bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Legal Ownership and Nature of Kyoto Units and EU Allowances
Authors: maere Matthieu , Streck Charlotte 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Kyoto Protocol is based on the principle of achieving quantitative reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by establishing binding emission targets on individual parties to the Protocol. While the overall goal is the reduction ofGHG emissions, the Protocol allows for certain flexibility as to where the emission reductions can be generated. The flexibility is created through a mechanism for trading emission rights (Article 17), and two mechanisms for creating project-based emission credits, which are measured and verified against baseline emission levels (Articles 6 and 12).1 The base units of the Kyoto Protocol are Assigned Amount Units (MUs) where each unit is equivalent to one metric tonne of carbon dioxide emissions equivalents assigned to an industrialized {Annex I) country pursuant to Article 3 of the Kyoto Protocol.
Public Participation in CDM and JI Projects
Authors: Eddy Nathalie 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Public access to, and engagement in decision-making that affects the environment enhances the success, sustainability, and accountability of policies and projects.1 Governments worldwide have increasingly recognized the important role meaningful public participation can play in ensuring the realization of the environmental and development goals of a project or policy.2 The acknowledgement of public participation as a key element to successful environmental decision making and project development has been illustrated through several international declarations and bindings treaties. Most recently, 172 countries used the occasion of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, South Africa to reiterate national commitments to public participation in environmental and development decision-making.
Generation of Sequestration Credits under the COM
Authors: Scholz Sebastian , Noble Ian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Almost six years of assessment and negotiation drew to a close at the ninth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) held in Milan, Italy, in December 2003 (COP9) when agreement on the definitions and modalities for the use of afforestation and reforestation (A&R) projects in the Clean Development Mechanism (COM) was reached. The decisions almost complete the Buenos Aires Plan of Action to implement the Kyoto Protocol adopted by COP4 in 1998.1 This chapter first outlines a brief history of the negotiations to better understand the most recent outcomes of COP9 that are discussed in more detail in the second part of the chapter.
Carbon Contracts, Structuring Transactions: Practical Experiences
Authors: Wilder Martijn , Willis Monique , Guli Mina 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The development of international, regional, and national regulatory frameworks to control the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) has resulted in the emergence of a new and distinct area of law dealing with the monitoring and mitigation of cli-mate change through economic mechanisms such as emissions trading. While GHG emissions trading regimes seek to address environmental issues, the legal implications of emissions trading extend well beyond environmental law considerations and encompass and intersect with a number of other areas of law such as public international law, commercial law, finance law, project law, tax law and corporate and securities regulation.
Negotiating a JI Contract: A Project Developer‘s Perspective
Authors: Pogdny Aniko 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The main purpose of an Emission Reductions Purchase Agreement (ERPA) is to lay out the obligations of the parties and to formulate the risk sharing agreed between the parties. This chapter‘s aim is to go through the key risk areas which sellers and purchasers of emission credits have to identify and to present how the subsequent risk allocation is reflected in an ERPA. Due to the author‘s own experience, the chapter follows mainly the viewpoint of the potential seller of emission rights. The content and the analysis of this chapter is the result of the detailed study of several Joint Implementation (JI) projects as well as available transaction structures and purchase terms for those projects. The chapter could not capture all historic transactions, mainly due to the lack of publicly available information, and thus, its conclusions may not be applicable for all present and much less for future cases. Also, the author‘s empirical knowledge stems from the implementation of a renewable energy project as part of a combined heat-and-power plant, which represents only one of many possible JI project activities. Most of the conclusions of this chapter are applicable to JI project agreements in general, however, other project types and classes may also show important particularities.
World Bank Carbon Finance Business: Contracts and Emission Reductions Purchase Transactions
Authors: Streck Charlotte 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The first World Bank1-adrninistered carbon fund, the Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF), became operational in early 2000.2 In that same year the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) acting as trustee for the PCF entered into its first Emission Reductions Purchase Agreement (ERPA) with the Republic of Latvia governing the first project to receive funding from the newly established PCF. Since then, the World Bank has executed twelve additional ERPAs, and launched a number of additional Carbon Funds, including the BRO-Netherlands Clean Development Mechanism Facility, the Community Development Carbon Fund, the Italian Carbon Fund, and the Bio Carbon Fund, all designed to acquire Emission Reduction Credits3 on behalf of the contributors to the funds (so-called Participants).4 Developing and implementing these Carbon.
Arbitration in ‘Flexible-Mechanism‘ Contracts
Authors: Ratliff Dane 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the above quote, Aristotle recognizes the nature of third-party dispute settle-ment, and its ability to produce a ‘satisfactory‘ decision. A party to a dispute is necessarily affected by its role in the dispute; is necessarily biased toward its own position and the truth of that position. An arbitrator, on the other hand, must be impartial and independent of the dispute, weighing the statements of both parties regarding the truth (the subject matter of the dispute) against his1 own experience and knowledge. Only in so doing is he able to arrive at a ‘satisfactory decision as to the truth‘; ‘satisfactory‘ meaning that both parties must accept his decision, for in having given their consent to appoint a third-party arbitrator to resolve their dispute, they each admit their own respective inability to agree with the truth of the other‘s position.
The Hours–Employment Trade-Off
Authors: Garibaldi Pietro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In imperfect labour markets, hiring labour involves a variety of costs, and only some of such costs vary with the hours worked. In the previous chapter labour costs were simply defined as the per hour (or per month) wage. In reality, a variety of labour costs exist and most of such costs are independent of the hourly wage cost. Some of these costs are paid only upon hiring, while other costs are paid each month, but are independent of the hours worked. The cost of advertising a vacancy refers to the first type, while paid vacations are an example of the second one. This means that a real life organization can adjust the quantity of labour over two different margins, which are called the extensive margin and the intensive margin. The extensive margin refers to the number of people hired by the firm while the intensive margin refers to the average hours worked per employees. Choosing the right combination between hours per workers and the number of employees means solving the hours–employment trade-off.
Temporary or Permanent?
Authors: Garibaldi Pietro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
One of the key issues at the hiring stage concerns the type of contract that should be offered to the firm’s workforce. In this chapter, we discuss the key decisions in terms of the length of the contract: open-ended versus fixed- term contract. Alternatively, as such contracts are called in Europe, the firm has to choose between a permanent or a temporary contract. This choice is particularly relevant when two conditions hold. First, employment protection legislation is stringent, and terminating a contract is an expensive activity. Second, uncertainty over business conditions plays an important role. If a contract can be terminated at no cost, the difference between temporary contract and permanent contract is irrelevant. Further, if business conditions do not fluctuate, hiring decisions are not going to be followed by separation decisions, and the type of contract is irrelevant.
Pay For Performance With Wage Constraints
Authors: Garibaldi Pietro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The baseline theory of optimal compensations suggests that properly designed incentive contracts can be very effective in extracting workers’ effort. A fixed wage scheme, where compensation is independent of output, does not provide incentives to the worker. As we have seen in the previous chapter, in response to a fixed wage, a utility maximizer worker would choose the minimum amount of effort. Conversely, bonus schemes, where a fixed wage is mixed with a bonus component proportional to output, are a much more effective compensation scheme. We have also seen that as a benchmark limit case, when the worker is risk neutral and no other constraints are binding, the optimal compensation scheme is an extreme bonus scheme, with a negative fixed payment up front and a bonus component identical to the price (we called such a scheme the franchising scheme). In such a setting, production efficiency is maximized and the worker becomes the residual claimant. Yet, we know that such a scheme is hardly attainable in real life labour markets, since it requires the worker to pay for the job.
Further Issues in Employment Protection Legislation
Authors: Garibaldi Pietro 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The previous chapters in the book studied the role of employment protection in the context of temporary contract and in the case of job destruction. We learnt two key messages. First, employment protection biases the firm choice toward temporary contract. Second, employment protection reduces job destruction and increases labour hoarding. Yet, when job creation is also explicitly considered, employment protection also depresses job creation. While these are indeed the key messages in the literature of employment protection legislation, other important issues need to be considered. In real life labour markets, employment protection legislation is a multidimensional institution. Its provisions are often very complex, and the legislation not only forces the firm to pay specific sums of money to the dismissed worker, but it also forces the firm to follow specific procedures, which inevitably involve deadweight losses to both parties. In other words, employment protection legislation involves both transfer inside the firm–worker pair as well as taxes paid outside the match. Section 12.2 documents that the largest part of the legislation refers to transfer.
Introduction Catharine Macaulay and Mercy Otis Warren: Women, Writing, and the Anglo-American Public Sphere
Authors: Davies Kate 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
My friends and fellow citizens .. . if a civil war commences between Great Britain and her colonies, either the mother country, by one great exertion, may ruin both herself and America, or the Americans, by a lingering contest, will gain an independency; and in this case, all those advantages, which you for some time have enjoyed by your colonies, and advantages which have hitherto preserved you from a national bankruptcy, must for ever have an end; and whilst a new, a flourishing, and an extensive empire of freemen is established on the other side of the Atlantic, you, with the loss of all those blessings you have received by the unrivalled state of your commerce, will be left to the bare possession of your foggy islands; and this under the sway of a domestic despot.
‘Out-Cornelia-izing Cornelia’: Portraits, Profession, and the Gendered Character of Learning
Authors: Davies Kate 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The great numbers among the fair sex who have figured in the republic of letters have given frequent checks to the vanity of such as presume that the privilege of thinking is confined to those who wear beards. Not to speak of the learned ladies of antiquity, how many among the moderns, from the French Dacier to the English Carter have distinguished themselves in the several branches of literature. But it was reserved for the fair Macaulay to tread the path of History and undergo the laborious task of collecting and digesting the political fragments which have escaped the researches of so many learned and ingenious men.
Mercy Otis Warren’s Independence
Authors: Davies Kate 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
You will very readily conceive, Madam, the difficulties which the convention had to struggle against. The various and opposite interests which were to be conciliated; the local prejudices which were to be subdued, the diversity of opinions and sentiments which were to be reconciled; and in fine, the sacrifices which were necessary to be made on all sides for the general welfare, combined to make it a work of so intricate and difficult a nature, that I think it is much to be wondered at, that anything could have been produced with such unanimity as the constitution proposed.
Fighting the ‘Enemies of the Reich’: Bismarck and the State Crisis of 1922-1923
Authors: Gerwarth Robert 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
On the morning of 24 June 1922, the German Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau was shot dead on his way to the Wilhelmstra Be by members of the militant nationalist ‘Organisation Consul’.1TheGerman public was up in arms about yet another terrorist act by this radical right-wing organization, from whose ranks had already come the assassins of the former Reich Finance Minister Matthias Erzberger.2 Spontaneous strikes in numerous large industrial workplaces all over Germany were as much an expression of the public outrage as the various large-scale demonstrations, at which hundreds of thousands of people (in Berlin more than a million) gave voice to their consternation.
The Balkans
Authors: Crampton R J 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Balkan peninsula takes its name from the Balkan mountains, the Haemus range of the Ancients, which run east– west through the centre of present-day Bulgaria. The word, which is derived from a Turkic term meaning a wooded upland, was first applied to the peninsula by a German geographer in the early nineteenth century and for much of the remainder of that century it had little more than topographic significance, the political term used for the region being, generally, European Turkey or Turkey in Europe. It was not until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that ‘the Balkans’ began to be used regularly as a political definition, and increasingly with pejorative implications. The Balkans, it was believed, were synonymous with struggle, inter-ethnic rivalry, disorder, and danger. Thus the wars of 1912– 13 were not the wars of Ottoman succession but ‘the Balkan wars’. The Balkan wars were held to epitomize the rapacity of the small Balkan nation-states.
Russia
Authors: Jahn Hubertus F 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Europe is a matter of perspective. Much more than simply a geographical denomination, it is a vision, an idea of civilization and culture, peculiar religious traditions, and common historical experience. People living at the geographical margins have always been particularly sensitive to these intangible qualities of Europe, to what it meant to be European. Since the eighteenth century, conceptions of Europeanness and Russia’s position in Europe have been at the heart of discussions among educated Russians. Under the influence of Enlightenment and Romanticism, that is, essential European phenomena, questions of socio-economic progress, cultural development, and national character in Russia have generally been debated in relation to Europe. In the eyes of many Russians, Europe meant modernity.
Introduction
Authors: Squire Nicholas , Healy Kathleen , Broadbent Joanna 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This book explores the impact and effect of the Information and Consultation of Employees Regulations 2004 (SI 2004/3426) (the ICE Regulations). The Regulations, made under powers in section 42 of the Employment Relations Act 2004, implement in Great Britain the EU Information and Consultation (European Parliament and Council) Directive 2002/14/EC (the Information and Consultation Directive). Equivalent legislation has been implemented in Northern Ireland by the Information and Consultation of Employees Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2005 (Statutory Rule 2005/47). The ICE Regulations came into force on 6 April 2005. They are likely to extend considerably the circumstances in which larger and medium-sized employers are obliged to inform and consult with employee representatives in relation to matters affecting the workforce. As a result, the ICE Regulations may have a significant impact on the nature and structure of employment and industrial relations within workplaces in the United Kingdom.
Enforcement
Authors: Squire Nicholas , Healy Kathleen , Broadbent Joanna 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The discussion also focusses on whether the enforcement procedures that have been adopted are likely to be adequate, having regard to the requirements of the Information and Consultation Directive that' adequate administrative or judicial procedures are available' for the enforcement of rights. A related point is whether the sanctions that apply where information and consultation obligations have not been observed are ‘effective, proportionate and dissuasive', also as required by the Information and Consultation Directive.
Protections for Information and Consultation Representatives and Contracting-Out
Authors: Squire Nicholas , Healy Kathleen , Broadbent Joanna 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the various protections the ICE Regulations give to negotiating representatives, information and consultation representatives, and others. The scope of the protections is aimed at ensuring that employee representatives and others are able to perform their duties effectively by imposing sanctions on an employer for dismissing them or subjecting them to a detriment for performing their functions, or seeking to do so. The approach is similar to that provided in a range of other employment legislation including TUPE, TULRCA, the Health & Safety (Consultation with Employees) Regulations 1996, TICE, and provisions relating amongst other things to working time, whistle-blowing, flexible working, and a range of other areas.
The ILO and Applied Anthropology: the Indigenous Labour Programme (1949–55)
Authors: Rodríguez-Piñero Luis 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the aftermath of the Montevideo Conference, the International Labour Office moved to expand the original (Latin) American framework of its indigenous policy to one of universal scope, relevant to all the world’s indigenous groups—in the modern sense of ‘indigenous’. Taking as a point of departure the various resolutions of the American labour conferences, the Office embarked on what came to be known as the ‘Indigenous Labour Programme’. The programme took place at a historical moment when the ‘indigenous problem’ had already been singled out as an issue of international concern, within the emerging development regime.
The Language of Integration: ILO Convention No 107
Authors: Rodríguez-Piñero Luis 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Convention No 107 and Recommendation No 104 merit compulsory reference in the contemporary reflection on indigenous peoples in international law. A by-product of the emerging international development regime’s concern over the ‘indigenous problem’, the convention is the first international standard with legally binding effects to focus specifically on indigenous peoples—in the modern sense of ‘indigenous’. Adoption of the convention thus represented a fundamental step in the crystallization of ‘indigenous’ in modern international law. But the ILO 1957 instruments on indigenous populations were somewhere between policy and law. As discussed in Chapter 4, the instrument represented more an internationalization of states’ policies for solving the ‘indigenous problem’ than a genuine attempt to question the objectives of those policies. And by disciplining the exercise of these policies, they ultimately legitimized their objectives.
Integration in Practice: the Implementation of Convention No 107 (1959–89)
Authors: Rodríguez-Piñero Luis 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Having analysed the process that led to the adoption of the first international legal standards on indigenous populations and their content, it is time to analyse how these specific standards worked in practice. The fall from grace of the ideals enshrined in Convention No 107 led to its revision three decades after its adoption. Much has been written and said about the wrongful character of the objectives in the convention, but considerably less is known about how those objectives were applied. The history of the application of the convention constitutes a source for tracing the emergence of the contemporary regime on indigenous peoples, and a key element in understanding Convention No 169—a text that draws on the historical experience of the application of its antecedent.
Models and relations in economics and econometrics
Authors: Juselius Katarina 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Chapter 1 discussed the difficult link between a theory model and an empirical model based on data collected by passive observation. This chapter discusses the VAR approach as a general framework within which statistical inference on macroeconomic hypotheses can be given a valid formulation. An urge to understand more fully why the VAR approach frequently produced results that seemed to cast doubt on conventional theories and beliefs was the motivation for writing this chapter. It focuses on what could be called the economist ‘s approach, as opposed to the statistician ‘s approach, to macroeconomic modelling, distinguishing between models and relations in economics and econometrics.
Analysing I(2) data with the I(1) model
Authors: Juselius Katarina 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Empirical evidence of I(2) is often found in models containing nominal variables in levels, whereas such evidence is rarely reported in models based on real transformations. Hence, from a logical point of view, the statistical analysis of the nominal variables (m, p, yr, Rm, Rb) should precede the I(1) analysis of the real variables (m p, yr, Δp, Rm, Rb). This was indeed the order of the scenario analysis of the monetary transmission mechanism in Chapter 2. It was first done for nominal money stock and prices, assumed to be I(2), and then for real money stock and inflation, assumed to be I(1) under the assumption of long-run price homogeneity.