bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Bacterial and viral infections of the oral mucosa
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Specific bacterial infections of the oral mucosa are uncommon in the USA and Europe and many are manifestations of systemic diseases, for example syphilis, gonorrhoea or tuberculosis. Such infections are seen more frequently in many developing countries. The microbiology of this sexually transmitted disease, caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae (N. gonorrhoeae), has been discussed in Chapter 14. When lesions are present in the oral cavity (Fig. 28.1) they are found most frequently in the pharynx, though any part of the oral mucosa may be affected. The main risk factor for gonococcal pharyngitis is oro-genital sexual contact. Thus, the oral lesions are more commonly associated with primary infection of the mouth than with spread of N. gonorrhoeae from a distant site.
Infection control in dentistry
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Infection control is a critical element of safe dental practice. In recent years there has been heightened professional and public awareness of the potential for cross-infection in the dental surgery. The emergence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the early 1980s prompted a major review of infection control procedures in dentistry. In line with other health care settings, universal precautions (now known as ‘standard precautions’ – see note below) have been adopted to prevent transmission of blood-borne viruses (BBVs). Cleaning, disinfection and sterilization are key elements of infection control procedures and the reader is referred to Chapter 11 for detailed consideration of these processes. More recently, prion diseases have emerged as a new challenge to infection control. Those practising in the UK have been especially aware of this problem because of the discovery of variant CJD (vCJD) (Chapter 17) and its link with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as ‘mad cow disease’.
Ageing: age-related changes in episodic and working memory
Authors: Daselaar Sander , Dennis Nancy , Cabeza Roberto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ageing is associated with ongoing deterioration of not only the anatomy and physiology of our brain, but our cognitive abilities as well. As our brain shrinks and its functions decline, cognitive processes become slower and start to fail. Deficits in memory function are among the most-heard complaints in older adults, and cognitive research generally agrees with these self-observations. Modest difficulties in learning and memory can be found, to some extent, in all older adults. Understanding age-associated deficits in memory is important for two reasons. First, in view of the growing number of older adults in today’s society, cognitive ageing is increasingly becoming a problem in general health care, and effective therapeutic intervention methods can only be developed on the basis of knowledge obtained through fundamental research. Second, there is a subgroup of elderly whose memory impairments are more severe, preventing normal functioning in their environment. In these persons, such memory impairments can be the earliest manifestation of pathological age-related conditions such as Alzheimer’s dementia (AD). Particularly in the early stages of this disease, the differentiation from normal, age-related memory impairments is very difficult. Thus, it is important to outline which memory impairments can be regarded as a correlate of normal ageing and which are associated with age-related pathology. The two forms of memory that are most affected by ageing are working memory and episodic memory. Working memory (WM) refers to the short-term memory maintenance and simultaneous manipulation of information. Clinical and functional neuroimaging evidence indicates that WM is particularly dependent on the functions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the parietal cortex. Episodic memory (EM) refers to the encoding and retrieval of personally experienced events. Clinical studies have shown that EM is primarily dependent on the integrity of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system. However, functional neuroimaging studies have also emphasized the contributions of PFC to EM processes.
The development of cell cycle active agents for cancer therapy
Authors: Shah Manish A , Archie Tse , Schwartz Gary K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With advancements in our understanding of the basic mechanisms of oncegenesis and the induction of apoptosis, we have gained a greater appreciation of the critical role cell cycle regulation plays in malignant transformation and in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. Perturbations in the cell cycle are commonly described in carcinogenesis. Furthermore, with our improved understanding of the effects of chemotherapy on normal and cancer ous cells, it is increasingly apparent that the cell cycle also plays a critical role in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. These observations have led to the development of a new class of anticancer therapeutics in clinical development today: specifically, those drugs that target the motors of the cell cycle, the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).
Cytokines
Authors: van Herpen Carla M L , Punt Cornelis J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cytokines are proteins secreted by the ce11s of innate and adaptive immune system and mediate many of the functions of these cells. Cytokines are produced in response to microbes and other antigens, for example, tumour antigens. They stimulate the growth and differentiation of lymphocytes, and activate different effector cells to eliminate microbes and other antigens. Of the many cytokines that currently have been identified, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon-a (IFNa), interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) are most advanced in their development in the treatment of cancer.
Respiratory disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lungs are the organs of gas exchange. The process of gas exchange occurs in alveoli which are tiny (0.2 mm diameter) thin sacs where inhaled air comes into very close contact with capillaries of the lung, allowing diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood. Each of the 300 million alveoli in the lungs must be connected to the environment if they are to participate in gas exchange. The connection is achieved by a large number of airways which all originate from successive branching of the trachea (Fig. 7.1). The first 16 generations of airways, which comprise the bronchi and bronchioles, are the conducting airways.
Urological disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Urology deals with diseases of the urinary tract and male genital system. The urinary tract is often divided into the upper urinary tract comprising the kidneys and ureters, and the lower urinary tract which includes the bladder and urethra. The male genital tract includes the penis, scrotum, testes, and prostate (Fig. 11.1).
Paediatric disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Paediatrics is a distinct speciality related to the care of children in the age span that begins with the fetus and extends through adolescence (Table 22.1). During this period, there are dynamic changes, not only in the child’s growth and development, but also in its immediate environment. So, diseases in children must be understood against the background of these changes.
Case studies
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A 48-year-old woman is referred to her local hospital. She discovered a breast lump whilst showering which her GP was concerned about. The breast clinic at the hospital operates a ‘one-stop’ breast clinic where the triple approach to breast lumps is used Q What is meant by the term ‘triple approach’? A The triple approach refers to the combination of clinical, pathological, and radiological assessment of a breast lump. Together, these three modalities are very good at accurately diagnosing or excluding breast cancer.
A Concise German Grammar
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Concise German Grammar aims to equip undergraduates with a comprehensive yet compact account of German grammar. There has long been a need for an easy-to-use guide to the subject that answers users' questions without confronting them with a bewildering mass of secondary detail. Clear and accessible, including many lively examples of modern usage, this practical book can be used both to learn German grammar and as an essential reference for students of German. Leading the field by using the new German spelling, the book also includes a glossary of grammatical terms and detailed alphabetical guides to prepositions and conjunctions.
Articles
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Certain other words take the same endings as the definite article, namely dieser, diese, dieses this, that, jeder, jede, jedes each, every, jener, jene, jenes that, mancher, manche, manches many a, solcher, solche, solches such a, welcher, welche, welches which-with the exception that where the definite article takes the form die they have the ending -e (e.g. diese), and in the nominative and accusative neuter they have the ending -es (e.g. dieses).
Nouns
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German nouns, which are written with a capital initial letter, may be divided into three main groups in the singular: Masculines (except weak masculines) and NEUTERS. These form the genitive by adding -s (e.g. der Deckel lid I des Deckels, das Fenster window I des Fensters) or, in the case of native (but not ‘foreign’) monosyllables, -es (e.g. der Tag day I des Tages, das Schiff ship I des Schiffes: contrast das Gen gene I des Gens).21 (Exception: monosyllables ending in a vowel or vowel + h, e.g. der Schuh shoe I des Schuhs.)
Pronouns
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non: The genitive forms are relatively rare, occurring chiefly with verbs and adjectives that govern the genitive. The familiar 2nd person pronouns du and ihr are used when addressing relatives, close friends, one’s peers (among certain groups such as workmen), children, animals, God (Du), and (in poetry) personified inanimate objects; the reader of a book, advertisement, etc.
Verbs
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
German verbs, like English verbs, fall broadly into two groups: weak and strong verbs. Weak verbs form the past tense by adding -te to the stem, and the past participle by prefixing ge-to the stem and adding -t; there are also some irregular verbs that are conjugated weak but which also exhibit vowel change in the past tense and past participle.
Guide to Prepositions
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Abbreviations used for newspaper titles: Faz Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Mm Münchner Merkur Nzz Neue Zurcher Zeitung Sz Süddeutsche Zeitung Reference works: Aktuell Aktuell: Das groBe Lexikon der Gegenwart (Dortmund: Chronik Verlag, 1984 ff.) PersonenLexikon Das groBe PersonenLexikon (Dortmund: Chronik Verlag, 2nd ed., 1988) AB (+ dative) 1. (indicating time) from (. . . onwards): ab Mitte der achtziger Jahre (also Achtzigerjahre) from the mid-eightiesab Ostern from Easter Kinder ab sechs Jahren children from the age of six When the article is omitted the accusative may also be used in e.g. ab nachstem/ nachsten Montag (as) from next Monday.
Guide to Conjunctions
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aber may also, however, function as an adverb and come later in the clause (sometimes expressed by however): er wollte kommen, er durfte aber nicht Im Norden [Schottlands] aber kann man stundenlang wandern an ve lassenen Seen (St. Zweig) In the north, however, one can walk for hours on end by solitary lochs.
Conjugation of Strong and Irregular Verbs
Authors: Buck Timothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Only a selection of verbs is given here, to illustrate the various types; details of conjugation are given for all strong verbs in the alphabetical list below. The parts shown are: (a) the infinitive, (b) (only shown—in brackets—where vowel change is involved) the 2nd and 3rd persons singular of the present tense, (c) the past tense, (d) the past participle.
Semantic structure in Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter we saw that phonological structure has a certain autonomy vis-à-vis its role in the symbolization of conceptual structure. In this chapter I show that a comparable state of affairs holds with semantic structure. The meaning of a complex expression is not simply a function of the meanings of its parts and the manner in which they are combined. Typically, the meaning of the whole is more specific than, or even at variance with, the meaning contributed by the parts, and may contain elements that are not actually symbolized by any of the constituent units. There are good reasons, therefore, to assume a level of conceptual organization which modifies and enriches the semantic content supplied by the symbolic units which make up an expression.
Schema and instance in phonology
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 7 I examined the schema-instance relation that can hold between semantic units. In this chapter I turn to phonological units, focusing mainly on segments rather than larger phonological units such as syllables. (These are discussed in Chapter 13.) We will find that much of what was said in Chapter 7 about relations between semantic units carries over, with little modification, to relations between phonological units.
Meaning: Profile, base, and domain
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Meaning is a difficult topic to address in a systematic way. In the recent past, many linguists considered semantics to be simply too hard to handle at all and directed their attention to more tractable topics in syntax and phonology. As a consequence, a good deal of linguistics, both in the Bloomfieldian and the Chomskyan traditions, has simply ignored semantics. However, if we take the idea of language as a symbolic system at all seriously, semantic representations are going to have to play a central role. In fact, it is probably fair to say that one of the major achievements of Cognitive Grammar to date has been in the area of semantic analysis, and in elucidating the semantic motivation of syntactic and morphological structure.
Schema competition
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I take up some further aspects of plural formation in English. There are, as everyone knows, different ways of forming plural nouns in English. The existence of different plural-forming devices raises a number of important questions. A single schema for plural formation will be inadequate—we will need a set of schemas, or sub-schemas, to cover the different cases. A speaker who wishes to produce a plural form cannot therefore appeal to the plural-forming schema; it will be necessary to select from a set of schemas that are, in a sense, in competition. In this chapter, I consider the factors that are relevant to this process.
Constructions
Authors: Taylor John R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On several occasions already in this book I have emphasized that Cognitive Grammar does not recognize a distinct level of syntactic organization. The combination of words into larger configurations is handled, not by a special syntactic component of the grammar, but in terms of constructions. A study of constructions reinforces many of the points made in the last chapter, concerning, for example, the absence of a clear-cut distinction between the idiomatic and the regular, and the impossibility, in principle, of separating facts pertaining to the lexicon from facts pertaining to the syntax.
Agriculture and the Land
Authors: Daunton Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1845, the Home Secretary, Sir James Graham, wrote to his son expressing pessimism about his prospects as the owner of a 26,000-acre agricultural estate. Since 1819, he had spent £93,000 on improvements, had consolidated farms, and had improved the calibre of the tenancy. Although his income had increased from £17,946 in 1818 to £21,599 in 1845, his outgoings had also risen so that he had only £7,000 to maintain his standing as a leading politician. If he could sell the estate for £700,000 and pay off loans, he could expect to receive an income of almost £14,000 a year. Above all, the prospect of repeal of the corn laws filled him with gloom.
The Rise and Demise of the Gold Standard
Authors: Daunton Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1865, R. H. Patterson, a leading financial journalist, saw gold as a sign of civilization and international peace, complementing free trade in a vision of Cobdenite peace and prosperity. The convertibility of bank notes into gold imposed morality and discipline on businessmen and on the government. The discipline prevented militaristic ministers from printing notes to wage war; and it limited speculation by businessmen by preventing over-expansion of credit. Gold was a measure of intrinsic value which helped resolve difficulties in measuring value in a highly commercialized capitalist economy. Gold was a measure of intrinsic value.
Managing the Economy
Authors: Daunton Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1930, Winston Churchill reflected on the change in the nature of politics during a career that had taken him from involvement in new Liberal social reforms before the First World War to Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Conservative government of 1924–9. Only since the First World War, he suggested, had economic issues intruded into politics. Perhaps he was exaggerating the change, for the election of 1906 was fought on an economic issue and he had himself abandoned the Conservative party in opposition to tariff reform. Welfare reform had an economic dimension, as his own speeches made clear: the reform of the labour market and creation of an efficient capitalist system.
The Festival of Britain and British Identity
Authors: Daunton Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By 1951, Britain had experienced six years of war and six years of austerity— and the government felt that the nation deserved to celebrate what had been achieved through self-sacrifice and communal spirit. The Festival of Britain of 1951 provided— in the words of its director— a ‘tonic to the nation’, marking a shift from austerity to affluence, from reconstruction to achievement, and not coincidentally encouraging voters to reflect on the record of the Labour government. Herbert Morrison, the minister responsible for the Festival, summed up its character as ‘the people giving themselves a pat on the back’.
Introduction
Authors: Cross Rupert , Harris J W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
PRECEDENT is usually discussed in books on jurisprudence. Jurisprudence may be roughly described as the study of a lawyer’s fundamental assumptions. Bentham spoke of it as ‘the art of being methodically ignorant of what everybody knows’. If for ‘every-body’ we substitute ‘every lawyer’, we arrive at the conception of jurisprudence to which the following pages seek to give effect. Every lawyer, whether he is a practitioner or a legal writer, usually takes for granted the meaning of such statements as ‘that is a rule of law’, ‘this was the ratio decidendi of the case’, ‘the decision is binding on the Court of Appeal, but not on the House of Lords’, and ‘X has a legal right to be paid £100 by Y’. One of the purposes of jurisprudence is to elucidate these statements. It is not, or at least need not be, the only purpose of jurisprudence. A consideration of the ethical or social merits of legal rules also forms part of that subject. When the elucidation of legal concepts is the primary object of investigation, the undertaking is often spoken of as ‘analytical jurisprudence’; this book may be described as an essay in analytical jurisprudence because it is primarily concerned with the elucidation of the rules of precedent and of some other problems raised by case-law.
Exceptions to Stare Decisis
Authors: Cross Rupert , Harris J W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the defects of the preliminary statement of the English rules of precedent in Chapter I is that, the House of Lords apart, it does not refer to the existence of important exceptions to the rule of stare decisis. The purpose of the present chapter is to analyse those exceptions. They have varied from period to period for stare decisis has been the general rule in England for a considerable time. It will be convenient to begin by saying something of Sir William Holdsworth’s views on this subject before discussing the notion of overruling a case which is essential to a proper understanding of the rest of the chapter. Holdsworth’s general thesis was that the English doctrine of precedent hits the golden mean between too much flexibility and too much rigidity; for it gives to the legal system the rigidity which it must have if it is to possess a definite body of principles, and the flexibility which it must have if it is to adapt itself to the needs of a changing society.
Public Law and Political Theory
Authors: Loughlin Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1956 Peter Laslett, remarking on the fact that we no longer have philosophers applying ‘the methods and the conclusions of contemporary thought to the evidence of the contemporary social and political situation’, declared: ‘For the moment, anyway, political philosophy is dead.’ Laslett suggested that this break with a 300 year old Anglo-Saxon tradition stretching from Hobbes to Bosanquet was the result of the rise of positivism, the effect of which was to signify that there was no such rational discipline capable of yielding genuine knowledge. The rise of political science based on the model of the natural sciences and focusing on the rigorous collection of data, the discovery of correlations, and the formulation of testable hypotheses, had signalled the end of that subject. To the extent that there was a role for philosophy in the field of political studies, it was to analyse the language employed in political discourse and to eliminate verbal confusions which may inhibit advances in political science.
The Structures of Public Law Thought
Authors: Loughlin Martin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One basic objective of this book is to indicate that there has been little genuine debate within the subject of public law. Confusion reigns, since any disputes which do arise seem to be conducted on the assumption that the issue of controversy is that of the true weight of the evidence whereas in fact such disputes tend to concern the more fundamental issue of what constitutes evidence. Consequently, I suggest that there is little consensus amongst public lawyers about the basic contours of their discipline. Consensus exists only amongst those who share the same theoretical frame¬ work. If this analysis seems convincing our most important task in seeking to understand the subject must be to examine the conceptual structures which dominate public law thought. It is only by analysing the languages and traditions that shape these contrasting maps of the landscape, by charting their transformations, and by comparing and evaluating them in the light of our horizons that we will be able to achieve some progress in the subject.