bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Regulating Telecommunications
Authors: Littlechild S C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Competition is rapidly taking over from regulation as the main’control’ on the UK telecommunications industry. The benefits of this are becom ing apparent: more imaginative pricing packages, better consumer focus, and prices being set by competitive pressure rather than by regulation. This change is underpinned by an increasingly competitive market structure. At the top level there are now over 50 major public telecommunications operators (over 190 licences have been issued), four mobile network operators, and many more providers of telecommunica tion services. At a more important level an increasing proportion of the population has a realistic choice of suppliers for telecommunications services: as of January 1997 in excess of 35 per cent of residential customers had a choice of two or more local access suppliers, and this is likely to rise to more than 70 per cent over the next 3 years. Business customers are even better off in terms of choice of local access provider. And in addition, nearly everyone has access to a choice of long distance and international telecommunications companies.
The New Officer Corps: Implications for the Future
Authors: Dreyer June Teufel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In early 1975, in a speech to the cadres of the headquarters of the General Staff Department of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), Deng Xiaoping delivered his blueprint for the military of the future. The radical restructuring of the military and its officer corps that it entailed was purportedly proposed by Mao Zedong himself. However, the fact that the speech was not made public until 1983, allegedly because it had been suppressed by the Gang of Four, makes it more likely that the architect of the reorganization, with its far-reaching implications for the PLA’s officer corps, was Deng himself. Two decades later, at the close of the Deng era, it is important to examine the thrust of this document in assessing trends for the officer corps of the future.
Current and Future Challenges Facing Chinese Defence Industries*
Authors: Frankenstein John , Gill Bates 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The fundamental questions are simple. Can the Chinese defence indus tries make what the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) needs? Can they develop and produce systems to allow the PLA first to overcome its problem of “short arms and slow legs,” secondly to move from brown water coastal defence to green-water offshore defence (and eventually blue-water power projection), and thirdly successfully to conduct “limited wars under high-tech conditions”? Indeed, in a larger sense, can the defence industry, under the conditions and pressures of economic reform, survive except by “converting”? The answers, however, are not as simple as might be thought.
Prospects for Chinese Nuclear Force Modernization: Limited Deterrence Versus Multilateral Arms Control*
Authors: Johnston Alastair lain 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this article I argue that China currently has the technical capacity to increase the size of its nuclear forces by about two to three times and to improve its operational flexibility. Whether it does so or not will depend primarily on four variables or constraints: trends in thinking about nuclear doctrine that justify these sorts of changes; the economic and technological resources available; China’s commitment to nuclear arms-related arms control conventions; and strategic and arms control decisions by the United States. I suggest that for the foreseeable future the variables relating to doctrine, economics/technology and Chinese arms control preferences are all relatively fixed or constant. That is, present trends in all three suggest a continuing will and ability to modernize Chinese nuclear forces. The last variable is somewhat less fixed, and thus may be the one that is most amenable to external manipulation.
Harmful or Irrelevant? Italian Industrial Policy, 1945-1973
Authors: Federico Giovanni 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The performance of the Italian economy during the ‘golden years’ of the postwar period was exceedingly good. From 1950 to 1973 the industrial value added grew at an impressive 6.8 per cent yearly (Rossi, Sorgato, and Toniolo, 1993: table l.A) and the GDP per capita at 4.8 per cent, the second best performance (along with Germany) among the seven major industrialized countries after Japan (Maddison, 1991: table 1). The Italian miracolo economico was even more impressive than the German Wirschaftswunder. In fact in 1951 Italy, unlike Germany, was not a fully fledged member of the club of advanced countries. Agriculture still accounted for a quarter of GDP (ISTAT, 1985: table 8.18) and employed 9 million people out of an active population of about 20 million (Zamagni, 1986: table A.l). Twenty years later, Italy was undoubtedly an advanced industrial country, even if it was still lagging behind others in Europe.
Foreign Direct Investment: Towards Co-operative Institutional Arrangements between the North and the South?
Authors: Singh Ajit , Zammit Ann 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last decade has witnessed a very fast growth of foreign direct investment (FDI)—this both reflects and extends the globalization of production. Although the greater part of FDI is still carried out by multinationals of one advanced country investing in another, a significant and perhaps increasing proportion of multinationals’ foreign investment is now taking place in developing countries (the South).
Sustainable Prosperity, Corporate Governance, and Innovation in Europe
Authors: O’Sullivan Mary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The extent to which, and the manner in which, innovation occurs in an economy depends on decisions about the allocation of resources; that is, on investment decisions or strategies. In particular, an economy’s capacity to achieve sustainable prosperity—by which I mean a progressive spreading of the benefits of economic growth to more and more people over a prolonged period of time—is closely related to the process through which corporate revenues are allocated. Corporate strategists control substantial financial and productive resources that permit them to make strategic choices in the allocation of resources. Retained earnings—undistributed profits and capital consumption allowances—have always provided, and continue to provide, the financial resources that are the foundation of investments in productive capabilities that can make innovation and economic development possible. The strategic choices of corporate decision-makers can thus have profound effects on the availability and viability of stable and remunerative employment opportunities. To understand what has happened and what will happen to employment opportunities and income levels, we have to understand strategic decision-making within major corporations, and how and why that process changes over time.
Towards a non-Zero-Sum Analytical Framework
Authors: Li Linda Chelan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
What degree of power does the provincial government command within the Chinese political system, and what is the nature of this power? This is the fundamental question which runs through the literature on central—provincial relations in contemporary China. In trying to understand this power relationship, analysts have often dwelt on the roles of provincial leaders and the nature of the political system within which they operate. This chapter reviews how the existing literature has addressed and answered the following questions in the context of contemporary China. To what extent do provincial leaders act as the loyal agents of the centre, and, conversely, as representatives of their province? How can we make sense of the prevalence of bargaining behaviour between the centre and the provinces, and the intensity of conflicts in their interactions? Do the instances of China’s previous disintegration and the emergence of separatist movements in some provinces signal a trend towards independence for the provinces? Or do they represent the reaction of provincial forces to a weak centre? How should these tensions between the centre and the provinces be interpreted? Moreover, by what approach may changes in the balance of power between the centre and the provinces be better understood?
Discretion and Strategies in Guangdong
Authors: Li Linda Chelan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the development of the discretion of the Guangdong government in the investment arena during the period 1979-93, using the typology of provincial discretion described in Chapter 1. The next chapter addresses the same issue for Shanghai. The purpose is to show, by explicating the details of provincial discretion and strategies, how provincial governments interacted with the centre and what strategies they undertook to gain more investment and faster economic development within the context of central policies. Discussions will follow the typology of discretion described in Fig. 1.2.
Shifting Central-Provincial Relations: Emerging Trends
Authors: Li Linda Chelan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An interactive relationship emphasizes the interdependence of and mutual influences between the centre and the provinces. This concluding chapter highlights the dynamic aspects of this interactive relationship, and demonstrates that the central and provincial actors, by influencing each other, themselves constitute the forces of change for their relationship. This chapter also identifies the emerging trends of change in central-provincial relations in the post-Mao period. It explains their emergence and draws preliminary conclusions as to the significance of these trends regarding political processes in the Chinese system generally.
Small-Scale Business in Germany: The Flexible Element of Economic Growth
Authors: Wengenroth Ulrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Small-scale business was a flexible element of economic growth in Germany,1 and it was flexible in two ways: First, it transformed itself from a pre-modern and anti-industrial stronghold of corporatism to a competitive partner in a rapidly changing industrial society. Secondly, in providing technology-intensive services and tailor-made applications, it paved the way for the advance of mass-produced industrial goods into domestic markets. Earlier than industry, small-scale business blurred the distinction be tween manufacturing and services, thereby reconciling economies of scale in industrial production with growing diversity on the side of consumption. Rather than direct competition and marginalization, co-evolution of small and big business has been characteristic of the last century of German economic history. To be sure, the position of small business during this period was always challenged, and survival was never guaranteed. Only by flexibly adapting to new functional requirements in an economy that was ever more dominated by large enterprise, did small-scale business continue to flourish. Small-scale business did not control the many vicissitudes to which it was exposed. It is no surprise, therefore, that small businessmen mostly tried to resist the transformation of the German economy, which at the same time they were so successfully helping to bring about. And, when it came to institutions, small business never lost its historical backward orientation, inventing traditions of a golden past that never was. Thus, despite well-proven adaptability, the mentality of its entrepreneurs, as well as a large portion of the institutional arrangements and legislation for small firms, can only be understood if viewed against the back gound of retro spective ideals.
Historical Features of Japanese Small and Medium Enterprises: A Comparative Economic Approach
Authors: Takeuchi Johzen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Through the 1960s small and medium enterprises (SMEs) were commonly associated with symbols of Japanese social backwardness representing cheap labour, low productivity, and other negative factors. In fact, there was indeed a serious wage and productivity gap known as ‘the dual structure’, which was considered by many academicians to be a unique feature of Japanese capitalism. However, the economic conditions of SMEs were improved significantly in the 1970s and social critics became less interested in the matter.
The Role of Technical Education and Public Research Institutes in the Development of Small and Medium Enterprises: The Case of Osaka Between the Wars
Authors: Sawai Minoru 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Osaka Prefecture is one of the largest industrial centers in Japan, ranking third in 1994 in terms of its share of the value of Japan’s manufactured goods shipments (MITI 1994). At 6.9 per cent, Osaka is just ahead of Tokyo (6.5 per cent), and is surpassed only by Aichi Prefecture (11.3 per cent) and Kanagawa Prefecture (8.0 per cent). In much of the pre-war period, however, Osaka was the undisputed king of Japanese industry, consistently contributing 16 to 17 per cent of the national value of production (see Table 10.1). It maintained its pre-eminent position until 1938, when the rising tide of war production carried Tokyo to the top position (MITI 1961). Osaka remained in second place through the first oil crisis, falling to third thereafter.
Varieties of Capitalism
Authors: Whitley Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
During the twentieth century a number of quite distinctive forms of capitalism have become established and continue to be reproduced as different systems of economic organization. Despite numerous claims of growing convergence and the ‘globalization ‘ of managerial structures and strategies, the ways in which economic activities are organized and controlled in, for example, post-war Japan, South Korea (henceforth Korea), and Taiwan differ considerably from those prevalent in the USA and UK. They also vary significantly between themselves (Orru et al. 1997; Wade 1990; Whitley 1992a). Equally, substantial variations in types of dominant firm, customer-supplier relations, employment practices, and work systems remain across the regions and countries of Europe, despite the efforts of ‘modernizing ‘ elites in the post-war period (see e.g. Herrigel 1996; Kristensen 1996, 1997; Lane 1992; Maurice et al. 1986; Sorge 1991). Convergence to a single most effective type of market economy is no more likely in the twenty-first century than it was in the highly internationalized economy of the late nineteenth century (Hirst and Thompson 1996; Kenworthy 1997; Koechlin 1995; Wade 1996).
Divergent Capitalisms in East Asia: The Post-War Business Systems of South Korea and Taiwan
Authors: Whitley Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The wide variety of industrial capitalisms has become especially marked in the post-war period as a result of the widespread success of Japanese and other East Asian firms. It is widely recognized that these firms behave in quite different ways from many of those in Western countries, particularly North American and British ones (see e.g. Aoki 1988; R. Clark 1979; Kagono et al. 1985), and that these differences are connected to distinctive features of dominant institutions in these societies (Orru et al. 1997). However, while considerable attention has been paid to the particular characteristics of the Japanese enterprise system (see e.g. Fruin 1992; Gerlach 1992; Westney 1996), rather less effort has been devoted to analysing the nature of firms and markets in South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong, partly because they are often viewed as being similar products of ‘post-Confucianism ‘ and not differing greatly from the dominant Japanese form of economic organization.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Leete Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The global fertility transition, from high to low levels, has undoubtedly been one of the most remarkable changes in social behaviour in the twentieth century. Couples living in both rich and poor settings, with and without access to organized family planning programmes, are now having much smaller numbers of children than in the past. The search for explanations of the causes of the fertility transition and the changes in values attached to children, taking into account the great diversity of economic, social, political, and cultural contexts where they have occurred, has long been one of the central research preoccupations of population scientists (van de Kaa 1996).
Mortality Change and the Epidemiological Transition Beijing, 1644-1990
Authors: Campbell Cameron 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Describing and explaining China’s mortality decline was until recently a straight forward task, if only because a lack of data has prevented it from being analyzed in as much detail as Europe’s. First, until the middle of this century, death rates in China were high because infectious diseases were endemic and malnutrition was widespread (Banister, 1987: 50; Jamison et al., 1984: 1, 11). Second, death rates began to fall rapidly after 1949. An epidemiological transition (Omran, 1971) took place, with chronic, non-communicable diseases such as cancer and heart disease replacing communicable diseases as the leading causes of death. By the late 1970s China had a life expectancy at birth that was high not only by the standards of other countries at similar levels of development, but also by the standards of much wealthier countries (Caldwell, 1986). Third, resource allocations and policy interventions by the post-1949 mainland Chinese government were largely responsible for improvements in health (Bumgarner, 1992; Halstead et al., 1985; Jamison et al., 1984; Lavely et al., 1990; Banister, 1987: 83-5). The state devoted a relatively large share of the country’s limited resources to the health sector, focusing on the prevention of disease, the provision of primary health care, and the delivery of services to rural areas. At the same time, it improved nutrition and education through other policy interventions.
Public Health and the Diffusion of Vaccination in Japan
Authors: Jannetta Ann Bowman 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
At the end of the nineteenth century Japan was a vigorous exporter of sanitation and public health programmes to the rest of East Asia. Certainly such a role for Japan could not have been predicted half a century earlier. In 1850, Japan was a poor and isolated island nation about to be descended upon by the great Western powers seeking new markets to exploit. And Japan’s long-established political system-a loose conglomerate of feudal kingdoms ruled by a Tokugawa shogun was approaching a final state of collapse. In 1868, a young and energetic cadre of reformers successfully ousted the shogun, and took over the reins of government in the name of the Meiji Emperor-an event known as the Meiji Restoration. The new Meiji leaders had monumental problems on their hands, but one of the earliest and most enduring themes to emerge among government initiatives was a strong commitment to the principles of public health, even though the term ‘public health’ was new to them. One reason for this focus was the loss of control of Japan’s ports which foreign ships with virulent germs from afar could enter unbidden for the first time in over 200 years. A second reason was that a surprising number of Meiji leaders had been trained in medicine-in many cases in a rarefied form of Western medicine-and it soon became apparent to them that public health was the idea of the moment. The concepts and policies of public health would not only help to solve problems at home, but would connect Japan with the Western world of technology and science.
The Economic Sociology of Firms and Entrepreneurs
Authors: Granovetter Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The central issue I want to address is how it is possible for entrepreneurs to assemble the capital and labor required to sustain the cooperative venture we call a “firm.” Although firms will find it difficult to survive in an economic environment that affords them no profit, I argue that the possibility of profits that is, profits above and beyond those available in other uses of resources, or what are sometimes called “excess profits”-is also not a sufficient condition for such emergence; instead, one must study the social structure within which individuals and groups attempt the construction of firms.
Introduction
Authors: Dierkes Meinolf , Antal Ariane Berthoin , Child John , Nonaka Ikujiro 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As explored in Part I, organizational learning is grounded in a wide range of social science disciplines. Just as the theoretical foundations are diverse, so are the factors that stimulate learning. The chapters in this part are all manifestations of a common theme: that fundamental changes in society are linked to a shift in socioeconomic values. Each of the authors in this part explore how value changes are mediated through social and environmental movements, political transformations, markets, and technological visions to influence organizational learning. These changes or discontinuities in existing patterns in the environment can be perceived as either opportunities or threats and can thereby stimulate different responses within organizations.
Learning in Global and Local Networks: Experience of Chinese Firms in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan
Authors: Tsui-Auch Lai Si 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of perspectives on organizational learning has been based primarily on the experience in large Western industrialized countries. The learning experience of enterprises in non-Western countries is underrepresented. This chapter presents a review of the learning processes of Chinese firms in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, which have characteristics distinct from large Western and Japanese enterprises (see Macharzina, Oesterle, and Brodel, Ch. 28; Child, Ch. 29; Lane, Ch. 31; Nonaka, Toyama, and Byosiere, Ch. 22 in this volume).
Introduction
Authors: Pollitt Christopher , Bouckaert Geert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This is an ambitious book, aimed at remedying some perceived weaknesses in the current literature on public management reform. It is ambitious in several respects, most obviously in taking such a broad perspective (ten countries across three continents) and in attempting to compare such very different state apparatuses as those of Finland, France, New Zealand and the United States.
The Experience-Curve of Capability Management
Authors: Bresman Henrik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The encompassing objective of the research presented in this chapter is to obtain a better understanding of how external knowledge is integrated by high-technology firms in a turbulent industry setting, and how the capab¬ilities to do so are developed. The successful integration of knowledge from external sources-’external integration’-is a critical driver of firm performance in turbulent high technology (Burns and Stalker 1961; Lawrence and Lorsch 1967; Eisenhardt and Tabrizi 1995; Iansiti 1998; Leonard-Barton 1995; Maccormack 1998). Previous research has identified organizational mechanisms which enable firms to take advantage of knowledge emanating from their external environment. These include devices such as the nurturing of ‘technological gatekeepers’ (Allen 1977), encouraging ‘informal know-how trading’ (von Hippel 1987), and establishing organizational units dedicated to external integration (Granstrand et al. 1992).