bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Natural hybridization and species concepts
Authors: Arnold Michael L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Is not the species concept that the species includes all individuals that together are capable of producing completely fertile offspring, and must we not then consider groups whose individuals can produce new species by hybridization as partial groups of one species? (Hennig, 1966) Although the definition of hybridization used in this book is independent of species concepts, most studies of natural hybridization have used frameworks that reflect certain concepts. Even a cursory examination of the relevant scientific literature reveals a close association between these studies and debates concerning the nature of species and the process of speciation. Indeed, natural hybridization has alternatively been described as unimportant or of profound importance in plant and animal evolution based largely on the researcher’s underlying definition of species (Mayr, 1963; Wagner, 1970; Anderson and Stebbins, 1954; Arnold, 1992; Dowling and DeMarais, 1993). For example, it has been argued that the formation of new evolutionary lineages through hetero-specific hybridization is insignificant (or nonexistent) because species are completely reproductively isolated (“Biological Species Concept”; Mayr, 1963) or because new lineages cannot be polyphyletic in origin (“Phylogenetic Species Concept”; Hennig, 1966; Mishler and Donoghue, 1982; Cracraft, 1989; see Nixon and Wheeler, 1990, for another variant of the PSC). In contrast, it has been estimated that from 30% to 70% of all angiosperm species are polyploid relative to one of their ancestral lineages (Grant, 1981; Ehrlich and Wilson, 1991; Whitham et al., 1991; Masterson, 1994). Furthermore, it has been suggested that most of the occurrences of polyploidy in angiosperms reflect allo-polyploidy (Fig. 2.1) and that the allopolyploid derivatives have originated largely from crosses between different species or genera (Whitham et al., 1991).
Duration of Sympatry and Coevolution between the Great Spotted Cuckoo (Clamator glandarius) and Its Primary Host, the Magpie (Pica pica)
Authors: Soler M , Soler J J , Martinez J G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Avian brood parasitism is an excellent system for studies of coevolution, as the interacting species are few, and often only two (Rothstein 1990). Parasites exploit hosts by laying eggs in their nests, and leaving parental care of the parasitic offspring to the host. The fitness cost of parasitism to hosts is often high because: (1) parasite females, before laying, usually remove or damage at least one host egg; (ii) the parasite young ejects all host offspring or outcompetes most of them for food during the nestling period; and (iii) the host often provides extensive parental care for considerably longer than when hosts provide care for conspecific young (Payne 1977; Rothstein 1990).
Brown-Headed Cowbirds
Authors: Smith James N M , Myers-Smith Isla H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most avian brood parasites use more than one host species (Friedmann 1948, 1960, 1963; Friedmann et al. 1977). Brown-headed and shiny cowbirds (Molothrus ater and M. bonariensis) are extreme generalists among brood parasites, and use a variety of hosts in each habitat and geographic area (Friedmann 1963; Friedmann et al. 1977; Mason 1986; Rothstein 1990). Host use by generalist brood parasites, however, can also vary greatly among areas within a species. Good examples of spatially variable parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird occur in the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus; Friedmann 1963; Robertson and Norman 1977; Facemire 1980; Linz and Bolin 1982; Ortega and Cruz 1988; Weatherhead 1989), and the wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina; Hoover and Brittingham 1993).
I
Authors: Bunson Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
lbhet a site near the Second Cataract of the Nile, south of aswan, where vast quantities of black granite were discovered by the ancient Egyptians. As far back as the 6th Dynasty the quarry there was known to the people of the Nile. By the Middle Kingdom era the Egyptians were active on the site. amenemhet iii (1844–1797 b.c.) fought against the local Nubian inhabitants of Ibhet in the fifth year of his reign. Egypt valued the granite quarried at Ibhet and maintained a fortified operation there.
N
Authors: Bunson Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nakht an official of the 18th Dynasty, serving in the reign of Tuthmosis IV (1401–1391 b.c.). Nakht was a priest-astronomer, one of the trgined sky watchers of the temple who was responsible for giving the charts and information about the various orbits of the heavenly bodies as they affected the seasonal changes of the earth. He was buried at Thebes, and his tomb is famous for the depiction of the blind harper on its walls. (See astronomy, priests.)
O
Authors: Bunson Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
oases important sites in ancient Egypt located in the western desert. They served as trade links to more distant regions and as outposts against periodic invasions. Called wehat, meaning a garden or a green and fertile region, the oases were a source of crops such as dates and grapes. Oases were also places of refuge. When kamose (1550 b.c.) of the 17th Dynasty began his military campaigns against the alien hyksos in the northern territories, he and his armies used the various oases as hiding places. They were able to move within striking distance of the enemy with out being detected.
Multicommodity Network Flow Problems
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
However, the production and distribution of commodities is entirely unorganized so that everybody must live in fear of being eliminated from the economic cycle, in this way suffering from the want of everything.I trust that posterity will read these statements with a feeling of proud and justified superiority. The movement of some commodity between two points on a network can be represented using network flow models. Such models are prevalent in the real world; and the transportation of products over a railroad system is the prototypical example of a network flow problem. Other examples include the transportation of messages over a telecommunications network, the transmission of electricity over a power distribution grid, the scheduling of water releases through a hydroelectric power generation network of dams and pipelines, the transfer of funds between bank accounts,the exchange of funds among different currencies, and so on. Occasionally, multiple but distinct commodities share the resources of a common underlying network and the resulting models become more complicated. A common example is the movement of traffic along a highway system, where vehicles with different destinations and of different sizes share the same roads.
Integrating the Components of Imagery
Authors: Intons-Peterson Margaret Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What is imagery? At the moment, I define it as sensory-perceptual memory with spatial extent. That is, I propose that we learn to label as imagery those memories that have salient sensory-perceptual and spatial features. This chapter surveys support for the components of this definition. It also examines two major lines of research that have shaped current views of imagery. Thus, the chapter begins with a brief historical overview of the definition’s genealogy plus observations about why some potential components have been omitted. This evaluation, then, will consider evidence for what imagery is not as well as what it is. Next, I will offer a framework for imagery that embraces linguistic components, rather than minimizing them, and will examine some research in light of implications of the framework. Questions about imagery echo from the distant past, often with persistent currency. Is imagery a separate cognitive system? Are images simply faint reflections of percepts or sensations? Most important, what are images? Do they represent bona fide phenomena, unique and distinct from other processes? Accompanying these questions are doubts about the concept of imagery. Such reservations come from different quarters, with philosophers occasionally denying the existence of images and psychologists offering occasionally dismissive explanations for the experiences of imagery.
C
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
CABIRI Spirits of the underworld, perhaps of a volcanic nature; formed the heart of a cult centered in Asia that grew to immense popularity in the Late Empire. They were said to protect mankind against storms and hence were beneficial to all travelers. The cult appealed to all walks of life, and its centers of worship were mainly in Asia. Pergamum possessed an altar in their honor, although S,3mothrace was known as an important site, even the capital of the sect. Boeotia was a favorite place for the faithful, as were Phrygia and Thessalonica. Mysteries and initiations were widespread, and all classes were eligible. By 400 A.O., the Cabiri had faded. See also RELIGION. CAECINA ALIENUS, AULUS (d. 79 A.D.) Legate of the IV Legion on the Rhine; in 69 A.O., with Fabius Vale11s, led the movement to install Vitellius as emperor. Caecina was born at Volaterrae, serving in Boeotia as a quaestor. f le acquired the patronage of Galba and soon was promoted to legate. Galba convicted him for misappropriation of funds, but he gained a command from Nero on the Rhine. From the start of Galba’s brief reign in 69 A.D., Caecina a11d his loyal troops were reluctant to support the new emperor. Soon his statues were broken, and open rebellion ensued. Vitellius, it was decided, should be emperor, and the legions along the entire Rhine frontier set off for Italy. Otho, meanwhile, succeeded the assassinated Galba and in tum became the object of the legion’s mutiny. While Valens pillaged much of Gaul, Caecina crossed Switzerland, encountering troubles with the local tribes. The Helvetii were massacred in the thousands, and only Vitellius himself prevented the destruction of Aventicum, the Helvetian capital. By March the legions of Caecina had descended the Great St. Bernard Pass. On April 15, at the battle of BEORIACUM, the Vitellians won the Empire. Caecina shared in the subsequent division of spoils.
D
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
DACIA A rugged, mountainous land located north of the Danube River in the areas of present-day Transylvania and eastern Hungary. Dacia became a target for Roman strategic interests and, despite the fierce opposition of its native people, served as an imperial province from around 106 to 271 A. D. The Dacians probably came from a Thracian stock and moved into the region sometime in the 7th or 6th century B.c. They were joined by the Getae, with whom they shared certain cultural and linguistic similarities. The Dacians warred with their neighbors, especially the Getae, but a certain geographic isolation allowed them to survive often catastrophic struggles and to retain dominance. Situated south of the Carpathian Mountains, they developed an identifiable culture, and by the 1st century B.C. they were the leading tribe of the region. A stable leadership was all that the Dacians required for greatness. Around 61 B.c., Burebista emerged as the king of the Dacians. He organized and improved the socio-economic coalition of the people and launched a vast campaign of conquest against the surrounding chiefdoms and clans. Burebista destroyed the Boii, the Taurisci and the Bastarnae before ravaging Thrace and threatening the entire Danube and Black Sea territories. His success brought Dacia not only to the attention of Rome but also into direct involvement in its politics, when Pompey sought the king as an ally in 48 B.c. Julius CAESAR was certainly aware of the growing menace presented by Burebista and planned an expedition against him. Both rulers were assassinated, however, in 44 B.c. The Dacian kingdom fell apart amid turmoil and civil strife. Octavian (AUGUSTUS) nevertheless worried about the frontier and possible alliances between Marc ANTONY and the Dacians.
Q
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
QUADI A Germanic tribe of Suebi racial stock, situated in the area of the Main River late in the 1st century B.C. Moving into southeastern Germany, they came into contact with the MARCOMANNI, IAZYGES and other minor peoples, such as the Osi. Subsequently, they developed close ties with both the Marcomanni and Iazyges while estab1.shing themselves as a powerful tribal state. Under their chief, Vannius, the Quadi exercised considerable influence rover the western Danubian frontier in the first half of the 1st century A.D. Around 50 A.D., however, Vannius and the Quadi were assailed by a barbarian confederation of the HERMUNDURI, Lugii and others. Vannius fell in battle while countering two usurpers, his nephews Vangis and Sido. They broke apart the Quadi, as large elements of Vannius’ supporters fled to the Romans and were settled· in PANNONIA. Henceforth the Quadi displayed hostility· coward Rome. A war was fought with Emperor DOMITIAN, .and the Quadi were a leading force in the MARCOMANNIC WARS in the 2nd century. MARCUS AURELIUS inflicted a terrible defeat upon them in 174. By the end of the 4th century, the Quadi were part of the other Germanic states on ·the march into the Roman Empire. They probably traveled, with the VANDALS into Spain.
R
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
RABIRIUS (fl. late 1st century A.O.) Architect whose masterpiece of design was produced at the order of Emperor Domitian, who hired him to create the DOMUS FLAVIA. He was a friend of MARTIAL. RADAGAISUS (d. 406 A.D.) Barbarian ruler of a loose confederation of tribes, mostly composed of VANDALS, who led two invasions of imperial provinces in the West, in 401 and 405 A.D.. The first onslaught by Radagaisus came at the same time that ALARIC and the Visigoths were threatening Italy and Rome. Advancing into Raetia and Noricum, Radagaisus was attached by the MAGISTER MILITUM. STILICHO and thoroughly defeated. The crushed tribes withdrew and even had to supply auxiliaries for use against Alaric. In 405, Radagaisus returned, with large elements of OSTROGOTHS. Ignoring the Danubian provinces, the host descended on Italy via Aquileia; they then split up into columns, the largest under Radagaisus. Stilicho once more devised a suitable strategy, massacring the barbarians. Throughout late 405 and 406 the forces of Radagaisus were ground down and destroyed until he was captured and executed in August 406. See also POLLENTIA. RADAMISTUS OF IBERIA (d. 58 A.D.) Son of King PHARASMANES of Iberia. By 51 A.O., Radamistus was eager to have his own throne, and Pharasmanes, hoping to avoid losing his own kingdom, pointed his son toward MITHRIDATES (1) of Armenia, Pharasmanes’ own brother. Feigning an argument with his father, Radamistus fled to Mithridates but returned, unable to bring down that king through conspiracies. Gathering an army he invaded Armenia, besieging his uncle at Garneae. Through bribery of local Roman officials, Radamistus lured Mithridates out and had him killed. Assuming the throne, the new monarch of Armenia found himself under attack by his own subjects. Without support from his father, who had to balance himself politically with Rome and Parthia, Radamistus fled the country, abandoning his own wife. In 58, as an act of good faith to Nero, Pharasmanes put Radamistus to death.
S
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
SABINA, VIBIA (d. after 128 A.o.) Empress from 117 to 136, the wife of HADRIAN. Sabina was the daughter of L. Vibius and Matidia, and granddaughter of MARCIANA, the sister of Emperor TRAJAN. Although Trajan apparently did not approve, Empress Plotina, in 100, organized Hadrian’s marriage to Sabina. Hadrian was thus positioned perfectly to succeed Trajan as emperor and, in 117, Sabina became empress. Although she was made Augusta in 128, Sabina had a reputation for faithlessness. Hadrian reportedly ousted Septicius Claros, Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, and Suetonius Tranquillus, an imperial secretary, because of their overly familiar attitude toward the empress. He supposedly once said that had he been a private citizen he would have sent her away. However, upon her death, sometime after 128, she was given full honors. There was a rumor that she had been poisoned. SABINIANS Members of one of the two important schools of LAW in Rome during the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. The Sabinians took their name from Masurius SABINUS but later were known as Cassians after Sabinus’ student, CASSIUS LONGINUS. Sabinian views were based on the teachings of Gaius Ateius CAPITO, Sabinus’ instructor and an adherent of conservatism in the reign of Augustus (27 B.c.-14 A.D.). Among the few characteristics discernable in the attitude of the Sabinians was a legal conservatism reflecting their founder. In opposition to the Sabinians were the PROCULEANS. A rivalry between the schools lasted well into the 2nd century, when they were united. The most famous head of the Sabinians was Salvius Julianus.
U
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
UBII Germanic tribe living on the east bank of the Rhine. The Ubii had had good relations with Julius CAESAR, but in 37 B.C., unable to withstand the incessant conflicts with the neighboring Germans, they asked Marcus AGRIPPA for permission to settle on Roman lands. Agrippa agreed, and the Ubii were transported over the Rhine to the area around what was later called Civitas Ubiorum. A colony founded there by Rome, Colonia Agrippinensis (COLOGNE), con­ tributed to the Romanization of the tribesmen, who took to naming themselves the Agrippenses. ULDIN (d.c. 412 A.D.) One of the leading chieftains of the HUNS beyond the Danube during the reign of ARCADOIUS (394-408) and into that of THEODOSIUS n (c. 395-412), although he probably did not have total control of the Hunnic people. Uldin was first known to the imperial government in December 400, when he lopped off the head of a troublesome Roman minister, Gainas, and sent it to the emperor as a gift. Five years later, the Huns con­ tributed troops, including their client Sciri, to the cause of the MAGISTER MILITUM, STILICHO, against the Visigoths’ King ALARIC. An invasion of MOESIA around 408 was repulsed, with thousands of Uldin’s Germanic allies falling into Ro­ man hands. Uldin retreated. Upon his death around four years later, the Huns were divided into three great camps. ULFILA (c. 311-383 A.D.) Also known as Ulphila and Ulphilas; bishop of the GOTHS and one of the first Christian missionaries to preach to the barbarians. Ulfila was de­ scended from a Christian Cappodocian who had been captured by the Goths, and he was born surrounded by Goths and became adept at their language. Educated at CON­ STANTINOPLE, around 341 he was consecrated a bishop by EUSEBIUS of Constantinople (formerly the bishop of NICO­ MEDIA). He proselytized to the peoples beyond the Roman Empire, eventually returning to the Goths settled along the Danube.
Y
Authors: Bunson Matthew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
YAZDAGIRD I (d. 420 A.D.) King of PERSIA from 399 to 420, whose reign was noted for its improved relations with CONSTANTINOPLE and its easing of Christian persecutions begun under SHAPUR 11. Considered powerful, Yazdagird was declared an honorary guardian to the young Emperor THEODOSIUS II in the will of ARCADIUS upon his death in 408. Yazdagird’s willingness to protect the dynastic stability of the emperors was taken as a sign of improved relations between ROME and Persia, and in 409 an attempt was made to reestablish trading ties. CHRISTIANITY was allowed to flourish in Persian lands, especially AR· MENIA, until the Christian clergy attempted widescale conversions and was suppressed harshly, ending the brief detente in 420. Yazdagird marched off to war but died on the way. His son VARAHRAN v succeeded him. YAZDAGIRD D (d. 457 A.D.) King of PERSIA from 438 to 457, succeeding VARAHRAN v to the throne. He soon made incursions into the Roman portions of ARMENIA until bought off probably by the MAGISTER MILITUM, ASPAR. Henceforth his reign was characterized by chronic troubles in Armenia, where the Christians refused to be converted to Persian Zoroastrianism and fought to the death. These pockets of resistance, however, could not entice CONSTAN· TINOPLE into widening hostilities, mainly because of the threats from the HUNS in the West.
Ecological Experiments Scale, Phenomenology, Mechanism, and the Illusion of Generality
Authors: Dunham Arthur E , Beaupre Steven J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In attempting to understand the distribution and abundance of organisms, ecologists often seek general organizing principles to aid in understanding and predicting the responses of populations to environmental variation. The principle goal of this essay is to clarify the concept of generality in ecology. We are motivated by the perception that many ecologists attempt to generalize both theory and experimental results beyond specific experimental systems. In some cases, this generalization may be justified; in others, it is not. We believe that ecology as a science will benefit from an open discussion regarding the nature of and limits to generality. To this end, we (1) discuss the nature of ecological processes and their implications for epistemology and generality; (2) discuss concepts of generality and provide a mechanism-based definition; (3) offer a definition and several examples of mechanism, a concept that is central to generality; and, finally, (4) illustrate our position with a discussion of the role of mechanisms in ecological inquiry and with several examples. We emphasize at the outset that our discussions of specific research programs are meant solely to foster constructive discussion of issues related to generality in ecology.
The Interplay Between Natural History and Field Experimentation
Authors: Polis Gary A , Wise David H , Hurd Stephen D , Sanchez-Pinero Francisco , Wagner James D , Jackson Christopher Todd , Barnes Joseph D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern ecology can be considered the “new natural history.” It emerged from the fusion of elements from classical natural history and physiology (McIntosh 1985) and is the progeny of the marriage of two nineteenth-century traditions: the systematic, detailed cataloging of facts and a reductionist experimental approach to understanding function. As a result, experimentation and mathematical modeling emerged as useful tools to uncover the effects of discrete variables and processes on observed patterns, avoiding mere speculation. However, an extreme (or naive) acceptance of these new approaches could promote misinterpretation of ecological phenomena. McIntosh (1985) points out that Hutchinson ‘‘noted the need to temper mathematical abstraction with sound knowledge of natural history.” Clearly, experimentalists as well as mathematically inclined theoreticians must not forget ecology’s roots in basic natural history. As field experimentation becomes common and is no longer considered innovative, the danger increases that eagerness to conduct experiments will lead to field manipulations as irrelevant as some elegant sets of differential equations.