bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The New Zealand Spoken Component of ICE: Some Methodological Challenges
Authors: Holmes Janet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
New Zealand linguists have been involved over the last eight years in planning and collecting data for a number of different written and spoken corpora of New Zealand English. These include the Wellington Corpus of New Zealand English (WCNZE) with its one million word written and one million word spoken components, and the New Zealand contributions to the International Corpus of English (ICE) Project, which involved a total of one million words composed of representative extracts of written and spoken New Zealand English. This paper describes some of the methodological problems encountered in collecting material for a spoken corpus of New Zealand English, including the issue of who counts as a speaker of New Zealand English, the problems of collecting data in particular categories, and the procedures put in place to process collected data. The idea of collecting a Corpus of New Zealand English had been discussed by New Zealand linguists since the mid-1980s. A number of New Zealand linguists had been using corpora in their research into vocabulary (Kennedy, 1991; Bauer and Nation, 1993), and the expression of speech functions such as quantity (Kennedy, 1987), causation (Kennedy and Fang, 1992) and certainty (Holmes, 1982, 1983). They were very aware of the valuable resources which had been made available by the Brown Corpus of American English in the early 1960s, the LOB Corpus of British written English in 1987, and the LUND Corpus of British spoken English in 1980. In 1987, after much debate about design and methodology, linguists at Victoria University began collecting data for the Wellington Corpus of Written and Spoken New Zealand English. Hence, when Sidney Greenbaum proposed that an International Corpus of English should be gathered (1988), it seemed sensible to ensure that New Zealand linguists also collected material suitable for inclusion in that corpus.
Interaction of Discourse Structure with Explicitness of Discourse Anaphoric Noun Phrases
Authors: Passonneau Rebecca J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Centering is a processing model that relates the local utterance-by utterance context, inference, and discourse anaphoric reference. As such, it potentially serves as a point of departure for a general theory of language use. However, its predictive force has been restricted to a small class of speech act constituents: unstressed or reduced forms of third-person definite pronouns. One question for extending centering is, how does local utterance processing relate to the global discourse context? Another open question is, how does centering interact with the global context in con straining the surface form of referring expressions other than pronouns? These are empirical questions. I present the results of two empirical studies directed at these larger questions.
Politeness Phenomena in England And Greece
Authors: Sifianou Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Politeness is crucial to successful communication and is consequently of great interest to those who study language and its social context. This book presents the first application of Brown and Levinson's ground-breaking theoretical work in a full-length comparative case-study. Maria Sifianou draws her data from a variety of sources, including literature (particularly drama), questionnaires, and personal observation. She attempts to discover the principles underlying social interaction in both intracultural and intercultural contexts, and discusses the extent to which the concept of politeness is common to different cultures. She argues that politeness is conceptualized differently and thus manifested differently in the two societies under study: Greeks tend to use more `positive' politeness devices than the English, who prefer more `negative' devices. Positive politeness is more closely related to friendliness, negative politeness to formality. Dr Sifianou's analysis illustrates and supports the general claim that, despite popular stereotypes, there can be no objective verification for the view that one nation is more polite than another.
Computational Approaches to the Lexicon: An Overview
Authors: Atkins B T S , Levin Beth , Zampolli A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Computational lexicology and lexicography, as the name implies, is a field with close links to other disciplines, in particular computer science, theoretical and computational linguistics, and theoretical and practical lexicography. It is a subject which over the past twenty-five years or so has acquired a personality of its own, with its own growing group of specialists and its own body of literature. Researchers in this new field come from all the contributing disciplines, as reflected, for instance, in the authorship of this volume, which offers a broad perspective on the work being done in the principal areas of activity, ranging from relevant aspects of linguistic theory, through the reusability of lexical resources, to machine-assisted dictionary compiling.
A Parser for Text c:orpora
Authors: Hindle Donald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the many types of linguistic research that look to naturally occurring text as the central reflection of our knowledge of language, an effective parser would be an enormously useful tool. By parser, I have in mind a computer program that can provide a syntactic description of natural language text. The utility of such a tool would stem from its ability to recognize, from a stream of words, the syntactic relations in which the words participate, having disambiguated part of speech, discovered the root form of words, and resolved structural ambiguities. With the currently extensive (and rapidly increasing) set of machine-readable corpora available for research, an effective text parser would enable a wide-ranging search for examples of phenomena of interest, and would allow us to explore a range of questions that hand searching and intuitions cannot begin to pose.
Logical Grammar
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is generally accepted by linguists and philosophers of logic that the surface or formal grammatical structure of natural-language texts does not correlate perfectly with the logic of the texts. Sentences have a “logical grammar” or “underlying grammar” (linguists such as Noam Chomsky have used the phrase “deep structure” in the same or a closely related sense) which clashes in some respects with the surface grammar of the sentences. The term “functional grammar” is also used in contrast to “formal grammar”.
Change, Chance, and Optimality
Authors: Mcmahon April 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is about how languages change. It is also a devastating critique of a widespread linguistic orthodoxy. April McMahon argues that to provide a convincing explanation of linguistic change the roles of history and contingency must be accommodated in linguistic theory. She also shows that theoretical work in related disciplines can be used to assess the value of such theories. Optimality Theory, or OT as it is usually called, dominates contemporary phonology, especially in the USA, and is becoming increasingly influential in syntax and language acquisition. Having set out its basis principles, Professor McMahon assesses their explanatory power in analysing language change and its residues in current phonological systems. Using cross-linguistic data, and drawing comparisons with other theories inside and outside linguistics, she shows that OT is incapable of accounting for language change, without the addition of rules and an appreciation of chance and historical contingency that would then undermine its theoretical underpinnings. OT relies on innateness and needs to discuss the origins of allegedly genetically-specified features. The author considers the nature and evolution of the human language capacity, and demonstrates a profound mismatch between the predictions of evolutionary biology and the claims for innateness made in OT.
Optimality in a Complex World: Additions and Extensions
Authors: Mcmahon April 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kager (1999: 187) sums up the arguments for Optimality Theory from the previous chapter in his claim that OT is ‘conceptually superior’, on the basis that his account of syncope in Southeastern Tepehuan, for instance, requires only constraints, whereas a classical derivational analysis would also need rules. That is, ‘we find that a rule-based analysis uses excessive machinery to achieve effects that an OT analysis attributes to a single interaction’ (Kager 1999: 188). Of course, if it were really a question of ‘excessive machinery’ on one hand and straightforward ranking and evaluation involving straightforward constraints on the other, there would be no contest. And indeed, there are some phonological phenomena which seem amenable to OT analysis in just this way; specifically, metrical and prosodic processes, including Kager’s Southeastern Tepehuan case, fall regularly into this category. These are just the areas of phonology which were analysed, pre-OT, in a way most closely resembling OT: they often reflect cross-linguistic variation of small sets of units, with a restricted set of distributional options, and are relatively unaffected by complex morphophonological alternations.
Essays on Time-Based Linguistic Analysis
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purpose of this volume is to make easily available a representative selection of Charles-James N. Bailey's views on linguistic theory. Several previously published papers have been extensively revised and updated for the collection, which also contains two new chapters. The collection is flanked by a new Prologue and Epilogue, and the whole is preceded by Peter Mühlhäusler's Introduction which offers a critical appraisal of Professor Bailey's contribution to the field. In the Prologue the author discusses the rationale for a Developmentalist, or time-based, framework for the scientific analysis of languages; in the Epilogue he laborates a new approach to historical linguistics. These initial and final chapters reflect the volume's twofold emphasis on time-based analysis both in descriptive (multi-dialectal) analyses of languages and in historical analysis. For historical analysis Professor Bailey contrasts his approach with the current paradoxical practice of employing static models that exclude a time parameter - an approach which he characterizes as 'synchronic-idiolectal'. In doing so he offers explanations for matters which have not previously been accounted for in a satisfactory way: why and when languages change, the disruptive effects of language contact in triggering important kinds of change and the role of markedness in complex changes. Concentrating on the sound system and syntax of English, he presents a time-based model with rules for generating highly complex, multiphased phenomena which have been, until now, impervious to linguistic analysis.
Conceptualizing Dialects as Implicational Constellations rather than as Entities Bounded by Isoglossic Bundles
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are no grounds for thinking that the pursuit of dialectology with isoglossic approaches and in terms of the word geographies and similar productions that in the past have eventuated from this approach will ever tell us more than the little that they already have about human language, about the way languages vary, or finally-the ultimate goal-about human nature. The disproved assumptions and theoretically barren models and methods of the past have never surmounted the discrediting arguments that have been lodged against them (see further on). For such reasons, I will be advocating a change in approach during the coming years. Before saying briefly what sorts of change I will argue for, let me note that the data already gathered and to be gathered in dialectological research are a treasure which offers the theory of language and the theory of man far greater benefits than can be derived from cartological displays. The manner in which I think these data could be more profitably collated during the coming years of research is a purely linguistic one that befits our roles as linguists, as I will explain. Preliminary thrusts in this direction have, it should be noted, already contributed substantially to our understanding of the structure of language and its transpersonal use and provided analyses for problems in dialectology not amenable to other means of dealing with these data-including cartographic portrayals.
Research on Singaporean English
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although it is difficult to be precise about exactly when research on SgE commenced, the first book on the subject was published in 1974: Tongue, The English of Singapore and Malaysia. The work, which is ‘designed for the general reader and not for the specialist’ (p. v), includes a wide range of features typical of the local variety of English. However, it is unfortunate that one of the chapters is entitled ‘Some Frequent Sub-Standard Forms’ which he claims (p. lll) are ‘found, generally speaking, in the language of the less well-educated members of society but adopted by educated people when communicating with the latter and sometimes among themselves for humorous effect’. Actually, many of these forms occur in the speech of the highly (English-medium) educated in informal situations, e.g. the use of discourse particles, especially la(h) and a(h), and some of them even in quite formal situations, e.g. omission of be as copula or auxiliary, variation in the use of prepositions. There is no suggestion in Tongue’s book that SgE is in any sense a continuum and that there is system in the occurrence or nonoccurrence of certain features. Despite these reservations, however, Tongue deserves credit as a pioneer and the book is a valuable source of examples. Furthermore, Tongue makes some interesting comments on the development of this localized variety and on the legitimacy of such varieties.
Substratum or Bioprogram?
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The figures given in Chapter 7, based on Ho’s careful analysis of her data, certainly do not give the impression of random variation and suggest that Bickerton’s bioprogram cannot be totally ignored when looking at the acquisition of a second language. A comparison of the findings for past tense marking with Bickerton’s results is given in Table 8.1. Ho’s investigation is based on a corpus of 8,725 past-reference verbs. Bickerton’s survey is based on 1,000 verbs each in a decreolizing situation in Guyana and Hawaii (cf. Bickerton 1981:164–5).
Jespersen’ s Cycle Revisited: Formal Properties of Grammaticalization
Authors: Kemenade Ans Van 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I present a description and analysis of the rise and fall of multiple sentential negation in English. The cyclic development identified by Jespersen (1917), in essence a case of grammaticalization, can be traced in detail, with the proviso that in English multiple sentential negation is attested rather earlier than has been generally assumed.
Polarity Items in Romance: Underspecification and Lexical Change
Authors: Martins Ana Maria 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Features play a central role in the Minimalist version of the Principles and Parameters model of grammar. Under Minimalist assumptions, the only elements available to the computational system for human language (CHL) are features and objects constructed from them, namely lexical items and syntactic objects of greater complexity formed through successive application of operations of CHL Acquiring a language, then, would involve at least constructing lexical items (by assembling in a principled way features from a presumably universal set) and refining CHL in one of the possible ways (cf. Chomsky 1998). Assuming a view of grammatical change as closely related to language acquisition (see Pintzuk, Tsoulas, and Warner in this volume), we will expect grammatical change to correlate to the acquisition tasks at work in fixing a language: making a particular choice of parameter values and lexicon. The change I will be concerned with is a change in the featural make-up of a certain kind of lexical items, namely polarity items. Since features are what feed the operations of CHL, this lexical change has, as expected, significant grammatical effects.
Interacting Movements in the History of Icelandic
Authors: Hróarsdóttir Porbjörg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A central question in the comparison of OV- and VO-languages is whether the difference results from having more object movements in OV-languages, or more verb movements in VO-languages. In this chapter, I will argue that although the uniform VO-base hypothesis with overt versus covert leftward movement of objects yields positive results in the synchronic analysis of the Old(er) Icelandic VP, it cannot easily handle the diachronic aspect. Instead, I will agree with the original proposal of Haider (1992) that there are good reasons to assume that the verb moves more in VO-languages. Haider thinks of this verb movement as head movement. However, this could also be a VP-movement, provided that the complements have first moved out of this VP. This is the path that Johnson (1996), Hinterholzl (1997), and Kayne (1998) take. More exactly, they suggest that VO order might in some cases result from shifting a remnant VP containing the verb across complements extracted from the VP.
The Japanese Surrender, the US Occupation Measures, and their Impact on Japanese Private Property
Authors: Ando Nisuke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the complete defeat and collapse of Germany in May 1945, the three Allied heads of governments agreed to hold a conference for the purpose of settling the question of Europe in general and that of Germany in particular. Accordingly, President Truman, Prime Minister Churchill, and Generalissimo Stalin met for a conference at Potsdam from 16 July to 2 August.1 Before his departure for the meeting, the US President decided to issue from the conference table an Allied proclamation to Japan, offering the latter an opportunity for surrender.
Emerging Problems of Medicine, Technology, and the Law*
Authors: Kennedy Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have been invited to discuss emerging problems in technology, medicine, and the law. I take ‘technology’ in this context to mean the application of know-how and skill in the practice of medicine. Many problems exist for the practice of law in this area, and more are appearing. Just on Monday and Tuesday of this week I sat in on a case in the High Court in London. Mrs Victoria Gillick was asking for a declaration that National Health Service doctors in the area in which she lives would be acting unlawfully if they put into effect a Memorandum of Guidance issued by the Department of Health addressed to local health authorities stating that it was permissible to give contraceptive advice and treatment to girls under the age of 16 years without the consent of their parents.
Introduction
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the enactment of the Chinese Civil Code, systems of private law modelled on those of the West will govern nearly the entire world. Western legal systems, moreover, are much alike. Both ‘common law’ systems such as those of England and the United States and ‘civil law’ systems such as those of France, Italy and Germany have a similar doctrinal structure based on similar legal concepts. They divide private law into certain large fields such as property, tort, and· contract, and analyse these fields in a similar way. Problems of property law are approached by distinguishing ownership from possession. Tort liability is discussed by distinguishing fault from strict liability and by requiring that the defendant’s conduct be the proximate or adequate cause of the plaintiffs harm. The formation of a contract is analysed by applying doctrines of mistake, fraud, duress, and offer and acceptance. The obligations of the contracting parties are determined by using general canons of interpretation and by holding the parties to a set of ‘implied terms’ to be found in the law of sale, lease, or whatever other type of contract they have entered into. The enforceability of a contract is determined, inter alia, by a distinction between gift and exchange. The organization of the law and its larger concepts are alike even if particular rules are not. Accordingly, though answers may differ, the problem of whether a boy is liable for injuring a playfellow or a seller is liable for defects in his merchandise is analysed in much the same way in Hamburg, Montpellier, Manchester, and Tucson, or for that matter in New Delhi, Tel Aviv, Tokyo, and Jakarta.
The Anglo-American Reception
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As One nineteenth-century common lawyer observed, at the time of Blackstone ‘the science of law in all that relates to contracts was left almost without cultivation’. The first treatise on contract law was published by Powell in 1790. Before that time, as Simpson has noted, there was scarcely any common law literature on contracts beyond a few pages in Blackstone and the reports of decided cases. The law of contract did not have a theory or a systematic doctrinal structure. It was organized not by definitions, doctrines, and principles, but in the common law courts by writs such as covenant and assumpsit and in the courts of equity by a series of vaguely conceived grounds for relief.
Liberalism and Nineteenth-Century Contract Law
Authors: Gordley James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to Williston, the will theories arose because ‘[a] gospel of freedom was preached by both metaphysical and political philosophers in the latter half of the eighteenth century’. Its ‘classic expression ... in the United States is found in the sweeping generalities of the Declaration of Independence’. ‘In metaphysics, at the same time, philosophers were emphasizing the ego and the individual human will as the basic facts of life.’ Similarly, economists such as Smith, Ricardo, Bentham, and J. S. Mill ‘insisted on freedom of bargaining as the fundamental and indispensable requisite of progress’. ‘[I]t was a corollary of the philosophy of freedom and individualism that the law ought to extend the sphere and enforce the obligation of contract.’ The law did so by requiring a meeting of the minds for the formation of a contract and by allowing the parties to contract on whatever terms they might choose.
The Philippines
Authors: Muntarbhorn Vitit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Philippines was colonized by Spain at the end of the sixteenth century. At the time, the islands now known as the Philippines were a conglomeration of small communities without a central authority. The northern islands became predominantly Catholic, while the southern islands retained much of the Muslin influence that had existed before colonization. After the defeat of Spain in the Spanish-American war in 1878 the United States took over as the colonial masters. In 1946 the Philippines became an independent state. The predominant event which shaped Philippine history in the 1980s was the fall of the Marcos regime in 1986 and its replacement by the democratically elected government of Mrs Corazon Aquino.