bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Living Environment
Authors:   Rutherford
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There are millions of different types of individual organisms that inhabit the earth at any one time-some very similar to each other, some very different. Biologists classify organisms into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups on the basis of similarities and differences in their structure and behavior. One of the most general distinctions among organisms is between plants, which get their energy directly from sunlight, and animals, which consume the energy-rich foods initially synthesized by plants. But not all organisms are clearly one or the other. For example, there are single-celled organisms without organized nuclei (bacteria) that are classified as a distinct group.
Historical Perspectives
Authors:   Rutherford
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To observers on the earth, it appears that the earth stands still and everything else moves around it. Thus, in trying to imagine how the universe works, it made good sense to people in ancient times to start with those apparent truths. The ancient Greek thinkers, particularly Aristotle, set a pattern that was to last for about 2,000 years: a large, stationary earth at the center of the universe, and-positioned around the earth-the sun, the moon, and tiny stars arrayed in a perfect sphere, with all these bodies orbiting along perfect circles at constant speeds. Shortly after the beginning of the Christian era, that basic concept was transformed into a powerful mathematical model by an Egyptian astronomer, Ptolemy.
Common Themes
Authors:   Rutherford
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Any collection of things that have some influence on one another can be thought of as a system. The things can be almost anything, including objects, organisms, machines, processes, ideas, numbers, or organizations. Thinking of a collection of things as a system draws our attention to what needs to be included among the parts to make sense of it, to how its parts interact with one another, and to how the system as a whole relates to other systems. Thinking in terms of systems implies that each part is fully understandable only in relation to the rest of the system.
On Display In Weimar (1897-1900)
Authors: Gilman Sander L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As already mentioned, I came to Weimar for a visit in the fall of 1897. It was my first meeting with Nietzsche’s sister, who tried to make my stay in Nietzsche’s house as pleasant as possible in every way by her cordial, amiable manner. Located on a hill above the city in elegant seclusion and presenting an open view in all directions, this villa stands in a suitable location for the purpose it is supposed to serve. I saw Nietzsche for the last time in this house, which was prepared for him and his works. His own rooms were located on the top story, separated from the others and from the Archives. There, most cleverly, all conceivable arrangements were made for his physical well-being; there he was nursed unselfishly for years by faithful sisterly love.
Other Applications of Nonlinear Pricing
Authors: Wilson Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Product pricing is one of several applications of the basic principles of nonlinear pricing. This chapter reviews briefly a few other applications, some of which reveal additional motivations for using nonlinear schedules. These applications have the common feature that the population is diverse, reflecting private information about preferences or technology. The tariff, price schedule, or other incentive scheme promotes efficiency partly by eliciting this information indirectly as revealed by the behavior it induces. The principles of Ramsey pricing provide a unifying framework to derive characterizations of efficient incentive schemes.
“At Peace with All Kings”
Authors: Hatley Tom 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
DURING the late 1750s, South Carolina and Virginia still vied for Cherokee alliance. And this competition for Cherokee sympathies snugly fit tribal notions of diplomatic relations, which thrived on pluralism. Often there was no united Cherokee policy, only an addition of reactions at the local level, where the bottom line was town politics. Thus, when Tistoe, the Wolf of Keowee, met a Catawba on the trail who inquired of his home, asking “what nation we were,” Tistoe answered simply, “of Keowee.”1 Accordingly, the Cherokees were guided in their dealings with the English by a basic rule of diplomacy—which treated the English colonies as separate but equal political entities—afforded the same privileges and considered vulnerable to the same hostilities as any tribe or village with which they had dealings. When a Cherokee head-man addressed Lt. Governor Dinwiddie in 1756, he was not overawed by the status of Virginia as a colony. Instead he was careful to pause in the talk to note that “The Governor of Virginia’s Thoughts are good, so likeways are the Governor of Chota’s.”
The Whig Indian War of 1776
Authors: Hatley Tom 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
BY the spring of 1776, whatever Whig hopes had ever existed for continuing peaceful relations with the Cherokees had been abandoned. 1 At a meeting at Fort Charlotte in Georgia in April the Whig Indian Commissioners unsuccessfully attempted a last-ditch reconciliation.2 After the meeting, the most frightening of old rumors, that “whenever any one of the southern colonies shall be attacked on the Sea Coast, they [the Cherokees] will attack the same province on the frontier,” took on an air of reliability.3 And once again, there was evidence that slaves were taking the rhetoric of freedom seriously.4 During the Stamp Act crisis in 1765, slaves applying the egalitarian rhetoric of the Whigs to themselves had been heard in the streets “crying out Liberty.” In South Carolina in August 1775 a free black, Thomas Jeremiah, was “hanged and burned” in Charlestown after being accused of distributing arms for the British navy, and a more widespread rebellion surfaced in Pitt County, North Carolina. There were suggestions of backcountry tribal plotting in intercepted letters, some counterfeited by the Whigs.6 Only a few months earlier, the British had also aroused concerns in Charlestown. The Snow Campaign had been waged while the royal governor, fearful of mob violence, was ensconced off-shore in Tamar, escorted by its sister ship Cherokee.1 The Whigs could not have failed to find the ship’s name unsettling.
“Shame on Them” The Decline of Cold War Pageantry
Authors: Fried Richard M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
By the late 1950s the public support for American cold-war pageantry was subsiding. In the 1960s the consensus from which that support sprang also ebbed. American enthusiasm for thick pageantry, for suffering pretended perils, had always had narrow boundaries. Mosinee became dim memory, not common practice. Those who craved counterfactual play might throw themselves into civil-defense activities. Interest in recurrent observances like Loyalty Day and Armed Forces Day declined too.
The Company Town in Scandinavia
Authors: Brunnstrom Mats Ahnlund Lasse 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
“You should see to it that you make your first mistakes and gain your first experiences far away from home.” These words of advice were given to one of Sweden’s best-known architects as he was about to enter upon his professional career. The idea of free and uninhibited experimentation has been closely connected with the building of company towns, especially during the first few decades of this century. Several young architects achieved fame through their design in remote resource based company towns. This chapter discusses the Scandinavian company architects and their successes and failures, and places the company towns in historical perspective. The Swedish company STORA, founded some seven hundred years ago, claims to be the oldest limited-risk joint-stock company in the world. We cannot vouch for the truth of this claim, but Scandinavia undoubtedly has had a long tradition of building by companies (Fig. 3.1).
Company Towns of Chile and Argentina
Authors: De Koch Olga Paterlini 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The urbanization of many Latin American countries was a response to special industrial activities that occurred during the second half of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth. Company towns were founded to process sugar, tannin, nitrate, and meat—the more significant exports. Although developed with variations in different Latin American countries, such as Chile, Argentina, and Brazil, the planning and architectural features that identify company towns were similar to those found in Europe and the United States. Many company towns remain active, although they have lost some of their economic and social importance. Workers and their families have migrated to larger cities to look for better jobs. Residential layouts often did not take into account traditional customs and social relationships, and those who worked in company towns had to accept a company-imposed routine and pattern of living.
Ethical Issues in Exposing Children to Risks in Research
Authors: Brock Dan W 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A widespread consensus exists in our society that competent individuals should not be used in research without their informed and voluntary consent. This consensus is expressed in a number of authoritative documents such as the Nuremberg Code (see Appendix B) and the Helsinki Declaration (see Appendix C), in the bioethics and legal literature, as well as in federal regulations governing all parties receiving federal funds for research. Institutional Review Boards within health care institutions monitor compliance with this requirement. Children, on the other hand, are presumed to be incompetent to consent or refuse to participate in research, and so if they are to participate in research they must be protected by means other than their own consent. This chapter explores some of the ethical issues raised by the participation, and more specifically the placing at risk, of children in medical and other research.
Negotiating Accession
Authors: Jarausch Konrad H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The transition to unity aroused widespread anxiety. Conservatives could not wait to get rid of the hated GDR, but leftists wanted to slow the merger with the West in order to cushion the shock. On June 17 the Volkskammer and the Bundestag met to commemorate the 1953 uprising and ponder the appropriate way to proceed. Praising the civic revolution, Protestant church leader Manfred Stolpe warned that it would take time to unite the estranged parts. Even if their “differences no longer divide, unification will become more difficult if they are not taken into account.”1 An impatient German Social Union (DSU) disregarded this advice and demanded that the GDR join the FRG “on this very day.” Caught by surprise, Prime Minister Lothar de Maiziere refused to be stampeded in the ensuing Volkskammer session. “First we must negotiate another not inconsiderable state treaty” so as to create a legal framework for the merger of East and West Germany. “And then the two-plus-four process will have to reach a result acceptable to all sides.” Since daunting domestic and diplomatic problems had yet to be resolved, the speed and shape of unity depended on the completion of these tasks.
Introduction Spawning Ground: Gold War Culture
Authors: Anderson Terry H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In January 1960 Tom Mathews was running for president of his high school class in California. His campaign slogan, he admitted, was not inspiring: “Vote for Tom-He’s a Real Good Guy.” “That’s the way we were,” Mathews reminisced, the “first stirrings of the ‘60s were innocent. Around my high school, guys were still padding the halls in saddle shoes and humming ‘Sh-Boom.’ A nice girl was a virgin who didn’t smoke cigarettes. Ideology? No one had even heard of it. There were no issues. We were suspended closer to the Age of Sinatra than the Age of Aquarius.”
The Struggle
Authors: Anderson Terry H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Al Haber, Bob Ross, Sharon Jeffrey, and Tom Hayden were friends at the University of Michigan. They met regularly to discuss books and ideas. Early in 1960 they were considering holding a conference on civil rights when, as Hayden later wrote, the “historic events of the decade unexpectedly began.” On the afternoon of February 1, four black students at North Carolina A&T College walked into the local Woolworth’s in Greensboro, North Carolina. Two of them bought toiletries and then they all walked over and sat down at a lunch counter reserved for whites. When a white waitress approached, Ezell Blair, Jr., ordered: “I’d like a cup of coffee, please.” The waitress answered, “I’m sorry. We don’t serve Negroes here.” That was the typical answer throughout the South, and then blacks left. This time, they remained. Blair continued: “I beg to disagree with you. You just finished serving me at a counter only two feet away from here.
The Players
Authors: Clark E Culpepper 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Spring 1953 promised a new era for the University of Alabama. As usual, the azaleas around the president ‘s mansion bloomed crimson and white, while towering oaks feathered green. The board of trustees announced that the university ‘s next president would be the most distinguished educator the state had ever produced. Oliver Cromwell Carmichael, president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and chairman of the Board of Trustees for the New York University System, was at age sixty-one returning to his alma mater. The student newspaper happily predicted “an era of recognition of the University ‘s true worth to the state and to the South.” Before Carmichael, the university had been served by a series of capable, and occasionally interesting, presidents. But they performed in another time.
Interlude
Authors: Clark E Culpepper 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Four hours north of Tuscaloosa, through Alabama ‘s coal country and into the rolling Tennessee Valley, lies the battlefield of Shiloh, a place of tranquil beauty and profound introspection. That bloodiest two-day fight of the Civil War, which raged on the Tennessee-Mississippi border, forms a metaphorical backdrop for the confrontation in Tuscaloosa. The clash between good and evil in 1956 was indeed like the two 1862 armies stumbling upon each other before either was prepared to fight. The resulting battle staggered both sides. In 1956, the forces of desegregation, soon to be irresistible in their national armor, were met by an angry foe, determined to maintain by massive resistance its regional prerogatives.
Three to Make Ready
Authors: Clark E Culpepper 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Like spiny-finned pilot fish swimming with sharks, certain people can always be found around trouble. On March 8, 1963, former Major General Edwin A. Walker and his spiritual accomplice, the Reverend Billy James Hargis, came to Birmingham ‘s municipal auditorium to rally white citizens behind the mayoral candidacy of Bull Connor. General Walker ‘s mind worked tortuously with all the demons of America ‘s radical right. Under duress, he had commanded the paratroopers who executed Eisenhower ‘s orders at Little Rock.
The Secularization of Time and Play
Authors: Sommerville C John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Historians have had to abandon their assumption of the uniformity of time when dealing with early modern societies. We learn, rather, to think of our ancestors as living―or just existing―from one holiday festival to the next. Whatever else the “work ethic” may mean, it has made us think of the hours spent at work as more real than holidays. This has taken a revolution in thinking, and the revolution had happened in England by 1739. That was the year that a puzzled Thomas Gray described his experience in Italy: “Carnival lasts only from Christmas to Lent; one half of the remaining part of the year is passed in remembering the last, the other in expecting the future Carnival. “Like Gray, we are offended at the thought of peasants gorging and swilling at certain times instead of spreading their meager provisions and pleasures more evenly through the year. But it was not just that they lacked the means of preserving food: holiday, with its excess and entertainment, arrested work time much as eternity suspends the temporal. Inebriation was a foretaste of heaven.
The Secularization of language
Authors: Sommerville C John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Nothing makes Shakespeare seem more dated than his constant recourse to swearing, cursing, calling the powers of heaven to witness―a hundred times or more in the course of a play. Characters cannot get through a speech without cluttering it with at least an “i’faith” or “ud’s pity.” We race through this as so much filler because we have no sense of the holiness which forms its background; with the decline of the holy there has been a corresponding decline of “profanity.” By the 1690s already, swearing was in sufficient disrepute that the Societies for the Reformation of Manners actually hoped that they might be able to drive profanity out of public life altogether. The fact that swearers were not eligible for poor relief gave these societies some leverage. They were encouraged by legislation going back to 1606 that forbade profane oaths on the stage. Granted, the societies were ridiculed at the time, but that they existed at all would have seemed incredible just a century earlier. The notion that swearing was antireligious in and of itself would have been just as surprising.
The Secularization of Scholarship and Science
Authors: Sommerville C John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One might expect to find the secularization of thought treated prominently among the causes of a more general secularization. Studies which treat any decline of religion as the result of new trends of thought concentrate on the areas which we are only now considering. But this chapter and the next are largely concerned with the results of the larger process. The secularization of historical scholarship, social thought, political theory, natural philosophy, and theory of religion came so late in our period as to suggest that they were responses to the earlier developments that we have considered. Some of the new ideas of the period are of interest only to the intellectual historian, as showing when they were possible. Our emphasis will be on the ideas that were prevalent or under general discussion. Many works of an intrinsic interest and of importance to the long-term development of our philosophical tradition were not yet widely known or accepted. So we will look for the reaction to Hobbes, for example, as much as at Hobbes himself.
War and Expansion, 1916—1925: Tribes, Rulers, and the British
Authors: Kostine Joseph 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
From 1916 to 1918, the Saudi chieftaincy of Najd was involved in conflicts in two main arenas, which consisted of tribal rivalries prompted by economic and strategic changes that took place during the Great War. The aim of this chapter is to trace the chieftaincy’s involvement in these two areas from a passive strategy to an active one of war and expansion. From this process, the territorial basis of the modern Saudi state evolved.
The Struggle Over Internal Consolidation, 1917-1930
Authors: Kostine Joseph 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The factors that resulted in the forging of a Saudi conquest movement were not in themselves adequate to produce an enduring, organized state. The strategems that helped the state expand did not suffice for its consolidation. On the contrary, they constituted a hindrance to state building; expansionary tactics had to be abandoned, adapted, or transformed in order to construct institutions that would sustain a durable state. The aim of this chapter is to examine how state building evolved beyond the early stages of the expansion ist period and how more effective mechanisms for a state were developed. The inherent conflict between the processes of conquest and internal con solidation was pointed out by Ibn Khaldun. He argued that the kin-based, power-oriented cohesion of tribes (‘asabiyya) leads them to victory over their rivals and to territorial expansion. After this occurs, the ruler attempts to establish a strong government to meet the challenges of the new realm by bypassing his former tribal comrades, who have become a burden to the new regime, and by establishing an organized, urban-based administration.1 Two factors account for this dialectical process. The first is the fact that a state’s priorities change. During the conquest, a chieftaincy thrives on expansionist abilities and a fighting comraderie, which is more than adequately provided by the tribal structure. But the legacy of the conquest is one with which nomadic tribes are not equipped to deal: The realm became an extended one with varied populations that have to be integrated. The economy needs to be altered and internal calm has to be achieved so that the new, expanded realm can be consolidated.
Understanding Jewish Communal Involvement: Theoretical Issues and Policy Implications
Authors: Tobin Gary A , Berger Gabriel 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Organizational structure is one of the most distinctive features of American Jewish life in the contemporary era. No other diaspora community rests on an institutional network of such breadth and scope that involves so many individuals as either members, professional staff or volunteer leaders. Not surprisingly, participation in Jewish organizations is assumed to be a critical factor in ensuring continuity of the community. The assumption is that Jewish organizations not only facilitate social contacts but also generate further ties and networks among Jews, in addition to socializing and educating them in various aspects of Jewish life.
Romance in Philadelphia 1760-1788
Authors: Nagel Paul C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Alice Lee Shippen happily received her youngest brother Arthur upon his arrival in America late in 1780. It seemed natural that he should seek her for consolation. Alice was the nearest to a mother Arthur could re member after the death of his parent, Hannah, in 1750. Even at age forty, a little boy peeped from Arthur’s correspondence with Alice. He would implore “dearest sister” to choose a wife for him, so long as the selection was “young, beautiful, and good.” On his return from Paris, Arthur took from his sister what he most needed: words of praise. Alice liked to say how much she admired her youngest brother “as the citizen and the patriot.” She spoke scathingly of the sinister “villains,” led by the despised Benjamin Franklin, who, she charged, had so cruelly mistreated Arthur.
“The World Seems Crazy”: 1780-1797
Authors: Nagel Paul C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Alice’s seclusion at Mount Peace occurred at the same time her brother William struggled with his own enforced retirement. He and his wife Hannah had remained in Europe when Arthur sailed for America. They did not wish to expose their children to a wartime voyage home. There were now three youngsters: William, Portia, and Cornelia. A second son, Brutus, had recently died. The last birth had been that of Cornelia. With her arrival, Hannah’s difficult childbearing days ended at age forty-three.
Farewell to Stratford: 1787-1829
Authors: Nagel Paul C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Light-Horse Harry Lee left a record with some redeeming features. Compassionate friends remembered his brave Legion in the Revolution. Others recalled his plea for the federal Constitution’s adoption, or his stirring eulogy of George Washington. Unfortunately when Harry’s son Henry Lee died, in 1837, there was nothing edifying in his past. This grandson of Colonel Phil and son of the Divin Matilda at Stratford earned a derisive title as “Black-Horse Harry Lee.” His family called him Henry.