bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Codification
Authors: Bentley Michelle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 3 studies the earlier history and codification of the biological weapons taboo culminating in the 1925 Geneva Protocol. The chapter charts the evolution of the taboo’s codification from the Laws of Manu c. 200 bce, through various war treaties, the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conferences, to the Geneva Protocol itself. The analysis depicts the growing formalization of the taboo not only as a socially established revulsion but also as a customary norm manifest within international legal provision. The chapter additionally documents both the conceptualization of biowarfare alongside chemical warfare within the more general term of poison as well as the Geneva Protocol’s instrumentality in later acknowledging biowarfare as a taboo issue within its own right and as distinct from the threat of chemical violence. The chapter explains this key shift in understanding.
Prohibition
Authors: Bentley Michelle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 7 analyses the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC). The chapter contests existing claims that American acceptance of the BWC was purely self-interested in motivation. A close analysis of the archival evidence demonstrates that the taboo was a major factor in the US’s negotiation and ratification of the agreement. Moreover, the data reveal that a key rationale of the BWC was to cement the taboo as an intrinsic norm of international policymaking. The chapter considers this argument in the context of criticisms that the BWC is neither effective nor some great expression of normative feeling. The chapter engages with these claims to maintain that the agreement still constitutes the current mainstay of the taboo’s genealogy.
Introduction
Authors: Linenberg Yorai 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Introduction provides background on the general situation of POWs in German captivity during the Second World War, including the numbers of POWs from each country, their general treatment, the captivity cycle they had gone through, and an overview of the German POW organization. In addition to a review of the historiography that deals with POWs, and specifically with Jewish POWs, during the Second World War, and of the primary sources—and their limitations—which have been used in this study, the Introduction also analyses the existing explanations for the treatment of the Jewish POWs from western armies and highlights some of their shortcomings. Finally, the structure of this work—combining bottom-up with top-down views of the experience of American and British Jewish POWs—as well as the research questions which this study deals with, are explained.
Wal-Mart
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Wal-Mart (now Walmart), the iconic retailing corporation, was established by Sam Walton and initially was his adaptive response to discount retailing. His innovative response in the 1960s was Wal-Mart discount retailing and an expansion system that spread Wal-Mart stores throughout the southwest and then other parts of America. The rapid expansion of Wal-Mart corporation in the 1970s‒80s was helped, too, by CEO Walton’s use of the other rational methods. He was a ‘numbers man’ and his strategic calculation generated a cost-reduction grand strategy that included a labour-relations strategy. His use of the deliberative methods led to Wal-Mart pioneering such technology as a satellite-based communication system. In addition to the standard six rational methods, CEO Walton used learning—such as learning from experimentation—as a seventh rational method of corporation development. And the chapter’s final section shows learning being used by Marcel Dassault to develop the Dassault Aviation aircraft-manufacturing corporation in France.
The Measurement Problem (Featuring the Usual Suspects)
Authors: French Steven 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this short introductory chapter, the basics of the measurement problem are presented. On the one hand we have the continuous dynamics as embodied in Schrödinger’s Equation which describes the evolution of the wave-function. On the other, we have the discontinuous ‘collapse’ of that wave-function to give a definite outcome out of all the possible options. The ‘usual story’ presents this problem in the context of a standard history of the development of quantum theory that is entwined with philosophical reflections on its foundations. Both sets of histories are contested in what follows and the chapter concludes by setting out the central claims of the rest of the book.
Making Sense of Early Modern Modal Theory
Authors: Dodds Michael R. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The transition from modes to keys, so often described as a path, might more accurately be characterized as a network of paths. Religion, region, and close associations between modal systems and repertories, to say nothing of the interplay of tradition and innovation, created widely diverse views within modal theory, especially in the seventeenth century. Theorists differed on the number and disposition of the modes, on their graphic representation, on the relative importance of specific modal parameters, and on their ontology. We can make sense of this seemingly chaotic state of affairs by recognizing that early modern modal theory was shaped by the ongoing interplay of three historical layers or theoretical polarities. The first of these, originating in the Middle Ages, concerns a conceptual continuum between melodic and scalar conceptions of mode, reflected in contrasting connotations of the terms tonus and modus. The second layer, arising in the Renaissance, involves a distinction between modal parameters already established for monophony and new parameters relevant to polyphony. The third layer concerns a shift from vocal to keyboard ways of conceptualizing tonal space accelerated by the introduction of basso continuo c. 1600. The relationship between these three dimensions of modal theory is fluid and dynamic; in Baroque music theory they are simultaneously at play in forms both old and new.
Organizing Schemes for the Two Modes, 1687–1722
Authors: Dodds Michael R. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
+It is the two modes’ organization that makes them a system. This chapter considers the organization of major–minor key listings in twenty-four treatises between Speer’s 1687 Grundrichtiger Unterricht, the first continental treatise listing the major and minor keys apart from another modal scheme, and Rameau’s 1722 Traité de l’harmonie, a book inaugurating a new era in harmonic theory. In these two-mode treatises, we encounter three organizing schemes: (1) stepwise by final, whether diatonic or chromatic (2) first by type of key, and then stepwise by final; and (3) by increasing signature and/or the circle of fifths. In all three organizing schemes, major and minor keys are sometimes integrated and sometimes listed separately. If the north German theorists Werckmeister and Heinichen led the way in circular organization between and within keys, their French counterparts Ozanam and Saint-Lambert clarified the notion of the two modes as abstract, freely transposable scales, with Loulié uniting signature, heptachordal syllables, and key in the conventions still used today. Heinichen’s circle of fifths and Campion’s rule of the octave produced new conceptions of tonal space, premised on transpositional equivalent of keys and consolidation of voice-leading norms, as well as identification of chord functions. Tonal circularity, which since antiquity had reflected music’s kinship with the spatial-temporal disciplines of the quadrivium, now became instrumental in the creation of a new musical grammar, and indeed new expressions of musical logic and rhetoric. Thus the shift from modes to keys corresponds to a complete transformation of the language of Western music.
Changing Concepts of Tonal Space
Authors: Dodds Michael R. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From ladder to circle: this is the essence of the shift that took place in the Baroque era as keyboard eclipsed voice as the main referent for organizing tonal space. In music theory treatises from the Middle Ages through the seventeenth century, representations of the gamut on a single oversized staff are ubiquitous: they reflect a ladder-like, low-to-high mapping of the human vocal range, navigable via the system of overlapping hexachords. In telling contrast, many treatises from the Baroque era graphically organize tonal content in circular form. In some cases, it is the keyboard itself that is circular, or the major and minor keys. The rise of circularity parallels the gradual dissolution of the hexachordal system, including its dual littera-vox nomenclature, and its replacement with heptachordal solmization (requiring no mutation) or letter names. While circles in medieval and renaissance music theory are preeminently symbolic, in the Baroque they begin to reflect practical and even empirical ways of representing musical space. Among the most sophisticated musical circles are volvelles, revolving paper wheels permitting musical patterns such as intervals, triads, modes, and scales to be transposed to any chromatic degree by turning the wheel. Especially apt for relating circular or cyclical constructs of time and space, volvelles are common in Renaissance books in disciplines such as astronomy, navigation, and calendrical reform.
Musical Circles and Labyrinths
Authors: Dodds Michael R. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps no metaphor was more strongly associated with the rise of tonal circularity than the labyrinth. Numerous Baroque theorists and composers invoked the Cretan labyrinth as a metaphor in relation to the proliferation of keys and to their organization. The analogy of the labyrinth to musical circles is apt in many ways. While labyrinths come in many shapes, most are circular. Modulation through remote and unfamiliar keys brings bewilderment like that of a person in a maze, while sequential circle-of-fifths progressions provide an Ariadne’s thread back to the starting point. Moreover, like the history of music theory, the history of horticultural labyrinths reflects the shifting epistemologies of the early modern era. If the monocursal (one-route) labyrinth of the Middle Ages required faith and hope to exit, then the multicursal (multi-route) labyrinth of the Renaissance and Baroque pleasure garden called for reason and memory. Both of these episteme, faith and reason, are invoked in the titles and explanations of musical labyrinths. Inevitably tied to the ascendancy of circulating temperaments, musical circles and labyrinths epitomized the potential of the new two-mode system.
Lotic Primary Producers
Authors: Mallin Michael A. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Phytoplankton communities are usually sparse in smaller headwaters streams, limited by light and current. However, phytoplankton can be abundant and diverse in larger rivers and estuaries, with seeding from numerous sources along the river continuum, such as farm ponds, oxbow lakes, and drainage ditches. Phytoplankton-based food webs occur in many large rivers and estuaries. In large, nutrient-rich rivers nuisance and toxic blooms can form, especially in heavily regulated rivers; this can have severe impacts on river animals and human drinking-water users. The major microscopic primary producers in headwaters or middle-order streams are often periphytic microalgae, living on rocky substrata or macrophyte stems and leaves. This is an important food source to grazers, which supports fish and other vertebrates, mollusks, and crustaceans. Periphyton can also form nuisance blooms fueled by a constant nutrient source, overgrow macrophytes on occasion, and disrupt stream ecology and human usage.
Lotic Primary Producers
Authors: Mallin Michael A. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Stream and river aquatic macrophytes occur in several functional forms, including emergent, loosely attached, submersed, and free-floating. Macrophyte growth in moderation enhances stream animal life by providing a direct food source, or substrata for periphyton, or cover and habitat for invertebrates, fish, and other vertebrates. Macrophyte beds can also reduce turbidity, sequester excess nutrients from the water column, and reduce erosion. Unfortunately, some macrophytes are highly invasive and once established out of their native range can cause major disruptions to ecosystems. Macroalgae are highly visible algae (nonvascular plants) that can have many of the same positive attributes that aquatic macrophytes do, again provided they occur in moderation. However, in eutrophic situations macrophytes can cover stream beds in long trailing masses, altering stream physical habitat, and upon dying create a BOD load that leads to severe hypoxia.
Feeding the River
Authors: Mallin Michael A. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The stream invertebrate community is nourished by both dissolved and particulate carbon, the latter of various size ranges, both living organisms and decaying matter. The invertebrate communities conform to the geomorphic and hydrologic conditions of the river as it transforms from small headwaters streams to large river channels far downstream. The River Continuum Concept is a unifying concept that details these relationships and is valid in many types of rivers. Exceptions would be in nonforested headwaters regions and in the abundant blackwater river systems in the US Southeast. The flood-pulse concept describes how, at least in relatively unaltered rivers, there are annual, natural floods that fish evolutionarily take advantage of to access the rich food resources of the floodplain, where younger and smaller fish can find refuge from larger, channel-based predatory fish. Unfortunately, the flood pulse is diminished or absent in dammed or otherwise fragmented river systems, which are now found worldwide.
Stream Pollution from Human Sewage and Animal Wastes
Authors: Mallin Michael A. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Stream pollution from human sewage is one of the oldest types of pollution, yet is pervasive today in both highly industrialized and less-developed nations. Pollutants include microbial pathogens, nutrients, suspended solids, BOD, pharmaceuticals, and other compounds. In this chapter the design of wastewater treatment plants is explained, what is treated and what isn’t, and results of failures described. Some human waste is treated by septic systems, which may operate well in proper circumstances but are sources of groundwater and surface water pollution where soils are porous and the water table high. Industrial-scale livestock production is a large source of stream pollution (microbial, nutrient, BOD) in selected areas, because the concentrated animal waste receives minimal treatment (often in waste lagoons) and is discharged into the air and/or onto surrounding soils. The waste pollutes streams from surface runoff, from groundwater movement through porous soils, and by atmospheric deposition of ammonia and fecal microbes.
Species Loss and Impacts of Invasive Species
Authors: Mallin Michael A. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-native species, also called invasive species, alien species, exotic species, and less complimentary terms, are both plant and animal. Those invading from a different continent are often brought in and released in ballast water exchanges; some are deliberately brought in as aquarium species. Within a given continent invasives are spread by canal construction, in boat bilges, or on boat trailers or propellers, released as unwanted pets, carried by animals, or deliberately released somewhere as a fish or game animal. Successful invasives can alter whole riverine and lentic ecosystems, cause havoc to water intakes, cause native species losses, ruin fisheries, and cost industries and governments millions if not billions of dollars in control schemes. Some useful means of reducing successful invasions include exchanging ballast water offshore, using various ballast water chemical and physical treatments, having strong, enforceable plant and animal importation regulations, signage and required inspections at boat ramps, and public education regarding invasives, the problems they cause, and what to do to prevent such problems.
The Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A. , Friis Nicolai 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We discuss the procedure of solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation via a separation ansatz that leads to the time-independent Schrödinger equation. The resulting equation is in the form of an eigenvalue problem for the Hamiltonian, whose solutions are the stationary states. We derive and discuss the bound states and corresponding energy levels for several one-dimensional potentials of interest, including the finite and infinite potential well, the Dirac-delta potential, and the square double-well modelling the spatial configuration of the ammonia molecule. We then turn to the scattered solutions and discuss reflection from and transmission through a finite potential barrier, thus encountering the tunnel effect, which we in turn formulate more generally using the Gamow factor. This leads us to the interesting phenomenon of tunnelling resonances
Hidden-Variable Theories
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A. , Friis Nicolai 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In chapter 12 we give an overview of the historical development of hidden-variable theories aiming to attribute ‘hidden’ definite outcomes to any potential measurement on a quantum system. We start with a discussion of von Neumann’s assumption on hidden-variable models, which was later realized not to hold by Hermann, Kochen, Specker, and Bell, going into detail on Bell’s refutation of von Neumann’s arguments. We then turn to the notion of contextuality, which severely restricts hidden-variable models: we discuss Gleason’s theorem before stating and proving the famous Kochen-Specker theorem, as well as the simpler versions of Peres’ nonet and Mermin’s pentagram. These results show that quantum mechanics is not compatible with the assignment of definite measurement outcomes to all possible measurements, and such assignments can hence only be made once a restricted set of observables, a context, is selected
Quantification and Conversion of Entanglement
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A. , Friis Nicolai 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the quantification of entanglement is discussed. Beginning with the pure-state entanglement measure called the entropy of entanglement, we discuss the paradigm of local operations and classical communication (LOCC) and its relation to majorization via Nielsen’s majorization theorem. We then turn to the asymptotic setting and discuss the formation and distillation of entanglement and the related entanglement measures: entanglement cost and distillable entanglement, and we examine the notions of distillability and bound entanglement. This brings us to a more general discussion of entanglement measures and monotones, and their desired properties, during which we present the entanglement of formation and concurrence, squashed entanglement, as well as the tangle and its relation to monogamy of entanglement, but also quantities like the relative entropy of entanglement, the Hilbert-Schmidt measure, and the (logarithmic) negativity. Finally we turn to the construction of entanglement witnesses and their geometric interpretation via the Bertlmann-Narnhofer-Thirring theorem
Quantum Channels and Quantum Operations
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A. , Friis Nicolai 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we visit the ‘church of the larger Hilbert space’: we take a closer look at the relationship of pure and mixed quantum states via purification, and discuss a similar connection between completely positive and trace-preserving (CPTP) maps and unitary dynamics on a larger Hilbert space. We show that such CPTP maps, which represent quantum channels, are equivalent to operations admitting a Kraus decomposition, as well as to unitary dynamics on a larger Hilbert space with factoring initial condition, the famous Stinespring dilation of quantum operations. In this context we introduce the Choi-Jamiołkowski isomorphism, which expresses a duality between maps between two Hilbert spaces and states on tensor products of these Hilbert spaces, and we review several important examples of quantum channels such as the dephasing channel, amplitude-damping channel, and depolarizing channel. Finally, we examine operations that are not possible in quantum theory, focusing on the no-cloning theorem.
Treatment delay from onset of occipital neuralgia symptoms to treatment with nerve decompression surgery: a prospective cohort study
Authors: Hazewinkel Merel H J , Remy Katya , Black Grant , Tseng Sierra , Mathew Paul G , Schoenbrunner Anna , Janis Jeffrey E , Austen William G , Jotwani Rohan , Gfrerer Lisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract

Background
The aims of this study were to (1) evaluate the time between onset of occipital neuralgia symptoms and nerve decompression surgery, (2) perform a cost comparison analysis between surgical and nonsurgical treatment of occipital neuralgia, and (3) report postoperative results of nerve decompression for occipital neuralgia.

Methods
Subjects (n = 1112) who underwent screening for nerve decompression surgery were evaluated for occipital neuralgia. Of those, 367 patients (33%) met the inclusion criteria. Timing of occipital neuralgia symptom onset and pain characteristics were prospectively collected. Cost associated with the nonsurgical treatment of occipital neuralgia was calculated for the period between onset of symptoms and surgery.

Results
A total of 226 patients (73%) underwent occipital nerve decompression. The average time between onset of occipital neuralgia and surgery was 19 years (7.1–32). Postoperatively, the median number of pain days per month decreased by 17 (0–26, 57%) (P &lt; .001), the median pain intensity decreased by 4 (2–8, 44%) (P &lt; .001), and median pain duration in hours was reduced by 12 (2–23, 50%) (P &lt; .001). The annual mean cost of nonsurgical occipital neuralgia treatment was $28 728.82 ($16 419.42–$41 198.41) per patient. The mean cost during the 19-year time frame before surgery was $545 847.75($311 968.90–$782 769.82).

Conclusion
This study demonstrates that patients suffer from occipital neuralgia for an average of 19 years before undergoing surgery. Nerve decompression reduces symptom severity significantly and should be considered earlier in the treatment course of occipital neuralgia that is refractory to conservative treatment to prevent patient morbidity and decrease direct and indirect health care costs.
Assessment of interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) levels in children with and without community acquired pneumonia: a hospital based case–control study
Authors: Verma Neha , Awasthi Shally , Pandey Anuj K , Gupta Prashant 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The primary objective was to compare serum interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) levels in cases of community acquired pneumonia (CAP) and healthy age–gender-matched controls. The secondary objective was to compare serum IL-1RA levels in cases which were positive or negative for Streptococcus pneumoniae in the blood by real-time-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Hospitalized children with World Health Organization defined CAP, aged 2–59 months, were included as cases. Healthy controls were recruited from the immunization clinic of the hospital. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test was used to detect serum IL-1RA levels. Identification of S.pneumoniae in blood was done by RT-PCR. From October 2019 to October 2021, 330 cases (123, 37.27% female) and 330 controls (151, 45.75% females) were recruited. Mean serum IL-1RA levels (ng/ml) were 1.36 ± 0.95 in cases and 0.25 ± 0.25 in controls (p &lt; 0.001). Within cases, serum IL-1RA levels were significantly higher in those whose RT-PCR was positive for S.pneumoniae. Thus serum IL-1RA levels may be evaluated as a surrogate marker of S.pneumoniae in future studies.