bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Function And Molecular Biology Of Photosystem Two
Authors: Barber James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term 1photosystem two’ originates from the paper of Duysens and Amesz published in 1962. The need for this terminology emerged from the classical paper by Hill and Bendall (1960) in which it was suggested that in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, the light driven transfer of reducing equivalents from water to NADP+ requires the cooperation of two distinctly different light reactions. It seemed, at that time, that one of the two photosystems was comparable with that found in anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, in that it could photoreduce NADP+ but not oxidise water (Arnon et al., 1965). It was therefore reasoned by Duysens and Amesz (1962) that the ‘bacterial like’ photosystem was, in evolutionary terms, more ancient and therefore they called it photosystem one (PSI). They therefore argued that the appearance of a second photosystem (photosystem two or PSII) which was able to oxidise water would have come later in evolution and have given rise to the build-up of substantial levels of oxygen in the atmosphere. Today these notions are too simplistic and the origin of PSII, as well as PSI, can be linked with bacterial systems.
Evolutionary Explanation
Authors: Stearns Stephen C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is organized into two parts. Part I presents the tools needed to analyse variation in life history traits; Part II analyses that variation, trait by trait. This chapter introduces Part I. It discusses why life history theory was developed and what role it plays in evolutionary explanation. The major life history traits and the explanatory framework are introduced. That framework could be used to explain any pattern of phenotypic variation. Such explanations are illustrated with an example, human age at maturity. Life history theory deals directly with natural selection, fitness, adaptation, and constraint. It contributes to evolutionary thought the analysis of the phenotypic causes of variation in fitness and exposes the pervasive tension between adaptation and constraint, brought here into especially sharp contrast by the simultaneous applications of optimality theory, quantitative genetics, tradeoffs, and the comparative method to the explanations of the same patterns.
Lineage-Specific Effects
Authors: Stearns Stephen C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins with examples of lineage-specific effects on life histories. Some of these depend allometrically on body weight; others describe patterns associated with higher taxonomic groups after the effects of weight have been removed. It then discusses what a lineage is and how to define it using phylogenetic systematics, a method used in historical explanations of life history patterns. Those using multivariate statistics to analyse extant variation within and among lineages concentrate on patterns of covariation among traits and between traits and environmental factors. Some of them interpret the patterns as adaptive. Those using functional morphology and developmental biology locate the irreversible evolutionary transitions that have created major new opportunities and constraints. Some of them interpret the patterns as evidence for constraint. Both view patterns of variation among species, genera, and higher taxa as influenced by history. The approaches answer different questions. Comparative evidence brings generality, suggests hypotheses, and places intraspecific patterns into context.
Organization of the bodonid flagellates
Authors: Vickerman Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The bodonids are biflagellated kinetoplastid protists. Their distinctive flagella lack association with the nucleus; basal bodies insert on the mitochondrial envelope and are linked to a cortical microtubule cytoskeleton. The single mitochondrion contains abundant DNA in the form of non-catenated circular molecules aggregated into one or more stainable masses or kinetoplasts. Free-living bodonids are phagotrophic, ingesting food through a microtubule-lincd cytostome-cytopharynx close to the anterior flagellar pocket into which the contractile vacuole empties.
Cellular And Molecular Biology Of Pathogenesis Related Proteins
Authors: Eyal Y , Fluhr R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins are host-encoded polypeptides that accumulate as a result of infection by pathogens or elicitors. The first forms to be described were acid soluble protease resistant proteins of relatively low molecular weight, which appeared in tobacco leaves reacting hypersensitively to TMV (Gianinazzi et al., 1970; Van Loon and Van Kammen, 1970). Their electrophoretic characteristics and abundance made them facile subjects to study. PR proteins have now been described in many monocot and dicot species. As new proteins are being characterized and gene families defined, previously assigned categories of PR proteins are less useful. Undoubtedly, as our understanding of signal transduction of pathogenesis and mechanisms of gene activation increases, new functional definitions and generalizations will be realized. With this caveat in mind, we will focus our review on some of the recent cellular and molecular studies related to the expression of PR proteins. Excellent related reviews have recently appeared and should be consulted (Van Loon, 1985; Collinge and Slusarenko, 1987; Fraser 1987; Boller, 1988; Bal and Van Kan 1988, Bal et al., 1990).
Inventories of Biodiversity: more than a Question of Numbers
Authors: Stork N E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Estimates for the number of described species in the world of 1.4-1.8 million, and for the total number of species of around 5-15 million, would suggest that we know only a fraction of the Earth’s fauna and flora. Other data would suggest that we know little even of the majority of described species. To comprehend the implications of environmental change on biodiversity we need a better understanding of the distribution of species and of the role they play in ecosystems. Increased efforts are required towards compiling inventories of the world’s fauna and flora, and monitoring changes. The importance is stressed of focussing such efforts on a range of sites, with the biota of some being intensively studied and fully documented. For wider biodiversity inventories it is necessary to select a range of indicator groups, and criteria for their selection are suggested. The importance is stressed of using ‘sampling packages’ for study of hyperdiverse groups such as insects. The organisation of international efforts to provide inventories is discussed and a list of recommendations is proposed on these and other relevant issues.
Ecology of Phaeocystis: the key role of colony forms
Authors: Lancelot Christiane , Rousseau Veronique 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Species of Phaeocystis exhibit phase alternation between individual cells and gelatinous colonies. They regularly form dense, nearly specific blooms, in very contrasting nutrient-rich areas of the world’s oceans. The uniqueness of this genus of marine phytoplankters rests not only in its ubiquity but mostly in its peculiar physiology and ecology. No other marine phytoplankter has ever been shown to dominate an entire ecosystem; no other marine species distinguishes itself by a complex polymorphic life cycle that induces dramatic changes in the structure and functioning of planktonic and benthic food-webs as well as in the biogeochemistry of trace elements. The main features of the ecology of Phaeocystis-dominated ecosystems are analysed with regard to the Phaeocystis life cycle, and to recent data on the biochemistry and nutrient (major and trace element) metabolism of the different morphological forms that succeed each other during Phaeocystis bloom development, in relationship to the behaviour of bacteria and micro-, mesa-, and meta-zooplankton and the physical structure of the marine habitat. Particular emphasis is given to the biological functioning of Phaeocystis colonies that constitute by far the most important morphological forms in natural environments, as determined from the analysis of the structure and function of the mucilaginous matrix embedding the cells. Evidence is presented that the most remarkable ecological and biogeochemical properties of Phaeocystis-dominated ecosystems are attributable to the capacity of Phaeocystis colonial cells to synthesize, in nutrient-deprived conditions, exopolysaccharides capable of gelation.
Lipid biomarkers of the Haptophyta
Authors: Conte* Maureen H , Volkman John K , Eglinton Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lipid biomarker composition (fatty acids, sterols, alkenones, alkenoates, alkenes) of the Haptophyta is reviewed, and new data are presented on strain variability in the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi. Groupings in both fatty acid and sterol profiles are consistent with taxonomic divisions. The Pavlovales are distinct in their higher relative concentrations of the polyunsaturated acid 20:5w3 and in the presence of 4-methyl sterols. Biomarker profiles indicate significant genetic variability within the Isochrysis and Phaeocystis genera. Eleven strains of Emiliania huxleyi, cultured at 15 °C, had largely similar alkenone and alkenoate compositions and cellular abundances, although tetraunsaturated alkenones were present in higher concentrations in some coastal strains. In contrast, alkene composition and cellular abundance differed greatly, especially in the presence or absence of C37 and C38 alkenes. Field studies indicate biogeographical variability in the primary production of alkenones and alkenoates in cold surface waters, suggesting genetic differences in E. huxleyi populations. The closely related Gephyrocapsa oceanica also contains alkenones and alkenoates and may be an important source in warm water regions.
Molecular biology and systematics
Authors: Medlin* L K , Barkert† G L A , Baumann* M , Hayest† P K , Lange* M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sequence data from both the nuclear and plastid encoded small subunit ribosomal RNA (ssu rRNA) gene have been used to infer the phylogenetic position of the haptophyte host cell and its plastid. Both are in distinct lineages that do not share a recent evolutionary history with their chromophyte counterparts. Within the haptophyte lineage ssu rRNA sequence data support the recognition of at least three colony forming species within the ubiquitous genus, Phaeocystis. In contrast, the two distinct morphotypes of the cosmopolitan bloom-forming coccolithophorid, Emiliania huxleyi, are identical in the sequence of both their ssu rRNAs and the spacer regions between the plastid encoded large and small Rubisco subunits. The sensitive technique of RAPD fingerprinting has revealed the presence of genotypic variation between geographically isolated clones of E. huxleyi. The impact of these findings on the taxonomy of E. huxleyi is discussed.
Physiography, geology, and soils
Authors: Millington A C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Egypt is a large, arid, and, for the most part, low-lying country on the north-east African peneplain. Exceptions to this general rule can be found along the northern coast, where the climate is semi-arid, and in the tectonically active Jordan and Red Sea Rift Valley zone, where earth movements have created rugged mountainous terrain bordering the Red Sea and in the Sinai Peninsula. The total land area is 1 001 449 km2.
Climate and hydrology
Authors: Beaumont P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The climate of Egypt is governed mainly by its location in the north-eastern part of Africa on the margin of the largest desert in the world. Its latitudinal position, between 22 and 32°N places it firmly in the sub-tropical dry belt, although conditions on its northern coast are by the presence of the Mediterranean Sea. Egypt’s climate can best be expressed as a contest between the hot, dry air masses over the Sahara and the cooler, damper maritime air masses from the north carried by eastward moving depressions. Throughout most of the year the hot, dry tropical continental air masses dominate, but during the winter period air masses of both tropical maritime and polar maritime origin make brief incursions into Egypt from the north, frequently bringing rain with them.
Summary and conclusions: the characteristics and problems of Chinese agriculture and prospects for the future
Authors: Guohua Xu 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. A long history of cultivation. Cultivation has been practised in China for at least six thousand years, and when it is considered that Chinese civilization has been continuous, it follows that there are numerous fields which have already been cultivated for thousands of years, and that Chinese peasants have accumulated a very rich experience of farming.
Computers Ltd
Authors: Harel David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Computers are incredible. They are one of the most important inventions of the 20th century, dramatically and irrevocably changing the way we live. That is the good news. The bad news is that there are still major limitations to computers, serious problems that not even the most powerful computers can solve. The consequences of such limitations can be serious. Too often these limits get overlooked, in the quest for bigger, better, and more powerful computers. In Computers Ltd., David Harel, best-selling author of Algorithmics, explains and illustrates one of the most fundamental, yet under-exposed facets of computers - their inherent limitations. Looking at the bad news that is proven, lasting and robust, discussing limitations that no amounts of hardware, software, talents or resources can overcome, the book presents a disturbing and provocative view of computing at the start of the 21st century. Along the way he shows just how far from perfect computers are, while shattering some of the many claims made for these machines. Though we may strive for bigger and better things in computing, we need to be realistic: computers are not omnipotent - far from it. Moreover, the problem is real and here to stay.
Sometimes we just don’t know
Authors: Harel David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Have you ever tried putting together a class schedule, pairing courses, time slots, and classrooms with teachers and instructors who have all kinds of constraints? Ever tackled a really hard jigsaw puzzle, full of look-alike pieces? Ever had to pack lots of bulky items of varying sizes and shapes into given boxes, trying to get them all in? These are difﬁcult tasks, you would have to admit. In carrying them out we seem to make local decisions one at a time, often reaching a dead end. If that happens, we backtrack a little, undo a recent decision and try something else instead. We then make some more progress, then backtrack again, maybe even further back than before, and so on. The entire process can take a long, long time.
Trying to ease the pain
Authors: Harel David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fact that computing doesn’t bring only good news has pushed researchers in a number of directions, intended to try to alleviate the problem. In this chapter we shall discuss some of the most interesting of these: parallelism (or concurrency), randomization, quantum computing, and molecular computing. Each of the ﬁrst two represents a new algorithmic paradigm by relaxing a fundamental assumption underlying conventional computing. The third transfers computation into the mysterious realm of quantum mechanics, and the fourth represents an attempt to have molecules do the work.
Can we ourselves do any better?
Authors: Harel David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our treatment of the ‘hard-core’ bad news inherent in computing was actually completed at the end of Chapter 4, and the story we have set out to tell could have ended there. Chapters 5 and 6 were concerned with the questions of whether, when, and how things can be turned around, and we could have stopped there too. Nevertheless, it seems appropriate to end the book with bad news of a different kind, taking a brief look at some of the difﬁculties that arise when we think of computers as potentially intelligent.
Living with the Double Heleix
Authors: Wilkins Maurice 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The excitement of the extraordinary discovery stressed and bewildered us. Jim was sensitive to the tension between his work with Francis and ours at King’s. Soon after the Double Helix was announced he was invited to talk on the DNA structure at the Hardy Club, the leading scientific society in Cambridge, and he was concerned that I should come to hear what he had to say. Since Jim had favoured the co-authorship idea, I could under- stand he might wish me to hear how he acknowledged the contribution from our lab.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Languages are not static, but are constantly changing: the latest slang comes and goes, our own language is subtly, but noticeably, different from that of our grandparents, and the further back we go in time the more remote and incomprehensible the language seems to be. Shakespeare's language is difficult for us; Chaucer's even more so; and should we be bold enough to peruse the writings of King Alfred, who lived in the ninth century, we will barely understand a word, even though he wrote in 'English'. At the same time, we also notice that some foreign languages, such as German or Dutch, have some similarities to English, which we assume to be the result of the common origins of English and these languages. Over the course of time the languages have diverged, to the point where they are mutually incomprehensible.
Internal Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Comparative Method is widely acknowledged to be the method of reconstruction par excellence. The classical reconstructions, in particular that of Proto-Indo-European, were based entirely on it, and it is still considered to be the most reliable, and the most legitimate, of the available methods. Nevertheless, it is not the only method, as we have already noted, and other techniques are available, of which the most important is INTERNAL RECONSTRUCTION, which relies not on comparison of languages but on examination of forms within a single language. As we shall see, it is an extremely powerful method, which is able to go beyond the Comparative Method in a number of ways, but for that reason it has also been viewed with suspicion by some comparative linguists, who have considered its results too speculative, lacking the sound basis of evidence which the Comparative Method is thought to provide. In addition to presenting the method itself, therefore, we shall need to consider this wider issue of its status and validity.
Quantitative Methods in Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Language is usually assumed to function by means of qualitative, discrete differences between linguistic units, items, rules, and so on, and this characteristic of discreteness has even been included among its 'design features' (Hockett, 1958: ch. 64, 1965). Apart from the study of linguistic performance, such as some aspects of phonetics, where experimental methods have long been quantitative, it is not immediately obvious how quantitative techniques can be used in analysing or describing it.
List of Chapter Topics
Authors: Coles Waltraud , Dodd Bill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the second sentence (Aber nicht alle deutschsprechenden Leute wohnen in Deutschland.) the finite verb is ‘wohnen’ (live). This verb follows a pattern different to the one for ‘sprechen’ in the first sentence. wohnen (live) requires a WHO (Not all German­speaking people) and a WHERE (in Germany) to form a complete sentence.
Arguments, Government, and Case
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we consider the properties of arguments of a sentence. Arguments are most commonly associated with verbs, but they are also associated with nouns and adjectives. Verbs and adjectives, and some nouns, express properties of things (e.g. John is sleeping) or relationships between things (e.g. John sees Bill). The arguments are the phrases that denote the things that have such properties or are involved in such rela¬tionships.
LF Representations
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we consider some of the motivations for and uses of the level of syntactic representation called Logical Form, or LF. Intuitively, LF is the level at which the logical properties of a sentence are repres¬ented. By Syntacticization, LF is a syntactic level, subject to the principles that govern syntactic representations.
Text I: editing and reception
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Editing is always an intervention between reader and text. If there is only one previous edition of a play, or a text seen through the press by the author which may be taken to represent the author’s intentions, it will usually be chosen as the copy-text for the new edition (the basic source compositors follow) and reprinted closely. But should obvious mistakes be reproduced? If the copy-text reads ‘That’s very wind of you.’, do you change it to ‘That’s very kind of you’? Probably yes, and probably rightly; but matters get tricky fast.
What is genre?
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In one way that makes it easy to use: ‘What genres do you like?’ ‘I like comedies and thrillers.’ ‘And what genres does she like?’ ‘Oh, she prefers novels.’ The meaning seems clear, but ‘novel’ is not the same kind of category as ‘comedy’ or ‘thriller’, and the confusion is plain if you compare artistic genre with scientific genus. In the Linnaean classification of living things ‘genus’ occupies a specific place in a descending order-kingdom (animals), sub-kingdom (metazoa), phylum (chordates), sub-phylum (vertebrates), class (mammals), order (primates), sub-order (anthropoids), family (hominids), genus (humans), and species (homo sapiens). In the case of homo sapiens genus and species are effectively the same, for human beings are the only living hominids; but there are extinct members of the family and genus (such as Neanderthal Man) and every possible level of classification may be needed to distinguish one species from another.
Language and Gender
Authors: Romaine Suzanne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first non-sexist Bible to be published in Britain was launched yesterday. The revisers have systematically changed expressions such as ‘any man’ to ‘anyone’, but have kept the masculine, especially for God, on the grounds that this is faithful to the original. (Guardian, 4 October 1985) IN Chapter 3 we saw that one of the sociolinguistic patterns established by quantitative research on urban social dialects was that women, regardless of other social characteristics such as class, or age, use more standard forms of language than men. Although many reasons, such as women’s alleged greater status consciousness and concern for politeness, have been put forward to try to explain these results, they have never been satisfactorily accounted for.