bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
How You Learn
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
If professors are commonly absent from the lab bench, who then teaches the graduate students? Ask any new Ph.D. who taught her how to be a scientist, and she will have to stop and think; the answer is not immediately obvious, and no one person really was responsible. There are not any courses on how to be a scientist, and no one takes you aside and explains it all to you. Graduate students pick up their practical and conceptual knowledge of science similarly to the way children pick up their knowledge of the culture in which they are brought up: they observe others, they imitate others, they get some guidance from authority figures, they read, they speak to friends and acquaintances, they are criticized when they perform inappropriately, they learn from their mistakes, they are rewarded when they perform appropriately. Interestingly, acquiring knowledge by such experiential methods !versus being systematically taught), is considered by educators and psychologists to be the optimal way to learn.
Picking a Dissertation Committee, and Defending the Proposal at the Preliminary Oral Exam
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There are two major oral exams associated with the dissertation research in most departments. For each, the student stands before the “dissertation committee” and “defends” the proposed, or the completed, research. The “final oral exam” (the “defense”) is taken after the student has submitted his or her dissertation, and marks the end of graduate school and the awarding of the Ph.D. The other oral exam, known as the “preliminary oral exam” (some departments consider this exam part of the “qualifying” exam), is taken at an earlier stage, and marks the point at which the student is formally approved to embark on the proposed dissertation research. Some departments require only one oral exam, either the preliminary or the final. (See Chapter 22 for more information on the final exam.) While passing the preliminary oral marks the committee’s acceptance of the student’s research plans, the student has actually been doing quite a bit-often a year or two-of research before introducing at this oral the exact experiments he “proposes” to con duct in depth for the dissertation research. These preliminary studies serve to find a line of experimentation that seems promising and technically doable; usually some positive findings have been noted that make further investigation of the issues, in terms of dissertation projects, encouraging.
Do I Belong Here: Insecurity and Stress
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Grad school engenders insecurity simply by the way it is run. The research enterprise at a university is a massive operation with an administrative core, a conglomerate of dedicated personnel, vast capital, and ambitious plans. Although it springs from the combined efforts of individual researchers, it transcends any one individual or individual lab; it certainly does not start or stop with each new group of graduate students, and graduate education is not its only, or even main, concern. Grad students are not kept separate from the heart of the enterprise; they are not trained in isolated chambers until they are up to snuff. They are dropped into the research environment and they learn on the job: they participate in or attend key activities such as journal clubs and seminars right from the start, and many are expected to perform experiments in the lab or field shortly after their arrival. It is only in classes that students are solely with others at their own level. Otherwise, they are thrown in with more advanced students, post docs, and professors, and are expected to blend in and more or less keep up. There is a recognized disparity between new students and their more advanced colleagues, yet people act as if there is not any. Sure, beginners are taught techniques in the lab or field, but they are treated as professionals, and are expected to pick things up rather quickly so as not to slow down the research process.
What Should Your Goals Be While in Graduate School
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
It used to be that, during science’s heyday, one could get by largely on intelligence and a desire for knowledge alone. If you loved worms and wanted to do nothing but watch and study them, somewhere in academia there was probably a place for you. Those days are no more. The overwhelming feelings I have at this point in my life, having just finished my Ph.D. and begun work in a postdoctoral position, are worry and disappointment. I worry incessantly about my chances for landing a job doing what I was trained to do. This is not because I feel incapable. I am just continually bombarded with stories of failure and negativism from those who have gone before me. Reports in various scientific/academic journals are likewise bleak. Now that university/governmental purse strings are tight, the age-old recipe for success in science comes up lacking, and those who have invested such a large portion of their lives in this endeavor are left, after all of their sweat and tears, with little or nothing. The large majority of the new generation of scientists must now face the grim reality.
The Final Oral Exam (The Defense)
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The final oral exam is the culmination of all that you have gone through since the day that you entered the graduate program. After years of taking tests, writing papers, making presentations, performing experiments, composing the dissertation, and jumping through numerous other hoops, it all boils down to this one-to three-hour question-and-answer trial before the dissertation committee. And as momentous as it is, it is all over in an adrenaline rush blur. Departments differ in how they run their final exams-a few do not even have them. Many require that their students give a one-hour public presentation of their research right before the closed grilling session with the committee; to this open talk come the student’s friends and relatives, lab members, and those who saw the notices about the talk that the department puts up on walls and bulletin boards, and thought the topic looked interesting.
Clintonian Culture
Authors: Cornog Evan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In Clinton’s time, culture and class had not yet formed into the congealed layers that the historian Lawrence Levine and others see later in the century. But even if Levine is right in perceiving a basic unity in American culture in the early nineteenth century, a ‘rich shared public culture,’ that is not the way it looked to Clinton. It was not the unity that was missing but, rather, the culture. Culture was the domain of the social elite, whose responsibility it was, under a kind of trickle-down theory of taste, to offer the blessings of culture to all the rest in the name of general advancement.
Clintonian Intellect
Authors: Cornog Evan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
WHEN DEWITT CLINTON WAS ousted as mayor in 1815, he had been active in political life for twenty-five years and had held appointive or elective office, sometimes both simultaneously, for nearly all of those years. He now withdrew to his farm in Newtown and is said to have taken refuge in alcohol as he brooded over his defeats.1 His living expenses and his willingness to lend money to friends and acquaintances, together with his charitable contributions, had depleted his family’s finances so that, deprived of the income that came with the mayor’s office, he was in serious financial straits.
The Canal And Its Consequences
Authors: Cornog Evan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In New York State, it was the canal’s physical presence that was easiest to under stand. The Erie Canal was, in essence, a trench forty feet wide, four feet deep, and 363 miles long. Because Lake Erie was nearly 600 feet higher in elevation than the Hudson River at Albany, the waterway had to rise through eighty-three locks, including a five-tiered set of double locks at Lockport (near Buffalo) that Thurlow Weed pro claimed ‘will probably remain for ages as a monument of American Genius and American patriotism.’ To carry the canal across the Genesee River an aqueduct 802 feet long was raised, spanning the river on stone arches. The engineers in charge of work had limited experience, and their need for more trained help was one of the motives that led to the founding of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1824, the nation’s first school dedicated to civil engineering.
Some Reflections
Authors: Williamson Oliver E 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Easy choices are always gratifying. The suggestion that I select an early trans action cost article for inclusion in this book presented an easy choice: “The Vertical Integration of Production: Market Failure Considerations” (American Economic Review, 1971) was the obvious candidate. Not only was this my first effort to use transaction costs to explain a puzzling economic condition, but also the essay employed and/or introduced many of the key ideas that would figure prominently as transaction cost economics played out in the years ahead.
Framing The Picture
Authors: Saler Michael T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This is the story of how the nineteenth-century English arts and crafts merged with the twentieth-century avant-garde, romantic medievalism with visual modernism, “functionalism” with “formalism.” It is the story of how the London Underground-one of the largest and most respected public transport systems in the world in the interwar period-conjoined with England’s artistic underground during these years; it is the story of how this modern and mechanized transport system paradoxically became the culminating project of the English arts and crafts movement. It is also the story of how a network of prominent individuals in England, inspired by the ideals of John Ruskin and William Morris, attempted to integrate modern art with modern life: an attempt that corresponded in some respects to the well-documented efforts of continental avant-garde groups like the Italian futurists, the French surrealists, and the Russian constructivists. The English version of this narrative has yet to be told, even though it was in interwar England that the avantgarde aim of abolishing the distinction between art and everyday life attained its widest realization.
The Demise of Medieval Modernism
Authors: Saler Michael T 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The nineteenth-century distinction between art and design, which Frank Pick and other medieval modernists had come close to eradicating during the interwar period, was restored rapidly between 1939 and 1945-with Pick, as usual, having been in the vanguard. He had preceded official opinion in his own reconceptualization of the role of artist and industrial designer in the mid-1930s; it was not until after the outbreak of the war that officials at the Boards of Trade and Education began to think of the designer as a technician rather than as an artist. This new conception of the designer, and the reestablishment of the distinction between “fine art” and “design,” then became institutionalized when the government created the Council of Industrial Design in 1944 and the Arts Council in 1946. Pick had argued that the designer was a technician primarily for moral reasons-he had come to regard the artist as suspect-but the Board of Trade instituted this redefinition for economic reasons. This new conception of the designer contributed to the collapse of the medieval modern tradition.
Sample Size, Detectable Difference,
Authors: Murray David M 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The power of a group-randomized trial is the power of the test of the intervention effect for the primary endpoint. More precisely, it is the probability that Letan intervention effect of a given size will be statistically significant. If the probability is 80% that a test will detect an intervention effect of one standard deviation in magnitude as statistically significant, the study has 80% power for an effect of that size or larger.
Evaluation And Reform
Authors: Johnson Dale A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
While each of the theological colleges did what it could to promote its cause through the development of a constituency, recruitment of students, and in creased financial support, periodic wider review of their situation, needs, contributions, and difficulties also took place after 1840. By then the transition from “academy” to “collegiate” status was virtually complete and the two-course pattern of theological education generally established, with growing attention to the London examinations for the literary course. Two articles in the Eclectic Review in 1840 considered different aspects of the state of the colleges. One declared that, on the whole, the colleges had never been so healthy, particularly since any objections to a system of education for the ministry were now considered too absurd to need refutation. But both articles noted several problems that recurred frequently over the next several decades: widely varied abilities and preparation of students relative to the courses offered; insufficient support of the colleges, as missionary, Bible, and tract societies competed for funds and absorbed the attention of the congregations; and the logistical difficulties of having several colleges with too few students and an inadequate number of tutors to cover the de sired subjects. While the authors made some suggestions regarding an appropriate curriculum and recommended an increase in faculty so that more subjects could be taught well, they seemed content to identify the defects and leave them for others to solve. As one commented, “If longer time, greater inducements, a more extensive field of learning, and a greater number of tutors were granted to our students of theology, all our causes of complaint would be removed.”1 Of course, the issues were more easily identified than resolved.
The Shifting Sands Of Religious Authority
Authors: Johnson Dale A 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
And this, I think, we may fairly say, that until they meet the Christian argument in its best and most reasonable form, the form given to it by its most enlightened advocates; so long as they assume, for instance, that the Book of Genesis puts forward a scientific cosmology obviously untenable, or that the church still holds a miracle to be an in fraction of law, or that the New Testament either demands belief in doctrines rather than a good life, or teaches men to neglect the duties of this world in order to secure bliss in the world to come, and so makes selfishness rather than love its primary motive, or that it condemns the vast majority of men to endless torment-they shirk the real difficulties of the problem, evade the best and most advanced statement of the Christian hypothesis, and, in fine, behave themselves as foolishly as would the theologian or divine who should refute the scientific hypothesis in vogue a century ago, and pass by the science of today.
Childhood Victimization: Early Adversity and Subsequent Psychopathology
Authors: Widom Cathy Spatz 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Childhood experiences such as physical and sexual abuse and neglect are adverse events with immediate and long-term consequences. However, in considering child abuse and neglect as examples of adverse life events that have the potential to affect development and subsequent psychopathology, the assumption of “well-being” in the child’s life prior to the victimization experience may not be a reasonable one. Although certain forms of childhood victimization may indeed be viewed as acute stressors, child abuse and neglect often occur against a background of more chronic adversity in multiproblem homes. Child abuse or neglect may be only one of a family’s problems. Thus the general effects of other family characteristics, such as poverty, unemployment, parental alcoholism or drug problems, or other inadequate social and family functioning, must be recognized and disentangled from the specific effects of childhood abuse or neglect.
Mathematical Modeling and Simulation in Studies of Stress and Adversity
Authors: Link Patrick E Shrout Bruce G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Randomized experiments are widely regarded as the best way to establish a causal link between a risk variable and an outcome, such as psychopathology (Holland, 1988). The logic is simple: Randomly assign subjects who do not have psychopathology into one of two groups, expose one group to the risk, and then follow them over time to see whether they exhibit signs and symptoms of mental disorder. The other group is left unexposed but is followed using the same procedures as the exposed group. The control group is included to inform us of what the exposed group would be like had they had not been exposed.
A Perspective on Adversity, Stress, and Psychopathology
Authors: Leighton Alexander H 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As an orientation regarding the meaning of the words, adversity, stress, and psychopathology, let me begin with some recollections of a case of Graves’ disease that I encountered in the clinical literature while a medical student many years ago. The patient was a young woman who set out one day to ride her bicycle through the Blackwall Tunnel under the Thames in London. When she was part way along, a team of horses, coming behind her pulling a brewer’s wagon, escaped the control of their driver. The wagon was full of empty barrels, and the noise horrendous. The young woman peddled for dear life ahead of the plunging horses for the remainder of the distance through the tunnel, which was considerable. At length, she shot out the Greenwich end and leaped off her bike into the arms of a policeman. It was soon found that she had a full-blown case of Grave’s disease-bulging eyes, tachycardia, fine tremor, inability to keep still and all the rest. Moreover, in subsequent months, as I recall, the disorder persisted until a portion of her thyroid had been removed.
The Millennium Approaches
Authors: Galanter Marc 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
During the past decade, three cultic movements ended in disaster: the Branch Davidians, Aum Shinrikyo, and Heaven’s Gate. Each received enormous press coverage and alerted or alarmed the public about the potential for suicide and murder in charismatic groups. To clarify how such movements can come to a tragic end, we will consider what led these three groups to their fatal out comes, and how the psychology of the charismatic group can nullify the basic human value of preserving life.
Hard Times
Authors: Ayers Edward L , Mittendorf Bradley C 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Between 1915 and 1940, the grandchildren of Confederates and freed­ men found themselves in a South replete with new opportunities to pursue and difficulties to endure. Military service during World War I provided many young Southerners, both black and white, with an expanded vision of the world. Whether out of desire or necessity, many ex;service­ men joined the others who abandoned the countryside. The fortunate ones found stable jobs in one of the growing industries; the majority endured hard times in a different setting.
The Preservation of English Liberty, II
Authors: Davis David Brion 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In the United States, northern writers increasingly claimed that southern slaveholders, accustomed to rule as tyrants, could not bear to be ruled under the mildest laws of freedom. Americans have seldom recognized that this temptation to sectionalize a national burden of “inconsistency” first arose in England-or that in English eyes all the Caribbean and North American colonies constituted “slave soil.”
The Good Book
Authors: Davis David Brion 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Whether the Bible was “for” or “against” slavery was a hotly contested issue in ante-bellum America. William Lloyd Garrison, after belatedly discovering Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason in 1845, concluded that the Bible must be judged “by its reasonableness and utility, by the probabilities of the case, by historical confirmation, by human experience and observation, by the facts of science, by the intuition of the spirit. Truth is older than any parchment.” Garrison’s disciple, Henry Clarke Wright, summed up the radical abolitionist view in the title of an essay, “The Bible, if Opposed to Self-Evident Truth, is Self-Evident Falsehood.” For Charles Stearns this meant that the Old Testament was a tissue of lies, “no more the work of God than the Koran, or the Book of Mormon.” An assault on revealed religion could thus culminate a long history of antislavery challenges to authority.1
The Variety Of International Rules
Authors: Arend Anthony Clark 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As noted earlier, the political science community recently has witnessed a new flourishing of normative discussions. Scholars from both the institutionalist and realist camps have engaged in lively debates about the role of norms and institutions. The pages of such journals as International Organization, Political Science Quarterly, and even International Security are filled with extensive examinations of both sides of the debate. Initially, regime theory helped reinvigorate normative discourse into the mainstream of international relations theory. As scholars asked if “regimes matter,” they were, in effect, asking the crucial question: Do normative concerns matter in contemporary international relations? Most recently, constructivists have been raising important questions about the role of norms in international politics.
Consensus, Ethics, and Politics in Cloning and Embryo Research
Authors: Moreno Jonathan D , London Alex John 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Within hours of the announcement that scientists in Scotland had succeeded in cloning an adult sheep by a method that subsequently became known as somatic cell nuclear transfer cloning, the President of the United States asked the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (NBAC) to examine the legal and ethical issues associated with the use of this new technology. The advent of cloning is remarkable, therefore, not only because of the possibilities it presents for the cloning of adult humans, but also because of the speed with which a public bioethics body was commissioned to evaluate the social, ethical, and political ramifications of these possibilities.1
Anatomy and Biomechanics of The Spine and Spinal Cord
Authors: Byrne Thomas N , Benzel Edward C , Waxman Stephen G 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The spine is a segmented structure consisting of a precisely aligned column of vertebrae and their intervertebral articulations. Its primary functions are (1) to provide support for the trunk and head; to provide a protective covering for the spinal cord; and yet, (3) to permit enough flexibility to allow movement. In humans, these functions are achieved through an architecture based on a column of articulated vertebrae that affords both structural support and mobility.