bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Amyl Alcohols
Authors: Papa Anthony J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAmyl alcohol describes any saturated aliphatic alcohol containing five carbon atoms. This class consists of three pentanols, four substituted butanols, and a disubstituted propanol, ie, eight structural isomers C5H12O: four primary, three secondary, and one tertiary alcohol. In addition, 2‐pentanol, 2‐methyl‐1‐butanol, and 3‐methyl‐2‐butanol have chiral centers and hence two enantiomeric forms. The odd‐carbon structure and the extent of branching provide amyl alcohols with unique physical and solubility properties and often offer ideal properties for solvent, surfactant, extraction, gasoline additive, and fragrance applications. Today the most important industrial process for amyl alcohol production is low pressure rhodium‐catalyzed hydroformylation (oxo process) of butenes. Mixtures of isomeric amyl alcohols (1‐pentanol and 2‐methyl‐1‐butanol) are often preferred because they are less expensive to produce commercially and have a more desirable combination of properties. With the exception of neopentyl alcohol (mp 53°C), the amyl alcohols are clear, colorless liquids under atmospheric conditions, with characteristic, slightly pungent and penetrating odors. Commercial primary amyl alcohol is a mixture of 1‐pentanol and 2‐methyl‐1‐butanol. Like the lower alcohols, amyl alcohols are completely miscible with numerous organic solvents and are excellent solvents for nitrocellulose, resin lacquers, higher esters, and various natural and synthetic gums and resins. However, in contrast to the lower alcohols, they are only slightly soluble in water. Important amyl alcohol reactions include dehydration, esterification, oxidation, amination, etherification, and condensation. Three significant commercial processes for the production of amyl alcohols include separation from fusel oils, chlorination of C‐5 alkanes with subsequent hydrolysis to produce a mixture of seven of the eight isomers (Pennsalt), and a low pressure oxo process. The oxo process is the principal one in practice today. The main effects of prolonged exposure to amyl alcohols are irritation to mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract, significant depression of the central nervous system, and narcotic effects from vapor inhalation or oral absorption. All the alcohols are harmful if inhaled or swallowed. 3‐Methyl‐1‐butanol has demonstrated carcinogenic activity in animal studies. The amyl alcohols are readily flammable substances;tert‐amyl alcohol is the most flammable. Their vapors can form explosive mixtures with air. Amyl alcohols are best stored or shipped in either aluminum, lined steel, or stainless steel tanks.
Hormones, Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Authors: Matteri Robert L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe hormones of the anterior pituitary gland play a significant role in the maintenance of normal health and body function. This master gland produces hormones involved in the regulation of somatic growth, metabolic rate, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, lactation, reproduction, and response to stress. Eleven anterior pituitary hormones have been extensively characterized at the protein and genomic levels. These hormones fall into three classic categories, ie, pro‐opiomelanocortin‐related (POMC‐related) hormones, proteins structurally related to prolactin and growth hormone (PRL/GH‐related), and glycoproteins. Structural similarities exist within each biochemical category, and the structural data presented represent listings in the Protein Identification Resource (PIR) database, compiled by the National Biomedical Research Foundation. Summary information on the principal biologic roles of each of these hormones is provided, as are commercial availability and source.
Antiaging Agents
Authors: Cottam Howard B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe aging process in humans is extremely complex with many factors undoubtedly involved to some degree including environmental, dietary, and genetic influences. The process can be described as a physical decline and involves the buildup of cellular and molecular damage that increases our susceptibility to disease and infirmity as we grow older.The current view of scientists is that random damage that occurs within cells and among extracellular molecules is responsible for many of the age‐related changes that are observed in organisms. Molecular disorder occurs and accumulates within cells and their products because this occurrence outpaces the cell's repair mechanisms. This article summarizes recent literature reports of research efforts directed toward intervention in the aging process as well as changes and diseases associated with the aging process involving all the major organ systems in humans. Consideration is given to pharmacological treatment and prevention of such age‐related changes and conditions.
Antimony and Antimony Alloys
Authors: Li T. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Antimony, Sb, belongs to Group 15 (VA) of the Periodic Table, which also includes arsenic and bismuth. World reserves of antimony are estimated to be ∼ 2.1 million metric tons. Most of the world's supply can be found in China, Bolivia, Russia, and the Republic of South Africa. Antimony is a slivery white, brittle solid. It is ordinarily quite stable and not readily attacked by air. Antimony is often associated with lead ores. The antimony content of commercial ores ranges from 5 to 60% and determines the method of treatment, either pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical. Process metallurgy details are given, as well as alternative methods of production. Antimony is available as cast cakes, ingots, broken pieces, granules, shot, and single crystals. The United States is not self‐sufficient in its requirements for antimony and much of it is imported. China supplies most of the needed antimony.
Uses for antimony include as compounds in flame retardants, transportation, (including batteries), chemicals, and glass.
Antimony is a common air pollutant and is released into the environment by burning fossil fuels and from industry. Antimony can enter the human body by ingestion of meats, vegetables, and seafood. Metallic antimony can be handled without danger, but it is recommended that direct skin contact be avoided. The bulk of secondary antimony has been recovered as antimonial lead.
Antiviral Agents
Authors: Hosmane Ramachandra S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSince the discovery of the first virus >100 years ago, thousands of different viruses have been identified and characterized, and a number of plant, animal, and human ailments have been traced to viral origin. The rapid advances made in tools and techniques of molecular biology in the last 40 years, coupled with cooperative efforts in genetics and biochemical fronts, have afforded intricate details of the structure, function, replication, and genomic makeup of a host of viruses. As there are too many viruses to give even short accounts, this article focuses on only those that have some relevance to human diseases. But, since the list of all human viruses would still be too long to give detailed descriptions for each, the focus is further narrowed down to four major viruses that are currently perceived to threaten global health. These four viruses include HIV (human immunodeficiency virus, which causes AIDS), HBV and HCV (hepatitis B and C viruses that cause liver damage), and the more recent WNV (West Nile virus that causes brain inflammation). Nevertheless, an attempt has been made to classify all the known major viruses based on their shape, size, symmetry, hosts, and chemical composition that includes nucleic acid, protein, and presence or absence of lipid envelope.As they are a form of life that cannot replicate outside a host cell, viruses have evolved to develop complex and diverse interactions with higher organisms. Therefore, it was long believed that the development of antiviral agents that would specifically disrupt the viral replication process without affecting the normal metabolic events of the host would be difficult. Thanks to excellent advances in virology, several targets that are unique to the viruses have now been identified and successfully explored. This article briefly describes the general processes of viral infection to point out potential targets for selective antiviral agents. These targets are then classified into two major virus‐specific processes, including (a) early events of viral adsorption, penetration and uncoating, and (b) later synthetic events that concern intracellular replication of the virus. While there are only limited choices of candidates dealing with the early events, a much larger pool of candidates exists for targeting the later events in a virus life cycle, and they are known to be virus‐specific. The viruses synthesize and utilize specific enzymes and proteins, and more importantly, the replication of viral genomes is also virus‐specific. Nucleoside analogues which target these later events of viral life cycles have played major roles as antiviral agents against almost all the major viruses, and therefore, a special emphasis has been placed on this class of compounds in this review article. Prophylactic measures such as vaccine immunization have also been discussed under each of the four major viruses mentioned.
Antiobesity Drugs
Authors: Tilley Jefferson W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractObesity is a major medical problem in the United States. In the 1990s, an estimated 55% of the adult U.S. population were above their ideal body weights and as a consequence, were at risk for the development of various chronic ailments including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Both genetic and social factors contribute to the development of obesity. Currently available treatments include diet, exercise, anorectic sympathomimetic agents, and fat absorption inhibitors. Even though most patients are able to lose at least a portion of their excess weight, long‐term weight loss is extremely difficult to achieve, and behavior modification is an absolute requirement for ultimate success. The appetite suppressant drugs with significant sales, phenylpropanolamine, phentermine, and sibutramine, are based on stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and are indicated only for short‐term treatment of obesity because of their side effect profile and lack of robust efficacy. The first fat absorption inhibitor, the pancreatic lipase inhibitor orlistat, was recently introduced to the U.S. market for use as an adjunct to a reduced‐calorie diet. Although drug treatment is not likely to replace diet and behavior modification for the control of obesity, newer therapeutic agents based on recent discoveries concerning the central nervous system integration of satiety signals and the mechanism of energy utilization in fat and skeletal muscle promise to provide new tools for the management of obesity. Presently, drugs hold only a minute share of the multibillion dollar weight loss market, but promise to capture a larger percentage, as more selective and effective agents become available.
Flame Retardants, Antimony and Other Inorganic Agents
Authors: Touval Irving 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAntimony, boron, aluminum, tin, zinc, and molybdenum are inorganic flame retardants or flame‐retardant synergists used to improve the flame retardancy obtained from incorporating halogens in plastics. Combinations of the synergists and the halogens are used at lower concentrations than the halogens alone, resulting in more flame‐resistant plastics that have better physical properties. Antimony oxide is the most effective flame‐retarder synergist; alumina trihydrate is the most widely used. Synergists used in combination often enhance one another. The mechanisms of inorganic synergist‐halogen flame‐retarder systems are discussed for both the condensed and flame phases. A series of typical formulations for various polymer materials is given.
Aquaculture
Authors: Stickney Rorbert 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semicontrolled conditions. It involves plant and animal rearing with the objectives of providing human food, recreational fishing, enhancement of commercially valuable stocks, recovery of endangered species, and the production of bait and ornamental species. Aquaculture is conducted in ponds, raceways, cages, and net‐pens. It may also involve suspending molluscs from rafts or ropes, rearing them in baskets or trays, or placing them on the bottom in the natural environment. Technology levels range considerably with the highest level being found in conjunction with recirculating systems. Culturists attempt to control water quality, reproduction and diseases. They also employ feeds specifically designed for the animals being produced. Most species are maintained in captivity throughout the life cycle. Selective breeding is often used as a means of improving stocks of cultured organisms. Diseases can pose significant problems for aquaculturists. Avoidance of stress reduces disease incidence, but treatments, including drugs and vaccines are available for at least some aquatic animal diseases. The final task of the aquaculturist is to ensure that the product reaches the processor in the best possible condition. Careful handling during harvest helps ensure product quality.
Aroma Chemicals
Authors: Zviely Michael 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Aroma chemicals are an important group of organic molecules used as ingredients in flavor and fragrance compositions. These chemicals consist of natural, nature‐identical and artificial molecules.
There are 3000 different molecules that find use in the production of flavor and fragrance compositions. Synthetic ingredients play a major part as components due to their convenient availability and the relatively lower costs compared to natural molecules from isolation of relatively limited natural sources.
This chapter is for those who intend to get a clear overview of all kinds of aroma chemicals including the chemical structure and a brief odor description.
Arsenic and Arsenic Alloys
Authors: Carapella S. C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractArsenic, although often referred to as a metal, is classified chemically as a nonmetal or metalloid and belongs to Group 15 (VA) of the Periodic Table (as does antimony). The principal valences of arsenic are,, and. Only one stable isotope of arsenic having mass 75 (100% natural abundance) has been observed. Metallic arsenic is stable in dry air, but when exposed to humid air the surface oxidizes, giving a superficial golden bronze tarnish that turns black upon further exposure. The amorphous form is more stable to atmospheric oxidation. Upon heating in air, both forms sublime and the vapor oxidizes to arsenic trioxide, As2O3. Elemental arsenic combines with many metals to form arsenides. Arsenic is widely distributed about the earth and has a terrestrial abundance of approximately 5 g/t. The most important commercial source of arsenic, however, is as a by‐product from the treatment of copper, lead, cobalt, and gold ores. Arsenic metal is also offered in high (ranging from 99.99% to in excess of) purity form for semiconductor applications. The predominant use of arsenic in the United States is in the manufacture of chemicals. The principal use of arsenic in the United States is in the preparation of wood preservatives for the protection of lumber and other wood products. Arsenic trioxide is the basic commodity of commerce from which a number of important chemicals are manufactured. Trace quantities of arsenic are added to lead–antimony grid alloys used in lead acid batteries. Phosphorized deoxidized arsenical copper (alloy 142) is used for heat exchangers and condenser tubes. The toxicity of arsenic ranges from very low to extremely high depending on the chemical state. Metallic arsenic and arsenious sulfide, As2S3, have low toxicity. Arsine is extremely toxic. The toxicity of other organic and inorganic arsenic compounds varies. Arsenic is classified as a carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The handling of arsenic in the work‐place should be in compliance with the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations. Precautions should be taken to avoid accidental generation of arsine gas. Disposal of arsenical products should be in compliance with Federal and local government environmental regulations.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Arsenic
Authors: Lindahl Charles B. , Mahmood Tariq 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAntimony and arsenic both form a trifluoride and a pentafluoride as well as a very stable hexafluoroantimonate and a hexafluoroarsenate ion, respectively. The chemistry of antimony fluoride compounds is well studied. Antimony trifluoride is used as a mild fluorinating agent for the production of fluorocarbons and for nonmetals and metals for the replacement of other halides. It is also used in the manufacture of fluoride glass. Antimony pentafluoride is a moderate fluorinating agent and a powerful oxidizer. It is used to saturate double bonds and in the production of intercalated compounds of graphite. It is also used to produce superacid systems. Anhydrous metal salts can be used as uv catalysts for the production of polymers.Arsenic trifluoride is used as a fluorinating agent, in semiconductors, and in the synthesis of hexafluoroarsenates. Arsenic pentafluoride is used as a fluorinating agent, in ion implantation, and to produce conductive polymers. However, environmental and regulatory concerns have severely limited these applications.
Arsenic—Environmental Impact, Health Effects, and Treatment Methods
Authors: Thirunavukkarasu O. S. , Viraraghavan T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractArsenic contamination of surface and subsurface waters is reported in many parts of the world and is considered as a global issue. The enforcement of stringent arsenic standard for drinking water, because of health problems associated with the ingestion of arsenic contaminated water, call for an effective treatment technology for arsenic removal. Since the toxicity of arsenic depends on its speciation, it is essential to determine the individual arsenic species present in drinking water. Further, a better understanding of the occurrence of arsenic, health effects, and available technologies would help in the evaluation of risk and selection of an appropriate cost‐effective technology. This article provides an overview of these aspects. Various treatment methods used to remove arsenic from drinking water are also discussed.
Barium
Authors: Boffito Claudio 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBarium, Ba, is a member of Group 2 (IIA) of the Periodic Table, where it lies between strontium and radium. Along with calcium and strontium, barium is classed as an alkaline∼arth metal, and is the densest of the three. Barium metal does not occur free in nature; however, its compounds occur in small but widely distributed amounts in the earth's crust, especially in igneous rocks, sandstone, and shale. The principal barium minerals are barytes (barium sulfate) and witherite (barium carbonate), also known as heavy spar. The latter mineral can be readily decomposed via calcination to form barium oxide, BaO, the ore used commercially for the preparation of barium metal. Barium is prepared commercially by the thermal reduction of barium oxide with aluminum. Barium metal is highly reactive, a property that accounts for its principal uses as a getter for removing residual gases from vacuum systems on cathode ray tubes (eg, in CRT tubes) and as a deoxidizer for steel and other metals. Pure barium is a silvery‐white metal, although contamination with nitrogen produces a yellowish color. The metal is relatively soft and ductile and may be worked readily. It is fairly volatile (though less so than magnesium), and this property is used to advantage incommercial production. It is an extremely reactive metal, and its compounds possess large free energies of formation Barium metal and most barium compounds are highly poisonous Barium ions act as a muscle stimulant and can cause death through ventricular fibrillation of the heart. Barium also presents a hydrogen explosion hazard if allowed to come into contact with water or atmospheric moisture, and must always be kept dry and preferably sealed in the shipping containers.
Beer and Brewing
Authors: Lewis Michael J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBeer is typically made from cereal grains. These, however, contain starch and so various strategies are necessary to convert starch to fermentable sugars. Most beer is brewed from specially chosen barley that is wetted, partially germinated, and dried to make malt. This modifies the raw barley to a form suitable for brewing. When malt is ground up and mixed with hot water, malt enzymes rapidly degrade starch to yield a spectrum of fermentable sugars and unfermentable dextrins. The grain extract (wort) is then boiled for an hour with hops, primarily to add bitterness but also to sterilize it. After cooling, a chosen yeast strain is added and fermentation ensues with production of mostly alcohol and carbon dioxide but also a host of flavor compounds each in low concentration. These, in concert with the flavor materials from malt and hops, define beer characteristics, and the brewer's particular choice of yeast, malt, and hops defines a beer brand. The green beer is aged or matured by secondary treatment, filtered and carbonated, and then packaged at high speed and without oxygen access for presentation to the consumer. Beer has some nutritional value and modest daily consumption reduces the risk of coronary heart disease.
Benzyl Chloride, Benzal Chloride, and Benzotrichloride
Authors: Seper Karl W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractWhen toluene reacts with chlorine under experimental conditions that promote free‐radical chlorination, a mixture of benzyl chloride, benzal chloride, and benzotrichloride is obtained. The product distribution is determined in large part by the chlorine:toluene ratio. Competing reactions result in chlorination of the aromatic ring, reducing the yield of side‐chain chlorination products.Benzyl chloride undergoes reactions typical of a reactive alkyl halide. Hydrolysis gives benzyl alcohol, reaction with ammonia yields benzylamines, and benzyl esters form by reaction with salts of carboxylic acids. Reaction with other nucleophiles yield substitution products; alkoxides give benzyl ethers and cyanide give phenylacetonitrile.Benzal chloride is hydrolyzed to benzaldehyde and benzotrichloride to benzoic acid. Benzotrifluoride is formed by the reaction of benzotrichloride with anhydrous hydrogen fluoride. Reaction conditions have been determined for aromatic ring chlorination and nitration of benzyl chloride, benzal chloride, and benzotrichloride.More than two‐thirds of benzyl chloride produced is used to make the plasticizer benzyl butyl phthalate. Nearly all of the benzal chloride produced is consumed in the manufacture of benzaldehyde. Benzotrichloride is used in the manufacture of benzoyl chloride and in the synthesis of the herbicide intermediatep‐chlorobenzotrifluoride.