bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Higher-Order Approximations
Authors: Shmueli Uri , Weiss George H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have shown that the central limit theorem can be used to calculate useful approximations to both univariate and multivariate pdfs that are generally easy to evaluate numerically. However, there are circumstances in which Gaussian approximations may be qualitatively inaccurate. Under these circumstances it is obviously desirable to find corrections to the Gaussian approximation or, alternatively, to find representations of the pdfs that are exact and whose numerical implementations are not too difficult. Both approaches to this goal will be discussed, Chapter 4 being largely devoted to approximate correction methods that build on the Gaussian approximation. However, before discussing the nature of these corrections we present an example in which the central limit theorem is shown to lead to a poor approximation to the pdf for the intensity.
Statistical Formulation Of The General Problem
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen that fluid turbulence can be regarded as a problem involving a random field ua(x, t). Or, as we also saw in Section 3.3.1, Fourier transformation can provide us with a formulation in terms of many degrees of freedom: that is, the Fourier components ua(k, t). Naturally, this latter interpretation leads us to view the turbulence problem from the point of view of the subject of statistical mechanics. This will be the dominant theme of this chapter, although we shall not entirely neglect the ‘field’ interpretation (still valid in k-space, especially if we take the limit Loo). In the first part of the chapter, we shall attempt to assess the turbulence problem in the context of statistical mechanics. This will be done against the background of a summary treatment of the classical N-body problem. Then we shall give the functional formalism for turbulence, followed by a discussion of the criteria to be satisfied by a theory of isotropic turbulence.
Turbulent Diffusion: The Lagrangian Picture
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ability to disperse and mix added substances is one of the characteristic features of fluid turbulence. It is also an aspect which is of enormous environmental and industrial importance. In this part of the book, our attention will be concentrated mainly on the underlying phenomenon of the diffusive action of turbulence. Indeed, to be more precise, we shall be concerned with the subject of passive scalar convec-tion, where by ‘scalar’ we mean something like temperature or chemical species concentration and by ‘passive’ we mean that the added substance does not change the nature of the fluid to the point where the turbulence is appreciably affected. This subject can be discussed perfectly well in terms of a statistical formulation in adularia (laboratory) coordinate frame, and, in fact, will be treated in just this way in Chapter 13. However, several profound insights have been gained by working in Lagrangian coordinates and, for this reason, we begin by discussing turbulent diffusion from this point of view in the present chapter.
Turbulent Diffusion: The Eulerian Picture
Authors: McComb W D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall treat the diffusive and mixing properties of fluid turbulence in the same way as we have treated the random velocities, that is, by means of Eulerian fields. In this approach the marked fluid point will no longer be quite such a fruitful concept. Instead we shall be interested in the concentration field describing the distribution of the added substance, which is being dispersed from some initial location by the motions of the fluid. For example, we might be interested in the diffusion of heat from, say, a point or line source situated in a flowing gas or liquid, or we might consider the way in which common salt (in aqueous solution) spreads out when injected into a turbulent water flow (or the same problem for helium gas in air). Clearly, there are many such practical examples-indeed, all possible combinations of host liquid, added contaminant, form of source, and geometry of flow!
Three-Dimensional Flows
Authors: Bird G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Homogeneous (or zero-dimensional), one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and axially symmetric flows are idealizations and all real gas flows are threedimensional. In DSMC computations of the idealized flows with restricted dimensions, the other dimension or dimensions may be regarded as being so small that the statistical fluctuations correspond with those in the real gas. This is not possible in a three-dimensional flow and the number of real molecules that are represented by each simulated molecule (the parameter FNUM in the DSMC programs) must be regarded as a computational approximation. While this poses an ideological difficulty, it is the sheer magnitude of the computational task that is the most serious problem associated with DSMC computations of three-dimensional flows.
Apparatus and Procedures for Laboratory Tests
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The triaxial test apparatus has been widely in use for testing cohesionless soils in the laboratory under both monotonic and cyclic loading conditions. While there are several models with some variations in details, the basic design is the same as the conventional triaxial apparatus used for testing cohesive soils. In the conventional type developed in the UK, the rods or columns to support the top cap and piston are posted outside the triaxial cell. In this type, after the cap is mounted on top of the specimen, the cell, the top cap and the columns are assembled together and then the top cap is fastened to the column.
Settlement in Sand Deposits Following Liquefaction
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When saturated sand deposits are subjected to shaking during an earthquake, pore water pressure is known to build up leading to liquefaction or loss of strength. The pore water pressure then starts to dissipate mainly towards the ground surface, accompanied by some volume change of the sand deposits which is manifested on the ground surface as settlement.
Flow and Non-Flow Conditions and Residual Strength
Authors: Ishihara Kenji 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Flow-type failure has been known to occur in loose deposits of sandy soils when they are put into a steady state of deformation following the onset of liquefaction due to seismic shaking. For the flow-type failure to occur, it is necessary therefore, that the sand be loose enough to exhibit contractive behaviour during shear stress application. Under the usual range of overburden pressures around 100 kPa, there appears to be an upper limit in relative density above which there is practically no possibility for sand to become contractive and hence to be put in a steady state with a reduction in shear resistance. Conversely, if the sand exists with a relative density below this limit, the likelihood would be high for developing steady-state deformation and hence a flow-type failure. Such a limit may be properly expressed in term of any of the density parameters such as relative density. If these parameters are correlated with the penetration resistance of any sounding tests in the field such as the SPT or CPT, the limiting condition may be expressed alternatively in terms of a threshold value of the penetration resistance. In compliance with the limiting conditions or threshold values as above, there would also be an upper limit in the normalized residual strength. This aspect of the problem will be addressed in the following.
Mixing And Coalescence Phenomena In Liquid-Liquid Systems
Authors: Davies G A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The process of liquid-liquid extraction involves the contact of two partially miscible liquid solutions. These are not at chemical equilibrium so that one more component, solute(s) will transfer from one phase, the raffinate to the second phase, the extract. The maximum extraction of the solute will be achieved at a particular temperature if the two phases are allowed to come to chemical equilibrium.
Liquid-Liquid Partition in the Pharmaceutical Industry
Authors: Verrall Michaels. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Liquid-liquid partition is used by the pharmaceutical industry in a number of ways, some of which are entirely conventional while others have distinctive features. The former-for example the use of solvents to work up reaction mixtures-will not be discussed. This chapter will instead deal with the use of solvents in the isolation of products of biological origin, small scale biochemical applications which have interesting partition systems and selected chemically assisted extractions.
The Simple, Tubular Thermosyphon
Authors: Lock G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Newton’s law of cooling, in which the rate of cooling of a body is taken to be proportional to its temperature measured relative to that of the environment, is the first quantitative statement ever made about natural convection. Implicit within this law is the requirement that the heat transfer coefficient at the body surface be constant. Today, not only is it known that the heat transfer coefficient h is a function of the temperature difference θ, but it is also understood that the natural convective system established around the body is governed directly by this temperature difference. It is a commonplace observation that h∝ θn where n is a small positive fraction. Over a small temperature difference range this power law relation may be approximated by a constant.
The Rotating, Tubular Thermosyphon
Authors: Lock G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At first glance, it may seem that the replacement of gravitational acceleration by centrifugal acceleration is a minor change, and indeed it is often assumed that heat and mass transfer relations in a rotating field may be obtained from those in a uniform gravitational field by this simple substitution. As first-order approximations, the results are often useful but they cannot be expected to reflect with great accuracy the consequences of spatially varying centrifugal and Coriolis accelerations. In particular, it is often found that the Coriolis effect in a rotating thermosyphon plays an important role in the overall circulation pattern and heat transfer rate. In general, the vector addition of the centrifugal and gravitational accelerations produces a flow field which, at best, is steady but complex; at worst, it is transient, complex, and subject to instability.
Related Devices
Authors: Lock G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is evident from the material covered thus far that the tubular thermosyphon may be used in a wide variety of circumstances. Hopefully, the coverage will have led to an understanding of the device which is sufficiently basic and general to enable the reader to envisage other uses and other circumstances. Frequently, these will entail simple adaptation; no new ideas or principles will arise. Occasionally, however, the circumstances may be sufficiently unconventional to require modifications to the operating principles. This chapter is devoted to the main forms of modification, their physical basis, and the performance alterations which they introduce. A different operating principle, acting alone, implies a different device, and indeed the systems considered below are often regarded in that light. Clearly, the treatment of other devices in any depth is beyond the scope of this book, and the reader seeking a more detailed discussion of these must consult the appropriate references listed in the Bibliography. The following constitutes only an introduction devoted specifically to those devices which are related in application to the thermosyphon.
Thermal Properties And Thermal Failure
Authors: Lawton B , Klingenberg G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In scientific work, transient temperatures and heat flows are measured because they may help to confirm or enlighten our understanding of the process being investigated. The is also true in engineering. However, engineers have an additional need for such data because they may have to ensure that the components they are designing are capable of withstanding high temperatures and heat flows. It is, in fact, the temperature and heat flux that often limit the performance of engineering equipment. For example, the boost pressure, and hence the power output, of turbocharged diesel engines could be increased to values three or more times higher than at present. However, if this were done the pistons, valves, and other combustion chamber components would certainly overheat and fail. Thus progress in developing more powerful engines is controlled by the rate at which the thermal design of such components develops. Similar comments might be applied to aircraft gas turbines, rockets and satellites, steam power plant, refrigeration, X-ray machines, and many other devices.
Raman Scattering
Authors: Eremets M I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is difficult to provide an overview from the physical standpoint of the enormous number of Raman scattering studies performed under pressure. On the other hand, the experimental aspect seems too simple: only a slight modification of the optical scheme is needed to replace a sample by a high-pressure cell, especially by a small DAC. From this point of view Raman spectroscopy is one of the easiest high-pressure methods. However, there are many specific problems with weak scatterers and with studies in the megabar region.
Nano-forming or three-dimensional shaping systems and surface finishing systems
Authors: Taniguchi Norio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
High-precision machining using diamond cutting tools has been used in finishing of soft metals such as copper and aluminium, for which it is difficult to perform such machining by grinding, lapping and polishing. This diamond turning technique is finding wide application in the finishing of parts used in precision machines and optics such as information equipment, laser machining equipment, and space equipment. Ultra-precision machines have been developed for mirror-like surface finishing of precision parts and optics by the use of these diamond tools.
The Dynamics Of Heterogeneous Fluids
Authors: LOCK G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is devoted to the dynamics of heterogeneous fluid media under steady or quasi-steady conditions. It provides an exploration and, to some extent, a review of the various hydrodynamic phenomena which accompany phase change. The organization is based largely on observations commonly made during condensation and evaporation. While the accompanying fluid dynamic phenomena take many forms, they may be subdivided into two general categories: bipartitioned and dispersed. In the first of these, two continuous and homogeneous phases are separated by an extensive and continuous interface; this is typified by film condensation. In the second, one phase is continuous but the other is dispersed through it in numerous small pockets; a good example is provided by vapor bubbles during boiling. It is reasonable to expect that bipartitioned and dispersed systems will behave very differently. Sections 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 deal with the former while Sections 3.4 and 3.5 deal with the latter. Section 3.6 explores systems which combine the characteristics of both.
Condensation
Authors: LOCK G S H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now enter the first of two chapters dealing exclusively with vapourliquid transformations: condensation and evaporation. In an engineering context, condensation frequently occurs in the form of a liquid film, and consequently most of the discussion below is devoted to the dynamic behaviour of this film and its influence on condensation rates. Once a basic heat transfer model has been developed in Sections 5.1 and 5.2, the treatment is extended to include the important effects of surface geometry, vapour composition, and vapour motion, all referring to film condensation on an external surface in typical circumstances. Condensation inside tubes, which makes full use of the discussion of two-phase flow in Chapter 3, is treated separately. However, before attempting to discuss any of these situations, it is first necessary to explain the circumstances which lead to the creation of drops and films.
Physical basis of the plasma etching process
Authors: Sugawara M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Process engineers and scientists have used a confusing variety of terms to refer to processing at various working pressures. A brief commentary on these terms is appropriate at this point. Plasma etching is the practice of etching or gasifying substrate material in a plasma. Sometimes the phrase has been colloquially used to define etching at higher pressures, for example, at 13.3 Pa, where ion energies are often low. There is an innuendo that etching in this pressure range is done by neutrals, while etching at lower pressure is done by ions. This concept and usage is not right: because ions are rarely etchant, neutrals are responsible for almost all etching at pressures above about 0.13 0.66 Pa, and etching is done in a plasma over the entire pressure range.
Magnetic field coupled etchers
Authors: Fujita K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the present rapid growth of plasma processing techniques, the development of plasma sources is required, providing not only a large area plasma with high and homogeneous density at a low gas pressure but also plasma modified in its geometry to fit the shape of’ any particular substrate. Thus, the magnetic field plays an important role in achieving the plasma processing technique, unless the field is not considered to affect the quality of the film prepared.
ECR plasma etchers
Authors: Watanabe S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The density of VLSI (very large scale integration) has increased four-fold over the last three years. Drams (dynamic random access memory) are representative semiconductor devices; 64 Mbit Drams are mass produced, their minimum feature length being 0.35 μm. VLSI have a multilayered structure and their minimum feature length shrinks with high integration. Dry etching enables microfabrication with high accuracy to be performed and etching under low-pressure conditions can further aid this demand for accuracy. On the other hand, the diameter of Si wafers is becoming larger (advantageous from the viewpoint of production costs) and although 8-inch diameter wafers are generally used now, 12-inch diameter wafers will be used in the near future. In order to process the large wafer uniformly, dry etching apparatus has evolved from the batch type, which processes multiple wafers at the same time, to leaf type, which processes one wafer at a time. However, a high etching rate is essential to keep the throughput constant. Thus it has become one of the important technological challenges to generate high-density plasmas.
Introduction
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The primary objective in writing this book on practical Hot-Wire Anemometry (HWA) was to provide a reference textbook for the selection and use of the most appropriate hot-wire/film anemometry technique for different turbulent flow studies. This book has a logical framework, with simple principles and single-wire techniques preceding more advanced multi-sensor methods. It includes a relatively detailed discussion of the more common hot-wire/film probes and the related signal-analysis techniques, while shorter descriptions are given of more specialized HWA applications. A historical review of HWA has not been included since one has been written by Freymuth (1983a).
One-Component Velocity Measurements
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with the use of a single normal (SN) hot-wire or hot-film probe for measurements of the velocity component in the mean flow direction. The presentation will follow the step-by-step procedure out lined in Chapter 3, but in the case of an SN-probe some of the options are predetermined. For an SN-probe, the wire-fixed (x ‘, y ‘, z ‘) and the probe stem (X8, Ys, Zs) coordinate systems are often the same. If the probe-stem is aligned with the mean-flow direction, see Fig. 4.1, and if this orientation is selected as the space-fixed coordinate system then the analysis can be carried out directly in terms of the velocity components (U, V, W) in the selected space-fixed system. This probe-stem orientation and analysis pro cedure will be used below unless otherwise stated.
Temperature Effects: Correction Methods For Drift In The Fluid Temperature; Measurements Of Fluid Temperature Fluctuations
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many fluid flows the temperature of the fluid, Ta, may vary with time. This change may take the form of either a slow drift caused by, for example, electrical heat from the fan motor in a closed-loop wind-tunnel or as temperature fluctuations in a nonisothermal flow. In both cases the output voltage from a hot-wire placed in the flow will be modified by the variation in Ta. This chapter deals with (i) correction procedures for CT anemometer signals caused by drift in the ambient-fluid temperature, and (ii) measurements of the fluctuating ambient-fluid temperature,
Conditional Sampling Techniques
Authors: Bruun H H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Distinct flow events are found in many types of turbulent flows, and they can often be identified by a HWA sensor placed in the flow field. In some fluid machinery, these events will occur periodically, and a phase-locked ensemble-averaging technique can be used to extract the periodic signal component from the fluctuating signal; this is discussed in Section 11.1. Coherent flow structures have also been observed in many turbulent flows, but their developments are often random in both space and time. To identify these large-scale structures, special signal-analysis procedures have been developed and applied to hot-wire probes; this is described in Section 11.2.
Fundamentals of intensity-dependent phase phenomena for CW operations in waveguide circuits
Authors: Shvartsburg A B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theoretical analysis of non-linear integrated and waveguide optics is based on the solution of Maxwell’s equations for spatially localized fields. Realization of series of non-linear index-related effects is implemented by high intensity of the wave fields, achieved due to the localization of wave energy flow in guided systems. However, we may discuss the essential physics of some of these phenomena using the simple model of powerful plane waves in an unbounded homogeneous non-linear medium. Thus, the basic non-linear phase effects are described by means of this model. The task of this section consists in evaluation of energetic parameters and spatial scales of intensity-dependent phase phenomena within the scope of such a simplified approach.
Introduction
Authors: Kanatani Kenichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the aim, scope, organization, and style of this book. First, the historical background of machine vision research is briefly summarized, contrasting the emphasis of this book to traditional treatments. Then, the content of each chapter is summarized-computational projective geometry, translational motion, stereo, 3-D rotation, 3-D motion analysis, analysis of optical flow, analysis of conics, and statistical analysis of geometric computation. Finally, a short bibliography of general references is given.