bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conception: how it happens
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Guillebaud John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Most people—including many doctors! —have only a vague idea of how pregnancy occurs. And indeed, for something which is so ‘natural’ it is remarkably complicated. So we need to consider how conception happens before we can properly discuss how contraception works. The majority of a woman’s reproductive parts are to be found in her pelvis: the womb (uterus), Fallopian tubes, ovaries, vagina and cervix (see Figure 1.1). The ovaries produce eggs, which pass down to the womb through the Fallopian tubes. The egg is literally sucked into the open end of the tube by finger-like processes (called fimbriae). Once inside the tube, it is wafted down towards the womb by tiny little hairs called cilia. The womb itself is really nothing more than a box designed to hold a pregnancy. Meanwhile, the vagina (front passage) and cervix (the neck of the womb) provide a way for sperm to reach the womb and fertilize an egg which might be waiting there. We all know that periods are somehow an integral part of being female and fertile. But the actual period is only the end result of a process which goes on throughout the month and is called the menstrual cycle (‘menstruum’ simply means ‘monthly’ in Latin). This cycle is under the control of the brain: of course, the brain is a long way away from the womb and ovaries, so it must have some way of communicating with them. It achieves this by means of chemical messengers, called hormones, which travel in the bloodstream and can reach all parts of the body.
Intrauterine devices
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Guillebaud John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The intrauterine device, or IUD, is thought to have been used first by North African Arabs, who placed a stone in the womb or vagina of female camels in order to try and stop them becoming pregnant on long desert journeys. However, it was Hippocrates, over 2500 years ago, who thought of applying the method to women. Once the idea took hold, all sorts of materials were used: wood, glass, ivory, gold, and even platinum studded with diamonds! Some of these were in fact probably used to achieve abortions rather than contraception. The first of the more modern types of IUD was made in 1909 by a German doctor: it consisted of a ring made out of silkworm gut. In 1930 the next step forward occurred, when another German doctor, Ernst Grafenberg, added silver wire to the silkworm gut, creating the Grafenberg ring, which was still around in some countries until quite recently. At around the same time a Japanese doctor designed a gold and silver ring, the Ota ring. (It was the ring shape which gave rise to the other commonly used name for the IUD, the coil.) These rings had to go into the womb just as they were, so the insertion must have been very unpleasant, even though the only candidates in those days were women who had already had children. Although there was considerable initial interest, problems with infection started to appear and the devices lost their popularity.
Barrier methods: caps and condoms
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Guillebaud John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Condoms are probably the oldest contraceptive methods recorded. They were already known in ancient Egypt, since tomb paintings show men wearing brightly coloured linen sheaths. Fashion certainly changes: it is thought these were in fact used to increase male attractiveness rather than for contraception. The word ‘condom’ is popularly held to stem from Dr Condom, a physician at the court of Charles II, who is said to have advised the King that use of condoms would prevent illegitimate children and venereal disease. However, it is not certain that any Dr Condom existed and it is rather more likely that the word originated from the Latin ‘condus’, which means ‘receptacle’.
What about men?
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Guillebaud John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The most obvious male method of contraception is of course the condom, which has already been discussed in Chapter 9. This chapter will look at other reversible methods which can or could be used by men. And Judah said unto Onan, ‘Go in unto thy brother’s wife, and marry her, and raise up seed to thy brother.’ And Onan knew that the seed should not be his; and it came to pass, when he went in unto his brother’s wife, that he spilled it on the ground, lest that he should give seed to his brother. And the thing which he did displeased the Lord: wherefore he slew him also. (Genesis 38: 8–10)
Sterilization and vasectomy
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Guillebaud John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Britain sterilization is now the most popular method of contraception for couples over 35. No doubt this is at least partly because it is such a simple procedure both in men and in women. But is it really the answer? At the same time as its popularity has been increasing, so have divorce rates, and so have requests for sterilization reversal. This would not be such a problem if reversals were easy and guaranteed: in practice, they often involve quite major surgery, much heartache, and limited success. Unlike the other contraceptive options we have looked at, sterilization is a permanent method and should always be viewed as irreversible when you take the decision.
The future
Authors: Szarewski Anne , Guillebaud John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It takes a long time for new methods of contraception to become available to the public, since exhaustive monitoring and research are necessary to ensure that the methods are safe, effective, and free of damaging side-effects. Contraceptives are not judged like other medicines because the people who use them are not ill. If you are at risk of having a stroke because of high blood pressure, you will be very pleased that there is a medicine which lowers your blood pressure. This medicine may have some side-effects, like making you feel giddy or tired, but that is nothing compared to being an invalid after a stroke. So this medicine will continue to be available because, despite its side-effects, it prevents worse suffering and saves lives.
The concept of delirium: historical antecedents and present meanings
Authors: Rockwood Kenneth , Lindesay James 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Delirium has long been recognized as a problem of human cognition, and indeed was one of the first mental disorders to be described. Despite this long history, it remains to this day an elusive concept, resisting attempts to define it with any precision. As Lipowski (1980) has observed: ‘it appears that clinicians by and large excel in observing and describing natural phenomena, but often display deplorable looseness in the use of words that are indispensable for labelling, classifying, and explaining what is observed and recorded.’ The history of describing delirium (L. delirare or ‘out of the furrow’, as characterized by Celsus) can be traced back to Hippocrates’ Book of Epidemics (Lloyd 1950). Even early descriptions contrasted phrenitis, an acute and largely transient mental disorder seen in association with physical illness, and characterized by psychomotor agitation, insomnia, and disturbances of mood and perception, with lethargus, a disorder of somnolence, inertia, and reduced response to stimuli. Whether both types can be transposed to the modern view of delirium and its subtypes is not clear, but it is evident that writers both ancient and modern have papered over much of its clinical heterogeneity by calling all acutely disordered mental states ‘delirium’. For example, it is likely that the earlier concept of lethargus included both those whom we would now recognize as having ‘hypoactive delirium’ and those that might be described as ‘pre-terminal exhaustion’ (Lipowski 1980). But what should we call the sometimes lingering, beclouded mental state seen in many people in the days to hours before death? Despite a long history of description, we still do not have consensus on this point (Casarett and Inouye 2001). Another difficulty has been the historical use of the term delirium to describe florid and raving insanity seen not just in association with physical illness or intoxication, but also with acute schizophrenia or manic episodes. As we shall see, the modern remedy to this problem (to distinguish between ‘organic’ and ‘non-organic’ mental syndromes) has not been entirely satisfactory.
The management of delirium
Authors: Marcantonio Edward 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Delirium is common, morbid, and costly, especially among hospitalized older patients. Nonetheless, it remains under-recognized and often poorly managed. The goals of this chapter are to review the principles of non-pharmacological and pharmacological management of delirium. The medico-legal ramifications of caring for delirious patients are also discussed. Before beginning this discussion, several key management principles that are covered in other chapters of this book should be highlighted. First and foremost, the appropriate management of delirium requires timely recognition. Failure to detect delirium entirely, misdiagnosis of delirium as dementia or a psychiatric disorder, or diagnosis too late after significant complications have supervened, are the most common errors in its management. Therefore, systematic case-finding efforts involving regular assessment of mental status and use of a standardized diagnostic algorithm such as the Confusion Assessment Method (Inouye et al. 1990), are key in identifying patients with delirium as early as possible in their course. Second, a thorough diagnostic evaluation of the delirious patient is a key step in management. This may involve a significant degree of ‘detective’ work. Often, a single clear-cut aetiology cannot be found. In older patients, delirium typically results from an interaction between predisposing and precipitating factors (Inouye and Charpentier 1996). Therefore, all potentially reversible contributing factors must be addressed. Finally, as with other geriatric syndromes, the prevention of delirium is easier and more effective than treatment and restoration of the patient after the syndrome has developed. A growing body of literature documents the effectiveness of interventions designed to prevent delirium before it begins (Cole et al. 1996; Inouye et al. 1999a, Marcantonio et al. 2001). Therefore, systematic risk assessment and proactive multifactorial preventive strategies should be implemented for all high-risk patients.
Enthesitis Related Arthritis
Authors: Petty Ross E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The aims of this chapter are to describe the epidemiology, clinical features and complications of Enthesitis Related Arthritis (ERA). Similarities between ERA and seronegative enthesitis arthritis (SEA) syndrome and juvenile ankylosing spondylitis (JAS) are also discussed. for Rheumatology (ILAR) classification of childhood arthritis [1] to designate a type of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis (JIA) that had previously been called juvenile ankylosing spondylitis (JAS) [2], seronegative enthesitis arthritis (SEA) syndrome [3], or in more general terms, spondylarthropathy or seronegative spondylarthropathy (Table 2.7.1). Each of these terms has similar but different definitions.
The Transformation of the Roman Mediterranean400-900
Authors: Brown Thomas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the late fourth century there was little sign of imminent upheaval in the Mediterranean heartlands of the Roman Empire. The disorders of the third century had been overcome by soldier-emperors whose reforms had safeguarded the frontiers and created political stability. Following the conversion of Constantine Christianity had established a firm hold and lavish programmes of artistic and architectural patronage testified to the wealth and self-confidence of a revivified empire. After the death of the Emperor Theodosius I in 395, however, divisions between the Latin and Greek halves of the empire became more evident. The east far outshone the west in intellectual achievement, prosperity, and the number and size of its cities; whereas Gaul and Britain could muster 114 civitates, more than 900 cities constituted the thriving centres of political and economic life in the east.
The Fall of Mussolini
Authors: Morgan Philip 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The dramatic story of Mussolini's fall from power in July 1943, illuminating both the causes and the consequences of this momentous event. Morgan shows how Italians of all classes coped with the extraordinary pressures of wartime living, both on the military and home fronts, and how their experience of the country at war eventually distanced them from the dictator and his fascist regime. Looking beyond Mussolini's initial fall from power, Morgan examines how the Italian people responded to the invasion, occupation, and division of their country by Nazi German and Anglo-American forces - and how crucial the experience of this period was in shaping Italy's post-war sense of nationhood and transition to democracy.
The Late Victorian Army 1868–1914
Authors: Spiers Edward 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the late Victorian and Edwardian years, the army had to meet steadily expanding commitments at home and in the defence of the Empire within the constraints of voluntary enlistment and tight budgetary limits. It had to adapt to the demands of small colonial warfare, the challenges of new weaponry, and the organizational requirements of dispatching expeditionary forces overseas at short notice. In garrisoning and expanding the Empire, and in ultimately preparing for service on the Continent, the army depended upon personal qualities of courage and resolution, a highly disciplined organization, and an innovative leadership, both military and civilian. During his period as Secretary of State for War (1868–74), Edward Cardwell undertook the comprehensive reform of the administration and organization of the late Victorian army. He established a statutory division of duties within the War Office, allocating military, supply, and financial matters to the Commander-in-Chief, the Surveyor-General of the Ordnance, and the Financial Secretary respectively. He also affirmed his authority over the Duke of Cambridge (Commander-in-Chief, 1856–95), by removing the latter from the Horse Guards to the War Office in Pall Mall. By these measures Cardwell largely consolidated and developed the departmental reconstruction begun by Sidney Herbert after the Crimean War. In seeking to make the army more economical and more efficient, he began by sustaining his predecessor’s policy of colonial withdrawal.
Twentieth-Century South Africa
Authors: Beinart William 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
An innovative examination of the forces - both destructive and dynamic - which have shaped twentieth-century South Africa. This book provides a stimulating introduction to the history of South Africa in the twentieth century. It draws on the rich and lively tradition of radical history writing on that country and, to a greater extent than previous accounts, weaves economic and cultural history into the political narrative. Apartheid and industrialization, especially mining, are central theme, as is the rise of nationalism in the Afrikaner and African communities. But the author also emphasizes the neglected significance of rural experiences and local identities in shaping political consciousness. The roles played by such key figure as Smuts, Verwoerd, de Klerk, Plaatje, and Mandela are explored, while recent historiographical trends are reflected in analyses of rural protest, white cultural politics, the vitality of black urban life, and environmental decay. The book assesses the analysis of black reactions to apartheid, the rise of the ANC. The concluding chapter brings this seminal history up-to-date, tackling the issues and events from 1994-1999 - in particular the success of Mandela and the ANC in seeing through the end of apartheid rule. It also looks at the chances of a stable future for the new-found democracy in South Africa.
Alcohol Abuse and Dependence in New Zealand
Authors: wells J Elisabeth , Bushnell john a. , Joyce peter r. , Hornblow, andrew r. , Oakley-browne mark a. 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
New Zealand lies east of Australia and from 33 to 53 degrees south in the Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main islands and a number of smaller ones, with a combined land area of 268,000 square kilo meters, about the size of the British Isles or Japan. Much of the country, particularly the South Island, is mountainous; however, the temperate climate has enabled great agricultural productivity on the 54 percent of the land that is arable. New Zealand’s traditional export products have been frozen lamb carcasses, butter, and cheese, but there has been considerable diversification in the last 20 years.
The Circulatory System
Authors: Milnor William R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To begin with a general view of the subject that will be examined more closely later, this chapter presents the salient features of cardiovascular physiology in broad outline. In the course of this preliminary survey, three topics are considered in some detail because they are relevant to virtually all subsequent chapters: the manifold functions of the endothelial cells that line all blood vessels, the role of cell membrane receptors as regulatory agents, and the rationale for using intricate models of the circulation as tools in research.
Autonomic and Peripheral Control Mechanisms
Authors: Milnor William R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The role of the central nervous system in regulating the heart and circulation was described in Chapter 7, along with an account of the peripheral sensors that provide the brain with relevant information. Here we move on to the neural and other mechanisms that send controlling signals to the cardiovascular tis sues. These commands reach the cells of the heart and blood vessels in the form of specific substances, which may be delivered as neurotransmitters, hormones, or paracrine agents. In recent years, it has become apparent that some substances serve in all three capacities.
Regional Circulations
Authors: Milnor William R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Each organ has a characteristic vascular pattern of its own.1 The splanchnic system has two successive capillary beds connected by a portal vein, for ex ample, and the coronary vasculature contains not only prominent superficial vessels but also small intramural branches that are unique in being compressed rhythmically by external pressure. The disposition of the pulmonary microcirculation around the alveoli of the lung is discussed in Chapter 11, and the special features of other major systems are considered in this chapter.
The Divided Heart
Authors: May Henry F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is a collection of essays, mainly written in the 1980s, by one of America’s leading historians. Bringing together in one volume May’s major interests, there are essays on the Constitution and the Enlightenment, Jefferson and the Enlightenment, the `Jefferson Moment’ in the Enlightenment, and Franklin in the Enlightenment, and on Jonathan Edwards, Harriet Beecher Stowe and Calvinism in America, Rheinhold Niebuhr, and `reflections on the uneasy relation’ between religion and American intellectual history.
When Intervention Works: Judge Morris E. Lasker and New York City Jails
Authors: Storey Ted S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1970 inmates in New York City’s most decrepit jail, known as the Tombs, filed a class action suit against New York City alleging that they were being held in unconstitutional conditions of confinement. Nineteen years later, all but one of New York City’s pretrial detention facilities remained under the supervision of the federal court and subject to consent decrees. The purpose of this chapter is to chronicle and evaluate the impact of the federal court’s intervention on the city’s correctional system.1
Judicial Appointment and Judicial Intervention: The Issuance of Structural Reform Decrees in Correctional Litigation
Authors: Bradley Robert C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
According to a number of contemporary scholars, a new style of adjudication has developed to address certain novel and complex legal issues.1 Traditional litigation has been supplanted in some situations by a pattern of adjudication in which the judge employs certain powers that are more commonly associated with either legislators or bureaucrats. This pattern of adjudication in which judges resolve disputes more from an administrative than from a legal perspective has been given many labels-public law, structural reform, institutional reform, extended impact, and complex enforcement. I shall use the term structural reform to describe a mode
Desire and Domestic Fiction
Authors: Armstrong Nancy 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this strikingly original treatment of the rise of the novel, Nancy Armstrong argues that the novels and non- fiction written by and for women in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century England paved the way for the rise of the modern English middle class. Most critical studies of the novel mistakenly locate political power exclusively in the official institutions of state, ignoring the political domain over which women hold authority, which includes courtship practices, family relations, and the use of leisure time. To remedy this, Armstrong provides a dual analysis, tracing both the rise of the novel and the evolution of female authority as part of one phenomenon.
The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations
Authors: Franck Thomas M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
QB: LEAVE THIS COPY AS IT IS In this work, Thomas Franck, an authority on international law, considers why it is that rules within the international system are for the most part obeyed, even though they are not usually enforced. Much of his discussion is theoretical, based on discussions of laws that do not involve coercion, but Franck also makes use of many practical examples to show how international law works successfully even without formal codes or laws.
Leydig Cells: Structure and Function
Authors: Ewing* Larry L , Keeney Diane S 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is a selective review of two major issues regarding the mammalian Leydig cell. First, the newly emerging body of data shows that Leydig cell function involves the production of polypeptides and is not restricted to estosterone production. Second, there is a striking correlation between Leydig cell structure and steroidogenic function. The latter includes a discussion of the genes encoding the enzymes involved in testosterone production, the spatial organization of these steroid biosynthesizing enzymes, the movement of Leydig cell sterol/ steroid precursors and products into, about, and out of the Leydig cell, and the trophic effect of luteinizing hormone (LH) on gene expression, enzyme biosynthesis, cytoplasmic organelle biogenesis/turnover, and Leydig cell volume, number, and proliferation. We have confined ourselves largely to rodent species and, whenever possible, to discussing the earliest and latest papers on a topic. Consequently, whenever possible, we have referred the reader to important contemporary and comprehensive reviews for details.
Spermatogonial Stem Cells
Authors: Meistrich Marvin L , Beek Maria E A B van 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Spermatogonial stem cells are responsible for the maintenance of spermatogenesis in the adult mammal. Knowledge of their regulation is important to understand the initiation of normal spermatogenesis, its recovery after toxic insults, and the modulation of fertility. Information regarding the identification of spermatogonial stem cells and their patterns of self-renewal is extensive and based largely on morphological studies. In contrast, very little of the biochemical and molecular characteristics of these stem cells is known. Unique gene transcripts and proteins, as have been identified in spermatocytes and spermatids (see Chapter 16), have not been described in spermatogonia. Although spermatogonial proliferation and differentiation must be regulated by paracrine and possibly endocrine factors, little is known about how such molecules are involved.