bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fixing the Bill, July 1920-May 1921
Authors: Kent Bruce 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the summer of 1920 Allied statesmen and financial experts embarked on nine months of fitful negotiations with their German counterparts about implementing the reparation provisions of the treaty. Although the Spa Conference of July 1920 yielded a viable six-month agreement on the important side issue of coal, less success attended discussions on the central question of the total reparation bill. Progress was impeded by the unwillingness of all the creditor powers, including America, to dispel the financial illusions they had encouraged and by constant Anglo-French manreuvring over the distribution of the spoils. The situation was also complicated by the swing to the right at the Reichstag elections of June 1920 and, paradoxically, by the gradual restoration of normal economic and social conditions in Germany, which threw into sharper relief the increasing, but still by no means intolerable, burden of preliminary reparation payments and deliveries.
From Cannes to the Ruhr
Authors: Kent Bruce 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Instead of precipitating a renegotiation of the post-war financial settlement, the collapse of the London Schedule led only to a makeshift adjustment of Germany’s reparation obligations. The granting of a partial moratorium in January 1922 reduced the budgetary and balance of payments burden of reparations to a level which might have been tolerable in optimum conditions. The prospect of obtaining an international loan also encouraged the Wirth government to prolong a half hearted attempt at financial reform until the middle of the year. Yet a settlement was prevented by the regressive inertia of French budgetary policy under Poincare and the persistent refusal of the German industrial elite to countenance an effective stabilization policy which would jeopardize their inflation profiteering. Tension was increased when Lloyd George’s European reconstruction pipe-dream was rudely shattered by the signature of a pact of mutual financial renunciation by the two debtor powers, Germany and Soviet Russia, at Rapallo on 16 April.
The Turkana and Eturkan
Authors: Lamphear John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Turkana people of north-western Kenya belong to the Ateker group of the Eastern Nilotic linguistic family. Currently numbering over 200,000, they are the largest community of that group. Earlier population data are sketchy, but at the beginning of the twentieth century the Turkana probably numbered between 30,000 and40,000.
Apetaret: ‘The Scattering’
Authors: Lamphear John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Toward the end of 191 7 Harry Rayne exchanged messages with officers in the Sudan and Uganda to explore, once again, the possibility of joint operations against the Turkana. Everyone agreed that their dangerous ‘expansion’ had to be countered, and the ‘hectic condition’ prevailing in the district rectified. Noting that the ‘Turkana tribe had ... consistently opposed any attempt by the Administration to settle its country’, Rayne was anxious this time to assemble a force large enough ‘to ensure them such a whacking ... as to finish this thing once and for all’. He also hoped that the expedition finally would expel all Ethiopians from territory claimed by the British and that a strike could be made against the Nyangatom and Dassanetch as well.
History
Authors: Borsay Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
From 1830 Georgian Bath became, by definition, a piece of history. Whereas the previous chapter focused on eighteenth-century Bath’s perception of its present and past, this chapter investigates how that representational legacy was interpreted and reinterpreted by subsequent generations. The elevation of Nash and Rome, and the displacement of Bladud, sowed the seeds for what was to prove the classical monopoly, or Roman and Georgian duopoly, of Bath’s history. Today these two periods dominate views of the city’s past, leaving huge portions of its history subject to a state of collective amnesia. That this should have occurred, and more specifically that the Georgian image came to be so influential, was far from inevitable. Eras of great change and innovation can be quickly forgotten, their material forms lost through destruction or neglect. Even where the records, remains, and memories of recent periods survive these can be disparaged or simply ignored. The post-Georgian evolution of Bath’s Georgian image needs, therefore, to be seen as part of a historical process, as each generation re-evaluated and repackaged its eighteenth-century inheritance. To make sense of this process five broad periods of change have been identified; Victorian (1830–79), late Victorian and Edwardian (1880–1918), inter-war (1919–39), modern (1940–69), and post-modern (1970–c.2000). No great precision is claimed for the chronology adopted here, but it is argued that each of these eras witnessed major readjustments in the city’s reading and utilization of its Georgian heritage.
Commerce
Authors: Borsay Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
So far the thrust of this study has been the investigation of Georgian Bath as an object in itself; its contemporary construction, its historical evolution, its structure, and the media through which it was expressed. This image has been analysed in the way a work of art often is, as something possessing an autonomous existence separate from that which it represents. Such an approach was deliberate. It was important to establish that the image had an independent identity and impact, and was not simply a reflection of some ‘objective’ reality. It was also crucial to emphasize that this book is not a history of eighteenth-century Bath, but a study of a cultural artefact and myth, whose veracity is not be judged by the extent to which it does or does not conform to a ‘real’ past. Yet inevitably assumptions about historical reality have kept breaking in on the analysis. Indeed, no serious progress in the argument could have been made otherwise. Given the aims of this study, it has been important to stress the power of imagined over real phenomena, and the extent to which what we often take to be hard and objective turns out to be malleable and culturally constructed. But it is also true to say that imagination and myth are influenced and constrained by material realities and possibilities. At the deepest level the imagined and the real, the cultural and the material are in perpetual interaction, part of a seamless process in which neither the substructure nor the superstructure exert primacy.
Psychology
Authors: Borsay Peter 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A central theme of this book has been the past. The Georgian image, in its modern reincarnation, is a historical phenomenon, and much of its impact has derived from this fact. Chapters 8 and 9 explored the economic, social, and political uses of history; this chapter investigates the psychological role of the past. Four topics will be examined: Bath as a place of historical resonance; the benefits of consolation and identity from contact with the past; myth; and the twentieth-century debate over the claims of past and present in the city.
Food And The German State
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In wartime Germany rations fell too low to maintain body weight for long periods of time and getting hold of sufficient food became a matter of survival. A large fraction, one-fifth to one-third of the food, could only be obtained through illegal channels.1 Food rationing brings out the most far-reaching form of “war socialism”-the principle of distribution according to need. Both Germany and Britain attempted to distribute food equally during the First World War, though they used different approaches. It is curious that societies so deeply committed to inequality should revert to egalitarian principles in wartime. Apparently this answered to a need for equity: ‘We are all Germans now, ‘ the Kaiser declared, and the myth of solidarity is one of the strongest bonds in wartime.
The Sod House Against The Manor House
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
None of the common explanations for the decline of British wheat produition is sufficient on its own. Tariffs, steam power, soil, climate, consumer tastes, land values, labour productivity all had an effect, but they only teill half a story. They did not disable any other large producer. Natural condtions were benign. The question remains: why was British adaptation sp poor? Some of the causes may be found in the social forms of wheat production which had developed in Britain before 1870.
Coast, Interior And Metropolis
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Economic opportunities facilitated the movement of people from Britain overseas and helped to form new societies. The new communities did not have to reinvent civilization and within one or two generations they had erected urban societies equipped with most of the trappings of provincial Europe. Locked up in the bush or the veldt, these new lands possessed a latent productivity beyond the needs of their small populations. The road to prosperity lay in the transition from pioneering self-sufficiency to exports.
Mackenzie King ‘S Odyssey
Authors: Offer Avner 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
After the Vancouver riots Laurier sent one of his senior civil servants, the Deputy Minister of Labour William Lyon Mackenzie King, to investigate. King was thirty-three years old at the time, and already rising rapidly in a career that would make him Prime Minister of Canada for a total of twenty-two years between 1921 and 1948. In going to Vancouver he unwittingly embarked upon one of the great adventures of his life, and one that also provides a unique insight into the issue.
Resolution by Force November 1917-November 1918
Authors: Stevenson David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
From its Balkan origins the war had grown into a world-wide conflagration that a triple military, diplomatic, and domestic political stalemate fuelled until the end of 1917. It kindled a multiplicity of successor conflicts, one of which-the Russian Civil War-claimed more lives than did the contest between the Allies and the Central Powers itself. As long as the central struggle continued, it and local wars across the globe were liable to intermesh. In 1918 intervention in Russia by both sides was the most dramatic case in point. But once the central struggle had been resolved, the peripheral ones could be fought out with largely local forces, and gradually brought to an end. This chapter will therefore concentrate on the suspension of hostilities in the war that had begun in 1914. It will examine the separate treaties concluded on the Eastern Front in the spring of 1918; the intervention in Russia, in spite of this, by the Central Powers and the Allies in the summer; the commitment by the Allies to dismember Austria-Hungary; and the Southern and Western European armistices at the end of the year. As in 1917, an underlying theme of these developments was the failure of conciliation. But all three elements of the previous deadlock were now crumbling, and political decisions acquired a new finality as the war of movement returned. The relationship between military and political developments was, as ever, intricate. But for statesmen at the time it was omnipresent.
The Fruits of Victory November 1918-November 1920
Authors: Stevenson David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The peace treaties emerged from a sequence of compromises between the victor Powers, and from their attempts to impose those compromises on their smaller partners and the defeated enemy. In much of Europe they had little capacity to implement their wishes, and as time passed they were defied with increasing success. But they dominated the Peace Conference itself, and its history is best understood as a process of inter Allied bargaining in which the ascendancy gained by American diplomacy at the Armistice was gradually dissipated. Wilson had manifestly failed in his attempt to remould the international order even before the American Senate in its votes of November 1919 and March 1920 withheld ratification from the Treaty of Versailles.
The Great Reform Bill in the Boroughs
Authors: Phillips John A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is a study of popular political behaviour both before and after the Great Reform Act of 1832, the impact of which has long divided historians, some heralding it as the dawn of a new age, others dismissing it as an irrelevance. Professor Phillips has built up an extensive computer database from all available sources of information about early nineteenth-century electors - including for example poll books, tax rolls, and parish records - thus creating a uniquely comprehensive set of files containing dozens of variables about thousands of voters that permit cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Using these techniques, he has undertaken the first systematic consideration of electoral behaviour in eight diverse English boroughs. He explores the nature of parliamentary representation in the pre-Reform era and assesses the effects of the 1832 Act, and shows that the unreformed electoral system permitted extensive popular political participation. Nevertheless, the Reform Act politicized the electorate to a degree not possible or even imaginable before, and his book establishes the role of Reform as the catalyst which shaped a new pattern of politics and launched the struggle for parliamentary democracy in Britain.
The Family
Authors: Moreton C E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Until the later fifteenth century the Townshends were unknown as gentry, although Townshends had lived in their part of north-west Norfolk since the mid-fourteenth century and perhaps earlier. The first Townshend known as a ‘gentleman’ was a self-made man, the prominent lawyer Sir Roger Townshend I (d. 14-93). Before his lifetime the history of the family is clouded in obscurity and downright invention. This was partly the fault of the Townshends themselves because, in common with other families, they fabricated a pedigree during the heraldic visitations of the second half of the sixteenth century in order to disguise their true origins. A fictitious family tree, sometimes including Norman ancestry, was perpetuated by successive generations of gullible antiquarians and local historians.
Sheep
Authors: Moreton C E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although part of the history of their estate, the Townshends’ sheep-farming warrants a chapter to itself, for it was a major source of their wealth and they were among the greatest of the great gentry sheep-farmers of late medieval and early modern Norfolk. It is, however, of interest to more than just economic and agricultural historians, since gentry sheep-farming on such a scale could not fail to have a significant local impact. Inevitably it came to threaten the interests of the lesser man and played a major part in the political and social unrest of the period.
The Machinery of State
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the later eighteenth century most people who thought about public affairs were convinced that the power of governments had increased, was increasing, and ought to be diminished. They were right in believing that states now wielded more power than they had a century beforehand. Yet governments were largely staffed by men who shared completely the attitudes and outlook of the governing groups who formed the political nation in each state. They had seldom sought to accumulate power for its own sake. They simply had no alternative if they were to continue to do adequately what was traditionally expected of them- -something that was not possible without trespassing increasingly in fields traditionally felt to be beyond a government’s competence.
International Relations
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The power of governments did not grow for its own sake. Most rulers accepted that governments existed to uphold and not disturb the established order of things, and that to attempt to extend their power was a hazardous process. But they had to defend themselves, and to maintain or improve their position against foreign competitors-the most fundamental obligation of all. States which neglected their own security laid themselves open to incalculable dangers in an age when new powers of unprecedented strength and predatory appetite were increasingly active in international affairs. So international competition and war were the main spur to domestic innovation. Eventually, these innovations provoked severe crises within several of the greater states, to shake their fabric even more seriously than foreign enemies could. But it is hard to see how they could have been avoided without taking international risks that most governments would have regarded as irresponsible.
The Revolutionary Impact
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The age of revolutions saw the origins of many of the forces that were to shape the modern world. It saw the beginnings of most of the institutions and habits which we still recognize and practise. Equally, it heralded the end of an older order of things. The French Revolution gave the Old Order the name by which we still know it. In doing so it emphasized the scale of its break with the past. But historians have been disputing about the question ever since. Were the changes brought by the revolutionary age as rapid, or as decisive, or as profound as contemporaries liked to believe? Did the decade of revolution destroy the old Europe in one short but epic struggle? Or did it merely mark the opening shot in a battle which was to rage on into the twentieth century? To answer these questions fully would involve us in investigations that go far beyond the range of this book. Here, we can do no more than try to assess how much of the pre-revolutionary world had already gone for ever by 1800.
Carnival Or Consent?
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Scaffold Crowd Was So Complex In Its Behaviour (AS the last chapter shows) that it could be argued about in quite con trary directions. On the one hand, it could be claimed that the spectacle of execution was awesome enough to induce the watching populace to consent in the law’s magnitude, and that they did consent on the whole, as when they applauded murderers’ hanging. On the other hand, it has been argued just as plausibly that it was the populace, not the law, that controlled the scaffold arena, converting the ritual to carnival as their parodies turned the world upside down. Each perspective has much to say for itself. None the less, this chapter argues that the truth was more complex than these stark alternatives suggest.
Broadsides And The Gallows Emblem
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If, As Time Passed, The Old Tyburn And Canting Ballads were heard less frequently on the streets, the same cannot be said of the noisy vending of trial and execution broadsheets. There was a mounting tide of these, swelling first in the mid to later eighteenth cen tury and again in the second quarter of the nineteenth. These make up a second corpus of plebeian texts on the scaffold. They expressed popu lar understandings about life’s chances and death’s certainties just as eloquently as the ballads did, but to very different effects.
Theprerogative Of Mercy And The Practices Of Deference
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
their families-indeed of the ‘people’-only in the cries and gestures of the condemned on the scaffold or obliquely in the ballads and broad sides which commented on their plights. There remains a third set of texts, not in the public domain, which takes us behind the scenes observed hitherto, and closer even than ballads and broadsides do, to the attitudes and feelings of those convicted and doomed to face death or distant exile. They also show how capital law worked; and we use them extensively in later chapters.
Anxiety And Defence
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1813 The Novelist Maria Edgeworth Pertly Wrote To A friend that she was pleased to live in an age when newspapers ‘give subjects of conversation in common to people in the most distant parts of the country’. She was particularly grateful that executions were one of the subjects, because execution reports exposed the variety of human character wonderfully. ‘Do you recollect’, she chatted gaily, ‘our seeing in the news-paper an account of a man who poisoned several racehorses by putting arsenic in the water-troughs? Also an account of a horrid woman who made her servant boy murder her husband; and ordered him to go back and finish him as composedly as if she had told him to kill a pig?’ When this man was brought out for execution, he was more cool and com posed than any other person present. When the cord was to be put about his neck it was perceived that it was too short and that it could not well reach him. He pointed to the hassock on which he had been kneeling and made a sign to them to put it under his feet! The woman who murdered her husband was an extraordinary compound of insensibility and sensibility. While sentence was pronouncing upon her, she shewed no symptom of feeling, but from the moment she was condemned she would not let any creature see her face. She kept it constantly hid, even till she was executed. On hearing the sermon the evening before her execution, she wept and sobbed bitterly yet in the morning seemed quite insensible and eat [sic] a hearty breakfast.
Executing Traitors
Authors: Gatrell V A C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
1820 Saw The Last Executions For High Treason In The Old fashioned way. In that year eight men were publicly hanged and decapi tated. Five of them had led the plot laid in Cato Street to assassinate the Cabinet at dinner; they were executed before a Newgate crowd of 100,000 on 1 May. The other three were Scottish radicals who had attempted an abortive uprising, and they were executed in Stirling and Glasgow in August and September. In each case, after conventional hanging, their corpses were taken from their nooses and laid in coffins on the scaffold platform. One by one their heads were lifted out to rest on a block to enable the executioner to hack at their necks with a knife. Then, dripping gorily on to sawdust, each head was held up to the spec tators, the executioner crying out its name. Only three decades earlier the bodies would also have been eviscerated to convey the magnitude of their offence a little more clearly.