bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Carbohydrates Sweetness and life
Authors: Cordes Eugene H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For most people, the mention of carbohydrates, more commonly known simply as “carbs,” rightly brings to mind bread, pasta, potatoes, rice, and suchlike—all carbohydrate-rich foods, as are fruits and fruit juices. Proponents of certain diets, most notably the Atkins diet, have vilified carbohydrates: eat the hamburger but throw away the bun. Throughout 2003 and much of 2004, supermarket shelves were loaded with a host of new products touting their low-carbohydrate content. Seemingly, everyone was eager to cash in on the faddish popularity of the Atkins diet. It went so far as to include low-carb beers, as if “lite” beers were not enough insult to the taste buds of aficionados of this blue-collar staple. Happily, the Atkins diet fad has run its course as all fad diets do, sooner or later. The simple, compelling fact is that carbohydrates are essential in the diet of healthy human beings.
Meninges And Ventricular System
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Ventricular System runs through the center of the nervous system and the choroid plexus that lines it produces cerebrospinal fluid, which suspends and nourishes the brain and spinal cord.The meninges cover the nervous system and are layered in the following manner: the pia mater is the innermost layer; the arachnoid mater overlies it; and the dura mater is the thick outer-covering of the nervous system. Fluid enters the subarachnoid space and then is reabsorbed into the venous sinuses within the dura mater.
Median Nerve
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Lateral And Medial CORDS of the brachial plexus form the median nerve and the C6 to T1 nerve roots supply it. The lateral cord C6 and C7 fibers are primarily sensory and the medial cord C8 and T1 fibers are mostly motor. Briefly, the median nerve provides pronation of the forearm, radius (lateral)-deviated wrist flexion, and thumb abduction out of the plane of the palm, and it is the primary flexor and extensor of digits two and three. The median nerve also provides sensory coverage to the thenar eminence (ball of the thumb) and the entire palmar surface and dorsal tips of the lateral three and a half digits. In anatomical position, the arm is in supination so “the lateral three and a half digits” refer to the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and lateral half of the ring finger.
Lumbosacral Plexus
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Ventral Rami of the L1–S4 spinal nerves form the lumbosacral plexus; nine spinal nerves contribute, which makes it a challenge to untangle. Fortunately, though, there are fewer anastomoses in the lumbosacral plexus than in the brachial plexus, so it is easier to understand. Whereas in the brachial plexus there are roots, trunks, divisions, cords, and nerve segments, in the lumbosacral plexus we are limited to roots and nerve segments.
Spinal Cord
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Draw A Cross-Section through the spinal cord; it is ovoid and has a thin fissure on its anterior side. The internal gray matter resembles a butterfly (or a bikini-top). Label the top of the diagram as “posterior” and the bottom as “anterior.” The ratio of gray matter to white matter varies throughout the rostro–caudal length of the spinal cord. In the lumbosacral spinal cord, the gray matter outsizes the white matter, whereas in the thoracic spinal cord, the white matter outsizes the gray matter. Why is this? At the bottom of the spinal cord, the ascending white matter tracts are narrow (they are just beginning to coalesce) and the descending white matter motor fibers have, for the most part, already terminated within the spinal cord gray matter, so they are also narrow. Conversely, in the thoracic cord, a high density of white matter lumbosacral afferent sensory fibers have accumulated and the white matter motor efferent bundles destined for the lumbosacral cord are still dense with fibers. Additionally, there are gray matter enlargements in both the lumbosacral and cervical spinal cord regions because of the high density of sensory and motor neurons required to innervate the distal extremities, which helps enlarge the relative size of the gray matter at those levels. But in the thoracic spinal cord, the gray matter size is small. Thoracic-innervated abdominal musculature requires less eloquent wiring than the lumbosacral-innervated footwork requisite for dancing or the cervical-innervated finger coordination required to play the piano. Thus, in the lumbosacral cord, the gray matter clearly outsizes the white matter and in the thoracic spinal cord, the white matter outsizes the gray matter. In the cervical spinal cord, both the gray and white matter are plump for reasons you can infer from the prior discussion.
Vestibular System
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In This Chapter, we will draw the peripheral vestibulocochlear system and central vestibular system. The peripheral vestibulocochlear region comprises the outer ear; the external ear canal, which extends through the mastoid process; the middle ear, which encompasses the ossicles in the mastoid process; and the inner ear, which is the bony labyrinth in the temporal bone. The auditory component functions in sound perception and the vestibular component keeps us balanced despite constant motion and also helps us fixate our vision. Move your head about while reading this text. If your vestibular system is intact, you won’t become nauseated or have much drop in visual accuity—just a one line drop on a Snellen visual chart (e.g., from 20/20 to 20/25). When the vestibular system is damaged, on the other hand, even slight movements are dizzying.
Surfaces of the Brain
Authors: Fisch Adam 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In This Chapter, we will draw the lateral, medial, and under surfaces of the brain,as well as the Sylvian fissure, and insular cortex. In addition, we will draw highlights of the Brodmann functional maps and Penfield’s somatotopic homunculus. On each cerebral surface, we will divide the brain into its lobes and then divide the lobes into their gyri and sulci. Close your fist, now, to represent the topography of the brain. The fingers represent the gyri and the grooves between them are the sulci. What advantage is there to this contour? It increases the brain surface’s area: approximately two-thirds of the brain’s surface lies within these sulcal valleys. The cerebellum, which was drawn in the preceding chapter, is a good example of how important tissue folding can be; it is condensed into a space much smaller than the remainder of the brain but its convolutions give it a larger surface area.
Etiology and Epidemiology of Parkinson’s Disease
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When initially counseling your Parkinson’s disease (PD) patient, questions undoubtedly will arise: “What could have caused this?” ... “Is it something I did?” ... “Is this inherited?”. Also, anticipate the inevitable, “How close are we to a cure?”. Literally thousands of published papers bear on these questions and we need to synthesize and condense the facts to allow thoughtful counseling of our PD patients.
Urinary Symptoms
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) dysautonomia often results in symptoms of neurogenic bladder, with urinary hesitancy, urgency, and incontinence, as well as urinary tract infections. However, bladder symptoms are common in seniors and may also have other origins, such as anatomic abnormalities in women, prostatism in men, as well as neoplasms in both genders.
Sexual Dysfunction, Estrogen, and Menstrual Cycles
Authors: Ahlskog J Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Male libido and potency decline with normal aging, whereas Parkinson’s disease (PD) dysautonomia may compromise this further. Thus, complaints of erectile dysfunction (ED) are common in PD clinics. TV-advertised medications for ED are well known, but before prescribing, it is wise to consider other possible contributory factors: Also note that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medications may reduce libido, although their antidepressant benefits may offset this.
Long-Term Disease-Modifying Therapies
Authors: Birnbaum Gary 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The introduction in the early 1990s of medications that clearly modified the course of MS revolutionized treatment of the disease. Prior to that time the approach of many neurologists was to intervene at the time of acute relapses and to treat symptoms as they arose, but otherwise it was “diagnose and adios.” One of the initial pivotal observations on disease-modifying therapies in MS was made in 1981 by Dr. Lawrence Jacobs, who noted that intrathecal interferon-beta reduced MS relapses.1 Twelve years later the first large, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of interferon-beta was published, and the era of modern therapy for MS began. As of this writing six drugs approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of MS are available in the United States. All of them are anti-inflammatories, but they have a variety of mechanisms of action. Most are approved only for persons with relapsing-remitting MS, with one drug, mitoxantrone, approved for persons with rapidly progressive secondaryprogressive MS. Unfortunately, there are no approved drugs available at this time for persons with primary-progressive MS or the more usual gradually progressive secondary-progressive MS.
Stephen Jay Gould What Does It Mean to Be a Radical?
Authors: Lewontin Richard C , Levins Richard 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The public intellectual and political life of Steve Gould was extraordinary, if not unique. First, he was an evolutionary biologist and historian of science whose intellectual work had a major impact on our views of the process of evolution. Second, he was, by far, the most widely known and influential expositor of science who has ever written for a lay public. Third, he was a consistent political activist in support of socialism and in opposition to all forms of colonialism and oppression. The figure he most closely resembled in these respects was the British biologist of the 1930s, J. B. S. Haldane, a founder of the modern genetical theory of evolution, a wonderful essayist on science for the general public, and an idiosyncratic Marxist and columnist for the Daily Worker who finally split with the Communist Party over its demand that scientific claims follow Party doctrine.
Smells Like Teen Spirit, 1991–2008
Authors: Smith Chris 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It was 1991, and nobody cared. In May, Douglas Coupland’s book Generation X opened its first chapter with the ominous words, ‘‘The Sun is Your Enemy,’’ capturing the overwhelming weight of powerlessness felt by a stifled wave of young adults. In July, an unnamed character in Richard Linklater’s film Slacker asked the immortal question, ‘‘Who’s ever written a great work about the immense effort required in order not to create?’’ capturing the cynical response of these young adults to their suffocating cultural quagmire. When the levee broke, however, a cathartic growl erupted from the Pacific Northwest as albums like Pearl Jam’s Ten, Nirvana’s Never mind (1991), Soundgarden’s Bad motor finger, and Alice in Chains’ Dirt railed against ubiquitous commodification at a level of controlled chaos that allowed listeners to release their pent-up frustrations without actually having to do anything about them. Punk was back, and it was pissed.
Education And Professional Endeavors
Authors: Laureno Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Raymond D. Adams descended from soldiers of the Indian and Civil Wars and from pioneers who crossed the Great Divide. His father had built the home, where Ray was born in 1911. There he lived his early years without gaslight or electricity. Hard work and self-reliance came naturally to Ray Adams. These inborn traits were reinforced by his parents’ example and expectations.
Investigation And Ideas
Authors: Laureno Robert 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Kinnier Wilson’s neurology text of 1940, a three-volume work, was the great synthesis of clinical neurology for the first half of the twentieth century. It had an extensive section on “special forms of toxicosis of the nervous system,” but there was no section on the metabolic encephalopathies of organ failure. Aside from Wilson’s discussion of deficiency and toxic states, his only other mention of acquired metabolic disease was in the discussion of progressive lenticular degeneration (hepato-lenticular degeneration or Wilson Disease).
The Sexual Schema Transposition and Transgender in Phenomenology of Perception
Authors: Salamon Gayle 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Phenomenology of Perception Maurice Merleau-Ponty makes but a single reference to what might be called mixed-gender embodiment: “A patient feels a second person implanted in his body. He is a man in half his body, a woman in the other half” (88). This remark would not seem to promise much for thinking about nonnormative gender configurations. We are introduced to this person of indeterminate gender as a “patient,” already marked by some indistinct but defining sign of emotional or mental distress. That patient is doubly confined within a binary system of gender. Even though this patient is, phenomenologically speaking, both a man and a woman, this gender configuration is not thought as some new third term that might exceed the binary of man and woman but is conceived by Merleau-Ponty as a man, intact and entire, somehow fused with an also properly gendered woman, with the body divided down the middle neatly between them.1 Despite this, I want to argue that, even given the dearth of attention to nonnormative genders in this text, the phenomenological approach to the body that Merleau-Ponty offers in Phenomenology of Perception can be uniquely useful for understanding trans embodiment.2
Creatures Void of Form
Authors: Sapp Jan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Microorganisms had been studied predominantly from a medical perspective in the nineteenth century. The concept of germs as agents of killer diseases against which one could take action was the wonder of the 1880s and 1890s (table 4.1). The demonstration that invisible organisms were inducers of putrefaction and fermentation is also one of the earmarks of modern biology. Life does not result from decayed organic matter’it is its cause. This was the conclusion of the debates and experiments over spontaneous generation, brought to a head in the early 1860s. Led by Louis Pasteur (1822’1895) and Robert Koch (1843’1910), new methods were developed for detecting the fearful enemies and for learning how they were transported, how they multiplied, and how they could be arrested. Public health laboratories expanded and multiplied as pathologists developed vaccines, antitoxins, and antisera. In 1888, the Pasteur Institute was founded, and an international network of 40 other Pasteur institutes was subsequently established. In 1891, the German government furnished Koch with a research institute. That same year, the British Institute for Preventive Medicine was founded in London, which in 1903 changed its name to the Lister Institute to honor its champion, Joseph Lister (1827’1912).
Value Judgments and the Theory of Important Criteria
Authors: Slote Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the twentieth century, a number of different sorts of meta-ethical theories have been put forward to explain and clarify the meaning of value terms and to answer the age-old question whether it is possible to give (objectively) good reasons for value judgments. Older, cruder forms of ethical naturalism, emotivism, and intuitionism (nonnaturalism) have been criticized for so many different reasons and from so many points of view that most contemporary ethical theorists are convinced that such theories cannot yield an adequate account of the meaning and justification of value judgments. In recent years, R. M. Hare has articulated a modified type of emotivist theory, and this theory has been criticized by Philippa Foot and others from the standpoint of a new and highly sophisticated version of naturalism. In the present paper, I shall offer some criticisms of these two recent and (to my mind) important and promising metaethical theories, and then develop a new theory of the meaning and justification of value judgments based on the Theory of Important Criteria.
Object-Utilitarianism
Authors: Slote Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham claims that only pleasure and pain, happiness and unhappiness, are good or bad in themselves—everything else that is good or bad counts as such in virtue of its effects, its tendency to produce pleasure (avert pain) or to produce pain (avert pleasure). Bentham’s most notable application of this idea was, of course, to the moral assessment of actions. As an act-utilitarian he held that the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on whether they cause happiness or unhappiness; no other considerations are relevant.
Ethics Naturalized
Authors: Slote Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Philosophers who have discussed or advocated naturalized epistemology have often called attention to analogies between ethics or moral theory, on the one hand, and epistemology or theory of knowledge, on the other. And utilitarianism in particular has been singled out as an ethical analogue of a naturalistic or naturalizing approach to questions of epistemic justification. Both Bon Jour and Firth make the latter point, and since both also regard utilitarianism as ethically unacceptable, they make use of the epistemic/ethical parallelism to cast doubt on naturalizing epistemology.
Some Thoughts for the Future
Authors: Slote Michael 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
When I first started thinking about philosophy, people interested in ethics did meta-ethics, and normative ethics was hardly visible as a discipline. But John Rawls changed all that, and because I was a graduate student at Harvard, I had the pleasant and useful opportunity to fall under his influence—even though I didn’t actually begin to work in normative ethics till many years later.
Secular Philosophy and the Religious Temperament
Authors: Nagel Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This volume collects recent essays and reviews by Thomas Nagel in three subject areas. The first section, including the title essay, is concerned with religious belief and some of the philosophical questions connected with it, such as the relation between religion and evolutionary theory, the question of why there is something rather than nothing, and the significance for human life of our place in the cosmos. It includes a defense of the relevance of religion to science education. The second section concerns the interpretation of liberal political theory, especially in an international context. A substantial essay argues that the principles of distributive justice that apply within individual nation-states do not apply to the world as a whole. The third section discusses the distinctive contributions of four philosophers to our understanding of what it is to be human--the form of human consciousness and the source of human values.
Secular Philosophy and the Religious Temperament
Authors: Nagel Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Analytic philosophy as a historical movement has not done much to provide an alternative to the consolations of religion. This is sometimes made a cause for reproach, and for unfavorable comparisons with the continental tradition of the twentieth century, which did not shirk that task. That is one of the reasons that continental philosophy has been better received by the general public: It at least tries to provide nourishment for the soul, the job by which philosophy is supposed to earn its keep Analytic philosophers usually rebuff the complaint by pointing out that their concerns are continuous with the central occupations of Western philosophy from Parmenides onward: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethical theory. Those topics have been pursued in a great tradition of works that are often technical and difficult, and that are not intended for a broad audience. The aim of that tradition is understanding, not edification.
Public Education and Intelligent Design
Authors: Nagel Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The 2005 decision by Judge John E. Jones in Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District was celebrated by all red-blooded American liberals as a victory over the forces of darkness. The result was probably inevitable, in view of the reckless expression by some members of the Dover School Board of their desire to put religion into the classroom and the clumsiness of their prescribed statement in trying to dissimulate that aim.1 But the conflicts aired in this trial—over the status of evolutionary theory, the arguments for intelligent design, and the nature of science—reveal an intellectually unhealthy situation. The political urge to defend science education against the threats of religious orthodoxy, understandable though it is, has resulted in a counterorthodoxy, supported by bad arguments, and a tendency to overstate the legitimate scientifi c claims of evolutionary theory. Skeptics about the theory are seen as so dangerous, and so disreputably motivated, that they must be denied any shred of legitimate interest. Most important, the campaign of the scientifi c establishment to rule out intelligent design as beyond discussion because it is not science results in the avoidance of signifi cant questions about the relation between evolutionary theory and religious belief, questions that must be faced in order to understand the theory and evaluate the scientifi c evidence for it.
Appiah’s Rooted Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Nagel Thomas 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In two recent books Kwame Anthony Appiah undertakes to combine a form of liberalism that aspires to universal validity with a full recognition and substantial acceptance of the important cultural and ethical diversity that characterizes our world. The Ethics of Identity is a philosopher’s contribution to ethical theory, Cosmopolitanism is a more popular work of social and political reflection, but both are of wide interest—invitingly written and enlivened by personal history. Some of the issues Appiah addresses are familiar from contemporary public debate over multiculturalism, the relation of the state to religious pluralism, the effects of economic globalization, and the international reach of universal standards of human rights. Most of us have our own reactions to the prohibition of the Islamic headscarf in French lycées and Turkish universities, restrictions on English signage in Quebec, the battles over gay marriage, the teaching of evolution in American public schools, the practice of female circumcision in Africa, the return of the Elgin Marbles to Greece, or the claim that liberal rights should be regarded merely as an ethnic custom of the West. Appiah is wonderfully perceptive and level-headed about this tangle of issues.
Schiavo, Privacy, and the Interests of Law
Authors: Robinson Daniel N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The issues arising from the care, prolonged illness, and death of Terri Schindler Schiavo are various and interrelated. Some of these, at the more fundamental level, were either ignored or systematically misunderstood by the cadre of bioethicists, physicians, and lawyers willing, if not eager, to inform the nation by way of sound-bites and fleeting interviews. It is useful at the start to survey just a handful of the issues, not all of equal weight but all deserving more attention than was afforded in the weeks and months of commentary. These include aspects of medical