bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Civil Land Observation Satellites
Authors: Stoney William E. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first, and still the most dramatic, example of seeing where we live from the vantage point of space was the image of a pale blue and white globe hanging all alone in an infinite expanse of darkness taken through the window of Apollo 8 on its way to the Moon in December 1968. Three and a half years later on 23 July 1972, NASA launched ERTS‐1, later renamed Landsat‐1. This was the first civil imaging satellite that had enough resolution, 80 meters, to image human‐scale activities, that is, everything bigger than a football field. Its more capable successors now provide anyone, anywhere, the ability to see images of motorcycle size objects any place on the globe at almost any time. As of November 2002, there are 19 satellites in orbit whose resolutions range from 30 meters down to 0.6 meter. (The number of systems in orbit is somewhat volatile; four are old and may fail by the time this article is published, and five more are likely to be launched during that same period.) They are being operated by the United States, France, India, Korea, Canada, China/Brazil, the European Space Agency, and three private corporations, two U.S. and one Israeli. The number of satellites and the number of their national and private sponsors show that civil land observation satellites have arrived at the point where they are now another permanent payoff of the space age. It will take much longer than the Weather, Communication and Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites for their full economic and social effects to be felt, but they are already forcing national and international discussions on the effects on nations, corporations, and individuals of the worldwide transparency that these satellites will inevitably bring.
This article discusses the special set of Earth orbiting satellites designed to acquire detailed images of the global land surface. It is the high‐resolution subset of the larger family of Earth sensing satellites that image the land and oceans on a kilometer scale and measure the characteristics of the atmosphere to record the weather and to explore the complex interrelationships among the atmosphere, the oceans, and the land surface that cause the weather and our climate. The satellite, sensor, and data technologies involved are described. The landsat history is detailed. Programs of the international period are included. The possibilities of using radar in civilean satellites is discussed.
Pathfinder Mission to Mars
Authors: Anderson R.C. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract

On July 4, 1997, Mars
Pathfinder
landed safely on the surface of Mars. Designed under the new “faster, cheaper, and better”
Discovery
program philosophy, the lander deployed and navigated a small rover named “
Sojourner
” onto the Ares Valles landing site and began collecting data from its onboard scientific instruments. Pathfinder was designed primarily as an entry, descent and landing demonstration. The three major components are cruise stage entry decent sub system, and lander.
Pathfinder
returned 2.3 billion bits of new data, including over 17,000 images, 16 chemical analyses of rocks and soil, and 8.5 million individual temperature, pressure and wind measurements.
Sojourner
traversed approximately 100 meters (330 feet) clockwise around the lander exploring about 200 square meters (2,153 square feet) of area.

Pathfinder' objectives were to study geologic process, soil mechanics, petrology, geochemistry, and orbital dynamics, among others. Findings are discussed. Details are given on the characteristics of the landing site.
Image Processing Techniques
Authors: Russ John C. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Image processing includes those methods that operate on arrays of pixels to produce a modified image in which some of the information is enhanced in visibility and necessarily some other information is reduced. This is done presumably because the user can determine from the intended use of the image which information is currently important. In other situation, different processing might be used to extract other information from the image.
There are several different ways to organize image processing methods to aid in understanding and to provide a logical structure for explanation. One is by purpose: to correct defects in images that arise from imperfect cameras, illumination, etc; to enhance the visibility of particular structures within images; to recognize and locate features; etc. In many cases, the same tools can be used for several of these different objectives.
Another method is to distinguish between operations that work on single pixels, within small neighborhoods, and globally on the entire image. This article discussed single‐pixel operations.
Characterization of Image Systems
Authors: Huck Friedrich O. , Fales Carl L. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractCommunication theory is used to establish a mathematical foundation for characterizing image systems that combine image gathering and display with digital processing to produce sharp, clear images consistently and economically. Characterization entails three elements:A mathematical model that accounts for image gathering, signal coding, and image restoration as a whole, from the scene to the observer.Figures of merit that account for the critical limiting factors that constrain the performance of image systems.Computational simulations that correlate quantitative assessments with measurable and perceptual performance.The pivotal figure of merit is the information rate in the image system. This rate is paired with the theoretical minimum data rate to assess the efficiency with which information about natural scenes can be conveyed, and it is paired with the maximum realizable fidelity to assess the quality with which images of these scenes can be restored. Quantitative assessments show that the design of the image‐gathering device that is optimized for the highest realizable information rate corresponds closely, under appropriate conditions, to the design of the human eye. Consistent with this convergence of communication theory and evolution, it is intuitively attractive to find that the performance of the informationally optimized image system is highly robust. The Performance not only reaches the best that is possible for scenes with aprioriprescribed statistical properties, and it also approaches the best that is possible for a wide range of other scenes, even for those that have periodic features or transients.
Charged Particle Optics
Authors: Orloff Jon 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This article describes the the lenses used for high‐resolution charged‐particle optics and how their performance—in particular, their resolution—is analyzed. There are many applications for beams of charged particles (ions and electrons) that have very different resolution or beam size requirements. The optical systems described here are for high resolution, a resolving power near or at the atomic level in a microscope, or a probe focused to the 0.3–10 nm range.
Today, high resolution means beams of electrons focused to a size less than 10 nm (100 Å) or beams of ions focused to a size less than 100 nm (1000 Å) using a scanning probe instrument such as a scanning electron microscope.
High‐resolution electron beams are used primarily in electron microscopes and in electron beam lithography machines for making the lithographic masks employed for integrated circuit manufacturing. High‐resolution beams of ions are primarily used for microscopy (imaging), for micromachining and for ion‐beam‐induced chemistry. These applications are frequently related to integrated circuit manufacturing and in both cases the imaging resolution of the beams is of great importance.
The way a beam of charged particles is focused depends on how the beam is generated, so the article begin with a discussion of electron sources. This is followed by a description of the way lenses that consist of electrical or magnetic fields can be made that will focus charged particles. Why an electromagnetic field is a lens in the same sense that a curved piece of glass is a lens for light is discussed and concludes with a discussion of the capabilities and limitations of some lenses.
Color Photography
Authors: Kapecki Jon A. , Rodgers James 
Published: October 2003

AbstractColor photography is a technology by which the visual appearance of a three‐dimensional subject may be reproduced on a two‐dimensional surface with a pleasing balance of brightness, hue, and color saturation. There are two essentials in the practice of color photography: the camera and the light‐sensitive sensor. The task of the camera is to present an undistorted image to the plane of the sensor with an intensity level and exposure time appropriate to the sensitivity of the sensor being used. The sensor can either be silver‐halide based photographic film or an electronic sensor such as a charge couple device (CCD). A digital record of the scene may also be obtained by scanning the processed film.The technology of silver halide color photography is discussed in this article. The physical record of the image is expected to have high permanence. The image may be viewed directly as a reflection color print, by projection as a color slide, or by back‐illumination as a display transparency. In the case of a digital image, it may also be viewed on a video monitor. References cited are general sources of information on the science and technologies supporting color photography.
Digital Watermarking
Authors: Chandramouli R. , Memon Nasir , Rabbani Majid 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe advent of the Internet has resulted in many new opportunities for creating and delivering content in digital form. Applications include electronic advertising, real‐time video and audio delivery, digital repositories and libraries, and Web publishing. An important issue that arises in these applications is protection of the rights of content owners. It has been recognized for quite some time that current copyright laws are inadequate for dealing with digital data. This has led to an interest in developing new copy deterrence and protective mechanisms. One approach that has been attracting increasing interest is based ondigital watermarkingtechniques. Digital watermarking is the process of embedding information into digital multimedia content such that the information (which is called the watermark) can later be extracted or detected for a variety of purposes, including copy prevention and control. Digital watermarking has become an active and important area of research, and development and commercialization of watermarking techniques is deemed essential to help address some of the challenges faced by the rapid proliferation of digital content.In the rest of this article, it is assumed that the content being watermarked is a still image, though most digital watermarking techniques are, in principle, equally applicable to audio and video data. A digital watermark can bevisibleorinvisible. A visible watermark typically consists of a conspicuously visible message or a company logo indicating the ownership of the image. On the other hand, an invisibly watermarked image appears very similar to the original. The existence of an invisible watermark can be determined only by using an appropriate watermark extraction or detection algorithm. In this article, we restrict our attention to invisible watermarks.An invisible watermarking technique generally consists of an encoding process and a decoding process.Invisible watermarking schemes can also be classified as eitherrobustorfragile. Robust watermarks are often used to prove ownership claims and so are generally designed to withstand common image processing tasks such as compression, cropping, scaling, filtering, contrast enhancement, and printing/scanning, in addition to malicious attacks aimed at removing or forging the watermark.
Display Characterization
Authors: Brainard David H. , Pelli Denis G. , Robson Tom 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis article describes the characterization and use of computer‐controlled displays. Most imaging devices are now computer controlled, and this makes it possible for the computer to take into account the properties of the imaging device to achieve the intended image. CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors is emphasizes the article begins with the standard model of CRT imaging. How this model may be used to render the desired visual image accurately from its numerical representation is shown. The domain of validity of the standard CRT model is discussed. The model makes several assumptions about monitor performance that are usually valid but can fail for certain images and CRTs. How to detect such failures and how to cope with them are explained.Primarily users who will be doing accurate imaging on a CRT are addressed. CRTs are very well suited for accurate rendering. Treatment of LCDs (liquid crystal displays) is brief, in part because this technology is changing very rapidly and in part because the strong dependence of emitted light on viewing angle in current LCD displays is a great obstacle to accurate rendering. Plasma displays seem more promising in this regard.All the steps of a basic characterization are presented. The treatment emphasizes accuracy both in color and in space. The display characteristics that need to be taken into account to present an arbitrary spatiotemporal image accurately, that is, luminance and chromaticity as a function of space and time are reviewed. A number of topics of interest to the vision scientist who requires precise control of a displayed stimulus are treated.This article explains the standard CRT model (and necessary basic colorimetry) and describes simple visual tests (available online) that establish the model's validity for a monitor. How to use the standard model to characterize your display for accurate rendering is shown. Finally, the discussion briefly presents several more advanced topics, including characterization of non‐CRT displays.
Dye Transfer Printing Technology
Authors: Matsushiro Nobuhito 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter describes the structure and operation of dye‐sublimation thermal‐transfer printing technology. In addition to the principle of structure and operation, other principles concerned, the capabilities and limitations of the technology such as resolution, speed, intensity levels, color accuracy, size, etc, are described. The subject of this article is the dye‐sublimation printer, however, the details of other thermal‐transfer printers are included to assist the understanding about the capabilities and limitations of the dye‐sublimation printer in comparison.
Dye‐sublimation technologies using thermal heads become some of the most commercially important printers in the first half of the 1990s. However, the system has now been improved in terms of performance. The problem of image storage properties, which was the crucial issue for dye‐heat transfer, has been solved substantially by stabilization of the dye itself by chemical reactions. In the area of recording materials, research continues in the search for better materials. In the area of heat sources, a high power laser has made it possible to produce ultrahigh‐precision images.
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) Imaging
Authors: Eaton Sandra S. , Eaton Gareth R. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractElectron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) imaging maps the spatial distribution of unpaired electron spins. Information about a sample can be obtained from images with one, two, or three spatial dimensions. Images also can be obtained with an additional spectral dimension that reveals the dependence of the EPR spectrum on the position in the sample. One can then seek to understand why certain types of spins are found at particular locations in a sample, why the concentrations vary with position, or why the concentrations vary with time. For the benefit of readers who are not familiar with EPR, a brief introduction to the principles of EPR is given in. The emphasis is on the aspects of EPR that impact the way that imaging experiments are performed. Types of species with unpaired electrons, also called paramagnetic species, that have been studied by EPR imaging are then discussed. Procedures for performing EPR imaging and provide examples of applications are given. More extensive introductions to EPR imaging can be found in the references cited.
Field Emission Display Panels
Authors: Hanson Robert J. , Hetzer David R. , Richter Duane F. , Straka Scott W. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractField emission display (FED) panels are a growing sector of the flat panel display market. FEDs have been developed using variations of semiconductor processing with a high degree of process control and cleanliness allowing for cost‐effective manufacture.Many experts believe they have a strong future as a competitive display technology. In the present work, nearly all aspects of this emerging technology are discussed including: a brief historical review of the FED, fabrication and theory of the cathode and anode panels, phosphor technology, basic fundamentals of spacers, considerations for driving electronics, and final assembly. An expert in the subject of field emission displays will find this paper a refreshing review of several of the more important topics focused on FEDs. Conversely, a person with noa prioriknowledge of the FED should find this paper to be a sound introduction in the field of this relatively new display technology, and also provide a good reference to existing literature for further study.
Gravitation Imaging
Authors: Keller G. Randy 
Published: October 2003

AbstractGravitational imaging as defined here refers to geophysical mapping and interpretation of features in the earth's lithosphere (the relatively rigid outer shell that extends to depths of ∼100 km beneath the surface). In fact, the emphasis is on the upper crust of the Earth that extends to depths of about 20 km, because it is this region where gravity data can best help delineate geologic features related to natural hazards (faults, volcanoes, landslides), natural resources (water, oil, gas, minerals, geothermal energy), and tectonic events such as the formation of mountain belts. Such studies provide elegantly straightforward demonstrations of the applicability of classical physics and digital processing to the solution of a variety of geologic problems. These problems vary in scale from very local investigations of features such as faults and ore bodies to regional investigations of the structure of mountain belts and tectonic plates.In order to produce images, we must first apply corrections to our gravity measurements that remove known variations in gravity with respect to elevation and latitude. Our goal is to derivegravity anomaliesthat represent departures from what we know about the gravity field and to construct images of these values. However below the density within the Earth varies (and varies complexly in the lithosphere), and there is a slow rotation present. However, all of these complications are second order.Several different types of anomalies have been defined based on the known variations in the earth's gravity field that are considered before calculating the anomaly value. Calculations are given. Terms and concepts are given in order to understand the basics. Correction methods used for gravity measurements are discussed. Gravitational imaging usually involves digital processing based on Fourier analysis. Other topics include imaging capabilities, limitations and construction, and enhancement of gravitational images.Gravity data are widely available and relatively straight forward to gather, process, and interpret. A particularly nice aspect of the gravity technique is that the instrumentation and interpretative approaches employed are mostly independent of the scale of the investigation. Thus, gravitational imaging can be employed in a wide variety of applications.
High Resolution Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy Imaging
Authors: Levi‐Setti Riccardo , Gavrilov Konstantin L. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Several modern microanalytical techniques strive to describe the chemical composition of materials by images at ever increasing spatial resolution and sensitivity. Digital micrographs that depict the two‐dimensional distribution of selected constituents (analytical maps) across small areas of a sample are one of the most effective vehicles for recording the retrieved information quantitatively. One technique in particular, secondary ion mass spectroscopy or, more appropriately, spectrometry (SIMS) imaging, has been advanced during the last two decades to reach analytical image resolution of a few tens of nanometers. High‐resolution SIMS imaging has become practical due to the development of finely focused scanning ion probes of high brightness, incorporated in scanning ion microscopes or microprobes (SIM), as is illustrated in this context. SIMS images are shown that embody a wealth of correlative interwoven information in a most compact form. These can be thought of as two‐dimensional projections of an abstract multidimensional space that encompasses the spatial dimensions (physical structure), the mass or atomic number dimension (chemical structure), and, as a further variable, the concentration of each constituent in a sample (quantification).
In this article, the fundamental principles that underlie the formation of SIMS images, the requirements and limitations in attaining high spatial resolution (<100 nm), the engineering details of a state‐of‐the‐art SIM, and a number of applications, illustrated by images, in the materials sciences are reviewed.
High Speed Photographic Imaging
Authors: Davidhazy Andrew 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
High‐speed photography is a specialty within the broad discipline of scientific photography that is used for making visible and possible quantitative evaluations of events that transpire over periods of time much too short for visual perception even when aided by the processes of image recording by normal photographic cameras. The time frame of certain events can be so short that sometimes neither qualitative nor, more importantly, quantitative evaluation of an event is possible using conventional photographic techniques.
When the lifetime of events of interest is very short, both higher shutter speeds and framing rates than are normally available on standard cameras are required. When such events happen in adverse and hostile environments, this calls additionally for photographic systems ruggedized for such conditions. In addition, when the motion of subjects over time is of interest or there is a desire to record subjects that are too small for the unaided eye to appreciate fully, this also calls for special camera equipment.
Human Visual System—Color Visual Processing
Authors: Fairchild Mark D. 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter covers the basic structure and function of the human visual system with respect to people's perception of color, and procedures to quantify those color perceptions, colorimetry, through the measurement and specification of light sources, materials, and human observers. specific topics addressed include: visual anatomy and physiology related to color perception, the spatial and temporal properties of color vision, color vision deficiencies, basic and advanced colorimetry, light sources and illuminants, materials, tristimulus values, CIE colorimetry, chromaticity coordinates, color spaces, color difference metrics, and color appearance models. A basic understanding of human color vision and color specification is important for imaging science and technology in order to develop insight into the design, engineering, and limitations of color imaging systems and further improve such systems. CIE colorimetry is also the fundamental basis of modern color management systems that enable device‐independent color imaging in digital systems. Since it is very difficult to cover all of this material in sufficient detail in a single article, interested readers should look to books devoted to color science for more detailed information. These reference marks are listed.