bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Market, Hierarchy, and Trust: The Knowledge Economy and the Future of Capitalism
Authors: Adler Paul S. 
Published: December 2003

Recent conceptualizations of trends in the structure of U.S. industry have focused on the relative importance of markets, hierarchies, and hybrid intermediate forms. This paper advances the discussion by distinguishing three ideal-typical forms of organization and their corresponding coordination mechanisms: market/price, hierarchy/authority, and community/trust. Different institutions combine the three forms/mechanisms in different proportions. Economic and organizational theory have shown that, compared to trust, price and authority are relatively ineffective means of dealing with knowledge-based assets. Therefore, as knowledge becomes increasingly important in our economy, we should expect high-trust institutional forms to proliferate.A review of trends in employment relations, interdivisional relations, and interfirm relations finds evidence suggesting that the effect of growing knowledge-intensity may indeed be a trend toward greater reliance on trust. There is also reason to believe that the form of trust most effective in this context is a distinctively modern kind—“reflective trust”—as opposed to traditionalistic, “blind” trust. Such a trend to reflective trust appears to threaten the privileges of currently dominant social actors, and these actors' resistance, in combination with the complex interdependencies between price, authority, and trust mechanisms, imparts a halting character to the trend. But the momentum of this trend nevertheless appears to be self-reinforcing, which suggests that it may ultimately challenge the foundations of our capitalist form of society while simultaneously creating the foundations of a new, postcapitalist form.
Understanding Interorganizational Cooperation: Public-Private Collaboration in Regulating Financial Market Innovation
Authors: Faerman Sue R. , McCaffrey David P. , Slyke David M. Van 
Published: December 2003

This paper examines how a collaborative effort between the private and public sectors, called the Derivatives Policy Group (DPG), helped shape current regulation of financial innovation. In 1994 and 1995, this group of six large financial firms developed procedures for risk management, internal controls, and reporting for largely unregulated areas of finance, in cooperation with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission and Commodity Futures Trading Commission. The process succeeded despite strong competition among the firms themselves and incentives for both the public and private sectors to resort to adversarial lobbying and legal challenges. The Derivatives Policy Group was a path-setting event in the development of flexible regulation of financial innovation that is now the norm for related policy making.The case is important in and of itself--the financial markets are a major concern of national and international economic policy--but here we treat it as an instance of a larger class of problems. Organizational science constantly encounters settings that involve numerous participants who compete or have histories of conflicts; who are interdependent, and collectively would gain (and even individually gain long term) by cooperating rather than competing on an issue; who fall under different governance systems; and who try as a group to design rules and principles governing their behavior. Four factors appear repeatedly in the research on the success or failure of such arrangements. These are (1) the initial dispositions toward cooperation, (2) the extant issues and incentives, (3) leadership, and (4) the number and variety of organizations involved. This paper focuses on how these factors shaped the development and consequences of the Derivatives Policy Group, and the general implications of this process for interorganizational cooperation.
Reimagining the Differentiation and Integration of Work for Sustained Product Innovation
Authors: Dougherty Deborah 
Published: December 2003

This study describes the image of organizing that underlies a complex organization's ability to incorporate streams of innovation with continuing operations. I argue that a mechanistic organization archetype prevents people from seeing in their minds' eyes—from imagining—how to do the work of innovation organizationwide, but that theorists have failed to articulate an alternative to this archetype in its own terms. The study focuses on two elements of organizing: the differentiation and the integration of work. I build grounded theory for an alternate, innovative archetype of organizing by exploring the shared image of work differentiation and integration in twelve firms that vary in innovative ability. I find a fundamentally different image in innovative organizations that is centered on hands-on practice: People understand value creation as a long-term working relationship with customers, in which they apply the firm's skills to anticipate and solve customer problems. This practice is differentiated into distinct problems in value creation, each of which embodies the integral flow of work like a lateral slice, but which situates those problems in their own contexts. People understand themselves to be organized in an autonomous community of practice that takes charge of one of the problems. The communities of practice are integrated by standards for action: vivid, simple representations of value that frame work and that are reenacted in practice. The analysis details this different image of organizing by describing four autonomous communities of practice and contrasting them with the image of organizing found in noninnovative firms. The paper illustrates how this new image straightforwardly organizes and controls innovative work, and how the noninnovative image of differentiation and integration makes this work unimaginable. I conclude that innovation can be incorporated with continuing operations, provided that managers and theorists reimagine the differentiation and integration of work. I offer preliminary ideas for doing so, and suggest some next steps in this research stream.
From Issues to Actions: The Importance of Individual Concerns and Organizational Values in Responding to Natural Environmental Issues
Authors: Bansal Pratima 
Published: December 2003

In this research, we traced the development of natural environmental issues in two organizations in real time over the period of a year. Participant observations, discussions with organizational members, and corporate documents yielded insights used to develop a model describing issue flows in both organizations. With this model, we identified the factors that influenced the scope, scale, and speed of organizational response to issues. Our methods provided insights into why issues generated organizational responses and also why they did not. Two factors appeared to be critical in explaining organizational responses to issues: individual concerns and organizational values. Individual concerns gave rise to an issue champion or seller. An issue consistent with organizational values was perceived as strategic. These were necessary conditions; without either condition, the issue would not be resolved. It is argued further that individual discretion and excess resource slack will moderate the relationship between these direct effects and the scope, scale, and speed of organizational response. The framework that emerged from the data is conveyed through a set of four propositions.
A Dynamic Model for Airline Seat Allocation with Passenger Diversion and No-Shows
Authors: Zhao Wen , Zheng Yu-Sheng 
Published: December 2003

For airlines selling the same seats on a scheduled flight at different fares, the demand for a fare class is affected not only by the current availability of lower fares but also by the possibility of future availability of them. To address this type of passenger behavior, this paper studies a two-class dynamic seat allocation model, which has two distinctive features. The model assumes first that the discount fare cannot be reopened once closed and, second, that a fraction of the customers are flexible, i.e., while willing to pay the full fare, they would buy discount fare tickets if available. These assumptions not only reflect customers' behavior but also are consistent with a class of existing static models that are widely accepted by the industry.For this model, we derive structural properties of the optimal policy. We show that the optimal policy is a threshold policy: The discount fare should be closed as soon as the number of seats remaining reaches a predetermined threshold, which is a function of the time remaining before departure. We show that the threshold does not always decrease over time, and that its time-monotonicity depends on how the proportion of flexible customers changes over time. Our model explains why airlines close discount fares as the departure time approaches. We also show a close relationship between the optimal policy and the policies suggested by the existing static models (the Littlewood rule and its variants). Our numerical study shows that, for parameters plausible to real applications, the latter policies, although not optimal for our dynamic model, perform well, compared to the performance of the optimal policies.
A Mathematical Model and Descent Algorithm for Bilevel Traffic Management
Authors: Patriksson Michael , Rockafellar R. Tyrrell 
Published: December 2003

We provide a new mathematical model for strategic traffic management, formulated and analyzed as a mathematical program with equilibrium constraints (MPEC). The model includes two types of control (upper-level) variables, which may be used to describe such traffic management actions as traffic signal setting, network design, and congestion pricing. The lower-level problem of the MPEC describes a traffic equilibrium model in the sense of Wardrop, in which the control variables enter as parameters in the travel costs. We consider a (small) variety of model settings, including fixed or elastic demands, the possible presence of side constraints in the traffic equilibrium system, and representations of traffic flows and management actions in both link-route and link-node space. For this model, we also propose and analyze a descent algorithm. The algorithm utilizes a new reformulation of the MPEC into a constrained, locally Lipschitz minimization problem in the product space of controls and traffic flows. The reformulation is based on the Minty (1967) parameterization of the graph of the normal cone operator for the traffic flow polyhedron. Two immediate advantages of making use of this reformulation are that the resulting descent algorithm can be operated and established to be convergent without requiring that the travel cost mapping is monotone, and without having to ever solve the lower-level equilibrium problem. We provide example realizations of the algorithm, establish their convergence, and interpret their workings in terms of the traffic network.
The Isocyanide–Cyanide Rearrangement; Mechanism and Preparative Applications
Authors: Rüchardt Christoph , Meier Michael , Haaf Klaus , Pakusch Joachim , Wolber Erwin K. A. , Müller Barbara 
Published: December 2003

AbstractUntil recently the isocyanide–cyanide rearrangement was of interest almost solely as an example of a unimolecular gas‐phase reaction, and kinetic studies had been carried out in only a few simple cases. Kinetic measurements in solution were made possible only by the discovery and suppression of a parallel free‐radical chain process which leads to the same products. The rate of the isomerization is almost independent of the structure of the starting material and of the substituents present. An exception is provided by extreme steric hindrance in three dimensions which, as in tris‐α‐substituted triptycyl isocyanides, leads to a considerable increase in the activation energy. The results can be interpreted in terms of a purely sigmatropic mechanism, as predicted by ab initio calculations. The preparative application of this rearrangement reaction requires the suppression of side reactions and can best be carried out by flash pyrolysis; yields are then almost quantitative. Allyl isocyanides react without allyl isomerization, optically active isocyanides with complete retention of configuration. New, economically interesting syntheses for the known nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs ibuprofen and (S)‐naproxene are described. The application of the useful synthetic building blocks, the optically active β‐acyloxy cyanides, which are formed from optically active α‐amino acids, will be demonstrated.
Lise Meitner and Fission: Fallout from the Discovery
Authors: Sime Ruth Lewin 
Published: December 2003

AbstractMuch has been written about Lise Meitner, but she remains on the periphery. Of her pioneering work in nuclear physics, little is said; she is remembered primarily for nuclear fission, a discovery in which she did not share. Especially in Germany the staging seldom varies: Otto Hahn in the spotlight, Fritz Straßmann in his shadow, Lise Meitner in the wings, dimly outlined in reflected light. Her role is open to speculation. One writer sees her work “crowned by the Nobel Prize for Otto Hahn”; [1] another, once director of an institute that bears her name, portrays her as the physicist who obstructed the discovery from the start.[2] Often she is cast as Hahn's Mitarbeiterin;[3] sometimes she is completely invisible, as in one of the world's great science museums, which for 30 years displayed[4] the fission apparatus–equipment assembled by Lise Meitner on a table in her laboratory in her physics section of the Kaiser‐Wilhelm‐Institut für Chemie—without ever mentioning her name.[**] The principals themselves do not agree. In his memoirs, Hahn has remarkably little to say of his closest colleague and friend. Only over a glass of wine, we are told, “konnte ihm die Äusserung entschlüpfen: ‘Ich weiss nicht; ich fürchte, Lischen hätte mir die Uranspaltung verboten.”’[5] (“he might let slip: ‘I don't know; I'm afraid Lischen would have forbidden me to discover fission.”’) Straßmann insists: “Lise Meitner war die geistig Führende in unserem Team gewesen”![6] (“Lise Meitner was the intellectual leader of our team”!) From Lise Meitner herself we have no autobiography. Available, however, is the large collection of letters and documents she has left behind, and these make it possible for us to learn much more.
Lantibiotics—Ribosomally Synthesized Biologically Active Polypeptides containing Sulfide Bridges and α,β‐Didehydroamino Acids
Authors: Jung Günther 
Published: December 2003

AbstractLantibiotics are polycyclic peptide antibiotics containing intrachain sulfide bridges, formed from the thioether groups of the amino acids lanthionine and β‐methyllanthionine. They also contain α,β‐unsaturated amino acids such as didehydroalanine and didehydroaminobutyric acid. A knowledge of the lantibiotic biosynthetic steps and the enzymes involved makes possible a gene technological construction of analogous highly modified polypeptides. To the family of lantibiotics belong nisin, an important food preservative, epidermin, a highly specific therapeutic agent against acne, a series of enzyme inhibitors, as well as immunologically interesting active peptides. Lantibiotics are produced by ribosomal synthesis, starting from inactive precursor proteins (prelantibiotics). The latter are post‐translationally converted into the active peptide antibiotics through enzymic modifications. The modifying enzymes effect dehydrations at the serine and threonine residues and stereospecific additions of the cysteine thiol groups to the resulting α,β‐unsaturated double bonds, which lead to the formation of several sulfide bridges. Upon subsequent proteolytic cleavage of the leader peptide, the biologically active lantibiotic is formed. Conformational analyses of the lantibiotics, as well as of their prepeptides, enables one to obtain information about the mechanism and steps of the biosynthesis. Antibodies against synthetic prepeptide sequences, and modern instrumental methods for the analysis of peptides, allow structural elucidation of the biosynthetic intermediates.
Groups of Organic Molecules That Operate Collectively
Authors: Menger Fredric M. 
Published: December 2003

AbstractA “chemical system” is defined as an assemblage of molecules that collectively does something interesting or useful. The key word here is “collectively”, a word that implies an interdependency and a group behavior that can be quite different from that of individual molecules. Batteries, computer chips, concrete, mayonnaise, shampoo, paint, liquid crystal displays, composites, and viruses are all examples of commonly encountered systems. A host–guest or “supramolecular” complex, on the other hand, would not be considered a system (as defined here), because only two species are involved. A chemical system is multimolecular, a collection of molecules interlocked in a tangle of dependencies. The review delves into a variety of chemical systems investigated by the author, including micelles, water pools, films, vesicles, and polymers. All of them can be categorized as “self‐assembling” or “self‐organizing” in the sense that defined structures arise spontaneously owing to noncovalent forces among the component molecules. Such chemical systems are useful for many purposes, including decontamination of environmentally dangerous substances, drug delivery, and separation of organic compounds.
Optically Anomalous Crystals
Authors: Kahr Bart , McBride J. Michael 
Published: December 2003

AbstractThe optical symmetry of many crystals is lower than would be expected from their external form and X‐ray diffraction data. Recently such optical anomalies have been attributed to nonequilibrium structures resulting from kinetically controlled crystal growth. Impurities are incorporated to different extents at various surface sites that would otherwise have become symmetry‐related within the bulk crystal. After their discovery by Brewster in 1815, optically anomalous crystals were the subject of lively debate throughout the 19th century among some of the most distinguished contributors to the development of crystallography including Biot, Berzelius, Herschel, Mitscherlich, Frankenheim, Pasteur, Mallard, Klein, Groth, Wyrouboff, Barlow, Brauns, Rinne, Pockels, and Friedel. From a sea of wild speculation two conflicting postulates emerged: that the symmetric form resulted from accidental twinning of segments with lower symmetry, or that the optical peculiarities resulted from stress due to impurities or external perturbations. Neither postulate expresses the present view. Interest in this research waned at the turn of the century, and after 1917 no one pursued Tammann's alternative correct insight. The problem of anomalous double refraction attracted no attention for more than half a century until its recent solution. This review discusses both mineral and organic systems with particular emphasis on the phyllosilicate apophyllite and on 1,5‐dichloro‐2,3‐dinitrobenzene. These nonequilibrium structures relate to questions of crystal order, crystal growth, molecular recognition, and the design of new materials. The review provides a reminder of the enduring value of the polarizing microscope as a research tool in chemistry.
C60: Buckminsterfullerene, The Celestial Sphere that Fell to Earth
Authors: Kroto Harold W. 
Published: December 2003

AbstractIn 1975–1978 the long‐chained polyynylcyanides, HC5N, HC7N, and HC9N were surprisingly discovered in the cold dark clouds of interstellar space by radioastronomy. The subsequent quest for their source indicated that they were being blown out of red giant, carbon stars. In 1985 carbon‐cluster experiments aimed at simulating the chemistry in such stars confirmed these objects as likely sources. During these cluster studies a serendipitous discovery was made; a stable pure‐carbon species, C60, formed spontaneously in a chaotic plasma produced by a laser focused on a graphite target. A closed spheroidal cage structure was proposed for this molecule, which was to become the third well‐characterized allotrope of carbon and was named buckminsterfullerene. It has taken five years to produce sufficient material to prove the correctness of this conjecture. There may be a timely object lesson in the fact that exciting new and strategically important fields of chemistry and materials science have been discovered overnight due to fundamental research, much of which was unable to attract financial support, and all of which was stimulated by a fascination with the role of carbon in space and stars. In this account, interesting aspects of this discovery, its origins, and its sequel are presented. The story has many facets, some of which relate to the way scientific discoveries are made.
Two‐Dimensional Crystallography of Amphiphilic Molecules at the Air–Water Interface
Authors: Jacquemain Didier , Wolf Sharon Grayer , Leveiller Franck , Deutsch Moshe , Kjaer Kristian , Als‐Nielsen Jens , Lahav Meir , Leiserowitz Leslie 
Published: December 2003

AbstractThe advent of well‐collimated, high‐intensity synchrotron X‐ray sources and the consequent development of surface‐specific X‐ray diffraction and fluorescence techniques have recently revolutionized the study of Langmuir monolayers at the air–liquid interface. These methods allowed for the first time the determination of the in‐plane and vertical structure of such monolayers with a resolution approaching the atomic level. We briefly describe these methods, including grazing incidence X‐ray diffraction, specular reflectivity, Bragg rods, standing waves, and surface fluorescence techniques, and review recent results obtained from them for Langmuir films. The methods have been successfully applied in the elucidation of the structure of crystalline aggregates of amphiphilic molecules such as alcohols, carboxylic acids and their salts, α‐amino acids, and phospholipids at the water surface. In addition, it became possible to monitor by diffraction the growth and dissolution of the crystalline self‐aggregates as well as structural changes occurring by phase transitions. Furthermore, the surface X‐ray methods shed new light on the structure of the underlying ionic layer of attached solvent or solute species. Examples are given where singly or doubly charged ions bound to the two‐dimensional (2D) crystal form either an ordered or diffuse counterionic layer. Finally, the surface diffraction methods provide data on transfer of structural information from 2D clusters to 3D single crystals, which had been successfully accomplished by epitaxial‐like crystallization both in organic and inorganic crystals.
Control and Design Principles in Biological Mineralization
Authors: Addadi Lia , Weiner Stephen 
Published: December 2003

AbstractThe control of crystal formation has been developed to a remarkable degree by many organisms. Oriented nucleation, control over crystal morphology, formation of unique composites of proteins and single crystals, and the production of ordered multicrystal arrays, are all well within the realm of biological capability. Understanding the control and design principles in biomineralization is a fascinating subject that may well contribute to the improved fabrication of synthetic materials on the one hand, and to the solution of many serious pathological problems involving mineralization, on the other.