bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Asylum
Authors: Kotzeva Anna , Murray Lucy , QC Robin Tam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the establishment of the United Nations in 1945, one of its most immediate concerns was the question of the refugees displaced by the Second World War. On 12 February 1946, the General Assembly referred the problem to the Economic and Social Council, recognizing the urgency of the problem and the necessity to distinguish between genuine refugees and ‘war criminals, quislings and traitors’. The outcome was the creation of a temporary agency, the International Refugee Organization, established by a General Assembly resolution on 15 December 1946,2 whose primary function was to assist genuine refugees and displaced persons either to return to their countries of nationality or former habitual residence, or to find new homes elsewhere.
Rights of Appeal
Authors: Kotzeva Anna , Murray Lucy , QC Robin Tam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The first system for adjudicating immigration appeals was introduced by the Immigration Appeals Act 1969. This brought in a two-tier system of appeals which survived, albeit in a considerably altered form, until the introduction of a one-tier system by the Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants Act) 2004. Only Commonwealth citizens had the right of appeal under the 1969 Act. The Immigration Act 1971 was the first piece of legislation to provide a right of appeal to aliens and repealed almost all previous immigration legislation. The 1971 Act did not, however, deal with asylum. Rules made under the 1971 Act provided that when a person made a claim for asylum, full account should be taken of the United Kingdom’s obligations under the Refugee Convention 1951.
Addressing The Data Problems: Cyber-Forensics And Criminal Procedure
Authors: Walden Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Digital information or data, zeros and ones, is the form in which our emerging ‘Information Society’ carries out its activities, whether through software applications, emails, data feeds or the Web. The global economy has become increasingly dependent on the processing and transmission of such data across networks to support its infrastructure and carry out many of its functions. When cybercrimes are carried out, the ability of law enforcement agencies (LEAs) to investigate and prosecute the perpetrators will be driven, in part, by the availability and accessibility of such data or information to the investigators, whether in the context of intelligence gathering, evidential retrieval or subsequent analysis and presentation in court.
Computer Crimes And Digital Investigations
Authors: Walden Ian 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Over the course of the preceding we chapters, we have considered a vast array of issues generated by our examination of computer crimes and digital investigations. The structure has followed the classic course of criminal law: first identifying the criminal conduct; then the investigative gathering of forensic material; and finally its presentation before a court of law in criminal proceedings. In terms of subject matter, however, while the overriding topic is computer and cybercrimes, the book, as implied by the title, could also be viewed as two separate books: computer crimes and digital investigations.
Logic Teaching at the University of Prague around 1400 A.D.
Authors: Ashworth E Jennifer 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is largely (45–432) an edition of a Sophistria text that represents logic teaching at the University of Prague around 1400 A.D. While the anonymous author shows few signs of intellectual distinction, both the topics chosen for discussion and the large number of direct references to other logicians make the work a valuable source for those interested in the undergraduate curriculum of the late middle ages. The editor, E.P. Bos, has done an excellent job of presenting the Latin text in as perspicuous a fashion as possible, and has provided the reader with an analysis (8–10) of the somewhat haphazard way in which the Prague master presented his sequences of arguments. However, in order to understand the text, or to glean from it anything about university teaching, one needs a good deal more than that.
Allocation And Directions
Authors: Cameron Cecily , QC Elizabeth-Anne Gumbel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
CPR 26 governs the preliminary stage of the court’s case management function. The key matters to be decided are what lay and expert witnesses should be called, what steps need to be provided for, and the timescale within which each step should be taken. These provide the overall framework for the presentation of each party’s case. If case planning has been detailed enough, and updated regularly, the claimant’s strategy should be decided and the steps required to take the case forward should be set down in the plan. However, these proposed steps should now be reviewed in the light of the defendant’s intentions with respect to witnesses and experts.
Alternative Dispute Resolution
Authors: Cameron Cecily , QC Elizabeth-Anne Gumbel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Going to trial should always be seen as a last resort. A detailed risk assessment by both parties should ultimately, in all but exceptional cases, allow a settlement to be reached. A number of factors need to be considered in approaching such a risk assessment. The main issue in respect of the scope of settlement negotiations will be whether liability and quantum should be considered together or separately. This involves consideration of a number of factors. As a general proposition, settlement of the entire litigation rather than liability alone has an immediate attraction for both parties. It provides finality
Fatal Cases
Authors: Cameron Cecily , QC Elizabeth-Anne Gumbel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The general principles applicable to claims arising out of deaths in hospital or elsewhere as a result of clinical negligence are the same as the principles applying to other fatal claims. Consideration always needs to be given to a claim on behalf of the estate of the deceased pursuant to the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1934 and on behalf of the dependants of the deceased pursuant to the Fatal Accidents Act 1976. Particulars of claim in a claim on behalf of the dependants of a mother who died in childbirth are attached at Appendix 1.
Ideal Solutions
Authors: Ben-Naim Arieh 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There exist several reference states of solutions referred to as ‘‘ideal state,’’ for which we can say something on the behavior of the thermodynamic functions of the system. The most important ‘‘ideal states’’ are the ideal-gas mixtures, the symmetric ideal solutions and the dilute ideal solution. The first arises from either the total lack of interactions between the particles (the theoretical ideal gas), or because of a very low total number density (the practical ideal gas). The second arises when the two (or more) components are ‘‘similar.’’ We shall discuss various degrees of similarities in sections 5.2. The last arises when one component is very dilute in the system (the system can consist of one or more components). Clearly, these are quite different ideal states and caution must be exercised both in the usage of notation and in the interpretations of the various thermodynamic quantities. Failure to exercise caution is a major reason for confusion, something which has plagued the field of solution chemistry. As in the case of a one-component system, ideal-gas (IG) mixtures also enjoy having a simple and solvable molecular theory, in the sense that one can calculate all the thermodynamic properties of the system from molecular properties of single molecules. We also have a truly molecular theory of mixtures of slightly nonideal gases, in which case one needs in addition to molecular properties of single molecules, also interactions between two or more molecules.
Estonia
Authors: Vallikivi Hannes , Siigur Andres 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Estonian financial markets have developed significantly during the last few years. This is due especially to Estonia’s accession to the European Union in 2004. Within recent years Estonia has harmonized its laws with numerous EU directives. As to most recent significant developments in Estonian legislation, MiFID was fully transposed to Estonian law in November 2007 and the new Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Prevention Act harmonizing the law with the Third EU Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Prevention Directive took effect in January 2008. Currently there are seven credit institutions and nine branches of foreign credit institutions active in Estonia. In addition, 192 foreign credit institutions have informed the EFSA of intention to provide cross-border services.
Finland
Authors: Wist Tarja , Victorzon Tobias 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The ongoing integration of the financial markets within the European Union (EU) and the introduction of the Euro as well as deregulation and technological progress have led to the rapid development of true cross-border trade in financial services. Competition has forced financial institutions to seek income from novel products and new business activities as well as economies of scale through larger corporate size. All this, together with the structural changes forced by the banking crisis in the 1990s and the wealth generated by the recent success of Finnish industry, has contributed to the increase and globalization of the Finnish financial markets, which today are closely connected to Scandinavia, the Baltic countries and the rest of Europe. The Finnish banking sector is dominated by Scandinavian banks which are in competition with their smaller Finnish rivals. Banking technology is highly developed, and payments are efficiently effected through a giro system in which all banks participate. Internet banking is well established with all client groups and allows for both payments and investments in real time through the Internet.
Ireland
Authors: Allen Kevin 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The exponential growth in the Irish economy during the 1990s was contributed to in no small measure by its burgeoning financial services industry. The establishment of the International Financial Services Centre (the IFSC) in Dublin in 1987 changed the financial services landscape in Ireland beyond recognition. Prior to that the industry was, in the main, small, conservative and inward looking. Since then, however, Ireland has grown to be a serious and, in some sectors, dominant player in the area of financial services, rivalling well-established centres such as Luxembourg and the Channel Islands. The IFSC was established to take advantage of the rapid growth being experienced worldwide in the financial services industry and to capitalize on a number of natural advantages inherent to Ireland. The availability of an educated English-speaking workforce in a centre with state of the art technology and telecommunications was important. So also was the fact that Ireland is in the same time zone as London, has a favourable tax regime and a sophisticated regulatory environment.
Liechtenstein
Authors: Schurti Dr Andreas , Blasy Dr Moritz 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Liechtenstein financial market has grown rapidly over the last two years. The assets under management of (1) Liechtenstein banks and finance companies; (2) Liechtenstein investment undertakings (funds); and (3) Liechtenstein insurance companies increased by 111.1% from the end of 2004 to the end of 2006. This flourishing financial market, as well as the laws regulating this financial market, are characterized by Liechtenstein’s unique position as a member of two economic unions. On the one hand Liechtenstein enjoys the advantages of the customs and currency union with Switzerland; on the other hand Liechtenstein is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA). To regulate and supervise this rapidly growing market, to comply with international standards (eg Basel Core Principles) and to implement the recommendations of the International Monetary Fund, an independent and integrated authority was established in 2005 after three years of preparation. Since 1 January 2005 the Liechtenstein financial market has been supervised and regulated by one single authority, the Financial Market Authority Liechtenstein (FMA). From a legislative point of view the last two years have also been exceptionally busy in Liechtenstein’s financial market. The legislator has strengthened the financial sector through progressive financial market regulation.
Malta
Authors: Zerafa Andrë 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As a result of common recognition and judicial adoption, all public law is based on English law. Lacunae are addressed by reference to English law. The same happens in cases of private international law where the English common law is directly applied as the law of Malta unless otherwise prescribed by law or judicial dicta. All laws and other official communications are issued in English and Maltese, whereas most commercial and banking documents are drawn in English. Commercial law is heavily influenced by English law. The foundations of the Maltese Companies Act 1995 lie in the British Companies Act 1985 and the Insolvency Act 1986. On the other hand, the Maltese financial services legislation package (consisting of fourteen Acts including the Investment Services Act (Chapter 370), Banking Act (Chapter 371), Prevention of Money Laundering Act (Chapter 373), Insurance Business Act (Chapter 403), is consistent with European Union (EU) directives. During its accession negotiations with the EU, Malta screened its laws together with the European Commission and reviewed them in line with European law. Following Malta’s accession to the EU, directives and regulations issued by the relative European institutions find concrete application within the local legal system.
The Netherlands
Authors: Hazeleger Wim 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Dutch supervision of the financial services sector is organized as a functional model on a crosssectoral basis. Supervision is divided between the Dutch Central Bank (the DCB) and the Netherlands Authority for the Financial Markets (the AFM). The DCB is solely responsible for prudential supervision of financial undertakings and the AFM for conduct of business supervision. The purpose of prudential supervision is to ensure the financial soundness of financial undertakings and contribute to the stability of the financial sector. The AFM’s conduct of business supervision focuses on ensuring orderly and transparent financial market processes, proper relationships between market participants and the exercise of due care by financial undertakings in dealing with clients.
Portugal
Authors: Oliveira Gustavo Ordonhas de , Martins Gonçalo dos Reis 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Portuguese financial markets have been through significant changes during the last fifteen years, not only in terms of dimension, but also in terms of sophistication of financial instruments, integration at European and international levels, regulatory framework and market structure. The first half of this period was mainly characterized by the tremendous growth of the stock market in size (mainly driven by the privatizations of state-owned companies in the telecommunications, banking and electricity sectors), the entering into force of new regulatory frameworks for both banking and securities market sectors, the granting of increasing autonomy to the Bank of Portugal, the creation of the securities market regulator (the CMVM) and the first steps towards the integration of the Portuguese financial markets in the European internal market after Portugal joined the EU in 1986.
Serbia
Authors: Adamovi´ Jelena 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Regulation of the Serbian financial services market started in the early 1990s. It was characterized by a general trend of liberalization during the early stages of the transition towards a market economy. However, the initial positive developments were followed by political and social disturbances and an economic downturn caused by hyperinflation, war and isolation from the rest of the world. The process of development that followed the political changes in 2000 further enhanced the necessity for thorough legislative development capable of satisfying the needs of a growing financial services industry. The privatization of the former so-called socially owned companies and the issuance of state bonds to owners of foreign currency savings seized in the early 1990s resulted in an increase in the interest of the general public in trading marketable securities. As a result of the privatization and distribution of state bonds, many individuals became participants in the capital market.
Turkey
Authors: Ozeke Hergüner Bilgen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With respect to Turkey’s integration programme into the EU, Turkey’s 2007 Progress Report (the Progress Report), which covers the period October 2006 to October 2007 as a part of the screening pro- cess, reported that good progress has been made in the banking sector; in particular, with regard to the implementation of regulations related to Banking Law No 5411 (the Banking Law). Turkey has also made good progress in the area of insurance occupational pensions, particularly upon the enactment of the new Insurance Law No 5684 (the Insurance Law). Furthermore, certain progress has been observed in the securities markets; however, full alignment has not been achieved on undertakings for collective investment in transferable securities.
Ukraine
Authors: Olekhov Ihor 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The financial services sector is becoming increasingly important to the Ukrainian economy. The Orange Revolution at the end of 2004 sparked an immense interest of foreign investors in the Ukrainian financial services sector, which continues to this date. Ukraine’s previously undervalued financial services institutions have grown in value significantly within a very short span of time. The interest of foreign investors has also been spurred by the huge potential of the consumer financing market, which is just starting to emerge in Ukraine. The value of foreign acquisitions since 2004 has exceeded USD 3bn. This figure makes this sector second in the economy in terms of direct foreign investment after the steel industry. During the last decade, the banking sector has been one of the fastest growing sectors of the Ukrainian economy and there have been a number of recent acquisitions of Ukrainian banks by foreign banks, which is likely to increase competition further. From 1991 to 1993, the Ukrainian banking industry underwent a period of reorganization and rapid growth. Soviet-era banks were re-registered by the NBU and a number of the current leading Ukrainian banks were established or re-registered during this period. From mid-1998 to mid-2001, the Ukrainian banking system underwent a period of modernization. In 1998, the NBU promulgated international accounting standards for Ukrainian banks. Due to the presence of foreign capital, new banking services and products were introduced to the market.
Republic Of Korea
Authors: Choe Byoung Seon 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As part of its regulatory responsibilities, the FSC considers and resolves policy matters relating to the inspection and supervision of financial institutions and the securities and futures markets. (Matters relating to the securities and futures markets are largely delegated to the SFC.) The FSC also has the authority to issue and revoke licences to financial institutions. Legislation relating to the financial sector is drafted and submitted to the National Assembly by the MOSF in consultation with the FSC. In 2002, the SFC was granted additional powers to investigate unfair stock trading and seek prosecution, and an investigation division was created to plan and coordinate investigation activities, comprised of offlcials from the FSC and FSS. In addition, the SFC conducts an advance review of matters relating to the securities and futures markets which are to be considered by the FSC.
Rotation
Authors: Cullerne John P , Machacek Anton 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we will examine the fundamental principles that are essential for a good understanding of rotational motion. We begin by considering the kinematics of rotating systems and the consequences of referring the physics of a situation to a rotating point of view (frame of reference). We then move on to ideas of the forces involved, which make up the ‘dynamics’ of this chapter. The techniques and ideas developed in the early part of this chapter are then applied to the Kepler problem in two workshops, which essentially outline the derivation of planetary trajectories through Newtonian mechanics. All the principles introduced in this chapter are also essential for a good understanding of the material contained in workshops in Sections 7.8–7.11 in Chapter 7. In order to fully appreciate those workshops, students seeing the material for the first time should work through Chapter 3 first.
Roles and Responsibilities of the Regulator
Authors: Alder CBE Roy 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before 1968, there was no statutory structure in the UK for the regulation of medicines. The general assumption of successive governments had been that companies manufacturing, promoting, and marketing medicines had sufficient commercial and reputational incentives to ensure the quality, safety, and efficacy of pharmaceutical products. There appears to have been a broad confidence within government that liability and reputational risks alone would ensure that pharmaceutical companies would have every incentive to develop and maintain high-level standards for quality, safety, and efficacy of their products.
Introduction
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is now clear … that the asbestos industry, internationally, is literally engaged in a struggle for survival. Recent developments, an increasing concern with potential environmental hazards (i.e. risk to the general public) and association with cancers other than lung cancer and mesothelioma have greatly increased the scope of the problem.
All you really need to know about the root causes, the cover-ups, and the human impact of occupational cancer you can learn from the example of asbestos.
Hiding the Elephant of Compensation
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1918, at the New York Hippodrome, the great magician and escapologist Harry Houdini staged an audacious trick; he led onto the stage a large elephant called Jennie. Having introduced her to his audience, Houdini enticed Jennie into a specially constructed cabinet and then closed the doors. The orchestra worked up a suitable finale, whereupon the maestro pulled open the doors to reveal that Jennie had vanished. The elephant had not really disappeared, of course: she was simply hidden behind a mirrored screen.
Defending Asbestos: Twenty-First-Century Perspectives
Authors: McCulloch Jock , Tweedale Geoffrey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1973, Matt Swetonic addressed the Asbestos Textile Institute in Arlington, Virginia. Despite the industry’s travails, he was his usual eloquent self, and he posed his audience a question: why had asbestos been singled out as the prime target for so many assaults? His answer: ‘[I]t was vulnerable to attack, because there was someone willing to lead that attack [Selikoff], and because Congress had graciously provided the vehicles for such an assault.’This refrain—that the industry had itself been a victim of asbestos—was to become a familiar one after the 1970s.