bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Orthography and Phonology
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
YumuŞak ge (‘soft g’) cannot begin a word. Note that the capital form of the dotted i is also dotted. The letter k is often called ka instead of ke; less often, h is called ha. The apostrophe. In addition to these twenty-nine letters, two orthographic signs are used in the writing of Turkish. The apostrophe (‘), known as kesme iŞareti, is used: To mark the glottal stop in Arabic borrowings.
The Noun
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gender. Turkish is devoid of grammatical gender, nor does the sex of persons affect the forms of words. The third-person pronoun o does duty for ‘he’, ‘she’, and ‘it’; gelir means ‘he/she/it comes’. There are totally distinct names for the male and female of most domestic animals: aygr ‘stallion’, ksrak ‘mare’; boğa ‘bull’, inek ‘cow’. The gender of other animals is indicated if necessary by the use of diŞi ‘female’ or erkek ‘male’: diŞi kedi ‘female cat’; erkek ay ‘male bear’.
Participles
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Present. The present participle is formed by adding -en to the stem, original or extended; gelen ‘coming’; olan ‘being, becoming’; indirilen ‘being brought down’; dağlŞan ‘dispersing’. The usual y is inserted after vowel-stems and narrows the preceding vowel, although this narrowing is not always shown in writing: anla‘to understand’, anlyan (anla-y-an) ‘understanding’; bekle ‘to wait’, bekliyen (bekle-y-en) ‘waiting’. The vowel of the negative -me is similarly treated: anlamyan (anla-ma-y-an) ‘not understanding’; olmyan (ol-ma-y-an) ‘not being’; beklemiyen (bekle-me-y-en) ‘not waiting’; gelmiyen (gel-me-y-en) ‘not coming’.
Conjunctions and Particles
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ve [A] ‘and’ is little used in speech and many Turks contrive to dispense with it entirely in writing, employing the native resources of the language instead: ile, -ip, de (see next section), or simple juxtaposition. That is to say, co-ordinate words and clauses may be put one after the other with no conjunction at all, on the pattern of Caesar’s veni vidi vici. Thus ‘he came into the room and sat down on a chair’ may be odaya girdi ve bir sandalyeye oturdu or odaya girip bir sandalyeye oturdu or odaya girdi, bir sandalyeye oturdu. ‘You and I’ may be sen ve ben or seninle ben. ‘You, I, and your brother’ may be sen, ben, ve kardeŞin or sen, ben, kardeŞin de or just sen, ben, kardeŞin.
The Order of Elements in the Sentence
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To leave aside, for the moment, the flexibility given to the written word by writers of the devrik cümle school (see § 2), the typical order of the elements in a literary sentence is: (1) subject, (2) expression of time, (3) expression of place, (4) indirect object, (5) direct object, (6) modifier of the verb, (7) verb. If any of these elements is qualified, the qualifier precedes it. The definite precedes the indefinite, so elements (4) and (5) will change places if the indirect object is indefinite and the direct object is definite. Thus çocuğa öyküyü anlatt ‘she told the child the story’, but öyküyü bir çocuğa anlatt ‘she told the story to a child’.
Number, Case and Apposition
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Concordance of subject and verb. It used to be stated as a rule of grammar that inanimate plural subjects took a singular verb, plural verbs being used with animate subjects or with inanimates personified or considered as individuals, e.g. ağaçlar, yüzümüze konfeti atyorlar ‘the trees are throwing confetti into our faces’. Conversely, an animate plural subject could take a singular verb if it represented a number of people acting as one. This rule needs to be modified in one respect: another factor nowadays seems to be the distance between subject and verb; i.e.
The Noun Clause and the Substantival Sentence
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The verbal noun in -me and the personal participles. It will be recalled that the personal participles have three functions: as adjectives, as nouns meaning ‘that which I do’, and as nouns meaning ‘the fact that I do’. It is the third of these functions which will be discussed in this section, as it must be distinguished from the functions of -me in its sense of ‘the act of doing’.
Sentence-analysis
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The present chapter is devoted to a word-by-word demonstration of how one sets about translating a complicated sentence. The great difficulty is not so much that the Turkish verb usually comes at the end. It is that, as the Turkish qualifier precedes whereas the English relative clause follows, a native English-speaker has virtually to read the Turkish sentence backwards. One important reservation must, however, be made. When a writer has used side by side several words or clauses of the same grammatical function, whether or not they are joined by a conjunction they must be translated in the order in which they are written and not backwards, i.e. not in the order in which they are met as one works back from the verb.
Further Examples
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sentences below are intended to provide supplementary illustrations of various points of grammar. Baraj’da toplanacağ hesaplanan 15 milyar metreküp su ile, kurak bölge rahatça sulanabilecektir ‘with the 15 thousand million cubic metres of water which, it is calculated, will be collected at the dam, it will be possible for the dry zone to be irrigated quite easily’. toplanacağ hesaplanan su ‘the water whose future collecting is being calculated’. See XVIII, 2 (c).
Culture and the intellectuals
Authors: Tombs Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
However dazzling the transformations of the last century, French cultural life has continued to bear enduring hallmarks. One is the centrality of the state as patron and policeman. Linked to this is the public prominence of intellectuals. Third is a sense of national cultural exceptionalism (if not superiority) though paradoxically this often accompanies a pessimism in the face of perceived threats from inferior yet overwhelming foreign influence.
Reclaiming History
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Spain, the historian Jaume Vicens Vives had been developing an incisive critique of the dominant mode of unprofessional, ideology-driven dabbling in history (‘ideologismo historizante’) throughout the 1940s, although he was denied a university chair until 1947. His rigorous, modern methodology, based on solid economic and sociological evidence collected at a local level, began to have a significant impact after his founding of the journal Estudios de historia moderna in 1951, an impact that was ultimately political as much as academic, since its focus on Catalan history posed a serious challenge to the regime’s dogmatic centralism.
New Writing: New Spain?
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The attempt by critics to categorize the novels of the 1950s and 1960s through the constrictive binary opposition of realism and anti-realism breaks down over the course of the following decade as a period of intense experimentalism gives way to the explosion of nueva narrativa characterized by its diversity. It is this plurality which has led to considerable disagreement about whether nueva narrativa as such exists and, if so, how it can be categorized. There is, however, consensus that the principal change since 1975 has been a return to a problematized realism.
Parliaments, 1485-1536
Authors: Loach Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The parliaments of Henry VIl’s reign, and, indeed, those of Henry VIII before l 529, were very like those of the Yorkists. They were less politically important than parliaments had been earlier in the fifteenth century, and both their place in the constitution and their procedure were a great deal less clear-cut than they were later to become. Parliaments were still only one amongst the various consultative bodies upon which a monarch could call: five great councils were summoned in Henry VII’s reign, for instance, and three of these authorized a financial grant, although, as we have already noted, such grants had subsequently to be validated by a parliament. The king’s control of parliament was at this period almost total. In the parliament of 1478, for example, no one had opposed Edward IV when he accused his own brother, the duke of Clarence, of treason, and the speaker had even asked on behalf of the Commons that execution should be hastened. Henry VII never found it necessary to veto a bill, because no measure of which he disapproved could reach the stage of presentation.
Introduction
Authors: Doyle William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The kingdom of France was one of the longest established political entities in Europe. Over the 1,100 years since the Frankish chief Clovis became a Christian after leading his horde to colonize the ruins of Roman Gaul, the men who ruled from the Île-de-France had often wielded the dominant power in western Europe. But for much of the century after 1559 their authority had been fragile.
Society
Authors: Bossenga Gail 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Louis XIV began his personal rule in 1661 he envisioned restoring order to a society suffering from civil strife, international war, and periodic waves of disease and famine. The society over which Louis XIV cast his gaze was a traditional, preindustrial one, characterized by minute distinctions of status, extremes of wealth and poverty, poor communication networks, low life expectancy, and close economic ties to the land. Legally it was a society characterized by privilege, that is, by an acute consciousness of rank and the practice whereby some groups enjoyed particular rights—tax exemptions, economic monopolies, or favoured access to occupations—denied to others.
The state and political culture
Authors: Swann Julian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Louis by the grace of God, king of France and Navarre, to all those who will see these letters, present and to come, greetings.’ With this phrase French kings began the preamble to a1l laws issued in their name, and once the terms of the legislation had been expounded they concluded with a majestic ‘for such is our pleasure’. Taken together these few words conjure up an enduring image of the divine right monarchy of the old regime. In 1614, the deputies of the third estate had implored the estates general to declare it a fundamental law that the king ‘is sovereign in his state, holding his crown from God alone, there is no power on earth, be it spiritual or temporal which has any authority ⃛ to depose the anointed person of the king’. Their plea was, in part, a response to the assassination of Henri IV and to memories of the terrible civil wars of the previous century. Vaunting the power of the crown offered hope of preventing a repetition, and, once the Fronde had provided another glimpse into the abyss, few questioned the virtues of a powerful monarchy.
Politics: Louis XV
Authors: Swann Julian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to pope Benedict XIV there was no greater proof for the existence of providence than to see France prosper under the rule of Louis XV. Few were as gentle or ironic as the pontiff in their assessment of the king. For the duke de Choiseul, who was the linchpin of his government for more than a decade (1758–70), Louis XV was ‘soulless’ with the mind of a ‘spiteful child’. Worse still ‘he would, like Nero, have been enchanted to watch Paris burn … but lacked the courage to give the order.’1 In the popular memory, the king is famous for uttering the phrase ‘after me the deluge’, which, while almost certainly apocryphal, conjures up an image of a monarch intelligent enough to foresee the tragedy of 1789, but too lazy to do anything about it. Napoleon, on the other hand, once declared that he ‘found the crown of France in the mud’ and many have assumed that it was Louis XV who let it drop.
Politics: Louis XVI
Authors: Price Munro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘We were walking on a carpet of flowers; we did not see the abyss beneath’.1 The count de Segur’s famous description of the last years of the old regime has informed views of the reign of Louis XVI ever since. More than any other reign in European history, that of Louis XVI has been distorted by contemporaries and historians writing with hindsight. The period 1774–88 has been consistently seen as a mere prelude to the Revolution, evoked with regret and nostalgia by right-wing historical tradition, and dismissed by that of the left as the last gasp of a dying and corrupt monarchy.
Britain and Ireland 1050–1530
Authors: Britnell Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book analyses the economic and social development of Britain and Ireland between 1050 and 1530. It compares economic institutions, the structure of production and rates of economic development and is richly supplied with up-to-date evidence. After considering the principal geographical, cultural and political constraints on economic development, the book examines in detail the development of towns and trade, settlement patterns, agriculture and relations between lords and tenures. The book is structured so that it can be used on both short courses and longer ones, with the material divided at 1300 in order to facilitate its adaptation for different study needs.
Introduction
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book has three principal arguments. The first and most important is that collective activity was more important and more pervasive in medieval Europe than might be deduced from most recent writing on lay society and politics. Reacting against anachronistic interpretations of medieval communes and parliaments as the product of deliberate strivings towards modem democracy, recent generations of historians have concentrated their attention on kingship and the vertical bonds of society—the links between kings and their subjects, lords and their men. Apart from some rather arid wrangling about the concept of feudalism—a concept foreign to the middle ages themselves1—this has been enormously illuminating, but it has been accompanied, as it seems to me, by a tendency to undervalue the horizontal bonds in medieval society.
The Church
Authors: Bull Marcus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These remarkable sentiments are attributed to Christ on the Cross in the Chanson d ‘Antioche, a late twelfth-century epic account, in Old French, of the events of the First Crusade. The author, Graindor of Douai, saw the success of the crusade as nothing less than the playing out of a divine plan; God ‘s instrument were Ii Franc, the Franks who took up arms in response to Pope Urban II ‘ s appeal and captured Jerusalem in July 1099. Crusading reintroduced a measure of ambiguity into the vocabulary of Frankishness, which had been in the process of becoming appropriated by the kings and inhabitants of western Francia, France.
Introduction
Authors: Crook Malcolm 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Dangerous rioting’, wrote Louis-Sébastien Mercier in the 1780s, ‘has become a moral impossibility in Paris.’ The eternally watchful security forces in the expanding French capital, he added, ‘make the chance of any serious rising seem altogether remote’. Mercier was not alone in his optimism. Towards the end of the eighteenth century the realm of France was generally regarded as a well-ordered, prosperous, monarchical state.
Class and Gender
Authors: Accampo Elinor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
First published in 1610, Charles Loyseau’s justification for the Estates System in France remained an authoritative force until the Revolution of 1789 overturned the Old Regime. The author carefully explained that for society to have order, it had to be ordered into the three estates of the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of society. In principle, only members of the first two estates could exercise public power or hold public office because only they had dignity in their persons, acquired from both blood and service, as well as from the absence of servitude and ‘commonness’.
France and the wider world
Authors: Heffernan Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The history of modern France can be seen as an ideological struggle between competing interpretations of the nation’s past, present and future. Opposing political groups developed distinct, usually mutually exclusive, visions of the country, although no single perspective dominated for more than a decade or so in the century after the Revolution. Paradoxically, the failure to invent a transcendent idea of France to which a majority of Frenchmen and women could subscribe provided opportunities for those whose ideas would otherwise have commanded little public support.
Liberal and Fascist Italy
Authors: Lyttelton Adrian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume centres on one of the most dramatic periods of Italian History: 1900-1945. It examines the crisis of the liberal state as it undergoes a process of significant transformation, which starts with a process of modernization and leads to the totalitarian fascist state. Lyttelton and his international team discuss the social and moral conflicts resulting from modernisation, the two world wars and the fascist regime, considering the issues from both national and international standpoints. The discussion includes the developments and impact of the changes on religion, literature, and the visual arts.
The Church and Catholicism
Authors: Kelikian Alice A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 6 June 1861, in a malarial delirium, Count Camillo di Cavour uttered Montalembert’ s formula, &lt;a free church in a free state’ , to the priest who had come to administer last rites to the excommunicated prime minister. Subsequent premiers of Italy would share his fixation and frustration with the Roman Question, which remained a thorn in the side of all liberal regimes. The Vatican did not acknowledge the reality of the united Kingdom until 1929. Papal disaffection from high politics perforce limited the nature of representative democracy in a predominantly Catholic country, and it underscored the narrowness of the Italian political class.
Fascism in power: the totalitarian experiment
Authors: Gentile En1ilio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historians have variously described Italy’ s Fascist regime as an authoritarian nationalist regime, as a personal ‘ monocracy’ , a ‘ tendentially totalitarian State’ , ‘ an imperfect totalitarian state’ , and as an ‘ incomplete totalitarian state’ . Others have simply described Fascism as Mussolinismo,arguing that Mussolini created a personal dictatorship based on an alliance with the traditional institutions of the Italian monarchist state that left the fundamental structures of the old regime virtually unchanged. To support this, they claim that Mussolini carried out the ‘ political liquidation’ of the Fascist Party, which he then turned into a vast bureaucracy whose function was simply to orchestrate parades, organize consensus, create jobs and positions.
Ramsey’s Test and Adams’s Hypothesis
Authors: Woods Michael , Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ramsey describes someone deciding whether or not to accept Q, after accepting P, as making minimal revisions in his other beliefs. On what basis is such a hypothetical revision made? In order to answer this question, it will be useful, and more realistic, to take account of the fact that the acceptance or rejection of a belief is not an all-or-nothing matter, and this applies to the acceptance of ‘If P then Q’. In so far as someone has any opinion at all on whether or not P is the case, he will assign to Pa certain probability. Since an individual’s beliefs are systematically related, they involve assignments of probabilities not only to P and Q separately, but also to their joint occurrence. Idealizing a good deal, we may think of an individual’s probability-function as assigning values between zero and one to each of a range of exclusive possible states of the world-alternative possible scenarios-which together exhaust the possibilities, so that the probability-assignments add up to r. We can then distinguish those scenarios in which the antecedent is true and those in which it is not.
Action, Other Minds, and the Self
Authors: Stoneham Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A philosophical theory of action tries to say what an action is. This slightly nebulous project is usually made more precise by giving an account of which things, among the vast class of happenings or events, are actions and which are not. The volitional theory of action is one answer to this question. The theory states that actions are happenings or events which are willed by persons or minds. An event is willed if someone wills that it happen, and we can call this act of will ‘forming a volition’. Since some things which happen are willed but still not actions (for example, I might will that the sun shine this afternoon, and even if the sun does shine, making the sun shine is not something I did), the volitional theory adds a further condition, namely that the volition actually cause the event to happen. Furthermore, since my volition can only cause anything to happen by first causing my body to move, the proper statement of the theory is: actions are bodily movements caused by acts of will, called volitions. Thus, when I pick up the glass three things happen: I form a volition, my hand moves, and the glass moves.
On our Origin and End
Authors: Finnis John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This reflective account of Aquinas’ social, political, and legal theory has mostly been within moralis philosophia. That is to say, it has been concerned with the (third) order that practical reasons can bring into one’s deliberations and free choices, rather than with the (first) order of realities which are what they are quite independently of our reasoning about them (ii.i). But no course of reflections could reasonably remain confined to the practical, to third-order considerations.
Further Aspects of Performance
Authors: Rowland-Jones Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with certain further points of technique and interpretation in relation to the five sonatas considered in Chs. 2-6. The five sonatas are referred to simply by the names of the composers, so ‘the Handel’ means the Handel G minor recorder sonata. The points are dealt with under the following headings: speed, repeats, fingering and interpretation, presentation, working in ensemble, and authenticity. Pre-hearing the right speed before the start of a movement, or before a change of speed, is vital to successful interpretation. ‘The right speed’ does not mean an exact metronome speed, for a movement may be played on the slow side or on the fast side for reasons which involve a considerable exercise of judgement, balancing a variety of factors. Even so, there are limits beyond which a sonata movement becomes too slow or too fast to make musical sense under any circumstances.
Analysis in Context
Authors: Samson Jim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Categories of knowledge shape our understanding, and are shaped by it. Categories are selective, and their boundaries, like all boundaries, exclude as they select. Categories are also permeable. Since they are motivated in large part by the need to make knowledge manageable or persuasive in particular contexts, they find or create institutions, lodging within them. This makes them vulnerable, and also contingent. They are subject to revision. Even those primary categories of the mind proposed by some idealist theories of knowledge1 are increasingly viewed within a network of relationships, so that invariants, if they exist at all, are already mediated.