bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Tobacco in Great Britain
Authors: White Patti 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The British love affair with tobacco began in the sixteenth century with the pipe smoking Elizabethan pirates who sailed with Hawkins and Drake. While many mid-sixteenth century Europeans were exploring the supposed curative properties of tobacco, the English seized upon this new import from the Americas as a substance to be enjoyed. By the end of Elizabeth I’s reign, smoking was observed in all classes of society (Corti 1931). Elizabeth’s successor, James I, is renown for fulminating against smoking in his A Counterblaste to Tobacco (1604) but, not for the last time, the commercial value of tobacco ultimately overcame all objections. The sale of tobacco grown in the Jamestown colony became the saviour of the whole English colonial enterprise in America (Borio 1998). By the late 1620s about 500000lbs of Virginia tobacco were being imported into London every year; the tobacco trade was a major business by the second half of the century (RCP 2000).
Smoking and cancer of the oesophagus
Authors: Negri Eva 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has been estimated that in the year 2000 there were in the world about 280 000 new cases of oesophageal cancer (OC) among men and 130 000 among women (Ferlay et al. 2001). The great majority of these cases (220 000 men and 120 000 women) occur in less developed countries. The age-standardized rate in men is twofold in less developed areas compared to more developed areas of the world (12.8/100 000 vs 6.7/100000). In women the ratio between rates in less and more developed areas is 5 (6.2/lO0000vs 1.3/100000).
Smoking and lung cancer
Authors: Giles Graham G , Boyle Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The establishment of the causal link between smoking and lung cancer was an epidemiological triumph won against considerable resistance marshalled by the tobacco industry. This chapter reviews how the evidence that smoking causes lung cancer was accumulated and weighed against criteria adopted to establish the causal significance of epidemiological associations between an exposure and disease. The history of elucidating the association between lung cancer and smoking is now fundamental to modern epidemiological thinking and practice but in the early to mid-twentieth century the science of epidemiology was new and in the making, and the research on smoking and lung cancer contributed to the development of epidemiology as a discipline (White 1990). In addition to the evaluation of epidemiological evidence, the case for causality was strengthened by evidence from human pathology and by evidence from experimental studies using animal models. Much of this material has been reviewed previously elsewhere (IARC 1986) to which the interested reader is referred for more detail than can be given here.
Smoking and other disorders
Authors: Hackshaw Allan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Given that smoking consists of several thousand chemicals and toxins it is no wonder that it is associated with a wide range of diseases. Since the first epidemiological studies linking smoking with lung cancer, there has been an abundance of studies (epidemiological and biological) that have shown smokers to be at a higher (or in a few cases, lower) risk of developing certain disorders. Smoking is an established cause of several cancers, respiratory disease, and cardiovascular disease; these are described elsewhere in this book. Here, I describe disorders other than those just mentioned and provide an overview of published reviews and the results of published meta-analyses where available.
Lessons in tobacco control advocacy leadership
Authors: Pertschuk Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are, of course, volumes of lessons in policy advocacy. Indeed, there are available through GOBALink and other tobacco control web-sites sound strategic and tactical guides on every conceivable advocacy challenge. Here, then, in these few pages, let us look at a few of the central strategic issues in building, sustaining, and winning a national or regional tobacco control policy campaign.
Overview
Authors: Witten T , Pincus P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As physical scientists, we are concerned with the behaviour of matter in all its forms. We want to know what matter does and why. This is our goal in studying the primordial universe, the tenuous interstellar medium, the gaseous atmosphere of the Earth, the ionized plasma of the Sun’s corona, the mundane liquids and solids of our human surroundings, and the exotic dense matter within a molecule, an atomic nucleus, or a proton. This book is about a tiny subset of this vast range of forms of matter: structured fluids. Structured fluids are liquids, i.e., condensed matter in which the atoms are adjacent but freely mobile on a local scale.
First-order phase transition kinetics
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Let us consider a planar interface between two pure liquid and solid phases at thermodynamic equilibrium. The change in thermodynamic potential is written as increase, which can be achieved by moving the interface from the solid to the liquid phase. Let us now consider a stable liquid phase while progressively decreasing the temperature. As soon as phase transition is a first-order one, liquid–solid interfaces must be present for the solid phase to spread.
Forms without surface tension
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In many problems of electrostatics, magnetism or hydrodynamics the domains limited by a polygonal contour are particularly important. Let us consider for instance a two-dimensional potential flow of velocity U which separates at a vertical rod of length l. The relation of conservation of mass of the fluid leads to an expression of the potentialé as a harmonic function.
Pattern formation and growth rate
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We will limit ourselves to the experiments determining the velocity of a Saffman– Taylor finger and a free dendrite, for which precise and reproducible results have been obtained. These experiments indicate that a curved shape, such as a Saffman- Taylor finger or a dendrite, grow at a well-defined velocity determined by the control parameters. More precisely, as long as those parameters are fixed, the final velocity of propagation of the curved shape does not depend on the initial conditions of the experiment.
Stability of a curved shape
Authors: Pelcé Pierre , Brujić Jasna , Costier Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At high velocity of propagation the stationary shape of the Saffman–Taylor finger becomes unstable. We observe several modes or types of deformation of the curved shape. The first one, secondary branching, appears close to the tip and grows on one side of the finger (figure 9.1a). This deformation, which almost stays at rest in the reference frame of the laboratory, moves backwards with respect to the tip at the same velocity as the finger. The second mode occurs by the splitting of the tip intotwo equivalent parts (figure 9.1b). The two resulting parts compete for the growth, one is stopped and the process re-occurs.
Liquid Crystals
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Liquid crystalline rubbery solids are polymer networks with nematic or smectic order. They display most of the complexities of conventional liquid crystals: directional but not translation long range order, optical birefringence and phase transitions. In fact they are liquid crystals with the exception that they cannot flow. Liquid crystal networks have many properties in addition to simple nematics and smectics, but to start understanding them, one must review conventional liquid crystals. Our review will be very selective since we require only the basics of what is a large and subtle subject. Moreover, excel lent monographs exist, such as (de Gennes and Prost, 1994) and (Chandrasekhar, 1977). More specialist reviews explain corners of the field, for instance Landau theory. Readers familiar with liquid crystals can skip the earlier sections of this chapter-these provide and set up the style of discussion and the notation essential for the rest of this book. In Sect. 2.8 major differences between conventional nematics and liquid crystal elastomers emerge.
Nematic Elastomers
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss for the first time examples of nematic elastomers which could be formed by crosslinking either or both main chain and side chain nematic polymers. Average molecular shape of long polymer chains, and its resistance to change, is at the heart of rubber elasticity. One then suspects that crosslinking liquid crystalline poly-mers, themselves capable of spontaneously changing shape already in the melt, will yield elastic solids displaying complex effects of coupling between the mechanical state of the sample and the state of its nematic order. Further, the high liquid-like molecular mobility in elastomers will allow the director to easily achieve gross changes in orienta-tion. Since the molecular elongation of polymer chains relates to this direction, nematic rotation will be mirrored by equally gross, macroscopic shape changes at relatively low energy that we shall term 'soft elasticity'. At the outset, when envisaging nematic poly-mers, de Gennes (1975) saw that networks would represent the most fertile outlet for the coupling of orientational order to average molecular shape in nematic polymers. As we shall see, this promise has been fulfilled both experimentally and theoretically.
Continuum Theory of Nematic Elastomers
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the molecular theory of nematic networks, developed in the preceding chapters, many details of structure and properties of these materials have a clear explanation. The main success of this neo-classical theory of liquid crystalline rubber elasticity is in its ability to grasp a broad range of effects without much knowledge about the specific microscopic parameters. Therefore, many effects apparently have a truly universal nature-much sought after in physics in general. In spite of this seemingly fortunate situation, many partially explained phenomena depend of detailed molecular models, for instance the effects of molecular chirality on physical properties, random disorder introduced by quenched network crosslinks and its effect on macroscopic elastic response, additional constraints on polymer conformation in smectic phases of liquid crystalline elastomers and gels, and the practically important influence of crosslinking history and chemical composition of liquid crystalline networks. This specificity of behaviour is in contrast with the universality of the neo-classical theory of uniform nematic elastomers. While awaiting for such models to be developed and reconciled with each other, one is tempted to look at liquid crystalline elastomers and gels at a level of even greater universality, based on symmetry of the phases and corresponding degrees of freedom.
Health Effects Assessment
Authors: Baker Dean 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All organs and systems of the body can be affected adversely by exposures to environ- mental hazards. Adverse effects range from subtle physiological and biochemical changes that may be asymptomatic, to individual perceptions or symptoms of illness, to clinically diagnosed disease, and finally, to death (see Figure 2.1 in Chapter 2). In general, toxic agents have specific molecular and cellular components which they target, so many toxic agents cause specific effects in particular target organs while other agents impact on multiple tissues and organs of the body.
The epidemiology of chemical incidents and natural disasters
Authors: Cullinan Paul , Hansell Anna 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Disasters—of human or natural origin—share much in their epidemiological investigation and management. To illustrate some of the principles involved, this chapter focuses on chemical incidents related to industrial accidents and natural disasters arising from volcanoes. Other disasters generated by humans such as complex emergencies (war, civil strife, political conflict), technological disasters, transportation disasters, dam breaks, energy supply interruption and those due to other natural forces are covered elsewhere (e.g., see [1]).
Optical orientation of atoms and nuclei
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A century ago Einstein introduced the notion of the linear momentum of a photon, h k, and analyzed its transfer to an atom (and back) in the establishment of thermodynamic equilibrium between black-body radiation and matter. In addition to a linear momentum, the photon also possesses an angular momentum, ħ, directed parallel (or antiparallel) to its propagation direction (the OZ axis in Fig. 4.1), depending on its polarization direction (left- or right-handed). This angular momentum is due to the spin of the photon, equal to 1. Half a century later, Kastler (1950) considered the use of the transfer of the angular momentum of a polarized photon to the angular momentum of an atom as a method of optical orientation of atoms. In essence, this was the first method to control atomic motion by means of low-intensity light, developed even before the advent of the laser; it which found widespread application in investigating and then using spin polarization effects in atomic physics. But even after lasers had made their appearance, the method of optical orientation of atoms (or pumping of certain magnetic sublevels in atoms) proved very important, specifically in the laser cooling of atoms (Chapter 5).
Laser cooling of atoms
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
One of the most remarkable achievements of laser control is the manipulation of atomic particles, their velocities, positions, etc., which is referred to as laser cooling and laser trapping . These two effects are interrelated and usually prove effective when used jointly. That this is so one can see by considering as an example the laser cooling of trapped ions and the laser trapping of laser-cooled neutral atoms (Fig. 5.1). The sequences of processes in these two situations are directly opposite. Ions can easily be trapped in an electromagnetic trap of large depth (Paul 1990) and then be cooled for a long time by laser radiation (sideband cooling) (Wineland and Dehmelt 1975; Dehmelt 1990). Neutral atoms are first slowed down and cooled by laser radiation down to millikelvin temperatures, and only then confined in an optical trap. Trapped atoms can further be cooled to microkelvin temperatures. The present chapter and Chapter 6 consider the cooling and trapping of neutral atoms, the present chapter concentrating on their cooling, and Chapter 6 on trapping. But it would be reasonable first to familiarize the reader with the history of the early ideas in this field that eventually led to the advent of a new domain of physics—the physics of ultracold atoms and molecules (Chapters 7 and 8).
Item response theory
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Classical test theory (CTT) has been the underpinning for most test construction and theory for nearly a century. One reason for its popularity is that the assumptions that CTT makes about the items and the test are relatively ‘weak’ ones (e.g. that the error is independent of the true score), meaning that the theory is appropriate in most situations (Hambleton and Swaminathan 1985). However, there are a number of limitations to CTT (Shea et al. 1988). The primary one, as we have pointed out in the chapters on reliability and validity, is that the item and scale statistics apply only to the specific group of subjects who took the test.
Teleological and Referential Understanding of Action in Infancy
Authors: Csibra Gergely 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two fundamentally different ways to attribute intentional mental states to others upon observing their actions. Actions can be interpreted as goal-directed, which warrants ascribing intentions, desires and beliefs appropriate to the observed actions, to the agents. Recent studies suggest that young infants also tend to interpret certain actions in terms of goals, and their reasoning about these actions is based on a sophisticated teleological representation. Several theorists proposed that infants rely on motion cues, such as self-initiated movement, in selecting goal-directed agents. Our experiments revealed that, although infants are more likely to attribute goals to self-propelled than to non-self-propelled agents, they do not need direct evidence about the source of motion for interpreting actions in teleological terms. The second mode of action-based mental state attribution interprets actions as referential, and allows ascription of attentional states, referential intents, communicative messages, etc., to the agents.
Action generation and action perception in imitation: an instance of the ideomotor principle
Authors: Wohlschläger Andreas , Gattis Merideth , Bekkering Harold 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We review a series of behavioural experiments on imitation in children and adults that test the predictions of a new theory of imitation. Most of the recent theories of imitation assume a direct visual-to-motor mapping between perceived and imitated movements. Based on our findings of systematic errors in imitation, the new theory of goal-directed imitation (GOADI) instead assumes that imitation is guided by cognitively specified goals. According to GOADI, the imitator does not imitate the observed movement as a whole, but rather decomposes it into its separate aspects. These aspects are hierarchically ordered, the highest aspect becomes the imitator’s main goal. Other aspects become sub-goals.
Imitation as behaviour parsing
Authors: Byrne R W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Non-human great apes appear to be able to acquire elaborate skills partly by imitation, raising the possibility of the transfer of skill by imitation in animals that have only rudimentary mentalizing capacities: in contrast to the frequent assumption that imitation depends on prior understanding of others’ intentions. Attempts to understand the apes’ behaviour have led to the development of a purely mechanistic model of imitation, the ‘behaviour parsing’ model, in which the statistical regularities that are inevitable in planned behaviour are used to decipher the organization of another agent’s behaviour, thence to imitate parts of it. Behaviour can thereby be understood statistically in terms of its correlations (circumstances of use, effects on the environment) without under-standing of intentions or the everyday physics of cause-and-effect.
Models of dyadic social interaction
Authors: Griffin Dale , Gonzalez Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We discuss the logic of research designs for dyadic interaction and present statistical models with parameters that are tied to psychologically relevant constructs. Building on Karl Pearson’s classic nineteenth-century statistical analysis of within-organism similarity, we describe several approaches to indexing dyadic interdependence and provide graphical methods for visualizing dyadic data. We also describe several statistical and conceptual solutions to the ‘levels of analysis’ problem in analysing dyadic data. These analytic strategies allow the researcher to examine and measure psychological questions of interdependence and social influence. We provide illustrative data from casually interacting and romantic dyads.
Handbook of Single Molecule Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Authors: Gell Chris , Brockwell David , Smith Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Analytical measurements at the single molecule level under ambient conditions have become almost routine in the past few years. The application of this technology to fundamental studies of heterogeneity in biomolecular structure and dynamics, chemical and biological reaction kinetics and photophysics provides a rich playground for molecular scientists. The potential use of single molecule detection for nanotechnology and quantum information processing is a new and almost unexplored area. This handbook is intended for those interested in a practical introduction to single molecule investigations using fluorescence techniques and places special emphasis on the practicalities of achieving single molecule resolution, analysing the resulting data and exploration of the applications in biophysics. It is ideal for graduate research students and others embarking on work in this exciting field.
Single molecule fluorescence techniques
Authors: Gell Chris , Brockwell David , Smith Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The information that can be obtained from single molecule fluorescence data depends on the sophistication and reliability of the analysis employed. In order to understand what information single molecule fluorescence experiments can provide, we will take the approach of first understanding the methods of data analysis. For this purpose we will define two classes of single molecule fluorescence experiment; those involving freely diffusing molecules in solution and those in which molecules are immobilized at a surface.
Preparation of samples for single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy
Authors: Gell Chris , Brockwell David , Smith Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in Chapters 2 and 3 that the measurement and analysis of the intensity of fluorescence emission from single molecules can readily be achieved. The missing component of the discussion so far is the production of biological molecules or their complexes that are labelled in such a manner as to report on the process of interest. Consequently, before any single molecule measurements are undertaken it is necessary to consider what dye, or dye pair, should be used together with the location and method of their conjugation to the biomolecule of interest.
Fluorescence spectroscopy of freely diffusing single molecules: examples
Authors: Gell Chris , Brockwell David , Smith Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Perhaps the greatest advantage of studying single molecules that are freely diffusing in solution is the simplicity of the approach. Immobilization of molecules and complexes whilst maintaining their integrity and function is not straightforward and a higher level of rigour must be adopted in such experiments to ensure that artefacts due to the immobilization protocol or interactions with the surface are not encountered. In experiments in which the molecules are freely diffusing, burst analysis or correlation techniques can be used to extract both equilibrium and kinetic parameters of interest.
How to take matters further
Authors: Drummond Michael E , Sculpher Mark J , Torrance George W , O’Brien Bernie J , Stoddart Greg L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Like most other resources, the resources required to undertake economic evaluations are scarce. Therefore, it is important to ensure that these resources are used efficiently (from the individual evaluator’s point of view it is also important to avoid wasting one’s time when this could be better spent on other activities). In this short chapter we present a list of questions the economic evaluators should ask themselves, or another party requesting an evaluation, when embarking on a new study.
Nonverbal beh av ior and psychopathology
Authors: Kring Ann M , Stuart Barbara K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of nonverbal behavior has captured the imagination and interest of re- searchers across a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, ethology, and linguistics to name but a few. At least since Darwin’s 1872 publication of The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals (see also Ekman 1998), the study of nonverbal behavior has been particularly central to researchers interested in emotion.