bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reinforced Plastics
Authors: Bastone Andrew L. , Katz Steven G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractReinforced plastics, also known as fiber glass‐reinforced plastics, glass‐reinforced plastics, fiber glass, and composites, are a relatively small (5%) but very important part of the total plastics market. Common to all reinforced plastics are resin and reinforcement. Resins can be thermoplastic or thermosetting. Reinforcements are usually fibers of glass or other materials, and can be configured in many ways, such as continuous or chopped strands, milled fibers, rovings, mats, and woven fabrics. Reinforced plastics may also include fillers, curing agents, colorants, and other additives that impart specific properties. The selection process for a given application requires simultaneous consideration of product design, constituent materials, production requirements, and required physical, mechanical, and chemical properties.The commonly used manufacturing processes include hand lay‐up and spray‐up; vacuum bag, pressure bag, and autoclave molding; resin‐transfer and cold press molding; reaction injection molding; compression molding using bulk molding compound, sheet molding compound, wet systems, and reinforced thermoplastic sheet; injection molding; pultrusion; and filament winding. The successful use of reinforced plastics results from proper design, utilization of the benefits these materials offer, process selection, tooling cost advantages that fit the production needs, and consideration of life cycle economics.
Renewable Energy Resources
Authors: Torrero Edward A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Only a small fraction of U.S. electricity needs are supplied by renewable energy technologies other than hydropower, because of their relatively high cost and the economics of the electric utility industry, which is faced with an increasingly competitive environment and is generally awash in surplus power. Despite the formidable technical hurdles that these technologies have overcome to bring costs down and increase reliability, further inroads have been thwarted by the lower cost of natural gas and the efficiency of gas‐fired generating plants.
As costs continue to decline, however, the renewable energy market can be expected to grow, particularly if possible global warming trends continue to be linked with greenhouse gases, such as those emitted by fossil fuels. Other factors that are increasing interest in renewable energy include niche cost advantages, regulatory pressures, customer service requirements, fuel flexibility, and security.
The extent to which each technology is poised to advance is described in progress reports on photovoltaics, solar‐thermal power, and wind, biomass, waste‐to‐energy, geothermal, hydropower, and wave energy.
Research/Technology Management
Authors: Miller J. A. , Norling P. M. , Collette J. W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractIn a period of restructuring and change in the world, especially in the United States and in U.S. firms, technology leaders must be broadly versed in their firms' businesses and functions. These leaders must have the technical edge and be able to function with credibility in their companies as they deal with change, participate in setting direction, and take the necessary steps to ensure that the importance of technology is well understood and used. They must, furthermore, ensure that the necessary support for research is provided, that resources are adequate, that core competencies are preserved, and that their R&D organizations are productive and effective. This requires leaders who cannot only articulate the value of new technology, but who are courageous in the promotion of programs that may upset the normal equilibrium desired by the business.
Resins, Natural
Authors: Class Jay B. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Class, Jay B. (Hercules Incorporated). Natural resins are solid, amorphous, usually transparent or translucent organic substances that originate from plant secretions. They may be obtained directly as tree or plant exudates, collected by hand or below the ground, or mined from underground deposits. Shellac is refined from insect secretion which coats twigs of a host tree. The resins may be altered by methods of isolation, or modified in production to increase their industrial utility. In this article, the resins are discussed in five groups. Rosin and modified rosins are commercially the most important natural resins, with an annual production of almost a million tons. The isolation of rosin from pine gum, pine stumps, and tall oil is discussed, as well as properties, composition, chemical reactions, and derivatives. Principal uses are described, such as paper sizing, printing inks, and adhesives. The origin, properties, and uses of traditional natural resins are described, with special emphasis on resins that are available in the United States. These are Manila copal, pontianak, dammar, East India resins, gum elemi, sandarac, and mastic. Resins with limited availability, such as kauri, congo, accroides, and amber are also discussed. In a section on natural resins in medicines, flavors, and fragrances origin, composition, and uses are described for balm of Gilead, balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolu, copaiba, gum benzoin, guaiac, myrrh, olibanum (frankincense), and storax. Properties are described for the asphaltites, such as gilsonite, glance pitch, and grahamite, as well as for Utah coal resin. The history, cultivation, production, and composition of shellac are discussed. Uses in protective coatings, pharmaceuticals, candy and fruit coatings, and electrical applications are described.
Rhenium and Rhenium Compounds
Authors: Millensifer Tom A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Rhenium is one of the least abundant elements, existing in nature only in trace quantities. The commercial source of rhenium is in molybdenite by‐product material from porphyry copper ores. Rhenium oxides are driven off upon roasting the molybdenite concentrate. Rhenium is separated, converted to an ammonium salt, and reduced to the metal.
The metal has found many high temperature uses, both as pure metal and as alloys with elements such as molybdenum, tungsten, and nickel. Uses include filaments in a wide array of bulbs and mass spectrometers, in thermocouples, and in heating elements. It is also used as a catalyst in the production of gasolines. Rhenium‐containing nickel‐based alloys are used for aircraft turbine engines.

Rhenium forms a wide variety of compounds in oxidation states

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to

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. High oxidation state compounds are common; low oxidation state compounds are restricted primarily to metal carbonyls and derivatives. Polynuclear compounds having strong metal–metal bonds are plentiful. Little is known concerning the toxicity of rhenium or its compounds.
Rheological Measurements
Authors: Schoff Clifford K. , Kamarchik Peter 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article is concerned with the experimental measurement of rheological properties of both liquids and solids and the principles on which these measurements are based. The flow properties of a liquid are defined by its resistance to flow, ie, viscosity. This concept is defined and discussed in terms of both theoretical flow models and practical consequences. Temperature, thixotropic and other time dependence, and concentration effects are covered for dilute polymer solutions, melts, and dispersed systems. Techniques and viscometers for capillary, rotational, and moving‐body measurements are described.The rheological properties of elastic solids are made up of a combination of permanent deformation and recoverable elastic deformation. Additionally, a number of liquids show elastic as well as flow behavior. Mechanical models for this viscoelastic behavior are discussed. Also described are additional techniques beyond those indicated for simple solids and liquids, which are needed for complete characterization of mechanical behavior of materials in terms of elasticity and viscoelasticity. Examples of such methods are the dynamic measurement of response to sinusoidal oscillatory motion; the measurement of flow with time after application of stress, ie, creep; and the measurement of the rate and degree of recovery after removal of stress, ie, creep recovery or recoil. Special topics such as the Weissenberg Effect, time–temperature superposition, and electrorheological behavior are also discussed.
Riboflavin (B2)
Authors: Yoneda Fumio 
Published: July 2004

AbstractRiboflavin (vitamin B2) has the chemical name 7,8‐dimethyl‐10‐D‐ribitylisoalloxazine, C17H20N4O6, mol wt 376.37. Riboflavin generally fulfills its metabolic function in the form of flavin mononucleotide (FMN), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and other covalently bound flavin derivatives, which serve as the prosthetic groups (coenzymes). They combine with specific proteins (apoenzymes) to form flavoenzymes, in a series of oxidation–reduction catalysts widely distributed in nature.As a coenzyme component in tissue oxidation–reduction and respiration, riboflavin is distributed in some degree in virtually all naturally occurring foods. Liver, heart, kidney, milk, eggs, lean meats, and fresh leafy vegetables are particularly good sources of riboflavin.In 1935, Karrer and Kuhn independently proved that riboflavin was 7,8‐dimethyl‐10‐D‐ribitylisoalloxazine by total syntheses. For therapeutic use, riboflavin is produced by chemical synthesis, which consists of the condensation of 4,5‐dimethyl‐2‐p‐nitrophenylazo‐1‐D‐ribitylaminobenzene with barbituric acid in an acidic medium, whereas the concentrates for poultry and livestock feeds are manufactured by fermentation using microorganisms such asAshbya gossypiiandEremothecium ashbyii.Riboflavin is essential for mammalian cells. A lack of it in the human diet causes well‐defined syndromes, such as sore throat, hyperemia and edema of the pharyngeal and oral mucous membranes, cheilosis, angular stomatitis, and glossitis. A healthy adult requires ca 1.5–1.8 mg of riboflavin daily.Derivatives include FMN, FAD, covalently bound flavins, 6‐hydroxyriboflavin, reseoflavin, and 5‐deazariboflavin.
Roofing Materials
Authors: Garcia Ruben G. , Corbin Ray L. , Gillenwater Richard J. , Compton Jim , Patenaude Cliff , Anthony Brian , Hunter Jim 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Roofs are a basic element of shelter. As larger and larger roofing structures are desired, building designs become an important element in construction. A modern design normally includes a structure to carry loads, insulation to control heat flow, a barrier to control air and vapor flow, and a roofing element to prevent water penetration. This article discusses all aspects of roofing materials, from manufacturing methods, roofing system performance, specifications and application rates, to economic as well as health, safety, and environmental factors.
Rubber Compounding
Authors: Klingensmith William , Jenkins Frank , Klamp Walter , Fath Michael , Baranwal Kris , Ohm Robert , Russel Fell Ray , Rodgers Brendon 
Published: July 2004

AbstractRubber compounding combines the art and science of selecting the best combination of elastomer and other ingredients that meet the processing, cost, and performance requirements for rubber goods made and used in commerce. Chemical and physical properties of the wide variety of elastomers and ingredients available in making rubber goods are provided. Vulcanization, oils, plasticizers, general compounding, curing, fillers, latex, and testing are discussed.
Rubber Chemicals
Authors: Ohm Robert F. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractRubber chemicals are materials that are added in minor amounts to rubber formulations in order to improve their properties and make them commercially useful. Raw rubber polymer has very limited practical applications because of tackiness, flow, and other undesirable features. Rubber chemicals are added to assist processing, promote cross‐linking, and provide longevity to the part in service. Vulcanizing adjacent polymer chains together by cross‐links prevents flow, increases strength, and provides recovery from deformation. The most widely used method of cross‐linking polymer chains is by heating with elemental sulfur (vulcanization). Accelerators speed up the reaction of sulfur with polymer to improve the economics of manufacture and prevent degradation that would otherwise occur upon prolonged heating. Peptizers and process aids assist flow during the mixing and shaping operations. Antidegradants protect the part in service from heat, oxygen, ozone, and repeated flexing. Other rubber chemicals function as blowing agents, adhesion promoters, and activators or retarders which modify the onset of cross‐linking. Organic chemicals which are used primarily in the rubber industry contributed $415 million to the United States economy in 1994. Other rubber chemicals are also discussed.
Feeds and Feed Additives, Ruminant Feeds
Authors: Perry Tilden Wayne 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article discusses feedstuffs and feed additives that are incorporated into ruminant diets based on various physiological states of the animal. The ruminant animal is unique because it can utilize highly fibrous feedstuffs that are unsuitable for consumption by monogastric animals. Primary feedstuffs include forages/roughages, high energy feeds, supplements, feed additives, and juvenile animal feeds. Forages/roughages (fibrous feeds) are the predominant feedstuffs consumed by ruminants throughout the major portion of their lifetimes. Ruminants consume fibrous feeds either by grazing or by being fed preharvested forage. High energy feeds are those that are more energy dense than forages/roughages. These consist primarily of readily fermentable carbohydrate sources (grains) and lipids—either of plant or animal origin. A large number of supplemental sources of protein, energy, macrominerals, microminerals, and vitamins are discussed. Primary classes of feed additives include ionophores, ion‐exchange compounds, direct‐fed microbials, bloat preventatives, ruminal buffers, hormones, and antibiotics. Situations in which young ruminants consume feed other than mother's milk are discussed. Various feed sources for these young animals are identified. Because of the extreme diversity in ruminant production systems, the sources of ruminant feeds are extremely diverse.
Salicylic Acid and Related Compounds
Authors: Thomas Mary R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSalicylic acid, also known aso‐hydroxybenzoic acid, appears early in the historical recognition of the identity and preparation of organic compounds. The extract of roots, bark, leaves, and fruit of many plants and trees contains the glucosides of methyl salicylate and other derivatives from which salicylic acid is easily derived by extraction and mild oxidation. The extract of willow bark was referenced by Hypocrites about 400BCas a pain reliever, and the preparation and crude estimate of strength were cited in the firstUnited States Pharmacopeiapublished in 1820.Related to salicylic acid as isomers arem‐hydroxybenzoic acid andp‐hydroxybenzoic acid. The three are commonly known as the monohydroxybenzoic acids, which share chemical reactions and are used in a broad range of applications from paper coatings and liquid crystal preparations to drugs. Salicylic acid and its derivatives have demonstrated activity as analgesics, antipyretics, and antiinflammatory agents; para‐substituted acids and esters have activity as preservatives for food.
Sampling
Authors: Davies Reg 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Davies, Reg (E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.). Sampling operations remove a portion of material from a free‐flowing or stationary assembly. The ideal is that this sample is representative of the bulk material. Sampling has grown in importance in response to the emphasis on environmental control and quality assurance. For pure liquids and gases, and solids of uniform particle size, sampling is relatively easy. Once fluids contain particulates, however, the sampling situation becomes more difficult. Particles of nonuniform size tend naturally to segregate. Sampling methods must be employed that circumvent these obstacles to ensure representative sampling. Methods of sampling gases, liquids, and solids are outlined. A discussion of gaseous sample treatments is presented as is liquid sample storage and treatment. Sample efficiency is introduced. Vol. 21, pp. 626–650, 32 refs. to October 1996.
Sealants
Authors: Palmer Richard A. , Klosowski Jerome M. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Sealants are materials installed in gaps or joints to prevent water, wind, dirt, or other contaminants from passing through the joint or gap. They are commonly rated by their movement ability. High movement sealants such as silicones, urethanes, and polysulfides typically accommodate joint movement of 25% or higher. Acrylic sealants are commonly used in joints where movement is 5–15% and no higher than 25%. Butyl sealants are used in applications with movement of

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. Each sealant type's base polymer provides inherent properties that find use in specific applications. Silicones are resistant to weathering and are used in applications where longevity is a prime concern. Urethanes are tough, abrasion‐resistant, with good adhesion to many substrates, thus allowing many applications in weatherproofing, especially in high abuse areas. Polysulfides have superior chemical resistance and find wide use in aircraft applications. Latex acrylics have good weatherability, low cost, and are easy to use, making them popular with consumers in nondemanding applications. Polyisobutylene sealants have low moisture vapor permeability and high tack, which are necessary for automotive and insulating glass applications.
Semiconductors, Organic
Authors: Sibley Scott P. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Semiconductors are materials that are characterized by resistivities intermediate between those of metals and of insulators. The study of organic semiconductors has grown from research on conductivity mechanisms and structure–property relationships in solids to include applications‐based research on working semiconductor junction devices. Organic materials are now used in transistors, photochromic devices, and commercially viable light‐emitting diodes, and the utility of organic semiconductors continues to increase.
The study of organic semiconductors and conductors is highly interdisciplinary, involving the fields of chemistry, solid state physics, engineering, and biology. This article provides a treatment of the theoretical aspects of organic semiconductors as well as an overview of recent advances in the field and the uses of these materials based on their conductive and optical properties.
Separations Process Synthesis
Authors: Barnicki Scott D. , Siirola Jeffrey J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Separations process synthesis is the invention of conceptual flow sheets for the separation of multicomponent mixtures. Systematic methods are available to aid in the generation of separations schemes for analysis and evaluation. For fluid systems, distillation remains the separation method of choice. This article describes heuristic methods for generating alternative distillation schemes for nonazeotropic mixtures as well as a more general method for generating separation schemes for nonideal liquid mixtures including systems involving azeotropes. This latter method makes use of the residue curve map representation for vapor–liquid equilibria and introduces the concepts of strategic and opportunistic operations to systematically overcome difficulties introduced by azeotropes and other nonidealities. Mention is also given to separation synthesis methods for gas or vapor mixtures and for systems which involve dissolved solids.
Hormones, Sex Hormones
Authors: Gunnet Joseph W. , Dixon Lisa A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractProgestins are a class of steroids named for their role in maintaining pregnancy. Naturally occurring progestins, such as progesterone, are 21‐carbon steroids having the basic pregnane structure. Synthetic progestins are derived from four structural groups; ie, 5α‐prenanes, 5α‐androstanes, estranes, and gonanes. They are produced by chemical and microbial degradation of naturally occurring steroids and by total synthesis. Structure–activity relationships of progestins have been explored using computer‐aided techniques. The principal use of progestins is in contraception, prescribed alone or in combination with estrogens, where they act primarily to prevent uncontrolled estrogen stimulation of the uterine endometrium. Progestins have other uses based on their antiestrogenic effects. They are known to cause a conformational change in receptors. When bound to an agonist, progestin receptors act as transcription factors, altering the rate of expression of various genes. New antiprogestins with improved receptor specificity are becoming available and may eventually be used in some of the same therapeutic areas as progestin agonists.
Shape‐Memory Polymers
Authors: Lendlein Andreas , Kelch Steffen 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Shape‐memory polymers
are stimuli‐responsive materials. Upon exposure to an external stimulus, they have the capability of changing their shape. A change in shape initiated by a change in temperature is called
thermally induced shape‐memory effect
. The shape‐memory effect results from the polymer's structure, ie, its morphology in combination with a certain processing and programming technology.

The polymer is processed into its permanent shape by conventional methods. Afterward, it is deformed and the desired
temporary shape
is fixed. The later process is called
programming
. Heating the programmed polymer above a temperature higher than the
transition temperature
,

T
trans

, results in activating the shape‐memory effect. Consequently, the recovery of the memorized, permanent shape can be observed. The described effect is called a
“one‐way” shape‐memory effect
.

The shape‐memory effect can be quantified by
cyclic thermomechanical investigations
. Important quantities describing the shape‐memory properties of the material for a certain strain σ
m
are the
strain recovery rate
,
R
r
and the
strain fixity rate, R
f
. The parameter
R
r
quantifies the ability of the material to memorize its permanent shape. The parameter
R
f
describes the ability of the material to fix the mechanical deformation ɛ
m
, which has been applied during the programming process.
Silicon Compounds, Silanes
Authors: Arkles Barry 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSilanes are silicon compounds that can be divided into five important industrial groups: those containing Si–H (hydride functional silanes), Si–X (halosilanes), Si–C (organosilanes), Si–OSi (siloxanes), and Si–OR (silicon esters). Inorganic and organic hydride and halogen functional silanes are discussed. Physical and chemical properties are covered as are their manufacture and application in such areas as feedstocks for other classes of silicon compounds, fumed silica, and semiconductor silicon and silicones. Economic aspects of the production and utilization of silanes include estimates of semiconductor‐grade silicon production.
Silicon Compounds, Silicon Halides
Authors: Collins Ward 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAll of the halogens form single and mixed silicon halides. Monomeric silicon halides and halohydrides are generally tetrahedral compounds. A large number of halogenated polysilanes are also known. The only compounds of industrial importance are tetrachlorosilane and trichlorosilane. Both are used as precursors: the former primarily for high purity fumed silica; the latter for organosilanes and semiconductor‐grade silicon metal. Dichlorosilane, a by‐product of the other chlorosilanes, also finds use in the semiconductor industry.