bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Information Content of Chess Positions: Implications for Game-Specific Knowledge of Chess Players
Authors: Nievergeltt J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chess has served as a convenient vehicle for studying cognition and perception (see de Groot 1965, and Chase and Simon 1973) as well as machine intelligence. Perhaps the central question for both of these research uses of chess is: How much chess-specific knowledge does it take to play at a given level of competence, for example, at the master level? It is difficult to say what chess-specific knowledge is, and it certainly consists of different types of knowledge that must be considered independently of each other (for example, ‘book knowledge’ is very different from experience obtained in over-the-board play). Even if one succeeds in defining what ‘chess-specific knowledge’ is, there remains the difficulty of measuring it. Because of these difficulties, any approach to measuring the amount of knowledge possessed by a practitioner of a craft must he based on questionable assumptions, and any result obtained is subject to uncertainty and criticism.
Multi-entity Models
Authors: Moses Yoram , Tennenholtz Moshe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a seminal paper, McCarthy and Hayes (1969) suggested firstorder logic as a basis for knowledge representation and reasoning about action. They considered, and rejected, a model of inteacting automata as being epistemologically inadequate. This chapter suggests multi-entity models, a framework closely related to the interacting automata of McCarthy and Hayes, as a tool for knowledge representation and reasoning. Multi-entity models are designed so as to overcome some of the main criticisms of interacting automata. A number of basic issues in multi-agent activity are investigated in the framework of these models, illustrating both the expressiveness and the computational tractability of multi-entity models.
Variations and Local Exceptions in Inductive Logic Programming
Authors: Siromoney Arul , Siromoney Rani 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Variations are valid departures from the normal. One pictures the classical music composer writing variations for a given theme, the jazz player improvising on a melody, or the Indian percussionist improvising on a rhythm. Each variation is valid in itself, and is a departure or variation from some normal base or theme. We note that variations are different from noise. Each variation is a valid departure from the normal, whereas noise is incorrect or illegal deviation from the normal.
Behavioural Clones and Cognitive Skill Models
Authors: Michie Donald , Sammut Claude 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the past fifteen years cognitive psychologists and AI scientists have been converging on mutually coherent models of complex decision skills. These models have now been applied to the implementation of real-time control systems. Machine learning has been introduced at the lower level of a ‘blackboard’ model. In this way rule-structured ‘agents’ were machine-synthesized from automatically logged samples of human behaviour. In flight-simulator tests synthetic autopilots have regularly flown complete missions without human intervention.
A framework for verbalizing unconscious knowledge based on inductive logic programming
Authors: Furukawa Koichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this paper, we discuss the problem of verbalizing unconscious knowledge. Since there is no way to observe brain activities directly, it is rather difficult to clarify the mechanism of such intelligent behaviour as speaking natural language. A new approach to this problem is proposed. We select the domain of string instrument performance because of the possibility for getting objective data associated with intelligent activities. It is rather easy to measure various muscle movements during the performance. To elicit the secrets of miraculous performance by virtuosos, we need to analyse elaborately the measurements associated with their performance to explain them in terms of primitive muscle movements. We propose inductive logic programming as a very promising candidate for such analysis because of its capability of associating measurements with such basic facts as the structure of the human body and of muscle links.
Control skill, machine learning and hand-crafting in controller design
Authors: Bratko Ivan , Urbančič Tanja 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Consider a dynamic system, such as a crane or a plane, and an operator who has acquired the skill of operating that system. Suppose then that the operator is asked to design an algorithm for automatically controlling the system. The operator may try to design such an automatic controller by reconstructing his or her subcognitive skill through introspection, or by other means, e.g. by reasoning about the system and engineering the controller. The main question investigated in this paper is, how would different operators go about this task, and how does the success depend on various factors affecting the task? These factors include:
Developments in computational learning and discovery theory within the framework of elementary formal systems
Authors: Arikawa Setsuo , Shinohara Ayumi , Sato Masako , Shinohara Takeshi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This paper surveys our studies on computational learning theory and computational discovery theory within the framework of elementary formal systems (EFSs for short), which are a kind of logic program on words, i.e., strings of characters.
First we show that the EFSs are a good framework for discussing formal grammars and languages. Then we point out that EFSs work as a unifying framework for inductive inference of languages by discussing the model inference for EFSs in Shapiro’s sense.
A learning mechanism for logic programs using dynamically shared substructures
Authors: Numao Masayuki , Morita Shigekazu , Karaki Kenichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A reasoning method that proves a predicate logic formula by reducing its graph representation is proposed. Since the method directly reduces a logic formula represented by a graph, it can be understood to self-optimize a graph representation, meaning that it automatically transforms a logic formula into an efficient form equivalent to that acquired by explanation-based learning. By sharing the original subgraph between the learned formulae, reasoning efficiency does not deteriorate even after learning several examples. Therefore, the utility problem is overcome in the sense that no extra search is necessary for macros. The present paper demonstrates these facts in simple list manipulation problems and by proving geometric theories.
A connectionist approach to numeric law discovery
Authors: Saito Kazumi , Nakano Ryohei 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discovery of an underlying law from a set of numeric data is the central part of scientific discovery systems. This paper proposes a new connectionist approach to numeric law discovery. In order to efficiently and constantly obtain near-optimal results (law candidates), we introduce a new second-order learning algorithm; by adopting a quasi Newton method as a basic framework, the optimal step-lengths are calculated as the minimal points of second-order approximations. The minimum -description length criterion selects the most suitable from law-candidates. The main advantage of our method over previous work on the symbolic or connectionist approach is that it can efficiently discover numeric laws whose power values are not restricted to integers. Experiments showed that the proposed method works well in discovering such laws even from data containing a small amount of noise.
Vesper
Authors: Robinson J Alan , Barklund Jonas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
VESPER I is a denotational formalism, that is, a collection of expressions each of which denotes some entity. Its logic, when viewed at the topmost level, is given by a single simplification function. The simplification is vertically extended in the sense that in a single act of simplification an expression and (simultaneously) all or most of its subexpressions are recast into a simpler form. All VESPER computations are reductions to normal form, in which the simplification function is iterated on a given expression until it has no further effect. Expressions are by definition in normal form if they are fixed points of the simplification function.
W. S. Jevons: his logical machine and work on induction and boolean algebra
Authors: Shepherdson J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The English scientist William Stanley Jevons, who lived from 1835 to 1882, was one of the architects of symbolic logic. In 1870 he designed and had built the very first logical deduction machine. Since this machine is in the Museum of Science in Oxford where Machine Intelligence 15 was meeting, Donald Michie thought it would be interesting for members to visit it and he invited me to describe it for them before the visit. He also thought that Jevons’ work on induction was related to recent work on inductive logic programming, and asked me to elucidate that relation. Finally I’d like to comment on one of Jevons’ most important contributions to the founding of boolean algebra as we know it today, i.e. allowing the use of unrestricted union. Boole only allowed the use of the exclusive ‘or’, the union only of disjoint classes which meant he only had an awkward partial algebra and a very shaky foundation for many of his results.
Conclusion
Authors: Louw Eric , Duffy Neil 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 we set specific objectives for this book. It is appropriate at this stage to consider how these objectives have been met. The overriding purpose was to take a management view of computer viruses, since this does not appear to have been done and the importance of doing so is crucial to any meaningful attempt to counter the virus threat. How well this has been accomplished is best judged by management readers. A review of the other objectives follows. 1. To present a concise but comprehensive account of what is known about computer viruses. This was done mostly in Chapter 2, where the nature of computer viruses was explained and various aspects of the problem were discussed.
Conclusion
Authors: Hahnle Reiner 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the preceding chapters we presented a new approach to many-valued theorem proving starting out from signed analytic tableaux. The main technical device was a systematic extension of the sign language. We showed that admitting subsets of the set of truth values of a logic as signs is sufficient to build compact and efficient tableau systems for a large class of many-valued logics and we coined the term sets-as-signs approach for that technique (Chapter 4). Its extendability to many-valued first-order logics was demonstrated (Section 5.4).
Nervous system, sense organs, and excitable epithelia
Authors: Bone Q 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the exception of the Appendicularia, all the pelagic tunicates have a single centralized brain from which mixed nerves radiate to innervate the muscles, gills, endostyle, and other organs; they also contain the axons of primary sensory cells of different kinds. In appendicularians, there is an anterior brain or cerebral ganglion in the trunk, but this is linked to a large caudal ganglion at the base of the tail, which controls the tail musculature, and in some cases the sensory cells are secondary sensory cells (section 4.5.3). The general morphology of the nervous system is described in Chapters 1 and 2. Unfortunately, as will become evident in this chapter, knowledge of most aspects of the histology and fine anatomy of the nervous systems of Pyrosoma, salps, and doliolids has lagged behind more recent work on the physiology of the system, and it is only in appendicularians that there has been recent advance in the fine structure of the nervous system and its circuitry. A striking feature of most pelagic tunicates is that they possess excitable epithelia which propagate action potentials when mechanically stimulated. This epithelial sensory system (which in salps and appendicularians extends the receptor fields of the sensory cells lying in the epithelium), is also found in one doliolid stage, but not in Pyrosoma so far as is known.
Molecular phylogeny of tunicates. A preliminary study using 28S ribosomal RNA partial sequences: implications in terms of evolution and ecology
Authors: Christen R , Braconnot J -C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Phylogenetic information can now be derived from the comparison of nucleic acid sequences that are strictly homologous in different taxa. Among available gene sequences, ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) have provided some of the most valuable phylogenetic information. Three rRNA molecules have been generally used, namely the 5S rRNA, 16-18S rRNA and 26-28S rRNA. Phylogenies derived from the 5S molecule are now thought to be less reliable because of an inappropriate rate of evolution (Halanych, 1991). In contrast, both the 16-18S rRNA and the 23-28S rRNA are now widely used (Sogin et al., 1986; Baroin et al., 1988; Field et al., 1988; Perasso et al., 1989; Christen et al., 1991a; Lafay et al., 1992). The 5’-l end of the 28S rRNA molecule (i.e. about 400 nucleotides) is an interesting region for the rapid investigation of phylogenetic problems, since it comprises domains of widely different rates of evolution that allow molecular phylogenies to be derived for species that radiated less than 50 million years ago (for example some of the echinoid radiations; see Smith et al., 1992), as well as radiations that took place more than 600 million years ago, like the origin of Metazoa or the radiations of Porifera (Christen et al., 1991b; Lafay et al., 1992).
Models of sexual selection and monogamy
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Gregersen Jens 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until quite recently the study of sexual selection was dominated by theoretical issues. However, empirical research on female choice and male combat has increased dramatically, with field and laboratory studies of individually identifiable organisms being the most frequent approach. Every empirical study has to address the question of whether male-male competition or female choice generates the process of sexual selection. Although these two modes of sexual selection were clearly defined by Darwin, it is not always easy to resolve the relative importance of the two processes, nor to decide whether a given structure or behaviour demonstrates one or the other, or both. Different taxa appear to rely on male-male competition and female choice to different degrees, but the reason for interspecific differences in the relative importance of the two modes of sexual selection remains largely unknown. These issues will be discussed further in section 2.2.
Determinants of tail ornament size
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Gregersen Jens 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Extravagant secondary sexual characters, such as the tail of male barn swallows, may always be subject to intense directional sexual selection. It would obviously be advantageous for any male to grow an even longer tail, provided that the benefits of doing so exceeded the costs. What determines the size of an ornament of a particular individual? Ornaments, like any other morphological character, are probably determined by the effects of genes, the environment, genetic dominance effects and a number of interaction terms. The relative importance of the various factors generating morphological variation can be determined by comparison of the size of ornaments grown by the same genotypes in different environments and by comparison of the phenotype of relatives, as described in section 6.2.
Parasites and sexual selection
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Gregersen Jens 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parasites constitute more than half of all organisms of the world, and individuals of most organisms are infected with parasites at least at some time during their life span (Price 1980). Parasites therefore become a potentially important force during natural and sexual selection. Parasites exploit the resources of the live bodies of other species, on which individual parasites spend most of their lives, causing some or even a great deal of damage (Price 1980). Parasites are often subdivided into microparasites (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa) and macroparasites (helminths, arthropods). Microparasites are characterized by small size, short generation times, and high rates of direct reproduction within their hosts. The duration of an infection is relatively short, and these parasites induce either lifelong immunity, chronic infections, or death of the host. Macroparasites have longer generation times than microparasites and complete some part of their life cycle outside the host. The immune responses of the host generally depend on the number of macroparasites present, and are of relatively short duration, which makes the host susceptible to continual reinfection.
Geographic variation in ornament size
Authors: Møller Anders Pape , Gregersen Jens 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most field studies are restricted to a single locality, and field workers therefore often have the misconception that the typical behaviour or morphology of a species is that observed at their own study site. All individuals of a species rarely look similar across the distributional range because environmental conditions and the intensities of various selection pressures change geographically. Animals usually demonstrate geographic variation with sometimes characteristic patterns such as those described by the zoogeographic rules (Mayr 1942). For example, Bergmann’s rule states that individuals of a species living in more northern parts of the distributional range are larger whereas Allen’s rule posits that individuals in more northern latitudes exhibit smaller extremities. This kind of clinal variation in morphology is what is expected when natural selection is at work. Individuals with a smaller surface to volume ratio and smaller extremities are at an energetic advantage at more northern latitudes.
Introduction
Authors: Lank David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Natural selection is one of the primary mechanisms moulding the phenotypic characters of a population. This central tenet of evolutionary biology is well established and it is widely accepted that past and present environments have interacted and continue to interact in complex ways with the genetic constitutions of organisms to produce the populations we see today. while not discounting the importance of stochastic events in the evolutionary processes, natural selection is seen by many evolutionary biologists as a key to understanding the form, function, and demography of populations. There are manifold ways in which complex environments can alter organisms, both directly in shaping the appearance of individuals and indirectly through selective changes that modify populations’ gene pools. Through detailed investigations of populations in their natural environments, we have begun to understand some of the ways in which natural selection operates. Classic studies by Clutton-Brock and colleagues (1982) on Red Deer (Cervus elephas), by Newton (1986) on Sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus) and by many workers on Great Tits (Parus major) (for example McCleery and Perrins 1989), have helped clarify how natural selection influences both demographic and other phenotypic attributes of these populations.
Heritability of quantitative traits
Authors: Lank David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the most traditional view, heritability is the proportion of total phenotypic variance attributable to additive genetic variance. The latter results from segregation of alleles with additive effects. Other contributors to total variance include dominance, epistatic and environmental effects and covariances and interactions among all these factors (Falconer 1989). Additive genetic variance is the basis of Fisher’s Fundamental Theorem —’the rate of increase in fitness of any organism at any time is equal to its [additive] genetic variance in fitness at that time’. When factors other than additive genetic variance contribute to phenotypic variance, the theorem should be stated in terms of heritability rather than genetic variance. In this sense, heritability sets an upper limit on the instantaneous rate of evolution of a trait in response to a selection gradient.
Body size
Authors: Lank David B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Variation in body size has been widely studied by evolutionary biologists, in part because it is relatively easy to measure. In diverse animal taxa, especially those with indeterminate growth, an individual’s size is an overwhelming predictor of its social status, relative fecundity, or probability of survival. This is not necessarily so for adult birds. At certain ontogenetic stages, such as when nest-mates compete for food brought by parents, relative body size may be a life or death matter. As adults, however, phenotypic variation in body size is apparently usually unrelated to components of fitness. In the exceptionally well studied Galapagos Large Cactus Finch, where information was available on both genetic and phenotypic variation, body size was generally unrelated to fitness, although there was selection on beak shape (Grant and Grant 1989). Even in highly polygamous species, in which sexual dimorphism is often attributed to directional selection for larger members of the limited sex, there is little evidence from field studies for directional selection for larger adult body size. In one case, the aerial acrobatic displaying Longtailed Manikin Chiroxiphia linearis (McDonald 1989), the most successful males may actually be lighter or smaller, but most such studies find no correlations between body size and male success. Alatalo and Lundberg (1986) found normalizing selection on tarsus length in Pied Flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca).
Coloniality and breeding ecology
Authors: Zann Richard A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ten Zebra Finch colonies have been studied in detail to date (Table 6.1). Most studies have concentrated on nesting activity and breeding seasonality, but only my studies in northern Victoria have monitored seasonal changes in the size of free-flying flocks. Ten Zebra Finch colonies have been studied in detail to date (Table 6.1). Most studies have concentrated on nesting activity and breeding seasonality, but only my studies in northern Victoria have monitored seasonal changes in the size of free-flying flocks.
Populations
Authors: Zann Richard A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many observers in the arid zone, especially around central Australia, have commented on the vast numbers of Zebra Finches that may assemble around water-holes during periods of drought. With so many birds coming and going observers find it difficult to make careful counts and terms such as ‘abundant’, ‘numerous’, ‘countless’, ‘myriads’, ‘thousands’, ‘hundreds of thousands’, and even ‘millions’, have been used. ‘Literally thousands’ have also been observed on dense patches of seeding grasses in semiarid areas (Rix 1943). The calls of large flocks around water can make such a din that some observers can find it a relief to leave the area. Careful counts of large flocks at water-holes have been made by Fisher et al. (1972) during their comprehensive survey of drinking patterns of desert birds. They found the Zebra Finch to be the second most common species observed after the Galah, and the largest number of Zebra Finches estimated drinking at a water-hole (70 km north of Alice Springs) during one day was in September 1967 when 17,750 visits were recorded. The same day 47,000 Budgerigar visits were also made. A year later Rix (1970) estimated that there must have been ‘hundreds of thousands’ of Zebra Finches drinking at the same water-hole.