bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Biological Psychology
Authors: Thompson Richard F. , Zola Stuart M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe recent history of the broad field of biological psychology is reviewed in depth. Our focus is on the scientific study of behavior and experience and its neural/biological substrates. Scientific approaches to the study of mind began with the development of psychophysics, with the work of Weber and Fechner in the nineteenth century and continued through the work of Boring and Stevens to the modern field of signal detection theory. Scientific study of the brain has a much longer history, originally with neuroanatomy, the only method of study available until the nineteenth century. The question of localization of function in the brain has been—and—remains a key issue in the field. A major focus in the developing field of physiological psychology concerned the behavioral and biological mechanisms of sensory processes, highlighted here in the study of color vision and pitch perception. Another major focus was on brain substrates of learning and memory, pioneered by Lashley and Pavlov. Yet another major focus was on the behavioral and biological substrates of motivation and emotion, as in the classic views of William James and Walter Cannon. Cognitive neuroscience, the neural substrates of “higher” mental processes has become a major field with the development of methods to image the human brain and its functioning. Biological psychology continually self‐destructs in that as knowledge grows, areas like vision, audition, psychophysiology, and behavioral genetics leave biological psychology to become fields of science in their own right.
Comparative Psychology
Authors: Dewsbury Donald A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractComparative psychology entails the search for general principles concerning the origins, control, and consequences of animal behavior. Interest in animal behavior can be traced from early cave paintings, to the ancient Greeks, and to later European philosophers, natural historians, and applied animal behaviorists before Darwin. The continuity of species suggested by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection led to important writings by such Britishers as George Romanes, John Lubbock, Douglas Spalding, and C. Lloyd Morgan. The field reached disciplinary maturity, along with much of the rest of psychology, between 1890 and World War I. Prominent programs were established at Harvard, Clark, Cornell, the University of Chicago, and elsewhere. The war and pressures on comparative psychologists to shift interests led to a period of inactivity lasting into the 1920s. Between the two world wars there was a revitalization of comparative psychology led by psychologists such as Robert Yerkes, Karl Lashley, Calvin Stone, Frank Beach, T. C. Schneirla, and Harry Harlow. This generation sustained a continued presence and educated a new generation that ensured the continuation of the field. Since World War II, the field has grown and been influenced by such movements as European ethology, sociobiology, and cognitive science.
Emotion
Authors: Mandler George 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe definition of emotion has commanded only limited consensus in its philosophical and psychological history. In part this has been due to differential stress on the components of emotion. Starting with pre‐Socratic and later Greek notions of its somatic and bodily aspects, Aristotle then added cognitive elements to emotional experience. These three characteristics in various combinations defined emotion then and later. With Descartes, a serious attempt started to specify basic emotions and their contribution to other emotional concepts, though again consensus was not achieved. With the nineteenth century, classification became a dominant theme, punctuated by the constructivist attempts of the James‐Lange approach and its derivatives. The dominance of William James lasted into the twentieth century. His hegemony was accompanied and followed by new contributions to emphases and distinctions between central vs. peripheral processes. By mid‐twentieth century, cognitive factors once again became a dominant emphasis, which dissipated into a spreading net of competing theories, some again centered on psychic/mental, others on somatic/visceral bases of emotional experience and behavior, with conflict theories holding the middle ground. With a variety of contesting approaches available at the beginning of the twenty‐first century, William James' question, “What is an emotion?” still has no unchallenged answer.
Developmental Psychology
Authors: Parke Ross D. , Clarke‐Stewart K. Alison 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe history of developmental psychology is traced through five phases. During the beginning years (1880–1914) developmental psychology emerged as a separate and distinctive field. Many recurring themes—early experience, unconscious processes, and the dual role of nature and nurture in development—were identified. The second era (1915–1940) was characterized by both institutionalization and fragmentation. New institutes devoted to the understanding of children's normative development were established, while behavioral, maturational, and organismic approaches competed for dominance, In the third phase of expansion (1940–1960), a fusion of Hullian learning theory and psychoanalysis created a new paradigm for understanding the effects of childrearing on development. This era gave way to a fourth period (1960–1985) that saw the rise of social learning theory and the re‐emergence of cognition and emotion as dominant themes. In the current era (1985 to the present), a new interdisciplinary focus has emerged, with the fusion of recent advances in genetics and neuroscience and the continued contextualized study of social, cognitive and emotional development. The recurring nature of major developmental themes across time is emphasized.
Social Psychology
Authors: Morawski Jill G. , Bayer Betty M. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe history of twentieth century American social psychology is often told as a story of developing laboratory procedures to more scientifically comprehend the psychological dynamics of the social. This chapter expands upon that story by exploring a more inclusive perspective on social psychology's maturation. Considered in this more compressive historical review are the field's immediate predecessors who generated an eclectic and intellectually stimulating theories of social‐psychological processes. Considered, too, is the play of politics, both how social psychologists took up concurrent political concerns or mirrored prevalent political attitudes in their research and also how some researchers deployed research to challenge or critically investigate those politics. Social psychological investigations contributed substantively to the twentieth century's shifting understanding of the relations of the individual to the social world. New technologies, notably cybernetics and computers, were not only utilized in social psychology experimentation but were integral to this rethinking of the individual and social. Most recently, these technologies have guided researchers to conceptualize social psychological processes as faulty information processors; the discipline, however, did not—and has not—become monolithic and some researchers have generated quite different theoretical visions. Whether through confirming accounts or critically interventions, through applications in business or explorations of new views of human kinds, social psychology has been actively engaged in the making of American social life.
Psychology of Women and Gender
Authors: Marecek Jeanne , Kimmel Ellen B. , Crawford Mary , Hare‐Mustin Rachel T. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
This historical overview of the field of psychology of women and gender emphasizes developments since the beginning of the second wave of feminism (c. 1970). Feminists in psychology have addressed deficiencies and inaccuracies in psychology's knowledge base, challenged biases in clinical practice and research methods, and policies of professional organizations that perpetuate social inequality. Research endeavors in the field include studies of gender difference and similarity, gendered power relations, the discursive construction of gender and sexuality, concealed aspects of women's experience, and the lives of women and girls marginalized by ethnicity, sexuality, or social class. Feminist researchers have also developed innovative modes of inquiry and interrogated conventional epistemological frameworks of psychology. Feminist clinicians and counselors have pioneered new approaches to diagnosis, assessment, prevention, treatment, and clinical supervision, as well as new frameworks for therapeutic ethics. Feminist‐inspired interventions for psychological problems include therapies for rape, problems with eating and body image, rape, and conflicts in couples and families, including intimate violence and the sexual abuse of children. The final portion of the chapter describes the origins and goals of a variety of organizations through which feminist psychologists pursue their professional goals and work for social justice.
Abnormal Psychology
Authors: Maher Winifred B. , Maher Brendan A. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter traces the history of psychopathology and its treatments from the fifth century BCE to the present. The history is replete with myths, competing concepts, political agendas, legal issues, attempts at classification, and theoretical formulations that have recurred throughout the centuries.Historically, mental illness was thought to be caused by noxious “humors” in the body or from spiritual sources inflicted due to “bad” behavior. Mentally ill persons were variously ostracized from the community, ridiculed, imprisoned, treated with potions and surgery, as well as cared for humanely. These approaches were consistent with the scientific thinking and cultural influences of the time. Over the centuries the methodologies have changed, but the basic approaches have remained remarkably similar, such as drug treatment today instead of the potions of earlier times.The classic dichotomies between organic vs. functional etiologies, medical vs. behavioral treatments, and institutional vs. community placement remain largely unsettled.The late 19thCentury and early 20thCentury brought many new techniques, such as hypnosis, to bear on understanding psychopathology. The modern era of psychotherapy, generally associated with Sigmund Freud and the introduction of psychoanalysis is carefully summarized, as are the later questioning and rejection of many of Freud's theories and interventions. Finally, the chapter discusses today's approaches, with the intensification of psychopharmacological treatments for anxiety and depressive disorders, in addition to increasingly popular cognitive‐behavioral interventions.
Forensic Psychology
Authors: Brigham John C. , Grisso J. Thomas 
Published: November 2003

AbstractForensic psychology can be viewed broadly, as the study of all aspects of behavior directly related to the legal process, or more narrowly as a subarea of clinical psychology involving evaluations of, and testimony about, individuals in reference to a legal question. This chapter traces the history of attempts to apply psychological concepts and data to the legal system, beginning with the evolution of the insanity defense in eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century England. As the field of psychology emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century, psychologists' early enthusiasm for applying psychological methods and knowledge to legal questions (e.g., Munsterberg and Freud) was not met with ready acceptance by the legal field. By the 1950s, attempts to inject relevant psychological knowledge into legal cases were becoming more widespread, both by means of clinical expert testimony and viaamicus curaie(friend of the court) briefs. Involvement of research psychologists in the legal system was sporadic until the 1960s, when an increased emphasis on social relevance led many psychologists to focus their research efforts toward the legal system, studying factors such as eyewitness memory, pretrial publicity, civil rights, judicial instructions, and jury decision making. Paralleling this research emphasis was the founding of professional organizations such as the American Psychology‐Law Society in 1969, the initiation of several psychology‐law journals in the last three decades, and the development of training programs focused on forensic psychology; some of these were joint degree (JD/PhD) programs, while others were within existing clinical or social psychology programs. Several emerging roles for psychologists in the legal system are discussed: providing forensic clinical evaluations, delivering scientific expert witness testimony, creating “science translation” briefs, and working as a trial consultant. In recent years, research intended to provide courts with relevant and useful information has been especially prevalent in the areas of eyewitness memory, ways to improve clinical forensic evaluations, and issues involving children and adolescents. We conclude that the future of forensic psychology looks bright, as communication between leaders in law and forensic psychology appears to be increasing in both frequency and understanding.
School Psychology
Authors: Fagan Thomas K. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter describes the historical development of the field of school psychology over two broad periods referred to as The Hybrid Years (1890–1969) and The Thoroughbred Years (1970‐present). Within each period, the field's development is subdivided into chronological periods and their associated development contributed by specific persons, events, and trends. The field's development is traced across the twentieth century, including descriptions of early practices and their relationship to later service delivery. Organizational development is described as evolving primarily from associations for applied psychologists and the reorganized American Psychological Association, and then the founding of the National Association of School Psychologists at the start of The Hybrid Years. Developments in training, accreditation, credentialing, and literature are also presented. A section discussing future possibilities for the specialty is provided and there is a section on resources for the study of the history of school psychology. An overview of the present status of the field is also presented at the beginning of the chapter.
Community Psychology
Authors: Wilson Bianca D. M. , Hayes Erin , Greene George J. , Kelly James G. , Iscoe Ira 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThe history of Community Psychology is not just a history of professional developments in the field but also a history of the interaction between social events and the accomplishments of community psychologists. In this chapter, we document the evolution of community psychology within the context of events in U.S. history beginning at least twenty years before the field was founded. We propose that earlier cultural and historical events and circumstances are important contexts for the founding of the field at the 1965 Swampscott Conference. Furthermore, these same cultural and historical events have also provided a context for the emergence of three major and defining domains of community psychology. The first, working with the strengths of persons and communities, has served as a guiding value for the field's development. Second, ecological theory, has provided a theoretical framework for the work that community psychologists do. Finally, designing and conducting preventive interventions has become the primary way in which community psychology research has been translated into action. For each of these domains, we provide a review of significant empirical and theoretical developments in the filed. We conclude the chapter by providing critical observations and suggestions for future directions.
Undergraduate Education
Authors: McGovern Thomas V. , Brewer Charles L. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the history of undergraduate psychology in the United States. After reviewing the context of American higher education, the authors highlight two aspects of this history: (a) substantive content of the discipline, as reflected in courses and curricula, and (b) explicit learning outcomes expected of changing student populations. Three facets of academic psychology serve as organizing themes: teaching, scholarship, and service. In the section on teaching, the authors review results of catalog studies and surveys of courses in the undergraduate curriculum, and they discuss experts' recommendations concerning the purpose and structure of undergraduate programs. Concerning scholarship, the authors consider how the outcomes of undergraduate psychology programs have been defined and assessed. The section on service highlights the individual and organizational activities designed to enhance teaching and research in psychology at state, regional, and national levels. A final section considers the past as prologue for the future. Scholars and program developers interested in the history of undergraduate psychology in the United States will find a plethora of relevant information in this chapter.
Ethnic Minorities
Authors: Jenkins Adelbert M. , Albee George W. , Paster Vera S. , Sue Stanley , Baker David B. , Comas‐Diaz Lillian , Puente Antonio E. , Suinn Richard M. , Caldwell‐Colbert A. Toy , Williams Velma M. , Root Maria P. P. 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter presents historical issues from the perspectives of ten authors representing various ethnic orientations, with views on their thoughts and experiences in dealing with ethnic issues in the field of psychology.Some of the vignettes are very personal and some reflect on important turning points in the history of psychology relating to ethnic minority issues. Each of the brief essays tells an aspect of the story which should be remembered as the science and profession of psychology moves into the 21stCentury.
Experimental Design
Authors: Kirk Roger E. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract

This chapter discusses three principles of good experimental design: random assignment, replication, and local control. A theme that runs throughout the chapter is that all complex experimental designs can be constructed from and understood in terms of three simple building block designs. The three designs are the completely randomized design, randomized block design, and Latin square design. Procedures for dealing with unequal cell
n
's in a completely randomized factorial design are illustrated using a regression model and a cell means model. The advantages of the cell means model are discussed in detail. To reduce the size of blocks or the number of treatment combinations in an experiment, researchers sometime use confounding. The merits of group‐treatment confounding in split‐plot factorial designs, group‐interaction confounding in confounded factorial designs, and treatment‐interaction confounding in fractional designs are examined. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the use of a concomitant variable (covariate) in experimental designs. The inclusion of a concomitant variable may enable a researcher to (1) remove that portion of the dependent‐variable error variance that is predictable from a knowledge of the concomitant variable thereby increasing power and (2) adjust the dependent variable so that it is free of effects attributable to the concomitant variable thereby reducing bias.
Methods for Handling Missing Data
Authors: Graham John W. , Cumsille Patricio E. , Elek‐Fisk Elvira 
Published: November 2003

AbstractThis chapter describes a general approach to handling missing data in psychological research. It provides a theoretical background in readable, nontechnical fashion. Our overall goal was to give practical, usable advice, rather than to give a detailed statistical treatment of issues surrounding analysis of incomplete data. We give an overview of the older, unacceptable methods for handling incomplete data, so that readers will know what approaches to avoid; although analysis of complete cases is sometimes an acceptable solution, we argue that pairwise deletion and mean substitution should be avoided. With respect to newer, acceptable methods, we give a general overview, including a brief discussion of the full information maximum likelihood structural equation modeling procedures (such as Amos, Mx, LISREL 8.5, and Mplus), but focus primarily on multiple imputation as a general solution. We give specific guidelines for making use of state‐of‐the‐art multiple imputation software and step‐by‐step instructions for using multiple imputation with Schafer's (1997) NORM program. Empirical examples of exploratory and data quality analyses and a substantive illustration involving multiple linear regression demonstrate the use of multiple imputation in practice. The chapter concludes with a discussion of some practical issues that often arise in connection with the analysis of incomplete data.
Preparatory Data Analysis
Authors: Fidell Linda S. , Tabachnick Barbara G. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
Preparatory data analyses (data screening) are conducted before a main analysis to assess the fit between the data and the assumptions of that main analysis. Different main analyses have different assumptions that vary in importance; violation of some assumptions can lead to the wrong inferential conclusion (and a potential failure of replication) while violation of others yields an analysis that is correct as far as it goes, but misses certain additional relationships in the data. Assumptions that are often relevant for continuous variables are normality of sampling distributions, pairwise linearity, absence of outliers and collinearity, independence of errors, and homoscedasticity; these are evaluated by both graphical and statistical methods. When violation is detected, variables are often transformed or an alternative analytic strategy is employed. Relevant issues in the choice of when and how to screen are the level of measurement of the variables, whether the design produces grouped or ungrouped data, whether cases provide a single response or more than one response, and whether the variables themselves or the residuals of analysis are screened.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Gorsuch Richard L. 
Published: November 2003

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a basic but comprehensive treatment of factor analysis. While use of no particular statistical package is assumed, the chapter also provides the information needed to select the options for a factor analysis that are most appropriate to the purpose of a study.
The chapter begins with the basic equations and definitions of factor analysis. This section introduces the terms needed to understand factor analytic models and variations in the models. The second section of the chapter presents factor models, including component analysis (CA) and common factor analysis (CFA). Common factor analysis includes both exploratory (ECFA) and confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, all of these variants can be used with correlated or uncorrelated factor models. With each model is presented the essential theoretical information to understand it and the essential practical information to use that model. Each section includes the procedures which now have sufficient empirical and theoretical support to be the generally desired procedures for that model.
The concluding section points to elements of all good research designs that need to be remembered in designing a factor analytic study. Included is this section are discussions of the need for high quality variables and how many cases are needed.