bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Trends in current research
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is the aim of contemporary social science to validate its theories by means of empirical observations. A deepening interest in ethnic minority identity, produced perhaps by increasing racial tensions in multi-racial societies alongside ideological concerns for human rights and ethnic dignity, has led to a burgeoning of research into the area. In reviewing the vast body of data that has accumulated since the late 1930s, an emphasis will be placed on how ethnic minority individuals think and feel about themselves rather than how majority group individuals think and feel about their ethnic minority counterparts. Early research saw ethnic minority individuals as socially and culturally inferior to the majority group. Society was exonerated from blame or the need for corrective action because this social and cultural inferiority was attributed to inherited racial inferiority, biologically determined and therefore beyond hope of change. The prevalent ideology of Social Darwinism served to bolster such research and bias its conclusions. In the deficit model, the deficiencies in ethnic minority identity and achievement are attributed not to genetically determined factors, but to historical, economic, political, and socio-psychological forces prevalent in society that had shaped the ethnic minority individual in certain ways. Thus, institutionalized racism was seen as responsible for the deviant, the pathological, and the underprivileged status of ethnic minority groups. Many studies underlined the fact that black Americans had high rates of drug addiction and alcoholism, exhibiting tendencies towards criminal behaviour, personality disorders, and suicide.
The social psychology of music education
Authors: Olsson Bengt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Music education takes place within interpersonal and institutional settings, and research in social psychology should be able to contribute to a better understanding of these settings. Social psychology emphasizes the inter action between the social world and the individual, and so a social psychologist’s view of music education is likely to focus on the influence that teachers and learners have upon each other’s behaviour and attitudes. A number of social psychological factors affect what teachers are able to accomplish and what students might achieve in music education.
Aspects of autism that theory of mind cannot explain
Authors: Plaisted Kate C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It goes without saying that over the last fifteen years a great deal of research in autism has been generated by the hypothesis that children with autism lack theory of mind skills. But running in parallel with the theory of mind research has been a line of research examining the so-called ‘asocial’ abnormalities in autism. This research can be considered to fall broadly into two camps—that which studies visuospatial processing in autism and that which considers object and pattern processing. The aim of this chapter will not be to provide comprehensive review of that literature on the asocial aspects of autism but to highlight the major theoretical ideas.
The role of the frontal lobes and the amygdala in theory of mind
Authors: Stone Valerie E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One male macaque approaches another who is next to a food source. The one approaching moves his head forward, raises his brows, and opens his mouth in a threat display. The other monkey withdraws from the food source, signalling his submission by smacking his lips.
A graduate student is at a Society for Neuroscience conference, talking to a relatively well-known researcher at a poster, when the president of the society comes up. The president greets the researcher. The graduate student excuses himself, ducks his head and discreetly withdraws.
The nature of emotion
Authors: Rolls Edmund T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the nature of emotion, and its functions, are considered, to provide a foundation for exploring the brain mechanisms involved in emotion in Chapter 4. It is important when considering the neural bases of emotion to know what types of stimuli elicit emotions. This is considered here, and helps to focus analysis on certain types of brain processing in Chapter 4. It is also important to know what the functions of emotion are, for they provides a guide to the neural output systems which may be expected to receive inputs from the brain regions involved in emotions.
Brain-stimulation reward
Authors: Rolls Edmund T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electrical stimulation at some sites in the brain is rewarding, in that animals including humans will work to obtain the stimulation. This phenomenon has been very useful in helping to understand the brain mechanisms that implement reward. The discovery that rats would learn to stimulate electrically some regions of the brain was reported by J. Olds and Milner (1954). Olds noticed that rats would return to a corner of an open field apparatus where stimulation had just been given. He stimulated the rat whenever it went to the corner and found that the animals rapidly learned to go there to obtain the stimulation, by making delivery of it contingent on other types of behaviour, such as pressing a lever in a Skinner box or crossing a shock grid (see J. Olds 1977) (see Fig. 5.1).
A theory of consciousness, and its application to understanding emotion and pleasure
Authors: Rolls Edmund T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It might be possible to build a computer which would perform the functions of emotions described in Chapters 3 and 10, and yet we might not want to ascribe emotional feelings to the computer. We might even build the computer with some of the main processing stages present in the brain, and implemented using neural networks which simulate the operation of the real neural networks in the brain (see Chapter 4, the Appendix, and Rolls and Treves 1998), yet we might not still wish to ascribe emotional feelings to this computer. This point often arises in discussions with undergraduates, who may say that they follow the types of point made about emotion in Chapters 3 and 4, yet believe that almost the most important aspect of emotions, the feelings, have not been accounted for, nor their neural basis described. In a sense, the functions of reward and punishment in emotional behaviour are described in Chapters 3 and 10, but what about the subjective aspects of emotion, what about the pleasure? A similar point arises in Chapters 2 and 7, where parts of the taste, olfactory, and visual systems in which the reward value of the taste, smell, and sight of food is represented are described. (One such brain region is the orbitofrontal cortex.) Although the neuronal representation in the orbitofrontal cortex is clearly related to the reward value of food, is this where the pleasantness (the subjective hedonic aspect) of the taste, smell, and sight of food is represented? Again, we could (in principle at least) build a computer with neural networks to simulate each of the processing stages for the taste, smell, and sight of food which are described in Chapter 2 (and more formally in terms of neural networks by Rolls and Treves 1998), and yet would probably not wish to ascribe feelings of pleasantness to the system we have simulated on the computer.
The Inspectors Fail
Authors: Pennington T Hugh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What went wrong at Barr’s was not due to bad food law. If good modern legislation was there to protect the public by setting hygiene standards in food businesses and by creating incentives for good practice by punishing those who sold products dangerous to health, why were the laws not being enforced? It was not because Barr’s was being ignored. In the two years before the outbreak his premises had been visited by inspectors eight times, and checked in an informal way by one of his big customers, John Devine.
Introduction
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dramatic advances in computational methods over the past several decades have provided a remarkable realization of approximate numerical solutions to physical problems which have been considered to be analytically intractable. In particular, the finite element method (FEM) represents a stratagem of proven success for solving boundary value problems in quantum mechanics. This method originates in the principle of stationary action and other variational principles, which are central unifying principles in all areas of physics. In fact, essentially all the differential equations of interest in physics can be derived by the calculus of variations from a corresponding action integral. With its basis in variational principles, the FEM can be expected to hold an increasing appeal among physicists. This book provides an introduction to the FEM through applications in quantum mechanics.
Interpolation polynomials in one dimension
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the finite element method (FEM) in one dimension, we solve for the values of an unknown function f(x) at discrete nodal points in the elements. In this chapter, we consider the representation of f (x) over a given interval using interpolation polynomials, called Lagrange polynomials, assuming we know the values Ji of the function at n discrete nodal points Xi in an interval. With the use of Lagrange interpolation polynomials, we can ensure that f(xi) = Ji and f(x) is approximated by the polynomials in between. This ensures that the function has continuity at the nodes in the element, and the polynomial representation is said to have Co continuity. The end nodes of an element are common to the adjacent elements so that inter ele¬ment continuity of the function is also readily assured. The Lagrange polynomials are discussed in the next section.
Quantum mechanical tunneling
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A distinguishing feature of quantum mechanics, as compared with classical mechanics, is the phenomenon of matter exhibiting wave-like properties. A direct consequence of this wave property of particles is the tunneling of particles through potential energy barriers.-3 The classical particle is forbidden from penetrating the barrier region. In this chapter, the problem of one-dimensional (1D) quantum mechanical tunneling of particles through potential barriers of arbitrary shape is treated. We show that tunneling is a mixed boundary value problem, and obtain the action integral that leads to Schrodinger’s equation and at the same time gives the equations defining the boundary conditions (BCs).
Global public goods for health: A flawed paradigm?
Authors: Mooney Gavin , Dzator Janet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many of today’s health problems extend beyond national boundaries and raise questions of their management internationally. Examples include the emergence of new infectious diseases that can affect people across the globe. While such diseases and their effects may be difficult to contain, there could be few more challenging tasks than determining how best to design and finance relevant health intervention programs to deal with them. The question then becomes how resources can best be used, not only to maximize the outcomes of specific health intervention programs but also to promote the health benefits of programs that are not necessarily first and foremost concerned with health.1 In the context of this chapter that question can be narrowed down to asking whether the “Global Public Goods for Health” (GPGH) concept is the best way forward.
Semiclassical Theory of Conductance Fluctuations
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, we investigated billiard-ball dynamics. A pair of nearby orbits is found to separate rapidly and to show completely different motions in chaotic billiards. Particles there obeyed classical mechanics. In the microscopic world on the submicron scale, an electron stands for a particle and quantum dots for billiard tables. Here one has to resort to quantum mechanics and the electron obeys the Schrodinger equation. Let us consider the time-independent stationary states.
Linear Response Theory in the Semiclassical Regime
Authors: Nakamura Katsuhiro , Harayama Takahisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The problem of Sinai billiards or Lorentz gas has received wide attention in the field of mathematical physics for the last few decades. This problem is to place a regular or irregular array of circular hard disks and pursue the complicated motion of a point particle moving between these disks. The central interest lies in giving a proof for the ergodicity and mixing which constitute the foundations of statistical mechanics.
The Monte-Carlo method for the Boltzmann equation
Authors: Lapeyre B , Pardoux É , Sentis R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Boltzmann equation describes the evolution of a population of particles that have binary collisions and travel in a straight line between each collision. This type of equation can be used in a great number of physical models where we want to describe collision phenomena carefully. A significant example of the application is the modelling of the flows around objects in the upper atmosphere (above 70 km) where the distribution of the particles is not necessarily a Maxwellian function. This equation can be also used to model the behaviour of low-density gas in laboratory experiments.
Le´vy Process, Le´vy Flights, and Weierstrass Random Walk
Authors: Zaslavsky George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Considering random processes one can model different situations with different levels of the dependence of events at different time instants, with different levels of memory and correlation between the events, and so on. This kind of an axiomatic approach to the kinetics of dynamical systems is hardly acceptable unless the intrinsic dynamical features will be involved into the random process model in an explicit way.
Measures
Authors: Kantorovitz Shmuel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The setting of abstract measure theory is a family A of so-called measurablesubsets of a given set X, and a function so that the measure μ(E) of the set E E A has some ‘intuitively desirable’ property, such as ‘countable additivity’: for mutually disjoint sets Ei E A. In order to make sense, this setting has to deal with a family A that is closed under countable unions. We then arrive to the concept of a measurable space.
Electron-Lattice Coupling I: Noninteracting Electrons
Authors: Barford William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Electron-phonon coupling plays a crucial role in one-dimensional systems. For any value of the electron-phonon coupling an infinite, undistorted polymer chain is unstable with respect to a lower symmetry, distorted structure. This is a consequence of the well-known Peierls theorem (Fr¨ohlich 1954; Peierls 1955), which states that a one-dimensional metal is unstable with respect to a lattice distortion that opens a band gap at the Fermi surface. A proof of bond-alternation in conjugated polymers in the non interacting limit was first presented independently by Ooshika (1957, 1959), and Longuet-Higgins and Salem (1959).
The theory of costly signalling
Authors: Smith John Maynard , Harper David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1975, Zahavi proposed that animal signals are reliable because they are costly, an idea he called the ‘handicap principle’. Although the idea has since been extended (Zahavi and Zahavi 1997) to lengths that seem to us excessive, the basic idea has been justly influential. Our aim in this chapter is to clarify the concept, and the situations to which it can properly be applied. First, the notion of a ‘cost’ needs discussion. The crucial distinction is between ‘efficacy cost’ (Guilford and Dawkins 1991), the cost necessary to ensure that the information can be reliably perceived, and ‘strategic cost’, the cost needed to ensure honesty and prevent cheating. The efficacy cost is easy to understand: a road sign on a motorway must be larger and more expensive than one on a side road because it must be read at a greater distance, and not because, otherwise, someone would be tempted to lie. Demonstrating that a signal is costly, therefore, is not evidence that it is a handicap. For example, male nightingales sing loudly for most of the night and lose 5–10% of their body mass while doing so (Thomas 2002). However, this heavy investment in song may be needed if males are to be heard by females travelling hundreds of metres above them. Rather it is the great virtuosity of a Nightingale’s song (Hughes et al. 2002) that would make us wonder about strategic costs. Similarly, in Zebra Finches the calls of both sexes, and the songs of males, are louder in the presence of increased levels of white noise (Cynx et al. 1998).
Signals during contests
Authors: Smith John Maynard , Harper David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is an obvious question to ask about signals made during animal contests. How can such signals be reliable when the contestants prefer different outcomes? We have already discussed two possible answers to this question: The signal is an index, either of fighting ability or of need for the resource being contested. It is honest because lying is impossible. The signal is a handicap: in the context of animal fights, it is risky to make, and would be too costly for a low quality individual, or for an individual not in serious need of the resource.
Signals in primates and other social animals
Authors: Smith John Maynard , Harper David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses a number of ideas that are only rather distantly related to one another, but which have in common that they were stimulated in the first place by the study of primates, and by a comparison of human and primate signalling: Section 7.2, we discuss the role of signals in the wild, using Vervet Monkeys as our main example. In Section 7.3, still using Vervets as our main example, we discuss the development of the ability to produce a signal in the appropriate circumstances, and to respond appropriately. It turns out that there is no simple answer to the question whether these abilities are learnt or innate: there is certainly an innate component, but competence is improved by experience. However, in Vervets and other primates there is little sign of teaching by parents. We compare the roles of nature and nurture in the acquisition of signalling ability in monkeys with their roles in the acquisition of species-specific song in songbirds.
Tobacco smoke carcinogens: Human uptake and DNA interactions
Authors: Hecht Stephen S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tobacco products cause approximately 30 per cent of all cancer death in developed countries (Peto et al. 1996; World Health Organization 1997). In spite of this, there are over 1 billion smokers in the world (World Health Organization 1997). Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is also a recognized cause of cancer (National Cancer Institute 1999). Mortality from cancers caused by tobacco products-lung, larynx, oral cavity, esophagus, pancreas, kidney, liver, bladder, stomach, and colon­ will continue to be significant in the foreseeable future (International Agency for Research on Cancer 1986b; Doll 1996; Chao et al. 2000). We need to achieve a better understanding of mechanisms of tobacco-induced cancer in humans in order to develop new cancer prevention strategies.
Tobacco smoking in central European countries: Poland
Authors: Zatonski Witold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Two simultaneous health phenomena developed in eastern and central Europe after World War II. On the one hand, the incidence of infectious diseases and perinatal/ neonatal mortality fell abruptly. However, at the same time the incidence of and mortality from man-made diseases began to rise rapidly. In the 1970s and 1980s, the incidence of lung cancer, liver cirrhosis (especially in south-eastern Europe), cardiovascular diseases and injury-related mortality (especially in the then Soviet Union) in young and middle-aged adults (particularly among men) reached levels never previously recorded in the world (Feachem 1994; Zatonski and Jha 2000). As a result of the above, at the end of the 1980s the levels of mortality due to infectious diseases and mortality among infants or children and youth before age 20 were comparable to Western standards (World Bank 1996; Zatoflski and Jha 2000). At the same time, adult health represented a public health catastrophe. Premature mortality, especially among young and middle-aged adult men had reached the highest level in the developed world.
Cancer of the prostate
Authors: Levi Fabio , Vecchia Carlo La 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prostate cancer is the fourth site for cancer incidence worldwide in men, and the third in developed countries after lung and colon-rectum (Parkin et al. 1999). Considerable changes in incidence rates from prostate carcinoma have been observed in the USA, the European Union, and in most other developed countries, suggesting that an epidemic of this neoplasm occurred in the late 1980s or early 1990s, followed by a fall in rates. A critical appraisal of the descriptive epidemiology of prostate cancer indicates, however, that most trends were likely attributable to changes in diagnostic procedures (mainly, the introduction of prostate-specific antigen-PSA-blood test), rather than substantial changes in risk-factor exposure (Levi et al. 2000).
Tobacco smoking and cancer of the breast
Authors: Trichopoulos Dimitrios , Lagiou Areti 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tobacco smoking is the most important human carcinogen, and breast cancer is, at least in the developed world, the type of cancer that causes more deaths among women (Lagiou and Adami 2002). If tobacco smoking were found to be a factor that increases the risk of breast cancer, the implications would extend beyond the potential prevention of a number of breast cancer cases, because of the emotional impact that this form of cancer has. The evidence, however, has been unusually puzzling.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Authors: Burns David M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tobacco use antedates the arrival of Columbus in the Americas, and tobacco leaf became a mainstay of trade between America and Europe over the next several centuries. However, use of tobacco as cigarettes is a behavior largely confined to the twentieth and now the twenty-first century (USDHHS 2001). Milder blends of flue-cured tobaccos are used for most cigarettes, and they produce a more acid smoke than the tobacco used for pipes and cigars (IARC 1986). Nicotine, the addictive agent sought by the smoker, is less readily absorbed across the oral mucosa from this more acid smoke; and, to satisfy the smokers need for this drug, smoke must be inhaled into much larger surface area of the lung to allow sufficient absorption.
Global tobacco control policy
Authors: Gray Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Tobacco control policy has evolved over time and will continue to do so. To every action by the tobacco industry there has been a reaction by public health authorities and vice versa. As a result there has been a continuing struggle between those committed to market expansion (the industry) and those committed to market shrinkage (public health authorities). As a result the market is shrinking in most developed countries while it expands in many, but not all, developing countries. Between 1997 and 1999 world tobacco leaf sales went from 7 975 360 tonnes to 6 341430 tonnes (United States Department of Agriculture 2001), while world cigarette production went from 5 614 830 million pieces in 1996 to 5 573 464 million pieces in 2000 (United States Department of Agriculture 2001). If public health is winning, it is winning very slowly.