bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Languages of Asia
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is somewhat difficult to come up with a sensible, nonarbitrary way of deter mining the order in which the languages of Asia are to be discussed. Neither the purely directional approach (listing languages in the order that they are found from, say, east to west) nor the approach of listing languages and language families according to the number of their speakers seems quite appropriate here for various reasons. What shall be followed here is basically a variation on the first approach: languages and language families of Asia will be listed mainly in terms of their geographical location; in addition, various possible genetic or areal linkages between the language families will also be taken into consideration, which will entail several different “passes” in different directions.
Languages of Oceania
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Geographically speaking, Oceania includes Australia and the majority of the island territories lying in the central and southern Pacific and Indian oceans. Linguistically, this vast area stretches from Taiwan in the north, New Zealand in the south, Madagascar (off the coast of Africa) in the West, and Easter Island, or Rapa Nui (Chile), in the east.
There are three different language groups recognized in the region: Austronesian, Australian, and Papuan languages. Only the first two of these are widely recognized to be language families; the last is a geographical grouping which is a catch-all category for all those languages in the region that do not belong to either the Austronesian or the Australian language families, since convincing proof has yet to be presented that they are all genetically related.
Native Languages of the Americas
Authors: Lyovin Anatole V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In North, Central, and South America there are three groups of languages: (1) the native or aboriginal languages of the Americas, (2) the varieties of languages imported into the Americas from the Old World (primarily Europe) and which now predominate in the region, and (3) some important contact languages which arose on the soil of the American continent. Contact languages in general, as well as those that arose in the Americas from Europe have over the years developed traits that mark them as being somewhat different from their European antecedents; however, these differences will not be discussed here. In this chapter only the native American languages will be discussed.
Most authorities seem to agree that the original population of the Americas came over from Asia, most likely across the Bering Strait or even across the land bridge which, geologists say, connected Asia and America in the re mote past. One basis for this claim is that the native Americans share some racial traits in common with peoples of Asia, for example, the Mongolian spot which appears on the back and buttocks of newborn babies and disappears as they grow into adulthood.
Introduction
Authors: Henry Alison 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the major goals of linguistic theory is to establish what is universal in human language, and what are the limits on linguistic variation, that is, in how far and in what ways the grammars of speakers may differ from one another.
One way of approaching this question is to look at languages which are superficially very different from one another, and to find out to what extent there are true deep-seated differences between the languages, and how these differences can be accounted for. A complementary approach is to look at closely related languages or dialects and to examine the degree of variation that is possible between grammars which are in many other ways similar. The latter approach has been used productively in relation to Romance and Scandinavian languages and dialects, but there has been comparatively little work in this framework on dialects of English, where most research has been on the standard variety of the language.
Overt-Subject Imperatives
Authors: Henry Alison 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In both Belfast English and standard English, imperatives may occur with or without overt subjects. Subjectless imperatives appear to be identical in both varieties, so that (1), for example, is grammatical in both.
However, there is an important difference in relation to the position of overt subjects in imperatives. In standard English, the subject must precede the verb, as in (2a) and (3a), just as it must in indicative sentences. However, in Belfast English an alternative order is possible, with the verb and subject inverted, as in (2b) and (3b); this inversion is ungrammatical in standard English.
If the subject originates in the SPEC/VP position as suggested in most versions of the VP-intemal subject hypothesis, then it appears that the verb has raised out of VP in the Belfast English inverted imperatives.
Originalism Does Not Entail Minimalism, I: The Indeterminacy of History
Authors: Perry Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As I said at the beginning of the preceding chapter, originalism is a position about constitutional interpretation, not about constitutional specification. Judicial “minimalism”, as I shall call it, comprises two distinct but complementary positions. The first position, which we may call “interpretive minimalism”, is about the Court’s proper role in interpreting the constitutional text. The second position-”normative minimalism”-is about the Court’s proper role in specifying the indeterminate directives represented by the text. I discuss the two positions-their complementarity, the considerations supporting or opposing them, and related matters-in chapter 6. For now suffice it to say that grounding each of the two positions is the view that there should be relatively little opportunity for a judge’s own “subjectivity”-for her own political-moral values, her own “tastes,” “preferences,” etc.-to influence her resolution of the constitutional conflicts with which she must deal.
Constitutional Adjudication: Law and Politics
Authors: Perry Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I left a question hanging at the end of chapter 6: With respect to which indeterminate constitutional directives regarding rights or liberties, if any, does the minimalist approach to the specification of constitutional indeterminacy make sense? In chapter 9, in partial response to that question, I suggested that although the minimalist approach to the specification of the reasonableness directive represented, or arguably represented, by section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment makes good sense, the minimalist approach to the specification of the antidiscrimination directive of section I is ill advised: The proper question for the Court is not whether, depending on where one stands in the religiously and morally pluralistic American political community, one can reasonably conclude that this or that trait is relevant to a person’s status or worth as a human being, but whether the trait is, in the Court’s own view, relevant.
The Invasion oi Kuwait
Authors: Khadduri Majid , Ghareeb Edmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Jidda meeting, which was eagerly expected in Arab capitals to resolve the disputes between Iraq and Kuwait, proved extremely disappointing when it came to an abrupt and unexpected end. While Kuwait considered the meeting but one step leading to another in Baghdad where the two heads of state might reach a final agreement, Iraq held that if the meeting turned out to be another encounter in which Kuwait showed no sign that it was ready for compromise, then there would be no need for another meeting in Baghdad.
Western Intervention and Its Rationale
Authors: Khadduri Majid , Ghareeb Edmund 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Arab leaders, viewing their differences as “family affairs,” looked upon foreign intervention in Arab affairs with suspicion, and often they denounced it as a form of neocolonial or imperial intervention. By contrast, in Western eyes foreign involvement in Asiatic or African affairs before World War I was regarded as a civilizing mission to extend the benefits of progress and development to backward people.1 During and after the interwar years-in particular since World War II-when the old colonial and imperial ventures came under severe attack and were condemned in international councils, Western involvement in overseas colonies has been reduced; but indirect control and pressures continued during the interwar years, especially in northern Arab countries which were placed under the League of Nations “Mandates” because they were not considered ready for independence. Some of these countries, like Iraq and Egypt, achieved independence before World War II, but other countries like Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, achieved independence only after the war.
The State of the Art
Authors: Heine Bernd 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent research in cogmt1ve linguistics and grammaticalization has brought about a number of new findings on the nature of linguistic categorization. This research has revealed in particular that analyzing language structure in terms of categories based on necessary and sufficient conditions for membership only accounts for a limited range of speech behavior. What it suggests in particular is that in addition to these, more flexible taxonomic principles are required to take care of such phenomena as gradience and prototype structure, and to account for problems such as linguistic ambiguity, polysemy and other kinds of semantic relationship. While the scholars participating in this new discourse adhere to a variety of different perspectives and frameworks, there is agreement among many of them on a number of points, such as the following: Rather than viewing language as a state, it is conceived of as a dynamic entity, and linguistic behavior is described as a process rather than a state or a product, or a historical tradition.
Making Civil Rights Law
Authors: Tushnet Mark V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
From the 1930s to the early 1960s civil rights law was made primarily through constitutional litigation. Before Rosa Parks could ignite a Montgomery Bus Boycott, the Supreme Court had to strike down the Alabama law which made segregated bus service required by law; before Martin Luther King could march on Selma to register voters, the Supreme Court had to find unconstitutional the Southern Democratic Party's exclusion of African-Americans; and before the March on Washington and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Supreme Court had to strike down the laws allowing for the segregation of public graduate schools, colleges, high schools, and grade schools. Making Civil Rights Law provides a chronological narrative history of the legal struggle, led by Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, that preceded the political battles for civil rights. Drawing on interviews with Thurgood Marshall and other NAACP lawyers, as well as new information about the private deliberations of the Supreme Court, Tushnet tells the dramatic story of how the NAACP Legal Defense Fund led the Court to use the Constitution as an instrument of liberty and justice for all African-Americans. He also offers new insights into how the justices argued among themselves about the historic changes they were to make in American society. Making Civil Rights Law provides an overall picture of the forces involved in civil rights litigation, bringing clarity to the legal reasoning that animated this "Constitutional revolution", and showing how the slow development of doctrine and precedent reflected the overall legal strategy of Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP.
’You Did All You Could. ,,Routine Work in the 1940s
Authors: Nagel Robert F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The NAACP’s legal work was directed at eliminating segregation, and its lawyers understood that ending segregation required a mobilized African-American com-munity. Overstating his views a bit to conciliate a branch official who had been offended by correspondence with Marian Perry, Marshall wrote, ’We are here to serve the branches-this is our only responsibility.’ Marshall even used criminal cases as vehicles for organization, in part because of the requirement that defen-dants whom the NAACP aided had to be (or had to be believed to be) innocent. In connection with one criminal case, Marshall urged Hastie and Leon Ransom, another adviser, to hold mass meetings, ’to further demonstrate to the community the work being done by the NAACP and its D.C. branch. We cannot do this too often nor can we solicit the cooperation of churches too often. It seems to me that effective work can be done to further the name of the NAACP in Washington because this [is] the type of case which will attract a tremendous amount of attention.
The ’Increasing Power’ Of Private Discrimination
Authors: Nagel Robert F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the 1940s Marshall and his staff mounted a comprehensive attack on racial discrimination and its consequences. They challenged discrimination in employ-ment, in housing, in criminal procedure, in transportation, and in education. The precise issues the lawyers raised changed as the law developed in directions no one had foreseen, but the project of attacking racial discrimination comprehensively remained the same. Lawyers, clients, and interest groups were part of the ’Company’ that, accord-ing to Bentham, made the law, but of course so were judges. The program the lawyers followed was shaped by their predictions about what the Supreme Court would do once it was faced with NAACP cases. Because Marshall believed that judges in lower courts would follow or even anticipate the Supreme Court, because the forces that influenced the Supreme Court affected lower courts as well, and because no one could predict at the outset which cases would reach the Supreme Court, the Court was the focus of the lawyers’ thinking. By 1940 the Supreme Court had been reshaped by President Franklin Roose-velt. Early in Roosevelt’s first term the Supreme Court appeared to stand in the way of his New Deal programs; it invalidated the National Industrial Recovery Act and other efforts, sometimes misguided, to restructure the economy in response to the Depression. In 1936 Roosevelt asked his advisers to develop plans to deal with the Supreme Court. After his massive reelection victory, Roosevelt proposed what came to be known as the ’Court-packing plan,’ which would have allowed him to appoint six new justices to the Court. Although it was widely perceived as an unjustified assault on the Court, the plan was almost adopted, but it failed for a number of reasons: it was packaged ineptly; civil libertarians were concerned about attacking the Court; one of the New Deal’s opponents on the Court announced his retirement; and a decision by the Supreme Court upholding a state minimum-wage statute suggested that the Court had gotten the message and would no longer be quite as recalcitrant about Roosevelt’s programs.1
’A Direct Challenge of the Segregation Statutes’ Making the Record in Brown
Authors: Nagel Robert F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
On Monday, April 23, 1951, Oliver Hill got a telephone call from R. R. Moton High School in Farmville, Virginia. His caller, never identified, told him students were striking to protest conditions there: expanding school enrollments led the school board to put up some leaky and badly heated ’temporary’ outbuildings made of wood and tarpaper. Barbara Johns, a sixteen-year-old at the school, organized the student strike, working with friends from the school’s student council. Johns, born in New York but raised in Farmville, was the niece of Vernon Johns, a fiery preacher whose sermons delivered throughout the South often focused on segrega-tion. Inspired by her uncle, Barbara Johns decided that something had to be done. The school’s principal was sympathetic to community efforts to improve the schools, and Johns did not want to implicate him in militant action. She lured him away by placing a call that two high school students were about to be arrested. When he left the school, Johns sent a note in his name to each classroom, calling an assembly. The students and teachers went to the school auditorium and Johns started speaking. When some teachers tried to stop her, she had them escorted out. Johns denounced the school board’s failure to provide decent facilities and ended by calling for a strike. The students walked out.1 Hill was trying to develop a desegregation case in nearby Pulaski County, and was scheduled to go to the area on Wednesday. After asking that the students write him describing their situation, Hill agreed to meet the students’ families on his way to Pulaski County, although he was unsure that Farmville was a good place to bring a lawsuit. Farmville was in Prince Edward County, a ’tense’ part of Vir-ginia’s Southside, and Hill believed that Richmond or Norfolk were better places for the first Virginia desegregation suit. According to Hill, he ’had a horror of talking to a group of these kids with no adults around.’ If the parents did not agree with the students, a lawsuit could not be sustained. And, although students routinely got the attention of recalcitrant school boards by striking, a lawsuit with such a dramatic beginning might be bad public relations; after all, the students were violating the state’s compulsory attendance laws.
’Boldness Is Essential But Wisdom Indispensable’ Inside the Supreme Court
Authors: Nagel Robert F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The justices discussed the segregation cases at their conference on December 13. The Court was divided. Douglas wrote a memorandum to his files on May 17, 1954, the day Brown was announced. He stated that ’in the original conference, there were only four who voted that segregation in the public schools was unconstitu-tional’: Black, Burton, Minton, and Douglas. According to Douglas, Vinson thought that ’the Plessy case was right,’ as did Reed, and Clark ’inclined that way.’ Both Frankfurter and Jackson ’expressed the view that segregation in the public schools was probably constitutional.’ He concluded, ’it seemed that if the cases were to be then decided the vote would be five to four in favor of the constitutionality of segregation in the public schools in the States with Frankfurter indicating he would join the four of us when it came to the District of Columbia case.’ Frankfurter thought that the vote would have been five to four to reverse Plessy, with Vinson, Reed, Jackson, and Clark dissenting. Burton and Jackson thought that there would be between two and four dissenters if Plessy were re-versed.1 These speculations written after the decision should be taken cautiously. At the suggestion of Vinson and Jackson, no formal vote was taken, 2 so the justices were inferring from a loosely structured discussion what the ultimate outcome would be. Further, expressions in such a discussion need not indicate firm posi-tions. In the university cases, Vinson said he inclined toward affirming, yet a week later he was confident enough about reversing to start writing the Court’s opinions; in the Jaybird primary case, an initial conference vote of five to four to uphold the primary quickly became a vote of eight to one to strike it down. The one sure conclusion is that, at the start, unanimity seemed unlikely. The justices’ political and intellectual circles were hostile to segregation. Most were Democrats friendly with President Harry Truman, who had won reelection in 1948 on a platform with a strong civil rights plank. Truman’s Committee on Civil Rights condemned segregation, and Truman ordered the desegregation of the armed forces. The administration urged the Court to overrule Plessy in the 1950 railroad case. Granted, the Truman administration’s commitments to racial equal-
’Qµietly Ignoring Facts’Examining History
Authors: Nagel Robert F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The order directing reargument did not encourage Marshall; it signalled division in the Court. From the outside, the question was, what sort of division. Although the justices thought it important to invalidate segregation unanimously, Marshall sim-ply wanted to win. Perhaps a majority wanted to bring a minority along, but the reargument order more likely indicated divisions among the justices inclined to-ward the NAACP. The questions about remedy were nothing special. Frankfurter’s questions at the oral argument indicated his interest in the issue, and Marshall’s team had a well-developed position that constitutional rights were personal and present. If some justices were unhappy with that, the lawyers could not accommodate them without giving up a strong position for no obvious gain; the justices could devise whatever compromises they felt comfortable with, but the LDF lawyers did not have to cheer them on.
The Three Stages of Network Evolution
Authors: Noam Elim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Because several of the changes in international telecommunications policy originated in the United States, they are often viewed as the product of particularly U.S. business interests, wrapped in a Chicago economic ideology. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, several other industrialized countries began adopting similar policies, or at least discussed previously unthinkable changes. The question then arose whether the changes reflected something more fundamental, beyond the governments in power. I posit that these policy changes are indeed part of a broad transition, one in which a multiplicity of centrifugal forces transforms the traditional network into a loosely interconnected federation of sub networks, a network of networks.
A Comparison of Deregulation Policies
Authors: Nambu Tsuruhiko 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many Pacific Basin countries will have to face issues related to deregulation or privatization even if their governments opt not to adopt such policies. Because technological configurations and demand for telecom services are as diverse as the levels of development found in various countries, it is impossible to draw general conclusions applicable to each specific situation. Rather, by stressing differences among the countries that have already embarked on the process, policy alternatives for countries in intermediate stages can be made clearer. Special emphasis is thus placed on the United States and Japan because of several contrasts between their policy orientations and regulatory schemes. Australia, Canada, and South Korea are also discussed.
China: Steps Toward Political and Financial Reform
Authors: Zita Ken 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
China is ready to embark on its next revolution: the Information Age. The nation’ s economic reforms and the emergence of a market economy demand an efficient real-time communications network. Archaic switching and transmission equipment needs to be replaced, and a reliable long-distance network established. The entire telecommunications industry-including component manufacturing and system engineering and design, as well as network management and finance-needs to be brought to life. The scale of the effort is staggering, but China has high hopes for its telecommunications expansion.
Malaysia and Indonesia: Telecommunications Restructuring
Authors: Lowe Vincent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inability of their governments to provide sufficient capital to further the development of the telecommunications industry and meet public demand has provided most of the impetus for the restructuring that has taken place in Malaysia and Indonesia. This chapter looks at the development and implementation of structural changes, including an account of interest group reactions in Malaysia-public reaction in Indonesia has been limited. Privatization, first announced in 1983, is the center of changes in Malaysia. Under two laws adopted in 1985 the property, rights, and liabilities of the Telecommunications Department were transferred to a private corporation wholly owned by the government; part of the new corporation was subsequently sold to the public.