bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Population differentiation without speciation
Authors: Magurran Anne E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is conventional to view biological diversity as synonymous with species richness and/or species abundance (Magurran l 988; Rosenzweig 1995). In recent years, however, the concept of biological diversity has been extended to embrace the rich seam of diversity within species themselves (Barbault et al.1995; Gaston 1996; Mallet 1996; Butlin and Tregenza 1998). Such diversity can be cryptic and only apparent once appropriate techniques are applied, an example being the use of allozymes to uncover levels of heterozygosity (Butlin and Tregenza 1998), or it may be expressed phenotypically and manifest itself as variation in behaviour, or morphology, or life histories (Mallet 1996; Foster and Endler 1999).Current conservation practice recognises that intraspecific diversity is worth preserving in its own right. This is partly because the viability of a species may in some way be related to its variability (Bisby 1995, but see also Amos and Harwood 1998). An additional consideration is that intraspecific diversity is perceived as the raw material for evolution (Barba ult and Sastrapradja 1995; Mallet 1996). It stands to reason that populations that are highly differentiated are the precursors of new species. Thus it is not simply variation as such, but also the potential to generate new species and even more biological diversity, that must be conserved (Myers 1997). However, as evolutionary biologists have been discovering, the relationship between population divergence and speciation is not straightforward. Although population differentiation can be an important step on the path to speciation, speciation is by no means the inevitable outcome of even the most marked population differentiation. This chapter illustrates the issue by reviewing recent work on a little fish that is increasingly being cited as a classic case of evolution in action.
Gulliver ‘s further travels: the necessity and difficulty of a hierarchical theory of selection
Authors: Gould Stephen Jay 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For principled and substantially philosophical reasons, based largely on his reform of natural history by inverting the Paleyan notion of overarching and purposeful beneficence in the construction of organisms, Darwin built his theory of selection at the single causal level of individual bodies engaged in unconscious (and metaphorical) struggle for their own reproductive success. But the central logic of the theory allows selection to work effectively on entities at several levels of a genealogical hierarchy, provided that they embody a set of requisite features for defining evolutionary individuality. Genes, cell lineages, demes, species, and clades -as well as Darwin ‘s favored organisms-embody these requisite features in enough cases to form important levels of selection in the history of life. R. A. Fisher explicitly recognized the unassailable logic of species selection, but denied that this real process could be important in evolution because, compared with the production of new organisms within a species, the origin of new species is so rare, and the number of species within most clades so low. I review this and other classical arguments against higher-level selection, and conclude (in the first part of this chapter) that they are invalid in practice for intergenic selection, and false in principle for species selection. Punctuated equilibrium defines the individuality of species and refutes Fisher ‘s classical argument based on cycle time. In the second part of the chapter, I argue that we have failed to appreciate the range and power of selection at levels above and below the organismic because we falsely extrapolate the defining properties of organisms to these other levels (which arc characterized by quite different distinctive features), and then regard the other levels as impotent because their effective individuals differ so much from organisms.
Battling The Authorities And The Muses
Authors: Parshall Karen Hunger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The years from 1850 to 1855 had been explosively productive for Sylvester mathematically, witnessing as they had his fundamental contributions to the theory of invariants as well as his subsequent exploration of ideas suggested by them. This mathematical success, however, had made him increasingly aware of where his real interests and loyalties lay—in mathematics and not in the day-to-day duties of the actuary. How could he get more time to pursue his true calling and still earn his way in the world? Academe seemed to hold the only answer, but it presented him with the same impediments in the mid-1850s as it had in the late-1830s.
Returning Home
Authors: Parshall Karen Hunger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sylvester left Baltimore and The Johns Hopkins on 21 December, 1883 following a day of fanfare and farewells. The entire university had turned out for a reception in his honor on the twentieth, and, not surprisingly, the mathematician had taken a turn at the podium. His remarks were classically Sylvesterian—long-winded, exuberant, humorous, heart-felt. He praised the University for the high standards it had set for higher education in the United States; he lauded individual faculty members for their contributions to their respective fields; and he extolled the University’s guiding light, its President Daniel Coit Gilman, for his vision. He was not, however, uncritical.
Tha estronomical Background
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our interpretation of what we see of the heavens is very different from that of the ancients. We believe, following Copernicus, that the earth revolves around the sun and rotates about its own axis. The ancients believed, following Ptolemy and common sense, that the earth was stationary and that the stars and sun and moon moved in cycles above it. If we were to observe the solar system looking down on it from the north, we would see the earth spinning on its axis in an anticlockwise direction and moving in its orbit in the same sense. Ptolemy, again looking south, would say that the sun and the stars rotated above the earth in a clockwise direction from east to west.
Writing and Libraries
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some 12ooo years ago, the glaciers were starting to recede for the last time. A few thousand years later, at the start of the Neolithic Age, man had learnt to grow crops and domesticate animals, rather than lead a hand-to-mouth existence, hunting and gathering food. His tribe and community still remained small but where the land, irrigated by great rivers, was particularly fertile, the supply of food increased. The size of communities grew, and some 6000 years ago the first cities and civilizations were established: in the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates called Mesopotamia, in Egypt by the Nile, in north ern India in the Indus valley, and in China by the Yellow River. There was, in these places, sufficient surplus food to support an army (for protection or depredation) and workers (to build dams and canals and monuments to gods or kings).Travellers and merchants moved from one centre to another, spreading news of any discoveries. The keeping of records and in turn writing, became a necessity; with writing, the calendar became possible.
Numbers and Arithmetic
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The possibility of a calendar just did not exist before the invention of counting and a system to express numbers. Without such an intellectual tool, there is no way of assessing the days in a month or a year, and a calendar is impossible. For calendrical purposes we have the day, the month, and the year, and the passage of time can be marked by counting these events. When man’s ability to count had become sufficiently sophisticated, one supposes that people attempted to assess the number of days in a month, of months in a year, and of days in a year.
The Reform of the Calendar
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Calendars are resistant to change. The kings of Egypt had to swear before they took office that they would not change the calendar; any change in the Jewish calendar requires a meeting of the Great Sanhedrim; the reform of the Christian calendar in 1582 required a papal bull. One possible reason for this apparent sanctity is that calendars are religious objects; they define the times of rites and fasts and festivals. Where there is a calendar there is a religion more often than not; where there is a religion, there is a calendar.
ThCealendars of Babylon and the Near East
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cities and civilization probably first arose in Mesopotamia, in the region fer tilized by the great rivers of the Tigris and Euphrates. Sometime in the fourth millennium BC, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia and the surrounding fertile crescent started to build cities: Eridu, Ur, Babylon, and others.This area, now part oflraq, was ruled by a succession of dynasties from at least 4000 BC.Itis convenient to refer to the inhabitants as Babylonians, though the area extended far beyond that city.
Calendar Conversions
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problem of converting dates from one calendar to another has often been solved by using tables. This is still the only method if the calendar is so ill defined that recourse must be made to contemporary records, as is the case for strictly empirical calendars in which the start of a month or a year, or the deci sion of whether an intercalation is to be made, is determined by observation of the heavens, the seasons, or nature itself Some astronomical calendars (see Chapter 6), such as the Chinese and many Indian calendars, depend on a detailed theory of the behaviour of heav enly bodies, and some, like the Chinese calendar, have suffered innumerable modifications. These theories and modifications are usually not available, and it is beyond the scope of this book to provide algorithms for conversions of these: recourse must again be made to conversion tables.
Mathematical Notes
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The descriptions of the algorithms presented in this section are unavoidably mathematical in character. Nevertheless, I have aimed to keep the algebra and arithmetic as simple as possible. All the numbers involved are whole numbers or integers (with one exception in algorithm H); these may be combined in various ways to yield further integers by addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and remaindering. The evaluation of the equations requires some comment. First you should evaluate expressions within brackets starting with the innermost bracket. To avoid an excessive number of these, a rule of precedence (familiar to computer programmers) has been used: first evaluate multi plications and divisions; only when this has been done should you evaluate additions and subtractions. Multiplication is usually implied in the usual way by writing the symbols for two or more quantities next to one another (but note that in deference to tradition I have used SOL and LUN to stand for single quantities). Invariably in the algorithms, and sometimes elsewhere, multiplication is denoted by*.
ToCalculate the Day of the Week
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are several ways in which you can work out the day of the week of any date in either the Julian or Gregorian calendar. These are generally arithmetic and require us to specify the day of the week by a number. We shall use the tra ditional numbering as shown in TABLE 24.1 (although other numberings have been used from time to time).
AShort History of Easter
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Easter is the time when Christians celebrate their central mystery of the Cru cifixion and Resurrection ofJ esus Christ. The word ‘Easter’ (German, ‘Oster’) itself derives from the name of the old Northern god of the spring, Eostre, but a different word, deriving from the Hebrew for Passover, ‘Pesah’, is used in almost all other European languages and in the English adjective, ‘paschal’. There is no etymological connection between paschal and Christ’s Passion on the Cross.
ThDeate of Easter Sunday
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am reminded of the author who, wishing to know how to calculate the date of Easter, telephoned the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. He was told that those august astronomers consulted the tables at the back of the Prayer Book. This not altogether satisfactory, albeit apocryphal, response prompted this chapter, in which I discuss how the date of Easter Sunday is calculated first according to the Dionysian canon in the Julian Calendar and then according to the Gregorian canon. This involves a discussion of golden numbers and epacts and how these and dominical numbers are used in the calculation. (Dominica! letters and numbers have already been described at length in Chapter 24.)
ABook of Hours
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
St Benedict founded his order of monks in the sixth century. His ‘rule for monks’ required that the praises of God be sung seven times a day-an idea which probably originated from ancient Jewish practices. The times, the canonical hours, at which this should be done came to be known as matins and lauds, prime, tierce, sext, none, vespers and compline. Matins and lauds were sung without break in the middle of the night, with prime following at dawn; tierce, sext, and none followed at regular intervals during daylight (none even tually gave its name to noon); and vespers and compline were executed in the evening. The result was a near continuous hymn of praise. The actual texts to be sung at the canonical hours were taken from, or at least inspired by, the Book of Psalms and copied into the Divinum Officium (the book of the Divine Office).
Energy, environment and economy
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Energy is the source of our lives, environment is the reliance of our lives, and economy is the operation of our lives. EVs can contribute to energy, environment and economy, hence beneficial to our lives (Chan, 2000). Their contributions are due to the improvement in energy security and energy efficiency for transportation, the alleviation of air pollution and noise pollution caused by ICEVs, and the creation of new businesses for supplementing or even replacing ICEVs. In fact, the first impetus for the redevelopment of EVs was due to the energy crisis in the 1970s, whereas the second impetus for the promotion of EVs was due to the goal of environmental protection in the 1990s. It is anticipated that the third impetus for the commercialization of EVs will be due to the economic opportunity in the 2000s.
The Basic Model Of Virus Dynamics
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Traditional epidemiology describes the spread of infectious agents within populations of individuals. Here we turn to the population dynamics of infection at a different level, which happens within the body of an infected individual; we describe how viruses spread from cell to cell. This micro-epidemiology opens up a completely new perspective for understanding infectious diseases. The aim is to reveal the basic laws that govern the spread of infectious agents within individuals, their interaction with the immune system and their response to treatment.
Dynamics Of Hepatitis B Virus
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hepatitis is a general term denoting infection or inflammation of the liver. The most notable sign of liver disease, jaundice, is already described in ancient medical sources such as the Babylonian Talmud or the writings of Hippocrates. There are several different viruses that can cause hepatitis. In this chapter, we focus on the hepatitis B virus (HBV).
How Fast Do Immune Responses Eliminate Infected Cells?
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In order to understand the role of the immune system in limiting HIV-1 replication, it is critical to know to what extent the rapid turnover of productively infected cells is caused by viral cytopathicity or by immune-mediated lysis. In this chapter, we show data that many HIV-1 infected patients contain cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) that lyse target cells in vitro – at plausible CTL to target ratios – with half-lives of less than 1 day. In 23 patients with CD4 counts ranging from 10 to 900 per µl, the average rate of CTL mediated lysis corresponds to a target cell half-life of0.7 days. We develop mathematical models to calculate the turnover rate of infected cells subjected to immune-mediated lysis and viral cytopathicity and to estimate the fraction of cells which are killed by CTL as opposed to virus. The models provide new interpretations of drug treatment dynamics and explain the otherwise puzzling fact that the observed rate of virus decline is roughly constant for different patients. We conclude that in HIV-1 infection CTL-mediated lysis can reduce virus load by limiting virus production, with small effects on the half-life of infected cells.
What Is A Quasispecies?
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The word quasispecies is a mystery for most biologists, possibly because it was invented by chemists. In the 1970s, Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster developed a chemical theory for the origin of life. They described how populations of RNA molecules could reproduce themselves. They noted that the spontaneous chemical reproduction of such comparatively simple molecules was much less accurate than the genetic replication of any organism currently alive. The first proliferation of biological information was thus an extremely error-prone process, compared to the more accurate replication mechanisms which appear in modern cells. Random events would lead to mutations. The reproduction of such molecules by base-pairing is not completely accurate, so a certain degree of mismatching is to be expected. Consequently a population of RNA molecules that was the result of such an inaccurate replication process would not be absolutely homogeneous, but a mixture of RNA molecules with different nucleotide sequences.
Wigglers and undulators
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was mentioned in Chapter 2 that particularly intense and tightly collimated synchrotron radiation can be produced by special magnets consisting of a periodic series of short bending magnets (Fig. 2.7). Such magnets are termed ‘wigglers’ and ‘undulators’. In Section 8.2 we will discuss when a magnet of this kind is a wiggler and when it is an undulator, but to begin with we will not make any distinction between the two types and will talk generally about W/U magnets.
Introduction
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pour a bottle of beer. Restraining your thirst for the moment, admire its lively performance. One by one, bubbles of gas are nucleated, rise and crowd together at the surface. A foam, or froth, is quickly formed.1 Most of the liquid drains away, leaving the bubbles packed closely together in the form of elegant polyhedral cells. If you wait long enough you may see the structure change, as gas diffuses between the cells. This gradual change is punctuated by sudden local rearrangements. In most brands of beer it is quickly overtaken by the collapse of the foam, as its individual films burst. Drink it in time, and you can feel that the foam is not quite a liquid. Paradoxically, it is a very soft solid, creamy in texture if the bubbles are small. Cheers †.
Making foams
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I do not suppose that there is any one in this room who has not occasionally blown a common soap bubble, and while admiring the perfection of its form, and the marvellous brilliancy of its colours, wondered how it is that such a magnificent object can be so easily produced.
Boys’ comment aptly extends to the making of foams. While their production − the subject of this chapter − is a simple matter, the result is of fascinating complexity.
Electrical conduction in a foam
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Things should be made as simple as possible but not any simpler.
A. Einstein
The electrical conductivity σf of a liquid foam is a good measure of its liquid fraction. If it is divided by the conductivity of the bulk liquid, σ1, the resulting relative conductivity σ is found to be primarily a function of Φl
Forces, energies, and timescales in condensed matter
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Condensed matter is held together by intermolecular forces; the strength and range of these forces determine the bulk, macroscopic properties of matter. In a solid, each molecule is locked into a definite location on a crystal lattice as a result of these intermolecular bonds; there is a direct relationship between the energy of the bonds and the stiffness of the material. In a liquid, molecules are also held together by intermolecular forces in a state of high density, but in contrast to a solid the molecules are not locked rigidly into well-defined positions on a lattice. Instead, a mol cule’s position relative to its neighbours changes on a certain characteristic relaxation time which itself is determined by the way the random, thermal motion of the molecules is modified by the intermolecular forces. It is this relaxation time that determines how easily the liquid will flow when a stress is applied. In this chapter we will discuss the relationship between the bulk properties of matter, such as its response to an externally applied stress, and the forces acting between its component molecules. One of our main tasks in this chapter is to establish the difference between solids and liquids. This difference is clear for many simple substances, but we shall see that in soft matter the distinction may be less clear-cut. Characteristic relaxation times for soft matter often fall into a range of values easily discernible to the human senses, and these materials seem to behave in a way that is neither entirely solid-like or entirely liquid-like–they are viscoelastic. In many systems, as the temperature is lowered the relaxation times increase dramatically, with the appearance of tending to infinity at some finite temperature. This divergence of the relaxation time leads to a non-equilibrium state of matter–a glass–in which a liquid-like lack of order is combined with solid-like elastic properties.
Phase transitions
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Soft matter often has a very rich and complicated morphology; rather than having a simple structure its components can be arranged in a complicated way, involving features at length scales intermediate between the atomic and the macroscopic. Examples will be discussed in detail in later chapters, and include block copolymer morphologies, soap morphologies, and emulsions. The remarkable feature of these structures is that they put themselves together in very complicated arrangements without outside assistance – they self-assemble. Understanding self-assembly involves understanding phase transitions and their kinetics. This is important for soft condensed matter, but much of what we need to know applies also to simpler kinds of matter too, and our discussion and examples will not be restricted to soft matter.