bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Extra-Axial Brain Tumors
Authors: Greenberg Harry S , Chandler William F , Sandler Howard M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Acoustic neurinomas (i.e., acoustic schwannoma and vestibular schwannoma) are benign posterior fossa tumors of Schwann cell origin. They originate from the vestibular branches of the eighth cranial nerve, most commonly in the internal auditory canal, distal to where Schwann (periphera!) cells have replaced oligodendroglial (central) cells. This transition zone is variable in location and explains why some tumors arise within the internal auditory canal and others within the cerebellopontine angle.
Pain of Spinal Origin
Authors: Byrne Thomas N , Benzel Edward C , Waxman Stephen G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Back pain, neck pain, and referred pain to the trunk and extremities are common and often represent diagnostically challenging problems for the physician. In the United States, low back pain is second only to colds as the most common reason for patients’ visits to physicians1 and is reported to occur at some time in the lives of approximately 65% to 80% of individuals. Back pain is reported to be the most expensive chronic illness among persons 30-60 years of age in our society. The number of individuals reportedly disabled by low back pain grew at a rate 14 times that of the United States population growth between 1971 and 1981.
Degenerative Disorders of the Spine
Authors: Byrne Thomas N , Benzel Edward C , Waxman Stephen G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Osteoarthritis and spondylosis, which are “normal” aging phenomena, are almost universally present by the time of late middle age and collectively are often referred to as degenerative disorders of the spine. While osteoarthritis refers to degenerative disease of the diarthrodial facet joints of the spine, spondylosis refers to degeneration of the fibrocartilagenous intervertebral disc joints. Osteoarthritis and spondylosis frequently coexist, because when the process begins in either the facet joint or the intervertebral disc joint, abnormal function (motion) of the affected joint transmits abnormal forces to the corresponding (intervertebral and/or facet) joints at the same and adjacent levels, resulting in additional degeneration. In practice, when referring to the spine, the terms osteoarthritis and spondylosis are often used interchangeably.
Leptomeningeal Metastases
Authors: Byrne Thomas N , Benzel Edward C , Waxman Stephen G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Metastases to the leptomeninges from systemic malignancies or primary central nervous system neoplasms are a frequent cause of symptoms and signs of spinal cord and cauda equina dysfunction. Thus leptomeningeal cancer must be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients with these complaints and findings. This is especially true among patients with known malignancy. Approximately 5% to 8% of patients dying of solid tumors develop leptomeningeal metastases.
Movements of A Marriage; or, Looking Awry At U.S. History
Authors: Stephen Therese 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
“Family” in an African-American historical and literary perspective is still an encumbered social concept rooted in the trauma of slavery, which deprived black people of the hallmarks of identity: a birth date, a name, a family structure, and legal rights. While the poet Haki Madhubuti, the critic Houston A. Baker, Jr., or the historian Andrew Billingsley try to redeem the image of the black male and the black family, 1 a league of literary voices testifies to the disruption of marital and familial ties. In the “peculiar institution” and its after­ math, rape, incest, exploitation, and separation abound, most notably in Toni Morrison’s interpretation.
Introduction
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Sometime Between 1839 and 1841, John Snow drowned a guinea pig. It died in two minutes. An hour after its death, Snow began dissecting. He observed that the heart was perfectly still and that the right side was swollen with blood while the left was nearly empty. As he proceeded he noted that the surface of the lungs changed color when exposed to air. Then, much to his surprise, the heart twitched in the form of “a slight vermicular motion in the right auricle.” He opened the trachea and began artificial respiration. The heart’s ventricles began to move, and through the coats of the left atrium (the chamber that receives blood from the lungs) he could see oxygen-rich, bright red blood. The heart continued to contract weakly, unable to expel blood from its chambers, but it kept beating rhythmically for forty-five minutes.
What exactly was Snow up to in attempting to reactivate a guinea pigs’s dead tissue? This particular experiment took place in the course of his investigations into respiration and asphyxia, undertaken with the desire to establish the physiological basis for pulmonary resuscitation on infants. His efforts involved more unsettled questions than would William Kouwenhoven’s when he developed his cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) techniques in the 1950s.
Chloroform
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When Anesthesiologists With A Taste For the history of their specialty read John Snow, they generally turn to On the Inhalation of Ether or On Chloroform and discover comprehensive, albeit dated, accounts of these subjects, but reading Snow’s work from the white-hot years 1847 to 1851 is a very different experience. He conducted research on the installment plan, and he was a serial and accumulative thinker in the golden age of serialization. As the novel-reading public eagerly awaited the latest installment of David Copperfield in Household Words, the British medical world followed the latest developments chiefly via Lancet and LMG. London had learned of ether through articles, bulletins, letters, and journals. Definitive reference works or compendiums were few and far between. Most of the real action was taking place in lectures, medical societies, and journals, and it is in the latter that one finds evidence of Snow’s furiously productive months of research in 1847 on the properties of ether and the risks of administering it, within the context of contemporary debates. Often writing in installments, repeating himself to get new readers up to speed, and modifying as he went, he gradually developed his views on the subject. Then, as the workaholic Snow raced to keep pace with and ahead of developments, the ground shifted unexpectedly. Just as a serial novel might have it, an Edinburgh professor of obstetrics, James Young Simpson, directed the attention of the Medico–Chirurgical Society of Edinburgh to a new agent termed, with all the chemical nicety of the day, perchloride of formyle, or chloroform.
Professional Success
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
“The Rooms Of The Society, this evening, were crowded to excess,” noted the Lancet’s reporter at the meeting of the Westminster Medical Society on Saturday, 13 October 1849. “Dr. Swayne, of Bristol, was among the visitors” who, along with the regular membership, had gathered to hear Snow read a paper, “On the pathology and mode of communication of cholera.” At the end of his presentation, after outlining preventive measures, Snow mentioned that the visitor from Bristol was a colleague of “Dr. Brittan [who] had found microscopic bodies in the atmosphere, which he considered to be the same as those existing in the alimentary canal.” Snow was skeptical, however. Other investigators had been unable to replicate Brittan’s findings, and “all the evidence he had collected was opposed to the idea that the cause of cholera existed in the air.”
Swayne took the cue. Their microscopical examinations of about sixty samples of cholera evacuations yielded ninety percent evidence of “the bodies in question.” He had found none in diarrheal evacuations that resulted from causes other than cholera. In fact, he had brought a “diagram he had made, which exhibited their peculiar structure.” He “felt quite disposed to agree with the remarks which had been made by Dr. Snow in his paper respecting the probability of cholera being primarily a disease of the alimentary canal and not of the blood.”
Explaining the Increase in Inequality and the Decline in Proverty Reduction
Authors: Khan Azizur Rahman , Riskin Carl 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Between 1988 and 1995, real per capita GDP in China increased at an annual rate of 8.1% per year—which amounts to an aggregate growth of 72% when compounded over seven years—according to official estimates. Unfortunately, China’s unprecedented growth during this period was accompanied by a sharp increase in the inequality of income distribution. The result, as we have shown, is an unimpressive record of poverty reduction. The head count index of broad rural poverty declined by less than one-fifth, probably by only one-eighth. Although extreme forms of overall rural poverty declined somewhat more, there was an increase in rural poverty in some parts of the heartland of central China, as well as in more remote and resource-poor regions. Overall urban poverty rose. Even among the rich coastal provinces there are examples of rising incidence of poverty.
Policies for the Reduction of Inequality and Poverty
Authors: Khan Azizur Rahman , Riskin Carl 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The analysis of the preceding chapters suggests the elements of a com prehensive strategy for arresting the trend toward increasing inequality and correcting the poor performance in poverty reduction. Chapter 6 helps to focus attention on the aspects of development policy that shape the pattern of income distribution. A comprehensive strategy for greater equality and less poverty must include consistent actions on a broad front, involving macroeconomic and institutional policies that determine the overall pattern of development, as well as microeconomic interventions to directly enhance the capabilities of poor households. Before outlining the elements of such a strategy, it will be useful to begin with a brief overview of China’s official strategy on income distribution and poverty reduction.1
“It Will Have to Be War!”
Authors: West Elliott 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the first days of June 1877, members of all five nontreaty bands gathered near present-day Tolo Lake, about eight miles south of the 1863 reservation boundary. The place was called Tepahlewam (Split Rocks or Deep Cuts). It had always been a favored camping place in early summer. It had fresh water, good pasture, and ample camas bulbs for women to dig and dry—ideal conditions for congregating and socializing before fanning out over the country in the warm months ahead. Deep memories of abundance and free-roaming independence must have given the 1877 gathering a terrible resonance.
Schizophrenia
Authors: Pincus Jonathan H , Tucker Gary J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since the first edition of this book was published in 1974, there has been little change in our ability to diagnose schizophrenia. We now have greater consensus on the diagnostic criteria (DSM-III, DSM-IIIR, and DSM-IV) and we have standardized interviews to reliably apply these criteria. Even with this increased precision, however, the diagnosis is still solely based on history and observation; we do not yet have a laboratory test that can confirm the diagnosis of schizophrenia.
In the early 1970s schizophrenia was the common label for any psychosis. In the U.S., DSM-II (1968) embodied diagnostic criteria that were much broader than European criteria (Hordem et al., 1968; Kendell, 1975). Consequently, schizophrenia was the most common diagnosis for acutely psychotic patients being treated on the newly emerging general hospital psychiatric units. It later became apparent that many of these psychotic patients were not schizophrenic. Many other causes of psychosis emerged: affective disorder, drug reactions, head trauma, seizure disorders, encephalitis, and metabolic disturbances can all mimic schizophrenia. The recent DSM editions have narrowed the definition of schizophrenia and currently we apply the schizophrenic label to a much smaller group of patients, but there is still great variability in probable etiology within this group.
The History of Osteoarthritis
Authors: Lane Nancy E , Wallace Daniel J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Although arthritis was mentioned by scholars in ancient Greece and Rome, such as Hippocrates and Galen, its differentiation into distinct disorders did not take place until the nineteenth century. By the late 1800s, “chronic arthritis” was divided into “atrophic” and “hypertrophic” components. Atrophic disease included several conditions now associated with inflammation of the synovium, and erosion or atrophy of cartilage and bone. This category consisted of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and gout. Hypertrophic disease was coined due to its “excess growth;’ or hypertrophy of adjacent bone and soft tissues. John Kent Spender of Bath, England, was the first to use the term “osteoarthritis” to denote hypertrophic arthritis in 1886. Clinical evaluation methods which could distinguish it from rheumatoid-like arthritis were widely accepted by the first decade of the twentieth century largely due to efforts by Archibald E. Garrod of London.
The Spine
Authors: Lane Nancy E , Wallace Daniel J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Appreciating how elegantly humans are functionally structured creates a feeling of awe. Perhaps such a design could only have been crafted by a higher source. The longest bony structure of the body, the spine, provides stability, mobility, outlets for nearly all of our nerves, protection, rigidity, and distinguishes us from other mammals with its erectness. It allows us to move, function, and feel sensations. In this chapter, you will learn how the spine is constructed, the means by which doctors examine it, which diagnostic studies evaluate symptoms, and how different types of osteoarthritis affect it.
Exercises to Improve Osteoarthritis
Authors: Lane Nancy E , Wallace Daniel J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There is no cure for osteoarthritis, and at present we do not have any medications or procedures that can significantly slow joint destruction. However, exercise can help to reduce joint pain and improve function. It is one of the most important activities we can undertake to help ourselves, and this chapter describes exercises for the major osteoarthritis joint groups. The old school of thought was that exercising arthritic joints wore them out faster. Some believed that individuals had a certain number of heart beats and a certain number of steps over a lifetime and the more active one was, the sooner the joints would wear out. These theories have been disproven. In fact, low-impact activities such as walking and cycling do not accelerate articular cartilage breakdown. They are beneficial for joints, even somewhat arthritic ones. Articular cartilage needs use, and weight-bearing to knee joints pushes fluid out of the cartilage. When the weight is removed, fluids with new nutrients for articular cartilage are absorbed.
When Do We Operate?
Authors: Lane Nancy E , Wallace Daniel J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Doctors approach arthritis patients by steering them into one or more of four general directions. Physical measures, including exercise and rehabilitation, can be recommended. The use of medications-whether prescription, over-the-counter, herbal, or topical-may also be advised. Counseling aspects including general advice, instruction in coping skills, and other psychosocial support systems are made available. And if necessary, an orthopedic referral can be made to consider the possibility of surgery. This chapter will review when and how to consider surgical intervention.
Justice, health, and health policy1
Authors: Daniels Norman , Kennedy Bruce P , Wachl Ichiro Ka 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Much thinking about ethics and health policy focuses on issues of access to medical services and the special problems created when we must limit access to potentially beneficial services as a result of resource limitations. This narrow focus is the result of many things-the widely held belief that it is medical care, especially new medical technologies, that are primarily responsible for population health, the prominence of health expenditures in the budgets of developed economies, and the enormous demand for medical services created by the medical and health promotion industries. Our goal in this essay is to put other issues on the ethics and health policy agenda and to broaden the perspective of those thinking about health policy in light of increased understanding of the social determinants of health. We argue in what follows for a broad view of ethics and health policy.3
Health –care policy in the United States in the 20th century
Authors: Ginzberg Ell 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
I begin with some summary observations about the role that ethics has played in helping to shape health-care policy in the United States in the 20th century. The fact that the United States consists of fifty states occupying an area of about three million square miles with a population of around 270 million with substantial variations in culture, politics, and family wealth and taxable revenue has contributed to substantial variations in private insurance and public services. These variations include large-scale disparities in both the geographic distribution of health care resources and the costs and quality of medical care. These disparities invite inquiry into the dynamic between ethics and health policy. I will be concerned here with the absence of national health insurance in the United States, an absence that serves to contrast this country with all other advanced nations, each of which has implemented universal coverage.
Health policy and state initiatives
Authors: Oberlander Jonathan , Brown Lawrence D 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As the polity grows impatient with the status quo in health care but fears “too much government,” the states are repeatedly invited to lead and innovate. Several distinctive features of American political life lend recourse to the states a hardy, if not perennial, appeal. The United States is a federal system whose constitution honors states’ rights in several social spheres. Political culture-traditional American distaste for big, central government and the corresponding affection for checks and balances-powerfully reinforces these formalities. American lore contends that states are “closer to the people” and hence more responsive than national government to the demands of the people. States are also said to be “laboratories of democracy,” valuable testing grounds for policy innovations that may wax or wane incrementally in the clarifying light of subnational experience (Leichter, 1996). And devolution-turning back power to the states-is a staple of the conservative agenda that understandably enjoys much political “prime time” when, as in the last 30 years, conservatives have been powerful.
Patient v. population: resolving the ethical dilemmas posed by treating patients as members of populations
Authors: Emanuel Ezekiel J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Over the last century there have been recurring attempts to change the dominant model of American health care from an individual patient-focused model to a social, or community-focused, one. As Greenlick has reminded us, as early as 1910 Abraham Flexner had argued that “the physician’s function is fast becoming social and preventive, rather than individual and curative”(Flexner, 1910; Greenlick, 1992). In the 1930s and 1940s, the early prepaid group practices, health care cooperatives such as Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound and Kaiser Permanente, embodied another effort at creating population-focused health care (Crowley, 1996). In the 1960s, coeval with the larger liberal, social reform movement, there was yet another effort to improve health outcomes by shifting the focus of medical care from high technology, research oriented tertiary care facilities affiliated with medical schools focusing on the latest intervention for the very sickest patients to primary and preventive care in the community (Sardell, 1988; Geiger, 1984; Davis and Schoen, 1978). The goal of this shift was to improve health outcomes by preventing diseases and intervening early. The philosophy was to emphasize “the health of communities, beyond the traditional patient-bypatient focus of clinical medicine.”
Thinking about Crime
Authors: Tonry Michael 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Crime is an American preoccupation. Campaigns such as “the war on drugs,” zero tolerance policing, and three strikes and you’re out--not to mention the ever-shrill coverage of crime stories-all suggest a perpetually outraged nation determined to keep its criminal element at bay, no matter the cost. But is this really what average Americans think about crime and crime control measures? Or is the “no holds barred” approach merely another oscillation in an ongoing cycle of intolerance and tolerance in American thinking? Have prevailing but short-lived sensibilities on crime overruled our common sense? In this wide-ranging analysis, Michael Tonry argues that those responsible for crafting America’s criminal justice policy have lost their way in a forest of good intentions, political cynicism, and public anxieties. American crime control politics over time have created a punishment system no one would knowingly have chosen yet one that no one seems able to change. Fueled by knee-jerk rhetoric and moral panics, the current crime control regime is founded on short-term thinking and the personal ambitions of politicians terrified of appearing “soft on crime,” rather than on policies that work. Tonry demonstrates that attitudes toward crime in America are cyclical. Prevailing sensibilities rather than timeless truths govern the American war on crime, resulting in policies both wasteful and harsh. U.S. crime trends closely resemble those of other nations, yet American policies are very different. The evolution of the war on drugs is an example; sentencing grew steadily harsher long after the drug problem itself eased. Seamlessly blending history with an easy presentation of day-to-day realities and empirical evidence, Tonry proposes tangible, specific solutions that can serve as a platform for criminal justice reform. A spirited manifesto rooted in a lifetime of crime expertise, Tonry’s book calls on politician and policymakers to choose the right path, not the easy or politically expedient one. We know how to create an effective and humane criminal justice system. Now we must have the courage to do so, by abandoning the current status quo, which is both costly and cruel in favor of practices that will move America closer to the mainstream of contemporary Western values.
I X
Authors: Villaverde Cirilo 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The story of the woman who was sentenced to death for her crime deserves to be told, however briefly. Married to a poor peasant, she lived on the outskirts of the little town of El Mariel; we do not know how long ago, nor is it of any great importance. But though neither young nor pretty, she entered into illicit relations with an unmarried man of the same town. Either because her husband found out what was going on and threatened to take his vengeance, or because the lovers wished to free themselves of this impediment, the two of them agreed between themselves to kill him. And once they had managed to do so (it is not very hard to kill a man), they endeavored to hide the traces of their crime by quartering the corpse and throwing the bloody quarters, sewn inside a sack, into a nearby river. Such were the principal facts that came out during the trial.