bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Society and Health
Authors: Amick III Benjamin C , Levine Sol , Tarlov Alvin R , Walsh Diana Chapman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why do societies experience higher rates of mortality after economic recession? What accounts for the persistent social class differences in mortality rates? How do we explain the health status differences between men and women, blacks and whites, and different communities or cultures? How do some families create more healthful environments for their children? How is stress generated in the workplace? Such fundamental questions about the social determinants of health are discussed in depth in this wide-ranging and authoritative book. Well-known contributors from North America and Europe gather and assess the evidence for the diverse pathways by which society influences health and provides conceptual frameworks for understanding these relationships. The book opens with a broad review of research on the social environment's contribution to health status and then addresses particular social factors: the family, the community, culture, class, race and gender, the economy, and the workplace. The concluding two chapters examine the contribution of medicine to the improved health of Americans and recast the health policy debate in a broad social policy context.
Community and Health
Authors: Patrick Donald L , Wickizer Thomas M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Social determinants of health and quality of life—such as social class, gender inequalities, and racism—influence how long people live, how well people live, and the tradeoffs made between quantity and quality of life (Patrick and Erickson, 1993). These determinants operate simultaneously at the level of individual and group behavior and at the level of “community.” Investigators routinely observe differences in mortality, disease prevalence, and other measures of health status between and within nations, and smaller subdivisions such as states, regions, counties, metropolitan or rural areas, cities, and neighborhoods.’ The importance of community as a determinant of health is confirmed by observations that geographic variations in health behaviors and outcomes do not disappear when controlling for individual sociodemographic characteristics, availability of health services, and other individual-level variables (Dayal et al., 1984).
Rhythm
Authors: Devine A M , Stephens Laurence D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rhythm is a central property of the natural world around us and of our perception of it. Any measurement in physics involving a frequency is a manifestation of rhythm. Rhythm is everpresent both in our daily ex perience oflife, whether it be the succession of night to day and of winter to summer or the lapping of waves on the beach, and in our daily behaviour. Animals as well as humans exhibit rhythmic behaviour, which is basic to forms of locomotion such as flying and swimming, in addi tion to characterizing vegetative functions such as the heartbeat and respi ration. At least some animals can also perceive auditory rhythm: frogs and crickets are apparently able to produce rhythmic calling songs in synchrony with artificial calling song models (Vos 1977), and starlings have been taught to discriminate between rhythmic and arrhythmic strings of 2000 Hz tones (Hulse et al. 1984). The earliest rhythmic behaviour of the newborn baby is sucking; infant babbling is syllabic and rhythmic, and one study found that as early as seven months of age a child can distinguish iambic rhythm from isochronous rhythm (Allen et al. 1977). Rhythmic behaviour learned by the child later on includes walking and, as will be seen, speech.
Word Prosody
Authors: Devine A M , Stephens Laurence D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The analysis of Greek rhythm outlined in Chapter 3 still has to be integrated with the analysis of pitch properties developed in Chapter 4 into an overall theory of Greek word prosody. It needs to be deter mined what were the phonetic properties of rhythmically prominent syl lables, in particular whether they were stressed; whether the system of rhythm correlates or interacts with that of the word accent, and if not, how the two systems could coexist without tending to neutralize each other; and what were the consequences for the Greek word prosodic system of the emergence of a stress accent in later Greek. The problem of how to reconcile accentually patterned pitch with increasingly strong metrical evidence for an accentually patterned system of rhythm has become a serious obstacle to an overall understanding of Greek word prosody, even to the extent of undermining confidence in the value of metrical data that are established beyond any reasonable doubt. The problem cannot be confronted solely on the basis of the linguistic intui tions we all derive from a knowledge of the more familiar modern Euro pean languages; it needs to be studied in the perspective of a typological survey of pitch and stress in word prosodic systems.
The Major Phrase and Utterance
Authors: Devine A M , Stephens Laurence D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given that certain aspects of the prosody of a sentence reflect its gram matical structure, it might be thought that they could be accounted for in the simplest and most straightforward manner by computing meas ured intonational, durational and intensity relations directly from the surface syntactic structure. However, as has already been pointed out, there are good grounds for assuming that between syntax and the phonetics of prosody there lies a level of properly phonological prosodic organization. One of the arguments used to support such a level was the independence of the units of prosody from the syntactic constituents onto which they are mapped. For instance, in the artificially slow dicta tion of polysyllabic words, feet and even syllables within a foot can be pronounced with a continuation pitch rise and an intervening pause; that is, feet and syllables can be pronounced with the intonational and durational features normally associated with major phrases. Conversely, in breathless colloquial speech, the syntactic sentences “I’m sorry. I’m late. I got held up” can be pronounced as a single prosodic sentence, that is with the intonational and durational characteristics of one sentence (Crystal 1969). Within the spectrum of normal speech rates, too, the same sentence can often be pronounced equally naturally with and with out internal pauses and intonational phrase boundaries. The melodies and rhythms of phrases and sentences evidently have their own autono mous existence and structure. They are autonomous not only from the syntax, as just noted, but also from the segmental phonology: when words are exchanged in speech errors, the phrase stress stays put, as in “I kept it pinned on the room to my door” or the stranding exchange “You have to square it facely” (Garrett et al. 1980). The autonomy of intonational melodies is a logical prerequisite for exploiting the Greek musical records as evidence for the intonation of Greek speech.
Heroes for Sale
Authors: Loeb Lori Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a changing world Victorians sought individuals to admire and examples to venerate. The very principles that animated their society elevated the Great Man, variously defined. Democracy allowed individuals to distinguish themselves through talent, intellect, or virtue. Self-help shaped inspiring portraits of excellence. The gospel of work fashioned individuals of exceptional accomplishment. Progress held the promise of human perfectibility. At the same time, Darwinism, technology, urbanization, irreligion all challenged ideas and realities that a hundred years before had seemed certain or sacred. Even the "solid-looking material world," the very focus of the advertiser's efforts, could prove to be "at bottom ... Nothing," little more than a shadow.
From Professional to Political Ideology, 1900-1919
Authors: Kovacs Maria M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was only at the tum of the century that the liberal foundations of professional occupations came under devastating criticism by the power­ ful neoconservative movement that had burst on the Hungarian political scene in the 1890s, culminating in the founding of the Catholic People’s Party in 1895. Opening a new era in Hungarian political thought, neoconservatives of the tum of the century no longer confined themselves to the old, British-style, “tory” conservatism of their predecessors. Unlike “old” conservatives, whose opposition to the 1867 liberals was founded not on a general rejection of a liberal transformation but rather on a concern with moderating the speed and style of political change, neoconservatives repudiated the entire process of liberal transformation and indicted Hungarian capitalism as an illegitimate product of a disastrous political reform.
The Professions during the Depression
Authors: Kovacs Maria M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Depression put an end to Bethlen’s conservative regime. The finan­ cial crisis triggered by the collapse of the Viennese Kreditanstalt led to the fall of the Bethlen government in August 1931. Bethlen’s suc­ cessor, the conservative prime minister Gyula Karolyi, attempted, un­ successfully, to overcome the crisis with harsh austerity measures. As these measures led to mounting unrest, Regent Horthy dismissed Karolyi in the fall of 1932 and called on Gyula Gombos to form a government. The coming to power of the Gombos government in September 1932 marke the return to power of the “numerus clausus generation” of 1920. Gombos, the closest Hungarian approximation of Mussolini both in the eclecticism of his political views and in his nationalist boosterism, was an advocate of Italian-style corporatism.
Cooperation in fishes
Authors: Dugatkin Lee Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Every so often behavioral ecologists need to remind themselves that there are over 22,000 species of teleost fishes alone (Pitcher, 1986)—more than all other vertebrates combined! Many of these species take well to the laboratory, where they reproduce quickly and proficiently. It should therefore come as no surprise that some of the best-controlled studies in optimal foraging theory, sexual selection, sexual allocation, parental care, and, yes, cooperative behavior have been undertaken using fishes (see Pitcher, 1986; Godin, 1996). That being said, it may seem strange that fish are so commonly used for research on cooperation. After all, fishes are “lower” vertebrates and were thought by many, therefore, to have a relatively simple behavioral repertoire. Evidence, however, shows this view to be manifestly false (Dugatkin and Wilson, 1993; Dugatkin and Sih, 1995) and indicates that some teleost species contain a rich repertoire of complex social behaviors, many of which appear to be very labile. In this chapter, I will examine cooperation in teleost fishes in the context of egg trading, helpers-at-the nest, “cleaning” behavior, cannibalism, foraging, alarm substances, mobbing behavior, and predator inspection and try, whenever possible, to place these studies within the framework of the cooperator’s dilemma.
Cooperation in birds
Authors: Dugatkin Lee Alan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ornithologists, perhaps more than any other “ologists” in biology, are likely to have found their calling early in life, and all seem to have a picture of themselves at age three, with birding binoculars in hand. As such, it should not be surprising that the literature on social behavior in birds is large indeed. In this chapter, I will discuss a number of different types of avian cooperative behavior and, as always, tie it back to theory, whenever possible. In particular we will look at cooperation in the context of territoriality, hunting, food sharing, alarm calls, and mobbing.
Introduction
Authors: Philips Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the end of World War II, much moral philosophy has been driven by the question, “What can be said in condemnation of Nazis and other moral monsters that is not merely an expression of personal preference?” Many contributors to this discussion have accepted some thing like the following stark assumption: either there is some set of moral standards binding on human beings (or rational agents) as such, or there is no rationally defensible objection to the behavior of Adolf Hitler, Pol Pot, and their like. Here the term “morality” is typically used as if it were the name of this set of universal standards (rather than a general term). Society, conscience, or religion may demand one thing. Morality may demand another. Unfortunately, all attempts to defend descriptions of these standards have faced formidable obstacles. So much so that many hearty souls—trusting philosophical argument more than their own deepest prereflective convictions—have abandoned the effort and declared the objective chimerical. Given the stark assumption, their skepticism amounts to the view that there is no more rational justification for opposing murder, torture, theft, or betrayal than there is for preferring the taste of chocolate to that of vanilla. But few are happy with this conclusion, and no one (to my knowledge) acts as if his own moral convictions were mere matters of taste.1
Intuitionism and Wide Reflective Equilibrium
Authors: Philips Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Universalism holds that there is a set of ranked or weighted moral standards binding on rational agents as such that is sufficient for the moral life. Agreement on rankings is essential. After all, the universalist believes that there is one morality. But if we agree that killing and promise breaking are wrong, and you believe that it is worse to break a promise, but I believe it is worse to kill, there is an important moral difference between us. To the extent that we disagree on rank ings and weighings, we will disagree about judgments in particular cases; and clearly, to the extent that we disagree about cases for that reason, we have different moral outlooks or subscribe to different moralities. In the limiting case, we might agree on all the same standards but so disagree on weights that we disagree in every case in which considerations conflict, that is, in almost every case. In this case, it is ridiculous to say that we hold the same morality. We simply believe that the same kinds of considerations are morally relevant. The universalist wants more. Roughly, she wants a morality binding on rational beings that produces uniform agreement on decidable cases.1 This requires that rational beings accept the same standards and rank or weigh them in roughly the same way.
Reason, Persons, and Contracts
Authors: Philips Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If we can’t arrive at universal standards by appealing to intuitions, perhaps some other method will do.’ Iwo alternatives now have considerable support: respect for persons and contractarianism. The first attempts to derive moral standards from the nature of persons. The second attempts to derive them by considering what rational agents would agree to under certain bargaining conditions. Sometimes these methods are fused. Thus, for example, Rawls and certain other contractarians design the contract situation on the basis of theories about the nature of persons, and the results are supposed to express what it is to respect persons (or treat persons as persons). Often, however, they are each presented independently of the other, and it is best to begin by considering them as such. I will begin with respect for persons. The question is, how far can this take us down the road to a universal morality?
Ethics as Social Artifact
Authors: Philips Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
According to universalism, the purpose of moral inquiry is to discover universal moral standards, that is, the contents of a super code. Advocates of this view admit that consensus on results is difficult to reach: the path is littered with bad arguments, conceptual confusions, false empirical beliefs, and partisan distortions. But, they claim, there is a truth of the matter and our methods are capable of discovering it.
Goods and Evils
Authors: Philips Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In chapter 5 I argued that we can make many effective criticisms of moral standards without appealing to an abstract theory of the good. But I also acknowledged that our evaluation of some criticisms will depend on our choice between competing packages of goods and evils (or, more accurately, a/distributions of them). In at least some cases these choices will be controversial, and to discover the degree to which these controversies are subject to reason we need an abstract theory of the good. This chapter develops such a theory and explores its implications for evaluating moral standards. It concludes with an illustration of the power of ESA at the domain level by showing how that approach enables us to think systematically about business ethics.
Ethics and Agents
Authors: Philips Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ESA is a theory about how to evaluate moral standards. It tells us how to decide whether prevailing moral standards are justified. And, if they are not justified, it tells us how to evaluate proposed revisions or substitutions. But it remains unclear at this point what ESA entails for individuals. More specifically, we want to know (1) what does morality require of me? and (2) how ought I to judge the actions (and character) of others?
The Celluloid Coast
Authors: Robinson Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After his arrival, he worked for three dollars a day as a glove cutter in a small upstate New York town. But he had made up his mind that gloves would not be his future. In 1913, in an almost incomprehensible metamor­phosis, he allied himself with his brother-in-law, Jesse L. Lasky; and with a former actor, Cecil B. DeMille, to form a motion-picture company. The three men set up shop in an abandoned barn in Hollywood, California, where the sun never failed to shine.
Symbiosis: Evolution in Action
Authors: Sapp Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lichenologists of the late nineteenth century frequently told stories of how lichens perhaps more than any other groups of plants had been neglected by previous generations of botanists, how the few who did study them did so on the side and subjected them to great abuse through their careless study.2 The reasons for this, it was argued, were not hard to find. These plants possessed few qualities to make them conspicuous; as a rule, they are neither striking in color, size, or form, nor do they possess marked useful or harmful properties. Some lichens had been claimed to be useful in the arts and medicine. During the wars of 1812 and 1815 fevers of all sorts were prevalent in military hospitals. Quinine, which was the popular remedy, became scarce because of the enormous quantities consumed and because of the commercial blockade of Europe. The Austrian government therefore offered a prize of five hundred ducats for the discovery of a cheap, readily available substitute for quinine. The prize was won when lichen was proposed as a substitute, but it was soon found that the medicinal properties of lichen were unsatisfactory and the remedy was abandoned by physicians. Nonetheless, the peasantry of various countries still believe in the healing properties of various lichens. In Sweden Peltigera aphthosa was boiled in milk and given to children afflicted with “thrush.” Decoctions of various lichens were employed for intermittent fevers. Sir John Franklin and his companions made use of this lichen during their arctic voyages, and its use to prevent the disease known as “Iceland scurvy” continued during the nineteenth century.
The Pasteurization of Les Symbiotes
Authors: Sapp Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As soon as it appeared, Dr. Portier’s book excited impassioned critiques. For some it was a work that was destined to revolutionize biology, for others it was work made from hastily constructed hypotheses and from experiments which left room for discussion. Admirers and detractors are in agreement, however, in saying that it is rare to find, in a scientific book, originality and boldness of views uniting themselves in a way more favourable to clarity of exposition and seduction of style.
Child Survival
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Where it is the limiting nutrient, vitamin A deficiency causes anemia, growth retardation and xerophthalmia; increases the incidence and/or severity of infectious episodes; and reduces childhood survival. Reduced survival is the most severe and potentially the most widespread consequence of vitamin A deficiency, and the one that has generated the most interest recently. The international Child Survival Initiative, a program directed at reducing the 14 million childhood deaths each year, has helped focus attention on mortality. Improvement in vitamin A status is now viewed as one of the most cost-effective measures to achieve the Initiative’s goal, joining immunization, breast-feeding and related strategies.
Vitamin A-deficient animals die much earlier and at a far higher rate than vitamin-A sufficient controls. Under experimental conditions of gradual, progressive deficiency, mortality begins to take its toll even before the appearance of xerophthalmia (Fig. 2-1 ). Indeed, one of the problems in creating an experimental animal model to study xerophthalmia has been keeping such animals alive long enough to develop ocular changes.
Xerophthalmia and Keratomalacia
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Xerophthalmia (xeros, dry; ophthalmia, inflamed eye) is a constellation of ocular manifestations long associated with vitamin A deficiency, representing the “classical” presentation and (with rare exceptions) pathognomonic signs and symptoms of this particular form of malnutrition. In some ways, xerophthalmia has been too closely associated with vitamin A deficiency:
• while xerophthalmia is the leading cause of acquired pediatric blindness in the world, responsible for 5 million–10 million cases of milder ocular disease (XN-X2) every year, it is sufficiently infrequent on a population-wide basis that health officials have often overlooked its existence and therefore have been misled into assuming that vitamin A deficiency was absent or not a significant health problem.
Anemia and Iron Metabolism
Authors: Sommer Alfred , West Keith P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anemia has long been recognized as a potential consequence of vitamin A deficiency. Soon after the discovery of vitamin A, Bloch noted that Danish orphans with xerophthalmia were “weak and thin, markedly anemic.” Wolbach and Howe noticed loss of stem cells in the marrow of vitamin A-deficient rats; with advanced deficiency they found an even more striking void of hematopoietic and lymphoid cells, accompanied by heavy hemosiderin deposits in the spleen. Hematopoietic disturbances characterized by a fall in hemoglobin (Hb) and pallor of red blood cells preceded eye signs and inanition in vitamin A-deficient rats. Koessler was convinced that “blood regeneration” could not take place without vitamin A, and he prescribed a vitamin A and carotenoid-rich diet for anemia. Berglund described a form of anemia in China that he thought was secondary to vitamin A deficiency and that responded to cod liver oil. Blackfan and Wolbach observed sequestered iron deposits (as hemosiderin) in the liver or spleen of almost all malnourished infants who had died with histopathologic evidence of vitamin A deficiency.