bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
CIPAC
Authors: Martijn Albertus 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

The Collaborative International Pesticides Analytical Council Ltd. (CIPAC) was founded in 1957. It is an independent, private organization registered under the Charities Act in the United Kingdom, whose members are all official analytical chemists. CIPAC's main objective is the standardization of methods for the analysis of pesticide products and physiochemical tests for formulations. This standardization is achieved through carrying out collaborative tests according to internationally accepted protocols. Participation in these studies is open to all laboratories, both official and industrial. The results are statistically evaluated according to the IUPAC recommendations and International Standards Organization (ISO) standard 5725. When the results are acceptable, the methods are adopted as
provisional CIPAC Methods
and eventually as
CIPAC Methods
. The analytical methods are mainly based on GC and HPLC techniques. Much attention is paid to the physicochemical tests, which may consist of visual observations or of manipulations but, at present, are usually based on instrumental techniques. The methods together with identity tests and summaries of the statistical results are published in the
CIPAC Handbook
series. They are intended to be used by regulatory and enforcement bodies, by trading parties, in Quality Assurance systems, and in the FAO and World Health Organization (WHO) specifications.
Combinatorial Chemistry as Applied to the Discovery of Agrochemicals
Authors: Kleschick William A. , Parker Marshall H. , Turner James A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractCombinatorial chemistry is a proven tool for lead generation and exploration in the discovery of novel therapeutic agents. In contrast, combinatorial chemistry approaches to lead generation for agrochemical discovery are in their infancy. This report summarizes the first reported examples of the application of combinatorial chemistry or parallel synthesis to the discovery of new fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides for crop protection. The synthesis and biological activity (in vitroorin vivo) of each compound library is described. The examples include the synthesis and testing of libraries of discrete small molecules as well as the preparation of pools of compounds and subsequent deconvolution of the active pools. Compound classes covered include amides, esters, ureas, N‐substituted glycines and 2‐amino‐4‐aryloxypyrimidines. These examples clearly demonstrate the potential of the technology to significantly impact the discovery of crop protection chemicals in the coming decade.
Groundwater Modeling Tools
Authors: Mackay Neil 
Published: November 2003

AbstractGroundwater is becoming an increasingly important resource, but it is apparent that it is a resource that is increasing under threat from unsustainable utilization and contamination. It is principally because of its importance as a drinking water resource that measures have been taken by regulatory authorities to protect groundwater from contamination from pesticides and other chemicals. Therefore, significant improvements in model complexity access to chemical and environmental data have increased the quality of risk assessment carried out by both regulatory and industry bodies.
Controlled Release Formulations of Pesticides
Authors: Wilkins Richard 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Controlled release formulations (CRFs) are intended to improve the delivery of pesticides and related biologically active substances. The consequent improvement in efficiency reduces losses in use and has many benefits, such as reduction in exposure to both workers and the environment, particularly in minimizing leaching and evaporation. This chapter introduces the advantages of CRFs and provides a theoretical rationale for their use based on pseudo–first‐order loss kinetics, which are typical for pesticide dissipation in the environment. Thus, the greater the loss rate, especially for pesticides of short duration, the greater the potential for improvement in delivery to the target pest. As a consequence of this principle, reduced levels of pesticide delivered efficiently can be as efficacious as higher amounts of conventional formulations.
The types of CRFs are introduced and are classified as physical, chemical, or biological. The kinetics of release from CRFs is central to their successful use, and the mathematical basics of this are described. The mechanisms of release vary according to the type of formulation, and these are covered for physical and chemical types. Common release characteristics include first order, diffusion (square root of time) based, and zero order (constant). Release kinetics are usually measured under controlled laboratory conditions, but field determination are preferable.
Design and properties of CRFs then follow. The main groups of the physical‐type formulations, such as reservoirs with release‐rate controlling membranes and without membrane and the monolith or matrix structures, are those based on microencapsulated liquid cores in sprayable concentrate formulations, and polymeric matrix methods that are often fabricated as granules. The polymers used and the approaches employed for designing these types of CRFs are introduced with emphasis on encapsulation methods, such as phase separation and interfacial polymerization. In addition, other formulation types are included, such as laminates, coated granules, microparticles, matrix granules (swellable and nonswellable), matrix devices for animal and public health protection, plastic films, and mulches. The article closes with the recent biological approach to formulation based on living or dead genetically modified micro‐organisms containing proteinaceous toxins.
Insecticides, Organochlorines
Authors: Plimmer Jack R. , Gammon Derek W. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractFew chlorinated organic insecticides remain in use in North America and Europe. Several have been classified as Persistent Organic Pollutants and proscribed globally. However, their considerable benefits to humanity in the past should not be overlooked nor should the lessons that were learned during the period when they were applied to control disease vectors and agricultural pests throughout the world. Organochlorine compounds were not only used as pesticides, but they also had many industrial uses. Chlorinated organic compounds were also byproducts of a number of chemical manufacturing processes, and as a result of the careless disposal and handling of wastes, quantities were applied into the environment.
LC/MS, Pesticide Residue Analysis
Authors: Krynitsky Alexander J. , Goodenowe Dayan B. , Stry James , Stout Steven J. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe very low concentration limits prescribed by regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for pesticides in food, water, and soils have prompted analysts to develop analytical techniques that can determine these compounds at trace levels. High performance liquid chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS) offers specificity and confirmation capabilities. Because of the above, HPLC/MS is becoming the method of choice for determining low levels (<10 ppb) of pesticides that would normally be difficult to analyze by conventional HPLC or gas chromatography (GC) methods. In this chapter, the two commonly used atmospheric pressure ionization (API) mass spectrometry techniques will be discussed: electrospray ionization (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI). Also, this chapter will discuss the advantageous and disadvantageous with the two API techniques, as well as some practical applications to the following classes of pesticides: sulfonylurea herbicides, imidazolinone herbicides, phenoxyacid herbicides, and carbamate insecticides. Finally, matrix effects will be discussed, along with ways how to optimize the API conditions.
Epidemiology of Pesticide Exposure
Authors: O'Malley Michael 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis article discusses how to evaluate effects of pesticides on humans based on the information available. Basic concepts of edipemiology such as disease frequency, incidence and prevalence, sensitivity and specificity are presented. Population incidence can be estimated from illness registry data, which is ultimately derived from cases seeking medical treatment. The quality of such surveillance information is of critical importance. Design study issues involving surveillance are discussed. Various case studies involving the use of pesticides and the incidence of various types of cancers and skin diseases are given.Outbreak studies are unique opportunities to evaluate hazards of exposure to pesticides. Outbreaks most often occur among groups of field workers. An example of an outbreak of illness in grape workers is given. Cross‐sectional (survey) studies are a means of assessing the distribution of illness in a population. Questionnaires are also discussed.Evaluations of cause and effect are made through observational studies (includes cohort and case control studies) and experimental studies. All types are discussed and examples are given, as well as rules for evaluating these data.
EU
R
egistration
D
irective
Authors: Dewar A. J. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The European Union Registration Directive was adopted in 1991 and officially implemented in 1993. Its purpose is to remove barriers to trade in plant protection products by harmonizing registration procedures and regulatory testing requirements throughout the EU and to establish high common standards of safety and environmental stability. It also seeks to ensure that the avoidance of risks to human and animal health, groundwater, and the environment take precedence over improvement of plant production and the prevention of needless repetition of tests on animals. However, the translation of these aims into practice has proved far harder than originally envisaged.
Fertilizers
Authors: Taylor Alan W. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The function of fertilizer applications is to raise the level of soil fertility and biological activity in the soils and farming areas where they are used by increasing the amounts of available plant nutrients, in particular, nitrogen and phosphorus. As a result, adverse environmental impacts may occur to water quality. In recent years, there has been a large body of research directed toward the need to reduce the fertilizer contribution to these problems.
Fugacity Modeling
Authors: Cahill Thomas M. , Mackay Donald 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

The environmental fate of applied agrochemicals can be estimated with either conventional concentration‐based or fugacity models. Although both types of models can predict the fate of chemicals, the fugacity models have several inherent advantages. Fugacity models express the chemical potential in diverse media in common units of pressure, and so the chemical equilibrium among media is expressed directly. This is particularly valuable when assessing the migration of the chemical among diverse media such as air, water, soil solids, plants, and animals. Chemical transport and transformation processes, such as advection, diffusion, and reaction, are quantified using
D
‐values, which share identical units despite describing very different processes. This uniformity aids in identifying the important processes governing chemical fate in the environment, and it simplifies the formulation and interpretation of the modeling equations. Modeling and assessing the fate of agrochemicals in terms of fugacity as well as concentrations can contribute to a fuller understanding of agrochemical behavior. This article presents a brief conceptual overview of the fugacity framework, describes situations using malathion as an example, and provides references for further consultations.
Fungicides, 2‐Aminopyrimidines
Authors: Hollomon Derek W. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

2‐aminopyrimidines are a group of three systemic fungicides active only against powdery mildews (
Erysiphales
). Introduced over 30 years ago, only ethirimol and bupirimate are used today as a seed treatment and spray, respectively. They have a low toxicity to mammals and other animals, but bupirimate is harmful to some aquatic organisms. Their half‐life, especially in sandy soils, is less than 6 months. 2‐aminopyrimidines stop mildew infection at the appressorial stage, although they do affect later stages of mildew development. They target adenosine deaminase (EC 3.5.4.4), an enzyme involved in purine salvage. Resistance developed rapidly in several powdery mildews to both ethirimol and dimethirimol, but the mechanism of resistance remains unclear.
Fungicides, Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Authors: Lyr H. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractAromatic hydrocarbon fungicides represent an older and chemically heterogeneous group of fungicides consisting of an aromatic ring system. They have been in use for a long time, but have lost their importance. Some of them are still valuable compounds in tropical countries and in use for controlling storage diseases. Many of them could be replaced by newer compounds with a broader antifungal spectrum, better physical properties, and higher activity.
Fungicides, Carbamates
Authors: Buschhaus H. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Prothiocarb [N‐(3‐dimethylaminopropyl)thiolcarbamate hydrochloride] was first described in 1975 as a fungicide for control of soil‐borne
Pythium
spp. and
Phytophthora
spp. The marketing of this compound was stopped in 1978, and a close analogue, propamocarb hydrochloride [propyl 3(dimethylamino)propylcarbamate hydrochloride] was introduced in 1979. Propamocarb hydrochloride is a versatile, effective, and safe carbamate fungicide with specific activity against numerous
Oomycete
species, causing seed, seedling, root, foot, and stem rots and foliar diseases in numerous edible crops and ornamental plants. Propamocarb hydrochloride was discovered and developed by Shering AG. The mode of action is different from that of other
Oomycete
fungicides, and propamocarb hydrochloride effectively controls strains that have developed resistance to other fungicides. A full data package is available for propamocarb, but that for prothiocarb is incomplete.
Fungicides, Copper Compounds and Sulfur
Authors: Tweedy B. G. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Copper compounds and elemental sulfur are the two oldest of the agricultural chemicals used to control pests. Elemental sulfur and crude mixture of lime and sulfur became important for the control of powdery mildews of tree fruits, grapes and hops, and peach leaf curl. Factors that have prolonged the life of these products are low cost, lack of resistance, and safety to humans and the environment. Copper also continues to be an important tool for controlling diseases, and it continued use is attributed to safety and low cost when compared with the organic fungicides. Except for copper and sulfur, inorganic chemistry has not had an important role in controlling plant disease.
Fungicides, Dicarboximides
Authors: Leroux Pierre 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

The dicarboximide fungicides are in fact cyclic imides substituted on the nitrogen atom by a 3,5‐dichlorophenyl group. They can be used against various Ascomycetes (e.g.,
Alternaria
,
Botrytis
,
Monilinia
,
Sclerotinia
) and Basidiomycetes (e.g.,
Rhizoctonia
). Under field conditions, their activity against fungal pathogens is mainly preventive. Their target site could be a histidine protein kinase–involved fungal osmoregulation. In field strains and laboratory mutants of
Botrytis cinerea
, dicarboximide resistance seems to be determined by mutations in the gene encoding this kinase. The metabolism of these dicarboximides generally involves the cleavage of the cyclic imide.
Fungicides, Dimethomorph
Authors: Ypema Hendrik 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Dimethomorph was discovered in 1983 by Shell Research as a result of optimization and screening of several cinnamic acid derivatives with fungicidal activity against the genus
Phytophthora
. The primary binding site of the molecule is unknown. In the presence of dimethomorph, the biochemical processes involved in normal cell wall biogenesis of sensitive Oomycete fungi are impacted, which may result in cell lysis. Dimethomorph was subsequently marketed by Shell, American Cyanamid, and BASF for control of downy mildew and
Phytophthora
diseases in vines, potatoes, vegetables, and other crops. It is used in combination or in mixture with contact fungicides.
Fungicides: Ferimzone
Authors: Ypema Hendrik 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

Ferimzone was introduced by Takeda Chemical Industries Ltd. Ferimzone has systemic properties. It is mainly used in rice‐producing areas in Asia for the control of brown spot (
Helminthosporium oryzae
), narrow brown leaf spot or Cercospora leaf spot (
Cercospora oryzae
), and rice blast (
Pyricularia oryzae
). It is also marketed as a mixture with phthalide or tricyclazole. The mode of action of ferimzone in target fungi is unknown, however, research to date suggests that the compound may affect membrane function.
Fungicides, Fungal Resistance to Chemical Controls
Authors: Hollomon Derek 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe long‐term viability of pesticides to control pests, diseases, and weeds is always threatened by resistance. Consequently, there is a need to understand the causes of resistance and the factors that influence its spread, so that the problem can be managed effectively. Chemical pesticides bind to specific sites in their target proteins, and small changes can disrupt this binding. High levels of resistance are often conferred by just a single amino acid change, and the same change causes resistance to a pesticide group in different species, and even phyla. Surprisingly, these changes are generally in highly conserved regions of the target protein. Other mechanisms, such as detoxification, increased efflux associated with multidrug resistance (MDR), overexpression of the target protein and altered metabolic pathways all contribute to resistance, but generally these mechanisms confer lower levels of resistance than target site changes.Biochemistry provides ways to generate resistance, but individuals possessing these mechanisms must not suffer fitness penalties as a consequence. Bioassay remains the main way to monitor resistance, although it is often resource intensive, and it provides little information on the mechanism conferring resistance. Biochemical and DNA methods offer ways to overcome these difficulties, and they are increasingly used to monitor resistance where mechanisms are known.Combining all this information allows assessment of resistance risk and implementation of strategies to manage the problem. Predictive modeling can be useful, but there is always an empirical component in developing anti‐resistance strategies. A corner stone of all anti‐resistance strategies involves using pesticides with different modes of action, and integrating this with nonchemical control measures. Examples of successful anti‐resistance strategies are few, and effective control often rests with the development of new pesticides with novel modes of action.
Chemical Activators of Disease Resistance
Authors: Staub Theodor , Kunz Walter , Oostendorp Michael 
Published: November 2003

AbstractChemical activation of disease resistance in plants represents an additional option for growers to protect their crops from losses due to plant diseases. Against some pathogens, like bacteria and viruses, resistance activators may be the best chemical option where genetic resistance is not available or not sufficient. Against dynamic fungal pathogens with a history of adaptation to fungicides or to resistant cultivars, the integration of chemical activators of broad‐spectrum plant defenses with genetic resistance and fungicides is likely to prevent or slow such pathogen shifts. The challenge is to integrate optimally on each crop the new chemical activators of broad‐spectrum plant defense with all other disease control and crop production methods to achieve more sustainable crop health management systems.
Fungicides, Melanin Biosynthesis Inhibitors
Authors: Motoyama Takayuki , Yamaguchi Isamu 
Published: November 2003

AbstractTricyclazole, pyroquilon, phthalide, and carpropamid are melanin biosynthesis inhibitors (MBIs) that are used as fungicides for the control of the rice blast disease. The primary targets of these chemicals are enzyme(s) in the biosynthesis pathway of a fungal melanin, the dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) melanin. DHN melanin is a black pigment synthesized through the pentaketide pathway that includes fusion of five isoprenyl units, two sets of alternating reduction and dehydration steps, and polymerization of 1, 8‐dihydroxynaphthalene. Tricyclazole, pyroquilon, and phthalide inhibit the reduction step(s), and carpropamid inhibits the dehydration steps. MBIs inhibit the rice blast disease without fungicidal activity. This selective activity of MBIs may offer advantages over conventional fungi toxic chemicals which act on biochemical processes common to many nontarget organisms in the environment. We describe the following information of the four MBIs; nomenclature, physical properties, agricultural uses, mode of action, metabolism and environmental fate, toxicology and safety aspects. To explain the superior features of MBIs, we provide the detailed mode of action of these chemicals.
Fungicides, Multisite Inhibitors—Broad Spectrum Surface Protectants
Authors: Uesugi Yasuhiko 
Published: November 2003

AbstractChemicals first used in agriculture to control pant diseases were inorganic fungicides such as elemental sulfur, lime sulfur, and copper fungicides, including Bordeaux mixture. Those fungicides are primarily applied to cover the surface of the plants to protect them from various plant pathogens. They are, therefore, broad‐spectrum surface protectants and have been used since the nineteenth century. However, their use has been limited because of their lower level of effectiveness, risk of their toxicity to the plants, and lack of compatibility in use with other fungicides and insecticides.
Fungicides, Organophosphorus Compounds
Authors: Sasaki Mitsuru 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Physicochemical property, biological activity, mode of action, agricultural uses, chemistry, metabolism and environmental fate, and toxicity and safety aspects of organophosphorus fungicides, including edifenphos, fosetyl‐aluminium, iprobenfos, pyrazophos, and tolclofos‐methyl, are described.
Fungicides, Phenylamides/Acycalanines
Authors: Gisi Ulrich , Ziegler Hugo 
Published: November 2003

AbstractPhenylamide fungicides such as metalaxyl, mefenoxam (metalaxyl‐M), furalaxyl, benalaxyl, ofurace, and oxadixyl are antifungal compounds that specifically control plant pathogens of the oomycetes, including downy mildews and blights. They inhibit rRNA synthesis and can control pathogens during preventive, curative, and eradicative phases of the disease cycle, mainly due to their systemic (acropetal) translocation in crop plants. Phenylamide fungicides are combined in mixtures with compounds of other chemical classes in order to enlarge the spectrum of activity, enhance the overall efficacy, and prevent and delay the development of resistant subpopulations.
Fungicides, Tubulin‐Binding Compounds
Authors: Ishii Hideo 
Published: November 2003

AbstractIn the late 1960s, the systemic fungicides benzimidazoles and thiophanates, which are transformed to benzimidazoles, were first commercialized. Since then, this group of fungicides has been widely used worldwide for controlling a number diseases on various crops. Benzimidazole fungicides have been shown to bind the β‐subunit of tubulin, a protein essential for eukaryotes, and result in interference with nuclear division in the fungus. Although resistance development of the targeted pathogens often occurs, tubulin‐binding compounds still look attractive as agricultural fungicides and a novel compound, zoxamide, has further been developed recently.