bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Molecular Biology of Gastric Cancer
Authors: Tahara Eiichi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Striking advances in molecular dissection of precancerous and cancerous lesions of the stomach indicate that genetic and epigenetic alterations in oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, DNA-repair genes, cell-cycle regulators, telomeres, and telomerase, as well as genetic instability at microsatellite foci, are involved in the multistep process of human stomach carcinogenesis.1–3 The scenario of these changes found in gastric carcinoma differs depending on the histologic type of gastric cancer, indicating that different carcinogenetic pathways exist for well-differentiated or intestinal-type carcinomas and poorly differentiated or diffusetype carcinomas.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Gastric Carcinoma: Management Options: Potentially Resectable Gastric Cancer
Authors: Mansfield Paul F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Since the 1930s, when gastric cancer was the most common type of cancer in the United States, the incidence of this type of cancer has declined dramatically. Although it is now not even one of the 10 most common cancers, it is the eighth leading cause of cancer death. In 2001, approximately 21,700 patients were diagnosed in the United States, of whom more than half are expected to die from the disease.
Locally Advanced Unresectable Gastric Cancer
Authors: Clark Jeffrey W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Attempted curative resection is the treatment of choice for gastric adenocarcinoma. However, it is not always possible. In Western countries, less than 50% of patients can have potentially curative resections at the time of initial presentation. In Asian countries where the higher incidence of gastric cancer has led to earlier screening and detection of gastric cancer in high-risk individuals and in those with early symptoms, a greater percentage of patients have their disease diagnosed earlier and thus can have potentially curative resections.
Molecular Biology of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma
Authors: Jean Marina E , Lowy Andrew M , Evans Douglas B , Chiao Paul J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the fifth leading cause of adult cancer mortality in the United States.1 On the basis of population data and cancer incidence rates collected by the National Cancer Institute’s Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program, it is estimated that 30,700 new cases of cancer of the pancreas will be diagnosed in the United States in 2003, and 30,000 cancer deaths will result from pancreatic cancer.
Pathology and Natural History of Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: Mutema George , Fenoglio-Preiser Cecilia 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pancreatic cancer is now the 5th most common cause of death from cancer in the United States, preceded by only lung, colon, breast, and prostate cancers. Each year, 28,000 new patients are identified, of whom only 1000 are expected to survive 5 years. The pancreas is functionally divided into exocrine and endocrine components, and most pancreatic cancers arise in the exocrine pancreas and are carcinomas. This chapter will cover the pathologic features of these tumors. (Cancers of the endocrine pancreas are neuroendocrine tumors). Secondary involvement of the pancreas by other tumors can occur either by direct extension or through metastasis. Metastatic tumors will be covered briefly here.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Management Options: Locally Advanced Unresectable Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: Tempero Margaret A , Termuhlen Paula , Brand Randall E , Mcginn Cornelius 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Current multimodality therapy for patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma consists of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Unfortunately, more than one-half of patients present with distant metastatic disease and more than two-fifths of patients have locally advanced but unresectable disease.1 The management of patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma must include palliation of the symptoms associated with the disease, such as gastric outlet obstruction, biliary obstruction and pain.
Epidemiology, Molecular Epidemiology, and Biomarkers of Biliary Tract Cancers
Authors: Soloway Roger D , Rego Rayburn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Malignant tumors of the biliary tract are rare, accounting for less than 2% of all malignant neoplasms in the United States. Knowledge concerning the etiology of these cancers has come from clinical observations, animal experiments, autopsy series, and descriptive epidemiologic studies. The exact pathogenesis of these tumors, however, still needs to be established, and more sensitive and specific markers need to be developed to screen for these uncommon tumors.
Molecular Biology of Cholangiocarcinoma and Gallbladder Carcinoma
Authors: Goggins Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Neoplasia arises in a cell as a result of damage to multiple cancerpredisposing genes, each providing selection of progressively more autonomous clone(s) until characteristic features of cancer such as invasion and metastasis have been achieved. Many classes of cancer-causing genes are involved in cancer formation. Furthermore, in addition to defects in growth regulatory genes, increasingly, cancers are characterized by defects in genome maintenance.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Cholangiocarcinoma and Gallbladder Carcinoma Management Options: Unresectable Gallbladder Carcinoma and Cholangiocarcinoma
Authors: Johnnides Christopher , Roh Mark S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Carcinoma of the gallbladder tends to be a disease of elderly women. The mean age at diagnosis is 65 years and the female-to-male ratio is approximately 3 to 1. 4– 6 Certain ethnic groups carry a higher risk, with American Indian, Japanese, Hispanic (especially Mexican and Chilean), and persons of Jewish ancestry having a higher prevalence of the disease than the population of the United States as a whole.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Hepatocellular Cancer: Diagnostic and Staging Procedures
Authors: Choti Michael A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is among the most common malignancies worldwide, accounting for more than 1,000,000 new cases per year.1,2 Surgical therapy of early-stage disease provides the only hope for curative therapy. Therefore, early diagnosis and appropriate determination of extent of disease and hepatic function are critical in optimizing treatment planning and improving survival rates.
Molecular Biology of Colorectal Cancer
Authors: Su Li-Kuo 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of colorectal cancer from normal epithelial cells is a multistep process. A molecular genetic model proposed more than a decade ago has been proven to be a major genetic pathway for colorectal tumorigenesis.1,2 It is clear that the alteration of many genes, including both proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, is involved in this complex process of tumorigenesis. Several of these genes have been identified and their functions elucidated. In addition, other molecular alterations that may contribute to the development of colorectal cancer have been discovered.
Clinical Aspects and Management of Rectal Adenocarcinoma Management Options: Unresectable Rectal Carcinoma
Authors: Minsky Bruce D 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In patients with primary, respectable (T3) rectal cancer, a significant improvement in local control and survival can be achieved with the use of radiation therapy plus 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)– based chemotherapy (combined-modality therapy).1–3 It is more difficult to obtain these same results for patients with more advanced disease. For locally advanced or unrespectable rectal cancers, collectively defined as T4 disease, there is no uniform way to determine respectability.
Management Options: Metastatic Colorectal Carcinoma
Authors: Vauthey Jean-Nicolas , Medgyesy Diana , Goffin John R , Royce Melanie , Ayoub Jean-Pierre , Hoff Paulo M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Despite the remarkable advances seen in the understanding of the development and treatment of colorectal cancer, it is estimated that approximately 150,000 individuals are diagnosed annually with this disease in the United States. Forty percent of patients with colorectal cancer will die from metastatic disease, and the liver is the main site of metastasis. Approximately 20% of patients will present with or develop metastasis confined to the liver during the course of the disease.
Low- and High-Grade Lymphomas
Authors: Cabanillas Fernando , Pro Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas (NHLs) comprise a heterogeneous group of malignant neoplasms arising mostly in lymph node tissue but sometimes at extranodal sites. These extranodal NHLs are referred to as primary extranodal lymphomas. The incidence of NHLs has been rising steadily over the last two to three decades. According to Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) data for the period from 1974 to 1988, the incidence of nodal NHL increased 1.7% to 2.5% per year and the incidence of extranodal NHL, 3.0% to 6.9% per year.1,2
Clinical Aspects and Management of Gastrointestinal Sarcomas: Management Options: Potentially Resectable Gastrointestinal Sarcomas
Authors: Cormier Janice N , Pisters Peter W T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) stromal tumors (GISTs), of which leiomyosarcomas represent a subset, have presented a diagnostic and therapeutic dilemma for decades. The complexity of defining these tumors is magnified by the rarity of their occurrence (accounting for only 0.1% to 3% of all GI malignancies) and by their anatomic heterogeneity (esophagus to anorectum). Most of the available data come from retrospective single-institution analyses of small series of patients treated over long periods.
Style and Presentation in the 17th Century
Authors: Bruce Steve 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When we watch an old Max Sennett short, we may be amused not only by the antics of the Keystone Kops, but also by their rapid, jerky motions; if so, we are indulging in the pleasures of anachronism. The Keystone jerkiness is a consequence, not of Sennett’s desire to please, but of his technical limitations. Only informed hindsight allows us to enjoy exactly what its original audiences enjoyed.
Argument in the 17th Century
Authors: Bruce Steve 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On 15 May 1693, in the Memoire de Mathematique et de Physique of Two there appeared an article by Jean Mery entitled “Observations of Two Fetuses Enclosed in the Same Membrane.” The two fetuses were dead, and Mery reflects on the cause of their mortality: For if they are separated [each in his own membrane], their umbilical cords cannot interlace; instead, when two lei uses are enclosed in a common membrane, they easily interwine their cords by their movements and consequently suffocate; as actually happened to these fetuses represented here whose cords hindered each other’s functions and formed a knot that, having prevented I lie blood from circulating from the placenta Io their vessels, caused their death.
Evolutionary Dynamics of Organizational Populations and Communities
Authors: Baum Joel A C , Rao Hayagreeva 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ability of societies to respond to social problems may hinge crucially on the diversity of organizational forms, and in the long run, in a dynamic environment, diversity can be maintained or increased by the rise of new forms. Moreover, new forms are vital engines of organizational evolution. Indeed, an important component of organizational change, at the macro level, consists of the selection and replacement of existing organizational forms by new organizational forms. Furthermore, since new organizational forms are structural incarnations of technologies, beliefs, values, and norms, they emerge in tandem with social movements, new institutions, and new technologies and help to foster and reflect cultural and technical change in societies. For these reasons, where new organizational forms come from is a central question for organization theorists.
Introduction: Medical Ethics and Organizational Ethics
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The field of medical ethics is relatively new, but it has already become a well­ established enterprise both in university health centers and in smaller hospitals. Hospice programs, nursing homes, and home health agencies are now developing ethics committees as well (DeVries and Subedi, 1998). Issues like informed consent, the withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment, abortion, the use of experimental drugs, and the confidentiality of medical information have been dis­ cussed widely in the professional literature and the popular press. Definite progress has been made: ethics consultations are widely available to patients and physicians, state laws have been passed assuring patients the ability to issue advance directives for their care and to appoint surrogate decision makers, and the automatic use of extraordinary measures to extend life has been curbed (Jonsen, 1998). Debates continue about physician-assisted suicide, the right to care that is considered medically futile, and the obligation to care for patients who refuse to adopt healthier lifestyles, among other issues.
Advertising and Marketing
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Between 1992 and 1994 the Woodstock Theological Center convened a seminar of experts to discuss “Ethical Considerations in the Business Aspects of Health Care.” One of the major challenges faced by the healthcare system in the United States, they concluded, comes from the influence of market practices:
The expansion of health care diagnostic and treatment possibilities has also opened up significant profit opportunities to health care professionals and entrepreneurs. Professionals can choose lucrative specialties, or can target niches within their specialties, such as cosmetic plastic surgery or sports medicine, which are especially profitable because many individuals are willing to pay high prices for these services, even if they are specifically excluded from coverage by insurance policies. As a result, the health care field is increasing being influenced by “marketing” practices, and the line between attending to the health care needs of society and selling a consumer product has been increasingly blurred.
Managed Care
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Conflict of interest is a key concept in business ethics (Margolis, 1979) and in healthcare organizational ethics (JCAHO, 1998:77-83). A conflict of interest exists whenever a decision maker has a motive for making a decision that is not in the interest of the organization of which he or she is an agent (an organizational conflict of interest) or of a client or patient (a professional conflict of interest). The most common conflicts of interest are those between organizational or professional obligations and the personal interests of the decision maker—for example, when a physician refers a patient to a home health agency in which he has a financial interest. But a conflict can also occur between a professional’s obligation to a client and his or her other obligations: a physician may need to spend extra time explaining a procedure to a patient, while the organization expects her to be seeing other patients.
Diversity
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Race, ethnicity, and gender permeate our social interaction and our work lives. Diversity is now a major issue in organizational management and customer services. The discussion in this chapter focuses on those aspects of the subject that impinge most directly upon the normal activities of healthcare organizations: employment discrimination, sexual harassment, workplace relationships, and sexual orientation. It concludes with some comments on diversity training programs.
Discrimination in employment, according to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, takes place when a person is denied a position, promotion, or some other employment benefit, or is laid off, because of his or her race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Age was added to the list as a protected class in 1967. In 1982 a separate bill was passed governing pregnancy discrimination; and in 1991 discrimination on the basis of disability was made illegal under the Americans with Disabilities Act. Individual states have added other categories, such as marital status and sexual orientation.
Medical Records
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The new version of the principle is, in certain respects, just as out of date as the old one. Both appear to presume that medical care is a matter of one physician in a relationship with one patient, with the information limited to what the patient discloses. Today, with multiple physicians, other specialists, laboratory technicians, nurses, clerks, medical students, social workers, chaplains, researchers, medical committees, administrative committees, quality review auditors, admitting clerks, billing clerks, and a whole corps of approval officers, financial intermediaries, and insurance processors all involved, medical information seems to be anything but confidential.
Patient Services
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before the Medicare prospective payment system was introduced in the early 1980s, hospitals were not greatly concerned about the amount of uncompensated care they provided. The cost of such care was shifted from patients who could not pay to those who could. The cost reimbursement system virtually assured healthcare organizations that they would be paid for care that was given, regardless of who received it. Hospitals could literally add up their total operating costs and divide the bill among the paying patients. When Medicare started paying fixed amounts according to DRGs, however, the costs of charity care could no longer be divided among the paying patients. When other payers followed the Medicare example with provider contracts and fee schedules, the pool of patients from whom the hospital’s costs for uncompensated care could be recovered was reduced even further. Economic constraints now make it necessary for all healthcare organizations to watch very closely the amount of charity care they give.
Clinical Ethics, Medical Research, and Compliance Programs
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter deals with three common programs of healthcare organizations that are closely related to organizational ethics: clinical ethics committees, institutional review boards for medical research, and compliance programs. Each has a mandate that is focused on ethical considerations; but each has its own jurisdiction. Only a brief introduction to the scope of these programs can be offered here, along with consideration of the ways in which each is related to organizational ethics.
The Development of An Organizational Ethics Program
Authors: Hall Robert T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The current move toward healthcare organizational ethics involves both carrots and sticks. The carrots are the desires of many healthcare professionals to build a better healthcare system. These people take seriously the unmet needs of those who have no health insurance, the social responsibilities of businesses, the community obligations of nonprofit organizations, and the organizational problems of institutions. The sticks are the patients’ rights movement in man­ aged care, compliance with federal regulations, and the standards set by the JCAHO. This chapter reviews the JCAHO’s standards, discusses options for establishing an organizational ethics program, and proposes two practical strategies for program implementation.
Biosynthesis, Transport, and Metabolism of Steroid Hormones
Authors: Stanczyk Frank Z , Bretsky Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the human body, a balance exists between production and clearance of steroid hormones. Production of steroid hormones occurs de novo by biosynthetic pathways in specific endocrine glands, i.e., the adrenals and ovaries in women and the adrenals and testes in men. In addition, steroid hormones can be produced in peripheral (nonendocrine gland) tissues from circulating precursors that originate from the endocrine glands. Important sites of peripheral steroid hormone formation include the liver, kidney, breast, prostate, and sexual and nonsexual skin. After steroid hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands, they enter the systemic circulation, where they are mostly bound to proteins. The low-affinity bound and non-protein-bound (free) steroids, sometimes referred to as bioavailable steroids, are available for binding to steroid hormone receptors (progestogen, androgen, estrogen, glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid); and if active, they exert a biological effect. Alternatively, they undergo metabolism and are excreted primarily through the kidney and, to a lesser extent, the intestine, appearing in urine and feces, respectively.
The Impact of Exogenous Hormone Use on Breast Cancer Risk
Authors: Reeves Gillian K , Banks Emily , Key Timothy J A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The importance of endogenous hormones in the etiology of breast cancer is evident from the strong relationships between breast cancer risk and certain aspects of a woman’s reproductive history, such as age at menarche, age at first birth, and age at menopause. More recently, the risk of developing breast cancer among post-menopausal women has also been shown to increase substantially with increasing levels of circulating estradiol, thus providing more direct evidence for the role of hormones in the development of the disease. The relationship between endogenous hormones and breast cancer risk leads naturally to the question of whether exogenous hormones, such as oral contraceptives and postmenopausal hormone therapy, might also have an effect on breast cancer risk. Over 60 epidemiological studies worldwide have examined breast cancer risk in relation to either hormonal contraceptive use or postmenopausal hormone therapy. There have been collaborative reanalyses of data on breast cancer risk in relation to both hormonal contraceptives3,4 and postmenopausal hormone therapy, which have incorporated data from the vast majority of these original studies. In addition, a de- tailed review of the relationship between both these types of hormonal preparations and cancer has been compiled by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The latter review includes details of many of the individual studies and summarizes the results of the main collaborative reanalyses. Three large randomized controlled trials of postmenopausal hormone therapy have also published results with respect to breast cancer and their findings have been reviewed recently. Other specific types of exogenous hormone that have been examined in relation to breast cancer risk include diethylstilbestrol, which was commonly used during pregnancy in the 1950s, and fertilityenhancing drugs, such as clomiphene citrate, which have been used since the late 1960s.8 However, the amount of data on breast cancer risk in relation to these latter two types of hormonal preparation is substantially less than that available for hormonal contraceptives and post-menopausal hormone therapy.