bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The physical background
Authors: Fogg G E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The severities and complexities of polar habitats stem from simple geometry: the axis of the earth’s rotation is not at right angles to the plane in which it orbits round the sun. As a result, the North and South Poles are tilted in turn towards the sun and, instead of having the daily alternation of day and night to which most of us are accustomed, have months of nightless summer followed by sunless winter. With all his ability to create his own environment man does not find it easy to cope with either midnight sun or a night of several months. To a greater or lesser extent other organisms also have problems in adapting to the polar night. Surprisingly, the frigid climate which we tend to think of as the most characteristic and hostile feature of the poles is not a necessary result of the smaller amount of solar radiation which they receive but has been brought about by interplay of secondary factors. It has not been the norm in the geological past. The varying input of radiant energy from the sun over the surface of the earth sets up circulations in the atmosphere and oceans, which, directed by forces produced by the earth’s rotation and by the positions of land masses, convey heat from one part to another. In the immediate geological past these factors have operated to cause ice to accumulate at the poles. At present, ice is a dominant feature in polar habitats and its manifold patterns of formation, structure, accumulation, and movement give rise to a wide variety of situations, some transient, others more lasting, in which organisms have established themselves. In some, conditions are so severe that life survives only in a dormant state. Others support a surprising variety, amount, and activity of living things. The nature of the environmental conditions in these habitats and the ways in which organisms adapt to them provide the subject matter of this book. However, before considering these biological aspects we must look at the general physical features of the polar regions.
Glacial habitats
Authors: Fogg G E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The rare human explorers and birds venturing over polar ice caps encounter each other with surprise and interest. Ice is essentially inimical to life. Its presence implies low temperatures and in its pure form it is hard, virtually inpenetrable by organisms, and devoid of nutrient content. Most importantly, water, in the form of ice, is unavailable and the energy required to melt it and make it available is more than poikilothermic metabolic activity can supply. Pigmented organisms, such as algae, produce melting in their immediate vicinity by absorption of radiation but this ceases abruptly when the sun goes down. However, 99% of the continental land mass of Antarctica and 28% of the land surface of the Arctic are permanently ice covered and we know that these areas receive a constant supply of viable, wind-carried, propagules of various kinds of organisms. One may wonder, therefore, whether life has got any sort of foothold in this unpromising habitat. It will be convenient to consider also those habitats which are entirely bounded by ice but in which some liquid water is available.
Movement and interaction
Authors: Giller Paul S , Malmqvist Björn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having concentrated in the previous chapter on ecosystem patterns and processes, we now turn to the population level, and in this chapter discuss the mobility and colonization patterns of lotic organisms and species interactions. Just peering into a stream or river would leave one with the impression that there is little movement of organisms apart perhaps from fish. But this impression is wrong.
The role of ecology in determining venom variation in the Malayan pitviper, Calloselasma rhodostoma
Authors: Daltry Jennifer C , Wuster Wolfgang , Thorpe Roger S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Intraspecific variation in snake venom composition is a widespread phenomenon with important implications for snakebite therapy, yet few attempts have previously been made to identify its cause. The venom from almost 100 Malayan pitvipers (Calloselasma rhodostoma), captured in 36 localities in Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia and Java, was analysed by using isoelectric focusing (IEF). A clear pattern of geographic variation emerged in the IEF profiles of adult Calloselasma, which was compared to patterns predicted from hypothetical causes by using a partial Mantel test. This test simultaneously evaluated the importance of geographic proximity ( ‘venom variation is influenced by gene flow ‘), phylogeny ( ‘venom reflects phylogenetic relationships among populations ‘) and an ecogenetic hypothesis ( ‘venom varies in accordance with geographic variation in prey type ‘).
Snake venom and snakebite in Australia
Authors: Williams V , White J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Australian snakes are amongst the most toxic in the world, but because of the distribution of the human and snake populations and the availability of excellent medical care, of the 500-3000 cases of suspected snakebite per year, only two on average have a fatal outcome. Brown snakes (Pseudonaja spp.) are responsible for the majority of bites and have been associated with sudden rapid death.
Victims of snake bite should have details of the bite recorded and a relevant medical history gathered, with particular reference to allergic responses and previous exposure to antivenom. In situations where the snake responsible for a bite is unknown, the CSL Snake Venom Detection Kit may identify the culprit and assist in determining the correct antivenom. Laboratory investigations are important, particularly coagulation tests, which may be crucial in optimizing treatment.
The venoms contain a number of biologically active components including neurotoxins, myolysins, haemotoxins and possibly a nephrotoxin and these are responsible for the major clinical features: defibrination coagulopathy, paralysis, myolysis and renal damage.
The diversity of snakes that may be responsible for envenomation makes the task of identification difficult; however, knowledge of local venom composition and symptomatology may assist, as does venom detection. We examined the venom of brown snakes to determine the influence geographical origin may have on venom make-up, but failed to find any evidence of a geographically predictable venom composition. Individual variability appeared to be the biggest influence on venom composition.
Life on a substrate: trends in form and function
Authors: Wood Rachel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The growth of sessile organisms is concerned with the successful occupation of space, and in Chapter 1 it was suggested that living reef communities grow under very specific environmental conditions that allow such growth — where suitable substrate is available, competitors are discouraged, and predators are either absent or in some way accommodated. Far-reaching generalizations as to the distribution and abundance of sessile organisms can be made on the basis of differences in growth form and life history,that is the schedule of events that occurs between birth and death (Hall and Hughes 1996). Life history can control individual growth, habitat selection, and competitive ability, as well as the way in which the next generation is recruited: all features which will strongly influence the characteristics of a reef. Reefs dominated by organisms with life histories which involve relatively short lives, high fecundities, and the rapid growth of weakly calcified skeletons will produce radically different communities from those dominated by species with increased longevities, low fecundities, and heavily calcified constructions.
The rise of biological disturbance
Authors: Wood Rachel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter illustrated how differences in the ability to withstand disturbance has been an intense selective force in the evolution of reef communities. But while there is no evidence that routine physical processes have changed significantly over the Phanerozoic, there are now considerable data to suggest that biologically induced disturbance has increased dramatically in shallow marine seas, especially since the Mesozoic (e.g. Papp et al.1947; Vermeij 1977, 1987). This protracted event is known as the Mesozoic Marine Revolution (or MMR; Vermeij 1977) and involved the origin and diversification of many groups of bioturbators (organisms that disturb unlithified sediment), predators (those that consume either whole or parts of other organisms), and bioeroders (which penetrate or sculpt hard substrates to access prey or create dwelling places). The differential effects of the MMR are extremely difficult to isolate as many organisms cause disturbance in more than one way: some predators are also bioturbators; others are capable of significant bioerosion. The MMR thus involves coincident developments which might be predicted to have many common evolutionary consequences.
Electronic Structure of Solids
Authors: Cox P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Modern inorganic chemistry is based firmly on the ideas of electronic structure which are provided by the quantum theory of atoms and molecules. The approach used by most chemists is necessarily very approximate, since although quite accurate quantum-mechanical calculations can now be performed on small molecules, the results of these are expressed in terms which are too sophisticated to extend easily to larger systems. Thus, inorganic and organic chemists tend to use the language of approximate molecular orbital theory, and to think in terms of simple models of the filled and empty orbitals of a molecule in order to interpret its structure and properties. This brief account of the electronic structure of solids follows the chemists' approach, and is rather different from the treatment normally given in textbooks on solids. Such books tend to be written by physicists for students of physics, and depend heavily on the properties of free electrons moving in a crystal. As a result, these accounts are somewhat uncongenial to the average chemist, both because they start from a point of view which is too mathematical, and because they stop short of describing the types of complex solid which are of current chemical interest. In the present treatment, solids are discussed using the same simple models, derived from linear combinations of atomic orbitals, as are used in molecular chemistry.
Space group representations
Authors: Altmann Simon L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have obtained the Bloch functions ψK(r) in Chapter 5 as eigenfunctions of the translations (eqn 5–5.1) but their real importance stems from three properties of the N Bloch functions which correspond to the N internal points in the Brillouin zone (see § 5–5), where N is the number of primitive cells in the crystal. (i) They form bases for representations of the space group G. (ii) These bases are irreducible. (iii) These bases span all the irreducible bases of G. We shall go a long way in this chapter in establishing (i) and (ii) fairly decently, but (iii) is beyond our scope. In Chapter 7, however, we shall work out a simple example in which we shall be able to satisfy ourselves that these properties are all true. The treatment that we shall give in this and the following chapters will mostly be concerned with symmorphic space groups, but its extension for non-symmorphic ones is possible without major changes in the basic concepts which we shall discuss.
Leiden
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first record of the forebears of the great Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals is dated 20 April, 1639. On that day the birth of Michiel Bartholomeesz van der Waal from Brielle, then a little fort at the confluence of the Maas and Waal, was registered at Leiden Town Hall. His father Bartholomeus—not yet van der Waal—was born between 1580 and 1590, probably also in Brielle The name van der Waal seems, however, to suggest that the family came originally from the banks of the Waal, the southern arm of the lower Rhine, which flows into the sea close to Brielle.
The HBS teacher
Authors: Kipnis A Ya , Yavelov B E , Rowlinson J S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two points of interest never failed to be mentioned by the nineteenth century guide-books to Deventer, ‘a clean and prosperous town’, as the omniscient Baedeker put it [J, p. 306]. These were, first, the famous Deventer koeken, or honey-cakes, which were sold all over the country and even exported to the East and West Indies and, secondly, the Deventer Athenaeum Jllustre which was founded as early as 1630.
Where porphyrins come from …
Authors: Milgrom Lionel R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is difficult to imagine the earth as a young world devoid of all life. The famous Walt Disney cartoon Fantasia gives as good a picture as any of what our prebiotic planet must have been like. The scientific imagination has managed to add some bones to Hollywood’s speculations, in the form of experiments on mixtures of gases that are thought to have constituted the earth’s primordial atmosphere.
The effect of solvent-surf ace interactions on crystal growth and dissolution
Authors: Shimon L J W , Vaida M , Addadi L , Lahav M , Leiserowitz L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The effect of solvent on crystal growth and dissolution studied by two stereochemical strategies is described1. The first approach involved the growth of N-(E-cinnamoyl)-(S)-alanine from acetic acid and of three crystalline hydrates (asparagine-H2O, rhamnose-H2O and S-lysine-HC1-2H2O) in the presence of primary alcohols as 11tailor-made11 solvents. It was demonstrated that stereospecific adsorption of the tailor-made solvent at a particular face inhibits its growth. The second approach, concerned the growth and dissolution of hemihedral faces at the opposite ends of the polar axes of ( R,S)-alanine and (glycine in water, methanol and ethanol, one pole exposing carboxylate groups and the other amino groups. Relatively fast growth and dissolution at the carboxylate end in water was explained in terms of strong solvent binding at a subset of surface sites and solvent repulsion at the remaining sites, so allowing for easy access of solute at the latter unhydrated surface sites followed by expulsion of water at the former. The repetitive succession of these steps results in a 11relay11type mechanism of crystal growth.
Organic crystal chemistry in the 1990’s
Authors: Jones D W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the final session of the Symposium, A. K lman (Hungary) chaired a round-table session in which J. Bernstein (Israel), R. Boese (F.R. Germany), L. Leiserowitz (Israel) and J. Lipkowski (Poland) voiced personal thoughts and predictions about the shape of organic crystal chemistry in the next few years. From these individual contributions, one could discern four ma-in themes, each raised or inferred by more than one speaker: (1) collaborative approaches in structural science; (2) use of accumulated crystallographic data; (3) emerging topics in crystal chemistry; and (4) exploitation of newer techniques.
The CCP4 package program
Authors: Evans P R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The CCP4 program suite is a collection of disparate programs covering most of the computations required for macromolecular crystallography. They have been collected and developed under the auspices of the Collaborative Computing Project number 4, in protein crystallography, supported by the UK Science & Engineering Research Council (SERC), and coordinated at the SERC Daresbury Laboratory. More recently, the collaboration on development of the suite has been extended to the whole of Europe under the auspices of the European Science Foundation Network for the European Association for Crystallography of Biological Macromolecules. Unlike many other packages, particularly for small molecule crystallography, the CCP4 suite is a set of separate programs which communicate via standard data files, rather than all operations being integrated into one huge program. This has some disadvantages in that is is less easy for programs to make decisions about what operation to do next (though this is seldom a problem in practice), and that the programs are less consistent with each other (though work is continuing to improve this). The advantage of this loose organization is that it is very easy to add new programs or to modify existing ones without upsetting other parts of the suite. Converting a program to use the standard CCP4 file formats is generally straightforward, and the philosophy of the collection has been to be inclusive, so that several programs may be available to do the same task. The components of the whole system are then a collection of programs using a standard subroutine library to access standard format files, and a set of procedures for the operating system to run each program. These procedures are available for VMS and Unix.
About the integration of direct and Patterson methods
Authors: Giocovazzo C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Information contained in a Patterson map can be incorporated with Direct Methods. Different types of information are considered .from the simplest one, i.e. the positional vector and the intensity of a Patterson peak,to more sophisticated kinds of prior information (i.e., the identification of related Patterson vectors,the identification of Harker peaks, etc.).The influence of each type of Patterson information on the statistical model is outlined .It is shown that in some cases restraints to the domains accessible to the primitive random variables are generated; in other cases correlation between the primitive random variables are created.
Maximum entropy as a common statistical basis for all phase determination methods
Authors: Bricogne G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A comprehensive Bayesian scheme aimed at integrating all methods of three-dimensional structure determination from diffraction measurements is outlined. It is first shown that all currently used sources of phase information can be represented and combined through a universal expression for the joint probability distribution of structure factors. This result is then used to derive likelihood functions capable of consulting experimental diffraction data originating not only from single crystals but also from powders, fibres and other specimens whose disorder causes intensity overlaps. Likelihood criteria obtained in this way are the key elements in a multisolution phasing strategy of very wide applicability.
Maximum entropy, likelihood, and the phase problem in single crystal and powder diffraction
Authors: Gilmore C J , Bricogne G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
where p( · ) denotes probability. The three components of this equation are termed the posterior, the prior and the likelihood respectively. In a Bayesian approach to statistics one first defines one’s prior knowledge; likelihood is then used to consult the experimental data, and the two used to produced a posterior probability which reflects modifications to the prior which arise from the data. The posterior thus generated can be used as the new prior and the whole process repeated in a cyclical way.
A protein structure database
Authors: Murray-Rust P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As part of the UK SERC Protein Engineering Club, a database project was funded, whose aim was to coordinate the storage and searching of protein sequence and structure (ISIS). This chapter describes the BIPED database, where protein structures from the Brookhaven databank have been organised in relational mode. The database has been developed at Birkbeck College and is available on-line via the SEQNET facility of Daresbury Laboratory. It is expected that academic distribution will begin shortly and there are further plans for commercial distribution and continued support.
Recent developments in synthetic strategies with allylsilanes: from tetracoordinate to pentacoordinate allylsilanes
Authors: Sakurai Hideki 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Allylsilanes are one of the most versatile reagents in organic synthesis and there are numerous examples of their applications. However, these reagents fall largely into the class of tetracoordinate allylsilanes. Currently, a new field of pentacoordinate allylsilanes is rapidly developing. Pentacoordinate allylsilicates react with aldehydes and ketones to give homoallyl alcohols with exceptionally high regio- and diastereoselectivity. The high reactivity of the allylsilicates is attributed to the significantly high Lewis acidity of the silicon centre to give hexacoordinate silicates (which allows for a six-membered cyclic transition state) as well as to the enhanced nucleophilicity of the -y-carbon of the allylsilicates arising from cr-1r conjugation. The stereochemical outcome of the reaction with pentacoordinate allylsilanes, which is completely different from that with tetracoordinate allylsilanes, should also find widespread use in organic synthesis. Reactions of pentacoordinate allylsilicates, which are remarkably different from those of the well established tetracoordinate allyltri methylsilanes, are described.
Alkoxy and acyloxy derivatives of silicon and tin and their uses as precursors for ceramics
Authors: Mehrotra Ram C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In view of the increasing importance of M―0―C derivatives, particularly the alkyl orthoesters, for glasses and ceramics, we present in this paper an account of the preparation of the title compounds, emphasizing the methods of synthesis discovered in the author’s laboratories. A brief account is also given of their physical properties and chemical reactions, and of their application potential, especially of bimetallic alkoxides of tin, as precursors for ceramics synthesized by the Sol-Gel process.
Organotin intermediates for organic synthesis
Authors: Neumann Wilhelm P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Progress in the generation and application of two important reactive organotin species for organic synthesis is reported. The first concerns the R Sn stannyl substituent and its use as a superior leaving group in electrophilic aromatic ipso-substitution, thus overriding the directing influences of other substituents; examples of its use are found in the acylation, formylation, sulphination, sulphonation and amidation of aromatics under mild conditions. The second deals with R Sn· radicals, especially new ways of generating these free from R SnH for the efficient free-radical synthesis of complicated target molecules. Two polymer-supported organotin hydrides based on a cross-linked polystyrene system in which the hydridostannyl group is separated from the aromatic ring by two CH units linkage, are also described.
New applications of metal hydrides in the synthesis of organosilanes and -germanes
Authors: Lukevics E , Gevorgyan V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
New strategies for generating M―H (M=Si, Ge) bonds in high yields have been investigated. These are based on the reduction of M-X (X=Cl, Br, 0, N, C) bonds with Group 1-3 metal hydrides, the reactions being carried out in either one-phase or two-phase systems; the former involves the use of ethereal media in which the metal hydride is completely or partially soluble, while the latter involves the use of non-polar hydrocarbon solvents and appropriate phase-transfer catalysts or ultrasound irradiation. The M―C bond cleavage studies proved to be amenable only with heteroarylsilanes and -germanes. The influences of solvent, catalyst, type of reducing agent and the structure of the silane on the rate and selectivity of these reactions are discussed.