bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The International System Of Units (Si Units) 1
Authors: Salisbury Frank B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As modern science came into being, it depended more and more upon the accurate measurement of physical quantities. Such measurement requires a system of standards that is recognized and accepted by all those who would communicate their measurements to each other. In response to this need, the metric system of measurement was devised during the French Revolution (1789 to 1799). It was an attempt to devise a decimal system of measures that would simplify and unify calculations. Nearly a century later, recognizing the need to further improve the system, the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) was set up by the Convention du Metre signed in Paris in 1875 by seventeen States; the Convention was amended in 1921. The task of the BIPM is to ensure worldwide unification of physical measurements. It operates in offices and laboratories in Sevres, near Paris, France, under supervision of the Comite International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), which consists of 18 members, each from a different State. The CIPM itself comes under the authority of the Conference Generate des Poids et Mesures (CGPM), which consists of delegates from all the Member States (46 States in March, 1991) of the Convention du Metre. The CGPM meets at present every four years, but the CIPM meets every year.
Water Relations
Authors: Dainty Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In organisms in general, but particularly in plants, the movement of water is of special importance. Its movement by diffusion or bulk flow follows the same thermodynamic principles as the movement of other substances, but its prevalence in living systems has provided an impetus for special study and for a special set of terms and measurements. At present, authors of technical papers use one or the other of the two ways of expressing the solute effect on the chemical potential of water: the osmotic pressure or osmotic (solute) potential. Osmotic pressure, which expresses the effect of solutes as a positive number with dimensions of pressure, is the traditional approach, but osmotic potential, which considers the solute effect as a component of the water potential, expresses the effect as a negative number, usually also with dimensions of pressure (see Chapter 4 on thermodynamics). In spite of tradition, the concept of potentials seems most logical from the standpoint of thermodynamics, which is the basis for the universally accepted concept of water potential. In the following summary of recommended symbols and units, both approaches are presented, but the use of potentials is strongly encouraged.
Plant Molecular Biology And Gene Designations
Authors: Reardon Ellen M , Waksman Carl A Price 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The words defined in this section represent terminology common to molecular biology integrated with certain phrases useful in biochemistry, microbiology, and genetics. A few terms are defined within other definitions; these are also printed in boldfaced type. Words in italics are themselves defined elsewhere although italics may also be used for scientific names and even for emphases.
Growth Analysis And Yield Components
Authors: Bugbee Bruce G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Plant growth analysis values and yield components can easily and conveniently be expressed with SI units, and yet SI units are often incorrectly used to report these measurements. Like many units reported in the literature, the reasons are historical. A major reference book on the subject of plant growth analysis (Hunt, 1982) used metric and not SI units. However, a recent update of this book (Hunt, 1990) is now consistent with SI rules, except for the use of non-base units in the denominator (mg, weeks), which could be avoided (see Chapter 1). The widespread use of the hectare as a unit of area has caused this unit to remain allowable in many applied agricultural journals, but its use creates a communication barrier between basic and applied researchers that could be resolved if both groups used the SI unit for area: m2 .
Real Rights and Duties
Authors: Wellman Carl 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have examined in some detail various ways in which judicial reasoning, moral reasoning, and even broadly practical reasoning can resolve alleged conflicts of rights. What this reasoning shows is that although some of these conflicts are real, others are merely apparent and some entirely illusory. It also typically enables us to reach one of three conclusions about the rights alleged to be in conflict: that at least one of the alleged rights is unreal; that although both rights are real, one or both are limited so that they do not conflict in the case at issue; or that both rights are real and they really do conflict. Of these conclusions, the first and third are of greatest importance for any theory of rights.
The Mind-Relativity of Content
Authors: Rocca Michael Della 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As I mentioned near the end of the previous chapter, Spinoza’s containment thesis—the claim that the ideas in my mind are numerically identical with certain ideas in God’s mind—underlies a claim about the mind-relativity of content. In particular, the containment thesis underlies Spinoza’s view that the content of an idea insofar as it is in God’s mind differs from the content of that very same idea insofar as it is in the human mind. In this chapter, I will show that this is indeed Spinoza’s view by defending particular interpretations of Spinoza’s claims about representation in God’s mind and in the human mind. In chapters 4 and 5, I will trace Spinoza’s reasons for espousing the mind-relativity of content and certain other, related aspects of his theory of representation.
I should note that, in this and subsequent chapters, when I speak of ideas as representing things, I will be assuming the view, defended in chapter 1, that the representative items in question are psychological states and not mere logical entities, such as propositions.
Complete Associationism: Archibald Alison
Authors: Dickie George 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I shall begin my discussion of Archibald Alison’s complicated and elaborately presented theory with a summary description of his account of the experience of taste. I hope this characterization will help the reader get a clear idea of a theory of heroic, Rube Goldbergian intricacy. In presenting this abbreviated account, I shall be following Alison, who summarizes his theory in a brief introduction to his Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790). He understands experiences of taste to be either experiences of beauty or experiences of sublimity.
Alison’s theory of taste is developed, as are Hutcheson’s and Gerard’s, within the framework of Locke’s scheme of mind and perception. According to the Lockean account, characteristics of the external world cause ideas (objects of perception) to occur in a person’s experience (in the mind). Experience is conceived of as a collection of ideas.
Moral Dilemmas and Rights
Authors: Sinnott-Armstrong Walter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is pointless to argue about whether moral dilemmas are possible unless the arguers agree about what a moral dilemma is. It doesn’t help to define moral dilemmas in terms that are unclear or disputed. It also doesn’t help to ask which definition of “moral dilemma” is the correct one: “Moral dilemma” is a technical term in these contexts, and different philosophers use it to refer to different kinds of situations. Thus, the only reasonable approach is to construct a series of definitions and ask which of these kinds of situations are possible. That is what I will do here. I hope that we will find general agreement on which kinds of situations are possible. If so, then we can move beyond verbal disputes and ask more interesting questions about whether and how the possibilities that do exist are important for moral theory.
The Moral Dilemmas Debate
Authors: Mothersill Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The question under debate is whether there are any moral dilemmas, that is, any “real” or “genuine” ones as distinct from those that are “merely apparent.” Some—call them the “pro-Ds”—say that there are and draw the consequences for ethical theory; others say that there are not—call them the “rationalists”—and draw a different set of consequences. The question itself, with its epistemological overtones, may strike us as odd. A stick that is really straight is one that would look bent in water even if it is never put in water. A genuine dilemma is one that, given the right conditions, would appear to be . . . appear to be what? Neither the pro-Ds nor the rationalists put the question quite this way: they start from the appearances and go on to present their respective views about whether there is, so to speak, such a thing as the genuine article. We should begin by asking what it takes to be as much as a candidate, that is, what we understand by “moral dilemma.” Everyone agrees on certain requirements: an agent in a dilemma has to choose between conflicting obligations, each of which is supported by strong, ordinarily decisive reasons. He cannot discharge both obligations, but failure on either count would be morally wrong.
Epilogue: Save the Last Dance for Me
Authors: Flanagan Owen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When it is over, when the bell tolls, when time is out on this life, I want it to be just the two of us, you and me, face to face, one on one. Possibly there will be no time to think about it-this life, and its meaning, that is. Perhaps there will be time. But it will, if we are lucky, be just the two of us: me thinking about you-where “you” are the way this life has been, has gone, and where “I” am this thinking thing looking back at you over an instant, ‘jumping-jack-flash”-a moment, only a moment ahead of you. Perhaps we should do this sooner, this dance, maybe even on a regular basis, since there might be, as I’ve said, no chance in reality for that last dance with each other, not at least the way I am envisaging it.
Optical Rheometry of Complex Fluids
Authors: Fuller Gerald G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book provides a self-contained presentation of optical methods used to measure the structure and dynamics of complex fluids subject to the influence of external fields. Such fields (hydrodynamic, electric and magnetic) are commonly encountered in both academic and industrial research, and can produce profound changes in the microscale properties of liquids comprised of polymers, colloids, liquid crystals or surfactants. Starting with the basic Maxwell field equations, this book and Mueller calculus, and then covers the transmission, reflection and scattering of light in anisotropic materials. Spectroscopic interactions with orientated sytems such as absorptive dichroism, small wide angle light scattering, and Raman scattering are discussed. Applications of these methods to a wide range of problems in complex fluid dynamics and structure are presented, along with selected case studies on particular studies chosen to elucidate the range of techniques and materials that can be studied.
Transmission by Anisotropic Media: The Jones and Mueller Calculus
Authors: Fuller Gerald G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The majority of polarizing elements used to design optical rheometers, and most sample geometries in optical rheometry, involve transmission of light through anisotropic materials. This interaction will generally induce a transformation in the polarization. Throughout this monograph, only linear transformations will be considered, and, in this case, matrix operations conveniently describe the behavior of optical elements. Two calculus procedures have been developed for this purpose for both the Jones and Stokes vectors and are described in this chapter. Using these techniques, the analysis of optical trains can proceed in a systematic, straightforward manner.
Reflection and Refraction of Light: Ellipsometry
Authors: Fuller Gerald G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Light reflected or refracted from a planar interface will be altered in its phase and amplitude. Measurement of the transfonnation of light following such an interaction can be used to characterize physical properties of the interface. If a thin film is contained at the surface between two media, for example, its refractive index and thickness can be determined. Polarimetry methods used to measure the electric vector emitted in the process of reflection or refraction are commonly referred to as ellipsometry, although, in principle, this term can be used interchangeably with polarimetry to describe any technique used to measure the polarization properties of light. In this chapter, the analysis of light interactions with planar interfaces containing any number of stratified thin films is discussed. The treatment of this topic is necessarily brief, and the monograph by Azzam and Bashara [5] is recommended for a more detailed discussion of ellipsometry.
Total Intensity Light Scattering
Authors: Fuller Gerald G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When light intercepts an obstacle it will be scattered, and measurement of the amplitude and polarization properties of the scattered light at various angles relative to the incident beam can provide important structural and dynamic information about a material. Figure describes the basic light scattering experiment. Incident light with an electric field Ei is incident on a scattering object and scatters light Es at a scattering angle 0 relative to the incident light direction. The wave vectors ki and ks define the propagation direction of the incident and scattering fields. The vector X specifies the point of measurement. The vector x’ scales with the size of the scattering object.
Some Conceptions of Public Justification
Authors: D’Agostino Fred 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It will be helpful, in order to consolidate the largely taxonomic work of the previous chapter, to consider some concrete exemplars of the concept of public justification — some conceptions of this concept. I will therefore first give some brief descriptions of the. conceptions of a number of important contemporary theorists and then, in each case, try to locate the conception in terms of the various dimensions that I have just identified. It will transpire that these dimensions are not neutral or inert from an ethico-political point of view. (See sec. 20.) We can therefore expect one of the polar types to have characteristics that differ from those of the other such type and in ways that are significant from the point of view of the project of public justification. The taxonomic work of this chapter will thus provide a basis for discovering, in Chapter 6, how these various conceptions fare with respect to the ideal of public justification.
Overarching Principles and Perspectives?
Authors: D’Agostino Fred 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I claim to have established a case for the essential contestability of the concept of public justification, and so for the insolubility of the problem of public justification, and so for the failure of the liberal project of legitimation.
There is good reason to believe that there are multiple independent desiderata associated with the ideal of public justification and to believe that, in many cases, satisfaction of one, say moralistic, desideratum means, ipso facto, inadequate performance with respect to other, particularly realistic, desiderata. Such a prima facie case for the contestability thesis could be overcome were we able to discover or construct some “further overarching principle and perspective from which these[desiderata] can be put into [some] ... objective balance.”
Tlie Lively Arts and Cultural Criticism Revitalized
Authors: Kammen Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The astonishing vitality that we customarily associate with American culture during the 1920s sprang primarily from the popular arts. Theatrical productions and musical revues on Broadway, but elsewhere as well, blended the exuberant energies of new music, lyrics, comedy routines, and interpretive dance. Although such entertainments were deemed unworthy of careful assessment by serious critics at the time, a few among the newer cohort did pay attention (and generally applauded) what was happening on stage, in film, in nightclubs, and on occasion, in public spaces for celebratory or civic purposes. George Jean Nathan, Matthew Josephson, Marsden Hartley, and Gilbert Seldes come promptly to mind.
“It Was a Good Time for Magazine Writers”
Authors: Kammen Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although Seldes discovered his distinctive medium and fashioned his own stylistic voice during the years from 1923 until 1926, the next phase of his career (1927–30) would be rather different in terms of its focus, output, and above all, the clarification and ripening of his views as a cultural critic. In The 7 Lively Arts, for example, he had written, “Faced with the vast myths of the American pasts, our poets simply haven’t found the medium for projecting them.” That remark resonates with observations that Van Wyck Brooks had been making for a decade, and might well have been written by Brooks. Seven months later, however, Seldes noticed strong tendencies toward “artistic chauvinism” in Brooks, and more important still, observed that Brooks needed to resolve an ambivalence that Seldes himself had just begun to sort out.
Coming to Terms with Mass Culture
Authors: Kammen Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although this chapter treats the harvest years of Seldes’ career as a cultural critic, the decade of the 1950s, it is necessary to start by dipping back to 1932 when he wrote a semi-serious essay on what he perceived to be a double standard in diverse modes of consumerism. Why had social assumptions developed in such a way that commercial products were not evaluated for the public when they first appeared, yet plays, books, and movies were? Seldes suggested that this made no sense because “we suffer more from the misrepresentation of things we use (and the adulteration of things we eat) than we do from what we see and hear.” After speculating about the origins of the critic’s profession, and especially the ways that it had changed during the previous century, Seldes expressed the wish that artists and manufacturers might exchange places. “Then we would choose our movies and our radio programs by luck, and have a Coffee Critic and a Mattress Expert to tell us what to buy in the stores.”
“That Oldest Human Longing”: The Erotics of Talk in Their Eyes Were Watching God
Authors: Kaplan Carla 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Reduced to its basic narrative components, Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God is the story of a young woman in search of an orgasm. From the moment Janie is “summoned to behold a revelation” (24) and witnesses the “panting,” “frothing,” “ecstatic,” “creaming” fulfillment of a blossoming pear tree, her quest is set; she wants, as she puts it, “tuh utilize mahself all over” (169). The novel was written in a cultural context of multiple sanctions against any representation of black female sexuality. Nonetheless, Hurston’s description of Janie’s “revelation” is one of the sexiest passages in American literature:
It was a spring afternoon in West Florida. Janie had spent most of the day under a blossoming pear tree in the back-yard ... she was stretched on her back beneath the pear tree soaking in the alto chant of the visiting bees, the gold of the sun and the panting breath of the breeze when the inaudible voice of it all came to her.
The Handicap Principle
Authors: Zahavi Amotz Avishag 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The handicap principle, first proposed by Zahavi about 17 years ago, has in the past several years become widely accepted as a central unifying theory explaining many previously baffling aspects of animal signalling and communication. It is arguably the most important theoretical advance in animal behaviour in recent years. Basically, the theory states that to be effective, signals must be reliable, and to be reliable, they must be costly to the signaller. This fundamental insight is then developed to explain and illuminate much of animal and human behaviour - why the peacock’s tail is so ornate, and why antelope will spend energy stetting or leaping into the air, when they see a predator, instead of running away, but also how humans test each others’ commitment by imposing burdens during courtship. Signals are paid attention to only if the signal itself imposes a handicap on the signaller that would make cheating impossible or unprofitable, This book explores the very wide-ranging implications of the handicap principle, for predator-prey relations, sexual selection, parent-offspring relations, coalitions and alliances, and the persistence of altruism, in animals and also in human societies and intercellular signalling within multicellular organisms.
Communication Between Rivals
Authors: Zahavi Amotz Avishag 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rivals rarely attack each other without first signaling their intentions. Most of the time, they do not attack at all, and the conflict between them is resolved by an exchange of threats. These signals come in many forms: singing, aerial displays, electric pulses (in the electric eel), puffs of noxious chemicals, posturing. The song of the nightingale advertises the bird’s readiness to defend its territory and deters its rivals. Red deer walk side by side and roar. Fish swim in parallel to one another, extending their fins.
The Use Of Color For Showing Off
Authors: Zahavi Amotz Avishag 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Color may camouflage an animal, in which case its benefits are obvious and need no explanation. Color may also affect heat absorption or reflection. There are cases in which coloring itself signals health, as do the red of cocks’ combs, the color of human lips, and similar structures that show off blood circulation, and the color of flamingoes and other birds that get their hue from foods rich in carotenoids. Carotenoids are active molecules and can cause damage within the body; we speculate that high levels of carotenoids in the blood at the time the bird is growing its feathers may well be a handicap that can be sustained only by a high-quality bird.
Parents And Offspring
Authors: Zahavi Amotz Avishag 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A parent and a child are the simplest reproductive coalition there is. At first glance, it seems obvious that both parent and child have the same interest: the good of the child. But if that is so, why are there so many conflicts between parents and children? According to Trivers, the picture is less simple than it first appears. The child’s interest is to take care of itself, while the parent has to take care of other offspring as well. The child aims to get from its parent whatever it can get, even if the parent shortchanges and perhaps even loses its other offspring. The parent wants the child to succeed, but only if its investment in that one child does not reduce the total number of successful, reproducing offspring it can have.
Classical Form
Authors: Caplin William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Building on ideas first advanced by Arnold Schoenberg and later developed by Erwin Ratz, this book introduces a new theory of form for instrumental music in the classical style. The theory provides a broad set of principles and a comprehensive methodology for the analysis of classical form, from individual ideas, phrases, and themes to the large-scale organization of complete movements. It emphasizes the notion of formal function, that is, the specific role a given formal unit plays in the structural organization of a classical work.