bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Diabetic nephropathy: natural history and management
Authors: Mogensen Carl Erik 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Persistently good metabolic control is of major importance for the prevention and postponement of renal disease [1,2], as well as other microvascular complications in patients with type 1 [3] as well as type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) [4]. Later, several factors appear to affect progression of renal disease of which hypertension seems the most important [5,6]. Similarly, in type 2 DM, hypertension, along with dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia appear to be risk factors for the development of macro vascular complications [7]. Incipient renal disease in diabetes, as judged by the occurrence of microalbuminuria, is frequently characterized by elevation or at least progressively increasing blood pressure. The increase, however, is often subtle and may only be detectable by careful monitoring, e.g. 24 h ambulatory recordings [8-11]. Elevation of blood pressure is found in both types of diabetes, but there appear to be several distinctions between type 1 and type 2 diabetes; some of these are clearly explained by the different aetiology and nature of the diabetic state. In type 2 diabetic patients, higher age, increased body weight, as well as insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia related to syndrome X [12,13] are important factors. Although hypertension secondary to renal impairment is also frequently seen in type 2 diabetic patients, the renal genesis of hypertension is much more common in the relatively younger type 1 diabetic patients [14], where parental predisposition to hypertension seems to play some part [15,16]. However, differences between type 1 and type 2 regarding the nephropathy are less pronounced than originally thought [17]. Dietary protein intake may also be a modulating factor [18,19], but further studies on intervention are needed [20,21]. Thus, metabolic control, blood pressure elevation and to some extent dietary proteins, and the possibility of modification by treatment [22,23], will be the main issues addressed in this chapter.
Chronic tubulo-interstitial nephropathy
Authors: Smith R M , Tomson C R V 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has long been known that histological changes in the tubulo-interstitial compartment of the kidney are far more predictive of subsequent changes in renal function than glomerular changes [l-6]. These findings have focused attention on the importance of the interstitial compartment in the progression of glomerular disease. Paradoxically, however, in diseases in which the pathogenesis is largely within the interstitium, glomerular changes and the accompanying proteinuria appear to be more predictive of outcome-for instance, in reflux nephropathy. Tubulointerstitial diseases also pose challenges for the hyperfiltration theory of progression-why, for instance, is proteinuria so rare in polycystic kidney disease despite progressive loss of functioning nephrons?-and why is progressive renal failure so rare after relief of obstruction, even in patients who are left with severe renal impairment? Perhaps the type of scarring, rather than simply the number of nephrons lost, is a determinant of progression. This disparate group of diseases teach us that there are numerous contributing factors to progressive renal disease, many of which remain ill understood.
A new direction?
Authors: Iliffe Steve , Drennan Vari 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A systematic approach to the functional and health assessment of older people in the community is needed, but as we have shown the 1990 contractual obligation as presently configured does not appear to meet this need. The appraisal carried out in 1996 for the NHS Executive’ showed how little progress had been made in developing a preventive and proactive approach to primary care for older people after the phase of innovation was interrupted by the imposition of the new contract. The findings of this appraisal make disappointing reading, but they do indicate some ways forward for primary health care . Similar attempts to overcome the problems of reorganized social care, in favour of joint working, have produced interesting innovations that might become models for the future.
Establishing the infrastructure for quality health care
Authors: Iliffe Steve , Drennan Vari 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the elements in the organization of primary health care which significantly contribute to the quality of health care. We will argue that organizational and professional cultures play a significant role in the way that health and social care is delivered. Attention to recognizing the current differences will assist in developing a culture of integrated working which gives the prime focus to the older person rather than individual professional roles. The chapter considers issues in collaboration and team working, communication and networking, and team effectiveness and quality.
Disability, functional loss, and falls
Authors: Iliffe Steve , Drennan Vari 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mr and Mrs H were woken up not long after midnight by the Remote Monitoring Centre linked to Mrs H.’s 82-years-old mother’s alarm systems. Mrs H.’s mother, Ivy, had fallen over in her bathroom an hour or so before, and had only just reached the alarm pull to get help, having left her alarm pendant beside her bed. She had taken her sleeping tablets at 8 o’clock but then decided not to go to bed, but to watch television instead. When she finally got up to use the lavatory before sleeping, she had lost her balance turning in the bathroom. It was her third fall in the same number of months.
Peritoneal dialysis methods
Authors: Cancarini Giovanni C , Maiorca Rosario 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Until the introduction of hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis (PD) was the only method used for the treament of end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Performed intermittently (IPD), in an inadequate and unstandardized way, it gave, however, unsatisfactory results, so that the introduction of hemodialysis (HD) led to its decline.
Treatment of patients with hereditary and congenital disorders
Authors: Pirson Yves , Cochat Pierre , Coffin Eric 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A variety of inherited kidney disorders lead to end-stage renal failure (ESRF), at an age ranging from the newborn (such as in the nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type) to the elderly (such as in type 2 autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease). In each instance, the best therapeutic option, maximizing rehabilitation and life-style, is renal transplantation. In most of these disorders, the 5-year graft survival does not differ from transplanted controls, and recurrence of the primary disease in the grafted kidney does not occur (Table 9.1). Unfortunately, it should be emphasized that in most of them the kidney is only one of the affected organs, so that extra-renal involvement continues to progress after renal transplantation.
Disorders of the pancreas, biliary tree, liver, and jaundice
Authors: Stonebridge Peter , Smith David , Duncan Lesley , Thompson Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Pancreatitis usually presents with sudden onset of upper abdominal pain radiating through to the back and associated with nausea and vomiting.
The history of recurrent hospital admissions coupled with a heavy alcohol intake should make you think of acute pancreatitis as a possible diagnosis. All patients presenting with upper abdominal pain should have their serum amylase checked to exclude acute pancreatitis.
Having established that the airway is not blocked and putting an oxygen mask on the patient to assist breathing (remember ill patients need oxygen), venous access is established using a wide bore cannula and blood drawn for baseline FBC and biochemistry. IV fluid resuscitation should begin while a full assessment of the patient takes place.
Lumps in the neck and thyroid gland
Authors: Stonebridge Peter , Smith David , Duncan Lesley , Thompson Alastair 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The commonest cause of a lump in the neck is lymphadenopathy (85%). A painful lymph node usually denotes an inflammatory reaction (i.e. an infective cause).
Ask about general symptoms including dyspnoea, cough, hoarseness, and any systemic upset, such as malaise, cachexia, and weight loss. These symptoms may point to a primary cause of the lymphadenopathy.
Examine the neck for lymphadenopathy (submental, submandibular, cervical). If present, examine for generalized lymphadenopathy (axillary, inguinal) and splenomegaly. This is because we want to know whether the lymph node is caused by a haematological disorder (when there is a problem that affects many lymph nodes, i.e. generalized lymphadenopathy) or whether the nodes are only located in the neck, when they are far more likely to be caused by a local or regional problem, i.e. localized/regional lymphadenopathy.
The design of experiments
Authors: Bland Martin , Peacock Janet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
In an experiment or trial we carry out a treatment and observe the outcome. We need a control group who receive no treatment or a different treatment, but are otherwise similar to the group receiving the treatment of interest. The groups of patients should be comparable in every respect except treatment. We achieve this by random allocation, where subjects are allocated to treatments without the subject’s own characteristics influencing the choice. Each subject has the same chance of receiving each treatment. Methods to do this include tossing a coin and random number tables.
Determination of sample size
Authors: Bland Martin , Peacock Janet 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
For the comparison of means or proportions, as in a clinical trial or epidemiological study, we plan a significance test. The power of a test is the probability that the study will give a significant difference if the difference in the whole population is some chosen value. We might choose this value to be the smallest difference which would be clinically important, or the difference which two treatments might plausibly produce. The power depends on the sample size, so we can calculate the sample size required to achieve any given power of getting a significant difference in our study if the postulated population difference is correct.
Perinatal and maternal death
Authors: Neuberg Roger 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
A perinatal death is one which occurs between the 24th week of gestation and the end of the first week after birth. It therefore includes all stillbirths and early neonatal deaths. The reason for grouping these deaths together is because their aetiology is often the same. The perinatal mortality rate is the number of such deaths per thousand total births (stillbirths and live births).
Rett Disorder and the Developing Brain
Authors: Kerr Alison , Engerström lngegerd Witt 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Rett disorder, first described by Andreas Rett in 1966, is a condition which involves the functions on which intelligence and expression depend. It is probably the most common genetic disorder encountered in profoundly intellectually disabled females. Its many manifestations include epilepsy, scoliosis, nutritional difficulties, and disorders of mood and movement. This book provides an up-to-date account of current research into the disorder at a time when the causative mutations have just been discovered on the MeCP2 gene. The first section of the book presents the clinical signs and the latest research into the genetic, neuro- anatomical and neuro-chemical aspects of Rett disorder. The second section moves on to deal with the neuro-physiological research, concentrating on the autonomic system, which is deeply implicated in the disease mechanisms. The final section of the book examines the behavioural and psychological features of Rett disorder and discusses issues relating to communication. The chapters are written by a distinguished, international team of experts, all currently active in research. The contributions bring our understanding of the Rett disorder right up-to-date, as the study of the condition moves from an era of description into a time when there are real possibilities for beneficial interventions.
Cortical development in Rett syndrome: molecular, neurochemical, and anatomical aspects
Authors: Kaufmann Walter E 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The cerebral cortex is probably the brain region studied in greatest detail in Rett syndrome (RS) (Chapter 3 of this volume presents an overview of RS neurons pathology). The interest in the cerebral cortex in RS is due to both the prominent role that the neocortex seems to play in the RS neurologic phenotype (cognitive and motor dysfunction) and the relative accessibility of this structure. This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the changes affecting the cerebral cortex in RS, ranging from molecular to macroscopic levels. Interestingly RS is one.
Genetics of mental retardation
Authors: Thapar Anita , Clayton-Smith Jill 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Mental retardation, known as learning disability in the UK, is defined as early onset intellectual deficit (IQ test scores of below 70), accompanied by impairment of functioning. Although this is a widely accepted definition, the term mental retardation describes a group of individuals who show an extremely wide range of abilities and adaptive skills and who differ enormously in terms of clinical presentation. Given that mental retardation represents such a broad category, it is not surprising that there have been many attempts to subdivide the group at a phenotypic and aetiological level.
Genetic Counselling
Authors: Scourfield Jane , Owen Michael J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Genetic counselling is a process which aims to facilitate informed and autonomous decision making, appreciation of the inheritance of a genetic condition, and improvement in the emotional well-being of those affected or their family members (Biesecker et al. 1999). Harper (1993) has defined it as: Currently, most genetic counselling is focused on rare Mendelian diseases; however, advances are likely to mean that in years to come genetic counselling will include improved empirical risk predictions for common diseases, such as the majority of psychiatric disorders, which are only partly genetic in origin. Despite this hoped-for improvement in risk prediction, considerable uncertainty will remain. For most common diseases it is likely that the proportion of cases attributable to any particular susceptibility genotype will be small (as in the case of breast cancer and BRCA1 and 2).
Ethical considerations in psychiatric genetics
Authors: Farmer Anne 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The inclusion of a chapter on the ethical aspects of genetic research into mental disorders and behavioural traits, not only in this, but also in other recent textbooks (Crusio and Gerlai 1999), indicates the importance of ethical concerns in this rapidly developing branch of neuroscience. However the debate into the ethical aspects of genetic research is not one that should only take place within the research community. Accounts of recent technological advances and genetic discoveries described in the lay press have suddenly and sometimes sensationally captured the public imagination. The cloning of Dolly the sheep (Wilmut et al. 1997) was greeted in the Independent newspaper of 26 February 1997, with the statement ‘In the past few days we have been through a change in our condition as momentous as the Copernican revolution, or the splitting of the atom’.
The future and post-genomic psychiatry
Authors: Owen Michael J , McGuffin Peter , Gottesman Irving I 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Research in psychiatric genetics is not for the fainthearted. Mental disorders pose great challenges to genetic analyses because, in the majority of cases, they result from the predisposing effects of alleles at an unknown number of different genes, as well as environmental influences. Further complexities include the likelihood of non-additive genetic effects, including gene–gene interactions (epistasis), and potential gene–environment (physical and experiential) interactions. Genetic complexity is compounded by possible epigenetic factors (Gottesman 2001; Petronis 2001), stochastic effects (McGuffin et al. 1994; Woolf 1997) and nosological complexity and uncertainty.
Genetics of affective disorders
Authors: Jones Ian , Craddock Lindsey Kent,Nick 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
It has long been noted that episodes of psychological distress tend to run in families, but recent advances in molecular genetics now provide the tools needed to identify genes influencing susceptibility. Although psychiatric and behavioural traits represent, perhaps, the greatest challenge to molecular investigation of complex genetic disorders, they also offer arguably the greatest potential reward. Identifying susceptibility genes for psychiatric disorders will pinpoint biochemical pathways involved in pathogenesis, facilitate development of more effective, better targeted treatments and offer opportunities for improving the validity of diagnosis and classification. This is likely to have important public health implications, given that the recent review by the World Bank identified mood disorder as second only to ischaemic heart disease as a cause of global health burden in 2020 (Murray and Lopez 1996).
Collecting data
Authors: Armstrong David , Grace John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The last chapter dealt with deciding how you might go about measuring things. Having made those decisions you are almost ready to go ‘into the field’ to measure things in practice. But before you do so you have to give some thought to how you are going to collect your data. ‘Data’ are ‘out there’. You will need some sort of ‘net’ to bring data in: the net must be the right size and its mesh dimensions appropriate for the data you want to capture. This chapter deals with designing this ‘net’ for collecting data.
Getting ready
Authors: Armstrong David , Grace John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Previous chapters have described the basic principles of setting up a research project. Of course, in practice it is rarely as clear and logical - all sorts of things can, and do, go wrong. This chapter tries to give some ideas about the practical difficulties that can arise while you are ‘out there’ collecting data or trying to get the whole project underway. That said, the best way of learning about problems like this is actually to meet them when doing your own research: there is no substitute for getting hands-on experience.
Planning research
Authors: Armstrong David , Grace John 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
If you have not already started, now is the time to think about doing your own research. The previous chapters have covered a number of different skills you may require, though in the first instance you might like to start with something fairly straightforward such as a review of your workload. Then, when you see that research is not something restricted to ivory towers, you can be more ambitious. For any research, even the most elementary, it is wise to prepare a statement about what you intend to do and how. This is more formally known as a research protocol. For a simple study it need be no longer than a page; it would start with a single sentence statement of the aim of the study and be followed by a paragraph or two on the precise method that will be used to achieve the aim. For a relatively simple study, such as establishing your prescribing rate over one week,
Pancreas transplantation: long-term aspects and effect on quality of life
Authors: Stratta Robert J 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
Diabetes mellitus afflicts approximately 6 per cent of the population and is the third most common disease and the fourth leading cause of death by disease in the United States. Of the estimated 16 million diabetic patients in the United States, about 10 million are diagnosed, 4 million take insulin, and 1 million have insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) [1]. Nearly 30 000 new cases of IDDM are diagnosed each year, and the incidence is increasing. The syndrome of IDDM includes not only abnormal glucose metabolism but also specific long-term complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy. Although some patients escape the problems associated with IDDM, many patients develop symptomatic complications within an average of 15 to 20 years following diagnosis and may manifest several complications concurrently. Diabetes mellitus is currently the leading cause of blindness in adults, the principle disease cause of amputations and impotence, and ranks among the leading chronic diseases of childhood.
Exercise and the muscletendon unit
Authors: Stanish William D , Curwin Sandra , Mandel Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The basis for movement and exercise is muscle contraction. Characteristically we tend to regard contraction as a shortening of the muscle that occurs as the thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments slide past one another. Yet during many activities the overall muscle length does not change, and in some cases it may actually lengthen. These differences in muscle behavior during activity have led to the classification of muscle contraction (or exercise) as concentric, eccentric, or is truly isometric, since some shortening must occur at the muscle fibre level. However, no change in the overall length of the muscle takes place. As a result, this type of contraction is referred to as static.
Jumper’s knee
Authors: Stanish William D , Curwin Sandra , Mandel Scott 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The quadriceps femoris covers most of the front and sides of the femur and is the great extensor muscle of the leg. It is divided into four parts, hence its name. The rectus femoris and vastus intermedius, the most central portions of the muscle, jointly form the quadriceps tendon (Fig. 5.1). The vastus lateralis, the largest part of the quadriceps, contracts into a flat tendon attached to the lateral border of the patella and the quadriceps The tendons of the different portions of the quadriceps unite in the lower thigh to form a single strong tendon attached to the base of the patella.
Lord Rayleigh
Authors: Tanford Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
The word “amateur ” has two different meanings. The first refers to someone who does what he does out of love, and not for profit. It implies no lack of professional skills or dedication. The second meaning, the more usual one today, is more explicitly the antithesis of “professional. ” It calls forth the image of a “dabbler, ” who does lack the skills and educational background of the professional. The two “amateurs ” we shall meet in this and the following chapter are opposites in this respect. Lord Rayleigh, a “gentleman scientist, ” wealthy by virtue of inheritance, has all the advantages of education and of association with equally educated peers.
Meticulous Miss Pockels
Authors: Tanford Charles 
Published: November 2023

Abstract
They all call her “Miss Pockels, ” never just use her last name. Rayleigh does this and so does Langmuir, even in reviews written many years later. It was done out of natural gallantry, I suppose. Even among servants, only the maids were “Smith ” or “Jones, ” but the cook was entitled to “Mrs. Bridges. ” Men, on the other hand, addressed each other by their surnames alone, even if they were close friends. Given names were never used among adults.