bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Tunisia
Authors: Jack Belinda 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
By comparison with francophone Moroccan and particularly francophone Algerian writing, Tunisian writing in French is relatively marginal in terms of the country’s literary production. The tradition of writing in Arabic was little disrupted by the French presence in Tunisia and, as a French Protectorate, teaching in Arabic continued alongside the introduction of French educational structures. Some schools, the College Sadiki most notably, taught in both languages; many, on the other hand, continued to use only Arabic.
The Early Dutch Reformation, 1519 1565
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The Reformation in the Low Countries began early, soon pervaded all parts of society, and ran deep. But for decades it was also an abortive Reformation, a process arrested owing to government action which left religious life and, therefore, all thought and culture in a state of profound disorientation and shock. It was a process of Reformation strikingly different from that in Germany, Switzerland, Britain, and Scandinavia in that (especially in its crucial pre-Calvinist phase) it worked essentially from the bottom upwards instead of from government circles downwards.
The Breakdown of the Habsburg Regime, 1549-1566
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Since 1492 the Habsburg Netherlands had been generally quiescent. With the unification process north of the rivers accelerating after 1522, the Low Countries were, to all appearances, being successfully welded into a single, increasingly integrated state serviced by a growing, university-trained bureaucracy.’ Admittedly, this transition towards a more orderly, cohesive, Habsburg Netherlands was not proceeding smoothly in all respects. The processes of unification, centralization, and bureaucratization were bound to generate serious stresses, especially where the changes were most extensive—in the north. The recently annexed provinces showed considerable reluctance to accept the new provincial high courts and other innovations introduced by the Habsburg authorities. In Holland the regime’s policy of turning the Hof into an instrument of central government, staffed by university-trained lawyers, discontinuing the Burgundian practice of drawing the Hof’s judges from the Holland and Zeeland nobility, as well as the general (and growing) reliance on non-noble administrators, had planted seeds of discord between regime and nobility
The Revolt and the Emergence of a new State
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The massacre at Naarden did not, however, produce the same result in Holland as those of Mechelen and Zutphen had in Brabant and the north-east. The question why goes to the heart of the Dutch Revolt. In Brabant and Flanders, where there had been no extensive spontaneous rising, morale had disintegrated and Orangist regents and militia officers fled on Alva’s approach. In Holland, by contrast, the key towns, including Haarlem, which was now about to undergo a terrible siege, had not been conquered by Beggars or occupied by hired soldiery, but spontaneously risen against regime and Church.’ Here Alva’s approach had the opposite effect to that in Brabant and the north-east. Resistance stiffened despite the grim prospect. Opinion further polarized; but it was the loyalists who were overwhelmed, gagged, and marginalized. At Delft the militia pressed the Prince to take ever harsher measures against Catholic worship and property.2 On the approach of Alva’s army, the civic militia of Haarlem, aware that part of the vroedschap wanted to surrender, staged a coup together with the town’s military governor, Wigbolt Ripperda. The Haarlem town pensionary, Adriaan van Assendelft, accused of plotting with Bossu, was sent to Delft and beheaded on the Prince’s orders.
Consolidation of the Republic, 1588-1590
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the tense and difflcult years 1585-7, the United Provinces were the scene of a sustained attempt to challenge the political and military ascendancy gained by Holland over the embryonic state emerging from the Revolt. By backing Leicester, and the moves to confer sovereignty over the rebel Netherlands on the queen of England, a coalition of disaffected groups-by no means only in the lesser provinces— sought to overthrow the hegemony of the Holland regents and replace it with a very different framework, one that was monarchical, more aristocratic, and also more supportive of the concept of a state Church to which all, or most, of the population would be obliged to conform. The contending parties produced no sophisticated political thought. But they certainly argued in terms of monarchies and republics, and those who backed the States of Holland understood, in rudimentary fashion, that they were espousing republican forms and views. Fending off Leicester strengthened the notion perceptible earlier, which Hooft had expressed in his discourse of I 584, that the ‘freedom’ of the Netherlands would be best preserved by dispensing with the protection of any monarch. Noting the change in mood, in July 1590 Thomas Wilkes commented: ‘they hate to be subject not only to a Spaniard but, tasting the sweetness of their liberty, to any kingly government’.
The Calvinist Revolution of the Counter-Remonstrants, 1618-1621
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Maurits kept his three principal prisoners at the Binnenhof, in The Hague, ‘well-guarded’, as Slade noted, and ‘very pensive’. The Prince of Orange, as he now was (since the death in Brussels, in February, of his Catholic older half-brother, Philips Willem), wielded greater authority, from the summer of 1618 until his death in 1625, than any man in the United Provinces since his father’s assassination thirty-four years before. Oldenbar nevelt was removed; Maurits was now the presiding flgure in the state. This meant that he had to form his own ruling circle and methods of managing the complex political machinery of the Republic.
The Stadholderate of William III, 1672-1702
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The catastrophe of June 1672 was followed by further defeats. In July, the French captured Nijmegen, and part of north Brabant, whilst the Munsterites overran Coevorden, Drenthe, and much of Groningen. By late summer, the greater part of the Republic was in French, or Munsterite, hands and the rest gripped by riots and political turmoil. The only province both unoccupied and untouched by rioting was Friesland. But even there there was profound unease, voiced especially by the Reformed preachers. The purging of Arminianen, as they were still commonly called, from the town councils of Holland and Zeeland, under pressure from a popular movement convinced that the ‘Loevesteiners’ had betrayed the Fatherland, through corruption, blatant negligence of the country’s defences bordering on treachery, and designing to ‘change the Reformed religion, as established by the Synod of Dordrecht, and restore to the Papists free exercise of their religion’, caused strong reverberations also in Friesland.1 Preachers, and ‘reformateurs’, demanded thoroughgoing reform of the administration of the province and a drive against corruption.
Art and Architecture, 1645-1702
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
A new phase in Dutch art and architecture, as in economic activity, commenced in the late 1640s, the austerity of the previous quarter century ending in the mid 1640s. The new stage in the unfolding of the Dutch Golden Age was to be one of larger-scale, grander effects, richer and more varied colouring, and a striving towards yet greater sophistication in terms of both detail and perspective. As we have seen, between 1647 and 1672, Dutch commerce (except Baltic bulk-carrying) was in a more expansive and dynamic phase than during the previous quarter-century —as Aitzema, Pieter de la Court, Pieter de Groot, and other contemporaries noted-and it was as a direct result of this, as Emmanuel van der Hoeven observed, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, that most of the finest, largest, and most splendid buildings and sculptured monuments not only of his own city, Amsterdam, but also of The Hague, Leiden, Haarlem, and Dordrecht, materialized in the 1650s and r66os.’ This was also the most expansive period of the Dutch Golden Age for urban development and planning. Moreover, what applies to town-planning, architecture, and sculpture applies also to painting and the decorative arts. This new phase in art and architecture, which marks the zenith of Dutch artistic achievement in terms of scope, sophistication, and international impact, was to continue without faltering until the great crash (artistic as well as financial and political) of 1672.
The Colonial Empire
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the years around 1640 it appeared that the Dutch were well on the way to consolidating a vast and profitable colonial empire in the western as well as another in the eastern hemisphere. Netherlands Brazil, or ‘New Holland’ as it was named, stretching from the Amazon estuary to Fort Maurits, at the mouth of the Sao Francisco river (about half-way between Recife and Bahia), seemed both secure and flourishing under WIC rule, especially during the largely successful term (1637-44) of the Company’s first (and last) governor-general of New Holland, Count Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, the same who was subsequently a senior commander of the Dutch army and the Elector of Brandenburg’s Stadholder of Cleves-Mark. With possession of northern Brazil, the Dutch totally dominated the European sugar market. The WIC also seemed set to dominate the transatlantic slave trade and was by far the strongest European power in Africa. After conquering Elmina from the Portuguese in 1637, Chama and Boutry in 1640, and Axim in 1642, the Dutch were in full control along the Guinea coast and, in May 1641, an expedition of 3,000 men, sent from Brazil under the WIC’s one-legged commander Pieter Cornelisz. Jol (d. 1641), also conquered Angola from the Portuguese. Meanwhile, to the north of Brazil,
The Second Orangist Revolution, 1747-1751
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In any highly urbanized, formerly prosperous society, unsettled by rapid economic decline and decay of its cities, as well as lack of work, the revolutionary process can be triggered by relatively unimportant occurrences. So it was in 1747. In April 1747, a small French army, sent as a warning to the States General rather than a serious invasion, entered States Flanders. In terms of French intentions, and the modest scale of the operation, the situation hardly compared to 1672. But in terms of impact on Dutch domestic politics the effect was shattering. The humiliating weakness of the Dutch defences revived painful memories of the Year of Disaster. Fear and anger swept the Zeeland towns. At Veere, the militia confronted the vroedschap, warning there would be rioting unless the regents complied with the wish of the citizenry, and militia, that Veere should press for the restoration of the stadholderate. The town councils of Veere and Flushing promptly yielded. At Middelburg and Zierikzee, it required more pressure, a wave of rioting, in which seamen figured prominently, before the regents gave way.
The Fall of the Republic
Authors: Israel Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It by no means appeared, in the summer of 1787, that the Stadholder and his supporters, even though they had the regular army on their side, were strong enough to overwhelm the Patriot Revolution. In the end it was foreign intervention which proved decisive. British ministers, since the end of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, in 1784, had been continually active, distributing money and encouragement to Orangist leaders and proposing methods of undermining the Patriots. The Patriots regarded Britain as the principal enemy of the Republic, and of its commerce and colonial empire, and the British government was equally convinced that the Patriot Revolution constituted a serious threat to British interests-diplomatic, strategic, commercial, and maritime. Privately, it emerges from Van der Capellen’s correspondence of the early 1780s, the Patriot leadership knew that Prussia was scarcely less antagonistic. But while it seemed prudent to do everything possible to avoid provoking the Prussian king, the prevailing anti-British rhetoric was fundamental to Patriot attitudes and ideology. Moreover, it was chiefly Britain which was encouraging Prussia to take measures against the Patriots. Consequently, whilst the anti-British rhetoric continued, there was remarkably little comment about Prussia.
Expansion Without Effort 1815-1854
Authors: Lloyd T O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
At the end of the long wars with France the British thought - as at the end of every war - of cutting government spending and of enjoying their expanded territories. They still saw their empire as a collection of ports, islands, and coastal regions, held together by the navy and dependent on it for prosperity and even survival. The navy dominated the seas of the whole world to an extent that had no parallel. No other country had a comparable force, and no country was likely to throw away its money in a competition with the formidable fleet already in existence and the immense industrial power behind it. The navy retained its three historical roles of making the country safe from invasion, of protecting trade, and of defending the colonies. When Britain’s population expanded to the point where it could be fed only by importing food in exchange for industrial products, the navy took on the new role of making sure that imports of food were perfectly secure. Its role in diplomacy became more explicit during the first half of the century: it could be sent all over the world, and could be used to make Britain’s power supreme at any point which lay within a cannon-shot of the sea.
Victorian Stability 1848-1871
Authors: Lloyd T O 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Britain’s interest in her colonies was unusually low in the mid-nineteenth century. Occasionally it was suggested that it might be aprudent, or at least a thrifty, step to give them up and, while there was no real likelihood that this would happen, it was a period in which imperial expansion was certainly not going to be encouraged in London and was not much in favour in the colonies either. The impulse to expand had taken colonial frontiers far into the interior by 1850; at first sight it may look like a constant factor from 1750 to 1920, but it had come to a temporary stop and for the next twenty years the frontiers remained as close to unchanged as at any time in the whole history of the empire. This did not mean that Englishmen were following a non-interventionist policy; it has been suggested that the reason Britain did not acquire more territory in these decades was simply that she was so powerful that she could assert herself on a world-wide basis without any need to acquire territory and, even if this seems to go a little too far in se’arch of the paradoxical, it was certainly a time at which Britain and almost all of her colonies were so free from external danger that there was no need to expand for such defensive purposes as acquiring a safer frontier line. But expansion in the decades before 1850 was certainly not just a matter of people in Britain wanting frontiers that were easy to defend.
Introduction
Authors: Griffiths Ralph 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The peoples of the British Isles in the fourteenth and ﬁfteenth centuries were richly diverse in character and often at odds with one another. Hemmed in by a long coastline and buﬀeted by boisterous seas, they were organized in two kingdoms, England and a much smaller Scotland, with a third, Denmark, retaining the Orkney and Shetland islands until the mid– 1460s. England had two large but reluctant dominions, the lands of Ireland and Wales, as well as the Channel Islands, the surviving remnant of the Anglo-Norman kingdom of the twelfth century, and the Isle of Man. Scotland itself included northern and western isles that maintained a peculiar degree of independence of the Scottish crown and links with the north-east of Ireland, whilst the Highlands and the southern uplands preserved their separate identities too.
Kingdoms and dominions at peace and war
Authors: Frame Robin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Throughout most of the fourteenth and ﬁfteenth centuries the countries of the British Isles were, formally at least, in a state of war. The Hundred Years War (1337–1453) followed earlier Anglo-French hostilities during the 1290s and 1320s. From 1296 England and Scotland were rarely at peace, and Franco-Scottish alliances meant that the two wars were closely intertwined. The invasion of Ireland by the Scots in 1315 and the landing of French forces at Milford Haven in 1405, though exceptional events, are reminders that these wars aﬀected, directly and indirectly, all the dominions of the English crown. Alongside the two great conﬂicts, other wars took place.
British Isles/British Empire: dual mandate/dual identity
Authors: Jeffery Keith 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
‘The dawn of the twentieth century finds us in possession of an Empire of which every Briton has cause to be proud,’ wrote Clement Kinloch-Cooke in the February 1901 inaugural issue of the Empire Review. ‘It extends to every quarter of the globe, embracing every kind of climate and producing every kind of commodity.’ Kinloch Cooke, imperial enthusiast and for twenty years a Conservative MP, edited the Review until his death in 1944. Seven years later the journal, briefly retitled the Commonwealth and Empire Review, went out of business, thus broadly reflecting the experience of the Empire itself. Yet the first fifty years of the twentieth century encompassed the apotheosis of the British Empire, the moment when it reached its zenith and was more unified, coherent, and powerful a world system than at any other time in its existence.
The British Way and Purpose
Authors: Robbins Keith 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The initials B.W.P. first appeared in the British Army’s crop of cryptic abbreviations in the autumn of 1942. The Army Council had given general approval to the allotment, throughout the months November 1942-February 1943, of three hours per week from training or working time to education. To help the miscellaneous instructors who were assembled for this awesome task, a series of four monthly book lets were produced which would help soldiers to understand what was at stake in the war. The series was extended and debate began. A consolidated edition was published in 1944. The Army Bureau of Current Affairs had been created in August 1941 so that soldiers, in a modern democracy, could understand what came to be referred to as ‘the British Way and Purpose’.
Being British: creeds and cultures
Authors: Nicholas Sian 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
What was it to ‘be British’ in the first half of the twentieth century? An era that saw two world wars, the loss of global pre-eminence, and the rise of mass democracy and mass communications was also one of national introspection, when both the meaning of ‘Britishness’ and the ‘search for England’ (and Wales and Scotland and Ireland) became a cultural preoccupation.
‘Britishness’, apparently straightforward to describe in political terms, was a cultural minefield. The creeds and cultures that embodied British life were more complicated than ever. To be British was to be classically educated-but most British children left school at 14 barely literate and numerate. It was to be cultured-yet the British were notoriously conservative in artistic, musical, and literary tastes.
Riches, poverty, and progress
Authors: Lowe Rodney 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Three publications encapsulate the changing condition, and perception, of British society in the first half of the twentieth century. The first, Riches and Poverty, was published by Sir Leo Chiozza Money in 1905. It argued, from an analysis of taxation records, that inequality in Britain was greater then than in any comparable European country and, most probably, than at any other time in the country’s history. Just under 900,000 people, who together with their dependants accounted for just 10% of the population, owned 87% of private property. The second, Seebohm Rowntree’s Poverty and Progress, published in 1941, remains the most respected of the house-to-house poverty surveys carried out between the 1890s and the 1950s.
Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology: What Is ‘Strong Objectivity’?
Authors: Harding Sandra 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
For almost two decades, feminists have engaged in a complex and charged conversation about objectivity. Its topics have included which kinds of knowledge projects have it, which don’t, and why they don’t; whether the many different feminisms need it, and if so why they do; and if it is possible to get it, how to do so. This conversation has been informed by complex and charged prefeminist writings that tend to get stuck in debates between empiricists and intentionalists, objectivists and interpretationists, and realists and social constructionists (including poststructuralists).
Restructuring the Labour Economy, 1979–1990
Authors: Davies Paul , Freedland Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the previous chapter, we described the doctrine of Monetarism as developed and practised by post-1979 Conservative governments, and showed how that doctrine was seen to require a transformation of labour law towards the function of restricting trade union power, particularly industrial power. At various stages in the description of that development, we made the point, deferring it for later discussion, that the political doctrine of those governments certainly did not assert that the reduction of trade union power was the sole function of labour law. In this chapter, we shall argue that labour law and employment policy were also directed towards an increasingly ambitious restructuring of a number of central features of the labour economy—a restructuring which gradually focused upon the notion of a market economy as the ideal for industrial society. Throughout the 1980s, legislation aimed at restricting trade union power was accompanied by legislation aimed at restructuring the labour market, though they were developed at varying levels of intensity at different points in the decade. In this introductory section, we consider the nature of the economic policy which underlay these attempts to restructure not only the labour market but also industrial society itself.
Conclusion: A Post-War Perspective
Authors: Davies Paul , Freedland Mark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 of this book, we examined the policy of collective laissez-faire as the dominant ideology of British labour law in the 1950s. This involved showing the terms in which Otto Kahn-Freund put forward the theory, and the ways in which labour law and the employment policy of the government corresponded to that theory. We suggested that the application of collective laissez-faire theory was not a simple or straightforward matter even at the very moment at which the theory was proposed as a general account of British labour law. There were already the makings of a set of pressures and tensions under the stress of which collective laissez-faire was to collapse by the end of the 1960s. The fact that collective laissez-faire never worked in a neat simple way, and the fact that it went through a process of collapse, did not, however, lessen its importance as a starting-point for the history of labour legislation in the period 1945-90. On the contrary, we suggested that the development of labour law throughout this period, in the later years as much as in the early years, should be understood as being intimately bound up with the destiny of collective laissez-faire policy.