bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Claudian Invasion
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
While it is not really true that the Romans acquired their empire in a series of fits of absent-mindedness, much of it came as the incidental result of wars whose causes were very varied, or of the absorption of foreign peoples in other ways, including the bequest of kingdoms in the wills of their rulers or involvement in nominating princes to their thrones. It has been doubted whether Roman emperors can be said to have had ‘policies’ in the modern sense, due to the enormous burden of daily response to immediate problems that fell on them personally. Certainly, within particular reigns or periods, emperors and their advisers did sometimes attempt specific objectives. However, much more important than policy were the trends that consistently underlay Roman action, which were remarkably persistent through the centuries. Some we have already seen. Others need identifying before we can understand much of what Rome and individual Romans did or did not do.
Recovery and Advance
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A picture is now beginning to emerge of the progress of material Romanization and the development of Roman institutions immediately after the pacification of the province. In due course archaeology may tell us more about how quickly the cities struck down by the rebels recovered, and about the manner in which other towns developed in this period. Structural evidence for new public buildings comes from London and Bath. In London a building detected under the first phase of the forum may date from this period. It seems to have been of civil type, in contrast to the buildings of military appearance that Boudicca destroyed on the site which may have housed the governor’s administration before the great rebellion. At Bath, some time in the fifteen years after the rebellion, a start was made on the grand complex of baths and temple, in which a deliberate attempt seems to have been made to do spectacular honour to a native cult by amalgamating it publicly with one of the greatest Roman deities in the new worship of Sulis Minerva, rather than to obliterate or downgrade the British element.
Hadrianic Britain
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The death of Trajan in n7 marks a turning-point m Roman, indeed European, history. In Britain Trajan’s reign had been a period of military withdrawal and consolidation, in sharp contrast to his expansion of the empire elsewhere. In Dacia and Mesopotamia his campaigns won whole new regions, and that alone is enough to explain why no forward policy was adopted in Britain. In many ways, Trajanic Britain foreshadows the general imperial strategy of Hadrian, who gave up the expansionist policy and abandoned Trajan’s new territories in the east. In the military sphere, Hadrian concentrated on restoring order in the various parts of the empire where there was disaffection, and in consolidating the frontiers. A great part of his reign was spent in personal tours of inspection in the provinces. The renewed respect for the Principate that had been won by Nerva and Trajan permitted the new emperor to direct his energies away from Roman politics and towards the largest schemes of civil and military reconstruction. His constant presence among the frontier armies encouraged their loyalty. His keen interest in the provinces underlined the fact that he was the second provincial to come to the throne (from the same city as Trajan), and emphasized the oneness of the empire-or at least of its communities of Roman citizens, wherever they might be located within its territories. Italy was no longer to be regarded as mistress of the Roman world, with the provinces as her inferiors, and, though she always retained a special social status, she gradually lost her political privileges.
The Antonine Frontier
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 136, two years before his death, Hadrian had prepared for the succession by adopting one of the consuls for that year, Lucius Ceionius Commodus, under the name of L. Aelius Caesar. However, the latter’s own premature death forced a new choice on the emperor. This time he settled upon the man whom we know as Antoninus Pius, a distinguished member of the senate who had acquired a reputation for honesty and devotion to duty. He had been a consular since 120, and towards the end of Hadrian’s reign he became a member of the emperor’s consilium, the advisory committee that was analogous to the group of senior friends on whom Roman magistrates relied for counsel. Hadrian had made the consilium principis more formal than before, and there can be no doubt that Antoninus’ long career in the public service, and his closeness to the emperor towards the end, gave him intimate knowledge of the workings of the empire and of Hadrian’s own policies in matters of state. In the emperor’s last year Antoninus had largely administered the empire on Hadrian’s behalf He thus came to the throne exceptionally well prepared. To extend the principle of adoptive succession further, Hadrian had also required Antonomous to adopt both Marcus
From Caracalla to Diocletian
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As one contemplates the third century, the feeling that a real change has come over the Roman world is overwhelming. In the first half of the second century the empire was still expanding; in the second half despite the pressure on the Danube that at times looked very dangerous, the empire stood triumphant and unshaken. In the third century all seems changed. Inflation, military insurrection, one murdered emperor following another, open autocracy, and the simultaneous breaching of the imperial defences in both east and west look like the beginning of the end. Yet we are powerfully conditioned by hindsight.
Constantine the Great
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some of the parallels between Constantius I and Septimius Severus in Britain were certainly not literary inventions. The last campaign of each was his war in northern Britain. And the coincidences went further: both had their sons with them; both returned to York after a victorious campaign, and there died. In the Severan case, however, the succession was clear, but the subsequent struggle between Caracalla and Geta inevitable. In 306 Diocletian’s newly established constitutional system ought to have made the succession indisputable. Constantius’ Caesar, Flavius Valerius Severus, should have become the western Augustus without question, and a new Caesar should have been appointed to replace him. Unfortunately, old traditions reasserted themselves. It is not clear that Galerius originally planned to have any western colleague at all in the same rank as himself, but the army at York forestalled whatever was intended. They proclaimed Constantine as Augustus, encouraged by a Germanic king, Crocus, who had been put in command of a cohort of Alamanni, a fact that may have influenced Constantine in his subsequent liking for German troops and officers. He certainly made much in later years of the origin of his rule in distant Britain, across the Ocean, and liked to dwell on the notion of a divine mission that had swept his power from the far west of the empire to its extreme east.
The Middle of the Fourth Century
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The immense personality and prestige of Constantine held the whole empire firm in his grip while he lived. His death in 337 started a chain of events that were to prove very serious for Britain. It began with an outbreak of murderous squabbling in the imperial family. Britain’s early fourth-century age of peace and prosperity began to dissolve in the 340s, but for a brief moment the island seemed to have escaped the consequences of Constantine’s death. They were momentous. For three months there was no Augustus at all: the instigators of a major army revolt in Constantinople refosed to accept any of the proposed appointments to imperial rank other than the sons of Constantine themselves. The troops proceeded to dispose summarily of various other members of the imperial family and of a number of appointees left by the late emperor. His second son, Constantine II, had formally held the rank of Caesar since he was a month old, demonstrating how far imperial attitudes to the succession had reverted to former practices. Out of the chaos, this Constantine emerged as the senior Augustus, personally controlling Britain, Gaul, and Spain. Another brother, Constans, held Italy, Africa, and the Illyrian provinces, and a third, Constantine II, had Constantinople and most of the east. All three assumed the rank of Augustus.
The Restoration of Order
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Whether or not Valentinian had intended to turn to Britain as part of his programme of strengthening the frontiers, his attention was forcibly drawn to the island by a spectacular and unforeseen climax in the harassment by barbarians. Struck by a serious illness in 367, Valentinian discovered that names of possible successors to himself were being bandied about. His answer was to appoint his 8-year-old son, Gratian, as co-emperor with himself and Valens. The sequel suggests that some very shrewd and well-informed minds were at work among the enemies of Rome. We should not ignore the fact that in recent times a substantial number of Germans had been appointed alongside Romans at the top levels in the military hierarchy. This continued to be the practice. Thus, in the middle of the fourth century a profound knowledge of Roman military affairs must have been built up in professional Germanic military circles, amongst a class of men not all of whom may have seen service under the empire. It is not necessary to postulate treachery to account for the barbarians’ capacity to assess accurately the effects on military readiness for external attack of political events within the empire, though this was indeed suspected in 354. As long ago as the first century, some of the most dangerous enemies of Rome had been men like Arminius and Civilis, who had previously commanded auxiliary units in the Roman army. The situation in the fourth century, however, was of a different order of magnitude.
The Collapse of Imperial Rule in Britain
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The death of Theodosius left the empire to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius, both already invested with the rank of Augustus. This is often taken as the point at which the division into eastern and western empires became final. To consider the division as absolute from this date is in fact a simplification that makes much subsequent history more difficult to comprehend than is necessary, but, in the context of the reign of Honorius and the story of the collapse of imperial control in the west, it has sufficient truth to be a vital factor in the events that concern this book. Honorius’ reign, from 395 to 423, is a rare period in which the cumulative effect of changes that we have observed occurring over a long period combined with a series of crises to create a genuine turning-point in western history, nowhere more dramatically than in Britain. At the death of Theodosius the frontiers of the empire were still maintained, and within them the vast structure of Roman society and the Roman way of life stood largely intact. Both within and without the empire Rome’s prestige and position in the world were not seriously doubted. By the time Honorius died, the western Roman world had been shattered into fragments, never to be restored.
Postscript to Roman Britain
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If we do not take the revolt of Britain from the rule of Constantine III as marking the end of Roman Britain, then we shall have to admit that there is insufficient evidence to determine conclusively when the phenomenon that we have been studying as ‘Roman Britain’ came to a close. The literary evidence for specific events and for the actions-even the existence-of individual people in Britain after 410 is exceedingly scrappy and difficult to interpret, while the archaeology is subject to widely differing interpretations. However, there is just enough material that can safely be put together to indicate that by the middle of the fifth century Britain had changed beyond recognition. It is also clear that it had evolved on very different lines from most of Roman Gaul. By the 44os-at the latest-a distinctively ‘post-Roman’ society had emerged in Britain. Recent research strongly suggests that the society we have been studying disintegrated fairly rapidly after the revolt, to such an extent that it is, in fact, right to take 409 or 410 as marking the end of Roman Britain. That being so, it is not the task of this book to pursue the narrative of Britain far into the fifth century-that is a matter for the historians of post-Roman, Celtic, and Anglo-Saxon Britain-but to see what the nature of this disintegration can tell us about the late Roman society that had just collapsed.
The Economy
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘economics’ of the ancient world is an area in which we are more in danger of anachronism than perhaps any other. Though emperors intervened from time to time in one ‘economic’ field or another-debasing or reforming currency, trying to control prices or the movement of labour, imposing or altering taxes-few, if any, of their measures had an economic motive in the sense employed in modern government. It was in terms of revenue and politics that emperors considered the economy of provinces, not in the context of any general economic theory aimed at a common good. No one attempted to co-ordinate the economic lite of the Roman world. If we are to avoid being unhistorical, ancient economics can only be viewed as the separate activities of enormous numbers of individuals pursuing their own activities, some of their own free will, some under compulsion. This chapter might, indeed, have been better entitled ‘Wealth and Work’ than ‘The Economy’, though nowadays a section on economics is expected from historians of any culture. The sum of all this activity does add up to a whole, however incoherent and constantly changing, but that whole must be recognized as the undirected and largely accidental thing that it was.
Religion and Society
Authors: Salway Peter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Religion, in all its many aspects, was so embedded in the culture of the ancient world that it is impossible to consider one without the other. Already in the second century BC the Greek politician and historian Polybius had assessed the position of religion in Roman society as the cement of the Roman state. But religion was much more than just a matter of public observance and political loyalty. It permeated every side of life, and took many different forms. Our period saw the defeat of the old public religion of the Olympian gods, and the emergence of new religions demanding personal commitment. Some were based on private devotion; others evolved into highly organized societies of their own. At the same time, the equally personal and very ancient belief in the local deities of family, home, and place retained an immense hold over the mind.
A Reformer in the Kremlin
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Unlike Lenin, Stalin left no ‘last testament’. This meant that the succession would be settled simply by bargaining between his closest associates rather than by any legal means. On 5 March 1953, when Stalin died at his dacha outside Moscow, those who gathered at his bedside had mixed emotions. On one hand they were relieved of anxiety lest they become victims of the new purge that Stalin had been preparing. On the other hand they had good reason to be afraid, both of each other and of the popular reaction to their takeover.
The Lubianka and the Kremlin
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As the Committee for State Security (KGB) managed to preserve its secrets once the USSR collapsed, much remains obscure about the history of the organization that played such a cardinal role in sustaining the Party’s dictatorship. The relationship between the Lubianka and the Kremlin (more correctly, Old Square, the location of the CPSU CC and its apparatus) was complex.
The Party in Disarray
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To the outward eye Brezhnev’s eighteen-year rule saw the Party reinforce its position as motor of the political process. It maintained intact both its institutional structure and its mechanism for super vising government and society. The nomenklatura system of appointment to positions of authority was backed up by a host of controllers, who kept constant watch on officials’ performance.
An Economy in Trouble
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ‘first’ economy would not undergo the radical transformation it needed for some twenty years after Brezhnev took over. Under his regime only patchwork repairs were attempted to the centralized system of planning and resource allocation. They were thwarted by powerful vested interests and had little practical impact. Not only the country’s leaders and managerial elite but also many professional economists with advanced views underestimated the gravity of the problems they faced. By the mid-1980s the USSR was in what Gorbachev would call a ‘precrisis situation’.
Agrarian and Environmental Dilemmas
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Khrushchev’s successors took over his basic strategy for ensuring a rapid growth of agricultural output but applied it in a more consistent manner. There was less ‘campaigning’ and bureaucratic interference in farm management, but no major change of the organizational pattern inherited from Stalin. Investment allocations were increased and agricultural prices raised, but farms still found it hard to cover their costs. Only in two years (1976, 1978) did the grain harvest exceed the target under the plan, and in the early 1980s the situation in this respect was so bad that statisticians were forbidden to publish the actual figures.
Social Breakdown, Cultural Renovation
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The term ‘crisis’ is contested by some Western scholars, who would prefer the less value-laden term ‘disequilibrium’. Likewise, the vast majority of Soviet citizens (outside minority areas, at least) failed to appreciate the seriousness of the country’s situation by the mid-198os. Though few accepted at face value the official line that the people’s well-being was in the forefront of the authorities’ concern, many considered themselves fortunate in enjoying blessings supposedly denied to ordinary folk in the West and attributed shortcomings to the pressing needs of defense against the ‘imperialist’ menace. Nevertheless a sizeable proportion of educated people-not just intellectuals but functionaries, too-did realize that Soviet society was seriously sick.
The Russian National Movement
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the beginning of the twentieth century the Russian people lagged behind many others in the tsarist realm (Poles, Finns, even Baits and Ukrainians) in the development of a modern national consciousness. The social elite identified with the multi-national empire; in the terminology of the day, their thinking was rossiiskiirather than russkii. Ordinary folk either opted for a social (class) orientation or else had none at all, in that their horizons were limited to the local community.
The Restless Empire
Authors: Keep John L H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The more perspicacious Soviet leaders recognized that the principal threat the regime faced came from the national minorities. Census data showed that overall they were growing more rapidly than Russians. Efforts to promote the ‘growing together’ of all nations of the Union on the basis of adherence to common Soviet values were meeting with intermittent success at best. The ideal of their eventual ‘merger’ was becoming a mirage, as remote as the achievement of a world-wide Communist order. For this reason during the 1970s it was rarely mentioned in public discourse and gave way to the less menacing term ‘complete unity’.
The power of persuasion
Authors: Taylor Kathleen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1, we saw how intensive, personal, painful, and terrifying brainwashing can be when force is used in the quest for thought control, as for example in some cults. However, brainwashing has also been alleged in two very different fields of human endeavour: advertising and the media, and education. Both seek to change minds, though for different reasons, and both are thought to wield considerable power. Unlike brainwashing by force, however, they generally employ less coercive methods, relying instead on stealthier forms of persuasion. Both are framed within, and transmit, a set of beliefs about the world, an ideology. That ideology defines the social roles of individuals as State subjects, teaching them their proper place in the status quo.
Science and nightmare
Authors: Taylor Kathleen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In The Search for the ‘Manchurian Candidate’, first published in 1977, the investigative reporter John Marks describes how the US government’s Central Intelligence Agency spent years—and vast amounts of taxpayers’ money—searching for foolproof methods of brainwashing people. Despite acknowledging that much CIA research into mind control was far ahead of its academic counterpart, the behavioural sciences, Marks concluded that to the best of his knowledge the search had failed—so far. ‘Spurred by the widespread alarm over communist tactics, Agency officials had investigated the field, started their own projects, and looked to the latest technology to make improvements. After 10 years of research, with some rather gruesome results, CIA officials had come up with no techniques on which they felt they could rely.’1
Purpose and Plan
Authors: Pais Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It must have been around 1950. I was accompanying Einstein on a walk from The Institute for Advanced Study to his home, when he suddenly stopped, turned to me, and asked me if I really believed that the moon exists only if I look at it. The nature of our conversation was not particularly metaphysical. Rather, we were discussing the quantum theory, in particular what is doable and knowable in the sense of physical observation. The twentieth century physicist does not, of course, claim to have the definitive answer to this question. He does know, however, that the answer given by his nineteenth century ancestors will no longer do. They were almost exactly right, to be sure, as far as conditions of everyday life are concerned, but their answer cannot be extrapolated to things moving nearly as fast as light, or to things that are as small as atoms, or—in some respects—to things that are as heavy as stars.
The Reality of Molecules
Authors: Pais Abraham 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1. Chemistry. In 1771 work was completed on the first edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, ‘a Dictionary of Arts and Sciences compiled upon a new plan… by a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland.’ The entry atom, written by William Smellie, a man renowned for his devotion to scholarship and whisky [Kl], reads as follows. ‘Atom. In philosophy, a particle of matter, so minute as to admit no division. Atoms are the minima naturae [smallest bodies) and are conceived as the first principles or component parts of all physical magnitude.’ Democritus might have disagreed, since his atoms were not necessarily minute. Epicurus might have objected that the atom has structure-though it cannot be divided into smaller parts by physical means.