bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Radiopaques
Authors: Lin Youlin 
Published: July 2004

AbstractLin, Youlin (Mallinckrodt Medical, Inc.). Medical examination of soft tissues or organs by nonsurgical means often requires the introduction of a special agent that makes the detection system responsive to detail in the tissue of interest. Radiopaques, often called x‐ray contrast media, are examples of such diagnostic agents. Radiopaques are categorized according to specific applications, such as angiography, urography, myelography, cholecystography, cholangiography, gastrointestinal radiography, computed tomography, arthrography, and hysterosalpingography. The importance, chemistry, and kinds of radiopaques developed for the types of medical imaging are presented. The evolution of research efforts from high osmolality contrast media (HOCM) to low osmolality contrast media (LOCM) is emphasized. Historical perspectives, cost considerations, and future outlooks in contrast media development are briefly outlined. Physical constants, such as osmolality, water solubility, viscosity and partition coefficient, and median lethal dose in animal studies are cited and compared for selected contrast agents. Sources are listed for commercial radiopaque suppliers in the United States. Vol. 20, pp. 906–930, 129 refs. to December 1995.
Radioprotective Agents
Authors: Murray David , McBride William H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractDevelopments in understanding agents having activity for the prevention and treatment of radiation injuries are discussed. Chemical radioprotectors have long been dominated by thiol compounds and their phosphorothioate derivatives. Advances have been made to understanding the fundamental mechanisms by which these agents protect against cell killing. The finding that thiols also protect against radiation‐induced mutations and transformation has generated considerable interest. Mutations may be expressed as undesirable late effects in radiotherapy. Such effects are reviewed herein, as is the enormous literature that has accumulated relating to preclinical and clinical studies of the effects of phosphorothioates in animals and humans. A number of nonthiol radioprotective agents, including protease inhibitors, vitamins, metalloelements, and calcium antagonists, are also discussed. There has been a virtual explosion of interest in biological, as opposed to chemical, modifiers of radiation injury. These biologics include cytokines such as interleukin 1 and granulocyte colony‐stimulating factor, eicosanoids such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, and steroids/glucocorticoids such as dexamethasone and methylprednisolone. In addition, an array of immunomodulatory agents such as glucan and endotoxin have been described, which act by nonspecifically enhancing immunological and hemopoietic responses. Although some of these biologics act best when given prior to irradiation, many of them can modulate radiation injury when given after irradiation, presumably by affecting the recovery and repopulation of critical tissue elements. Biologics thus afford an opportunity for therapeutic intervention following accidental radiation exposure as well as in radiation therapy. Demonstrations of a potential therapeutic advantage from combining chemical radioprotectors, which decrease the extent of initial damage, with nonthiol biologics, which accelerate tissue recovery, provides an attractive approach to radioprotection which also minimizes toxicity.
Raman Spectroscopy
Authors: Christensen Kenneth A. , Todd Elizabeth A. , Morris Michael D. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Raman spectroscopy involves the detection of inelastic light scattering resulting from molecular vibrations. Industrial applications of this technique are growing in areas such as process and quality control, materials characterization and reliability, and environmental and industrial hygiene monitoring. Simple as well as large inorganic and organic compounds, polymers, films, and surfaces may be investigated using Raman. Samples, which may be solid, gaseous, or liquid, are easily prepared. Even aqueous solutions may be examined. Instrumentation utilizing visible or near infrared laser sources, modern dispersive spectrographs or interferometers, fiber‐optic and/or microprobes, and highly sensitive detection systems are described.
Nuclear Reactor Types
Authors: Murray Raymond L. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractNuclear reactors may be classified by purpose or use, key components, method of heat extraction, power level or neutron flux, or arrangement of component materials. Commercial reactors are also classified by the companies involved in design and building of the facility. Reactors used for power generation, either heat or electrical, propulsion, whether naval vessels or spacecraft, radioisotope production, materials testing, basic research, and training are discussed. The development of nuclear reactors is presented, including information gleaned from the two principal nuclear accidents of the 1980s.The pressurized lightwater reactor is the most common power generation reactor in the United States, but the boiling water reactor is also used. In Canada, heavy‐water reactors are usually employed. These and other reactors, such as the molten salt and the fast breeder reactor, are described.
Recreational Surfaces
Authors: Orofino T. A. , Sweenie H. G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractGrass‐like and other artificial recreational surfaces designed for sports use are described in terms of types, construction, materials and components, and performance characteristics. Also included are installation techniques and listings of current commercial products. For grass‐like turf products the principal assembly techniques are tufting and knitting. Fiber‐forming polymers such as polyolefins, polyamides, and polyesters processed to provide high strength combined with appropriate elongation are suitable materials for the turf surface and backing fibers. Other materials are utilized for backing finish, including acrylic, polyurethane, and vinyl polymers. Track surfaces, another important category of recreational surfaces, typically employ polyurethanes via pour‐in‐place techniques. Shock absorption and resiliency are important performance properties of recreational surfaces. High return of impact energy is desirable on track surfaces, whereas substantial hysteresis loss is needed with grass‐like surfaces for safety under body impact. The turf surfaces typically are overlaid on a foamed elastomer underpad for this purpose. Artificial recreational surfaces were introduced in the early 1960s and remain important commercial products in the 1990s, represented by numerous manufacturers.
Recycling, Plastics
Authors: Borchardt John K. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Plastics comprise 9.3% of the 200 millions tons of municipal solid waste collected in the United States. Although the recycling rate of plastics seems low, U.S. plastics production in 1993 was 70 billion pounds while 700 million pounds was recycled. Both economic and governmental regulation are driving recycling. This article deals with the various plastics that can be recycled. Separation of commingled materials is discussed. Plastics discussed include poly(ethylene terephthalate), polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and other miscellaneous compounds. Economics and disposal statistics are also given.
Refractories
Authors: Leigh H. David 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAlmost all industrial processes use or depend on refractory materials that resist the action of hot environments. The many forms, constituent substances, uses, and analyses common to industrial refractories are presented. Uses include linings for furnaces, cement kilns, crucibles, and chemical tanks. A large variety of forming techniques can be used to produce refractories of virtually any conceivable shape. The most common of these techniques are discussed. Historically, refractories were simply naturally occurring stone minerals found to be useful in rudimentary smelting and refining processes. More sophisticated use of raw mineral deposits, beneficiated mineral deposits, and the development of synthetic minerals has led to an array of refractory compositions. The principles governing the performance of refractories have been well established. Reactions with high temperature process liquids, gases, and other refractories is discussed. Sophisticated refractory systems to achieve greater performance characteristics are continually under development.
Refrigeration
Authors: Sibley Howard W. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

This article covers the broad area of vapor compression refrigeration and the refrigerants used in applications requiring temperatures in the range of

\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}${{\rm{-}}150}$\end{document}

to 4°C. Systems described are domestic refrigerator/freezers, commercial refrigeration systems, cold storage warehousing, industrial applications, and transport refrigeration. The basic refrigeration components common to all categories are described and then followed by discussion of unique cycle configurations or design considerations for each category, respectively. Because of the significant ramifications associated with refrigerant effects on environmental parameters, namely, ozone depletion and global warming, discussion of changes necessary in refrigerant selection and availability is provided. Associated with all vapor compression refrigeration systems is the need for compressor lubrication. The interaction of the lubricant and refrigerant is discussed as well as the impact of new refrigerants on lubricant selection.
Refractory Coatings
Authors: Thorpe Merle 
Published: July 2004

AbstractRefractory coatings are protective surface layers of high melting materials used primarily for high temperature applications or to prevent abrasion or corrosion. These coatings may be composed of metals, alloys, or intermetallic compounds; metallic oxides, carbides, borides, nitrides, etc; or ceramic or metal–ceramic composites. Many specific coatings are described. Uses of refractory coatings range from application to the surfaces of parts in the aerospace and automotive industries, where high temperature protection is of importance, to lens coatings where the protective layer must be optically pure, yet abrasion resistant. Some prosthetic devices also require these coatings.Coating technology has advanced rapidly since the early 1980s resulting in improved coating quality, reproducibility, and application rates and techniques. The various coating technologies ranging from thermal spray to chemical vapor deposition are discussed. Methods for evaluating coatings are presented.
Refractory Fibers
Authors: Waugh R. A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Waugh, Richard A. (Thermal Ceramics). Oxide and nonoxide refractory fibers have become essential materials for use in modern industrial and commercial applications. These technologically advanced fibrous products are manufactured by thermal or chemical processes and generally can be used at temperatures up to 2800°C. Chemical composition and processing technology determine the chemical and physical properties of these refractory fibers. This article reviews manufacturing processes and properties for silicon carbide, silicon nitride, boron nitride, carbon, silica, polycrystalline, and aluminosilicate refractory fibers. Applications are also discussed.
Refractory Boron Compounds
Authors: Wentorf Robert H. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractBorides have metallic characteristics such as high electrical conductivity and positive coefficients of electrical resistivity. Many of them, particularly the borides of metals of Groups 4 (IVB), 5 (VB), and 6 (VIB), the MB6compounds of Groups 2(II) and 13(III), and the borides of aluminum and silicon, have high melting points, great hardness, low coefficients of thermal expansion, and good chemical stability. Borides are inert toward nonoxidizing acids; however, a few, such as Be2B and MgB2, react with aqueous acids to form boron hydrides. Most borides dissolve in oxidizing acids such as nitric or hot sulfuric acid and they are also readily attacked by hot alkaline salt melts or fused alkali peroxides. In dry air, borides are relatively resistant to oxidation. On a commercial scale, borides are prepared by the reduction of mixtures of metallic and boron oxides using aluminum, magnesium, carbon, boron, or boron carbide, followed by purification. Borides can also be synthesized by vapor‐phase reaction or electrolysis. They are used for resistance‐heated boats (with boron nitride), for aluminum evaporation, and for sliding electrical contacts. Boron and carbon form one compound, boron carbide, B4C, although excess boron may dissolve in boron carbide, and a small amount of boron may dissolve in graphite. Boron carbide has a rhombohedral structure consisting of an array of nearly regular icosahedra, each having twelve boron atoms at the vertices and three carbon atoms in a linear chain outside the icosahedra. A descriptive chemical formula would be B12C3. Boron carbide is resistant to most acids but is rapidly attacked by molten alkalies. Hot‐pressed boron carbide finds use as wear parts, sandblast nozzles, seals, and ceramic armor plates. Boron carbide is used in the shielding and control of nuclear reactors. Boron and nitrogen form one compound, boron nitride, BN, which may exist in a hexagonal, graphite‐like form, hBN, or in two denser forms having tetrahedrally bonded B and N atoms on a cubic (zinc‐blend) or a hexagonal (wurtzite) lattice. Hot‐pressed hBN is useful for high temperature electric or thermal insulation, vessels, etc, and for special materials such as III‐V semiconductors. The greatest use of cubic boron nitride is as an abrasive under the name Borazon.
Repellents
Authors: Carlson D. A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractRepellents, the first line of defense that can be readily used as personal protection, affect insects by disrupting their natural behavior of bloodseeking through biting of humans and animals. The best overall repellent, effective against many species of pest mosquitoes but not all malaria mosquitoes, isN,N‐diethyl‐m‐toluamide (DEET). Commercial products containing DEET are available which are reasonably comfortable for the user and can protect against pests for hours before retreatment on skin. Clothing treatment has become more popular for mosquito protection, using DEET or synthetic pyrethroids. A few compounds, including two cyclohexyl carboxamides, are under development and may eventually replace DEET in the U.S. military system. A 1993 database search showed 27 active ingredients in 212 EPA‐registered products as repellents or feeding depressants. Repellents including DEET are effective, as are synthetic pyrethroids when treated onto clothing to intoxicate ticks. Chemical cockroach repellents are available, but newer compounds are also under development. Methyl anthranilate, a grape‐flavored food additive, is an effective bird repellent when tested against geese, ducks, and gulls; methiocarb is an insecticide that repels birds from food crops; 4‐aminopyridine is a repellent–toxicant that is lethal when used in baits. No consistently repellent compounds are known for deer, however, thiram is registered in Georgia, and Chaperone is registered with EPA for use against deer and rabbits.
Furnaces, Electric, Resistance Furnaces
Authors: Walton Robert R. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The most widely used and best known resistance furnaces are indirect‐heat resistance furnaces or electric resistor furnaces. They are categorized by a combination of four factors: batch or continuous; protective atmosphere or air atmosphere; method of heat transfer; and operating temperature. The primary method of heat transfer in an electric furnace is usually a function of the operating temperature range. The three methods of heat transfer are radiation, convection, and conduction. Radiation and convection apply to all of the furnaces described. Conductive heat transfer is limited to special types of furnaces.
Operating temperature ranges are classified as low, medium, and high; there is no standard or precise definition of these ranges. Generally, a low temperature furnace operates below 760°C, medium temperature ranges from 760– 1150°C, and furnaces operating above 1150°C are high temperature furnaces. The term oven should be used when temperatures are below 760°C, and the word furnace applied for higher temperatures.
Electric furnaces are used for annealing, brazing, carburizing, galvanizing, forging, hardening, melting, sintering, enameling, and tempering metals, most notably aluminum, copper, iron and steel, and magnesium alloys.
Reverse Osmosis
Authors: Bhattacharyya D. , Mangum W. C. , Williams M. E. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractReverse osmosis is a highly effective separation technology used industrially in several areas, including desalination of seawater and brackish water and wastewater treatment. Membrane materials and types of modules used in reverse osmosis, as well as theoretical bases and operational aspects, are presented. A discussion of flux limiting conditions caused by concentration polarization and membrane fouling is included, as is that of the pretreatments required for process feed streams. The application of reverse osmosis for the separation of hazardous organic compounds from aqueous systems, for wastewater treatment, desalination, ultrapure water production, and food processing are reviewed in terms of membrane performance. The concept of nanofiltration and its applications are also discussed. General design considerations and economics are reviewed.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Rhenium
Authors: Meshri Dayal T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractOf the six known binary rhenium fluorides, rhenium hexafluoride and rhenium heptafluoride are those that are commercially available. Rhenium also form a series of oxyfluorides. Preparation and properties are described. Rhenium hexafluoride finds use in the electronics, semiconductor, and laser industries as a substrate for their rhenium or rhenium alloy films.
Toluenes, Ring‐Chlorinated
Authors: Khandare Pravin , Spohn Ron 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe preparation, physical and chemical properties, and applications on mono‐, di‐, tri‐, tetra‐, and pentachlorotoluenes are reviewed. Reactions of chlorotoluenes are classified into those involving the aromatic ring, the methyl group, and the halogen. The reactions involving the methyl group are widely used to synthesize a variety of functionalized chloroaromatic compounds. Some of the recent applications of these compounds are based on replacement of the halogen by other functional groups catalyzed by transition‐metal compounds. Monochlorotoluenes are obtained generally by reaction of toluene with chlorine under a variety of homogeneous and heterogeneous conditions. The higher chlorotoluenes are obtained usually by chlorination of the lower chlorinated analogues. Many detailed studies have been conducted to evaluate the toxicological properties of chlorotoluenes. Ring‐chlorinated toluenes find principal applications in the pesticide, pharmaceutical, peroxide, dye, and other industries.p‐Chlorotoluene is an especially valuable starting material to prepare numerous, industrially useful intermediates.
Rubber, Natural
Authors: Baker C. S. L. , Fulton W. S. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract

Baker, C. S. L., and Fulton, W. S. (Malaysian Rubber Producers' Research Association). This article provides an overview of natural rubber, derived from the tree

Hevea brasiliensis

. It summarizes the history of natural rubber with the seedlings planted in Malaysia in 1877, through to the production figures of the present day. It discusses latex collection and its coagulation to give the various types of dry natural rubber grades. The latter are individually described, up to the modern technically specified grades. Raw rubber properties, such as crystallization, storage hardening, cure behavior, and plasticity retention index are covered, followed by treatment of the chemistry and technology of natural rubber. The technical advantages of natural rubber, blends with synthetic rubber, the various vulcanization systems available with the resulting key properties, and antidegradant agents are each outlined. For completeness of coverage of natural rubber, modified forms are discussed, with their attendant change in properties, including those of thermoplastic natural rubber.

Blends and application areas are followed by a final section on natural rubber latex. Latex preparation, concentration, and properties are described, together with an indication of consumption patterns and principal product groups. The concern over protein allergy in latex gloves and condoms is addressed and an explanation on the apparent explosion of interest in this phenomena is given.
Recycling, Rubber
Authors: P. Paul John 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
An overview of the uses for worn out scrap and reject rubber parts and articles, primarily tires, is presented. Uses and processing of worn out scrap and reject rubber include scrap rubber as a final source, pyrolysis of scrap rubber, depolymerization, rubber–asphalt modification, cryogenic pulverizing and mechanical tire shredding, rubber reclaiming, civil engineering, and tire retreading.
Scrap rubber as a fuel source (burning rubber, sometimes known as tire‐derived fuel) in cement kilns, electric utilities, pulp and paper mills, and dedicated tire‐to‐energy plants is discussed.
Processes for pyrolyzing rubber into oil and char are described, as are projects using rubber in asphalt and legislation being enacted to encourage the use of asphalt in rubber. Methods for cryogenically pulverizing and grinding tires are included. Methods of devulcanizing rubber using digesters, and heater or pan and reclaimator processes are presented. Uses of scrap rubber in civil engineering include erosion control retaining walls, fill material, and athletic and playing surfaces.
Rubidium and Rubidium Compounds
Authors: Wagner Frank S. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
The article provides an overview of the properties, preparation, and chemistry of the element rubidium. Physical properties of rubidium are provided. The chemistry of the element is discussed in terms of its preparation, basic inorganic chemistry, chelating complexes, and metal–fulleride compounds. Packaging and current shipping information is included. Suppliers of rubidium metal and compounds are listed, along with pricing. Owing to the chemical reactivity of rubidium, safe handling and storage procedures for the metal are discussed. Available toxicological data are given for a number of common rubidium compounds. Although rubidium and its compounds have limited commercial application, some uses are reviewed. References to review articles, monographs, and books on rubidium and the alkali metals are also provided.
Nuclear Power Facilities, Safety
Authors: Taylor J. J. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Safety has played a dominant role in the ability to generate electricity by nuclear means because large quantities of highly radioactive fission products are generated with the energy from fission. Strict control is maintained over these radioactive materials to assure that public and worker health and safety are protected. The basic safety principles, defense‐in‐depth design philosophy, and key safety design features which apply to all nuclear facilities are discussed. Specific examples are given from nuclear power plant design. The methods of assessment of safety are described, both for self‐assessment and independent assessment. The roles of industry and government in the assessment process are outlined. Comparative risks of nuclear power are substantially lower than most other methods of generating electricity.
The specific safety characteristics of the nuclear power plant that generates the electricity, and of the nuclear fuel cycle, which functions to produce nuclear fuel and dispose of radioactive wastes are each given. Special focus is placed on the safe disposal of spent fuel and radioactive waste. The basic radiation exposure and health standards which establish the foundation of public and worker protection are cited. The safety of future nuclear power plants is summarized.