bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Visitatorial Jurisdiction
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The function of the Visitor is to interpret the internal laws of an ecclesiastical or 12.01 eleemosynary corporation, and to hear and determine disputes which relate to such laws. The Visitor was historically an ecclesiastical body which monitored, and corrected abuses in, church government. Ecclesiastical corporations (for example, Dean and Chapters) are therefore subject to the visitatorial jurisdiction of the bishop. Lay corporations may be either civil (such as municipal or commercial corporations) or eleemosynary. Civil corporations are purely secular in origin, and are not subject to any visitatorial jurisdiction; rather they are subject to the common law and to the jurisdiction of the courts. Eleemosynary corporations are corporations established to distribute the bounty of the founder.
Cy-Pr ès And Schemes
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If property is given for charitable purposes without the interposition of a trust, the Crown may have jurisdiction over it. If property is given for charitable purposes that are uncertain, and without being subjected to a trust, it will vest in the Crown, which, by convention, and through the exercise of the royal prerogative, will direct the property under the sign manual1 to be applied to specific charitable purposes.2 A
Charities And Trading
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The most obvious form of trading involves the sale of goods; but trading can also 20.01 be in other forms of property (such as land or the supply of services). If a charity which preserves old buildings charges an entrance fee to the public, or a charity school or hospital levies admission fees, each is trading. The first important issue is to determine the extent to which charities are permitted in English law to carry on a trade.
Disaster Funds
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A disaster fund is the term generally used to describe a fund raised by means of an 25.01 appeal to the public following an accident, natural disaster, or war, involving al- most always loss of life, or at least serious injury or distress. Sometimes the terms of the appeal provide for the relief of the distress and suffering, or the poverty, of the survivors of the accident and for the relatives of those killed, but the terms of the appeal may be wider or narrower.
The Priority of Persons
Authors: Finnis John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What it is to be a person, and why it matters that one is, are issues no longer thematic in general accounts of law. But the very concept of law, of an existing and projected reality profoundly, and deliberately, different from both anarchy and tyranny is shaped by the recognition that (i) we human beings are all persons and each other’s equals in that respect even if in no other; (ii) persons of sufficient maturity and health can understand and communicate what they and other persons mean, and can intend and choose many other ways of behaving, too; and (iii) persons, their well-being, and their intentions matter in ways that nothing else in our environment does. This essay outlines some reasons for bringing these issues, rather neglected in modern jurisprudence, back into focus.
Claimant And Defendant Are Both Legally Liable To Creditor
Authors: Mitchell Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will first examine the basic rule, that for a contribution or reimbursement claim to lie, the claimant and the defendant must both be legally liable to the creditor. It will then be considered whether it forms any part of this rule that the claimant’s payment must have been compelled by legal process, for example by the issue of a court order, or whether it is enough that he was legally compellable to pay the creditor at the time when he paid him. Two further questions will also be addressed.
Using Rules Effectively
Authors: Black Julia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Regulation in the financial sector has been characterised by a strong preference on the part of regulatees for “principles “. “Principles “ are implicitly understood to be rules which are general in their language, purposive in their content, and non-legal in their effect. This demand has been pre sent throughout the history of financial services regulation, and a recent reiteration is to be found in the Hampel Report on the separate but related area of corporate governance.
Individualism and Citizenship
Authors: Leca Jean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is the first meaning involving the problem of political rights and obligations and the individual as citizen which is the subject of the present chapter. The other two meanings will be referred to only in so much as they illustrate the first.
We shall not dwell for the moment on the status and attributes of this catch-all word ‘individualism’of which Max Weber remarked that it covered ‘the most heterogeneous things imaginable’. We shall accept Foucault’s definition with some modifications. Individualism cannot be properly understood, without proper qualification,as being restricted to those Western societies which resulted from the Reformation, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and capitalism. It is true to say, however, that it was within the material and cultural configuration which took place in these societies that the dual question of sociological individualism and state legitimation arose.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Seyd Patrick , Whiteley Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Party members and party activists are the ‘Cinderellas’ of British politics. Few people, particularly journalists and academics, have much to say in their favour. Some see them as unrepresentative extremists, a vocal minority whose tiresome demands interfere with the ‘true’ processes of democracy. Others see them as ‘film extras’, whose task is basically to provide an appreciative audience for their respective party leaders during election rallies. Few think that they have any really important role to play in British politics.
Party Members: A Review
Authors: Seyd Patrick , Whiteley Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of our research is the party member, but how one defines such a person varies according to the particular party under consideration. What one party means by membership will not agree with the definition of another. In this chapter, firstly we consider what the Labour party means by an individual member and what the trends have been in recruiting such people. Then we consider the formal powers that individual members possess and the manner in which these powers have changed in the past ten years. Thirdly, we summarize some of the key findings of previous research on the social composition and political attitudes of Labour party members. And, finally, we examine the place of parties in the British system of government.
Apprenticeship and the Social Identity of Artists
Authors: Taylor Luke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Having outlined the basic tenets of Kunwinjku group formation, this chapter focuses on the particular networks where ideas about painting and the training of young artists takes place. My concern is to show how the development of individual artists is mediated through basic social representations and how individual innovations are in turn transformed into social forms. In this respect we may view the various group formations described in the previous chapter as the social fields where Kunwinjku learn to identify with particular cultural materials and obtain the rights to control certain bodies of Ancestral law or bisnis. The chapter presents a consideration of the life-cycle of Kunwinjku artists to reveal the way that they gradually build identifications with many groups and exploit different avenues for gaining knowledge.
Iconic Representation
Authors: Taylor Luke 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A key characteristic of Kunwinjku bark painting is the way that iconic representation is the predominant means of design generation and a primary frame of reference for the interpretation of the meaning of bark paintings. For Kunwinjku the figures in bark paintings are considered to be lifelike or relatively naturalistic representations of natural species or Ancestral beings. A painting may encode other levels of meaning, but an understanding of these meanings is contingent upon the correct interpretation of the figure represented in the painting.
Perforated Sovereignties: Towards a Typology of New Actors in International Relations
Authors: Duchacek Ivo D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As managers of economic, social, cultural, and environmental affairs, non-central governments in North America and Western Europe, especially in federal or regionalized systems, have been increasingly induced to react to events abroad and respond to or initiate various contacts with foreign centres of economic, cultural, and political influence. These contacts involve not only immediate neighbours across sovereign frontiers - such as northern Swiss cantons, the West German Land of Baden-Württemberg, and French Upper Alsace (Regio Basiliensis) - but also distant centres of industrial or investment power. In 1985, for example, twenty- nine US states had fifty-five permanent offices in seventeen foreign countries (eighteen US states had their separate missions in Tokyo) while only four states had overseas representation in 1970. (In Chapter 10 Earl Fry lists and analyses numerous other US state initiatives abroad.) In addition, eighteen US port authorities and cities had their representatives in Europe, ranging from Alabama’s Port of Mobile to the Texas Port Authority of Corpus Christi. Six Canadian provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan) have established forty-six permanent missions in eleven foreign countries: as the Feldmans point out in Chapter 7, the Canadian provinces’ commitment to defend their interests ‘beyond Canadian borders challenges the conventional concept of sovereignty and the federal view of a national monopoly in foreign policy’.
Interpretation Enlightenment
Authors: Galipeau Claude J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I present Isaiah Berlin’s views of the nature and purpose of historical and philosophical studies. My aim is to show how Berlin’s interest in these fields is not incidental, or peripheral, to his liberalism; rather, these studies support his defence of liberal political morality. He, however, is hesitant to link together his studies in the history of ideas, his understanding of the role of philosophy, and his defence of negative liberty. He will admit that, in some ways, the history of ideas underlies his defence of political liberalism. Unfortunately, he wishes to go no further.1 The full reason is unknown; his antipathy for grand systems may perhaps explain the reticence.
Pluralism And The Liberal Political Order
Authors: Galipeau Claude J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pluralism, with the measure of ‘negative’ liberty that it entails, seems to me a truer and more humane ideal than the goals of those who seek in the great, disciplined, authoritarian structures the ideal of ‘positive’ self-mastery by classes, or peoples, or the whole of mankind. It is truer, because it does, at least, recognize the fact that human goals are many, not all of them commensurable, and in perpetual rivalry with one another. To assume that all values can be graded on one scale, so that it is a mere matter of inspection to determine the highest, seems to me to falsify our knowledge that men are free agents, to represent moral decision as an operation which a slide-rule could, in principle, perform. To say that in some ultimate, all-reconciling, yet realizable synthesis, duty is interest, or individual freedom is pure democracy or an authoritarian state, is to throw a metaphysical blanket over either self-deceit or deliberate hypocrisy.
Western Polynesia and Fiji
Authors: Gell Alfred 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter I will describe and analyse the tattooing institutions of what Burrows (1940) defines as western Polynesia, a cultural area comprising primarily the Tongan and Samoan archipelagos. I also intend to discuss data from Fiji. Unlike Tonga and Samoa, the ‘Fiji’ archipelago is markedly internally differentiated in cultural terms. The eastern part of Fiji (i.e. the northern Lau islands, most of Vanua Levu, and some coastal parts of Viti Levu) had fallen under intense and continuous Tongan influence, which was at its height during the epoch of initial European penetration into the region. Hence in these ‘Tonganized’ parts of Fiji, tattooing institutions were governed by Tongan rather than purely Fijian norms, or contained elements of both systems (Hocart 1952; L. Thompson 1940; Quain 1948).
Spain: A Federation In The Making?
Authors: Solozábal Juan José 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 established a model for territorial organization which may be considered to be midway between a unitary state and a federal one. Both politicians and constitutionalists have agreed on the terms ‘autonomous state’ (estado autonómico) or ‘state of autonomous territories’ (estado de las autonomías territoriales) to describe this model, although nowhere do these labels actually appear in the Constitution.
The socio-political dynamics operating in Spain when the new Constitution was drafted prevented its authors from considering any of the proven models of territorial organization, whether centralized or federal, as an option for Spain.
Introduction
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The men whom some economists thus tend to despise they call ‘ methodologists’. Perhaps they should be despised. What is the use of the man who studies scientific method? He may explain to students how scientists reached their new theories; but this is unlikely to help the students reach new theories of their own. He may try to generalize, and lay down canons of inquiry. But there is no technique for forming good hypotheses which can be taught. Discussions of scientific method are often trite, and seldom helpful. This book is not about methodology.
The Choice Criterion
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WE saw in the last Chapter that ‘ on a higher behaviour line’ entails ‘in a chosen position’. In this Chapter we will discuss the conditions required to apply the criterion to a real consumer, and, secondly, how far it is a good criterion for ‘ an increase in economic welfare’.1 The first condition is that the consumer is free to choose between the various collections of goods within the limits set by his purchasing power. It is obvious, since the analysis is built up on the basis of choices, and the relation of ‘ chosen rather than’ that one must be able to say that a consumer has chosen one collection rather than another, and that this cannot be said if he is prevented from choosing the alternative collection, other than by its being too expensive.
Value Judgements And Welfare Economics
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whether a word is a value word depends on the context. It is clear that ‘ You ought to go home for your father is dying’ is a value judgement, and that in this sentence the ‘ought’ has a moral force. On the other hand, in the statement ‘ You ought to go home if you want to avoid being recognized’, the ‘ought’ has no moral implication. Now it is possible that the word ‘ happiness’ may have ethical implications in some contexts. Whereas it has no moral force in ‘ Ais happier than B’,it may have in the statement ‘That change would increase the happiness of society’.
The ‘Optimum’ Conditions Of Production And Exchange (I)
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Putting the above condition into operation, when it is not already fulfilled, is, in theory, a sufficient condition for an increase in welfare, so long as the distribution of welfare is not thereby made worse. This follows because any movement to a position of tangency of behaviour lines is a movement which satisfies the Scitovsky criterion. Once such a position is reached, as a result of some change, it is impossible that the Kaldor-Hicks criterion should be satisfied for the reverse change away from the tangency position.2
Welfare Theory And International Trade
Authors: Little I M D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
WE do not propose to analyse the welfare implications of all the manifold different trade policies which a country might adopt. We shall content ourselves with three of the most important topics: first, the 'gains' from international trade; secondly, the 'gains' which can accrue to a country as a result of raising a tariff barrier; and, lastly, the question of the desirability of free trade. A correct statement of the 'gains' which may accrue to a hitherto isolated country as a result of entering upon international trade can be most simply made in terms of the analysis of the national income which we made in the last Chapter.
Coitus as Demographic Behaviour
Authors: Udry J Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The scientific study of coitus is not solely justified by its status as a demographic behaviour, that is, by the fact that it has relationships to reproduction. From the point of view of the participant, it has intrinsic interest. From the point of view of the biologist or sociologist, the determinants of coital behaviour may be just as interesting as the consequences. From the point of view of the social scientist, the import of coitus goes far beyond its reproductive consequences into fundamental dimensions of human relationships. As contraception becomes more nearly perfect and as other means of conception control are perfected, the significance of coitus as consummatory behaviour comes more and more to the forefront.
Age Patterns of Fecundability*
Authors: Weinstein Maxine , Wood James , Ming-Cheng Chang 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Fecundability is defined as the probability that a couple will conceive during a month of exposure to unprotected intercourse, given that both partners are biologically able to conceive (Gini, 1924). Fecundability is of demographic importance because it determines a substantial portion of every birth interval, the so-called fecund waiting time to next conception. In a homogeneous population (that is, a group of couples all with the same fecundability), the relationship is simple: the mean waiting time is the inverse of fecundability. Thus, if fecundability is 0.25, couples can expect to experience an average of four months of regular intercourse before conceiving. As we shall see below, the heterogeneous case is more complicated-and more interesting-but the basic point still holds: fecundability determines the distribution of waiting times to conception. Fecundability is of special interest because, with lactational anovulation, it is one of the principal points of intersection between the biological and the behavioural determinants of fertility. On the biological side, the female partner must be experiencing regular ovarian cycles and her cycles must produce viable eggs (at least occasionally) for conception to occur, while in the male, sperm must be motile and of sufficient quantity. In addition, since pregnancies cannot be detected until about the time of implantation, the apparent value of fecundability will be influenced by the level of pre-implantation intrauterine loss, which reflects both maternal and paternal factors. The primary behavioural determinants of fecundability are, obviously, the overall frequency of intercourse and the way in which it is distributed across the cycle.
Biological Causes of Foetal Loss
Authors: Simpson Joe Leigh , Carson Sandra 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some 10 to 15 per cent of recognized pregnancies are lost during the first trimester, and an additional 2 to 3 per cent are lost later in pregnancy. In addition, many conceptions are lost before they are even recognized clinically. We shall first consider the frequency of foetal wastage during various stages of gestation. Thereafter, we shall review the causes of spontaneous abortions, emphasizing factors that serve as potential confounding variables. Clinical management is reviewed elsewhere (Carson and Simpson, 1990).
A Discrete-Time Method for the Analysis of Event Histories
Authors: Arjas Elja , Kangas Pekka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In demographic longitudinal studies, time measurements in the data are mostly reported in a rounded form: a time unit is fixed, typically a month or a year, and then the interval (of unit length) during which the event in question occurred is reported. Such rounding does cause some problems, however. For example, it may result in a considerable number of ties, and the computer-time requirement can be excessive for methods such as Cox’s proportional-hazards regression. A slightly different problem arises in using the Poisson regression technique with piecewise constant-baseline hazards, which requires the estimation of exposure in the various groups. To do this, the rounded time measurements are conventionally modified by applying ‘actuarial methods’, thus introducing an element of spurious accuracy into the data. For example, if the time-interval is a month, a single event is dated to the fifteenth day, and if there are two events, one is dated to the tenth and the other to the twentieth day of the month. If the time intervals are short, these somewhat ad hoc modifications of the essentially discrete data, which are required in order to apply a continuous time-method, appear rather harmless, since the differences between the true, recorded, and modified time measurements are small. However, ‘spurious accuracy’ is somewhat awkward, and it is natural to look for alternatives.
Capitalism With Morality
Authors: Haslett D W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Professor Haslett compares economic systems using both economic criteria and philosophically sophisticated standards to investigate ethical arguments for different types of economic system. Areas covered include: ethical presuppositions; libertarian capitalism; utopian communism; central planning socialism; worker democracies; and equal opportunity capitalism. He considers the advantages and disadvantages of the systems covered and concludes by outlining and defending an alternative system which attempts to avoid the moral deficiencies of capitalism.
Wealth-Maximization
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The dominant notion of efficiency in the Law and Economics literature is that of wealth-maximization. According to Posner (1977: 10) ‘Efficiency means exploiting economic resources in such a way that value—human satisfaction as measured by aggregate willingness to pay for goods and services—is maximized ’. While this criterion has been used primarily on issues of property-rights assignment and protection in common law, Posner has promoted its use as a guide to all questions of resource allocation. Even such basic entitlements as the entitlement to one ’s labour could and should be derived according to this principle.