bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Foreign Policy Analysis and Realism
Authors: Wivel Anders 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Realists emphasize the importance of structural and systemic factors for foreign policy but differ in their views on the density of the international system, the typical foreign policy behaviour of states, the impact of domestic politics and individuals on foreign policy, and the relative weight of and interplay between material and ideational factors. They unpack the foreign policy challenges and opportunities following from the anarchic structure of the international system, explain how relative power matters for what states can and cannot do, and explore the mechanisms by which structural incentives are translated into foreign policy through decision-makers and domestic politics and discourses. The chapter provides a critical overview of realist approaches to foreign policy analysis (FPA) and discusses how one of these approaches, neoclassical realism, may be reconceptualized as a template for multi-factor and multi-level analysis benefitting from recent advances in FPA.
Foreign Policy Analysis and Ethics of Responsibility
Authors: Gaskarth Jamie 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter outlines five key theoretical perspectives in International Relations (IR), namely Realism, Liberalism, Constructivism, Poststructuralism, and Critical Theory. In each case, the chapter explores how Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA) scholarship allows us to understand how the insights garnered from these theoretical perspectives translate into the real-world choices and actions of decision-makers. Using the idea of responsibility, the chapter investigates each theory and how it: identifies different responsible actors; differently defines responsible action; and holds different perceptions of what constitutes responsible scholarship. The result is multiple possible FPAs, each providing important insights into the ethical and practical application of IR theory.
The Politics of Robert Burns from the 1780s to the 1790s
Authors: Carruthers Gerard , Gallagher Kevin Thomas 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the development of Burns’s politics in local and national contexts, from his earliest days as a poet till his death in 1796. Beginning with a discussion of Burns’s Jacobitical tendencies and contextualizing his proclivities during his politically formative years, the chapter advances chronologically from the 1780s through to the 1790s. This chapter views his political thought through the prism of his poetry and song, examining works which span across his public and reserved canons, as well as works which did not appear until decades after his death. ‘A Birthday Ode’ and ‘Epistle to Mr Tytler of Woodhouselee’ are emblematic of Burns’s emotional links to Jacobitism, while his kirk politics are identifiable in others such as ‘The Kirk of Scotland’s Garland’ and ‘The Ordination’. Burns’s views on and relationships with both the American and French Revolutions are discussed in detail.
Robert Burns and Book Illustration
Authors: Jung Sandro 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter charts the early mediation of Robert Burns’s poems in the form of printed book illustrations, but it also contextualizes the visualization of the poet’s works in terms of the paintings that were produced from the late eighteenth century. It understands book illustrations as metatextual commentary and interpretive of the poems they accompany, but also as significant marketing devices that were used multifariously by Scottish and English publishers. Illustrations are shown to contribute to the popular reception of Burns’s poetry by making poems present visually. The essay reads the illustration of Burns’s work through Robert Hartley Cromek’s plans for a projected illustrated edition. Cromek defined a range of ‘classes’ of subjects that were to be illustrated by Thomas Stothard, and these classes subsequently underpinned the selection of poems that were frequently visualized as part of newly published editions of the poems. In addition to commenting on the illustration of a number of Burns poems, the chapter will focus on ‘Tam o’Shanter’ and its illustration, charting how different artists engaged with the poem and thus offered different imagological interpretations of the work as fundamentally Scottish.
Anti-Calvinism and the Ayrshire Enlightenment
Authors: Kidd Colin 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This essay locates Burns in the context of the intense and combative ecclesiastical politics of Ayrshire during the second half of the eighteenth century, a period when the county saw not only a culture of robust pamphleteering on theological matters but also a couple of high-profile heresy trials. Whereas the Scottish Enlightenment as a whole was, the issue of lay patronage apart, a relatively sedate affair which—surprisingly—witnessed no major theological controversies over subscription to the Calvinist doctrines enshrined in the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), Ayrshire was a disputatious outlier from those consensual norms. There was a marked theological gulf in Burns’s Ayrshire between hardline Calvinist ‘auld lichts’ and theologically liberal anti-Calvinist ‘new lichts’, including the Reverend William McGill of Ayr, who was tried for heresy, and the polymathic layman John Goudie of Kilmarnock, who published a direct attack on the doctrine of original sin which Burns celebrated in verse. Burns’s ecclesiastical satires emerged in a local environment of vigorous, vicious and personalized theological debate, much of it focused on the core doctrines of Calvinism.
Robert Burns and the Cultural Politics of Food
Authors: McCracken-Flesher Caroline 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Although it is one of Robert Burns’s most famous poems, ‘To a Haggis’ has also proved to be one of his most controversial. A centrepiece of Burns Suppers, it caught Hugh MacDiarmid’s negative attention for its public response. Burns and the panoply of events surrounding his poem, MacDiarmid thought, unfortunately invited participation from all and sundry. Scottish literature could not advance with so many unsuitable speakers aligning themselves with Burns. Burns’s poem, however, stands as a culinary and cultural challenge. Through the discourses of gastronomy, it provokes its own communal, varied, and even resistant response. The performance of attraction/repulsion is coded in the poem itself. The poem, thus, is a site of emerging authenticity for Scots and cultural tourists alike.
Why the English Had to Invent Robert Burns
Authors: Mee Jon 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter discusses the early engagement with Burns in England. Burns created special kinds of problems for English writers attempting to construct the notion of a national literature in a British context. The chapter looks first at the early positive reception of Burns among progressive Dissenters like Anna Laetitia Barbauld and John Aikin Jr, who had long-standing familial, professional, and denominational ties with Scotland that placed them aslant the British state. Their links to the area around Liverpool and Manchester provide a context for James Currie’s edition of Burns, on which he worked with William Roscoe, a close associate of the Barbauld-Aikin circle. The second context concerns the progressive English antiquarians Francis Grose and Joseph Ritson, who celebrated popular cultural for the challenge it made to elite traditions. Ritson was sometimes critical of Burns for not expressing enough of what he saw as the characteristic radicalism of Scottish ballad culture. The essay ends with a comparison of the responses of William Hazlitt and William Wordsworth, heirs of the traditions outlined above. Wordsworth’s sympathy for Burns celebrated his native fire, but with reservations that subordinated Scottish to English tradition. Hazlitt, on the other hand, although often very hostile to Scottish economists and philosophers in directly national terms, used Burns as a positive contrast to Wordsworth’s perceived egotism. Both responses suggest a need in England to reinvent Burns for English purposes in the context of the emergence of competing ideas for a national literature.
‘My Heart’s in the Highlands’
Authors: Leask Nigel 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
In August–September 1787 Robert Burns, accompanied by his friend Willie Nicol, made a tour of the Central Highlands and the east coast of Scotland, basking in the success of his published poems and anxious to ‘make a leisurely pilgrimage through my native country’. In making the tour, Burns and Nicol were following a well-established cultural practice. This essay explores the tour, and Burns’s fragmentary tour journal, in relation to earlier tours by Thomas Pennant, Dr Johnson, and William Gilpin, as well as contemporary and subsequent tourists like Shaw Stebbing and William and Dorothy Wordsworth. This essay argues that Burns was motivated not merely by a desire to admire sublime Highland landscapes and Ossianic sites, and to ‘pick up Scotch songs and Jacobite anecdotes’, but also to extend his patronage network by visiting the seats of prominent Highland aristocrats such as the Earl of Breadalbane, the Duke of Atholl, and the Duke and Duchess of Gordon. Attention is also paid to the verse written during the tour, especially ‘The Humble Petition of Bruar Water to the Duke of Atholl’, in respect to Burns’s plans for extending his patronage network. His tour is thus set in the context of contemporary Highland politics, as Henry Dundas sought to mobilize support for the government from regional magnates. Burns is here shown to have played a significant role in that process, not least in the patronage relationship he initiated with Robert Graham of Fintry, which would lead to his own excise commission.
‘We’ll ne’er forget the people’
Authors: Macdonald Catriona M. M. , Whatley Christopher A. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter explores the ways that Burns has been appropriated for a variety of political causes in the two centuries after his death. Sometimes these were divergent in the extreme, as in the contest between Scotland’s Tories and radicals in the first half of the nineteenth century. Yet Burns could also be a consensus-inducing figure. The values he espoused had enormous appeal for Liberals in the second half of the nineteenth century. At the same time, too, he was heralded as the voice of Scotland—the savior of the nation’s language and identity. In this respect he was a key figurehead as hesitant steps towards statehood were retraced, from the Home Rulers of the 1880s to the rise of nationalism in the 1920s and beyond. Evidence from contemporary literary works, biographical and critical sources, and political treatises will ground an assessment of the extent to which attempts to ‘own’ Burns galvanized a variety of contradictory cultural and political agendas. Such evidence confirms that essentializing tendencies in traditional Burns criticism underestimate the malleability of Burns scholarship when employed in the pursuit of both overt and covert political causes and cultural agendas.
The Scots Musical Museum
Authors: Pittock Murray 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The Scots Musical Museum outlines the gestation and history of the historic collection of Scottish song edited by Robert Burns and James Johnson between 1787 and 1803. The essay describes the motivation and musical context behind the collection, and outlines how it came to be put together and how Burns became involved in its development. The initial publication history of the Museum is described as well as the main sources of its songs and the nature of its music; the reputation of Scottish music in general at the time is also examined. The extent of Burns’s authorship is considered, as well as the remarkable combination of circumstances which helped to render this collection canonical.
The Master’s Tools and the Master’s House
Authors: Tzanakopoulos Antonios 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Audre Lorde wrote a text in 1979, entitled: ‘The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House’. In it, she argued that using the tools of racist patriarchy to examine the fruits of that very same racist patriarchy would only allow the narrowest parameters of change, if any. This is also the predicament faced by any Marxist approach to (international) law. This chapter traces the impact of Marxist thought on international law by focusing on structural aspects of international law: the structure of the (international) legal relation, aka ‘the legal form’; the content of the legal relation with particular emphasis on interpretation; and the justification of the legal relation through ideology. The chapter traces that impact without aspiring to be comprehensive; but aspiring to avoid as much as possible the jargon that tends to alienate (pun intended) non-specialist (in Marxism!) readers, thereby rendering the debate esoteric.
The European Union
Authors: Vasel Johann Justus 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The European Union (EU) is an immensely complex legal entity, and there have been myriad attempts to define and describe its unique integration fabric. In contrast to traditional approaches, this chapter starts off by portraying a great variety of theories and ideas to label what the Union has developed into over the past seventy years. Subsequently the Union, its practice, and its achievements are assessed with respect to the three overarching topics of this handbook: diversity, pacification, and universality. It will become evident that the EU has a strong record when it comes to implementing these goals internally but falls short with respect to its external affairs. Ultimately, this leads to the conclusion that the EU is currently closer to a kind of Noah’s Ark than the silent and soft superpower it wishes and pretends to be in the international arena.
Religious Demography, Identification, and Practice
Authors: Macourt Malcolm P. A. 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The last sixty years have seen many changes to the religious demography of Ireland. The amount of public data relating ‘religion’ to other features has increased dramatically. The proportion of the population who do not declare a religion in the census has risen dramatically since the 1960s; however, more than three-quarters of the population still do declare a religion. There are many different understandings of ‘religion’. How ‘religion’ relates to ‘culture’ or ‘tribal identity’ is problematic, with different responses in the two jurisdictions, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The most recent published census data in both jurisdictions show that young adults—especially in large urban areas—are far more likely than others to declare ‘no religion’.
Protestant Ireland
Authors: Wolffe John 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Irish Protestantism in this period must be understood on its own terms in all its diversity and vitality rather than stereotyping it by over-emphasizing its anti-Catholic aspect. Together with the major groupings of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland and the Presbyterians, smaller denominations became more numerous. While Protestant, and especially Presbyterian, strength was greatest in the northeast, the Church of Ireland had a presence throughout the island. During the early nineteenth century Irish Protestantism was reshaped by the impact of evangelicalism and subsequently gained renewed impetus from the Ulster revival of 1859. There were extensive social engagements, notably with education and temperance, together with a strong commitment to overseas mission and international networks such as the Evangelical Alliance. Controversial endeavours to proselytize Catholics were indeed a significant strand in this history, but for all its insecurities and crises, nineteenth-century Irish Protestantism was much more than a merely sectarian movement.
Catholic Ireland and the Devotional Revolution
Authors: Roddy Sarah 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Emmet Larkin’s identification in a pioneering 1972 article of a ‘devotional revolution’, a transformation of religious practice that he dated to the period 1850–75, has had an enduring influence on subsequent histories of Catholic Ireland. This chapter first discusses the initial debates Larkin’s thesis prompted, before arguing that the ‘devotional revolution’ as an explanatory framework has not lost its utility. The chapter shows that current research is centred on three significant themes. First, scholars are exploring in multiple ways the material manifestations of the Devotional Revolution, which it should be stressed is not at odds with an appreciation of the deeply felt religiosity of those involved. Second, there is a renewed focus on the agency of the laity in the Devotional Revolution. Third, the consequences of the Devotional Revolution for Catholic culture worldwide have attracted important work.
New Religious Movements
Authors: Mulholland Peter , Salazar Carles 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
This chapter provides a sense of the scale and variety of the New Religious Movements (NRMs) that have emerged in Ireland in modern times. Our research is based on a review of media reports about NRMs and church-related events that appeared in newspapers. We focus our attention on a selection of those unorthodox, heterodox, and exotic movements that arrived in Ireland or emerged from obscurity and attracted the attention of mainstream media. Any interpretation or explanation of such a complex phenomenon cannot proceed without paying due attention to the history of its diverse manifestations and, specifically, to the reverberations of those manifestations in the wider society. Accurate research on the ways in which that history has been drawn together and filtered in the press can provide a first step towards that interpretation or explanation.
Religion and Memory in Modern Ireland
Authors: Beiner Guy 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
It is often assumed that modern memory is secular, replacing traditional faith-based memorialization (evident, for example, in liturgy, sermons, iconography, church architecture, and church ritual) with inherently non-religious remembrance. This highly questionable assertion is clearly not the case in Ireland, where religious memorial practices have shown remarkable tenacity and plasticity in face of changing circumstances, undergoing repeated reinvention, and re-emerging in new forms. An examination of how the influence of religion shaped social and cultural remembrance from the early modern period through to the twenty-first century reveals the underlying role of religion as the matrix of Irish memory. The continuing predominance of the legacy of Catholicism (despite recent scandals and the decline in attendance of religious services), alongside the prominence of Anglicanism and Presbyterianism within the memorial cultural of Northern Ireland, has yet to take on board the plurality of faiths in contemporary Ireland
The Etruscans
Authors: Esposito Carmen , Stoddart Simon 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The Etruscans have traditionally been treated as a special, mysterious case on the margins of the classical world. In fact, they represent a classic case of state formation that deserves to be compared on a global scale, albeit like other Mediterranean civilizations centered on a maritime rather than terrestrial network. This chapter thus focuses on the themes of historical development, political geography, identity, cuisine, and trade that permit such a comparison. Readers should look elsewhere for a comprehensive exegesis of the artistic styles and material culture that were particular to the Etruscan civilization, although often seen as a pale reflection of the Greek and Roman worlds.
Apulia
Authors: Lippolis Enzo 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
In the recent and final Bronze Age, Apulia participated in the Apennine and sub-Apennine cultures that spread throughout the Italian peninsula. However, the region had a specific character due to the intense Mycenaean commercial presence along its coasts. Apulia lacked natural resources and was sparsely populated—with the exception of the Greek colony of Tarentum, large cities did not appear until the third and second centuries. Once inhabited by the Apuli, Daunians, Peucetii, and Messapii, to this day, the area presents diverse linguistic and cultural aspects that coincide with the ancient divisions. This paper examines the development of the region during the early historical period, particularly as contact with Rome increased, changing the relationships within the region, activating a lively social dynamic, and strengthening the local economy.
The Celts of Italy
Authors: Piana Agostinetti Paola 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Languages of the Celtic branch have been spoken in the Golaseccan and Ligurian areas since at least the second millennium BCE, although language alone is not enough to identify a group. From the late fifth century, Celtic groups of the La Tène culture crossed the Alps, spread throughout the Italian peninsula, and besieged Rome. From the beginning of the third century, the Romans attempted to push back the more recent Celtic invaders who had settled south of the Po River. This chapter traces the Celts who settled south of the Alps, from the seventh century BCE until the Augustan era.
Amber in Italy
Authors: Bonfante Larissa 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The amber in Italy came from the Baltic Sea along routes that connected Europe with the Mediterranean. It entered the Italian peninsula from the northeast by way of the eastern Alpine passes. Its brilliance, transparency, fiery colors, fragrance, magnetic properties, and occasional inclusions earned it a special place as a valuable import in Italy, where it was used continuously from the Bronze Age all the way up to the Roman Empire. This situation is not found anywhere else, and it allows us to see some of the aesthetic and religious manifestations of amber in different regions. This chapter examines the craftsmanship, style, and type of material used in different phases, which allow us to trace the influences at work on the peninsula.
Salvation and Bliss
Authors: Isler-Kerényi Cornelia 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
The penetration of the ideas and imagery of Dionysus/Bacchus and Demeter into Italy and the Roman republic occurred because of the growing cultural and commercial ties between the centers of Magna Graecia and southern Etruria and Latium. What these deities had in common was that they were closer to the personal lives of their worshippers than the other deities, especially since they were believed to affect the life and death of individuals—indeed, only Dionysus/Bacchus in his role as initiator and guide, and the great daughter Kore/Persephone, along with Demeter, could promise salvation and bliss beyond death to the inhabitants of pre-Roman Italy in the first millennium BCE. This chapter traces the evidence for their cults in pre-Roman Italy, and examines their identification with local divinities.
Bodies in Pieces in Central Italy
Authors: Papini Massimiliano 
Published: February 2024

Abstract
Anatomical votives were deposited by offerants in pre-Roman Italy from the seventh century until roughly the first half of the first century BCE. The most vital ideation phase—at least of the prototype, from which molds that were used for multiple decades and generations were derived—coincides with the proto-Hellenistic phase. The period was distinguished by a close relationship between craftsmanship and the most refined figurative manifestations in a central Italic culture characterized by an increasingly strong koine. A variety of body parts were depicted, from whole and half heads to external body parts and internal organs. The votives are found at sanctuaries throughout the Etrusco-Italic region. Dedicatory inscriptions are scarce, so the meaning of these anatomical votives is debated. This chapter examines how the practice changed over time and explores the reasons for its decline.