bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Political and National Divinity
Authors: Mullan David George 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Presbyterianism favoured limited monarchy, rejecting any form of human absolutism in state, church, and family. However, in the period covered by this book, they were generally political conservatives, and up until the eve of the National Covenant had little to say about advocating rebellion, though they did uphold the Melvillian notion of the two kingdoms in which church and state, while inseparably linked, also tended to different areas of human interest, meaning that when the king tried to interfere with sermon content and liturgy, there was bound to be trouble. Scotland was favoured by God, and defection from the truth would lead inexorably to God's departure from the land—a theme counterbalanced by covenantal notions, again nourished by the Hebrew Bible, that God would at least spare a remnant, so that Scotland's future, while dire, was not without all hope. There was similarly a deep tension in that political change must be effected by the lesser magistrates, the nobility—a caste of men who had for decades shown themselves generally to favour personal advantage over religious loyalty.
The Damnable Covenant
Authors: Mullan David George 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The National Covenant (28 February 1638) once again bound the country to God to withstand all innovations in church and state, and under the wave of Presbyterian nationalism, which followed those who opposed the covenant were subjected to various forms of coercion. There followed in November the Glasgow General Assembly of the church, and it was dominated by the aristocrats who seized upon the occasion to press their political agenda. By then political resistance had found its way into pulpit discourse, though not without an acceptance, indeed an assertion of the leadership of the nobility. The royalist/Episcopalian opposition, soon to be scattered, struck back at the covenanters, accusing them of Jesuit politics of resistance and revolt, representing a tit for tat exchange of allegations of popery.
The English Hymn
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The English Hymn is a literary form that has been undervalued by literary criticism. This book, subtitled ‘a critical and historical study’, seeks to re‐establish it as a form that deserves serious attention, and which should be taken into account in any attempt to revise the canon of literature. There is a brief discussion of hymn theory, and of the relationship between words and music. The historical coverage begins with the metrical psalms of the Reformation and the sacred poetry of the seventeenth century, and continues through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to the publication of Songs of Praise in 1925. A short postscript deals with movements in hymn writing since that time. The book deals with the texts of hymns in the light of church history and changing belief. It establishes the English hymn as a form that is worthy of serious critical consideration, with a significance that takes it from being a part of church worship to being as valid a statement of human aspiration and emotion as other forms of literature can be.
The Singing of Hymns, and the Experience of Metre
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses the relation of text to music, the relation of singing to writing, and Derrida's phoncentrism. The chapter also examines the use of different hymn metres; the structure of hymns, with attention to line, verse, and whole hymn; and the importance of rhyme. It also discusses what James Montgomery says on hymn writing and hymn structure.
Laud Unto the Lord: The Whole Booke of Psalmes
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses the importance of psalms at the Reformation, particularly among the Protestant exiles in Geneva. The chapter also talks about the influence of Calvin. It also examines the development of psalm singing, and the publication of Sternhold and Hopkins, The Whole Booke of Psalmes (the ‘Old Version’).
Into the Twentieth Century
Authors: Watson J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Discusses the end of the dominance of Hymns Ancient and Modern; Robert Bridges and the Yattendon Hymnal. Reviews Percy Dearmer, the English Hymnal, and Songs of Praise; the beginnings of broadcast hymnody, and the BBC Hymn Book. Also discusses the ‘hymn explosion’ and prospects for the future (bleak).
Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France Volume 1: The Clerical Establishment and its Social Ramifications
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This study of the Catholic Church and religious life in eighteenth‐century France seeks to ‘recapture the atmosphere of the times, and to appreciate the beliefs, aspirations, hopes, and fears of four generations. This first volume deals with the question of Church and State, including the alliance between the clerical and secular powers, the wealth of the Church, and the general assemblies of the clergy and clerical taxation, and secondly with the religious establishment, meaning not only the higher clergy, cathedral chapters, and the monastic orders, but also the ordinary curés, the parish structure, and the mass of lower and marginal clerics. It shows how the constant pressure of worldly interests influenced religious vocations and allegiance among the clergy and laity because of the Gallican Church's close integration into the social order. The lifestyle of the clergy is evoked from the aristocratic bishops at the summit of the ecclesiastical hierarchy to the humblest and poorest of the religious orders, male and female. The motives and vocations of all sections of the clergy are analysed through individual portraits and discussion of their social actions, e.g. in education and caring for the sick and poor. A major theme emerging from the wide‐ranging examination of the relationship between the clergy and the rest of society is how the archaic structures of the Gallican Church and the ancien régime slowed down all pastoral initiatives meant to respond to the needs of a rapidly changing social and intellectual environment. Diocesan and parish organizations handicapped responses to changes in population; the complex regulations governing benefices put a premium on influence and opportunism; and most reforming schemes in monasteries and convents were rendered ineffective by the rules governing religious orders. Similarly, the growth of the Enlightenment critique of established religion runs like a leitmotif through all aspects of the study. Nevertheless, the discussion avoids abusive generalizations, views the dilemmas facing the clergy with sympathy, and pays due tribute to genuine religious vocations and how people sincerely pursued useful work in the world.
The Religion of Versailles
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The château of Versailles housed a sizeable ecclesiastical establishment, of which the most important was the grand aumônier. Religious life at court followed an elaborate routine of ‘boring magnificence’, enlivened by the Advent and Lent series of sermons before the king, when preachers had to tread a fine line of licensed criticism of the king and royal sycophancy. Churchmen inevitably became embroiled in factional politics, though many of the influential confessors to the royal family did manage to remain above it. The king could do favours through his control of appointments to bishoprics and headships of the great abbeys. The feuille des benefices, controlling these posts, passed through many hands, pious and otherwise, during the eighteenth century, but the system worked reasonably well in protecting the interests of the Church and not making too many unworthy appointments.
The Wealth of the Church
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The immense wealth of the Church was based on property ownership, most important in northern France, and the tithe, which in some southern dioceses was the clergy's only means of support. Property, mostly leased out to farmers, brought with it further income in the form of seigneurial and feudal rights and dues, often bitterly resented by the peasantry. Tithe and their collection were a constant source of friction, lawsuits, and fraud, and extremely unpopular. They were attacked on historical and moral grounds by the philosophes and on economic grounds by the physiocrats. The last 20 years of the ancien regime saw a smouldering revolt against tithes across the south.
Dioceses
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The diocesan map of France was amazingly complex and confused. Dioceses varied in size enormously; fragmentation of jurisdiction was normal; ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions did not coincide; and attempts at simplification came to nothing. But the Gallican Church did possess a highly developed sense of identity, embodied in the corps of bishops. Each diocese was divided into archdeaconries, though with little geographical or demographic consistency, and its own system of church courts. Bishops also made a real effort to maintain diocesan seminaries to keep up a supply of priests, though their austerity and narrow education attracted criticism.
The Bishops: Fathers in God
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
A bishop's contacts with the people of his diocese were few, only through pastoral letters and visitation tours. Visitations were often delegated to archdeacons or other subordinates, and the extent of bishops’ participation varied widely and depended on the individual. As far as relations with the lower clergy are concerned, diocesan synods died out almost completely, but more informal conférences ecclésiastiques persisted, based in the rural deaneries. Relations with curés were distant, determined by the priests’ independence and their inferior social status. Bishops were judged above all by their generosity to the poor, shown in charitable works, behaviour during plagues and fires, and provisions in their wills: most attempted to do their duty, but this fitted uneasily with the maintenance of episcopal splendour and supporting members of their family.
Parishes
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Parish boundaries were antiquated and had long since ceased to correspond with social realities or pastoral needs, while the administrative structure of parishes over France as a whole ‘almost defies description by its complexity’. Responsibility for the administration of church property and revenues and the maintenance of the church building lay with the churchwardens and the vestry or fabrique, while wealthy urban parishes might employ a variety of officials. The state of churches was improving overall, but there were still many examples of dilapidated and badly maintained buildings. Disputes over the costs of repairing church buildings and presbyteries could cause long and acrimonious disputes between priests and parishioners.
The ‘Bon Curé’
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The moral condition and worthiness of the parochial clergy was superior in the eighteenth century to what it had been in the early seventeenth century, with only a small minority guilty of gross misconduct. Parishioners did not expect their curé to live an austere life; rather they expected him to be helpful, honest, and generous to the poor. The priest was expected to have good relations with the local seigneur, for the benefit of the people, and where relations between people and lord were bad, the priest was usually on the people's side. Generosity to the poor was considered a particular duty of the curé.
Canons and Chapters
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
There were over 600 chapters of cathedrals and collegiate churches in France, with perhaps 12,000 canons, ‘a few very rich, many comfortably off, some living a meagre and threadbare existence’. In most chapters, membership was gained through family and social influence and provided a comfortable position for life. Canons were much criticized for laziness, but most took on administrative or other duties at some time in their lives. Cathedrals and the great collegiate churches attracted a horde of minor ecclesiastical and lay employees, making meagre livings but with some social prestige. The great chapters were proud corporations, jealous of their privileges, and had few friends: townspeople resented them and they were in frequent dispute with both bishops and parish priests.
Monastic Wealth and the Social Order
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The monastic houses of France were immensely wealthy, and the crown used its powers of appointment and the system of holding abbeys in commende to benefit the aristocracy. The nobility gained for its children, the use of the wealth of the religious houses and, while life in the great houses was only rarely scandalous, it was comfortable and easy‐going. Bourgeois families were equally anxious to place their children in the less wealthy abbeys and convents. For boys, becoming the abbot of one or more houses represented one opportunity among many, but for girls of noble birth, the convents were indispensable establishments for the provision of security, lifelong if necessary, and the only available outlet for useful activity. Forced vocations of women were rare, but informal pressures within the family made many girls enter religion as a matter of family policy.
The Religious Vocation and Social Usefulness: Women
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Membership of monastic or quasi‐monastic institutions, either on a permanent or temporary basis, provided women with work and a vocation in educating children and caring for the sick and poor. Girls of the upper classes were all educated by nuns of the dedicated teaching orders, most prominently the Ursulines, while free education for the less well‐off was increasingly available at ‘secular’ institutes established by female members of the Third Orders of older congregations. The female religious also played a dominant role in the various institutions known as ‘hospitals’, caring not only for the sick, but the whole range of the excluded and condemned, from the destitute to lunatics and prostitutes. The most remarkable and wide‐ranging work in this field was that of the Filles de la Charité, whose vows, simple and renewed annually, were all for activity in the world rather than religious contemplation.
The Commission Des Réguliers
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The Commission des Réguliers was set up in 1765, after the expulsion of the Jesuits, to inquire into and reform the regular orders. The documentation it produced provides an impressionistic view of the diversity of monastic institutions and topics, including conflicts between monks and their superiors, the influence of Jansenism, and the scholarly endeavours of the Maurists. Some small and moribund Orders were wound up and some decayed houses suppressed, but overall the limited nature of the Commission's achievements illustrates the impossibility of radical reform under the ancien régime, given the wide range of lay and clerical interests at stake.
Vocation and the Art of Obtaining a Benefice
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The ideal of an ecclesiastical vocation, defined by theologians and taught in the seminaries, was formulaic but high‐minded. But the reality of what needed to be done in order to get ordained and established in a benefice was very different. The law and practice governing presentation to benefices varied widely, with numerous regional and local rules, and any aspirant to the place of curé would have to court a diversity of patrons, including bishops, abbeys, chapters, and laymen, and pursue a variety of courses which could involve going as far as the royal court or Rome. In practice many benefices were kept within families by a process of resignation, and for most families, places in the Church were pursued as a normal part of social and economic planning and strategy.
From Baptism to the Requiescat in Pace
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Baptism was obligatory and universal by the laws on Church and State and the rules laid down by the Church were universally obeyed. As far as the other sacraments are concerned, the practice of confirmation was haphazard, but in all except the most neglected of parishes, young people preparing for the First Communion were thoroughly drilled in their catechism. A multitude of manuals for catechism were available, many reflecting Jansenist influence, but all affirming the authority of the Church and in the second half of the century adopting an increasingly moralistic tone. There was some tension between church and state over marriage; the secular law stressed the inferior status of the wife, while the Church tried in vain to moderate the folkloric practices surrounding the marriage ceremony. The church ceremonies surrounding death and social observances as much as religious practices were universally followed, despite the scepticism of Enlightenment thinkers.
Liturgical Worship
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The reforming clergy made considerable efforts to encourage the intelligent participation of the laity in the liturgical services. They stressed the centrality of the mass and the reverence to be shown in its practice, with the Jansenists being particularly austere in this matter. The vernacular translations of the Bible and other texts were widely available to the laity, despite the attitude of Rome and some conservative clergy. The eighteenth century was a great age of liturgical reform and simplification. New breviaries and missals, produced in considerable numbers, became objects of contention between Jansenists and their adversaries. Paris took the lead in reform, with the Parisian liturgy replacing the Roman, either wholly or in part, in most of France, while Strasbourg and Lyon were particularly strongly influenced by Jansenist ideas.
The Curé's Prône and Parish Missions
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The parish priest's preaching duties or prône were laid down by the bishops and influenced by local conditions. It was meant to be kept short and to reflect the rural or urban milieu and mentality of the parishioners: successful curés would be entertaining and topical, relating religion to the lives of their hearers. The Paris missions, their technique elaborated in the seventeenth century, were ‘the most dramatic mass demonstration of the age of the Enlightenment’. Sometimes the curé led missions, and some bishops also took a lead, but different religious orders used different methods to effect the individual conversions to be induced by missions. Collective ceremonies would demonstrate the new commitment to lead a religious life, if only temporarily, and while failure was frequently admitted, most missionary preachers could point to evidence of success.
On the Margins of Official Religion
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
To the reformist clergy, some of the traditional pieties of Catholicism, notably processions, the cult of relics, pilgrimages, and the presence and life of hermits, had become marginal and at best in need of oversight. All of these, however, remained popular with ordinary people, and the majority of the clergy supported and took part in them. Marginal activities covered a wide range of practices, from ostentatious processions in towns and long pilgrimages to manifestations of local piety, originating in ancient vows and expressing the unity of the community. They also provided occasions for social enjoyment and merriment; viewed with irony by reformers and Enlightened thinkers, but not considered by the majority as incompatible with true piety.
Popular Religion and Clerical Reformers
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Methodological problems abound in the study of the history of popular religion, and it is better not to make too rigid a division between the religion of the people and that of the clerical establishment. Literacy was growing in the eighteenth century and most reading matter had a religious content, but its use for the understanding of popular mentalities is limited. The reforming clergy saw themselves as the guardians of morals and made a consistent effort to suppress frivolity at religious festivities and to limit the number of holidays; here acting in concert with the state and Enlightenment reformers who wished to limit the days on which people did not work. The clergy also sought to control the credulity of the people by asserting their control over what should be considered a miracle and by absorbing folk practices into the fabric of routine institutional religion.
The Dark Side of the Supernatural
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
After the ‘crisis of Satanism’ in seventeenth‐century France, eighteenth‐century churchmen, without denying the reality of witchcraft and demonic possession, took a sceptical attitude towards the existence of a ‘witch cult’ and the fears that had led to the witch craze. Despite the elaborate theories of a minority of die‐hard believers in organized Satanism, the bishops followed a policy of ‘quiet containment’, treating each case on its merits. The use of spells to gain material rewards, for example, in treasure hunting, persisted, especially but not exclusively, in the rural areas, but when such cases came before the courts, the secular judges were more severe than their ecclesiastical counterparts.
The Confessional
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Confession was a universal obligation for the Catholic people, but only a tiny minority from the upper classes would have a personal directeur de conscience providing moral and spiritual direction, with varying degrees of sincerity ranging from a genuine pious intensity to mere outward show. Absolution opened the door to receiving communion, and the secret of the confessional was inviolable. Confessional handbooks for priests laid down rigid rules, with the Jansenists being particularly harsh about penances, but were usually impractical if followed to the letter. The hope of the Counter‐Reformation that the confessional would generate discipline among the people and bridge the gap between belief and conduct was revealed in the eighteenth century as an illusion. Priests habitually condemned the vices of their parishioners, especially drunkenness and violent behaviour. Anti‐clericals attacked the harsh routine of the confessional, but genuine scandals were rare.
Commercial Loans and Lotteries
Authors: McManners John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The question of loans for interest or ‘usury’ was much debated by eighteenth‐century churchmen, with the traditional ban being upheld in theory. But the legitimacy of reward for risk was accepted with regard to lotteries, provided they were for a good cause, and gambling in general, provided it was done in moderation. The ban on usury still made sense as far as protecting the peasantry was concerned, but was archaic with regard to commercial transactions. It was recognized by, for example, the Jesuits of Lyon, and largely ignored in practice.