bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Right to Basic Resources
Authors: Chauvier Stéphane 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Poverty, like disease, is an absolute and not a relative state. Its opposite is not wealth, which is a relative concept, but what one could call vital security. A person living every day in the fear of not finding food or shelter, but who, by fortunate coincidence, manages to find a roof and sufficient food each day, would still be considered poor in spite of his good fortune, because poverty contains a subjective dimension: it is not only characterized by a low level of resources, but also by a vital insecurity, namely the absence of a foreseeable and reliable access to the resources that are essential to life.
Executive Directors’ Knowledge
Authors: Storey John , Salaman Graeme , Holti Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The research reported in this chapter explores the knowledge work practices of directors and other senior managers. It examines the ways in which senior managers use knowledge and the ways they help to adapt and create knowledge. Through close and detailed examination of senior managers’ doing and knowing, it becomes possible to shed some light on what, and how, knowledge is used at the strategic apex of organizations. There are a number of crucial questions for which research to date has not yet provided adequate answers: What knowledge do executive managers use? What knowing is involved in management? In so far as contributing to strategy is an expectation, how is this accomplished and what knowing is required for this?
Consumer Credit Licensing
Authors: Popplewell S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ever since the nineteenth century and legislation in respect of pawnbrokers the provision of credit has been regulated. The majority of businesses wishing to grant credit or bail goods on hire must apply for and obtain a suitable licence, otherwise risk committing a criminal offence or find that the agreements that they enter into are unenforceable. The current licensing system is found in Part III of the Consumer Credit Act 1974 (CCA 1974), which came into force on 1 October 1977 and replaced the previous licensing scheme found in the Moneylenders Acts and the Pawnbrokers Acts. It is currently administered and enforced by the Office of Fair Trading (hereinafter referred to in this chapter as the ‘OFT’). As will be seen from the following chapter the amendments introduced by the Consumer Credit Act 2006 brought about significant changes to the licensing system. With the majority of the amendments coming into force on 6 April 2008,1 the CCA 2006 introduces new categories of business that require licences, subdivides types of business into ‘descriptions’ that can be individually licensed, and significantly adds to the regulatory and enforcement powers of the OFT.
Advertising
Authors: Sayer P 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As one would expect, consumer credit advertising is regulated under the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 1974 and the Consumer Credit (Advertisements) Regulations 2004, SI 2004/1484 in some detail. What will be attempted here is an exposition of the particular rules that apply to consumer credit advertisements. Of course, any advertisement will also have to comply with any other relevant legislation and codes.1 Great care has to be taken to comply with the relevant consumer credit law in this field. The danger of any trader taking an over-robust view is that their conduct may attract the unwelcome attention of consumers, Trading Standards Officers, and the Office of Fair Trading (OFT). In addition, as the whole credit market is intensely competitive, a trader may expect complaints from competing lenders, etc. Section 43 of the CCA 1974 deals with advertisements to which Part IV of the Act applies. Part IV of the Act deals with the seeking of business and, in particular, advertising. Under section 43(1), Part IV of the Act applies to any advertisement, published for the purpose of a business carried on by the advertiser, indicating that he is willing to provide credit, or to enter into an agreement for the hiring of goods by him. The wide scope of section 43(1) is qualified by section 43(2). An advertisement does not fall under subsection (1) if the advertiser does not carry on (a) a consumer credit or a consumer hire business, (b) a business in the course of which he provides credit to individuals secured on land, or (c) a business which comprises or relates to unregulated agreements where the law applicable to the agreement is the law of a country outside the UK and if the law applicable to the agreement were the law of a part of the UK, it would be a regulated agreement.
Linked Transactions
Authors: Popplewell S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Although the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 1974 primarily regulates credit and hire agreements, it also, to a more limited extent, regulates transactions that are entered into as a consequence of, or connected with, those agreements. The trans- actions that are regulated are defined in section 19 of the CCA 1974 and are called ‘linked transactions’. The use of the word ‘transaction’ as opposed to ‘agreement’ in section 19 must be taken to be deliberate, and hence the section applies not only to agreements. Examples of transactions that may not be agreements include deeds, trusts, and gifts. It is not only transactions entered into by a debtor or hirer that can be linked transactions, but also transactions entered into by a relative of a debtor or hirer. This is an anti-avoidance measure to prevent unscrupulous creditors or owners (or, perhaps more likely, the other party to the linked transaction) escaping the consequences of a transaction being linked by having it entered into by a person other than the debtor or hirer. ‘Relative’ is defined widely enough to include business partners, the spouses of business partners, and bodies corporate which are controlled by the debtor or hirer.
Information and Notices
Authors: Smith J M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Once a regulated consumer credit agreement or a regulated consumer hire agreement has been made, the creditor or owner is required to provide periodic statements, information and copy documents on request, and notices when the debtor or hirer is in default. The requirements, as expanded by the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 2006 with effect on and from 1 October 2008, are detailed but not always clear. Questions arise, for example, as to who is the ‘creditor’, what is a ‘copy’ of a document, what is meant by a rate of interest ‘applicable on a per annum basis’, when a debtor ‘ceases to be in arrears’, what is a ‘payment’, what is the ‘shortfall’, and the period in relation to which an arrears notice may be sent. These issues are discussed in this chapter where they arise in the exposition of the requirements. Their importance should not be underestimated. The consequences of noncompliance may involve loss of the right to recover substantial amounts of interest and default charges with no discretion being given to the court to allow recovery. In contrast, following the repeal of section 127(3) and (4) of the Consumer Credit Act (CCA) 1974,1 the court always has a discretion whether to permit the enforcement of an improperly executed agreement that was made on or after 6 April 2007.2 Accordingly, for the future, the focus of attention may be expected to move from incorrectly drafted agreements to incorrectly prepared statements and notices.
The Development of International Criminal Law after Nuremberg
Authors: Jescheck Professor Hans-Heinrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Ten years have passed since the judgment of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg. The twelve findings of the American military tribunals that were announced after the main trial and on the basis of the legal principles developed during the trial belong to history. Only a few of the defendants sentenced to imprisonment are still behind bars; some have had to serve their sentence up to the last day; most were released from incarceration before time. The world has all but forgotten the arguments of the Nuremberg judgments. They could be summarized as follows: under international law, the individual has direct responsibility in criminal law; criminal acts under international law are, in particular, a war of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity; the duties of the individual under international law have precedence over those established in national law.
Nuremberg Eighteen Years Afterwards
Authors: Kranzbuhler Otto 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After my learned friends, Professor Herbert Krauss and Professor Carl Haensel, have presented their thoughts on the Nuremberg trials in the previous issue of this Review, it will be diﬃcult for me to be heard on the same topic without boring or shocking my readers. In order to avoid both, I should like to begin by saying that my approach is different in several respects, maybe because my personal position was, and is, completely different.
Introduction
Authors: Jackson Robert H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If mankind really is to master its destiny or control its way of life, it must first find means to prevent war. So long as it cannot, war demands will dictate the course of our collective and individual lives. And if we are to come to grips with the problem of preventing war, it is important that we know how wars are made, to what extent they result from impersonal pressures and tensions, and how far they are due to blunders or pugnacity of individual statesmen or political factions.
Lifestyle
Authors: Matthews David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Managing diabetes can be challenging and time-consuming as it requires attention to everyday activities including food and physical activity, and investigating and reflecting upon their effects on blood glucose levels. Diabetes is a condition that is greatly affected by lifestyle choices in everyday life; eating a large meal will have more effect on blood glucose levels than eating a small snack, taking part in physical activity can lower glucose levels, losing weight will have a positive effect on both overall health and blood glucose levels. Self- management of these lifestyle factors influences outcomes in both the long and the short term. There is much confusion about the ideal diet for diabetes, about how much physical activity people should engage in and how other aspects of their life affect blood glucose levels. These issues are all addressed in this lifestyle chapter.
Marked-nominative
Authors: könig Christa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Marked-nominative case systems occupy an important place in this volume, for two reasons: Not only do they constitute the most widespread type of case systems in Africa, they also are an almost unique African phenomenon. Marked-nominative languages are in fact cross-linguistically rare. The only other reliable cases that have been reported are the Yuman languages (e.g. Maricopa [Gordon 1986], Dieguen)o, Jamul Tiipy [Langdon 1970, Miller 2001] as well as the Yukian language Wappo (Li & Thompson 1976:454–65, Li, Thompson & Sawyer 1977:89–99) of California. Further information is needed on the following languages, also claimed to have marked- nominative systems: Houailou (Oceanic, Austronesian), some older Germanic languages, Old French, Ancient Egyptian (on pronouns), varieties of Maidu (Penutian), Shokleng (Jê), Malak-Malak (non-Pama-Nyungan, Australian), and Proto-Afroasiatic (Plank 1985a:302, 2007 and Mallinson &&&& Blake 1981:47–8).
Conclusions
Authors: könig Christa 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Even if it has more to offer than has been assumed so far in the literature, the fact remains that case as a grammaticalized category is a rather rare phenomenon in Africa. It occurs mainly in the Nilo-Saharan and Afroasiatic phyla, marginally also in some Kordofanian and western Bantu languages of Niger-Congo (see section 5.1.1). There is reason to argue that even in Khoisan languages, grammaticalized case is not entirely absent. In languages such as Khoekhoe, Khwe, and !Xun there are elements that can be taken to be incipient case markers (see section 5.4).
The Status of Combatants
Authors: Coady C A J (Tony) 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
My starting point is the fact that there are powerful moral objections to the attacking, and indeed targeting, of non-combatants. This is a key element in the moral guidance oﬀered by the jus in bello for the conduct of war. As we shall see, however, there are ambiguities in the interpretation of the terms ‘combatant’ and ‘non-combatant’ that make this guidance contestable in various ways. Moreover, on any plausible interpretation, this prohibition was more honoured in the breach than in the observance during many of the wars of the twentieth century that were dominated by the awesome power of air bombardment. Against this trend, the prohibition has become more respected, at least in word, if not always in deed, during some of the larger scale wars of the past fifteen years or so. There is, of course, no reason to become complacent about this since non-combatants are still directly targeted in many contemporary conflicts, and where they are not, their lives and property are still at great risk from the morally glib acceptability of the doctrine of ‘collateral damage’.
Models of Competition
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, we review traditional approaches of interfirm competition, concentrating on models that have their genesis in economics. Much of the early literature on strategic management was heavily inXuenced by this economic view. We set out a selection of the models and frameworks, and then discuss critically their suitability for analysing the dynamics of competition. This early view of strategic management Weld centred in Industrial Organization economics was based on models that have as their underpinning the notion of competitive equilibrium. In later chapters, we shall introduce alternative models that are able to go beyond the equilibrium-inspired view, but it is important to understand how equilibrium models work in order to see the need to extend these models and how to do it.
Conclusion
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Strategic management has evolved from a consideration of the situation a firm faces at the immediate time to one where firms should consider their position and strategy in a dynamic environment, where the decisions they make influence other firms, and their reactions change the nature of competition.
In the early days of strategic management, little attention was paid to the dynamics of strategy. Markets were considered to be static, and the resource-based view was also in its infancy. Both the market approach (Porter 1980) and the resource-based view (Barney 1991; Wernerfelt 1984) trace their roots back to early industrial organization economics (Bain 1956; Penrose 1959) where assumptions of equilibrium were made in the economic models of that time.
Parliamentary Representatives from Early Democratization to the Age of Consolidated Democracy: National Variations and International Convergence in a Long-term Perspective
Authors: Cotta Maurizio , Best Heinrich 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the spring of 2004, following the latest enlargement of the European Union (EU), democratic parliamentary elections have taken place, on the same day in twenty-five European countries, to elect representatives to the European Parliament. We can rightly consider this date, whatever the immediate practical effects of these elections, a crucial symbolic point in the political development of Europe. This point in time provides us with a challenging perspective over the approximately 150 years of European history that have elapsed from the revolutionary year of 1848 to this day.
Cultural Capital and Political Selection: Educational Backgrounds of Parliamentarians
Authors: Gaxie Daniel , Godmer Laurent 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As Émile Durkheim has pointed out in his Education and Sociology, education is “above all, the means by which a society perpetually renews the conditions of its own existence” (Durkheim 1993: 101). Education indeed allows for the acquisition of a set of elements (knowledge, know-how, behaviours, rules to respect) necessary to the insertion and to the adaptation of individuals within the social world. The latter perpetuates itself to the extent to which the members of society are adequately educated (with regard to the standards of the group(s) they belong to at a certain moment in time).
Promoting Equality and Diversity
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Promoting Equality and Diversity: A Practitioner’s Guide explains the fundamental changes in the approach to achieving equality and diversity that are occurring as a result of recent legislation. The work takes a task based approach to the subject, suggesting legal solutions to discrete practical problems, and providing clear, pragmatic guidance to enable practitioners to tackle the individual problems they might encounter. This book provides a clear and practical explanation of both good practice and the legislation behind the new proactive approach that is being adopted. It covers areas that receive no treatment elsewhere and offers guidance to organisations that want to implement equality measures but are unsure of how to do so. This book not only explains the relevant legal concepts but also offers real practical advice on topics such as how to carry out impact statements; how to carry out equality pay audits; and the role of monitoring. By adopting a task based approach, focusing on what organisations have to deal with in practice, this work is able to offer a fully integrated legal analysis of current discrimination law that will be of use to every practitioner working in this field. By combining a traditional legal approach with examples, checklists, and precedents the authors have produced a book that is both highly useful and extremely readable.
The Public Duty To Promote Equality
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The underlying theme of this book is the promotion of equality and diversity as best practice. For some employers, however, promoting equality is not just best practice, it is mandatory. To date, those duties extend only to the race, disability and sex strands but there is a possibility that the duties might be extended to the other strands in the future.
The duties apply directly only to public authorities. This includes not only what we would traditionally understand as the public sector (central and local Government) and what would once have been described disparagingly as ‘quangos’ (for example, executive agencies and Non-Departmental Public Bodies or ‘NDPBs’), but also in some cases private or voluntary sector bodies carrying out public functions through contracts with the public sector.
Classical Asthma
Authors: Jackson Mark 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Asthma has a long history. The term itself derives from an ancient Greek word, asqma, which first appeared in Homer’s epic poem The Iliad, composed in the seventh or eighth century bc. At the start of Book 15, Zeus awakes to discover the Trojan army dispersed by the Greeks, and the Trojan leader, Hector, ‘lying on the plain, while about him sat his comrades, and he was gasping with painful breath[asthmati], distraught in mind, and vomiting blood’.
Forming new words
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Words are not the smallest meaningful elements in language. It is obvious that careless is made up of care and -less. It is also obvious that words like books and tables contain a suffix -s, which, as we saw in the previous chapter, indicates plural, that is, more than one. The study of how words can be broken down into meaningful constituents is called morphology, literally the study of form (Greek morph¯e ‘shape’, ‘form’). The term was used in biology before it was applied to the study of words and probably counts as a learned word, but interestingly the root morph has now come into common use as a verb.
Phonetics
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There are two main kinds of speech sound: vowels and consonants. Virtually everyword in every language contains at least one vowel. If you came across words like pfft or skz ina language, you would be surprised. You would wonder how they could be pronounced. There was a film called Phffft, starring Jack Lemmon and Kim Novak(1954). It referredto‘thesound made by the sudden disintegration of a marriage’! The sequence is pronounceable, but try conveying it so someone some distance away.
Writing
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Humans have been drawing pictures for tens of thousands of years, and the earliest examples of writing are pictograms, small, often stylized, representations of anything that can be seen: people, body parts, animals, plants, heavenly bodies, and so on. The best-known examples are the hieroglyphs of Ancient Egypt, which date back to the fourth millennium BC.
The word ‘hieroglyph’ is from the Greek hieros ‘sacred’ and glyphein ‘to carve’. The original hieroglyphs were carved in stone, but later these symbols were used on other materials, especially papyrus, a writing material made from the pith of the papyrus reed.
Language change
Authors: Blake Barry J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
As mentioned at the beginning of the previous chapter, languages change. Over time every facet of a language can change: the sounds, the morphology, the syntax, the semantics, and the vocabulary. Most readers will be familiar with Shakespeare’s English of 400 years ago (Early Modern English) and realize that the language has changed somewhat over four centuries. Some readers will have been introduced to Chaucer’s fourteenth-century English and realize that it can be a little difficult to understand.
Slave Demography and Family Life
Authors: Morgan Kenneth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The demographic composition of the slave population shaped the parameters of slave life in North America and the Caribbean. Sex ratios, age structure, and the relative proportion of African and creole slaves influenced reproductive rates, family formation, and black culture. Though the relative proportion of males and females in the Atlantic slave trade varied over time and by region, generally there was a demographic imbalance. Males outnumbered females, often by a ratio of two to one.
Slave Resistance and Rebellion
Authors: Morgan Kenneth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Resistance to bondage by slaves occurred frequently, as one might expect in a situation where unequal power relationships defined the position of masters and unfree labourers. The most obvious and major form of resistance was collective rebellion, but slave resistance ranged far beyond revolt to incorporate other strategies intended to combat bondage. For slaves, unwillingness to perform work adequately, either because their condition stimulated opposition or because they were badly treated, was a common act of resistance.
The Abolition of the British Slave Trade
Authors: Morgan Kenneth 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the British slave trade reached its peak in the quarter-century before the American Revolution, few could have predicted that the entire ‘Guinea’ traffic from Africa would be abolished by parliamentary statute shortly after the turn of the nineteenth century. Slavery and the slave trade appeared to be so much a part of the peopling and maritime strength of the British Empire, and so necessary to maintain sugar plantations in the Caribbean, that to imagine a British imperial world without a regular supply of new black cargoes would have been fanciful.