bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
History of models in ethology
Authors: Holland Owen , McFarland David 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Models and analogies have been a feature of ethology since its early days. Konrad Lorenz (1950) likened the motivational system of an animal to the simple hydraulic system illustrated in Figure 1.1. In this model, motivational ‘energy’, represented by the liquid in the reservoir, builds up in the absence of an opportunity to perform the relevant behaviour, and ‘discharges’ when the relevant external stimuli (represented by the weight on the pan) ‘release’ the behaviour. Apart from the inappropriateness of the concept of energy (Hinde 1960; McFarland 1971) this model offers a good analogy, at a general level, of the interaction of internal and external factors in animal motivation. However, ethological modelling of a much more precise nature considerably predates Lorenz’s attempts
Tensors and Manifolds
Authors: Wasserman Robert H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This book is a new edition of “Tensors and Manifolds: With Applications to Mechanics and Relativity” which was published in 1992. It is based on courses taken by advanced undergraduate and beginning graduate students in mathematics and physics, giving an introduction to the expanse of modern mathematics and its application in modern physics. It aims to fill the gap between the basic courses and the highly technical and specialised courses which both mathematics and physics students require in their advanced training, while simultaneously trying to promote, at an early stage, a better appreciation and understanding of each other’s discipline. The book sets forth the basic principles of tensors and manifolds, describing how the mathematics underlies elegant geometrical models of classical mechanics, relativity and elementary particle physics. The existing material from the first edition has been reworked and extended in some sections to provide extra clarity, as well as additional problems. Four new chapters on Lie groups and fibre bundles have been included, leading to an exposition of gauge theory and the standard model of elementary particle physics. Mathematical rigour combined with an informal style makes this a very accessible book and will provide the reader with an enjoyable panorama of interesting mathematics and physics.
Vector Fields, 1-Forms, and Other Tensor Fields
Authors: Wasserman Robert H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Our discussion of vector fields will include their interpretation as derivations, construction of the tangent manifold, C∞ vector fields, and the Lie bracket of two vector fields. Comments on 1-forms will be focused on analogies with vector fields. Finally, under mappings of tensor fields, we discuss interior multiplication of forms, the pull-back of (0, s) tensor fields, and ¢-related (r, 0) tensor fields.
The Flow and the Lie Derivative of a Vector Field
Authors: Wasserman Robert H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The concept of a vector field on a manifold, M (or, on an open subset, U, of M), has a simple intuitive definition, but also has broad and deep ramifications. In particular, we want to look at vector fields from two rather different and important points of view. Roughly, (1) a vector field can be thought of as determining, or being determined by, a family of curves, and (2) a vector field can be thought of as determining, or being determined by, a certain derivation on tensor fields on M (or U).
Connections on Fiber Bundles
Authors: Wasserman Robert H 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In Section 17.1, we noted that in general there is no a priori relation between the fibers of the tangent bundle of a manifold, and that an additional structure “a connection” provides such a relation. The same is true for fiber bundles generally. We will now introduce an additional structure on fiber bundles which relates the fibers in the sense that to each given curve in M and point in E, there is a unique curve in E along which we say a point is parallelly propagated (translated, transported, or displaced). Once we have a connection, we can define the curvature of the connection.
Electron excitation: electron energy loss spectroscopy (ELS), core electron energy loss spectroscopy (CEELS), and high resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy (HREELS)
Authors: Riviere J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In none of these loss spectroscopies is spatial resolution required, but they do require electron sources capable of variable primary energy down to very low energies, with good stability. The need in HREELS for careful screening of the whole analytical system of source and analyser from strong magnetic fields has already been emphasized, as has the practice of minimizing currents of unwanted secondary electrons by coating internal surfaces with a low secondary emitter such as carbon.
Electron excitation: soft X-ray appearance potential spectroscopy (SXAPS), Auger electron appearance potential spectroscopy (AEAPS), and dis-appearance potential spectroscopy (DAPS)
Authors: Riviere J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Many different experimental geometries have been used for SXAPS, probably as many as there are experimenters in the field, but the basic configuration is common to all, and is summarized in the simplified diagram of Fig. 6.1, from Harte et al. Electrons from a filament F are accelerated through a ramped accelerating potential on to the surface of the material under investigation, which forms the target T. Soft X-rays produced in T pass through a screen S, designed to block passage of electrons, and impinge on a photosensitive.
Ion excitation: ion-excited Auger electron spectroscopy (IAES) and proton-excited Auger electron spectroscopy (PAES)
Authors: Riviere J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For operation in the low energy region, ions are usually produced in a conventional gun of the type also used for sputter cleaning and depth profiling, such as the duoplasmatron described under Section 3.2.3 and show in Fig. 3.13. The general experimental arrangement would be very similar to that used for electron-excited AES, as seen in Fig. 13.1 from the work of Kempf and Kaus. With such an arrangement the techniques of AES, IAES, SSIMS, and ISS could all be performed, although the conditions for the two latter would not be ideal. For electron energy analysis a cylindrical mirror analyser (CMA) is commonly used, since high energy resolution is not normally required.
Ion excitation: ion neutralization spectroscopy (INS) and metastable quenching spectroscopy (MQS)
Authors: Riviere J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Strictly speaking INS should be included with IAES in the previous chapter, but it is treated separately here for several reasons. Firstly, the incident ion energies are very much lower (5-10 eV) than any discussed previously, and the production and transport of the ions therefore require special experimental design. Secondly, for reasons that will become apparent, the only ion type used is helium. Thirdly, the processing of the experimental data leads necessarily into complex but fascinating mathematical manipulations involving, principally, deconvolution. And fourthly, it is still almost a one-man technique; nearly all the published work on INS has come from Hagstrum (and co-workers), who was both the originator and the developer of the technique. What follows, therefore, is taken almost entirely from his publications. The experimental chamber is a three-dimensional symmetric cross, with the experimental facilities on the four horizontal ports, specimen manipulator on the top port, and pumping on the bottom port.
Ion excitation: static secondary ion mass spectrometry (SSIMS)
Authors: Riviere J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
SSIMS ranks with XPS and AES as one of the three principal techniques currently used in surface analysis, although judging from the published applications its usage is still probably less widespread than that of the other two. Since its origination by Benninghoven in 1969 coincided roughly with that of AES, it must be regarded as a mature technique, although as will be seen below there are even now some considerable problems in its interpretation. As remarked earlier (Section 2.3.5), ‘static’ SIMS is at one end of the spectrum of SIMS-type techniques, while ‘dynamic’ SIMS is at the other, and the two should not be confused.
High field excitation: scanning tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM and STS)
Authors: Riviere J C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Just as APFIM (see previous chapter) arose out of its parent technique FIM, so Scanning Tunnelling Spectroscopy (STS) has arisen out of Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy (STM). The similarities in origin go further, because while both FIM and STM are surface topographical imaging techniques, i.e. are concerned principally with effects due to surface structure, APFIM and STS provide information about the chemical nature of the surface, either by atomic compositional analysis or by surface state spectroscopic analysis. Again, in the same way that it was necessary in Chapter 21 to describe FIM in order to describe APFIM, so here it will be necessary to go into the details of the STM technique in order to be clear about the associated spectroscopic technique. There the similarities end, however, because although APFIM is now a well established technique, both STM and STS, the latter in particular, are relatively new. The inventors of STM were Binnig and Rohrer,1 who received the Nobel Prize for their contribution to physics.
Introduction
Authors: Dobbs E R 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Helium exists as two stable isotopes of masses 3 and 4. Ordinary helium gas, with atoms of mass 4, is a rare element, which was only discovered by Ramsay in 1895. Helium 3 is much rarer still, for only about 1 atom in 104 of helium gas is of mass 3. Fortunately, one of the useful by products of nuclear reactors is their ability to convert the isotope lithium 6 by neutron bombardment into helium 3.
The renormalization group at T ≠ T
c
Authors: Binney J J , Dowrick N J , Fisher A J , Newman M E J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To calculate the remaining critical exponents and to complete our understanding of the Landau-Ginzburg model in the critical regime, we have to calculate quantities in the limit m2 → 0, rather than at m2 = 0.
Thermometry
Authors: White Guy K , Meeson Philip J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The zeroth law of thermodynamics says that two bodies which are in thermal equilibrium with a third body are in thermal equilibrium with each other. Then no heat flows from one to the other and they are said to be at the same temperature. Changes in their temperature will usually produce changes in their physical properties, be it electrical resistance, dimensions, vapour pressure, etc. Such properties can therefore serve in instruments for measuring temperature or temperature change. A temperature scale can be defined in terms of any of a number of thermometric properties, and the scale and size of particular temperature intervals may be fixed by reference to common phenomena such as boiling or freezing points or other phase changes. So the thermal expansion of a liquid or gas, the electrical resistance of a metal or semiconductor or thermopower are all physical parameters which for the chosen substance could define a temperature scale with the scale chosen to be a linear or other function of the parameter.
Near neutrality and its implications for evolution
Authors: Ohta Tomoko 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
By the middle of the twentieth century, neo Darwinism was very popular among evolutionary scientists and random genetic drift was thought to be unimportant except in the context of Wright’s shifting balance theory. Then, in the 1960s, Kimura applied population genetics theory to biochemical data. He compared amino acid sequences of cytochrome ca and hemoglobin a among mammalian species available at that time, and found that the number of mutant substitutions in evolution was larger than expected according to Haldane’s prediction based on genetic load. In 1968, Kimura proposed the neutral theory of molecular evolution (Kimura 1968).
Rates and effects of deleterious mutations and their evolutionary consequences
Authors: Garca-Dorado Aurora , López-Fanjul Carlos , Caballero Armando 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In a highly influential paper, Muller (1950) put forward the idea that deleterious mutations affecting the heterozygote appear at a high rate in populations, thus, imposing a reduction in fitness (mutational load) that could become unbearable. As shown by Haldane (1937), this load is mainly determined by the rate of deleterious mutations and is practically independent of their severity, although it is modulated by their degree of dominance. It took a long time until adequate experimental data for Drosophila viability were first obtained by Mukai (1964), who estimated a high genomic rate of mutations (haploid rate A &gt; = 0.3, the number of deleterious mutations appearing per gamete and generation) showing very little dominance (average coefficient of dominance E(h) = 0.4, where h = 0, 0.5, and 1 denotes recessive, additive and dominant gene action of mutations, respectively) and mild average effects (average selection coefficient E(s) &lt; 007E 0.03, the relative reduction in fitness of the homozygous mutant).
Cooperation and conflict during the unicellular–multicellular and prokaryotic–eukaryotic transitions
Authors: Michod Richard E , Nedelcu Aurora M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Individuals often associate in groups that, under certain conditions, may evolve into higher-level individuals. It is these conditions and this process of individuation of groups that we wish to understand. These groups may involve members of the same species or different species. For example, under certain conditions bacteria associate to form a fruiting body, amoebae associate to form a slug-like slime mold, solitary cells form a colonial group, normally solitary wasps breed cooperatively, birds associate to form a colony, and mammals form societies.
The New Kingdom
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The Cavendish Laboratory in 1927 was passing through a quiet period. Patrick Blackett’s bright star was already shining in the firmament, but the other young men in Rutherford’s department were engaged in painstaking preparatory work – refining experimental techniques and building new equipment – not yet making fundamental discoveries of their own. Rutherford was steadfast in his intent to reveal the structure of the atomic nucleus, relying for the most part on the trusty a-particle as his major tool of interrogation. Unlike Bernal, Rutherford was sceptical of the new quantum theory, and did not disguise his mistrust – for example, thanking Heisenberg, who had just delivered an invited lecture to the Cavendish Physical Society in perfect English, for ‘a lot of interesting nonsense’.
Scientist At War
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the summer of 1939, Bernal returned to the United States for the first time since he had been taken there as a small boy by his mother. As before, California was his main destination, but now he was invited to give a series of lectures at Stanford University. These were part of the celebrations organized by the University to mark the centenary of the theory that all living things, plant and animal, are composed of cells. At the end of June, Bernal gave lectures on successive days to the Pacific Division of the American Academy of the Advancement of Science on the structure of proteins, and to the American Physical Society on the X-ray studies of plant virus particles. After the fourth-of-July holiday, he took part in a four-day meeting at Stanford on colloids.
Overlord
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The headquarters of Combined Operations (COHQ) occupied what was formerly the town house of the Dukes of Buccleuch, in Richmond Terrace. One of the more volatile and cantankerous characters in residence during 1942–3 was Evelyn Waugh, the novelist. He was there as Liaison Officer representing the Special Service Brigade, until he was forced out by his senior officers for constantly causing trouble. He was often drunk. The week after Bernal returned from his travels, Waugh arrived for lunch with Mountbatten ‘rather tipsy’ and ‘found the house a nest of Communists’, suggesting that Sage was back at work. Habbakuk remained the highest priority for Bernal, although the Canadians were not pressing ahead with a large-scale model and there seemed no prospect of an operational berg ship until 1945. A meeting was held at COHQ to review the situation at the end of May; Bernal stated that he still believed a berg ship was feasible and that Pykrete was the best material to use. Perutz indicated that 1.7 million tons of Pykrete in block form would need to be produced during the next Canadian winter to construct one berg ship ready for use in 1945.
Lessons Of War
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The complexities of South-East Asia Command (SEAC) were such that they would have overwhelmed a leader without Mountbatten’s ineffable selfconfidence. By 1943, most of South-East Asia was firmly under Japanese control, following the unstoppable advances they had made through thick jungles, which the British had long regarded as impenetrable. To the British soldier, the Japanese had taken on the aura of invincibility, and morale was further depressed by the debilitating tropical conditions that bred mosquitoes and malaria. Mountbatten’s approach to raising spirits was direct and simple. Relying on his royal pedigree, he cheerfully informed the troops that they were not the Forgotten Army: no one had ever heard of them, but this was all going to change under his leadership. His absurd optimism and ironic humour proved irresistible.
Evaluating the relative strengths of biotic versus abiotic controls on ecosystem processes
Authors: McBride M A Huston ,A C 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is no doubt that the rates of ecosystem processes and the resulting properties and structure of ecosystems are influenced both by biotic factors, including species properties and interactions among multiple species, and by abiotic factors, such as climate, geology, and soils. The critical issue (and the focus of the debate about diversity and ecosystem function) is the relative contribution of each of these general factors to any particular ecosystem process, under any particular conditions, and at any particular scale.
How can marine ecology contribute to the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning debate?
Authors: Emmerson M , Huxham M 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Recent debate over the effects of species loss has been informed by experiments carried out largely in terrestrial ecosystems (McNaughton 1993; Tilman et al. 1996; Hooper and Vitousek 1997; Wardle et al. 1997a; Hector et al. 1999). A few studies have examined the effects of species loss on ecosystem processes such as biomass, density, decomposition and respiration in aquatic microbial (McGrady Steed et al. 1997; Naeem and Li 1997; Petchey et al. 1999) and invertebrate (Hulot et al. 2000; Norberg 2000) ecosystems. Fewer still have explicitly addressed the effects of species richness on eco system processes in the marine environment (Stachowizc et al. 1999; Duffy et al. 2001; Emmerson et al. 2001).
Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and above-ground-below-ground linkages
Authors: Wardle D A , Putten W H van der 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
All terrestrial ecosystems consist of an explicit producer subsystem and a decomposer subsystem. While traditionally these components have usually been considered in isolation from one another, they are obligatory dependent upon each other. Producers provide the organic carbon sources that drive the decomposer community and decomposer activity is in turn responsible for mineralizing nutrients required for maintaining growth of the producers. Mutualists, herbivores, pathogens and parasites affect producer-decomposer interactions both by directing changes in the flow of energy and resources, and by imposing selective forces that lead to evolutionary changes in individual producer and decomposer populations. The direct and indirect interactions between above-ground and below ground communities therefore have the potential to operate as major drivers of population-, community- and ecosystem-level processes (Hooper et al. 2000; Van der Putten et al. 2001; Wardle 2002).
Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and soil decomposer food webs
Authors: Mikola J , Bardgett R D , Hedlund K 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Decomposer organisms are essential for the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems; they mineralize carbon and nutrients that are bound to dead organic matter and provide resources for primary production. However, linking soil decomposer diversity with ecosystem functioning is difficult as processes in soil are not controlled by a uniform group of organisms but an array of interacting bacteria, fungi and fauna (Beare et al. 1995; Ekschmitt and Griffiths 1998). Further, the considerable lack of knowledge about the roles of individual species (especially within bacteria, fungi, microfauna and mesofauna) hinders our ability to identify the unique functions that decomposer species might perform.
Meson-Exchange Currents
Authors: Castel B , Towner I S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
To introduce the topic of meson-exchange currents it is necessary to review some elements of quantum electrodynamics. We have relegated most of this to Appendix A, which serves mainly as a way of introducing our notation. We will assume the reader has some familiarity with the topics of field theory, Lagrangians, Dirac equation, and Feynman diagrams; if not, there are many textbooks that can be consulted.
Quadrupole Moments and Collective Model Theories
Authors: Castel B , Towner I S 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Large quadrupole moments and E2 transition rates, characteristic of deformed systems, are often well described using simple collective models. These models which were actually first devised for this purpose have also shown some success in describing vibrational excitations and in particular an harmonic excitations. We will examine them in this chapter in an evolution having a dual character, from the phenomenological to the microscopic and from the vibrational to the rotational. We thus first concentrate on collective excitations in spherical nuclei.
Introduction
Authors: Harakeh M N , van der Woude A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
1.1 What is a giant resonance? A powerful method to study the properties of a system is to subject it to a weak external perturbation and to examine its response. For the atomic nucleus subjected to the absorption of a photon or to the scattering of a particle (electron, proton, etc.) the response is sketched in Fig. 1.1 as a function of the energy and linear momentum transferred to the system. The lower curve shows the response (cross section) for photon absorption in which case the momentum transfer is equal to the energy transfer, in natural units q = w, while the upper curve gives the response for the scattering of a particle with q = 2 fm-1 ≠ ω. Up to about 10 MeV the nucleus responds through the excitation of relatively simple states often involving only one or a few particles. In the energy range between 10 and 30 MeV the system response exhibits broad resonances. These are the giant resonances which are the subject of this book. The large, broad resonance located around an energy transfer of about 100 MeV in the upper curve corresponds to the quasi-elastic scattering of the projectile off an individual nucleon in the nucleus while the Δ33 resonance is due to nucleon excitation.