bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Growth of Structure
Authors: Weinberg Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 6 we followed the evolution of small perturbations through the radiation and matter dominated eras, up to the time of decoupling, when radiation no longer interacted effectively with matter. Now we will continue the story past the time of decoupling. In Section 8.1 we will follow the perturbations while they remained small, continuing our linear analysis. This era is increasingly becoming accessible to observation, as studies of the cosmic matter distribution are pushed to larger redshifts. As we shall see, data on the distribution of matter fluctuations already provides an important extension of results from cosmic microwave background anisotropies to smaller wavelengths, and it is hoped that eventually it may provide information of the effect of dark energy on cosmic expansion.
Gravitational Lenses
Authors: Weinberg Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1979 Walsh, Carswell, and Weymann noticed a pair of quasars at the same redshift, about 1.4, separated by just 6. The similarity of the spectrum of the two quasars suggested to them that there was really just one quasar, now known as Q0957+561, split into two images by the deflection of light in the gravitational field of an intervening massive body. This suggestion was verified with the discovery of a galaxy with a redshift 0.36 between the lines of sight to the quasar. Such gravitational lenses had already been studied theoretically by many authors, and now a serious search for them was put in train. Many more lensing galaxies were discovered, generally elliptical field galaxies, and also some lensing clusters of galaxies, which generally produce arc-like images.
Inflation as the Origin of Cosmological Fluctuations
Authors: Weinberg Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most exciting aspect of the inflationary cosmological theories described in Chapter 4 is that they provide a natural quantum mechanical mechanism for the origin of the cosmological fluctuations observed in the cosmic microwave background and in the large scale structure of matter, and that may in the future be observed in gravitational waves. We have seen in Chapter 6 that the magnitude and wavelength dependence of adiabatic scalar and tensor fluctuations depend on initial conditions only through the quantities R° and D° , respectively.
Karl Jaspers and General Psychopathology
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we turn from the broad history of psychopathology to one of its most important exponents in the twentieth century, Karl Jaspers. Jaspers set out his psychopathology in the first edi- tion of his monumental Allgemeine Psychopathologie or General Psychopathology, published in 1913. We will be looking at a short passage from Allgemeine Psychopathologie towards the end of the chapter. We will be focusing, however, on two papers that Jaspers published at about the same time as Allgemeine Psychopathologie; one (Jaspers, 1913a) on the importance of meanings as well as causes in psychopathology, an idea that Jaspers in turn derived from the ‘Methodenstreit’ (a nineteenth century debate in Germany on methods in the natural and human sciences), the other (Jaspers, 1912) on the distinctive role of phenomenology as a methodology for psychopathology. Taken together, these two papers will give us important insights into some of the key guiding ideas behind Jaspers’ Allgemeine Psychopathologie. The topics with which the two papers deal will be taken up in more detail later, phenomenology in Chapters 9 and the Methodenstreit in Chapter 10.
Diagnosis, explanation, and tacit knowledge
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we move from symptoms of mental disorder and their classification to the diagnostic process: how we come to explain or claim knowledge of someone’s condition. Diagnostic explanation in medicine, as we saw in Chapter 3, is partly in terms of syndromes (identifying a patient’s symptoms with a recognized pattern that carries implications for treatment and prognosis) and partly in terms of aetiology (causal information). In general medicine, diagnostic explanations are more in terms of aetiology; in psychiatry and nosology, they are more in terms of symptoms and syndromes (they are ‘descriptive’, in the sense of that term used in ICD and DSM, see Chapter 13). Either way, though, diagnostic explanations are perceived as a species of scientific explanation. This prompts the question, therefore, just what a sound scientific explanation consists in. This question, as we will see, has been the subject of close scrutiny in the philosophy of science, and, although no definitive answers have been given, a number of key points have been established which are relevant to our understanding of the nature of scientific explanation in general and hence of diagnostic explanation in particular.
Chapter 16
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like other areas of medicine, treatment and management within psychiatry has increasingly been influenced by the growth of evidence-based medicine or evidence-based practice. A recent review article in the British Journal of Psychiatry starts with this observation. Clinical effectiveness, evidence-based medicine (EBM) and related terms were the politically correct medical slogans of the 1990s. For many they are ‘buzz-words’ conveying a modern progressive approach and in some circles it is unwise to express scepticism. Evidence-based medicine is being embraced by all specialities and there has been a strong signal that psychiatry is joining the movement by the introduction in 1998 of a psy- chiatric journal dedicated to evidence-based practice.
It’s the law! Rationality and consent as a case study in values and mental health law
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall be examining the concepts of rationality and consent from a medico-legal viewpoint. These concepts have been central to the way the English courts have tried to reconcile the perception that the patient has a right to decide what happens to him with the perception that the doctor has a duty to try her best to heal her patient. The tension between these two perceptions, as we have seen in Chapters 17 and 18, is central to the ethical issues raised specif- ically by involuntary psychiatric treatment. In common law the English courts, like most courts around the world, have repeatedly affirmed that an adult patient of ‘sound’ mind has an absolute right to accept or reject medical treatment. Corres- pondingly, therefore, the courts will sometimes override this right where the patient is of ‘unsound’ mind. The Mental Health Act, as we saw in Chapter 17, gives statutory authority to this autonomy override in respect of mental disorders, albeit not on the same incapacity basis applied by common law. Other legis- lation covers contexts, such as the patient being a child, or where the welfare of a viable foetus is at stake.
The mind–body problem and mental health, a philosophical update
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter provided an historical introduction to the mind–body problem. In this chapter we will return to the issue of the relation of mind and body and examine some of the rival contemporary approaches within the philosophy of mind. The aim of the chapter will be to shed light on the range of different ways that mind and body might be related and the kind of argu- ments, both based on a priori reasoning and on very general empirical evidence, that can be brought to bear on the issue. It will do this by examining a small sample of views and indicating the range of other choices that might be defended.
Reasons and the content of mental states: 2. Antireductionism and discursive psychology
Authors: Fulford K W M , Thornton Tim , Graham George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 24 examined the kind of approach to meaning and inten- tionality implicit in cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry. The underlying approach was characterizable using a term from the philosophy of thought and language as repres- entationalism. Such an approach aims to shed light on how our mental states can have the meaning or content they do using a cog- nitivist model drawing heavily on an analogy with computing. A key idea is that the fact that people can have mental states such as beliefs can be explained at a lower subpersonal level in terms of information processing using inner mental representations: struc- tural configurations in their brains. Because the intentionality—the world-involving nature—of the mental states of whole people is explained in terms of the causal processes acting on lower level parts of their brains, such an approach can be thought of as ‘bottom up’.
Free boundary problems
Authors: Ockendon John , Howison Sam , Lacey Andrew , Movchan Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is the most unconventional in the book. Whereas hyperbolic, elliptic and parabolic problems have been studied over many decades, and many texts are devoted to each, the subject of free boundary problems has attracted few specialised publications despite its importance in modern applied mathematics. In fact, we have already encountered several examples of this type of problem, although we have not classified them as such. For example, the thin film flows described in Chapter 1, the shock waves in Chapter 2, the contact problem in Chapter 5, and the porous medium equation of Chapter 6 could all be posed as problems involving the solution of partial differential equations in domains that are unknown a priori; not only the solution of the equations but also the domain of definition of the equations must be determined.
Spatial and temporal resolution in FMRI
Authors: Menon Ravi S , Goodyear Bradley G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most functional MRI studies to date have used relatively low resolution, both in space and time, to interrogate brain function. Typically, an in-plane resolution of 3-4 mm is used, in conjunction with slice thicknesses of 5-10 mm. This means that the typical volume element (voxel) being interrogated is on the order of 100 mm3• Additionally, a temporal resolution of several s is usually employed, due to the need to allow for Tl signal recovery between acquisitions and because of the sluggish nature of the haemodynamic response. Many brain processes occur on spatial scales that are smaller than can be readily accessed with fMRI and with temporal scales that are much faster than the haemodynamic response time. This chapter addresses the limitations imposed by the fMRI technique and suggests some strategies to improve both resolutions.
Effective paradigm design
Authors: Donaldson David I , Buckner Randy L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Advances in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are affording numerous new ways to design and analyse brain-imaging studies. A major driving force for these advances has been the widespread use of MRI scanners capable of ultra-fast imaging. For example, MRI scanners in many laboratories and clinical settings typically can acquire whole-brain images once every 2 s or even faster (see Chapter 4). However, the temporal resolution of fMRI is limited by the underlying physiological signals through which neuronal activity is indirectly measured (see Chapter 2). The optimal choice of an MRI experimental paradigm is determined by an interaction between methodological limitations key concepts or strategies rather than to provide a review of the literature. It also should provide a guide to the chapters that follow. We hope that it will help to place them in context. In doing of MRI technology and of the underlying physiology that constrain paradigm design for functional brain imaging.
The scanner as a psychophysical laboratory
Authors: Savoy Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for mapping human brain function has naturally required the presentation of stimuli, and recording of behavioural and physiological responses in the challenging MRI environment. The earliest human studies used very simple visual stimulation systems, such as goggles with blinking light-emitting diodes (Belliveau et al. 1991), or depended on the brain activity needed for simple motor tasks that did not require any extra simulation or recording equipment (e.g. Bandettini et al. 1993). There has been steady progress, both in individual laboratories and in the development of integrated commercial systems, for the sophisticated control of stimulus presentation and response recording during MRI. Some of this progress (and the general considerations for anyone establishing a functional MRI research environment) is articulated in the present chapter.
Affine varieties and finite morphisms
Authors: Geck Meinolf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we come to those results on affine varieties and algebraic groups which rely in an essential way on the hypothesis that the ground field k is algebraically closed. We will see that, under this hypothesis, the image of a morphism between affine varieties is a relatively ‘thick’ subset, more precisely, it contains an open subset of its closure. This fact will turn out to be a key tool.
The Evolution of Human Neocortex: Is the Human brain fundamentally Different than that of other Mammals?
Authors: Krubitzer Leah , Kahn Dianna M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The neocortex is composed of areas that are functionally, anatomically, and histochemically distinct. In comparison to most other mammals, humans have an expanded neocortex, with a pronounced increase in the number of cortical areas. This expansion underlies many complex behaviors associated with human capabilities, including perception, cognition, language, and volitional motor responses. We consider data from comparative studies as well as from developmental studies to gain insight into the mechanisms involved in arealization, and discuss how these mechanisms may have been modified in different lineages over time to produce the remarkable degree of organizational variability observed in the neocortex of mammals.
Time as Coding Space in the Cerebral Cortex
Authors: Singer Wolf 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Evidence is reviewed which suggests that the cerebral cortex applies, in parallel, complementary strategies to enhance the saliency of neuronal responses selected for further joint processing and to encode relations among the activities of distributed neurons. Saliency is enhanced by increasing discharge rate and/or by synchronizing the discharges of neurons. Relations between distributed neurons are encoded by integrating their responses in conjunction with specific neurons or by associating the neurons in functionally coherent cell assemblies that are distinguished by synchronous firing. It is proposed that selecting responses and encoding relations through synchronization is particularly well suited for the processing of rare or novel relations for which no conjunction-specific neurons have been implemented.
Plasticity and Functional Brain Development: The Case of face Processing
Authors: Johnson Mark H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This commentary addresses the issue of how specialization for visual— cognitive functions arise in the human cortex. Three viewpoints on this issue are reviewed: a maturational view, a skill-learning view, and an ‘interactive specialization’ approach. In considering the example of specialization for face processing, it appears that the interactive specialization view can potentially explain the widest range of phenomena. Many of the chapters in this book concern the extent and nature of specialization of perceptual and attention functions within the human adult cerebral cortex. This contribution, and some of those preceding it (see Chapter 2), focus on the more basic question of how such specialization of function within the cortex arises in the first place.
Community ecology
Authors: Gibson David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Community ecology considers an assessment of all the species in an area and their interactions and is thus a hierarchical step up from population ecology (Chapter 5). To understand the community ecology of grasslands we need to consider the temporal and spatial patterns exhibited by the species and the processes involved in their interactions with each other and their environment. The history of seeking to understand pattern and process in grassland can be traced back to the pioneering field work of ecologists including Cowles (1899), Clements (1936), and Weaver (see Chapter 1), and the theoretical ideas of Gleason (1917; 1926). The ideas from these early studies were brought together by Alex S. Watt in his Presidential Address to the British Ecological Society (Watt 1947). In his address, Watt described how plant communities, including the acidic Breckland grassland in the UK that he studied for over 30 years (Watt 1940; 1981a), are dynamic in time and space reflecting the growth of the different species. He described plant communities as being patchy and a mosaic of different species at various growth stages; a series of small-scale cyclic replacements.
World grasslands
Authors: Gibson David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Grasslands cover a vast area, occupying 41–56 X 106 km2, or 31–43% of the earth’s land surface (Chapter 1). Spread across every continent except Antarctica, grasslands vary in composition and physiognomy depending upon regional and local variations in climate, underlying geology, soil moisture, and disturbance regime (principally grazing and fire regimes). The term encompasses the sparse open communities of desert grasslands as well as the lush ‘sea of grasses’ of the South American Pampas. Summarizing this variation adequately is a challenge.
Disturbance
Authors: Gibson David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Disturbance, defined as ‘any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment’ (White and Pickett 1985) is an integral and import- ant natural phenomenon in grasslands worldwide. The importance of disturbance is that it changes fundamental properties of grasslands at a variety of spatial and temporal scales. Disturbance resets secondary succession (see § 6.2.2). Together, the different types and frequencies of disturbance that characterize grassland define the disturbance regime. Each type of disturbance varies in its spatial distribution, frequency and intensity, predictability, area or size affected, and interaction with other disturbances. Consequently, characterizing and understanding disturbances are critical for understanding grasslands.
Does the perception of moving eyes trigger reflexive visual orienting in autism?
Authors: Swettenham John , Condie Samantha , Campbell Ruth , Milne Elizabeth , Coleman Mike 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Does movement of the eyes in one or another direction function as an automatic attentional cue to a location of interest? Two experiments explored the directional movement of the eyes in a full face for speed of detection of an after coming location target in young people with autism and in control participants. Our aim was to investigate whether a low-level perceptual impairment underlies the delay in gaze following characteristic of autism. The participants’ task was to detect a target appearing on the left or right of the screen either 100 ms or 800 ms after a face cue appeared with eyes averting to the left or right.
The pathogenesis of autism: insights from congenital blindness
Authors: Hobson R Peter , Bishop Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is substantial heterogeneity in the aetiology and clinical presentation of autism. So how do we account for homogeneity in the syndrome? The answer to this question will be critical for any attempt to trace the links between brain pathology and the psychological disabilities that characterize autism. One possibility is that the source of homogeneity in autism is not to be found ‘in the child’, but rather in dysfunction of the system constituted by child-in-relationto- other. We have been exploring this hypothesis through the study of congenitally blind children, among whom features of autism, and the syndrome of autism itself, are strikingly common. To justify such an approach, one needs to establish that the clinical features in blind children have qualities that are indeed ‘autistic-like’. We conducted systematic observations of the social interactions of two matched groups of congenitally blind children who do not have autism, rating their social engagement, emotional tone, play and language during three sessions of free play in the school playground. The qualities of social impairment in the more disabled children were similar to those in sighted children with autism. Additional evidence came from independent ratings of the children in a different play setting: on the childhood autism rating scale (CARS), the socially impaired children had ‘autistic-like’ abnormalities in both social and non-social domains. If we can determine the way in which congenital blindness predisposes to features of autism, we shall be in a better position to trace the developmental pathways that lead to the syndrome in sighted children.
An absolute wonder
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Bohr’s theory of the atom did a fine job of explaining the absorption and em1ss10n spectra of one-electron atoms in terms of the quantum rules. Schrodinger’s wave mechanics did better in the sense that the rules of quantization were given a firm mathematical basis. However, problems still abounded. Experimental spectra revealed quite a number of problems for which wave mechanics (and matrix mechanics) appeared to have no solutions. In particular, some atomic emission lines predicted by the theory were seen to be split in the presence of a magnetic field into several quite distinct lines (a phenomenon known as the Zeeman effect). Neither wave mechanics nor matrix mechanics could explain this phenomenon without some further, largely ad hoc, assumptions. Worse still, when the spectra of atoms with two or more electrons were studied, certain predicted lines were found to be missing.
The schism
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The strange behaviour of photons described in the last chapter immediately raises all sorts of difficult questions about the meaning of quantum theory. We might be encouraged to look for this meaning by going back to the theory’s mathematical formalism, perhaps by trying to find out how we might better interpret some of its elements. However, it is a central argument of this book that, no matter where we look, we are always led back to philosophy. At first sight, this might seem to be an odd thing to claim. After all, modem textbooks on quantum physics and chemistry rarely (if ever) discuss philosophy. We accept that the behaviour of photons is strange, but surely it is something that we can at least study experimentally—do we need philosophy in these circumstances? The answer is most certainly yes. Quantum theory directly challenges our understanding of the nature of matter and radiation, and the process of measurement at their most elementary levels, and we cannot go forward unless we adopt some kind of interpretation, some way of trying to make sense of it all. As we will see, this interpretation has to be based on some philosophical position.