bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction And Relationships Of The Group
Authors: Bone Q , Kapp H , Pierrot-Bults A C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chaetognaths are found in every marine habitat, from the benthos to all zones of coastal waters and the open oceans. Although small (2–120 mm long) they are often abundant, and play an important role in the marine food web as the primary predators of copepods. The biomass of chaetognaths has been estimated as 10-30 per cent of that of copepods in the world oceans, so that they are of great significance in transferring energy from copepods to higher trophic levels.
Systematics of The Chaetognatha
Authors: Bieri Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years the number of species, genera, and families within the Chaetognaths has exploded. In his revision of the phylum Ritter-Záhony (1911a) recognized 27 species in six genera. In his 1965a revision, Tokioka recognized 58 species in 15 genera. Twenty-three years after Tokioka’s revision, 115 species in 23 genera are currently under discussion among chaetognath specialists and this latter list is conservative—it omits an additional 31 species and five genera discussed by Kassatkina (1982). If these were included, the number of genera would jump to 28 and the number of species to 146.
Collection and Chemical Analysis of Chaetognaths and Changes Due To Preservation
Authors: Conway D V P , Robins D B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chaetognaths are recognized as a key component in the marine food web (Reeve 1970a; Sameoto 1972; Kotori 1976; Szyper 1978; Hopkins 1982; Feigenbaum and Maris 1984; Angel 1989) but much of the basic information on the relationship between their length, weight and chemical composition is not generally available in sufficient detail for the study of energy movement through the web. Available data are scattered through the literature, are often based on very few measurements, and with few exceptions, are not detailed for any one species. In addition, the methods used are not standardized and are sometimes only superficially described.
New and interesting records of Tanzanian foliicolous lichens
Authors: Farkas E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A total of 98 species of obligately foliicolous lichens is recorded to date from submontane and montane rainforests of the Usambara Mountains, Tanzania, due mainly to collections made during the Usambara Rain Forest Project expeditions. 35 species are new to the Usambaras including 15 species new also to Tanzania and 6 to Africa. Seven species are described by Farkas and Vezda as new to science: Porina sphaerocephaloides Farkas: Macentina borhidii Farkas and Vezda; Dimerellaflavicans Vezda and Farkas; D. pocsii Vezda and Farkas; D. tanzanica Vezda and Farkas; D. usambarensis Vezda and Farkas, and Byssoloma usambarense Vezda. 36 species belong to Arthoniaceae, Opegraphaceae, and genera with pyrenocarpous ascomata.
Observations on the composition and distribution of the ‘Lobarion’ in fores ts of South East Asia
Authors: Wolseley P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Members of the Lobariaceae contribute to a distinctive and well developed epiphytic community of lichens and bryophytes associated with forests in temperate and tropical regions. Forest macrolichens in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand arc compared with those found within the European alliance Loharion pulmonariae. Factors affecting the location and distribution of the ‘Loharion’ in a range of tropical forests are considered. Aspects of the distribution of some critical genera arc discussed. Present practices of forest management and widespread degradation in South East Asia have profound affects on the distribution of this characteristic lichen community.
Introduction to the evolutionary biology of the threespine stickleback
Authors: Bell Michael A , Foster Susan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The threespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, is a species complex that comprises thousands of phenotypically diverse populations. It is widely distributed in boreal and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and inhabits coastal marine waters, brackish waters, and a wide array of freshwater habitats. Its broad geographical and ecological distribution and the fragmentation of its gene pool into many thousands of isolated or semiisolated demes in freshwater habitats have generated an extraordinary range of phenotypic diversity. In some instances, divergent populations have acquired the isolating mechanisms that characterize biological species. This phenotypic diversity offers an exceptional opportunity for analysis of evolutionary mechanisms.
Energy allocation in the threespine stickleback
Authors: Wootton R J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Energy is the basic currency of living organisms (Harold 1986). It gives the organism the potential to do the work required for maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Organisms are subject to the laws of thermodynamics (Brafield and Llewellyn 1982), making it possible to describe quantitatively the expenditure of energy. All forms of energy are interconvertible and so can be measured in common units of joules (J) (1 J = 4.18 cal).
Predators and Morphological Evolution in Threespine Stickleback
Authors: Reimchen Thomas E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The wealth of investigations on threespine stickleback during the last half-century has established the species as a model organism for evaluating population differentiation. Stickleback are particularly attractive for these studies because they exhibit extensive variability within and among populations and occurs in a diversity of habitats, from open oceanic waters to isolated bog ponds. Differences in predation levels, which are an underlying theme in diverse studies of prey defences (Curio 1976; Endler 1986; Vermeij 1987; Greene 1988), are also suspected of occurring among stickleback populations and are associated with increased expression of spines, bony armour, and escape responses (Hagen and Gilbertson 1972; Moodie and Reimchen 1976a; Gross 1977; Giles and Huntingford 1984; reviews in Wootton 1976 and Bell 1984a
Adaptive variation in antipredator behaviour in threespine stickleback
Authors: Huntingf ord F A , Wright P J , Tierney J F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A major aim in behavioural ecology is to understand how natural selection acts on behavioural variants. One way of unravelling the relationship between phenotype and selection is the comparative approach, in which behavioural variants are related to environmental features (Huntingford 1984; Krebs and Davies 1987). If a behavioural trait (for example, the removal of egg shells by parents after young gulls hatch) is regularly associated with a particular environmental factor (for example, risk of predation on chicks), it is likely that the former is an adaptation to the latter (Tinbergen et al. 1962). However, behavioural phenotypes are notoriously labile, so differences among populations may reflect flexible responses of the animals to environmental differences as well as evolved hereditary adaptations. Behavioural differences among populations can only be considered as the result of natural selection if a genetic basis for the behavioural differences can be demonstrated.
Evolution of the reproductive behaviour of threespine stickleback
Authors: Foster Susan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ethologists have been interested in understanding evolutionary processes that structure behavioural patterns since the turn of the century (e.g. Whitman 1899; Heinroth 1911), or even earlier if Charles Darwin may be included among the ranks of ethologists (Darwin 1872). Typically, comparisons have been made among closely related species in an effort to examine historical sequences in phenotypic evolution and to determine the extent to which behavioural phenotypes have been influenced by phylogenetic history. These efforts have demonstrated clearly that at least some behavioural phenotypes are strongly conserved over long time periods in phylogeny and can therefore reflect the patterns of phylogenetic diversification within a clade (reviewed in Lauder 1986; McLennan et al. 1988; Burghardt and Gittleman 1990; Brooks and McLennan 1991).
Prologue
Authors: Stearns Stephen C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a forest just south of the Rhine, old and dense with oak and beech, a tree falls in an equinoctial storm. A beech seed germinates in the clearing left by the falling tree. It grows rapidly, escapes the attention of slugs during its first summer, overtops the competing grasses and shrubs, and pushes its crown into the narrowing circle of sky overhead. As its branches near the canopy, it begins to flower. It is 50 years old. Its growth then decelerates until, at more than 200 years of age, when it is two metres thick at breast height and fifty metres tall, further growth is no longer measurable. Every few years, it flowers heavily and sets abundant seed. Much is eaten by flocks of wintering bramblings. Some is scattered by winter storms. The seeds drop in various directions, more near the tree, a few at some distance. In the 154th year of its life, its pollen enters an ovule on a beech half a kilometre away whose seed survives to flower. In the 268th year of its life, a hornbeam falls about 80 metres away. One seed sprouts in the clearing and starts its climb to the canopy. Of the millions of seeds that the tree produces, only this one will survive to flower. It has produced two offspring that survived to reproduce, one through pollen, one through seed.
Diversity of flagellates without mitochondria
Authors: Mylnikov A P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Flagellates without mitochondria are mostly found in anaerobic, microaerophilic, or organically enriched sites. The genera are: Pelomyxa, Mastigina, Mastigella, Mastigamoeba, Phreatamoeba (all pelobionts); Retortamonas and Chilomastix (representing the retortamonads); Gyromonas, Hexamita, Trigonomonas, and Trepomonas (diplomonads); and Pseudotrichomonas (representing the trichomonads). Free-living flagellates of anaerobic habitats are dominated by forms without mitochondria, and are assignable to the pelobionts, retortamonads diplomonads, and trichomonads.
Organization of cryptomonads
Authors: Kugrens Paul , Lee Robert E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cellular features of a mixotrophic Chroomonas, and of the hetcrotrophic genera Chilomonas and Goniomonas are presented. Chroomonas is photosynthetic and has chloroplasts typical of cryptomonads, yet bacteria arc routinely taken into a large vacuole. Chilomonas has a reduced chloroplast (leucoplast) but bacteria are not ingested. Goniomonas lacks plastids and probably represents a primitive cryptomonad which is capable of ingesting bacteria. Surface architecture, cell coverings, flagella, and internal features of these cells are described.
Genetic Analysis Of Leaf Development
Authors: Hake Sarah , Sinha Neelima 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plant development and the processes that control it have interested botanists for centuries. The traditional techniques of histology and plant morphology have been used for many years to generate a large body of knowledge on the generation of plant form. The amount of information that can be gleaned from these approaches has certainly not reached a saturation point, as nature has a large number of variant forms for study. The approaches however, may be limited in the type of information that they can provide. They can describe the mechanics of how a form arises, but the controls of processes that lead to plant form may never be elucidated by these approaches. The time is ripe for plant biology to take advantage of new tools and move into an era where traditional studies can be combined with genetic and molecular techniques leading to a more complete understanding of how plant form is generated.
Assessing Local Distribution of Threatened Species: a Case Study Considering the Threatened Plants of Italy
Authors: Miller* R I , Press† J R , Baldini↕ R M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conservation actions are based on data collected and stored in scientific institutes. Our project was designed to link two museums with an organisation directly concerned with conservation. Italy was chosen as a European pilot study for assessments of distributions of rare and threatened vascular plants listed in the revised appendix of the Berne Convention. We discuss criteria for defining species rarity and selection of appropriate plant groups. The establishment and development of a computerized system for recording data and for monitoring threatened plants, now operational at the Natural History Museum, London, is linked to a Geographical Information System which enables analyses of a wide range of geo-referenced data and production of high quality maps. Finally, a preliminary analysis of distribution patterns of rare plants throughout Italy is given.
The Numbers and Spatial Distributions of Species: Analyses of British Data
Authors: Lawton* J H , Prendergast* J R , Eversham† B C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Britain has one of the best known, but most heavily modified floras and faunas of the world. Data on distributions of many taxa allow the presence and absence of species to be mapped in each 10 X 10 km square of the national grid, which can be used to answer questions of interest to both theoretical ecologists and conservationists. For example: (i) Where are the most species-rich areas of the country for particular taxa? (ii) Do diversity ‘hot-spots’ coincide for different taxa? (iii) How much turnover (beta-diversity) is shown by different taxa along geographic transects? (iv) What proportion of the national pool of species in a particular taxon might be conserved by setting aside reserves in a limited number of locations? Superimposed on well-known north-south and east-west gradients in alpha diversity, are significant departures in local species richness.
Basal Taxa and the Role of Cladistic Patterns in the Evaluation of Conservation Priorities: a View from Freshwater
Authors: Stiassny* Melanie L J , De Pinna† MÁRio C C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Taxa basal within their lineages are often notably depauperate in numbers of species when compared with their sister-groups, and frequently have extremely restricted geographical distributions. These two features render them particularly vulnerable to environmental pressures. This phenomenon is strikingly prevalent among freshwater fishes, an assemblage representing upward of 25 per cent of all living vertebrates yet largely ignored in most regional biodiversity estimates and conservation evaluation programmes.
Biodiversity, Taxonomic Relatedness, and Endemism in Conservation
Authors: Williams P H , Humphries C J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Practical approaches to measuring biodiversity are described. Within any defined geographical area biodiversity is considered to be a measure of two main variables: number of taxa and degrees of difference between taxa. Three approaches for the measurement of biodiversity are described, phenetic, phylogenetic, and cladistic, the latter being considered the most appropriate. Using the computer program WORLDMAP comparative trials of four different measures of cladistic diversity, root-weight, higher taxon richness, spanning-tree length, and cladistic dispersion, were undertaken. Even representation of sub-groups within taxa using the cladistic dispersion measure agrees best with the popular, intuitive ideal of what consititutes the most diverse fauna or flora. The taxonomic measures were used together with a measure of end emism in conjunction with complementarity of floras and faunas to determine priority sequences of areas for conservation. It was concluded that the greatest contribution to the conservation and representation of biodiversity is from complementarity, but differences between organisms can be most readily represented by using available information of group membership from taxonomic classifications. Endemism is not a measure of biodiversity but of range size, and was shown to be ineffective as a means for selecting areas for conservation if not all selected areas could be included.
Cell coverings
Authors: Leadbeater B S C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The unit of cell covering in most members of the Isochrysidales, Prymnesiales, and Coccolithophorales is a two-layered microfibrillar scale. The proximal layer consists of a quadriradial pattern of microfibrils. The distal layer is more variable with spiral or interwoven patterns of microfibrils being common. Scales are usually arranged on the cell surface in one or more layers, and in species of Chrysochromulina the distal surface of outerlayer scales is often modified to form a spine, cup, or cylinder. Scale form and substructure is therefore an important taxonomic character at the species level. The coccoliths of some coccolithophorids are based on the characteristic microfibrillar scale. In some species, such as Pleurochrysis carterae, the coccolith baseplate is a two-layered scale whereas in others the scale component may be only represented by a few curved radial microfibrils. In Calyptrosphaera, and the crystallolith-bearing cells of Coccolithus pelagicus, the covering of scales and crystalloliths is bounded distally by a continuous investment.
The haptonema
Authors: Inouye Isao , Kawachi Masanobu 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Morphological, behavioural, and physiological features of the haptonema are reviewed and their biological significance is discussed. The haptonematal components are arranged in an absolute configuration in relation to the flagellar apparatus and cellular organization, and the direction of bending and coiling is also fixed. Coiling is a Ca2+-mediated phenomenon. The adhesive property of the haptonema is probably related to the presence of concanavalin A-binding substances and/or electric charge associated with the haptonematal surface. Haptonematal functions are provisionally proposed.
Haptophytes as feedstocks in mariculture
Authors: Jeffrey* S W , Brown* M R , Volkmant† J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mass-cultured microalgae, including haptophytes, are used extensively in mariculture as live feeds for all growth stages of molluscs, for the early larval stages of crustaceans and fish, and for brine shrimp and rotifers that are animal intermediates in mariculture food chains. Temperate strains of Pavlova, and temperate and tropical strains of Isochrysis have been used successfully worldwide for oyster and mussel farming since the 1950s. Microalgae must supply a balanced mixture of key nutrients. As part of a study of the nutritional (biochemical) composition of about 40 species of both classical and new isolates of microalgae from six algal classes, we have identified seven strains of haptophytes from the genera Pavlova and Jsochrysis which show excellent nutritional profiles for larval animals. Grown under both standard laboratory and hatchery conditions they show good profiles of total protein, carbohydrate, and lipid (gross composition), they are rich in essential and non-essential amino acids, and they have significant concentrations of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. Haptophytes are also rich in B, C, D, and K vitamins. The cells are easily assimilated by larval animals because of their small size (3-8 µ,m) and absence of a tough cell wall. Other attributes include fast growth rates, easy mass-culture, wide temperature and salinity tolerances, and absence of toxins. The nutritional attributes of haptophytes studied in our laboratories will be described in this paper.
Dimethyl sulfide: production and atmospheric consequences
Authors: Malin Gillian , Liss Peter S , Turner Suzanne M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The oceans are the major source of a number of volatile organic compounds which enter the atmosphere via air-sea exchange and play a significant role in biogeochemical cycles and global atmospheric chemistry. The focus of this chapter will be one such compound, dimethyl sulfide (DMS; (CH3hS), its biogenic production by haptophytes and possible global effects.
Origin and relationships of Haptophyta
Authors: Cavalier-Smith T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Haptophyta are placed, with Heterokonta, Chlorarachniophyta, and Cryptista, in the kingdom Chromista because in all four phyla the chloroplasts are surrounded by a periplastid membrane, located either inside the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) or ( Chlorarachnion only) inside a smooth endomembrane. This unique arrangement arose abut 600 millions years ago by incorporating a symbiotic eukaryotic alga into a biciliate protozoan host. Ancestral chromists were photophagotrophs, but phagotrophy and photosynthesis were independently lost several times in different diverging lineages. Haptophyta and Heterokonta (i.e. ochristan algae, Pseudofungi, Bicoecia, Labyrinthulea) are grouped as the infrakingdom Chromobiota because they share five derived characters: (1) chloroplasts with thylakoids stacked in threes, and chlorophylls c1, c2, c3, and fucoxanthin, but no phycobilins; (2) chloroplasts located inside the RER and periplastid membrane, but (unlike cryptomonads and Chlorarachnion) with no nucleomorph; (3) an autofluorescent posterior cilium, (4) tubular mitochondrial cristae with intracristal filaments; (5) large body scales. Ultrastructural and molecular evidence favour a single symbiotic origin for all chromists, and a very early divergence between the four phyla. The symbiont was probably intermediate between red algae, green algae, and dinoflagellates, and closely related to their immediate common ancestor, while the host was an opalozoan with tubular surface hairs and probably body scales.
The history of agricultural development a
Authors: Ruf T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone travelling today in the Nile Valley and meeting a farmer coming back from his fields with his hoe on his shoulder might think that he is seeing a farmer straight out of Egyptian antiquity; he might well imagine that Egyptian agriculture has not changed since time immemorial. In his defence it must be said that none of the many tourist guides he will consult during his journey will help him to form an opinion. They nearly all present the Egyptian fellah as someone living by traditions and techniques that are a thousand years old. If they are to be believed, nothing has changed in Egypt since the days of Rameses. This myth of the fellah as a direct descendant of the peasant from the land of Among is still so rooted in people’s minds that it must be denounced. There is now practically nothing in common between today’s agriculture and that of antiquity or the Middle Ages. Techniques, crops, agricultural productivity, and even the very landscape have been transformed. These deep-rooted developments in agriculture stem, without any possible doubt, from the ways in which the Nile waters have been used. Whereas for thousands of years farming communities carried out extensive agriculture when the waters were low, today’s farmers irrigate their fields through a very dense system of irrigation canals. Theirs is a very intensive and productive type of agriculture which was still quite unheard of at the start of the nineteenth century.
Systems of agricultural production Middle and Upper Egypt
Authors: Beshai A A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may be that Egypt is now seen as a country which is open to the rest of the world. Its geopolitical situation is well recognized, and Egypt’s role with respect to other Middle Eastern countries and African countries is as significant as her links with Europe. In the last two decades, out-migration of workers with its economic and social implications has become a noticeable feature of the country. Indeed, in recent years, remittances from Egyptians working abroad have often been the largest item of credit on the capital account of the balance of payments. Most of the migrant workers are from Middle and Upper Egypt, defined as the areas covered by the governorates of Giza, Beni Suef, Faiyum, and Minya (Middle Egypt) Asyut, Sohag, Qena, and Aswan (Upper Egypt) (Fig. 14.1).