bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Graphite, Specialty
Authors: Criscione J. M. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
A useful form of graphite is a flexible sheet or foil. Because of graphite's stability at high temperatures, flexible foil is useful in applications requiring thermal stability in corrosive environments, eg, gaskets and valve packings, and is often used as a replacement for asbestos gaskets. Carbon–graphite foam is a prime candidate for thermal protection of new, emerging carbon–carbon aerospace reentry vehicles. Pyrolytic graphite produced in massive shapes is used for missile components, rocket nozzles, and aircraft brakes for advanced high performance aircraft. Glassy, or vitreous, carbon is a black, shiny, dense, brittle material with a vitreous or glass‐like appearance. Chemical inertness and low permeability have made glassy carbon a useful material for chemical laboratory crucibles and other vessels. Carbon and graphite paper has outstanding electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and moderately high strength. It is used in electrodes for electrostatic precipitators.
Oxygen
Authors: Hansel James G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOxygen is a key element for the existence of life on earth as well as an ingredient for a wide variety of manufacturing processes. Oxygen is produced commercially by the cryogenic separation of air into mainly oxygen and nitrogen or by vacuum swing adsorption procedures. The oxygen is transported to users primarily by pipelines as a high pressure gas or within tank trucks as a cryogenic liquid. Most oxygen is used captively. It is widely used in steel and other metal refining and fabrication industries as well as in the production of many petrochemicals and in health‐related fields. Specifications depend on use.In some cases oxygen is used as a replacement for air in a process; in other applications air is enriched in oxygen. In many applications, reducing or eliminating the nitrogen normally present in the air typically increases the combustion temperature, increases the yield of product formed, and reduces the volume of waste gas to be treated.
Oxygen‐Generation Systems
Authors: Mausteller J. Wilson 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Oxygen generation from oxygen‐containing compounds is used for systems for respiratory support wherever sufficient oxygen from air is unavailable. Use is made in submarines and spacecraft as well as in breathing apparatus. Additionally these systems provide emergency oxygen supplies for aircraft in the case of decompression and for bomb shelters. Materials composition and reactions, system design, and oxygen gas purity are presented.
Discussed herein are systems based on chlorates, perchlorates, peroxides, and superoxides. Whereas alkali metal salts of these anions all produce oxygen, the peroxides and superoxides also provide a mechanism for carbon dioxide absorption. Most commercial production centers around large chlorate candles for use in submarines and use of potassium superoxide in portable breathing apparatus and emergency aircraft oxygen supply.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Oxygen
Authors: Solomon I. J. , Shreeve Jean'ne M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOxygen difluoride is the most stable binary compound of oxygen and fluorine. It is mainly a laboratory chemical. Dioxygen difluoride is unstable and difficult to purify, but has found some application in the conversion of uranium oxides to UF6and as a recovery agent for actinides from nuclear wastes. Physical and chemical properties are given.
Ozone
Authors: Wojtowicz J. A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article discusses solubility, absorptivity, explosivity, as well as thermodynamic, spectral, structural, and other physical properties of ozone in the gaseous, liquid, and solid states; it reviews both organic and inorganic chemistry and offers various analytical methods for determining ozone in the solution and the gas phase. It examines, from a mechanistic viewpoint, not only the thermal and photochemical decomposition of gaseous and aqueous ozone, but also its generation, including gas preparation, electrical requirements and characteristics, efficiency, costs, and design. In addition, the article investigates atmospheric ozone formation in the troposphere and the stratosphere from the standpoint of photochemical smog, surveying the effect of natural and anthropogenic contaminants on ozone decomposition. Finally, the article considers numerous health and safety issues, including such topics as the depletion of ozone layer, environmental and human exposure, and ozone disinfection by‐products.Ozone can be used in drinking water, high purity water for bottling and canning plants, as well as the pharmaceutical and electronics industry; it can be used to bleach textiles and natural products, to control industrial wastewater pollution and sewage, to disinfect wastewater as well as water for large aquariums and shrimp hatcheries, to treat process water, swimming pools, and spas; it can also be used for pulp bleaching, organic synthesis, medical applications, and food preservation. Vol. 17, pp. 953–994, 168 refs. to May 1995.
Paper
Authors: Lyne M. Bruce 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPaper consists of sheet materials comprised of bonded small discrete fibers. The fibers usually are cellulosic and are held together by hydrogen bonds. Paperboard differs from paper in that it generally is thicker, heavier, and less flexible than conventional paper. More than 95% of the base materials used in paper and board manufacture is fibrous. Whereas a large percentage originates from wood, the filler contents of some grades of paper approach 30%. There are many different manufacturing processes involved in the conversion of wood to pulp. These range from mechanical to chemical processes. Many combinations of mechanical and chemical methods are also employed.In modern practice, as much water as is compatible with efficient machine operation is recycled. The loss of fibers and inert furnish components, particularly clay, has been greatly reduced. Fiber losses, however, still occur into the white water, and greater economy of operation may be achieved if these fibers could be recovered. If general recovery methods are operated efficiently, the net fiber loss can be less than 1%. Totally closed mill white water systems are possible.Physical and chemical properties, manufacture and processing, sheet preparation, economic aspects, analytical test methods, environmental issues, and uses are discussed.
Patents and Trade Secrets
Authors: Gresens John J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This article provides a basic, step‐by‐step approach to the practice and management of patents and trade secrets. The significance of aggressive patent and trade secret protection to the economic well‐being of a business or organization should not be underestimated. Patents and trade secrets are protected by securing rights to ideas and the application of ideas which have commercial worth. The grant of rights in patents and trade secrets is based on an appreciation of development, advancement, and invention that will stimulate innovation by advancing technology. Both patent and trade secret rights are supported by the policies and laws of the United States. This article provides a hands‐on tool, including practice tips, check lists, and a compendium of basics on patent and trade secret management.
Fluorine‐Containing Polymers, Perfluorinated Ethylene‐Propylene Copolymers
Authors: Gangal Subhash V. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Perfluorinated ethylenepropylene (FEP) is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) and hexafluoropropylene (HFP). It retains most of the desirable characteristics of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) but with a melt viscosity low enough for conventional melt processing. The introduction of hexafluoropropylene lowers the melting point of PTFE from 327C to about 260C. The lower melt viscosity allows melt extrusion of wire insulation of longer continuous lengths than the batchwise paste extrusion of PTFE and the injection molding of intricate shaped parts. This polymer has a combination of properties that make it useful in applications that require chemical inertness, excellent dielectric properties, good weatherability, antistick properties, low coefficient of friction, and performance in temperature extremes. As a thermoplastic, it can be processed by extrusion and compression, injection, and blow molding. Films can be heat bonded and sealed, vacuum formed, and laminated to various substrates.
Aqueous and nonaqueous dispersion polymerizations are the most convenient routes to producing these copolymers. The polymerization conditions are similar to those of TFE homopolymer dispersion polymerization. The optimal composition of the copolymer requires that the mechanical properties are retained in the usable range and that the melt viscosity is low enough for easy melt processing.
Fluorine‐Containing Polymers, Perfluoroepoxides
Authors: Resnick Paul R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPerfluorinated epoxides have been prepared primarily by the oxidation of the parent fluoroolefin. They readily react with nucleophiles to give ring‐opened products and oligomers. Reactions with electrophiles also result in the opening of the epoxide ring. Perfluoroepoxides which contain a CF2linkage in the epoxide ring undergo smooth decomposition at modest temperatures to give difluorocarbene.Hexafluoropropylene epoxide is the most important of this class of compounds. Its primary use is as an intermediate for the preparation of a number of commercially important trifluorovinyl ethers. The compound also serves as a starting material for the preparation of hexafluoroacetone and a series of oligomers which have been converted to a variety of stable liquids.The chemistry of other perfluorinated epoxides, as well as that of epoxides containing small amounts of other halogen and hydrogen, has been explored. With the possible exception of the epoxides of perfluoroallyl chloride and tetrafluoroethylene the work is primarily of scientific and academic interest. The reactions are almost entirely analogous to those of hexafluoropropylene epoxide.
Pesticides
Authors: Leng Marguerite L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractA pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances used to control living organisms that cause damage or economic loss, or transmit or produce disease, including such animals as insects or mice, unwanted plants, microorganisms such as those causing plant diseases, or viruses. Early pesticides were simple, often toxic inorganic compounds having a broad spectrum of activity, and often applied indiscriminately at high rates. Newer crop protection agents are generally complex organic chemicals, which may bind to a specific enzyme recoptor. Some commercial pesticides are biological agents.Pesticide use in the United States is 57% herbicides, 23% insecticides, 12% fungicides, and 8% other, including household disinfectants, repellents, rodenticides, etc. About 90% of pesticides are produced by 20 companies, 9 located in Europe, 6 in the United States, and 5 in Japan. All pesticides produced and used in the United States must be reviewed and registered by the U.S. EPA. Extensive studies on chemistry, residues in treated food commodities, environmental fate, and toxicity to laboratory animals and wildlife, to demonstrate that proposed uses do not cause undue harm to humans or the environment, are required. The estimated cost for developing a new pesticide is\documentclass{article}\usepackage{amssymb}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\$}70\times 10^{6}}$\end{document}over 10–12 years. Problems for the agrochemical industry and for government regulators include the lack of harmonization of study requirements in developed countries, and public perception that pesticides are not adequately tested and are inherently harmful.
Petroleum Resources
Authors: Drew Lawrence J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe petroleum resources considered here are those liquid crude oils that can be produced by conventional production technologies and, to some extent, those unconventional sources of crude oils that can be captured and converted into conventional sources in the near term by advancing production technologies. Most of the large volume of these crude oils that are consumed in the world are produced from only a small fraction of the oil fields that have been discovered. By far the largest concentration of these reserves is located in Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait. More than one‐half of the world's proved reserves are contained in 51 out of the more than 20,000 fields that have been discovered. Proved reserves in countries with mature producing provinces such as the United States have been declining. However, the United States remained the second largest producer in the world in 1992. The former Soviet Union was the largest producer of crude oil. In terms of the balance of consumption vs production, the Eastern Hemisphere produces 71% and consumes 65% of the world's crude oil. Most of the surplus 6% is consumed in the United States. In terms of regional production and consumption, the Middle Eastern region produces five times more crude oil than it consumes. The counterpart to this imbalance is in OECD Europe, where consumption is three times production.The world is not running out of crude oil in the ground. Important technological and economic problems, however, need to be solved so that these resources can be converted to usable reserves.
Pharmacodynamics
Authors: Triggle David J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPharmacodynamics is the study of drug action primarily in terms of drug structure, sites of action, mechanisms of drug–target interaction, as well as the biochemical and physiological consequences of the action of the drug. Pharmacodynamics may be regarded as one branch of the larger discipline of pharmacology relating to all aspects of drug action, from isolation, characterization, to pharmacokinetic, therapeutic, and toxicologic descriptions.A principal concern of pharmacodynamics is the interaction of drugs with specific receptors. Increasingly, these studies are quantitative ones relating structural and genetic information. Such studies include the description of binding interactions, the definition of structure–activity relationships, the elucidation of transduction mechanisms by which receptor signals are translated into response, and the mechanisms by which receptors are regulated through chronic drug and hormone action as well as during disease processes. These considerations of pharmacodynamics are exerted at both preclinical and clinical states.
Pharmaceuticals, Chiral
Authors: Witiak Donald T. , Hopper Allen T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractEnantiomers differ in absorption rates across membranes, bind with different affinities to plasma proteins, undergo alternative metabolic and detoxification processes and possess distinct binding interactions with their enzyme or receptor targets. Homochiral pharmaceuticals generally display both increased potency and decreased side effects when compared with their racemates. The pharmaceutical industry is taking advantage of the potential financial benefits of homochiral drugs by reinvestigating the enantiomers of chiral racemic drugs and patenting new pharmacological data and production technology for single enantiomers. Differences in the biological activities, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and metabolism of enantiomeric pairs are briefly reviewed for the following drug classes: antihypertensive agents including β‐blockers, calcium channel blockers, and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors; nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs; central nervous system depressant drugs; antimicrobial drugs; opioid analgesic drugs; anticoagulant drugs; neurotransmitters; antineoplastic drugs; and peptidomimetic agents. Methods for the preparation of homochiral drugs, determination of absolute configuration and measurement of enantiomeric purity are discussed.
Regulatory Agencies, Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics
Authors: L. Yingling Gary , Onel Suzan 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the primary federal scientific and regulatory government agency that monitors drug, biologic, medical device, food, veterinary and cosmetic products. FDA is organized into five distinct centers, each with its own rules and regulations. This article discusses FDA's traditional regulatory mission of consumer protection and how its decisional processes have changed over time as a result of the explosion of advances within analytical chemistry and toxicology. Because no compound is completely safe, FDA must regularly assess the intended use of a product and whether the level of risk is acceptable. The article also summarizes the legislation that sets the boundaries of FDA's authority and lays out the administration's organization and responsibilities.
Pharmaceuticals
Authors: Zanowiak Paul 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe many types of drug product dosage forms are present. Contemporary forms are discussed, as are technologies of design and manufacture to deliver safe and effective therapeutic responses each time administered. U.S. pharmaceutical organizations, including those that involve the practice of pharmacy, pharmaceutical research and manufacture, licensure, and education are identified and the economic aspects of the industry discussed.Bioavailability, bioequivalence, and pharmacokinetics are defined, and drug delivery systems that are designed to achieve appropriate drug therapy, such as sustained action dosage forms, biotechnology, and quality assurance, are presented. U.S. laws and regulations that are related to drug product development, including clinical trials, manufacture, and distribution, are discussed. Vol. 18, pp. 480–510, 39 refs. to August 1995.
Phenolic Resins
Authors: Kopf Peter W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhenolic resins are a family of polymers and oligomers composed of a wide range of structures based on the various reaction products of phenols with formaldehyde. Applications vary from commodity construction materials to high technology applications in electronics and aerospace. Phenolic resins are prepared using acidic or basic catalysts. Weak Lewis acids, such as zinc acetate, are used for specialty resins. Phenolic novolaks are thermoplastic resins prepared from acid catalysts and a molar excess of phenol. They have a molecular weight of 500–5000 and a glass‐transition temperatureTgof 45–70°C. Novolak resins are typically cured with 5–15% hexamethylenetetramine as the cross‐linking agent. Resole‐type phenolic resins are produced with a molar ratio of formaldehyde to phenol of 1.2:1 to 3.0:1 and alkaline catalysts such as NaOH, Ca(OH)2, and Ba(OH)2. A typical resin has an initial molecular weight of 150 to perhaps 1500. For systems of unsubstituted phenols, the final cross‐link density is 150–300 atomic mass units per cross‐link. In 2001, worldwide consumption of phenolic resins exceeded 4 × 106t; slightly less than half of the total volume was produced in the United States, where the largest volume application is in plywood adhesives and accounts for ca 49% of U.S. consumption. As a mature industry, U.S. production of phenolic resins has paralleled the growth in the GNP. Applications for phenolic resins include coatings, adhesives, carbonless copy paper, molding compounds, bonded and coated abrasives, friction materials, foundry resins, laminates, air and oil filters, wood bonding, fiber bonding, composites, spherical fillers, and fibers. Factors contributing to the health and safety concerns of phenolic resins are related primarily to the presence of unreacted phenol and formaldehyde. Unreacted phenol in a resin can range from >10% for liquid resoles used in impregnation processes to <1% for novolaks intended for use as epoxy hardeners. Free formaldehyde can be 2–4% in liquid adhesives.
Amines, Aromatic, Phenylenediamines
Authors: Layer Robert W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhenylenediamines are aromatic amines with two amino groups attached to benzene. They are called benzenediamines byChemical Abstracts.There are three phenylenediamines; ortho, meta, and para; or 1,2‐; 1,3‐; and 1,4‐benzenediamines, respectively. Since they are difunctional, they are easily converted to polymers. Them‐phenylenediamines are the least expensive isomers and are used in the largest volumes for the manufacture of polyurethanes.p‐Phenylenediamine is used for the manufacture of polyamides with exceptional tensile strength. The unique chemistry of thep‐phenylenediamine derivatives makes them useful in the photographic and dye industries, and widely used as antioxidants and antiozonants for rubbers and plastics. The three phenylenediamines are all white solids when pure, but darken after standing in air. They are all very soluble in hot water. The phenylenediamines are aromatic amines which undergo typical amine reactions, such asN‐acylation andN‐alkylation. Commercially the largest‐volume usage of phenylenediamines is in the manufacture of diisocyanates; large volumes ofN,N′‐alkyl/aryl‐p‐phenylenediamines are also manufactured. Them‐phenylenediamines are easily obtained by dinitrating, followed by catalytically hydrogenating, an aromatic hydrocarbon. Like aniline, phenylenediamines may be toxic. Appropriate substitution ofp‐phenylenediamine, generally on the nitrogen with phenyl or larger alkyl groups, significantly reduces its toxicity.
Phenol
Authors: Wallace Jim 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhenol (hydroxybenzene) is a commercially important derivative of benzene. It is the primary feedstock for the production of epoxy resins and polycarbonates, phenolic resins and molding compounds, caprolctam, aniline, and other chemical derivatives.More than 95% of the 4,691,000 m/yr consumed is produced by the cumene peroxidation process. Phenol is a white, crystalline mass at room temperature. Its freezing point is 40.91°C. It is a protoplasmic poison that is corrosive to living tissue and is readily absorbed through the skin.Phenol's consumption growth rate of 3% is based primarily on its use in engineering plastics such as polycarbonates, polyetherimide and poly(phenylene oxide), and epoxy resins for the electronics industry. Due to the nature of its end markets, phenol consumption is highly cyclic. Future production processes for phenol will be affected by the disparity in growth rate between phenol and its coproduct, acetone.
Phosphorus
Authors: Brummer J. R. , Keely J. A. , Munday T. F. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The manufacture of elemental phosphorus by the electric furnace route, a mature and worldwide process, is reviewed. The principal product is white phosphorus although some red phosphorus is made from the white for specialty uses. Reduction in phosphorus production capacity has resulted from the detergent phosphate bans in the Western Hemisphere, the construction of wet‐acid purification plants, and increased electric power costs. Additional capacity is being built in China.
Most phosphorus is converted into phosphoric acid or phosphates and is used for cleaning compounds, food and beverages, water and metal treatment, and electronics. The remainder is converted into other derivatives and is used for flame retardants, agricultural chemicals, lubricants, and plasticizers. By‐products of phosphorus manufacture are slag, ferrophos, precipitator dust, and carbon monoxide off‐gas.