bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Why the Events Matter: 1. History, Meaning, and Myth
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The English term ‘history’ can refer to an actual series of events, and also to the narrative or account constructed about those events; in looking at the links between Christian faith and the historical character of its founding narrative, it is crucial to distinguish these two senses of history and the different kinds of problems related to each. This chapter and the next address the question of why it matters that the events actually occurred: a question that is entirely distinct from the question of whether the events did in fact occur. Regardless of the answer to the factual question, an examination can be made of the significance the events would have had if they had occurred, and the cost that might have to be paid if belief in the historicity of the narrative had to be abandoned. The previous chapter distinguished two strategies for divorcing the religious meaning of the narrative from its historicity: the rationalist/moralist option and the romantic/existentialist option. Both claim that the religious functions of the narrative are independent of whether the events actually occurred, and to this end both sometimes characterize the narratives as mythical or at least as containing mythical elements. This chapter looks at the complex set of questions that are raised by the category of ‘myth’ in sections that address: the senses of myth; Søren Kierkegaard versus C. S. Lewis on Christianity and myth; the uniqueness versus the mythical character of the Gospel story; demythologizing and remythologizing the incarnational narrative; the essential historicity of the Gospel; and the appeal of the non-historical myth.
Is the Incarnation Logically Possible?
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: October 2003

AbstractPrevious chapters have argued that the historicity of the incarnational narrative matters and makes sense from various viewpoints, but none of these arguments has much weight if the events did not occur, or, if they did, it is impossible for us to have knowledge (or at least justified true belief) of them. If either of those conditions hold, then it would appear either that Christianity should be rejected, or that peace be made with the loss of the historicity of the narrative. To show that it is unnecessary to take either of these options it needs to be shown that the events did occur and that we can know or justifiably believe that they did occur; for practical purposes, these two tasks cannot be sharply distinguished. Showing that such knowledge is possible is not easy, and there are also substantial arguments that such knowledge is not even possible, several of which centre around the notion of special acts of God in history. The other type of argument against the possibility of such knowledge that is considered in this chapter, rests on the claim that the fundamental concept embedded in the narrative is logically incoherent. If the incarnational narrative embodies logical contradictions at central points then it cannot be a true, historical account. The defender of knowledge of the incarnational narrative must show that the narrative is logically coherent when considered in the traditional ontological manner, or at least that we are justified in believing that is coherent.
Epistemology and the Ethics of Belief
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The last three chapters have argued that there is no good reasons to doubt the possible historical truth and knowability of the incarnational narrative, but these arguments have been negative in character, with the aim of showing only that it is possible to have knowledge of such a narrative. This chapter looks at the positive accounts that might be given of how such knowledge could be actual, and to do this turns to some basic epistemological questions. It was suggested in the first chapter that one of the factors that created difficulties for the historicity of the incarnational narrative was the widespread embracement of Enlightenment epistemological thinking: the epistemologies of modernity. To have a real chance of surmounting the difficulties some sense is needed of what problems there are with the epistemologies of modernity, and what viable options there are today for understanding knowledge and reasonable belief; these issues are enormously complex, so an outline, rather than a comprehensive defence, is presented of the epistemological perspective. The different sections of the chapter are: the task of epistemology; classical foundationalism; realism and anti-realism; knowledge, justification, and warrant; externalism and internalism; foundationalism and coherentism; and epistemological virtues.
The Incarnational Narrative as Historical: Grounds for Belief
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The last chapter looked at two-stage evidentialist apologetics, and examined some of the problems that face this approach to the incarnational narrative. Although it was argued that these problems do not mean that an evidentialist argument cannot be effective, they do provide good reason to examine an alternative theological account, one that lays stress on our knowledge of the historical Jesus as made possible through the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit, and makes evidence less central to the story. This alternative to the standard apologetic approach to incarnational knowledge is called here the Reformed account, since it is seen most clearly and prominently in the works of Protestant, and especially Reformed, theologians. For Reformed thinkers the historical knowledge that can be part of saving faith is derived from the Bible, and thus, the question of how we have such knowledge is basically the question of how we can know the Bible is the reliable revelation from God it is claimed to be by the Church; the Reformed creeds assert unanimously that this knowledge is due to the witness of the Holy Spirit in our hearts. The different sections of the chapter are: the Reformed emphasis on the testimony of the Holy Spirit; the epistemology of the Reformed account; epistemology supernaturalized; how can one know that a belief has a truth-conducive ground?; criteria for recognizing the work of the spirit; and, problems with the Reformed account.
Conclusions: Deeper Encounters With Historical Scholarship and Prospects for Apologetics
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This concluding chapter continues the ‘case study’ of ‘James’, a young man raised in a non-Christian home who is converted to Christianity but subsequently exposed to sceptical claims about the incarnational narrative of the New Testament. A number of possible responses that James could make to the sceptical claims are considered, looking at the case in which James himself is able to carry out a deeper investigation of the problems by devoting some serious study to contemporary historical scholarship concerning the story of Jesus. Such an examination can be undertaken at many different levels, and at some levels, a great amount of preliminary knowledge is required in order to be competent to form critical judgements. The situation is investigated by imagining various levels of study on the part of James. These are (in order of increasing level): a review of the conclusions of important scholars; an examination of the criteria of authenticity employed by many New Testament scholars, and the uncertainty that may emerge from this; other, deeper reasons for doubts about critical historical scholarship (philosophical and literary assumptions); the problem of biblical historical critics as an interpretative (rather than an objective) community; and apologetics (old and new).
Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe interpretation of authoritative texts is a characteristic feature of the classical religions. In this regard, the Hebrew Bible is a fundamental source for religious exegesis in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This book investigates, in a comprehensive manner, the origins of such Scriptural interpretation within the Hebrew Bible itself. Of crucial importance is the development of a method, in order to isolate and analyse the exegetical features found (explicitly and implicitly) within this text. The terms traditum (or body of tradition) and traditio (or transmission) are introduced, and the hermeneutical dialectic between a corpus of authoritative materials and its ongoing reception is spelt out.
Lexical and Explicative Comments
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
A typology of lexical and explicative comments within the Hebrew Bible is presented with diverse examples. Among these is the explicit formulaic use of deictic elements (like ‘that is’; or ‘this means’) followed by a clarifying feature. These are used to explicate unclear or antiquated terms, as well as ambiguities of terms and phrasing, in the biblical sources. Various implicit clarifications, without deictic elements, are noted. A detailed method is established to show this phenomenon, in particular, the comparison of related formulations and texts in different parts of the Hebrew Bible. Use is also made of the various versions of Scriptures (like the Septuagint and Samaritan Pentateuch), as well as the Qumran manuscripts.
Legal Exegesis With Verbatim, Paraphrastic, or Pseudocitations in Historical Sources
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Focus on the meaning and application of the law in the late historical sources (like the books of Kings, Chronicles, and Nehemiah). A method is developed to isolate verbatim, paraphrastic, and pseudo‐citation in these texts, with attention to explicit technical terms. Exegesis helps apply the law, give its clarity and comprehensive scope, and include or exclude various groups from the ritual community. In various instances, the interpretation reapply or clarify older pentateuchal rules that are ambiguous, incomplete, or contradictory. The cultural force of legal interpretation to define actions, communal involvement, and identity is noted; equally important is the role of exegesis in harmonizing sources.
Introduction. Preliminary Considerations
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractOpens with some preliminary considerations of what is called ‘aggadic exegesis’. This category encompasses that varieties of reinterpretation in the Hebrew Bible that deals with theological, sapiential (or wisdom), and historical topics. It thus treats such matters as the theological or ethical reinterpretation of laws; the reuse of the divine attributes of mercy in various genres of Scripture; or the reconsideration of theological topics like vicarious punishment and human responsibility. Explicit formulary and overall matters of method are considered.
Aggadic Exegesis of Legal Traditions in the Prophetic Literature
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Takes up the topic of the aggadic exegesis of legal traditions in the prophetic literature. The relationship between the law and the prophets and the issue of explicit and implicit reuses of the legal material by the prophets is dealt with. Among the categories treated, with detailed examples, are the exegesis (in the prophets) of cultic laws, with and without formulas of citation and comparison; and the exegesis of civil laws, with and without formulas of citation and comparison. A broad range of bold interpretations are considered, showing the knowledge by the prophets of various legal materials, and the modes and types of their theological reapplication.
Aggadic Exegesis in the Historiographical Literature
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractTreats the topic of aggadic exegesis in the historiographical literature, notably the books of Samuel‐Kings and Chronicles. A broad range of theological topics are considered. Among these are the various reinterpretations and reuses of the notion of Torah; new theological explanations of problematic topics (e.g. dealing with divine wrath; or apparent human ritual fault); new understandings of the theological background of historical events; and also attempts to locate the historical event of certain psalms, through complex linguistic correlations. Altogether, it shows later historians to be active and involved readers of the earlier traditions, and with an active concern to ‘set the record straight’ by deft amendment or clarification or revision of issues.
Conclusions
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractProvides a wide‐ranging conclusion to this part. It considers the various genres and types of inner‐biblical aggadic exegesis; the dynamics and implications of traditum and traditio involved; and the methods and modalities of cultural retrieval and transformation. Of particular note is the emergence of a ‘canonical consciousness’, whereby topics of various sorts from various genres are taken up and revised by later teachers and tridents: A new sense of the pastness of the past; of the reuse of the past for analogies and correlations; and the transformations in the meaning of Torah. A classification of aggadic form, technique, and logic are provided, giving insight into the emergent exegetical mind of ancient Israelite culture; similarly, there is an extended treatment of the types of rhetorical treatment involved, giving insight into types of spiritualization and nomicization of content. The ‘voice’ of instruction is considered (direct, personal, pseudepigraphic), as well as the cultural implications (and anticipations of early Jewish aggadic exegesis).
The Mantological Exegesis of Oracles
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDeals with the mantological exegesis of oracles (or prophecies) in ancient Israel. A method is presented for the isolation of these exegetical traditions; as in early chapters, central is the recognition of technical terms and of close comparison of parallel material. The analyses break down into two broad categories: the first of these treats the phenomenon of non‐transformative exegesis, where the language of the oracle is explicated or clarified, and hidden codes revealed; the second deals with transformative exegesis, where the terms or meaning of the oracle is re‐adapted, reapplied, or revised—all in accord with new understandings of the proper intent and purpose of the oracle. Thus, vague or imprecise predictions are specified for new times (like the ongoing revisions of Jeremiah's 70‐year oracle), and earlier material are reused in new theological ways (like the way early material in the book of Isaiah is reused in the later strata).
Conclusions
Authors: Fishbane Michael 
Published: October 2003

AbstractDeals with conclusions to this part, taking up such matters as genre and mantic type; and esoteric and exoteric exegesis. The bearing of mantological exegesis on the issue of revelation is considered, along with broad considerations of the topic of traditum and traditio. Such matters as the socio‐historical context of mantological exegesis, as well as the literary context and mental matrix of this phenomenon are all dealt with.Epilogue:Returns to several topics considered in the opening introduction, such as the nature of an exegetical culture, or ongoing chains of native ancient Israelite tradition, and the emergence of classes and techniques to interpret the received traditions of various types. Some final considerations are added on the following topics: innovative and continuous revelations; pseudonymous and pseudepigraphic exegesis; attributive; pseudo‐attributive, and non‐attributive exegesis; and revealed or inspired exegesis. Final remarks are made about textual and religious authority.
The Religion of the People
Authors: Chadwick Owen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
An account is given of the slow reforming changes that occurred in the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, before the Enlightenment. The Church of that time still mingled magic with religion, and this was fostered by materialistic moments in the cult of saints, certain forms of faith‐healing, the use of holy objects such as relics or Biblical texts in the manner of charms, the more superstitious goals of pilgrimage, and the crudities of a mental haze about indulgences. Witches became less persecuted, Jews less uncomfortable, science began to play a part in everyday life, historians began to criticize saints, sanctuaries became less important, public opinion moved against the mendicant and beggar, and educated opinion became more confident in assailing the ‘childish’ (cults, symbolism, etc.) in the Church. The congregation became weightier in the structure of worship, there were sporadic attempts to make people understand by the use of readings in the vernacular or Bible reading by laymen, to revive the communion at its proper place in the liturgy, and some forms of Church music were popularized.
Monks and Nuns
Authors: Chadwick Owen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
An account is given of the position of monks and nuns in the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, before the Enlightenment. The following aspects are covered: numbers of monks and nuns, social needs met by monks and nuns, internal strain (tension) in religious orders, the nun's dowry, new orders, the Redemptorists (an Italian order founded in 1732), hermits, critics of the monks, the monastery prison, mortmain, and Joseph II of Austria and the abolition of monasteries and monks.
The Office of the Pope
Authors: Chadwick Owen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
An account is given of the position of the office of the Pope in the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, before the Enlightenment. The following aspects and popes are covered: authority, election, the veto, Pope Clement XI Albani (1700–21), the bull Unigenitus of 1713 condemning the French Oratorian Pasquier Quesnel's Moral Reflexions on the New Testament, the debate on infallibility, the Chinese rites, Pope Innocent XIII Conti (1721–4) and Benedict XIII Orsini (1724–30), Pope Clement XII Corsini (1730–40), Pope Benedict XIV Lambertini (1740–58), the secretary of state, the cardinal‐nephew, the college of cardinals, nuncios, the Congregations (curial offices commonly known as the dicasteries), the Inquisition (the Congregation of the Holy Office) and Index, the Spanish Inquisition, the Congregation of the Council, the action of the Pope, and the jubilee (a holy year).
The Fall of the Jesuits
Authors: Chadwick Owen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Jesuits were the leading order in the Catholic Church in Europe at the Counter‐Reformation, and were regarded as the most papalist and unscrupulous of the Pope's followers. This chapter traces their downfall in the late eighteenth century. The different sections of the chapter cover critics of the Jesuits, Jesuits in Paraguay, the French Jesuits, Pope Clement XIII (1758–69) and support for the Jesuits, the Spanish Jesuits, Jesuits in Naples and in Parma (Italy), Pope Clement XIV Ganganelli (1769–74) against the Jesuits, and the attempt by Jesuits to survive in Prussia and in Russia.
The Catholic Reformers
Authors: Chadwick Owen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
An account is given of reformers of the Catholic Church in Europe in the eighteenth century, following on from The Counter‐Reformation. This starts with the Jansenists in France, and goes on to discuss (Lodovico Antonio) Muratori (1672–1751), Pietro Tamburini (1672–1750), and Pietro Giannone (1676–1748) in Italy, the Enlightenment, Febronianism and Febronius (a pseudonym of the German anti‐Catholic Johann Chrysostomus Nikolaus von Hontheim, 1701–90), Emperor Joseph II of Austria, Pope Pius VI in Vienna, Leopold of Tuscany, Scipione de’ Ricci, the Diocesan Synod of Pistoia and the constitution of the Church (1786), the riot at Prato (1787), toleration, the attack upon celibacy, and the reform of the liturgy.
Revolution
Authors: Chadwick Owen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Starts with the overthrow of the Catholic Church in France in the French Revolution—one of the most momentous events of modern history. It goes on to discuss the Revolution in Italy, the Roman Republic and the Pope and Napoleon Bonaparte, Rome without the Pope after Pope Pius VI was driven from Rome in 1798, the sanfedists (an Italian pro‐papal anti‐liberal association in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) and the pro‐Catholic peasant armies of Europe who first arose in Italy after the expulsion of Bonaparte's French army, the peasant war in Belgium (1798–9), the peasant war in Switzerland, the Conclave of Venice (1799), the French Concordat (negotiation between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon, 1800–01), the Italian Concordat 1802–3, the coronation of Napoleon, the end of the Holy Roman Empire, the secularization of the monasteries in Württemberg (Germany), Napoleon and Italy and the exile of Pope Pius VII, Imperial Rome and its Te Deums 1809–14, Italian churches in the age of Napoleon, Napoleon and Spain, the afrancesados (collaborators), and the Cortes at Cadiz (Spain).
Restoration
Authors: Chadwick Owen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Traces the decline of political power in the Catholic Church in Europe from the period after the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, and the return of the Pope to Rome. In the new Europe so formed, Protestants were politically far stronger than Catholics. The different sections of the chapter cover the Austrian chancellor Metternich, the Age of the Concordats (agreements between Rome and the governments of different countries), Spain and the reaction to the revolution, the secret articles of Verona (Italy, 1822), revolution in Spanish America, reaction in Italy and the Prince of Canosa, the restored Pope, the Papal States, the Carbonari, Silvio Pellico, Pope Leo XII, the shadow of the Jansenists, the end of the campaign against celibacy, the structure of the restored Church (bishoprics, seminaries, brotherhoods), the jubilee of 1825, collegiate churches, the revival of the monks and monasteries, the revival of the Jesuits and other orders, new religious groups, virtus, and differences in parish life.
Christian Society in the Middle of the Eleventh Century
Authors: Morris Colin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The mid‐eleventh century saw the strong dominance of royal authority over the independence of the church. The system may be described as the private ownership of church (Eigenkirchentum). Its most obvious manifestation was the custom of lay investiture. Royal control could be an instrument for reform and discipline, especially in the hands of such rulers as the Emperor Henry III, with his strong belief in the sacred nature of royal authority.
The Pattern of Social Change
Authors: Morris Colin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
From the late eleventh century, large changes were taking place in Western society. It was an age of population increase, with the clearance of great forests. Some of the small settlements of previous centuries began to evolve into cities of commercial importance, and became the centres of cathedrals and schools. There was a marked increase in the quality of education, within which a diversification of subjects was taking place. The aristocracy shared in the new prosperity, and a number of nobles became patrons of learning, poetry, and religion. Ideas circulated more freely within a society, which was slowly becoming more open.
The Papal Reform 1046–1073
Authors: Morris Colin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The generation after 1050 saw a revolution in the government of the Roman church, which became increasingly independent of both the local Roman nobility and the German emperors. Reformers demanded a stricter separation between clergy and laity and the abolition of clerical marriage and simony. The word papatus, papacy, was first used and the cardinals became a more international body.