bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sulfuric and Sulfurous Esters
Authors: McCormack W. B. , Lawes B. C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfuric and sulfurous acids form a series of esters analogous to those from other acidic materials. The hydrogen of the acid is replaced by a carbon‐containing group. Because two hydrogens are present in the sulfur‐based acids, there are two series of esters. Replacement of one hydrogen results in an acid ester. If both hydrogens are replaced, whether with the same, with different, or with bifunctional substituents, symmetrical and unsymmetrical diesters form. Dimethyl sulfate, diethyl sulfate, and long‐chain monoalkyl alkali metal sulfates are the compounds of practical interest. Dialkyl sulfates have been used to introduce a methyl or ethyl group into a wide variety of organic compounds. The long‐chain monoalkyl hydrogen sulfates, in the form of their alkali metal or alkylammonium salts, are valuable as surface‐active agents and are used commercially. The short‐chain monoalkyl hydrogen sulfates are intermediates in commercial conversion routes from olefins to alcohols.
Sulfuric Acid and Sulfur Trioxide
Authors: Muller Thomas L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfuric acid, an important article of commerce since the mid‐1700s, is one of the largest‐volume basic chemicals in the world. It is used in a wide variety of applications, including production of basic chemicals, steel, copper, fertilizer, fibers, plastics, gasoline, explosives, electronic chips, batteries, and pharmaceuticals. Sulfuric acid is typically less costly than other acids and can be readily handled in steel or common alloys at normal commercial concentrations. Sulfuric acid, oleum, fuming sulfuric acid, and the anhydride sulfur trioxide are discussed. The contact processes for sulfuric acid manufacture are discussed, as are the equipment necessary and the corresponding materials of construction. Safe handling practices are given.
Sulfonic Acids
Authors: Tully Paul S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTully, Paul S. (Stepan Co.). Organic sulfonic acids having the formula RSO3H are described herein. Typical R‐groups are derived from organic radicals based on alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and arenes. These groups may contain a wide variety of secondary functionalities. A wide variety of sulfonic acids and their derivatives are used industrially on a large scale in the manufacture of surfactants, dyes, inks, dispersing agents, and polymers. Those sulfonic acids that find broad application as catalysts in both alkylation processes and general organic reactions are also disclosed. More esoteric applications in the areas of custom organic syntheses and biological research involving sulfonic acid is described, as is the environmental fate of linear alkylbenzenesulfonic acid and its sulfonates.
Sulfamic Acid and Sulfamates
Authors: Yoshikubo Katsumasa , Suzuki Michio 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSulfamic acid (amidosulfuric acid) is a monobasic, inorganic, dry acid, the monoamide of sulfuric acid, produced in crystalline form. The acid is highly stable at room temperature. Aqueous solutions are ranked as strong acids similar to hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid. Sulfamic acid is available in dry form, permitting a convenient packing and handling operation. Sulfamic acid is used in chemical cleaning, sulfonation reactions, removal of nitrite, as a chlorine vehicle, and for a variety of other applications. Sulfamic acid is also used as a raw material of sodium cyclohexylsulfamate, which is a synthetic sweetener. Some sulfamates are also commercially available.
Water, Supply and Desalination
Authors: Lior Noam , Bakish Robert 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article addresses water supply and use with special emphasis on the role and nature of water desalination. The major desalination processes, using membranes or distillation, are described. These are multistage flash evaporation (MSF), multi‐effect distillation (ME), vapor compression distillation (VC), freeze–desalination, reverse osmosis (RO), and electrodialysis (ED). The use of renewable energy for water desalination by solar stills, ocean–thermal energy conversion plants, wind, and photovoltaic cells is presented. Two of the key technical problems in desalination, scale deposition and prevention, and corrosion and the proper choice of materials to resist it, are discussed. Basic equations are provided for the evaluation and preliminary design of MSF and RO, which are currently the leading water desalination processes. The leading professional and governmental organizations involved with desalination, and their activities, are described.
Composite Materials, Survey
Authors: Morton J. , Cantwell W. J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractComposite materials are defined as macroscopic combinations of two or more materials. The development of high performance fiber composites is outlined. Composites are classified as fibrous, laminated, and particulate. Details of the nature and fabrication processes of common fibers–glass, carbon, and aramid are presented. Polymer‐based matrix materials are classified as thermosetting or thermoplastic, and common examples of each type are discussed. Methods of fabricating composites are reviewed. Theories of reinforcement are introduced for unidirectional laminated composites.
Carbides, Survey
Authors: Oyama S. Ted , Kieffer Richard 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCarbon reacts with many elements of the Periodic Table to form a diverse group of compounds known as carbides, some of which are extremely important in technology. Their applications are varied, ranging from cutting tools and structural materials to magnetic and electronic components, and superconductive devices. For example, calcium carbide, CaC2, is a source of acetylene; silicon carbide, SiC, and boron carbide, B4C, are used as abrasives; tungsten carbide, WC, and titanium carbide, TiC, find use as structural materials. Cementite, Fe3C, and the multimetallic complexes of Co, W, Cr, Fe, and Mo with carbon are the components in tool steels and Stellite‐type alloys responsible for their hardness, wear resistance, and excellent cutting performance. Binary compounds of carbon are divided into four main groups: the salt‐like, metallic, diamond‐like, and volatile compounds of carbon. The nature of the bonding is correspondingly of ionic, metallic, semiconductor, or covalent character, but these divisions are not rigid and there are a number of transitional cases. For the metallic carbides, the solid‐state structures and chemical properties reflect an increase in metalspelectron count. Carbides are generally prepared by the direct reaction of carbon with metals or metal‐like materials at elevated temperatures. Their most outstanding properties are extreme hardness and physical strength combined with high temperature stability.
Regulatory Agencies, Survey
Authors: Passow Nancy R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Because of updates and reauthorization, regulations covering health, safety, and environmental issues change continuously and specifications can become outdated. Regulatory agencies provide assistance regarding the laws and regulations of these issues. The two main federal agencies involved in the protection of human health and the environment are the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Primary laws covered by the EPA are the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA); the Clean Water Act (CWA); Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA); Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA); and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The principal function of OSHA is the protection of people in the workplace. Other functions of regulatory agencies, eg, agriculture, commerce, defense, and energy, are discussed.
Fibers, Survey
Authors: Rebenfeld Ludwig 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
This survey provides an overview of fiber consumption trends, and of the structure and properties of those fibers that are used in the production of typical apparel, household, and industrial textiles. Both naturally occurring fibers, such as cotton and wool, and synthetic fibers are discussed. The three principal types of fibrous materials (woven, knitted, and nonwoven) are defined and described, as is the relative importance of various geometric, physical, and chemical properties of fibers. Particular attention is given to mechanical properties, since fibers can be viewed as elements of construction from which complex three‐dimensional structures are manufactured. Finally, this survey provides an overview of the important molecular and macromolecular characteristics of those polymers that are fiber‐forming. These considerations extend to natural vegetable fibers, where the principal polymer is cellulose, and to fabricated fibers based either on modification of cellulose or on synthetic polymers, among which polyamides, polyesters, polyolefins, and polyacrylonitrile are the most important.
Photochemical Technology, Survey
Authors: Sahyun M. R. V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPhotochemical technology is utilized industrially for organic and polymer synthesis, for thin‐film fabrication, and for the manufacture of laser video and compact audio disks. Photochemistry is also employed in medicine. Applications have grown as light sources and corresponding instrumentation have been developed, and the processes involved have become better understood. The photophysical basis of energy transfer is presented. Photohalogenation of aliphatic hydrocarbons, including the photochlorination of poly(vinyl chloride) is discussed as is the synthesis of vitamin D and techniques such as laser photochemical vapor deposition for semiconductor epitaxy. Polymer‐based technologies such as stereolithography is presented. The field of phototherapy, including the use of laser‐activated sensitizers for treatment of cancers and the use of light therapy for infants, is discussed.
Sweeteners
Authors: Lee Thomas D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractMany of the available sweeteners that generate fewer calories than sugar do not have all the advantages of sugar. The six commercially available nonnutritive sweeteners are aspartame, acesulfame‐K, saccharin, cyclamate, stevioside, and glycyrrhizin. Two others, sucralose and alitame, are being developed. The sweetness potency, taste profile, chemical and physical properties, as well as synthesis and usage profiles of these compounds are reviewed. Important decomposition products are discussed.The structure–activity relationship of dipeptide sweeteners and sweetness synergy imparted by sweetener blends are presented, as are discussions of sweetener receptors, sweetness enhancers/inducers, sweetness inhibitors, and sweet‐taste transduction mechanisms. Some sweeteners are most likely to be used only as flavor modifiers. A list of lesser known sweeteners is included.
Silicon Compounds, Synthetic Inorganic Silicates
Authors: Falcone James S. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSynthetic alkali silicates containing alkali metal oxides are manufactured as liquids or glasses that readily dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions. These silicates contain a complex mixture of polymeric species that vary as a function of alkali‐to‐silica ratio of the material, solution concentration, impurities content, and pH. The polymer chemistry of silicates influences the properties and function of these materials in a variety of applications, spanning much of the chemical process industry. Uses are in detergency, water treatment, mineral beneficiation, bleach stabilization, enhanced oil recovery, and as a raw material for the syntheses of silica sols, gels and precipitates, zeolites, clays, and other siliceous materials. The speciation and structure of silicates, studied using a broad variety of analytical methods, are discussed. Properties of the synthetic alkali silicates that determine their function in a variety of commercial applications are presented. Economic, manufacturing, regulatory, and environmental aspects of silicate production and usage are reviewed.
Tanks and Pressure Vessels
Authors: Myers Philip 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Tanks are used in chemical process industry not only to store gases, liquids, and solids, but also as vessels for unit operations and as reactors. The use of tanks as liquid containers, whether at atmospheric or low pressure, above or below ground, is emphasized. Physical properties important to stored liquids are reviewed. The main components of tanks, including roof and bottoms designs, materials of construction, and tank selection criteria are presented. Special engineering considerations of both low temperature and heated tanks as well as high pressure tanks (pressure vessels) are discussed, as are federal regulations pertaining to tanks. Tank spills and leaks, and also their causes, detection, and prevention, are discussed.
Tantalum and Tantalum Compounds
Authors: Lambert John B. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTantalum, discovered in 1802, was not produced in significant quantities until the invention of the solid tantalum capacitor. This tough, ductile, silvery gray metal is used primarily in electronic capacitors and a variety of chemical manufacturing applications. Corrosion resistance and the ability to support a stable anodic oxide film make tantalum an excellent material for prosthetics and biomedical devices as well as a substrate for capacitor dielectric. Tantalum is a prime candidate for reaction vessel liners, heat exchangers, and heat shields. The most important tantalum compound is potassium heptafluorotantalate, from which tantalum metal is formed. Other commercially significant tantalum compounds are used in cemented carbides for cutting tools, cermets, waveguides, and other optical and electronic devices.
Technical Service
Authors: Reid Austin H. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Technical service in the chemical industry is designed to provide timely and professional information and support to downstream customers regarding chemical products and their uses. Examples of the various tasks pertinent to contemporary technical service efforts are given; information on the structure of technical service organization, training of personnel, participation in technical societies, and trade associations are discussed. The part played by technical service and the product development function, and the uses of computer and other electronic technologies in technical service are included.
Terpenoids
Authors: Bledsoe James O. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractTerpenes are found in essential oils and oleoresins of plants. Terpenes found in turpentine are used as raw materials for the commercial synthesis of a wide range of aroma chemicals. Uses for the monoterpenes are covered in more depth than the higher terpenes mainly because of the large fragrance industry that developed from the availability of sulfate turpentine from the paper industry. α‐ and β‐Pinene, the predominant terpenes found in turpentine, are used to manufacture other hydrocarbons such as myrcene, dihydromyrcene, alloocimene, camphene,p‐menthadienes, andp‐cymene. These hydrocarbons are used in turn as raw materials for producing products such as pine oil, nerol and geraniol, citronellol, linalool, menthol, campholenic aldehyde, citral, ionones and methyl ionones, camphor, citronellal, and hydroxycitronellal.Methods employing petrochemical‐based raw materials such as acetone, acetylene, isobutylene, and isoprene have become very important commercial processes. Intermediates such as linalool, geranyl acetone, and citral for synthesis of Vitamins A and E are produced in large scale. The processes also yield linalool, citronellol, citronellal, and citral for fragrance uses as well as for intermediates for synthesis of many other aroma products.Sesquiterpenes derived from natural sources are used as such for fragrance materials and for synthesis of other products. Sesquiterpenes covered include caryophyllene, longifolene, cedrene and cedrol, nerolidol and farnesol, α‐bisabolol, α‐santalol, valencene, nootkatene and nootkatone, patchouli alcohol, and guaiol and bulnesol.Diterpenes such as gibberellic acid, phytol and isophytol, and taxol are discussed as are the triterpenes, lanosterol and squalene. The commercial aspects of the important group of tetraterpenes, the carotenoids, are also covered.
Fluorine‐Containing Polymers, Tetrafluoroethylene‐Ethylene Copolymers
Authors: Gangal Subhash V. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractPerfluoroalkoxy (PFA) fluorocarbon resins are designed to meet industrial needs in chemical, electrical, and mechanical applications. These melt‐processible copolymers contain a fluorocarbon backbone in the main chain and randomly distributed perfluorinated ether side chains. A combination of excellent chemical and mechanical properties at elevated temperatures results in reliable high performance to the chemical processing and related industries. Chemical inertness, heat resistance, toughness and flexibility, stress‐crack resistance, excellent flex life, antistick characteristics, little moisture absorption, nonflammability, and exceptional dielectric properties are some of the key characteristics of these polymers.Tetrafluoroethylene and perfluorovinyl ether are copolymerized in aqueous and nonaqueous media. The polymer is separated and converted into various forms, such as extruded cubes, powders, beads, or dispersions. Molecular weight and molecular weight distribution are controlled by a chain‐transfer agent. Sometimes a second phase is added to the polymerization reaction medium to improve the distribution of the vinyl ether in the polymer.
Fluorine‐Containing Polymers, Tetrafluoroethylene‐Perfluorovinyl Ether Copolymers
Authors: Gangal Subhash V. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Copolymers of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) have been a laboratory curiosity for many years. These polymers exhibit a unique combination of mechanical, chemical, and electrical properties as well as excellent weatherability. However, thermal stress‐crack resistance is poor. The copolymer modified with a termonomer that undergoes free‐radical polymerization and does not cause undesirable chain transfer or termination during polymerization exhibits almost identical properties of the 1:1 alternating copolymer, but retains high ultimate elongation up to 200C. Thus, modified ETFE copolymers are the products of commercial value because they have good tensile strength, moderate stiffness, high flex life, as well as outstanding impact strength, abrasion resistance, and cut‐through resistance. Electrical properties include low dielectric constant, high dielectric strength, excellent resistivity, and low dissipation factor. Thermal and cryogenic performance and chemical resistance are good. These properties, combined with elasticity, make this material an ideal candidate for heat‐shrinkable film and tubing.
These polymers can be produced in aqueous, nonaqueous, or mixed medium with free‐radical initiators. The polymer is isolated and converted to extruded cubes, powders, and beads or dispersion.
Polyethers, Tetrahydrofuran and Oxetane Polymers
Authors: Pruckmayr Gerfried , Dreyfuss P. , Dreyfuss M. P. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article reviews tetrahydrofuran and oxetane polymers and polymerization. The physical and chemical properties of polytetrahydrofurans and polyoxetanes are discussed, as well as the polymerization mechanism, including initiation, propagation, termination, chain transfer, kinetics, and copolymerization to give block, graft, and star copolymers. The most important commercial product is poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG), sold under the trade names Terathane (Du Pont), PolyTHF (BASF), and Polymeg (QO Chemicals). The manufacture of PTMEG is described in some detail, including the most recent industrial processes. Storage and handling of PTMEG, as well as specifications and standards of commercial products, are given. Test methods used in the 1990s are referenced, such as hydroxyl number, polymer molecular weight, and molecular weight distribution. Health and safety factors are discussed, as well as the economic aspects of PTMEG production. Most important uses of PTMEG are in elastomeric polyurethanes and polyesters. The same type of information is given for oxetane polymers, although no oxetane polymer has found any practical application and is thus not available commercially as of 1995.
Thallium and Thallium Compounds
Authors: Blumenthal Bob 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThallium and thallium compounds are produced by roasting zinc, copper, and lead ores. Demand and production of thallium and its compounds are small because of the element's high toxicity. Thallium(I) oxide, thallium(III) acetate, and thallium(III) nitrate are unstable. Other thallium(I) and thallium(III) compounds are stable. Certain alloys of thallium are used in bearings, contact points, as well as equipment for extreme conditions such as in polar regions or in space.
Composite Materials, Thermoset Polymer‐Matrix
Authors: Bauer Ronald S. , Stewart Steven L. , Stenzenberger Horst D. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThermosetting unsaturated polyester resins are the most common fiber‐reinforced composite matrix today because of their low price, ease of use, and excellent mechanical and chemical resistance properties. Phenolic resins are used where the inherent flame retardance, high temperature resistance, or low cost overcome the processing difficulties and lower mechanical properties they possess. Other important thermosetting polymers used as composite‐matrix materials are epoxy resins and bismaleimides. This article discusses the manufacture, application, and properties of these resins and the composites made from them.
Thermography
Authors: Borrello Sebastian 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThermography is imaging by means of an infrared camera that detects thermal radiation emitted by all objects, converts the infrared radiation to electrical signals and generates a visible image. Recently developed mosaic infrared detector arrays make possible television displays with scene‐temperature sensitivity better than 0.10°C and resolution approaching CCD video cameras. Thermographic cameras that do not require cooled focal planes are becoming the sensors of choice for commercial and private use. Cooled systems having very high sensitivity continue to be developed for military applications. Thermal imaging applications include nighttime surveillance for law enforcement, industrial security, medical diagnostics and rescue operations. Commercial uses are imaging thermal anomalies to find material defects, thermal processing functions and overheating. The combination of thermography with spectral discrimination to achieve spectral imaging is under development for industrial process control and identification of toxic gases such as CO, NOx, SOxand ozone. This article includes a mathematical model for thermal imaging sensitivity and spectral discrimination sensitivity.
Chromogenic Materials, Thermochromic
Authors: Samat A. , Guglielmetti R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThermochromism is a reversible change in spectral and physico‐chemical properties as a result of heating and cooling.Usually the response lies in the visible region. It is observed in complexed metals, in both organic and inorganic materials generally, and in all phases of matter, although predominately in solids and solutions for which the transition temperature is important for applications under heating or cooling.The main examples given here are selected through metal complexes involving Co2+, Cu2+, or Ni2+with different ligands or anions, metal oxides such as VO2, Fe3O4and metal sulfides, organic and polymer compounds involving spiroheterocyclic systems, Schiff bases and related nitrogen‐containing compounds, bianthrones, and overcrowded ethenes. The breadth of the subject is very large taking into account the bibliography issued from different sources: inorganic and organic chemistry and physical investigations of the systems often associated with supports like polymer binders.