bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Rocca Cristina La 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An introduction to this volume on Italy in the early medieval period has to start by explaining how historical approaches to this period have changed in recent years. This is not a question of discussing more general shifts in historical interpretation or the influence of different historiographical schools, but rather of positioning the essays that make up the volume in their specific historiographical context, since each of the topics addressed in this book has been deeply influenced by new research, by the new methods that have been adopted, and by the conclusions that have been drawn from them.
Epigraphs
Authors: Rubeis Flavia De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The principal feature of the written culture of the Roman world was its uniform character, but it left a complex and sometimes fragmented cultural heritage for Italy of the fifth and sixth centuries. Areas of continuity alternated with others in which the tradition of epigraphic writing became deeply differentiated in both form and content. This process of fragmentation would not be reversed until the eleventh century, implying that the Lombard period was the fundamental moment in the transition from the old to the new epigraphic tradition in Italy.
Buddhism and the Sangha
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is so striking about Judaism and Islam is their undaunted optimism about human society in the face of almost overwhelming contrary evidence. Human societies throughout history are filled with violence, conflict, destruction, and debauchery, but Jews and Muslims on the whole continue to believe that a society of justice and peace is possible, even that they will be instrumental in bringing it about, and that with a little effort all people could obey the laws of God.
Buddhism has no such optimistic hopes. For most Buddhists, the whole structure of human society is doomed to failure, to endless suffering and frustrated desire. Buddhists do not seek to bring the world under the rule of the laws of God. There is no Creator God, and if there were, a God who could create such a world of suffering as this would not be entitled to obedience as an ultimate moral authority. Social laws are human constructs, and they can do no more than mitigate to some extent the conflicts engendered by that greed, hatred, and ignorance which are the universal marks of human nature.
Orthodox and Catholic Traditions
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In writing of the Christian community, the church, I have characterized it as a community of diverse and developing reflection on a basic discernment of the nature and purpose of God as revealed in the events surrounding the life of Jesus. It is called by God to be a servant community of love, healing, reconciling, forgiving, and proclaiming a life in the Spirit of joy, compassion, and renewal. It is called to foreshadow the universal community of love which God wills for the world, when egoism and suffering will be ended, and when all who do not explicitly refuse will find true fulfillment and be united in the knowledge and love of God.
This view is not context-free. It arises within a particular historical tradition of thought and prayer, and in its statement one can trace the archeology of its leading ideas, the historical situations which generated the insights which make up its component pans.
The Post-Enlightenment Tradition
Authors: Ward Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Protestant Reformation radically challenged the authority of the church, and focused attention on the text of the Bible, now widely available after the invention of the printing press. It questioned the division between clergy and laity, and insisted that the clarification of the biblical basis of faith was in principle open to all, and was not to be laid down by church authority. Protestant Christianity nevertheless tended to be extremely authoritarian, not permitting deviations from biblical truth. It quickly became both dogmatic and sectarian, each sect formulating its own rather restrictive confession of faith, insisting on its own interpretation of the Bible, and condemning most of the others. This, however, contributed further to the undermining of authority, since it became clear that even the most devout and scholarly people could not agree on what the Bible said.
The Constitution of the European Union
Authors: Barendt Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE European Union, and the rules of Community law, now exercise an enormous influence on the United Kingdom, including its constitutional law. We will see in the next chapter that the House of Lords has ruled that parliamentary legislation should not be applied when it conflicts with a rule of Community law. In effect, it has modified the principle of parliamentary legislative supremacy which the courts had consistently upheld for the last 300 years. A constitutional question more frequently asked now, particularly in the context of possible membership of Economic and Monetary Union, is whether the European Union is developing into a confederation or perhaps a full federation.
Criminal Justice
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Following in the tradition of the Clarendon Law Series, Criminal Justice is an extended essay on the core concepts, structures, and processes of the criminal justice system. The book prefers theoretical reflection above detailed description and favours provocative questions over simple answers. Its primary aim is to stimulate students of criminal justice to think critically about what they have learned. Criminal Justice challenges conventional understanding of crime, criminal justice and punishment by revealing their meanings to be open to multiple interpretations. It explores the historical contingency and cultural specificity of the institutions and practices of criminal justice. And it considers the many, often conflicting, roles fulfilled by the various players in the criminal process. In so doing, it reveals criminal justice to be more diverse and its purposes more contested than conventional accounts allow. The book concludes by examining radical changes in crime control and the pursuit of security and considering their import for criminal justice as we know it.
Criminal Justice
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our familiarity with criminal justice is both a benefit and a blight. It is not necessary to have stepped inside a police station, courtroom, or prison to have the sense that you already know the central institutions of criminal justice. The news media are generous in their coverage of the workings of the criminal justice system. They report individual cases, political debates, and policy developments at length. And to this factual reporting, novels, dramas, and films add a fictional dimension replete with colour, if no little poetic licence. The familiarity fed by this daily diet of criminal justice stories (fact and fictional) has certain advantages. We share a basic perception of what the police do, what a courtroom looks like, and what happens inside the prison walls. But familiarity has its dangers also. We may be less inclined to question the very existence of the criminal justice system and the power it wields over us.
Punishment
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Punishment is so entrenched an institution of our society that we can scarcely envisage life without it. Yet, anthropological studies of societies other than our own reveal that punitive responses to wrongdoing, or indeed any response to wrongdoing, are not inevitable. Whereas in one society wrongdoing provokes aggression and immediate physical retaliation, often backed up by members of the aggrieved person’s kinship group, in another society restraint and silence even under severe provocation are expected. In these latter societies any retaliation would earn the respondent as much opprobrium as the original wrongdoer. As Roberts observes, ‘a response representing the minimum which “honour” demands in one society may thus seem an inconceivable over-reaction in another’.
Court
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is possible to reduce the criminal court to a few key characteristics: an independent judge applies pre-existing legal norms, after adversary proceedings, to achieve a dichotomous decision as to the rightness of one party and the wrongness of the other. Where there is a conviction, the judge then embarks upon a process of sentencing by which the penalty is determined and handed down. Whilst this prototype of the court captures something of its essence and might serve as a benchmark for measuring deviance from the ideal, as Shapiro wryly observes: ‘if we examine what we generally call courts across the full range of contemporary and historical societies, the prototype fits almost none of them’. As we shall see in the following section, he contends that the court is better captured by the idea of the triadic dispute resolution. Accepting the centrality of dispute resolution does not pre-empt the possibility of other roles however.
Financial and Community Penalties
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In contrast to the processes of trial and sentencing, punishment takes place away from the public gaze. As we saw in the previous chapter, the staging of the trial is designed for public consumption. The moment of sentence is the dramatic high point upon which public interest and debate centres. Thereafter, the penal process largely disappears from view and it is almost an act of faith that the sentence is actually carried out. For the most part, the public have little idea where, how, or with what consequences sentences are realized. Implemented quietly and without ?ourish, their form, content, duration, and purposes remain obscure.
The Constitutionalization of Conflicts Within the UK
Authors: Hood Kirsty J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The phrase ‘the constitutionalization of conflicts’ is used here as a short-hand description of a relatively recent phenomenon: the view that, within a nation, legal issues traditionally solved by conflict rules should, instead, be governed by constitutional rules or, at the very least, that those conflict rules must be modified in the light of the constitution. As will be seen, this approach can be observed in the thinking of certain Australian and Canadian academics and judges.
The Application of Conflict Rules Within the UK
Authors: Hood Kirsty J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Previous chapters have examined the extent to which either the constitutionalization of conflicts, or the internalization of conflicts, have been used to provide solutions, as between the UK jurisdictions, to questions of which court has jurisdiction, which law should be applied, or whether a judgment should be afforded recognition. The present chapter discusses the scope of the application of conflict rules in such situations in the UK (just as such rules would be applied in the international context), as well as the effect of the devolution settlements in this regard. It is useful to begin with an examination of the extent to which the conflict rules of the various UK jurisdictions are in fact similar.
Politics and the Giant Multinational Corporation
Authors: Moran Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The preceding chapter sketched the most important institutions that try to represent business interests, and Chapter 5 will describe the (often unique) politics of small business. But another kind of enterprise – the giant corporation – made several appearances in the preceding chapter, and these appearances already suggest that we need to look at the corporate giant in more detail. We do this for three reasons.
The first is, simply, the economic weight of these enterprises. What constitutes a ‘giant’ firm is hardly obvious.
Small Business and Politics
Authors: Moran Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most businesses are small businesses. This generalization is true even granted a well-known problem – that, simply, of defining ‘small’. There plainly can be no hard and fast rule in supplying such a definition. The measurement of size can be by turnover, market share, and number of employees. The criterion of ‘smallness’ is naturally fuzzy: even if we agree to a scale of measurement – say number of employees – there is nothing obvious to tell us how to identify a particular size with ‘smallness’. The result is that specialist studies of small business are obliged to use a range of conventional measures. Some of the commonest are administrative. For instance, the official UK definitions for some years have used numbers of employees as a benchmark: small is 0–49 employees; medium is 50–249; and large is 250 or more.
Business Politics and Party Politics
Authors: Moran Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The connections between business politics and party politics take us to the heart of two key issues in the study of business politics under liberal democracy. The first concerns the relationship between democratic politics and business power. Parties are key institutions in the selection of political leaders in liberal democracy. In the two nations we are considering here, election to political leadership is virtually impossible without possessing a party label and identity – though the meaning of the label, the nature of party identity, and the importance of party organization in the election struggle all differ greatly in the two countries.
Economic and social developments
Authors: Fairbairn Brett 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The year was about 1900; the setting, a North German city, per- haps Hamburg. The life of a young German woman illustrated the daily ‘struggle for existence’ — the title of her anonymous autobiography. At first the 18-year-old worked in a factory folding letter paper, six o’clock in the morning to six o’clock in the evening less a one-hour lunch break, for 6 Marks a week. The low wages and a run-in with the foreman (he didn’t like her telling jokes to co-workers) led her to a cardboard box factory — 8 Marks a week— but she was too frail for the work and was sent away. She tried working as a governess, then in two suspenders factories, and found herself fired and unemployed because the factory owner overheard her sing a crude verse to her co-workers. ‘There began now a very tough period for me’, she recalled. ‘Everywhere I looked for work everything was always taken, so that I was really getting desperate.’ At last an acquaintance found her a job at a glassworks, 9 Marks a week, though it was brutal twelve-hour shift-work, alternating days and nights, working with red-hot bottles — work ‘of a kind that should have been done by men’. The workers slaked their thirst by paying some of their wives to bring buckets of beer from a brewery. She said the work was ‘rather in disrepute with the other factory girls. The work was very dirty too; and we looked like Negroes when we went home. ... We were very ashamed to walk down the street like this, but we couldn’t wash up at the factory.’ ‘Also,’ she added, ‘I felt like a convict because at the glassworks everyone had a control number at the entrance and exit.’
Culture and the arts
Authors: Applegate Celia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1873, Friedrich Nietzsche, then twenty-nine and teaching philology at the University of Basel in Switzerland, began writing a series of Untimely Meditations on the current state of German culture. The first essay took as its target the theologian David Strauss, whose book, The Old Faith and the New: A Confession (1871), struck Nietzsche as the expression of all that was wrong with the so-called cultivated classes in German society. Published in the all-engulfing wake of German unification, The Old Faith and the New cham- pioned science as the new faith, rationally demonstrable in the evidence of historical progress. Nietzsche, long parted from the ‘old faith’ of his Lutheran forbearers, still regarded this glorification of the status quo as the embodiment of ‘philistine culture’ with its motto, ‘all seeking is at an end’.
What provoked Nietzsche most in Strauss’s long and dull book was his impenetrable smugness. ‘During recent years’, declared Strauss, we ‘have participated in the liveliest way in the great national war and the construction of the German state, and we feel ourselves profoundly uplifted by this turn, as glorious as it was unexpected, in the history of our much-tried nation.’ He delighted in ‘our knowledge of nature’, the ‘writings of our great poets’, and ‘the performances of the works of our great composers’, and in all of this found ‘a stimulus for the spirit and the heart, for the imagination and the sense of humour, that leaves nothing to be desired’. ‘Thus we live’, he concluded, and ‘go our way rejoicing.
Transnational Germany
Authors: Conrad Sebastian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On a rainy November day in 1900, four graduates of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Alabama set sail from New York harbour on the Graf Waldersee. Their journey would take them, via Hamburg, to the German colony of Togo. They had been recruited by Baron Beno von Herman for the Colonial Economic Committee with the explicit purpose ‘to teach the negroes there how to plant and harvest cotton in a rational and scientific way’. Togo had been a German colony since 1884. After an initial phase of private initiatives and exploitation, around the turn of the century reform-minded colonial bureaucrats began to aim at more systematic and sustained interventions. This new, scientific approach acknowledged the central role of the native population in any attempt to modernize the colonies and turn them into profitable enterprises. Schooling, health care, and the all-important ‘education of the negro to work’ were therefore among the central concerns of the reformers. The German interest in the Tuskegee graduates derived from the conviction that the racialized labour relations in the American New South could provide a model for Germany’s African colonies.
War and revolution
Authors: Verhey Jeffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a war of such power and tension as the world has never seen. All our physical and intellectual powers have fused together in this war, are heightened to their limits. Natural powers have become weapons of defence and destruction. The war is not just being fought in the field. The press, trade, the complete economic and intellectual life is fighting; everything has become attack and defence. In the nations involved, all aspects of life are at war. war has become the total meaning and the only purpose ... We are no longer the same people we were at the beginning of the war, and we can no longer return to those we were, we must move forward. The outbreak of the war hit us like an earthquake, shook our very foundations and, as if by a flood, we are being carried away to new shores. we have no connection any more with who we were, with how we lived.
The Long Life of the Humanist Tradition: The Amsterdam Athenaeum Illustre in the Golden Age ‘
Authors: Miert van Dirk 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The early modern ‘illustrious school’, ‘athenaeum’ or ‘gymnasium illustre’ remains a somewhat evasive educational phenomenon. This is due largely to the fact that individual schools show a variety of social and intellectual profiles, which in many cases have not been sufficiently studied. One of them in particular, the Amsterdam Athenaeum, predecessor of the current University of Amsterdam, has until recently managed to draw only little attention. In this article, I will analyse seventeenth-century opinions on the phenomenon of the ‘illustrious school’ and then test these with an analysis of the contents of teaching at one of them, the Amsterdam Athenaeum, framing the results in the wider context of Dutch higher education and, especially when it comes to the teaching of philosophy, also in the still wider context of European philosophy. I will take into account notably France and Portugal, as philosophical traditions originating in these countries seem to have been the main influence on the philosophical teaching in Amsterdam, but also Central Europe, because it was the German ‘gymnasia illustria’ which provided the institutional model of the Athenaeum. I will try to locate the Athenaeum in an intellectual tradition rather than in a social context.
Chemistry Enters the University: Herman Boerhaave and the Reform of the Chemical Arts
Authors: Powers John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Boerhaave, who was a skilled orator, painted this grim picture of chemistry, jarring his audience ‘s expectations, in order to make exactly the opposite point. His chair represented chemistry ‘s full inclusion into the Leiden Medical Faculty, and its arrival as an academic field. Boerhaave himself was an immensely successful physician and professor, entering into the height of his productivity and fame. The Chair of Chemistry, in fact, was his second on the medical faculty. He had earned this chair through his success as a private chemical lecturer over the previous fifteen years. During this time, he had changed the image of chemistry from that of a craft practice and low-status service field for medicine, much reflected in his description above, into a subject appropriate for the future gentleman-physicians who attended his courses. Boerhaave transformed chemistry, at least in its pedagogical presentation at the university, from a discourse about the making of chemical products, such as pharmaceuticals, into one about natural philosophy, which could be debated in an academic forum, such as his oration.
Sources
Authors: Corker David , Parkinson Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reporting in 2001 on the current state of the law on disclosure, Lord Justice Auld argued that reform of the law should be in the form of a single and simply expressed instrument. He said, ‘[t]he present combination of the cumbrously drafted 1996 Act and Rules, the Code, the Attorney-General’s Guidelines and the Joint Operational Police Instructions is confusing and hard work for anyone to master, not least busy policemen and prosecutors’.1 Since then, matters have only got worse. The Criminal Justice Act 2003 (CJA 2003) added another layer of amendments to the Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 (CPIA) rather than abolishing it, and the judges issued their own guidance in the form of disclosure protocols for the Crown and Magistrates’ Courts. The Joint Operational Police Instructions (JOPI) were replaced by the even lengthier Disclosure Manual (a joint set of guidance applying to the police and the CPS) and the Attorney-General issued a fresh set of Guidelines of his own.
Expert Evidence
Authors: Corker David , Parkinson Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Expert evidence can often be of central importance in criminal proceedings. In recent years a great deal of attention has been focused on expert evidence as a result of a number of miscarriages of justice involving prosecutions following infant deaths. Until recently, it was left largely to the courts to develop the law concerning expert evidence issues, but the Criminal Justice Act 2003 (CJA 2003), the Criminal Procedure Rules 2005 (CPR), and guidance issued by both the CPS and the courts have meant that requirements about the management and use of expert evidence are now defined in considerable detail. This chapter will consider the overall picture concerning preparation, disclosure, and use of expert evidence before considering in more detail particular questions concerning legal professional privilege (LPP) and notification to the prosecution by the defence of names of experts.