bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Early cellular organisation in anaerobes
Authors: Williams R J P , Da Silva J J R Frausto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 10 described which elements, compounds and reaction sequences have been selected in order to generate a living system. This was but a descriptive analysis of connected but uncoordinated rates of uptake and reactions in pathways, although it did also show the need for energy coupled to element incorporation. We stressed that the very fact that the chemistry was energised made it more probable that degradation would occur rather than synthesis. Since survival must depend on driving synthesis more efficiently than degradation, a living system cannot just push energy into all syntheses randomly or into reversible catalysed reactions. In order to bias effective over random synthesis and over degradation a considerable degree of organisation is necessary, where organisation implies flow of material and energy in managed dissipative systems (Fig. 11.1). We know that life is only identifiable and has superior survival character because it has organised its own production of a self-protected set of molecules in a cell and this must be examined next. Now, an additional feature that we can show has survival value is that life self reproduces. Reproduction is copying and in biological chemistry implies coded activity. We cannot solve the initial problems of the origin of the whole of this efficient organisation and reproduction in any very convincing way today but we can imagine some possibilities for its beginnings.
Thioacylation of the amino group of an amino acid
Authors: Barrett Graham c. 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problems of side-reactions encountered in acylation and alkoxycarbonylation of amino acids (Chapter 2) are not encountered in thioacylation protocols Thioacylation of amines is easily accomplished with thionesters although the reaction rates are relatively slow; the corresponding reaction, aminolysis of carboxylic esters, can be used in acylation but is slower still. The choice of the chloride leaving group was a logical improvement for the provision of efficient acylating agents (a choice that is not available, for reasons of stability of reagents, for thioacylation), although the good leaving group propensity of the thiolate anion in nucleophilic substitution reactions continues to be exploited in N-trifluoroacetylation (Table 2.11 in Chapter 2) for which the commonly-used reagent is methyl trifluorothiolacetate, CF COSMe.
Analysis of circular dichroism: electric dipole allowed transitions
Authors: Rodger Alison , Norden Bengt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The absorption spectrum of a solution of chiral molecules measured with left circularly polarized radiation would differ by at the very most 2% from that measured with unpolarized or right circularly polarized light. For most samples the difference between the absorbances measured with left and right circularly polarized light rarely exceeds ±0.001%. A CD spectrum is thus the result of a small difference between two large absorbance numbers. It gives only the helical or asymmetric part of the change that occurs when radiation is absorbed and this is probed by a combination of the electric and magnetic fields of the radiation. The smallness of the difference is due to the fact that at a given field strength magnetic field interaction energies are some thousand times weaker than the corresponding electric field interaction energies.
ICHD-2 Applied To 362 Patients With Migraine With Aura According to ICHD-1
Authors: Eriksen M K , Thomsen L L , Olesen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The second edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD-2) subdivides migraine with aura (MA) differently from the first edition of the classification (ICHD-1), and presents new diagnostic criteria for MA (Table 14.1). The ICHD-2 criteria for MA was based on empirical findings and have a high sensitivity and specificity compared with expert diagnosis according to ICHD-1. The frequency and characteristics (apart from those being part of the diagnostic criteria) of the new ICHD-2 subtypes of MA remain to be described.
Appendix to the International Classification of Headache Disorders (2nd edition): Application Of Diagnostic Criteria For Tension-Type Headache
Authors: Torelli P , Beghi E , Manzoni G C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new revised edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (2nd Edition (ICHD-II), published 15 years after the first edition, also includes an interesting Appendix. In addition to being the first step to remove a few disorders included as diagnostic entities from the classification in the 1st Edition (sufficient evidence for this has still not been published) the Appendix contains criteria for entities that have not been sufficiently validated by research studies proposes an alternative set of criteria to those in the main body of the classification, namely for migraine without aura (MO) (coded to A1.1) and for tension-type headache (TTH) (coded to A2.1, A2.2, A2.3).
Experimental Models For RA
Authors: Holmdahl Rikard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Taken together, these findings suggest that immune-mediated inflammation directed to peripheral joints plays a role in the disease process. One explanation for such a response would be the occurrence of an infectious agent persisting in the joint. However, so far it has not been possible to identify such an agent as an explanation for RA. Alternatively, the immune reaction could be directed to the molecular targets in the joints, in cartilage, or the synovial tissue. Another explanation could relate to a defect in a gene related to peripheral joints, for example leading to cartilage fragility or a gene affecting immune recognition. However, such a genetic defect has not been found. Thus, the cause and driving forces are polygenic and multifactorial, and the understanding of the disease will require a detailed basic analysis of disease mechanisms. Animal models are excellent tools for such an analysis. Recent advances in animal models mimicking different aspects of human diseases, and the improvement in genetic techniques, has dramatically increased their usefulness. The present overview will include not only models for RA, but also models more similar to some related diseases such as psoriasis arthritis, Reiter’s disease, ankylosing spondylitis, Lyme disease, and septic arthritis (summarized in Table 4.1).
The Role Of Macrophages In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Kinne Raimund W , Stuhlmüller Bruno , Palombo-Kinne, Ernesta , Burmester Gerd-R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Macrophages (Mcps) are of central importance in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), due to their prominent numbers in the inflamed synovial membrane and at the cartilage/pannus junction, their clear activation status 1–4 (see Table 5.1 for details), and their response to successful anti-rheumatic treatment5. Although Mcps probably do not occupy a causal pathogenetic position in RA (except for their potential antigen-presenting capacity) , they possess broad pro-inflammatory, destructive, and remodeling potential, and contribute considerably to inflammation and joint destruction in acute and chronic RA (see Table 5.2 for details). Also, activation of this lineage extends to circulating monocytes and other cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), including bone marrow precursors of the myelomonocytic lineage and osteoclasts 2,7,8 (see Table 5.3).
The Role Of Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Müller-Ladner Ulf , Gay Steffen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fibroblast-like synoviocyte (FLS), also termed synovial fibroblast or type B synovial fibroblast, has developed from a cell known to be involved in homeostasis within the synovium to a key pathogenic cell that mediates joint destruction in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This evolution is based on the advances in molecular biology, which has provided novel insights into the role and function of a variety of RA synovial cells. Interestingly enough, the FLS now being characterized as driving cells in the destructive processes in the rheumatoid joint were described adequately as ‘transformedappearing’ on a histological level by Fassbender decades ago .
The Roles Of B Cells In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Silverman Gregg J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Decades of intensive investigation into the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis(RA) have led to the characterization of complex interactions of diverse infiltrating cell types, which are regulated by a variety of membrane-associated and secreted molecules. Many decades ago, B lymphocytes were first implicated in surveys that demonstrated immunoglobulin(Ig) complexes in joints affected by the chronic inflammatory synovitis of RA. B lymphocytes and Ig-producing plasma cells were also found to be prominent participants in the infiltrated and hyperplastic synovia, and more recent observations have indicated that these cells contribute to pathogenesis by both local Ig-dependent and independent functions. However, despite extensive efforts, there has been limited progress in proving that specific anti-self and/or anti-microbial antigenic targets are responsible for the recruitment of clonally restricted B cell sets into the rheumatoid synovium, and as a result controversies persist regarding the factors responsible for the recruitment of these B lymphocytes. In the following sections, the cumulative evidence of the roles of B-lineage cells and their products is discussed, and important recent observations are highlighted.
The Stress System And The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis In Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Chrousos George P , Kaltsas Gregory A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The neuroendocrine and immune systems communicate with each other via a number of shared regulatory mediators (steroid hormones, neuropeptides, and cytokines) and receptors, and play major roles in maintenance of homeostasis and adaptation . Exposure to inflammatory stimuli is followed by an integrated response from the site of inflammation via the release of specific cytokines, the key ones being interleukin (IL) IL-1, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-), and IL-6, and via activation of neural afferent autonomic sensory fibers. These cytokines and afferent nerves lead to the secretion of acute phase proteins by the liver, and initiate a non-specific response via the stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the systemic/ adrenomedullary sympathetic nervous systems (SNS) . This leads to systemic elevations of glucocorticoids and catecholamines (Cas), which aim at regulating the inflammation at the site of initiation . Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a paradigmatic, multifactorial autoimmune disease that is derived from the patient’s excessiveimmune and inflammatory response . In this chapter, the current understanding of interactions of the stress and immune systems and their physiologic and pathophysiologic implications in the initiation/perpetuation of the inflammatory component in RA will be discussed. The use of potential therapeutic means based on the presence of such alterations will also be raised.
Clinical Aspects Of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Zvaifler Nathan J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, inflammatory, systemic disease with its primary manifestations in the synovial lining of diarthrodial joints. The disease is ubiquitous, occurs in both sexes at any age, (favoring women 3:1) and has been observed world-wide. The prevalence in most cohorts approximates 1% Rural populations seem to be less severely affected than urban dwellers and the disease may be worse in developed countries. The prevalence of RA increases with age. It begins most commonly in the fourth and fifth decades of life with a peak onset between the ages of 35 and 50 years . Variability is found not only in populations, but also in individuals. In the absence of treatment those patients with serologic reactions to immunoglobulins (rheumatoid factors, RFs) and cyclic citrullinated proteins (Chapter 13) and a particular genetic predisposition (shared human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR 1 epitopes—see Chapter 1) have the prototypic severe, unrelenting, progressive, destructive, disabling disease we recognize as RA. Individuals lacking these genetic and serologic features have an arthritis that is often milder, with less characteristic bilateral symmetrical synovitis, and fewer systemic manifestations. It has been argued that these are different diseases, but in this chapter they will be considered the same, unless additional features suggest an alternative rheumatic disease (see differential diagnosis below).
Psychological And Social Aspects
Authors: Kvien Tore Kristian , Smedstad Liv Marit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic and potentially disabling disease with pervasive negative impacts on the functional, social, and mental status of affected individuals. Long-term disease outcome varies from minimal loss of function to a mortality and morbidity approaching that of a malignant disease . Substantial variation in function is readily observed among persons with RA. Much of the variation that is observed is the result of a multifactorial, complex interaction between the disease process and personal and social factors . In spite of a growing body of studies addressing associations between the above variables in RA, their inter-relationships are still insufficiently explored, and remain issues of controversy.
Large Joints And Feet
Authors: Rydholm Urban 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Joint surgery in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an essential component of rheumatological rehabilitation, in particular large joint replacement procedures. Surgical synovectomy, however, has largely been replaced by local or systemic non-surgical measures (see Section 4). An increasing variety of joint prostheses are now in use. Immediate results are often dramatic but long-term, controlled trials are scarce. The outcome of surgical procedures in the large joints and feet differ between patients with RA and osteoarthritis (OA), due to the systemic and progressive character of RA.
Habitat creating factors: landforms, hydrology, and soils
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mountain building occurred in three major phases and as a result today we see two largely different types of high mountains: (1) worn-down mountains of Caledonic (Scottish Highlands, Scandes, Appalachians) and Variscan (Urals, Altai, Tianshan) origin, and (2) younger rugged and higher mountain chains of so-called alpine origin that formed relatively recently. Today’s landforms are the result of tectonics, volcanic activity, weathering and mass wasting, water erosion, wind, and glacial and periglacial activity. The rate at which material is displaced towards lower elevations (denudation processes) is influenced by climate and rock type. The shaping of the alpine landscape in seasonally varying climates is by frost and snow (ice) impacts in the winter, followed by mass movement and fluvial activity during the summer. In arid areas, frost-shattered material is displaced down-hill by gravity. Most aseasonal tropical high mountains have also been, at least in part, subject to glacial events in the past and today frequent daily freeze–thaw occurs in the alpine zone, increasingly so with elevation (e.g. Table 4.5).
Temporal and spatial dynamics
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discussion of temporal and spatial aspects of the dynamics in al-pine plant communities (and some examples of animal assemblages) begins with outlining processes during colonization. For expediency, the colonization of bare substrata is considered first, followed by plant community and animal assemblage formation (primary succession), and then by secondary succession. Subterranean and microbiological processes that pre-date and co-occur with the succession of higher life forms are considered. This phase (colonization and space filling) is highly dynamic in the absence of a climatic constraint, such as found on glacier forelands. In contrast, established alpine communities are characterized by generally slow dynamics (Fig. 7.21).
The second part is about change and its drivers in community composition in time and space: from inter-annual variability to long-term change at the patch and habitat scales. The main variables considered include recruitment, persistence, and sexual versus vegetative reproduction. The interactions that contribute to the dynamics of alpine plant communities are examined by looking at competition, facilitation, and mutualism. Finally, the impacts on species and vegetation dynamics of temperature, nutrients, and herbivores are discussed.
Land use and conservation of alpine landscapes, ecosystems, and species
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historically, economic return, health considerations, religious beliefs, and above all population density have been the major shaping forces of human land use in high mountains, as well as in the lowlands. This chapter examines the impact of some of the land-use forms on alpine and upper montane landscapes and habitats. The examples from Europe are contrasted with those from North America, and most notably with those drawn from high-altitude mountain areas with a long history of land use such as the mountains emerging from the extensive plateau of the central Andes. As has been shown, in high mountain ecosystems a vertical zonation causes high biological diversity on a projected area basis and the existence of slopes gives a high-energy status to mountains, i.e. the movement of water and solid material along slopes is much more pronounced than on flatlands. These features make mountain environments sensitive to excessive perturbation, which is often the case with land use. Finally, we discuss conservation management measures that might minimize or ameliorate the impacts of perturbation and contribute to the maintenance of ecosystem functions, continued use, and biological diversity of alpine ecosystems.
Emotional, behavioural, psychiatric and social problems
Authors: Demellweek Colin , Rankin Peter , Baldwin Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As detailed in Chapter 8, cognitive problems following brain injury in children are common and varied. However, cognitive skills that are traditionally measured on neuropsychological tests such as memory, language or perception do not always adequately tap the range of behavioural, social and emotional difficulties that frequently develop following brain injury. Indeed, carers and teachers of children who have suffered brain injuries frequently report that it is the change in the child ‘s personality, moods or motivation that causes the most significant distress for all concerned. A range of terms may be applied to describe this area of difficulty including emotional, behavioural, psychiatric and social difficulties – as such, all these terms are included in the title of this chapter. However, some of the terms available may be confusing to the general public as they often describe the same essential phenomena and vary more according to the training of the professional making such observations, rather than the problems the child experiences.
Community liaison
Authors: Gregg Jackie , Baldwin Tony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will address the relevance and importance of the community child health and education services in the process of rehabilitation. Its role is crucial in continuing the acute hospital-based rehabilitation programme and effective communication with the hospital, primary care team and school. The aims of community liaison are to ensure that: early medical advice is submitted to the local education authority (LEA), if necessary, to ensure optimal educational provision; the local community paediatrician and family doctor are regularly updated on the child ‘s progress, so that local support is readily available for parents, siblings and extended family; the child ‘s local community paediatrician, general practitioner and therapists are briefed ready for the child ‘s discharge.
The future
Authors: Appleton Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Without doubt, the incidence of both traumatic and non-traumatic brain injuries will continue to increase, and it has been estimated that by 2020, road traffic accidents will be the third leading cause of disability-adjusted life years lost world-wide and the second leading cause in developing countries. Although these predictions are predominantly adult-based, there is no reason to expect that the increase in traumatic brain injuries in children will not mirror those in adults, particularly in those aged 15–18 years, and possibly even in younger age groups. It is also likely that there will be an increasing number of children with non-accidentally acquired brain injuries through an increase in teenage pregnancies and, if current trends continue, a further decline in family life and parenting skills.
A parent ‘s and her daughter ‘s experiences
Authors: Pearson Lizzie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter gives a detailed (and unedited) account of how one family perceived and coped with their daughter ‘s brain injury, beginning with the mother ‘s account and followed by Lizzy ‘s own account, in which she reflects on her own feelings and memories. The account begins with her arrival on the neuro-rehabilitation ward.
Patients with colorectal cancer
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is increasing evidence that, although expensive, a screening programme can allow the diagnosis of colorectal cancer while still at Dukes’ A or B stage. This may lead to a significant survival advantage for the screened population. This is commencing in England and Wales in 2007. See earlier section on screening in Chapter 1.
Inclusion criteria in ICPC
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has always been clear to the WONCA Classification Committee that an internationally agreed list of rubrics to classify problems met in primary care would not in itself ensure the highest level of statistical comparability. In the International Classification of Health Problems in Primary Care (ICHPPC-2-Defined) published in 1983 inclusion criteria for the use of each rubric were introduced to improve consistency of coding.
Hypertension-associated hypalgesia An important mechanism in headache and other pains?
Authors: Tronvik E , Stovner L J , Hagen K , Holmen J , Zwart J -A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ICHD-II classification states that elevated blood pressure (BP) is not a cause of headache. This statement was corroborated by prospective data from a large unselected population in Norway (The Nord-Trøndelag Health Study—HUNT) on 22,685 adults, a study which in fact demonstrated that high systolic and diastolic pressures were associated with reducedrisk of non-migrainous headache 11 years later. For migrainous headache no clear association was found. The objective of the present study was to further explore the relation between BP and headache, and the effect of antihypertensive medication, in a cross-sectional study.
Gametogenesis and fertilization
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Millipedes have separate sexes. Secondary sexual structures have evolved to a high degree to ensure successful transfer of sperm from males to females. In this chapter, all aspects of reproduction will be covered, from the structure of reproductive organs and gametes, through to mating behaviour, egg laying, and early embryological development. Post hatching development is covered in Chapter 8.