bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The evolutionary genetics of speciation
Authors: Coyne Jerry A , Orr H Allen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Any discussion of the genetics of speciation must begin with the observation that species are real entities in nature, not subjective human divisions of what is really a continuum among organisms. We have previously summ2.rized the evidence for this view and counterarguments by dissenters (Coyne 1994). The strongest evidence for the reality of species is the existence of distinct groups living in sympatry (separated by genetic and phenotypic gaps) that are recognized consistently by independent observers. To a geneticist, these disjunction groups suggest a species concept based on gene flow. As Dobzhansky (1935, p. 281) noted: Any discussion of these problems should have as its logical starting point a consideration of the fact that no discrete groups of organisms differing in more than a single gene can maintain their identity unless they are prevented from interbreeding with other groups... Hence, the existence of discrete groups of any size constitutes evidence that some mechanisms prevent their interbreeding, and thus isolate them. ‘This conclusion inspired Dobzhansky (1935) and Mayr ‘s (1942) biological species concept (henceforth ‘BSC ‘), which considered species to be groups of populations reproductively isolated from other such groups by ‘isolating mechanisms ‘genctically based traits that prevent gene exchange. The list of such mechanisms is familiar to all evolutionists, and includes those acting before fertilization ( ‘prezygotic ‘ mechanisms, such as mate discrimination and gametic incompatibility), and after fertilization ( ‘postzygotic ‘ mechanisms, including hybrid inviability and sterility).
Isaac Newton
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This new work by one of this century's most eminent Newtonian scholars - Rupert Hall - brings together for the first time the early eighteenth century biographical notices of Sir Isaac Newton. The centrepiece of the book is a brand new translation of Paolo Frisi's biography, the first published on Newton in 1778. Also included are the biographies by Fontenelle (1727), Thomas Birch (1738), Charles Hutton (1795), and John Conduitt. Each translation is accompanied by a commentary by Professor Hall. A brief biography and a bibliography of Newton have also been included for the reader. This book will be an extremely valuable addition to the works on Newton, and provide a fascinating text for historians of science
Introduction
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Biography as a literary form is almost as old as any narrative writing. To say nothing of Plutarch’s Parallel Lives and other well-known examples of biographies from the ancient world which served as models for later ages, we have from the earliest times of Christian civilization in western Europe such works as Bishop Asser’s life of King Alfred and Einhard’s life of Charlemagne, both composed in the ninth century. With the renaissance of learning the art of biography passed from the hands of clerics to those of the laity, a notable early English example being William Roper’s account of Sir Thomas More, his father-in-law, written soon after More’s execution (1535) but not printed before 1626. In the following century, biography was to form a rich component of English literature, at least half-a-dozen works having secured them selves permanent places.
Paolo Frisi’s Elogio
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Paolo Frisi (1728-84) is an unsung hero of the Illuminismo in Italy. Not that he has ever been an obscure figure; his name duly appears in appropriate bibliographies and other works of reference, including the Dictionary of Scientific Biography, but the important contributions made by him to European learning-and Italian learning in particular-have neither been clearly understood, nor justly valued, nor set in their true context. Italian scholars are busy at the present time in the reinterpretation of Frisi, whose work and achievements are made difficult to comprehend by their range and volume. Only recently has much effort been devoted to Frisi ‘s large manuscript legacy. Italy was not a prime locus of scientific activity in the eighteenth century, nor was it a prime seat of that complex movement known as the Enlightenment.
Charles Huttons article
Authors: Hall A Rupert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
After the article on Newton in Biographia Britannica (1760) —either com posed by Thomas Birch or based on his General Dictionary account, but with a somewhat different selection of letters —the next significant English life of Newton, and the last to be published in the eighteenth century, was written by Charles Hutton (1737-1823) for his Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (2 vols., 1796, 1795).
James Joseph Sylvester
Authors: Parshall Karen Hunger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the folklore of mathematics, James Joseph Sylvester (1814-1897) is the eccentric, hot-tempered, sword-cane-wielding, nineteenth-century British Jew who, together with the taciturn Arthur Cayley, developed a theory and language of invariants that then died spectacularly in the 1890s as a result of David Hilbert's groundbreaking, `modern' techniques. This, like all folklore, has some grounding in fact but owes much to fiction. The present volume brings together for the first time 140 letters from Sylvester's correspondence in an effort to establish the true picture. It reveals - through the letters as well as through the detailed mathematical and historical commentary accompanying them - Sylvester the friend, man of principle, mathematician, poet, professor, scientific activist, social observer, traveller. It also provides a detailed look at Sylvester's thoughts and thought processes as it shows him acting in both personal and professional spheres over the course of his eighty-two year life. The Sylvester who emerges from this analysis - unlike the Sylvester of the folkloric caricature - offers deep insight into the development of the technical and social structures of mathematics.
Integration and Measure
Authors: Pier Jean-Paul 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until 1900 the integral is conceived as the limit of Riemann sums, objects that may be traced back to Archimedes. A function admitting a finite integral is termed summable or integrable. The concept has two major defects preventing it from satisfying traditional properties: A function may admit a non-integrable derivative; one cannot conveniently handle convergence processes under the integration sign. The situation changes radically when Lebesgue defines his integral for a much larger class of functions.
The Calendar
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Some have likened the calendar to a clock; this is, of course, a mistake. A calendar hangs by my desk but there is no way I can tell the date just by looking at it. The calendar is more abstract; it is a systematic way of naming the days by allocating each to a year and a month and maybe a week. It enables us to label the days in the past and in the future and to arrange them all in order. If we know the date of two events we know which was the earlier and which the later; the calendar enables us to make or impose unambiguous commitments for the future; without a calendar, a diary would be a muddle. In another meaning of the word, a calendar is an almanac, a program of future events or a record of past events, each assigned to a day or a year.
Time and the Clock
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Time which stretches from the remote past into the unforseeable future may bemuse philosophers, but we are only concerned with its measurement. You and I can remember at least some of our past experiences and, with greater or lesser difficulty, we can arrange them in temporal order--a task made easier if we know the times and dates of events. We may then note the minute, the hour, the day, the year of events as they happen. Their order is then obvious a matter which may be of crucial importance (for example, did you arrive at the scene of the crime before or after the murder?).
ThVeariety of Calendars
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Men have ordered their affairs by the phases of the moon and the seasons for as long as records exist. Even before calendars had been invented they could have told their wives that they would be back three days after the next full moon or remarked that their son was born three winters ago. Such perhaps were the beginnings of calendars. Later, men counted the days between moons and solstices, and were better able to anticipate a day in the future or to remember the past. But they still needed to observe the moon or the solstices to determine when a new month or a year began. As astronomy developed, it became possible to foresee the new moons or the solstices with increasing precision, and calendars as we know them today began to take shape.
ThMeayan and Aztec Calendars
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Man reached the Americas from Asia about 20 ooo years ago. Civilization, or at least agriculture, has flourished in Mesoamerica-Belize, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico---since 1500 BC, and possibly much earlier. Different peoples, speaking different languages, have successively risen and fallen from dominance. We are interested mainly in the Maya and the Aztecs, who developed an advanced civilization with writing and a calendar.
ThFerench Republican Calendar
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
An aim of the Revolution in France of1789 was to produce a brand new calen dar; instead, it succeeded in resurrecting the oldest calendar of all. This was introduced not to correct some astronomical discrepancy but to mark a break with the past. The Church-the guardian of the calendar with its feasts and fasts and saints’ days-was one of the sources of power of the hated ancient order; it had to be done away with.
ThCeonversion of Regular Calendars
Authors: Richards E G 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All the calendars, except for those based on the Egyptian wandering year, require the intercalation of a leap day at regular intervals; this defines a cycle of intercalation, generally of four years. These intercalated days are inserted at the end of some particular month, which need not necessarily be the last. For instance, in the Julian calendar they are inserted at the end of February, the second month.
EV simulation
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Computer simulation has been widely accepted to be a powerful tool in different fields of research. Its key role is to provide virtual analysis of physical system behaviour before performing any expensive prototyping or time-consuming experimentation. Increasingly, it enables engineering designers to evaluate their designs thoroughly, and to identify some problems that are not easy to observe by measurement or experimentation. This tool can save the development cost in the order of millions of dollars that might otherwise be spent to correct flaws in later stage of engineering and manufacturing (Chau, 1996).
EV infrastructure
Authors: Chan C C , Chau K T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The development of EVs has advanced rapidly over the past decade. Researchers and engineers have concentrated on the improvement of EV performance through the advances in batteries, motors, converters, controllers and relevant auxiliaries. Now, it comes to the stage of commercialization. To support the publicity of EVs, an EV infrastructure is the underlying foundation, which includes the basic facilities and services to support the operation of a large number of EVs (Olsen, 1996). The development of EV infrastructure is a huge project, and no single party can afford the total cost and do it alone. Moreover, an EV infrastructure is a long-term investment and we need to spend many years for the development before getting any rewards. Both public and private sectors such as government, organizations, automotive companies, power utilities, battery manufacturers should work together for the development of EV infrastructure (Muntwyler, 1996; Nowicki, 1997).
Virus dynamics
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We know, down to the tiniest details, the molecular structure of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Yet despite this tremendous accomplishment, and despite other remarkable advances in our understanding of individual viruses and cells of the immune system, we still have no agreed understanding of the ultimate course and variability of the pathogenesis of AIDS. Gaps in our understanding like these impede our efforts towards developing effective therapies and preventive vaccines. Martin Nowak and Robert M May describe the emerging field of theoretical immunology in this accessible and well- written text. Using mathematical modelling techniques, the authors set out their ideas about how populations of viruses and populations of immune system cells may interact in various circumstances, and how infectious diseases spread within patients. They explain how this approach to understanding infectious diseases can reveal insights into the dynamics of viral and other infections, and the interactions between infectious agents and immune responses. The book is structured around the examples of HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis B virus, although the approaches described will be more widely applicable. The authors use mathematical tools to uncover the detailed dynamics of the infection and the effects of antiviral therapy. Models are developed to describe the emergence of drug resistance, and the dynamics of immune responses, viral evolution, and mutation. The practical implications of this work for optimisation of the design of therapy and vaccines are discussed. The book concludes with a glance towards the future of this fascinating, and potentially highly useful, field of study.
Simple Antigenic Variation
Authors: Nowak Martin A , May Robert M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Soon after the discovery of HIV, in the mid-1980s, it was realized that the virus was characterized by extensive genetic variability. Beatrice Hahn and George Shaw, at first working with Robert Gallo at the NIH and later at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, were among the first to show that isolates of HIV differ extensively both when taken from different patients and when taken from the same patient at different time points. It became clear that HIV was changing continuously during the course of an infection, that the virus entering a patient was not the same as the virus one or several years after infection.
Circulant Preconditioners
Authors: Ng Michael K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A circulant matrix is a special form of Toeplitz matrix where each row of the matrix is a circular shift of its preceding row; see (1.6). Because of the periodicity, circulant systems can be solved efficiently via a deconvolution by discrete Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs); see Section 3.2.1. Circulant approximations to Toeplitz matrices have been used for some time in signal processing (Pearl, 1973; Steimel, 1980), time series analysis (Brockwell, 1991; Sherman, 1995), and image processing (Andrew and Hunt, 1977; Biemondet al.,1990; Katsaggelos, 1991). However, in these applications the circulant approximation so obtained is used to replace the given Toeplitz matrix in subsequent computations. In effect, the matrix equation is changed and hence is the solution.
Perspectives
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Humanity is a mote in the eye of the universe. Man has been a distinct species for one-thousandth of the age of the universe. The fragility of life bodes ill for the future. The most minuscule of cosmic impacts between the Earth and a wandering asteroid could readily erase all traces of life on Earth.
But we have survived so far, over billions of years. That is no mean accomplishment, and one that inevitably prompts some hard questions. By what circuitous route did we get here? As a cosmologist, I go as close to the beginning of the universe as theory allows. Whatever my theory, there is always a point of departure. Our knowledge of physics only takes us back so far. Before this instant of cosmic time, all the laws of physics or chemistry are as evanescent as rings of smoke. Speculation runs rife, among theologians and philosophers as much as among astrophysicists.
The Universe of Galaxies
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Galaxies such as our Milky Way system have somehow succeeded in maintaining a youthful appearance for billions of years. The Sun takes about 100 million years to orbit the Milky Way, and we can think of a solar orbit as lasting a galactic year. Our galaxy is about 100 galactic years old. By any measure of the rate at which the gas clouds in the galaxy have collapsed, there should be little gas remaining. By all accounts it should be a decrepit assemblage of old and dying stars. Yet it is blossoming with the vitality of youth, as new stars are born. Indeed, our Milky Way is a fertile breeding site for stars.
The Invisible Cosmos
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Astronomers used to be extraordinarily biased. Our eyes and telescopes, at least until a half-century ago, were limited to optical wavelengths. In fact, the visible part of the spectrum, spanning the colours of the rainbow, violet to red, is only a tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light invisible to the human eye is produced by cosmic sources over a vast span of wavelengths, from tens of metres to trillionths of a metre, from radio waves to gamma rays. An X-ray survey of the sky reveals a totally different vista from that visible to the optical astronomer on a dark night. An infrared view is completely different from both.
Clusters and Clustering
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To probe the past effectively, we need to study galaxies. These are fossils from the past, because their properties have changed little since formation. Clusters of galaxies are relatively pristine collections of galaxies. Clusters have not changed much since birth, and contain any debris that galaxies may have ejected in their youth. All galaxies in a cluster are more or less coeval, unlike a random collection of galaxies in the field. The study of galaxy clusters is an important step in our exploration of the past.
Origins
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To astronomers of antiquity, and indeed until the first three decades of the twentieth century, the universe was static. It was inconceivable to imagine it being in a state of expansion. Even Edwin Hubble, who discovered the law that relates distance to redshift, refused throughout his life to accept that the universe was expanding. But Hubble notwithstanding, there was a paradigm shift. Too many facts were explained by the hypothesis of the expanding universe. It became mainstream cosmology within decades after Hubble’s law was announced. How did this radical change in our view of the cosmos come about?
From Time to Time Machines
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Scientists are not very concerned about the philosophical or metaphysical implications of an infinite universe, but are willing to debate the limitless opportunities for the development of alternative forms of life and society. I will borrow freely in the following example of what may seemingly be more science fiction than science, but with ideas that are firmly rooted in physics and biology.
First we should address the key issue that faces would-be time travellers. Time travel leads to the matricide paradox. Suppose one were to meet one’s mother as a young girl, and kill her. The logical inconsistency seems a devastating argument that would prevent such a journey from ever occurring. The matricide problem has a possible solution. Consider a billiard ball on a trajectory that allows it to fall down a wormhole. It re-emerges in its past, to collide with its earlier self, knocking itself on to a different trajectory. But this cannot happen. Nature, or rather physics, abhors and, some say, forbids causality violation. The wormhole’s gravity defocuses the billiard ball’s path. When it emerges, the ball has a high likelihood of missing itself.
Where Next?
Authors: Silk Joseph 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Prediction is dangerous. The Danish physicist Neils Bohr allegedly said ‘Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future.’ But this sort of view has never stopped us from speculating.
I expect the third millennium will bring in the long sought-after Theory of Everything, or something close to it. This is the Holy Grail of physics, a theory of matter and energy, of space and time, which will leave few questions unanswered or at least unanswerable. We will know how our universe began, and what there was before the Big Bang.
Injection and extraction
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In circular accelerators, particularly storage rings, the particles follow a rather complicated path from source to experiment. This path may be traced in the diagram of Fig. 4.1. A particle source, depending on its type, produces either electrons or ions with very low initial energies. A pre-accelerator — a linac or a microtron — is then used to bring the particles up to sufficiently high energy to allow injection into the circular main accelerator with as few losses as possible. Here they are raised to the required final energy and then ejected out of the ring, at which point they are either sent straight to the experiment or injected into a storage ring. In storage rings this process is repeated many times in order to accumulate large beam currents, as we have seen in Section 1.4.2.
Luminosity
Authors: Wille Klaus 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 1.4.2 we saw that for a high-energy physics experiment at a collidingbeam storage ring, the rate of particle production is given by the simple expression Here σp is the interaction cross-section of the physical process under study. This is a property of nature and so is fixed. is the luminosity, which describes how effectively the accelerator performs. The luminosity of course depends on the machine parameters, and so can be varied in different regions of the accelerator.
Molecular order in soft condensed matter-crystaIIinity in polymers
Authors: Jones R A L 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Most of the materials that are studied in the field of ‘hard’ condensed matter physics– metals, semiconductors, and ceramics– are crystalline; the atoms or molecules of which they are composed are arranged with near-perfect longranged order over distances that are many orders of magnitude greater than the distance between molecules. Single crystals of metals or semiconductors of macroscopic size are not uncommon, but even where these materials are described as ‘polycrystalline’ the fraction of the molecules that does not partake in the long-ranged order is very small (though, of course, this small fraction of atoms associated with grain boundaries and defects such as dislocations may have an effect on bulk properties out of proportion to their number).
Environments
Authors: Blundell Stephen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
We have seen in the previous chapter that the magnetic properties of many crystals containing rare earths can be deduced by considering the rare earth ions to be behaving as completely free ions without interacting with each other or their surroundings. However, for magnetic ions in certain crystals one cannot usually ignore such interactions and for many materials they are large and significant. In this chapter we will consider the interactions between an atom and its immediate surroundings. In the following chapter we shall consider the direct magnetic interactions between a magnetic atom in a crystal and its neighbouring magnetic atoms.