bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Discovery of X Chromosome Inactivation
Authors: Migeon Barbara R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1961 Mary Lyon, a geneticist working on the genetic hazards of radiation at the Medical Research Council (MRC) Radiobiology Unit in Harwell, England (figure 4-1), proposed a truly innovative hypothesis to explain some unexpected results in her analysis of mutations affecting the coat color of female mice. In a one-page letter published in the journal Nature, she suggested that only one of the two X chromosomes of females functioned in each cell, and the other became inactive early in embryogenesis [37]. Although her paper came as a tremendous surprise to the scientific community, her hypothesis did not arise de novo. The time was ripe for such a proposal, as there had been several seminal observations made by other geneticists and cell biologists that should have led one to think of this possibility. In fact, Liane Russell, an American mouse geneticist, also suggested that only one X was active in a paper published in Science at about the same time [38]. Based on her own observations of mice with abnormal sex chromosomes, Russell had come to the same conclusion as Lyon. However, Russell’s concept was largely buried in her nine-page paper reporting the functions and aberrant behavior of sex chromosomes. Ernest Beutler, a colleague of Ohno, made a similar proposal to explain his observations of heterozygotes for G6PD deficiency consistent with mixtures of normal and G6PD-deficient red cells [39]. Clearly, it was Lyon’s elegant and unambiguous statement of her hypothesis that made it so memorable and compelling.
Linguistic Devices in Conversational Style
Authors: Tannen Deborah 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After Thanksgiving was over, I had the impression that David’s friend Chad had been rather quiet. In addition, I was surprised that there had not been greater rapport between us, since our interests seemed to overlap in a number of ways. Chad, too, in recalling his feelings before the dinner, said that, based on what David had told him about the people he would meet that day, he had been particularly interested in meeting me. This surprised me even more, since I had seen no evidence of such interest. Listening to our conversations on tape confirmed my impression that we never really clicked.
Competition policy and efficient vice
Authors: Braithwaite John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Laws that attack monopoly have a long history, and even existed in the Roman empire (Braithwaite and Drahos, 2000: 185) but the story of a modern competition policy, executed with vigour, begins in the 1880s in North America when Canada and at least ten American states passed antitrust laws. Very little of the rest of the world was affected by this until quite late in the 20th century. Most of the competition authorities in the world have been created since 1990. There were barely 20 in the 1980s; today there are more than 90.1 More importantly, the vigour with which competition has been enforced and monopoly attacked has grown decisively in all the developed economies. Part of this has been professional deregulation at the behest of a globalising competition policy for the professions underwritten by the World Trade Organisation’s General Agreement on Trade in Services. These global and national policy shifts have effected important change. Cartels still exist, monopolies still dominate markets, but mostly price competition is more vigorous than in previous centuries. The result is that management cannot afford to be complacent. If managers are not aggressive at creating a demand for what they sell, more aggressive managers in competing firms put them out of business. This requires progressively more efficient production of the goods people want.
International arbitrage
Authors: Braithwaite John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Structural discontinuities, like those created by different tax treatments for the same transaction in different nations, open up arbitrage opportunities. Corporations can double dip, taking one position on the meaning of a transaction for US tax purposes, and another in a second country in a way that creates tax benefits under both sets of rules. When national systems collide, as they inevitably do with global businesses, sometimes the chips will fall to produce double benefits and, sometimes, double costs for the transnational entity. There can be no integrity or coherence in this. Indeed incoherence worsens because sophisticated tax planners seek to skew the clash of systems to maximise double benefits and eliminate double costs. Occasionally tax planners can go one better than double-dips at a tax advantage for the same transaction (say depreciation, leasing double-dips) in two different countries and secure a triple-dip (tax relief in three countries for the same expenditure, for example cross-border leasing where a deduction for lease of say aircraft is claimed in three different countries).
Meta risk management using natural systems
Authors: Braithwaite John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tax systems can be designed to take advantage of natural systems within companies and industries in order to manage the risk of non-compliance. Chapter 5 explained the shift in ATO thinking from risk management to meta risk management - the risk management of taxpayers’ risk management systems. The move is from the ATO having a risk management system to regulate taxpayer risks to taxpayers having risk management systems and the ATO managing those. The Registered Software Project and the Transfer Pricing Record Review and Improvement Project were documented as examples. Meta risk management involves a shift from “inside-out” to “outside-in” design. Tax administrations have historically been inside-out designers: they design the tax system to suit their administrative purposes, and then tell taxpayers to use it. It would be outside-in design if a tax authority asked taxpayers what systems they use and what tax systems would be administratively convenient for them, and then shaped the tax system to go with the grain of user systems (Figure 13). Consequently, meta risk management requires a principle-driven as opposed to a rule-based approach to tax law. This is because highly prescriptive rules are too inflexible to allow for governance by the risk management systems that come naturally to business.
Reforming enforcement strategy
Authors: Braithwaite John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The worst thing a regulatory agency can do is slide into a politics of persuasion as an overreaction to critiques of heavy-handedness, then revert to a politics of punishment when non-compliance gets out of hand as a result, and then see-saw back and forth, as each leader fails to strategically integrate punishment and persuasion. This is very much the enforcement history of the IRS. The culture of the IRS in the early 1990s was adversarial, punitive, about getting notches on guns and meeting quotas (Yancey, 2004). Congressional hearings in the late 1990s vilified this approach and legislated to change it. When businessman Charles 0 Rossotti was brought in to run the IRS in 1997, his analysis of enforcement action was that because it brought in only 2 per cent of the revenue, it was not centrally important. What mattered was improved customer service to consolidate the 98 per cent of the revenue that came in voluntarily (Johnston, 2003: 163). Today Rossotti concedes that this analysis was myopic; enforcement during his watch became too weak and this weakness became the major threat to the voluntary compliance bringing in most of the revenue.
Why Humans Cooperate
Authors: Henrich Natalie , Henrich Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cooperation among humans is one of the keys to our great evolutionary success. Natalie and Joseph Henrich examine this phenomena with a unique fusion of theoretical work on the evolution of cooperation, ethnographic descriptions of social behavior, and a range of other experimental results. Their experimental and ethnographic data come from a small, insular group of middle-class Iraqi Christians called Chaldeans, living in metro Detroit, whom the Henrichs use as an example to show how kinship relations, ethnicity, and culturally transmitted traditions provide the key to explaining the evolution of cooperation over multiple generations.
How are Constitutional Rights Created?
Authors: Posner Richard A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is natural to think that constitutional rights are rights stated in the text of the Constitution of the United States. But it is wrong, not completely but in an important sense. Constitutional rights are created mainly by the Supreme Court of the United States by “interpretation” of the constitutional text. I put the word in scare quotes because the line between judicial interpretation and judicial creation is frequently—particularly in the case of American constitutional law—fine to the point of invisibility.
Rights Against Brutal Interrogation, and Against Searches and Seizures
Authors: Posner Richard A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Supposing that an interned suspected terrorist fails to gain his freedom through habeas corpus, we must consider what the government can do to him while he is detained, and specifically how forcefully it can interrogate him. The issue usually arises in the context of a prosecution rather than a detention, when the government tries to place in evidence the defendant’s confession obtained in the interrogation and the defendant objects on the ground that the confession was coerced. Coerced confessions, even when corroborated, are made inadmissible in evidence by interpretation of the Fifth Amendment’s self-incrimination clause, though “coerced” is somewhat loosely interpreted in this context. The courts allow the government to use a certain amount of trickery, and to make at least implied promises of lenity, in an effort to extract a confession. Custodial interrogation is, to a degree, inherently coercive, yet it is permitted; even protracted custodial interrogation is permitted. But the line is drawn well short of torture; lesser forms of coercion, such as the old “third degree” (bright lights), sleep deprivation, frightening threats, and the injection of truth serum, are forbidden.
Introduction
Authors: Horton James Oliver , Horton Lois E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Slavery played a profoundly important role in the making of the United States, as the institution grew from the handful of Africans landed in Virginia in 1619 to the four million African Americans held in bondage at the beginning of the Civil War in 1861. The bound labor of at least twelve generations of black people created great wealth for slaveholders, wealth that was translated into extraordinary political power. The slave trade and the products created by slaves’ labor, particularly cotton, provided the basis for America’s wealth as a nation, underwriting the country’s industrial revolution and enabling it to project its power into the rest of the world. African slaves were not simply passive laborers. They brought many new cultures to America, and their religion, music, language, values, and skills helped shape America and its unique blended culture. Enduring a brutally oppressive system, African slaves also developed a deep commitment to liberty and became a living testament to the powerful appeal of freedom.
Thoreau and Indian Selfhood: Circles, Silence, and Democratic Land
Authors: Novak Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We begin with the idea of the circle. Jung suggests that what led psychologists to conjecture “an archetype of wholeness, i.e. the self . . . are in the first place, dreams and visions, in the second place, products of active imagination in which symbols of wholeness appear. The most important of these are geometrical structures containing elements of the circle and quaternity “ The notion of the circle, as an archetype of the self, of a self that is also whole, of wholeness—in fact—as self, is of great interest when placed beside Native American building structures, works of art, artifacts, rituals, and ceremonies in which the circular form is invested with sacred meaning. Jung’s self as wholeness would seem to relate to the Indian concept of cosmic interrelatedness, from the ancient medicine wheels, to the stone circles in the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming, to the circles within circles of ancient pots, the round kivas of the Southwest, the hogans of the Navajo, and the sacred circles on Plains medicine shields, sometimes marked with signs of the four wind directions (Jung’s quaternity).
Introduction
Authors: Bouton Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every Fourth of July, Americans gather at cookouts, parades, and fire-work displays to commemorate the birth of American democracy. From a broad perspective, there is much to celebrate in the story of thirteen colonies breaking away from monarchy to begin their unprecedented experiment in democratizing government and society. Even if the kind of democracy the Revolution created was in many ways more limited than the one we enjoy today, it was, nonetheless, a form of government that often provided greater freedom than Americans had experienced under British rule. The new state and national governments opened political access to ordinary folk as never before. They also tended to protect a wider range of civil liberties than had the system of rights granted by colonial governments, the British Parliament, and the king.
Oppression
Authors: Bouton Terry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Oppression. Tyranny. Slavery. These were the words American colonists used to describe their plight under British rule. In Pennsylvania, such words echoed in political speeches, newspaper editorials, church sermons, and private writings condemning Britain for driving the colonies into poverty and stripping Americans of their independence. People from all walks of life claimed that Britain was transforming a colony once “famed, even beyond the seas” for “its wealth and plenty” into a land of “poverty, distress, and absolute ruin.” It was said that even land-owning yeomen were being “lost in the ocean of poverty” as “respectable farmers, lately in good credit and having sufficient possessions” were “reduced to the lowest ebb of mis-fortune, and perhaps rendered incapable of ever raising” their families back to prosperity. Some said that Britain was lowering Americans to a “condition little superior to that of beggary”; others said it was like slavery.
Military Force
Authors: Posner Eric A , vermeule Adrian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Bush administration’s reaction to the 9/11 attacks combined law enforcement, administrative, and military strategies. As we discussed in the introduction, the law enforcement strategies mainly took advantage of the enhanced search, surveillance, and information-sharing provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act, as well as earlier laws against material support, conspiracy, and terrorism. Federal authorities have arrested, tried, and convicted a number of people involved in terrorist activities on American soil. The administrative strategies have focused on immigration control; numerous aliens were detained and deported in the wake of the September 11 attacks, and since then standards for permitting entrance into the United States have been tightened. The military strategies have raised the most far-reaching and challenging issues, and they are the subject of this chapter.
The EU Takeover Directive in Context: A Comparison to the US Takeover Rules
Authors: Berick Joshua , Shropshire Tom 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The following chapters will describe the national takeover legislation of each of the European Union (EU) Member States, including the manner in which the implementation of the Directive 2004/25/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of April 21, 2004 on takeover bids (the Takeover Directive or the Directive) has resulted in the adoption of new takeover rules. By contrast, this chapter is intended to provide an overview of the primary distinctions between the Directive and United States (US) federal and state takeover regulations.
Strategies of Courtship and Marriage
Authors: Wyatt-Brown Bertram 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Men controlled the economy, and as part of that power they controlled matrimony as well. No less than career and education, marriage was a means for securing livelihood and social position. It was preferable, though, to get a start with a sound education and a promising career, then use them for high marital ambitions. “A good marriage,” James H. Hammond remarked, “is the result of success in one’s career-very rarely the beginning of it.” Yet Hammond, like many others rising from indifferent economic status, did not follow the precept. He had married wealth before making it, but he had prepared for the situation with a college degree and the beginnings of a law practice in the early 1830s. It was the desperate need to make a place in the world for oneself that drove the ambitious young man to self-justifications such as Hammond expressed.
Personal Strategies and Community Life: Hospitality, Gambling, and Combat
Authors: Wyatt-Brown Bertram 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Welcoming strangers, taking risks at cards or sport, and defending personal honor were all characteristics that Southerners eagerly seized on to identify themselves. Although Southerners boasted loudly enough about these inclinations before the Civil War, afterward they became articles of sacred memory. In the 1880s, for instance, to illustrate the hospitable and gentlemanly ways of fellow Virginians in the old days, George W. Bagby, a Richmond journalist, described how “Colonel Tidewater had come half the length of the State to try a little more of Judge Piedmont’s Madeira, to know what on earth induced Piedmont to influence the governor in making that appointment, and to inquire if it were possible that Piedmont intended to bring out Jimson-of all human beings-Jimson! for Congress?” Leisure, graciousness, and quaint concerns, Bagby and others of his kind fancied, had been more or less the rule until the Civil War.
Honor, Shame, and Justice in a Slavocracy
Authors: Wyatt-Brown Bertram 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For many years historians have argued that “justice” for Southern antebellum whites “was mixed at best.” The whiter the skin, it seemed, the better matters stood for the felon, especially when the fate awaiting the black criminal, slave or free, was compared with that of the white. “The combination of archaic laws, penalties far in excess of popular values, and the lack of facilities for the long term confinement were easily turned to a defendant’s benefit,” a recent critic of Southern justice has suggested. As a result, the argument runs, personal violence, public disorder, and crimes against property were all but encouraged, so inefficient, incompetent, and casual the apparatus. The whole machinery of criminal justice either promoted the interests of the slaveholding elite, who used it “to shape the world in its own image,” as another historian has said, or suited the needs of a frontier individualism that gave all whites freedom from Old World restraints, as the disciples of the great historian Frederick Jackson Turner once averred. By either interpretation, white society was allegedly ill served by a legal structure both unjust and ineffective.
Charivari and Lynch Law
Authors: Wyatt-Brown Bertram 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a remarkable scene in Huckleberry Finn (1885), set before the Civil War, Mark Twain has Colonel Sherburn heap scorn on a mob gathered to lynch him. Sherburn has just killed the unarmed Boggs, a drunken old man whose reckless insults Sherburn had repaid with two shots in the chest. The crowd rages in front of Sherburn’s house until he steps out, shotgun in hand, and coolly says, “The idea of your lynching anybody! It’s amusing.... Because you’re brave enough to tar and feather poor friendless cast-out women . . . did that make you think you had grit enough to lay your hands on a man?” Empty praise from Southern journalists, Sherburn continues, could not hide the fact that lynchers were cowards, no better, no worse than other men, but cowards nonetheless. Otherwise, why do juries acquit murderers? “Because they’re afraid the man’s friends will shoot them in the back . . . so they always acquit; and then a man goes in the night, with a hundred masked cowards at his back, and lynches the rascal. ... The pitifulest thing out is a mob.” The crowd dissolves, each villager slinking off to protect his own skin.
The Fat Tail
Authors: Bremmer Ian , Keat Preston 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Civil wars, acts of terror, seizures of private industries--the world is a dangerous place for investors. Indeed, it is more dangerous today than ten or twenty years ago, because of the growing importance of emerging and frontier markets. Even many relatively passive or risk averse investors are exposed in places like Turkey, China, and Brazil. But while they recognize the importance of political risks, until now they have not the right tools to analyze, evaluate, and predict them. This groundbreaking book is the first to both identify the wide range of political risks that global firms face and show investors how to effectively manage them. Written by two of the world's leading figures in political risk management, it explains that while the world remains exceedingly risky for businesses, it is by no means incomprehensible. Political risk is unpredictable, but it is easier to analyze and manage than most people think. Applying the lessons of world history, Bremmer and Keat survey a vast range of contemporary risky situations, from stable markets like the United States or Japan, where politically driven regulation can still dramatically effect business, to more precarious regions like Iran, China, Russia, Turkey, Mexico, and Brazil, where private property is less secure and energy politics sparks constant volatility. The book sheds light on a wide array of political risks--risks that stem from great power rivalries, terrorist groups, government takeover of private property, weak leaders and internal strife, and even the "black swans" that defy prediction. But more importantly, the authors provide a wealth of unique methods, tools, and concepts to help corporations, money managers, and policy makers understand political risk, showing when and how political risk analysis works--and when it does not. Authored by Ian Bremmer (author of the bestselling The J-Curve) and Preston Keat, the president and research director (respectively) of Eurasia Group, the world's largest political risk consultancy, Machiavelli and the Markets is an indispensable guide for anyone involved in the international economy, from major multinational corporations to small businesses simply trying to understand the risks that come with exports and imports.