bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Shift to Multilateral Venues, 1992–1995
Authors: Foot Rosemary 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The first 18 months after the Tiananmen bloodshed marked the height of global criticism of China's human rights record, but the years 1992–1995 quickly gave some indication of the difficulties that would be faced by those who wished to move China beyond tactical concessions towards genuine acceptance of the validity of some of the core human rights norms. Major Western states, together with Japan, continued to reduce the bilateral pressure, for economic and strategic reasons, and China's recapturing of its high economic growth rates from 1992 enhanced its ability to pose policy dilemmas for those interested in competing in the Chinese market, as well as for far weaker countries that were poised to benefit from China's economic dealings with them. The Beijing leadership, which was plainly on the defensive with respect to its international interlocutors on human rights, decided to renew its efforts to regain the initiative. China's 1991 White Paper, which signalled limited engagement in the human rights discourse, was a major first stage in that strategy, providing China with an authoritative text upon which to draw in response to international criticisms. Beijing, however, went further and tried to link up with other governments in East Asia in the exploitation of a common dislike of Western triumphalism, and a common commitment to ‘Asian values’, questioning the universal application of democracy and human rights. The Chinese leadership began to launch more extensive, direct attacks on Western countries and on the major international NGOs. Nevertheless, the relative density of the human rights regime ensured that some constraints still operated on China's international diplomacy, and as the major states’ sanctions policies weakened, governments tended to make greater use of such multilateral institutions as the UN. The different sections of the chapter are: The Uses of the 1991 White Paper; Relativism versus Universalism —in democracy and human rights; The Economic Weight of China; The Rootedness of Human Rights Policy; The UN Commission on Human Rights; China and the Thematic Mechanisms — the work of the UN Special Rapporteurs and the new 1995 Chinese White Paper; and Conclusion.
From Public Exposure to Private Dialogue, 1995–1998
Authors: Foot Rosemary 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Over the period 1995–1998, China's main objectives in the human rights area was to shift the venue of the discursive debate on its record away from a public, multilateral forum in which China was placed under critical scrutiny, to a private dialogue that symbolized a more equal exchange of views on such questions. Beijing also attempted to constrain the operations of the UN Commission, its Special Rapporteurs and Working Groups, by stressing their failure to deal with lapses in the protection of economic, social, and cultural rights, and their overweening focus on developing country behaviour; it also alleged that the Commission's approach was unacceptably confrontational and unlikely to reach the targets that it set itself. Possibly in response to this critique, new UN Special Rapporteurs were created and the High Commissioner for Human Rights deemed it necessary to give more priority to the right to development. In the course of moving towards bilateral dialogues, it became apparent that there were areas of softness in some governments’ commitment to the universalism of human rights and that ambiguities inherent in the language surrounding these rights could be exploited, suggesting considerable room for manoeuvre within the international human rights regime when it came to verbal compliance. Here Chinese leaders played their hand carefully and with considerable skill, timing statements, agreements, and releases to coincide with debate at the UN Commission, thus breaking apart the coalition of governments that had been working together. Nevertheless, Beijing did see the need to sign the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) to ward off some of the criticism and ensure a productive summit in the USA between President Jiang Zemin and President Bill Clinton. China's success in persuading some Western leaders to adopt particular features of the cultural relativist–developmentalist rhetoric in joint statements can be explained by economic and strategic interests of these governments, together with a more generalized EU belief that it had to raise its profile in China, while other states found convincing Chinese official arguments that it was deserving of special consideration. The different sections of the chapter are: The Fracturing of the UN Coalition; The Resurgence of Bilateralism; The Clinton–Jiang Summit; The UN's Thematic Mechanisms; and Conclusion.
Information and Organization
Authors: Casson Mark 
Published: October 2003

AbstractOffers a vision of the economy as a system of structured information flow. The structuring is effected by institutions, and in particular, by firms, which specialize in processing the information needed to allocate resources properly. Market‐making firms that intermediate between producers and consumers by developing brands, are particularly important in this respect. Firms are the institutional embodiment of the visions of the entrepreneurs who found them. Firms grow and decline, creating a highly flexible structure of information processing in society, which evolves and adapts as circumstances change. The book uses these general concepts to analyse the historical development of a number of specialist information subsystems, including business networks, industrial districts, and trading empires.
The Priority of Impartial Morality
Authors: Mendus Susan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIn moral philosophy, the requirement of impartiality gives rise to the normative question, which is a question about why we should give priority to, and be motivated by, impartial concerns which conflict with the concerns we have for particular people or causes. In this chapter, discussion concentrates on those who already see the force of the requirements of impartial morality, but are sometimes tempted to ignore its demands. I suggest that, for such people, impartialism can command motivational priority only if it is seen as springing from our partial concerns and care for others. When impartialism is so grounded, it may also be commended to those who do not antecedently recognize its force.
Getting Morality Off the Ground
Authors: Mendus Susan 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThis chapter asks whether and why impartial morality can be commended to those who do not antecedently feel its force. Can the care and concern we feel for particular others provide a reason for adopting impartial moral philosophy? I argue that, unlike commitment to equality, concern for particular others is sufficiently widespread to provide a foundation for impartial morality that does not presuppose any particular comprehensive conception of the good and which, for that reason, is compatible with the permanence of pluralism.
The Democratic Class Struggle Revisited
Authors: Esping‐Andersen Gøsta 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter and the next revisit the political economy within which post‐war welfare regimes emerged, matured, and, now, appear crisis‐ridden. Here, an analysis is made of the democratic class struggle. The first section of the chapter looks at varieties of the struggle, and has subsections on models of industrial relations, employment regulation, and worker rights. The second section looks at de‐ruralization and post‐industrialization, and has subsections on family behaviour and full employment, and the declining correlates of class.
Comparative Welfare Regimes Re‐Examined
Authors: Esping‐Andersen Gøsta 
Published: October 2003

AbstractThe first part re‐examines the three worlds’ typology of welfare capitalism: the liberal welfare regime, the social democratic welfare regime, and the conservative welfare regime. A summary overview of the three regime characteristics is provided. The second part looks at the historical and comparative robustness of regime typologies, and examines whether a three‐way typology adequately exhausts the variance of the different regimes found in different countries. Three cases are identified that call for an additional fourth ‘world’; these are the Antipodes, the Mediterranean, and Japan.Assuming the validity of these three claims, a total of six models is reached for 19–20 nations. These three cases are examined under the headings The Antipodean Fourth World, The Mediterranean Fourth World, and The East Asian Fourth World (Japan possibly with Korea and Taiwan). This second section of the chapter also looks at families and welfare regimes.
The Structural Bases of Postindustrial Employment
Authors: Esping‐Andersen Gøsta 
Published: October 2003

AbstractIt is argued that there are compelling reasons why we should be heading towards a fundamental incompatibility between the cherished goal of equality and the equally cherished goal of full employment. If this is so, we shall have left the epoch of the democratic class struggle and, possibly, regressed to a world dominated by the ‘social question’ and social polarization. These compelling reasons can be summarized under two labels: the first is globalization and technology, both of which undoubtedly enrich all nations, although in the process, they also accelerate industrial decline and contribute to unemployment; the second is tertiarization, which favours those with human and social capital, but which also may cause stagnation because of low productivity. In any case, both reasons point in the same direction: the less skilled are likely to become losers—be it as unemployed, or as low‐paid workers. The different sections of the chapter are: Jobs and Unemployment Trends Across Welfare Regimes; The Dilemmas of Globalization and Technological Change; Dilemmas of the New Service Economy; Identifying Services; Service Sectors; Service Occupations; Lousy Jobs or Outsiders? — post‐industrial job trends towards service job growth; The Cost‐Disease and Service Expansion; The Micro‐Foundations of Post‐industrial Employment; and The New Keynesian Household.
New Social Risks in Old Welfare States
Authors: Esping‐Andersen Gøsta 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
The introduction discusses the idea of a mature welfare state, and shows that the welfare state of the 1970s can be regarded as mature basically because few, if any, major changes have occurred since then. Not only did the welfare state stabilize but so also did the embracing welfare regime. Looks at the welfare state crisis and the paradoxes within this, noting (as at the beginning of the book) that the shocks come principally from the labour market and declining family stability, thus bringing growing pressures on the welfare state itself, and implying that it needs to be examined. Suggests that it would be much more fruitful to analyse the crisis as pertaining to welfare regimes. Argues that the essence of the problem lies in the growing disjuncture between existing institutional arrangements and emerging risk profiles: the bottom‐line analytical question is how and under what conditions welfare regimes are being recast to respond to the new—post‐industrial—economic realities. The first two sections look at the public attitudes to the welfare state, and the welfare state as a Trojan horse. The following sections discuss new risks and new equalities of welfare regimes—how they deal with the Trojan horse—under the following headings: Managing the Labour Market; Labour Market Risks and Welfare Regimes; Family Risks and Welfare Regimes; and Welfare State Adaptation to Exogenous Shocks and New Risks.
Problems from Locke
Authors: Mackie J. L. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In this book, Mackie critically examines various philosophical problems raised in John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Mackie carefully considers Locke's treatment of these problems, but also proposes his own resolution of the related issues in contemporary philosophy. In the course of these discussions, Mackie also proposes his theory of a realism combined with a moderate empiricism. In Ch. 1, Mackie considers the distinction between primary and secondary qualities and argues that they might still have some legitimate application. In Ch. 2, he also defends a version of Locke's representative theory of perception. In Ch. 3, Locke's theory of substance is examined and compared with the theories of more recent philosophers, such as Saul Kripke. In Ch. 4, Mackie defends Locke's theory of abstraction against Berkeley's criticisms and suggests his own revision of the theory considered in relation to the problem of universals. In Chs. 5 and 6, Mackie examines and revises Locke's consideration of identity over time and personal identity. Finally, in Ch. 7, Mackie critically discusses Locke's rejection of innate ideas and considers the possibility of a reconciliation of innate ideas and empiricism.
Representative Theories of Perception
Authors: Mackie J. L. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Mackie outlines Locke's representationalist theory. He analyses the relation between representationalism and the picture theory of ideas. The theory's relation to the veil of perception doctrine is also critically examined. Mackie criticizes the verificationist theory of meaning and instead argues that ideas should be understood as intentional objects. Mackie introduces and defends a version of realism, which he calls ‘common‐sense realism’.
Substance and Essence
Authors: Mackie J. L. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter considers both Locke's theory of substance and Berkeley's subsequent criticisms of it. Mackie discusses the difference between real essence and nominal essence. He argues that Locke should have equated substance with real essence and rejected the notion of substance as substratum. Mackie also argues that Locke invokes a theory of the use of language that anticipates the theory of natural kinds put forward by Kripke.
Abstract Ideas and Universals
Authors: Mackie J. L. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
In this chapter, Mackie presents a defence of Locke against Berkeley's attack on abstraction. It is argued that Locke's theory of ideas primarily concerns our ability to employ words and statements. Locke's theory concerning ideas of numbers is criticized. Three theories of universals are considered: realism, nominalism, and conceptualism; it is concluded, however, that the notion of there being distinct things with which we connect general words with particular things is mistaken. Mackie instead proposes a theory of general words being ‘annexed’ to features of things.
Improving Our Ethical Beliefs
Authors: Griffin James 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
How should we criticize and improve our ethical beliefs? This chapter assesses the methods most employed, or given lip‐service to, by philosophers today: piecemeal appeal to intuition and striving for wide reflective equilibrium. It argues that both have merit, but neither goes nearly far enough. The method of wide reflective equilibrium has plausibility in the natural sciences, but ethics lacks two of the features necessary for this plausibility: beliefs of high reliability (in the natural sciences, perceptual beliefs) and a certain kind of system.
The Good Life
Authors: Griffin James 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Focuses on one kind of value: prudential values, i.e. the features that make an individual life good for the person living it, the ends of life, the quality of life. There are two main models in philosophy for prudential value judgements: the taste model (valuable because desired) and the perception model (desired because seen to be valuable). The chapter criticizes David Hume's version of the taste model, concluding that things are valuable only if they are subsumable under some general human interest. The best account of prudential values gives priority neither to value nor to desire; when developed, it ends up with a list of values that make any characteristic human life good. The chapter ends by questioning two key dualisms in ethics: reason/desire and objective/subjective.
A Simple Moral Thought
Authors: Griffin James 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Focuses on simple moral judgements, one's moral standards that do not go far beyond the prudential values to which they are related. The question whether more complex moral judgements are like them in their epistemic and metaphysical features is left open. The chapter argues that there is no sharp line between prudence and morality or between egoism and altruism: we can neither understand morality independently of prudence, nor live well prudentially independently of living well morally. The chapter looks closely at the relation between the prudential judgement ‘that is painful’ (along with judgements about intentions) and the moral judgement ‘that is cruel’, and concludes that elements of the realism appropriate to the former judgement transfer to the latter.
Capital and Time
Authors: Hicks J. R. 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This book, first published in 1973, takes up an important approach to capital which had gone out of fashion. There has been some recent renewed interest in this approach. The ‘Austrian’ theory of capital concentrates on the inputs and outputs in the productive process, and has an advantage over more modern theories of economic dynamics in that it is more naturally expressible in economic terms: the production process over time is taken as a whole, rather than disintegrated. However, this approach had been largely abandoned because it seemed to be unable to deal with fixed capital. The book overcomes this problem here by allowing for a sequence of outputs, and the consequences for dynamic economics are profound and novel.
Technique and Technology
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
Social accounting is concerned only with values; it is not concerned with the quantities which these values represent, nor (in consequence) with price per unit of quantity. Thus, we could deal with the accounting matters, which were the sole concern in Chapter 3, without making any assumption about physical homogeneity. This chapter attempts to set the economic model to work by introducing the standard simplifications of modern growth theory — taking the price-system, in particular, in the simplest possible terms.
Full Performance and Full Employment
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter shows that we are on the way to a steady state theory, which is not substantially different from that which has become conventional. In the steady state, where the structure of the economy is the same in every time-period, time has been so nearly abolished that the passage from the assumption of a ‘sectoralized’ technique to our assumption of a technique that is time-articulated cannot make much difference. The first part of the chapter deals with the Fixwage theory. It then turns to what is considered its companion. Instead of taking the wage to be fixed and employment variable, the conditions for the maintenance of Full Employment of an exogenously given supply of labour is examined, the wage (the real wage) being allowed to be variable.
Substitution
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of what happens if there is a choice of techniques, so that the dominant technique may change in the course of the Traverse? It starts from a situation in which an old technique, belonging to an old technology, is dominant. A new range of practicable techniques is introduced at time 0. If the invention of these new techniques is to be effective, some of them must be more profitable than the old technique at the initial rate of wages. One must then be the most profitable; so for processes started at time 0, and perhaps for some time afterwards, this new technique will be adopted. In the course of adjustment to that first new technique, the wage will change; and it may well be that as a consequence of the change in wages, another technique becomes the most profitable. Thus, between time 0 and time T1, newly started processes use the first new technique, while there are old processes that are still unfinished; while after T1 newly started processes use the second technique, while old processes and first new technique processes are still unfinished. At time T2 there is (or may be) a second such switch; and so on. This sequence depends on three effects. The first runs from wages to choice of technique; the second from choice of technique to productivity; the third from productivity to wages. The first and second depend on the techniques (the parameters of the techniques); but the third is quite different, for it depends on saving. With any reasonable assumption about saving, a rise in productivity will lead to a rise in wages.
Shortening and Lengthening
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter reports on what has been achieved in the way of extension. There is no second Standard Case which seems to be analysable in comparable detail. Some of the Standard Case assumptions are tested out, in order to get a general idea of the kinds of complication which arise in their absence. There are several directions in which this can be done; and what follows is divided up into separate enquiries.
Ways Ahead
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter begins by reviewing discussions in the preceding chapters. It then considers what can be done towards relaxing those basic assumptions which have been used for so long — the single homogeneous final product, called Good, and the one original factor, called Labour. These are familiar assumptions, common to many forms of growth theory; but they are very strong assumptions, and should surely at some stage be called in question.
The Production Function
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter discusses the production function. Product as a function of labour and capital applied — a function that is unchanged with given technology, but changes when technology changes. The chapter also addresses the question of whether there is anything left of that old classification of invention-bias introduced in 1932 — the ‘Hicks’ classification. It considers whether it can be brought into relation with the classification used in this book.
The Concept of Equilibrium
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter discusses the concept of equilibrium in a static economy. The static economy (in which wants are unchanging, and resources unchanging) is in a state of equilibrium when all the ‘individuals’ in it are choosing those quantities, which, out of the alternatives available to them, they prefer to produce and to consume. The crucial assumption of static theory (without which idea of the static economy could not have been developed as it has been developed) is that a static economy (static, because tastes and resources are unchanging) can be treated as if it were in equilibrium: the quantities produced and consumed will be (near enough) the equilibrium quantities that have just been described.
The Methods of Keynes
Authors: Hicks John 
Published: October 2003

Abstract
This chapter discusses Keynes's methods. There were changes of method between his three main books on money — the Tract on Monetary Reform of 1923, the Treatise on Money of 1930, and the General Theory of 1936. Even in the General Theory itself, the main method is a hybrid, a combination of two which it is useful to distinguish. And there are the beginnings of other methods also. For during the years in which these books were written, his thought went on developing; and one can tell, from the slighter things that he was able to write between the General Theory and his death in 1946, that the General Theory itself was not the end of that development.