bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Family, Early Career, and Start in Politics
Authors: Harris Edward M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even in the case of the most important figures in antiquity, the information we possess about their early lives is scant at best. We do not know the year of birth for many famous people, and little is told to us about their education and early activities. Occasionally we are fortunate enough to have a few anecdotes about the childhood and youth of a prominent figure, but these too must be treated with great caution. Anecdotes are often transmitted orally for several generations before being written down and are thus subject to all the changes that this kind of source works on its material. The ancient historians themselves took little or no interest in the early lives of great men and tended instead to direct their attention primarily to battles and political events, which they felt to be the true subject matter of history. Biographies were written about remarkable individuals, but these were almost invariably com posed many years after the deaths of their subjects by writers who often had much the same sources as scholars today have. Consequently, these biographies rarely add much to our meager stock of information. When they do contain matter that is not found in other sources, it is unlikely to be the product of painstaking research. Rather, it is most probably a fiction invented by an imaginative biographer, who, frustrated by the paucity and dullness of the sources available to him, took the liberty of inventing sensational details.
Peace at Last
Authors: Harris Edward M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Attic orators paint a dismal picture of Athenian politics. Their speeches over flow with stories of bribery, deceit, perjury, treason, and murder. Speakers in the Assembly hire themselves out to foreign powers, magistracies are bought and sold like merchandise in the agora, innocent men are condemned to death on flimsy charges, and ambassadors conspire with the enemy to destroy Athens’ allies. In deed, if one were to believe everything one reads in their speeches, one might well come to the conclusion there was not one honest politician in all of Athens. Among the masterpieces of this sordid genre are the accounts of the Peace of Philocrates given respectively by Aeschines and Demosthenes.
Decline and Exit
Authors: Harris Edward M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last phase of his career, Aeschines made a series of attempts to play a major role once again on the Athenian political scene, only to find himself repeatedly upstaged by Demosthenes. But Demosthenes’ triumphant performance in the Assembly did not bring Athens victory over Philip in the battlefield. In 338 the Athenians and their Greek allies suffered a crushing defeat at Chaeronea, which put an end to Demosthenes’ hopes of pushing Philip back to his homeland behind Mount Olympus. Looking back in 330 on the events leading up to Chaeronea, Demosthenes charged Aeschines with standing in the way of his plans and working hand in hand with Philip to promote Macedonian aims. Aeschines retorted that he always had Athenian interests at heart. Had the Athenians followed his advice, he countered, they would never have suffered the ignominious defeat at Chaeronea. Were Aeschines’ criticisms of Demosthenes’ policies justified? Did his own proposals represent a patriotic alternative, or were they merely obstructionist measures, aimed at furthering Philip’s ambitions?
Social Cohesion, Social Capital, and Health
Authors: Kawachi Ichiro , Berkman Lisa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An important task for the emerging field of social epidemiology is to identify the collective characteristics of communities and societies that determine population health status. Ever since Durkheim, social scientists have recognized that society is not simply the sum of individuals—that the factors which determine population well-being cannot be reduced to individual risk factors.
Affective States and Health
Authors: Kubzansky Laura , Kawachi Ichiro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that the social environment, including conditions experienced in the family, neighborhood, and workplace, can influence health (Taylor et al. 1997). The question remains, How can social conditions that are external to the individual get inside the body to influence health? One pathway is through emotions and the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral responses they evoke.
Key Features of Indian Society: What Is to Be Explained
Authors: Milner Murray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What follows is an extremely summarized, rudimentary introduction to Indian society and culture, for the benefit of those who are unacquainted with South Asia. As in any analysis, the facts selected are constituted and shaped in part by my theoretical assumptions. I will focus on the core attributes of Hinduism, the caste system, patterns of political-economic dominance, and three sets of important cultural ideas: purity, sexual asceticism, and auspiciousness.
Cultural Codes and Rituals: II
Authors: Milner Murray 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As we have seen, the realms of purity and impurity strongly emphasize human agency and responsibility. Indian village culture seems to also be engrossed with notions of auspiciousness and inauspiciousness; it is analytically useful to view this preoccupation as a way of objectifying concerns about contingency. While such objectification does not eliminate forces that are beyond people’s control, it is a means of both expanding the sense of human agency and of providing social and psychological mechanisms for coping with contingent forces.
Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Archeology has provided a history of Greek lands which far antedates any written records and (at least in the usual view) long before the arrival of the historical Greeks of IE speech. Refinements in archeological techniques in general and in dating techniques in particular continue to appear; augmented by new finds, these have given us an increasingly detailed picture of the pre-Greek civilizations of the area and of the IE incursions which overwhelmed them. The subject is complex, and continues to unfold; only the barest notice can be given here. The inhabitants of neolithic Greece were a component of the Old European (Paleo-European) society which did not, despite its name, cover all of Europe by any means. Furthermore, far from being homogeneous, it was made up of several similar culture complexes, dating from the 7th millennium Bc; as of say 5000 BC the Greek peninsula and islands (including Crete) were occupied by peoples belonging to one of these subvarieties, known as the Aegean. Their closest cultural kin occupied the Danube and Dnieper valleys, the southern half of Italy, and Sicily. These neolithic cultures reached a high level of sophistication and complexity, as demonstrated by their sizable agricultural villages and towns (containing as many as a thousand structures) with multi-room, two-to foustorey dwellings, painted walls, and furniture; the remarkable variety of shapes and designs of their pottery, with elegant decorations in polychrome and other techniques; rich male and female ritual attire; copper, bronze, and gold metal­ lurgy; craft specialization; prominent female deities; and so on.
Lengthening and Shortening of Vowels in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The simplification of various consonant groups containing a nasal or liquid is attended by lengthening of the preceding vowel; for these see the treatment of consonant groups (203, 227-8). 2. Long vowels were shortened in prehistoric G before a nasal or liquid plus consonant (a corollary of Osthoff’s Law), so regularly before VT, as in pple. -yvovTE&lt;; ‘knowing’ nom.pl. from “-yvw-VTE&lt;;, or Dor. e-yvov ‘they understand’ 3Pl.aor. from “e-gno-nt.1 But long vowels arising later by contraction or analogy were not affected, such as nµwvTE&lt;; contract pple., &lt;/&gt;EpWVT&lt;XL 3Pl.subj.mid. A long vowel becomes short before another vowel in various dialects. This does not apply to all vowels, and most commonly affects 71 before o or win Att.-Ion. So {3acnN:wv ‘of kings’ gen. pl. from {3cxuiX. wv (as still in Hom.), Att. ewe; ‘dawn’ from an earlier form something like Hom. we;. When the second vowel is short it may be lengthened, resulting in what is known as quantitative metathesis. This is peculiar to Att.-Ion., and most uniformly manifested in Att.: vEw&lt;; gen. of vcxvc; ‘ship’ (cf. Hom. vr,oc;); PEW&lt;; ‘temple’ (cf. Hom. vr,oc;, Dor. vaoc;); A.Ewe; ‘people’ &lt; X.r,oc; (Hom. has the non-Ion. X.aoc;); {3cxuiX.Ew&lt;; from {3cxuiX.ijoc; gen.sg. (Hom.).
Syncope in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Syncope is not a conspicuous feature of G historical phonology, unlike its role in L (73-4), but there are more than a dozen clear cases of it. For example: PIE “lewdh-‘go’ gives G forms which are suppletive to epxoµOt.L: fut. eA1:v­ uoµ0t.L, ‘Attic perfect’ eA Av00t. (444). The expected aor. would be ijAv0ov, infin. eA.v01:’iv; these occur, but are sparsely attested next to syncopated Mov and eM€tP. PIE “kuno-H1dont-es (or else, within the history of G, “kuno-odont-es) ‘dog­ teeth’ (the two projections at the base of the point of a hunting spear) &gt; G KPWOOPTE&lt;;. PG “esse/o-fut. of “es-‘be’ shows expected G froms like fooµOt.L ISg., fo6µ1:00t. 1pl., but 3sg. E&lt;JTOI.L takes the place of expected E&lt;JETOI.L. (The latter actually occurs in Hom.)
Contraction of Vowels in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Greek loss of intervocalic “y (192) and “h (from “s, 172), and the much later loss of intervocalic “w (in those dialects which lost it, 189) produced every sort of vowel sequence. The readiness of these sequences to contract varied: contraction was most extensive in the sequences resulting from the loss of “y and “s. There are dialectal and chronological differences, however, which were furthermore crosscut by levelings and distractions at all periods. The complications are discussed in Greek grammars, descriptive as well as historical, and need not be repeated in detail here. There seem to have been four discernable periods of vowel contraction, with different rules. The earliest, of PIE date, favors the first vowel, so ““-o-es nom.pl. of o-stems, and “-0-01 dat.sg. ditto &gt; PIE “-os, “-iry. This does not concern us here. The remaining three are, in chronological order: Wackernagel’s Law (87); the usual Attic (and other mostly post-Homeric) contractions (items 1-5); and ‘grammatical contraction’ (item 6).
Contraction of Vowels in Latin
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The principal source of vowel sequences for contraction was the loss of intervocalic “-y- (192), but “-h- and “-w-were sometimes lost between like vowels. Some compounds of de-, pro-, and co-built to words beginning with a vowel show contraction. 1. LIKE VOWELS contract to the corresponding long vowel. So L tres ‘three’ &lt; “treyes (G rpe’ic;, Ved. trtiyas); copia ‘abundance’ &lt; “ko-opiii; nemo’no one’ &lt; “nehemo; nfl beside nihil (but see 159). The diphthong ae absorbs a following e or i: “pray-emiom (emo) &gt; praemium ‘gain’; “pray-xafiyo (habeo) &gt; “praehibeo &gt; praebeo ‘hold out to, offer’. (Earlier disappearance of the h would have given xprayabeo &gt; xpriibeii) 2. UNLIKE VOWELS. L i, u do not contract before a following unlike vowel: “tenwis ‘thin’ &gt; tenuis (three syll.); “mone-way &gt; monuf’I warned’ (66. 5). Likewise “ftni-yo ‘limit’ (denom. to finis) &gt; ftnio (three syll.). But bfgae pl.tant. ‘team (of horses)’ &lt; “biugii-&lt; “dwi-yugii-, and the matters discussed in 68, suggest that forms like ftniunt and perhaps even ftnio are analogical distractions.
Vowel Gradation – Ablaut
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
no. The term ablaut is German for ‘sound variety’ or the like. The purely English synonym gradation was once more common than it is nowa­ days (though the prevailing terminology still speaks of ablaut grades). Apophony (Fr. apophonie) has never been favored by more than a few important scholars writing in English. All three terms refer to the same feature of PIE phonology and its reflexes in the IE daughter languages, namely a pattern of vowel alternations. Ablaut is conspicuous in the interrelations of Greek forms such as 1rfroµ0tL ‘fly’, 1rorr, ‘flight’, 1rrepov ‘wing’ (root "pet-) and also in Sanskrit, Baltic and Slavic, and the Germanic languages (where such things as NE drive, drove, driven; skim, scum; and white, wheat are traceable to it). In Greek the inherited patterns have been analogically extended, leveled, and other­ wise confused; in Latin such disturbances were likewise very extensive, and moreover were coupled with regular sound laws which effaced the original patterns. Thus, for example, the PIE alternation "ew ∼"ow∼ "u is a transparent embodiment of the basic alternating framework ("e∼"o∼ 0) when followed by "w. This remains transparent in Greek ev∼ov∼v and Go. iu∼au∼ u, but in Latin the pattern was first denatured by an Italic sound law (61) into "ow, "ow, "u, and by a later L sound law (61.2) further to ii, ii, ii, in which no similarity to the basic pattern e∼ o∼0 can be detected. Amid this ruin, L established alternations of its own invention.
Conditions and Causes of Pie Ablaut
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ex hypothese, all patterned alternations are the result of conditioned sound change. However, since vowel gradation was already a feature of PIE, it must be the outcome of processes which took place well back in its history, and it is natural that the conditions and causes of these remote developments should be involved in obscurity. Only one matter is reasonably clear, namely the relation of the full grade to the zero grade forms: there is an association between full grade (especially e-grade) and the tonic accent, while zero grades of roots and affixes occur in formations when the tonic accent is elsewhere. In Vedic, where the position of the PIE accent is best preserved, this relation between accent and gradation is most apparent: thus ds-ti ‘is’ but s-dnti ‘they are’. To the root “yewg- ‘join’: “yuk-to- &gt; Ved. yuktd- pple.; n-infix pres. “yu­ ne-g-mi ‘I yoke’ &gt; yundjmi (for “yundgmi, by leveling); “yu-n-g-enti 3PL &gt; yuiijdnti; add to this “yewg-m11 &gt; G fEv-yµ&lt;J1 ‘a joining’ vs. “yug-om ‘yoke’ &gt; G fu-yov (= Ved. yugd-). Germanic, through the indirect medium of Verner’s Law (139), corroborates the main outlines of the Vedic system: to the root “wert- ‘turn, roll’, PGmc. “werp- pres. and “warp- pret.sg. match root- accented Ved. vdrt- pres. and vavdrt- perf.sg., whereas PGmc. “wurtl-- pret. pl. and “wurtl-ana- pple. agree with Ved. vavr;t(-md) (1pl.)perf. and vr;t-td-pple., whose accents are elsewhere.
Stops
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Three SERIES of stops are reconstructed for PIE: voiceless, voiced, and what are conventionally known as voiced aspirated (“bh, “dh, and so on). The phonetics of the first two types are tolerably certain, but the voiced aspirated series will require some discussion. Recently, in fact, a number of suggestions have been made for rethinking the whole system (133). The status of a fourth series of stops in PIE, a voiceless aspirated series (“ph, “th, and so on), is an ongoing question. There are several lines of argument for reconstructing this series, all of them valueless. Although five distinct POINTS OF ARTICULATION are shown here, including three dorsals (taking the voiceless series “k, “k, and “P by way of example), no more than two of the latter are required from the stand point of G and L, or of any single IE language. The literal truth of a three place system (plain velar stops in addition to palatal and labiovelar stops) for the sound inventory of the parent speech may be questioned on its face. The evidence for the “k (‘plain velar’) series is mostly of two kinds: One involves etyma in which the plain velar is adjacent to an “r, “li, or high back rounded vocoids (“ii and “w).
Liquids, Nasals, and Glides.
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Greek. The loss of PIE and ‘w between vowels in G leaves few traces. However, because the loss of y was earlier than the loss of ‘w, there are differences in the details of the contraction of the resulting vowel sequences, as set forth in 86. When immediately following a consonant, y precipitated wholesale palatalizations, in the course of which the glide as such disappeared (195-207). 2. LATIN. In L, PIE y and w survive initially, and w (‘consonantal u’, herein anachronistically written v) remained a glide, phonetically, until early in the Romance period. L orthography obscures the facts of intervocalic w--before which all short vowels became u (66.5)--by shunning the sequence -uu- (-vv-), so usual fur, minuo, monufinstead of the more accurate fuv minuvii, monuvf. Italian vedova, Genova as reflexes of L vidua ‘widow’ (PIE’widheweH2) and Genua are revealing. In Indo-Iranian, PIE ‘rand t merge. The resulting liquid was r-like in Iranian and the western dialects of Indic, but /-like in eastern Indic. The bulk of our Skt. Texts are from r-dialects. Dialect borrowing from eastern dialects, scanty in the Rigveda but increasing markedly already in the later Vedic texts, results in doublets in Sanskrit, such as rabh- and labh- both ‘seize’. These are often differentiated semantically, however, as in laghu- ‘light’ vs. raghu- ‘speedy’ (both from ‘lt;gwhu-; 95, 163). But most cases of l in Indic are in words borrowed from Dravidian and other non-Indic languages.
Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
spellings like po-pi ‘with feet’ have been interpreted as propr0i, namely, with assimilation of the stem-final stop to the point of articulation of the ending. The reasoning is that heterorganic clusters are written in such forms as te-ko-to-ne (tektones nom.pl.) ‘craftsmen’, wa-na-ka-to (ivanaktos gen.sg.) ‘prince’. But it is thinkable that po-pi and the like simply stood for potphi or pothphi, parallel to pe-mo ‘seed’ for spermo, Toa-tu ‘city’ for ivastu. The crucial forms are in any case very few in number.
Nasal + Consonant
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nasal + STOP. A nasal is assimilated to the point of articulation of a following stop. There was no special letter for the dorsal nasal [JJ] (as in NE sini; in the G alphabets or those derived from them; the sound was indicated in G by -y and in L by n (or in special cases g; 22oaf The same thing is true of our PIE reconstructions: what we write as PIE ‘penkwe ‘five’ was phonetically [peukwe] if not [peuwkwe]. The phonetics of the nasal remained unchanged in L qufnque [kwi:ukwe]; in the reflexes in other IE languages, the PIE ‘[IJ(w)] changed in accordance with the changes in the following *P: G 1revTE and 1reµ1rE, Ved. pdiica, Go.Jim!, W pimp. From avv-: G avµ{3od.vw ‘come together’, av-y-yEv c; ‘congenital’, av-yxew ‘pour together’. PIE *(d)k1t1t6m ‘hundred’ &gt; L centum ‘hundred’ : Lith. fimtas.
Groups Containing a Liquid
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Medial “-ti- became Ital. “-kl-, -cl-, followed by the development of an anaptytic vowel: poculum ‘drinking cup’ &lt; pocolom &lt; poclom (often so scanned in Plaut., as were many words normally -culum, -cula at a later date), this from “peHrtlo-. This development is mainly connected with the ‘tool’ suffix “-tlo-, including such unobvious items as saeculum ‘clan; age’ = W hoed!, originally “‘bond, cord’ &lt; PIE “sH2ey-t!om &lt; “sH2ey- ‘bind’. 0 puklum acc. ‘son’ superimposes precisely on Ved. putra-Av. pu0ra- (cf. Latv. putns ‘bird’ &lt; ? “‘chick’; cf. L putlus, c below). -A similar development is seen in Baltic, as Lith. arklas ‘plow’ &lt; “arakla- &lt; “H2erHrtlo-. But Finnish kantele (a kind of musical instrument), a lw. from PBalt. “kant!a” (as in Latv. kuokle, Lith. kafikles) proves that the original cluster still remained at the time of Baltic and Finnie contact. A complication is considered in c, below.
S-Stems
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In PIE there was a heterogeneous group of nouns and adjectives built to stems ending in -s-. These include the so-called comparative suffix “-yos- (treated in 349-54) and the marker of the stative (perfect) participle, “-wos- (treated in 561-2). Here we will treat a few root forms, the much larger group of derived s-stem nouns, and the adjectives based on them. The two or three primary s-stem adjectives seen in Vedic do not correspond to anything in G and L. NEUTER NOUNS. Where the derivation is transparent, neut. s-stem nouns were built to the tonic e-grades of verb roots. The stem had the form “-os in the (endingless) nom./acc.sg., “-os &lt; ““-osH2 in the nom./acc.pl; the stem of the remaining cases and numbers was an invariant “-es-. Thus, from the root “genH, ‘beget’, the inflection of “genHros ‘race, type’ went as follows:
Convergence of Productivity
Authors: Baumol William J , Nelson Richard R , Wolff Edward N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This comprehensive study is a collection of original articles that view the current state of knowledge of the convergence hypothesis. The hypothesis asserts that at least since the Second World War, and perhaps for a considerable period before that, the group of industrial countries was growing increasingly homogeneous in terms of levels of productivity, technology and per capita incomes. In addition, there was general catch up toward the leader, with gradual erosion of the gap between the leader country, the U.S., throughout most of the pertinent period, and that of the countries lagging most closely behind it. The book examines patterns displayed by individual industries within countries as well as the aggregate economies, various influences that underlie the process of convergence that seems to have occurred, and the role that convergence has played and promises to play in the future of the newly industrialized nations and the less developed countries. Much of the analysis is set in a historical perspective, with particular attention paid to the record following World War II. The prestigious editors conclude that increasing productivity is the key to rising living standards in a globalized marketplace. Contributors include: Moses Abramovitz, Alice M. Amsden, Magnus Blomstrom, David Dollar, Takashi Hikino, Gregory Ingram, William Lazonick, Frank Lichtenberg, Robert E. Lipsey, Angus Maddison, Gavin Wright, and Mario Zejan.
Multivariate Growth Patterns: Contagion and Common Forces as Possible Sources of Convergence
Authors: Baumol William J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The homogenization form of the convergence hypothesis can be described as the proposition that there are economic forces leading different coubtries' productivity levels (and thus their living standards) gradually to close ranks. Recent empirical research provides substantial support for this conjecture, at least for the performance of the more aflluent economies over the last half-century and, very probably, for an interval more than twice that length of time. The primary purpose of this chapter is to survey the substance of this recent literature rather than to offer any new contributions.