bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Much of human history has been influenced by the availability of materials. In fact, history is divided into eras named after the primary materials used; the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Similarly, we can assert that in the twentieth century we entered the Polymer Age. Humans have used naturally occurring polymers, called biopolymers, for centuries without realizing that they were dealing with macro-molecules. A prime example is caoutchouc, or natural rubber, that comes from Hevea brasiliensis, the rubber-tree plant. Natural rubber was used for many centuries before it was identified as polymeric.
Networks and gels
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the crosslinking reactions of Chapter 6 are driven far beyond the gel point, nearly all species are attached to the gel in a single macroscopic network polymer. Such networks, with either chemical or strong physical bonds, are important soft solids. If the glass transition and melting temperatures are below room temperature, the material is a rubber. Rubbers are an important class of materials with many practical uses. Common examples are rubber bands, gaskets, adhesives, and automobile tires. Rubber bands can be stretched enormous amounts without breaking or even losing their elasticity. In this chapter, the physics that allow for such marvellous properties will be considered in detail. The entropic nature of elasticity in rubbers is the origin of their remarkable mechanical properties.
Unentangled polymer dynamics
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A small colloidal particle in any liquid diffuses due to the fluctuations of the number of molecules hitting it randomly from different directions. Colloidal particles are significantly larger than the molecules in the liquid, but small enough that collisions with molecules noticeably move the particle. The trajectory of the particle, shown in Fig. 8.1, is another example of a random walk.
Simple principles for the evaluation of complex programmes
Authors: Pawson Ray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most dramatic changes in public policy in recent years has been the rise of complex multi-objective, multi-site, multi-agency, and multi-subject programmes. The reason for all this multiplication is clear enough. The roots of social problems intertwine. A health deficit may have its origins in educational disadvantage, labour market inequality, environmental disparities, housing exclusion, differential patterns of crime victimization, and so on. By twisting the kaleidoscope and beginning this little list at any other point, one can make more or less the same argument about any social problem.
What evidence do we have on implementation?
Authors: Roberts Helen , Arai Lisa , Roen, Katrina , Popay Jennie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is dangerous in more ways than one to be a poor child in the United Kingdom. Injury is the most important cause of child death in the UK, and has a steeper social class gradient than any other cause of death in childhood (Roberts and Power 1996). Child pedestrians in the UK are particularly vulnerable, and a child in the lowest social class is 15 times more likely to die in a house fire than a child from a more privileged background (Roberts 1997).
Social categorization, collective beliefs, and causal attribution
Authors: Miles Hewstone Jos Jaspars 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the night of the first of February 1953 an exceptionally heavy winter gale and a spring tide coincided along the coast of Holland. The sea broke through the dikes and flooded 20 per cent of all the land that had been reclaimed by the Dutch in the course of centuries. It was the worst natural disaster that had ever occurred in the country; eighteen hundred people drowned overnight. When the Queen of the Netherlands addressed the nation over the radio a few days later, her speech was preceded by the recitation of a verse from the national anthem, one of the most beautiful poems in Dutch literature. Written at the time of the uprising against the Spanish in the sixteenth century as part of a collection of religious resistance songs, it has the Prince of Orange (William the Silent), in true Calvinist spirit, comfort and encourage the survivors of the first and failed military expedition along the River Maas by advocating resignation to an almighty God. The verse recited in the case of the flood of 1953 evoked this attitude in a way that was very appropriate for the occasion: ‘If it had been the will of the Lord at the time, I would have liked to turn from you this heavy tempest, but the Lord above, who governs everything, whom one must always praise, did not desire it’. It served as a poetic, public, and religious explanation comforting the nation and encouraging it to devise a plan to strengthen the dikes once more and shorten the shoreline by 450 miles.We thought of this unique and historic event when, many years later, some of our colleagues (Lalljee et al. 1985) planned to study the role of religious explanations in everyday life and concentrated almost automatically on causal attributions for rare events with negative outcomes. Predictably, the study showed that active members of institutionalized religions invoked divine intervention as an explanation of such events.
Ethnic Minority Identity
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What hopes are there for racial integration? What expectations may we reasonably have of ethnic minority groups? What hopes can ethnic minority groups nurture in their relations with society at large? In addressing these and many other questions, the author examines the theoretical perspectives, both sociological and psychological, of ethnic minority identity and reviews the empirical work done on ethnicity. She considers what constitutes an ethnic group, goes on to investigate the sociology of ethnicity from assimilationism to cultural pluralism, and discusses the psychological theories of ethnic minority identity. She then examines research issues in ethnicity, covering areas such as styles of cultural adaptation, strategies of self-categorization, and levels of self-esteem among members of ethnic minority groups. In conclusion, she examines the implications of these findings in relation to the integration of ethnic minority groups in Britain.
The social psychology of music
Authors: Hargreaves David J , North Adrian C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Music has many different functions in human life, nearly all of which are essentially social. We use music to communicate with one another: it is possible for people from widely differing cultural backgrounds to establish contact through music even though the languages they speak may be quite incomprehensible to one another. Music can arouse deep and profound emotions within us, and these can be shared experiences between people from quite different backgrounds. From the physicist’s point of view, music consists of a set of sounds with particular frequencies, amplitudes, and timbres which are organized by the composer and/or performer into highly organized and predictable patterns: what makes these sounds into music is the way in which people collectively imbue them with musical meaning, and a vital part of this process is the social and cultural context in which the sounds exist.
Gender and music
Authors: O’Neill Susan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Historically in Western culture, men have dominated the music profession and occupied positions of power and privilege. Prior to the 1850s, the vast majority of orchestras refused to employ women. It was thought to be ‘improper’ for a woman to perform in public. Women were traditionally encouraged to play instruments such as the harp and keyboard which could be played as accompaniment to the voice and used to entertain family and friends in the home. They were discouraged from playing instruments such as the drums, woodwind, and brass, either because women were thought to be too weak (e.g. physical strength, lung capacity) or because it would ‘spoil their appearance’. In 1904, an American conductor was quoted as saying, ‘nature never intended the fair sex to become cornettists, trombonists, and players of wind instruments. In the first place, they are not strong enough to play them as well as men ... Another point against them is that women cannot play brass instruments and look pretty and why should they spoil their good looks?’ (cited in Pugh 1991, p. 7).
Experimental aesthetics and everyday music listening
Authors: North Adrian C , Hargreaves David J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We suggested in Chapter 1 that one important feature of the social psychology of music should be the reciprocity of the individual and the social world. The present chapter addresses this reciprocity directly by describing a small but growing number of studies which concern how theories of musical preference might be applied to and be mediated by the everyday environments in which people usually listen to music. Whilst the majority of research on the music-situation relationship has concerned various aspects of consumer behaviour (see Chapter 14), several studies conducted mainly by Vladimir Koneěni in California and ourselves and colleagues in Leicester have approached the issue from the perspective of traditional laboratory research on experimental aesthetics. This chapter reviews these studies.
Musical tastes and society
Authors: Russell Philip A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Links between musical tastes and society manifest themselves in various ways and at various levels, particularly those levels described as social positional and ideological (see Chapter 1). For example, different types of music tend to appeal to different social groups-the audience at a heavy metal concert will probably have little in common, in terms of age, social class, and lifestyle, with the audience at an opera house. One major section of the present chapter reviews empirical data on these sorts of associations between musical tastes and sociodemographic variables. A second major section is devoted to an analysis of social influences on musical tastes. People’s musical tastes do not develop in isolation-they are subject to a variety of social influences, including those stemming from family, peers, education, and the media. These two sections are prefaced by a brief consideration of the problems of measuring musical tastes and by an outline of the concepts of taste cultures and taste publics.
Performance anxiety
Authors: Wilson Glenn D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Performance anxiety, popularly known as ‘stage fright’, is the exaggerated and sometimes incapacitating fear of performing in public. It is not restricted to the inexperienced amateur but has been known to afflict some of the most famous performers in history, including Laurence Olivier, Richard Burton, David Niven, and Sergei Rachmaninov (Aaron 1986). There may be differences in the reasons: with the beginning performer, stage fright is likely to be connected with shyness and uncertainty about one’s ability (or even the recognition at some level of consciousness or unconsciousness that one is not really talented enough for the job at hand). With the established professional it may take the form of ‘bum-out’ similar to that experienced by sports stars like Bjorn Borg-the feeling that once on a pedestal there is nothing left but to be knocked off it again, and that only a disaster would be newsworthy. Some older actors also become frightened of memory loss, perhaps connected with alcoholism as well as age, and ageing instrumental players worry increasingly about tremor, just as singers are concerned about vocal steadiness.
Theory of mind and executive function: is there a developmental relationship?
Authors: Perner Josef , Lang Birgit 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘Theory of mind’ is a label for the conceptual system that underlies our folk psychology with which we impute mental states to others and ourselves, that is, what we know, think, want, feel, etc. We want to highlight some, for present purposes particularly important, points in children’s acquisition of these concepts. A first sign of understanding people’s intentions comes from a study by Spelke et al. (1995; replicated by Sodian and Thoermer 1998) that by twelve months but not yet at eight months infants infer people’s intentions to grasp objects they look at. There is richer evidence that around eighteen months infants infer more complex intentions since they imitate the intention behind failed action attempts (Meltzoff 1995) and they understand differences in food preferences (Repacholi and Gopnik 1997). By eighteen months signs of understanding the mind bloom: children engage in and understand pretence (Leslie 1987; Piaget 1945/1962), they understand distress and engage in empathic comforting behaviour (Bischof-Kö hler 1988; Yarrow and Waxler 1975), they understand goals and the standards which they have to live up to (Kagan 1981), etc. These abilities sharpen over the next years; this is also reflected in an increase in their use of corresponding verbs, e.g. feel, want, pretend, know, think (Bartsch and Wellman 1995).
Culture and understanding other minds
Authors: Vinden Penelope G , Astington Janet Wilde 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Psychology has extended its borders during the decade since the first edition of this volume was published, or at least, psychologists have been active in collaborative work at the borders. One aspect of this activity is reflected in the subtitle for this volume: ‘Perspectives from cognitive neuroscience’. The addition-’cognitive neuro-science’-acknowledges a burgeoning field of research. This work focuses on the biological underpinnings of development that are universal across our species, even in cases where they may go awry. At the same time, however, there has been a flurry of activity at a very different place on the border. This is where psychology meets with anthropology, drawing attention to the different ways in which humans develop in different cultures.
Simple quantum systems
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to introduce the finite element method (FEM) in a familiar setting by treating two problems: the quantum harmonic oscillator and the hydrogen atom. We use linear interpolation functions for the wave functions in each finite element, so that all the matrix elements appearing in the discretized action integral are readily obtained analytically. The element matrices are evaluated first and these are inserted into global matrices. The principle of stationary action is used to derive a discretized version of Schrodinger’s equation in the form of a generalized eigenvalue problem. The results are compared with the exact analytical answers.
Mesh generation
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the finite element approach to problems in greater than one dimension we are immediately faced with the complex issue of discretization of the physical domain. In this chapter we shall consider the essentials of 2D mesh generation. It is evident that for simple rectangular regions a straightforward breakup into rectangles or triangles can be performed without any difficulty. As seen in Fig. 10.1, the region is divided into rectangles which are then split up into a total of 12 triangular elements. We employ the vector right hand rule to define the direction of the area vector of each triangle to be out of the page. We label the three local node numbers 1, 2, and 3 to correspond to this rule for each triangle. The global node numbers for a given triangle in the figure could have any value from 1 to the maximum number of nodes, and is determined by the mesh generator. While connecting the points in the desired manner to form the mesh, we define the connectivity relation between the elements and the global node numbers. For example, in Fig. 10.1, the triangular corner element with global node index 12 has the three global nodes (12,10,11), in this order. We require two sets of data, one to specify the global coordinates (xi,Yi) for each node i, and the other to specify the global node numbers for the nodes in each element, stated in the order consistent with the positive-area convention. This connectivity relation holds the key to placing the element matrices calculated in the finite element method (FEM) into a global matrix. The connectivity data should be generated and verified first, before any finite element calculation is performed.
Time-dependent problems
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this final chapter on the finite element method (FEM) we consider the essential features of modeling the time evolution of a quantum mechanical system. This problem has been investigated theoretically and numerically with great intensity over the past several decades, and deserves, at the very least, a separate volume to itself. However, of necessity, our treatment of the subject will provide no more than an introduction to the literature and describe some of the general methods of solving the initial value problem.
The BEM and surface plasmons
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The boundary element method (BEM) can be used to advantage for solving differential equations in a region occupied by more than one material. Here the integral equations are formulated for each subregion, and the matrices obtained on discretization of the contour integrals are put together in a manner analogous to overlaying element matrices in the finite element method (FEM). In this chapter, we begin by solving Laplace’s equation for a physical domain having two rectangular regions with dielectric constants EJ and EIJ in a constant electric field. The example makes use of the calculations of Section 16.6, where the solution at the boundary is given in terms of the linear interpolation between nodal values of the potential, and also the normal derivatives of the potential, at the extremities of a boundary element. We then discuss the issues in using Hermite interpolation polynomials in a multiregion BEM. We note here that when the physical region has a large aspect ratio and is elongated in one direction the boundary integrals will be nearly equal for destination points along the shorter side with source points at the farther end. This leads to ill-conditioning qf the final matrices. The problem can be alleviated by breaking up the region into sub regions, each with its own boundary integral. Again, a multiregion BEM can be employed.
The BEM and quantum applications
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we consider quantum applications of the boundary element method (BEM). We apply the BEM to the propagation of electrons through mesoscopic devices of dimensions less than 10-5 m, with thin metallic wire leads of widths :S 1000 A that are modeled as 2D waveguides. We also show how the BEM can be used to calculate quantum mechanical scattering in two dimensions. Bound state problems are of great interest in quantum mechanics, and we apply the BEM in this chapter to the eigenvalue problem of determining states of electrons bound in the transverse direction in quantum wires and in other 2D potential wells. Recently, it has been shown that two completely different 2D resonant cavities in which Helmholtz’s equation holds for the electromagnetic field or the electron wave function can be ߢisospectral.ߣ In other words, the two areas of different shape can have the same spectrum. We report on this very interesting effect, and suggest that the BEM may be the ideal method for computing the spectrum of such isospectral areas.
Antimicrobial drug resistance
Authors: Smith Richard D , Coast Joanna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We may look back at the antibiotic era as just a passing phase in the history of medicine, an era when a great natural resource was squandered, and the bugs proved smarter than the scientists. (Cannon 1995, p. 189) Over the last 50 years humankind has had a new weapon in the war against infectious disease: the antimicrobial “magic bullet’‘. However, it is becoming clear that although we have been winning many of the important battles, the war is far from over, and we may soon be forced into retreat.
Genomics knowledge
Authors: Thorsteinsd6ttir Halla , Daar Abdallah S , Smith, Richard D , Singer Peter A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is clear that the increased molecular understanding of diseases and their causation will have a tremendous impact on the way we identify, prevent, diagnose, treat, and modulate diseases in the new millennium. At the same time, a balance has to be struck between genomics and more conventional health-care methods, and the complex economic, social, and ethical issues of genomics dealt with. This calls for societies to develop new norms and frameworks to ensure that the use of genetic technologies will be secure and palatable to peoples’ tastes and needs. This involves, for example, ensuring that peoples’ privacy is not violated, that the gains of genomics are accessible to rich and poor alike, and that they are accessible globally (WHO 2002).
International law and the international legislative process: The WHO framework convention on tobacco control
Authors: Taylor Allyn L , Bettcher, Douglas W , Peck Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The planetary context of development has profound implications for public health and, concomitantly, the expansion of international health law. In the global village of the early twenty-first century it is evident that the health of populations is increasingly affected by transnational economic, social, scientific, technological, and cultural forces. As a result, domestic and international spheres of health policy are becoming more intertwined and inseparable.
Monte-Carlo methods and integration
Authors: Lapeyre B , Pardoux É , Sentis R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The introduction of the Monte-Carlo method can be credited to Count Buffon who, in 1777, described a celebrated method of calculating 71” based on performing repeated experiments. However, the true origin of the Monte Carlo method lies with the introduction of the first computers and their use in the secret projects of the United States Department of Defense during the years 1940-5 with the aim of constructing the first atomic bombs. One of the first articles on this subject was published in 1949 (Metropolis and Ulam, 1949). Precursors of these methods include Ulam’s method, Von Neumann’s method, and the method of Metropolis.
Hamiltonian Chaos and Fractional Dynamics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dynamics of realistic Hamiltonian systems has unusual microscopic features that are direct consequences of its fractional space-time structure and its phase space topology. The book deals with the fractality of the chaotic dynamics and kinetics, and also includes material on non-ergodic and non-well-mixing Hamiltonian dynamics. The book does not follow the traditional scheme of most of today's literature on chaos. The intention of the author has been to put together some of the most complex and yet open problems on the general theory of chaotic systems. The importance of the discussed issues and an understanding of their origin should inspire students and researchers to touch upon some of the deepest aspects of nonlinear dynamics. The book considers the basic principles of the Hamiltonian theory of chaos and some applications including for example, the cooling of particles and signals, control and erasing of chaos, polynomial complexity, Maxwell's Demon, and others. It presents a new and realistic image of the origin of dynamical chaos and randomness. An understanding of the origin of randomness in dynamical systems, which cannot be of the same origin as chaos, provides new insights in the diverse fields of physics, biology, chemistry, and engineering.