bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Fredrickson George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book might be considered a sequel to my earlier study White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History, but it is not one that I planned or expected to write when that work was published in 1981. White Supremacy compared the attitudes, ideologies, and policies associated with white or European domination over blacks and other people of color in the history of both societies. In the introduction, I acknowledged the “obvious limitations” of this approach: “Comparative studies of non white responses and resistance movements would be enormously valuable and should be done. But a useful prelude to such a work is awareness of what non whites were up against.…”At the time, nothing was further from my mind than writing my own study of the other side of the black-white confrontation. I thought of White Supremacy as a one-shot excursion into comparative history involving South Africa, after which I would revert to my previous vocation as simply an historian of the United States with a special interest in black white relations. But two things happened to change my mind. The first was my growing sense of the unlikelihood that anyone else would undertake a study such as the one I had proposed. It eventually dawned on me that the broad understanding of South African history that I had acquired in writing White Supremacy had prepared me exceptionally well to carry on such work and that if I did not do it no one else was likely to in the foreseeable future. The second new consideration was the remarkable course of events in South Africa in the 1980s. I watched with fascination as a massive resistance movement challenged white supremacy as it had never been challenged before. Like most other observers writing in the previous decade, I had not expected such a development; my studies of the ideas and institutions associated with white domination had made it seem that the apartheid regime was backed by sufficient white power and determination to make it, if not invulnerable, at least in control of the situation for several years to come. As events unfolded in South Africa, I became intensely curious about the history of the black opposition-how it had developed, what its governing ideas were, and how it compared with the African-American freedom struggle that had been central to my public consciousness since the 1950s and that I had long wanted to study and write about.
“We Shall Not Be Moved”: Nonviolent Resistance To White Supremacy, 1940-1965
Authors: Fredrickson George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
People committed to a militant struggle against colonial or racist domination during the middle decades of the twentieth century had one clear alternative to the Marxist-Leninist path of violent revolution. It was the method of resistance pioneered by Mohandas K. Gandhi in South Africa and India that has been variously called “passive resistance,” “nonviolent direct action,” and “militant nonviolence.” During the 1940s and ‘50s in South Africa-and for a few years longer in the United States-advocates of nonviolence tried to demonstrate the superiority and efficacy of their method of protest. They argued for it, tried it out on a small scale, threatened mass action, and in a few notable instances led thousands of demonstrators in direct action against oppressive laws or policies. The term nonviolence is difficult to define with precision, but there seems little question that it refers to a range of protest or resistance activities that fall between the straightforward use of physical force and the men! expression of dissatisfaction in conventional, legally authorized ways within officially constituted bodies or channels. Boycotts, strikes, mass marches or demonstrations, and planned civil disobedience are all forms of nonviolent resistance. Nonviolent actions do not necessarily signify a nonviolent ideology. Movements that are not committed to nonviolence as a philosophy or moral imperative often make use of such methods. Furthermore, there is a natural tendency for people whose grievances are not being addressed through conventional politics and legalistic appeals to engage in nonviolent action out of frustration, or the pragmatic need to try something else, rather than out of the conviction that it represents a morally superior form of struggle. The practical function of nonviolent doctrine or ideology-as set forth by a Gandhi or a Martin Luther King, Jr might be to increase the morale and motivation of nonviolent protesters and prevent or inhibit their normal tendency to escalate the conflict to the level of violent resistance when nonviolent campaigns do not bring the results that are hoped for. It would be wrong, however, to assume that only committed pacifists can lead effective nonviolent movements. It is quite possible to regard violence as self-defeating within a particular historical context-and to act consistently on that conviction-without rejecting the use of force or violence in all conceivable circumstances.
“Black Man You Are On Your Own”: Black Power And Black Consciousness
Authors: Fredrickson George M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
World War II awakened or strengthened independence movements in Asia and Africa and reduced the capacity of the Western imperial powers to suppress them. Unlike India, Indonesia, and Vietnam, where the war ended leaving strong nationalist parties or guerrilla armies ready to challenge European hegemony, the African colonies of England and France remained quiet and seemingly under control in 1945. But progress toward decolonization elsewhere encouraged African nationalists to act on the assumption that independence was a realistic aspiration. Except where there was substantial European settlement or other special conditions (as in Kenya, Rhodesia, Algeria, and the Portuguese colonies), these hopes were fulfilled by the early 1960s without the need for sustained guerrilla warfare. The emergence of new African nations helped inspire the American civil rights movement, as well as the anti-apartheid struggle in South Africa. But the precise relationship of American and South African freedom struggles to the independence of black Africa and the Pan-African ideology that was associated with it was far from simple and straightforward. Were black Americans really Africans or had two or three centuries of exile and acculturation turned them into Americans? There could be no doubt about the Africanness of Bantu-speaking South Africans, but did the presence of substantial white and Indian settler minorities mean that a liberated South Africa could not be purely and simply African but would have to be a special kind of “multi-racial” or “nonracial” society? The 1950s saw a struggle within the African National Congress between the multi-racialists and the Africanists that ruptured the organization. In the late 1960s in the United States, advocates of Black Power and black nationalism challenged the integrationist ideology of the civil rights movement and gave new emphasis to African roots and identities. Shortly thereafter, the South African Black Consciousness movement borrowed some of the new African-American language of black pride and self determination to question in a new way the ANC’s insistent nonracialism. Both movements-Black Power and Black Consciousness-sought to encourage what Jean-Paul Sartre has called an “anti-racist racism”; they accepted the racial identity constructed for them by white oppressors and turned it against its creators by using it as a basis of solidarity and struggle against white domination.
Dividing Reality
Authors: Hirsch Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Why does our language divide up reality one way rather than another? On what rational basis does our language contain certain kinds of general words rather than others? Hirsch shows that a language can be constructed which describes reality in ways we would find absurdly irrational, for example by classifying normally disparate items under the same general term. The apparent irrationality of the new language does not depend on its impoverished fact-stating power, as this may be equivalent to the fact-stating power of ordinary language; the problem then is to explain exactly what is wrong with it. Various options are explored and criticized, such as the hypothesis that language must reflect an underlying objective distinction between `natural’ kinds; that there are pragmatic reasons for the way language functions as it does; and that, as a matter of `metaphysical necessity,’ strange ways of dividing up reality are constructions out of ordinary ways. Having demonstrated that this newly identified problem is in fact a serious one which cannot be easily solved or brushed aside, Hirsch offers his own suggestions for a possible solution.
Projectibility and Strange Languages
Authors: Hirsch Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Goodman’s problem of projectibility is to explain why it is rational to project ordinary terms such as “green” and “circular” rather than strange terms such as “green” and “circular.”1 Let us imagine that we have a solution to Goodman’s problem (his own proposed solution is based on the relative degrees of “entrenchment” of ordinary terms and strange terms). We still do not have an obvious solution to the division problem. If it is rational to project “green” but not “green or circular,” then it seems to follow that it is rational to project “circular and circular circular,” which is equivalent to “green,” but not “ circular,” which is equivalent to “green or circular.” I am appealing here to the widely accepted evidential equivalence principle, which says that if p is equivalent to p’ and q is equivalent to q’, then if p is good evidence for q, p’ is good evidence for q’. This principle seems unassailable in general, and any exceptions to it do not seem likely to be related to the sort of examples.
The Pragmatic Response
Authors: Hirsch Eli 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Extreme relativism was defined in section 1.5 as the view that the strange languages are as reasonable and good as ordinary languages, even for people in essentially our life situation. It should now be clear that this view with respect to the division problem need not imply any form of relativism with respect to various other issues of metaphysics or epistemology. An extreme relativist may be a staunch metaphysical inegalitarian, and may also regard the projectibility of terms as a function of how they relate to objectively natural properties and things. One is an extreme relativist in the intended sense only because one rejects any division principle. I will sometimes use “extreme division relativist” to empha-size this point.
The Fight Against AIDS: Biomedical Strategies and HIV’s Evolutionary Responses
Authors: Ewald Paul W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the last chapter I proposed that behavioral changes may alter the evolution of HIV’s virulence. The practical significance of this proposition depends on the success of nonevolutionary strategies for treating the disease and control its spread. If these more conventional options were to prove completely successful in controlling and eradicating AIDS, the evolutionary control of HIV would be of theoretical rather than practical importance. What is the outlook for these options? Because viruses complete their life cycles by becoming integrated with the cellular machinery, they are notoriously difficult to control by drugs that block viral activity. If a drug blocks some critical function of the virus, it also may be blocking some critical function of our cells. The general approach of HIV researchers therefore has been to identify steps in viral invasion and reproduction that are uniquely viral.
Arrival at the Arctic Coast
Authors: Mackenzie Alexander 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Beginning at Fort Chepewyan, this industrious young Scotsman made his way to the Great Slave Lake in what is today the Canadian Northwest Territories, and then traveled down the river that now bears his name to the Arctic Coast. In July 1789, as France exploded in violent revolution, Alexander Mackenzie was making a different sort of history at the furthest reaches of the known world. In this passage Mackenzie de scribes his arrival near the outlet of the river on what is today called Mackenzie Bay. Of equivalent importance historically was his arrival on June 22, 1793, at the Pacific Ocean, a feat that fulfilled his youthful dream of being the first person to cross the North American continent.
St. Lawrence Island
Authors: Kotzebue Otto Von 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Otto Von Kotzebue (1787-1846) accompanied Admiral A. J. Von Krusenstern on his circumnavigation of the world in 1803-1806, and subsequently commanded two other voyages around the world in 1815-1817 and 1823-1826. It was on his second voyage that he explored the northwestern coast of Alaska in 1816 in an unsuccessful attempt to find the “Holy Grail” of arctic exploration-the northwest passage. He named Kotzebue Sound for himself, a large bay 35 miles wide by BO miles long north of the Seward Peninsula in extreme northwestern Alaska.
Nulato, a Settlement on the Yukon
Authors: Zagoskin L A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lieutenant L. A. Zagoskin (1808-1890) was sent by the Russian government to explore the western coast and interior of Alaska from 1842-1844. The expedition rep resented a significant investment for the Russians-total cost for the two-year, four-month period was over 6,000 rubles-but the benefits were substantial as Zagoskin explored both the Kvihpak (Yukon) and Kuskokwim drainages. Nulato, described in this selection, was and still is a small native community on the Yukon River downstream from the confluence with the Koyukuk River, a major river that drains south from the interior Brooks Range. Zagoskin notes that both the black and grizzly bear are found in the region, that “there are not many wolves here,” and that the Nulato River is rich with otters and has good numbers of beavers.
Letter to Sir John Richardson
Authors: Murray Alexander Hunter 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Alexander Hunter Murray (1818-1874) was born in Kilmun, Scotland, in 1818. Like so many Scotsmen of his generation, he emigrated to the United States, shortly finding work with the American Fur Company. He traveled widely as their representative in Louisiana, Texas, and Belize. In 1846 Murray left the American Fur Company and went to work for the Hudson’s Bay Company as a senior clerk, Mackenzie River District. In 1847 Murray made a permanent place for himself in Arctic history by founding Fort Yukon near the confluence of the Porcupine River and the Yukon River. This fort enabled the British to control the fur trade of interior Alaska and the Yukon, even in an area considered then to be under the jurisdiction of the Russians. Murray retired from the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1867 and spent the last seven years of his life in a cottage on the Red River in Canada.
On Crossing the Alaska Range
Authors: Allen Henry T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Lieutenant Henry Tureman Allen (1859-1930) led one of the last official U. S. Army expeditions of note in Alaska, exploring the Copper River north over the Alaska Range into the Tanana River drainage. The Pulitzer-Prize winning historian William Goetzmann has called Allen’s report “a classic in the literature of Alaskan exploration” and a “model example of the old-style all-purpose reconnaisance.”1 In this passage from the Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana, and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska, in the Year 1885 (Washington) Henry Allen de scribes the exciting moment when the expedition accomplished what had never been done before the crossing of the divide between the Copper and the Tanana River: “From this [location] the most grateful sight it has ever been my fortune to witness was presented.”
The Gustavus Peninsula
Authors: Burroughs John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1899 Union Pacific magnate Edward Harriman asked John Burroughs (1837-1921), John Muir, George Bird Grinnel, Edward Curtis, William Healy Dall, and dozens of other luminaries to join him on an extended oceanic exploration of Alaska. Burroughs, well known as a naturalist of the Catskill Mountains and the Hudson River Valley of New York, agreed to go on what was to be the last of the great nineteenth-century ocean adventures, a scientific voyage roughly comparable to the modern cruises of Jacques Cousteau aboard the Calypso.
The Ascent of Denali (Mount McKinley)
Authors: Stuck Hudson 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was Hudson Stuck ( 1863-1920), the archdeacon of theEpiscopal Church in Alaska, who led the first successfulassault on the south peak of Mount McKinley (20,320’)on June 17, 1913. With Stuck on that day were Harry Karstens lCharlesSheldon’s old hunting partner and future superintendent of MountMcKinley National Park), Walter Harper (the half-Athabascan son of Arthur Harper who was in 1873 the first white man to describe themountain from the interior), and Robert Tatum.
The Kuskokwim River
Authors: Lamb May Wynne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In 1916, May Wynne (1899-1975), a young woman from rural Kansas, arrived in Akiak, a small Eskimo village on the Kuskokwim River of southeastern Alaska, to teach at a government school established for the residents. She re mained in Akiak for three years, eventually marrying Frank Lamb, a physician assigned to build a hospital there. A year after their marriage, Dr. Lamb died while making his rounds in the bush. May subsequently left for the Lower 48 and never returned to Alaska.
Eskimo Poems
Authors: Rasmussen Knud 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Danish ethnographer Knud Rasmussen (1879-1935) led the Fifth Thule Expedition across northern Canada from Baffin Island to Alaska during the years 1921-1924. This expedition constituted the first traverse of the North west Passage by dog sled. Along the way, Rasmussen made detailed ethnological and archaeological studies of the Inuit, a research project that eventually produced a monumental ten-volume work totalling over 5,000 pages. Rasmussen was interested in all cultural aspects of the Eskimo as they are found in the circumpolar north. Toward this end, he gathered and translated Eskimo folk tales, oral narratives, religious myths, songs; and poems. These poems are found scattered through the many volumes of his study, a few volumes of which were published posthumously.
The Old Crow
Authors: Murie Margaret 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Margaret Murie (1902-) has been, and continues to ‘ be, one of the most influential conservationists of the century. Born in Seattle, she moved to Fairbanks, Alaska-then a frontier town-at the age of nine when her father was appointed Assistant U. S. Attorney for the region. She later became the first woman graduate at the University of Alaska and married Olaus Murie (1889-1962) two months after graduation.
Here I Am Yet!
Authors: Jack Johnny Taku 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In this selection a Tlingit Indian recalls a lifetime of working in the outdoors in the southern Yukon and northern British Columbia. Born near Atlin, British Columbia, in April 1903, Johnny Taku Jack worked as “railway section foreman, steamboat officer, big game hunter’s cook, carpenter, and maintenance supervisor.” Trapping supplemented seasonal summer employment. Trapping is still a mainstay of the northern village economy, but was threatened in 1989 when European Common Market Nations, an important market for raw furs, signed a resolution banning the import of furs taken by leg-hold traps.
Yukon-Charley: The Shape of Wilderness
Authors: Lopez Barry 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Barry Lopez (1945-) was born in Port Chester, New York, and since the late 1960s has made his home in a small town in Oregon. His works, which include Of Wolves and Men (Scribner’s, 1975) and Arctic Dreams (Scribner’s, 1986) have won numerous honors, including an Award in Literature from the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters, the American Book Award, and the John Burroughs Medal. This selection, part of an essay that first appeared in Wilderness magazine in 1982, narrates a trip the author and a companion made down the Yukon River in east-central Alaska.
Cape Prince of Wales. Alaska: A Suite
Authors: Morgan John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
John Morgan (1943-) studied poetry at Harvard J under the Pulitzer-Prize winning poet Robert Lowell and was awarded the Roger Conant Hatch Prize for lyric poetry. He has received the Academy of American Poets’ Prize at the Iowa Writers’ Workshop and has won the Discovery Award of the New York Poetry Center. His books of poetry include The Bone-Duster (Quarterly Review of Literature, 1980), The Arctic Herd (University of Alabama Press, 1984) and Walking Past Midnight (University of Alabama Press, 1989). He has taught at the University of Alaska since 1976.
This Tangled Brilliance
Authors: Wallace David Rains 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The author of eight works of natural history and one of fiction, David Rains Wallace (1945-) has, in the words of author John Muste, established himself “firmly in the front rank of naturalist writers.” Twice the winner of the Common wealth Club of California’s Silver Medal for Literature, Wallace also holds the John Burroughs Medal for Nature Writing, awarded for The Klamath Knot (Sierra Club, 1983). Wallace was born in Virginia and educated at Wesleyan University and Mills College. His articles and essays have appeared regularly in Sierra, Wilderness, The New York Times Book Review, and other national periodicals.
Ragged Ear of Sable Pass
Authors: Murray John A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was my great pleasure to be able to spend a portion of the summer of 1989 photographing and videotaping grizzly bears in Denali National Park. This essay, a
chapter from a work in progress on Denali National Park, relates my experiences with Ragged Ear, a twelve-year-old female grizzly bear whose home range is centered on Sable Pass. Her story-gleaned from the field notebooks in which I recorded daily observations-tells much about the difficulties the bears face as they try to survive and reproduce in interior Alaska, about some of the surprising truths that contradict the myths that have accreted around the species, and also about the value of our national parks, sanctuaries where animals such as the grizzly bear have been given the same rights to exist as people-a remarkable change, considering all that has come before, and one rich in hope for the future of civilization and of nature.
Pathways to Chicago
Authors: Fitzpatrick Ellen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When the University of Chicago opened its doors in 1892, a lively assortment of students enrolled for graduate study. It was an exciting moment. The promise of the research university stirred members of a new generation. Per haps no one among the early group felt the drama more than the young women in attendance. Recent beneficiaries of one revolution in women’s higher education, Chicago’s female students quickly took part in another. Leaving behind the women’s colleges and state universities that had fostered their intellectual growth, they set out for Chicago to pursue advanced study.
“If Sex Could Be Eliminated”
Authors: Fitzpatrick Ellen 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Public service, private philanthropy, and hard-nosed politics shaped the des tiny of many reformers who hoped to change American society in the early twentieth century. Few had a keener sense of this reality than Frances Kellor. From the moment she left graduate school in Chicago and settled down in New York, Kellor began to build a career around a series of causes. Her experience underscores the tremendous challenges faced by activists in the era that preceded the welfare state.