bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gender
Authors: Macaulay Ronald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most languages (but not all) have systems of noun classes that are usually known as genders. The gender of a noun affects the ways in which its relationship with other items in the utterance are marked. One is these is through agreement. For example, in French there are two genders, masculine and feminine. As might be expected, words referring to males are masculine and those referring to females are feminine. However, all nouns must be either masculine or feminine, so, for example, livre (“book”), garage (“garage”), and cheval (“horse”) are all masculine, while table (“table”), maison (“house”), and vache (“cow”) are all feminine. The gender of the noun affects the form of other items in the utterance: The definite article is le in the masculine and la in the feminine, and the adjective is petit in the masculine and petite in the feminine. (The spelling difference indicates a difference in pronunciation; in the feminine the final [t] is pronounced but not in the masculine).
The Lute In Britain
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lute was one of the most important instruments in use in Europe from late medieval times up to the eighteenth century. Despite its acknowledged importance, this study is the first ever comprehensive work on the instrument and its music, apart from performance studies or bibliographical and reference publications. The book focuses on the lute's history, but also contains chapters on the lute in concert, lute song accompaniment, the thearbo, and the lute in Scotland. Written for the music student, the serious listener, the player, maker, and lute enthusiast, Spring makes available for the first time over 40 years of musical scholarship previously the preserve of academic journals.
The Lute in Consort
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The great majority of surviving lute pieces from England are for the solo lute, yet this may not reflect the lute’s common use, and its role as a consort and accompaniment instrument may be no less significant. During the Middle Ages it was mainly used to play single lines, and combination with another instrument or instruments, or a voice or voices, may have been the norm. Once technique had changed to allow a single player to add a harmonic support to the melody line, the lute became a leading solo instrument. Solo music apart, the instrument’s new capacity to play chords and polyphonic lines enhanced its suitability as an accompaniment instrument. Indeed the lute, in the form of the theorbo or archlute, was still in use for this purpose until the eighteenth century, long after solo music had ceased to be composed in Britain.
The Decline of the Lute in England after 1660
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Old Dowland he is Dead; R. Johnson too; Two Famous Men; Great Masters in My Art; In each ofThem I had more than One Part, Or Two, or Three; They were not Single-Soul’d, As most our* Upstarts are, and too too Bold. Soon after Them, that Famous man Gotiere Did make me Gratefull in each Noble Ear; He’s likewise gone: / fear me much that I am not Long-liv’d, but shortly too shall Dye.
Postscript
Authors: Spring Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book was written in the last decade of the twentieth century, a century which witnessed a gradual revival of interest in and understanding of the lute, in contrast to its obsolescence in the century before. This took place in the context of a revival of early music in general. Since the 1960s there has been a successful revival of the lute with centres of activity established across the globe. New technology has meant that the real costs of printing short-run editions in the form of new tablature or facsimile has plummeted such that even more obscure lute music can be made available to those who are interested. There are now significant organizations and even internet sites and e-mail discussion groups dedicated to the lute and its music, and it is fair to say that it has reclaimed an identity that was almost completely lost in the nineteenth century. Britain’s part in this renaissance has been considerable. The south of England in particular has as high a concentration of lute players and makers as anywhere in the world, and London is arguably the performance capital of the lute world. England can boast some two dozen fully professional lute makers, and there is now in place a younger generation of players who developed their skills on dedicated courses at London conservatories, many without ever having studied the classical guitar. Indeed if the guitar was their starting point, it is as likely to have been electric or folk guitar. British composers as diverse as Alan Ridout, James Erber, Stephen Dodgson, and Howard Skempton have also produced a number of new lute works, inspired or commissioned by today’s professional players. The break with the past is that these composers arc not themselves lute players, as was the norm for lute composers of old.
The Poverty Bomb
Authors: Dowbiggin Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the 1950s dawned, the sterilization movement in America faced a grim future. The death of Robert Latou Dickinson, in 1950, was a blow to the movement, but its members remained intent on attracting respected health-care professionals with a view toward greater medical acceptance of sterilization in the coming years. The mainstreaming of Birthright, mirrored in its 1950 name change to the Human Betterment Association of America (HBAA), gave movement members hope that partnerships could be formed with other, less controversial birth control organizations.
Jericho
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like the siege of Troy, the siege of Jericho is the subject of much speculation over the recorded source (which was written after a significant amount of time had elapsed) and the archaeological evidence. Although the details of the biblical account of the fall of Jericho are much sketchier than the extended srory of Troy told by Homer, modern evidence unearthed at Teles Sultan (the modern site of ancient Jericho) gives a greater substantiation to the Hebrew-Canaanite battle. According to the Holy Bible, the Hebrews left Egypt in a massive exodus, probably around 1446/1445 B.C. (The exodus, too, is a matter of great debate, but not precisely relevant to the events at Jericho.) After a forty-year tour of the Arabian desert to weed out those deemed unfit for entrance into Canaan (the Hebrews’ Holy Land), the people of the twelve tribes of Israel approached their target. Their first battle was with the Amorite kings Sihon and Og, whose forces they obliterated. That victory gave them clear access to the Jordan River north of the Dead Sea for their crossing. They easily crossed the Jordan owing to an earthquake that blocked the riverbed upstream. (Similar blockages have been recorded in later accounts, as in 1267 during Sultan Baybars’ campaign against the crusaders and in 1927 when archaeologist John Garstang was excavating in the region.) The timing of the earthquake certainly must have had a positive psychological effect on the invading Hebrews.
Syracuse
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Early in the third century B.C. the reigning power in the western Mediterranean was References: Brian Caven, The Punic Wttrs (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980); T. A. Dorey, and D. R. Dudley, Rome against Carthage (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1972); Gilbert Charles Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (New York: Taplinger, 1969); Plutarch, Makers of Rome, trans. Ian ScottKilvert (New York: Penguin, 1965).
Alesia
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar entered into a political alliance with the two most powerful men in Rome, Crassus and Pompey, forming the “Triumvirate.” The three ruled the Roman Republic together while at the same time each tried to maneuver himself into a position of dominance. In order to do this, wealth and political influence were necessary, but military experience and army support were vital. Crassus had experience, making himself famous by crushing the Spartacus slave uprising. He then assumed the governorship of Syria so he could gain more laurels and wealth in a war against the Parthians. He died trying. Caesar took the position of governor of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul (northern Italy and southern France), where he hoped to gain the military and financial power he needed. References: Julius Caesar, War Commentaries of Caesar, trans. Rex Warner (New York: New American Library, 1960); Will Durant, Caesar and Christ (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944); Christian Meier, Caesar, trans. David McLintock (New York: HarperCollins, 1995 [1982]); Donald O’Reilly, “Besiegers Besieged,” Military History 9, no. 6, February 1993.
Masada
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conflict between imperial Rome and Palestine was probably inevitable, given the Jewish belief in a single God versus the polytheism of Rome. though Roman practice was to allow fairly wide autonomy in conquered provinces, the rise of the emperor cults flew in the face of Jewish beliefs. Disbelieving in Juno, Hera, Apollo, and the rest could be allowed, but not rejection of the divinity of the emperors such as Caligula and Vespasian. The placing of idols in sacred areas of Jerusalem, along with the appointment of less-than-tolerant procurators, provoked a rebellion among the Jewish population of Palestine. This grew stronger when an ambush of Roman legions in the Beth Horan Pass northwest of Jerusalem gave the Jews an overly optimistic view of their chances against Rome’s might. Just as Jews around the world for centuries dreamed of “next year in Jerusalem,” so did Masada take on special meaning once the State of lsrael was created in 1948. It came to represent to Israelis not a symbol of suicide and futility, but of resistance at all costs to anyone who would again occupy their land. In impressive ceremonies on the mountain stronghold, members of the Israeli Defense Forces today swear to defend their homeland, to experience death before dishonor.
Constantinople
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Constantine the Great established the city of Constantinople as his capital in 323. In doing so, he occupied the former city of Byzantium, which for centuries had controlled the straits separating Asia and Europe. The Sea of Marmara is flanked northeast and southwest by the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, two narrow straits linking the Mediterranean and the Black seas. Unless one goes completely around the Black Sea, the passage from Europe into Asia Minor is across one of those straits. Therefore, Byzantium/Constantinople/Istanbul has been an extremely strategic possession for both land and naval warfare, as well as over-land and maritime trade. As Rome faded and Constantinople rose in power, it became the seat of the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire. Muhammad the Prophet founded Islam in Arabia in the seventh century. Claiming his divinely inspired teachings, the Koran, to be the successor to the Bible and the fulfillment of God’s plan for humanity, he spread his faith by both ptoselytization and warfare.
Hsiang-Yang
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Sung dynasty in China succeeded the T’ang dynasty in 960. They came to control territory stretching from modern Manchuria to the northern borders of Vietnam and westward a thousand miles from the China Sea. In 1127 the Jurchen Mongols conquered the northern lands, so the Sung dynasty concentrated their authority in richer southern China, building a new capital city at Hangchow, at the mouth of the Yangtze River. The southern Sung dynasty was something of a golden age in China, as expanding trade routes brought immense wealth. They reintroduced Confucianism, which had been losing popularity to Buddhism and Taoism. That led to a new form of bureaucracy, with examinations on Confucian principles being the basis of gaining a position in the civil service, a practice maintained until the twentieth century. Hsiang-yang; in 1271 he declared the beginning of the Yuan dynasty. Although it proved relatively short-lived, Kubilai’s government was not without positive accomplishments. Realizing the superiority of Chinese administration over that of the traditional Mongol state, he adapted his government to that of the conquered. The efficient civil service remained in place and the trade routes that they had used were reopened. Kubilai’s dynasty permitted the uninterrupted flow of Chinese culture and bureaucracy, and gave to it a unified empire larger than it had ever encompassed. Kubilai’s successors ruled badly and quarreled among themselves. A rebellion in 1368 chased the Mongols westward past the Great Wall and founded the Ming dynasty. The enlarged territory that Kubilai left to China remained for the most part the China that exists to this day.
Calais
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Anglo-French conflict that came to be called the Hundred Years War was based on rival claims to land and leadership. The death of Charles VI of France in 1328 left a void in the French monarchy. The Capetian dynasty had ruled most of France since 987, but there was now no direct male heir. The best legal claim came from Edward III of England, grandson of Philip the Fair (1285-1314), but the French nobility could not conceive of a foreigner as king. Instead, they chose Philip VI Valois, ending the Capetian dynasty. Edward resisted this choice, not only because he wanted the throne for himself, but also because he was technically a vassal of the French king. Since he controlled some territory in France, he might be called on to obey his liege lord with actions detrimental to England. Further, the French had supported the Bruces of Scotland in their struggle for independence from the English. Finally, England coveted Flanders, nominally under French control but tied to England via the wool trade. Add to all this the traditional dislike the French and English have always harbored for each other, and war seemed inevitable.
Orleans
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Jeanne led an attack on Paris, also held by Burgundian forces, although she heard no voices directing her to do so. She was wounded in the leg during the fighting and Charles ordered a retreat. After the disbanding of his army, only a few hundred men of Jeanne’s personal unit campaigned with her in 1430, and their numbers were too few to accomplish the heavenly directives she received. She fell prisoner to the Burgundians and Charles refused to ransom her. Sold to the English, she was tried as a witch. The trial was a sham that resulted in her execution at the stake on 30 May 1431. In spite of the stacked deck against her, the prosecution could find not one witness to speak against her. Jeanne d’Arc is better known outside France by her English appellation Joan of Arc. Much about her short life and career, although well-documented, remains mysterious. What caused the voices she heard and the bright lights that accompanied them, which only she could hear and see? Whatever may be the actual cause, the heavenly explanation is the only one that matters. Everyone in France knew of her voices, but in a time of religious intolerance of anything uncommon, she convinced experts and lay people alike that she indeed was blessed. A population newly emerged from the horror of the Black Death and intent on following God’s will saw her as a divine emissary. Clad in a white-enameled suit of armor, riding a white horse, carrying a white and blue banner emblazoned with two angels and the words “Jhesus Maria,” called La Pucelle (the Virgin) by her troops-everything about her spoke of holiness. For a citizenry that had believed only a miracle could rescue France, she filled the bill. Nothing else explains why hardened veterans would not only follow her into combat, but also accept without complaint her demands that they neither curse nor whore.
Vienna
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Just as the weakened condition caused by Byzantine-Persian hostility had opened the door for Islam to break out of Arabia in the seventh century, Europe in the 1520s presented to a potential outside aggressor a wonderful opportunity. It was political rivalry in Europe that made the Continent susceptible. King Francis I of France and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, argued and fought over land that today is the Franco-German frontier, as well as control over northern Italy. France had a powerful military based on artillery and heavy cavalry. Charles, as head of the Habsburg family, controlled not only the Holy Roman Empire (which consisted of Austria and parts of whatever countries bordered it) but also Spain, whose military power was based on the tercio, a phalanx of pikemen supported by smaller contingents of soldiers each armed with the arquebus, a matchlock musket. Against these formations cavalry made no impression, as France discovered when the two armies met at Pavia in northern Italy in 1525. Francis not only was defeated, he was taken prisoner. During and after his captivity he plotted revenge and pondered on possible allies. Charles was enjoying his military success, but was bothered by Pope Clement VII. Although technically the Holy Roman Empire was the defender of the Catholic Church, just who was the senior partner had been a point of contention since Charlemagne took on the job in 800. Clement resented Charles controlling so much of Italy, since before his accession to the papacy Clement had been the wealthy and powerful Giulio de Medici. Thus, Clement’s attitude toward Charles translated into a lack of political and religious support in dealing with the rise of the Protestant Reformation. Thus, Charles had his hands full with rivals in Rome and France, and in his own backyard.
Boulogne
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 and within two years began making war against France. The continental gains made by previous kings had gradually slipped away until England controlled nothing more than the port city of Calais. Henry made war against France irregularly over the course of his reign, usually because the French gave support to Scottish independence movements. In 1513 Henry crushed the French at the battle of the Spurs outside Therouanne just as his subordinate, the earl of Surrey, similarly routed a major Scottish army in northern England at Flodden Field. That double victory allowed Henry to spend some time dealing with domestic matters, but in 1522 he was back in France. Little was accomplished other than ravaging the countryside, and in 1523 a sick and demoralized army returned to England.
Chitorgath
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1192 the forces of Islam under the leadership of Muhammad of Ghor established the Mogul dynasty in the wake of their victory at the second battle of Taraori (Tarain). The Hindus had dominated India since the days of the Gupta Empire after Alexander the Great’s failed invasion in the fourth century B.C., and they still maintained a strong presence on the subcontinent. The strongest, numerically and militarily, were the Rajputs, of modern Rajasthan. The were what later came to be called one of the “martial races” of India, with a strong military aspect to their entire society. Their military prowess had made them for a time the dominant group in northern India, but that came to an end after Taraori. The strongest cities in Rajputana were at Chitor and Ranthambhor, where the most imposing fortifications were built. Chitor GaTh (a fort) for centuries was considered the most impregnable fortress in India, and in the sixteenth century it was under the control of the powerful Sesodian clan. Unfortunately for the Rajputs, the Sesodians were at midcentury ruled by a weak raja (king), Udai Singh II.
Antwerp
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the end of the four-year grace period Parma allowed the Protestants, almost all of them had left for the northern states. Primarily merchants, they left when the blockade strangled the city’s trade, as well as to exercise their own religion. Antwerp’s loss proved Holland’s gain. “The peace and order which Parma gave to [the states of] Flanders and Brabant very much resembled the stiffening of death. On the other hand all the best vital forces of the Netherlands people drew together in the small area north of the rivers” (Gey!, The Revolt of the Netherlands, p. 201).
Kinsale
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The roots of Anglo-Irish rivalry go back, according to mythology, to prehistory. In historical times, it began in the twelfth century with the Norman invasion of Ireland after the heirs of William the Conqueror had established firm control over England. Ireland remained a vassal state of sorts until 1541, when Henry VIII named himself king of Ireland as well as England. Over the next five decades an English administration slowly tried to exert its control over a population that it at once despised and feared. Strict English control was limited to an area known as the Pale along the eastern coast, but “beyond the Pale” the remainder of the island was deemed savage. In the 1570s the English began to spread from the Pale into the remainder of the country and to meet resistance when the earl of Essex began pacifying Ulster with extreme brutality. Not until the 1590s, however, was any effective and organized resistance mounted. The primary leader of the Irish was Hugh O’Neill, earl of Tyrone in the northern province of Ulster. He had been raised in England and brought up Protestant, as a member of the English army he had campaigned in Ireland. In 1585 he acceded to the earldom and maintained fairly close relations with Queen Elizabeth’s government, but in 1595 began a guerrilla campaign against the English forces in Ireland and in 1598 was declared a traitor when he led Irish forces to a victory over the English at the battle of Yellow Ford. His chief ally was “Red Hugh” O’Donnell, earl of Tyrconnel on Ulster’s western coast.
Osaka
Authors: Davis Paul K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tokugawa had attempted to curb the power of the nobles, called daimyo, by obliging them to leave their castles and spend half the year in residence at the capital city of Edo, modern Tokyo. This allowed him to keep an eye on any possible resistance movement while forcing the daimyo to spend so much money on two residences that they would be unable to afford to raise troops in revolt. The strategy was only partially successful. In 1614 young Toyotomi Hideyoshi began renovations to both his castle and to a badly damaged shrine. The Great Buddha had been partially destroyed by an earth-quake in 1596, and when Hideyori completed the restoration he installed a large bell at the accompanying temple. On it were written two phrases: “May the state be peaceful and prosperous” and “In the East it greets the pale moon, and in the West bids farewell to the setting sun.” In the first phrase, the ideograms for ie and yasu appear. The second phrase seems to indicate that Tokugawa’s residence, in the east at Edo, was of less importance than the eastern Toyotomi residence at Osaka Castle. Tokugawa viewed both of these as insulting and tension began to grow. The daimyo who had been on the losing side at Sekigahara began to gather forces at Osaka. Also, ronin (masterless samurai, or what would be called in the European feudal system “free lances”) began to join the coalition against the shogun. Among these ronin were many who had converted to Christianity, a religion Tokugawa despised. By November 1614, over 113,000 men were gathered at Osaka Castle, and Tokugawa was not about to let their number expand any further. He gathered together a reported 194,000 troops and marched for Osaka.