bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Irrelevance of Law and Non—Law
Authors: Franck Thomas M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Authority is a word on everybody’s lips today. The young attack it and the old demand respect for it. Parents have lost it and policemen enforce it. Experts claim it and artists spurn it, while scholars seek it and lawyers cite it. Philosophers reconcile it with liberty and theologians demonstrate its compatibility with conscience. Bureaucrats pretend they have it and politicians wish they did. Everyone agrees that there is less of it than there used to be. In their external relations, sovereigns are bound by no law; they are like our ancestors before the recognition or imposition of the social contract. A prerequisite of law is a superior authority whether delegated from below or imposed from above-where there is no recognized authority, there is no law.
Determinacy and the Sophist Rule-Idiot Rule Paradox
Authors: Franck Thomas M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The preceding chapter has attempted to introduce the relationship of the legitimacy of a rule and its degree of determinacy. The aspects of determinacy examined in that chapter are: 1) the transparency of the standard established in the rule text; and 2) the extent to which the rule is accessible to legitimate clarifying procedures. These two aspects have been designated, respectively, the substantive (or textual) and the procedural (or institutional) sides of determinacy. The present chapter examines a number of other, related aspects of determinacy. As in the preceding chapter, central to the discussion of determinacy will be the hypothesis that the formal literary structure of a rule text is one of the several elements affecting the degree to which a rule is perceived to be legitimate.
Commerce, Manufactures, and the West
Authors: Tucker Robert W , Hendrickson David C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the american states achieved their independence in 1783, they secured a peace treaty from Great Britain much more generous than seemed reasonable to expect only a few years before. Hoping to reconcile the disaffected colonies to their mother country, the Shelburne ministry decided not to contest the American claim to the great interior, bounded on the east by the Appalachian Mountains, on the north by the Great Lakes, on the south by the 31st parallel, and on the west by the Mississippi River Shelburne, hoping that the settlement of the interior would allow the United States to accept British manufactures in ever greater numbers, believed that it might be possible to enjoy again the substance of empire even while sacrificing the form.
The Isolationist Impulse
Authors: Tucker Robert W , Hendrickson David C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For most of his life, Jefferson championed a policy of isolation for the new nation. In doing so, he joined his voice to those of many others. The desire to pursue a political destiny separate from Europe enjoyed a virtual consensus among the founding generation of American statesmen. It was given repeated expression in the period immediately preceding the War of Independence.
Introduction
Authors: Snyder Jack 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The domino theory, in one form or another, has been the central organizing concept behind American containment strategy. America's two major wars since 1945 have been fought under the banner of the domino theory. Neither Korea nor Vietnam was thought to have great economic, military, or cultural value to the United States. Rather, they were thought to be worth fighting for primarily because defeats there might create precedents for areas of greater intrinsic value. Insufficient resistance would embolden aggressors to hunt for bigger game, shake major allies' faith in American backing, and cause smaller states and popular movements to jump on the aggressors' bandwagon.1
Alliance Formation in Southwest Asia: Balancing and Bandwagoning in Cold War Competition
Authors: Walt Stephen M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When will states form alliances, and what determines their choice of allies? This question is important for at least two reasons. First, from a policy perspective, competing hypotheses about the causes of alignment lie at the heart of many recurring debates in U.S. foreign policy. As Deborah Larson (Chapter 4) reveals in this volume, the belief that states tend to bandwagon (i.e., to ally with the strongest or most threatening power) was an important motive behind the“globalization” of containment in the early years of the cold war.
Russian and Soviet Strategic Behavior in Asia
Authors: Hauner Milan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To understand more fully the contemporary Soviet strategic behavior along the rim lands of Asia, it might be helpful to examine certain lessons of the past, especially since the essential geostrategic parameters delineating the Russian and Soviet Eurasian superpower have not changed fundamentally since the political genius Halford Mackinder described it in 1904 as uniquely endowed with“a correlation between natural environment and political organization and unlikely to be altered by any possible social revolution
International Aspects of the Development of German Banking
Authors: Tilly Richard 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The leading characteristic of the German banking system as it evolved in the second half of the nineteenth century was certainly not its international orientation. Like the German economy itself during this period, German banks were dominated by the financial opportunities created by domestic social overhead and industrial investment. Many ways exist for demonstrating the primacy of Germany’s domestic financial needs, but the most convenient one for present purposes is to cite figures collected by Walther Hoffmann in his book on German economic growth and by Raymond Gold smith in one of his earlier comparative studies (Table 4-1 ).
The Role of International Factors in the Formation of the Banking System in Russia
Authors: Bovykin V I , Anan’ich B V 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The formative stage of the Russian banking system was the I 860s and l 870s,-a--period when capitalist relations were being significantly strengthened in the country. Previously, the country lived under serfdom (not abolished until 1861), which fettered and deformed the growth of production, commerce, and credit. Faced with the threat of a revolutionary overthrow of the out dated feudal regime, Russian landowners sacrificed serfdom and embarked upon a gradual bourgeois transformation of the agrarian system and adaptation of the landowner stage to burgeoning capitalism. As a result, capitalist relations in Russia arose under conditions where landowners retained political dominance in the state and a monopoly of a considerable (and the best) part of the country’s land resources.
Foreign Banks and Foreign Investment in Russia
Authors: Anan’ich B V , Bovykin V I 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A key dynamic in the industrial development of capitalist countries was the diffusion of advanced technology. The process of technological modernization, synchronous with the construction of railway networks, generated an exceptionally high demand for capital, which in most cases was supplied largely by foreign investments. Russia was no exception. Calculation of just how important a role foreign capital played has been an object of continuing controversy; the problem is complex in the extreme and re quires further study and analysis, but two aspects seem clear.
Extra-Regional Banks and Investment in China
Authors: King Frank H H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The opening of the Yangtze River to foreign trade and the extension of the Treaty Port* system of open ports consequent to provisions of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin created a network of foreign-initiated intraregional trade at a time when refugees from the Taiping rebels inflated the demand for real estate protected by the provisions for “foreign settlements” in the larger ports, especially Shanghai. The consequent boom was fueled in part by India-based banks with branches in Shanghai and the British Crown Colony of Hong Kong.
The Oil Industry
Authors: Fursenko A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The oil concerns that emerged in the late nineteenth century were the products of a profitable and rapidly growing business. The development of the petroleum industry constantly required new capital investments, and for the most part that took the form of reinvested profits, i.e., self-financing. Most of the large oil corporations, even if not averse to accepting credit from banks, nevertheless operated primarily with their own money. At the same time growth in the oil industry changed the companies’ scale of operation: The expansion of foreign operations and rapid internationalization of the oil business turned national companies into transnational ones. Although such developments occurred in many branches of industry and trade, this process proceeded with particular intensity in the oil industry.
Iron and Steel
Authors: Wengenroth Ulrich 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There were not so many true multinational iron and steel companies with plants and operations in more than one country before World War I, at least not if one has in view the manufacture of iron and steel proper. Production was still heavily centralized, and foreign subsidiaries of steel companies were mostly engaged in the acquisition of raw materials and kept under tight control by their headquarters. On the other side, quite a few steel companies, especially in Eastern Europe, were promoted by or with the help of foreign capital, including major European steel makers. It is difficult, however, to regard all these new companies as subsidiaries, since the Western parents did not seem to have had much influence on their policy-at least not in the long run.
International Harvester and Its Competitors
Authors: Carstensen Fred V 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
On May 1, 1851, the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations opened in London’s Crystal Palace. In the midst of the thinly populated American exhibition sat Cyrus McCormick’s “huge, unwieldy, unsightly and incomprehensible” mechanical grain harvester.1 But in two demanding field trials McCormick’s machine demon strated its virtue-it offered farmers the first effective mechanical means for harvesting wheat, oats, and other grains, a machine that both reduced the labor requirement by four-fifths and cut the loss of grain from handling; the exhibition jury awarded McCormick its highest award, the prestigious Council Medal. McCormick used this signal victory as a cornerstone for American advertising for years afterwards and established a pattern of using victories in such European field trials to enhance the McCormick reputation.
Communications Intelligence in World War I
Authors: Headrick Daniel R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
War brings with it a great urge to communicate. Armies on the move and fleets of ships soon disappear from the line of vision of their commanding officers. Before the twentieth century, this was one of the frustrations of command, part of what Clausewitz called “the fog of war,” which prevented even Napoleon and Nelson from engaging in battles covering more than a few square miles. With the industrial age, all that changed. The telegraph, the telephone, and especially the radio finally allowed commanders to control enormous forces spread over hundreds of square miles.
Conflicts and Settlements, 1919–1923
Authors: Headrick Daniel R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
No sooner did the guns go silent on the Western Front than the old conflicts over world communications reappeared. Great Britain, still dominating the world’s information flow, was once again challenged by nations that resented its power. Yet in communications, as in every other field, the postwar world differed radically from the prewar. The changes were of three kinds: political, economic, and technological. Defeat had eliminated Germany from world communications, and the Allies were determined not to let Britain’s erstwhile competitor return to the field.
The Dual Nature of Causation in Biology
Authors: Goldsmith Timothy H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
These contrasting remarks, the first by an evolutionary biologist, the second two by citizens who have been active in efforts to influence the content of biology textbooks used in secondary schools, point to a sad and disturbing problem: More than a century after Charles Darwin called attention to one of the most exciting and unifying concepts in the whole of science, the teaching of evolution continues to be greeted with formidable resistance. In the entire sweep of scientific knowledge, only evolutionary biology is the object of political regulation in the public schools, justified by tireless and tiresome repetition of the words of William Jennings Bryan that, after all, evolution is “only a theory.” Moreover, that after a half a century has passed a President of the United States can still utter the same phrase with conviction is testimony to the fact that the lay public’s understanding of evolution remains in a primitive condition.
Introduction
Authors: Joekes Susan P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The emphasis in studies of women in society has shifted in the past forty years. Early writings revolved around women’s traditional roles and centered on their position in the family in “primitive” societies. Anthropologists hailing from other countries produced descriptions of kinship, marriage, and local customs in small communities and examined women’s lives in those settings. Men’s and women’s roles were considered essentially complementary. Narrow in focus as they were, such works were not intended to investigate the broader social and economic milieu nor even to consider economic aspects of different types of social organization.
The Position of Women in a Changing World
Authors: Joekes Susan P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Has the quality of life improved for the citizens of the world in the forty years since the establishment of the United Nations? The founding pur pose of the United Nations was to promote peace and prosperity throughout the world, on the basis of a “faith in fundamental human rights” that included “the equal rights of men and women.” Did this aim come at all close to fruition? Have all the aid, investment, and commitment to development devoted to these ends been in vain? Have economic changes, whatever the causal role of the United Nations it self, brought about any diminution in the disparities in wealth and well being between whole peoples and between men and women within and between countries?
Toward Innovative Development Policies
Authors: Joekes Susan P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The present international economic climate is fundamentally inimical to development. Employment prospects in general and particularly for the younger generation and for women have deteriorated drastically since 1980. Real interest rates are unprecedentedly high; the flow of external finance for development investment has almost dried up; and prices of commodities have either fluctuated widely or fallen in a sustained way. Instability and uncertainty are the order of the day for the majority of countries. With unemployment at record levels, industrialized countries have pursued nationalistic trade and monetary policies, which only worsen the situation. Heavily indebted developing coun tries and those still dependent on exports of primary commodities are struggling through times of domestic austerity, which are damaging to their productive capacity in the long run as well as immediately harmful to the standard of living of their populations.
The “ Effeminate” Style
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
History has many themes. One of them is that women should be quiet. By the turn of the century when humorist Ambrose Bierce defined a woman as an “animal” which “can be taught not to talk,”1 many of the instructional methods used to elicit her silence had been lost to memory. Among them were the ducking stool, the gag, and the gossip’s bridle.
The Memorable Phrase, The Memorable Picture
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The cover of The New Republic of October 17, 1983, pictured the Reverend Jesse Jackson, his right hand raised, his left on the Bible, swearing the presidential oath of office. The headline read “ ‘I have a scheme . . President Jesse Jackson?” By playing on our associations with Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream,” “I have a scheme” telegraphs a powerful indictment. If Jackson would substitute a scheme for King’s dream, then he is unworthy to be president. The New Republic is engaging here in the sort of concise, memorable phrasemaking that is now demanded of those who wish to speak to a mass audience. In this chapter we explore the form and function of memorable phrases and pictures in political eloquence.
Mating the Best of the Old and the new
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
“Were it left to me to decide whether we should have a government without newspapers, or newspapers without a government,” wrote Thomas Jefferson two centuries ago, “I should not hesitate a moment to prefer the latter. But I should mean that every man should receive those papers and be capable of reading them.” What Jefferson did not envision was a literate reader dispatching the newspaper to the bottom of the birdcage, its political news unread even by the bird. Nor could he suppose that his great-grandchildren’s great-grandchildren would search some major newspapers in vain for an instance of extended political argument, a transcribed speech, for example, or a published debate.
Two Ambassadorships
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Kennan ’s leave of absence from the Foreign Service beginning in autumn 1950 lasted through the spring of 1952, when he succeeded Alan Kirk as ambassador to the Soviet Union. During the interim Kennan conducted research on what he termed the utopian tendencies in US foreign policy, wrote articles about current political issues, and delivered lectures to civic and university groups on a variety of historical and international topics. It was a productive period for Kennan and foreshadowed the prolific and distinguished scholarly career that awaited him.
Diplomacy and the Politics of Amelioration
Authors: Mayers David 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
To this point, we have examined Kennan ’s explicit ideas about the diverse issues with which he has dealt as diplomat, policymaker, and critic. Yet over the course of his long career, he has also evolved a set of underlying concepts and assumptions that in their totality suggest a theory of politics and international relations-his impatience with academic social science and his skepticism about most formal philosophy notwithstanding.1 In evaluating what might be construed as Kennan ’s theory, or what we can at least label as his philosophical precepts, we can also draw some broad conclusions about his overall contribution to US foreign policy.
Outlaws
Authors: Conley Carolyn A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The jury must not attach too much importance to the consideration of the crimes being charged being first offenses, because it might well be that they had been in the company of bad characters and that though they happened to escape from the law they might not really belong to what might be called the innocent part of the community.1Chairman, west Kent quarter sessions, January 1871 To the merchants, artisans, and farmers who sat on Kentish juries there was a clear distinction between the innocent part of the community to which they belonged and the “criminal class”persons who lived outside the bounds of respectable society and were inherently guilty. Such people were not necessarily criminals in a legal sense, _that is, they might never have been convicted of violating the law, but they were always suspect and were in a sense outlaws. The term “outlaw” had originally referred to persons who had been expelled from the community for criminal behavior. Outlaws were those who lived outside the law-they neither obeyed it nor were protected by it. In the nineteenth century the legal status of outlaw was no longer recognized, but policemen, judges, and juries still responded quite differently to persons who were accepted as members of the innocent part of the community and to those who were perceived as being outside that community. The outlaws were “the criminal, vagrant and suspected classes.” 2
Trout in Milk and Imaginary Toadsin Real Gardens
Authors: Sultan Stanley 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It was pointed out in the second chapter (pp. 39-40) that only one of Eliot’s early poems is a direct verbal enactment of the process itself of consciousness, and that the poem rendering J. Alfred Prufrock’s uninterrupted thought anticipated the most sensational, and famous, instance of the use of a special narrative method to represent the events of psychological reality. In both “Prufrock “ and Molly’s soliloquy, the verbal “stream “ portrays an inner conflict, and in both cases, the conflict is crucial-because its issue is fundamental to the character’s destiny. Finally, as in most persuasive attempts to represent consciousness, in both cases the process of the character’s consciousness is associational.
Tradition and the Individual Talent in “Prufrock “
Authors: Sultan Stanley 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
“The best known English poem since the Rubaiyat “ it was called in 1959 and probably both was so and is.1 Certainly, no other poem is more likely to be included in a collection of poetry of our century; and two generations of teachers have introduced it to secondary-school seniors and college freshmen. Long before 1959, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock “ had achieved special canonical status. One cause of its status was high regard for the poem itself. But I believe another was historical, and that the vantage afforded by the quarter-century since 1959 reveals this particular one of Eliot’s early poems to be a most eloquent cultural artifact-both as harbinger of Modernism and as paleomodernist specimen. I also believe its special status persists; its pertinence to the present debate in criticism will be addressed in the last section of the book. But my concern here is Eliot’s created harbinger and specimen as an event in literary history.
An Old-Irish Ghost in Ulysses
Authors: Sultan Stanley 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One of the most dramatic contrasts between Eliot and Joyce was their relative candor about relations with predecessors/precursors. The previous chapter mentioned Joyce’s questionable attribution of the origin of the inner monologue to Edouard Dujardin. In the next chapter, I infer major relations he never intimated, of Ulysses and an antecedent, equally famous novel not normally associated with it: fundamental characteristics it seems to share uniquely with Crime and Punishment. This chapter concerns a minor ghost in Ulysses, an apparition raised subsequently-although subtly-by the author himself. Joyce raises the Old-Irish ghost in Finnegans Wake I.
Arrests Move South
Authors: Neely Mark E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As the number of military arrests of civilians in the North fell from the for bidding heights of August 1862, the most important new developments occurred not in Washington cabinet meetings but in the field. The president and his advisors appeared to view suspension of the writ of habeas corpus as a means of enforcing the odious draft in the North, but the military prisons filled with civilians from the South arrested for other kinds of offenses.