bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
On the Development of Custom as a Source of Law in Islamic Law:
Authors: Libson Gideon 
Published: December 2004

AbstractAlthough classical Islamic legal theory did not recognize custom as a source of law, Muslim jurists — in particular, the ḥanafīs — discussed the status of custom already in the pre-classical period. Custom was incorporated into Islamic law in a variety of ways: by including certain practices in the category of sunna or ijmāʾ; by appealing to judicial preference (istiḥsān) and to secondary sources of law, such as fatwās; and by using legal fictions (ḥiyal). Because these methods were not always adequate to deal with the questions that specific practices presented to the jurists, there was an increasing tendency among later ḥanafī jurists to recogize custom as a source of law.
Scholars and Society at Early Islamic Ayla
Authors: Cobb Paul 
Published: December 2004

AbstractWhile historical and archaeological sources confirm that the early Islamic city of Ayla (modern al-ʿAqaba, Jordan) was a flourishing port in the ʿAbbāsid period and afterward, our knowledge of the city's population is limited. However, by examining medieval Arabic biographical works, this study reveals a significant scholarly community from the city, dominated by a small number of large families. Most notably, many members of this community were descendants of clients (mawālī) of the Umayyad family, with ties to neighboring regions of the Near East, especially Egypt and the Hijāz.
The Textile Industry in Southeast Asia, 1400-1800
Authors: Hall Kenneth 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis study of Southeast Asia's regional and native textile trade highlights the transitional patterns of textile use in sixteenth and seventeenth century Banjarmasin, an important Borneo coast port-polity in that era's international pepper trade. Cloth was a multi-purpose commodity bearing rich indigenous legacy that served as the point of reference for revised political, economic, and cultural transactions. In the new order that was emerging, upstream and downstream regularized their interactions and shared in a common cultural bond that was defined by cloth. This was a locally meaningful response to the changing economic circumstances of the seventeenth century, and was only in part a reaction to an increasingly assertive European presence in the eastern Indonesian archipelago.
Reconstructing the Rural Landscape of the Ancient Near East
Authors: Liverani Mario 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe reconstruction of ancient Near Eastern history has mainly concentrated on urban (and especially palace) environments, leaving the rural landscape outside these analyses. Recent advances in archaeological and palaeobotanical fields greatly help in the recovery of the general outlines of rural exploitation in Mesopotamia and the surrounding regions; yet they cannot but miss the details of the individual exploitation units (fields and orchards), whose size and shape can be reconstructed on the basis of textual data such as cadastral texts (and other administrative recordings) and legal texts (related to the transfer of landed properties). Continuing the author's earlier work on the shape of fields in Ur III (ca. 2100-2000 B.C.), based on cadastral documents from Lagash province in lower Mesopotamia, this article examines, by way of ‘gross’ generalization and occasional exemplification, the entire history of the Mesopotamian landscape from the first administrative landscape in “late-Uruk” documents (ca. 3000 B.C.), down to the Neo-Babylonian documents of the Archaemenid period (ca. 500 B.C.).
The Edict of 495 Reconsidered
Authors: Chase Kenneth 
Published: December 2004

AbstractEmperor Hsiao-wen of the Northern Wei dynasty issued an edict in the year 495 which established a procedure for defining, classifying, and ranking T'o-pa lineages. This procedure would be carried out once, and the resulting ranks would be hereditary thereafter. The intention was to create a hereditary aristocracy among the T'o-pa which would be similar to that which already existed among the Chinese, so that both the T'o-pa and the Chinese could be considered for bureaucratic office on a comparable basis. This was one of a number of edicts issued around this time which sought to make T'o-pa customs and practices more similar to Chinese ones.
Technologies of the Self: Courtly Artifice and Monastic Discipline in Early India
Authors: Ali Daud 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis paper attempts to link the growth of courtly and monastic practices as related historical phenomena in early historic India. The consolidation of urban courts and monastic communities represented a departure from the Vedic way of life in the context of new social relations and increasing urbanisation. Urban society and Buddhist monasticism, as scholars have pointed out, were linked materially and sociologically. This paper explores this linkage further. At the level of practice, courtly comportment and monastic discipline, centred around artifice and discipline, respectively, can be seen as direct inversions of one another. This opposition, however, was complementary and reveals a number of shared assumptions about “reality” leading to a common “hermeneutics” of phenomena, despite contrary ontological approaches and implications for practice.
The Study of Religions and Interfaith Encounter
Authors: Morgan Peggy 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe varied national and international events marking the centenary of the 1893 Chicago Parliament of Religions culminating in the gathering of about seven thousand five hundred people in Chicago in 1993 have involved many academics. Their presence raises afresh the issue of the relationship between the scholarly study of religions and meetings for interfaith encounter. The scholar can be seen as a participant observer in an area of religious activity of considerable interest and importance in the contemporary world. He or she can also be an advisor and consultant in the interfaith process, helping to raise and analyse questions about the balance of participants and the style of discourse being used. Interfaith activity can both change the scholar and be changed by his or her presence in a parallel way to that of the anthropologist in the field. The scholar of religion finds considerable interest in how, at interfaith gatherings, members of religions define and articulate their religion's essence, select and use teachings and scriptural passages. The reporting of meetings at which members of different faiths share ideas and sometimes worship acts as a positive balance to negative media coverage of conflict and intolerance associated with religions. But there is a need for careful and critical examination of an interfaith confessionalism which may develop at such meetings.
Buddhism and Islam: Past to Present Encounters and Interfaith Lessons
Authors: Scott David 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe paper deals with the encounter and ensuing responses that can be traced between Buddhism and Islam, during their centuries of contact across Asia (Anatolia, Iran, Central Asia, India), and more recently in the West. Within this panorama of history certain immediate overtly negative images of the other can be perceived in both traditions, manifested in terms of actions and literature. However some more positive images seem to have crystallised in Islam, particularly and significantly within the mystical Sufi streams that emerged in the East Iranian and Central Asian lands. Such historical patterns of confrontation, convergence and mysticism lead into the more modern second part of the study. A geographical-political perspective is first used, as the variations in their relationship in the various countries of SE Asia, and the British situation are noted. This is followed by a review of potential approaches between Islam and Buddhism in the current inter-faith dialogue arena. Whilst some doctrinal areas may be reconcilable (according to Cleary), it is primarily in other areas that more promising avenues of approach may be discerned. One is the area of ethics and social action on issues of common concern, as suggested by figures like Badawi, Gilliat, Askari and Vajiragnana. Another one is in contemplational areas of mysticism, as acknowledged by figures like Idries Shah. In both areas this can be echoed in greater clarity in the Christian-Buddhist dialogue. A further implication may be to bring out the need to view religions in functionalist and transformational terms, rather than culture bound doctrinal norms.
Buddhist Preaching and Sinhala Religious Rhetoric: Medieval Buddhist Methods to Popularize Theravāda
Authors: Deegalle Mahinda 
Published: December 2004

AbstractBuddhist preaching is one of the most neglected areas in modern scholarship. In Buddhist societies, though varieties of preaching rituals are found, existing scholarly literature contains only scattered and often inadequate or misleading references to Buddhist preaching. Since both historians of religions and Buddhologists have tended to ignore the role of Buddhist preachers and preaching in Theravāda Buddhism, this paper stresses the importance of paying attention to ‘preaching’ in developing a holistic understanding of Sinhala Buddhism.Focusing on the term ‘bana,’ this paper examines the development of Buddhist preaching in Sri Lanka. It demonstrates the way bana has functioned in the popularization of Theravāda since the thirteenth century. First, through an examination of inscriptions, it establishes the development of the term bana as an important religio-historical category in Sinhala Buddhism. Second, it examines the specific usage of the term bana in the sense of preaching in the thirteenth century Pūjāvaliya. Finally, focusing on the Butsarana, an early thirteenth century Sinhala text which contains extensive references to bana, it examines the way Vidyācakravartī innovated Theravāda Buddhist intellectual framework by employing an unconventional term such as ‘kāma’ (desire) to describe Theravāda religious concepts in order to popularize them. It argues that Buddhist preaching developed and grew in the context of Sinhala banapot, and functions as a rich cultural, educational, and religious resource influencing the attitudes and practices of Sinhala Buddhists.
Elitism and Esotericism: Strategies of Secrecy and Power in South Indian Tantra and French Freemasonry
Authors: Urban Hugh 
Published: December 2004

AbstractDespite the proliferation of interest in the subjects of secrecy and esotericism throughout popular culture, media and entertainment, these phenomena have only recently begun to be treated seriously by historians of religions. In this essay, I suggest a new way of looking at esotericism by engaging in a comparative, cross-cultural analysis, and by looking in particular at its social and political implications. Specifically, I compare two traditions — the Srīvidyā school of Indian Tantra, and the Rectified Scottish Rite of French Freemasonry — juxtaposing and analogically relating them in order to shed new light on both. Contrary to many popular conceptions, I argue that esotericism is by no means primarily a “counter-cultural” or “subversive” phenomenon; rather, it is very often an elitist phenomenon, the province of highly educated, affluent and powerful intellectuals, who wish, not to undermine existing social structures, but rather subtly to reinforce them, or else to bend and reshape them according to their own interests. This essay examines three primary strategies employed by the Tantrics and Masons: 1) the creation of a new social space or private sphere, which promises “equality” and liberation for all classes, while at the same time constructing new and more rigid hierarchies; 2) a hermeneutical strategy, which appropriates the authority of traditional scriptures, while at the same time asserting the superiority of esoteric exegesis; 3) a ritual strategy, which creates a homology between the body of the initiate, the hierarchy of the cosmos and the hierarchy of the esoteric sect, inscribing the individual into the body of the order, and inscribing the order onto the human body.
Notes on the History of the Shamanic in Tibet and Inner Asia
Authors: Gibson Todd 
Published: December 2004

AbstractHistorical treatments of the shaman have often been crippled by dubious and untestable assumptions on the nature of shamanic religion. Anthropological investigations in their turn have seldom dealt with historical issues in any depth. The first part of this contribution attempts to point out the advantages and dangers involved in applying an anthropological perspective to historical issues. A broad definition of the shaman is proposed which is anthropological in intent, while avoiding some possible errors in method. The second part of the article begins by documenting the “shamanic sickness” — widely acknowledged in the ethnological literature — in the careers of several tertons (major figures in the history of Tibetan Buddhism), illustrating that the shamanic role was not limited to the healing and divination that are usually associated with Inner Asian shamans. Buddhist derivations for the names of shamans in modern non-Buddhist cultures are presented; these argue for an association between Buddhism and the shamanic in early Inner Asia that went deeper than the mutual borrowing of cultural forms commonly supposed to have taken place.
Stylistic Elements in the Use of Arabic as Language in Diplomacy: Recent Developments in United Nations Context
Authors: Edzard Lutz 
Published: December 2004

AbstractIn this paper, a number of stylistic features of contemporary diplomatic Arabic will be investigated. These are the interference of historical and contemporary Arab-Islamic thought and terminology with accepted stylistic standards in international documents as well as certain metaphorical, including euphemistical, elements of style that are germane to Arabic. Subject of the discussion will be bi- and multilateral treaties that are either concluded in Arabic or in which Arabic is one of the official languages. Furthermore, diplomatic correspondence that originates in Arabic will be considered. Certain linguistic features of Arabic as surfacing in the said documents, independently of any religious implications, will be closely followed, if relevant for the interpretation of the documents under discussion. One of the main foci of attention will be the vast diplomatic correspondence that has been surrounding the Iraq-Kuwait-crisis. Finally, the unique case of an Arabic diplomatic poem will be cited.
Solar and QBO Influences on the Timing of Stratospheric Sudden Warmings
Authors: Gray Lesley J. , Crooks Simon , Pascoe Charlotte , Sparrow Sarah , Palmer Michael 
Published: December 2004

Abstract
The interaction of the 11-yr solar cycle (SC) and the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) and their influence on the Northern Hemisphere (NH) polar vortex are studied using idealized model experiments and ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40). In the model experiments, the sensitivity of the NH polar vortex to imposed easterlies at equatorial/subtropical latitudes over various height ranges is tested to explore the possible influence from zonal wind anomalies associated with the QBO and the 11-yr SC in those regions. The experiments show that the timing of the modeled stratospheric sudden warmings (SSWs) is sensitive to the imposed easterlies at the equator/subtropics. When easterlies are imposed in the equatorial or subtropical upper stratosphere, the onset of the SSWs is earlier.
A mechanism is proposed in which zonal wind anomalies in the equatorial/subtropical upper stratosphere associated with the QBO and 11-yr SC either reinforce each other or cancel each other out. When they reinforce, as in Smin–QBO-east (Smin/E) and Smax–QBO-west (Smax/W), it is suggested that the resulting anomaly is large enough to influence the development of the Aleutian high and hence the time of onset of the SSWs. Although highly speculative, this mechanism may help to understand the puzzling observations that major warmings often occur in Smax/W years even though there is no strong waveguide provided by the QBO winds in the lower equatorial stratosphere.
The ERA-40 data are used to investigate the QBO and solar signals and to determine whether the observations support the proposed mechanism. Composites of ERA-40 zonally averaged zonal winds based on the QBO (E/W), the SC (min/max), and both (Smin/E, Smin/W, Smax/E, Smax/W) are examined, with emphasis on the Northern Hemisphere winter vortex evolution. The major findings are that QBO/E years are more disturbed than QBO/W years, primarily during early winter. Sudden warmings in Smax years tend to occur later than in Smin years. Midwinter warmings are more likely during Smin/E and Smax/W years, although the latter result is only barely statistically significant at the 75% level. The data show some support for the proposed mechanism, but many more years are required before it can be fully tested.
The Use of Large-Eddy Simulations in Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Models
Authors: Weil Jeffrey C. , Sullivan Peter P. , Moeng Chin-Hoh 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA Lagrangian dispersion model driven by velocity fields from large-eddy simulations (LESs) is presented for passive particle dispersion in the planetary boundary layer (PBL). In this combined LES–Lagrangian stochastic model (LSM), the total velocity is divided into resolved or filtered and unresolved or subfilter-scale (SFS) velocities. The random SFS velocity is modeled using an adaptation of Thomson's LSM in which the ensemble-mean velocity and velocity variances are replaced by the resolved velocity and SFS variances, respectively. The random SFS velocity forcing has an amplitude determined by the SFS fraction of the total turbulent kinetic energy (TKE); the fraction is about 0.15 in the bulk of the simulated convective boundary layer (CBL) used here and reaches values as large as 0.31 and 0.37 in the surface layer and entrainment layer, respectively.For the proposed LES–LSM, the modeled crosswind-integrated concentration (CWIC) fields are in good agreement with the 1) surface-layer similarity (SLS) theory for a surface source in the CBL and 2) convection tank measurements of the CWIC for an elevated release in the CBL surface layer. The second comparison includes the modeled evolution of the vertical profile shape with downstream distance, which shows the attainment of an elevated CWIC maximum and a vertically well-mixed CWIC far downstream, in agreement with the tank data. For the proposed model, the agreement with the tank data and SLS theory is better than that obtained with an earlier model in which the SFS fraction of the TKE is assumed to be 1, and significantly better than a model that neglects the SFS velocities altogether.
Convective Influence on the Heat Balance of the Tropical Tropopause Layer: A Cloud-Resolving Model Study
Authors: Kuang Zhiming , Bretherton Christopher S. 
Published: December 2004

Abstract
The tropical tropopause layer (TTL), and in particular the cold point tropopause, has been previously suggested as a feature decoupled from convection. Using a cloud-resolving model, the authors demonstrate that convection, in fact, has a cooling effect in the TTL that significantly affects its thermal structure. In particular, the cold point is found to be strongly tied to the convective cooling maximum. The authors interpret these as natural features of an entrainment layer such as the TTL. The recognition that the cold point tropopause is strongly tied to, rather than decoupled from, convection suggests that dehydration processes at the cold point cannot be assumed as gradual and the effect of convection may not be ignored.
Growth of Circulation around Supercell Updrafts
Authors: Davies-Jones Robert 
Published: December 2004

Abstract
A formula is derived for the rate of change of circulation around an updraft perimeter at a constant elevation. This quantity depends on the continuous propagation of points on the edge, so an expression for local propagation of the edge is obtained from Petterssen's formula for the motion of an isopleth and the vertical equation of motion. On the edge of an updraft in inviscid anelastic flow, the local propagation velocity along the outward normal is equal to the local nonhydrostatic vertical pressure-gradient force (NHVPGF) divided by the magnitude of the local vertical-velocity gradient. Circulation around an updraft perimeter increases at a rate equal to the line integral around the edge of vertical vorticity times the outward propagation velocity. Formulas are also found for the propagation of an updraft's centroid at a given height and for the acceleration of an updraft's vertical helicity. All of the formulas are tested on exact Beltrami-flow solutions of the governing equations.
The relevance of two paradigms of supercell dynamics to local edge propagation and circulation growth of updrafts is evaluated by decomposing the NHVPGF into linearly and nonlinearly forced parts and examining results of supercell simulations in different types of shear. Propagation across the shear and rate of increase of circulation depend mostly on the nonlinear part of the NHVPGF (as in the vertical-wind-shear paradigm) for updrafts in nearly unidirectional shear and on the linear part (as in the helicity paradigm) for updrafts in shear that turns markedly with height.
Anisotropic Gent–McWilliams Parameterization for Ocean Models
Authors: Smith Richard D. , Gent Peter R. 
Published: December 2004

Abstract
An anisotropic generalization of the Gent–McWilliams (GM) parameterization is presented for eddy-induced tracer transport and diffusion in ocean models, and it is implemented in an ocean general circulation model using a functional formalism to derive the spatial discretization. This complements the anisotropic viscosity parameterization recently developed by Smith and McWilliams. The anisotropic GM operator is potentially useful in both coarse- and high-resolution ocean models, and in this study the focus is on its application in high-resolution eddying solutions, for which it provides an adiabatic alternative to the more commonly used biharmonic horizontal diffusion operators. It is shown that realistically high levels of eddy energy can be simulated using harmonic anisotropic diffusion and friction operators. Isotropic forms can also be used, but these tend either to overly damp the solution when a large diffusion coefficient is used or to introduce unacceptable levels of numerical noise when a small coefficient is used. A series of numerical simulations of the North Atlantic Ocean are conducted at 0.2° resolution using anisotropic viscosity, anisotropic GM, and biharmonic mixing operators to investigate the effects of the anisotropic forms and to isolate changes in the solutions specifically associated with anisotropic GM. A high-resolution 0.1° simulation is then conducted using both anisotropic forms, and the results are compared with a similar run using biharmonic mixing. Modest improvements are seen in the mean wind-driven circulation with the anisotropic forms, but the largest effects are due to the anisotropic GM parameterization, which eliminates the spurious diapycnal diffusion inherent in horizontal tracer diffusion. This leads to significant improvements in the model thermohaline circulation, including the meridional heat transport, meridional overturning circulation, and deep-water formation and convection in the Labrador Sea.