bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Stationary processes
Authors: Grimmett Geoffrey R , Stirzaker David R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of stationary processes, with discrete or continuous parameter, is developed. Autocovariances and spectral distributions are introduced. A theory of stochastic integration is developed for functions integrated against a stochastic process, and this theory is used to obtain a representation of a stationary process known as the spectral theorem. A result of major importance is the ergodic theorem, which explains the convergence of successive averages of a stationary process. Ergodic theorems are presented for weakly and strongly stationary processes. The final section is an introduction to Gaussian processes.
Queues
Authors: Grimmett Geoffrey R , Stirzaker David R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A queue may be specified by its arrival process and its queueing and service disciplines. Queues with exponentially distributed interarrival and service times are the easiest to study, since such processes are Markov chains. Imbedded Markov chains allow an analysis when either the interarrival or the service times are exponentially distributed. The general case may be studied using the theory of random walks via Lindley’s equation. Open and closed networks of Markovian queues may be studied via their stationary distributions.
Martingales
Authors: Grimmett Geoffrey R , Stirzaker David R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general theory of martingales and submartingales has many applications. After an account of the concentration inequality for martingales, the martingale convergence theorem is proved via the upcrossings inequality. Stopping times are studied, and the optional stopping theorem proved. This leads to Wald’s identity and the maximal inequality. The chapter ends with a discussion of backward martingales and continuous-time martingales. Many examples of the use of martingale theory are included.
Diffusion processes
Authors: Grimmett Geoffrey R , Stirzaker David R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An elementary description of the Wiener process (Brownian motion) is presented, and used to motivate an account of diffusion processes based on the instantaneous mean and variance. This leads to the forward and backward equations for diffusions. First-passage probabilities of the Wiener process are explored using the reflection principle. Interpretations of absorbing and reflecting barriers for diffusions are presented. There is a brief account of excursions, and of the Brownian bridge. The Itoˆ calculus is summarized, and used to construct a class of diffusions which are martingales. The theory of financial mathematics based on the Wiener process is described, including option pricing and the Black–Scholes formula. Finally, there is a discussion of the links between diffusions, harmonic functions, and potential theory.
Hypothesis testing
Authors: Garthwaite Paul , Jolliffe Ian , Jones Byron 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most usual formulation of a hypothesis-testing problem is that we have to decide between two hypotheses regarding one or more parameters θ . The two hypotheses are the null hypothesis, which we denote by H 0: θ ω , and the alternative hypothesis, which we denote by H 1: θ Ω ω . Thus Ω is the set of all possible values for θ , called the parameter space and ω is some subset of Ω.
Interval estimation
Authors: Garthwaite Paul , Jolliffe Ian , Jones Byron 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapters 2 and 3 we discussed point estimation at some length. However, as was noted in Chapter 1, a point estimate on its own is of little use—some measure of its precision is also necessary. This leads naturally to the idea of interval estimation, which is of great practical importance. Nevertheless, we devote less space in this book to interval estimation than to either point estimation or hypothesis testing. This is because the theory underlying interval estimation is closely related to that already covered for point estimation and hypothesis testing, and the theory is most conveniently developed in these latter contexts. In fact, there is a close relationship between interval estimation and hypothesis testing, so that many of the ideas of hypothesis testing carry over directly to interval estimation; we show this later for some of the more useful ideas. The approach used in most of this chapter is known as the frequentist approach.
Non-parametric and robust inference
Authors: Garthwaite Paul , Jolliffe Ian , Jones Byron 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In much of inference, for both the frequentist and Bayesian approaches, there is an assumption that we know the form of the p.d.f. f (x ; θ ), apart from the values of one or more parameters θ . In practice, this is often an unrealistic assumption. For example, a distribution may be approximately normal, but it is rarely exactly so. In more extreme cases, we have little confidence that we can correctly specify a parametric form for a p.d.f. This occurs particularly when only a small sample of observations is available, so that the shape of the distribution is not easily estimated.
Genetic diversity in nature: global, regional, and local
Authors: Nevo Eviatar 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Are the levels of genetic polymorphism in subterranean mammals predictable and adaptive or, alternatively, are they basically stochastic and functionally neutral? The major unresolved problem haunting evolutionary genetics is how much of the genetic diversity at the protein, DNA, and chromosomal levels is adaptive, processed by natural selection, and contributes to differential fitness? Rephrased, what is the relative importance of selective (natural selection) and seemingly non-selective (mutation pressure in the broadest sense, recombination, migration, and genetic drift) factors in genome evolution? This problem relates directly to the levels of genetic polymorphism of subterranean mammals: is homoselection operating in fossorial and subterranean mammals?
Baroreflex anatomy
Authors: Eckberg Dwain L , Sleight Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During embryonic development, aortic and carotid baroreceptor areas arise from the third and fourth branchial arches (Koch 1931). Neural structures presumed to be baroreceptors are dense in the arch of the aorta between the brachiocephalic artery and the ligamentum arteriosum (Roever 1869; Tello 1924), the carotid sinus (De Castro 1926; Sunder-Plassmann I 930; Koch 1931), and other areas, including the common carotid, subclavian, and innominate arteries (Kahn 1929; Nonidez 1937). Although these latter arteries have innervation, the density of innervation is not as great as that of the carotid sinus area (Shin et al. 1987), and almost all baroreflex control is thought to be exerted by receptors in the carotid sinus and aortic receptor areas (Heymans et al. 1944). The anatomy of arterial baroreceptors has been reviewed in many articles (e.g. De Castro 1940; Ábrahám 1953; S.M. Hilton 1963; Rees 1967b; B. Winter 1972) and books (de Boissezon 1942; W.E. Adams 1958; Grigor’eva 1962; Abraham 1969).
Efferent baroreflex responses
Authors: Eckberg Dwain L , Sleight Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human baroreflex studies are based necessarily on the experimental ‘black box’ approach. A major strength of studies conducted with human volunteers—that data can be obtained from intact co-operative subjects without anaesthesia—is also a major weakness. The degree of invasiveness is limited in human studies (however, these limits are being rolled back steadily), and because subjects are intact, much of the information obtained is indirect and inferential. The present chapter focuses on methods available for measuring or estimating efferent neural responses related to baroreceptor activity in humans. Just as Chapters 4 and 5 emphasize that baroreceptor stimuli (input) must be controlled and quantitated precisely, the present chapter emphasizes that efferent responses (output) to changes of baroreceptor activity must also be quantitated accurately. An obvious corollary of this is that when conclusions are based on highly inferential data, the assumptions underlying the inferences must be recognized and dealt with explicitly.
Effector responses to baroreceptor forcings
Authors: Eckberg Dwain L , Sleight Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the exception of studies in which sympathetic nerve traffic or levels of plasma neurotransmitters are measured, most human baroreflex research concentrates on effector organ responses to baroreflex forcings. In such studies, the effector organ is at the end of a cascade of changes imposed at earlier stations in the reflex arc. In some instances, effector responses betray changes imposed earlier; certain effector response patterns may offer the only glimpse available into contributions of earlier segments in the human baroreflex arc. For example, sinus node responses must reflect, in some way, characteristics of baroreceptor transduction. It seems likely that proportionality between sinus node responses and induced changes of arterial distending pressure reflects proportionality of baroreceptor responses. An intuitively attractive extrapolation of this is that thresholds and saturations of sigmoid baroreflex response relations measured from electrocardiograms (Eckberg 1980a; Kasting et al. 1987) and muscle sympathetic nerve recordings (Rea and Eckberg 1987) reflect thresholds and saturations of baroreceptor neurones. Similarly, as discussed in Chapter 6, rate sensitivity, adaptation, and resetting seen in sinus node responses must in some way reflect rate sensitivity, adaptation, and resetting of baroreceptors.
Adaptive radiation and macroevolution
Authors: Stanley S M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many adaptive radiations have produced substantial evolutionary changes during relatively brief intervals of time. There is evidence that punctuational speciation events have played an important role in many radiations. Diversification early in adaptive radiation usually approximates exponential increase and can be shown often to have occurred because probability of speciation exceeded probability of extinction. There is a general correlation among taxa in characteristic rate of speciation and rate of extinction during adaptive radiation. This can be attributed to control of both rates by the same causal factors. A few ‘supertaxa’ are characterized by relatively high rates of speciation and low rates of extinction.
Major insect radiations
Authors: Wootton Robin J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The principal aspects and events in the evolution of insects, and the nature of their fossil record are reviewed. A Palaeozoic fauna of extinct orders and suborders, diverse in size, habitat, habit, and diet, was progressively replaced in the Permian by the stem-groups and early representatives of extant orders. The distribution in time of the Palaeozoic orders, and the first appearances of super families of most of the remaining orders, are figured and discussed. There is no very strong evidence for explosive supraordinal radiations following significant evolutionary events, and the first appearances of important groups are not always immediately followed by major diversification. Within orders rapid expansions can be recognized following the presumed appearance of new types of larva, and particularly in association with the rise of the angiosperms, which provided the impetus for massive radiations at several trophic levels.
The radiation of post-Palaeozoic echinoderms
Authors: Simms Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Of the five extant echinoderm classes at least two, crinoids and echinoids, experienced a decline in diversity in the late Palaeozoic, with only a handful of taxa surviving into the early Triassic, whilst cladistic analysis of the asteroids suggests that they too passed through an evolutionary bottle-neck at this time. Only among echinoids and crinoids is the fossil record sufficiently well documented and representative for their subsequent post-Palaeozoic history to be interpreted. From very low diversity in the early Triassic, both groups diversified rapidly in the mid-Triassic to an early Carnian peak.
Placoderm fishes: diversity through time
Authors: Gardiner B G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The placoderms, with 250 genera, constitute a small but much diversified group of bony fishes. They are sometimes classified as stem-group osteichthyans and, together with the acanthodians, are the earliest true jawed fishes. They are found in the mid-Silurian, but flourished in the Devonian reaching their greatest diversity in the late Devonian (Frasnian). Although 13 genera made their first appearance in the Famennian, no placoderm survived into the Carboniferous. The Arthrodira (150 genera) is the largest group, while the coccosteoids are the niost successful clade within the arthrodires. The last major diversification of the arthrodires occurred in the late Famennian with the appearance of the largest of all placoderms. Stratigraphical distributions of placoderm genera are reviewed, and phylogenetic relationships are inferred between the principal groups.
Angiosperm radiation and patterns of Cretaceous palynological diversity
Authors: Crane Peter R , Lidgard Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cladistic analyses indicate that angiosperms, Bennettitales, Gnetales, and Pentoxylon together form a monophyletic group, and imply that angiosperms may have diverged from related taxa as early as the Triassic. However, quantitative evaluations of systematic diversity in Cretaceous macrofloras and palynofloras show that angiosperms did not radiate to floristic prominence until the Aptian-Albian.
The causes of the diversification of life
Authors: Benton M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diversification on the large scale has been explained in many different ways. Equilibrium and non-equilibrium models of various kinds have been proposed, but both kinds suffer from unsupported assumptions. More specific explanations of diversification fall into four main categories: (1) the patterns are artefacts of a biased fossil record; (2) the patterns are real and caused mainly by physical perturbation; (3) the patterns are real and caused mainly by biotic factors; or (4) the patterns are real but stochastic. At least 14 specific explanations have been given, but most of these fail to explain long-term global patterns. Three main candidate models for large-scale diversification are tested with data from the fossil record of tetrapods, and the strongest seems to be expansion of adaptive space, followed by subdivision of niches and specialization, and then by provinciality caused by topographic and climatic change. These tests illustrate some of the complexities of disentangling the different explanations for diversification, but they point to ways in which such tests may be quantified.
Diversification of spores 1n fossil and extant Schizaeaceae
Authors: van Konijnenburg-van Cittert Johannah.A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Data from literature on both extant and fossil schizaeaceous spores have been combined with research on spores of 23 extant species and new scanning electron microscopy (SEM) data on several fossil species. In addition to in situ fossil spores, dispersed fossil spores attributed to the Schizaeaceae have been taken into account. In this way some ideas were obtained about the diversification of spores in the Schizaeaceae.
Diversification of early angiosperm pollen in a cladistic context
Authors: Doyle James A , Hotton Carol L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Comparisons of early fossil angiosperm pollen types with cladograms of extant angiosperms permit firmer inferences on affinities of fossils and bear on competing hypotheses of relationships among taxa. The shortest trees root angiosperms in or near Magnoliales, implying that granular monosulcate pollen is primitive, but trees rooted among herbaceous magnoliids and monocots (paleoherbs), supported by molecular data, are almost as parsimonious. The five main clades of angiosperms are all represented by the Barremian-Aptian, confirming their status as early lines. Large, granular monosulcates from the Potomac Group (Lethomasites) may represent core Magnoliales.
Patterns of development in primitive angiosperm pollen
Authors: Gabarayev N I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three important aspects of sporoderm ontogeny in pnmIUve angiosperms, belonging to the families Magnoliaceae, Annonaceae, and Nymphaeaceae, are discussed in relation to gymnosperm and angiosperm phylogeny. These are the formation and differentiation of the primexine matrix, the formation of endexine lamellae, and the presence of unusual configurations of endoplasmic reticulum associated with synthesis of sporopollenin precursors. Primexine matrix is considered to provide valuable information concerning the structure of the sporoderm. An endexine is apparently present in all of the eight species studied, and this has consequences for discussion of seed plant relationships.
Underwater pollination, three-dimensional search, and pollen morphology: predictions from a supercomputer analysis
Authors: Cox Paul Alan , Cromar Scott , Jarvis Tyler 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike terrestrial plants, which are pollinated by animals or the wind, many marine and freshwater angiosperms are pollinated by water. Yet little has been known of the mechanics of underwater pollination systems. Two-dimensional random search theory, which has been of use in studying two-dimensional hydrophilous pollination on the water surface, has yet to be developed for three dimensions. Numerical experiments of three-dimensional collisions and target encounter rates would be extremely useful in understanding the pollination strategies of underwater-pollinated plants, but the tremendous computational time requires the speed of a supercomputer for calculation purposes.
Nitrogen: agricultural productivity and environmental problems
Authors: Mengel Konrad 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On a global scale plants play an essential role in the conversion of inorganic into organic nitrogen, which is a basic process in plant growth and crop production. Crop yields depend much on the supply of inorganic nitrogen and are generally increased by the application of nitrogen fertilizers. Without nitrogen fertilization it would be impossible to feed the world’ s population. Of the various fertilizers, nitrogen fertilizers are those which are applied in highest quantities on a global scale. They have a great impact on crop production; nitrogen influences a number of processes which are relevant in determining the quality of plant products, and nitrogen fertilizers also affect ecological processes. In this paper some major aspects of the importance of nitrogen for crop production and its impact on the environment are considered.
Some aspects of the utilization of nitrate and ammonium by plants
Authors: Pilbeam D J , Kirkby E A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The two major forms of nitrogen taken up by plants are nitrate and ammonium ions. In most soils nitrate is the more abundant of these ions, although in acid soils ammonium predominates because nitrification is largely inhibited. Most plants, except those adapted to acid conditions, grow better when supplied with nitrate. Although nitrate is usually the preferred nitrogen source for plant growth, the uptake and assimilation of this ion appear to be metabolically more expensive than the uptake and assimilation of ammonium, not least because the nitrate ion is reduced to ammonium after uptake. Raven (1985) has estimated that the metabolic cost to a plant assimilating ammonium is 296 photons per mol nitrogen assimilated, compared with the cheapest way in which nitrate can be assimilated, which is 305 photons per mol nitrogen.
Uptake and assimilation of nitrate under nitrogen limitation
Authors: Larsson C M , Mattsson* M , Duarte P , Samuelson M , Öhlén E , Oscarson* P , Ingemarsson B , Larsson M , Lundborg* T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nitrogen concentrations in plant tissue normally range from 0.5-5 per cent of total plant dry matter, depending on plant species, tissue type, tissue age, and nitrogen availability. Nitrogen reservoirs in soils are, with few exceptions, massive compared to the amount of nitrogen contained in living biomass (Post et al. 1985; Haynes 1986). However, release of nitrogen in mineralization may be slow, and its availability to individual plants further limited by factors affecting its mobility, by intra- and interspecific competition, or by denitrification. Thus, nitrogen availability may be a major factor limiting plant productivity in natural stands. Likewise, nitrogen input is required in agriculture to compensate for output (harvest, gaseous losses, runoff, and leaching) and may often be yield-limiting (detailed reviews of these subjects are available in Haynes, 1986).
Amino acid transport across the higher plant cell membrane
Authors: Bentrup Friedrich-Wilhelm , Hoffmann Bernd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter first briefly outlines current aspects and problems of amino acid transport in the higher plant. Secondly, we present novel data from a photo autotrophic suspension cell culture which demonstrates the operation of an amino acid exchange carrier in the plasmalemma by efflux analysis. In higher plants, a flow of amino acids passes from the key site of amino acid synthesis in the photosynthetically active tissues to the heterotrophically growing meristematic and storage tissues of stem, fruits, and roots. Photo synthates in the phloem, including amino acids, cross the plasmalemma several times if passing through the apoplast while en route from the source mesophyll to sink tissues. Thus the plasmalemma is an established site for the recognition and specific transport of pertinent substrates, and is a plausible site of physiological control of the overall translocation process.
Ammonia assimilation in higher plants
Authors: Lea Peter J , Blackwell Raymond D , Joy* Kenneth W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since 1974, the pathway of the assimilation of ammonia in higher plants has been considered to be via the combined action of glutamine synthetase and glutamate synthase, as shown in Fig 11.1. The pathway has been termed the glutamate synthase cycle by Rhodes et al. (1980), and there have been numerous review articles discussing the operation of the cycle (Miflin and Lea 1980; Miflin and Lea 1982; Joy 1988; Lea et al. 1990b). The reactions of the pathway are outlined below.
Environmentally induced adaptive mechanisms of plant amino acid metabolism
Authors: Pahlich E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basic pathways and interactions in plant metabolism have been uncovered, and this knowledge condensed in metabolic maps: these maps inform, at a qualitative level, which reactions occur, how pathways are composed, where ramifications exist, and which regulatory loops are operative. They answer the question ‘ what is’. Unfortunately, these maps cannot inform us about actual fluxes, and their adaptation to a changing external and internal environment of cells. They provide no help in answering the question ‘ how much’ of a transformation occurs under given circumstances and ‘ why’ a respective flow rate is established under these conditions. These questions can be answered only with the help of the quantitative concepts of control of biochemical pathways which have been available since the early seventies (Kaeser and Burns 1973; Heinrich and Rapoport 1974). From the quantitative concepts, it is apparent that the properties of metabolic pathway systems are characterized by (mainly genetically determined) sets of parameters (kinetic and thermodynamic constants) which specify the pools of the pathway variables (contents of metabolites) and the intensities of the respective fluxes. Only the changes of the parameters change the system’ s character.