bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Phenomenology Of The Msm Higgs Boson
Authors: Bardin Dima , Passarino Giampiero 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
With the new experimental data from the LEP /SLD Collaborations and the increasing experimental accuracy that has been achieved, there is indirect evidence (from Z-resonance data) for a Higgs boson with a mass below 262GeV (at 95 per cent C.L.) in the Minimal Standard Model (MSM) of the unified electroweak interactions. From the point of view of direct searches, we should keep in mind that in the near future LEP2 will be the only opportunity for a direct search of a Higgs boson of mass&gt; 90 GeV, see (LEPEWWG 1998).
The evolution of diversity in ancient ecosystems: a review
Authors: Morris S Conway 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is John Phillips (1860) who is generally credited with first plotting a history of diversity as revealed by the fossil record (Figure 14.1, upper left). Although schematic his diagram has several features of interest. It depicts the triple peaks of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic diversity, divided by the caesuras of the end Permian and end-Cretaceous events. Interestingly, the respective dips in the highs of Paleozoic and Mesozoic diversity were attributed to techonomic failure, a problem that still dogs any analysis of ancient diversity. Phillips (1860) also recognized the precipitous increase in Cainozoic diversity. Thus, within a year of the first edition of Darwin ‘s Origin of Speciesthe basic information on the history of organic diversity was available, with Phillips (1860) not only drawing attention to techonomic lacunae but also in the pages preceding his figure 4 making some preliminary attempts to quantify his analysis. It took more than a hundred years, however, for serious interest in this history to be rekindled. First were the pioneering formulations of Newell (1967), Valentine (1969, 1973) and Tappan (1969), but the subsequent enterprise has been strongly influenced by the massive compilations, in part unpublished, by Sepkoski (1992) (Figure 14.1) and an important series of analytical papers (Sepkoski 1978, 1979, 1981, 1988, 1993; see also Sepkoski 1997).
“Moulding The Mathematical Education Of 55 Million” Americans
Authors: Parshall Karen Hunger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Sylvester faced a new challenge when The Johns Hopkins University finally opened for instruction in October of 1876. He had not taught in a formal, classroom setting since his forced retirement from the Royal Military Academy in 1870, and he had never before taught at the graduate level. How best to convey the spirit and the techniques of mathematical research to the six graduate students who had come to study with him at Hopkins during that first year? Initially, he was unsure, and this uncertainty reflected itself in the fact that he chose not to offer a regularly scheduled course during the first term, opting instead to meet with students more informally in his office and to focus on rekindling his own mathematical flame. As he confided to his long-time friend, Barbara Bodichon (letter 84), while he found his new position refreshing in its seemingly total freedom, he wondered just how the students were supposed to learn. He was succeeding in resuscitating his research on the theory of invariants (letters 86−89), and he was actively involved in trying to solicit support nationally for a research-level mathematics journal (letter 85), but what about the students? In the second and subsequent terms, he gave scheduled courses in addition to instituting the practice of speaking formally and informally on his current research interests. The liberality of the Hopkins atmosphere allowed Sylvester, in a very real way, to define the role of a mathematics research professor for the first time in the American context.
Mapping Time
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Calendar’ contains descriptions of a selection of the calendars of the world and their history. There are introductory chapters on the nature of calendars, their astronomical background, and the history of writing and counting. There are also Chapters on the Week and on the history of Calendar reform. There is a section on methods of converting dates in one calendar to dates in another which are suitable for implementation on a hand calculator or computer; these include a discussion of the calculation of the date of Easter. The book is intended for the general reader rather than for the specialist but contains much material not otherwise easily accessible. There is an extensive bibliography.
Four European Calendars
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our knowledge of the calendars in use in the Greek cities is surprisingly meagre. It comes in part from classical authors such as Geminus and Censori nus, and in part from dates inscribed on tombs and the like. Certainly, a lunar or lunisolar calendar underlay Greek calendars, but the latter varied in detail from one city state to another-different names were used, the year began at different times, intercalations were managed differently, and the years were counted in various ways. It is often very unclear how one month in one state corresponded to a month in another.
HIV
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1981 the Centers for Disease Control in Atlanta noticed an increase in rare diseases that are associated with suppression of the immune system. This observation was made in groups of homosexual men in Los Angeles, San Francisco and New York. Patients died from infectious diseases that were normally controlled by the immune system. There was also an increase in a rare cancer, called Kaposi’s sarcoma. The number of patients who succumbed to this new immunodeficiency disease increased dramatically. It became clear that a completely new disease with an unknown mechanism had suddenly appeared.
Timing The Emergence Of Resistance
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we describe the detailed dynamics of the rise of resistant virus during (single)-drug therapy. We assume that resistant mutants pre-exist prior to treatment and calculate the rate at which their abundance increases during treatment. We provide an alytic approximations for the fall of wild-type virus and the rise of resistant virus. We calculate the time it takes until the resistant mutant reaches 50% prevalence in free virus and infected cell populations. The calculations in this chapter are based on the basic model of virus dynamics; the underlying central assumption is that resistant virus rises as a consequence of an increase in target cell numbers.
Iterative Methods for Toeplitz Systems
Authors: Ng Michael K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Toeplitz and Toeplitz-related systems arise in a variety of applications in mathematics and engineering, especially in signal and image processing. This book deals primarily with iterative methods for solving Toeplitz and Toeplitz-related linear systems, discussing both the algorithms and their convergence theories. A basic knowledge of real analysis, elementary numerical analysis and linear algebra is assumed. The first part of the book (chapters one and two) gives a brief review of some terms and results in linear algebra and the conjugate gradient method, which are important topics for handling the mathematics later on in the book. The second part of the book (chapters three to seven) presents the theory of using iterative methods for solving Toeplitz and Toeplitz-related systems. The third part of the book (chapters eight to twelve) presents recent results from applying the use of iterative methods in different fields of applications, such as partial differential equations, signal and image processing, integral equations and queuing networks. These chapters provide research and application-oriented readers with a thorough understanding of using iterative methods, enabling them not only to apply these methods to the problems discussed but also to derive and analyse new methods for other types of problems and applications.
Toeplitz Systems
Authors: Ng Michael K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In various application fields, the matrices encountered have special structures which can be exploited to facilitate the solution process. Sparsity is one of these features. However, the matrices we consider in this book are mostly dense matrices with a special structure. One interesting family consists of matrices having a Toeplitz form. A matrixTn∈ ℂn×nis said to be aToeplitzmatrix if it is of the form given in (1.5), i.e. it is constant along its diagonals. The name Toeplitz originates from the work of Otto Toeplitz (1911) in the early 1900s on bilinear forms related to Laurent series. More details about his work can be found in (Grenander and Szegö 1984).
Applications to Queueing Networks
Authors: Ng Michael K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter we discuss numerical methods for queueing and stochastic manufacturing systems. We are interested in obtaining the steady state probability distribution. In queueing systems, many useful quantities, such as the blocking probability and the waiting time of customers in the queues, can be obtained from the steady state probability distributions. Moreover, the average running cost and profit of many manufacturing systems can also be written in terms of these steady state probability distributions. In matrix terms, we are interested in obtaining the normalized right-hand side null vectors of the generator matrices of the queueing and manufacturing systems. Definitions of queueing theory terminologies used below can be found in Cooper (1981).
Principles
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cosmologies of myth were characterized by the invention of deities to account for phenomena, such as the stars or the planets. There was one law for the heavens, where the gods dwelt for the most part, and another for the ordinary man. The modern scientist, and we can look back to Aristotle as being the first great natural scientist, commences his study of the universe by assuming that the laws of nature are universal. We do not need one law for the planetary motions, and another for walking along a road. In this spirit, cosmology, the scientific study of the universe, is developed by extrapolating locally verified laws of physics to remote locations in space and time. We do not need Atlas to hold up the heavens, but the orbits of the planets suffice to stop them falling on to the Earth like so many shooting stars. At first, crystalline spheres undergoing complex arrays of epicyclic motions were needed to account for the planetary motions. It took nearly 2000 years for the Copernican revolution to overthrow the epicycles of the geocentric universe, dethroning the Earth as the centre of the cosmos and setting the stage for modern astronomy.
Our Neighbourhood
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Look up at the sky on a dark night. The thousands of twinkling points of light that you can see are mostly stars that are neighbours of the sun. Neighbourliness is a relative concept. Here it amounts to a distance of hundreds of light years. Stars come in many varieties, from red to blue, and even beyond the range of colours visible to the human eye. The bluer the colour, the hotter the star.
The distance to the nearest stars is determined by parallax. During the course of a year, as the Earth orbits the Sun, the apparent position of a star on the celestial sphere is displaced appreciably. The displacement depends on its distance from us. The parallax method can be used to measure stellar distances out to a hundred light years or so.
Supermassive Black Holes and Galaxy Formation
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Predicted by the theory of general relativity, black holes are among the strangest objects known to exist. A point in space usually has a past and a future. An explosion is an example of a point in space–time. The explosion is both at a specific point in space and at a specific time. Any observer, or any light signal, can be said to move towards the future. If it travels far enough and long enough, it is in theory eventually able to reach any other point in space at some future time. The one exception to this rule is experienced by an object near a black hole. A black hole may be defined to be a region in space–time where there are events from which there is no escape, even for light signals. A black hole is a trapped surface: cross this surface, and there is no going back!
Beyond the Beginning
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Quantum uncertainty is the key to understanding what, if anything, happened before the beginning; that is, time zero as measured by the cosmologist. The logic is worth examining. The universe is expanding, and therefore it had a beginning. Extrapolate known physics towards the beginning, and we reach a point of failure. Classical physics is inadequate to cope with the extremes of density and temperature that we know must have been present. So far, so good. Enter quantum cosmology: here is where the fun begins.
A Brief Moment in Time
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The past is unique and inviolate from the wanderings of a future time traveller. It is not possible to travel back to an epoch where no time machine already existed. A time traveller needs an exit door as well as an entrance: for this, time machines are needed. Once some future civilization masters the techniques of time machines, from then onwards what we think of as space and time will never be the same again.
We can imagine the equivalent of super highways laid down in time as well as in space once time machine construction becomes routine engineering. The future will be multiply connected. Only the past is sacrosanct. We need not worry about time travellers appearing at our front door in the immediate future. Shakespeare can rest in peace: there is no danger that his greatest plays were written by some traveller from the future.
And so to God
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The role of God in cosmology has both intrigued and plagued cosmologists since the earliest recorded writings on the nature of the cosmos. Some suffered: not only were their books banned or burnt, even they were not immune from similar treatment. In modern times, the Catholic Church at least developed more progressive views under the guidance of the eminent Jesuit cosmologist Georges Lemaître.
Born in 1894 at Charleroi, Belgium, Lemaître, as a young, unknown researcher and already ordained, was able to demonstrate in 1920 that Einstein’s static universe from 1917 was unstable to collapse.
Introduction
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The study of the basic building blocks of matter and the forces which act between them is a fundamental area of physics. The structures under scrutiny are extraordinarily small, sometimes well below 10−15 m, and in order to perform experiments at this scale probes with correspondingly high spatial resolution are needed. Visible light, with a wavelength λ 500 nm, is wholly inadequate. In- stead, high energy photon or particle beams have proven to be excellent tools, and the results of elementary particle physics would be unimaginable without them. High energy particle beams are thus essential to this field of experimental physics.
RF systems for particle acceleration
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 1 we showed that the fundamental limitations to the final beam energy achievable in static accelerators may be overcome by the use of highfrequency voltages. Virtually all modern accelerators use powerful radiofrequency systems to produce the requisite strong electric fields, with frequencies ranging from a few hundred MHz to several GHz. In such systems waveguides are preferred as resonators and to conduct the beam, since they have low losses and can deliver very high power. We will begin by considering the physics of waveguides and resonant cavities, and will discuss their most important properties. Further details may be found, for example, in references [59], [110] and [109].
Radiative effects
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 2 we showed that electron beams of sufficiently high energy emit synchrotron radiation according to (2.15) with a power Because of their high rest mass, this effect is negligible for protons until they reach extremely high energies of at least 1 TeV. In this chapter we will consider how the emission of synchrotron radiation determines many of the properties of electron beams, in particular by damping synchrotron and betatron oscillations.
Diagnostics
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The beam circulating inside a closed vacuum chamber is not visible from outside. Furthermore, no-one is usually allowed near the accelerator while it is in operation. In order to establish first of all whether a beam is present in the machine, and then to measure the physical parameters of that beam, the accelerator must therefore be equipped with a wide range of measuring instruments, often termed monitors. In this chapter we will discuss the most common beam monitors used in accelerators and introduce various diagnostics used to measure the key beam parameters.
Imaging and probing foam structure
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If, however, the liquid be viscid and tenacious, like soap and wate1; the air is […] imprisoned in the mass, producing the appearance which is commonly called lather.
Philosophy in Sport Made Science in Earnest. (1853), John Murray, London.
An heroic labour, often discussed but never repeated, was undertaken by the botanist Edwin Matzke in the 1940s. Matzke produced soap bubbles of equal size by use of a syringe that he dipped into a soap solution. The bubbles were then placed one by one into a glass container.
Equilibrium under gravity
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As for Samaria, her king is cut off as the foam upon the ‘Water.
Hosea, 10.7 (King James version)
Most foams are observed in equilibrium under gravity1, so it is important to understand the density profile which is consistent with this condition. There is a profile of liquid fraction, such that the foam is relatively dry at the top, and wet at the bottom as in Fig. 10.1. It is established by the process of drainage, the subject of the next chapter.
Ordered foams
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I have been involved in another affair[…] which George Darwin characterises as utterly frothy. Nov. 20, /887, letter.from Kelvin to Rayleigh.
Ordered foam is easily made in two dimensions in the form of the honeycomb structure, which we encountered in Section 8.3. It forms more or less perfectly whenever bubbles of equal or nearly equal size are used to make a two-dimensional foam. Three-dimensional monodisperse foam does not order spontaneously. Like the Bernal random packing of hard spheres, it becomes trapped in a disordered structure.
This is true at least for dry foams. Wet monodisperse foams may order more readily: certainly this is the case with monodisperse emulsions in the same limit.
Solid foams
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The trick is to sell the customer a product which is mostly air.
Confectionery manufacturer
Solid foams are at least as important in practice as their liquid counterparts. They are extremely light, and most of their uses derive from the desired combination of low density and some other physical property, such as low thermal conductivity. Examples of solid foams are shown in Fig. 16.1.
Some natural foams
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Cell and tissue, shell and bone, leaf and flower, are so many portions of matter, and it is in obedience to the laws of physics that their particles have been moved, moulded and conformed. […] Their problems of form are in the first instance mathematical problems, their problems of growth are essentially physical problems, and the morphologist is, ipso facto, a student of physical science.
D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson
In addition to man-made foams, there are natural ones. Biological structures are generally cellular: even the enjoyable crunch of the biting of an apple is testimony to this. It has a different quality according to the direction of the bite, because the cells are anisotropic.
Envoi
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I can see that your head
Has been twisted and fed
By worthless foam from the mouth.
Bob Dylan
We have seen that the physics of foams has many aspects: geometry, topology, statistics, and potential subtleties of physical chemistry which are often overlooked.
The idealised approach taken in this book has made successful attacks on several problems, starting from the equilibrium dry foam. However, taking the subject as a whole, this is only one corner of the field of play, as sketched in Fig. 18.1. The difficulties of dealing with very wet foams, and/or conditions of rapid shear or structural change, are both theoretical and experimental. Easy progress can hardly be expected.
Finite Difference and Finite Volume Methods for Nonlinear Hyperbolic Systems and the Euler Equations
Authors: Feistauer M , Felcman J , Straskraba I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In modern technologies one often encounters the necessity to solve compressible flow with a complicated structure. There are several conceivable models of compressible flow. Let us mention, for example, the model of inviscid, stationary, irrotational or rotational subsonic flow using the stream function formulation, and the models of transonic flow based on the small perturbation equation or full potential equation. There exists an extensive literature about the finite difference or finite element methods for the numerical solution of these models. (For a survey of mathematical and numerical methods for these models, see (Feistauer, 1998).) In a number of problems, the potential models are not sufficiently accurate, particularly in high speed (transonic or hypersonic) flow, because of the appearance of the so-called strong shocks with large entropy and vorticity production. This leads to the necessity of using the complete system of conservation laws consisting of the continuity equation, the Euler equations of motion and the energy equation (called the Euler equations in brief), which has been widely used during the last few decades for the modelling of flows in aeronautics, the aviation industry and steam or gas turbine design. Successively, the Euler equations have begun to be applied also to low Mach number problems on the one hand and to problems with chemical reactions on the other. These models neglect, of course, viscosity, but in many situations they give good results, reliable from the point of view of comparisons with experiments.
Finite Element Solution of Compressible Flow
Authors: Feistauer M , Felcman J , Straskraba I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Chapter 3, our attention was on the numerical solution of inviscid flow described by the Euler equations. We discussed the finite difference method applied to the problem with one space variable and the finite volume schemes for the numerical solution of multidimensional problems. The inviscid model gives physically acceptable results in some cases of internal and external aerodynamics. However, if the bodies immersed in the gas have a complicated structure or the angles of attack of flow past airfoils are large, then the inviscid model can no longer be applied. In order to obtain a correct physical solution of the flow of a real fluid, in many cases of practical interest one must use models taking the viscosity effects into account.