bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Omar Khayyam
Authors: Coolidge Julian Lowell , Gray Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ghizathudin Abulfath Ibn Ibrahim Al Khayyami, who is generally known under the name given at the beginning of this chapter, spent most of his life at Naishapur. There is a good deal of uncertainty about his dates, but he seems to have lived during the latter part of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth centuries. There is a tradition that he died in 1123, but we cannot place too much confidence in it. The most significant episode in his early years was his friendship with two unusual young men, Nizam al Mulk and Hassan ibn Subbuh.
Antoine Arnauld
Authors: Coolidge Julian Lowell , Gray Jeremy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is really noteworthy that the small fraternity of the Port Royal produced two writers of uncommon mentality who had more than a passing interest in mathematics. One of these was Blaise Pascal, whom we discussed in the last chapter, and who stood very close to the company without being technically a member of it, the other was his intimate associate Antoine Arnauld, ‘le grand Arnauld’ as his countrymen frequently called him. His intimacy with Pascal was so close that n some places it is difficult to distinguish between them, a difficulty which has arisen more than once in the long history of mathematics. Pascal had original, brilliantly original, ideas, and made important contributions towards the advancement of mathematical science.
T. S. Kuhn’s theories and mathematics: a discussion paper on the ‘new historiography’ of mathematics (1976)
Authors: Mehrtens Herbert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a paper published recently in Historia Mathematica, M. J. Crowe tried ‘to stimulate discussion of the historiography of mathematics by asserting ten “laws” concerning change in mathematics’ (Crowe 1975, p. 16). His starting point is the ‘new historiography of science’, whose basic book is T. S. Kuhn’s essay The structure of scientific revolutions (1970a), the. first edition of which appeared in 1962. There has been much discussion on Kuhn’s theses since. Eventually Kuhn had to refine some of his concepts, which was done in the important ‘Postscript 1969’ to the second edition of his book, and in further papers (Kuhn 1970b, 1970c).
Application of dynamic light scattering to biological systems
Authors: Janmey Paul A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many respects, biological macromolecules are well suited for study by dynamic light scattering. They are usually sufficiently large to be strong scatterers at low concentrations, and their diffusion constants are generally appropriate to give rise to intensity autocorrelations that can accurately be measured by available instrumentation. Most important, biological macro-molecules are often synthesized in precisely defined molecular weights, allowing almost perfectly monodisperse solutions. These features have motivated many studies of the conformation and size of proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, lipids, and their supermolecular assemblies. The sizes of biological molecules and assemblies that have been studied by DLS range from monomeric proteins of molecular weight as low as 6000 to intact cells several micrometres in diameter. A common experimental limit for these molecules is imposed by their thermal instability and propensity to aggregate or otherwise change their state of assembly in non-physiological solutions. The non-perturbing nature of DLS and the lack of a requirement for labelling the molecule of interest have facilitated measurements of very delicate materials and have allowed the detection of interactions between chemically distinct materials such as protein-lipid interactions under conditions designed to mimic those encountered in vivo. Interpretation of scattering from the wide variety of biological materials presents a formidable challenge to theorists and in some cases limits the structural information that can be derived from chemically well-defined samples. Therefore DLS measurements are often combined with such methods as electron microscopy, birefringence, static light scattering, or neutron scattering. to achieve an unambiguous molecular interpretation.
Elements Ii: The Dimension Of Squares
Authors: Fowler D H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
These detailed mathematical arguments underly a historical argument: I propose that this whole programme may indeed correspond to an early Greek investigation of which only the basic geometrical figures survive. Thus the situation is complementary to that which we find in the Meno: our surviving manuscripts of Plato’s dialogues do not-and perhaps none of them ever did-contain any of the figures on which the mathematical arguments depend.
Babylon
Authors: Macintosh Wilson Alistair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mesopotamia, the ‘land between the rivers’, is the name given by the Greek historian Polybius (second century BC) to the region enclosed between the Tigris and the Euphrates in southern Iraq (Fig. 4.1). In the 400 miles between Baghdad and the Persian Gulf, the land drops only about 30 feet (9 metres). The great rivers run slowly, often changing their courses and depositing enormous quantities of fertile silt. It has been calculated that the Tigris and Euphrates remove three million tons of eroded material a day from the highlands of Iraq, and deposit it on the plains. The resulting sediments carpet the southern part of Iraq with fertile soil, which ranges in depth from 16 to 23 feet (5 to 7 metres).
The Achaeans
Authors: Macintosh Wilson Alistair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
About 2000 BC, a branch of the Indo-European or Aryan people was forced southward into what is now Greece. These invaders were later called the Achaeans. Their greatest poet, Homer, called them the Danaans or the Argives. They were to give the world the modern form of mathematics. The Achaeans were probably fairer skinned than the tribes living along the side of the Aegean sea, whom they conquered and merged with. Like the Shang, they fought on foot and from horseback, their greatest pleasures being fighting and hunting. They were great breeders and trainers of horses. When they finally settled, the Achaeans lived in houses which consisted of long rectangular rooms, with side walls projecting to form a shallow porch.
Polarons
Authors: Mott Sir Nevill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An electron in a localized state, in either a crystalline or a non-crystalline material, will always distort its surroundings to some extent. For shallow donors in silicon and germanium, and for localized states in band tails, the radius of the localized state is normally large and the distortion consequently small; it is usually neglected, though this is not the case for deep levels. However, even for a free electron in a conduction band (or a hole in a valence band), significant distortion of the surroundings can occur under certain conditions, such as large effective mass. If distortion occurs, a ‘pseudoparticle’ is formed, which can move as a whole, the electron and the distortion it produces moving together. This pseudoparticle is called a polaron.
Non-crystalline semiconductors
Authors: Mott Sir Nevill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whereas in impurity bands in crystalline semiconductors the environment in which the electrons move is known a priori, in amorphous semiconductors this is not so. Our understanding of their electrical behaviour depends both on the rules for the motion of electrons deduced from the theories and experiments described in previous chapters, and on investigations of their structure. We shall discuss in this chapter some of the more important non¬ crystalline semiconductors and in Chapter 9 materials with large values of the band gap, such as vitreous silicon dioxide and oxide glasses. We must distinguish between materials that can be formed by rapid cooling from the melt, such as vitreous Si02 and certain of the chalcogenide glasses, and those that cannot, such as amorphous silicon and germanium.t In the latter, the coordination number is the same as that in the crystal, namely four, but in the melt it is larger, and the liquids are metallic, with properties similar to those of liquid lead. Amorphous silicon and germanium can therefore be prepared only by deposition from some gaseous phase, for instance in a glow discharge, or by bombarding the crystals with fast ions.
Vitreous silicon dioxide
Authors: Mott Sir Nevill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Vitreous silicon dioxide has a very wide gap of the order of 9 eV and is consequently an excellent insulator. It is important for many reasons; it is the raw material of the communications technology of fibre optics, and in such devices as the MOSFET (metal oxide silicon field effect transistor) layers of vitreous silica are formed on silicon by thermal oxidation (see§ 9.3). In this chapter we give a brief account of the band structure of the material, the defects in the network, and the oxidation of silicon by which it can be formed.
Geological setting and tectonic history of Mesoamerica
Authors: Donnelly Thomas W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The goal of the geologist is primarily geological history, that is, the elucidation of the sequence of events as a result of which the non-biological world as we know it came to be. This goal requires particular attention to the physical processes acting on the earth at present (‘the present is the key to the past’). The processes we can observe are mainly those acting on the surface of the earth; thus, it is not surprising that the history of surficial processes was elucidated first. Interior processes were and remain for the most part mysterious, and only recently has there been a firm and defensible basis for believing that the interior of the earth is not static but in vigorous motion, that the surface of the earth responds strongly to these interior processes, and that we can chart the changes of the surface of the earth back in time with some accuracy and so learn not only of the earth’s total history but of the forces that formed it.
Webspinners of Panama (Embiidina)
Authors: Ross Edward S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Embiidina Embioptera, webspinners or footspinners) comprise a small order of mostly undescribed species occurring mainly in tropical and temperate regions that lack a prolonged cold season. All stages of all species spin silk galleries by means of gland-packed foretarsi. The defining characters of the order represent adaptations for effective movement in such galleries. These provide significant protection from predators and parasitoids as the embiids feed on edible substrate (outer bark, moss, lichens, and dead leaves). The primary escape is rapid backward movement into deeper recesses of the galleries or crevices. To augment such evasive movement, adult females of all species are apterous, remaining nymphoform through neoteny. Males of most species are winged and retain other primordial characteristics. Because the natural spread of a species is limited by the short distances the females can safely walk without the protection of silk galleries, the order’s spread on to geologically young land surfaces is limited. Thus, the embiid fauna of Panama is relatively small compared to the older and more diverse regions to the north and south. The present study is based principally on material collected by me during three visits to Panama. Suitable habitats exist throughout the country but, seemingly, not all are occupied. Particularly perplexing is the apparent absence of the order from forests of the Caribbean drainage system. This appears also to be the case in comparable zones of Costa Rica. The richest representation is in Panama’s montane habitats and such a pattern prevails through other regions of Central America and Mexico.
Catalogue of the Nymphalinae of Panama (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)
Authors: Lamas Gerardo , Small Gordon B 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the butterfly fauna of the Neotropics, and particularly that of Central America. A number of workers in this area have indicated to us that up-to-date information on the composition of the fauna of the Republic of Panama would be useful. Little has been published on the Panamanian butterflies since the classical work of Godman and Salvin (1879-1901) and the references to it in Seitz (1907-1924). Although Panamanian butterflies have been collected since at least the latter part of the 18th century (Brown and Heineman 1972; Lamas 1979), the only comprehensive works devoted specifically to this fauna are restricted to the area of the former Canal Zone and its vicinity, and were published in this century (Dyar 1914; Bell 1931; Huntington 1932; Emmel and Leck 1970). During the last 25 years much more information has become available as the result of field trips made by the junior author, Annette Aiello, Francisco Delgado, and others. This information, together with that obtained by examination of the collections of several major museums, has enabled us.to get a clearer idea of the composition and extent of the fauna.
Anatomical philosophy: homologies, transformations, and character phylogenies
Authors: Janvier Philippe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1809 Lamarck published his Zoological philosophy, and in 1818 and 1822 Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire published his Anatomical philosophy. Lamarck expressed ideas on how organisms have transformed with time; Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire speculated on how organs transformed or arose from a pattern that was once common to all animals. To Geoffroy, anatomical philosophy was a way of finding order and sense in the distribution of similarities among organisms. It included ‘analogies’ (homologies in the modern sense) and theories about transformations. This sounds like idealistic morphology, but it is just what people have done—and still do—when trying to find out how fins have transformed into limbs, for example. I therefore take the risk of resurrecting this old term for the title of this chapter.
A short history of research on early vertebrates
Authors: Janvier Philippe 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reader may be surprised to see this chapter on the history of early vertebrate research at the end of the book. I think, however, that it is more fruitful to consider the history after the present-day data, theories, and beliefs have been presented and discussed. The diversity of opinion on the structure and relationships of early vertebrates stems largely from the beginning of this century, and has been initiated on the one hand by the work of the anatomists E. S. Goodrich and E. P. Allis and on the other by that of the palaeontologists E. Stensio and A. S. Romer. Opinions on extrinsic data, such as the mode of life, stratigraphy, and biogeography, are more deeply rooted into the history of geology and can be traced back to the nineteenth century. I have divided this brief historical account into two sections: first, the history of the discovery of the structure and relationships of early vertebrates, which is closely linked with the progress of comparative biology; second, the history of exploration and field discoveries, which has more to do with the history of geology.
Phosphorus
Authors: Stanton R L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although phosphorus is little thought of, and only infrequently referred to, as a constituent of exhalative ores, it is in fact a substantial component - as apatite — of some very important deposits of this class. It is conspicuous in some of the major Proterozoic stratiform Pb-Zn deposits, such as those of Broken Hill, Gamsberg, and Aggenys; occurs in abundance in some iron-rich exhalative ores, such as those of Kiruna; appears as a noteworthy minor component of some Palaeozoic and younger exhalative base-metal deposits; and is conspicuous in some of the exhalites associated with them.
Nickel
Authors: Stanton R L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although nickel is a highly chalcophile element, and indeed has a stronger affinity for sulphur than has iron, and although its average abundance in sea-floor basalts is some 60 per cent greater than that of copper, it is conspicuous for its scarcity in exhalative ores. It has been suggested by Lusk (1976a,b) that some of the stratiform nickel deposits associated with mafic to ultramafic lavas of the Archaean of Australia and Canada may be exhalative, and a firm case for such an origin for the nickelcobalt-bearing copper deposits of Outokumpu, in the Lower Proterozoic Karelian terrane of Finland, has been made by Peltola (1978), Koistinen (1981), and others. Apart from this, however, nickel appears as no more than a trace in exhalative deposits. As far as the writer is aware, exhalative ores containing commercial quantities of nickel are unknown in the two great epochs of exhalative ore formation: the Lower Proterozoic, c. 1500-2000 Ma, and the Lower to Middle Palaeozoic, 350-550Ma.
Petrogenesis: 2: Exhalative ores
Authors: Stanton R L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having considered the derivation of the various components of the Solomon Islands Younger Volcanic Suite and, in particular, having deduced that the generation of the andesitic and dacitic rocks has been influenced by exhalative loss of some of the major elements of the magmas in question, it is now appropriate to examine the possible place of the exhalative ores in the overall petrogenetic process.
The very large copper-gold orebody of Panguna is contained in sub-volcanic andesitic rocks of the Younger Volcanic Suite on Bougainville.
Using this Book
Authors: Hayward P J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a manual for the identification of approximately 1500 species of the north-west European marine fauna. The process of identification depends on the use of simple dichotomous keys, by which means a species’ identity is determined after choosing correctly from a sequence of paired contrasting diagnostic characters. Despite the obvious attractions of pictorial guides, the dichotomous key remains the most efficient and precise means of identifying organisms and, although keys to large taxonomic groups may appear intimidating, in practice it may not take more than half a dozen steps to arrive at a name for the specimen to hand.
Spatially Explicit Approaches
Authors: Hanski llkka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The patch models described in the previous chapter are based on the assumption that all populations are equally connected-called the mean-field approximation-hence these models deal with space only implicitly. With patch models, we can explore the metapopulation dynamic consequences of reduced average patch density, but not, for instance, the consequences of habitat destruction in any specific part of a hypothetical or real landscape. This chapter is concerned with modelling approaches, commonly referred to as spatially explicit models, which account for the actual spatial locations of populations. I have made a distinction between spatially explicit and spatially realistic models (Hanski 1994b), the latter including information about the actual geometry of fragmented landscapes and hence allowing modelling of real metapopulations.
Spatial structure of populations
Authors: Hanski llkka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some species have practically continuous populations over large areas of suitable habitat; one example is the common shrew (Sorex araneus) in coniferous forests in Fennoscandia. Even in these cases, the environment is not quite as continuous as it might seem at first, and population density is likely to vary from one place to another. For most species, most landscapes are patchy, because the species have evolved specific habitat requirements and because the landscapes are complex habitat mosaics. It would be interesting to have a detailed description of spatial population structure for some large assemblage of species in some large area. Denoting by h; the percentage of the landscape consisting of suitable habitat for species i, one wonders what would be the distribution of the h; values in large communities? And what would be the distribution of p;, the fraction of the suitable habitat that is actually occupied at one point in time? It is frustrating that we have such basic data for only a handful of individual species, not for communities.
Comparative levels of genetic variability in harbour seals and northern elephant seals as determined by genetic fingerprinting
Authors: Lehman Niles , Ne Robert K Way , Stewart 3and Brent S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a consequence of recent population bottlenecks, the amount of genetic variability in the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) is thought to be extremely low. However, the species is apparently thriving throughout its breeding range in the eastern Pacific. By using analysis of hypervariable minisatellite loci in the northern elephant seal, we find that this species is indeed lacking invariation, as roughly 90% of alleles are shared among all the individuals tested. There is not enough variation to test hypotheses concerning island and beach philopatry. In contrast, harbour seals (Phocavitulina) tested from the eastern Pacific possess much greater levels of variation at these loci and demonstrate a small degree of population-genetic structuring among the breeding sites studied.
Sex allocation
Authors: Charnov Eric L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Darwin (1871) first raised the question of sex ratio evolution, and saw it as both important and enigmatic. However, he was unable to make much headway with the problem and declared it a puzzle for the future. This particular future arrived about 60 years later, when Fisher (1930) pointed out for diploid dioecy that under autosomal inheritance half the genes passed to zygotes come from males and half come from females.
Indeterminate growth
Authors: Charnov Eric L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although many species of animals, including a diverse array of birds, mammals, cephalopods, and terrestrial arthropods, cease growing after they reach sexual maturity, this pattern of determinate growth is the exception rather than the rule. Most other vertebrates and invertebrates show indeterminate growth where they begin reproducing before they attain maximum body size. Prior to maturation, energy is allocated to maintenance and growth, whereas after maturation it is also allocated to reproduction. Indeterminate growth is commonly described by expressions such as the Bertalanffy equation; Fig. 4.1 shows a typical life history where the rate of growth declines with age and the animal eventually approaches some asymptotic length if it survives for long enough. At the age at maturation a the individual is typically 50-80 per cent of the asymptotic length (15-50 per cent of the weight) depending upon the species.
Collections and Observations
Authors: Kohn Alan J , Perron Frank E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents the basic data that are the sources of, and are essential to, the comparative analyses, syntheses and tests of the hypotheses in Chapters 4 and 5. They consist of descriptive accounts of the reproductive biology of each of the 62 IP species of Conus for which we have information and, in Appendix Table 1, a summary of the quantitative aspects in matrix form. This is to facilitate comparisons within and between species. As Underwood (1991) noted in another marine ecological context, publication of such large-scale surveys is important, because this provides the means to test hypotheses.