bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Word Phonology
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter phonological rules which interact with morphology, but which are not triggered nor in a substantial way constrained by prosodic features, will be discussed. Rules conditioned by prosodic structure are mainly discussed in the chapters on prosody. Examples of such mies are Glide Formation (Chapters 2.3. l .2 and 5.7.2) and Mora Insertion and Mora Linking (Chapters 6.4.8 and 8.2). In Section 4.2 rules usua1ly referred to as voice assimilations will be discussed. The subject of Section 4.3 is mies operating within the coronal node. Section 4.5 deals with a rule of consonant cluster simplification. It is preceded by a discussion of the relationship between [e] and [re] (Section 4.4). Some minor vowel alternation patterns will be discussed in Section 4.6.
Cyclic Syllabification
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter consists of three main sections. In Section 8.2 the relationship between Mora Insertion. the rule responsible for expanding light, stressed syllables, and the cyclic derivation of complex words, wil1 be discussed. I shall argue that Mora Insertion is a cyclic rule, and that long vowels and geminated consonants are retained through the cyclic level in cases where Stress Erasure and reapplication of the MSR move the stress to another syl1able. Closed Syllable Shortening wil1 also be discussed in this section. The topic of Section 8.3 is the distribution of syllabic sonorants. It will be argued that sonorants are syllabified at the cyclic level in nouns, at the word level in adjectives, and that sy11abic sonorants are blocked at both levels (as well as postlexically) in verbs. In Section 8.4 variable syllabification patterns in inflected nouns will be analysed as triggered by differences in sonority between adjacent, syllabic nuclei juxtaposed by the morphology.
Intonation And Rhythm
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The major part of the present chapter will be devoted to a presentation of the phonological aspects of the so-called Trondheim model of East Norwegian intonation. The topic of Section 10.2 will be the (post1exical) Accent Phrase (AP), briefly introduced in Chapter 7.3.6 and 9.1.6. The way APs are strung together and organized into higher intonational units will be discussed in Section 10.3, while other aspects of intonation, including postlexica1 adjustments of the distribution of tonal accents, will be discussed in Sections 10.4 and 10.5. Finally, rhythm will be treated in Section 10.6.
Postlexical Segmental Phonology
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter the postlexical phonology of UEN will be discussed. Section 11. l contains a discussion of the most important characteristics of postlexical phonology. In Section 11 .2 postlexical prosodic constituency will be discussed, based on the analysis of intonational stmcture given in Chapter 10. Postlexical r-phonology will be discussed in Section 11.3 below, while Nasal Place Assimilation will be discussed in section 11.4 . In Section 11.5 the constraints governing the distribution of schwa will be discussed in more depth. Finally the topic of Section 11.6 will be clitics.
English Synonyms and a Dictionary of Synonyms
Authors: Apresjan Juri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As its title shows, this chapter has a dual purpose: first, it is intended to provide a theoretical introduction into that field of contemporary semantics which deals with lexical synonyms and to explain the meaning of the theoretical concepts used in the dictionary; second, it is intended to provide a lexicographical introduction to the dictionary, showing what information about synonyms may be found in it and in what form. The connection between these two topics is dear: a theory of lexical synonyms should (ideally) define the practical principles of their lexicographical description. This dictates the structure of the introductory chapter: theoretical matters are not relegated to a separate section but form the background to a presentation of the design of the dictionary and the structure and composition of a standard entry; these matters are explored to the extent required to clarify the lexicographical principles of processing the material and of subsequent use of the dictionary.
The Synonymy of Mental Predicates: schitat’ [to consider] and its Synonyms
Authors: Apresjan Juri 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter is essentially a dictionary entry I wrote for the New Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Synonyms which is being compiled at the Russian Language Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences by a small team of lexicographers (J. D. Apresjan, 0. Iu. Boguslavskaia, I. V. Levontina, and E. V. Uryson) headed by the present author. It is a synonym series of putative verbs dumat’, schitat’, polagat’, nakhodit’, rassmatri-vat’, smotret’, usmatri-vat’, -videt’ [to think, consider, suppose, find, regard, look upon, regard, see]. The concept of the dictionary was set forth in J. Apresjan (1992b); see also Chapters 1 and 2 of this volume; and it is assumed that the reader is familiar with it. By way of preamble to the main theme, on the basis of the author’s previously published works, some points about systematic lexicography which the author would like to implement in the synonym dictionary are here set forth in summary form.
Fungu la kwanza Hujambo7 How are you?’
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
You should always address people by title or by name, not with the bare greeting word. bwana and bibi can be combined with proper names, whether ‘Christian’ or surname, e.g. Bibi Joan or Bibi Maw. (Written abbreviations are Bw. and Bi. ‘Mr’ and ‘Ms’.)
Fungu la pili Habari? ‘what’s new?’
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The intensifier sana ‘very/very much’ can be attached to adjectives or verbs, e.g. nzuri sana ‘very good’, hajambo sana ‘he is very well’. Note that it follows the item it modifies Qualifiers also almost all follow the item they qualify, e.g. habari zako ‘your news’.
Fungu la tano Matamshi — Pronunciation
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
j in Swahili, like b, d, and g, is also pronounced as an implosive. But there are other differences from the sound in English represented by the letter j. Firstly, in Swahili, j is pronounced with the tip of the tongue down, behind the lower front teeth, and the body of the tongue against the hard palate (roof of the mouth).
Fungu la saba Wapi hasa7 —Where precisely?
Authors: Maw Joan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Not all new words were taped separately for pronunciation in Unit 6. From this point on in the course, new vocabulary will not be practised as individual items except for specific pronunciation points. This is because, apart from special occasions, words are not normally heard in isolation, and the student should try to hear, and learn, and eventually speak, words in contexts.
Specifiers as Secondary Heads
Authors: Cann Ronnie 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the important tasks of a syntactic theory is to provide an account of the different dependency relations that hold between elements in a phrase. In Dependency Grammar (following various traditional grammatical traditions (cf. Lyons I 968)), there are two basic types: complement and adjunct (or modifier). The first defines an obligatory relation between a functor (or head) and its argument and the second an optional modification of a category (or head). In Categorial Grammar, these two are the only types of relation allowed by the basic theory, shown in (I), where X and Y are any category labels.
Dependencies, Phrase Structure, and Extractions
Authors: Manzini M Rita 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a reformulation of Chomsky’s (1995) Merge, under which the basic operation of grammar cannot take as its input two constituents; rather the first member of the input is always a head, drawn directly from the numeration. While c-command has been argued to be the structural primitive defined under Chomsky’s (1995) conception, I shall argue that under the present conception, the structural primitive of the theory is head government. This has potential empirical advantages in the domain of movement. In particular, I shall argue that the present theory allows for a radical simplification of Kayne’s (I 984) Connectedness. In what follows, Section I presents Chomsky’s (1995) theory, Section 2 defines the present notion of Merge, and Section 3 demonstrates its consequences for movement theory. As part of the revision of the theory in Section 2 a principle of Interpretation is suggested which subsumes Chomsky’s (1995) Last Resort.
Movement to Specifiers
Authors: Nichols Lynn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I investigate here the case of Zuni (isolate; New Mexico) in which there are several types of movement out of VP into specifier positions of IP and CP.1 This movement is exclusively A’-movement; none of the specifiers of IP in Zuni is a Case position, as will be argued below. Movement to these specifier positions will be argued to bedriven by morphosyntactic licensing requirements of the moved element. The syntactic behaviour of several different classes of elements in Zuni, including pronouns, quantifiers, and wh-words receives a unified explanation under this account. Particularly interesting is the fact that multiple wh-movement in Zuni, involving superiority-governed movement to multiple specifiers of CP, can be explained by the same mechanism driving superiority-obeying obligatory pronominal movement to single specifiers of IP that results in the opposite order.
Truth and Reference
Authors: Carstairs-McCarthy Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 5 I will offer an evolutionary explanation for what in Chapter 2 I argued to be a central puzzle about human language: the fact that all languages distinguish grammatically between sentences and NPs. But in Chapter 2 I mentioned what might seem to be a reason why this distinction is not really puzzling at all, so that no explanation of that kind is necessary. We need NPs in order to refer to things or people or events, it might be said, and we need sentences in order to make statements (whether true or false) about the people, things, and events that we refer to. I countered this by arguing that, even if the distinction between truth and reference has a basis that is independent of grammar, that does not explain why it should be reflected so pervasively in grammar, given that we could get along quite well with a language such as Monocategoric or Nominalized English in which the sentence/NP distinction is absent, and given that other philosophically important distinctions lack grammatical counterparts. But I did not challenge the assumption that truth and reference are genuinely distinct as ways in which linguistic expressions may fit the world, irrespective of these expressions’ grammatical status.
The Consonant System
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The lexical consonant inventory, listed and exemplified in section 2.2.2, will be classified along the lines indicated in (1): The place-of-articulation categories of (1) may appear to be oversimplified from a phonetic point of view but are quite sufficient for a phonological classification. Labials include the bilabial stops /p b/, the bilabial nasal /f/ v/, as well as the labiodental fricatives /f v/.
Phonotactics: Syllable Structure
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The phonological or phonotactic well-formedness of a word can be seen as an interplay of two factors: a prosodic and a non-prosodic one. On the one hand, a phonologically well-formed word must be parsable into (wellformed) prosodic units. It is generally assumed that the prosodic unit that is chiefly responsible for phonotactic well-formedness is the syllable, but there are well-known examples of phonotactic constraints whose domain is a higher level prosodic unit such as the foot or the prosodic word. As the foot does not seem to play an important role in Hungarian, a phonotactically well-formed Hungarian word is a unit which is exhaustively parsable into well-formed syllables. Thus, the phonotactic well-formedness of a word is derivable from well-formedness conditions on syllables (Syllable Structure Constraints (SSCs)). This relation between the well-formedness of words and syllables, however, is not symmetrical: while it holds that a well-formed word consists of a string of well-formed syllables, it is not true that any string of well-formed syllables constitutes a well-formed (potentiai) word: there are transsyllabic constraints that obtain between syllables, or more precisely, between adjacent subconstituents of different syllables. These constraints do not refer to a prosodic unit higher than the syllable, but impose restrictions on the bonding of syllable edges (interconstituent clusters). In addition, as we have pointed out above, a language may have constraints on prosodic structure that directly refer to prosodic units higher than the syllable (e.g. conditions on word minimality, etc.).
Processes Involving Vowels
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we will describe a number of phonological processes that involve vowels but are not conditioned by syllable structure. The vowel system of Hungarian, as well as the major alternation types that Hungarian vowels participate in, have been discussed in detail in Chapter 3. In particular, a number of facts concerning vowel harmony (some of which are generally ignored in the literature) were discussed there (see 3.2). In the present chapter (section 6.1), a new type of analysis of those facts will be suggested. Vowel length alternations (see section 3.1 for data and preliminary discussion) will be treated as lengthening/shortening processes in section 6.2. The processes analysed there will include low vowel lengthening (6.2.1) and stem vowel shortening (6.2.2). A number of surface lengthening and shortening processes characteristic of fast and/or casual speech will be discussed in sections 9.1 and 9.2 below.
Processes Involving Consonants
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The discussion of Hungarian consonants in Chapter 4 was concluded by a summary of the underlying representations we proposed for members of the consonant system. That matrix is repeated here for convenience:
This chapter will be organized as follows. In section 7.1, palatalization rules will be discussed, both lexical and postlexical. In 7.2, various sibilant rules will be presented, including those involved in the imperative of t-final verbs, as well as postlexical rules targeting and/or triggered by strident fricatives and affricates. In 7.3, postlexical processes connected with the laryngeal properties (in particular, voicing) of obstruents will be analysed in terms of a singlevalued [voice] feature. Finally, in 7.4, we turn to sonorants and briefly discuss processes involving nasals and liquids.
Processes Conditioned by Syllable Structure
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Hungarian has an intricate system of vowel ∼ zero alternations. We shall see as we proceed that not all of them can be analysed in the same way phonologically. Henceforward, we shall informally refer to any vowel that alternates with zero as ‘unstable’ and denote it with the symbol Vu. This term is meant to be neutral with respect to whether a given vowel ∼ zero alternation is considered to be the result of epenthesis, vowel deletion, or some other phonological mechanism. In this section first we examine the distribution and the quality of unstable vowels and then we present an analysis of vowel ∼ zero alternations.
The unstable vowels may occur stem-internally, i.e. inside a stem, and stemexternally, i.e. between a stem and a suffix.
Surface Processes
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, various issues in the surface (postlexical) phonology of Hungarian will be briefly discussed. Section 9.1 summarizes data about the surface vacillation of vowel length (shortening, lengthening); section 9.2 gives an overview of compensatory lengthening processes. Hiatus filling is the topic of section 9.3; the issue of degemination is discussed in 9.4. Finally, the simplification of CCC clusters in fast speech is considered in section 9.5.
The term ‘vacillation’ is normally used in two different senses in phonology. One is inter-speaker variability, i.e. the case where, with respect to some phonological phenomenon, some speakers behave in one way, whereas other speakers (consistently) behave in some other way. In such cases, the two groups of speakers have different grammars: we could say that they speak different-though very similar-languages (or dialects). Ideally, the linguist describes a single coherent linguistic system, and refrains from taking glimpses at ‘neighbouring’ systems; however, if the difference is observed within the same (sociolinguistically defined) language, in our case, standard Hungarian, the description usually has to take data from several systems into consideration.
Atatürk and the Language Reform until 1936
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The scattered local movements of resistance to the Allied armies that invaded Anatolia after the 1918 Armistice could never have liberated the country without the boundless energy and organizing genius of Mustafa Kemal. In the same way, it was he who gave effect to the desires of the many intellectuals who wanted to make their language more truly Turkish. I specify intellectuals because in those days four- fifths of the population were peasants, who would no more have thought of tampering with the language than of changing the alternation of the seasons. Above all he wanted to turn his people’s face westwards. He resented the dominance of the Arabic and Persian elements in the language and believed that the intelligent use of its native resources could make the use of foreign borrowings unnecessary.
Concoctions
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the Introduction I mentioned three nineteenth-century English neologisms: birdlore, foreword, and folklore. What happened to them? While birdlore sank without trace, so completely have foreword and folklore been accepted into the language that few are aware that they were deliberate inventions. There are parallels in Turkish. Many neologisms have passed away, such as utku for ‘victory’, tun for ‘night’, yazgag for ‘pen’.
The New Yoke
Authors: Lewis Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Franglais which so exasperates the Académic Française is as nothing compared with Türkilizce, 1 some examples of which we have already met. This development was foreseen in 1954 at the Seventh Kurultay, in a contribution from a schoolmaster named Abdi Tevfik Yegül (Kurultay 1954: 82).
The Socio-Linguistics of the Old City in the 1980s
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ANYONE walking into the Old City through the Jaffa Gate is immediately struck by the multiliteracy proclaimed by the signs. Street signs in Hebrew, Arabic, and English, advertising placards in those and other languages, building plaques in any one or more of a dozen different languages, all make clear that the sign writers have assumed that the passers-by can read many different languages. When the market is open, this impression of multilingualism is quickly reinforced by the babel of spoken tongues.
Jewish Multilingualism
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IN order to understand the present socio-linguistic situation of Jerusalem in its fullest historical context, it makes sense to start our study two millenniums ago, at the beginning of the first century of the Common Era. At least four languages appear to have played significant roles: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. We will look at each in turn, and then consider the pattern of multilingualism involved.
The Socio-Linguistics of Old Jerusalem: Non-Jewish Languages in the Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
JERUSALEM within the walls, which we have chosen, albeit somewhat arbitrarily, to define as the area of our study, was in actual fact the major part of the city until the later years of the nineteenth century: the first houses were built outside the Old City only in the 1850s (see Ben-Arieh 1979: 93 ff.; Ben-Arieh’s books are a major source of information on nineteenth-century Jerusalem, and my debt will be apparent). The walled city of today is closely connected in all ways to the city outside the walls: whether for work, or education, or as social or political limits, the gates of the city, closed nowadays only for traffic or other emergencies, serve to join the communities inside to those outside, rather than to divide them. But until the late nineteenth century this was not the case: the gates were shut every night (Ben–Arieh 1984: 21–3), and the walls defined the extent of the city
The Revitalization and Spread of Hebrew
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ALTHOUGH the ravages of the Roman–Judaean wars had substantially depleted the Jewish population of Palestine, and although many of those who remained were converted to Christianity during the Byzantine period, a remnant of Jews survived and continued to live in Palestine until modem times. Their numbers were augmented at various times over the centuries by Jews from Diaspora communities returning to Palestine either as a possible place of asylum from persecution or in order to pray, study, or to be buried in their ancestral home, a wish to which their daily prayers made reference. Until the nineteenth century, however, immigration was small and sporadic, and poor local conditions—economic, health, and security–under the various foreign rulers meant that remigration was probably substantial (Bachi 1977: 77).
Language Choice in the Market-Place
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
ONE of the central issues in the study of multilingual communities is the recognition of the ‘variables which may contribute to an understanding of who speaks what language to whom and when’ (Fishman 1971: 583). Fishman believes that by establishing the factors involved in stable multilingual situations, it should be easier to understand less stable situations. One such variable that helps to elucidate what happens in stable multilingual communities is the higher-order construct of ‘domain’.
The Spread of Hebrew among Arabic Speakers
Authors: Spolsky Bernard , Cooper Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE fortunes of a language can change as the number of its users and uses expands or contracts. Usually, but not necessarily, the spread of one language occurs at the expense of another. In the Old City we can see at least three examples of language spread: English among all sectors of the population; Hebrew among new immigrants to Israel; and Hebrew among Arabic-speaking residents. The spread of English in Israel (Fishman, Cooper, and Conrad 1977), as well as the spread of Hebrew among the Jewish residents of Palestine and Israel (Cooper 1984), have been described elsewhere. This chapter will examine the spread of Hebrew among Arab residents of the Old City.
Business Documents
Authors: Wright Laura 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some of the documents from which the vocabulary in Chapter 4 is taken were written in Anglo-Norman, some in Medieval Latin, and some in English. However, many (including all the Bridge House Estate documents) were written in a mixture of two of these languages, either Anglo-Norman plus English or Medieval Latin plus English. I have termed this mixed form ‘macaronic’ writing, as I shall explain below.