bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Minimum Environmental Flow Regimes
Authors: Arasteh Peyman Daneshkar 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Environmental flows, sometimes referred to as ecological or instream flow requirements, or compensation flows are defined as the amount and quality of water necessary to preserve ecological functions and values in watercourses. One set of challenges in water resources planning today is to define environment flow requirements (quantity, timing, and quality on a seasonal basis), integrate them in water allocation policies and achieve consensus on this, and translate and incorporate those requirements into the operating rules for flow regulating structures, such as dams, reservoirs, and diversion schemes. In this article, basic concepts of environmental flow are introduced.
A minimum environmental flow will have significant benefits toward maintaining a macroinvertebrate population by providing suitable habitat refugee between discharge peaks. A minimum environmental flow, however, would not be expected to fully mitigate the effects of increased hydropeaking.
Establishing a minimum environmental flow is partly aimed at mitigating the effects of variable flows. Policies on environmental flows are perhaps the most important direct connection between water resource and wetland resource management.
A number of new planning approaches are emerging to quantify and apply environmental flow standards, which have been grouped in three main categories: hydrologic or historical flow record methods, hydraulic and habitat modeling, and holistic methods. The first category consists of approaches where historical flow records are used to develop environmental flow, or instream flow recommendations, based on subjective assessments of ecosystem needs. Hydraulic and habitat rating methods use relationships between habitat condition and discharge to develop instream flow recommendations. The final and more complex method is the holistic approach to the assessment of instream flows and water quality aspects, in which all components or attributes of the ecosystem and their interrelationships are addressed.
Modeling Ungauged Watersheds
Authors: Wagener Thorsten 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Models of watershed hydrology are irreplaceable tools in today's research and practice. Their areas of application are wide reaching, from water management and flood forecasting, to their use as load models for water quality studies. A vast number of these models have been developed since the 1960s and they differ in temporal and spatial discretization, processes described, and in the constituent equations used. However, there are also similarities that have consequences for the way these models are commonly applied. All models of watershed hydrology aggregate the real hydrologic system on a particular element scale in space and time. The spatial scale might vary from grid cells of tens of meters to models that treat the whole catchment as a single unit, and the temporal scale might vary, for example, from 15‐minute intervals to monthly time steps.
Numerical Modeling of Currents
Authors: Rajar Rudi 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Currents—water movement—appear in all surface waters: rivers, lakes, coastal seas, and oceans. This flow of water is almost always turbulent, which means with many irregular eddies of different size. Currents are sometimes near to steady movement (not changing with time), but mostly the movement is unsteady, significantly changing with time.

In rivers the currents are more aligned nearly in one dimension (1D), although in larger rivers they can be quite complex and three‐dimensional (3D). In shallower rivers or coastal seas the modeling of currents is sometimes two‐dimensional (2D), but in reality
all
currents are three‐dimensional (3D); that is, the water velocities are in all three directions, although often they are an order of magnitude greater in the two horizontal directions than in the vertical direction.
Open Channel Design
Authors: Fang Xing 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
An open channel flow is a flow having a free surface subject to atmospheric pressure. Open channel design is to design a channel to carry a certain amount of flow from one location to another under any provided channel geometry and topographic conditions. Parameters to define channel geometry include channel shape, cross‐sectional area, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, top width, and hydraulic depth. Manning's equation computes channel discharge. For open channel design, channels should be classified as nonerodible and erodible channels. For lined (nonerodible) channel design, one typically designs the channel with the best hydraulic section, where the channel section has the least wetted perimeter for a given cross‐sectional area and the channel is most hydraulic efficient. If a channel is placed in erodible material, the permissible velocity method can assure channel stability. A freeboard is recommended to prevent overtopping by surface waves and surges.
Phytoremediation by Constructed Wetlands
Authors: Datta Rupali , Sarkar Dibyendu , Khairom Alpana , Therapong Chacharee 
Published: July 2005

AbstractA constructed wetland is a wastewater treatment facility that duplicates the processes in natural wetlands. Constructed wetlands are complex, integrated systems in which water, plants, animals, microorganisms, and the environment interact to improve water quality. Phytoremediation, defined as cleansing of the environment using vegetation, is the primary water treatment process in constructed wetlands. The advantages of phytoremediation using constructed wetlands are that it is environmentally friendly, a sustainable technology, and cost‐effective; the primary disadvantages are potentially incomplete removal of pollutants and pest attraction. Successful implementation of phytoremediation technology in constructed wetlands is a function of a number of interrelated biophysicochemical factors, including the types and fate of toxicants, characteristics of soil and sediment, plant species and plant uptake, hydrology and water flow, and microbial population. Hence, phytoremediation by constructed wetlands generally reflects an integrated multidisciplinary effort that combines plant biology, microbiology, surface chemistry, hydrology, and environmental engineering. The initial construction of wetlands, taking into account all these factors to design the most appropriate and effective method for removing target pollutants is labor‐intensive and expensive, but low maintenance and operating costs make constructed wetlands a much more economically viable alternative to conventional physical and chemical treatments. Above all, the use of plants in environmental cleanup may guarantee a greener and cleaner planet for us and for future generations.
Hydroelectric Reservoirs as Anthropogenic Sources of Greenhouse Gases
Authors: Soumis Nicolas , Lucotte Marc , Canuel René , Weissenberger Sebastian , Houel Stéphane , Larose Catherine , Duchemin Éric 
Published: July 2005

AbstractThe ever‐increasing demand for energy over the recent development of societies has spurred the construction of hydroelectric facilities. Since dams were first used to generate hydropower around 1890, their construction rate increased tremendously to peak during the 1950s and the 1980s. Today, about 25% of the 33,105 large dams (≥15 m height) listed by the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) are used for hydropower generationand currently provide 19% of the world's electricity supply. Although over 150 countries operate hydroelectric plants, Brazil, China, Canada, Russia, and the United States produce more than 50% of the world's hydropower. According to data from 1996, hydroelectric reservoirs worldwide cover an estimated 600,000 km2.
Reversal of the Chicago River
Authors: Lanyon Richard 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Through the end of the nineteenth century, the rapidly growing city of Chicago was plagued with frequent epidemics of waterborne diseases because sewers drained to the Chicago River and Lake Michigan. The lake was the city's water supply, and moving the water intakes farther from shore only provided temporary relief. The permanent solution was to discharge the sewage across a subtle subcontinental divide into the Des Plaines River, a tributary of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers. A sanitary district was created and eventually constructed a deep channel from Chicago to Joliet, Illinois. Large tracts of land needed to be acquired. Pioneering construction techniques for rock and soil excavation were devised. Managing construction of a new canal in the midst of existing canals and rivers and intersecting many railroads required artful negotiations and, sometimes, litigation. When the work was completed, a mere decade later, this remarkable project resulted in the excavation of 42,230,000 cubic yards of rock and soil, construction of 460,000 cubic yards of masonry for channel walls and bridge abutments, and the erection of 31 bridges. The total cost was $33.5 million. In 1900, the flow of the Chicago River was permanently and irrevocably reversed.
Chironomids in Sediment Toxicity Testing
Authors: Sibley Paul K. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSince it was first recognized that sediments served as significant repository for contaminants, research in the field of sediment toxicology has largely focused on the development and validation of methods to assess sediment toxicity. Several invertebrate species have played an integral role in the assessment of sediment toxicity in freshwater systems, but arguably none have been used more extensively than the two midge speciesChironomus tentansandC. riparius. The adoption of these two midges for sediment toxicity testing reflects their ecological relevance in aquatic systems, tolerance to a wide range of sediment characteristics, short generation times and amenability to culturing, relative insensitivity to manipulation, and wide acceptance among regulatory agencies. The most commonly applied standard test using bothC. tentansandC. ripariusis the 10‐d survival and growth assay. However, a standardized life cycle test usingC. tentansis also available in which survival, growth, emergence, and reproduction can be evaluated. This article presents detailed methods and practical insights pertaining to the use of the 10‐d and life cycle tests and discusses potential future applications ofChironomusspp. in sediment toxicity testing.
Sedimentation
Authors: Yang Chih Ted , Julien Pierre Y. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractSedimentation is a science of interest to geologists, river morphologists, environmentalists, and engineers. Geologists are interested in the formation, mineral content, and age of sedimentary rocks. River morphologists are interested in the formation of rivers, their patterns, and profiles. Environmentalists are interested in the impacts of sediments on water quality, aquatic habitat, and ecosystems. Engineers are interested in the movement of sediment and its impact on the engineering design and operation of hydraulic structures. Due to these differences of interests and emphases, sedimentation studies can vary from qualitative to quantitative or a combination of both.This article emphasizes the hydraulics of sediment transport. Due to the complexity of sediment transport, only basic assumptions and approaches used by engineers are summarized here.
Sedimentation and Flotation
Authors: Viadero Roger C. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Waters and wastewaters typically contain particulate matter ranging from a few microns to centimeters in diameter, although the actual size distribution is often highly variable. One of the most common methods for the removal of particulate matter from waters and wastewaters is simple gravity settling, often referred to as “sedimentation.”

In water and wastewater treatment, four general classes of sedimentation can occur: Type 1, discrete settling; Type 2, flocculent settling; Type 3, hindered or “zone” settling; and Type 4, compression settling. In Type 1 settling, particles settle individually with no interparticle interactions. Consequently, no change in particle size occurs (i.e., floc formation). This system is often analyzed using
Stokes' Law
, based on a force balance on a single particle settling in a viscous medium under laminar flow conditions.
Water Symbolism
Authors: Marrin D. L. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Throughout history, water has been used as a symbol of wisdom, power, grace, music, and the undifferentiated chaos that gave rise to the material world. Many ancient cultures believed that everything in existence was birthed from, and ultimately returns to, the metaphoric “waters of chaos” through the substance of water. Whether portrayed as a shape‐shifting dragon, an omnipotent god, a three‐dimensional geometry, or a subterranean river, water has always been understood to play a fundamental role in the creation and maintenance of the physical world and, in particular, biological life. The post‐Renaissance view of water differed in many respects from ancient views, but water and its recognizable flow forms remained symbols of power, beauty, wisdom, and the essence of the natural world. In our postmodern world, water most commonly symbolizes an economic commodity, which is bought, sold, collected, and distributed according to various market forces. This shift in human perception has resulted in many unforeseen effects on the earth and the biosphere.
Water: The Key to Natural Health And Healing
Authors: Batmanghelidj F. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water is a better medication than whatever is manufactured by the drug industry for any of the presently recognized painful degenerative diseases. These diseases are the products of an inefficient, water‐deprived, prunelike state of cells that cannot keep up with the demands placed on them. Each year, more than 700,000 people die of heart disease, 500,000 die of cancer, and arterial disease of the brain kills over 160,000. All of these deaths might have been prevented if water was given a primary position in the daily diet.
The Mistake of Waiting to Get Thirsty
Authors: Batmanghelidj F. 
Published: July 2005

AbstractIn his research on “conformational change in biological macromolecules,” Ephraim Katchalski‐Katzir of the Weizmann Institute of Science has shown that the “proteins and enzymes of the body function more efficiently in solutions of lower viscosity”(2). Thus water loss from the interior of the cells would adversely affect their efficiency of function. This finding alone negates Dr. Valtin's view that we should let dehydration get established before drinking water. It is desirable that all cells of the body function efficiently within their physiological roles, so it would be more prudent to hydrate the body optimally rather than wait for the drought‐management programs of the body to induce thirst. Furthermore, it is much easier for the body to deal with a slight surplus of water than to suffer from its shortfall and have to ration and allocate water to vital organs at the expense of less vital body functions. The circulation of concentrated blood in the vascular system is truly an invitation to catastrophe.
Water, Bacteria, Life on Mars, and Microbial Diversity
Authors: Vance David B. , Jacobs James A. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Microbial life is extremely diverse with regard to ambient conditions, metabolic pathways, and geographic dispersion at depth in soils and sedimentary formations on Earth. Original bacterial life on Earth started in anaerobic conditions, without free oxygen in the atmosphere. Water chemistry in the primitive oceans would have been devoid of significant dissolved oxygen. The primitive atmosphere was chiefly carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S), nitrogen (N
2
), hydrogen (H
2
), and water. Some of the more volatile trace elements such as chromium, manganese, and sodium may also have been present (1). Since that time, almost every niche on Earth has been colonized by some type of microbial life. Given the robust nature of microbial life on Earth, it is possible that microbial life existed on other planets having similar elements and compounds. As the very early history of Mars may have been somewhat similar to that of Earth, Mars may have had the conditions for microbial life. In the oceans, the gases in the primitive atmosphere were present as dissolved constituents. In addition, given the reducing conditions, soluble forms of reduced metals were also present, with ferrous iron likely being a dominant species.
I
ranian Traditional Water Systems
Authors: Jahani Hamid R. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Water has had a value sometimes not less than gold among Iranians, facing almost 250 mm of precipitation annually. Evidence exists of the struggle of the people against the dry nature, yielding masterpieces all over the country. These are some hydraulic structures still under operation after some hundreds of years with hundreds of thousands of people still dependent on them. This article points to some of these structures that have been propagated through the world and accepted and used by different nations.
Water Transportation Occupations
Authors:   Bureau of Labor Statistics
Published: July 2005

Abstract

Many jobs in water transportation occupations require a merchant mariner's document or a license from the U.S. Coast Guard.

Merchant mariners on oceangoing ships are hired for periods ranging from a single voyage to several continuous voyages and may be away from home continuously for months.

Jobs aboard oceangoing vessels have high pay, but competition for them remains keen, and merchant mariners might have to wait months between work opportunities.
Effective Water Education Strategies in a Nontraditional Setting
Authors: Lien Sharon L. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
Thinking out of the box, or in this case out of the classroom, enables water educators to explore less traditional educational strategies. This article discusses three examples of effective water education in nontraditional settings—Children's Groundwater Festival, Groundwater University, and Awesome Aquifers for Science Olympiad—and the impact these efforts have had on educating youth in groundwater protection and conservation.
Formulated around the concept of making learning fun, the Festival is staged in a fair‐like atmosphere that is stimulating and exciting for participants. This event is a dynamic, energetic day filled with hands‐on education. Groundwater University is intensive, experience‐based groundwater education for youth that provides hands‐on activities, field trips, and presentations from top water professionals. As part of the Awesome Aquifers event, students conduct groundwater research and design and build a groundwater flow model. During competition, students use their models to demonstrate an understanding of groundwater concepts.
These water educational strategies have demonstrated the ability to increase the knowledge and understanding of groundwater. As a result, the impact will be the development of youth with the capacity and ability to protect and preserve groundwater resources now and in the future.
Evolution
Authors: Haley David 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
From the scientific evidence of cosmic evolution to creation myths and poetic inspiration, water plays a key role in the development of all life forms and cultures. This article contrasts Darwinian theories of natural selection and notions of competitive survival with symbiotic and cooperative development, to demonstrate how water drives the evolutionary process—the salinity of our bodily fluids remind us of our marine origins over 400 million years ago.
It is noted that evolution of the human species coincided with the famous ice ages, but the nineteenth century scientist, John Tyndall, first showed the importance of water vapor in maintaining the atmosphere and climate. However, intense debate has ensued, concerning global warming and the possible effects of climate change. With great uncertainty surrounding our ability to understand the causes, predict the outcomes, and respond appropriately, the water cycle remains a central mediator. This relationship is taken up in reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the views of a proindustrial development scientist, an ecological activist and illustrated in apocalyptic fashion by Leonardo da Vinci. To conclude, this article looks to the oceans, the source of the planet's greatest biodiversity and potential, for an evolutionary continuum.

In the cosmic sense of evolution, water may be viewed as part of the design of a supernatural “creator,” or a quirk of fate—that a certain condition occurred for a combination of atoms (H
2
O) to coincide in a particular atmosphere and remain for a sustained period of time within the atmosphere of a planet. And as Theodore Schwenk writes in his analysis of flow forms,
Sensitive Chaos
: “It is not possible to speak of the beginning or end of a circulatory system; everything is inwardly connected and reciprocally related. Water is essentially the element of circulatory systems” (2). He continues: “The great rhythms of the tides are a response to forces that work in the interplay of earth and cosmos…and for which, through its great impressionability, the element of water is a receptive ‘sense organ’” (3). Governed by the Sun and Moon, this earth‐bound phenomenon is claimed by creation myths and scientific conjecture and is the source of inspiration for poets and artists.
Water as a Human Right
Authors: Phoenix Laurel 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The human right to physical and economic access to water has recently been declared by nongovernmental institutions and civil society groups worldwide. The movement to establish this right has been driven by two related issues. First, global populations are currently experiencing a water crisis predicted to become much worse. Second, the growing global trend of water privatization has created additional concerns regarding access to potable water. An introduction to the global water crisis of rising demand from population growth and industrialization for limited resources (water) is given here. Included is a discussion of global privatization trends and the support that some international governmental organizations give to private water corporations and the effects of this privatization on poor citizens. Human rights and governmental obligations to their citizens are discussed in reference to providing potable water to all citizens.
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C
anadian Boundary Waters Treaty and the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement
Authors: Yoskowitz David W. 
Published: July 2005

Abstract
The IJC was created as a result of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 between the United States and Great Britain because it still controlled Canadian foreign policy. The pressure for a treaty came from within as populations of communities on both sides of the border began to grow and demands on water increased along with it. Initially, obstacles had to be overcome in the legal wording of the document because the two countries look at boundary waters differently. Americans tend to look at boundary water resources from the point of view of equity and equitable utilization, in which rights and obligations of the individual water user are recognized. Canadians, on the other hand, see water issues in terms of equality and the rights and responsibilities of the two states.