bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Noncancer Risk Assessment: Principles and Practice in Environmental and Occupational Settings
Authors: Pecquet Alison M. , Haber Lynne T. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract

The scientific process of risk assessment aims to define hazards associated with human exposure to chemicals. This chapter focuses primarily on the first two steps of the risk assessment process for noncancer endpoints, or more broadly, for modes of action not involving interaction with DNA. Hazard characterization consists of a systematic evaluation of available data to identify toxicologically relevant adverse outcomes, the associated mode of action, and evaluation of human relevance of the effects. Data quality and the overall weight of evidence are also evaluated. We summarize available technologies for dose–response assessment to define the critical effect and to extrapolate effect levels to human exposure scenarios and exposure durations, and we discuss methods for addressing uncertainties. Methods for evaluating data–poor chemicals or conducting screening assessments are also reviewed. Finally, we discuss how to interpret the dose–response information in the context of specific exposure data. Although this chapter focuses on the methods for deriving risk values from
in vivo
studies, we also address the use of data from the rapidly evolving field of new approach methodologies (including
in vitro
methods such as high‐throughput transcriptomics and
in silico
approaches such as modeling of structure–activity relationships). Ultimately, these new methodologies will foster a better understanding of how chemical exposures may cause toxicity, allow for more rapid assessment of chemicals, and support a reduction in the need for future toxicity testing in animals.
Silver and Gold
Authors: Lansdown Alan B. G. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Silver and gold are transitional metals exhibiting very different chemical and toxicological properties. Apart from their precious metal value and use in coinage, each has distinctive uses in industry, commercial applications, and medical devices. The World Health Organization and various national regulatory authorities recognize that like many other metals, silver and gold can pose significant health risks through occupational exposure in mining and industrial processes. Nowadays, with the increasing use of nanoparticulate materials with increased biological activity, other toxicological risks are encountered. Thus, gold dust is an environmental contaminant in the vicinity of mining areas, but in view of its high density, particles settle rapidly, thereby reducing the hazards of inhalation by workers. Gold miners are at greater risk through exposure to silica dust, mercury vapor, radon, and cyanide. The principal risks associated with chronic exposure to silver include argyria and argyrosis leading to profound discolorations of the skin and eyes. Unregulated use of colloidal silver presents an ongoing risk. Both silver and gold exhibit allergenic properties. Selected clinical cases are documented to illustrate specific toxicological complications encountered with both metals. Analytical methods currently available for the determination of silver and gold complexes in blood and other tissues following clinical or occupational exposure provide a means to understanding absorption and metabolism. The present chapter discusses chemical properties of the metals, their mining and extraction, and human exposure. Epidemiological studies provide a broad understanding of the safety of these metals and their compounds in clinical and occupational exposures.
Phosphorus, Selenium, Tellurium, and Sulfur
Authors: Keenan Thomas H. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Phosphorus and sulfur are nonmetals. Examples of uses of phosphorus and phosphorus compounds are the manufacture of explosives, matches, rodenticides, and fertilizers. Examples of uses of sulfur and sulfur compounds are agricultural chemicals, petroleum refining, and metal mining. Sulfuric acid is a major product.
Selenium and Tellurium are metalloids. Selenium is an essential trace metal and is used as a dietary supplement for livestock and as a fertilizer additive. Selenium compounds are also used in electric insulation, as a solvent and plasticizer. Tellurium is used as a metallurgical additive and vulcanizing agent in the processing of rubber. Examples of other uses of tellurium compounds are in photoreceptors, thermos‐electronic devices, and solar cells.
Exposure to many of these compounds may cause irritation and or corrosion. Other toxic effects and exposure limits are discussed in the text.
Saturated Halogenated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons Two to Three Carbons
Authors: Bevan Christopher 
Published: December 2023

Abstract

The chemicals in this chapter are C
2
to C
3
aliphatic hydrocarbons containing, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. All are volatile liquids (flammable and nonflammable) at ambient temperatures, except for ethyl chloride (gas) and hexachloroethane (solid). Most, if not all, of the chemicals in this chapter are produced in closed‐system facilities, and the majority are used, primarily or exclusively, as intermediates or feedstocks to produce other chemicals. 1,1,1‐Trichloroethane is an ozone‐depleting substance and is tightly regulated under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. Three chemicals were not included in this edition: 1,1,2,2‐tetrabromoethane, 1,2‐dibromo‐3‐chloropropane (DBCP), and ethyl iodide. DBCP has been effectively banned as a soil fumigant due to its well‐characterized toxicity, particularly on male reproduction. For the other two chemicals, the toxicity information and use are limited.
Generation and Toxicity of Smoke and Combustion‐Related Fire Products
Authors: Hadden Rory M. , Torero José L. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
All fires generate smoke, and all smoke presents a toxicity hazard. In buildings, a coherent fire safety strategy will incorporate elements of compartmentation and smoke management to protect means of egress and avoid them becoming compromised by smoke until the occupants have evacuated to a place of relative safety. As a result, in a building where the fire safety strategy works correctly, the occupants will never be exposed to the smoke generated from the fire. In a similar manner, appropriate protective equipment will minimize the exposure of first responders. Understanding the toxicity of smoke remains a significant challenge for fire science and engineering and associated disciplines. The challenges of assessing smoke toxicity arise due to the complex physical and chemical processes that determine the yields of species produced as a material burns and which determine the burning rate of the materials or items present. Both parameters must be known to establish the toxicity hazard pertaining to a given scenario and both are highly sensitive to the combustion environment as well as the composition of the materials burning. Therefore, no obvious correlation between the material that is burning, and the yields of hydrocarbon species produced can be found and thus, extrapolation from experimentally obtained data or standardized tests to real scenarios remains a significant challenge. Furthermore, the available data shows a complex bias in the data available arising from the fact that only species which are searched for will be detected. This means that evaluating the toxicity of smoke will always be a challenge.
Occupational Safety and Health Act
Authors: Howard John 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act which established a national system for workplace safety and health standards development, standards enforcement, and consultative assistance under the administrative implementation of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the U.S. Department of Labor. The OSH Act imposes duties on employers to comply with OSHA's safety and health standards under a system of civil and criminal sanctions and provides for a number of employee participation and anti‐discrimination rights. This chapter provides an overview of the major statutory provisions of the OSH Act as they have been administratively implemented by OSHA and judicially interpreted by the courts. In addition, regulation of OSH by the states and by other federal statutes is also discussed. Special emphasis is given to OSHA's health standards and regulations used in the practice of industrial hygiene as well as the recently published Chemical Carcinogen Policy from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Paradis Carita 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
This entry offers a short description of the fundamental assumptions of grammar within the broad framework of Cognitive Linguistics. It presents the principles of usage‐based cognitive grammar (CG), classic works in the framework, and more recent treatments of grammatical structure and content in the form of examples of grammatical notions. Central to the CG approach is the meaningful functioning of language in all its guises and uses in text and discourse in speech and writing. The entry is structured around three main tenets, namely, (a) the primacy of meaning in the analysis of grammatical phenomena in language, (b) the encyclopedic nature of meaning in language, and (c) the perspectival nature of language in use.
Race and Language Teaching
Authors: Kubota Ryuko 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Race as a social construct influences the formation of people's identities, views, emotions, and experiences as well as the ways in which institutional systems, practices, and knowledge get structured. The idea of race is deeply connected to language teaching that involves diverse participants, including learners, teachers, parents, administrators, materials developers, and assessment specialists. This entry discusses how race, racism, and antiracism can be conceptualized by drawing mainly on critical race theory and the concept of decolonization. Besides the fact that race is a social construct and that racism is manifested in interpersonal, systemic, and epistemic domains, it is important to recognize that race intersects with other individual identity categories, such as gender, language, sexuality, culture, and dis/ability, shaping complex human experiences. Also, the worldliness of white dominance influences English language teaching by perpetuating the white native speaker norm in many parts of the world. Nonetheless, other forms of racial dominance, hierarchies, and ideologies as well as legacies of non‐European colonialism around the world shape diverse experiences for racialized students and teachers who traverse national or cultural borders. The intersectionality of race and language is demonstrated in reverse linguistic stereotyping or raciolinguistic ideologies, in which the perceived race of the speaker negatively influences the listener's comprehension. Many teachers of color indeed experience alienation and discrimination due to such biases. These injustices should be overcome by enacting antiracism in hiring practices, teacher education, classroom instruction, and materials development. More research on race and teaching languages in diverse geographical locations is needed.
Pragmalinguistics
Authors: Nguyen Minh T. T. 
Published: December 2023

Abstract
Pragmalinguistic competence, or knowledge of linguistic forms (e.g., lexical items, prosodic features, and syntactic forms) and their communicative functions, constitutes an important part of the L2 learner's ability to use language as social action. Because learners' pragmalinguistic competence is closely related to their linguistic development (development of phonology, lexis, morphology, and syntax), their ability to produce communicative actions may be constrained by their limited knowledge of linguistic forms. At the same time, knowing linguistic forms does not always mean knowing their associated social functions. As a result, learners do not always put the acquired forms to appropriate pragmatic use. This indicates the importance of devoting instructional time to aid the acquisition of L2 pragmalinguistic form–function mappings. This entry addresses the development of pragmalinguistic competence in the L2 and reviews findings from existing L2 pragmatics research. The focus is on the pragmalinguistic aspect of learner language in relation to interlanguage development and instruction. To understand the relationship between pragmatic and linguistic competence further research into the pragmalinguistic aspect of L2 development is needed.
Electrolyte Design for Lithium‐Ion Batteries for Extreme Temperature Applications
Authors: Zhang Yu , Lu Yan , Jin Jun , Wu Meifen , Yuan Huihui , Zhang Shilin , Davey Kenneth , Guo Zaiping , Wen Zhaoyin 
Published: December 2023

AbstractWith increasing energy storage demands across various applications, reliable batteries capable of performing in harsh environments, such as extreme temperatures, are crucial. However, current lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) exhibit limitations in both low and high‐temperature performance, restricting their use in critical fields like defense, military, and aerospace. These challenges stem from the narrow operational temperature range and safety concerns of existing electrolyte systems. To enable LIBs to function effectively under extreme temperatures, the optimization and design of novel electrolytes are essential. Given the urgency for LIBs operating in extreme temperatures and the notable progress in this research field, a comprehensive and timely review is imperative. This article presents an overview of challenges associated with extreme temperature applications and strategies used to design electrolytes with enhanced performance. Additionally, the significance of understanding underlying electrolyte behavior mechanisms and the role of different electrolyte components in determining battery performance are emphasized. Last, future research directions and perspectives on electrolyte design for LIBs under extreme temperatures are discussed. Overall, this article offers valuable insights into the development of electrolytes for LIBs capable of reliable operation in extreme conditions.
A Review on Potential Mechanically Resistant Materials for Optical Multifunctional Surfaces: Bioinspired Surfaces with Advanced Properties
Authors: Sarieddine Rim , Kadiri Hind , Guelorget Bruno , Le Cunff Loïc , Alhussein Akram , Habchi Roland , Lérondel Gilles 
Published: December 2023

AbstractMimicking naturethrough nanostructuring allows the creation of multifunctional surfaces withremarkable properties, such as anti‐reflectivity, high optical transmittanceand controlled wettability, enabling anti‐icing or anti‐fogging behaviors. These multifunctionalsurfaces have gained significant interest in civil and military domains. However,integrating them into real‐life applications faces challenges related tocost, high‐throughput large‐scale compatible nanofabrication techniques, andtheir mechanical resistance. While sub‐wavelength patterning improves the optical performance,it often comes at the cost of compromising the mechanical resistance. As opticalperformance improves, mechanical resistance tends to deteriorate, and viceversa. To address this challenge, taking inspiration from the lotus leafstructure, where patterns are covered by a thin 2D wax film, covering thepatterns of structured surfaces with a protective layer can be a viablesolution. This protective layer should enhance the mechanical resistance of thesurface without compromising its multifunctional capabilities. This reviewhighlights the most suitable materials that can be employed as protectivecoatings and their potential to enhance the resistance of structured surfaces.The fundamental concept behind the creation of multifunctional optical surfacesis discussed, followed by a comprehensive examination of mechanical tests thatcan be utilized to characterize their mechanical behavior. This review aims topave the way for the development of durable multifunctional optical surfaces,making them more amenable to industrial applications.
Direct Observation of Contact Electrification Effects at Nanoscale Using Scanning Probe Microscopy
Authors: Kim Jong Hun , Jeong Jinhyeok , Kong Dae Sol , Yoon HongYeon , Cho Hunyoung , Jung Jong Hoon , Park Jeong Young 
Published: December 2023

AbstractIn the last decade, contact electrification has gained attention for its potential in energy harvesting, addressing fundamental physics. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) has evolved as a powerful platform, enabling the in situ characterization/manipulation of a sample's tribological/electrical properties at nanoscale. However, although both the sliding and tapping modes are available in the energy harvesting, the lateral sliding using contact mode SPM has predominantly been employed in triboelectric study. In this work, contact electrification on polydimethylsiloxane is investigated, using peak force tapping atomic force microscopy (PF‐AFM). As PF‐AFM quasi‐discretely offers vertical tapping motions of the probe with a regulated force amplitude, resembling a vertical‐type triboelectric nanogenerator, while minimizing lateral forces. The subsequent surface potential measurements reveal that the generated tribocharge is influenced by both the effective work function difference and energy dissipation at the interface. Furthermore, the accumulation of transferred charges is explored by measuring tip‐sample current during the PF‐AFM operation, showing the comparable results with the surface potential measurement. The results can be attributed to the contact potential difference assisted by the energy dissipation at the interface. This study offers an advanced opportunity to understand and study charge generation behavior based on surface properties without damaging the sample.
Electrochemical Ruthenium‐Catalysed Directed C−H Functionalization of Arenes with Boron Reagents
Authors: Kenyon Jacob , Larrosa Igor 
Published: December 2023

AbstractOrtho‐directed electrochemical C−H functionalization of aromatics with boron‐based coupling partners has been achieved under ruthenium catalysis through an oxidatively induced reductive elimination mechanism. Our method provides a single set of conditions delivering C−H arylation, alkenylation and methylation, yielding ortho‐functionalized products with good functional group tolerance, including examples of late‐stage functionalization in synthetically useful yields. By harnessing electricity as a ‘green’ oxidant, this method circumvents the need for stoichiometric quantities of chemical oxidants, enhancing our sustainability metrics.
Engrailed‐1 Promotes Pancreatic Cancer Metastasis
Authors: Xu Jihao , Roe Jae‐Seok , Lee EunJung , Tonelli Claudia , Ji Keely Y. , Younis Omar W. , Somervile Tim D.D. , Yao Melissa , Milazzo Joseph P. , Tiriac Herve , Kolarzyk Anna M. , Lee Esak , Grem Jean L. , Lazenby Audrey J. , Grunkemeyer James A. , Hollingsworth Michael A. , Grandgenett Paul M. , Borowsky Alexander D. , Park Youngkyu , Vakoc Christopher R. , Tuveson David A. , Hwang Chang‐Il 
Published: December 2023

AbstractEngrailed‐1 (EN1) is a critical homeodomain transcription factor (TF) required for neuronal survival, and EN1 expression has been shown to promote aggressive forms of triple negative breast cancer. Here, it is reported that EN1 is aberrantly expressed in a subset of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA) patients with poor outcomes. EN1 predominantly repressed its target genes through direct binding to gene enhancers and promoters, implicating roles in the activation of MAPK pathways and the acquisition of mesenchymal cell properties. Gain‐ and loss‐of‐function experiments demonstrated that EN1 promoted PDA transformation and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. The findings nominate the targeting of EN1 and downstream pathways in aggressive PDA.
From a point to a range of optimum estimates for maize plant density and nitrogen rate recommendations
Authors: King Kyle A. , Archontoulis Sotirios V. , Baum Mitchell E. , Edwards Jode W. 
Published: December 2023

AbstractThe interaction between nitrogen (N) rate, plant density, and hybrid on net return to seed and fertilizer cost remains unknown but important to be addressed given the multi‐input decision process corn growers make every year. We collected grain yield from a factorial experiment with five N rates (0–291 kg N ha−1), five plant densities (3.7–11.4 plants m−2), and four hybrids (old vs. new) over 2 years in Iowa. Data were sufficiently modeled with a quadratic plateau model with continuous covariate terms to include N × plant density interactions (R2 = 0.925, n = 387). We found a wide range of plant densities (6.7–8.4 plants m−2) and N rate (150–212 kg N ha−1) combinations to achieve 99% of the maximum net revenue. The economic optimum N rate increased with increasing plant density from 4 to 7 plants m−2. The fundamental relationships between grain yield response to N fertilizer and plant density were similar across old and new hybrids; however, the absolute values were different, with newer hybrids having 20% higher economic optimum N rate and 23% higher yield than the older hybrids. We concluded that by accounting for two inputs into the revenue equation, a larger range of combinations was found to achieve 99% of the maximum net revenue. Our study offers new insights into N rate by plant density by hybrid interaction to assist future research.
Vertical tillage effects on crop production and pest management in Pennsylvania
Authors: Lefever Andrew M. , Wallace John M. , White Charles M. , Duiker Sjoerd W. , Esker Paul D. , Tooker John 
Published: December 2023

AbstractWithin the last four decades, widespread transition to no‐till corn (Zea mays L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production in Pennsylvania has improved soil conservation and soil quality but can result in residue and pest management challenges. To effectively manage residue in no‐till cropping systems, some growers have adopted vertical tillage, a residue management practice characterized by cutting and incorporating crop residue within the top 5–10 cm of soil. Despite few studies documenting effects on crop production and soil conservation, vertical tillage has become widespread. Replicated on‐farm trials were conducted over a 2‐year period in 2021–2022 to improve grower and consultant decision‐making regarding the role of vertical tillage relative to continuous no‐till on southeast Pennsylvania farms located within the environmentally sensitive Chesapeake Bay Watershed. We assessed the effects of vertical tillage on corn residue cover, winter annual weed abundance, slug damage, and soybean performance in 40 paired strip trials comparing spring vertical tillage to no‐till using three different vertical tillage tools used by farmer cooperators. Vertical tillage equipment type is a driver of variation in changes to surface residue cover. Baseline surface residue cover was similar among no‐till strips, but a greater proportion (32%) of strips had mean surface residue cover levels below a 60% conservation program compliance threshold when a Kuhn‐Krause Excelerator was used. Relative to no‐till, vertical tillage resulted in a 50% reduction in winter annual weed cover, a 24% reduction in slug damage, and no significant differences in soybean stand establishment or grain yield.