bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
What Law Applies to the War on Terror?
Authors: Corn Geoffrey S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
on September 11, 2001, the legal framework for the regulation of armed conflict, the framework that guided military lawyers and that influenced decisions made in reliance on their advice, was thrown into disarray. Until that day of infamy, these lawyers applied an “either/or” law-triggering paradigm that dictated when the law of armed conflict (LOAC) applied to U.S. operations: either those operations involved hostilities against the armed forces of another State so as to qualify as international armed conflicts; or they involved hostilities against insurgent forces within a State on whose behalf the United States had intervened, thereby falling into the alternative category of internal armed conflict. Derived from Common Articles 2 and 3 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949), this law-triggering paradigm was a genuine article of faith for U.S. military lawyers trained in the LOAC at their respective introductory and advanced military law courses. These lawyers and the forces they supported were not, however, unfamiliar with military operations that fell outside inter/intra-state armed conflict paradigms. Such operations, they were taught, were regulated by U.S. military policy that dictated compliance with LOAC principles even if those principles did not apply as a matter of law.
The Social Experiences of a Countrywoman in Soviet Russia
Authors: Malysheva Marina , Bertaux Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The real history of Russia’s women under the Soviet regime remains almost entirely to be written; and within it, the specific history of women. But the Soviet case presents specific difficulties. In Western democracies, feminist historians can rely on an already well-established tradition of grounded historiography, and use reliable sources—archives and oral testimonies—to complement its blind spots. Furthermore, they receive support from a well-developed body of feminist ideas and studies, whose legitimacy has eventually been recognized, and which allows them to argue for the ‘gendering’ of history as a whole.
Introduction
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Victorian England women made up a far larger proportion of those known to be involved in crime than they do today. During the second half of the nineteenth century over a fifth of those convicted of crime were women-today they make up only an eighth. And whilst a hundred years ago women made up 17 per cent of the daily average local and convict prison population, today the figure is less than 4 per cent. Unsurprisingly then, female criminality attracted considerable attention in the nineteenth century and preoccupied those trying to provide for women within the penal system. This book explores how the Victorians perceived and explained female crime, and how they responded to it-both in penal theory and prison practice.
Normal And Deviant Women
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nineteenth-century writings about criminal women can only be understood within the more general framework of Victorian morality. Criminal women were perceived and judged against complex, carefully constructed notions of ideal womanhood. This chapter begins by examining early Victorian models of femininity and exploring the relationship between these ideal types and women’s roles at all levels of society. We explore the implications of deviation from these ideals and seek to provide a basis for understanding contemporary reactions to female crime.
Explaining Female Crime
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The attempt to define and evaluate women’s crimes naturally led investigators back to consider the root causes of female delinquency. Interpretations of these causes can be slotted into various broad groups, for example, ecological, moral, economic, biological, and psychological. None was exclusive, each overlapped and occasionally merged with other interpretations. Equally the views and findings of one body of investigators often contradicted and occasionally refuted those of another. To treat them, therefore, as discrete and coherent schools of thought would be to underestimate the intricate intertexture of nineteenth-century criminological theory. At the risk of overstating their heterogeneity, I present them here under separate headings for the sake of convenience.
Habitual Drunkenness and the Reformatory Experiment, 1898-1914
Authors: Zedner Lucia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before the central control of local prisons in 1877, the failure of imprisonment to deter or to reform could readily be attributed to the lack of uniformity throughout the system, to the inefficiencies of unreformed prisons, or to the inadequacies of staff, buildings, or regime. However, after nationalization and the consequent development of a unified network of tightly ruled, efficiently run institutions, the continuing failures of prisons were less easy to explain or accept. Towards the end of the nineteenth century there was a serious loss of faith in prisons at both local and convict levels. They were condemned as inflexible, unduly repressive, and, most damningly of all, they were seen to engender, even nurture, a hardened class of recidivists. As we saw in previous chapters, the most hopeless class of these confirmed prison habitués were women. Many were not serious or dangerous criminals so much as petty offenders, social inadequates, and outcasts incapable of surviving in outside society. To continue to commit them to prison, time and time again, was clearly both inappropriate and unproductive of any but the most short-term good. As a result, their very presence in prison was increasingly seen to indict the whole regime. These prison failures attracted the attention both of specialists, interested mainly from a medical perspective, and increasingly of the wider public, who saw them as a major social threat.
Evangelicalism in the Age of Atonement
Authors: Hilton Boyd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first half of the nineteenth century has been called ‘The Age of Improvement’. But it was also an ‘Age of Atonement’, because improvement, like virtue, was not then thought of as its own reward, merely as terrestrial fumbling towards public and private salvation. This book examines the mind of the middle and upper classes during a period of social and economic upheaval. It is not an easy mind to characterize, for there was no consensus, but rather a ‘war of ideas’ which left most thinking men ambivalent, or torn between ‘incompatible opposites’. Yet there does seem to have been a dominant mode of thought, an amalgam of enlightenment rationalism and evangelical eschatology, and its core or ‘hinge’ was the Christian doctrine of the Atonement.
Western Medicine
Authors: Loudon Irvine 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Covering all periods from Ancient Greece to the present day, this richly illustrated history of medicine offers information and insight on a wide variety of topics. The great milestones of medical history - among them the discovery of the circulation of the blood, vaccination against smallpox, the invention of the X-ray, the development of penicillin - are charted. They are set against the social context of medicine, with accounts of more neglected areas such as patterns of epidemics, the emergence of the medical profession, the history of nursing, unorthodox medical practice, the spread of western medicine beyond Europe and the US, and the patient's viewpoint. Authoritatively and accessibly written by a team of twenty distinguished medical historians and including a helpful glossary, a chronology, and a full index, this is a fascinating introduction to medicine in the west from its beginnings to the present day.
Europe and Islam
Authors: Savage-Smith Emilie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in his Prologue to the Canterbury Tales, naming the great physicians of the past that his fourteenth-century audience could be expected to recognize. In the list are five Greek figures: Aesculapius (or Ascle pius), the focus of a Greek healing cult; Hippocrates (or ‘Ypocras’, as Chaucer called him}, a fifth- to fourth-century BC physician whose name is associated with a fundamental collection of medical writings; Rufus of Ephesus in Asia Minor, a physician of the first century AD who composed over sixty Greek med ical treatises; Dioscorides, whose treatise on medicinal substances written about AD 77 formed the basis of pharmaceutics for centuries; and, of course, Galen of the second century AD, arguably the most influential figure in the his tory of medicine.
Medicine in the Latin Middle Ages
Authors: MCVAUGH MICHAEL R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE Latin Middle Ages are sometimes explained as the gradual fusion, in the wake of a vanishing Roman Empire, of three cultures or traditions: classical, Christian, and Germanic. If the last of these is broadened to refer to a ‘folk’ or empiric element, the same analysis works not too badly as a characterization of medieval medicine, and helps us to understand the remarkable changes that medicine began to undergo about the middle of the eleventh century, when the classical medical tradition began to overshadow the other two.
From Rome (and so Greece) the early Middle Ages inherited first of all the
sense that medicine was a rational art, so that diseases could be ‘searched through to their causes in the light of reason’, an achievement that Isidore of Seville (d. 636) credited first of all to Hippocrates. They inherited, too, a small collection of medical literature in Latin: Cassiodorus (d. 583) recommended that his community at Vivarium study ‘the herbarium of Dioscorides ... Hip pocrates and Galen in Latin translation, namely Galen’s Therapeutics written for the philosopher Glauco ... Aurelius Caelius De medidna, Hippocrates Deher bis et curis, and other works concerned with the art of healing’.
Medicine, politics, and the state
Authors: lewis Jane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Du RING the twentieth century, the domestic issues that we might loosely categorize as ‘welfare’ issues-matters concerning employment and unem ployment, health, housing, and education-have become the stuff of’high pol itics’. This has happened gradually. In the UK, the government spent more time discussing the problems of ruling India in the 1930s than it did mass unemployment. But post-war elections have been won and lost on social poli cies. Health care has become both big business and a major political issue. The National Health Service (NHS), set up in the UK in 1948, is one of Europe’s largest employers, and while it was no secret that, while Prime Minister during the 1980s, Margaret Thatcher wished radically to change its form, the political threat anysuch action would have posed to the Conservative Party allowed the NHS to survive as a universal, tax-based service, free to all at the point of deliv ery. In the USA of the 1990s, it was widely accepted that health-care reform could make or break the Democratic Presidency. The spectacular growth in size and complexity ofWestern health-care systems has been underpinned by the fundamental assumption that personal health care delivered by a doctor to a patient, especially in the hospital, is a worthy endeavour that should be widely available. In Europe, one of the hallmarks of the post-war welfare regimes was the way in which the relationship between economic growth and social provision was seen as positive.
The Patient’s View
Authors: Digby Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Traditionally, the history of medicine neglected the past experience of patients and sufferers in favour of the history of institutional development, the control and conquest of diseases, and the achievements of medical practi tioners. Since the 1970s the patient as a forgotten element in the history of Western medicine has been succeeded by the patient as an increasingly researched, but problematical, part of a more complex analysis. There is no overall shortage of material on past patients, since recorded lay perceptions and experiences of sickness are legion. But uneven coverage amongst different social groups has left the top and bottom of the social hierarchy much better served than those of the middling groups.
Science, the Universities, and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century Scotland*
Authors: Wood Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Long a staple of the folklore of higher education, the study of the relations between town and gown has only comparatively recently moved beyond the merely anecdotal to raise serious historical questions about the interaction of universities with their urban milieux. Typically, scholars working in this area have been interested in reconstructing the sometimes colourful details of student life, the often lurid machinations of political patronage, or the occasionally ambivalent place of higher education within the fabric of civic culture. In this essay, however, I want to explore the subject of the eighteenth-century Scottish universities in their urban setting from a rather different angle, by considering their role in the creation of what Jurgen Habermas has called the ‘public sphere’, that is, the republic of letters (encompassing the world of coffee houses, clubs, voluntary societies, and the literary market-place) generated by the rise of commercial capitalism in which individuals articulated their relations with one another and with the State through rational discourse and criticism.
Engineering Students at Brunswick Institute of Technology during the Period of Industrial Expansion, 1862-1914
Authors: Fiedler Gudrun , Pollmann Klaus Erich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The German technological institutes were established in the 1860s and 1870s, mainly developing from commercial and building schools. Civil engineering and architecture, mechanical engineering and, from the 1880s onwards, electrical engineering were only available at the technological institutes, whereas natural sciences were offered at the universities as well as at the technological institutes. The arts and social sciences, law, and economics were only available at the technological institutes to a minimal extent as supplementary subjects. As part of the drive to achieve equality of status with the universities, the entrance requirements, which had initially been lower than those of the universities, were raised. In the 1870s, the entrance requirement was usually a grade in the secondary school leaving certificate (available after ten years). From 1900 onwards, after technological institutes were given the right to award doctorates, and engineering diplomas had been generally recognized as academic qualifications, the grammar school leaving certificate (obtainable after thirteen years) became the requirement. The improvement in the entrance qualifications of the students was at the same time the precondition for the recognition of the final examinations as being equivalent to university degrees; initially in the 1870s they were only the equivalent of the state examinations for the construction and mechanical engineering industries and of the preliminary examination for the higher grades of the civil service. In Brunswick, pharmacy was also one of the subjects offered by the technological institute. The pharmacy examination, which gave one the right to become a dispensing chemist, was conducted by the board of senior health officers (Medical Act of 1865).
Tunnel Vision and the Error of the Parallax: Cape Town’s Views of the University of Cape Town, 1918-1948
Authors: Phillips Howard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In writing a general history of a university, one invariably espies intriguing topics which cannot adequately be followed up in a work of that nature. One such subject is the changing image of the university held by local townsfolk. This aspect of the modern towngown symbiosis is not one which has received systematic treatment by either historians of universities or urban historians; yet, at least in the case of the University of Cape Town (UCT), the oldest university in sub-Saharan Africa, the institution’s public image was crucial in determining public behaviour, and even state policy, towards it. To a very large degree, therefore, impressions counted.
Research Note
Authors: Boynton Lindsay 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
John Gambold (1711—71) was a prominent personality in the eighteenth-century religious revival, both in this country and in Germany. An Oxford graduate who lived as a country parson within a few miles of the city during the years 17351 to 1742, he was well placed to report on the intellectual state of the university, and on its religious affiliations and controversies, especially those concerning the evangelical revival. That he did so in an international rather than an insular or parochial context adds to the interest of this letter, which is remarkable for its clarity and detachment.
Give him the White Cow: Notes and Note-Taking in the Universities in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries*
Authors: Burnett Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Give [him] the white cow,’ writes a student about a colleague who cannot understand a mathematical problem inserted at the beginning of the tenth book of Euclid’s Elements. This problem comes ‘from the wallet of Reginald’, writes another. ‘A man of Adelard’s intelligence will not fail to grasp this’, adds a third. This paper deals with the evidence for note-taking by masters and students in the context of the early stages of European universities, and the form in which these notes were written. It may be asked whether masters lectured from notes, and whether students took notes during the lectures anyway. In the Middle Ages, after all, people had much better memories than we have, and all sorts of methods to improve their memories.
Corruption of the Examination Process at the University of Florence*
Authors: Davies Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Corruption in the awarding of degrees has a long history. In 1250 Cardinal Legate Ottaviano Ubaldini told the doctors of law at Bologna of his astonishment that the approval of doctorands had become dependent upon the giving and receiving of bribes, and he called for the complete abolition of this improper practice. In 1252 Pope Innocent IV supported complaints made by the guild of students at Bologna against masters who demanded and extorted gifts from those wishing to receive doctorates, exercising the papal right to regulate the awarding of doctorates which had been asserted by the Third Lateran Council in 1179. During the late thirteenth century, however, papal opposition to the malpractice at Bologna weakened, and in 1291 Pope Nicholas IV sent a letter of remission which absolved the celebrated jurists Accursius and Franciscus Accursii for receiving bribes from doctorands. It is difficult to gauge the spread of corruption beyond Bologna. However, newly-found evidence reveals that in the mid-fifteenth century irregularities in the awarding of doctorates occurred at the University of Florence, the Studium fiorentinum. This study describes those irregularities and discusses possible reasons for their development.
The Triumph of the Colleges in Late Medieval Oxford and Cambridge: The Case of Peterhouse
Authors: Lovatt Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On the Vigil of the Epiphany 1461 the peace of the small community of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, was disturbed by a violent quarrel between two of the fellows, Richard Bracher and Thurstan Heton. So serious was the matter that the Master, with the consent of the other fellows, himself intervened, not only warning the two men that any recurrence of the dispute would lead to the deprivation of their fellowships but also making a formal record of the warning and transcribing it for future reference in his memorandum book of important college transactions. Yet when one of the participants in the quarrel, Richard Brocher, came to make his will he retained nothing but favourable memories of his college. He bequeathed to it a landed endowment for the maintenance of a bible clerk, and he also left the sum of 6s. 8d. to the Master and each of the fellows. No doubt passions had by then cooled. Bracher drew up his will more than a quarter of a century after the quarrel had taken place. His adversary, Thurstan Heton, had long since left the college. Nevertheless the paradoxes inherent in these events provide a central, if often neglected, theme in the history of the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge during th period.
The Enemy of Society
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Society’s most obvious enemies are victims of the law. Suicides have already been met in judicial records among persons accused, arrested, or hunted for crime. Court records were naturally interested in criminals and it is fair to ask whether, being forensic, they give this type of suicide a false prominence. The answer must be, not entirely, for an association of suicide with crime is confirmed by miracula .A few of these have already been told. Agnes’s family tragedy, after all, made her also a criminal. We know her motives because the Devil numbers them off (perhaps, as I suggested, because the woman herself had confessed them to a Dominican friar from whom the details had leaked through to the narrator). And among these motives, together with Agnes’s private feeling of wretchedness and her shame in the face of her relations, was fear of execution. She was an infanticide, exposed to burning alive. The same must have been true of another of those family tragedies, that of the matricide of Bury St Edmund’s. That one had no Devil to itemize her motives. We are only told her crime, and that she would not confess to a priest. We might have known her thoughts if she had. But it would be surprising, especially in the light of Agnes’s example, if one factor in the matricide’s desperation had not been fear of execution. Those two family stories, in other words, give us an idea of what to look for among enemies of the law.
The Sick and Melancholy
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Man being a social animal, it follows that a shock to his domestic or social existence will cause emotional shock, which when severe can trigger suicidal feelings. But the immediate occasion of suicide does not have to be external. The social animal is also a microcosm, a world in himself, full of hopes and memories. This fact is reflected in the deposit of miraculaabout suicide. A whole category of them, quite as circumstantial as the others, concerns suicidal impulses due directly to a person’s own private condition, physical or spiritual.
Absolute Numbers
Authors: Murray Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concepts of suicide and statistics are from one angle as remote as two concepts can be. One embodies subjectivity, saying ‘that is what l think of the world’; the other, objectivity, saying ‘that is how the world is.’ Yet in the last century, academically, the two have become all but inseparable. Three reasons suggest themselves. One is self-defence. Statistics anaesthetize. A subject intrinsically unapproachable becomes, once the victim is part of a percentage, not merely accessible but intellectually bracing, a positive pastime. Read suicide statistics all day, and we must pinch ourselves to remember that each item reflects a tragedy literally immeasurable, a universe perishing in unspeakable, unapproachable agony.