bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quantification of Building Envelope Heat Losses on a District Level for Comparative Renovation Strategies Assessment
Authors: Arumägi Endrik , Hallik Jaanus , Pikas Ergo , Kalamees Targo , Liiv Innar , Kisel Einari 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
A renovation wave calls for an integrated, participatory, and neighbourhood to neighbourhood approach tailored to the local environments. This can be hindered by the lack of geometric and performance input data about the existing building stock. Depending on the Level of Detail (LOD) of buildings in national registries the calculation results for heat loss and energy performance differ. This paper aims to analyse the impact of LOD on heating energy demand (HED) and energy performance value (EPV) using existing data from the building registry and digital twin model. As a rule, compared to the calculations based on project data or to the measured energy consumption, the calculations based on the LOD building geometry overestimate the HED and EPV. When comparing different LOD, using the same building sample, the difference between heating energy demand (HED) and energy performance value (EPV) ranges from 1% to 57% and 1% to 41% (complex geometry) or from 2% to 7% and 2% to 5% (unsophisticated geometry) accordingly. The results exhibit a good correlation of the discrepancy between the difference in the shape of LOD and the building in the reality and show that the more complex the shape of the buildings, the more important it is to use highest LOD possible. Pooling the building envelope heat loss calculation on a district level improves accuracy on average allowing better assessment of comparative renovation strategies.
Practical Solutions for Building Envelope Retrofitting of Historic Buildings in Cold Climates
Authors: Felius L C , Brandser A , Smits F 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Improving the energy efficiency of buildings is one of the main strategies to reach the European target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. As most of the future building stock is already built, retrofitting existing buildings will play a significant role in reaching this goal. In Norway, buildings that undergo full retrofitting must fulfil the same energy efficiency requirements as new buildings. This is challenging, especially in the case of historic buildings. Improvements should not damage or change the existing structure. As it is often challenging to retrofit historic buildings, this paper aims to provide practical guidelines for building envelope retrofitting as well as identify key points that need to be taken into consideration in the design phase. First, retrofitting measures recommended in historic case study buildings in Norway are analyzed. Second, an overview of typical challenges for retrofitting historic buildings is given. These are identified from literature review and from experiences during the design phase. Interviews with public building owners, contractors, consultants and architects were conducted to discuss challenges from different perspectives. Finally, findings from the literature, interviews and case studies are discussed to identify similarities.
Historic buildings to Positive Energy Buildings: a trilemma between energy efficiency, lifecycle carbon and architecture conservation.
Authors: Mathew Dennis , O’Hegarty Richard , Kinnane Oliver 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Heritage buildings define the distinctive character of many urban areas by creating continuity with the past and serving as a visual cultural reference. To ensure their continued use, these buildings must be adapted for better performance that demands energy retrofitting strategies while satisfying indoor environmental quality. Energy retrofit reduces CO2eq emissions in the operation phase but typically entails embodied carbon and is not always applicable to historic buildings that require architectural and cultural conservation. This study phrases it as a trilemma and aims to identify an optimal balance between increased energy efficiency and decreased lifecycle carbon when architecture conservation is acknowledged. The research is applied to a traditional fisherman’s cottage in the village on Howth Head, Ireland with an aim to make it a Positive Energy Building (PEB). First, the construction method and heritage value are investigated followed by an experimental U-value calculation to identify the intervention needs. Then, a range of retrofit strategies to increase the energy efficiency of the building, but sensitive to the architectural conservation agenda, are proposed. Furthermore, using the EnergyPlus simulation engine, the study analyses the implications of different building materials for thermal insulation, building façade and window retrofit, on the building’s operational energy performance. Finally, for each scenario, a lifecycle carbon analysis was applied to identify the optimal strategy when architecture conservation is considered. The best retrofit strategies for reducing operational carbon do not always decrease embodied carbon. Similarly, the optimal materials to be used to achieve the highest level of energy efficiency and reduced life cycle carbon to become a PEB do not adhere to architectural conservation objectives. Further analysis is undertaken to achieve a balanced strategy which can be adopted in similar conservation retrofit projects.
Wind-driven rain load in Finland in present and future projected climates
Authors: Pakkala Toni A. , Lahdensivu Jukka 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The amount of wind-driven rain (WDR) has been shown to have a major effect on the different deterioration mechanisms of outdoor exposed structures. For example, in recent studies of Finnish existing concrete element buildings the amount of WDR has been shown to have strong correlation with the corrosion rate of reinforcements in carbonated concrete and the freeze-thaw damage of concrete. The latter can be related to all porous stone-based materials (e.g., bricks and mortars). In addition, the amount of WDR has a major effect on mould growth potential in different materials or structures sensitive to it. Thus, the effect of the amount of WDR in present climate has been studied comprehensively. In this study, the amount of WDR is calculated for a new 30-year period (1989-2018) presenting the present climate among with two future periods presenting 2050 and 2080 climates. In future climate projections, three different CMPI5 based scenarios are used: RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5. All calculations take into account the wind directions and they are made for four different locations presenting Finland: coastal area, southern Finland, inland and northern Finland (Lapland). Based on the results, the WDR load in the form of rain or sleet is increasing in all locations and from every direction regardless of the used scenario. The highest relative increase is in inland and Lapland, though, the load is still significantly higher in coastal and southern parts of Finland. With all the scenarios the WDR load is still focusing on southern directions, but it will be more evenly divided for other directions than in present climate. In addition, the WDR load is increasing during autumn and wintertime, i.e., during the periods when in the latitudes the drying conditions are weak because of the lack of solar radiation and the high-level relative humidity.
Comparing Canadian and Norwegian moisture indices for building climate adaptation
Authors: Gaarder J E , Andenæs E , Astrup I , Lacasse M , Time B , Kvande T 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
To evaluate the suitability of materials and solutions in building envelopes, it is necessary to quantify the relevant climate loads. The critical climate load is typically a combination of multiple parameters, such as temperature and precipitation. Climate indices may be used for finding critical climate loads, and their use helps guide design choices when adapting to local climates. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the suitability of the Canadian Moisture Index (MI) for use in Norway. The values of MI are linked to design recommendations in the Canadian building code, thus enabling a tangible link between index values and moisture design practice. MI has been calculated for 12 locations in Norway, and compared to two indices already in national use: the driving rain index (DRI) and wood decay potential index (WDPI). The applicability of a climate index as a design tool depends on (1) describing a relevant climate stress; (2) logical differentiation of values, and; (3) translating index values to design recommendations. These are fulfilled for MI in a Canadian context, thus making it applicable as a design tool. However, significant adaptation may be required for the index to be adopted to a Norwegian context. As MI and DRI have a similar field of application, introducing MI into a Norwegian context may therefore be redundant. A drawback with the Norwegian indices is the relative weak link between index values and design recommendations, thus further development of recommendations based on index values may improve their applicability as design tools.
Freeze-thaw risk in solid masonry: The difference between a climate-based and response-based analysis to study climate change.
Authors: Vandemeulebroucke I , Kotova L , Caluwaerts S , Van Den Bossche N 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Climate change (CC) has an impact on freeze-thaw degradation in historical buildings. The changing risk is not uniform over Europe according to climate-based analyses (i.e. only using climate data). Though, degradation risks are highly affected by building parameters (e.g. wall composition, material properties…). Response-based analyses (i.e. using hygrothermal simulation results) account for building parameters, and are more detailed. Nonetheless, they are not state-of-the-art for large domains given the high computational cost. Therefore, we compared a climate-based and response-based analysis for 10 locations in Europe and the Mediterranean, focussing on the critical Freeze-Thaw Cycles (FTC) in solid masonry walls. This paper presents the CC impact for 1.780 building parameter variations at each location. The Spearman rank correlation is 0.79 between the absolute values of the climate-based frost-indices (i.e. frost decay exposure index and FTC based on air temperature (FTCair)), and the critical FTC in the brick masonry. The correlation of the change in freeze-thaw risk is weaker (0.33 for FTCair). The error when using a climate-based analysis to represent the CC impact goes up to 100%. Alongside, the climate-based analysis cannot represent the spread of the CC impact between different parameter variations. The climate-based analysis is only suitable as an estimation.
Improving hygrothermal risk assessment tools for brick walls in a changing climate
Authors: Janssens Kaat , Marincioni Valentina , Van Den Bossche Nathan 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Due to the heritage value of historical buildings, the external facade can often not be modified. Therefore, heritage buildings require interior insulation when undergoing an energy renovation. However, interior retrofitting drastically changes the hygrothermal behaviour of a wall and can potentially cause moisture-related problems. Besides an interior retrofit, a changing climate might also trigger some of these damage mechanisms since parameters such as temperature and precipitation will change over time. It is proven that hygrothermal models can provide relevant insights into the risk of deterioration associated with these damage phenomena. Heat, Air and Moisture (HAM) tools are commercially available but rarely used in the building industry to study deterioration risks. Translating research into practical tools and guidelines is a challenge across the whole field of building renovation. This paper aims to tackle that challenge, by means of creating a hygrothermal risk assessment tool based on 48,384 HAM-simulations for the climate of Brussels, Belgium. Seven different performance criteria are addressed and discussed: freeze-thaw damage, mould growth, wood rot, corrosion, moisture accumulation, salt efflorescence and bio-colonisation. Subsequent to a sensitivity analysis, the study further investigates how these results can be translated into practice, providing building practitioners the most suitable insights and recommendations.
A Method for the Evaluation of Frost Damage at different Moisture Contents and Temperatures based on Laboratory Measurements
Authors: Hirsch Hauke , Petzold Hans , Heyn Rüdiger , Grunewald John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The frost damage of façade materials, especially bricks, is still a problem of importance, mainly for historical constructions. Existing tests like the freeze-thaw test (CDF test) use conditions of full water saturation and very low freezing temperatures, which most likely occur rather rarely in practice. Therefore, we conducted experiments on bricks with different moisture levels, using impulse excitation to determine the change in Young’s modulus as damage assessment. The results show a strong decrease in Young’s modulus and a clear dependence of the damage on the moisture content. We applied the results to a novel frost assessment method, which differentiates the damage potential of different parts of the pore system, based on the present temperature and moisture content.
Metrological evaluation of facade coating systems regarding their resistance to microorganism growth
Authors: Bishara Ayman , Bishara Nadja , Kramberger-Kaplan Helge 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The presence of liquid water on the facade surface significantly contributes to the growth of microorganisms. This issue has become increasingly important with the growing use of thermal insulation in buildings. However, the formation of condensation on these façades is often increased due to low surface temperatures. Therefore, innovative coating systems with special physical parameters have been developed to prevent condensation formation and thus the growth of algae on the facade surface. These coatings should be evaluated with respect to their surface condensation to identify their resistance against condensation. Since no suitable method is available for this purpose, it is necessary to develop a method for controlling the wetness and drying out of façades. This paper presents the development and verification of innovative coating systems, as well as an active facade moisture detection system (ONE). The measuring method is designed to provide long-term non-destructive measurements of surface wetness. The measurement data obtained in this research are used to develop facade materials and coatings that improve their drying properties and the balance between hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces. This is aimed at preventing or reducing algae growth on the façade. A case study consisting of four test walls was conducted in Central Germany under real climate conditions to examine the resistance of coating systems with different pigments (conventional and modified pigments) to moisture formation on the surface. The results show that the developed coating system has significant potential to increase surface temperatures, leading to a reduced deviation of the dew point. This can help to prevent the growth of algae on the facade.
Moisture safety strategy for construction of CLT structures in a coastal Nordic climate
Authors: Time Berit , Andenæs Erlend , Karlsen Trygve , Geving Stig , Kvande Tore 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
To reduce the carbon impact of new buildings, wood is seeing increased use as a structural material. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) and glue-laminated wood (glulam) elements allow the construction of multi-storey buildings. However, wood is vulnerable to moisture, especially when naked wood is exposed to weather during the construction process. This paper presents the moisture strategy employed during the construction of a four-storey CLT/glulam building in Trondheim, Norway. The building was constructed without the use of a weather-protective tent, requiring alternative protective measures. The construction of the main structure was scheduled to be as short as possible. Local protective measures were employed to protect the structure from rain and free water was removed after rain events. The project was closely supervised by the client, with particular care for moisture control. Moisture was regularly measured at 50 points throughout the building. No wooden surfaces were encapsulated until a wood moisture content below 15 weight-% was measured. The performance of the moisture strategy was evaluated using measurements of wood moisture, indoor climate, airtightness, and visual inspections. The wood moisture content quickly decreased as the building envelope was assembled, indicating that drying was well facilitated. In the first year after construction, gaps between the flooring and baseboards were observed, suggesting that the wooden elements have experienced some shrinkage. The moisture safety strategy is deemed to have been generally successful. The overall experiences were important in the development of new recommendations in the SINTEF Building Research Design Guides for CLT structures.
Estimating the hydratable surface area of building materials from water vapour sorption
Authors: Frandsen K M , Lennert J V , Jensen R L , Møldrup P 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
The specific surface area of a building material controls its physical, chemical, and biological functions and services, including its moisture regulating potential. The Hydratable Specific Surface Area (H-SSA) of a building material can be estimated from its primary water vapour adsorption and desorption isotherm at a given relative humidity (RH) value or range of RH. The concept is illustrated for 12 mineral and bio-based building materials. The estimated H-SSA for only 1 kg of some building materials can approach the area of a typical agricultural field (500,000 m2, 50 ha.), which helps explain and illustrate the great moisture regulating properties of many bio-based materials. The H-SSA appears useful to help characterize and classify building materials.
Capillary condensation redistribution (CCR) test: measurement results of 5 materials and comparison to modelling
Authors: Klõšeiko P , Valk T , Põldaru M , Kalamees T 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
To improve the accuracy of hygrothermal modelling, a capillary condensation redistribution (CCR) has been proposed to help distribute the share of vapour and liquid conductivity functions based on a wider experimental dataset. This paper aims to provide further data by presenting the CCR test measurement results of 2 calcium silicate (CaSi) boards, 2 aerated autoclaved concrete (AAC) boards and spruce (the latter both perpendicular and parallel to the grain). A variation of the CCR test setup is described. The measurement results agree with those from literature where some of the materials presented here were also tested. Modelling results using previously available material properties are compared to measurement results: none of the AAC and longitudinal spruce material properties can reproduce the moisture content levels achieved in the study, while CCR-optimized CaSi material data is close to the measured results. The best agreement between measurements and modelling of spruce perpendicular to grain are achieved with material properties which discard liquid conductivity and presume increased vapour permeability due to increase of moisture content instead.
Archetype Building Energy Models for Residential Sector: Importance of Uncontrolled Inputs in Predictive Control and Energy Flexibility
Authors: Abtahi S M , Athienitis A K , Delcroix B 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
A 1st-order gray-box archetype is developed using high-quality measurements from an unoccupied experimental house to investigate the sensitivity of economic model-based predictive control performance under Québec’s dynamic electricity tariff for the residential sector, rate Flex-D, to uncertainty in the weather forecast. The archetype incorporates the outside air temperature and the solar gain as uncontrolled heat sources and has three parameters: the overall thermal capacitance, the thermal resistance to the outside air temperature, and the solar aperture. The performance of economic model-based predictive control is compared under the uncertain day-ahead forecast and the historical measurements of the same day. The results show that the most influential uncontrolled input directing the performance of economic model-based predictive control under rate Flex-D is the price signal, which makes the impact of uncertainty in the weather forecast almost negligible.
Experimental study of adsorption characteristic of novel pyrazole-based metal-organic frameworks for volatile organic compounds
Authors: Ding Dong , Fang Lei , Qin Menghao 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are the major indoor air pollutants that affect human health, comfort, and working performance. Sorbent material and adsorption technology are considered to be one of the most effective and economical ways to remove VOCs from indoor air. Among many sorbent materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have received more and more attention because of their superior performance in capturing a variety of compounds. In this work, the adsorption characteristic of a newly synthesized pyrazole-based metal-organic framework (Al-pda) for different VOCs was investigated. First, the single-pass VOC adsorption rates of Al-pda and activated carbon were tested under different low-concentration VOCs mixture, which is in line with the practical application in the indoor environment. The results showed that Al-pda had an especially high adsorption ability for formaldehyde. The single-pass efficiency of formaldehyde adsorption was up to 89% at the beginning of the test and gradually stabilized at 66%. Compared with activated carbon, Al-pda had significantly higher selectivity and adsorption efficiency for the capture of formaldehyde. Then the effect of relative humidity on formaldehyde adsorption was investigated. After increasing the relative humidity from 15% to 65%, Al-pda’s formaldehyde single-pass adsorption rate almost remained at a similar level. Preliminary research showed that Al-pda is a promising material for the selective adsorption of indoor formaldehyde under humid conditions. More work is needed to probe this new MOF’s adsorption mechanism and application method.
The Influence of Application Rate of Hydrophobic Treatments on the Drying Behaviour of Brick
Authors: Cambray Toby , Marincioni Valentina , Altamirano Hector 
Published: December 2023

Abstractydrophobic (or water repellent) treatments have been proposed as a means to mitigate rain ingress and therefore moisture risks associated with internal wall insulation (IWI) on solid (and hence, usually historic) masonry walls. Some practitioners and researchers point out that such interventions may cause unintended consequences, in particular damage to the external masonry surfaces from freeze-thaw or cryptofloresence. Drying behaviour is important in both of these damage mechanisms. It is well established that hydrophobic treatments inhibit stage 1 drying. The depth of penetration also has a direct influence on the stage 2 drying, which is the focus of this work. Three types of treatment (silane-siloxane emulsion, silane only and siloxane only), with three different rates of application (resulting in varying depth of penetration and density of treatment) on a single type of brick, which were subjected to a drying experiment. This influence on stage 2 drying behaviour is explored.