bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Disorders of Granulocytes
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Granulocytic hyperplasia is characterized by an increase in neutrophilic granulocytes and granulocytic precursors in the bone marrow in response to infection or other stimulus. Neutrophilic leukocytosis is common in clinical medicine. Causes of neutrophilic leukocytosis include bacterial infections, pneumonia, acute appendicitis, myocardial infarction, severe stress or exertion, labor and delivery, surgery, anesthesia, trauma and burns, chronic inflammatory disorders, and tumors. Transient neutrophilic leukocytosis occurs primarily due to demargination of circulating neutrophils and release of neutrophils from the storage compartment of the bone marrow. Sustained neutrophilic leukocytosis occurs due to an increase in granulocytic precursors in the bone marrow and granulocytic hyperplasia. In patients with neutrophilic leukocytosis, the total white blood cell count is elevated, sometimes markedly, and the proportion of neutrophils is increased (Fig. 7.1). The neutrophils frequently show a “left shift” with circulating bands, metamyelocytes, and myelocytes, due to premature release of immature granulocytes from the bone marrow. Toxic granulation (persistent metachromasia of primary granulocytic granules) and Dohle bodies (areas of persistent cytoplasmic basophilia) may also be present.
Chronic Granulocytic Leukemia
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Chronic granulocytic leukemia is a clonal stem cell disorder characterized by the t(9;22) translocation, predominant proliferation of differentiated granulocytes during the chronic phase, and biphasic clinical course. Chronic granulocytic leukemia (CGL) is a stem cell disorder with predominant proliferation of differentiated granulocytes. Chronic granulocytic leukemia has been epitomized as the disease of one million: one million white blood cells, one million platelets, and one million red blood cells indicating the cardinal findings of leukocytosis, thrombocytosis, and anemia. Chronic granulocytic leukemia is associated with a characteristic cytogenetic abnormality, the t(9,22) translocation, known as the Philadelphia chromosome (Nowell and Hungerford, 1960). The Philadelphia chromosome is found in immature granulocytes, erythroid cells, megakaryocytes, and some B lymphocytes in patients with chronic granulocytic leukemia, indicating a stem cell origin (Fialkow et al, 1977). The Philadelphia chromosome is characterized by rearrangement of the c-abl protooncogene on chromosome 9 with a protein gene in the breakpoint cluster region of chromosome 22. The resultant fusion gene, bcr-abl, is a major factor in the pathogenesis of chronic granulocytic leukemia and is necessary and sufficient for the CGL phenotype. The human bcr-abl gene has been cloned and insertion of the cloned gene into mouse hematopoietic cells results in a disorder resembling human chronic granulocytic leukemia (Daley et al, 1990).
Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Acute lymphocytic leukemia is a neoplastic proliferation of lymphoid progenitor cells in the blood and bone marrow. Acute lymphocytic leukemia is the predominant form of leukemia in childhood and also occurs in adults. Patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia typically present with symptoms of anemia, thrombocytopenia, or infection. Children occasionally present with a rheumatologic syndrome with bone and joint pain. In contrast to acute granulocytic leukemia, there is no history of a preleukemic syndrome. Lymphadenopathy or hepatosplenomegaly may be present, but is usually mild. The white blood cell count may be low, normal, or high. The platelet count is decreased and normochromic normocytic anemia is usually present. The hallmark of acute lymphocytic leukemia is the lymphoblast, a cell smaller than a myeloblast with scant agranular cytoplasm, immature nuclear chromatin, and one or two inconspicuous nucleoli (Fig. 15.1). The lymphoblasts in acute lymphocytic leukemia have the immunophenotype of lymphoid progenitor cells of B or T lineage. The bone marrow in acute lymphocytic leukemia is hypercellular and lymphoblasts account for 30% or more of the cells.
Lymphoma-like Lesions
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Several types of lymphoid proliferation that involve the bone marrow are distinguished from the malignant lymphomas. These include lymphoid follicles, systemic Castleman’s disease, and angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy. Lymphoid follicles in the bone marrow are considered a benign reactive phenomenon; systemic Castleman’s disease and angioimmunoblastic lymphadenopathy, in contrast, behave as progressive lymphoproliferative disorders. Lymphoid follicles are circumscribed lymphoid aggregates composed of reactive lymphocytes and related cells. Lymphoid follicles (lymphoid aggregates) are a constituent of normal marrow and increase with age and in autoimmune and chronic inflammatory disorders (Rywlin et al, 1974; Rosenthal and Farhi, 1989). Lymphoid follicles are present in up to 47% of bone marrow specimens and are most prevalent in women and the elderly (Rywlin et al, 1974). Lymphoid follicles are frequently present in the marrows of patients with HIV infection (Karcher and Frost, 1991) and are also increased in myeloproliferative and myelodysplastic disorders (Cervantes et al, 1988). Bone marrow lymphocytosis is prevalent in children, and may be associated with an increase in lymphoid progenitor cells (“hematogones”; Brunning and McKenna, 1994); however, the lymphocytes are distributed diffusely rather than in follicles. Bone marrow lymphoid follicles are presumed to
Proliferative Histiocytic Disorders
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Much confusion surrounding the histiocytic proliferations has arisen from the uncritical use of the term “histiocyte,” which in the past has been used to refer to a variety of large lymphoreticular cells, including transformed lymphocytes. At present, the term “histiocyte” is applied to two cell types: monocyte-macrophages and dendritic cells (Van Voorhis et al, 1983). Monocyte-macrophages are derived from blood monocytes, are actively phagocytic, are rich in lysozomal enzymes, and include the Kupffer cells of the liver, “tingible body” and sinus histiocytes of lymph nodes, the cordal macrophages of the spleen, and the alveolar macrophages of the lung. Dendritic cells are of uncertain derivation, are nonphagocytic, are poor in lysozomal enzymes, and include the Langerhans’ cells of the skin and lymph nodes, follicular dendritic cells of lymph node follicles, and interdigitating reticulum cells of the lymph node paracortex. Both cell types express HLA-DR antigen and play roles in antigen processing and presentation of antigen to lymphocytes. Recently it has been suggested that both cell types derive from a common monocyte-dendritic cell progenitor in the bone marrow (Santiago-Schwarz et al, 1994). Proliferations of monocyte-macrophages include malignant histiocytosis and “true” histiocytic lymphoma and the hemophagocytic syndromes. Proliferations of dendritic cells include Langerhans’ cell histiocytosis (“histiocytosis X”) and rare tumors of follicular dendritic cells and interdigitating reticulum cells. Malignant histiocytosis and “true” histiocytic lymphoma refer to a systemic and localized form, respectively, of a neoplastic proliferation of monocyte-macrophages. The existence of the former as a distinct entity is now doubtful.
Storage Disorders
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The storage disorders are characterized by hereditary lysosomal enzyme deficiences with resultant abnormal accumulation of storage material in macrophages in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and other organs. The storage disorders are categorized as lipidoses and mucopolysaccharidoses. Most are inherited as autosomal-recessive traits. The accumulation of macrophages in the bone marrow and spleen results in hematologic abnormalities; neuronopathic effects are prominent in some forms. The major storage disorders that will be considered are Gaucher’s disease, Neimann-Pick disease, the “seablue” histiocyte syndrome, mucopolysaccharidosis, and other storage disorders. Gaucher’s disease is a lipidosis resulting from deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase (beta-glucosidase) with resultant accumulation of glucocerebroside in macrophages. Gaucher’s disease is inherited as an autosomal-recessive trait. Three clinical forms are recognized that differ in age of onset and symptomatology (Beutler, 1991). Type I, the chronic adult (nonneuronopathic) form, is by far the most common, presents in adults or children, and occurs with increased frequency in families of Ashkenazic (European) .Jewish extraction. Hematologic manifestations predominate. Type II, the acute infantile neuronopathic form, and type III, the subacute juvenile neuronopathic form, are rare and characterized by onset in childhood with progressive neurologic symptoms.
Noninfectious Granulomas
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Several types of noninfectious granulomas may be found in the bone marrow biopsy. These include lipogranulomas, sarcoidosis, and reactive (sarcoid-like) granulomas in association with systemic disorders. Lipogranulomas are focal granulomatous reactions to lipid. Lipogranulomas are the most common type of granulomatous reaction occurring in the bone marrow and may be found in up to 9% of bone marrow specimens (Rywlin and Ortega, 1972). Lipogranulomas are a reaction to lipid, the origin of which is not established; exogenous mineral oil has been suggested to be the cause of similar lipogranulomas commonly observed in the spleen (Liber and Rose, 1967). Lipogranulomas were found to be slightly more common in bone marrows from patients with diabetes mellitus and weight loss (Rywlin and Ortega, 1972). There are no characteristic peripheral blood findings. The lipogranuloma in the bone marrow consists of a focal aggregate of vacuolated lipidcontaining macrophages and admixed inflammatory cells, including lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils, and rare multinucleated giant cells (Fig. 24.1).
Metastatic Tumors
Authors: Strauchen James A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The bone marrow is a common site of metastases of nonhematopoietic tumors. Bone marrow metastases may be discovered on bone marrow biopsy performed for staging in asymptomatic patients with tumors with a high propensity for bone marrow involvement, or following the onset of symptomatic marrow metastases with bone pain and anemia. Bone marrow metastases may be found in both adult and pediatric patients. Bone marrow metastases in pediatric patients are predominantly from “round cell” tumors, including metastatic neuroblastoma, Ewing’s sarcoma, and primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET). Bone marrow metastases in adult patients are predominantly from carcinomas of the lung, breast, and prostate. Patients with bone marrow metastases may be asymptomatic or may present with bone pain and hematologic abnormalities. For example, in patients with small-cell lung carcinoma, there was no significant difference in peripheral blood counts between patients with and without marrow involvement at presentation (Ihde et al, 1979; Bezwoda et al, 1986; Tritz et al, 1989). Patients with more advanced marrow involvement may present with bone pain and anemia. A leukoerythroblastic blood picture typical of myelophthisic anemia is frequently present (Papac, 1994). The latter is characterized by circulating immature granulocytes, normoblasts, abnormal platelets, teardrop erythrocytes, and reticulocytosis, and is believed to be due to disruption of the normal mechanisms regulating release of hematopoietic cells from the bone marrow; splenic extramedullary hematopoiesis may also play a role in cases with extensive marrow replacement (Fig. 31.1).
“A More Perfect Union”: Symbolizing the National Union of States
Authors: Scott Pamela 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In 1754, Benjamin Franklin devised the first symbolic emblem for America whose political content-national union-expressed Euro-American concerns (Cat. 1). European allegorical figures of the New World originating during the Renaissance were Native Americans wearing feather clothing and accompanied by indigenous animals and plants. About the time of the Revolution, the “Indian Princess” was fused with the European figure of Liberty or Minerva (emblematic of strength and civic virtue) to create a new composite personification given various titles but expressive of the new American liberty through representative government.
The Italian City-States
Authors: Kindleberger Charles P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Dark Ages in Europe from about 800 A.D. came to an end with the commercial revolution of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The stimulus came largely from the Crusades to the Middle East, which brought west­ ern Europe into contact with new and different, many of them luxury, goods, brought to the Middle East partly from India and China by sea to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea and the rest of the way by caravan. Venice and Genoa provided the Crusaders with shipping, and grew rich in the process. The two cities fought with Byzantium, with each other over ports of call and the colonies of Cyprus and Crete, and with the Turks after they had cap­ tured Constantinople. Genoa early eliminated Pisa, a port used by Florence, and Amalfi as rivals for the trade. Genoa was also the first to break out of the Mediterranean into the Atlantic and thus to northern Europe in 1278, with Venice following a century later. Slowly, with fighting, Venice and Genoa concentrated their trade, Venice more to the east, Genoa to the west; and in the East Genoa to the north, especially the Black Sea, Venice to the south in Syria and Egypt (Heers, 1964, p. 101). From the east Venice brought mainly spices, silk, and cotton; Genoa brought alum for preparing woolen cloth for dyeing, silk, sugar, raisins, sweet wine, and dyes. From the western Mediterranean, after the fall of Constantinople had cut off the Black Sea, Genoa carried wines, wheat, fruit, and alum from the mines at Tolfa in the papal states to compete with alum from the east. Venetian galleys headed east carried woolens, some timber for shipbuilding until supplies in the upper Adriatic ran low, and especially silver mined in south Germany, the Tyrol, Bohemia, and Hungary.
Portugal and Spain
Authors: Kindleberger Charles P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Throughout this book we encounter the question whether the decline of a given country was relative or absolute, that is, whether the income and wealth of the country did in fact slip back. With Spain there is little doubt. Three distinguished historians have each written papers entitled “The Decline of Spain” (Elliot, 1961 [1970]; Hamilton, 1938 [1954]; Vicens Vives, 1970). The decline was perhaps more political than economic, for although it was rich because of conquest and of wresting of treasure from the New World, Spain was never really economically developed in the early modern period. Castilians, said Gerald Brenan (1950, p. x), had an industrial and commercial apathy. Except for shipbuilding in the north along the Bay of Biscay and fine woolens, trade, industry and finance were largely in the hands of foreigners until Spaniards made some progress in winning it half-way back in the eighteenth century (Herr, 1958, pp. 147-48). But first we turn to Portugal.
Britain, the Classic Case
Authors: Kindleberger Charles P 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Great Britain furnishes the classic example of the national life cycle of rapid growth in trade, industry, and finance, reaching a peak and world economic primacy, then slowly declining. The usual formulation starts with the industrial revolution ofl760 to 1830, with varying dates given by different analysts. Some regard the peak as the Great Exhibition in London’s Crystal Palace in 1851; others regard it as being later, perhaps 1870 or in the 1890s. Decline was accelerated by the two World Wars ofl914-1918 and 1939-1945, sometimes telescoped into one. The industrial phase was pre­ ceded by a rise in trade in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, followed by one in finance.
Introduction
Authors: Bay Mia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When Olaudah Equiano, an African who was captured and shipped to the New World in 1756, first saw the slave ship and its white crew, he fainted in fright. He was convinced that he and the other blacks he saw chained aboard the vessel would be eaten “by these white men with horrible looks, red faces, and long hair.” No assurances from African slave merchants assisting with the loading of the slaver could convince Equiano or the rest of the ship’s human cargo that they would not ultimately be consumed by “these ugly men.” Equiano’s fear that his white captors were cannibals was a misapprehension widely shared among his countrymen from the interior of Africa, who were unfamiliar with whites.
“;A New Negro for a New Century”:Black Racial Ideology, 1900-1925
Authors: Bay Mia 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The early decades of this century ushered in the slow demise of scientific racism in the American academy. Led by a German-born anthropologist named Franz Boas, turn-of-the-century scientists investigated the biological basis of race for the first time, initiating an inquiry that ultimately led to the conclusion that culture and environment rather than racial characteristics-were the main arbiters of human differences. This scientific revolution did not take place overnight. Boas’s arguments against the innate inferiority of black people did not achieve a large following even among his peers until after 1910.
Adapting Rules, Privately and Publicly
Authors: Sunstein Cass R 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
How can a legal system minimize the risks of unreasonable generality on the one hand and potentially abusive rulelessness on the other? There are three good answers.
The first answer calls for a species of casuistry. In deciding between rules and rulelessness, officials should examine the context and inquire into the likelihood of error and abuse with either rules or rulelessness—and hence make an “on balance” judgment about risk. A good deal of progress can be made through this route. We can see, for example, that clear rules are generally required for the criminal law, and that for college admissions, casuistical judgments may well be best. We can allow casuistry in contexts in which casuistry makes sense and move in the direction of rules when the context suggests that rules are better.
Setting The Standard
Authors: Mosse George L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The construction of modem masculinity was closely linked to the new bourgeois society that was in the making at the end of the eighteenth century. It was then that a stereotype of manliness emerged that we recognize even today. Yet, the contribution that past ideas of manhood made to the modem stereotype cannot be neglected. If the idea of manhood changed direction in the late eighteenth century, from what did it change?
The break with older, aristocratic ideas of manhood was not abrupt. Medieval ideals such as chivalry and institutions such as the duel lasted well into modem times. The earlier ideals of manhood, confined to the aristocracy, were, to a large extent, based upon a warrior caste; however, the refinement and ritual of court society had tempered such an image of masculinity long before the end of the eighteenth century. Nevertheless, medieval tournaments were more like war games than the rituals of chivalry, which, in any case, were associated with knighthood in its decline—when strong rulers had placed limits upon violence. Duels—the combat between two men in front of witnesses—had become ritualized ever since the sixteenth century.
Warriors and Socialists
Authors: Mosse George L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The warrior and the socialist seem opposites who should not be forced to coexist in the same chapter of one book. The warrior provides a climax to a concept of manliness inherent in much of the construction of modem masculinity, adding important features to a stereotype strengthened by the First World War. Some socialists, as we shall see, attempted to project a new kind of man who rejected the normative stereotype. And yet the very fate of this new man can throw new light upon the ideal of modem manliness, its strength and its failing. To pass from the glorification of the warrior and nation to this socialist man is like seeing a ray of light penetrating the surrounding darkness, even though it was extinguished at the time by a society that, when not at war, encouraged aggressive competitiveness and the good fight even in peace.
The Normal Society of Men
Authors: Mosse George L 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The masculine ideal held firm through war and revolution, all attempts at fundamental change had been destined to failure. Modem masculinity reflected the aspiration of a modem society that remained largely unchanged, not necessarily in its economic or even social composition—after all, the Bolshevik revolution changed both—but in its acceptance of respectability as a vital cement of society and the nation. Ever since the time of Winckelmann, true manliness had symbolized an essentially healthy society, and this society, in turn, did not merely posit manliness as an ideal to be reached but made it an integral part of its function. Before we discuss the climax of modem masculinity to be reached between the two world wars, we must pause to consider the principal means through which society itself transformed manliness from theory into practice. We have up to now stressed the masculine stereotype as an ideal, or as representative of society, but have paid relatively little attention to how it was institutionalized—how the very functioning of normative society became linked to the masculine ideal. Western society had always been run by men, but in modem times the stereotype of masculinity was institutionalized and firmly anchored within the modern state.
Pushing the Envelope:Reforming from Within
Authors: Mickiewicz Ellen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The rules of the game had changed relatively little for state television’s film department and its doctrinaire head, but another department and its leader behaved in an altogether different fashion. In part, it was a question of exceptional leadership groups; in part the difference was structural: the target of their programming was youth. The Kremlin was deeply agitated by the possible loss of the replacement generation to the styles and worldview of the West. Young people were effectively opting out of the Soviet future, and the Gorbachev administration was determined to utilize its most powerful asset, television.
The Media Market: Politics, Commerce, and Press Freedom
Authors: Mickiewicz Ellen 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
When the official Soviet censorship agency was abolished, Communist Party monopoly rule removed, and pluralism in media ownership and content permitted, issues of press freedom in Russia began to resemble those of other countries. In other words, as direct political intervention receded (but certainly did not vanish), much of the conflict began to take place on the economic front. Politics and economics were tightly intertwined, but masked by a very nearly unregulated and economically crippled media system, still hostage to the legacy of over seventy years of information control. The institutions of the Soviet system had created path­ ways, and the footprints of the past were everywhere. Every Soviet regime had been obsessed with the mass media, beginning with Lenin’s revolutionary use of newspapers to mobilize activists and radio to support his new order, and ending with Mikhail Gorbachev’s bold and unpredictable media innovations. The regime’s conviction that the mass media held the secret of mass persuasion could be seen in the very nuts and bolts of the rusting infrastructure left in post-Soviet Russia.