bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Chemurgy
Authors: Clark J. Peter 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChemurgy is the branch of applied chemistry concerned with the industrial use of biomass for fuel and chemicals. The biomass may be industrial crops, such as trees, cotton, or oilseeds; food crops, such as corn or soy; or wastes and by‐products, such as forest trimmings, tall oil, or straw. Chemurgic processes and applications range from relatively simple physical or chemical separations, such as milling, to more sophisticated enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and fermentation to produce ethanol. Lignocellulosic materials, such as forest or farm wastes, can, in principle, generate most of the basic chemical building blocks now produced from oil and gas. Pyrolysis can generate oils and fuel gases to serve as alternative energy sources. The viability of chemurgic processes depends heavily on the costs of fossil fuels, considered as economic alternatives, and on the costs of biomass raw materials and the efficiencies of conversion processes.
Silicon and Silicon Alloys, Chemical and Metallurgical
Authors: Dosaj Vishu 
Published: July 2004

AbstractSilicon is a low density element having nonmetallic characteristics. The production of silicon from silica is discussed as is silicon refining technology. The primary uses of silicon are in the chemical, aluminum, and electronics industries. Silicon is the chemical precursor of silicones, a versatile, fast‐growing market, and of advanced ceramics such as silicon nitride. Silicon forms an integral part of the aluminum parts industry; aluminum–silicon alloys are readily cast. Silicon is also important to aluminum production.Silicon forms alloys with a large number of metallic elements. Many of these alloys are of utmost importance to the production and refining of irons and steels. The most prevalent are the ferrosilicons, production of which is discussed.
Chemotherapeutics, Anticancer
Authors: Doyle Terrence W. , Vyas Dolatrai M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractAll of the drugs currently approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of cancer, as well as a number of newer experimental agents in clinical trials, are reviewed. The primary focus of the article is on the status of chemotherapy in the 1990s, ie, the direction in which new drug discovery strategies are moving and the criteria used for advancing compounds into clinical trials. In addition, a discussion of the approaches to cytotoxic chemotherapy with special emphasis on drug targeting, toxicity amelioration, and drug resistance has been incorporated. Estimated worldwide sales for the most commonly utilized chemotherapeutic agents is given to demonstrate the increased use of chemotherapy as a modality in the treatment of cancer.
Nuclear Reactors, Chemical Reprocessing
Authors: Godfrey W. L. , Hall J. C. , Townes G. A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe chemical reprocessing of discharged nuclear reactor fuel allows the large quantities of energy found in uranium and plutonium to be recycled back to the reactors while separating out the fission products as a waste stream. The PUREX process, used to recycle nuclear reactor fuel, was developed as part of the U.S. defense program. This process is described. The world's principal fuel reprocessing centers are located in the U.K., France, and Japan. Smaller units are operating in India. No chemical reprocessing takes place in the United States.Chemical reprocessing involves fuel decladding, mechanically cutting or shearing the tubing in which the nuclear fuel is encapsulated, and fuel dissolution, prior to chemical separation of the nonradioactive materials, the fission products, and the unburned fuel. Several types of countercurrent solvent extraction equipment are used to separate the useful components. The uranium and plutonium products are converted to oxides from which recycle fuel is fabricated. The wastes are safely stored for future disposal.
Chemical Warfare
Authors: Evans Tom J. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChemicals used in war fit into five categories: flame agents, incendiaries, smokes and obscurants, incapacitants and riot control agents, and toxic agents. Flame agents, typically hydrocarbons or other readily flammable liquids, are used in flame throwers and flame projectors such as flame rockets. Incendiaries are often metals such as magnesium or aluminum, or oil and metal mixtures. These materials often require a fuse or ignition cup. Smokes and obscurants may be gaseous, liquid, or particulate aerosols. Incapacitants and riot control agents are designed to incapacitate but not permanently damage. These substances may be atropinemetics, or lacrimators, sternutators, vesicants, or urticants. Effects of atropinemetics may last from a few hours to a few days; effects of the latter materials usually dissipate within minutes upon removal from the agent. The toxic agents are generally of two types, vesicants such as the sulfur or nitrogen mustard gases, or the organophosphate nerve agents. Defense against toxic agents requires agent detection and identification; individual and collective protection of personnel and equipment; decontamination materials and procedures; and medical defense.
Chemometrics
Authors: Vogt Frank , Booksh Karl 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChemometrics is the discipline that uses mathematical and statistical methods to design optimal numerical procedures for analyzing chemical data in order to extract maximum chemical information. After a short introduction, the underlying general principles of regression analysis will be presented in the section Linear Regression Analysis, which are the foundations of chemometrics. The formulation is kept in a very general way in order to (1) explain the ideas behind regression analysis thoroughly, (2) to enable a fundamental understanding of chemometrics, and (3) to ensure that these methods can be adapted and applied to all kind of data evaluation tasks. Whenever exemplifications are helpful, spectroscopic applications have been chosen consistently for discussion since they are very descriptive. Once the fundamental mathematical principles are understood, the reader is well prepared for chemometrics. A variety of bilinear chemometric algorithms are presented in the section Bilinear Chemometric Methods, which have been developed for different fields of analytical chemistry. Recently, multiway techniques (the section Multiway Analysis) have been investigated and applied to hyphenated measurement techniques. The section Selected Topics focuses on some applications which are dedicated to more advanced readers and practitioners.
Chemical Product Design
Authors: Moggridge G. D. , Cussler E. L. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Chemical products depend for their function on a chemical or a chemical transformation. They are usually of high value, and manufactured in relatively low volumes, which means that the focus in designing chemical products is on speed rather than cost. In designing a new chemical product, the starting point is to define a desired function, rather than a chemical specification; thus chemical product design inevitably encompasses deciding what to make as well as the process by which it will be made. These characteristics of chemical product design result in process design heuristics rarely being appropriate. To replace these, we propose a four step procedure as a template around which to organize ideas for designing chemical products.
Regulatory Agencies, Chemical Process Industry
Authors: Passow Nancy R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe chemical process industry is highly regulated in the environmental, health, and safety area. Everything is affected, from the siting of a new facility to the transportation of raw materials and finished products, from the working conditions for employees to operating requirements for processes, packaging of finished goods, and dealings with the community. The two main U.S. Federal agencies involved in the protection of human health and the environment are the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The EPAs principal concern is the protection of the environment; in most cases, the area outside of an industrial facility. Significant laws covered by EPA are the Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA); the Clean Water Act (CWA); Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA); Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA); and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The principal function of OSHA is the protection of people, eg, employees, visitors, and temporary help, in the workplace. The principal law covered by OSHA is the Occupational Safety and Health Act.
Chiral Separations
Authors: Stalcup Apryll M. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChiral separations are concerned with separating molecules that can exist as nonsuperimposable mirror images. Although chirality is often associated with compounds containing a tetrahedral carbon with four different substituents, other atoms, such as phosphorus or sulfur, may also be chiral. Also molecules containing a center of asymmetry may be chiral. There has been recent awareness that many drugs are chiral and that living systems constitute chiral environments. Hence, the optical isomers of chiral drugs may exhibit different bioactivities and/or biotoxicities. Although a great deal of work is being done in chiral separations related to pharmaceuticals, agricultural and food and beverage industries are affected as well. Traditionally, chiral separations have been considered the most difficult to achieve. A variety of chiral separation strategies have been devised. This article focuses on chromatographically based chiral separations. The use of thin‐layer chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, high performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, and liquid chromatography are detailed.
Chlorinated Benzenes
Authors: Krishnamurti Ramesh 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThe chlorination of benzene can theoretically produce 12 different chlorobenzenes. However, technology and world events have substantially reduced chlorinated benzene to the current production of three significant products: monochlorobenzene ando‐ andp‐dichlorobenzenes. Monochlorobenzene represents over 50% of the total production of chlorobenzenes. The largest use for monochlorobenzene worldwide is the production of nitrochlorobenzenes, which are consumed to make dye and pigment intermediates, rubber processing chemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and other organic intermediates.o‐Dichlorobenzene is consumed primarily for 3,4‐dichloroaniline manufacture in the United States and Western Europe and in the emulsified form in Japan for treatment of garbage. The largest market worldwide forp‐dichlorobenzene is for deodorant blocks and moth control. A growing use is in the production of the high performance polymer, poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS).Manufacturing methods, specifications, handling precautions, and health and safety factors are covered. With the exception of their use in the production of high performance polymers, markets for chlorobenzenes are mature and overall demand is expected to show little, if any, growth over the next few years.
Chlorophenols
Authors: Desmurs Jean‐Roger , Ratton Serge 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Chlorophenols are generally prepared by chlorinating phenol. Monochlorophenols, dichlorophenols, and trichlorophenols are used as intermediates for the synthesis of agrochemical compounds. Pentachlorophenol is used directly for the protection of wood. Chlorophenols are subjected to particularly severe quality control analyses.
As well as quality improvement, the adoption of new analysis technology has resulted in a better understanding of chlorination mechanisms and of the formation of impurities liable to be found in certain chlorophenols. These studies have led to the introduction of new chlorination techniques using specific catalysts that permit controlled selective introduction of chlorine into the core and the elimination of certain products (2,4,5‐trichlorophenol) in 2,4,6‐trichlorophenol. Chemical processing stabilizes chlorophenols at the end of chlorination and avoids their evolution.
Chloroform
Authors: Holbrook Michael T. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChloroform, CHCl3, at normal temperature and pressure is a heavy, clear, volatile liquid with a pleasant, ethereal, nonirritant odor. It is produced almost exclusively by the chlorination of methane or lower chlorinated methanes, though methane oxychlorination and carbon tetrachloride hydrogenation have been proposed. The U.S. chloroform capacity has been estimated at 327,000 t/yr but the actual capability is probably much higher because of the producer's ability to change their product mix between methylene chloride and chloroform. The main uses for chloroform are in the production of HCFC‐22 and fluoropolymers. Chloroform is regulated under a number of federal and state laws.
Chlorinated Paraffins
Authors: Houghton Kelvin L. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins are well‐established products in a wide range of diverse applications in today's modern industry. Although as a class of products they have been available for over 50 years, their continuing use results from manufacturers taking advantage of new base feedstocks to develop advanced products to meet the increasing technical demands of the new and emerging technologies. The physical and chemical properties of chlorinated paraffins are determined by the carbon chain length of the paraffin and the chlorine content.
The range of products now available are used as plasticizers in PVC, rubber, surface coatings, adhesives, and sealants where they impart the added benefits of fire retardance and chemical and water resistance. As fire‐retardant additives they find specific usage in polyester resins, polyurethanes, and polyolefins. Chlorinated paraffins are also employed as extreme pressure additives in metal‐working lubricants, as components of fat liquors for leather treatment, and as solvents in carbonless copying paper.
Comprehensive studies on toxicity and environmental impact have been carried out over many years. The acute toxicity of chlorinated paraffins to mammals, birds, and fish is low. Although there is evidence of toxicity to some aquatic species, interpretation of the results is made complicated because of the very low solubility of chlorinated paraffins in water.
Chlorine Oxygen Acids and Salts, Chlorous Acid, Chlorites, and Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: Kaczur Jerry J. , Cawlfield David W. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChlorine dioxide is finding increasing use as an oxidizing bleaching agent in the pulp and paper industry, replacing chlorine gas and aqueous sodium hypochlorite. Chlorine dioxide significantly reduces the quantity of adsorbable organically bound halide (AOX) effluents produced in the paper pulp bleaching process while producing high brightness paper with excellent mechanical strength. Increasing chlorine dioxide bleaching substitution levels in the pulp mills as well as the need for a chlorine‐free gas for bleaching are the driving forces for design/process changes in the commercial chlorine dioxide generators that use sodium chlorate.Chlorine dioxide is also increasing in usage as a disinfectant or biocide in municipal and industrial water treatment as well as an oxidizer in oil field and pollution abatement processes. Sodium chlorite is the choice precursor chemical for generating chlorine dioxide gas in quantities of less than about 2000 kg/d. Chlorine dioxide has been shown to be an effective biocide as well as an effective oxidizer for the control of total trihalomethanes, in drinking water treatment to meet USEPA drinking water regulations. Methods for the removal of the disinfection by‐products produced from chlorine dioxide treatment, such as chlorite and chlorate, are being developed to alleviate toxicological concerns about their presence in drinking water.
Chlorohydrins
Authors: Richey W. Frank 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChlorohydrins are best described as aliphatic compounds having chloro and hydroxyl substituents on adjacent carbon atoms. These compounds are most commonly manufactured by the reaction of an alkene with chlorine and water though many other methods of preparation are known. The most useful reaction of chlorohydrins is dehydrochlorination to form oxirane compounds. Propylene oxide and epichlorohydrin are produced on an industrial scale via chlorohydrin intermediates.
Chloroprene
Authors: Stewart Clare A. 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Chloroprene [126‐99‐8], 2‐chloro‐1,3‐butadiene, is prepared from butadiene by chlorination followed by dehydrochlorination of the intermediate 3,4‐dichloro‐1‐butene. It is used almost exclusively in the production of neoprene (CR, chloroprene rubber). Because of problems of stability toward polymerization and dimerization, it is usually manufactured only as needed for polymer manufacture.
Chromatography
Authors: Dybowski Cecil , Kaiser Mary A. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractThis article presents an introduction to chromatography, a fundamental technology for separation of components of a mixture. The major chromatographic methods are described: gas chromatography, liquid chromatography, thin‐layer chromatography, paper chromatography, supercritical fluid chromatography, and capillary electrophoresis. Major components of each type of chromatographic system are discussed, to enable the reader to understand each technology and its applications in chemistry and analysis. References to relevant books and articles are given to provide access to detailed information on each technology.
Chromatography, Gas Chromatography‐GC
Authors: Snow Nicholas H. , Slack Gregory C. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractGas chromatography, in which a gaseous moving phase is passed over a liquid or solid stationary phase within a column, is one of the most widely used instrumental analysis techniques today. This article provides a basic overview of gas chromatographic theory, instrumentation and technology. Descriptions of common modes of gas chromatography: packed and capillary columns, inlets, columns, detectors, data systems, multidimensional separations and fast GC are provided. The text is heavily referenced to major texts and research articles for further study.
Chromium and Chromium Alloys
Authors: Papp John F. , Lipin Bruce R. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractChromium metal, chromium alloys, and metallurgically important chromium compounds are reviewed. Occurrence, mining, and smelting of chromium ores are discussed. South Africa and Zimbabwe hold about 80% of thein situcontained chromium. Details onSuppliesand availability worldwide are given. The chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of chromium metal are summarized. Important Cr‐bearing alloys: the various stainless steels, alloy steels, nonferrous alloys, and Cr‐based alloys are identified as are metallurgically important compounds. Applications of these materials are discussed and the contribution of chromium to the properties of these alloys is described. Methods of producing Cr‐rich protective and decorative surfaces, recovery and reuse of Cr‐bearing materials, and toxicology are reviewed. Economic data regarding operating and transportation of are discussed as well as international markets.
Cinnamic Acid, Cinnamaldehyde, and Cinnamyl Alcohol
Authors: Eilerman Robert G. 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCinnamic acid, Cinnamaldehyde, and Cinnamyl Alcohol.Eilerman, Robert G. (Givaudon‐Roure Corp.). The earliest references to cinnamic acid, cinnamaldehyde, and cinnamyl alcohol are associated with their isolation and identification as odor‐producing constituents in a variety of botanical extracts. Widespread use of cinnamic derivatives, principally in flavor and fragrance compositions, has resulted in the development of straightforward methods for the production of their synthetic equivalents. Commercial processes have focused on condensation reactions between benzaldehyde and a number of active methylene compounds for assembly of the requisite carbon skeleton. The presence of a disubstituted carbon‐carbon double bond in the side chain of these chemicals gives rise to the existence of two distinct stereoisomers, referred to as the cis (Z) and trans (E) isomers.Cinnamic acid is manufactured by the Perkin rection. The olfactive properties of cinnamate esters are well suited to fragrance applications in soaps and cosmetics. The essential oils from several varieties of cinnamon bark contain cinnamaldehyde as a primary component. This aldehyde is produced exclusively by the base‐catalyzed condensation of benzaldehyde with acetaldehyde. It is used primarily in baked goods, chewing gum, and pharmaceutical products, ie, toothpaste and mouthwash, where a spicy, cinnamon character is required. Cinnamyl alcohol and its derivatives are widely employed in perfumery to add balsamic notes to blossom compositions. Its commercial production is accomplished by the reduction of cinnamaldehyde.
Citric Acid
Authors: Lopez‐Garcia Rebecca 
Published: July 2004

AbstractCitric acid is a natural component and common metabolite of plants and animals. It is the most versatile and widely used organic acid in foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals.Because of its functionality and environmental acceptability, citric acid and its salts (primarily sodium and potassium) are used in many industrial applications for chelation, buffering, pH adjustment, and derivitization. These uses include laundry detergents, shampoos and cosmetics, enhanced oil recovery, and metal cleaning.This article details its occurrence in nature, the physical and chemical properties of citric acid, and commercial manufacturing, processing, shipping, and storage information. Descriptions are given of the two common methods to recover citric acid from its fermentation broth: lime‐sulfuric acid recovery and also liquid extraction.Commercial considerations including worldwide production and U.S. distribution end use are reviewed. Various national compendial specifications for citric acid and common analytical test methods are discussed. Health and safety factors including environmental concerns are addressed.
Coal
Authors: Hower James 
Published: July 2004

Abstract
Coal is a vital component of energy utilization throughout the world, including the United States, where coal is responsible for >50% of the electricity production. Sixteen countries each produce >1% of the world's coal production, with China and the United States leading, each with >23% of world production. In this article, various aspects of coal petrology, chemistry, and physical structure are discussed. Utilization aspects, including coking, combustion, gasification, and liquefaction are considered. Combustion accounts for most of the world utilization, with gasification and other clean‐coal technologies holding promise for future applications. In the United States and many other countries, environmental regulations have impacted the quality of coal used in combutstion, with the tendency to use lower sulfur coals evident in the U.S. power industry's shift from Eastern U.S. bituminous to Wyoming subbituminous coals. Coke production, while still an important user of coal, has declined. Liquefaction, despite the promise of providing an alternative to petroleum, has not been widely commercialized.