bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Impact Phenomena And Non-Linear Spatio-Temporal Dynamics Of Hot Electrons In Semiconductors
Authors: Scholl E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Impact ionization of charge carriers is a widespread phenomenon in semiconductors under strong carrier heating. It is a process in which a charge carrier with high kinetic energy collides with a second charge carrier, transferring its kinetic energy to the latter which is hereby lifted to a higher energy level. Impact ionization processes may be classified as band-band processes or band-trap processes depending on whether the second carrier is initially in the valence band and makes a transition from the valence band to the conduction band, or whether it is initially at a localized level (trap, donor, acceptor), and makes a transition to a band state (Landsberg 1991). Further, impact ionization processes are classified as electron or hole processes if the ionizing hot carrier is a conduction band electron or a hole in the valence band, respectively. The result of the process is carrier multiplication which may induce electrical instabilities at sufficiently high electric fields (Shaw et al. 1992). Impact ionization from shallow donors or acceptors is responsible for impurity breakdown at low temperatures (Stillman et al. 1977). Being an autocatalytic process, it induces a non-equilibrium phase transition (Scholl 1987) between a low conductivity and a high-conductivity state and may lead to various spatio-temporal instabilities including self-oscillations and chaos (Scholl 1992). Band-to-band impact ionization in MOSFETs is the reason for the parastitic substrate current and influences the tail of the carrier distribution function. It eventually induces the avalanche effect, limiting the bias voltage which can be safely applied to a device.
Carrier Relaxation In ID And OD
Authors: Torres C M Sotomayor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Energy and momentum relaxation in semiconductor nanostructures such as quantum wires and dots has been a widely discussed issue, particularly since the model of the ‘phonon bottleneck’ was proposed by Benisty et al. (1991) to explain the drop in the integrated emission intensity with decreasing lateral size L. The model is based on the fact that the energy spacing in these nanostructures is typically less than the energy of a longitudinal optical (LO) phonon thus leaving carrier relaxation to take place via, for example, electron-acoustic phonon scattering. In turn the electron-acoustic phonon interaction had been previously calculated by Bockelmann and Bastard (1990) to be reduced by orders of magnitude as the dimensionality of the system decreases to ID and OD. Thus, as an electron spends a time in upper energy levels longer than the non- radiative scattering times, they have a high probability to recombine non-radiatively leading to a decrease of the luminescence from quantum dots. A small proportion of excited carriers relaxes to the bottom of the conduction band with the right set of quantum numbers to recombine with thermalized holes. The phonon bottleneck model can thus be considered as an approach to carrier relaxation based upon an intrinsic mechanism involving energy and momentum relaxation to explain the low luminescence of etched quantum dots of well-defined geometrical shape. Since this model was proposed several theoretical and experimental approaches have been put forward and these are discussed in this chapter. The main emphasis has been the search of mechanisms to bypass the phonon bottleneck, thereby enhancing interband transitions in order to make use of improved optical properties associated with 0-dimensional semiconductors for optoelectronic devices.
Electron-Phonon Interactions In Electron-Transfer Devices And In Quasi-ID Structures
Authors: Sawaki N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the recent devices utilizing quantum effect consist of quantum wells, which are made with semiconductor heterostructures. The confinement of electrons within a well has significant effect on the scattering phenomena, making the transport as well as the relaxation phenomena of hot electrons different from those in bulk materials. In a coupled quantum well structure, on the other hand, the transfer of electrons is often assisted by emission and/or absorption of phonons, because of the localized nature of the states. Due to the layered structure and/or small size of the active region of the devices, the phonon modes are also modified from those of bulk materials, which makes the electron-phonon interaction complicated from the point of view of design of device structure, but interesting from the physical point of view. In this chapter, recent studies on the role of electron-phonon interaction in a coupled quantum well structure are reviewed, bringing into focus the future prospect of high-speed quantum devices.
Plasmon Excitation Effects In Resonant Tunnelling
Authors: Eaves L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since the realization of a double barrier resonant tunnelling diode (RTD) over twenty years ago (Chang et al. 1974), the physics of tunnelling in semiconductor heterostructures has remained a major and active research area (for recent reviews see Mizuta and Tanoue 1995; Kelly 1995; Chang et al. 1991). In its simplest form, the resonant tunnelling diode (RTD) consists of two tunnel barriers enclosing a narrow quantum (QW) region. The single particle effective mass model has provided a straightforward yet accurate method of describing the electrical properties of this type of device. For example, a wide range of physical phenomena associated with the effect of a magnetic field on the current-voltage characteristics, Z(V), can be accounted for in terms of a single (independent) particle model (Eaves et al. 1995; Eaves 1996). This model also describes accurately devices in which the electronic states in the emitter layer or quantum well are modified by lateral confinement (Smoliner 1996).
Hot Electrons And Space-Charge Waves In Super- Lattices
Authors: Grahn H T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The subject of hot electrons in semiconductors covers the properties of carriers, which are energetically far above the respective band edge, i.e., the average kinetic energy of the carriers is much higher than that of the lattice. The electrons can aquire this energy either by application of an electric field or, in direct gap semiconductors, by excitation with photons of an energy much larger than the fundamental gap. Although usually the transport properties of hot electrons are investigated, advances in time-resolved optical spectroscopy on ultra-short time scales allow the direct investigation of the carrier relaxation mechanisms without the application of an electric field. Since transport is always a combination of acquiring energy by acceleration and losing energy by relaxation, the determination of relaxation times by purely optical techniques is very important.
Electroluminescence By Impact Ionization Of Deep Levels In Semiconductors
Authors: Scamarcio G , Capasso F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
High-field electroluminescence in semiconductor structures doped with transition metal or rare earth impurities has been studied in detail for decades (Pomrenke et al. 1993). This effort has led to electroluminescent devices based on rare-earth doped II-VI semiconductors and flat panel displays (Shionoya and Kobayashi 1989). In recent years there has been an increasing interest in III-V semiconductors doped with rare-earth ions and erbium-doped silicon for application to solid-state sources emitting in the low-loss windows of optical fibres or in the mid-infrared (Pomrenke et al. 1993). Schemes for electrically pumped ion-doped semiconductor lasers have also been proposed (Bell 1963; Pankove et al. 1993). However, a single example of semiconductor-impurity laser action between the energy levels of an impurity in a semiconductor, associated with the photo-ionization of Fe2+ ions in InP, has been reported so far (Klein et al. 1983; Klein 1984).
Diffuse And Inelastic Scattering – Elementary Processes
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is hard to give a precise definition of the term ‘diffuse scattering’ in electron diffraction. What is observed experimentally in a diffraction pattern is the distribution of electrons over the angle of scattering. An energy spectrometer makes it possible to observe the energy spectrum of scattered electrons for a given direction of their motion. It is only approximately that we may say that a part of the observed cross-section of scattering (called ‘the cross-section of diffuse scattering’) should be treated theoretically in a radically different way from how we treat the remaining ‘diffraction’ part. For crystalline samples that are small in size it is not possible to distinguish between electron ‘diffraction’ and ‘diffuse scattering’ of electrons. For a small sample the diffraction pattern has the form of a superposition of a series of relatively broad peaks where the positions of peak maxima are given by the Bragg law. It is only in the limit of a large number of atoms in the crystal that the peaks associated with elastic scattering by the periodic potential become infinitely sharp and it becomes possible to distinguish between diffraction and diffuse scattering of high-energy electrons.
crystal And Diffraction Symmetry
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Convergent-beam electron diffraction (CBED) provides the most convenient way of determining the symmetry of crystalline materials, and this method has acquired great popularity in the electron diffraction community. In an electron microscope CBED patterns are obtained using a method analogous to the case of critical illumination in optics, where the electron source is (approximately) conjugate to the specimen. The main advantages of the CBED method resulting from the use of a small electron probe (10 A– 100 A) are: (1) there is negligible thickness variation within the illuminated region; (2) any significant buckling of the specimen is unlikely to occur within the illuminated region during observation; (3) the variation of intensity as a function of the angle of incidence in the CBED discs contains important information about the structure of the crystal; (4) a large amount of diffraction data exceeding millions of data points can be collected in parallel in a few seconds. A CBED pattern is there-fore better defined and more suited for comparison with theoretical calculations (Spence and Zuo, 1992, Steeds, 1983) than a conventional selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern.
The Atomic Scattering Factor And The Optical Potential
Authors: Peng L -M , Dudarev S L , Whelan M J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Throughout this book we have frequently encountered the concept of the atomic scattering factor and the electron scattering potential V (r) or the scaled potential U (r). In this chapter we will give a comprehensive overview of these quantities. In high-energy electron diffraction an incident electron interacts with the solid via the electrostatic Coulomb potential. To a good approximation the effects of inelastic scattering on the elastic scattering may be taken into account by representing the interaction between the incident electron and the solid by a complex potential (Yoshioka, 1957). This complex potential is usually called the optical potential (or the scattering potential as it was referred to earlier in this book), by analogy with the long-standing use of a complex refractive index often used in the description of optical properties of partially absorbing media. In an inelastic collision the incident electron loses energy while the solid is excited to a higher energy state. For high-energy electrons the probability that the inelastically scattered electron reappears in the elastic channel is very small (Rez, 1976). As far as elastic scattering is concerned, the inelastically scattered electron is ‘absorbed’, and therefore inelastic scattering is responsible for the appearance of an
Characteristic functions and related examples
Authors: Cowan Glen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The characteristic function ϕx(k) for a random variable x with p.d.f. f(x) 1s defined as the expectation value of eikx,
This is essentially the Fourier transform of the probability density function. It is useful in proving a number of important theorems, in particular those involving sums of random variables. One can show that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the p.d.f. and the characteristic function, so that knowledge of one is equivalent to knowledge of the other. Some characteristic functions of important p.d.f.s are given in Table 10.1.
Molecular Hydrogen Emission from Herbig-Haro Objects
Authors: Raymond John C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The faint emission line knots known as Herbig–Haro objects (Herbig 1951; Haro 1952) have been shown to be shock waves driven by (and in) outflows from young stars (Schwartz 1977; Dopita 1978; Raymond 1979). They are typically 0.1 pc long, with densities of order .104 cm-3. Doppler shifts and proper motions of 100–400 km s-1 arecommon, and the exciting stars are most often classical T Tauri stars.
Electronic and optical properties of GaN-based quantum wells
Authors: Suzuki Masakatsu , Uenoyama Takeshi 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is increasing interest in the use of GaN and related materials for opto-electronic devices in the short wavelength region, due to their wide direct bandgap and physical hardness. During the past few years, remarkable progress has been made in the development of optical devices based on wurtzite (WZ) GaN. At present, high-brightness blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs), based on WZ InGaN / AlGaN doublehetero (DH) (Nakamura et al. 1994) or single quantum well (SOW) (Nakamura et al. 1995) structures, are commercially available. Very recently the pulse-lasing action of multi-quantum well (MOW) laser diodes (LDs) by current injection at room temperature was reported for the first time (Nakamura et al. 1996). Furthermore, the recent development of crystal growth techniques has made it possible to obtain high-quality zincblende (ZB) crystals as well as WZ ones (Mizuta et al. 1986). However, many fundamental material and device characteristics of the III-V nitrides are less understood than conventional ZB compounds.
Speciation and hybridization of birds on islands
Authors: Grant Peter R , Grant B Rosemary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Speciation is a process of lineage transformation (anagenesis) or splitting (cladogenesis). Lineage splitting, through either division or budding, culminates in the formation of two or more non-interbreeding populations or species from an original one. We observe the results, species, and attempt to infer the process from their genetic, morphological, ecological, and behavioural characteristics. At best only parts of the process are observed, which is why there is no universal agreement on how new species are formed.
Islands in Amazonia
Authors: Prance Ghillean T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It may seem surprising to have a chapter about the Amazon basin, a continental area par excellence, in a book about evolution on islands. In fact there are hundreds of islands within Amazonia varying from Marajo Island in the Amazon delta, the size of Switzerland, to tiny islands that come and go all along the principal rivers. These islands are not of particular interest in the evolution of species, although recent work has shown their importance in creating a succession of many different types of flood plain vegetation types (Tuomisto et al. 1995), and thereby increasing the vegetational diversity of the region.
Multimode and continuous-mode quantum optics
Authors: Loudon Rodney 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The single-mode theory of Chapter 5 is inherently limited to the description of experiments that use time-independent light beams. The light is essentially nonergodic, in that its statistical fluctuations may be described by an ensemble, but these are not apparent in a time series of experiments made on the single member of the ensemble corresponding to a practical realization of the state. Identical measurements always give the same results and there are no time-dependent correlations of the kind considered in the classical theory of Chapter 3. Many of the nonclassical properties of light can be understood in terms of single-mode theory but other properties involve excitations of two or more modes. Practical observations of nonclassical effects are usually made on time-dependent light beams.
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Coastal areas are very fragile, and sensitive towards change, whether by human activities or because of natural event5. Coastal areas not only include beaches, or mouths of rivers, but may extend far inland, and offshore. Any form of activity inland, such as logging, damming, or erosion upstream, will affect marine ecosystems. Sedimentation from far inland may eventually kill coral reefs by smothering them and reducing light levels to a point where the corals can no longer photo synthesise.
Summary
Authors: Monk Kathryn A , Fretes Yance de , Reksodiharjo-Lilley Gayatri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No island in Nusa Tenggara and Maluku (NT&M) is more than 20,000 km in area, and approximately 84% are less than 10,000 km. All land resources are therefore limited. Yet the region is perhaps the most diverse in Indonesia. Its myriad islands range from small atolls barely appearing above the high-tide level and flat continental-shelf islands to active volcanic islands over 3500 m asl. Mt. Rinjani is the second-highest volcano in Indonesia and Mt. Tambora one of the country’s most important geological sites. Coastal plains are often no more than a narrow fringe around mountainous centres. Each province has extensive coastlines and in fact only 10% of the province of Maluku is land (77,990 km): 776,500 km is covered by sea. The seas include shallow continental shelves and some of the deepest sea basins in the world. The complexity and vulnerability of these islands means that development and environment are inextricably linked. If this is not understood and acted upon, there is no possibility for the ecologically sustainable development of NT&M.
Bodies
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When Rudyard Kipling explained how the animals of Africa acquired their markings, he was tapping into a universal mythology. The Native Americans, for instance, have their own tales of how the skunk became endowed with its two-tone tail. When people see patterns in nature as striking as these, they want some means of explaining them. Darwin's theory of evolution gave us an answer for the modern age, and it was not so different in essence from Kipling's: the patterns enhance the animal's chances of survival. In the tree-dappled light of a tropical forest, a spotted leopard can merge with the surroundings, giving it a better chance of sneaking up on its prey. A striped zebra is better hidden amongst the vertical striations of the long grass and bushes on the veldt (Fig. 4.1), and an insect patterned to resemble a flower is at less risk from predators.
Communities
Authors: Ball Philip 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Who wants to be considered predictable? No, I thought not. We might be happy enough to accept that patterns can emerge from wind-blown sand, running water, strange brews of chemicals and even bacterial colonies; but human activities are surely something else altogether. OK, we all have our routines, there is an element of repetition in our lives (driven in large part by biology’s exigencies of sleeping, eating and excreting)-but when it comes to interactions, to the ebb and flow of society, surely there is much too great a diversity in behavioural tendencies to establish patterns and forms of the sort with which this book is concerned? We might imagine that whatever organization in time and space our societies display is a consequence of careful planning and forethought, not an inevitable and spontaneous emergent property.
Muon Decay
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many relations in the SM are based, among other things, on the accurately measured muon lifetime or the Fermi coupling constant GF. Originally, the µ-lifetime was computed using the effective four-fermion Fermi Lagrangian by (Kinoshita & Sirlin 1959) and by (Berman 1958). Our approach follows closely that of (Källen 1968).
The Minimal Standard Model At One-Loop
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will be devoted mainly to introducing some of the building blocks that are needed in order to discuss radiative corrections in any field theory. Usually the one-loop diagrams that are encountered are special in the sense that some of the masses are zero, while others are equal, or some of the internal masses are equal to certain external masses. In this case very short expressions are usually derived and some of these special examples will be presented and discussed.
Applications For Lep1/Slc Phenomenology
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1995 the Z phase of LEP came to an end and, at present (beginning of 1999), the ultimate analysis of the data is imminent. This involves, in particular, the completion of the line-shape analysis, including the final LEP energy calibration. Consequently, the safest possible estimate of the theoretical accuracy is of the upmost importance.
One-Loop Corrected H Partial Widths
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we shall consider the one-loop corrections to the partial widths of the H boson. Before describing in detail the one-loop corrections, we will consider a short description of the main decay modes, predicted by the minimal Standard Model (MSM). The most relevant ones, are in the following channels:
One-Loop Corrections For e+e-→Vv
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
So far we have discussed only the tree-level cross-sections for the processes e+e-→Vv and e+e-→SV. To go further with the description of their phenomenological implications, we need to develop a complete framework for the inclusion of one loop corrections.
Four-Fermion Production In e + e- Annihilation
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the first time at LEP many of the events in the e + e-annihilation have four fermions in the final state and we have the unique opportunity to test a complete calculation with the experimental data, well beyond the usual approximation of computing the production cross-section ⊗ branching ratio of gauge bosons or Higgs bosons into decay products.