bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Clinical applications of mapping neurocognitive processes in the human brain with functional MRI
Authors: Thulborn Keith R , Gisbert Antonio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The diagnosis and treatment of sensory, motor and cognitive dysfunction is of central importance to medicine yet there are substantial limitations in our strategies for their diagnoses and monitoring. In current medical practice, diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) are broadly categorized into those that are neurological (when a biological basis for the illness is known) and those that are psychiatric (when a specific biological basis has not been determined). This rather arbitrary division is rooted in an emphasis on structural pathology. Functional testing has until recently been very limited. The neurological and psychiatric examinations of traditional medicine interrogate the CNS by testing if specific stimuli elicit expected responses. The assumption made from normal responses is that the CNS is normal.
Positive Definite Binary Quadratic Forms
Authors: Villegas Fernando Rodriguez 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A significant portion of Gauss’s Disquitiones Arithmeticae is about binary quadratic forms. Since then there have been numerous treatments, especially for the positive definite case. The most relevant reference for us will be Cox’s book [26]. Also many of the routines described here have built-in versions in PARI. Nevertheless, because binary forms are so central to number theory, we include this short (and rather sketchy) chapter with the most basic facts and algorithms for the positive definite case.
Polynomials
Authors: Villegas Fernando Rodriguez 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The measure was introduced by Mahler [61] to give a simple proof of an inequality due to Gelfond. For P Z x we have M(P) 1 with equality if and only if P is monic and all of its non-zero roots are in the unit circle. By a theorem of Kronecker therefore M(P) 1 if and only if P is a product of a power of x and a cyclotomic polynomial.
Solution of Discrete Poisson Problems
Authors: Elman Howard C , Silvester David J , Wathen Andrew J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The coefficient matrix of the linear system arising from finite element discretization of the Poisson equation is symmetric positive-definite. For the discretizations discussed in Chapter 1, it is also sparse. That is, only a very small proportion of its entries is nonzero. In this chapter, we discuss effective iterative methods for solving such systems, concentrating on two general approaches, Krylov subspace methods and multigrid methods.
Dependent responses
Authors: Lindsey J K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As computers increase in power, more and more data are collected. When large quantities of data are available on the same individuals, they will often be inter­dependent in certain specific ways. Thus, more complex models must be used than those provided in the previous chapters. In an introductory text, I can only present a few of the basic concepts. Generally, one assumes that observations on the same individual may be dependent but that those on different individuals are independent.
Thus, dependent observations will arise primarily when several responses are recorded from the same individual. They may involve the same variable or sev­eral different response variables. Such responses may be obtained more or less simultaneously or they may evolve over time. When more than one individual is involved, if the same response variable is being measured several times on each, such observations are called repeated measurements.
A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of ‘autistic psychopaths’ diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children’s Hospital,
Authors: Hippler Kathrin , Klicpera Christian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To date, it is questionable whether the diagnostic criteria for Asperger syndrome (AS) as stated by ICD-10 or DSM-IV still reflect Asperger’s original account of ‘autistic psychopathy’ (AP) from the 1940s. The present study examined 74 clinical case records of children with AP diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the Viennese Children’s Clinic and Asperger’s private practice between 1950 and 1986. The characteristic features of the children are outlined, including reasons for referral, parental background, behavioural problems, cognitive functioning, communication and interests. Results show that the patients of Asperger described in our study represent a subgroup of children with very high intellectual functioning, specific circumscribed interests and talents but impaired social, communication and motor skills. Sixty-eight percent of the sample met ICD-10 criteria for AS, while 25% fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for autism. Implications for the diagnosis of AS are discussed.
The role of the fusiform face area in social cognition: implications for the pathobiology of autism
Authors: Schultz Robert T , Grelotti David J , Klin Ami , Kleinman Jamie , Van der Gaag Christiaan , Marois Rene , Skudlarski Pawel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A region in the lateral aspect of the fusiform gyrus (FG) is more engaged by human faces than any other category of image. It has come to be known as the ‘fusiform face area’ (FFA). The origin and extent of this specialization is currently a topic of great interest and debate. This is of special relevance to autism, because recent studies have shown that the FFA is hypoactive to faces in this disorder. In two linked functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of healthy young adults, we show here that the FFA is engaged by a social attribution task (SAT) involving perception of human-like interactions among three simple geometric shapes. The amygdala, temporal pole, medial prefrontal cortex, inferolateral frontal cortex and superior temporal sulci were also significantly engaged. Activation of the FFA to a task without faces challenges the received view that the FFA is restricted in its activities to the perception of faces. We speculate that abstract semantic information associated with faces is encoded in the FG region and retrieved for social computations. From this perspective, the literature on hypoactivation of the FFA in autism may be interpreted as a reflection of a core social cognitive mechanism underlying the disorder.
Farewell to certainty
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘old’ quantum theory discussed in the last chapter was characterized by the entirely arbitrary imposition of quantum conditions on problems otherwise described in terms of the concepts and theories of classical physics. There was an element of magic about it. To get the exact shape of the curve of spectral density with frequency or wavelength of black-body radiation, one assumed ε= hv without questioning the reasons too closely.To get the Balmer formula from an ‘impossible’ classical picture of a negatively charged electron in a circular orbit around the positively charged hydrogen atomic nucleus, one assumed the orbital angular momentum to be constrained to values nh/2 π, where n is an integer. This was not very satisfactory. A more meaningful theory was needed in which the quantum conditions and their implications in terms of quantum numbers and discontinuous quantum jumps were the result of the theory and not input assumptions.
Bell’s theorem and local reality
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If we reject the ‘spooky’ action at a distance that seems to be required in the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory, and which is highlighted by the EPR thought experiment, we must accept the EPR argument that the theory is somehow incomplete. In essence, this involves the rejection of the first postulate of quantum theory: the state of a quantum mechanical system is not completely described by the wave function or state vector.Einstein had hinted at a statistical interpretation. In his opinion, the squares of the wave functions or state vectors of quantum theory represented statistical probabilities obtained by averaging over a large number of real particles. The Copenhagen interpretation of the EPR experiment insists that the reality of the physical states that can be measured is defined by the nature of the interaction between two quantum particles and the nature of the experimental arrangement. A completely deterministic, locally real version of quantum theory demands that the physical states of the particles be established at the moment of their interaction and that the particles separate as individually real entities in those physical states. The physical states of the particles are prescribed by the physics of their interaction and independent of how we choose to set up the measuring instrument, and so no reference to the nature of the latter is necessary, except to define how the independently real particles interact with it. The instrument thus probes an observer-independent reality.
Quantum non-locality
Authors: Baggott Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is probably reasonable to suppose that the derivation, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, of an equation that is demonstrably violated by a quantum theory then over 40 years old should have settled the matter one way or the other, once and for all. Correlated quantum particles are everywhere in physics and chemistry, the simplest and most obvious example being the helium atom, an understanding of the spectroscopy of which had led to the introduction of the Pauli principle in the first place. But it became apparent that the special circumstances under which Bell’s inequality could be subjected to experimental test had never been realized in the laboratory. Suddenly, the race was on to perfect an apparatus that could be used to perform the necessary measurements on pairs of correlated quantum particles.
Understanding the ‘scientific revolution’
Authors: Hodgkin Luke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Philosophy is written in that vast book which stands forever open before our eyes, I mean the universe; but it cannot be read until we have learnt the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written. It is written in mathematical language, and the letters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word. (Galileo, Il Saggiatore (The Assayer), tr. in Drake 1960, pp. 183–4)
The calculus
Authors: Hodgkin Luke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the help of this new Analysis Mr Newton found out most of the propositions in the Principia Philosophiae. (Newton 1967–1981 8, 598–9) The ‘new Analysis’ was what we now call the calculus; a point in learning mathematics where many students give up, and which many others never reach. Intended to make everything easy, it is still found a stumbling-block.
Geometries and space
Authors: Hodgkin Luke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most people are unaware that around a century and a half ago a revolution took place in the field of geometry that was as scientifically profound as the Copernican revolution in astronomy and, in its impact, as philosophically important as the Darwinian theory of evolution. (Greenberg 1974, p. ix) It is a general conviction that geometry, with all its truths, is valid with unconditioned generality for all men, all times, all peoples, and not merely for all historically factual ones but all conceivable ones.
Land and plantation development
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most tree-planting enterprises, especially industrial plantations, require large areas of land. Therefore, land availability and quality is of first importance in plantation forestry. This chapter considers: Aspects of this topic were introduced in Part I but in considering land and land-use further, it is emphasized that developing the potential of a nation’s land, removing the constraints of inaccessibility, aridity, and other physical or ecological factors, is one of the cornerstones of development.
Clonal plantations
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vegetative propagation is being increasingly used to multiply selected planting material in plantation forestry and agroforestry in the tropics. It is a way of raising planting stock not involving seed and includes cuttings, layering, budding, grafting and, recently, micro propagation. Propagating plants vegetative results in clones, with each clone retaining the genetic characteristics of the tree at the point from which the buds or cuttings were obtained. It must be stressed that vegetative propagation is only a means of multiplying planting material, it is not a breeding method and does not result in genetically improved plants.
Dynamics of stand growth
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the tropics, tree growth and stand development are usually more rapid than under temperate conditions. Therefore, it is important that the influences on stand development available to the forester to modify the quality and quantity of timber produced are understood. Similarly, understanding individual tree-growth patterns can help management of farm and village trees to maximize yield of branch wood or fodder or minimize their competitive effect on other crops and so on. After the establishment period, and provided growth is not impaired by deficiency, disease or other damage, the amount of growing space a tree has dominates its growth and development and the yield of a stand as a whole.
Tree-planting in rural development and agroforestry
Authors: Evans Julian , Turnbull John W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Trees, tree-planting, and woodlands are now recognized as an integral part of rural development. Fruit trees planted in home gardens and shelterbelt development are examples of the link between tree-planting and food security (e.g. Falconer and Arnold 1988; Hoskins 1990). Agroforestry can assist soil conservation (Young 1997) and help combat desertification (Baumer 1990). There has been greater recognition of the need for more sustainable agricultural practices and in many countries local people have had their access reduced to shrinking natural forest resources. Tree-planting has been the means many farmers have used to improve the sustainability of their cropping practices and to enable them to place greater reliance on on-farm resources to provide both timber and non-timber tree products.
Recurrent networks with binary neurons
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now turn to recurrent networks of binary (Ising) neurons σi ∈ {1, 1} , with fixed synaptic interactions { Jij } and fixed thresholds { 𝓋i} . We still have explicit (stochastic) rules (1.29) that determine the evolution in time of our system, namely
Notes and suggestions for further reading
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
with mathematical tools, took rather a long time to emerge. Neurons were only discovered in 1880 by Ramon y Cajal, using a novel staining method developed byGolgi. Until then there had been two scientific camps: neuronists believed that the brain consisted of interconnected information processing cells, whereas reticularists saw the brain as a continuous uninterrupted network of fibres only. In 1936, Turing [2] contributed significantly to the further demystification of the concept of ‘intelligence’ and proved statements about computability by machines. This more or less marked the start of the field of ‘artifical intelligence’. McCulloch and Pitts [3] were the first to introduce a very simple discrete mathematical neuron model, in 1943, and they subsequently proved its universality. In 1949 the psychologist Hebb [4] introduced the idea that biological neural networks store information in the strengths of their interactions (the synapses).
Competitive unsupervised learning processes
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we introduce and study two so-called ‘unsupervised’ learning processes, where the problem is not to learn to associate some correct response to each possible incoming signal (specified by a teacher or supervisor signal, as in, for example, feed-forward networks of the perceptron or multilayer perceptron type), but rather to build some alternative (more efficient, more compact, or more structured) representation of the data vectors fed into the system. The first two procedures to do this, vector quantization (VQ) and soft vector quantization (SVQ), aim to achieve data reduction for initially unknown data distributions. They find typical applications in communication, where compact representations are obviously cheaper to transmit than non-compact ones, allowing more signals to be communicated via the same channel. Methods in a third class—self-organizing maps (SOM), also known as feature maps or Kohonen maps—aim to create a topologically correct but low-dimensional internal representation of a given data distribution. This has applications in, for example, biology (the brain is known to create such maps for sensory signals), data-base mining, medicaldiagnostics, etc.
Bayesian techniques in supervised learning
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we discuss the Bayesian approach to supervised learning from examples. Its introduction in the 1990s has been a very welcome development, in that it contributed significantly to converting artificial neural computation, especially learning in multilayer networks, from a collection of interesting but ad hoc algorithms (‘invent a rule, play with parameters, draw performance graphs, and hope for the best’) to a sound, well grounded, and systematic scientific procedure. It also contributed to the area becoming more mathematical in nature.
Identification of entropy as an information measure
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we will use coding theory to prove that the entropy does indeed represent the information content of a set of messages generated according to a set of prescribed probabilities. We will first do this by showing that the average number of bits used per message is equal to the entropy H , if we use the optimal code to represent the possible values of the messages (i.e. the one with the smallest average length of codewords). There-after, we shall also present the main line of reasoning of Shannon’s elegant original proof, which is based on a few basic assumption about properties of a sensible measure of information, and does not refer to optimal codes.
Applications to neural networks
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The main contribution of information theory to the field of information processing in natural or artificial neural networks is that it provides exact performance measures. This allows us to compare the performance of different models or algorithms in a rigorous way. It also lets us develop learning rules based on the maximization of these information-theoretic performance measures, which are no longer ad hoc and also apply in unsupervised scenarios. The examples we will discuss here are the Boltzmann machine learning rule for recurrent layered neural networks and various types of learning rules (e.g. maximum information preservation) for layered networks. In addition we will touch on the topic of learning by natural gradient descent, based on thinking in terms of distances between probability distributions (i.e. information geometry).
Network operation: macroscopic dynamics
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In non-equilibrium statistical mechanics one aims to derive from the laws of the underlying microscopic system x, and solve, dynamical equations for a suitable small set of macroscopic quantities Ω (x) = (Ω1(x), ... , Ωn(x)). In principle this can be done in two ways. The first route (clockwise in the diagram), which is normally too complicated, would consist of solving the microscopic stochastic equations directly. From the solution one then calculates the values of the macroscopic quantities. The second route (anticlockwise) consists of first calculating from the microscopic stochastic laws a dynamical equation for the macroscopic probability distribution Pt (Q), which then has to be solved. If applicable, this is the easiest and preferred approach.
Dynamics of online gradient descent learning
Authors: Coolen A C C , Kühn R , Sollich P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we consider learning in systems with continuous real-valued outputs, rather than those with binary outputs as in the previous chapter. A natural way of constructing learning algorithms for such systems is by gradient descent on some appropriate error measure. This error measure should tell us by how much student and teacher output differ. A popular choice is the squared deviation between actual and desired outputs; carrying out gradient descent on this measure for multilayer networks yields the well-known error backpropagation algorithm. The results of our analysis are therefore of relevance to practical neural network learning.
Imaging spatio-temporal patterns of long-term potentiation in mouse hippocampus
Authors: Hosokawa Toshiyuki , Ohta Masaki , Saito Takeshi , Fine Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Spatio-temporal patterns of neuronal activity before and after the induction of long-term potentiation in mouse hippocampal slices were studied using a real-time high-resolution optical recording system. After staining the slices with voltage-sensitive dye, transmitted light images and extracellular field potentials were recorded in response to stimuli applied to CAI stratum radiatum. Optical and electrical signals in response to single test pulses were enhanced for at least 30 minutes after brief high-frequency stimulation at the same site. In two-pathway experiments, potentiation.
Cadherins and synaptic plasticity: activity-dependent cyclin-dependent kinase 5 regulation of synaptic-catenin-cadherin interactions
Authors: Schuman Erin M , Murase Sachiko 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5)/p35 kinase activity is known to decrease the affinity of P-catenin for cadherin in developing cortical neurons. Our recent work demonstrated that depolarization causes an increased affinity between P-catenin and cadherin. Here, we examine whether Cdk5/p35 regulates P-catenin-cadherin affinity in response to neural activity. In hippocampal neurons depolarization caused a significant decrease in Cdk5 kinase activity, without changing the protein levels of either Cdk5 or p35, suggesting that the proteasome pathway is not involved. Decreasing Cdk5 kinase activity with the inhibitor roscovitine increased the amount of P-catenin that was co-immunoprecipitated with cadherin. Inhibiting Cdk5 activity also resulted in a redistribution ofEGFP-P-catenin from the dendritic shaft to the spines, where cadherins are highly concentrated.
Inducible molecular switches for the study of long-term potentiation
Authors: Hedou Gael , Mansuy Isabelle M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This article reviews technical and conceptual advances in unravelling the molecular bases of long-term potentiation (LTP), learning and memory using genetic approaches. We focus on studies aimed at testing a model suggesting that protein kinases and protein phosphatases balance each other to control synaptic strength and plasticity. We describe how gene ’knock-out’ technology was initially exploited to disrupt the Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase Ilc.t (CaMKifo) gene and how refined knock-in techniques later allowed an analysis of the role of distinct phosphorylation sites in CaMKII. Further to gene recombination, regulated gene expression using the tetracycline-controlled transactivator and reverse tetracycline-controlled transactivator systems, a powerful new means for modulating the activity of specific molecules, has been applied to CaMKlfo and the opposing protein phosphatase calcineurin.