bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ireland’s Defence Dilemma, 1923-1932
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Resolution of the problem of the army’s domestic intelligence activities was only one in a number of dramatic changes of status, scale, organization, purpose, and prospects endured by the army between 1923 and 1932. Much of this was, at least in principle, as welcome to the military as it was vital for the government. In practice, the changes represented the progressive marginalization of the army in Irish political life. In April 1923 the government was utterly dependent on the military; by 1932 the army was cowed, emaciated, and resigned to further decline. This transformation in military fortunes was wrought by a government which, in common with most of its successors, stead-fastly refused either to articulate or to make provision for a coherent national defence policy.
Security Operations and Covert Activities, 1939-1945
Authors: O’Halpin Eunan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The state was relatively well prepared for the acute security problems which it faced in the autumn of 1939. Many essentially technical matters such as the control and censorship of communications, and supervision of the movements of people into and out of the state, had been under consideration for some time, while the continuing threat to Anglo-Irish relations posed by the IRA had been brought home by its English bombing campaign. Problems of espionage by both sets of belligerents, and of covert interference in Irish affairs, were also anticipated. The result was the rapid imposition of a highly intrusive domestic security regime. These drastic arrangements and practices won both public acceptance and the eventual grudging private commendation of the Allies. Irish security successes against Axis and republican activities undoubtedly contributed considerably to Allied acceptance of military neutrality; successes against Allied covert activities also made a useful contribution to the management of the state’s external relations.
Introduction
Authors: Marks Lara V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the care of their children the Jewish mothers are a pattern to their Gentile neighbours in the East End. Go and visit the schools in the East End and see the Jewish children. They stand out in marked contrast to other children for bright ness and healthy appearance. That is only due to the Jewish mothers. SUCH visions of Jewish women as good mothers with robust children were portrayed by many medical practitioners, voluntary workers, and statesmen in late nineteenth-century England. Much of their praise focused on the good care Jewish mothers took of their families and in particular of their infants. Indeed, Jewish mothers were presented as models to other mothers. They were not only seen to be scrupulous in the attention they paid to household chores, but were also lauded for ceasing to work early in pregnancy, and for their good breast-feeding habits. The remarkably low rates of mortality among Jewish infants in East London and elsewhere were also attributed to the exemplary care Jewish mothers took of their babies.
Vassalage and the Norms of Medieval Social Relations
Authors: Reynolds Susan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Before one can criticize the concept of vassalage as it is used in discussions of feudo-vassalic relations it is necessary to indicate as clearly as possible what it means there. This section is therefore intended to describe the main features of vassalage as it seems to be understood by those who use the word or who talk about vassals as a general category within medieval society. On occasion I shall note differences of opinion among those who use the concept, but I shall not at this stage say anything about those who reject it or criticize it radically. The first necessity is to get clear what it is that they or I reject. Clarity—or relative clarity-in this case may produce crudity and over-simplification, combining together views which some hold and others reject, but I do not intend to produce a caricature or straw man in order to make it easy to knock him down in later sections. In order to avoid clumsy repetitions I have not inserted phrases like ‘some historians say’, ‘it seems to be generally thought’, or ‘vassals are (or have been) held to be this or that’ in every sentence. The whole section must nevertheless be taken as a kind of indirect speech, even if it is more like rumour—and perhaps out-of-date rumour at that-rather than the accurate report of any one historian’s views.
Legislation and Justice
Authors: Padoa-Schioppa Antonio 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
No enquiry into the making of the modern European state can ignore the part played by law. This comprehensive scholarly volume examines in detail how states availed themselves of juridicial techniques in order to mould their institutions, to take control over their territory, and to exercise power over their subjects. The contributors are leading scholars in the field, who explore the administration of justice and the promulgation of legislation across Europe over a period of several centuries, in order to uncover the role of the law in the birth and development of the European state. The Origins of the Modern State in Europe series arises from an important international research programme sponsored by the European Science foundation. the aim of the series, which comprises seven volumes, is to bring together specialists from different countries, who reinterpret from a comparative European perspective different aspects of the formation of the state over the long period from the beginning of the thirteenth to the end of the eighteenth century. One of the main achievments of the research programme has been to overcome the long-established historiographical tendency to regard states mainly from the viewpoint of their twentieth-century borders.
Royal ordonnances in Medieval France
Authors: Couron Andre 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nowadays, legislative acts seem to be more a consequence of state power than its instrument of; for medieval states, we have to adopt a different, indeed almost the opposite, point of view. Obstacles to medieval legislation were numer ous. Particularly in a France which (because of the political weakness of the earli est Capetians) did not possess a legislative tradition, and which lacked a centralized administration or a common past among populations subject to various feudal powers, any royal legal competence faced huge impediments. Under such condi tions, French medieval kings, when enacting written rules, were creating the tools of their power more than drawing on the consequences of their strength. To ignore the political situation of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries would lead scholars to misunderstand some aspects of medieval legislation. Royal enactments were not necessarily to be observed immediately and uniformly. To legislate often meant to make an attempt, and was the only way the royal government had for testing possible resistance. This must account for some features of medieval legis lation, such as frequent shortcomings, because at times enactments were consid ered a last resort, or repetitions in several enactments, because royal government sought to enforce previous legislation more effectively.
The Centralization ofJustice and the Formation of aJudicial Hierarchy in the Early Modern State: The Principality of Hesse
Authors: Stryk Karin Nehlsen-von 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In contrast to other West European countries, the formation of the modern state in Germany proceeded not at the royal and national level but on a princely and regional one. The German principalities, such as the electorates of Brandenburg, Saxony, and the Palatinate, the archbishoprics of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier, the duchies of Bavaria, Wilrttemberg, Jillich-Berg, Brunswick Lilneburg, and Mecklenburg, the margravate of Baden, and the bishoprics of Munster, Wilrzburg, and Bamberg, were recognizably developing from the thirteenth century onwards in the direction of institutionalized territorial states, with the ultimate goal of unitary systems of administration and oflaw under the control of a single sovereign, the ruler of the principality. The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by contrast, right down to its demise in 1806, continued to remain in the older world ofhierarchical and feudal relationships.
Power Elites and the Prince: The State as Enterprise
Authors: Descimon Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Theories of modernization are prone to confer on the state the mission of enabling society to escape from the forces of inertia embedded in traditional forms of social domination. But the state also develops ‘laterally ‘, that is, in conjunction with the dominant social forces. The action of the state upon itself and upon society implies an endless series of compromises designed to find the channels necessary for the implementation of policy. In this regard, nothing is more significant that the failure to transplant the Polizeiordnung of German cameralism to the Russia of Catherine the Great, which lacked both the intermediary corporate bodies and the mainly urban cultural models which had ensured the triumph of the well-ordered police state in its various forms.
The Home Office, 1830-1834
Authors: Mitchell L G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Melbourne was Home Secretary from November 1830 to July 1834. For most of that period, he employed his brother George as Under-Secretary. Few holders of this office can have faced more turbulent situations. In addition to the grave disturbances that punctuated the years in which the first Reform Bill was debated and passed, protest was taking institutional form. Political Unions and Trade Unions presented the Home Office with new challenges, which could not be ignored. Inevitably too, the Irish, like the poor or bad weather, still demanded attention. Emancipation in 1829 had not drawn the sting of Catholic protest. It had merely diverted it into other channels. For all these reasons, Melbourne was suddenly in the full glare of public scrutiny. As the minister responsible for law and order, he had much to do. His reputation as a politicalflaneur would either be confirmed, or abandoned in favour of something a little more complimentary.
Feminism and the Woman Citizen in the Interwar Years
Authors: Caine Barbara 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the 1890s and more particularly the early twentieth century, the question of women’s rights finally became a matter of intense public and political debate. After decades of discussion of the ‘woman question’ amongst activists, writers, artists, scientists, moralists, and educators, questions about the nature and the situation and the demands of women began to feature in the popular imagination-as Punch cartoons of the late 1880s and 1890s, featuring powerful and athletic women on bicycles or cricket fields, or bullying effeminate men at cocktail parties, serve to show.’ Public discussion and press coverage became even more extensive with the advent of militancy and the massive suffrage demonstrations which developed after 1907.
A Polite and Commercial people
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book, the first volume to appear of the New Oxford History of England, offers the most authoritative, comprehensive general history of England between the accession of George II and the loss of America. Though conventionally seen as static and politically stable, the eighteenth century was an age of extraordinary vitality and variety, of contrasts and change. Beneath the serene surface of aristocratic government, stately manners, and Georgian elegance, lay a less orderly world of treasonable plots, riotous mobs, and Hogarthian vulgarity. While rapid commercial growth and burgeoning bourgeois pretensions gave rise to the positive achievements of military success and imperial expansion, cultural confidence and polite manners, tensions and contradictions simmered and threatened. Evangelical enthusiasm jostled with scientific rationalism, oligarchical politics with popular insubordination, entrepreneurial opulence with plebian poverty, sentimentality with utilitarian reform. Using the most up-to-date research, Paul Langford reveals the true character of the age, and demonstrates that eighteenth-century society was both strengthened and stretched by the changes to which it was subjected. The New Oxford History Of England series (General Editor: J. M. Roberts) The first volume of Sir George Clark's Oxford History of England was published in 1934. Over the following fifty years that series established itself as a standard work of reference, and a repertoire of scholarship for hundreds of thousands of readers. The New Oxford History of England, of which this is the first volume, is its successor. Each volume will set out an authoritative view of the present state of scholarship, presenting a distillation of the new knowledge built up by a half-century's research and publication of new sources, and incorporating the perspectives and judgements of a new generation of scholars. It is the intention of the General Editor and the Publisher that shall worthily take the place of its predecessor as the standard authoritative account of the national history and achieve a similar classic standing.
The Progress of Politeness
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
However difficult to quantify, the growing affluence and influence of the middle class ‘f!}ere widely recognized. Luxury and refinement seemed within the reach even of relatively humble families. The pursuit of genteel status and the acquisition of polite manners in some measure united a class which in other respects appeared diverse and divided. Educational institutions were reshaped to meet its needs, with the emphasis on the acquisition of useful skills and social graces. The old grammar schools and universities came under heavy criticism and were compelled to adapt to changing requirements. Some of the most notable cultural developments of the period, for example the expansion of the market for books and the immense popularity of novels and histories, reflected the taste of middle-class consumers. So did the ubiquity of the assembly as a focus for ordinary social life and the proliferation of spa towns and seaside resorts for bourgeois recreation. Middle-class women shared in the literary and social opportunities of the period, but found themselves increasingly excluded from gainful employment.
Industry and Idleness
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Social problems, the subject of some cynical Augustan satire, were treated in an increasingly serious and didactic manner in the literature of the 1740s. Practt#x2019;cally, too, there were new initiatives. Characteristic expressions of early eighteenth-century benevolence, the societies for the reformation of manners and the charity school movement, were less . favoured under George II. Institutional charity was concentrated on the rapid expansion of hospitals, in the provinces as well as in London, and on philanthropic experiments in the grand manner, notably the Found ling Hospital and the Magdalen House. This concern with curing disease and saving lives had much to do with the high mortality rates recorded in the second quarter of the century. It was accompanied by acute anxiety about the indiscipline and immorality of the lower classes, supposedly evidenced by the popular taste for gin and the rising level of crime. The emphasis was on heightening the deterrent force of the criminal law rather than reappraising the causes of criminality. A sim£lar inflexibility governed attitudes towards the poor. With real wages at a relatively high level, poverty was attributed to temporary misfortune or culpable fecklessness.
Patriotism Unmasked, 1742-1757
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Walpole ‘s fall was followed by demands for con stitutional reform and the punishment of Walpole himself. They were effectively blocked by the new ministry. The patriot cause seemed comprehensive y to have foundered. George II and Carteret were the principal beneficiaries of the crisis of I 742, but their foreign policy provoked an outburst of anti-Hanoverianism, and the King was forced to experiment with a Broad-Bottom coalition of Whigs and Tories. Open war with France preceded a Jacobite rebellion which was quelled only with difficulty. The Tory party showed httle interest in a Stuart Restoration but remained alienated from the court of George I I. In the midst of this crisis Henry Pelham was able to construct a lasting ministry. He used it to carry through an ambitious legislative programme for Scot land, and to bring the war to an end. The Pelhamite peace was somewhat marred by factious disputes within the government.
The Fortunate Isle
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the middle of the eighteenth century Britain enjoyed remarkable prestige among other Europeans. The British themselves considered their reputation entirely deserved. Religious tolerance and liberty under the law were much prized. But reality did not always accord closely with expectations. The rights of religious minorities were variable and uncertain. The execution of the laws was lax and discretionary rather than liberal. There was bitter criticism of lawyers and the judiciary. The legal privileges treasured y propertied Englishmen were not all available to their poorer compatriots. New legislation and administrative procedures put strains on traditional assumptions about civil liberty. Anxiety on this score was matched by concern about Britain’s less impressive reputation in cultural matters. The arts seemed disturbingly dependent on foreigners for their excellence, and even for their existence. Englishmen sought solace in the glories of their language and literature, in the triumph of the ‘natural’ garden, and in the adoption of Italian and classical models with which to express the native English genius. Under George II they received little encouragement from the court. But George lI I provided well-intentioned patronage, including an important part in the foundation of the Royal Academy. English xenophobia complicated the adoption of Continental tastes. It also caused problems within the British Isles themselves. Celts seeking a share in the new prosperity of the period suffered greatly from the national prejudices of Englishmen. Scots, in particular, found themselves victimized thanks to the political influence and unpopularity of Lord Bute during the early years of George III. There were clearly defined limits to the enlightenment and liberality which commentators commonly identified as hallmarks of British life.
Macaroni Manners
Authors: Langford Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The economic growth of the 1760s and 1770s had important consequences for public and private finance. A wave of speculation and gaming, some of it associated with the State lottery, caused intense anxiety in the early seventies. The financial crash of 1772 revived memories of the South Sea Bubble and aroused exaggerated fears of impending national bankruptcy. Such concern also reflected the growing belief that the age was peculiarly afflicted by the vices of luxury, extravagance, and immorality. This was the heyday of the macaronis, outrageous offenders against the canons of bourgeois respectability, not least in the effeminate dress and manners which they adopted. Marital fidelity and family life were widely thought to be threatened. The moral standards of the new King and Queen visibly clashed with the supposed degeneracy of upper-class life. Scandals associated with other, less disciplined members of the royal family, enhanced this impression of a crisis in the highest reaches of polite society. Aristocratic power and values generally came under increasing criticism. ‘Chesterfieldism’ seemed to embody all that was most cynical and depraved in an outmoded concept of gentility. The sexual freedom of educated women, and the prominence accorded female writers and artists, gave rise to an increasingly tense debate, as scholarly argument combined with sensational journalism to investigate the changing roles of the sexes.
The cobhams of Sterborough
Authors: Saul Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The monuments of the Cobhams of Sterborough constitute the finest and most numerous to any branch of the Cobham family outside Cobham. In their burial church at Lingfield are tomb effigies to two members of the family and brasses to three others. The Cobhams of Sterborough were for over a century the most successful of the Cobham collateral branches. Reginald, Lord Cobham, the second of his line, who died in 1361, was one of the outstanding figures of his day: a brilliant war captain and a respected royal councillor. He and his son were both summoned to parliament as peers. But the family’s ascendancy did not last: after two generations their star faded and they sank back into the gentry. The Sterborough line’s changing fortunes are vividly reflected in their monuments. A brief overview of the familis rise and decline will allow us to set those monuments in their context.
The Brasses and Monuments at Lingfield
Authors: Saul Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The historical development of the mausoleum at Lingfield stands in sharp contrast to that at Cobham. At Cobham, the whole commemorative scheme was informed by the defining vision of one highly influential figure: John, 3rd Lord Cobham. While it is true that the two dozen or so brasses at Cobham cover a period of 150 years, it is the vision and ambition of John, Lord Cobham that dominate. At Lingfield the position is very different. At Lingfield there was no presiding genius of comparable importance to the 3rd Lord: no one who was equally influential in shaping the development of the mausoleum. In consequence, a greater variety of taste is to be found in the monuments. The remarkable consistency which characterizes the memorials at Cobham is absent. Brasses alternate with full-relief effigies. Some of the brasses are canopied, while others are not. Identifying and isolating the various influences at work is less straightforward than at the sister church.
Brasses elsewhere to the Cobhams
Authors: Saul Nigel 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Cobhams’ appetite for commemorative display is amply attested by the two sets of monuments at Cobham and Lingfield. However, these are by no means the only memorials to members of the Cobham family. There are some half-dozen others-all of them brasses—in as many churches. For the most part, the people commemorated are Cobham spouses or collaterals. There are wide variations in the size and character of the memorials. The largest of the group, the brass at Chrishall (Essex), is a big triple-canopied composition, while the others are all in varying degrees smaller. To consider the brasses as a group risks imposing a somewhat artificial unity on them, for they are a scattered series, laid at different times in different places, and their shared characteristics are few. None the less, the risk is probably one worth taking. When considered as a group the brasses yield further insights into the Cobhams’ commemorative tastes and self-image.
Angels, Monks, and Demons in the Early Medieval West
Authors: Leyser Conrad 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the monk wants to spit, or to blow mucus from his nose, he should not aim in front of himself, but behind-because there are angels standing in front of him, as is shown by the prophet, ‘In the sight of angels, I will sing psalms for you Lord, and I will worship at your sacred temple’ [Ps. 137-1].