bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reconstructing Language Development: Two Principles of Change
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I Without wishing to take sides here on the subject of Barschel’s ‘Der Modusbestand des Hethitischen: Eine Alterti.imlichkeit?’ (1986) I would like to suggest a consideration which ought to be, in my view, an essential ingredient in this sort of discussion, namely current knowledge on how new languages come into being-best summed up in Miihlhausler (1986b).
Method
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Linguistics has not in general been one of the sciences in which the relevance and correctness of statements are determined by controlled methods of observation and argumentation. It is therefore desirable to consider what methods are relevant in linguistics, in the hope of establishing criteria for investigation and analysis. Choice of method is not less important than responsibility in data, and the choice should be determined not by personal preference or current custom but by the nature and the problems of the data. Furthermore, it will be seen in 2.2 that it is not enough to go by the separate observable features of the data, such as their linearity or their carrying meaning, but rather that one has to consider the regularities of all the data, and their interdependence.
Metalinguistic Apparatus within Language
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Certain features of language structure create a family of metalinguistic devices within language, i.e. of sentences talking about sentences and their parts. These metalinguistic devices include: metalinguistic sentences (5.2, 9.2), and a sublanguage that serves as metalanguage of the whole language (10.2); cross-reference (pronouns, 5.3); the use-mention distinction (5.4); the self-actualizing (performative) properties of I say (5.5); and metascience operators in science languages (10.4).
Analysis of the Set of Sentences
Authors: Harris Zellig 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Chapter 7 presented the analysis of occurrences of language as far as it can be done in what is called structural linguistics. The analysis ended up with two general limitations. First, the co-occurrence of individual words were so numerously varied that regularities could be stated only as combinings of classes of words, with the individual word-choice as between the class combinations left unstated. The second limitation was that these regularities held only within sentences but not over whole discourses, i.e. not between the successive sentences of a longer utterance.
A New Approach to English Grammar, on Semantic Principles
Authors: Dixon R M W 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Linguists often portray grammar as a kind of self-sufficient algebra. R. M. W. Dixon offers a new approach, starting from the premiss that a speaker ‘codes’ meaning into grammatical forms in order to communicate them to a hearer, who recovers the ‘meaning’. He investigates the interrelation of grammar and meaning, and uncovers a rationale for the varying grammatical properties of different words; why, for instance, we can say ‘I wish to go’ and ‘I wish that he would go’, and then ‘I want to go’ but not ‘I want that he should go’. In the first part of the book there is a review of some of the main points of English Syntax, followed by a discussion of English verbs in terms of ‘semantic types’. In the last part of the book the author looks in detail at five grammatical topics: complement clauses, which can fill subject or object slot in a main clause; the question of transitivity and causatives; passives of all kinds; promotion of a non-subject to subject slot, as in ‘Dictionaries sell well’; and the relation between constructions such as ‘She kicked him’ and ‘She gave him a kick’.
Noun Plural Marking in Singaporean English
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It is a well-known feature of typical creoles that nouns are not marked for plural. It is only when there is influence from a superstrate language which does mark nouns for plural, whether through frequent contact with its speakers or through formal teaching of and through the medium of it, that noun plural marking appears.
Research on the Verb
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In the following chapters, variation in the verb in SgE, based on extensive, detailed research by Ho, is discussed. The one hundred subjects under study are all ethnically Chinese Singaporeans who have had English-medium education. A list of the informants and their particulars is found in Appendix A. Ho’s investigation shows the extent to which SgE is influenced by the substrate language, Chinese, and in particular the Hokkien dialect,1 as well as by other factors such as simplification and other learning strategies and universals of language acquisition, all of them factors which need to be taken into consideration when examining an interlanguage such as SgE, which is ‘an ordered dynamic system’ (Platt 1978:61) advancing towards a target norm. However, it must be stressed that SgE is not just a learner’s language like the language of a learner of French in England. As the latter does not usually have a community of French-speaking English people with whom he or she can interact, it is less likely that the learner’s French will be petrified at a level at which communication can adequately take place but which is far from native speaker competence. The situation is entirely different in Singapore. Learners of English are continually exposed to SgE. At the same time, they can practice using SgE with other speakers of SgE. This constant exposure to and use of SgE has led to a petrified system which is available for informal use.
Quantitative Investigations and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Data on noun plural and third person singular marking (Platt 1977, Ho 1981, Wolfram 1969) seem to point to the importance of semantic-syntactic relationships. The research carried out for all three works found third person singular marking to be lower than noun plural marking. As there is no obvious special relationship between third person singular subjects and the verb as compared with the relationship between other possible subjects and the verb, marking is naturally less quickly internalized. Furthermore, there is no distinct marking of third person singular for modal verbs or for past tense (be, of course, has separate forms for singular and plural: was and were). The importance of semantic-syntactic environments for the SgE noun plural data has been discussed in Chapter 4. In general, with the New English’s, investigations have shown that noun plural marking is higher when nouns are preceded by quantifiers than when not. One cannot overemphasize the value of quantitative data: the ordering of environments in terms of difficulty of acquisition of a variable and the ordering of data by means of implicational scaling for any linguistic variable(s) can certainly provide much-needed insights and short cuts in the teaching/learning processes (Platt 1976).
The Value of Definite Determiners from Old Spanish to Modern Spanish
Authors: Batllori Montse , Roca Francesc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the analysis of determiners and offers a comparative approach by paying special attention to the syntactic and semantic properties of the definite article and the demonstrative in Modem Spanish and Old Spanish (see F. Roca 1997 and Batllori 1996, respectively). Our main goal is to show that in Old Spanish the behaviour ofel, la, las, las can only be explained by referring to two subsystems of grammar. The more general one is the innovative grammar or subsystem in which these forms function as discourse anaphors (in the same way asis, ea, id did in Latin). This amounts to saying that the syntactic change from a demonstrative to a definite article had already started in Late Latin.
The Role of the Modern Police
Authors: Heidensohn Frances 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
I Have already pointed out that research on police and policing is a recent and fruitful addition to the academic orchard. Indeed, mushrooms rather than fruit might be a more appropriate analogy, since work on these topics has grown so rapidly. Introducing a collection on the British police, Holdaway noted ‘the relative dearth of research’ (1979: 1) yet ‘within less than a decade’ was able to mark ‘its contemporary irrelevance . . . a great deal of interest is evident among academics’ (1989: 55). The situation is described by Reiner and Shapland as ‘an efflorescence of writing and research about the police . . . Books and articles . . . are now being published at a breath-taking pace’ (1987: 1).
The Origins, Drafting and Significance of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The traditional rule of international law was that, apart from the treatment of aliens,3 and possibly humanitarian intervention,4 the rights of individuals were not matters regulated by international law. Some of the earliest examples of international law concerning itself with individual rights can be observed in the attempts in the nineteenth century to abolish slavery and the slave trade. The revolutionary development of the twentieth century (though some would argue it is more properly viewed as an evolutionary development) has been the internationalization of the concept of human rights. Among the most significant milestones in this development were the Covenant of the League of Nations (1919), the Mandates System, the establishment of the International Labour Organization (1919), the Minorities Treaties and Declarations, President Roosevelt’s ‘Four Freedoms’ address in his message to Congress on 6 January 1941, the Declaration of the ‘United Nations’ of 1 January 1942, and the Charter of the United Nations (1945).
Appraisal and Prospectus
Authors: Goldrick Dominic Mc 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Thirteen years is too short a period in which to fully evaluate the activities of the HRC under the Covenant. It is long enough, however, to permit an interim evaluation of the effectiveness of the HRC’s work. On the basis of that evaluation it is possible to offer some general observations and assess the prospects for the work of the HRC. This assessment must be read in conjunction with the comments and appraisals contained in the foregoing chapters.
Security, Expectation, and Liberty
Authors: Kelly P J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE fundamental difference between the interpretation offered in this work, and that of its most important rival concerns the role of justice within Bentham’s moral theory. In his book Bentham and the Common Law Tradition, G. J. Postema writes:
No moral concept suffers more at Bentham’s hand than the concept of justice. There is no sustained, mature analysis of this notion to match that of Mill’s discussion in Utilitarianism. Seldom willing to take the notion seriously, he was most inclined to respond t talk of justice in an entirely polemical fashion, dismissing it summarily as, at best, innocently vague and potentially obscurantist, but more often a mask for social antipathy and malevolence.
Benefit, Reliance, and the Structure of Unjust Enrichment
Authors: Beatson J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
There is a danger that we tend to overuse our favourite concepts, particularly once we have left the familiar territory of contract and tort. For restitution lawyers the temptation is artificially to enlarge the category of obligations which are based on the defendant’s unjust enrichment at the expense of the plaintiff by an over inclusive concept of enrichment. Restitution scholars have encouraged a broad approach to ‘enrichment’ and argued that the subject’s boundaries should be limited by the grounds of relief (the question of ‘unjustness’) and the meaning of ‘at the expense of’.1 One consequence of a broad approach to enrichment may be to marginalize the concept of ‘reliance’.2 It is perhaps no accident that neither of the English books on Restitution3 refers to ‘reliance’ in the index. In so far as reliance is considered in the text it is treated as a factor in the determination of whether something is enriching and, if so, whether it is ‘at the expense of’ the intervener/plaintiff. In effect reliance is treated as a sub-category of enrichment.
Mistaken Payments in the Law of Restitution*
Authors: Beatson J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The object of this essay is to consider the rules governing the restitution of benefits conferred by mistake. We present a simple economic model to aid the analysis of the legal doctrines that have been used by the courts. Within mistake we shall concentrate on the law on mistaken payments because it is the most developed. We have therefore used it as a model to identify and evaluate the range of possible rules which might be available. In this we have drawn on the fact that restitution based on the principle of unjust enrichment has reached differing states of development in common law jurisdictions in the United States, Canada, and England,1 with an apparently sophisticated system in the first two but not in the third. We shall argue that those systems with a developed and sophisticated law of restitution are not necessarily more efficient.
The Nature of Waiver of Tort
Authors: Beatson J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Those who, pace Lord Diplock,1 believe that the principle of unjust enrichment has a role to play in English law and that there is a type of claim, independent of claims based on contract, tort, or property, properly termed restitutionary, are confronted with serious problems of definition and categorization. Many of these are due to the influence in the past of the implied contract theory which seriously inhibited the development of the law of restitution.2 For this reason, in the past, more attention was paid to the distinction between restitutionary claims and contractual claims than to that between restitutionary claims and claims in tort.3
Patient Welfare
Authors: Teff Harvey 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Nowadays it would not seem unnatural to think of doctors’ duties towards their patients as deriving from the rights that patients have against their doctors. Such a view is compelling as a matter of abstract reasoning and accords with modern attitudes towards the status of individual rights. But recognition of the individual’s rights is a relatively modern notion. As Feinberg has observed, until about forty years ago moral philosophy was overwhelmingly concerned with duties. Duties were seen as foundational and moral rights as a kind of afterthought: ‘rights were merely an alternative way of speaking of other people’s duties’. ‘This’, he said, was ‘especially puzzling when one remembers that statements of rights are often logically connected to statements of duties.’ ‘The right-holder’s right often provides the whole grounding for the other party’s duty’. And again, there is ‘ ... considerable plausibility in the view that your rights have a moral priority over my duties, in the sense that the duties are derived from them rather than the other way around’. ‘It is because I have a claim-right not to be punched in the nose by you, for example, that you have a duty not to punch me in the nose ... My claim and your duty both derive from the interest that I have in the physical integrity of my nose.’
The Concept of Money
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE troublesome question, What is money? has so constantly engaged the minds of economists that a lawyer might hesitate to join in the attempt to solve it. Yet the true answer must, if possible, be determined. For ‘money answereth all things,. It is a fundamental notion not only of the economic life of mankind but also of all departments oflaw. In fact, a great deal of a lawyer’s daily work centres around the term ‘money’ itself and the many transactions or institutions based on that term, such as debt, damages, value, payment, price, capital, interest, tax, pecuniary legacy. Money is a term so frequently used and of such importance that one is apt to overlook its inherent difficulties, and to forget that the multitude of its functions has led to a multitude of meanings.
Monetary Obligations: Types and Payment
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT has already been observedI that it is one of the most important, though not the basic, functions of money to serve as a general medium of payment. In fact, in innumerable cases money not only functions as the contemplated or immediate means of fulfilling obligations, whether compulsorily imposed or voluntarily contracted, but may also be described as a ‘medium of final compulsory liquidation or as a medium of final tender’. The latter observation has particular force in this country, where the fundamental principle of the law of damages that the injured party is entitled to restitutio in integrum cannot be taken in the literal sense of denoting naturalis restitutio, but in the sense of the Roman maxim, ‘omnis condemnatio est pecuniaria’.
Introduction
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
IT will be recalled that it was the primary object of the first part of this book to consider a domestic (English) currency within the setting of its own domestic (English) law, and that the second part dealt with foreign (for example, French) currency within the sphere ofdomestic (English) law. The relationship between a given domestic currency, on the one hand, and a foreign currency, on the other hand, could not be entirely ignored; thus reference had to be made to certain problems of conversion, particularly to the question of the date with reference to which conversion has to take place. However, notwithstanding some overlapping and some unavoidable inelegancies, the main problem of the exchange of one currency for another remains to be treated separately in the following, third part of this book.
Introduction
Authors: Mann F A 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
THE preceding Parts of this book have shown that to some extent the municipal law of money is directly derived from public international law. The connection has been established mainly by the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund, for they determine the public policy of more than 150 States in regard to exchange restrictions introduced by member States’ and they contain a specific provision which deals with the enforceability of certain contracts in member States.
The International Court of Justice
Authors: Collier John , Lowe Vaughan 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The International Court of Justice was created in 1945 by its Statute, which forms part of the Charter of the United Nations. Unlike its predecessor, the Permanent Court of lnternational Justice, which existed from 1923 to 1945 during the life of the League of Nations, but which was not an organ of the League, the International Court is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (Charter, article 92). The Court has its own Rules of Procedure, which it establishes within the framework of the Statute and which it can alter. The Rules presently in force are those of 1978.
Introduction: The Old System and the Revolution
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The sudden social movement which, in 1980, crushed the shell of the apparent calmness, passivity, and satisfaction of the Polish people, offered an exceptional opportunity for a review of the various conceptions and pseudo-conceptions which—in lieu of the prohibited sociological reflection—Polish sociologists produced for themselves and for others. Polish sociology, reborn after the liberalization of October 1956, soon lost its breath in the sphere of theories of Polish society. The sociologists’ own opinions were camouflaged in the form of the various socio-vocational classifications that passed as the theory of social structure, cyclic models of disturbances that, instead of political theory, were carried out in terms of changing configurations of power within the ruling elite, and in the choice of problems for critical diagnoses of the various spheres of social life.
Words and Deeds: Demands and Events
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If the ultimate sanction of execution always existed, the glue that kept the regime in place was what Dionisio Ridruejo, the repentant Falangist poet, once characterized to me as ‘administrative coercion’. Everything from a driving licence to a job depended on acceptance—at least in foro extemo—of the regime. Those who live in democratic societies cannot understand the efficacy of this mechanism when it pervades a whole society. It takes a brave man to risk his prospects of promotion and the livelihood of his family for his convictions. Most ordinary citizens conform in order to survive; even university professors do not relish losing their chairs. In an authoritarian regime self-censorship become a conditioned reflex for weary intellectuals.
Self-Limited Freedom of Expression: Censorship
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The debate within Solidarity exposed us to the reality of the rights as enjoyed by the members of the democratic society created by the movement in 1980/1. In a democratic society it is often assumed that basic freedoms are safeguarded on the macrolevel of society, so that one should be less concerned with these when dealing with the internal life of private organizations such as the Church, trade unions, or political parties. A concept of ‘one degree minus’ seems to operate by which it is understood that once a number of freedoms exists in the society at large, one degree less of freedom within an association might be tolerated unless the association is really voluntary, and it is of one’s own free will that one surrenders one of the freedoms while entering it.
Personal Freedoms: Religion, Personality, and the Privatization of the Body
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If one looks at the 1988 survey, the concern with issues of religious doctrine and religiosity might seem obsessive. But religion was for decades the main source of ethical judgement for most people, and this function was finally recognized even by the atheist regime. In the last and most tense days of the strikes in the summer of 1980, the primate, Cardinal Wyszyilski, who had been for decades the enemy of the Communist establishment, was televised across the country preaching the need to return to work. This move was immediately discounted, however, by the opposition as Communist propaganda manipulation. One may, however, think that the Church, through the primate, was willing to speak on behalf of fundamental social order, of which the Communist authorities were inefficient instruments and not masters in their own right. Since this unexpected move the Church has been continually invited to join the political scene as the major repository of the values promoting social solidarity.
The Rule of Law: Democracy and Freedoms
Authors: Kurczewski Jacek 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The social history of rights described so far has dealt with the decisive forces and events of the post-war period. But to learn how the processes leading up to the resurrection of freedom related to Polish society in general it will be helpful to look at data from public-opinion surveys. There are difficulties with using such data. Some rights and freedoms may have lain dormant, so that only particularly sensitive individuals would have been aware of their significance. Other rights and duties, though reaching public awareness, may not have been fully appreciated. It looks as if the majority of Poles were aware of the lack of free elections.