bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Evolution of colony characteristics
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Colony life with a reproductive division of labour is the hallmark of the eusocial insects. In earlier chapters we have presented simple family models in which the colony is headed by one reproductive female, and in most cases we have assumed that she has mated with a single male. This gives the simplest possible colonial structure that results in the typically high sister relatednesses in hymenopteran species. Even though some social insect colonies do have such a simple familial composition, many (probably most) species have genetically more complex colonies. In many species females mate with several males and a colony can have more than one reproductive female. Either several to many queens reproduce in a single colony or workers can compete with the queen and lay haploid eggs that develop into males. Colonies can also be subdivided into several physically separate nests that exchange individuals. Such complex colonial structures pose new problems to evolutionary theory: what is the functional unit and what is the unit of selection (cf. Table 1.6)? When a colony has many reproductives in it and the worker fom! can be divided into different kin groups (patrilines and matrilines), we can also ask whether individuals can distinguish between various levels of kinship and direct their behaviours in favour of closely related nest-mates. We can also wonder how much the genetic heterogeneity of a colony can increase before its social harmony breaks down. These are the questions we deal with in this chapter.
Intra-colony conflicts over sex-allocation
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The relatedness asymmetries to which social Hymenoptera are prone lead inevitably to a conflict of interest over the basic function of the colony: the reproduction of the genetic material. The queens and workers will be selected to favour different patterns of investments between the new queens and males, and colony maintenance. Factors affecting the relatedness structure of colonies and of populations will inevitably affect the results of this conflict. Such factors include whether or not the workers produce any of the males (thus affecting relatedness structure) and whether queenless colonies contribute significantly to male-production (thus devaluing males for the queen-right colonies). The sex ratio among reproductives is not the only arena of conflict between queens and workers: the question of the division of resources actually involves a three-way split, in that resources have to be allocated not only to queens and males but also to colony maintenance (further workers). In those species whose colonies reproduce by splitting ( ‘fission ‘), there: will also be the potential for disagreement over the timing of this event, and the relative investment in males and the daughter colonies. The central problem of social insect sex allocation is thus ‘Who wins? ‘ in the evolutionary struggle between queens and workers.
The comparative ecophysiology of water balance in microchiropteran bats
Authors: Webb Peter I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Aspects of water balance were studied in the three species of bat commonly found in north-east Scotland: Plecotus auritus, Myotis daubentonii and Pipistrellus pipistrellus. One of these species (M. daubentonii) has a close association with open water in the wild, while one (P. pipistrellus) has a much lower mean body mass (c. 6 g) than the other two (c. 10 g). Faecal water content and maximum urine-concentrating ability were not significantly different between P. auritus and M. daubentonii. However, urine loss was higher (by c. 140 µI/day) and resting evaporative water loss lower (also by
c. 140 µI/day) in M. daubentonii than in P. auritus. In free-flying captive colonies of bats, total water intake was highest in M. daubentonii, intermediate in P. auritus and lowest in P. pipistrellus. It seems possible that M. daubentonii demonstrate high water flux outside the day roost and compensate through a low water flux within the day roost. A low rate of water intake in captive P. pipistrellus may simply be a function of small body size.
Characterization of mitochondrial DNA variability within the microchiropteran genus Pipistrellus: approaches and applications
Authors: Barratt E M , Bruford M w. , Burland T M , JONES G , Racey P A , Wayne R K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Past systematic studies of the genus Pipistrellus have used either morphological or karyological characters to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships. We provide a new molecular perspective on the relationships of Pipistrellus species through a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA sequence data. We have used the polymerase chain reaction to amplify DNA of individuals from both living populations and museum collections. Our results show that Pipistrellus is a diphyletic grouping, containing two distinct clades that differ by about 12% in mitochondrial DNA sequence. Surprisingly, we find that genotypes from the UK population of P. pipistrellus are found in both clades. Three possible explanations for this observation are (1) that hybridization has occurred between species from both clades, (2) that two distinct ancestral lineages have been retained in the species, or (3) that the lineages comprise separate species.
Mitochondrial diversity and heteroplasmy in two European populations of the large mouse-eared bat, Myotis myotis
Authors: Petri Barbara , Neuweiler Gerhard , Paabo Svante 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A total of 101 animals were sampled from three nursery colonies of Myotis myotis in Portugal and in Bavaria, southern Germany. A segment of the triple-stranded part of the mitochondrial control region ranging from 400 bp to 800 bp was amplified via PCR and analysed by gel electrophoresis. Substantial length variation was found among different animals and 33% of the bats were heteroplasmic for up to six different size classes. When the DNA sequence of the heteroplasmic segment was determined, the length variation was found to be due to a variable number of tandemly repeated motifs of 82 bp, as has also been described for the American evening bat, Nycticeius humeralis. Heteroplasmy, as well as homoplasmy, were stably inherited in 25 mother-pup pairs. Mechanisms for the generation of length and sequence heteroplasmy are thought to be slippage mutations caused by the D-loop replication procedures and to a lesser degree by biparental inheritance of mitochondrial DNA.
Ionization methods
Authors: Esmans E L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In recent years a number of ionization methods differing from the traditional electron impact technique (EI), have been introduced in mass spectrometry (MS). Field ionization (FI) and field desorption (FD) (Lattimer and Schulten 1989) were two of the pioneering alternative ionization techniques used, but have nowadays been superseded in popularity by techniques such as fast atom bombardment (FAB) or liquid secondary ion mass spectrometry (LSIMS), plasma desorption (PD), laser desorption (LD), matrix assisted laser desorption (MALDI), and electrospray/ionspray (ES/IS) techniques (Trainor and Derrick 1992).
Characterization of proteins by mass spectrometry: from primary structure to conformational studies*
Authors: Forest Eric , Buzy Armelle , Guy Philippe , Halgand Frederic , Jaquinod Michel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Proteins are the object of intense investigation, justified by the major role they play in most cellular mechanisms and by their potential applications in the fields of pharmacy, diagnosis, plant biotechnology, chemistry, and the environment. In order to understand the functioning mechanisms of these macromolecules, it is necessary to characterize their structure precisely. Nuclear magnetic resonance, circular dichroism, as well as X-ray crystallography have been the most common techniques used to probe the threedimensional conformation of proteins. Mass spectrometry (MS), which has proved to be a powerful technique to study the primary structure of proteins, has been used only recently to probe conformational properties. In this article the results concerning the primary structure of the four proteins of the glycine decarboxylase complex from pea leaf mitochondria will be presented. Then, localization of disulphide bridges which represent a first element of the three-dimensional structure, will be illustrated with proteins from spider, scorpion, and wheat seed. Lastly, results and projects concerning conformational studies of bacterial cytochromes c and of a plant enzyme, which is a potential target of herbicides, will be presented.
Mass spectrometric studies on flavonoid glycosides
Authors: Claeys M , Li Q M , Van Den Heuvel H , Dillen L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mass spectrometric methods based on the combined use of fast atom bombardment (FAB), collisionally-induced dissociation (CID) of positive ions, and tandem mass spectrometric techniques have been developed for the structural characterization of flavonoid glycosides containing aglycone moieties of the flavone or flavonol type. With respect to the characterization of flavonoid 0- glycosides, mass spectrometric methods involving low-energy CID yield information on: (1) the carbohydrate sequence; (ii) the aglycone moiety; and (iii) the glycosylation position. The characterization offlavonoid C-glycosides is addressed by high-energy CID, which enables differentiation between isomeric mono-6-C- and 8-C-glycosides, and isomeric di-6,8-C-glycosides. The structural elucidation offlavone O,C-diglycosides is accomplished by resorting to lowand high-energy CID; low-energy CID allows the determination of the type of the terminal O-linked carbohydrate residue, whereas high-energy CID enables identification of the type and the linkage position of the C-linked carbohydrate.
Introduction
Authors: Evans Martin J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book, a practical handbook for researchers using embryonic stem (ES) cells, may be thought of as a cookbook. Some cooks reading a cookbook will just slavishly copy a recipe or two whereas others will learn from it, use it as a sourcebook, and provide their own interpretations resulting in novel dishes. It is hoped that you, the scientists using this volume, will emulate the adventurous chefs and use the protocols and ideas presented here as a stimulus for your own original studies and developments, which should take the field forward and fulfil its great potential.
Production of ES cell-derived mice
Authors: Kato Yoko , Tsunoda Yukio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The reintroduction of mouse ES (mES) cells into an embryonic environment allows expression of their pluripotency, as defined by the capacity to contribute to all tissue and cell types, including the germ cells (1, 2). This most powerful feature of mES cells has led to their exploitation in transgenic research, providing a direct route for the insertion of genetic modifications into the germline of fertile animals. Techniques for generating chimeric mice using mES cells – specifically, blastocyst injection and morula aggregation – are now standard worldwide (3); and recent refinements to those techniques have increased the efficiency of production of mice that are derived entirely – rather than partially – from the introduced mES cells, that is ‘mES cell-derived mice’. These refinements include the use of host embryos that have been rendered tetraploid (4), and which in consequence are incompetent to undergo fetal development; and the hyperthermic treatment of host embryos selectively to kill their inner cell masses (ICMs) (5). To compromise the viability of the host embryo’s ICM by either of these means favours its reconstitution by exogenously added mES cells, and consequently the production of mES cell-derived fetuses and offspring. In addition, mES cell-derived mice may be cloned by the technique of nuclear transfer using mES cells as the donor cells, or ‘karyoplasts’ (6). In this chapter we provide our current methods for producing mES cell-derived mice by embryo reconstitution (morula aggregation and blastocyst injection) using tetraploid and hyperthermically treated host embryos, and by nuclear transfer. Owing to space limitations, the reader is referred to primary texts for comprehensive coverage of supplementary methods in mouse husbandry, embryo micromanipulation, and surgical transfer (7).
Isolation and characterization of human ES cells
Authors: Pera Martin F , Laslett Andrew , Hawes Susan M , Tellis Irene , Koh Karen , Nguyen Lihn 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter will describe methods for the isolation and characterization of human embryonic stem (hES) cell lines from preimplantation blastocysts. The first derivation of hES cells was reported in 1998 (1), and since that time a number of groups have successfully established other, similar cell lines with the key features of primate pluripotent stem cells (2). There have been some significant improvements to the original culture system for hES cell propagation, and some refinements in the methodology for characterization of the cells. However, the mechanisms that regulate hES cell proliferation and differentiation are still poorly understood; there are practical limitations to existing culture methodology; and detailed, multicentre comparisons to assess the properties of hES cell isolates derived under different conditions and from different laboratories have not yet been carried out. Thus, while the current methodology is certainly adequate to support derivation and expansion of hES cells, the techniques and approaches described herein are likely to undergo substantial modification in the next several years.
ES cell lines from the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis)
Authors: Suemori Hirofumi , Sasai Yoshiki , Umeda Katsutsugu , Nakatsuji Norio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Human ES (hES) cells hold great promise as an unlimited source of functional cells and tissues for transplantation therapy and regenerative medicine, owing to their pluripotency and capacity for indefinite proliferation in vitro. However, the realization of this goal demands not only robust methods for establishing and maintaining the undifferentiated hES cells, and for inducing their differentiation into specific cell types: animal model systems are both requisite and timely for testing the efficacy and safety of ES cell-based transplantation procedures. The use of monkey ES cells and transplantation models offers considerable advantages over murine systems: Strong similarities in the biology of human and monkey ES cells, and clear differences between primate (specifically, human and monkey) and murine ES cells, are emerging.
Paul P. Ewald—the German period
Authors: Hildebrandt G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter treats mainly Ewald’s working life in the years between 1910 and 1937, beginning with the year when Ewald began his thesis and ending with the year when he left Germany. A few reminiscences will be added to touch on some important events for which Ewald returned to his native country after the Second World War.
Paul Ewald and the dynamical theory of electron scattering
Authors: Cowley J M , Moodie A F 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is one of the marks of the great scientist that with the passage of time specific aspects of his work extend and branch and, not infrequently, emerge in fields unknown at the time of the original discoveries. Examples of this can be found throughout the work of Paul Ewald, but few of these can be more striking than that afforded by his two-beam approximation with its celebrated coupled pendulum solution and its vivid geometry.
Ewald’s optical extinction theorem
Authors: Bullough R K , Hynne R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In his commentary on Ewald’s fundamental papers (1916a,b, 1917, 1937) in Chapter 11, Hellmut Juretschke draws attention to the elegant way in which P.P. Ewald solved the boundary problem for the propagation of electromagnetic (e.m.) waves in a crystal. He describes how by using a half-space (with a boundary) Ewald was able to show that the incident e.m. field (the field incident upon the crystal from outside) was extinguished inside the crystal and replaced by another e.m. field with different wave number. Similar considerations were independently developed more macroscopically by C.W. Oseen (1915) and the extinction process gained the name of the ‘extinction theorem’ (or the ‘optical extinction theorem’ in the sense of ‘optics’) of Ewald-Oseen. This chapter reanalyses the action of this ‘extinction theorem’ in an amorphous optical dielectric rather than a crystal and traces some of the subsequent history of the extinction theorem and its various applications in this context.
Introduction to the Dynamical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction
Authors: Ewald P P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My good friend the organizer of this session prepared me to speak to an audience consisting partly of experts in the applications of this theory and partly to people knowing the theory only by name. I shall dwell, therefore, on the method of the theory rather than on results or applications, of which the other papers of this session will contain examples.
A Review ofmy Papers on Crystal Optics 1912 to 1968
Authors: Ewald P P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The theory of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals was developed by Ewald as part of a unified study of the interaction of light of all wavelengths with crystals, beginning with the work for his 1912 thesis and extending to his papers in 1968. The formulation of the problem in terms of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with a periodic array of dipoles is placed in its historical perspective and is compared with Laue’s version based on the assumption of a continuous electron density distribution. The Borrmann effect, hinted at in 1917, is derived readily from consideration of the dispersion surface.
E
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When a mathematical operation (such as multiplication, division, or differentiation) is performed on a function, the result is generally some different function. For instance, differentiation of x2 yields the different function 2x. However, for some combinations of operations and functions the same function is regenerated, but perhaps multiplied by a number (Fig. E.l). Thus differentiation of e2x gives 2e2X, which is the same function multiplied by 2. In such cases, the function is said to be an eigenfunction of the operator (in this case the differential operator d/dx), and the numerical factor (2 in the example) is called the eigenvalue of the operator. (Eigen is the German word meaning ‘own’ or ‘characteristic’.) If an operator Q operates on a function f and produces wf, where w is a number, f is an eigenfunction of Q and w is the corresponding eigenvalue. An expression of the form Qi= wf is called an eigenvalue equation.
H
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865), who was Astronomer Royal of Ireland while still an undergraduate, set up a system of classical mechanics which was to turn out to be ideally suited to reformulation as quantum mechanics. Indeed, it is arguable that he almost discovered quantum mechanics itself, and quite possibly would have done so if experiments had required it during his lifetime. For the systems that concern us, in classical mechanics the hamiltonian, H, of a system is the sum of the kinetic energy, T, and potential energy, V, of all the particles present.
K
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The kinetic energy, T, of a particle is the energy it possesses on account of its motion. In classical mechanics, the kinetic energy is related to the linear momentum p by T= p2 /2m (and by T=½mv2, where v is the velocity). In quantum mechanics the kinetic energy is proportional to the second derivative of the wavefunction (Box K.1). As the wavefunction becomes more sharply curved, so the kinetic energy of the particle increases. Conversely, a particle with a wavefunction that is almost flat everywhere has almost zero kinetic energy.
Q
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An electric multipole is an array of positive and negative point electric charges. An electric monopole is a single point charge. An °electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges (Fig. Q.1) with zero net charge. An electric quadrupole consists of four point charges with overall zero charge and zero dipole moment. It may be pictured as two dipoles arranged so that their dipole moments cancel (Fig. Q.1). Higher multipoles may be constructed in an analogous way. Thus, a 2”-pole consists of 2” point electric charges in an array that has no lower multipole moment (see below). Some multipoles are shown in Fig. Q.l, but alternative arrangements may also be envisaged. Any arbitrary distribution of charge may be expressed as a sum of multipoles.
R
Authors: Atkins P W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The energy of an atomic °term depends on the kinetic energies of the electrons, their attractive Coulombic interactions with the positively charged nucleus, and their mutual Coulombic repulsions. The last are very difficult to take into account quantitatively, yet they make an important contribution to the energy of the atom and to the relative energies of its °terms. In particular, the repulsions between the valence electrons of incomplete shells depend on the orbitals the electrons occupy, and hence terms with different total orbital angular momentum have different energies.
Analytical profile fitting of X-ray powder diffraction profiles in Rietveld analysis
Authors: Snyder Robert L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inherent asymmetry of many powder diffraction profiles has been a principal hindrance in extending the application of diffraction techniques. The resurgence of developments in this area in recent years is primarily the result of the availability of general algorithms permitting computer automation of powder diffractometers (Mallory and Snyder 1979). The ability to collect digitized representations of the line profiles and apply numerical methods to their analysis has led to a number of new and exciting applications (Snyder 1983). The most exciting of these has been the continuing development of the whole pattern X-ray refinement method to obtain crystal structure information, begun by Rietveld (1969), who applied it to neutron diffraction (Chapter 2). The mostly symmetric-Gaussian nature of neutron diffraction lines has aided this application of the method to develop to its current rather mature state.
Ab initio structure solution with powder diffraction data
Authors: Cheetham Anthony K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a long and well-established tradition of using powder diffraction methods to study crystal structures. The earliest examples were inevitably concerned with the structures of simple materials such as iron metal (Hull 1917), and although for many decades powder methods were used predominantly as a means of qualitative analysis, a number of structure determinations, e.g. x- and ,G-UF 5 (Zachariasen 1949), were reported. Such studies were largely based upon geometrical considerations and trial-and- error methods, although Zachariasen and Ellinger (1963) were able to solve the monoclinic structure of ,G-plutonium by a manual direct-methods procedure. Nevertheless, powder methods were largely restricted to studies on simple structure types until the advent of the Rietveld method in 1969 (Rietveld 1969) extended their scope to the refinement of complex, low symmetry systems with as many as 50 atoms in the asymmetric unit (Cheetham and Taylor 1977; Hewat 1986). This important development has inevitably led to a re-examination of the methods that are available for the solution of unknown structures, and it is with this exciting challenge that the present chapter is concerned. We stress. however, that the Rietveld method continues to play a vital role in the subsequent refinement, which is necessary in order to complete the structure determination.