bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Urban Communities
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No one who has read the preceding chapters on law and on the rural community will be surprised to find that this chapter argues that some of the distinctions usually drawn between urban and rural communities are false. Once the force of collective habits in medieval life in general is recognized, then the need to search for the origin of town communities in the ‘communal movement’ of the twelfth century, or to argue whether it derived from any particular institutions—either guild, commune, or consulate on the one hand, or the forms of seigniorial government on the other—is eliminated. The basis of urban community, like the basis of community in nucleated agricultural settlements, was geographical propinquity, fortified by the traditional practices of law and local government.
Politics
Authors: Sassoon Donald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Successful settlement of wars usually involves eliminating the causes of the conflict. Forcibly or willingly, the defeated party–if it survives–is integrated into the system of values of the victors, thus precluding a return match. The great European civil war of 1914-45 was no exception: German militarism, whether in its Nazi form or in any of its previous incarnations, was obliterated along with all its ideological allies, whether in Rome, Budapest, or Helsinki. Subsequently no manifestly pro-Nazi party was able to become a significant political force anywhere in Europe. Across the ideological dividing line which partitioned Europe after 1947 there was a near-universal consensus on at least one aspect of the recent past: Nazism was regarded as a barbaric force and an absolute evil. This held true also where surviving regimes had features which resembled those of the demolished fascist dictatorships: Spain and Portugal. Even there, pro-Hitler or pro-Mussolini sympathies expressed during the war were conveniently tempered and rapidly forgotten. In any case, these conservative authoritarian regimes had taken no part in the war, made no political or territorial claim, and had neither the means nor the design to dominate others. Similarly, the military junta which ruled Greece between 1967 and 1974 disclaimed any connection with the legacy of fascism and Nazism and constantly reiterated its loyalty to the West.
Culture
Authors: Körner Axel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Culture, intellectual debate, and the arts are an abstract expression of ideas, of experiences and memories, of hopes and expectations, related to a specific moment in history. They reflect and anticipate political and social developments in society; they are a key to the perceptions of change and to the semantics of historical time, to the experience of continuities and discontinuities. That makes cultural development, in the context of this book, a most powerful witness of European history during the period concerned. An outline of cultural developments in Europe since 1945 contributes to the social, political, and economic history in that it presents not only the cultural ‘events’ themselves, but also subjective perceptions of social and political realities. Culture tells us about the way in which people reflect on historical change and what they expect from their future.
International and security relations within Europe
Authors: Larres Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until 1989–90 the history of Europe since 1945 was characterized by the division of the continent into two competing blocs dominated by the United States of America on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other. Very few European countries managed to remain truly neutral. During these four and a half decades the history of Western Europe was dominated by four separate but closely intertwined strands: the cold war, the European integration movement, the transatlantic relationship between the West Europeans and the United States, and the USSR’s authoritarian rule in Eastern Europe. Until the end of the cold war and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the nations of Eastern Europe were not able to become involved in European integration and transatlantic relations. Moreover, as far as the cold war was concerned most of the time they had no choice but to remain passive bystanders and loyal supporters of the USSR. A degree of unswerving loyalty also characterized the relationship between the countries of Western Europe and the powerful United States of America. But Washington’s hegemonic position in Western Europe was of a qualitatively very different nature from Moscow’s coercively obtained empire in the East of the continent.
Constructing identities of medieval France
Authors: Schneidmiiller Bernd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
France is a creation of its medieval history. Its emergence between the ninth and twelfth centuries was not a direct result of linguistic, ethnic, cultural, or religious identities. Nor did it originate within a homogeneous geographical space. In the central Middle Ages, the idea was forged, with the benefit of hindsight, of an ancient, continuous, and distinguished history that belonged to the French. The aim of this chapter is to analyse this process by investigating the disjunctions between medieval constructions and modern perspectives while also examining how France came into being in practice.
The economy from Liberalism to Fascism
Authors: Cecco Marcello De 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Italy became a nation at a time when the presence of the state in economic development and the importance of markets, national and international, were both on the rise. The historian Alberto Caracciolo has noted the most salient points of Cavour’ s intervention policies, and remarked how these had come at the end of a whole century of greater involvement of the state in the economy in all Italian pre-unitary states, whether constitutional or absolutist.. Starting with the construction of in structures, the state would then realize that private capital was not following its lead, and would replace it by direct intervention in straightforward industrialization.
The visual arts: modernism and Fascism
Authors: Braun Emily 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1948 the first Venice Bienna1e since the fall of Fascism claimed to re-establish Italian art within the main currents of European modernism. But modern art during the Ventenniohad never been repressed; to the contrary, the regime had supported the artistic avant-garde in word and deed. As Giorgio de Chirico put it, ‘ For the sake of truth it must be said that the Fascists never forbade people to paint as they wished. The majority of the Fascist hierarchy were in fact modernists enamored of Paris.’ ‘ Yet in the decades fo1lowing the Second World War both the vitality of the visual arts and the actual histories of individual artists were lost to ignorance, shame, and the presumption that Fascism, as a totalitarian enterprise, corrupted a1l forms of creative expression under its auspices.
The Varieties of Conditional
Authors: Woods Michael , Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conditional statements appear to involve a form of sentence composition, but one that is non-truth-functional (that is, the truth-value of the conditional sentence appears not always to be determined by the truth-values of its parts). However, whether these appearances are correct is, for a number of reasons, rather hard to determine. One thing that gives rise to doubts about the truth-functionality of conditional statements is that it seems so easy to construct sentences which have no natural use but which would have to be counted as expressing truths if conditionals are understood truth-functionally. In fact, though, our intuitions about the truth-values of such utterances are far from clear.
Simple Conditionals and Truth-Values: Some Proposals
Authors: Woods Michael , Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given that, as we saw in the last section, Prob(Q/P) is, in general, not equal to Prob(P ⊃ Q), and may in fact diverge from it considerably, we may be led by the apparent success of Adams’s Hypothesis in explaining the phenomena to look for truth-conditions other than those of the material conditional; more specifically, we may look for truth-conditions for ‘If P then Q’ which ensure that the probability of its truth matches the relevant conditional probability. Indeed, it may seem that this is the only option, if Adams’s suggestion is correct. It seems hard to accept that the probability of a proposition can be anything other than the probability of its truth. So, if the probability (and therefore, degree of assertibility) that we ascribe to ‘If P then Q’ is the probability of Q given P, ‘If P then Q’ should express a proposition the probability of whose truth matches that conditional probability.
Conditionals and Possible Worlds
Authors: Wiggins David , Edgington Dorothy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 2, I argued that one traditional piece of doctrine about conditionals is false: that there is a class of conditional statements-traditionally labelled ‘counterfactual’ or ‘subjunctive’- which convey the implication, by the tense and mood of the verb, that the antecedent is false. But I also argued that there were good grounds for holding that there are two broad classes of conditionals to be distinguished, marked off from one another by a semantic difference.
Can there be an Inductive Logic?
Authors: Gillies Donald 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The results of the preceding chapter will now be brought to bear on an old question in the philosophy of science: can there be an inductive logic? Traditionally it was always assumed that logic had two branches--deductive and inductive. However, as we shall see, the development of modern logic from its initiation with Frege in 1879 up to the early 1970s tended to bring about a divergence between deductive and inductive logic. Carnap and Popper, despite their differences, agreed in reducing inductive logic to the theory of confirmation (or corroboration). Now confirmation theory certainly appeared something very different from deductive logic, as that existed in the 1950s and 1960s. So it seemed to many unreasonable to use the term ‘logic’ to cover both areas. In retrospect this was perhaps the point of maximum divergence between deductive and inductive logic, for the trend towards divergence has been reversed by the new results in artificial intelligence. Machine learning has introduced inductive rules of inference, while PROLOG has introduced control into deductive logic.
Historical Introduction
Authors: Stoneham Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
George Berkeley (1685-1753) lived during the infancy of the modem world. More than forty years before he was born, Descartes had sown the seeds of the future by providing a conception of the human mind as a tool powerful enough in itself to produce great philosophical and scientific insights. At the beginning of the seventeenth century Galileo (1564-1642) was publicly vilified for using his own intellect and observations, rather than the wisdom of officially endorsed authorities, to address questions about the structure of the solar system. By the end of the century Newton (1642-1727) was praised as one of the greatest thinkers who had ever lived, and the authority of his Principia Mathematica (1687) rested nor on who he was or who he agreed with, but on the rigour, systematicity, and brilliance of his arguments. A time had been reached when sheer force of logic could persuade people to change their view of the universe and our place in it. It was a victory of reason over tradition.
Properties and Predicates
Authors: Stoneham Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have established that the objects of perception are ideas, which are particular property instances relativized to a perceiver at a time, such as the green of the leaf for me now. Perceivers are minds or spirits, which are substantial, persisting, immaterial individuals. Minds or spirits have the ability to act, i.e. to cause ideas of sense in both themselves and others, though finite minds do not cause most of their own ideas of sense. Ideas perceptually depend upon the mind that perceives them, and ontologically depend upon the mind that causes them. Ideas themselves are causally inert.
Aristotle
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book presents a wide-ranging overview of Aristotle's political thought that makes him come alive as a philosopher who can speak to our own times. Beginning with a critique of subjectivist accounts of well-being, Kraut goes on to assess Aristotle's objective and universalistic account of eudaimonia and excellent activity. He offers a detailed interpretation of Aristotle's conception of justice in the Nicomachean Ethics, and then turns to the major themes of the Politics: the political nature of human beings, the city's priority over the individual, the justification of slavery, the defence of the family and property, the pluralistic nature of cities and the need for their unification, the distinction between good citizenship and full virtue, the value and limits of popular control over elites, the corrosive effects of poverty and wealth, the critique of democratic conceptions of freedom and equality, and the radically egalitarian institutions of the ideal society. Aristotle's political philosophy, as Kraut reads it, provides a model of the way in which a rich understanding of human well-being can guide the amelioration of a world in which agreement about the human good is rarely, if ever, achieved.
Prolegoinenon to Aristotle’s Ethics: Against Subjectivisin
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aristotle’s aim in the first book of the Nicomachean Ethics is to present an account of what is good for all human beings. His goal is to help his students improve their beliefs about what is good, and in this way to change their lives and the lives of others with whom they come into contact.1 He therefore avoids debates that are of merely theoretical interest. When he disputes the ideas of other philosophers, he does so because he fears that their theories will lead many others (and not merely philosophers) astray in the conduct of their lives.
Justice in the Nicomachean Ethics
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No virtue is of greater importance in political philosophy than justice, and it is therefore appropriate that in the Nicomachean Ethicsa treatise that presents itself as a political work-this is the virtue that receives Aristotle’s fullest attention. And yet his discussion is likely to disappoint or bore many of his readers. I would guess that when teachers of the Ethics are forced to omit some portion of the treatise from their courses, it is Book V that they most often choose to ignore. Students who do read it probably consider it the least interesting component of his ethical theory. By the time they arrive at this book in their study of the Ethics, they may have grown weary of the doctrine of the mean, and will have little patience for Aristotle’s attempt to show that justice can be made to conform to this doctrine.
Politics VII and VIII: The Ideal Polis
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The task Aristotle sets himself in Politics Books VII and VIII is to present a detailed portrait of the best possible city-a city that is the most one could hope or pray for.1 He is not dreaming up a state of affairs that he knows could never be realized. On the contrary, he restricts himself to what can actually be accomplished: everything that exists within this hypothetical community should be capable of realization (VII.4 r325b39).
Politics II: Family, Property, and Civic Unity
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aristotle often places near the beginning of his works a critical examination of what others have said about the subject under investigation.1 Thus his inquiries into knowledge, nature, and soul (in the Metaphysics, Physics, and De Anima) turn immediately from brief general statements about these subjects to surveys and critiques of earlier theories. Since the Politics culminates (or, at any rate, terminates) in a depiction of the best possible city, it is not surprising that one of its books is devoted entirely to an examination of what others have thought about the ideal constitution-that is, about the institutions a city should ideally have, and how its citizens should live.
Politics III: Correct Constitutions and the Common Good
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After Aristotle introduces the distinction between good men and good citizens (III.4), and discusses whether craftsmen should be admitted to citizenship (III.5), he turns to the principal tasks of Book ill: classifying political systems and comparing their merits and deficiencies. We are already familiar with his taxonomy, which distinguishes between correct and deviant constitutions and lists three types within each of these categories. Now let us look more carefully at some problems that can be raised about his scheme.
Politics IV-VI: Non-Ideal Constitutions
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We turn now to Books IV-VI of the Politics. Here Aristotle turns away from the study of ideal constitutions and focuses instead on the limitations and conflicts of ordinary political life. But it is important not to make the mistake of isolating these books from the others-as though their realistic study of corrupt regimes had nothing to do with the rest of Aristotle’s political philosophy. It is clear that IV-VI take III as their starting point and are intended to complete the project begun there. The earlier book leads to the conclusion that kingship and aristocracy are the best regimes, and the later books therefore move on to the other political systems that have not yet been discussed: polity, democracy, oligarchy, and tyranny.
Final Thoughts
Authors: Kraut Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Now that we have completed our examination of Aristotle’s political theory and can survey its various components as a whole, we should recognize a striking pattern in his thought. He proposes a number of different ways in which human beings might build and sustain satisfactory political communities, but he believes that the likelihood that any one of them will be realized is extremely low. The ideal community to which he devotes most of his attention-the one described in Books VII and VIII-is comprised entirely of citizens who are unqualifiedly wise and just. Although such a city is not an impossibility, Aristotle knows that it has never existed, and he wastes no effort proposing schemes by which existing cities can be transformed into ideal ones. Books VII and VIII show that there is nothing inherent in human nature or human circumstances that requires cities to be sites of hostility and moral corruption.
Dynamics, and Italian Style Telemann’s Sonata in D Minor
Authors: Rowland-Jones Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most Baroque recorder sonatas have Italian origins. The earliest instrumental ensemble pieces entitled ‘sonata’ were those of Giovanni Gabrieli (Newman, 95-101) published in Venice in 1597. About thirty-six of Gabrieli’s polychoral or other multivoice instrumental pieces were termed ‘canzona’ and seven ‘sonata’, but there is no great difference between them.
Ornamentation and Improvisation: Fontana’s Sonata Terza
Authors: Rowland-Jones Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is difficult to write briefly about the role of ornamentation and improvisation in the interpretation of Baroque sonatas, even though ‘improvisation’ is here limited in meaning to invented decoration at places where ornaments are not marked in, rather than the extemporization of completely new pieces of music or extended cadenzas. Styles of ornamentation varied from period to period, from country to country, from one composer (and player) to another, and from one kind of instrument to another. Some composers, such as J. S. Bach, wrote ornamental material into their sonatas,1 others gave very exact instructions,2 while others such as Corelli or J.-B. Lcrillet often only wrote the framework of an adagio, entrusting the performer to embellish it in an appropriate manner. Professional players ornamented more than amateurs, so the obliging Telemann in his ‘Methodic Sonatas’ and elsewhere3 wrote out unembellished and embellished versions of slow movements as a form of instruction in the prevailing galant style of ornamentation.
Autonomy/Heteronomy: The Contexts of Musicology
Authors: Whittall Arnold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Music and language are locked in perpetual symbiosis. The use of words about music inevitably leads away from abstraction and absolute distinctions: for example, a composition that is said to be ‘non-functional’ in the sense of serving no social or ceremonial purpose can nevertheless be held to ‘function’ as an expression of the composer which provokes an aesthetic response in listeners. Some musicologists prefer to avoid such word-play, believing that it diminishes the seriousness of their discipline. Others, acknowledging an element of linguistic pluralism that fits well with their modernist predispositions, see no reason to resist the shifting connotations of such fundamental terms; for example, Carl Dahlhaus’s observation that ‘it was the need to understand autonomous, non-functional music that made listeners silently retrace the act of composition in their minds’ follows closely on his identification of the nineteenth-century, bourgeois conception of ‘the educative and edifying function of music’.
Going Flat: Post-Hierarchical Music Theory and the Musical Surface
Authors: Fink Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the hardiest discussion threads on the Internet newsgroup devoted to classical music has been a long-term attempt to answer the perennial question, ‘What’s the deepest piece of music?’1 Aside from a few jokers (La Mer?), most who tackle the question frame it in terms of ideal content, usually extra-musical. They provide lists of pieces that seem ‘profound’, that appear to deal with meaningful, spiritual, universal issues: Beethoven’s Ninth, Bach’s B minor Mass, Parsifal, Mahler and Bruckner symphonies. An issue that almost never seems to come up is abstract musical structure: the idea that a composition models in some purely formal way a bounded, multi-level, often hierarchical space which provides a sense of depth and complexity independent of any hermeneutic goal.
Translating Musical Meaning: The Nineteenth-Century Performer as Narrator
Authors: Rink John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some research into ‘historical performance’ studies the past at the expense of the present, aiming to discover ‘what was done’ in bygone eras rather than to guide the modern performer. This chapter, by contrast, has a practical goal: it enlists both historical and analytical evidence in an effort to capture the ‘spirit’ of a work as a prelude to live performance. Not only does it complement recent speculative writing on what historical performance ‘should’ entail and how analysis ‘should’ inform performance; it also casts light on nineteenth-century performance practice in particular, which remains relatively uncharted research territory. Past forays into this domain have typically concentrated on ‘factual’ matters like editions and instruments, virtually ignoring such issues as how composers conveyed ‘meaning’ (defined in any number of ways) in the score and how contemporary performers translated it into sound. By broaching these issues in terms relevant to this day and age, I shall show how the performer of nineteenth-century music can bring the score to life as a narrator of the expressive message inherent therein.