bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Professionalization, Organization, and Control
Authors: Collins Michael , Baker Mae 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The demise of private commercial banks and the emerging dominance of large-scale banking companies were major factors in the professionalization of banking. From the banks’ perspective, growth in the size of individual banks—in the business being conducted and in the number of staff employed—necessitated radical changes in their methods of maintaining control over the quality of their products and (given that the nature of their business involved the handling of other people’s money) over security. This chapter examines such changes from two different, but interrelated, perspectives: the professionalization of banking, and the development of internal controls on the lending process.
The Nature of Commercial Banks’ Industrial Loans
Authors: Collins Michael , Baker Mae 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This, and the following two chapters present empirical results on the nature of the relationship between commercial banks and industrial customers, results which are based on archival research. In assessing the significance of our findings to the historical debate over the role of banks in British economic development—and, indeed, to the debate about the relative merits of British and continental banks—we believe it will be useful to keep in mind the discussion in Chapter 3 on transaction banking. It was argued there that, in theoretical terms, transaction banking was one rational approach that could be adopted by banks in coping with difficulties of asymmetric information, problems of adverse selection, and dangers of debtor default—all inherent hazards for creditors when making loans to the industrial sector. A transaction banking approach would seek to limit costs incurred in the screening and monitoring of business loans and would try to maintain the liquidity of the banks’ loan books in a banking system with large-scale deposit liabilities subject to little or no notice of withdrawal.
Business Clients’ Financial Distress
Authors: Collins Michael , Baker Mae 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the nature of bank support during the most adverse of conditions facing industrial firms. It presents the results of an empirical analysis of the reactions of the English commercial banks during episodes of financial distress suffered by their industrial clients. We are concentrating on such episodes for what they reveal of the two central, interrelated features of bank-industry relations in the pre-1914 period: the screening, monitoring, and control procedures adopted by the banks for industrial loans; and the nature and extent of bank–client commitment in difficult times. In particular, we believe an examination of bank behaviour during such periods of financial distress will provide a further means of identifying the limits to which English commercial banks were prepared to support industrial firms.
We have emphasized throughout the book that a fundamental uncertainty in bank lending concerns the possibility of borrower default, and how a bank can safeguard its own (or more strictly its depositors’ and shareholders’) money.
Conclusion
Authors: Collins Michael , Baker Mae 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book we have made an explicit attempt to bridge the divide that is often all too apparent between, on the one hand, grandiose hypotheses about the relationships that are said to have existed between finance and industry in the late Victorian and Edwardian world and, on the other, the results of detailed business histories of British enterprises. Often empirical verification of such hypotheses—to the extent that it is attempted at all—is of a general nature only; and, where more specific research into banking or industrial business history has been undertaken, the historical data and results have been somewhat piecemeal. This study has tried to sharpen the focus by looking at just one core financial institution and, at the same time, to deepen the empirical basis of that investigation.
Causation
Authors: Weir Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Damages are due to the victim only if the harm was due to the tort-feasor. The harm must be the effect of the defendant’s misconduct. Causation must be established. Insurance companies certainly have to pay for losses which they haven’t caused, but that is because they promised to pay if such losses occurred. Likewise, the social security office must pay the statutory invalidity benefit, though the state didn’t invalidate the recipient, but that is because the statute so provides. But you cannot claim damages from a defendant in tort unless he is responsible for the loss in question, and he is not responsible unless he (or someone for whom he must answer) can be said to have been a cause of the loss. As we have seen, a defendant is not liable in negligence if his conduct was reasonable, or if he was under no duty of care, but even a flagrant breach of duty will not render him liable unless that breach played a part in the occurrence of the harm of which complaint is made. Thus an employer who was clearly in breach of his duty to make safety belts available to his employees was not liable for the death by falling of a steel erector who would certainly not have worn a belt had one been dangled in front of him (the problem arising if he might have worn the belt but would probably have chosen not to is considered later).
Vicarious Liability
Authors: Weir Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although most torts are committed by individuals, almost all damages are paid by companies, usually employers or insurers: individuals are rarely worth suing unless they are either employed or insured. Insurance against liability is compulsory for motorists and also, in respect of injury to their workforce, for employers. This deals with two of the main sources of tort claims, traffic, and industrial accidents. Furthermore, people often take out liability-insurance of their own accord and for their own protection: employers generally have insurance against liability to the public, and many householders have policies which cover them and sometimes also the members of their household against liability to third parties. This helps to explain the frequency of claims under the Occupier’s Liability Act 1984. There is one important distinction between employers and insurers as regards their liability: whereas the employer can be sued directly at common law and his liability is regarded as part of tort law, the victim has no common law claim against the tort-feasor’s insurer and has a statutory claim only if he has first obtained judgment against the tort-feasor himself. The insurer’s role is consequently often overlooked.
Nuisance
Authors: Weir Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The tort of trespass vindicates rights, as we have seen, and the tort of negligence offers damages as compensation for harm. The tort of nuisance does both: it can be invoked whether you are complaining that a fire from next door destroyed your house or that the noise infringes your right to sleep. This dual role does not make nuisance any easier to under- stand, given that rights must be protected even if no damage has been suffered and no fault committed, whereas harm is generally compensable only if due to fault of some kind. Accordingly, the question whether liability ‘in nuisance’ is strict or not is one which can be endlessly and pointlessly debated.
Defamation
Authors: Weir Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is sometimes useful to consider tort cases in the light of the relative values involved. When the law imposes liability on a person, it normally does so because it places a lesser value upon his activity, or his method of conducting it, than on the interest of the victim affected by it: the liberty of the arrested suspect or peace-breaker yields to the proper enforcement of law and order, whereas the security of the vulnerable pedestrian on a marked crossing is regarded as more important than the motorist’s interest in belting down the road in his metal carapace.
Economic Torts
Authors: Weir Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen that if purely economic harm is unintentionally caused, the victim has considerable difficulty in obtaining damages ‘in negligence’, at any rate as compared with the claimant complaining of injury to person or property: while one is certainly under a duty to respect the integrity of one’s neighbour’s body and property, there is in general no liability for merely unreasonable conduct which causes harm to his pocket only. But what is the law to do when the economic harm is intended by the defend- ant, or virtually certain to occur as a result of his deliberate conduct? The question of policy is not easy to answer. On the one hand, it seems morally objectionable to wish to visit harm of any kind on a fellow citizen, yet on the other, the economic field is one where liberty of action may well conduce to the public good, and practical considerations suggest moderation in constraining it by too ready an imposition of liability. It is therefore perhaps unsurprising that in English law the answer is far from simple.
Not Universalists, Not Pluralists: The New Cosmopolitans Find Their Own Way
Authors: Hollinger David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within the past five years, a host of initiatives in critical and democratic theory have been launched under the old sign of cosmopolitanism. The symposium, ‘Cosmopolitanism Then and Now’ published in a recent issue of Constellations (March 2000) is but one of a flurry of relevant happenings in the quarterlies. The Partisan Review and Dissent printed ringing cosmopolitan manifestos from two continental theorists, Pascal Bruckner (1996: 242–4) and Ulrich Beck (Beck 1999a: 53–5), and the American Literary History published a state-of-the-art essay on cultural theory declaring that cosmopolitanism was the concept now replacing multiculturalism in the work of the most methodologically up to date and ideologically self-aware of literary scholars (Pattell 1999: 166–86). Public Culture has devoted an entire issue to cosmopolitanism (see Pollock et al. 2000).
Solution is the problem: a story of transitions and opportunities
Authors: Angell Ian O , Ilharco Fernando M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a well-known maxim that solutions create more problems than they solve. On balance, after more than three hundred years of positivism, we are left with a world marked not by solutions but by problems. In this chapter, we confront this state of affairs head on, arguing that the real problem of our times is not problems as such, but solutions. We claim that many tenets of current mainstream thinking about organizations, and about IT /IS, cannot stand up to rigorous scrutiny.
Re-constructing information systems evaluation
Authors: Smithson Steve , Tsiavos Prodromos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within organizations, information systems evaluation is a key part of IS investment decisions, for example in deciding whether to go ahead with a particular project, or to modify or scrap a development. The evaluation becomes a basis for comparison with other projects, both inside and outside the organization. With increasingly large investments, these become decisions with significant financial implications. Moreover, such decisions can have significant implications for both groups and individuals within the organization. People’s careers or working lives, or a group’s command of resources or status, may be contingent on the evaluation of a particular information system.
The Impact Of Unincorporated Human Rights Treaties
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
See also D Debenhams, M Hunt and M Taggart, ‘The Principle of Legality in 2.10 Administrative Law: Institutionalization as Constitutionalizing’ (2001) 1 OUCLJ 1 and K Knop, ‘Here and There: International Law in Domestic Courts’ (2000) 32 NYU Journal of international Law and Politics 501.
The Right To Marry And To Family Life
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Bellinger v Bellinger [2002] 2 WLR 411 the Court of Appeal confirmed that a 13.05 ‘marriage’ between a man and a woman who was born a man is not a valid marriage. See also W v W(Physicality-sex) [2001] 2 WLR674.
Freedom From Discrimination In Relation To Convention Rights
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Direct discrimination. In Khan v Chief Constable of Yorkshire [200 I] ICR 1065 17.13 the House of Lords overturned the decision of the Court of Appeal. Where victimization is concerned, the question is: was the treatment afforded to the victim ‘by reason that’ the complaint had been brought? The reason for not providing a reference was the legal advice given which said that it would not be appropriate where the Chief Constable was in litigation with the complainant. The House of Lords accepted that where the reason for the refusal was the need on the part of the Chief Constable to preserve his position pending the outcome of the litigation,
Electoral Rights
Authors: Clayton Richard , Tomlinson Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 establishes an 20.04A Electoral Commission whose function it will be, after each election (whether in UK or Europe) or referendum, to prepare and publish a report on the administration of the election or referendum. The Commission is also empowered to report to the Secretary of State on an interim basis on the registration of political parties and the regulation of their income and expenditure; political advertising; the redistribution of seats at parliamentary elections; and other such matters relating to elections and referendums as the Commission decides.
‘With Axe Large And Gory’: The Wartime Nation And Class
Authors: Rose Sonya O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The war years were indelibly etched by the interplay of two seemingly opposite tendencies. There was, on the one hand, the dynamic unleashed by a powerful fantasy of national cross-class unity, coupled with the belief that the war was or would be a levelling influence. And, on the other hand, there were persistent expressions of class antagonism. This combination of desire for singularity and incessant conflict contributed to an unprecedented focus on the deep rents in the social fabric produced by economic inequalities. This chapter will suggest that discourses about the nation as one in which sharp class differences were vanquished through a united war effort fed heightened sensitivity on the part of the British public to issues of economic and social inequality.
Temperate Heroes: Masculinity On The Home Front
Authors: Rose Sonya O 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In contrast to the persistent public expressions of anxiety about femininity and how women might change as a result of their wartime experiences, only rarely was ‘ manliness’ or ‘manhood’-masculinity, as such-the focus of debate and scrutiny. Public attention was directed to the cultural meanings of manhood only when something happened that challenged deeply held and taken-for-granted ideas about male-female differences.1
Governing from the Centre
Authors: Hayward Jack , Wright Vincent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two leading authors challenge the assumption that France has a well coordinated government. The constitutional, political,and policy frameworks of coordination are critically assessed in relation to the central actors and spending ministries, as well as the formal and informal mechanisms of coordination. Four case studies are examined; the European Union, budget, privatization and immigration policy processes. The book concludes with forthright findings on a fragment executive struggling to steer a disparate and partially paralyzed institutional structure. The research findings offer precise cautionary recommendations to policy makers against the dangers of overconfident recourse to 'joined up' government. The findings are relevant, not merely to France, but generally to Western states more generally.
Third Move: Connecting Sites
Authors: Latour Bruno 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is not the ‘Tortoise and the Hare’ fable rather like that of the ‘Ant and the Hare’ story? One character jumps, runs, leaps, slumbers, wakes up, and summersaults, so sure he is of winning the race and snatching the prize. But the other one never sleeps. He trudges along, masticating endlessly; he allows himself no break in digging around minuscule galleries, the walls of which are nothing but clay and saliva through which he travels back and forth. And yet is it not fair to say that the Ant, much to the hare’s great surprise, is going to win? By sticking obstinately to the notion of a flatland and by inserting clamps every time there is a temptation to take three-dimensional shapes for granted, we have been highlighting types of connections that had no recognizable existence before—even though everyone felt they had to be there.
What is a Share?
Authors: Ooi Maisie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is evident from the earlier chapters that the conflicts analysis of share transactions cannot be adequately addressed without taking a step back, and considering what a share actually is. The problem with shares is that it seems so obvious what a share is that rarely have courts or textbooks attempted to put a definition to it. Investors, be they investment banks or housewives, seem all too familiar with them, and courts dealing with disputes arising from share transactions usually seem able to make decisions tolerably well without separately considering what shares are.
Analysis of Choice of Law Approaches for the Indirect Holding System
Authors: Ooi Maisie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Various theories have been advanced as to the conflicts treatment of transactions under the indirect holding system. Most of them are derived from, or are applications or extensions of, the law of the situs (lex situs) rule. Amongst those who have been most actively and publicly addressing the issues, the prevailing opinion today is that the law of the relevant intermediary should govern. Closer examination of their writings discloses that they do not present a unified front with respect to the theoretical basis for the approach.
Assignments and Collateralization
Authors: Ooi Maisie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the choice of law treatment of transactions on the indirect holding system in their practical settings. Specifically the chapter considers the choice of law options of the law of the relevant (immediate) intermediary and the law under which the thing was created (lex creationis), and the settings in which they are tested are, first, the basic assignment (which can underlie an outright transfer or a transfer by way of collateral) and, secondly, four collateral arrangements which are typical settings for collateralization under the system. Collateralization is also said to give rise to special problems of choice of law like perfection and recharacterization, and these are also considered in this chapter.
Information Asymmetry, R&D, and Insider Gains
Authors: Aboody David , Lev Baruch 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Researchers have documented that ‘corporate insiders’, defined by the 1934 Securities and Exchange Act as corporate officers, directors, and owners of 10 per cent or more of any equity class of securities, gain from trading in the securities of their firms. However, the specific sources of information leading to insider gains in particular and to information asymmetry in general have not been comprehensively investigated. An identification of the sources of insiders’ information contributes to our knowledge in various ways.
The Stock Market Valuation of Research and Development Expenditures
Authors: Chan Louis K C , Lakonishok Josef , Sougiannis Theodore 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The market value of a firm’s shares ultimately reflects the value of all its net assets. When most of the assets are physical, such as plant and equipment, the link between asset values and stock prices is relatively apparent. In modern economies, however, a large part of a firm’s value may reflect its intangible assets, such as brand names. Under generally accepted US accounting principles, many types of intangible assets are not reported in firms’ financial statements. When a firm has large amounts of such intangibles, the lack of accounting information generally complicates the task of equity valuation.
Challenges From the New Economy for Business and Financial Reporting
Authors: Upton Wayne S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This Special Report examines the much-heralded new economy and some implications for business and financial reporting. There are hundreds, if not thousands, of articles, studies, and consultants’ reports that discuss the new economy, intellectual capital, and intangible assets. Most decry what they consider accounting’s failures, and many offer (usually proprietary) solutions.
Explaining the Bargaining Impasse: The Role of Self-Serving Biases
Authors: Babcock Linda , Loewenstein George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of the social utility paper (Chapter 7) was to uncover some of the major psychological causes of failures to resolve disputes. I went into that project thinking that the major source of nonsettlement of disputes was the great antagonism that arises between negotiators. However, the social utility functions we observed were seemingly quite benign. As long as their payoffs didn’t fall below those of the other side—as long as they stayed clear of the region of disadvantageous inequity—people seemed to be quite content to get what was coming to them in fact, even willing to give part of their payoffs to the other side. Based on that paper alone, one might think that most disputes would settle amicably (and perhaps most do).
Anomalies in Intertemporal Choice: Evidence and an Interpretation
Authors: Loewenstein George , Prelec Dražen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper was written during the academic year 1988/89, when Dražen Prelec and I were both fellows in residence at the Russell Sage Foundation. Before we spent the year there together I had only met Dražen once—at a memorial conference for Hilly Einhorn—and I recall that we didn’t hit it off. I think that there was some kind of implicit competition between us because we are similar on so many dimensions. We are both tall and dark-haired, got our PhDs at the same time, and interviewed for the same two jobs, one at Harvard Business School and the other at the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business. Fortunately, we each got one of the jobs, and fortunately for me I got the one I was better suited for.
Preferences for Sequences of Outcomes
Authors: Loewenstein George F , Prelec Dražen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dra˘zen and I started this paper during our year at the Russell Sage Foundation. Looking back, I realize that when we started working on the project we didn’t really know what it was about. I have notebooks full of the diverse, exploratory, questionnaires we administered that year wherever we could find subjects: parks, airports, on the train between Manhattan (where Dra˘zen and I were living) and Stonybrook (where my wife had an academic position), and in one case on a flight to Chicago (where I still had an academic appointment at the time). I passed out questionnaires to everyone in the plane, but when I went to collect them the flight attendant noticed, notified me that I had broken the law, and informed me that that the captain would meet me at the front of the plane when we landed. She then collected the surveys and brought them into the pilot’s cabin, and I spent the rest of the flight in trepidation.