bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dichotomy and Status: Leeds University Librarianship to 1934
Authors: Morrish P S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An academic library without an able librarian can readily sink into confusion, and a disorderly library helps nobody. It is particularly opportune to examine the librarianship of one of those English universities whose origin lay in the 1870s because accounts of these institutions, mostly published in official celebration of a centenary, normally refer proudly to their library buildings and book-stocks but tend to pay less attention to their librarianships. Of course, no claim can be made of any one university that it typifies all, yet despite some arbitrariness here in the choice of Leeds for examination, development of its librarianship nevertheless illuminates general points. The formative years of the librarianship at the University of Leeds extend up to 1934 when Senate admitted the librarian to its membership. Not only did that event mark an important constitutional change in relations between library and governing body, but also recognised the importance of a librarianship. The previous sixty years reveal tensions and arguments over the appropriate management of a university library, and over the role and status of its librarian. Primary sources for a study of this period are numerous though occasionally laconic, and include official papers and minutes, now preserved by the University of Leeds either in its Archives or its Brotherton Library. Various letters and diaries shed additional light, even waspish comment, as does a published essay on university librarianship by one of the protagonists. ‘
The Orb as the Symbol of the State in the Pictorial Cycle by Rubens Depicting the Life of Maria de’ Medici
Authors: Winner Matthias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 26 February 1622, Peter Paul Rubens entered into a contract with Maria de’ Medici, the mother of King Louis XIII of France. According to the terms of the agreement, the painter was to execute twenty-four canvases illustrating the ‘story of the life and heroic deeds’ of the queen mother for a gallery in her new Palais de Luxem bourg.’ In addition, pictures depicting the battles and triumphs of her murdered husband King Henry IV were to be painted for the corresponding gallery in the west wing of the palace. The contract refers to subjects which were agreed with Rubens during his four-week stay in Paris and which were recorded in a specific order on a list which is unfortunately lost. At that time the themes of nineteen pictures were specified for the queen mother’s gallery; a further five were to be sent to Rubens at a later date. In addition, all finished works were to be submitted to Maria de’ Medici for inspection, and she reserved the right to reject any painting she deemed unsatisfactory.
Visual Images of Papal Power: The Legitimation of Papal Power in the Thirteenth and Fifteenth Centuries
Authors: Danbolt Gunnar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The primary material for this chapter is the decoration of two rooms in Rome, one in the Capella di San Silvestro in the church of SS Quattro Coronati dated 1246, and the other in the Stanza dell’ Incendio in the Vatican, painted in the period 1514-17. We will not consider these two fresco cycles as aesthetic objects (even though they certainly are), but as historical documents from the past. As historical documents they may be used in several ways, depending on which questions one is seeking to answer.
Visual Ideas of Papal Authority: The Case of Bologna
Authors: Preimesberger Rudolf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The restoration of papal power based on territorial dominions was concluded in the period between the Councils of Basle and Trent.’ A number of factors contributed to this: first, the growing consolidation of the patrimony of St Peter which, since Nicholas V, tended towards a centralized state. A second factor was the very nature of papal rule as a political system sui generis, characterized by its unique voting system, and the continual integration of new families into central positions of power, resulting in the well-known phenomenon of nepotism. As a third reason the system of legates and vice-legates ad tempus for the important cities of the Papal State and the general tendency for papal administration to be dominated by clerics who formed a class of professional high functionaries should be mentioned. Finally there was the tacit renunciation of municipal rights by almost every single civitas within papal territory in the sixteenth century. Papal success in reducing urban autonomy is especially evident in the period from the capture of Bologna and the Romagna by Julius II to the seizure of Ferrara in 1598 by Clement VIII.
Beneath the Ceilings of Versailles: Towards an Archaeology and Anthropology of the Use of the King’s ‘Signs’ during the Absolute Monarchy
Authors: Sabatier G érard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The great political decoration, which flourished from the fifteenth century onwards on both the walls and ceilings of the apartments, galleries, and other ceremonial rooms in the palaces and dwellings of the princes, the merchant oligarchies, and those close to power, constituted the highest form of figurative state discourse. Even more than panel paintings, statues or equestrian groups, medals or engravings (which necessarily expressed a limited and specific message even though the extensive multiplication of referential ‘signs’ was a common amplifying method), sculpted or painted iconographical programmes, because they constituted a series, allowed for the articulation of an entire discourse in all its completeness and complexity. Because of the sumptuousness their size gave them, the luxury of the materials used, and the prestige of the place of exposition, these programmes were literally the highest expression of majesty.
The Renaissance
Authors: Grafton A T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thomas Smith jr. and Sir Humphrey Gilbert debated for Marcellus, Thomas Smith senior and Dr Walter Haddon for Fabius Maximus, before an audience at Hill Hall consisting at the time of me, John Wood, and several other gentlemen. At length the son and Sir Humphrey yielded to the distinguished Secretary; perhaps Marcellus yielded to Fabius. Both of them worthy men, and judicious. Marcellus the more powerful; Fabius the more cunning. The former was not weak, nor the latter imprudent; each as necessary as the other in his place. There are times when I would rather be Marcellus, times when I would rather be Fabius.
Virgil
Authors: Griffin Jasper 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of all Latin poets Virgil is unquestionably the most influential. In his lifetime he was recognized as the poet for whom educated Romans had been waiting (one thinks of the waiting, in the 1920s and 30s, for ‘the great American novel’): the writer who would raise Latin literature to an equality with Greek. He began by putting himself through a scrupulous poetic training, beginning with poems on a modest scale, based upon the work of a fairly recent Greek poet, and avoiding the attempt at the highest flights of style and subject-matter. That book of ten pastoral poems, the Eclogues, at once established Virgil as the poet of his generation, regarded by Horace as a friend and also as a respected model, and brought by his connection with Macccnas into close links with Octavian, the heir of Julius Caesar, soon to be the unrivalled ruler of the Roman world under the name of Augustus. Henceforth a note of Augustan propaganda was never absent from his work.
Pastoral
Authors: Jenkyns Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pastoral, said William Empson, is a process of’putting the complex into the simple’–perhaps the most famous of modern attempts to explain this curious genre in terms of its aesthetic or social function. This chapter is mainly concerned with a more humdrum task: to examine what actually happened, and to consider why pastoral exists at all, how it came into being, and how it has changed. The more we know about its odd and accidental history, the better we shall understand why it has been so various and elusive.
Ovid, Horace, and Others
Authors: Martindale Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gilbert Highet in The Classical Tradition argued that modern classical scholars, with their overspecialization and disregard for popularizing, had, to a considerable degree, been responsible for the decline in their subject. Whatever the truth of that, no one could ever have said the same of their Renaissance forerunners. Erasmus, greatest of the humanists and the foremost Biblical scholar of his age, was the educator of Europe and particularly of northern Europe; in golden words from Aubrey’s brief life, ‘he was the Prodromos [‘forerunner’] of our knowledge, and the man that made the rough and untrodden ways smooth and passable’. In England, under his influence, a fairly uniform educational system was put in place in the sixteenth century, based on the study of classical Latin, with the emphasis on literature, including poetry. It is fashionable in some circles to criticize this humanist education, and even to compare it unfavourably with the scholastic education it displaced.
“The Child is father of the Man”
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Stresemann opened an autobiographical sketch, which he wrote shortly before becoming chancellor in August 1923, by using Wordsworth’s words as an introduction to his early life. It was a typical literary touch, and he went on to explain that in his last year at school he had intended to study literature and history rather than, as later became his degree subjects, political economy and economics. Throughout his life he maintained his interest in literature and history, and sometimes regretted that he had not followed his first inclinations. The problem had been to know how he could combine them with a career. As he explained, in an essay about himself written when he was 18 as part of the school-leaving examination (Abitur), he would have liked to become a teacher, but because of the kind of school he had attended he would have been eligible to teach only modern languages or natural sciences.
“For the greater, freer Germany of the future”
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The two central themes of Stresemann’s political career before 1914, nationalism and liberalism, were both given new impetus by the war. The combination was expressed in the title he gave to a volume of his speeches in 1917, “Power and Freedom”. Like most Germans, Stresemann was convinced that Germany was not responsible for the war. He blamed it on the enmity of Britain for any power which was capable of challenging British mastery of the seas and her unique empire. Britain, he claimed, had forged the coalition of Continental powers which had fallen on Germany “like the thief in the night”, just as a hundred years before it had organized a Continental coalition against Napoleon. It followed for Stresemann that German war aims must include guarantees against the renewal of such a coalition in the future. That meant inevitably a “greater Germany” which could dominate the Continent, preventing a renewal of the Franco-Russian alliance, and also occupying the Channel ports as a deterrent against British attack.
Peaceful Revision in the Balance, 1927-1928
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“So there arises a double task for international politics and especially for German policy: the securing of a free Germany with equal rights and the inclusion of such a Germany together with all other states in a stable international structure. The last years of Stresemann’s life were dominated by disappointment and frustration. Peaceful revision, which had been so successful in the previous three years, came to a standstill in 1927-28. Hopes of a general settlement with France faded as Briand became increasingly evasive. In any case, a solution depended on the United States since the issues of Rhineland evacuation, a final reparations settlement, and war debts became linked, and no progress could be expected until after the American presidential elections at the end of 1928.
Conclusion
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“Only he who changes remains a kindred spirit.” Stresemann’s death came as a shock although he had been seriously ill for over a year and close to death for at least two months. The sense of shock was partly because he had been active until the end. It was also because he was widely seen as irreplaceable. Kessler noted in his diary, “It is an irreparable loss whose consequences cannot be foreseen.”2 Stresemann was given a state funeral, which has been described as “the last great ceremony of the Weimar Republic”.
Eighteenth-century Culture
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER, a teacher’s son in the Prussian town of Mohringen, swiftly exhausted the meagre intellectual resources available to him at home and in the local school. By the time he was ten or eleven he had begun to wander the streets looking for new books; when he saw one through a window, he would ask to borrow it at once. Towards the end of his life, when he was a venerable figure on the cultural scene, Herder told an audience of schoolboys how joyfully he recalled his earliest encounters with authors old and new: ‘Scarcely anything in later years matched this pleasure, this sweet astonishment.’ Since we live in a culture awash with printed matter, we may find it difficult to share that sense of awe and wonder that books produced in intellectuals of Herder’s generation. For them the written word was sacred. While Herder may have praised folk culture in his theories, the culture to which he belonged was the culture of print. For every hour he spent watching peasants dance and recording their songs, he spent thousands pouring over the latest publications, writing responses to what he liked or disliked, discussing what he had just read or written.
Culture in the Revolutionary Era
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ON New Year’s Day 1792, as the impact of the political revolution was just beginning to be felt east of the Rhine, Franz Dautzenberg, the editor of the Aachener Zuschauer, published an essay on ‘the spirit of our age’, which he defined as ‘the almost universal drive for a new existence’. There is hardly anywhere on earth, he went on, ‘where the disagreeable urge to change civil conditions has not expressed itself, either forcefully or hesitantly.’ Eight years later, a Protestant pastor greeted the new century with the same sentiments: ‘The unmistakable character of our era’, he told his congregation, ‘is the vital, free struggle for something new and better.’ In 1804 Hermann von Boyen, then a junior officer in the Prussian infantry, began his prize-winning essay on tactics by expressing the conviction that ‘the first, holiest law of the human spirit’ is ‘tireless progress’.In the last two chapters we have observed how, during the quarter century after 1789, a sense of political possibility quickened the blood of ambitious men throughout Europe, men eager to take advantage of apparently unprecedented opportunities for power, wealth, and glory. Innovation also was at work in some people’s private lives, which seemed to be charged with new, intensified feelings about love and betrayal, sorrow and joy, achievement and loss. At the same time, some people were moved by enlarged dreams of artistic accomplishment and cultural renewal. A young man like Hegel, who set out to grasp the meaning of th spirit’s journey from its creation to the present, was fired by aspirations no less extraordinary than those that drove an obscure Corsican subaltern to his own triumphs and defeats. From its most talented and energetic children, the age seemed to demand nothing less than greatness.
Restoration Politics, 1815-1830
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
N 1815 Heinrich Olivier, just returned from military service with the Free Corps, painted a picture celebrating the Holy Alliance formed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia. In the foreground of the painting stand the Emperors Francis and Alexander and King Frederick William, their hands joined in an expression of solidarity, which was meant to recall their common victory over Napoleon and to affirm their common stand against further upheavals. The sovereigns are dressed in the cumbersome ceremonial armour of the late Middle Ages, crusaders’ crosses adorn their cloaks, a heavy Gothic altar-piece stands behind them. Here Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant came together in an enterprise whose symbols evoked the Christian heritage they shared. Olivier’s Holy Alliance is not a very good painting, but it does exemplify the medieval idiom through which some people in restoration Europe tried to express their distaste for revolutionary change. Architecture and design, the settings of novels and the background of paintings, the subject-matter of historical monu¬ ments and the focus of scholarly research all reflected this fascination for the Middle Ages. To be sure, medievalism was sometimes merely a temporary refuge, an escape from contempor¬ary cares into the apparently more cohesive and peaceful world of chivalry and cathedrals. The fake castle built by William IX of Hesse-Kassel was supposed to provide an ambience in which such escapism might flourish, as was Franzenburg, constructed by the Emperor Francis outside Vienna. We probably should not make too much of these masquerades. But for some Europeans, the medieval world was more than a refuge; it provided a stardard against which current shortcomings might be judged, a set of symbols with which deep-seated longings might be captured, and a model of how society and culture should be organized.
The Growth Of Participatory Politics, 1830-1848
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN HIS introductory essay to the first edition of. the Staatslexikon (1834), Theodor Welcker described the contemporary period as a distinctively ‘political era’. Never before, he argued, had the ambitions of individuals and nations taken such a manifestly political form, never had the clash of parties so dominated people’s thought and action. Welcker was surely correct. During the 1830s and 1840s Germans’ interest in public affairs steadily increased. Political news, diluted but not destroyed by the censors, found its way into the daily Press; theories and opinions on political matters were expressed in lexicons and lecture halls, periodicals and public meetings. The social, literary, and scholarly institutions that sustained the public sphere extended their reach, diversified their functions, and deepened their social base. ‘All of human reality’, Julius Froebel believed, ‘is subsumed under the unity of politics’. Politics even threatened to permeate the private space of Biedermeier sociability: as one hostess complained in the 1830s, ‘The affliction of political conversation was no longer to be excluded from the drawing room’. The growth of participatory politics in the German states was part of the historical process set in motion by the great revolution¬ary upheavals of the late eighteenth century and furthered by the social, economic, and cultural developments we have considered in the preceding chapters. More and more Germans felt themselves to be part of this process, which brought to some the hope of emancipation and progress, to others the fear of chaos and destruction. But in addition to the grand drama of revolutionary change being played out on the European stage, everyday considerations also drew Germans towards public affairs.
Revolution and Reaction
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHY oo people rebel? Our instinctive answer is, because they find their lives intolerable. But this is obviously no answer at all: not only is it circular, it ignores the unhappy truth that, while intolerable conditions are common, rebellions are rare. Suffering alone is not enough; it is a necessary but not a sufficient cause for revolution. Before they rebel, those who suffer must believe, if only for a short time, that their rebellion will lead to a better life for themselves or their communities. Only in this belief can people find the courage to act, the strength to break the bonds of habit and run the risks rebellion inevitably involves. By itself, suffering will not provide this strength and courage; indeed, suffering is more likely to weaken and demoralize than to incite and inspire. Revolutions are rare because they require an unusual conjunction of suffering and hope, a sense of outrage and an act of faith. To understand the great mid-century revolutions, therefore, we must bear in mind not only the social and political crises that inflicted hardships on so many during the 1840s but also the sense of hope and possibility that simultaneously reverberated through¬ out Europe. Everywhere we look in 1846 and 1847 we find expressions of faith-in thespecial parliaments summoned by the kings of Wilrttemberg, Prussia, and Saxony, in the meetings of professional groups and scholarly societies, in cafes and taverns, city halls and bureaucratic offices, lecture halls and students’ rooms.
Culture in the Age of the Bürgertum
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
OUR day’, wrote Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl in 1851, ‘the Burgertum unquestionably possesses overwhelming moral and material power. Our entire era has a burgerlich character.’ Riehl believed that the Burgertum was the epitome of modern society; other groups were no more than ruined residues of a bygone age. And he knew that, as usual, this social fact was reflected in the way people talked about their world. ‘Now we speak of burgerlich honour, burgerlich death, where once we had spoken more generally of social honour, social or political death. Instead of speaking of members of the state, current usage takes the most significant part for the whole and refers to Staatsburger.’ Riehl himself acknow¬ ledged the Burgertum’s universal significance when he entitled his study of contemporary society Die burgerliche Gesellschaft. Riehl’s perceptions cut against the grain of conventional histori¬ ography, which emphasizes how the political failure of German liberalism was connected to the social and cultural failure of the German Burgertum. According to this view of the nineteenth century, burgerlich elements in the German lands were either too weak or too self-serving to assert themselves against the forces of reaction.
The University of Prague, Czech Latin Schools, and Social Mobility 1570-1620
Authors: Pešek Jiří 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last decades of the sixteenth century and the early ones of the seventeenth century are usually treated as an inglorious period in the history of Prague University. It is often argued-mainly on the basis of nineteenth century historiography-that the instruction provided paid little attention to the practical needs of early-modern society and to contemporary progress in the natural sciences. The University, it is claimed, played no part in the generation of novel ideas and concepts and its curriculum and organization remained wedded to a medieval tradition. The list of charges could go on. But it is advisable to raise the question whether these charges are justified or whether they are anachronistic in light of the historical role of the University in the decades before the outbreak of the Thirty Years War. Most of these charges might also be levelled against other universities and academies in neighbouring countries of the time, whose structures resembled those of Bohemia and where the role of institutions of higher education was similar. We should rather consider the performance of the University and the municipal Latin schools with which it was closely associated from the position of what people at the time expected of higher education. The present paper concentrates on one aspect of the social history of the University during this period: the career opportunities for the University's graduates who came from relatively humble backgrounds.