bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Making Music Our Own
Authors: Sibley Frank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is about interpretation of music in the broadest sense, about how and why it interests us. And since examination of practices should precede theorizing about any topic, I shall consider the role played by certain common descriptions of music. For this, I shall ignore the much discussed descriptions that employ the language of feelings and emotions, e.g. the familiar ‘sad music’, and the problems these supposedly raise. Musicians and critics draw equally upon all manner of other non-musical phenomena both mental and physical. If when writing on music they feel the need of so many kinds of descriptions in order to say what is important to them, to neglect so much of the language of criticism might be to risk impoverished theory. Besides omitting feeling and emotion vocabulary for the moment, I omit much else, e.g. ‘aesthetic’ terms like beautiful and graceful, the technical vocabulary of music, and so on.
Aesthetic Decomposition: Music, Identity, and Time
Authors: Hodge Joanna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two sets of issues addressed in this chapter. First, there are issues emerging out of the parallel, drawn by Wittgenstein, between understanding sentences in language and understanding musical themes. Secondly, there is the relation between aesthetics and the philosophy of art, and a suggestion about how the distinction between them might be understood. These issues are addressed by disrupting the presumption that there is one theory of art, which can be applied with minor modifications to all the art media. There are two ways of disrupting this model: by exploring Wittgenstein’s parallel between language and music; and by concentrating analysis on the characteristics of art, which are especially marked in music. These characteristics are the relation of artworks to time, their temporal duration, their temporal structure, and their historical contexts. For the purposes of this chapter, the view to be disrupted will be referred to as that of ‘classical aesthetics’, and it consists in a combination of Plato’s theory of art with eighteenth-century analyses of taste and judgement.
Introduction
Authors: Logue James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If you look at ideas about probability and its application, it’s always as though a priori and a posteriori were jumbled together, as if the same state of affairs could be discovered or corroborated by experience, whose existence was evident a priori. This of course shows that something’s amiss in our ideas ... (Wittgenstein [1975: §232]) That there is something very much amiss in most thinking about probability is one of the few propositions most probability theorists would agree on; even then, the proposition is likely to be treated indexically, the theorist’s own account being taken to encompass the small minority of unconfused thoughts on the subject. Such partisanship is common enough in philosophy, but in this area it tends, less usually, to be accompanied by an urge to plunge into detail rather than fight out the central metaphysical and epistemological issues raised by the contending theories. A standard dialectical pattern is to offer a taxonomy of theories of probability-anything from a twofold classification (Carnap [1950]) to the elevenfold of Fine [1970]; defend in detail the applicability of one interpretation in all circumstances, or some (even all) in some specified varying circumstances; and criticize in detail the mistaken claims of other interpretations to be applicable in contexts where they are not. I would not disparage that pattern; something like it must surely provide the gist of any explanatory theory, and much of this work will conform to it. But it brings with it the danger of failing to address the larger issues of the force and motive of our detailed theory; I shall constantly, especially in later chapters, attempt to respect that danger. Wittgenstein [1975: §235] speaks of probability laws as ‘the natural laws you see when you screw up your eyes’: as in natural philosophy, so in philosophy, much can be gained at certain stages from deliberately blurring one’s vision.
Convergence and Consensus
Authors: Logue James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter gives an account of the dynamics of SCS. §2.1. presents and criticizes the standard view of belief change via Bayesian conditionalization and argues the advantages of defining ‘conditional’ probability by means of pay-off tables. §2.2. presents the de Finettian concept of exchangeability, discusses its role in the convergence of probability-judgements onto observed frequencies and asks whether it is an objective property of the world or a property of our subjective judgements. §2.3. examines how conditionalization and exchangeability contribute to ensuring consensus about a large range of probability-assessments. §2.4. tackles the criticism which can be launched at any coherentist theory that it fails to take account of weight of evidence and offers a characterization of weight in terms of resiliency and second-order probability.
From Subjectivism to Projectivism
Authors: Logue James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As an increasingly rigorous account of SCS has developed up to this point, the theory has moved further and further away from the crude sketch of it presented at the beginning—a crude sketch which is too frequently what opponents of subjectivism take it to be. Given the tendency among these critics to assume that any theory more sophisticated than that is ipso facto less subjectivist, it is time now to enquire more closely into the precise nature of the subjectivism of the developed theory. The Introduction argued, partly from the failure of the objectivist alternatives, that there is scope for a personalist interpretation of probability; and Chapters 1 and 2 presented the core of a theory which attempts to build such a personalist account on the single, minimal, constraint of coherence. But, apart from the objectivist competitors, there are of course within a personalist framework options other than the de Finettian approach I have been adopting—it is important to see how it relates to these options and to indicate, at least, why it is to be preferred to them. Several forms of pluralism in the interpretation of probability also need to be considered, before moving ahead with the positive project of locating our subjectivist commitments as commitments to a projective—better, a quasi-realist—approach to the problems of probability theory.
Requests: Modification
Authors: Sifianou Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although, as we have just seen, the form and function of requests vary considerably in English and Greek, it is commonly accepted that the force of a request does not depend solely, nor even mainly perhaps, on the construction employed. The kind of modification chosen is also a determining factor contributing greatly to the force of the utterance. Therefore, having discussed the possible and preferred request constructions in English and Greek we will proceed with the types of modification available, whose function is to soften or to intensify the impact of the request. These, too, reveal interesting differences related to politeness between the two societies. In other words, the speaker has to make a number of choices on various levels which have a cumulative effect on the result, and clearly this is not just a matter of linguistic knowledge.
Introduction
Authors: Gill Christopher , Mccabe Mary Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why did Plato put his arguments into dialogues? The task of the philosopher—as many suppose—is to produce clear, unequivocal arguments which may readily be assessed by the reader. If the philosopher clothes his arguments in literary finery, he may reasonably be accused of irrelevance, obfuscation, or, at worst, deception. Plato presents his arguments within the complex literary form of the dialogue; and so he has seemed particularly vulnerable to these charges. In recent years many scholars have discussed the relation between literary form and argumentative context in Plato’s dialogues.
Tasks of Inda-European Linguistics
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fact that so many languages of Europe and south-west Asia show widespread agreements in their grammatical structure and vocabulary can be explained, as we have seen, only by the assumption that they all spring from a common basic language, which we call Inda-European, and are all nothing other than independently developed variants of this original language, the U rsprache.’
Syntax
Authors: Drechsel Emanuel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Following conventional, perhaps almost stereotypical wisdom, North American Indian languages distinguished themselves by polysynthesis— that is by the incorporation of several stems and affixes into one-word phrases or sentences (see e.g. Mithun 1983). At the opposite end on the scale of morphological synthesis and in sharp contrast to this type of grammatical pattern appear pidgins with their fundamentally analytic structure. Like Eskimo Jargon, Chinook Jargon, Delaware Jargon, and other Native American contact media, Mobilian Jargon generally lacked affixations or inflections; its speakers determined the grammatical functions of words by their position within a phrase or sentence, that is word order, and also from the sociolinguistic context.
Questions of Origin
Authors: Drechsel Emanuel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prior discussion has deliberately avoided the question of Mobilian Jargon’s origin and development because of the topic’s elusiveness. Any answer is by its very nature speculative, and must draw on the broadest possible range of information, including extralinguistic data and findings from archaeology with some intelligent guesses. Only such a comprehensive approach can tackle the issue of Mobilian Jargon’s origin, specifically whether the pidgin was the product of European colonialism or reflected indigenous, preColumbian sociopolitical conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a sociological investigation of the diffusion, maintenance, and loss of languages in Israeli society. It analyses the findings of studies of language activity and resources in a wide range of Israel’s communities and class, ethnic, religious, and national groupings. In other words, this book is about identity, boundaries, and symbolic resources, using the case of Israeli society as an example.
Languages and Stratification
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The investigation of the linguistic activity that marks class boundaries is enlightened by the current debates in contemporary sociology over the contours of classes. The functionalist status-achievement school emphasizes the social mobility of individuals in modern society, and minimizes the importance of stratification (Treiman 1977; Blau and Duncan 1967). However, while they disagree about the forms of their boundaries, other sociological schools speak of social classes and strata (see Wright 1979; Kalleberg and Griffin 1980; Goldthorpe 1969; 1978). Marxist sociology sees these boundaries as discontinuous, as they are a function of structural givens, such as ownership over means of production or the distribution of authority. Neo-Marxists like Althusser (1969; 1971), Poulantzas (1975), and Wright (1979) also consider the possibility of contradictory class location to designate new middle-class groups.
The Case of a National Minority
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Another well-known cleavage of lsraeli society differentiates Jews from Arabs. The discussion of this division is often extended to include the Palestinian population of the territories, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip occupied by Israel since 1967. However, since these territories are not part of the Israeli State, they represent an external conflict that is primarily political.
Introduction
Authors: Rogers G A J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
John Locke remains, after over 300 years, a central figure in philosophy and a key thinker for an understanding of the culture and categories of modem society. This collection underlines ways in which his thought continues to be rewarding and takes us further in appreciating why he has been such an influential figure. A feature of recent Locke scholarship, reflected in this volume, is the connection between Locke’s political theory, his religious beliefs, and his epistemology and metaphysics. The first part of this Introduction is offered as a contribution to further appreciation of that unity in his thought through an account of aspects of the context in which Locke wrote his major works. This is followed in Section II by a summary of the chapters that constitute this volume.
Conclusion
Authors: Richards Norvin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 I discussed a number of theories about the architecture of the gram mar. This book has largely been an effort to discover evidence that would help us to choose among these theories. One theory, the one which I assumed and which seems to most accurately capture the facts of multiple wh-movcment across languages, is the “classic” theory which postulates both overt and covert wh movement, and in which all overt movement precedes all covert movement; this is the theory defended in Huang (1982) and Lasnik and Saito (1984). As I pointed out, this theory has the property (unique among the theories discussed) that languages which move all their wh-words and languages which leave all wh-words in situ should have a similar status with respect to diagnostics for the order of operations in the derivation; these are the languages in which all movement takes place in a single component of the derivation. They contrast in this regard with English, which does some movement in the overt syntax and some movement in the covert syntax.
Quantificational Variability I: Adverbial Modification of Embedded Interrogatives
Authors: Lahiri Utpal 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Predicates of the know-class include predicates like realize, forget, tell, guess, etc. whereas predicates of the wonder-type include predicates like ask, investigate, etc. This distinction is often taken to imply that interrogatives embedded under the two kinds of predicates differ syntactically and/or semantically. In this chapter, I provide an analysis of quantificational variability in embedded interrogatives, starting with the premise that embedded interrogative complements of both the know-class of predicates and the wonder-class predicates are identical in semantic type, the semantic type of Questions. The different behavior of the two classes of predicates follows from the way they are interpreted when a predicate like know, which is of the type ⟪s, t⟩, ⟩e, t⟫ (a predicate that would normally take a proposition as an argument) takes a Question as an argument.
The Rise and Success of the Sophists
Authors: Romilly Jacqueline De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WHO were these men whom we still, even today, refer to as ‘the Sophists’? The word itself means professionals of the intelligence. And they certainly set out to teach people how to use their intelligence. They were not ‘sages’, sophoi, a word which connotes not a profession but a state of being. Nor were they ‘philosophers’, for this word suggests a patient search for the truth rather than an optimistic confidence in one’s own abilities. They knew certain methods and could teach them. They were masters of thinking, masters of talking. Knowledge was their speciality, just as the piano is the pianist’s. One of them, Thrasymachus, hit on an admirable formula to convey this. The epitaph that he composed for his own tomb ran: ‘Chalcedon was my country, knowledge my profession.1
Reconstruction on the Basis of the Tabula Rasa
Authors: Romilly Jacqueline De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WE possess only brief fragments of Protagoras’ writing, the interpretation of which is frequently problematic. However, Plato fortunately has this Sophist make a long speech in the dialogue that bears his name, and all the details suggest it to be an extremely faithful imitation of Protagoras himself, his style and his line of reasoning included. Even were that not so, it would be absurd to suppose that Plato would go to these lengths to put into the mouth of such a well-known figure ideas which did not belong to him. This text, with the myth to which the greater part of it is devoted, puts forward a theory which constitutes an extremely solid defence of justice: it shows that man’s well-being depends utterly upon certain moral values, for it is these that make it possible for him to live in society. This is an idea which gives entirely new meaning to the thought of the Sophists. What can no longer be justified by reference to the gods or the absolute is once again given validity, although now this is derived from human life, even from the self-interest of human beings.
Politics
Authors: Romilly Jacqueline De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
POLITICS of two kinds played an important part in the activities of the Sophists: internal politics and politics of external relations between one people and another. The Sophists, who set out to teach ‘the art of politics’, clearly took an interest in the internal conflicts of cities and in constitutional problems. However, at least so far as internal city politics go, it would not be correct to attribute to them, as a collective group, opinions or sympathies which would place them in any particular party.
Weak Externalism and Psychological Reduction
Authors: Macdonald Cynthia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Arguments for and against the possibility of reducing intentional state types and tokens such as those of belief and desire to entities describable in purely physical (or in physical and topic-neutral) vocabulary have often proceeded on the assumption that any such reduction will require psychophysical correlation laws. The argument against the possibility of such laws is a familiar one: beginning with the assumption that theories in general are governed by principles which constrain the ascription of properties to entities within their domains, it attempts to forge a distinction between intentional psychological state types or properties and physical ones on the basis of the fact that the principles which govern their attribution are not only different from, but ultimately incompatible with, one another. The attribution of psychological properties to persons, it is said, is governed by constraints of rational coherence and consistency characterized by the use of inductive and deductive principles of reasoning: absence of logical inconsistency, transitivity of preference, and so on. Such principles are normative in the sense that they license claims about how an agent ought rationally to behave or think conditionally upon the possession of other beliefs and desires.
Operators and Physical Quantities
Authors: Krips Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I shall start this chapter by summarizing some of the claims of Chapter 2. In QT we represent the states of systems in QT by vectors. In particular with each q-system S is associated a set (or space) ℋ(S) of vectors each one of which represents a possible state of S at t. Each vector in ℋ (S) is represented by a set of N numbers (c 1, c 2, … , c N) The number N is called ‘the dimension of ℋ (S)’, and the various c n for n = 1, 2, … , N are called ‘the vector components’.
Kochen and Specker
Authors: Krips Henry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I shall discuss some difficulties for a realist interpretation of QT. In particular I shall discuss the difficulties in reconciling the two classical metaphysical principles (Det Q) (that for any q-system S all the q-quantities for S have unique determinate values at all times t during the lifetime of S) and (Pass Q) (that the ideal measurements of QT are passive) with various of the uncontroversial laws of QT. These difficulties have been brought to focus thanks to two powerful theorems in the mathematical theory of Hilbert spaces proved by Gleason (1957) and by Kochen and Specker (1967).
Naturalizing Norms
Authors: Blackburn Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We are all of us born in moral stupidity, taking the world as an udder to feed our supreme selves: Dorothea had early begun to emerge from that stupidity, but yet it had been easier to her to imagine how she would devote herself to Mr Casaubon, and become wise and strong in his strength and wisdom, than to conceive with that distinctness which is no longer reflection but feeling-an idea wrought back to the directness of sense, like the solidity of objects-that he had an equivalent centre of self, whence the lights and shadows must always fall with a certain difference.
Looking Out for Yourself
Authors: Blackburn Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The economy of nature is competitive from beginning to end. Understand that economy, and how it works, and the underlying reasons for social phenomena are manifest. They are the means by which one organism gains some advantage to the detriment of another. No hint of genuine charity ameliorates our vision of society, once sentimental ism has been laid aside. What passes for co-operation turns out to be a mixture of opportunism and exploitation. The impulses that lead one animal to sacrifice himself for another turn out to have their ultimate rationale in gaining advantage over a third; and acts ‘for the good’ of one society turn out to be performed to the detriment of the rest. Where it is in his own interest, every organism may reasonably be expected to aid his fellows. Where he has no alternative, he submits to the yoke of communal servitude. Yet given a full chance to act in his own interest, nothing but expediency will restrain him from brutalizing, from maiming, from murdering-his brother, his mate, his parent or his child. Scratch an ‘altruist’, and watch a ‘hypocrite’ bleed.
Relativism, Subjectivism, Knowledge
Authors: Blackburn Simon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We now, I hope, have a substantial sense of the complexities of human motivation, the strength of the sentimentalist tradition, and its capacity to explain such things as the emergence of co-operation, trust, respect for principle, and other contours of the virtuous life. But the construction of the moral proposition in Chapter 4 leaves us open to the old worry, if it is a worry, of relativism or scepticism. If this is what ethics comes to, people think, then can’t it be ‘invented’ in different ways? And how could any one way be known to be the right one? Is debating about ethical truth like debating the real location of a rain bow? For the relativist, the last word in moral discussion is the same as the last word in etiquette, which is only: this is how we do it. Relativism is permanently fascinating because it can both seem inevitable (what other last word is there?), but also undermining: if morality is no more than the relativist says, then it loses its claims to universal, authoritative application.
Introduction: The Relationship between Syntax and Semantics
Authors: Ravin Yael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the central issues in modern linguistics has been the relationship between syntax (or grammar) and semantics (or meaning). Obviously, the two are interconnected–language consists of constructions that are both well-formed and meaningful. When the syntactic structure of a sentence is altered, its meaning is often changed with it. But what are the extent and nature of the interconnection? Are there, for example, linguistic phenomena which belong to syntax alone or to semantics alone? The question has often been asked concerning deviant sentences: are there sentences which are grammatically ill-formed but semantically meaningful, or others which are grammatically sound but semantically nonsensical? A wide range of answers has been proposed, indicating that the question is dependent on the theoretical framework within which it is posed.