bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Natural Selection, Fitness Determination,. and Molecular Variation
Authors: Mitton Jeffry B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although evolutionary biologists are known for their diversity of opinions, a majority would probably accept the two following generalizations. First, most natural populations contain abundant genetic variation. Morphological (Endler 1986) and physiological (Feder et al. 1987) variation is common, and variability for life-history variation also is apparent in natural populations (Clutton-Brock 1988; Dingle and Hegmann 1982). Surveys of allozyme variation, mitochondrial DNA, and moderately repetitive DNA all reveal abundant genetic variation. Second, selection is common in natural populations. Antonovics (1971) summarized natural selection for tolerance to soil contaminants in plants, and Linhart and Grant (1996) summarized examples of natural selection generating and maintaining microgeographic variation in plants. Endler (1986) compiled studies of selection, which showed that selection was often intense, with selection coefficients exceeding .2 (figure 1.1) in about half the studies that reveal natural selection. We know little about how these two generalizations relate to each other. Furthermore, although selection is common and genetic variation is abundant, we do not know to what degree the abundance of genetic variation is influenced by selection.
Environmental Variability and Enzyme Polymorphism
Authors: Mitton Jeffry B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discovery of abundant protein genetic variation stimulated evolutionary biologists to take a more critical look at their models and to build more biologically realistic models. This reevaluation has included several largely independent goals. Two of the responses were at least partially prompted by the genetic load that would be generated if the variation were maintained by balancing selection. First, a quick response by three papers in the journal Genetics (King 1967; Milkman 1967; Sved, Reed, and Bodmer 1967) questioned the traditional calculation of genetic load and devised models of fitness determination that generated little segregational load. Second, concern about an intolerable segregational load spurred the development and elaboration of a theory con-cerning the evolutionary dynamics of functionally equivalent, or neutral, allelic variation (Crow and Kimura 1970; Kimura 1983; Kimura and Ohta 1971; Nei 1975). Third, emphasis shifted from single-locus models to multilocus models, and biological reality was increased to examine the effect of environmental heterogeneity on the distribution of genotypes.
The Axis of Individual Heterozygosity: Theory
Authors: Mitton Jeffry B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For several decades before population geneticists used electrophoresis to estimate the levels of genetic variation in natural populations, empirical geneticists believed that natural populations contained an abundance of genetic variation (Dobzhansky 1970). Nevertheless, the first quantitative estimates from electrophoretic surveys seemed to surprise many geneticists. One of their first reactions to the empirical estimates was that if the abundant genetic variation were maintained by balancing selection, it would generate an intolerable genetic load (Lewontin and Hubby 1966). The new data thus forced a sweeping reanalysis of the population genetic models of fitness determination.
Unseemly Sentiments: The Cultural Problem of Gambling
Authors: Fabian Ann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Writing in 1842, Lydia Maria Child admitted that she had “often anathematized the spirit of Trade, which reigns triumphant, not only on the ‘Change, but in our halls of legislation, and even in our churches.” She saw the money changers returned to the temple; she saw thought, sentiment, love, and philanthropy turned from higher spiritual ends to the vicious designs of profit. “Thought is sold under the hammer, and sentiment in its holiest forms stands labelled for the market. Love is offered to the highest bidder, and sixpences are given to purchase religion for starving souls.”
The Exercise Interpreted: The First Section
Authors: Meinwald Constance C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parmenides’ labored description of required sections of argument originally held out little hope of guidance in interpreting the second part of the dialogue. This was because the description, though careful and detailed, seemed to be unintelligible: it employed in a crucial role a pair of qualifications to whose meaning we had no clue. However, by considering these phrases in connection with selected passages from the second part of the dialogue, we have succeeded in interpreting the in-relation-to qualifications. We know now that to derive results for something in relation to itself is to determine what appears above it in a correct genus-species tree-that is, to determine what natures are parts of its nature. Investigation of something in relation to the others involves a quite different kind of inquiry, determining what features the individual in question exhibits. With these in-relation-to qualifications interpreted, the list of section descriptions produced in chapter 2 becomes quite informative, and so the claim that it fits the second part of the dialogue can be tested. We now need to find out whether the actual sections of argument that Pannenides produces there in fact match these descriptions.
Elicitation and Scoring
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scoring refers to the process of assigning a numerical value to a subjective probability. It was initially regarded as a tool for eliciting probabilities, but was recognized early on as a potential tool for evaluating subjective probability assessments (Winkler, 1969). The choice of a scoring procedure necessarily affects the form in which the probabilities are expressed; hence the subjects of elicitation and scoring cannot be separated.
Scoring Rules for Evaluating and Weighing Assessments
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scoring rules were initially introduced as tools for eliciting probability assessments. A scoring rule is called (strictly) proper if a subject receives his maximal expected score if(and only if) his stated assessment corresponds to his true opinion. When probabilities are elicited under a reward structure that is not a proper scoring rule, the subject is being encouraged to state an assessment at variance with his true opinion. In this chapter we are interested in scoring rules not as tools for eliciting, but as tools for evaluating expert assessments.
Conclusions
Authors: Cooke Roger M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The field of artificial intelligence has invited massive applications of expert opinion, in the form of input into expert systems. The use of expert opinion in this field is highly unstructured, and the representations of uncertainty tend to be ad hoc, lacking a firm axiomatic basis. In particular, these representations contradict the axioms of probability. When uncertainty is represented in an ad hoc manner, it is impossible to evaluate and combine expert opinions in an intelligent way. On the other hand, the most cursory acquaintance with expert data demonstrates the need for evaluation and combination.
Receptor-Mediated Cell Behavioral Responses
Authors: Lauffenburger Douglas A , Linderman Jennifer J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a discussion of efforts directed toward quantitative under standing of the effects of receptor and ligand properties on cell behavioral responses. As outlined in Chapter 1, in most basic form we wish to have models that predict a quantitative measure of cellular behavior (e.g., proliferation rate, adhesion strength, adhesion probability in fluid flow, migration speed, migration direction) in terms of biochemical and biophysical parameters that characterize interactions between receptors and ligands or of these molecules with other cell components. We believe that the time is truly at hand for pursuing this sort of work, because of the advances in molecular biology and genetic engineering. Mathematical models for the effects of receptor and ligand parameters on cell function can now be tested by deliberate alteration of relevant molecular properties. Thus, we predict an important role for this new approach, combining mathematical modeling at the cellular level with genetic engineering directed toward model validation.
Forebears
Authors: Barnouw Erik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Long before television, long before the broadcasting era, some of their possibilities were glimpsed. v\’hen Alexander Graham Bell began exhibiting his telephone in r 876, his demonstrations provoked diverse and extravagant visions. An artist in the New York Daily Graphic depicted what he called “Terrors of the Telephone.” He showed an orator at a microphone heard by groups of people around the world.
Does Freedom Require Morality?
Authors: Double Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Abstract In the last chapter, I tried to provide the best compatibilist account of free will that I can. In this chapter, I wish to demonstrate the strength of that compatibilist view by showing how it permits us to give a decisive answer to the title question of this chapter. That question expresses the intuition that in some deep sense people cannot be really free unless they are moral. This claim poses a serious problem, not o:qly for my autonomy account of free will but for any account that tries to explicate freedom in non-evaluative terms. This is so because the satisfaction of a non-evaluative account will not guarantee the moral quality of the actions that satisfy the account. So if freedom requires morality and some particular account does not, then that account cannot be sufficient for freedom. In the first section, I provide three cases that appear to support an affirmative answer to the title question. These include the neo-Kantian line that morality liberates the “heteronomous” will, an existentialist theme about taking responsibility for one’s choices, and an argument from Susan Wolf (1987) that free will requires sanity, and sanity requires morality.
On The Qualities Of Moral Actions
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Next we must examine the qualities of moral actions. Now according to these, actions are said to be necessary or not necessary, licit or illicit, good or evil, just or unjust; and so the moral qualities of moral actions will be necessity, license, and the qualities opposed to these (which lack a proper name), goodness and badness, justice and injustice.
On The Law Of Nature In General
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Seeing that man’s condition did not allow him to live without law and to act by a vague impulse, as it were, without regard to any norm, it follows that we should inquire about the most common rule of human actions to which all men as rational animals must conform themselves. This rule, which has customarily been designated the right [ius] or law [lex] of nature, may also be called the universal and everlasting law because it binds the entire race of mortals and, unlike positive laws, is not subject to change. What sort of law it is, how it comes to be known, the proofs on which it rests, and what ought to be referred to it and what to positive law, must all be more carefully investigated, because if this foundation is not correctly laid everything built thereon will necessarily collapse of itself...
On The General Duties Of Humanity
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is not enough, however, not to have hurt another, or not to have deprived him of the esteem he is owed: These only remove the just cause for hatred. Something good must also be conferred on the other, at least if the minds of men are to be conjoined by a still closer bond. Someone who has not driven me away from himself by some hostile or ungrateful deed has not discharged the debt of sociality; rather, he should furnish something beneficial so that I am glad that others who share my nature also live upon this earth. And, as well, the affinity and kinship established among men by nature must be exercised by means of mutual duties.
On The Parts Of Supreme Sovereignty And Their Natural Connection
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even though supreme civil sovereignty is in itself something one and undivided, it is nonetheless commonly understood to have many parts analogous to those called potential, because it exerts itself through different acts corresponding to the different means it must employ to preserve the state. For supreme sovereignty is by no means a whole consisting of heterogeneous parts that, by being conjoined with one another and held together by some bond, have coalesced into one, yet in such a way that the individual parts can also subsist separately.
On The Supreme Sovereignty’S Authority Over The Life And Goods Of Citizens On Account Of Their Crimes
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There also belongs to supreme civil sovereignty an authority over the body and life, as well as the goods of citizens on account of their crimes. This is commonly called, in short, the right of life and death, and it differs plainly from the right of God over creatures ... and that of men over brutes. The first scruple that occurs with respect to it is how such an authority could be conferred on a state by individuals through pacts. For since punishment is a thing inflicted on a person against his will, and that which someone inflicts on himself cannot happen to an unwilling person, it can be difficult to explain how someone has a faculty to punish himself and is able to transfer it to another.
On The Law Of War
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since nature has granted individuals living in natural freedom no less a faculty than states to defend themselves against force that is unjustly threatened against them, and to claim for themselves by force rights that have been infringed or denied by others, I think it will be appropriate to examine first those things that wars of individuals and wars of states have in common, and then those that are by their own nature, or by the customs of nations, proper to the latter.
On Treaties
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Next we must see about those kinds of public pacts that come with the special name of ‘treaties.’ ... It will be most appropriate if we draw their division from their subject matter, since some of them establish something that has previously belonged to the natural law already, while others add something further to the duties of the natural law, or at least give them a certain determinacy when they seem indefinite.
The Ways In Which Someone May Cease To Be A Citizen
Authors: Carr Craig L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among the ways in which someone ceases to be a citizen, some people reckon, is if a king should die without any heir and successor, or if he has begun to consider his kingdom as abandoned; for then, they say, individuals return to their natural freedom. But since it is plain that a kingdom is not completely dissolved in a case of this sort but falls back into the form of an interregnum, the obligation of citizens toward the king, who no longer exists, does indeed end at that time, yet in such a way that the citizens still remain conjoined with one another by that primeval pact whereby states have come about.
Henry and William James and the Trial of Curiosity
Authors: Posnock Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
“If we wish to act,” says William James, “we should pause and wonder as little as possible.” Otherwise we risk the vertiginous mental state of near paralysis that James dubs “ontological wonder-sickness,” whereby “thought oscillating to and fro ... finds no end, in wandering mazes lost” (Will 64, 66). It is probable that William was first exposed to the virus of “purely theoretic contemplation” when, as an adolescent, he strolled the streets of Paris and London with his brother, who somehow seemed immune to the sickness. Henry remarked that “we had done nothing, he and I, but walk about together ... dawdle at shop-windows and buy watercolors and brushes” (Autobiography 170). But whereas Henry had no “quarrel” with “endlessly” walking and daubing, William, “looking back at it from after days ... denounced it ... as a poor and lamentable and arid time ... missing such larger chances and connections.” What William denounced as “poverty of life” Henry found a “medium so dense,” “most expressive to myself of the charm and color of history and ... of society” (171–72).
“Adventures of the Critical Spirit”: Rereading The American Scene
Authors: Posnock Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the pleasures of The American Scene is witnessing James improvising the rhythms of his vagrant motions as he drifts, untethered. This willed vulnerability to contingency is founded on his devotion to what Wright Morris once called a unique “presentness” of perspective, “free from visions of the future and crippling commitments to the past” (214). Yet James’s “presentness” is a result less of rigorous concentration than of its opposite-his willingness to digress from the present subject for a “desultory stroll, for speculation’s sake” (Scene 183). For instance, after spending a few hours in Central Park enjoying the “polyglot” crowd, with their “variety of accents,” James feels he has been given “exactly what [he] desired-a simplified attention and the power to rest for the time” in the sense that the aliens “were flourishing ... in contentment” (182). Yet relaxing attention itself proves fertile: “It was by way of not worrying” that he finds, “chanced upon at a subsequent hour, all sorts of interesting and harmonious suggestions. These adventures of the critical spirit were such mere mild walks and talks as I almost blush to offer, on this reduced scale, as matter of history” (182). And James is off on another “train of association” of “boundless evocation.” What he call his ‘‘ftlinerie” is true to the word’s French meaning of a stroll without destination.
Lifting the Yoke of the Genteel: Henry James, George Santayana, and Howard Sturgis
Authors: Posnock Ross 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
William and Henry James “were as tightly swaddled in the genteel tradition as any infant geniuses could be, for they were born in ... a Swedenborgian household. Yet they burst those bands almost entirely. The ways in which the two brothers freed themselves, however, are interestingly different.” George Santayana’s famous statement in his seminal essay of 1911 points to one of this chapter’s concerns: the impact of the late Victorian genteel “yoke” of propriety and repression upon the two eldest James brothers. They were raised in a household that seemed to embody both a sterile transcendental idealism and an energetic flouting of bourgeois conventions. This dual heritage is only one of several paradoxes that characterize William and Henry’s relation to the genteel tradition. Thus, the “almost” in Santayana’s claim regarding their bursting of genteel bands should remind us that compromise inheres in their revolt. The James brothers, like Santayana, were by birth or position part of the bourgeois aristocracy and enjoyed its privileges. They “sometimes sipped the rim of the plutocratic cup,” to borrow Santayana’s description of his own life (Persons 541).
Introduction: Reading Nietzsche
Authors: Solomon Robert C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nietzsche has always been a favorite philosopher of undergraduate students. He attacks authority with relish and sarcasm. He is rude. He states his mind without academic pomp. He calls a spade a spade. He defends individual differences. He stresses the new. He is prophetic without being preachy. He writes short, easy-to-read paragraphs-and mercifully short books. He is exciting, inflammatory. He is, they would like to believe, so much like them, so tempestuous, so “timely.” And yet, when Walter Kaufmann published the first edition of his Nietzsche back in 1950, Friedrich Nietzsche was still a philosophical outlaw, read by students perhaps but excluded altogether from the legitimate philosophy curriculum.
Nietzsche’s Critique of Morality
Authors: Bergmann Frithjof 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nietzsche’s most brilliant and sustained critique of morality is contained in his long essay describing the origin of two juxtaposed types: the master and the slave moralities. In that essay Nietzsche raises a question, not mildly, or in quietly bemused philosophical wonder, but in outrage, and consternation, in an effort to ring a storm-bell and to wake us up. He asks: how was it ever possible for meekness, humility and self-denial, modesty, pity and compassion to become values? What happened? For it is weird and monstrous and dumbfounding, and precisely the kind of unnatural untowardness that cries out for an explanation.
Nietzsche’s Daybreak: Thoughts On The Prejudices Of Morality
Authors: Danto Arthur C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was Peter Gast, Nietzsche’s copyist, claque, practical nurse, and constant correspondent, who gave this book its epigraph from the Rig Veda: “There are so many days that have not yet broken.” It may have been a fateful ornament, since Rig Veda I, 113 (To Dawn) chants “She, first of endless morns to come hereafter, follows the path of morns that have departed,” and the doctrine of eternal recurrence struck Nietzsche with the force of a revelation later that year-1881. But it in any case suggested the title Eine Morgenrdte to Nietzsche. “There are so many gay and particularly red colors in it!” he wrote Gast in February, but the “Eine” was dropped in proof, on grounds of pretentiousness.
The Use and Abuse of The Will to Power
Authors: Magnus Bernd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Anyone who has read very much Nietzsche commentary is surely struck by the absence of any semblance of basic agreement about what Nietzsche’s philosophy is, whether he really had one, whether he intended to have one-and if so in what sense—or even whether he wished to show that no one ought to have one. To be sure, disagreement surrounds all commentary, literary or “philosophical.” Otherwise there would be nothing left for us to say. It does seem to me that disagreement is more basic and more acute in the Nietzsche case, however, than in any other case with which I am well acquainted. Think for a moment of the Nietzsche who leaps from the pen of a Martin Heidegger, a Karl Jaspers, or a Jacques Derrida, all quite different Nietzsches certainly; then compound that difference by comparing and contrasting these Nietzsche portraits with those provided by, say, Arthur Danto or Richard Schacht.
The Unity of Reason
Authors: Neiman Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Unity of Reason is the first major study of Kant’s account of reason. It argues that Kant’s wide-ranging interests and goals can only be understood by redirecting attention from epistemological questions of his work to those concerning the nature of reason. Rather than accepting a notion of reason given by his predecessors, a fundamental aim of Kant’s philosophy is to reconceive the nature of theoretical and practical reason, as well as his claim that his metaphysics was driven by practical and political ends. Neiman begins by discussing the historical roots of Kant’s conception of reason, and by showing Kant’s solution to problems which earlier conceptions left unresolved. Kant’s notion of reason itself is examined through a discussion of all the activities Kant attributes to reason. In separate chapters discussing the role of reason in science, morality, religion, and philosophy, Neiman explores Kant’s distinctions between reason and knowledge, and his difficult account of the regulative principles of reason. Through examination of these principles in Kant’s major and minor writings, The Unity of Reason provides a fundamentally new perspective on Kant’s entire work.