bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Solving the Right Problem the Right Way
Authors: Barabba Vincent P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone who has taken an introductory statistics course is familiar with Type I and Type II errors. A Type I error is a false positive, or the mistake of accepting a hypothesis as true when in fact it is false. A Type II error, on the other hand, is a false negative, or the mistake of rejecting a hypothesis when it is actually true. Ian Mitroff of the University of Southern California introduced me to Type III errors: the probability of solving or working on the #x201C;wrong#x201D; problem when one should have worked on (attempted to solve) the #x201C;correct#x201D; problem.
Solving a Divergent-Views Problem Developing the Right Pickup Truck Portfolio and Getting the Right Engine in the Camara and Firebird
Authors: Barabba Vincent P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The previous chapter addressed a messy problem, a problem associated with divergent views across multiple organizations. This chapter addresses problems that also involve divergent views based on different mental models, but, although the decisions are affected by external interests, they are focused within fewer organizations. The role of market research in two examples that will be used here is much more specific than the role of more general market research as applied to the development of the entire car product portfolio. The two examples are (1) an important business issue, the design of a platform for pickup trucks, and (2) an important technical issue, the selection of the right engine for a specific vehicle.
Discovery: Gaining a Foothold for the Defense
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Within a time schedule set by the court, our lawyer responds with an appearance, that is, a letter to the plaintiff’s attorney setting down the ground rules agreed to by both lawyers. These terms of engagement allow the defense to challenge, through filing arguments, the “sufficiency” of the plaintiff’s case. This instrument also defers a formal filing of the answer to the charges until this phase, known as the “pleadings,” is completed.
The Trial
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From October 11, 1984, until February 18, 1985, CBS News reporter Mike Wallace and U.S. Army General William Westmoreland stare at one another in a New York courtroom, the honor of each at stake in legal combat over differences in the re- porting of certain incidents in the Vietnam war. The emotionally burdened pro- tagonists, almost overwhelmed by the adversarial nature of the trial, come to resent their advocates’ obvious ease and bantering old boy exchanges in the embattled atmosphere of the courtroom. Crowded to the side of the stage as the curtain rises on the trial, they feel stripped of their presumption that they are the principal fig- ures in its drama. The lawyers move easily into the limelight, sure of themselves, accustomed to playing the leading roles in a small ensemble cast whose influence is enormous.
Politics
Authors: Rosen Jeffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the Supreme Court decided the presidential election of 2000 in Bush v. Gore, liberals and conservatives accused each other of opportunism and hypocrisy. Liberals insisted that conservatives had abandoned their purported commitment to having political questions decided by political actors (if the Court had not intervened, the electoral dispute would have been resolved by Congress) by inventing a novel judicial theory for one time only. Conservatives countered that liberals were happy to use the courts when it suited their purposes and insisted that the U.S. Supreme Court had to intervene to prevent the election from being stolen by the Supreme Court of Florida. Although the election of 2000 is now a distant memory, the constitutional drama that it precipitated reveals something stark and unsettling about American judicial politics at the moment: neither liberals nor conservatives are consistently committed to the proposition that political questions should be resolved in legislatures rather than courts.
Nixon, Kissinger, and Détente
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 1968 presidential campaign was unusual in that, unlike those of 1952 and 1960, it provided little indication of the direction in which the new administration would move once in office. Richard Nixon had made an issue of Johnson’s inability to end the Vietnam War and had promised that he would do so, although without saying how or when. He had also implied, with references to an era of confrontation giving way to one of negotiation, a continuation of the previous administration’s efforts to arrange a relaxation of tensions with the Soviet Union. There had even been hints, in a Foreign Affairs article the previous year and in occasional campaign speeches, of a willingness to consider a new relationship with the People’s Republic of China.1 But, in general, voters going to the polls on election day, 1968, had no idea that they were ushering in the most sweeping changes in United States foreign policy since the idea of containment had first emerged two decades earlier.
Introduction:Financial Innovations in History
Authors: Rouwenhorst William N K Geert , Rouwenhorst K Geert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The essays in this volume are written by a distinguished and adventurous set of historians and economists who have been willing, in many cases, to step beyond their typical field of inquiry and explore the historical foundations of financial innovation. First and foremost, the essays are motivated by the need to place our current age of financial revolution in historical perspective. Innovations in the modern world of finance have come to be almost expected, financial instruments spring from the mind of investment bankers almost overnight, and then are analyzed, valued, traded, saved, and hedged themselves-sometimes to be replaced by new financial instruments, and other times to be part of the permanent toolkit of financial engineers and investors. This continuing process of in novation, as sophisticated as it may seem to most of the modern world, is in fact built on surprisingly few basic principles.
Fibonacci and the Financial Revolution
Authors: Goetzmann William N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Present value analysis is a method for comparing the relative economic value of differing payment streams, taking into account the time-value of money. Mathematically reducing all cash flow streams to a single point in time allows the investor to decide which is unambiguously the best. According to a recent survey of corporate financial officers, the present value criterion is now used by virtually all large companies in the capital budgeting decision. The modern present value formula was developed by economist Irving Fisher in 1930; however, it originates deeper in the tradition of Western thought. Geoffrey Poitras’s excellent survey of the early history of financial economics traces related interest-rate problems back to fifteenth-century Europe. The roots of the present value criterion may lie deeper still. In this chapter, I argue that an important early formulation of the present value criterion appeared in the work of one of the most famous mathematicians of the Middle Ages, Leonardo of Pisa (1170-1240), commonly called Fibonacci.
The Origins of Mutual Funds
Authors: Rouwenhorst K Geert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past two decades, mutual funds have become the primary investment for small investors. At the turn of the twenty-first century, the number of mutual funds in the United States exceeded the number of securities listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Compared to direct investments in individual stocks and bonds, mutual funds offer the advantages of liquidity and diversification at a relatively low cost. While the popularity of mutual funds is relatively recent, the origins of mutual funds date back to the early days of organized stock trading.
Mystification, Neutrality, And Same-Sex Couples In Marriage
Authors: Cruz David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In “Just Marriage,” Mary Lyndon Shanley raises vital issues about the future of marriage and marriage law in the United States. In contrast to marriage exclusionists—my term, not hers—who would perpetuate the denial of civil marriage to same-sex couples, Professor Shanley would open civil marriage to adult couples regardless of the partners’ sexes. Shanley’s essay, however, is not primarily a response to marriage exclusionists. Rather, she aims to defend civil marriage against what she calls “contractualism”—primarily but not exclusively feminist calls for the abolition of marriage as a legal category and its replacement with a regime of private contracts for ordering the relationships of adult couples. Justice in marital relationships can better be achieved, Shanley argues, by transformations in law and policy than by abandoning marriage as a legal category.
Sickle Cell Anemia
Authors: Quirolo Keith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patient was an 11-year-old girl diagnosed at birth by newborn screening as having hemoglobin F and hemoglobin S.She was subsequently determined to be hemoglobin SS. She had a long history of complications of her sickle cell disease, beginning with splenic sequestration at 6 months of age.At that time, she was treated with transfusions and eventually required a partial splenectomy. She was admitted to the hospital at 19 months of age with acute chest syndrome as a complication of respiratory syncytial viral infection.
Cardiac Troponin: Clinical Role in the Diagnosis of Myocardial Infarction
Authors: Apple Fred S , Jaffe Allan S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patient, a 63-year-old Caucasian female,was hospitalized on 4 April 2002 though 10 April 2002 for a non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (non-Q-wave MI per chart documentation). She had a negative adenosine stress test after the initial event. Her serum cardiac-specific troponin I (cTnI) concentration 24 hours after her onset of chest pain was 1.4 μg/L (upper limit of normal is 0.3 ng/mL), and her creatine kinase (CK) MB level was 12.5 μg/L (upper limit of normal 6.0 ng/mL).Three days post-event her cTnI level was 0.5 μg/L and her CK-MB level was 4.5 μg/L (Fig. 5-1). MB refers to one of the isoenzyme forms of CK found in serum. The form of the enzyme that occurs in brain (BB) does not usually get past the blood-brain barrier and therefore is not normally present in the serum. The MM and MB forms account for almost all of the CK in serum.Skeletal muscle contains mainly MM, with less than 2% of its CK in the MB form. MM is also the predominant myocardial creatine kinase and MB accounts for 10%–20% of creatine kinase in heart muscle.
Systemic Carnitine Deficiency: A Treatable Disorder
Authors: Brass Eric P , Paul Harbhajan S , Sekas Gail 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A 3.5-year-old boy presented to the emergency room with hypoglycemia. The patient’s history was remarkable for multiple episodes of altered consciousness resulting in hospital admissions since age 3 months. These episodes were characterized by depressed mental status or coma and hypoglycemia (blood glucose typically 15 mg/dL, normal 75–105 mg/dL). Seizure activity was noted on several admissions. On evaluation, the patient was consistently noted to have proximal muscle weakness, hepatomegaly, congestive heart failure, elevations of serum transaminases (aspartate aminotransferase [AST], and alanine aminotransferase [ALT]) to greater than 2000 IU/L (normal values 10–30 IU/L and 10–40 IU/L for AST and ALT, respectively) and elevated serum creatine phosphokinase to greater than 1500 IU/L (normal &lt;175 IU/L).
Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptors and Familial Hypercholesterolemia
Authors: Cuchel Marina , Rader Daniel J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A 10-year-old girl from China was evaluated at the University of Pennsylvania for homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) and possible participation in an experimental gene therapy protocol for her condition. Cutaneous xanthomas (lesions characterized by abnormal accumulation of lipids in macrophages) were first observed at 3 months of age. However, the origins were not fully investigated until the age of 3 years, when she was found to have a total cholesterol level of 1150 mg/dL (desirable levels are &lt; 200 mg/dL) with normal triglyceride levels, and the diagnosis of homozygous FH was made. Both of her parents’ total cholesterol levels were in the range of 300–400 mg/dL, consistent with the diagnosis of heterozygous FH. A positive family history for premature coronary artery disease was present on both sides.
I-Cell Disease (Mucolipidosis II)
Authors: Chambers James 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patient (Fig. 17-1) was a 38-week-gestation product of a 22-year-old G,P1Abo (gravida 1, first pregnancy; paradelivery, first delivery; abortion, 0) woman and her 31-year-old firstcousin partner. Pregnancy was complicated by oligohydramnios (deficiency in the amount of amniotic fluid); an amniocentesis revealed a normal male karyotype. The infant was delivered by cesarean section because of maternal preeclampsia (development of hypertension due to pregnancy). Apgar scores were 8/9, weight was 2200 g, and length was 18.5 inches. On newborn examination, microcephaly (a broad nasal bridge with anteverted nostrils), micrognathia (smallness of the jaws, especially the underjaw), hypospadias (a defect in the wall of the urethra), and undescended testes were seen.A tentative diagnosis of Smith-Lemli- Opitz syndrome was postulated.
Neonatal Hyperbilirubinemia
Authors: Fahl Jeffrey C , Vanderjagt David L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A newborn male was the product of a 37-week gestation to a primagravida female whose blood type was O and Rh positive. During the pregnancy, the tests for syphilis and hepatitis B were negative. The pregnancy was uncomplicated, and the mother received excellent care. She denies alcohol consumption and does not smoke
Type I Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Panja Srinivas , Chelliah Aruna , Burge Mark R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia.This can result from defects in insulin secretion, defects in insulin action, or both. Because glucose is a chemically reactive molecule, the chronic hyperglycemia of diabetes is associated with long-term damage, dysfunction, and, ultimately, failure of various organs. These include the eyes, the kidneys, the nervous system, and the cardiovascular system. Several pathogenic processes are involved in the development of diabetes. These range from autoimmune destruction of the β-cells of the pancreas with consequent insulin deficiency (type 1 diabetes, about 10% of cases) to poorly characterized abnormalities that result in resistance to insulin action combined with inadequate insulin secretion (type 2 diabetes, about 90% of cases). Regardless of mechanism, the ultimate basis of known abnormalities in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism in diabetes is the deficient action of insulin on target tissues.
GM2 gangliosidosis (adult-onset Tay-Sachs disease)
Authors: Bower Dr. James H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patient’s total leukocyte hexosaminidase activity was slightly reduced at 14.5 U/g protein (normal, 16.4-36.2 U/g protein), but percent A was only 5% (normal, 63%-75%). This finding confirmed the diagnosis of GM2 gangliosidosis (adult-onset Tay-Sachs disease). The diagnosis was suspected because the disorder was slowly progressive, spanning more than two decades, with features of cognitive, behavioral, extrapyramidal, pyramidal, and cerebellar dysfunction, and demonstrated cerebellar and brainstem atrophy. GM2 gangliosidoses are a group of autosomal recessive disorders that result from the accumulation of GM2 ganglioside in neuronal lysosomes. The β-hexosaminidase enzyme cleaves the N-acetylgalactosamine moiety from the GM2 ganglioside. Deficiency of this enzyme or its cofactor, the GM2 activator protein, leads to the accumulation of GM2 ganglioside.
Introduction: In The Kremlin Library
Authors: Jack Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A Walk Across Red Square on a dark winter’s evening, a security check at the giant gates, the scrutiny of a metal detector, and we reached the heart of Russian power. Along with my two colleagues, I surrendered my mobile phone, waited in a reception room, and was ushered down sterile gilded corridors to the inner sanctum of the Kremlin. It felt as though we were alone in the entire building. Then Vladimir Putin slipped into the library to join us almost unnoticed, shook hands, and sat down to offer us his undivided attention. It was 13 December 2001, and Putin had every reason to be irritated. Just a few weeks before, the Russian president had defied domestic public opinion and western expectations alike by pledging his wholehearted support to the US-led international anti-terrorist coalition created after 9/11. In another signal that the Cold War was over, he had closed Soviet-era bases in Cuba and Vietnam. But on the day of our meeting, George W. Bush had responded by announcing to Congress that he was unilaterally withdrawing from the 1972 Anti Ballistic Missile (ABM) treaty, a cornerstone of international strategic stability and one of the few remaining agreements that gave Russia some leverage and status abroad.
Shooting The Messenger
Authors: Jack Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At 3.45 A.M. On Easter Saturday 2001, the armed men made their way swiftly to the meeting point. They gathered outside the monolithic concrete building at Ostankino, in the shadow of the giant television mast that dominates the city skyline. They were anticipating trouble. Eight years earlier, in 1993, an irregular militia armed with machine guns and bazookas had assembled at the same place. Sixty people died as crack federal troops fought off their amateurish attempts to seize control of state television on behalf of the old parliament, which was defying Boris Yeltsin with a mixture of ageing rifles and nationalist-Communist slogans. In 2001, under his successor, the chosen weapons were lawsuits, and the rhetoric was capitalist dogma. But the new president stood behind the latest action just as his predecessor had. And his wishes were being implemented equally ruthlessly in an effort to enforce his emerging regime.
Vascular Development
Authors: Kirby Margaret Loewy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The vascular system in vertebrates is patterned via two major processes called VASCULOGENESIS and ANGIOGENESIS, which generate blood vessels required for the formation of the arteriovenous vasculature and heart development. All of the earliest development is via vasculogenesis, in which vesicles of angioblasts form de novo and coalesce to form tubes or SINUSOIDs. Later development is via both vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. In angiogenesis, new vessels sprout from endothelial cells in pre-existing vessels. Once flow commences, the primary capillary plexus is remodeled into a hierarchical system of large to small blood vessels by angiogenesis of new vessels and regression of existing channels. These vessels are stabilized by PERIVASCULAR CELLS attracted during the period of remodeling. The stabilized vessels recruit investing cells that will be organized into the tunics of the mature vessels, or pericytes in the case of capillaries. Precursors for ANGIOBLASTS are thought to form as early as gastrulation, although very little is known about their developmental history before the expression of definitive markers. Beginning at the time they are formed, these cells are migratory and invasive, and are quickly distributed widely throughout the intraembryonic and extraembryonic mesenchyme (Fig. 2.1). Endothelial cells arise from all levels of the primitive streak during gastrulation (Garcia-Martinez and Schoenwolf, 1993). Development of the vascular system begins extraembryonically in the YOLK SAC. In the yolk sac, angioblasts are generated from bipotential HEMANGIOBLASTS that can give rise to both hematoblasts that form blood cells and angioblasts that form blood vessels. Hemangioblasts form BLOOD ISLANDS in the yolk sac that begin producing blood cells while the angioblasts form an extraembryonic capillary network that will later become part of the placenta. Vascular development is initiated in the embryo soon after it begins in the yolk sac.
Development of the Cardiac Pacemaking and Conduction System
Authors: Kirby Margaret Loewy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is important that the tubular heart and the four-chambered heart beat in a coordinated fashion to propel blood from the inflow to the outflow. In a straight heart tube, because the myocardium is electrically coupled, the solution is relatively straightforward. But, coordinated contractions are necessarily different in a tube versus a four-chambered heart. Thus, development of the pacemaking and conduction system represents one of the most intriguing processes in heart development. Coordinated cardiac contractions are regulated by impulses that originate at the sinoatrial (SA) NODE, located at the junction of the superior vena cava and right atrium. Impulses generated at this node spread through the atrial chamber myocardium, to initiate contraction of the atria. The impulse is also spread to the atrioventricular (AV) NODE, located in the base of the atrial septum at the junction of the atria and ventricles, and is the only conducting route from the atria to the ventricles. The main function of the AV node is to slow the impulse from the atrial to the ventricular myocardium. Transmission of an impulse directly from the atrial myocardium to the ventricular myocardium is prevented by a nonconducting band of connective tissue at the atrioventricular junction called the ANNULUS FIBROSIS. The impulse is delayed by the atrioventricular node to allow time for atrial contraction before ventricular excitation. After the slight delay the impulse is propagated rapidly via the atrioventricular (His) bundle to the BUNDLE BRANCHES located in the top of the ventricular septum. The bundle branches divide on either side of the ventricular septum into branches that terminate in a highly ramified network of PURKINJE FIBERS that will activate both ventricles simultaneously, beginning at the APEX. The impulse is transferred from the Purkinje network into the working ventricular myocardium.
Green Marketing and Advertising
Authors: Ongkrutraksa Worawan Yim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is obvious that notable corporate giants deem it a must to promote corporate images that reflect their environmental awareness and involvement. Today’s world is now facing enormous environmental problems and challenges. Environmental problems caused more than 2,000 people to perish in Europe in 2003 due to a heat wave, while storms and floods sporadically killed people in many parts of the world the following year.
From Central Planning to the Market: The American Transition, 1945-47
Authors: Higgs Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The complex, and often fitful, transition from central planning to the market in China and the Warsaw Pact countries has been a hot topic since 1989. Notably, the United States made a similar transition after World War IL Indeed, the reconversion from a wartime command economy to a market- oriented postwar economy, a transition accomplished with astonishing speed and little apparent difficulty, constitutes one of the most remarkable events in U.S. economic history. Nevertheless, economists and economic historians have devoted little attention to that episode, and their explanations of it are, on close inspection, extremely problematic. With few exceptions, scholars have not yet recognized the problems inherent in dealing with that great event. In this chapter, I consider some major issues of measurement and explanation related to the reconversion of the U.S. economy between 1945 and 1947, a transition that laid the groundwork for the prosperity of the following half century.