bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prematurity and Low Birth Weight
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The questions of prematurity and low birth weight and the implications for later development are consistent with the theme of risk and vulnerability discussed throughout the book. This chapter deals with the assessment of preterm and low-birth-weight infants, major risk factors associated with these conditions, and the long-term outcome of prematurity and low birth weight.One of the earliest definitions of prematurity was provided by the World Health Organization in 1949: a birth weight of 2500 g or less became the single criterion for prematurity. Two considerations seemed to influence this decision. First, birth weight is easily measured and universally noted in records, whereas gestational age, the other main index of prematurity, is more difficult to deter mine (Kopp and Parmelee 1979). Second, mortality and morbidity rates are highest for infants of low birth weight. Premature infants defined according to birth weight, however, constitute a heterogeneous group that includes those with congenital abnormalities, those born of mothers with small stature, those born early with weight appropriate for age, and infants born early who are clearly undernourished for age (Drillien 1964). When it became accepted that not all neonates of 2500 g or less at birth are premature, the designation low birth weight (LBW) was applied to them instead.
Infections
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infectious organisms and intoxicants (to be discussed in Chapter 15) are two groups of more than 800 teratogenic agents that can cause structural or functional deviations in development. An annotated catalog of the complete list of agents is provided by Shepard (1975). For a detailed discussion the reader is referred to Johnson and Kochlar (1983). This chapter provides an introduction to the topic and a more detailed description of the effects of HIY, rubella, and cytomegalovirus infections, and of meningitis as examples of pre- and postnatal infections that have been studied more extensively.Infections affecting the CNS may be caused by bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, fungi, protozoa, and helminths (Johnson 1982). During the prenatal period, only those infectious agents that cross the placenta are of importance to the developing fetus. The clinical effects of severe prenatal infection have been known for a long time: severe retardation, convulsions, chorioretinitis (inflammation of the layer of eye tissue carrying blood vessels and the retina), and micro- or hydrocephaly. More recently, the production of IgM, one of the immunoglobulins, has been used as an indicator of whether an infection occurred during the prenatal period. IgM does not cross the placenta, but is produced by the fetus in response to infection and therefore can be used to survey the frequency of prenatal infection.
Motor, Sensorimotor, and Praxis Disorders
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human behavior and all activity of the CNS can ultimately be expressed only by means of muscle actions guided by the sensory systems. In this chapter, we provide a description of the gross motor disorders, the fine motor disorders, and the more complex disorders associated with the motor system, i.e., sensorimotor disorders and the apraxias. The motor system was described in Chapter 3.Cerebral palsy (CP) is a general term referring to the full variety of motor disorders after lesions at any level of motor control except those secondary to mental retardation or caused by progressive diseases. Anoxic episodes (Chapter 17) and prematurity (Chapter 13) are important considerations. A first description was published by Little (1862, Denhoff and Robinault 1960), whose paper led to general acceptance of the origin of the disorder (also described as Little’s disease). Although the term originally referred only to disorders of the cerebrum, lesions at other levels are frequently included. Since the cause and type of impairment are not specified in the term, it is currently used only in the generic sense. A division into pyramidal (spastic), extrapyramidal (rigid, athetoid, or ataxic), mixed, and dystonic type of CP is frequently made.
Auditory Disorders
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The auditory system in lower mammals primarily seives as a protective sense and is reflexive. The reflex action is controlled and coordinated by various centers in the brainstem (Barr 1972). The human cortex has larger association areas for storage and processing of information arriving from the sensory organs, which allows differential recognition, interpretation, and association of sounds with meanings. Most importantly, an intact auditory system permits the reception, sorting, and codifying of speech and thus verbal communication with others.Auditory processing may be divided into levels of functioning, each potentially influencing the others (Wood 1975). These functional levels include the ability to (1) detect auditory stimuli; (2) attend, both in terms of reflex action to sound and in terms of conscious focusing on the content and source of incoming stim uli; (3) discriminate between sounds and distinguish characteristics of sounds, such as frequency, intensity, and temporal sequence; (4) identify sounds previously heard so that meaning may be associated with them; (5) comprehend sounds by sorting and integrating them with other information in order to store and retain information; and (6) retrieve and restore the sounds for the formation of appropriate responses.
Introduction
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book has two overarching aims. The first is to make a contribution to understanding the formation and execution of U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union. The book takes as its point of reference the diplomatic mission in Moscow and tells the history of official Americans residing there. These included distinguished interpreters of the Soviet scene, some of whom played vital roles in policymaking, particularly Charles Bohlen, W. Averell Harriman, George Kennan, Jack Matlock, and Llewellyn Thompson. In their different ways, figures such as William Bullitt and Joseph Davies were also significant.
Fragile Coalition
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like Europe’s wars against Napoleonic France, four successive coalitions arose against Hitler’s Germany. The original one, led by Britain and France, ended in catastrophe in June 1940 with the fall of Paris and the establishment of a puppet regime at Vichy. The second coalition featured the British Empire and Commonwealth in cooperation with small states (Greece and Yugoslavia) whose ability to contribute to German defeat was negligible; this effort also ended in failure. The third coalition emerged in June 1941, when Hitler’s armies invaded Russia. British and Red forces were thereby joined in common cause, consummated May 1942 with the signing of a twenty-year Anglo-Soviet treaty. Neutral in name only before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequent German declaration of war, the United States played the pivotal role in the fourth coalition, with which this chapter is concerned. This partnership, variously labeled the Grand Alliance or (more accurately) the Strange Alliance, was subject to the stresses and ambiguities that have marked collaborative effort by great powers since time immemorial. Its turbulent career confirmed Trotsky’s cynical but apt observation: “An ally has to be watched just like an enemy.” To think otherwise, Stalin and Churchill would have concurred-Roosevelt, too, in his vague way-required a suspension of prudence.
Controlled Rivalry
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The future is an unknown country, admittedly. Yet the recent past is only slightly less mysterious. Its rough shape can be apprehended, but its distinctive texture is obscure, to say nothing of the framework of meaning to which it might plausibly belong. Absence of perspective and the stealthy intervention of partisanship make hazardous the writing of contemporary history, defined here as since the Cuban missile crisis. From the standpoint of traditionalists, contemporary history, with its melange of anecdotes and deceptive familiarity, lacks respectability. Added to these problems is another equally insuperable to the production of sturdy interpretation: the inaccessibility of most primary materials. Given the unripened quality of historical data and heavy reliance on conjecture, claims of judgment are thus (usually) more tentative in evaluating the events of one’s own time than those distant. Narrative in this case relies on the vocabulary of qualification. To paraphrase Paul Valery’s aphorism, scholarship here is not finished. It is abandoned. Each subsection in this chapter corresponds to what future historians will regard as identifiable moments in Soviet-U.S. affairs, deserving of separate and full treatment. However impressionistic and synoptic the following, it nevertheless shows that the pattern underlying the history of diplomats in Moscow during the pre-Brezhnev era continued afterward. On both sides of the Brezhnev divide, America’s Soviet policy benefited when the embassy was in competent hands. Conversely, it suffered when the mission was sacrificed to political expediency or ignored by Washington or its assets otherwise squandered.
lntrogression and Its Consequences in Plants
Authors: Rieseberg Loren H , Wendel Jonathan F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The role of introgression in plant evolution has been the subject of considerable discussion since the publication of Anderson ‘s influential monograph, Introgressive Hybridization (Anderson, 1949). Anderson promoted the view, since widely held by botanists, that interspecific transfer of genes is a potent evolutionary force. He suggested that “the raw material for evolution brought about by introgression must greatly exceed the new genes produced directly by mutation” (1949, p. 102) and reasoned, as have many subsequent authors, that the resulting increases in genetic diversity and number of genetic combinations promote the development or acquisition of novel adaptations (Anderson, 1949, 1953; Stebbins, 1959; Rattenbury, 1962; Lewontin and Birch, 1966; Raven, 1976; Grant, 1981). In contrast to this “adaptationist” perspective, others have accorded little evolutionary significance to introgression, suggesting instead that it should be considered a primarily local phenomenon with only transient effects, a kind of” evolutionary noise” (Barber and Jackson, 1957; Randolph et al., 1967; Wagner, 1969, 1970; Hardin, 1975). One of the vociferous doubters of a significant role of hybridization in plant evolution was Wagner (1969, p. 785), who commented that the “ultimate contributions made by hybrids must be very small or negligible.”
Nature of Selection in the Northern Flicker Hybrid Zone and Its Implications for Speciation Theory
Authors: Moore Williams. , Price Jeff T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hybrid zones are regions of steep genotypic transition between populations that have reached a level of divergence comparable to that between “good” species. Remarkably, however, hybrid zones appear to be equilibrium configurations where the parental populations (whether they are called species, subspecies, or races) retain their taxonomic identity and integrity even though reproductive isolation is incomplete or, in many instances, wholly lacking. Although species definitions remain very much in contention (Mayr, 1957, 1987; Ehrlich, 1961; Sokal and Crovello, 1970; Mishler and Donoghue, 1982; Cracraft, 1983; Ghiselin, 1987; McKitrick and Zink, 1988; Endler, 1989; Templeton, 1989; Moor , 1990), we think there would be unanimity that an essential property of a species is that there is uniformity of genotype within the species and a discontinuity between the genotype of one species and that of another. In other words, genotypic variance within a species is low compared to the variance between species. Reproductive isolation, of course, would enforce this essential property of species, but the sustained cohesion (sensu Templeton, 1989) of the hybridizing taxa and the abrupt discontinuity of genotype seen across hybrid zones imply that forces more fundamental than reproductive isolation are involved in speciation. Hybrid zones pro vide natural experimental systems where modern genetic analysis can be applied to discern the forces that drive the origin of species.
Systems and Synapses of Emotional Memory
Authors: Ledoux Joseph E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the great challenges, and promises, of modern neuroscience is to understand the neural basis of memory. Recent work emphasizes that memory is a multifaceted psychological process and that the neuroanatomical organization of memory is correspondingly diverse and complex (e.g., Mishkin, 1982; Squire, 1987; Thompson, 1986; Weinberger, McGaugh & Lynch, 1985). Thus, brain lesions that eliminate the ability to remember certain kinds of information leave intact the ability to remember other things. This is dramatically illustrated by a classic case from the human amnesia literature reported by Claparede (1911). The patient, suffering with anterograde amnesia, was unable to recall the details of events experienced only moments earlier. Once, Claparede concealed a pin in his hand and stuck the patient. Henceforth, the patient refused to shake Claparede’s hand but could not provide any explanation for her avoidance behavior. The injury to the patient’s brain seriously compromised her ability to consciously recollect life’s experiences but her ability to store information about the affective significance of the same experiences and respond adaptively on the basis of the stored information was preserved. Conscious recollections, sometimes referred to as declarative memories (Squire, 1987), are often treated as the sine qua non of memory. However, conscious recollections are only one aspect of memory. We will not understand “memory” until its many facets have been elucidated.
The Third Chamber Model: A Review and Defense
Authors: Stone Alec 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study and understanding of the political behavior and impact of the Constitutional Council is infirmed by the fact that the body’s deliberations and votes are formally secret, and by a scholarly tradition which is formalist, restrictive in scope, and ideologically committed. Consequently, perspectives and methods developed and employed by political scientists in studies of courts and their impact on political systems elsewhere cannot be or have not been applied to the French case. Study of the Council’s behavior instead overwhelmingly consists of traditional doctrinal work and in efforts at institutional legitimation. Part II of this book shows that one fruitful alternative to legalism and to polemics is to focus on the Council’s role in the legislative process. By doing so, the institution’s concrete impact can be observed and measured. Indeed, political scientists can and ought to conceive of the Council as a third legislative chamber. I do not mean by this that constitutional judges necessarily desire lawmaking powers or that they make law according to the same criteria as do parliamentarians. It is to assert, at the very least, that abstract, a priori constitutional review and the evolution of French constitutional politics have combined to bestow upon the Council legislative powers. These powers it uses all of the time.
The Anti-Federalists and Civic Virtue
Authors: Sinopoli Richard C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Characterizing differences between Federalists and Anti-Federalists either in terms of social background or political doctrines has been an enterprise wrought with controversy in American historiography. There has been a pronounced absence of consensus as to how to understand the Anti-Federalist opposition to the Constitution. Are we to view this debate, for all its rhetorical fire, along the lines of the controversies between political parties in established polities? In such controversies, there is much disagreement over policy, while there is substantial consensus over principles, which keeps the policy debate in moderate bounds. Or do the two sides in the founding debates offer competing conceptions of political regimes with inclusive conceptions of human nature, society, and government? This type of conflict is generally associated with revolutionary situations.
Tripartism
Authors: Ayres Ian , Braithwaite John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we argue that features of regulatory encounters that foster the evolution of cooperation also encourage the evolution of capture and corruption. Solutions to the problems of capture and corruption-limiting discretion, multiple-industry rather than single-industry agency jurisdiction, and rotating personnel-inhibit the evolution of cooperation. Tripartism empowering public interest groups-is advanced as a way to solve this policy dilemma. A game-theoretic analysis of capture and tripartism is juxtaposed against an empowerment theory of republican tripartism. Surprisingly, both formulations lead to the conclusion that some forms of capture are desirable. The strengths from converging the weaknesses of these two formulations show how certain forms of tripartism might prevent harmful capture, identify and encourage efficient capture, enhance the attainment of regulatory goals, and strengthen democracy. Although the case we make for tripartism is purely theoretical and general in its application to all domains of business regulation, our conclusion is a call for praxis to flesh out the contexts in which the theory is true and false.
Invention in the Industrial Research Laboratory: Individual Act or Collective Process?
Authors: Hounshell David A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The primary question this chapter explores is whether invention in the industrial research laboratory is an individual act or a collective process. The chapter also addresses the issue of whether the inventive act occurs in a discrete moment or in a more continuous process. These questions will be examined by focusing on the “inventions” of one particular industrial laboratory, the Pioneering Research Lab oratory of the Du Pont Company’s Textile Fibers Department in the period 1928 to 1968. Even in 1928 when this laboratory was established, the diversified, decentralized Du Pont Company had at least a dozen research laboratories; by 1968, the Textile Fibers Department alone had half a dozen laboratories, including four in the Wilmington, Delaware, area and others in Waynesboro, Virginia, and Kinston, North Carolina. The Pioneering Research Laboratory’s mission was to do just what its name implied-to conduct longer term and more basic research and to invent new products and processes within the Textile Fibers Department’s areas of business. This laboratory was extraordinarily productive during this period, especially after 1941, and therefore it provides an excellent vehicle through which to explore the inventing mind. Readers should compare and contrast this chapter’s analysis, which reflects the work of an historian of technology, with that of Dr. Paul Morgan (Chapter 10), who was one of the Pioneering Research Laboratory’s distinguished chemists during a good part of the period under consideration and who is rightfully to be considered an important inventor of the twentieth century.
Health-Enhancing and Health-Compromising Lifestyles
Authors: Elliott Delbert S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Health has typically been defined as the absence of disease. By this definition of health, the adolescent population in the United States is relatively healthy; adolescence could even be viewed as the peak period of health during the life span for persons living in developed countries. Why then is there a concern over adolescent health? As the editors note in Chapter 1, our conceptualization of disease, illness, and health, and our understanding of the etiology and epidemiology of mortality and morbidity, have changed dramatically during the past decade. In developed countries, we now face a serious health crisis involving new sources of mortality and morbidity (O’Neill, 1983; World Health Organization [WHO], 1981). Of particular relevance to adolescents are diseases of lifestyle, the health consequences resulting from poverty and unemployment, and premature deaths resulting from risky behavior and accidents generally (Noack, 1987, p. 5). Indeed, the vast majority of all adolescent deaths and a substantial proportion of all adolescent morbidity can be attributed to one or more of these causes (Chapter 1). The prevalence rates for accidents, homicide, and suicide, the three major causes of death among adolescents, have been increasing over the past two decades (National Center for Health Statistics, 1980). Since risky behavior is a major contributing factor to the accident rate among adolescents and appears to be a characteristic of a particular lifestyle, it would appear that the major sources of adolescent mortality and morbidity in the United States can be linked to two general factors: (1) certain personal lifestyles and (2) social environments that involve high health risks.
Promoting Oral Health in Adolescents
Authors: Albino Judith E N , Lawrence Sandra D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In considering the potential health risks of adolescents, oral health issues often remain in the background. Oral health problems generally are not life-threatening, nor are they perceived as having the social impact of high-risk behaviors such as smoking, substance abuse, or unsafe sexual behavior. Yet when 1,400 adolescents were asked about health problems, dental health ranked second in importance, after nervousness (Sternlieb & Munan, 1972). Many oral health behaviors significantly affect physical and psychological health during adolescence, while others have potentially serious effects on future health status. Oral diseases can result in pain, discomfort, and functional problems. Moreover, the teeth and mouth are particularly salient aspects of physical appearance. As the instruments of speech, they play a major role in interpersonal communication, and any defects in appearance are highly visible.
Promoting Safety in Adolescents
Authors: Hingson Ralph , Howland Jonathan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1988 more than 96,000 Americans died as a result of unintentional injuries, the fourth leading cause of death in this country (National Safety Council, 1989). Injury disproportionately affects young people and is the greatest killer of persons between the ages of 1 and 37 (National Committee for Injury Prevention and Con­ trol, 1989) and the number one cause of loss of productive years prior to age 65. Injury refers to damage resulting from acute exposure to physical or chemical agents (Haddon & Baker, 1981). The term accident formerly signified “events lead­ ing to injuries,” but research shows that these events form patterns; they are not random, as the term accident implies.