bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Culture in the Age of the Burgertum
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN OUR day’, wrote Wilhelm Heinrich Riehl in 1851, ‘the Bürgertum unquestionably possesses overwhelming moral and material power. Our entire era has a bürgerlich character.’ Riehl believed that the Burgertum was the epitome of modern society; other groups were no more than ruined residues of a bygone age. And he knew that, as usual, this social fact was reflected in the way people talked about their world. ‘Now we speak of bürgerlich honour, bürgerlich death, where once we had spoken more generally of social honour, social or political death. Instead of speaking of members of the state, current usage takes the most significant part for the whole and refers to Staatsbürger.’ Riehl himself acknowledged the Bürgertum’s universal significance when he entitled his study of contemporary society Die bürgerliche Gesellschaft.
Political Opportunities and Al ternatives
Authors: Sheehan James J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discussion of the question, who should rule ... belongs in the realm of philosophical speculation; the practical question only has to do with the simple fact that it is power alone which can rule.’ These lines from the opening pages of Ludwig August von Rochau’s Grundsätze der Realpolitik are often taken as a kind of epigraph for the post-revolutionary era, just as Rochau’s personal evolution from student rebel to political exile to enthusiastic advocate of the Bismarckian Reich apparently illustrates a generational shift from opposition to reconciliation. Like so many contemporary philosophers, scientists, and writers, Rochau based his view of the world on a new appreciation of the importance of facts: It is certain that the spoken and written word can accomplish nothing in the face of physical facts and that facts can only give way to other facts, and it is equally certain that the fragmented German powers will not be united by a principle, an idea, or a treaty, but only by an overwhelming power that will subdue the rest.When it appeared in 1853, Rochau’s book enjoyed considerable success. The young Heinrich van Treitschke, for example, believed that it contained ‘more that was useful for scholarship than a thick textbook on politics’.2 But, despite its supposedly exemplary character, Rochau’s Grundsätze der Realpolitik is an ambiguous and problematic document. As a description of political behaviour, the concept of Realpolitik involves difficulties similar to those we encountered when we tried to apply ‘realism’ to literary works.
The Teaching of Natural Philosophy in Early Seventeenth-Century Paris: The Case ofJean Cécile Frey*
Authors: Blair Ann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Long dismissed as bastions of backwardness, particularly in scientific fields, late Renaissance universities have increasingly received careful study. It is now widely recognized that ‘traditional natural philosophy’ in the Renaissance was ‘far from being a homogeneous body of knowledge uniformly accepted and taught in the universities’. Historians have taken many complementary approaches to this new field of investigation, tracing for example the evolution of the official curriculum, the range of professorial commentary on assigned texts or on controversial themes, as well as the socio-intellectual networks of various academic milieux. The case that I present here provides evidence of a somewhat different sort to add to the picture that is already emerging of a dynamic and adaptable yet in many ways still traditional philosophy being taught at the universities in early seventeenth century Europe. I have focused on one professor at the university of Paris, following not only his teaching and publications, but also his academic career, personal life and social networks. This is the case of Jean Cecile Frey, who taught natural philosophy and medicine in Paris colleges between 1607 and 1631; now obscure, he was well respected in his day by a wide range of students and friends, although he was probably not the most eminent among his colleagues.
Foreign Scholars at Paris in the Early Fourteenth Century: the Crisis of 1313
Authors: Courtenay William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 1 May 1313 the masters of the university of Paris, under the leadership of its rector, Nicholas of Vienne, authorized a general collection from university members to meet a current financial need. ‘ The amount to be collected from each student and master was a full burse, that is, an assessment equal to the official sworn amount each scholar spent, on the average, on food and other expenditures per week, exclusive of lodging, payments to servants, or expenses connected with instruction or promotion. The practice of such collections went back to the early thirteenth century.3 They were authorized to meet non-instructional costs of the community as a whole, usually legal expenses connected with defending their rights and privileges. The amount authorized for collection was determined by the size of the incurred or anticipated debt and usually varied between a quarter-burse and a half-burse. Because of the uneven results of a system dependent upon the willingness of everyone to pay, and administered only by the rec tor and representatives of the nations and higher faculties, Martin IV in 1284, at the request of the university, had put the matter of collection in the hands of the abbot and chancellor of Ste-Genevieve, giving them the power to suspend from the university and impose ecclesiastical sanctions on any student or master who did not pay his share promptly. Although Pope Martin did not specify what ‘promptly ‘ meant, by 1313 the length of the period of payment before sanctions would be applied was understood by the abbot of Ste-Genevieve and university leaders to be one week.
Teachers and Learners in Scholastic Medicine: Some Images and Metaphors*
Authors: Crisciani Chiara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I would like to describe in this paper how physicians themselves represented their role as teachers, what values they attributed to the different phases of medical education, and how they represented the relations of master and pupil at various levels of instruction. I should like first to clarify one point. I will use the word ‘representation ‘ a number of times. In fact I believe that what we call the institutional context must be understood in a broad sense. This context should encompass not only the statutory norms and regulations that governed university teaching, but also a much larger body of didactic orientation, educational ideals, ways of writing and reading texts, and images of knowledge that teaching physcians themselves considered as goals and instruments in medical education. I The Sermones medicinales of Niccolo Falcucci is a medical encyclopedia that was famous and widely diffused at the beginning of the fifteenth century. In its introductory chapter, the author provides very precise indications both of the structure of medicine as a scholastic discipline and of the qualities of a good physician. In order to emphasize that the good physician could now only be a professional who was doctoratus-that is, a learned practitioner educated at a university-Falcucci, even before he prescribed proper professional behaviour for a physician, first outlined the phase of medical education, that is, the route through which the physician became at once doctus and expertus.
Rex et sacerdos: The Holiness of the King in European Civilization
Authors: Sergio Bertelli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was 4 January 1804. A group of men preceded by a band and escorted by a large armed guard stopped at the Place de la Sorbonne in front of the deconsecrated Cluny church. Napoleon and the empress, as well as officials and courtiers, were there to pay homage to Louis David and to admire the Sacre de I‘Empereur et le couronnement de I’Tmperatrice(a title specified on the contract); the painting measuring six metres by nine, was at the atelier which had been decorated for the occasion.
Ceremonial Space
Authors: Chrościcki Juliusz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ceremonial space was influenced by three factors: a model of the state which existed in a given country, the laws and ceremonies of the court, and local tradition accumulated over the centuries. Changes in governmental systems were often conceived by means of the destruction of’ sacred’ ceremonial space used by the anci én regime. The typical social behaviour, which followed was characterized by phenomena such as outbursts of hatred and violent disturbances, together with the destruction of monuments erected to the glory of previous rulers and heroes. Statues, temples, mausoleums, and ancient burial places are usually levelled, which entails the conscious evaluation of an earlier ceremonial space. The new state created on the ‘rubble’ of the former constructs its own ceremonial space, either in the same place or in a completely different one.
Satire
Authors: Sullivan ]. P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Satire is to be found wherever vice, corruption, and social misery are confronted by talented writers, who may seek reform, but sometimes settle for savage reprobation or urbane reproof. Its deepest roots may lie in magic, myth, and ritual, which are not to our purpose here. Geoffrey Grigson has argued that whatever the moral or punitive intentions of the satirist, the writing of the satire never caused the author pain, and Lord Byron even claimed that satiric rhyme first sprang from selfish spleen. If so, the impulse managed to disguise itself as something more altruistic and rational, and it is surprising how many risks satirists have been prepared to run and how much rage they have aroused in powerful adversaries. In Rome, Lucilius’ powerful friends, Horace’s protests of innocence for fear of libel, Persius’ posthumous publication, and Juvenal’s avoidance of contemporary allusion minimized their dangers; in England, on the other hand, the Archbishops of Canterbury and London in 1599 entered an edict in the Stationers’ Hall Register that certain satires be burned and that no satires or epigrams be printed thereafter.
Architecture
Authors: Watkin David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Roman architecture is known to us most directly through two sources: the surviving ruins, and Vitruvius’ De architectura, which is the only treatise on architecture to survive from the ancient world. As we shall sec, both the ruins and the writing have been interpreted down the ages in an astonishingly wide variety of ways. None the less, the legacy of Roman architecture is today often interpreted as having reached its climax during the Renaissance, after which it was superseded by the Greek Revival, the Gothic Revival, and finally by the Modern Movement. This chapter should demonstrate the falsity of this view by showing how the achievement of ancient Rome in planning, building, and decoration underpins most of the main developments of Western architecture. What makes the process of exploring this legacy exciting is that it becomes clear that each age has to rediscover for itself the message of ancient Rome.
Law
Authors: Feenstra Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The influence of Roman Law is undoubtedly one of the most important but at the same time one of the most puzzling aspects of the ‘legacy of Rome’. Numerous are the metaphors that have been used to characterize this influence. Leaving aside the idea of a ‘ghost story’, treating of a ‘second life ... after the demise of the body in which it first saw the light’ (Vinogradoff) and the comparison with a diving duck which hides itself from time to time but never wholly disappears and always comes to the fore again (Goethe), I may quote the much used statement of a nineteenth-century German scholar, Rudolf Jhering: ‘Three times Rome has dictated laws to the world, three times has it brought the peoples to unity; the first time, when the Roman people was still in its full strength, to unity of state, the second time, when this people had already perished, to a unity of church, the third time, as a result of the reception of the Roman law, in the Middle Ages to a unity of law.’
The City of Rome
Authors: Purcell Nicholas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Augustus and his successors chose to make Rome visibly the capital of their enormous power. Their task was therefore to make this city beyond question the outstanding marvel of a world of cities. It was not enough that the place Rome should by chance be the home of the power that ruled the Mediterranean world; despite the facts of history, that was too precarious an honour. In a culturally complex world, with a high degree of mobility, wide horizons, and good communications the pre-eminence of the historic cradle of empire could not be guaranteed. There was a widespread anxiety that ambitious dynasts might make another city the centre of their rule, and there were numerous candidates, Rome’s equal in antiquity and fame, and its superior in beauty and natural advantages. Indeed such fears were fulfilled when, in the third century of our era, competing emperors came to rely on provincial capitals, and, above all, when Constantine founded the New Rome on the Bosporus.
Introduction
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1930, a year after Stresemann”s death, the British historian John Wheeler- Bennett wrote: With the possible exception of M. Aristide Briand, no figure since the war has so dominated European affairs as did Herr Stresemann; and no statesman has shown so unwavering a devotion to what he conceived to be the right course for his country. By a fortunate coincidence it was also the right course for the world. Herr Stresemann may be said to have been the first of the Europeans.
“A hunger for power” Business and Politics, 1901-1914
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1901 and 1914 Stresemann established his reputation in two areas: as the organizer of manufacturing industry in Saxony, in which his success created a model for other parts of the Reich and, secondly, as a young politician of unusual gifts in the National Liberal Party. The two areas were closely connected, for Stresemann saw in manufacturing industry a natural partner for the left wing of the National Liberal Party with which he became associated. When he started his professional life as a syndic or promoter of the interests of manufacturing industry in Saxony, Stresemann found a situation in which his clients were both poorly organized and disadvantaged. Compared to the interests of agriculture organized predominantly in the Agrarian League and the interests of heavy industry, particularly the coal and steel giants of the Ruhr, which dominated the Central Association of German Industrialists (Central Verband deutscher Industrieller), the corresponding manufacturers” interest group, the Association of Industrialists (Bund der Industriellen), founded in 1895, was weakly organized and uninfluential.
“We are and remain independent towards the right and the left”
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The central challenge to a biographer of Stresemann is to interpret his development from wartime annexationist to the European statesman of 1925-9. The years between the end of the war and his appointment as Reich chancellor in 1923 provide the link. Historians have been divided between those who argue that his aims and outlook changed fundamentally and those who see an essential continuity of aim behind a skilful change of tactics. The period between defeat and the elections of June 1920 which saw Stresemann’s new party become once again a significant political force marked the first phase of a painful process of adjustment.
“All but political suicide”
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The long-threatened occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian troops began on 11 January 1923 after last-minute attempts by the German and British governments to find a compromise had failed. Britain and the United States opposed the occupation but adopted a policy of non-intervention. Cuno condemned the action as a violation of the Versailles treaty and announced a policy of passive resistance in the Ruhr. Stresemann saw his task as helping to rally opinion at home against the French, as he had during the war, but also increasingly-and unlike his wartime stance-to assist in finding a negotiated solution. He loyally supported the Cuno government and checked his speeches in advance with the Foreign Minister. The government used him as an unofficial channel for airing ideas which it wished to make public without being committed to them. The crisis confirmed Stresemann in his view that Germany could only recover-and indeed only survive-by agreement of the moderate parties of the parliamentary centre and, if possible, a great coalition including the SPD.
Locarno and the League, 1925-1926
Authors: Wright Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“The development of a politician to a statesman takes place in a life, in which one learns not only to express what one personally sees as desirable, but in which one learns to overcome oneself when it is a question of fitting the individual self into the greater whole and into belief in the futuren The conference which opened at Locarno on 5 October 1925 set the scene for the European detente which followed and which lasted, despite increasingly severe strains, until Stresemann’s death in October 1929. The conference set the scene in three ways: in what it agreed, in the differences that remained, and in the will to reach agreement despite the differences.
Intellectual and religious life
Authors: Mcdowell R B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the eighteenth century Ireland could be taken as forming part of the British cultural, intellectual and social world. At the same time the Irish catholics had many links with continental catholicism and the bulk of the country people in the south and. west still spoke Irish and cherished remnants of Gaelic culture. Contacts between Great Britain and Ireland were numerous and multifarious. A number of landowners had estates in both islands. Lord lieutenants and chief secretaries formed long-lasting Irish friendships. Great Britain was Ireland’s principal market, by the close of the eighteenth century taking about 80 per cent of Ireland’s exports. Great Britain was also the source of about 70 per cent of Ireland’s imports, supplying Ireland with British manufactures, coal and the products of the East. By the eighteenth century the flow of emigration from Ireland to Great Britain had begun. Irish labourers went over to assist with the English harvest and, according to Castlereagh, it was the money earned on these annual expeditions which enabled the emigrants to pay their rent. Towards the close of the century Irish harvesters were to be found as far as Lincolnshire, where the presence of the ‘poor Irish’ stirred up organized hostility amongst local labour.
A restive parliament
Authors: Mcdowell R B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Ireland the early Hanoverian age was an era of political placidity. The very long intervals between parliamentary sessions, a judicious distribution of power and patronage, the absence of major issues, an unquestioning and generally satisfied acceptance of the constitutional pattern, the presence of a large and potentially dangerous catholic community, and sobering memories of civil war and abrupt reversals of political fortune, all contributed to the maintenance of political tranquillity. But by the middle of the century there were signs that this calm was breaking up. The great borough interests, whose support was essential for the smooth working of the parliamentary system, were becoming noticeably assertive, and alert independent M.P.s were calling for inquiries into the working of the government machine and raising constitutional issues—the increasing cost of pensions, the duration of parliament, and the power exercised by the Irish privy council under Poynings’ law, of altering and rejecting bills.
An Anglo-Irish settlement
Authors: Mcdowell R B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the summer of 1780 Buckinghamshire had been well over two years in Ireland and his nerves were sorely strained. ‘The most painful part of my situation’, he wrote, ‘is the necessity at times when my mind is particularly agitated to listen with apparent temper to capricious reasonings’, and he had, he said, become dependent ‘on the cheerful circulation of claret’ for two or three hours after dinner. He resented being written to by the secretary of state ‘in the style which Dr Busby with a birch under his arm would have used to a king’s scholar’ and his own letters show signs of despondency and weariness. He had warned his colleagues in England well in advance that the Irish situation was becoming critical and he had then, in his own opinion, coped successfully with the difficulties of a very stormy parliamentary session.
Pitt and Ireland
Authors: Mcdowell R B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pitt when he became prime minister was deeply conscious that Britain’s ‘power and pre-eminence’ was in eclipse, and was calmly confident that it was his responsibility—it might be said his hereditary responsibility—‘to unite and correct what yet remains of our reduced and shattered empire’. Though a realist, he was not content to be simply a pragmatist. Unlike many contemporary politicians he did not restrict himself to keeping the administrative machine functioning and meeting problems as they presented themselves. He was not ‘one of those who thought that if a session passed without anything material being done, it was a circumstance of pleasure and self-congratulationc’. Rather, he was prepared to survey the whole field, isolate major issues, and attempt to cope with them by well-planned, comprehensive measures. By the close of 1784, he was immersed in the preparation of a grand design which, he believed, would dispose of a number of issues likely to breed contention between Great Britain and Ireland, promote the prosperity of both nations and strengthen the empire.
The maintenance of law and order
Authors: Mcdowell R B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the summer of 1795 the Irish administration and the Irish ruling world were challenged by militant political and social discontent, backed by the threat of a French invasion. There were two distinct ways of meeting this challenge. Sweeping concessions might be made which would satisfy the less vehement enemies of the existing regime, and then a broad alliance of those who wanted stability could be formed in defence of the remodelled constitution. The alternative was a defiant and unyielding maintenance of the existing order, inspired by a belief in its virtues and the conviction that a strategic retreat attempted in the face of intransigent foes would quickly degenerate into a rout. The latter, non possumus policy, was adopted by the Irish administration, supported by most men of property and by instinctive conservatives in all classes. Camden, on arrival in Ireland, was anxious to improve the quality of Irish life—he welcomed the appointment of assistant barristers, he suggested that justices of the peace should be empowered to fix wages, taking into account the price of provisions, and he wanted to encourage clerical residence (a resident clergy would provide the government with a source of reliable information in every parish).