bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evidence for public health practice: conceptual and methodological challenges
Authors: Swann Catherine , Naidoo, Bhash , Kelly Michael P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The evidence-based medicine movement can be traced back to the early 1990s (EBM Working Group 1992), since when the process of drawing together, analysing, and synthesizing evidence from the ‘best available’ research has become a central practice across many areas of administration, including education and social care. The election of the Labour Government in 1997 saw a retreat from polices based on political ideology and a shift towards evidence-based policy with a philosophy of ‘what matters is what works’ (Davies et al. 2000). The Modernising Government agenda (Cabinet Office 1999) established a central role for evidence in policy-making, and the ‘what works’ philosophy was rapidly taken up across all areas of governance.
The Bayesian approach to decision-making
Authors: Dowie Jack 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a misleading implication in the title of this chapter. There is no such thing as a non-Bayesian approach to decision-making, whether it is about health, health inequalities, or anything else. If one is deciding under uncertainty, and genuine decisions are always made under uncertainty, at the moment of decision one is being a Bayesian in the key sense of that term.
Healthy Living Centres
Authors: Hills Dione , Stern Elliot 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1998, the Healthy Living Centre (HLC) programme was launched with the central aim of addressing health inequalities. The effectiveness and evaluation of such communitybased health initiatives have been subject to much debate. The national evaluation of this programme provided an important opportunity to improve knowledge on the role and impact of community-based health interventions. In this chapter we discuss the evidence that informed the programme, outline the national evaluation programme and report the initial findings.
Assessing and addressing health inequalities: the Canadian experience
Authors: Frank John , Mustard Cam , Dunn Jim , Ross, Nancy , Ruggiero Erica Di 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Canada has a proud history of analytic thinking regarding the ‘determinants of health’. The federal Lalonde Report in 1974 (Lalonde 1974) was widely read and cited internationally for a decade or more. It proposed that four ‘health fields’ of broad determinants were critical to inform policies and programmes in the modern era: human biology (including but not limited to genetic influences), the environment (both physical/ chemical and social), the health care system, and ‘lifestyles’.
The social psychological study of widespread beliefs
Authors: Gaskell George , Fraser Colin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our aim in this book is to explore both conceptual and substantive approaches to the following questions: to what extent and why do many people share similar views in socially significant domains such as politics, the economy, race, and the sexes? The questions raised by the book are, we believe, important ones for social psychologists as well as for other social scientists, but they have not been at the heart of social psychology’s concerns in recent decades.
The phrase we are using to label the primary focus of the book, ‘widespread beliefs’, has not been a particularly common one in social psychological writings. We find ‘widespread beliefs’ a helpful phrase for our purposes because in itself it does not imply a particular theoretical or conceptual position on the substantive issues. Thus, the term widespread beliefs denotes a general domain and, in mapping out its contours with our contributors, we hope to stimulate research and theorizing in this neglected area.
Social representations as widespread beliefs
Authors: Farr Rob 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A distinct tradition of social psychology has evolved in France in the course of the past 30 years. It is clearly different from the dominant American tradition of social psychology. The difference, according to Herzlich (1972), resides in its being both a European tradition of research and a sociological form of social psychology. Over 80 per cent of the literature is in French. It is unique, in my view, because the objects of study are social representations. Moscovici (1961/1976) started this tradition of research in the late 1950s with his empirical studies of how a knowledge of psychoanalysis had diffused throughout French society and of how its vocabulary had become part of popular culture. Social representations (Farr and Moscovici 1984a) reflects, in English, some of the rich variety of the original studies carried out, either in the field or in the laboratory, within this French tradition of research. Elsewhere I have reviewed the literature, in both English and French, on social representations (Farr 1987).
Attitudes, social representations, and ideology
Authors: Scarbrough Elinor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is surprising that at a time when social and political ideologies play such an important role in human affairs so little interest is being shown in their effects on social conduct and in the definition of conflicts (Moscovici 1972, p. 29). The most important differentiating feature of human social behaviour is the human use of symbols in social communication ... the creation and diffusion of ideologies which are produced by, and in turn contribute to producing, new conditions of social life and new modes of social conduct. But ... the study of ideologies have hardly made their appearance in contemporary social psychology (Tajfel 1972, pp. 3-4).With these passing remarks both Moscovici and Tajfel intimate that the study of ideology is a proper concern of social psychology. Indeed, in observing that ‘even if ideologies and their impact have been widely discussed, they have not been extensively researched’ (Moscovici 1984, p. 16), Moscovici might also have arraigned sociology and the study of politics: writings about ideology are commonplace but empirical studies are scarce. But whilst Moscovici and his colleagues may be alert to a lacuna in their discipline, their focus on social representations has not led them to address directly questions of ideology, in particular, what constitutes an ideology and how ideologies bear upon attitudes. None the less, in pointing to the place of social representations in the life of societies, Moscovici promises additional insights on a central question in the study of politics: the place of ideology in political action. The performance of governments, the manoeuvrings of parties, the direction of public policy, the behaviour of electors–all are areas of research where the dynamics of action raise questions of ideology. Equally, they are often questions which the political scientist is not well equipped to tackle; critically, how ideologies come to be formed and how the pervasiveness of ideologies is to be measured. This contribution, then, has a dual focus: to consider what the notion of social representations contributes to the empirical study of ideologies; to clarify the place of ideology in the notion of social representations.
Social beliefs and intergroup relations: the relevance of some sociological perspectives
Authors: Doise Willem 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To assimilate information is to organize it. There may perhaps exist highly structured scientific domains in which the explanatory principles used by researchers are sufficient in themselves to produce an ordering of all new information applicable to these domains. At first sight, however, this does not appear to apply to social psychology: the enormous mass of new information which accumulates each year in various journals, essay collections, and monographs is widely disparate. Nevertheless, certain major themes, such as differentiation and group formation, or autonomy and interdependence in interpersonal relations, do permit some organization of this particular area in the social sciences. Furthermore, these different polar themes are complementary, since in-depth investigation of one of these themes entails reference to its opposite; there can be no group formation without differentiation, no interdependence of individuals without autonomy and vice versa (see Doise et al. 1978).Another way of organizing the vast amount of research in social psychology takes into account the nature of the explanatory principles involved as well: these are the explanatory principles which relate to an individual’s organizational processes, to interpersonal dynamics, to asymmetrical social positioning in the context of social relations, and to the impact of social norms and representations. Elsewhere (Doise 1984) I have already demonstrated how important this distinction of levels of analysis is if we wish to account for the specificity of different studies of intergroup relations. It should also be remembered that we have distinguished among these four levels of analysis only so that we may demonstrate the need to articulate them at a theoretical level.
Motor cortex (area 4)
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cortex of the frontal lobe divides into four strips. Figure 2.2 shows these on a drawing of the macaque brain. The strips will be referred to as motor cortex, premotor cortex, prefrontal cortex, and the anterior dngulate cortex. The first three strips are arranged vertically and they wrap round on to the medial surface; they include the upper hank of the cingulate sulcus. The last strip is arranged horizontally, and this includes the lower bank of the cingulate sulcus. The distinction between the strips is best drawn on the basis of differences between the areas in cytoarchitecture (Brodmann 1925).
Premotor area 8
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This classification is supported by the functional evidence reviewed in this chapter. The argument is that, like area 6, area 8 plays a crucial role in the selection of movements. The difference lies in the nature of the movements. In a macaque brain, Brodmann (1925) identified area 8 as the tissue in the anterior bank of the arcuate sulcus, and on the convexity between the upper and lower limbs of the sulcus. Area 8 is very extensive in the human brain (Fig. 5.1).
Dorsal prefrontal cortex (areas 46 and 9)
Authors: Passingham Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Figure 6.3 shows the subareas as identified by Barbas and Pandya (1989) in the macaque brain. Preuss and Goldman-Rakic 0990 present a similar scheme, though they differ in identifying more subareas. Areas 9 and 46 were first distinguished by Walker (1940); they are shown separately in Figs 6.1 and 6.2. It will he convenient to use the term ‘dorsal prefrontal cortex for areas 9 and 46 combined, and the term ‘dorsal prefrontal convexity’ for area 9 alone. Areas 11, 12, 13, and 14 lie on the inferior convexity and orbital surface; these will be termed the ‘ventral prefrontal cortex’.
Psychological perspectives on ethnic minority identity
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychology has been generally remiss in explaining the relationship between ethnic minority and majority groups and even more so in propounding models for explaining the psychology of ethnic minority identity. Some of the major social psychological theories that touch upon inter-group behaviour are: realistic group conflict theory; the frustrationaggression hypothesis; game theories; and research on the perception of out-group stereotypes. As these theories do not easily accommodate the concept of ethnic identity (Taylor and Simard 1979), they will not be discussed here. A detailed study of the above has been made by LeVine and Campbell (1972).
Self-categorization and social stereotypes
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Another major area of interest to students of ethnic minority identity is the research related to self-categorization and social stereotypes. Most of the recent work on these topics is ensconced in the domain of social cognition, which has sought to investigate the role of cognitive structures and processes in our understanding of social groups. The foundation was laid in the early 1970s with the work of Henri Tajfel and his colleagues and has since developed into an impressive body of research. Historically, the main features of psychological group formation were conceived in terms of identity (that group members define themselves as being part of a distinct social category), inter-dependence (that people form themselves into groups for the mutual satisfaction of their needs), and structure (that groups stabilize over time into a set of structured relations and develop a system of social norms and role differentiations regarding matters relevant to the group) (see Turner 1985). Research was thus directed at issues such as: problem-solving in groups (Shaw 1932); leadership styles (Lewin et al. 1939); communication networks (Leavitt 1951); group cohesiveness (Lott and Lott 1961); inter-personal attraction (Cartwright and Zander 1968); and inter-group co-operation, competition, and conflict (Sheriff 1966).
Theory of mind and the early diagnosis of autism
Authors: Charman Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An over-simplistic extension of the 'theory of mind deficit hypothesis' of autism-that individuals with autism show a specific impairment in their theory of mind abilities evidenced by their performance on false-belief tasks (see Baron-Cohen et al. 1993; Yirmiya et al. 1998, for reviews)-might lead to the conclusion that theory of mind tasks will provide a litmus test or diagnostic marker for autism. Following this erroneous line of thinking for a moment, the proposal might hold true whatever the associations are between the theory of mind and executive function impairments found in individuals with autism (see Ozonoff 1997; Perner and Lang, Chapter 4, this volume). In this simplistic, hypothetical world it may not matter whether theory of mind and executive function deficits in autism are causally related (in one direction or the other) or whether they are independent of each other. If it could be demonstrated that the theory of mind hypothesis of autism was correct at the descriptive level-that individuals with autism show unique and universal impairments on theory of mind tasks that are not shown by individuals with other disorders, regardless of whether these impairments are specific to theory of mind tasks compared with other types of reasoning tasks (Zelazo et al. 1996)-then developmentally appropriate theory of mind tasks could act as diagnostic markers.
Other E. coli
Authors: Pennington T Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Large and dramatic B. coli 0157 outbreaks started to occur only in the 1990s, presumably because that was when the organism first firmly established itself as a member of the normal bacterial ecosystem of cattle and sheep intestines. Where had it come from? We will never know for certain, although the prevalence of the haemolytic uraemic syndrome in middle-class Argentinian children from the 1960s onwards-admittedly without proof that they followed an B. coli 0157 infection-hints tentatively at an origin in cattle on the pampas.
vCJD-The Future
Authors: Pennington T Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What about vCJD? Making predictions about the future size of the epidemic or how long it will last is very difficult because we have no direct information about any of the parameters needed to make the calculation. We do not know how many people were infected before effective control measures were introduced, when they were infected, or the length of the incubation period the interval between infection and the beginning of the illness.
Schrodinger-Poisson self-consistency
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Group IV bulk semiconductors such as Si, it is possible to replace some of the atoms in the lattice by impurity atoms belonging to group V of the periodic table, such as P. The group V impurity atom has an additional electron which is not used in the covalent bonding in the crystal. Due to the effective dielectric constant of the host and its reduced effective mass the electron is weakly bound to the impurity atom forming a hydrogenic structure. In III---V compound semiconductors such as GaAs an analogous impurity doping can be accomplished by using Si which replaces a Ga atom in the GaAs lattice. These impurity atoms, called donors, ionize easily, giving off the bound electron to enable electrical conduction; the binding energy of an Si donor in GaAs is about 5 meV. The conduction is limited by scattering from the ionized impurity atoms, besides other scattering mechanisms. With the advent of molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) it was recognized that the conduction channel and the location of impurity doping can be separated to improve the mobility of carriers. With the remarkable control over the composition and almost atomic perfection in the heterostructure crystals grown by MBE, a quantum well structure can be grown with selective doping only in specified sections of the barrier regions. If the barrier regions alone are doped with impurity atoms, the electrons initially bound to the impurity atoms seek lower energy states and fall into the quantum well. This reduces their probability of being in the barrier region with the ionized impurities, resulting in a reduction in ionized impurity scattering in transport in the in-plane direction. This selective doping of the barrier, or any particular layer for that matter, is called modulation doping.
Landau states in a magnetic field
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A uniform magnetic field changes the energy levels of charged carriers in an intrinsic, fundamental way. For this reason, magnetic fields have been used as an externally controlled perturbation in the investigation of the electronic energy levels in quantum systems. We solve Schrodinger’s equation by including the interaction energy between the external field and the dipole moment of the electron due to orbital motion in the field, and also the interaction energy for the spin magnetic moment of the electron interacting with the external magnetic field. We investigate the effect of a magnetic field on carriers in a layered quantum semiconductor heterostructure. The finite element method (FEM) is shown to be a natural computational approach for layered structures that easily accounts for the interface boundary conditions (BCs).
Wavefunction engineering
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over three decades ago, Esaki and Tsu proposed that one can impose a super-periodicity in the crystalline growth of semiconductor hetero structures, and that this would lead to very fundamental changes in the electronic and optical properties of the composite structure as compared with those of the constituent layers. This proposal was an important milestone in the evolution of the field of semiconductor hetero structures. Since then, advances in the technology of MBE and metallo-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) have enabled the growth of layered semiconductor structures of any binary, ternary, or quaternary combination of semiconducting materials with control at essentially the atomic level. Essentially any of the compound semiconductors from the group III-V or II-VI elements can be arranged, layer by layer, to form a hetero structure. When ∼100 A layers of different materials, such as GaAs and AlGaAs, are laid one on top of another, the natural or bulk energy bandgaps of the individual layers will generally not align with the adjacent ones. An electron in the conduction band of the GaAs layer will then confront a barrier in the adjacent AlGaAs layer. We have mentioned in earlier chapterst how such confinement, through the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, leads to a raising of the conduction bandedge of the hetero structure. A similar effect occurs for the carriers in the valence bands, leading to an overall change in the bandgap of the hetero structure.
Quantum waveguides
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the dimensions of semiconductor hetero structure devices are reduced to about 50 nm, electrons in the device start behaving more like waves than particles. Hetero structures of such dimensions are called "mesoscopic" devices. With the mean free path becoming comparable to the dimensions of the electronic device, an electron is transmitted through the device ballistically with no scattering. The electron waves will display phase coherence, however, and undergo quantum interference effects as defined by the geometry of the mesoscopic device. These features of electron transport change the usual macroscopic nature of resistance, leading to a quantization of resistance. In this chapter, we give a qualitative derivation of the Landauer relation defining the quantized conductance in terms of the transmission coefficient of electron waves through the device. The electron waves are guided through the device in a manner similar to optical waveguides
Global public goods and health: Concepts and issues
Authors: Woodward David , Smith Richard D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Public goods have, for centuries, been part of the economic analysis of government policy at the national level (Connolly and Munro 1999). However, as globalization progresses, it is becoming clear in many areas that matters which were once confined to national policy are now issues of global impact and concern. This has been evidenced, for example, in dealing with environmental problems, such as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions and ozone depletion, and carbon emissions and global warming. These affect the nation involved in their production, but also impact significantly on other nations; yet no one nation necessarily has the ability, or the incentive, to address the problem. Recognition of this led to the development of the concept of Global Public Goods (GPGs) (Sandler 1997), which has recently been advocated and supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (Kaul etal. 1999).
Polio eradication
Authors: Aylward R Bruce , Acharya Arnab , England Sarah , Agocs, Mary , Linkins Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The control of an infectious disease is a classic example of a public good for health (Zacher 1999). The global eradication of an infectious disease is a classic example of a global public good for health (GPGH). Once a disease is eradicated no one person’s receipt of this protection will diminish the protection everyone else enjoys, and every new born entering the global community is also protected.
Transport equations and processes
Authors: Lapeyre B , Pardoux É , Sentis R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Monte-Carlo methods for the numerical solution of partial differential equations are based on the links between stochastic processes and these equations. In this chapter, we shall give the probabilistic interpretation of linear transport equations (or Vlasov’s equation) thanks to a class of random evolutions that are Markov processes, called ‘transport processes’. The corresponding Monte-Carlo methods will be presented in detail in Chapter 3 (whereas the nonlinear Boltzmann equation and its numerical solution by Monte-Carlo methods will be studied in Chapter 4).
Separatrix Chaos
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In low dimensional Hamiltonian systems, the area near a separatrix is the most important domain to study the origin of chaos, since the dynamics near a saddle point is sensitive to small perturbations. The problem of the change of the dynamics near a separatrix under a periodic perturbation can be studied in fairly general way. Destruction of separatrices under perturbations leads to chaos, and that is why this problem is one of the most important ones in the analysis of dynamics.