bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The persistence of burning of textiles in different oxygen environments and the determination of the extinction oxygen index
Authors: Horrocks A. R. , Ugras M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe influence that oxygen has on the burning behaviour of cotton single‐ and multilayered fabries has been determined by recording persistence of burning times as a function of oxygen concentration. For a given fabric subjected to a specified igniter application time, an extinction oxygen index parameter, EOI, may be determined. EOI is defined as the oxygen concentration expressed as a volume fraction in an oxygen‐nitrogen mixture, necessary to give a persistence of burning time equal to zero. For a given fabric, EOI is found to decrease as the igniter application time increases and two limiting EOI values may be observed, one corresponding to zero inginter application conditions and one for igniter application times greater than 10 s. At any given ignition time, the extinction oxygen index increases linearly with fabric area density and decreases linearly with the logarithm of the respective air permeability. Similar results are observed for nylon 6.6 and polyester single‐ and multilayered fabrics. The validity of the extinction oxygen index is discussed with reference to other published works.
Flammability limits of the polymer pyrolysates generated from flame retarded poly (ethylene terephthalate)
Authors: Day M. , Suprunchuk T. , Wiles D. M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA device constructed and used to determine the flammability limits of pyrolysate–air mixtures as a function of percentage weight loss on pyrolysis has been employed to investigate the pyrolysate gases generated from poly (ethylene terephthalate) both in the presence and absence of chemical flame retardants. The chemicals tripropyl phosphate (TPP), dibromopropanol (DBP) and tris (2, 3 dibromopropyl) phosphate (TRIS) all influenced both the lower and upper flammability limits, with the largest effects being obtained when both phosphorus and bromine were present, followed by bromine only and then phosphorus only. The results indicate TPP has negligible condensed phase activity with only small gas phase action. DBP has no condensed phase activity but is a very active gas phase inhibitor. In contrast, TRIS has a detrimental effect upon the condensed phase reactions in that it is responsible for the formation of a more flammable pyrolysate gas mixture. Fortunately, its gas phase inhibition reaction is capable of reducing the overall flammability.
Combustion products of polymeric materials. 1—Test chamber CAB 4.5
Authors: Michal Jan 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA test chamber for performing complete investigation of the dangerous effects of thermal degradation products of polymeric materials has been designed. The tow‐chamber system with separated combustion chamber and smoke chamber has a steep temperature gradient between both chambers and enables continuous analysis of combustion products of the tested polymeric material for carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to be performed, to monitor the oxygen content in the chamber during testing and to perform tests of biological toxicity on mice as test animals. The function of the test chamber was verified on combustion of polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyamide samples.
Combustion products from burning wool fabric
Authors: Hodgkin J. H. , Galbraith M. N. , Chong Y. K. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA Preliminary study of the thermal degradation of wool fabric was carried out under a wide range of oxidative degradation conditions including flaming combustion. Product collection methods and analysis conditions were designed to minimize secondary reactions. The degradation products obtained included a variety of organic nitriles and heterocyclic compounds as well as the usual aromatic and oxygenated products. Variations in moisture content and fire retardant level in the wool had little effect on the organic volatiles produced form the fabrics.
Test methods and standards. Fire performance of products
Authors: Becker W. H. K. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractMore than 700 standardized rules for fire testing are used round the world in order to assess the fire safety of materials, products and constructions in different technical fields. This article discusses the reasons for this variety of test methods and evaluation systems and the attempts to create systematic models in this special field of material testing, including new suggestions and developments in ISO and CIB for future approaches.
Effective thermal inertia in relation to normalized heat load
Authors: Williams‐Leir G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractNormalized heart load, obtained by dividing heat absorption by thermal inertia, is a quantity useful in building design for relating fire severity in fully developed compartment fires to fire severity in standard fire resistance tests. Harmathy has shown how normalized heat load may be used for determining required fire resistance in projected buildings. The present work describes how effective values of thermal inertia can be calculated for such important materials as brick and concrete, both normal and lightweight, for which thermal properties depend strongly upon temperature.
Some factors influencing fire spread over room linings and in the ASTM E–84 tunnel test
Authors: Quintiere James 
Published: December 2004

AbstractAn examination of the correlative relationship between room fire intensity (temperature) and flammability data for materials, ASTM E–84 flame ratings and energy release rate from calorimertry devices is presented for fire spread on lings. The results of the analysis show the significance of two modes of flame spread—wind‐aided and opposed‐flow spread. The factors important in these spread modes are considered from approximate solutions developed for turbulent flow. As the importance of energy release rate to flame spread in the tunnel test (E–84) and in upward or wind‐aided spread is illustrated. The results suggest a possible reason why the ASTM E–84 and in upward or wind‐aided spread is illustrated. The results suggest a possible reason why the ASTM E–84 ratings may not be applicable to the performance of low‐density combustible linings in wall fires. In the analyses, flame radiation has not been considered. Also the interpretation of energy release rate data for difference scale and orientation effects has been ignored. These two factors must ultimately be addressed.
Toxic gas and smoke measurement with the British Fire Propagation test. II: Hydrogen chloride evolution from UPVC building products
Authors: Brown S. K. , Martin K. G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractExtension of the British Standard Fire Propagation test (BS 476 Part 6) as a combustion mode for measuring smoke and toxic gas production from small panels of UPVC building products has been investigated. Hydrogen chloride gas concenatrations in the test room have been measured continuously with a method developed to ensure high collection efficiency from the fire gases. Using this method, the influences of test conditions (room temperature and humidity, room surface finish, reactivity of fire box interior) on HCl gas concentrations were examined to explain the fate of HCl gas after its evolution. The relative humidity (RH) in the room was the most critical factor influencing HCl gas concentrations during tests. Although HCl evolution early in the test was influenced little by RH and closely matched smoke production, maximum HCl gas concentrations in the room attained later varied markedly with RH. Generally, no more than one‐third of the HCl expected theoretically remained airborne under any test condition. Further investigations suggested that this loss and the effect of RH are associated with HCl plate‐out on room surfaces. Using test conditions set to minimize the influence of RH, HCl evolution from a series of UPVC building products was investigated. HCl concentrations in the test room did not exceed incapacitating levels for those products where less than a certain quantity of UPVC was combusted. This observation is discussed in relation to French regulations, which limit the total quantity of chlorine in some synthetic materials within building compartments.
Towards regulating toxicity of materials in building
Authors: Reichwerger Z. , Balbin J. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA method is presented for evaluating the toxic hazard resulting from the thermal decomposition of materials used in buildings or other closed structures. It was developed in conjunction with the current revision of Israel Standards pertaining to the behavior in fire of building materials. The method is based on the measurement and evaluation of those gases recognized as hazardous in fire situations. A ‘toxicity ratio’ of the materials is defined in terms of the sum of concentration ratios of all toxic gases monitored to the corresponding lethal threshold limit concentration levels. The ‘toxicity index’, a material property, relates the toxicity ration to the material quantity and the plenum volume. The toxicity index is found by experiment for specimens heated to their smoldering and flaming temperatures in a closed system. Fire hazard levels due to toxic gases emitted from different materials can then be compared using the toxicity ratio computed for the specified situation. The proposed method is compatible with Israel Standards IS 921, where allowable levels for buildings and compartments are defined.
Movement of destruction products through the carbonized layer upon combustion of polymers
Authors: Gibov K. M. , Shapovalova L. N. , Zhubanov B. A. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractPenetration of the carbonized polymeric residues has been investigated and their influence on combustibility of polymers has been shown. It has been found that filtration of liquid and gas products of pyrolysis through the carbonized layer upon combustion is described by Darcy's law, the movement of liquids being due to the surface tension forces. It has been shown that the carbonized layer cannot be regarded as an important obstacle for passing of volatile and low‐viscous products into the gas phase, and that the polymeric melts can also rise through the coke due to the capillary forces. Phosphoric and some boric compounds have been found to cause a decrease in penetration of the carbonized residues, which can be one of the reasons of the flammability decrease of polymers when using such compounds.
Prediction model of CO, CO2 and O2 concentrations in compartment fires using wood fuel
Authors: Nakaya Ichiroh 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA simple model for predicting as concentrations, temperature and heat release rate in a room fire was developed. The CO, CO2 yield rates and O2 yield rates and O2 depletion rate were calculated using this model for wood fuel. The calculated values were compared with the experimental ones and a fairly good accuracy was obtained. As this model can apply to any kind of fuel by replacing the assumption for the fuel pyrolysis, it may be useful for evaluating toxic hazards in a room fire.
An analysis of the potential economic impact on society due to the compliance with the fire service order. (Northern Ireland) 1985
Authors: Ewart K. , Shields J. , Silcock G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe article outlines the analysis of data collected by questionnaire, inspection and detailed surveys of a selection of boarding houses in Northern Ireland. A statistical model is developed which enables a cost of compliance to be estimated for boarding houses having more than six bedspaces. Comparisons are also made regarding cost with previous studies in England and Wales for similar boarding houses/small hotels. Finally the cost of compliance for these houses and other buildings is given with an estimate of the impact of this cost on the building industry and the public at large in Northern Ireland.
Developments in inorganic phosphorus flame retardants
Authors: Stephenson J. E. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractDifficulties encountered in bulk transportation of red phosphorus can be overcome by making an intimate blend with alumina trihydrate. The blend is suitable for direct use with more alumina hydrate in a synertistic flame retardant system for epoxy resin mouldings. The degree of observed synergism allows low loadings of the addivities and consequently the electrical and physical properties of the mouldings are only slightly affected.
Correlation between the hot plate ignition test and other laboratory‐scale flammability tests on rubber conveyor belts with fabric skeletons
Authors: Nakagawa Yuichi , Komai Takeshi , Kohno Makoto 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe hot plate ignition test was conducted on ten different conveyor rubber belts with fabric skeletons. In this test, a 25 × 25 mm2 belt sample was placed on a stainless steel plate in an electric furnace and heated. The ‘ignition temperature’ was determined on each sample in almost the same way as proposed in Canada. The test results were compared with those from other laboratory‐scale flammability tests (i.e. the small‐scale flame tests, the Oxygen Index test and the laboratory‐scale gallery test). The calculated results of both sample and rank correlation coefficients imply that the ‘10 signition temperature’ in this hot plate ignition test has a correlation with the results from both the Oxygen Index test and the laboratory‐scale gallery test, but that it has very little or no correlation with those from the small‐scale flame tests. On the other hand, it is found that the ‘60 s ignition temperature’ in this test has a far better correlation both with the results from the small‐scale flame tests and with the time to ignition in the laboratory‐scale gallery test than the ‘10 s ignition temperature’.
Phospham—A stable phosphorus‐rich flame retardant
Authors: Weil Edwar D. D. , Patel Navin G. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractPhospham is an iminophosphazene polymer of unusually high thermal stability. We have found that phospham imparts a substantial level of flame retardancy to nylon‐4,6, a high‐melting crystalline engineering thermoplastic. It did not appear to produce degradation of the polyamide in the processing temperature range. The flame retardant efficacy of phospham in nylon‐4,6 was similar to that of stabilized red phosphorus, when compared on an equal phosphorus basis. In nylon‐4,6, it did not display nitrogen–phosphorus synergism. Limited evidence from TGA suggested a condensed phase mode of action in nylon‐4,6. Phospham showed orders‐of‐magnitude better hydrolytic stability than did ammonium polyphosphate, and did not produce detectable phosphine on processing as did red phosphorus.
Christmas trees—what happens when they ignite?
Authors: Damant Gordon H. , Nurbakhsh Said 
Published: December 2004

AbstractBurn tests were conducted on a number of Christmas trees commonly used in typical households. Trees were kept in room conditions for several weeks to dry out. Burn tests were also conducted on fresh and almost fresh trees to compare their burning behaviors wilth those of dry trees. Two trees were moistened and wetted prior to burn to observe the effects of water on burning of dry trees. The foremost objective of this work was to quantitatively demonstrate the potential fire hazard of Christmas trees by measuring the rate of heat release and room temperature during the burn.
Quantitative structure—property relationships for auto‐ignition temperatures of organic compounds
Authors: Suzuki Takahiro 
Published: December 2004

AbstractQuantitative structure–property relationship techniques were applied to develop a predictive method for autoignition temperatures of a wide range of organic molecules, including hydrocarbons, alcohols, phenols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, acids, amines, esters and halogenated compounds. Multivariate linear regression models in terms of easily available molecular descriptors or intrinsic molecular properties such as critical pressure, parachor, atomic charges, etc. were proposed. Principal component analysis on the set of descriptors employed uncovered the significant contributions of the polarity‐related factors to auto‐ignition temperatures. For the majority of the 250 compounds over an auto‐ignition temperature range of 170–630°C, good agreement between observed and calculated autoignition temperatures was confirmed. The method could be useful for assessing the flammability of new compounds.
An approximate integral model for the burning rate of a thermoplastic‐like material
Authors: Quintiere James , Iqbal Naeem 
Published: December 2004

AbstractAn approximate integral model is formulated and solved to describe the pyrolysis or burning rate of a thermoplastic‐like material. A constant temperature gasification process is assumed to occur at the solid–atmosphere interface. The preheating ignition problem is also solved by a matching integral method. The ignition problem leads to a solution involving a non‐linear algebraic equation, but the gasification problem yields an exact solution provided the convective heat transfer coefficient is unaffected by the fuel mass loss or blowing effect. The results are compared to numerical solution in the literature and show good agreement. Comparisons with experimental data for PMMA are limited.
Experimental studies on the sensitivity of fire detectors
Authors: Chow W. K. , Wong William C. W. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractExperimental studies were performed to assess the sensitivity and response times of four types of fire detectors: ionization smoke, optical smoke, infra‐red and rate of heat rise detectors. The detectors were installed in a fire chamber and subjected to ten types of fire under a controlled environment. Based on the experimental results, correlations between the fire properties and the response times of the detectors were found. Data collected on the predicted fire detector response time were analyzed by a statistical method. Those empirical expressions would be important for practising engineers in designing fire‐detection systems and setting responses for detectors in buildings of different uses.
The application of magnesium hydroxide as a fire retardant and smoke‐suppressing additive for polymers
Authors: Hornsby Peter R. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThe use of magnesium hydroxide as a fire‐retardant additive in polymers is discussed in terms of its particle characteristics, thermal properties and factors influencing the mechanism of action. Consideration is also given to its role in reducing smoke evolution during polymer combustion.
Factors affecting reliability of light‐framing wood members exposed to fire—a critical review
Authors: Lau Peter W. C. , Barrett J. D. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis paper discusses the application of reliability‐based design concepts to the design of light structural framing wood members for fire safety. In reliability‐based designs we seek to ensure with high confidence that the member as designed will survive a ‘severe’ fire for a specified period. Reliability analysis expresses this confidence in a probabilistic context that allows different designs to be compared. The reliability of members loaded in tension has been formulated as a function of applied load, the member cross‐section size and initial strength, charring rate and strength degradation rate, of which the latter two are probably the most significant. These two factors may not be treated in the same manner as has been established for heavy timber design because of differences in material behaviour. The factors constituting the reliability function are discussed and their dependence on temperature is examined.
An overview of the fire retardant chemicals industry, past—present—future
Authors: Green Joseph 
Published: December 2004

AbstractAn overview of the fire retardant chemicals industry in the United States is given starting with an historical review of the chemical producers in about 1970. Marketing concepts for these specialty chemicals is discussed by customer types for each category of fire retardant. The fire retardants discussed are bromine and chlorine compounds, nonhalogen and halogenated phosphates and antimony oxide. The paper contains a section in how to select a fire retardant. Markets are discussed by fire retardant type and by polymer type. The current and future trends section discusses toxicity issues with bromine fire, retardants, non‐halogen fire retardants, smoke, processability and thin walled parts, and market projections.
Studies on magnesium hydroxide in polypropylene using simultaneous TG‐DSC
Authors: Larcey P. A. , Redfern J. P. , Bell G. M. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractA simultaneous TG‐DSC system (STA‐625) has been used to investigate the suitability of using magnesium hydroxide (MH) as a flame retardant and smoke suppressant in polypropylene (PP) formulations. Several MH/PP formulations were examined at differing concentrations. The presence of MH in the system greatly alters the thermal degradation character of PP. This work forms the first in a series of application notes using various Theometric Scientific Thermal Analysis instruments.
An adaptive multigrid tool for elliptic and parabolic systems
Authors: Jones A. C. , Jimack P. K. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractThis paper describes a multigrid tool for use with adaptively refined meshes in two dimensions. A standard full approximation storage (FAS) multigrid scheme is modified to maintain efficient performance on non‐uniform grids arising as a result of local mesh refinement. This is achieved by allowing hanging nodes to exist but ensuring that at each stage of the FAS algorithm the solution is projected into the continuous space in which the hanging node values are interpolants of their coarse grid parent values. A non‐linear, elliptic, finite element example is provided to demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed algorithm. However, the method is also suitable for linear and non‐linear parabolic problems. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Contact damage in brittle coating layers: Influence of surface curvature
Authors: Qasim Tarek , Bush Mark B. , Hu Xiaozhi , Lawn Brian R. 
Published: December 2004

AbstractFracture from indentation by a hard sphere on bilayer systems composed of curved brittle coating layers on compliant polymeric substrates is investigated, in simulation of dental crown structures. Glass plates 1 mm thick are used as representative of enamel/crown layers, and epoxy filler substrates as representative of support dentin. Specimens with curved surfaces are prepared by pressing the glass plates onto steel sphere dies with radius of curvature down to 4 mm, to reflect common occlusal geometries. The influence of curvature on the conditions to initiate and propagate subsurface “radial” cracks, widely believed to be the principal failure mode in ceramic‐based dental crowns, is studied. Finite element calculations are used to evaluate stress states in the specimens. It is shown that surface curvature can play an important role in the radial crack evolution, initially by inhibiting initiation but subsequently, in the case of convex curvature, by strongly enhancing propagation to failure. Implications concerning the design of ceramic‐based dental crowns are considered. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 73B: 179–185, 2005