bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Admiralty and the Ministry of Marine
Authors: Hamilton C I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Ministry of Marine was well housed in the more easterly of a fine matching pair of buildings flanking the rue Royale and fronting the place de la Concorde. These buildings—and, indeed, the whole square, originally called the place Louis XV—had their origins in the eighteenth century. The plans were drawn up by the architect J.-A. Gabriel, and approval came in letters patent dated 1757. The building that concerns us was constructed in 1766, intended as the Garde meuble de la Couronne, for which purpose it was conveniently close to the royal palace of the Tuileries.
Duke Richard of York 1411-1460
Authors: Johnson P A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This first biography of Richard, third Duke of York, examines the political opposition of a great lord to Henry VI's regime. Active in the government of Lancastrian Normandy, he served twice as lieutenant of Ireland where, on his second visit, he did much to consolidate the trend towards Irish autonomy. The major interest of his career, however, lies in the increasing isolation of a once loyal subject. Suspect in the late 1440s, and even more so after the great revolt of 1450, he was driven into opposition during the following decade despite serving for two effective periods - here evaluated for the first time - as Protector of England. In 1455 violence replaced politics at St Albans, and England collapsed into the Wars of the Roses. Five years later, following his unsuccessful claim to the throne - an event for which fresh evidence is presented - he resorted once again to violence, dying in battle and leaving to his son Edward the claim which brought the first Yorkist to the throne.
Charity, the Poor, and the Aftermath of the Black Death, 1348-1400
Authors: Henderson John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins and ends with a dramatic natural disaster: the Black Death of 1348 and the so-called Moria dei Bianchi of 1400.1 Both these mortality crises were catastrophic in terms of human life, though in the long term they were beneficial for the standards of living of survivors. But in neither case was poverty eradicated, as Villani suggested happened in 1348;2 3 the scale was simply reduced. There remained a continued need for charitable initiatives to cater for both endemic and epidemic poverty in Florence through the combination of public and private welfare: communal grain subventions, the services of fraternities and hospitals, and the informal networks otparenti, amici e vicini.
Towards Conclusions
Authors: Rogers R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In examining Latin siege warfare in the twelfth century we have maintained a close focus on operations, emphasizing how the employment of techniques and machinery was related to the resources and capabilities of besiegers, as well as to particular military conditions. In drawing together some of the strands we have followed, it is appropriate to address questions concerning the spread and development of siegecraft and technology. Such a discussion may highlight the factors through which this took place. Moreover, it will allow reflection upon the relationship between the military experience of the Latin west and this growth and diffusion. Let us first turn to the personnel important in the organizational and technological dimensions of twelfth-century siege warfare.
The Empire Industries Association
Authors: Marrison Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After 1925 the NUM was joined by another stable group, the EIA, whose position in the spectrum between safeguarding and preference was less defined. Initially, faced with some internal conflict over the two semi-alternatives, the EIA elected, on the surface, to go for both, and never gave such clear indications as did the NUM that safeguarding had primacy over preference. Earlier in the decade this might have caused misgivings amongst business supporters. But, as a latecomer, the EIA’s choice was relatively easy. Manufacturing reaction to the inadequacies of the White Paper of 1925 was increasingly impatient, whilst the prospect of Empire markets at a time when the visible trade balance was worsening appeared to give the Empire a strategic importance in British trade that it lacked in the Edwardian period. After 1926, an apparently heightened emphasis on imperial policy was unlikely to lose the EIA significant business support amongst those demanding an extension of safeguarding.
Planning for Self-Government
Authors: Follis Bryan A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In making provision for the establishment of a parliament and government of Northern Ireland, the Government of Ireland Act made possible the creation of Northern Ireland. However, at the stage when the Act became law, Northern Ireland existed not as an entity but only in name and on paper. Not only had Northern Ireland no parliament and no government: it had no civil service to support and serve it, no police or defence force to enforce whatever laws it might make, protect its people, or defend its territory from possible (and indeed likely) attack, nor had it a judiciary to uphold its laws and administer justice. The problems involved in the creation of Northern Ireland must have seemed daunting, and the sheer size of the task to be undertaken almost overwhelming. Yet within six months of the passage of the Act, a government of Northern Ireland had been formed and had taken office.
The Rhetoric of the Image
Authors: Scribner R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The argument that has developed throughout this book has something of paradox about it. The Reformation was undeniably part of a movement from an image to a print culture, and was directed against popular culture and popular belief. We have seen Reformation propaganda using, and thus accepting, popular culture; not breaking images but remaking them. The puzzle is even deeper: would not the advocates of the old order have attempted to marshal all the powerful emotive force attached to the images of the old belief in order to combat the new? Curiously, however, there was surprisingly little counter-propaganda from the side of orthodoxy. There seems to be little or no reason why the same weapons of popular propaganda could not be turned against the Reformation. Although there were a few attempts to do so, they rarely attained the creative brilliance of the evangelical propagandists.
Industrializing England
Authors: Prest Wilfrid 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the opening pages of Headlong Hall (1816), Thomas Love Peacock’s first published novel, the ‘perfectibilian’Mr Foster holds forth ‘with great energy on the subject of roads and railways, canals and tunnels, manufactures and machinery: “In short”, said he, “everything we look on attests the progress of mankind.”‘ His pessimistic opposite Mr Escot does not attempt to deny the existence of these ‘improvements’. But he asserts that, far from evidence of human progress, they constitute ‘so many links in the great chain of corrup¬tion, which will soon fetter the whole human race’, thanks to the ‘factitious wants and unnatural appetites they engender’. The moral and social benefits, or otherwise, of industrialization have continued to be debated down to the present day.
Landowners And Farmers
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The purchase of land in Surtees’ day was a social rather than an economic speculation. A landowner would be fortunate if his purely agricultural rents yielded as much as 5 per cent on the capital value. Professor Thompson suggests 3.3 per cent as a typical return in the earlier part of this period, declining to 2½ per cent in the 1860s as a result of increased competition for land. The general picture in the novels confirms that estimate. Mr Jorrocks, looking at it with a businessman’s eye, thought that ‘landownin’s a werry poor trade’. It was true that the standard 3½ or 3 per cent government stock offered no better return; but, as the same authority observed, ‘money i’ the funds may pay small interest; but blow me tight, funds pay punctual, and the gates never want repairin’. He was not the only new landowner in the novels to make that discovery. In Ask Mamma the first thing that struck Sir Moses Mainchance when he became a land owner was how little interest he got on investment. In the City he had scorned any transaction that would not pay him 10 per cent; as a novice proprietor he found he could hardly recover 3 per cent from his acres. That cautious banker, old Mr Hall, making (on his own statement) from 15 to 20 per cent from his business, not surprisingly showed little enthusiasm for acquiring land. As Surtees philosophically observed in another place, land was like family plate, valuable to sell, but unprofitable to keep.
The Mirror Of Society
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While Surtees forfeits any claim to be ranked among the ‘social novelists’ of the period by what (to borrow Miss Nightingale’s phrase) could be called his brutal indifference to the wrongs and rights of the poor, he deserves perhaps a cautious mention for the attention he gives to the domestic servant. After all, they were, as he pointed out, part of the working classes. They possibly did not regard themselves in that light and they are not alone in this. Socio-political historians too have generally neglected them in favour of the industrial proletariat of the towns. It is easy to see why. They did not form a separate political interest; they did not burn down their employers’ houses, riot on the streets, petition parliament, join trade unions, or go on strike. Yet though they were politically quiescent, their social importance is considerable. Their sheer numbers are impressive. In England and Wales in 1841 they totalled 999,000: the second largest occupational group after agriculture, being slightly more than all those employed in manufacture and mining put together, and a third more than the fourth largest group, the general labourers. Indeed, if from the crude figure of 1½ million for the agricultural industry as a whole are deducted farmers, graziers, gardeners, gamekeepers, and landagents, the basic work-force of agricultural labourers numbered only 965,371. On this calculation the domestic servants in the middle of the century formed the largest distinct class of worker.
A Railway Society
Authors: Gash Norman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The railway revolution happened so quickly and touched Victorian life at so many points that the danger perhaps is of over-rather than underestimating its effects. The railways themselves were the product of a society which saw in the expansion of manufacture and commerce the secret of wealth and power, and in the application of science and mechanical invention the key to that expansion. Wealth and science made railways possible; the economic demands of British society made them, one might almost say, necessary. Much that happened in the nineteenth century would have happened in any case. The increasing influence of the middle classes, the sharper political consciousness of the nation as a whole, the growth of ‘public opinion’ as a source of power, the loosening of provincial ties, the weakening of class distinctions, the dominance of the large towns, the steady rise in population—all these tendencies were visible before the coming of the railways. There is no reason to think that they would not have continued; only that the pace would have been slower. The railways did not so much create as accelerate change. They acted as agents rather than initiators; but with such unprecedented force as to make them seem even more significant than they really were.
Administration
Authors: Zweiniger-Bargielowska Ina 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the Second World War civilian consumption of food, clothing, and miscellaneous goods was reduced drastically as economic resources were directed towards the war effort. In order to economize on raw materials, labour, and shipping space a comprehensive system of controls was introduced which regulated imports, production, and distribution, as well as demand. During this period of scarcity the price mechanism ceased to function and ‘allocation was a mixture of price controls, rationing … and uncontrolled black market prices. The extent to which any of these three methods prevailed determined the social experience of the war for most people’. Controls were necessary to reduce personal consumption as well as to achieve a balanced redistribution of resources between military and civilian requirements which ensured that civilian efficiency was maintained. Rationing and controls were retained after the war in order to achieve anti-inflationary and dollar economy policy objectives and as part of Labour’s wider commitment to economic planning and fair shares. After 1945 only the negative aspect of controls, that is the deliberate suppression of civilian consumption, remained and since ‘government needs no longer took automatic precedence over those of the private sector’ the policy became increasingly controversial. The process of decontrol began under Labour in the late 1940s but decontrol proceeded steadily only from the early 1950s onwards, that is after the Conservative government—committed to a speedy ending of wartime controls—had been elected.
The Feudal Structure and the Beginnings of State Finance
Authors: Ormrod W M , Barta Janos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no precise moment when the fiscal state can be said to have come into existence, and any attempt to define such a moment would be profoundly unsatisfactory. The chronological limits of the present project presuppose that something changed, or was changing, in the emergent states of Europe at the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth centuries. In fiscal terms, there is indeed much to be said for that thesis, as later parts of this chapter will show. However, before discussing the more specific precedents for a ‘modem’ system of state finance, it is as well to emphasize the earlier structures out of which that system evolved. Such a discussion has perforce to be selective and general, with a bias towards those monarchical states for which at least some direct documentary evidence survives. This naturally gives a somewhat artificial prominence to the two major kingdoms of north-western Europe, England and France, while underrating the importance of other embryonic fiscal systems in central Europe, Spain, Italy, Scandinavia and elsewhere. It is hoped, however, that any resulting imbalance will be redressed by the discussion of the Empire and the eastern kingdoms appended to this chapter and the more detailed case studies that follow.
The Emergence and Consolidation of the ‘Tax State’. II. The Seventeenth Century
Authors: Hart Marjolein ‘t 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
lf we accept that’ centralized, productive revenue-expenditure systems began to emerge’ in the early modem period, it may be argued that it was in the seventeenth century that a significant increase in the scale of warfare accelerated this process. Military innovations and recurrent wars posed new challenges. Inflation resulting from the inflow of Spanish-American silver had raised the overall costs of government. As a result, the competition for resources was intensified between central states, provincial governments, cities and landlords. This intensity increased, in tum, the likelihood of war. Moreover, in much of Europe an economic recession altered the underlying conditions of the race for cash: private and public funds were restricted by the capacity of the population at large to pay, affected as they were by subsistence crises and recurrent outbreaks of plague. This was particularly true in the Mediterranean area, though less so in the north and west of Europe.
Law and the Making of the State in Medieval Sweden: Kingship and Communities
Authors: Lindkvist Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scandinavia, and Sweden in particular, entered the world of medieval European culture and its state system late. Until the twelfth century the political structure was very primitive and based upon pillage, plunder, and the taking of tributes, both at home and abroad. Power was unstable and belonged to local chiefs, petty kings, and warlords. However, the political culture and the pillage economy of the Viking age faded away during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Conversion to Christianity was later in Sweden than in Denmark and Norway. But from the turn of the millennium the new creed gained ground and during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries a domestic ecclesiastical organization was built up.
Legal Tools of the Public Power in the Netherlands, 1200-1600
Authors: Cauchies H de Schepper andJ -M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1384 and 1543, because of the weakening of medieval feudalism as the European political system, the territorial union of the Low Countries (Lage landen bider see), those principalities and lordships on the outskirts of the Empire and the kingdom of France, around the estuary of those great rivers, the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt, could take as its basis some earlier unions existing beyond the borders between the Empire and France.
Centre and Locality: The Nature of Power Elites
Authors: Aylmer G E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some definition of locality and centre is essential before we can attempt to consider relations between elites. Localities may be thought of as the collective sum of the units comprising an area of territory over which a single central authority exercises more-or-less effective control. It is at once obvious that there were great changes over time in the geographical pattern of such authority in Europe between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries. Perhaps the most useful single criterion to adopt in considering local-central relations is that of physical extent: the size of a territory together with the relative density of its population. The smaller the area and the less the number of people within it, then other things being equal the easier it would be for the central authority (the ruler or rulers) to be in a direct relationship with all of their subjects, and correspondingly the less the need for any intermediate regional or local elites.
Clerics in the State
Authors: Millet Hèlène , Moraw Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Catholic Church, without rival in the western world at the end of the Middle Ages, called ‘clerics ‘ those of her sons who had professed to serve her and who had received the tonsure. Youths given to the Church by their families, or adult men, whether unmarried or widowers, who wished to become clerics, had no obligation to fulfil, other than to be of free condition and have married parents. The clerical order to which they belonged ensured them a special status in society: they were spared both the responsibilities and the privileges attached to their original condition and, in principle, only the laws of the Church could be applied to them. The Pope based his power on the international hierarchy of clerics of which he was the head, even more than upon the patrimony of St Peter, over which he had full jurisdiction, both temporal and spiritual.
Conclusion
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let us conclude with some essential points. In Spain, the Cortes of the constituent kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Catalonia possessed neither legislative nor fiscal powers. However, they continued to exercise rights of proposal and control up to the seventeenth century and beyond. In territories like Navarre, they maintained some authority and certain closely defined juridical and political privileges (fueros) until the twentieth century. The Crown also had to take account of demands made by borough and town councils as well as Hermandades, even after the great revolt of the Comunidades in the sixteenth century. Medieval communal traditions were therefore not abolished, but integrated in an absolutist system which continued to offer its services of mediation.
Popular Concerns and Influences on the Legislative Process
Authors: Blickle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
‘The legislative process in the territorial states of southern Germany (which, as noted above, is the only area considered here) was frequently, even if not over-whelmingly, initiated by the complaints of the subjects themselves. Even where it was not legally documented, the right of petition was an accepted custom of great power.’Its significance has become particularly clear in the last few years in the context of German research into resistance;and will probably prompt important revisions in traditional assessments of the subjects’ capacity to exert political influence. In any case, it should be emphasized that, even in territories where there was no institutionalized representation of the subject, legislation was still influenced by their complaints, as is now apparent from regional case-studies. This approach thus offers some fascinating insights into German, and no doubt also European, constitutional history.
The Whig Context
Authors: Mitchell L G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In addition to the questions of blood and heredity, a Whig inheritance involved the absorption of certain prejudices that created a psychological mood, a context for thinking. Some contemporaries saw Melbourne’s personality struggling against this family bequest. The diarist Greville, for example, explained the ambiguities in Melbourne’s career by opposing his personality to his intellectual inheritance. ‘A thorough Conservative at heart’, he was ‘from education and turn of mind, and from the society in which he was bred and always lived, ... a Whig.’ As a result of this tension, ‘he was only half-identified in opinion and sympathy with the party to which he belonged in office’, and was ‘secretly the enemy of the measures which his own Government originated’. In other words, Melbourne was a conservative who, by sad chance, had been wrapped in Whig swaddling clothes. It was a popular line of argument with those of Melbourne’s critics, who felt that he could have done more to retard the speed of reform in his lifetime.