bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gardens
Authors: Doolittle William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relationship between people and plants is certainly an ancient one, extending back in time to the earliest days of human existence. In addition to the obvious consumption of plants, humans have affected plant growth, genetic structure, and, most importantly for present purposes, the habitats in which plants grow. Two factors are crucial in understanding people–plant relationships, time and space or distance. The longer people interacted with a particular species, the more change it and its habitat underwent. Similarly, the closer people lived to or with a plant, the greater the change it and its habitat experienced. In other words, species and habitats near places of human habitation were manipulated more than those located further away (Ford 1985b: 6;Hurt 1987: 11).
Terracing
Authors: Doolittle William E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dry farming by its very nature is typically associated with nearly level or relatively relief-free land. In no small way this is a function of the need for stability vis-à-vis the powerful forces of nature, and holds as true for rock veneers laid down by farmers as it does for naturally deposited sand. Although gravel mulch is a protective device in one respect, it is not without its weaknesses. Principal among these is its unsuitability on slope lands where runoff is heavy and its effects great. Runoff, of course, is the combined product of precipitation and the nature of the land on which it falls. (For economic assessments of cultivating level as opposed to slope lands see Plog n.d., and Plog and Garrett 1972.)
Rights And Deprivation
Authors: Jacobs Lesley A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this book Lesley Jacobs challenges the view, now prevalent in North America and Western Europe, that the primary function of a nation's social policy should be to provide support only for the poorest people instead of social services accessible to all its citizens. In an interesting and distinctive argument he develops and defends the idea that access to basic rights such as education, health care, adequate housing, and income support can provide a solid moral foundation for redistributive state welfare programmes, maintaining that any nation which purports to take rights to basic liberties seriously must also be fully committed to the principles of the welfare state. Dr Jacob's thesis addresses a pressing political and philosophical problem at the heart of the policies and structure of the modern state.
Groups and the Process of European Integration: The Work of the Federation of Stock Exchanges in the European Community
Authors: Knight Jeffrey , Mazey Sonia , Richardson Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Elsewhere in this volume (Ch. 1) it was argued that there is an inherent ‘logic’ which drives the European Commission to consult Euro-groups and to attempt to integrate them into the policy process within the Community. It was also argued that there are inherent weaknesses in the organization and structure of Euro groups. These weaknesses force the Commission, despite its ‘procedural ambition’ (Jordan and Richardson 1982: 80) of managing the consultation process via Euro-Groups, to consult national associations and individual firms directly, thereby undermining the work of Euro-groups. At least two fundamental problems face Euro groups.
David Davies and the Enforcement of Peace
Authors: Porter Brian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
David Davies, or Lord Davies as he became in 1932, was a remarkable man who achieved some remarkable things. In the academic sphere he is perhaps best remembered for his founding of the Chair and Department of International Politics at Aberystwyth, but establishing a new university discipline was only part of a larger vision and concern: that of securing, no less, the peace of the world. Lord Davies was not alone in this, nor in the interwar period did such an endeavour appear as far-fetched and quixotic as it does when viewed from the more sceptical and worldly-wise perspective of the late twentieth century. There were many who harboured similar ideas and ideals, but few had the energy, time, and money to do what he did in attempting to translate thoughts and hopes into schemes of positive action.
Railway Regulation as a Test-bed of Rational Choice
Authors: McLean Iain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is commonplace for theorists to explore some historical event from a rational-choice perspective, and (typically) to claim that it explains more than do rival perspectives.1 The procedure of this chapter is the other way round. We take a historical event (the passage of the Regulation of Railways Act 1844), try to explain why it is substantively significant and unexpected, and then judge which of a number of rival schools, including two versions of rational choice, performs best at explaining what happened.
Unemployment and Satisfaction: A European Analysis
Authors: Whelan Christopher T , McGinnity Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we draw on the first wave of the European Community Household Panel (ECHP) study carried out in 1994 to examine cross national variation in the impact of unemployment on satisfaction. There is a widespread belief in Western society that paid employment is a necessity and an assumption that most adults want and indeed, need to ‘work’ in the sense of having paid employment. Of course many people are willing to make exceptions to the view that work is necessary, most notably in the case of women with young children, but also in such cases as older members of the labour force. Such evaluations can obviously vary both across time and between societies. The stigma associated with unemployment may also vary with the extent of the employment opportunities available in a particular location and society. This ideological background provides the context in which evaluations of the impact of employment must take place.
The SDP: A Study in Failure
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The brief history of the British Social Democratic party is one of failure. Roy Jenkins’ experimental plane began by soaring into the sky, then glided for a time, then crash-landed in a very muddy field. That was even before the crew bailed out and started fighting among themselves. The new party barely dented, let alone broke, the mould of British party politics. It did not obtain power on its own or hold the balance of power in a hung parliament. It did not displace the Labour party, or usher in multi-party politics, or bring electoral reform to the statute book, or even permanently alter the political agenda. The party system of today scarcely differs from that of the 1960s and 1970s, before the new party was formed.
Turkey
Authors: Hale William 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a study of the impact of the Cold War on the politics of the Middle East, one has to start by making the obvious point that, between 1945 and 1990, Turkey’s international position was fundamentally different from those of the other Middle Eastern countries, bar Iran, in that it was a front-line participant in the Cold War. Accordingly, the global conflict normally took precedence over regional conflicts in its foreign policy, and it could not afford the luxury of non-alignment.
Chemical weapon agent and historic chemical munitions disposal: the British experience
Authors: Manley Ron G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The destruction of chemical weapon stocks, CW-filled weapons and the plant associated with the production, bulk storage and weapon filling of CW materials is a difficult and hazardous task. This chapter outlines the approach of the United Kingdom to this problem. It describes the method used during the 1970s for the disposal of the nerve agent GB (sarin), the associated pilot plant and storage facilities, residual stocks of mustard gas (20 tonnes), ethyliodo¬ acetate-KSK (10 tonnes) and a-bromobenzyl cyanide-BBC (10 tonnes) and techniques currently used for the safe disposal of recovered, ‘historic’ chemical munitions. However, as it was one of the factors which influenced the disposal methods selected, it is first worth briefly reviewing the World War II and post¬ war history of CW agent production within the United Kingdom.
Strategic Coercion
Authors: Freedman Lawrence 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The objective of this chapter is to develop the concept of strategic coercion, defined as the deliberate and purposive use of overt threats to influence another’s strategic choices. The term ‘strategic coercion’ has been adopted to distinguish this approach from the earlier and familiar concepts of compellence and coercive diplomacy, developed respectively by Tom Schelling and Alexander George, which have their own specific meanings. 1 None the less, while this chapter attempts to set out a distinctive approach, rather than attempt to start from scratch, it builds on many of the large themes raised by Schelling and George in their pioneering work.
A Non-State Actor as Coercer and Coerced: The PLO in Lebanon, 1969-1976
Authors: Yigh Yezid Sa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter has several purposes. The first is to demonstrate generally the relevance of the concept of strategic coercion in analysis of the crisis behaviour of actors in the Third World other than the superpowers. Second, and most important, is to test its applicability to non-state actors. Third is to establish the need to ‘historicize’ the analysis of strategic coercion, that is, to understand it as part of a series of repeated, or iterated, interactions between the same core group of actors, in which coercive precedents and political or diplomatic conventions are set.
Introduction
Authors: Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The impact of social divisions on political life has long been a central concern of political sociology. For much of the formative decades of the field, research on social movements, party systems, public opinion, and voting behavior examined the social bases of political life. The reasons for this interest are not hard to discern. In capitalist democracies, politics, like other arenas of social life, is shaped by inequalities in the amount of power and status enjoyed by different groups. How such factors affect political contests and outcomes tells us much about the nature of democratic polities in specific national contexts.
The Sociological Tradition in Political Behavior Research
Authors: Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scholarly interest in the relationship between social cleavages and political alignments can be traced to recurring political predictions (especially in the European context) that the interests of a growing working class might provide the foundation for an ‘electoral road to socialism’. These predictions were based on the assumption that class interests inevitably lead voters to favor the political party most likely to advance those interests. The ‘class politics’ thesis became the object of social science inquiry when political change did not unfold in the ways predicted by the theories put forward by Marxists and other social democratic intellectuals.
Social Cleavages 1n the 1996 Election
Authors: Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1996, Democratic incumbent Bill Clinton won a second term in office, becoming the first two-term Democratic president since Franklin Roosevelt and also the first two-term president since Woodrow Wilson never to win a majority of the popular vote. Clinton’s first term in office was marked by a remarkable series of policy and political twists and turns. Elected in 1992 with an increased Democratic majority in both houses of Congress, Clinton initially pursued a reform-oriented agenda. In the spring of 1993 he proposed a variety of expansionary fiscal measures aimed at increasing employment and easing the country out of recession. In the fall of 1993, Clinton dramatically unveiled a sweeping proposal for national health insurance.
Third Party Candidates
Authors: Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The institutional characteristics of the U.S. party system place enormous obstacles to the emergence of successful third party or in dependent candidates. As a result, our primary focus in this study has been on support for major party presidential candidates. However, and in spite of their extremely low probability of success, third party candidacies are a periodic feature of U.S. presidential elections. The two most recent presidential elections (1992 and 1996) have seen H. Ross Perot receive a significant share (19% and 9%, respectively) of the popular vote. It is thus likely that significant third party candidates will appear in some future elections.
Historical Perspective
Authors: Dalal-Clayton Barry , Dent David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The focus of resource assessment and land use planning has changed significantly over the last century, especially in the last twenty years. In developing countries, this evolution can be traced through several phases which may be dubbed: early colonial times; the late colonial period following the end of the Second World War (1945-60); the immediate post independence period (the 1960s); the international aid era when aid agency activity grew in the 1970s and 1980s; and, most recently, the post Brundtland period following the publication of the influential report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission) in 1987. These are not sharply defined chronological periods, and activities characteristic of one phase have sometimes overlapped or continued through later ones.
Strategies for Sustainable Development
Authors: Dalal-Clayton Barry , Dent David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The report of the Brundtland Commission (WCED 1987) focused political attention on deep-seated concerns about environmental degradation linked with the rush for development. During the 1980s, there was a proliferation of environmental and development strategies: international, national, and local. Most concentrated on one particular theme such as population, housing, forests, or biodiversity, but some were more wide-ranging (Carew Reid et al. 1994). Out of all these has grown a consensus that the goal of sustainable development is a quality of human life that can be maintained from generation to generation because it is socially acceptable, economically viable, and environmentally sound.
Participatory Planning
Authors: Dalal-Clayton Barry , Dent David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Almost always, the decisions about land use that really matter are still those taken by the actual users of the land. In spite of the efforts of the planners, some degree of local management for local ends continues and people revert to the old ways once control or incentives are withdrawn. There are innumerable instances of external initiatives in soil conservation, grazing control, and the conservation of forests and wildlife that have been undermined during implementation or discontinued once external funding ceased. For example, an evaluation of twenty-five projects sponsored by the World Bank recorded that thirteen had been abandoned a few years after financial assistance ended, and concluded that the main causes of failure were lack of participation by the local communities and lack of attention to building local organizations (Zazueta 1995). On the other hand, there are many examples of successful development based on participation of the local community (see Boxes 8.2, 8.9, and 8.12) and instances of enthusiastic and widespread adoption of new practices that yield immediate benefits to the land users and, at the same time, fit easily into the existing system of
The United Kingdom: From Hypercentralization to Devolution
Authors: Loughlin John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The United Kingdom (UK) is a liberal democratic state where democracy is exercised in the context of the doctrine of the sovereignty of parliament. Neither the democratic features of the UK nor even the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty are codified in a written constitution, but are rather the accumulation of unwritten ‘conventions’ as well as written rules—laws passed by parliament and case-laws made by judges— that have developed over long periods of time. The concept of democracy in the UK has similarly developed over time and in a piecemeal manner during a period of about two hundred years. It is based on the liberal concept of the primacy of the individual, conceived as someone in possession of a bundle of’rights’, in particular the right to conduct commerce, that could be exercised provided that they did not interfere with the rights of others. At first, it was restricted to gentlemen of means and property, thus excluding the lower classes and women. This ‘economic’ right was also the basis of other rights: the right to freedom of speech, the right to a free press; the right to vote and stand in elections, the right to representation in parliament.
Luxembourg: Change and Continuities in the Local State
Authors: Hendriks Prank 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Luxembourg is a unitary state with a single legislative chamber and a single tier of subnational, that is municipal, government (consisting of 118 municipalities). Below, subnational/municipal democracy in Luxembourg is described in the context of the central-state structure. In 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, the territories of present-day Belgium and Luxembourg were united with the Kingdom of the Netherlands in order to create a buffer state against France. Belgium gained independence in 1830. Luxembourg became independent nine years later, even though the personal union between Luxembourg and the Dutch crown ended only in 1890. ln that year, the Dutch King William III died without leaving a male heir in Luxembourg and succession passed to the present Luxembourg dynasty. This furthered the eastward orientation of Luxembourg, which had been boosted earlier by the inclusion of Luxembourg in the German Zollverein (Customs Union) in 1842, which lasted until 1918.
France: Between Centralization and Fragmentation
Authors: Loughlin John , Seiler Daniel-I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
France has been a model of state organization that has been copied time and again. Many of the countries mentioned in this book were inspired by the French system and imported the French departmental model. At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century France was regarded as being at the forefront of institutional design particularly for states such as Greece, Italy, Finland, and Ireland emerging after a period of nationalist struggle. The French model embodies a republican vision of the nation-state, which promotes the equal treatment of citizens as well as of territority. Until recently, the French state was among the most centralized in Europe and was built on the famous Jacobin notion of ‘the one and indivisible Republic’ (Hayward 1983). This was interpreted in the past and to some extent is interpreted to this day as meaning uniformity enforced through the system of prefects set up by Napoleon I as a way of consolidating the centralizing processes of the French Revolution. This picture of a highly centralized and uniform state needs to be modified, however, by the sociological and cultural diversity that characterizes France right up to the present day (Braudel 1986).
Portugal: The Difficulties of Regionalization
Authors: Loughlin John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Compared with the other member states of the European Union, Portugal is a country of contrasts. On the one hand, it is one of the most centralized of the unitary states, but, on the other, it has one of the most participatory and most modern local democracies. Linguistically, it is one of the most homogeneous nations. Sociologically, it is divided along north-south or north-centre-south dimensions. Portugal’s territorial development was among the earliest in Europe and its present borders were already fixed by the Middle Ages. It could be argued that a sense of national identity developed as early as the break away from the Kingdom of Spain. Portugal was a small country, but became an important imperial nation and, historically, it belongs to the group of great powers such as England, France, and Spain. It too is at the centre of a large linguistic community—the lusophone. Portuguese comes fourth among the European languages spoken in the world—after English, French, and Spanish, but before German. Portugal is thus one of the four European states that are at the centre of a global network of solidarity and cultural exchange. After decolonization in the 1970s, only the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira remain from this imperialist and maritime past.
Subtle Silence and its Consequences
Authors: Stern Fritz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I am delighted to join colleagues in celebrating Peter Pulzer’s achievements in age and work. What follows is a translation of a lecture I gave at the University of Munich in November 1998 under the title ‘The Subtle Silence: Steps toward Criminality’. I hope this will go some way toward expressing my admiration for Peter’s work, so deep and so wonderfully varied. I have always seen him as one of those rare colleagues of outstanding quiet courage, a model from which we can all learn and a happy antithetical example to those I discuss below The phrase ‘subtle silence’ comes not from me, but from Friedrich Nietzsche. In Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche, that apprehensive analyst of modern Germany, wrote about the ‘profundity’ attributed to the Germans, and asked himself what Goethe had actually thought about them. ‘But’, Nietzsche went on, ‘he never pronounced clearly on many things around him, and all his life he was good at maintaining a subtle silence; he probably had good reasons.’
State Capacity in an Asian Democracy: The Example of Taiwan
Authors: Domes Jürgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Among students of Chinese politics, there is now almost unanimous consent that the Republic of China on Taiwan (Roe) has undergone, mainly after the mid 1980s, a process of systemic change from a developmental authoritarian dictatorship to a representative democracy.
The political history of the RoC since the flight of the Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT) government from the Chinese mainland to Taiwan should, in my view, be divided into three stages:
authoritarian rule, and its stable existence, which can be dated from 1949 to 1975 or 1976;
pluralization and incipient liberalization, which the present author dates from 1975 or 1976 to 1986; and
a fully fledged transition to competitive politics (which I date from 1986 to the popular election of the RoC president on 23 March 1996).
Informalization and Growth: the Political Economy of Local Enterprises
Authors: Brødsgaard Kjeld Erik , Sheel Kamal 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Local enterprises have played a pivotal role in the economic growth of rural China. Often referred to as township and village enterprises (TVEs), they numbered 20 million by 1997. They employ more than 130 million peasants or surplus rural labour force and they account for close to 45 per cent of China’s total industrial output value and close to 40 per cent of total exports.1 In the developed eastern region of China, more than 60 per cent of peasants’ income derives from these enterprises. The prospect of better incomes from participation in enterprises has in fact led millions of unemployed or underemployed members of peasant households to relinquish agricultural activities. The emerging pattern thus indicates diminishing labour in agriculture and the shift of household labour either to private or collective enterprises.