public services, how they are distributed, and who has access to them, particularly within the rural sectors. Chapter 15 uses the valuation procedure of Chapter 13 and a variety of statistical techniques to analyse the effects of public expenditure.
Public Policy and the National Economy
Authors: Tomlinson Jim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book is an account of the major features and development of British economic policy since 1900. In style it is narrative and broadly chronological. It is also analytical, but that analysis is mainly concrete and specific rather than abstract and general. However concrete and narrowly focused, analysis must of course rest, explicitly or implicitly, on a wider framework which determines what is deemed relevant and important, and what glossed over or omitted. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to outline the framework which underlies the organization of this book. Those whose taste is for the empirical and who adhere to the saying that the ‘proof of the pudding is in the eating’ may skip directly to Chapter 2. But this introduction should make the menu offered in the rest of the book more explicable.
Reconstructing the World 1941—1958: Economy
Authors: Tomlinson Jim 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The war and early post-war years saw the most sustained attempt in the twentieth century to reconstruct the international economy. The objectives and instruments, successes and failures of this effort form a vital backdrop to British economic policy in the war and post-war period. But Britain was by no means just a passive observer, but a major architect of this attempt, second only to the USA.
Introduction: The ‘Theory’ of Demographic Transition: Its Conciseness, Diversity, and Flexibility
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Demography is a science in which general theories are rare. Aside from Malthus’s theory, which emphasizes constraints of subsistence on population, as a principal body of thought there is only what is called by convention the theory of demographic transition. The most important point of comparison between these two explanatory systems lies in the supposed effect of economic development on fertility. In the Malthusian view, economic development stimulates fertility, the increase in demand for work encouraging marriage and family formation. In the transitional view, the relation between industrialization and fertility is inverse: industrial revolution raises the standard of living and stimulates, especially, a general aspiration towards an always greater degree of comfort, which, in turn, promotes the limitation of child-bearing.
Problems, Methods, and the Field of Enquiry
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Demography is no exception. On this score, nothing is more revealing than the transformation in its linguistic usage. In the area which concerns us, the semantic shifts arc massive. Since fertility has become the preferred object of demographic study, the concepts of demography and fertility have gradually been assimilated, at least in France. Hence, to indicate the decline of fertility in modern Europe, one speaks of ‘la baisse de la demographic curopeenne’ (the decline in European demography). But the confusion is no less elsewhere. In English, for example, the notion of demographic transition refers nowadays to little more than the decline in fertility, and the theory of demo graphic transition is commonly reduced to a theory of fertility (the recently coined phrase ‘fertility transition’ (circa 1976) is, more often than not, merely a linguistic concession).
Divergence and Concordance
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In its classic version, as defined up to the l950s, demographic trans1t1on theory had as its object knowledge of the transformation of fertility and mortality, in the historical passage from traditional to modern societies. The transition was measured simply in terms of crude rates. In order to appreciate the descriptive qualities of this theory, we shall draw upon the materials presented in the two preceding chapters.
The Types of Demographic Transition
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This balance may, for example, remain above pre-transitional levels for an extended period, in which case we are dealing with a long transition. Conversely, it may remain higher only briefly, at least on the time-scale with which we are concerned: this would be a short transition. But this criterion of total duration is hardly sufficient. It is necessary to take into account further aspects, including: height (i.e. poor countries may be said to have ‘high’ transitions, whilst wealthy countries experienced ‘low’ ones); the duration of the phase of maximal growth (where this extends across several decades, and the decline in birth-rates takes time to manifest itself, a country may experience severe tensions, such as the anarchic growth of shanty towns, aggravation of urban unemployment, increased dependence, etc.); and, finally, asymmetry (when natality remains at a much higher level than mortality over a prolonged period, owing, for example, to age distribution requiring sustained investment in housing, schools, infrastructure, technology-and also job creation).
European Transitions: From Malthus to Pincus
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Except for a few places like Ireland and Albania, on the eve of the First World War Europe had embarked upon the modern fertility decline. The system of fertility regulation drew upon much earlier sources. From the time of the Renaissance, in those densely populated areas of western Europe where the dominant countries which would be future colonial powers were gathering strength, a regime of delayed and restricted marriage based on a degree of sexual asceticism (of religious inspiration) was establishing itself. This phenomenon has no known historical equivalent. Marriage restriction as a means of birth control is capable, as already seen, of reducing fertility considerably. It is more or less intense depending on the pressure of subsistence. However flexible this homeostatic system of adapting human numbers to the environment may have been, it still had its limits. It ceased to be sufficient when the mortality decline reached a certain level, thus giving a new boost to demographic growth.
Secular Growth in the Industrial World
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Modern economic development has a long history. From the eighteenth century onwards, Western countries experienced a lasting increase in their rates of demographic growth. While admitting a degree of impoverishment, it appears that already in that period increases in agricultural production were at least equal to population growth. For over two centuries there was a considerable population increase, but, in contrast to past increases, this wave of growth was not interrupted by famine. Moreover, instead of a resulting fall in living standards, which had been the case hitherto via the well-known mechanisms described by Malthus and illustrated for England by Lee (1980), there was a rapid economic expansion. A new demographic and economic system emerged, characterized by unprecedented growth in both sectors. Such was the upheaval that it was soon termed a ‘revolution’.
Economic Breakthrough in Poor Countries
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although in most cases the demographic growth of less developed countries is in the process of slowing down, it is likely to continue for several decades yet. Aside from quasi-arithmetical constraints associated with number and structure, such as food requirements, educational costs, and the creation of employment opportunities-upon which it is easy to reach minimal agreement-the economic implications of this phenomenon are not only difficult to anticipate, but widely disputed. The usual theoretical postulates which serve as a frame of reference are in fact analytically debatable. Some may even be logically reversed. And they have the limitation of only very scant empirical testing.
A Simple Market
Authors: Lesourne Jacques 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to the analysis of a market characterized by hypotheses as simple as possible. 1. All the actors have perfect knowledge of the goods (or service exchanged); the quality of the goods is the same for all the sellers and it remains identical throughout the evolution of the market. 2. The contracts between agents are for immediate execution and valid for only one period. 3. The buyers are of a given number, constantly present on the market, and each one desires to acquire at each period a single unit of goods (or services). 4. The sellers are of a given number and each one has at his disposal at each period one unit of goods (or services) to sell. The transaction costs are nil. 5. The sellers (or buyers) only have knowledge of their own transactions during the preceding period. 6. The search for information is made by the buyers who draw at no cost a sample of sellers at each period. 7. The price set by a seller is independent of the buyer.
The Market and Irreversibilities
Authors: Lesourne Jacques 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If the simple market in the last chapter necessarily converges towards the traditional equilibrium, it is because its operation engenders no costs: the individuals draw their job samples free of charge and can discover any job whatsoever; they can change jobs without having the least expense to bear while the firms can replace one worker with another without having to experience the least loss. It is an ideal world far removed from reality. As a result, however, one cannot help but wonder what happens to the dynamics of a market when irreversibilities are taken into account. To furnish an answer to that question is the aim of this chapter, a chapter which will permit the introduction of several notions of importance for all that follows in the book.
The Forming of Opinions
Authors: Lesourne Jacques 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Twice already, the role of opinion forming in market dynamics has appeared in this book: in Chapter 3 when the workers, in the presence of information costs, accepted being unable to hope for revenues superior to those observed in the past, and in Chapter 6 when the individuals, faced with goods of unknown quality, used prices to form an assumption on the quality of the goods. Nevertheless, in both cases, the creating of opinion did not make up the central element of the hypothesis. It will be entirely different in this chapter which deals with the influences that individuals exert on their respective opinions: direct influences resulting from contacts, and indirect influences resulting from parallel efforts to interpret price formation.
Free-Riding and Private versus Social Cost Benefits
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Subject to all these caveats, let us examine the various kinds of market failure observed in Italy and the means devised to overcome them. The analysis will follow a textbook procedure in order to verify systematically whether the conditions cited to justify public action actually exist, that is to say conditions that prevent the market from achieving an efficient (Pareto1) optimum or cause the achievable (Pareto) optimum to be considered socially undesirable. Leaving aside the factors we have already described briefly above, which are associated with the ‘prisoner’s dilemma’ and are in turn specific examples of more general instances of imperfect information and market incompleteness, the main reasons why the market may be unable to achieve a Pareto optimum, according, for example to Stiglitz (1986), stem from the existence of pure public goods, externalities, and natural monopolies.
Contestable Markets and Government Failures
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although economic-policy measures in favour of pure public goods and goods with high externalities are limited in Italy, the same cannot be said of so-called natural monopoly markets, where declining average and marginal costs made possible by increasing returns to scale and scope inhibit competitive market solutions. Indeed, if firms were to set prices equal to their marginal costs, which in the above-mentioned circumstances are necessarily lower than their average costs, they would make losses rather than profits.
Direct Public Investment and Public Support for the Disposable Income of Households
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The first strategic intervention we wish to explore relates to measures to reduce regional disparities, with particular reference to the problems of the Mezzogiorno. No Italian economic-policy document fails to assert the public sector’s involvement in efforts to overcome the country’s so-called economic dualism, and yet the first thing to strike the researcher is the lack of sufficient empirical evidence to judge the extent to which this concern is translated into observable facts. In the course of the analysis that follows, it will also emerge that the available information is ambivalent and difficult to interpret. Nevertheless, with very little hesitation we shall be able to argue that public action in the Mezzogiorno can be criticized on at least four counts, namely that it is too biased towards supporting demand rather than increasing supply in the South, that public investment may promote not only the development of the infrastructure but also the growth of the criminal economy, that financial assistance to private firms, though considerable in size, is of low effectiveness owing to the tenuous link with actual real investment and with the growth in value-added, and finally that public dirigistic regulation is excessive, aggravating disequilibria in the labour market.
Real and Financial Aspects of Private Investment
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The second aspect of the supply-management policy on which we wish to focus concerns public measures to stimulate private investment, having already discussed investment by general government and public corporations. Investment is one of the strategic public objectives, owing to the importance of capital in creating value-added and growth. Greater capital investment is necessary, because although output can be increased in the short term by changing the utilization rate of existing capacity and, to some extent, the number of workers and working hours, in the long term technical coefficients, wages and prices are perfectly adjusted, capital is at an optimum as a result of past investment, and potential capacity is fully utilized. At the same time employment, working hours, labour hoarding, and the use of every other means of production are at the desired levels, so that actual production coincides with potential production and employment is affected by the level of productive capacity.
General Characteristics of the Welfare State
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Hitherto we have discussed strategic public interventions affecting the most important factors of production-labour and capitaland aggregate supply in the Italian economy, with particular reference to the elimination of regional imbalances (especially with regard to the Mezzogiorno) and sectoral disequilibria (speaking of industrial and financial restructuring).
‘Political’ Prices
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Up to this point we have touched upon income redistribution when dealing with social security, education, and health, and have expressed our suspicion that public expenditure in these strategic fields displays regressive tendencies. Income redistribution is obviously also achieved in other ways, in particular via transfer payments for interest on the public debt, interference with relative prices (and inflation1), and via direct taxation.
Tax Structure and Proposals for Tax Reform
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There is no convergence of opinion in Italy on the form a tax reform should take. Some argue it would be sufficient to increase the tax burden on self-employed persons and small firms and to raise indirect taxes, which appear to be relatively low today; others consider the Italian tax system should be radically overhauled in much the same way as elsewhere, since the present tax regulations are highly distorting, and thus cause serious economic inefficiency and conspicuous inequality of treatment.
Introduction
Authors: Lockwood Matthew 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book is a study of human, social, and economic reproduction in Rufiji, a district of coastal Tanzania. It contains two parts, each of which addresses a particular question. In the first half I ask how fertility in Rufiji changed over the twentieth century, and what social and economic transformations were involved. In the second half, attention shifts to one village, Mng’aru, and I examine the influence of household demography on the work patterns of men and women.
The Historical Roots of a Fertility Regime
Authors: Lockwood Matthew 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 we saw that the available evidence for Rufiji, and the Coast Region of which it is a part, pointed to stagnation of fertility up to around 1950, and a rise thereafter. In the attempt to understand this pattern, the first step must be to identify the immediate or proximate biosocial component causes producing it.
Introduction
Authors: Andersen Torben M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A recurrent theme in macroeconomics ever since the publication of Keynes ‘s General Theory (1936) has been whether the adjustment of prices and wages is sufficiently rapid to avoid any problems in the allocation mechanism. Conflicting views on the causes for businesscycle fluctuations, and the role of economic policy, can usually be attributed to different assumptions concerning the adjustment of wages and prices. For a long period of time the adjustment process-or lack thereof-for wages and prices was postulated in a predominant part of the literature.1 This is well known from textbook versions of Keynesian models and has in its most sophisticated form developed into the so-called disequilibrium or fix-price models (see Barro and Grossman 1971; Dreze 1975; Benassy 1975; and Malinvaud1977). This approach has produced many insights but suffers from the problem that the incentives underlying the postulated adjustment processes are not made explicit. This is particularly worrisome for issues related to economic policy, since we need to know whether different forms of policy intervention might change the adjustment process for prices and wages and thus invalidate the premisses for the analysis leading to the policy recommendations.
Empirical Evidence
Authors: Andersen Torben M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Are prices sticky or do they adjust to changes in market conditions? Casual empiricism suggests a positive answer to both questions. Prices are often observed to adjust infrequently, and supply does not always equal demand; but, on the other hand, price changes are also often experienced. Prices do change, but do they change instantaneously to changes in market conditions, and if not, what drives the adjustment process? The issue that interests us at this stage is whether prices adjust instantaneously or sluggishly to changes in market conditions. If evidence points towards the latter, there is a need to consider reasons why price-setters react ‘slowly ‘ to changes in market conditions. The focus here is not on product-specific prices but more on general or aggregate phenomena relating to the adjustment of prices. We shall start by presenting some stylized facts on the behaviour of prices over the business cycle. The empirical evidence presented here imposes as little theory as possible, aiming at presenting some facts motivating the theoretical interest in price adjustment. More rigorous testing of particular price models will not be covered here but will be taken up in relation to the presentation of the theories.