bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Helm Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The importance of climate change is now widely accepted. From being a research topic, it has moved to the political stage, and while most politicians have yet to see it as a ‘greater threat than weapons of mass destruction’, the main political parties of almost all developed countries have accepted that emissions of greenhouse gases will have to be curbed to avoid serious climate change. What is less widely accepted is what needs to be done. Policies remain largely ad hoc, focusing on energy efficiency, renewables, and, in some countries, nuclear power and clean coal. To support these, a host of measures has been introduced, ranging from carbon and energy taxes, emissions trading schemes, and subsidies, to obligations to purchase selected technologies, tax concessions, and R&D expenditure. These policies are intended to achieve aspirations, targets, and, for those countries that have signed up to the Protocol, the Kyoto caps. The relationship between the measures and the objectives is, at best, poorly defined, and many of the aspirations and targets not very credible. In the case of Kyoto, only one or two countries in Europe are on track, and there are no serious penalties for those who fail. In the wider scientific context, the gulf between the scale of the problem and current objectives and measures is enormous. Scientists suggest that, with emissions now at around 370 parts per million (ppm) of carbon dioxide (CO2), relative to around 250 ppm before the Industrial Revolution, the aim should be to stabilize at around 550 ppm rather than permit a business-as-usual scenario of around 750 ppm during the course of this century. David King, in chapter 2, sets out the rationale for this view.
Climate-change Policy: A Survey
Authors: Helm Dieter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Climate change presents a challenge to policy-makers of an altogether different kind to the day-to-day business of intervention in the economy to correct market failures. It is characterized by major and multidimensional uncertainties (in the science, the economics, and the politics), it is an externality created by almost all production and consumption, and it requires international cooperation on an unprecedented scale. Arguably, there is no other economic problem on this scale—save perhaps the related one of population growth. Furthermore, while economic analysis focuses on changes at the margin, many argue that the consequences of climate change may be anything but marginal. Climate change is likely to have a massive impact on biodiversity, it may alter oceanic currents, and it may displace whole populations and significantly reduce the economic prospects of our grandchildren. Unsurprisingly then, the usual economists’ toolbox looks puny against the scale of this challenge, and will require very considerable review and development. There will be no easy read across from existing economic theory and empirical evidence to policy. Just as the experience of the unemployment of the 1930s required a reinvention of much of macroeconomics, climate change will need new thinking, too. Environmental economics is in its infancy.
The Social Cost of Carbon
Authors: Pearce David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) sets targets for the industrialized countries to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases by the period 2008–12. Analysis of the Protocol, the refusal of the USA to sign it, and the subsequent revisions to the Protocol in later Conferences of Parties, suggest strongly that the Protocol will secure little or no change in rates of global warming (see the chapter by Böhringer in this volume). Accordingly, if global warming is to be tackled, ‘Kyoto 2’, ‘3’, etc. need to be developed very soon. Debate surrounds the reasons for the highly probable failure of Kyoto to be environmentally effective (for an excellent discussion see Barrett, 2003a), but the low participation rate in the agreement can in part be explained by individual countries’ assessments of the costs and benefit to them of compliance with the targets. Certainly, the USA's stance can be explained by (a) a perception that the domestic costs of compliance are high, (b) recent work suggesting that the benefits of control are very low for the USA (see Mendelsohn and Neumann, 1999), and (c) the realization that future agreements will require significant side-payments to developing countries to bring them ‘on board’ with the Protocols. The new Bush Administration is unlikely to ratify the Kyoto Protocol and the US position on climate change, therefore, depends considerably on potential political changes within the USA and the success of other countries in meeting the Kyoto targets without significant economic disruption.
Carbon Trading in the Policy Mix
Authors: Sorrell Steven , Sijm Jos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Climate policy is relatively immature but growing rapidly in scale, scope, and complexity. In particular, the Kyoto mechanisms have created a unique international framework for market-based regulation which is stimulating the development of greenhouse-gas emissions trading schemes at the regional, national, and international level. The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is the most significant of these developments and will cover some 45 per cent of EU carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from 2005 onwards (CEC, 2003a). As climate policy develops, so the number of policy instruments grows, together with the potential for interaction between these instruments. This interaction can be complementary and mutually reinforcing, but there is also the risk that different policy instruments will interfere with one another and undermine the objectives and credibility of each. Furthermore, the unprecedented scope of the climate problem means that climate policy also interacts with a range of other instruments in the areas of energy, environment, transport, trade, fiscal, technology, agricultural, and social policy. These interactions are likely to have a determinate impact on the success of climate policy in general and on the development of emissions-trading schemes in particular. But despite this, the topic of policy interaction remains under-researched. With a few notable exceptions (Smith, 1999; Johnstone, 2002; Egenhofer, 2002), the majority of the economics literature confines itself to the study of individual instruments in isolation.
Fiscal Interactions and the Case for Carbon Taxes over Grandfathered Carbon Permits
Authors: Parry Ian W H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Economists have long recognized that the welfare effects of environmental and other regulatory policies depend on how they interact with distortions in other markets of the economy (e.g. Lipsey and Lancaster, 1956; Harberger, 1974). One market that is particularly large (around three-quarters of GDP), and badly distorted at the margin, is the labour market, where income, payroll, and other taxes combine to drive a large wedge between the gross wage paid by firms and the net wage received by households. Yet, prior to the 1990s, there had been very little analysis of how interactions with the labour market might change the welfare effect of environmental policies, and regulatory policies more generally. In the early 1990s, economists, grappling with ways to combat the emerging possibility of global warming, began to emphasize that large welfare gains could be realized from using the revenues from carbon taxes to reduce taxes that distort factor markets (e.g. Pearce, 1991; Repetto et al., 1992; Nordhaus, 1993b; Oates, 1993). It was suggested that carbon taxes could yield a ‘double dividend’ by reducing emissions and the costs of pre-existing tax distortions at the same time. The idea that ‘revenue recycling’ might keep the overall economic costs of carbon taxes small, or even negative, was particularly appealing as it suggests that the policy is worthwhile, despite considerable controversy over the benefits from slowing atmospheric accumulation of greenhouse gases.
Credible Carbon Policy
Authors: Helm Dieter , Hepburn Cameron , Mash Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most developed countries have adopted targets for the reduction of carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions. Some of these are aspirational, some are recorded in voluntary international agreements, others have the force of law and are enshrined in national legislation. That CO2 emissions should be reduced is now largely accepted: how such reductions might be achieved is still a matter of controversy and debate. The case for using market-based instruments is well known and increasingly accepted by government. The instruments under active consideration are emissions-trading schemes and carbon taxes. The former focuses on quantities—which are the variables that lend themselves to international agreements; the latter on price—lending themselves to revenue raising. Such instruments are typically effective in the medium to longer term. In the short run, demand for carbon-creating activities, such as electricity generation and transport, tends to be inelastic, and supply tends to be linked to fixed, sunk, and lumpy capital stocks. To reduce carbon emissions requires both adjustments on the demand side and in non-carbon supply technologies.
Private International Law
Authors: Butler William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the conventional understanding many chapters of this volume would fall within the traditional scope of private international law. Here, however, we use the expression as employed in Part Three of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, with minor adjustments.
Section VI of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation is principally concerned with what in the Anglo-American family of legal systems is called conflicts of law; that is, conflicts rules or more general norms which do not resolve conflicts issues, but nonetheless ensure the application of conflicts norms. Although not an exhaustive codification of these rules, Section VI of the Civil Code does constitute the principal statement of conflicts law in the Russian Federation
Technology Licensing and Article 82
Authors: Anderman Steven D , Kallaugher John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discussion above has focused on the application of Article 81 of the EC Treaty—the prohibition on agreements or concerted practices that restrict competition. The economics-based ‘new paradigm’ for application of competition law that is the focus for this work has thus far primarily concerned application of Article 81 and the Merger Regulation. Article 82—the provision in the EC Treaty that covers abuse of dominant position—has so far remained an outpost for the ‘Ordoliberal’ form-based approach to competition policy that characterised the old Article 81 regime. Even recent cases applying Article 82 emphasise ideal market structures or unarticulated notions of fairness, rather than a focus on actual or likely consumer harm.
Localization of Knowledge and the Mobility of Engineers in Regional Networks
Authors: Almeida Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ideas, because they have no material content, should be the least spatially bounded of all economic activities. Being weightless, their transport is limited only by the quality and availability of communication. Since ideas serve both as the inputs and outputs in their own production, their location need be constrained neither by the happenstance of the spatial distribution of raw materials, energy, and labor, nor by that of demand and markets. Yet, there is good reason to believe that the production of ideas may be, contrary to its economics, prescribed within spatial boundaries. In his comparative analysis of nations, published in Industry and Trade (1920), Alfred Marshall noted that economic activity was drawn to regions rich in the ‘atmosphere’ of ideas.
Secondary verb types
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
None of the Secondary-A verbs have any independent semantic roles. Basically, they modify the meaning of a following verb, sharing its roles and syntactic relations.
As stated in §2.2.3 (see Table 2.2) the basic choice for a non-imperative clause (a statement or a question) is between realis, referring to some action or state which has reality, and irrealis, something which is uncertain in the future or was unrealised in the past. There are nine modalities within irrealis, each realised by a secondary verb. There are two syntactically different but semantically related types, modals and what we can call semi-modals, which express the modalities. The main modals, and the semi-modals, are set out in Table 6.1. (As mentioned under (7) in §1.5, will, would, shall, should, can, could and must are typically pronounced as clitics.)
I kicked at the bomb, which exploded, and wakened you up Transitivity and causatives
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some languages have a strict division of verbs into transitive—those that take A (transitive subject) and O (transitive object) core syntactic relations—and intransitive—those that have just one core syntactic relation, S (intransitive subject). A few languages even employ morphological marking so that there can never be any doubt as to whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, e.g. if a verb in Fijian shows a transitive suffix then it must have an object; if it lacks this suffix there will be no direct object.
Transitivity is a much more fluid matter in English. There are, it is true, a number of verbs that are strictly transitive, e.g. like, promote, recognise, inform, and a few that are strictly intransitive, e.g. arrive, chat, matter. But many verbs in English may be used either transitively or intransitively.
Our manager’s annoyance at thoughts of residence rearrangement bears no relation to his assistant’s criticism of building restrictions Nominalisations and possession
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I was once conducting a class on the Aboriginal languages of Australia and, for every grammatical topic, I’d enquire of each participant ‘How is this shown in your language?’, referring to the language they were investigating. One student came to me after class and requested: ‘Could you please not refer to ‘‘our languages’’. They don’t belong to us but to the Aboriginal community.’
The student assumed that the use of a possessive form (a possessive pronoun or a noun phrase marked by ‘s) is equivalent to a claim of ownership. In fact it extends far beyond.
Yesterday, even the rather clever bishops could not very easily have sensibly organised a moderately unusual exorcism here Adverbs and negation
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter outlines the grammatical behaviour of adverbs in English. There is brief mention of the forms of adverbs, and then detailed analysis of their five functional roles—modifying a clause or a sentence (sentential function), a verb-plus-object (manner function), an NP, an adjective, or another adverb. Subclasses of adverbs are outlined, together with the functional possibilities for each. There is also discussion of how adverbs can be combined within a single clause. The final section, §12.11, examines the functional roles of negation, comparing these with the functional possibilities for adverbs.
For What it is Worth: Social Value and the Future of Social Entrepreneurship
Authors: Young Rowena 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All entrepreneurs try to create value. Whatever their business, value is their stock in trade. For entrepreneurs in the commercial sector, there are well-established methods for determining how much value they make. It is also clear who does the valuing. At least in the economies driven by international capital markets, the owners of capital and their agents determine business worth. None of their methods is perfect. All of them rely on the considerable exercise of judgement. But at least commercial entrepreneurs can expect to participate in shared assumptions and shared processes of valuation (e.g. looking at price/earnings ratios). Whatever other sorts of value businesses create as they go about their work, the financial profit, the traditional bottom line, is accepted as the most important measure of value.
Social Entrepreneurship: Exploring a Cultural Mode Amidst Others in the Church of England
Authors: Foster Doug 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores social entrepreneurship via a particular conceptualization of cultural modes, through competition and/or conflict with alternatives so configured (MacIntyre 1985: 163), and in the context of a particular shared socio-economic space. The approach here is to suggest social entrepreneurship is distinctly ‘social ‘ and ‘entrepreneurial ‘, and not ‘profit ‘ or ‘professionalism ‘ orientated. This might otherwise seem unremarkable if it were not for the contrast with those that suggest, a potential profession of social entrepreneurship (e.g. Drayton 2002). The discussion begins, therefore, with the rationale for, and subsequent theorization of, four different cultural modes, and then selects a socio-economic space where understandings of cultural modes can be explored; that socio-economic space is a sampled element of a particular diocese of the Church of England which is charged, according to one account (Ecclestone 1988), with the ‘cure or care of souls ‘ of all within its community. The chapter concludes with an overview of how convincing this conceptual differentiation is and a view on the potential of the Church of England in the socially entrepreneurial arena.
Wayfinding Without a Compass: Philanthropy ‘s Changing Landscape and Its Implications for Social Entrepreneurs
Authors: Osberg Sally 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When asked about the role foundations in general, and the Skoll Foundation in particular, play in advancing the work of social entrepreneurs, Ashoka founder and Chairman Bill Drayton did not hold back. ‘What a social entrepreneur needs and what a foundation provides is an almost perfect mismatch ‘ he commented pointedly. Drayton should know. For more than two decades, he has been interacting with foundations and found the experience slow, inefficient, and burdensome, with any resulting grant generally less than appropriate to the scale of his vision and case.
Gathering your Data
Authors: Crowley Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most commonly asked questions that non-linguists—and sometimes even linguists of the armchair variety—have asked me about the conduct of fieldwork is: How do you actually start when you are going to describe the phonology, the morphology, and the syntax of a language? That’s a perfectly reasonable question, of course, so let’s get on with it.
Problems and Pitfalls
Authors: Crowley Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have tried to present linguistic fieldwork so far as something of an exciting challenge. However, it would be unfair to suggest that fieldwork is always going to be easy, and that if you face a particular problem, all you have to do is look up a fieldwork guide for how to solve it. Life is often so much more complicated than that. In this chapter, I want to make you aware of some of the challenges that you may face.
Liability In Tort
Authors: Davies Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As discussed in chapter 1, liability on the part of a solicitor will typically arise in contract, a contractual relationship being the usual one between solicitor and client. However, circumstances will occur where liability arises in tort. The general distinctions between contract and tort are addressed at length in other texts and will not be repeated here. Suffice to say that, in general, contractual obligations arise from the agreement between the parties and the extent of those obligations is based upon that agreement.
Criminal And Associated Liability
Authors: Davies Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A solicitor who is alleged to have committed an act of dishonesty, for example theft of client funds, and is tried in a criminal court will be subject to the usual test for dishonesty established in those courts. The leading authority for the test of dishonesty is R v Ghosh which established a two-stage test. First, would the defendant’s behaviour be regarded as dishonest by the ordinary standards of reasonable and honest people? If yes, second, was the defendant aware that his or her conduct was dishonest and would be regarded as dishonest by reasonable and honest people?2 In many such cases, usually post-conviction, the solicitor will also find him or herself having to face professional disciplinary charges arising from the same facts.
Firm Structure And Liability For Employees
Authors: Davies Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Partnership law is based around the Partnership Act 1890 and, more recently, the Limited Liability Partnership Act 2000. The 1890 Act provides a basic structure, with common law and equitable principles supplementing this. Under the 1890 Act a partnership is ‘the relation which subsists between persons carrying on a business in common with a view of profit’. A partnership does not have a legal identity separate from its partners, so the firm itself cannot acquire rights or obligations and cannot, therefore, enter into contracts or employ people.
Solicitors’ Liability And The Human Rights Act 1998
Authors: Davies Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA), which came into force in October 2000, gives effect to certain provisions of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights (the ‘Convention’). Convention rights are given defined status in English law and thereby Convention remedies become directly available in domestic law. Prior to the enactment of the HRA, the Convention had applicability in the UK, but any action had to be brought against the State before the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. Domestic proceedings had to be exhausted before this could be done.
The Potential Liability Of Solicitors For Costs
Authors: Davies Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In some circumstances, as an alternative to an action in professional negligence, a court may order a solicitor to pay some or all of the costs of proceedings. For example, in Veasey v Millfeed Co Ltd the Court of Appeal observed that errors in litigation are not always best dealt with by means of traditional negligence claims. In this case, the solicitor issued proceedings in the name of a partnership, some two years after it had been dissolved. The solicitor’s failure was dealt with by means of wasted costs.
Global Scientization: An Environment for Expanded Organization
Authors: Drori Gili S , Meyer John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Discussions of ‘the knowledge society’, ‘knowledge work’, and ‘expertise’ call attention to the generalized authority of professionalized knowledge, and its grip on modern (and especially postmodern) society. They emphasize the wide scope of the scientization of society. Science-based logics and practices have permeated almost all aspects of social life: they influence the ways we work, form relationships, and eat. Most relevant to the discussions in this volume, scientization acts as a basis for organizational formalization and proliferation. Scientization creates an environment in which organization becomes natural and necessary.
Australia: The Rights and Their Application
Authors: Adeney Elizabeth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In its general treatment of the rights and its focus on the author, the Australian Act is largely faithful to conventional moral rights concepts. In its formulations of the rights, the Act has diverged from those statutes that might have served as its models. The extensive process of consultation and drafting considered above has resulted in the longest and most detailed set of moral rights provisions in the world. The object has been the kind of completeness and thoroughness that Strömholm noted in 1967 as typical of the common law jurisdictions.