bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Putting the Two Stories Together
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn the last two chapters an examination was made of two plausible accounts (the evidentialist ‘story’ and the Reformed ‘story’) of how knowledge of the incarnational narrative might be gained; both were shown to have difficulties, although in neither case were they insurmountable. It is suggested here that the fact that these two stories face different kinds of problems is a clue that they are not necessarily designed to do the same job. In fact that they offer complementary answers to different questions, rather than rival answers to the same question (although it is seen later that, in some cases, they may also be seen as offering alternative versions of the same answer to the same question). A proposal is made to understand the two accounts as related in the following way: the Reformed story is the story that the Church tells when it is attempting to understand how Christians gain the knowledge they claim to have; the evidentialist story is the story the Church tells when it is attempting to convince or persuade someone of what it takes to be the truth. This view is a promising one for dealing with the major difficulties of each approach, so there seems to be potential in seeing the two accounts as complementary. A short section at the beginning of this chapter asks whether the Holy Spirit can work through human arguments; the rest of it is devoted to a detailed analysis of the complementarities of the evidentialist and Reformed stories.
Historical Scholarship and the Layperson: A Case Study
Authors: Evans C. Stephen 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief survey of what has been covered in the book. It then goes on to look at the problem of questions about the truth of the incarnational narrative, pointing out that an attempt to answer such questions is not the same as an account of how the knowledge is gained, and that what is called for here is apologetics; the task of apologetics and the task of understanding how one knows can then be linked by the situation of the possible defeater. To some degree New Testament scholarship that takes a sceptical attitude towards the incarnational narrative is grounded in anti-supernaturalistic assumptions, but a good deal of scepticism is also fuelled by such factors as discrepancies between the four Gospels, and features of the narrative that seem to reflect in a transparent way the needs of the early Church rather than the historical situation in early-first-century Palestine. This difficulty is addressed both in the concluding chapter and in the rest of this chapter, which contains a ‘case study’ of ‘James’, a young man raised in a non-Christian home who is converted to Christianity but subsequently exposed to sceptical claims about the New Testament. After a consideration of what is essential to the incarnational narrative, a number of possible responses that James could make to the sceptical claims against it are considered (on the assumption that James himself lacks the ability to make an informed scholarly judgement himself).
Christianity and Social Ideas
Authors: Morris Colin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
There was a new element of humanism in twelfth‐century thinking, and with this came a concern for the ordering of an increasingly technical society. The older idea of ‘orders’ in society was increasingly superseded by the idea of ‘estates’. There was a massive commitment to the relief of the poor, and a new theology of marriage was elaborated. Commercial ethics were an important issue, especially the question of usury, and so was the elaboration of an ideal of knighthood.
The Pontificate of Innocent III (1198–1216)
Authors: Morris Colin 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Innocent was one of the youngest popes ever to be elected and was outstanding among the popes of this period. He built up the Papal State in Italy in its later form, and in his attempt to disrupt Hohenstaufen power, sustained a long civil war in Germany, while elaborating the theory of papal authority and defining the limitations of kingship. He was actively committed to reform of the clergy. He also sponsored the Fourth Crusade and planned the Fifth, while taking steps against heresy in the West. Most aspects of his work were summed up in the huge Fourth Lateran Council of 1215.
The Conciliar Movement
Authors: Hess Hamilton 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Church councils and synods (terms used in the West and the East, respectively) began as gatherings of leaders and representatives from several church congregations for the resolution of issues of shared concern by discussion and collective decision‐making. From the evidence available to us, such gatherings first appeared during the latter part of the second century, but the practice may have begun earlier. By the third century, strong congregational leadership by bishops had become almost universally established; and, as fully evidenced by the letters of Cyprian of Carthage, councils and synods became occasions for the assembly of neighbouring bishops for deliberation together with the bishop, clergy, and people of the host congregation. The procedures employed at these gatherings were patterned on those of civil government, the most directly influential model having apparently been the Roman Senate. While the strength and effectiveness of episcopal leadership continued to increase, during the third century the clergy and laity of the local congregation where the council or synod was held retained a voice in the proceedings. Two other conciliar styles—dialogic discussion and judicial investigation—were also adopted from civil models to ecclesiastical use during the third and fourth centuries.
The Emergence of Canonical Legislation
Authors: Hess Hamilton 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Although rule making within the local churches probably began during the second and third centuries, no concrete evidence exists for collective enactments among the churches prior to the fourth century. By the early fourth century, conciliar gatherings, formerly focusing at least partially on local issues, had become exclusively episcopal and were generally concerned with interests on the regional level or beyond. Beginning with the Spanish Council of Elvira (c.309), numerous councils and synods in all parts of Christendom produced series of enactments, which by the end of the fourth century came to be called canons. These councils and synods, which are identified in this chapter by place, date, and pertinent information, were held in a variety of locations in the Greek East, one at Seleucia‐Ctesiphon in the Syriac‐speaking church, numerous cities and towns in Roman North Africa, most notably at Carthage, and in Gaul, Italy, and Spain. The chapter concludes with a description of the growing number of collections of canons, East and West, that were made between the mid‐fourth century and the sixth.
Biblical Criticism and the Resurrection
Authors: Alston William P. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This paper is a defence of the (by and large) historical accuracy of the resurrection appearance narratives in the Gospels. The defence is carried out not by giving positive argument that this or that feature of the narratives is accurate, but rather by displaying the failure of attempts by NT scholars to show that a particular feature of the narratives (the appearance of the risen Jesus in embodied, perceptible form) is not of historical value. That argument takes the form of a detailed critique of the contentions of one scholar, Reginald Fuller. To the extent that Fuller's treatment can be taken as representative, this essay, if successful, will have removed a crucial obstacle to the rational acceptance of the appearance narratives as factually correct in the main. The essay ends by identifying certain disqualifying features of Fuller's treatment that, it is claimed, are pervasive in twentieth‐century gospel criticism.
Alston presents, in Coakley's view, a convincing case against the dogmatic scepticism of Reginald Fuller's treatment of the bodily resurrection, though he overstates his case, she suggests, in denying significance to the redactional strands of the Gospel‐writers’ thinking. There is also a puzzling continued appeal to the objective historical ‘facts’ of the case granted that Alston explicitly disavows at the outset anything other than an intra‐Christian approach. His overriding concern to support a ‘literal’ bodily resurrection leads him, she believes, to understress some important dimensions of the resurrection accounts on which she urges him to further explication: the ‘atypical’ nature of the risen body, the consequent importance of metaphorical speech in discussing it, the epistemic transformation required in recognizing it, and the gender dimensions possibly implicit in such recognition.
Number, Size, and Quantity
Authors: Burton Philip 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
An analysis of the treatment of terms involving number, size, and quantity in the Old Latin Gospels. Such features may appear to the speaker of a given language to be natural categories, but in fact they are often idiomatic and language‐specific. Particular attention is given to rare plurals, pluralia tantum nouns, to specialized senses of singular and plural, and to the treatment of adjectives of size and quantity.
Heroic Transformations in the Classical World
Authors: Brown David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first part of the chapter examines the nature of Greek religion, and argues that it should be treated seriously as a religion, one which through changing versions of its myths sought to conceptualise personal or societal changes in perceptions of how the divine was understood. Differing treatments of Odysseus are then used to anticipate the discussion of Abraham in the chapter that follows; Iphigenia that of Isaac, and Helen and Ganymede that of Joseph. The way in which earlier Christian generations understood Greek myth as also revelatory is used to challenge the narrower view that is dominant today.
Victim into Saint: Patriarchal Retellings
Authors: Brown David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Examines the way in which, and some of the reasons why, the stories of the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Joseph, have been altered both within Scripture and subsequently within the later history of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. With Abraham, the main focus is on the way in which Paul reorientated the story towards faith rather than the more natural Jewish reading in terms of faithfulness (obedient conduct). With the akedah or binding of Isaac, the reason all three religions move the focus from father to son is explored. In the case of Joseph, the differing treatments of virtue and temptation are examined.
Divine Accommodation
Authors: Brown David 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Explores how a kenotic understanding of the incarnation might be used to bolster the general argument. If even in the case of christology, there was only a gradual disclosure of who Jesus was, particularly in the light of the resurrection, it would seem reasonable to expect a similar pattern of development elsewhere. In terms of Jesus’ perfection, a number of apparent limitations on his imagination are explored, including his attitude to the law, his belief in an imminent eschatology and the cry of dereliction, and a distinction drawn between perfection and sinlessness.
Church and (Nation‐) State (1840–1890)
Authors: Hope Nicholas 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Is about the first Protestant church constitutions, which developed out of earlier state legislation (see Ch. 14). Transregional Protestant gatherings and discussion about the constitutional position of Protestant churches are examined, as is their constitutional provision at ‘national’ level. Protestant self‐government or ‘synodalism’ became fashionable everywhere.
A Puritan Brotherhood
Authors: Mullan David George 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Though Puritanism was a piety intended very much for the laity, the clergy remained central to the practice and thinking of the movement. Scottish Presbyterians, in particular, formed a tightly knit community that studied together, worked together, prayed together, married into godly families including each others’, and engaged in a monumental struggle against the Episcopal and liturgical agendas of the early Stewart monarchs. For some of these men, it was the Five Articles of Perth (1618) that galvanized their religious commitment to Presbyterianism, but it remains that most members of the episcopate up to 1638 were, polity apart, Puritans as well.
Covenants and Covenant Theology
Authors: Mullan David George 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The notion of the covenant was essential to the Scottish Puritan experience. John Knox may well have imported the idea into Scotland from his prophetic interpretation of the English Reformation, and perhaps in 1557 one may see the lineaments of the first religio‐political covenant. The Negative (King's) Confession of 1581 was quickly interpreted in covenantal terms and it became the foundation of the National Covenant of 1638. But the covenant idea also developed in the context of the individual's relationship with God—increasingly interpreted in terms of federal theology—and during this period one observes the building blocks of the personal covenant, which would later in the century become a familiar component of Presbyterian piety. The National Covenant was subscribed by men across the length and breadth of the country and was often received with a revivalistic emotional outpouring.
Isaac Watts
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Talks about Watts as the first great hymn writer in English; his place in the Dissenting tradition, and his theories of sacred poetry; his work in three major books, Horae Lyricae, Hymns and Spiritual Songs, and The Psalms of David. The chapter also reviews his mature art, as demonstrated in ‘When I survey the wondrous cross’.
The Working of the Church–State Alliance
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The balance of advantage in cooperation between church and state was shifting inexorably towards the secular power. The Gallican devotion to the monarchy ensured that clergy worked for the state while being supported financially by the Church. So clerics worked as diplomats, as conseillers‐clercs in the Parlements and as chaplains to government and municipal institutions, as well as to the army and navy. The secular authorities asserted greater control over the keeping of marriage and baptismal registers. Religious conformity was imposed by the police authorities, if often in a lax manner, and the church was used for the public reading of legal decisions and monitoires, though these could be ignored, and the interweaving of ecclesiastical and secular authority was increasingly criticized by anticlericals.
The Bishops: Worldly Greatness
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Bishops were expected to live splendidly, and many spent much time at the court at Versailles. Accusations of sexual immorality, however, despite some spectacular examples, were exaggerated. They had to ensure the efficient collection of their revenues by employing trusted servants in the administration. The richer ones accumulated benefices of various kinds, and many were great builders of episcopal residences but also of works of public utility. The status of bishop could lead to other privileges but also responsibilities, especially in provinces with Estates, where bishops usually played leading roles and could become spokesmen for their provinces.
The Curés: Social Origins, Incomes, Mentality
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In most areas of France (Paris being the major exception), parish priests were local men drawn from the more prosperous sectors of non‐noble society. About a third lived on a fixed salary called the portion congrue, paid by whoever had the right to collect the tithes; the other two thirds drew their incomes from the tithes and whatever lands went with the benefice. Curés’ incomes therefore varied enormously. Parish priests were in close contact with the people in ways involving both conflict and cooperation. Their education had been revolutionized by the Counter‐Reformation, but the results were not what the reformers had hoped for. Curés acted as medical, legal, and agricultural advisers; teachers, custodians of local traditions, and chroniclers of contemporary events; disseminators of news and of selective and censored information about the writings of the Enlightenment.
The Great Chapters: Architecture and Music
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The eighteenth century was an age of liturgical splendour, and changes to cathedral and collegiate church architecture reflected this, judiciously combining classical and Gothic elements. The removal of rood screens and changes in the admission of light through windows served to emphasize the centrality of the altar in the liturgical space. Chapters spent up to a quarter of their incomes on music, with renowned maîtres de musique being in great demand. Choir schools attached to chapters were the only source of musical training available, and maintained a high standard. Church music was increasingly complex, sophisticated, and virtuosic, following the tastes of the royal court and Parisian high society.
Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France Volume 2: The Religion of the People and the Politics of Religion
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The second volume of this study of the relations between the Catholic Church and society in eighteenth‐century France covers the topics of popular religion; the clergy and morals; the Jansenist controversy in its religious and political aspects; the expulsion of the Jesuits; the religious minorities and the issue of toleration; and the crisis of the ancien régime in its politico‐religious dimension. The section on the ‘religion of the people’ considers, in particular, the distinctions between the intentions of the clergy in imposing their version of Christianity on the people and how these were popularly interpreted and incorporated into the social order. The statistical evidence concerning religious practice and conviction is critically assessed. The meanings and importance of processions, pilgrimages, superstitions, hermits, confraternities, and literacy and Bible reading are discussed along with the world of magic and sorcery. The efficacy of confession and writings on morality is considered with reference to sexual mores, business practice, and the theatre. The role of religious issues in political affairs is discussed in detail, linking the Jansenist quarrel and the role of the Jesuits to the developing struggle between the crown and the parlement of Paris, giving due consideration to the role of ideas and how ecclesiastical affairs impinged upon the sovereign courts. An extended evocation of the life of the Protestant and Jewish communities introduces the debate on toleration and how it further embroiled the Gallican Church in political controversies. The final section describes the role of churchmen, from bishops to the disaffected lower clergy, in the coming of the Revolution. As in the first volume, the influence of Enlightenment thought is examined in all sections in relation to the rising force of anti‐clericalism and to tensions within the ecclesiastical establishment.
Religious Practice
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The main religious duties imposed on the laity were regular attendance at mass and the Easter duties of communion and confession. The practice of these obligations during the eighteenth century held up better in the countryside than in the towns, though everywhere the atmosphere during services was often disorderly and irreverent. The creeping laicization of the eighteenth century is indicated in all the available documentation capable of being expressed in serial quantitative form, including the naming of ships, household furnishings, the practice of contraception, preambles and legacies in wills, and ordinations, but all with variations according to chronology, geography, and class. True de‐Christianization, however, only came with the Revolution.
The Appeal to a General Council
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Unigenitus caused uproar in France, especially in Paris, where it was viewed as the result of Jesuit conspiracy, standing for papal pretensions against the Gallican Church and clerical manoeuvres against the laity, as well as being an obscurantist attack on scriptural piety, unjust to Jansenists in general and Noailles in particular. Louis XIV forced its acceptance by the bishops, the Sorbonne and the parlement of Paris, followed by the other theological faculties and parlements, but his death and the accession to power of Philippe d’Orléans as regent for the infant Louis XV changed everything. The appeal to a General Council of the Church was led by 16 bishops, backed by the Oratorians and the Maurists. Other bishops either enforced Unigenitus or accepted and then ignored it. Support for the appellants was uneven in France as a whole and centred in Paris, but for their supporters the appeal represented a defence of the Gallican Church against the presumptuousness of Rome and of political freedom against Louis XIV's absolutism.
From the Regent to Fleury
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
By 1720, the government of the Regency, dominated by abbé Dubois, had adopted a repressive policy towards Jansenism and the appellants, a policy, which would be made even harsher under cardinal Fleury from 1726 onwards. The parlements and the Sorbonne were brought to acceptance of Unigenitus by threats, force, and the imposition of a formulary making it appear compatible with Gallican liberties. However, the deposition of Jean Soanen, bishop of Senez, in 1727 by a council of the archbishopric of Embrun caused a huge outcry among the lower clergy and the bourgeoisie of Paris, supported in particular by the avocats of the Parisian bar. Fleury's ruthless policy succeeded in destroying the ‘old Jansenism’ of predestinarian theology and protest against Rome, but opposition to it laid the seeds for a new, politicized Jansenism.
The Mid‐Century Crisis
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Jansenist issue could have been settled by compromise and silence by mid‐century but for the policy of the denial of the sacraments to dying Jansenists introduced by Christophe de Beaumont, archbishop of Paris, in 1749. The parlement of Paris made use of ambiguities about jurisdiction over the sacraments to challenge the Church and Louis XV. In the violent controversy, lasting until 1756, the parlement gained the support of most of the other parlements of the kingdom and of the people of Paris as issues of finance became entwined with the religious issue, and theories about the representative nature of the parlement were revived. The exile of individual parlementaires and the king's refusal to accept the parlement's remonstrances raised the quarrel to new heights before a truce was declared after the attempted assassination of Louis XV by Damiens and in view of the pressing needs of a kingdom at war. Over the issue of the sacraments, however, the parlement emerged as the winner.