bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Electromagnetic energy
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As we have seen in Chapter 3, the electromagnetic field carries energy. In this chapter we will see that the energy stored in a static electric field is equal to the work that has been done to assemble the configuration of charges that generates it (although, for point charges, this requires to deal with some ‘self-energy’ divergences) and, similarly, the energy stored in a static magnetic field is equal to the work needed to produce the configuration of currents that generates it. We will also show how to rewrite the electromagnetic energy in different useful forms, in electrostatics and magnetostatics. We then discuss different form of mechanical potentials, related through Legendre transforms, from which can be derived the electric forces at fixed charge or at fixed electrostatic potential, or the magnetic forces at fixed current or at fixed magnetic flux.
Special Relativity
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this chapter introduce the basic postulates and the formalism of Special Relativity. Special Relativity is one of the pillars of modern physics. Our presentation will be tuned toward understanding how Special Relativity is hidden into Maxwell’s equations, and in building a ‘covariant’ formalism that makes this symmetry explicit. We intrduce Lorentz transformations and the associated notions of causality, proper time, time dilatation, Lorentz contraction. We develop the covariant formalism (covariant and contravariant four-vectors and tensors) and we discuss the relativistic kinematics of point particles. A more advanced section discusses the action of relativistic point particles.
Covariant formulation of electrodynamics
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
We now use the formalism developed in the previous chapter to rewrite Maxwell’s equations in a form that will make explicit their covariance under Lorentz transformation. We begin by showing that the charge and current density can be assembled into a four-vector, and we will then see how to write Maxwell’s equations in a covariant form. We then introduce the energy-momentum tensor of electromagnetic field and show how the conservation of energy and momentum can be written in terms of it. A more advanced section discusses the formulation of electrodynamics as a relativisitc field theory, the Lagrangian of the electromagnetic field, and the derivation of conservations laws from Noether’s theorem.
Electromagnetic waves in vacuum
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we study Maxwell’s equations in the absence of sources. We will then discover that, even in the absence of sources, there are non-trivial solutions, that describe electromagnetic waves propagating across empty space. We will study them in the Lorenz gauge and in the Coulomb gauge. The former treatment allows us to maintain Lorentz covariance explicitly at each stage. However, it will be more subtle to understand how to eliminate spurious polarizations, and remain with the two physical polarizations that characterize electromagnetic waves. Working in the Coulomb gauge, in contrast, we will deal from the beginning only with the two physical polarizations, at the price of loosing explicit Lorentz covariance in the intermediate steps. The two approaches are complementary, technically and conceptually, and are both important to understand electromagnetic waves. We also discuss the polarization of light, the Doppler effect, and light aberration.
Electromagnetic fields in material media
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we begin our study of electromagnetic fields in materials. We first show how the fundamental Maxwell equations give rise to ‘smoothed’ Maxwell equations valid at macroscopic scales. To use these equations, however, we must have a model for the macroscopic charge and current densities. We introduce the polarization vector field P and the electric displacement vector field D for a dielectric and the magnetization M and the H field for magnetic material, and we write the Maxwell equations in terms of these quantities. The complexity of the materials is then described phenomenologically by ‘constitutive relations’ involving these macroscopic quantities. We introduce the permittivity and the dielectric constant of the dielectric, and the magnetic susceptibility and magnetic permeability of magnetic matter, that allows us to distinguish between paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials. We study energy conservation and the Poynting theorem in material bodies.
Frequency-dependent response of materials
Authors: Maggiore Michele 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The response of a material is in general frequency dependent. In this chapter, we will first see how such frequency dependence is significantly constrained by causality and other general principles, and derive the Kramers-Kronig relations. We will then discuss explicit models for the frequency dependence of the response functions: the Drude-Lorentz model for the permittivity, the Drude model of conductivity and the corresponding dielectric function of metals, where we introduce the plasma frequency.
Introduction
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Brockelmann does not align Ge’ez, representing South Semitic, among the expansion waves, merely noting that its speakers probably reached Ethiopia in the pre-Christian era (1908: 30). Arabic history is traditionally conceived of as falling into at least two stages: Old Arabic (sometimes equated with Classical Arabic) and Neo-Arabic. The justification for this, however, rests on fallacies of different sorts. The linguistically best thought-out (Ferguson 1960; Fischer and Jastrow 1980; Blau 1981b) is the metonymic (part for whole) fallacy, whereby the justification of the Old–New dichotomy rests on data which in fact does not divide Arabic into two stages characterized by dichtomizing innovations. A feature such as the so-called “taltala,” once thought to define Old (/a/ vowel) vs. New (/i/ vowel) turns out to be distributed in both “Old” and “New” Arabic. Desirable though it is from a historical linguistic standpoint, it is problematic defining Arabic as Old vs. New via shared innovations. The chapter points to the need for a broadly empirical approach utilizing multiple pathways, such as are discussed in the remainder of the book.
Arabic and Semitic
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 introduces the reader to Arabic as a Semitic language. A core of basic phonological and morphological structures characterizes all of the Semitic languages. In this world, Arabic is one out of many. The genetic classification of Arabic has therefore been the object of discussion going back to the nineteenth century or earlier, a key question centering on the interpretation of Arabic as a South Semitic language, closest to Ge’ez (inter alia) or being a Central Semitic language, closest to Northwest Semitic languages such as Aramaic and Hebrew. In this book the question of genetic affiliation is essentially sidestepped. It is suggested that Arabic is a composite language with clear South Semitic and clear NW Semitic affinities. This interpretation is underscored by recognizing a class of bifurcated features, features which divide not only Semitic languages, but also divide Arabic itself into contrasting parts.
Arabs, Arabic
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The central icon of Arabic is Classical Arabic. What, though, is Classical Arabic? A distinction is drawn here between a normed Classical Arabic such as was defined by Ibn al-Sarraj’s (d. 316/928) Al-ʔUṣuwl fiy l-Naħw and the earlier, monumental, heterogeneous grammar of Sibawaih (179/789). Sibawaihi’s Kitaab marks a watershed in Arabic linguistics. Only with him do we have a reliable, for the most part unambiguous idea of what Arabic was. To underscore our dependency on his descriptive acumen, one detailed study concerning palatalization of /*k/ is offered. The distinction between a normed Classical Arabic and Sibawaihi’s Kitaab is not, however, a complete answer to the question, what Classical Arabic is. Following another classical linguist, Ibn al-Nadim (late fourth/tenth century), a distinction is drawn between an Arabic of diverse tribes, antedating and post-dating Classical Arabic, and the normed Arabic which by the end of the fourth/tenth century had become associated with the Koran, and with emerging Arabic-Islamic culture in general.
Three types of pre- and early Islamic sources
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Chapter 4 takes a critical look at the epigraphic and papyrological sources from a linguistic stance. In order to illustrate concretely the evidential nature of these texts, samples of epigraphic (Taymanitic, Safaitic) and papyri texts and Greek orthographic segments are commented upon. Three perspectives are invoked, two of them of a cautionary nature. First the limits of texts shorn of vowels and prosodic features—the epigraphic texts—for reconstruction is discussed. Secondly, the papyri fall into Kaplony’s (2018) “documentary Arabic,” which both preceded and antedated Classical Arabic. These are interpreted as an inheritance of Wansbrough’s (1996) “juridical and cultural koine” attested in the Middle East since Akkadian times. Thirdly, the limits to the contribution ostensibly unambiguous Greek transliterations of Arabic names can make is discussed. This chapter cautions that conclusions derived solely by comparing the oldest written texts without integrating them into the longer and larger development of Arabic cannot be equated with the history of Arabic.
Four issues in Arabic historical linguistics
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Chapter 6 tackles four themes. Its main purpose is to illustrate the tenacity with which inherited differences may survive migration using a sample variationist case study from Maiduguri in the LCA region. An analogy suggests itself. The written word is inherently contextualized in a stone, a piece of paper, papyrus which can be interpreted socio-historically more or less depending on how well known the circumstances are surrounding that stone or piece of paper. For its part, the oral word is contextualized in a speech community, whose historical provenance can be more or less understood depending on how much is known about that community and its antecedents. However, not all oral variation in Arabic is due to the oral language. The confounding effects of a written standard on spoken Arabic are also discussed. Two further issues introduced previously in Chapter 5 are treated: the role of reconstruction in the Arabicist/Semiticist tradition, and how and whether grammaticalization theory elucidates language history.
Arabic in contact I
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
There was probably no other ethnic group with whom pre-Islamic Arabs had greater contact with and shared closer cultural affinities than the Aramaeans. Chapter 7 summarizes the ensuing extensive pre- and early Islamic influence of Aramaic on Arabic. This influence is understood in Dixonian terms as representing an era of equilibrium whereby there were diverse, but extensive instances of Aramaic–Arabic contact throughout the Middle East homeland. The concept of dia-planar diffusion is introduced to model the existence of multiple instances of Arabic–Aramaic contact distributed across wide areas of the Middle East over long periods of time.
Morphosyntax as an adapative mechanism II
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
This chapter continues the illustration of Lake Chad areal influence on LCA Arabic this time in the domain of the demonstrative. A corpus-based comparison with its parent Egyptian Arabic shows the LCA demonstrative to have nearly doubled in token count. This expansion is explained by the acquisition of a number of new functions that LCA now shares with other languages of the Lake Chad area. Kanuri, Glavda, Wandala, Bagirmi and Fali are used in the comparison. Significantly, this functional expansion impinged in no way at all on the inherited deictic function of the Arabic demonstrative, nor does it affect the inherited functions of the definite article.
Language stability II
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Chapter 11 treats a complex morpho-discourse problem, comparing three separate, non-contiguous Arabic dialects, Emirati Arabic, Hijazi, and LCA, to argue that the reconstructed result gives an insight into why languages do not change. The object of explanation is the highly stable Arabic verb paradigm, which in its essentials has not changed at all in over 1,500 years. Using regression techniques, it is shown that the stability derives from an identical set of discourse constraints across the three dialects related to the cross-referencing of the subject in the verbal paradigm. Properties of the subject as defined by classical discourse parameters are from a statistical perspective identical across all three dialects, even the geographically and chronologically isolated LCA Arabic.
Summing up
Authors: Owens Jonathan 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
The comparative features adduced throughout the work are classified according to their status within Semitic and West Semitic, and within a broad chronological scale hinged on Islam (nominally 622) and whether or not confirmed in Sibawaih (178/793). A relatively detailed historical picture of Arabic can be described which in chronological time is as old as the earliest Germanic languages. A second focus lies in the general linguistic issues which inform the study: the role of diffusion in Arabic language history, contact, incrementation and internal change; how grammaticalization theory helps and hinders understanding its history; why the history of Arabic cautions against the wholesale invocation of parallel independent development; what insights the use of large, oral corpora brings to understanding language history, particularly when coupled with understudied domains of historical linguistics like idiom theory and discourse analysis; how the concept of speech community informs a taxonomy of linguistic change.
The Idea of Neutrality
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Wight argued as follows: when international law was in its initial formation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the doctrine of just war constrained the right of neutrality. Grotius, for example, held that a state seeking neutrality must not obstruct the belligerent with a righteous cause nor aid a belligerent with an unjust case for war. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, however, the just war doctrine lost support, and states agreed that neutrals would be impartial and that states at war would respect the rights of neutrals. In contrast, since the 1907 Hague Conference and the two world wars, the scope for neutrality has been widely seen as limited by a type of just war doctrine. That is, neutrality is seen by many as morally incompatible with the commitment to collective responsibility for international order expressed in the League Covenant, the Kellogg–Briand Pact, and the UN Charter. The pursuit of neutrality by Small Powers since the seventeenth century has often been disregarded by Great Powers that have justified their actions on grounds of military necessity. The term “neutralism” is sometimes employed to describe a dynamic policy of engagement, non-alignment, and mediation such as that pursued by India to complement its domestic priorities of social welfare and economic growth.
Is the Commonwealth a Non-Hobbesian Institution?
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
According to Christopher Dawson, “the British Commonwealth has disproved the Hobbesian doctrine that if political power is not concentrated, society returns to the jungle.” Wight observed, however, that Commonwealth theory “has failed adequately to explain what has been, essentially, the progressive disintegration of the British Empire, and the steady assimilation of its internal relationships to the condition of international politics.” The Indo-Pakistani frontier is so mutually “suspicious” that “no international frontier could give a more vivid illustration of that ‘posture of gladiators’ which Hobbes described as the natural condition of sovereigns. … There are intra-Commonwealth disputes which threaten the peace of the world. … The United States … has been the unacknowledged major premise of all Commonwealth theory, since but for the United States the Commonwealth might not have survived the First World War and certainly would not have survived the Second. … At the … Unofficial British Commonwealth Relations Conference at Lahore [in 1954] … three hypothetical situations were adumbrated which it was suggested would be incompatible with Commonwealth membership (and what was implied was some kind of expulsion since secession is always open to the individual member). (i) If one member went to war with another member. (ii) If a member joined a hostile bloc—if India had joined China and Russia in the Korean War, for example. (iii) If a member abandoned democratic government, which in the case of Communism would approximate to (ii).”
The United Nations Assembly
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
In this paper Wight discussed “three conflicts of interest which are mirrored in the United Nations. The first is the conflict between the Western imperial Powers and the new ex-colonial nations, chiefly of Eastern Asia. The second conflict is the conflict between Great Powers and Small Powers. Thirdly, there is the conflict between the Soviet bloc and the West. These all interpenetrate and influence one another, but each of them would exist without the others. The first two are at present governed by the third—the Soviet-Western clash; but they are quite independent of it in origin and may surpass it in potential importance.” India and the Philippines have been exceptionally successful in championing the interests of the ex-colonial nations against the Western imperial Powers. The discord between Small and Great Powers has been most visible concerning the veto held by the permanent members of the Security Council. The split between the Soviet bloc and the West has conditioned the deliberations about “the most conspicuous topics on the agenda,” including “the reduction of armaments,” and “lurked behind the discussions of practically everything else.” Despite the prominent Soviet diplomacy in the United Nations, Wight concluded, “It is in the conferences of the Big Three and in the Council of Foreign Ministers that the Soviet Union bargains for her strategic lines, her provinces ceded, her economic advantages. The United Nations has the secondary function of propaganda, moulding opinion, trial balloons, defamation of opponents, and, above all, preaching of the gospel.”
Review of Henrique de Pinheiro, The World State or the New Order of Common Sense (Rio de Janeiro: Grafica Olimpica, 1944)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As a matter of principle Martin Wight professed a lack of interest in defining practical prescriptions to deal with immediate strategic and foreign policy issues, notably in his lecture “What Is International Relations?” “International confederations and world-state utopias can be as respectable as Penn and Saint-Pierre,” Wight wrote, “but few remain readable after the lapse of a couple of years. This one, written by a Brazilian diplomat in London during the ‘blitz,’ organizes the whole of humanity as a federal democracy on the highest Western ethical and juridical principles. It has nothing to do with the international politics which produce the structure and fitful functioning of the Security Council.”
Review of J. L. Brierly, The Covenant and the Charter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1947)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
As Wight observes, “Brierly contrasts the cooperative character of the League, which was based on the agreement between sovereign States to do certain things, with the quasi-organic character of the United Nations, which confers the power of directing how the collective body should act on one of its organs, the Security Council. … The veto precludes the United Nations from taking action against a Great Power, and [in Brierly’s words] a collective system which does not propose to deal with aggression by a Great Power, is, I venture to say, not a system of collective security at all. … Thus the Covenant system of public law and graded sanctions has been replaced by the Charter system of security intended to be always ready for immediate action, but capable of being jammed by a single Great Power. We must realize [Brierly adds] that what we have done is to exchange a system which might or might not have worked for one which cannot work, and that instead of limiting the sovereignty of States we have actually extended the sovereignty of the Great Powers, the only States whose sovereignty is still a formidable reality in the modern world. How different is this cool analysis in language of studied restraint, from the cant and self-deception that accompanied the establishment of the United Nations, the disagreeable lack of candour of the Great Power statement at San Francisco, the lack of realism of the official British Commentary.”
Review of W. W. Rostow, Harmsworth Professor of American History The American Diplomatic Revolution: An Inaugural Lecture Delivered before the University of Oxford on November 12, 1946 (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1947)
Authors: Wight Martin 
Published: October 2023

Abstract
Wight wrote that Rostow’s American diplomatic revolution extends “from the isolationism of 1939 to the expanding world commitments of 1945.” Rostow noted that “For Great Britain and France the problems presented by Germany, Austria, and Eastern Europe are basically familiar; and there are, whatever their present worth, traditional formulae of the national interest on which to guide the day-to-day operations of diplomacy. Similarly, the position of Russia in Europe and in Northern Asia, however striking it may be to this generation, is in many ways a reversion. Russian troops have been in Berlin before; and a powerful Russian interest in Eastern Europe, in Manchuria, and in Korea is not new. In the case of the United States, not only the public at large but the Department of State as well have been forced to define the American interest in strange regions under novel circumstances.” … “The lecture falls into five parts: a historical retrospect; the revolution in strategy and politics forced upon the United States by Pearl Harbor and Hiroshima; the post-war balance of power and the danger of a Soviet domination of the Eurasian continent; an analysis of American policy in the new circumstances, with an excursus on ‘the schizophrenia of Potsdam’; and a wider view of the strength and weakness of the United States. … Rostow not only gives the immediate background to the Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan; on every page he illuminates the permanent factors that govern the policy of the United States.”