bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Osteoporosis
Authors: Evans Grimley J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Osteoporosis, conceptualized as a condition characterized by a low amount of histologically normal bone tissue per volume of anatomical bone, is a multifactorial disorder. This implies that it may be the final common pathway of a wide variety of aetiological and pathogenic causal chains. The relative importance of these different pathways may well vary between populations and between groups within a population, and such heterogeneity may underlie some of the contradictory results of epidemiological and interventive studies in osteoporosis. For example, dietary calcium intake is less likely to emerge as an important risk factor for osteoporosis in a population with a uniformly high dietary intake than in one with a lower and more variable intake. In a population with uniformly low levels of physical activity the importance of activity as a determinant will be underestimated and oestrogen deficiency may seem to account for more of the variance between the osteoporotic and the normal than in a population with wider variation in physical activity levels.
Iatrogenic disorders
Authors: Caird F I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no doubt that adverse reactions to prescribed drugs are the most important single disorder in the elderly which is directly due to the activities of doctors; these arc discussed elsewhere (p. 211). However, there are also many other important disorders which doctors and those caring for the elderly may cause by mechanisms over which the doctors have at least some control. These may therefore legitimately be said to be iatrogenic.
The efficacy of continence treatment
Authors: Ouslander J G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Urinary incontinence, defined as the involuntary loss of urine, is a prevalent, disruptive, and costly health problem among elderly people. As many as one-third of community-dwelling elderly people admit to some degree of incontinence. Prevalence rates and the frequency of incontinence episodes are greater among elderly patients in long-term care institutions.
Home care and day care for the elderly
Authors: Havens Batty 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Home care is usually viewed as the in-home or community-based option for providing long-term care to elderly persons. While the majority of this chapter will address precisely this option, two points should be noted: home care may also be provided to persons of all ages, not just the elderly, and some persons require home care only as a short-term (usually defined as less than 60 days) care solution.
Assessing the impact of introducing new technologies and interventions for the elderly
Authors: Becker Henk A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In most developed and developing countries the ‘greying of society’ has become recognized by now as one of the major problems for years to come. Demographical data have been extrapolated and the costs for the cure and care of the elderly have been estimated. Some countries will experience this rise in costs relatively early and heavily, while others still have some time to get accustomed to this development. or will undergo the ‘greying’ to a relatively light degree only. Table 32.1 summarizes the prospects for a number of countries.
The role of aging in establishing social priorities: an economic perspective
Authors: Wright Ken 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Economics is all about allocating scarce resources to competing ends, to maximizing the outcome of the use of any set of resources. However, there are usually two competing objectives in this process: one concerned with efficiency, which is the maximization of outcome or the minimization of costs, the other with equity, which is concerned with how the outcomes and costs are distributed amongst different sectors of society. Although the efficiency calculus is mainly technical, involving the measurement of costs and outcomes, it also contains a number of elements requiring judgement and valuation. Equity considerations are judgemental; they involve assessing the fairness of the burden of costs and the benefits of outcomes that accrue to specific groups in the population. Decisions on social priorities from an economic viewpoint require the consideration of the achievement of both objectives.
Q Fever
Authors: Marrie Thomas J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Q fever is a wide spread illness affecting wild and domestic animals and man. The etiological agent, Coxiella burnetii, has both a wild life and domestic animal cycle. In mammals infection localizes to the endometrium and the mammary glands. The organism is reactivated during pregnancy reaching high concentrations in the placenta. At the time of parturition the organism is aerosolized. Inhalation of Coxiella burnetii by susceptible animal results in Q fever. In man Q fever may be acute (self limited febrile illness, pneumonia, hepatitis) or chronic (mostly endocarditis). Abortion and stillbirth are manifestations of Q fever in domestic animals and in animal models of disease (such as Q fever in pregnancy in a mouse model). A vaccine is available for abattoir workers and veterinarians and others in high risk occupations for acquiring Q fever.
Rat-Bite Fevers
Authors: Salmon R L , McEvoy M B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Streptobacillus moniliformis was first isolated in 1925 from the blood of a laboratory worker and became recognized as one of the two causes of rat-bite fever (the other is Spirillum minis). At the same time, an epidemic form of the disease, Haverhill fever, was recognized during an outbreak in the United States (Parker and Hudson 1926) which was ascribed to milk. Accounts of cases have been rare in the world literature but in 1983 the largest outbreak ever described occurred among pupils at a boarding school in England following the probable contamination by rat urine of a private water supply from a spring (McEvoy et al. 1987).
Streptococcosis
Authors: Mayon-White R T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two species of streptococci are of zoonotic interest: Streptococcus suis and S. zooepidemicus. Pigs are the primary hosts of S. suis, and human disease is concentrated in people who have contact with pigs or pork. The main human disease from S. suis is meningitis. Streptococcus zooepidemicus causes pharyngitis in humans, complicated rarely by glomerulonephritis. In these cases, the source is unpasteurized milk. Cattle and horses are natural hosts, but other species may also have pyogenic infections. All the pyogenic (beta- haemolytic) streptococci of clinical significance have animal connections, sometimes by disease and often by sharing group antigens. Penicillin is the mainstay of treatment and the prevention of human disease is by milk pasteurization and hygiene in the meat industry.
Tick-Borne Encephalitides
Authors: Nuttall Patricia A , Labuda Milan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tick-bome encephalitides are caused by several different viruses belonging to the tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) subgroup, a distinct antigenic complex of the virus family, Flaviviridae. Encephalitic members of the complex are represented by the several subtypes of tick-borne encephalitis virus (including Russian spring-summer encephalitis virus), louping ill virus, and Powassan virus. They cause encephalitis affecting humans in Eurasia and North America. The TBE subgroup has been one of the most intensely studied groups of tick-borne pathogens.
American Trypanosomosis
Authors: Nlarsden Philip Davis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi infection is an ancient zoonosis of the New World. It is usually transmitted by faecal soiling of the mammalian integument during the act of feeding of blood-sucking triatomine bugs. Such transmission occurs from New York State to the Argentine pampas including all countries within this wide range. Chagas disease is the term applied to syndromes caused by human infection.
Babesiosis And Malaria
Authors: Cox F E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Babesiosis and malaria are very rare zoonoses. Although some 350 million people are infected with one of four species of Plasmodium, all these infections are acquired from other humans through the agency of infected mosquitoes and the number of recorded infections from animals to humans is very small. Similarly Babesia species infect millions of cattle and unknown numbers of sheep, dogs, and horses, and transmission is usually from one member of the species to another member of the same species through the bite of a tick, and human infections are very rare. The parasites that cause malaria and babesiosis are protozoa classified in the same phylum, Sporozoa, but in different classes (Table 47.1).
Cysticercosis and taeniosis: Taenia saginata, Taenia soliumq and Asian Taenia
Authors: Lloyd Sheelagh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter reviews current knowledge of the taxonomy, epidemiology, diagnosis, therapeutic regimens, and potential control strategies for human Taenia spp. The recently identified Asian Taenia is compared with Taenia saginata and Taenia solium, both named in the eighteenth century. Sanitary and agricultural practices that lead to the infection of animal intermediate hosts are described; as are the socio-economic and cultural/dietary practices that lead to infection of humans as definitive hosts for adult tapeworms and as intermediate hosts for the metacestodes of T. solium. The relative merits and disadvantages of various diagnostic techniques are discussed. The development of coproantigen ELISA for adult tapeworms in man is a major advance but still is not species specific. Diagnosis of metacestode infections in animals still remains inefficient, with modern immunological techniques not yet showing any major advance over current meat inspection practices. While major advances have been made in diagnosis of neurocysticercosis in man, the merits and disadvantages of CT scan, MRI and antigen/antibody detection methods still mean that no single test should be used for diagnosis and/or prognosis. The advent of albendazole and praziquantel have greatly improved therapy of adult tapeworms and metacestodes in man, but surgery remains an important therapeutic regimen for ventricular, subarachnoid, and ocular cysts. The merits of each therapeutic regimen are discussed in relation to the viability, site, and intensity of infection with metacestodes. Finally, the value of different potential measures for control of the taeniid cestodes of man is discussed in relation to parasite biology and the social, cultural, economic, and agricultural practices that must be considered before implementation of control.
Zoonotic Hookworm Infections (Ancylostomosis)
Authors: Prociv Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the definitive host, they attach to and feed on the intestinal mucosa. Some species cause blood loss. Eggs passed in host faeces embryonate in the soil. The third- stage larva infects the next host, either by skin contact or following ingestion. The relative importance to the life cycle of these two routes, or of paratenic hosts, is unknown. Larvae of some species also become hypo- biotic in the definitive host, being reactivated by endogenous or host stimuli. This underlies transmammary transmission in at least one species.
Toxocarosis
Authors: Lloyd S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the role of Toxocara canis in the syndromes of visceral, ocular, and covert toxocarosis (VT, OT, CT). While the transmission dynamics of T. canis to humans have never been fully elucidated, the potential roles of pet dogs, stray dogs, and foxes, and the influence of their population densities and the age demography of the populations, are compared in relation to contamination of the environment with eggs. Routes of infection for children by geophagia, poor hygiene, fly-borne, and meat-borne ingestion of eggs or larvae are described. The development of prolonged in vitro culture and analysis of the excretions/secretions (ES) and surface of T. canis larvae have gone a long way to explaining the importance of these ES antigens and their rapid production and shedding in the prolonged course of infection and pathogenesis of disease. ES antigens also have greatly improved the sensitivity and specificity of serodiagnosis. Nevertheless, we still have insufficient understanding as to differences in the aetiology of the larvae or differences in immune responses among individuals to account for development of VT versus CT or OT in different individuals. Our understanding that most of the pathology in toxocarosis is due to the immunopathological response of the host to T. canis ES has emphasized the need for vigorous antiinflammatory therapy in treatment; unfortunately, less information is available as to the true efficacy of the anthelmintics currently available. The complexity of the T. canis life cycle in dogs is described and therapeutic regimens to prevent excretion of eggs by pet dogs are given. This, plus adequate control or exclusion of stray or wild canids from a property7 should prevent most cases of VT. Control of the other sources of infection, free-ranging stray dogs and foxes, will be difficult, and more data are needed to clarity the importance of these and of fly-borne and meat-borne transfer of infection to humans to target these for control.
Globalizing Rights?
Authors: George Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this essay I shall try to explain why neoliberal globalization is incompatible with the globalization of human rights. This incompatibility is neither an aberration nor a temporary inconvenience which will improve with time but a built-in feature of the system.
Let me start by defining terms. What do I mean by globalization? Some people see it entirely in terms of technology. Globalization may have been given a decisive push by the information revolution, but computers and the internet didn’t cause it. Similarly, purely economic definitions of globalization are inadequate even though it’s quite true that cheap capital, information, and transport have been vital to its success.
Food Rights, Free Trade, and Fascism
Authors: Shiva Vandana 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Free trade has hijacked our most powerful aspiration—the will to be free. It has substituted corporate for personal freedom, and passed off increased freedom for corporations as the expansion of democracy and human rights.
The West has been considered one of the sources of the notion of human rights, but brutality was integral to the Western project of colonialism and imperialism. The North has dominated the South by systematically denying full human status to the Southern peoples. This was first done through the West’s ‘civilizing mission’—the white man’s burden; now it is done through globalization and free trade. Globalization is today rewriting the human rights agenda by redefining what being human means.
Early Writings
Authors: Wolff Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dominant theme of Marx’s Early Writings is that the capitalist society of his day is not properly fit for human consumption. It crushes the human spirit, denying the vast majority of people any chance to develop their real potential. No existing theorist, Marx thinks, has diagnosed the human malaise correctly, and thus no one had been in any position to outline a genuine cure, although this had not stopped them trying. Marx is confident that he can do better.
Otto Stern’s sulphurous cigars
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Otto Stern (1888-1969) used to describe himself as an experimental theoretician. Isidore Rabi, the great American physicist [21], took Stern, with whom he had worked as a young man, for his model of all a scientist should be. He was genial, unpretentious, and generous, and had pre-eminently, Rabi wrote, ‘good taste’ in his physics: he infallibly sought out problems of the first importance, revelled in ingenuity, and his experimental approach was marked by style and wit. Stern was drawn initially to theoretical physics and he served for some years as assistant to Albert Einstein, to whom he was related. Stern told his assistant, Otto Frisch [20], that he and Einstein would visit the local brothels together, for these were quiet, relaxing places in which to discuss physics. One of Stern’s theoretical studies, which solved a longstanding problem in statistical mechanics, was published during the First World War under the dateline ‘Lomsha, Russian Poland’; this was a dingy provincial town to which Stern was posted to tend a weather station, and where he occupied his spare time with these arduous calculations.
‘Every integer his personal friend’: Hardy visits Ramanujan
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sublime Indian mathematician Srinivasa Aayengar Ramanujan (1887-1920) was ‘discovered’ by G. H. Hardy, Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge. Hardy was passionate about his subject and expounded his credo in his book, A Mathematician’s Apology (1940). Bertrand Russell recorded a remark of Hardy’s to the effect that ‘if he could find a proof that I [Russell] was going to die in five minutes he would of course be sorry to lose me, but this sorrow would be quite outweighed by pleasure in the proof. ‘I entirely sympathized with him’, Russell continued, ‘and was not at all offended.’
Rabi meets his match
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Isidore Rabi [21], when Chairman of the Physics Department at Columbia University and a mandarin of the American physics establishment, gave the following account of his first encounter with a youthful prodigy. It was 1935 and Rabi was pondering a controversial paper, just published by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, which sought to undermine, with a paradox, the foundations of quantum theory.
The Bucklands explode a miracle
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
William Buckland (1884-56) was the first incumbent of the Chair of Zoology at Oxford, who passed his trait of extreme eccentricity to his son, Francis, a zoologist—author of Curiosities of Natural History and for some years Inspector of Salmon Fisheries. The Bucklands made it a custom to eat, in a spirit of scientific inquiry, any animal that crossed their path. Francis arranged with the London Zoo to receive a cut from anything that died there. Visitors to the Buckland menage, as well as suffering the overtures of the pet donkey and other creatures not generally found in the drawing room, were apt to be offered such delicacies as mice en croute or sliced head of porpoise. William maintained that roast mole had been the most unpleasant thing he had eaten until he tried the stewed bluebottles. When he was shown by his friend, the Archbishop of York, a snuffbox containing the embalmed heart of Louis XVI, which the prelate had bought in Paris at the time of the Revolution, William Buckland announced that he had never eaten the heart of a king and before he could be prevented had seized and swallowed it.
The vanishing blackboard
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836), the remarkable French man of science, whose name is commemorated in the unit of electrical current, broke open the field of electromagnetism (or, as he called it, electrodynamics). He was an infant prodigy and was said in early childhood to have memorized all 20 volumes of the Encyclopédie edited by Diderot and d’ Alembert. Long before Esperanto was thought of, he invented a universal language with a complete new vocabulary and syntax.
Ampere was capable of the intense concentration, common to many geniuses, that often reveals itself in an eccentric absence of mind. When thinking about physical or mathematical problems, he would draw a chalk stub from his pocket and use any convenient surface as a blackboard. It is related that, while walking in Paris, a thought came to him and he searched eagerly for a surface on which to work out its consequences. What he found was the back of a hansom cab and in a while he had covered it in equations. As his cogitations reached a denouement, he was startled to see his blackboard recede, gather speed, and, before he could react, vanish into the distance, bearing away the solution to his problem.
Unlocking the chains
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of a chain reaction—a process that gathers pace by multiplying the reactive entities as it progresses—entered chemistry in 1913 and physics some 20 years later. It is a characteristic of such reactions that they start slowly, sometimes after a marked lag, and accelerate explosively. The most familiar example is nuclear fission: when a neutron strikes a uranium (235U) atom and is captured the nucleus breaks in two and releases two or three neutrons. These in turn act on surrounding uranium atoms and the process of fission accelerates sharply. In chemistry autocatalytic reactions with similar characteristics had been observed in the nineteenth century and had exercised such luminaries as Robert Bunsen, the great German chemist.
Fortune favours the ham fist
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fortune, Louis Pasteur tells us, favours the prepared mind. The American physicist, who observed that when his children dropped their toast on the carpet it invariably contravened the malign principle of nature by falling buttered-side up, did not dismiss it as a statistical anomaly. He investigated further and found an explanation, consistent with the laws of physics: his children buttered their toast on both sides. The history of science is replete with examples of accidental discovery, the result of fine judgement, when an anomalous and seemingly useless experimental result was examined more closely rather than discarded.
In the organic chemistry laboratory, breaking a thermometer was always considered a major infraction. Yet when Otto Beckmann (1853-1923), an assistant at the end of the nineteenth century in the laboratory of one of the mandarins of German chemistry, Wilhelm Ostwald, broke a precious thermometer, specially made by the departmental glassblower with a stem so long and uniform that the temperature could be read to one-hundredth of a degree, he turned it to good account: he fell to wondering how one might construct a less-vulnerable instrument with similar precision, and so avoid such disasters and escape the wrath of the professor. The result was the Beckmann thermometer, familiar to all chemists (at least until the age of electronic thermometers), which has a short stem with a mercury reservoir at the top so that the amount of mercury in the bulb can be adjusted to select a chosen narrow temperature range.
The marble and the mop
Authors: Gratzer Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1934, physicists around the world were in a state of high excitement over the transmutation of elements. It was already known that the nuclei of some heavy atoms could capture a flying neutron and thereby form a new and heavier isotope [20]. The energy given up by the neutron on colliding with the nucleus was emitted as a gamma ray—the signature of the process. Enrico Fermi (1901-54), the great Italian physicist, had set in train a programme to examine systematically the behaviour of a range of elements under neutron bombard ment. Elation at what had seemed an early success with a light element (sodium) was tempered by a baffling feature of the result: the gammaray emission occurred with a time delay far beyond what theory allowed. A better proof of neutron capture was required. Two of Fermi’s bright young associates, Emilio Segrè and Edoardo Amaldi, thought they had settled the matter when they found that the next element they studied, aluminium, not only captured a neutron but in doing so gave rise to a radioactive isotope with a lifetime (measured by gamma-ray emission) of nearly three minutes. Fermi, delighted, reported the results at a meeting in London.