bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gallo-Romance II: Non-Standard Varieties of langue d’oï·l
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The impact of nasalization on vowel evolution has been no less profound in non-standard varieties of langue d’oïl than it has in the standard language. All varieties have been affected to a considerable degree, but nasalization has modified patterns of vowel evolution in differing ways from one region to another. In this section, we will outline some of the major lines of development which are found.
Gallo- Romance III: Occitan
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Gallo-Romance spoken in the southern half of France evolved rather differently from the langue d’o ï l of the north. The southern varieties, which are collectively known as langue d’oc or Occitan (we will normally use the latter term), have certainly experienced vowel nasalization but its effect on their phonetic evolution has generally been rather more limited. The main patterns of nasal vowel development in Occitan are explored in this chapter, but to set these into their proper background some brief general historical comments may usefully be made.
Ibero- Romance I: Catalan and Spanish
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The incidence and effects of vowel nasalization have been far from uniform in the three major linguistic areas of the Iberian Peninsula. In the west, Galician Portuguese has experienced considerable influence from nasalization. The effect of nasalization has been most intensely felt in Portugal and nasal vowel phonemes have developed in almost all varieties of Portuguese. Nasalization also operated significantly on vowel evolution in Galician but nasality has proved less tenacious. Today, phonemically nasal vowels have been preserved in only one relic area of Galician, although high levels of allophonic nasality are found in all varieties.
Italo-Romance
Authors: Sampson Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The impact of vowel nasalization in Halo-Romance has been varied. In the standard language and in non-standard varieties of the centre and south, vowel evolution has scarcely been influenced at all by the effect of nasality. However, a very different picture presents itself in northern dialects. Here high-level nasalization has occurred widely and in some cases nasal vowel phonemes were created. The main developments in northern dialects are considered in section 10.4 after a brief look at circumstances in the standard language (10.2) and central and southern dialects (10.3).
Is medical ethics lost?
Authors: Hare R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
one would think that medical ethics is in good shape. They have a fairly secure feel for what they should and should not do to. or for, their patients. They get this feel from colleagues and from their training. On the whole it leads them to look after their patients as they should, and no trouble ensues. On the other hand, if one looks at the media, in Britain and even more in the United States, one gets a different impression. It looks as if nobody knows what the duties of doctors are. A great many people have strong opinions about this, differing wildly from one another: and it would be a bold doctor who thought he could be certain about the rightness of any of them. The position is worse with the more controversial questions: about abortion and euthanasia; about the preservation of life and the definition of death; and about various kinds of experimental procedures. But the trouble can easily spread from these controversial questions and infect the general practice of medicine.
Language Evolution: Basic Mechanisms
Authors: Nettle Daniel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The millions of species of the biological world have all gradually diverged from some inconceivably distant common ancestor. The lion and the cheetah share a relatively recent parent in an undifferentiated African big cat, but they have by now become so distinct that they can no longer interbreed, and would not ordinarily be mistaken for each other. The horse and the donkey have gone less far down the same road; they can still mate, but the resulting mules are sterile and thus unviable.
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)
Authors: Sprigge T L S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Opinions differ over why such strong action was taken against him. One view is that the peculiar religious position of the Marranos had encouraged scepticism and laxity in Jewish practice and that the rabbis felt that they must affirm the religious unity of their community (there were some other similar ffierems’). Others emphasize the need to reassure the city fathers that the Jewish community was committed to the same basic theism as Christianity.
David Hume (17n–1776)
Authors: Broackes Justin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scottish philosopher, essayist, and historian. Perhaps the greatest of British philosophers since Locke, Hume aimed to place “Logic, Morals, Criticism, and Politics’ on a new foundation: the “science of man’ and the theory of human nature. Famous for his scepticism in metaphysics, Hume also emphasized the limits that human nature places on our capacity for scepticism. In morals, Hume insisted on the reality of moral distinctions, though our judgements are ultimately founded only in human sentiment. In these and other areas, his concern was to expose the limitations of reason, and to explain how we none the less make the judgements we do, careless of the absence of rational support.
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914)
Authors: Hookway C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
AMERICAN philosopher who is perhaps best known as the originator of pragmatism. He was educated at Harvard, where his father was a mathematics professor. His greatest philosophical influence was Kant, and he saw himself as constructing the philosophical system that Kant might have developed had he not been so ignorant of logic. But the influence of Thomas Reid and other common-sense philosophers became increasingly important: in late writings, the two influences were combined in his “critical common-sensism”. Describing himself as a logician, Peirce made major contributions to formal logic (independently of Frege he and his students developed a logic of quantifiers and relations after 1880) and to the study of the logic of science. Indeed, he lectured on these topics at Harvard in the late 1860s and held a lectureship in logic at Johns Hopkins University from 1879 until 1884. But he also served as an experimental scientist, working at the Harvard laboratory after he had graduated in chemistry, and being employed for over twenty years by the United States Coastal Survey.
Naturalizing Music
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Imagine aliens visiting the earth for the first time. Much of what they see they could explain if they had some grasp of the laws of physics and some knowledge of evolution and natural selection. Thus they might be able to offer some explanation of the cycle of the seasons, why birds pair off, build nests, and sit on eggs, and of the growth and decay of plants and animals. They might not always get the explanation right, of course; but what is going on need not be unintelligible. They might even come to see that human beings need family groups to nurture the young. They might find it odd that rites of passage should take the form they do, but that there should be crises in people’s lives might not be so surprising.
Music, Rhetoric, and Oratory
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I began the first chapter by imagining aliens trying to understand the human practices of making and listening to music. I now ask you to focus on one particular time in the history of Western music. In the sixteenth-century, composers began to develop substantial pieces of instrumental music which could take five or more minutes to perform. Sixteenth-century keyboard composers provide the earliest familiar examples of such music. How could they organize a piece in a way which would both hold the listener’s interest and impose a unity on the music? The answer to this question has a double significance. I shall suggest that the formal models for musical structure were, in part, drawn from classical discussions of rhetoric. But, as we shall see, rhetorical models have a pro-founder significance, for they provide the basis for a solution to the problem which has occupied us till now, the question of musical expression.
The Motivations for Musical Ontology: A German Ideology
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As I have already hinted, in the rest of this book I shall argue that quite general ideas about music, its history and its performance, infiltrate our musical experience. So, from arguing that a causal account of how we describe music fails to take into account the roles played by form and structure, and that concepts drawn from rhetoric explain the structures we find in music and are the vocabulary in terms of which we describe its expressive power, I move to the role played by ideas like progress, authenticity, and formalism in the judgements we make about music. These are general, in that they apply across the board to a wide variety of music, but particular in being part of what musicologists have latterly begun to call ‘ideology’.
Performance
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In due course I shall return to the broader ‘cognitive’ issues of the last chapter, but the intervening discussion of performance and authenticity is not entirely alien country. As we shall see, these issues are impregnated with questions about the music’s intellectual milieu.
But first, some background. Romantic aesthetics such as that of Schumann and Schweitzer took the real work of art to be a private mental affair which was then externalized in a publicly accessible form as a piece of music or a painting or a poem. The tradition is more familiar to English readers through the work of
R. G. Collingwood, who provided us with a form of expressionism: the doctrine that art is the expression of a mental state of the creator, which is communicated via the arte fact to the audience. Now, as I remarked earlier, expressionism has few contemporary adherents. The objections are familiar. Where there is evidence of the creator’s mental state, it may be at odds with the character of the work as experienced. Whether he is exuberant or troubled, sad or serene, is only contingently connected with the character of the work.
Music’s Ruling Myths
Authors: Sharpe R A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I closed the last chapter with the observation that ‘authenticity’ in music has a wider as well as a narrower sense. Not only do we debate the merits of authentic performance in playing older music, but we sometimes charge composers with inauthenticity or ‘insincerity’, to give it its more familiar description. Suppose we describe music as insincere. Perhaps we level this charge at Strauss’s Arabella or Puccini’s La Bohème or Górecki’s Third Symphony. Why does the charge of ‘insincerity’ matter to us? Would it make so much difference if we found that the composer did ‘mean’ it after all? Suppose that Górecki ‘believes in’ his work. Would this exculpate him? I think not. The accusation that the music is insincere, inauthentic, or manipulative is independent of the composer’s mental state.
Kant and the sea-horse: An essay in the neurophilosophy of space
Authors: O’Keefe John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a previous publication, Nadel and I (O’Keefe and Nadel, 1978) argued that there were several ways in which the brain represented space. Some of these representations were egocentric, locating entities within spatial frameworks fixed to body parts: the eye, the head, the body; at least one was allocentric, incorporating a framework centred on the environment itself. The former neural representations of space were to be found in several different parts of the brain, most notably in neocortical areas such as parietal lobes, while the latter was centred on a more primitive cortical structure, the hippocampus.
Extrapolating and remembering positions along cognitive trajectories: Uses and limitations of analogies to physical motion
Authors: Cooper Lynn A , Munger Margaret P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Both our everyday experience in the world and certain aspects of skilled performance suggest that our perceptual systems are remarkably accurate in extracting and using information about the motion of objects in space. Behavioural expressions of this competence include our abilities to locomote without colliding with stationary or moving objects, and to anticipate the trajectories of transforming objects in order to intercept, to follow or to avoid them. These ordinary perceptual abilities become more impressive when we realize that predictions about the current and continuing motion of objects are generally based on quite incomplete information about the structure of objects and events. Movement of our bodies and our eyes, as well as relationships of occlusion among objects,
Intuitive mechanics, psychological reality and the idea of a material object
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are interrelations between all three of these issues, or so I shall argue. I approach the subject as a philosopher, primarily concerned with what are in a broad sense conceptual aspects of the issues. In saying that, I do not mean in the least to endorse any controversial doctrine alleging the irrelevance of psychology to philosophy, or of philosophy to psychology. I mean only that questions of what has to be the case for a principle of an intuitive theory to be psychologically real, or questions about the appropriate goals of a psychological theory, cannot themselves be settled just by the discovery of additional empirical truths. Even more so does this apply to such a constitutive question as ‘What is necessarily involved in having a conception of a material world?’ All these are essentially philosophical questions; though, of course, it is certainly not only philosophers who are qualified to address them.
Introduction: Spatial representation in the sensory modalities
Authors: Eilan Naomi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The following chapters cover a wide range of questions. They are less closely related to each other than are chapters in others parts, in that each is concerned with one or more of the very many different problems raised by the issue of spatial representation in the modalities. Nevertheless, there is one meta-question that they can all be said to be either directly concerned with or to have bearings on, and this is whether there is any sense at all in which the perception of, and thought about, objects, space and spatial properties is modality specific. Thus, botl1 chapters seven and eight suggest that there are ways in which touch and body sense respectively do exhibit some modality-specific features. For chapters nine and ten, concerned w1th questions of cross-modal integration and matching, a central issue is whether perceptions are modality-specific and, if so, in what way. Finally, chapter eleven is concerned with the kinds of errors it argues are prevalent in contemporary writing on perceptual contents,
Introduction: What and where
Authors: McCarthy Rosaleen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The question of the interrelationship between spatial representations and our conception and perception of objects in space is a core concern of many of the chapters in this volume: those in Part V deal with the question of ‘what and where’ as it bears on some very specific problems. A unifying theme for each of these accounts is their common reference to the distinctions between what and where that have been proposed on the basis of neurobiological studies of the visual system. Work based on the recording of activity from single cells in the brain, together with studies of the behavioural effects of brain injuries, has challenged the conventional and intuitive view that the perception of objects is closely tied to the perception of space. Rather than being closely intertwined and mutually dependent, what and where are thought to be processed independently from the earliest levels of perception onwards. If this challenge to conventional and intuitive views is valid and useful at the level of cognition (as well as biology) then there are many profound implications.
Things about Things
Authors: Dennett Daniel C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps we can all agree that in order for intelligent activity to be produced by embodied nervous systems, those nervous systems have to have things in them that are about other things in the following minimal sense: there is information about these other things not just present but usable by the nervous system in its modulation of behavior. (There is information about the climatic history of a tree in its growth rings-the information is present, but not usable by the tree.) The disagreements set in when we start trying to characterize what these things-about-things are-are they “just” competences or dispositions embodied somehow (e.g. in connectionist networks) in the brain, or are they more properly mental representations, such as sentences in a language of thought, images, icons, maps, or other data structures? And if they are “symbols”, how are they “grounded,,? What, more specifically, is the analysis of the aboutness that these things must have? Is it genuine intention ality or mere as if intentionality? These oft-debated questions are, I think, the wrong questions to be concentrating on at this time, even if, “in the end”, they make sense and deserve answers. These questions have thrived in the distort ing context provided by two ubiquitous idealizing assumptions that we should try setting aside: an assumption about how to capture content and an assumption about how to isolate the vehicles of content from the “outside” world.
On Referential Semantics and Cognitive Science
Authors: Higginbotham James T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cognitive science is predicated on the view that mental states and processes (or many of them, and not only cognitive but also emotional states) are computational; that is, (a) that they are classified in part according to what they represent, and (b) that causal transactions between them have a purely formal basis. The states and processes of abstract machines, for instance in the sense of Eilenberg (1974), illustrate both features. What the machine is computing is determined by coding the inputs and decoding outputs, through codes that normally lend themselves to a .coding of the internal configurations as well. But the states and configurations within the machine have what effects they do in virtue of their formal characteristics, indifferent to the coding, or what interpretation they may have. I am interested here in the role of referential semantics within cognitive science, so conceived.
Theories of Concepts: A Wider Task
Authors: Peacocke Christopher 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are many tasks for a theory of concepts which are suggested by the very nature of a concept. Those tasks include: elucidating a particular concept’s role in fixing reasons for making judgements; characterizing its normative role more generally; describing its relation to the level of reference and truth; explaining the relation of all of the preceding to understanding and knowledge; and of course much else. I would be the first to endorse the view that there is great illumination to be gained by carrying out such tasks. Here I am going to argue, as a substantive and no doubt controversial thesis, that there also exists a wider task, one whose execution is made possible by the construction of substantive theories of particular concepts. This wider task is one with epistemological, metaphysical, and psychological aspects. The task is that of addressing what I call the Integration Challenge.
Connecting Vision with the World: Tracking the Missing Link
Authors: Pylyshyn Zenon W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
You might reasonably surmise from the title of this chapter that I will be discussing a theory of vision. After all, what is a theory of vision but a theory of how the world is connected to our visual representations? Theories of visual perception universally attempt to give an account of how a proximal stimulus (presumably a pattern impinging on the retina) can lead to a rich representation of a three-dimensional world and thence to either the recognition of known objects or to the coordination of actions with visual information. Such theories typically provide an effective (i.e. computable) mapping from a 2D pattern to a representation of a 3D scene, usually in the form of a symbol structure. But such a mapping, though undoubtedly the essential purpose of a theory of vision, leaves at least one serious problem that I intend to discuss here. It is this problem, rather than a theory of vision itself, that is the subject of this chapter.
The African Setting
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE main data sources of this volume are two African nations where English is the main official language, with one or more indigenous languages also sharing official status. In Kenya, Swahili is a co-ordinate official language, and in Zimbabwe, Shona and Ndebele also have official status. In both cases, English has more of the roles in domains of socio-economic consequence. For example, English is the medium of instruction of education at all levels, or at least beyond the first few years of primary school. It is also the language of written work, whether in government or business. The CS to be studied largely involves English; however, two examples come from francophone Africa (Wolof/French and Lingala/French).
The Rise of Codeswitching as a Research Topic
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of how study of the socio-psychological motivations for CS evolved to become a major research topic. This development can be attributed to a number of factors, but the stimulation offered by the work of John Gumperz on CS was crucial. Gumperz’s own work is discussed in some detail and that of others who have followed him in the attempt to interpret or explain CS is surveyed.
Conclusion
Authors: Myers-Scotton Carol 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The goal of this volume has been to provide a general theoretical treatment of the socio-psychological motivations for codeswitching (CS) as a language-contact phenomenon. The arguments have been illustrated with many naturally occurring examples from African contexts; the volume is also, therefore, a description of the types of CS which involve African languages. As such, the result is, I hope, not only an explanation of the motivations of CS, but also a view of those aspects of African life glimpsed in everyday conversations involving CS. Descriptive emphasis has been on Kenya and especially its capital, Nairobi. A number of examples from Harare, Zimbabwe, are also included. Additional examples from other areas of Africa make the case that the phenomena discussed are not localized; they come from other areas of Africa, such as the capitals of Senegal (Dakar) and Nigeria (Lagos), as well as from Zaïre and Ghana. References to CS in other areas of the world are additional evidence of the generality of the phenomenon and its motivations.